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«HENLEY’S TWENTIETH CENTURY RECIPES, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES»

 CONTAINING TEN THOUSAND SELECTED HOUSEHOLD AND WORKSHOP FORMULAS,
 RECIPES, PROCESSES AND MONEY-SAVING METHODS FOR THE PRACTICAL USE OF
 MANUFACTURERS, MECHANICS, HOUSEKEEPERS AND HOME WORKERS

 EDITED BY
 GARDNER D. HISCOX, M.E.

 AUTHOR OF “MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, POWERS AND DEVICES,” “COMPRESSED
 AIR,” “GAS, GASOLINE AND OIL ENGINES,” ETC., ETC.

 [Illustration]

 1914 EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED

 NEW YORK
 THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY
 132 NASSAU STREET
 1914


 COPYRIGHT, 1914 AND 1913, BY
 THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY

 COPYRIGHT, 1912 AND 1907, BY
 THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY
 Also, Entered at Stationers’ Hall Court, London, England

 _All rights reserved_

 THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK




«PREFACE»


In compiling this book of formulas, recipes and processes, the Editor
has endeavored to meet the practical requirements of the home and
workshop—the mechanic, the manufacturer, the artisan, the housewife,
and the general home worker.

In addition to exercising the utmost care in selecting his materials
from competent sources, the Editor has also modified formulas which
were obviously ill adapted for his needs, but were valuable if altered.
Processes of questionable merit he has discarded. By adhering to this
plan the Editor trusts that he has succeeded in preparing a repository
of useful knowledge representing the experience of experts in every
branch of practical achievement. Much of the matter has been specially
translated for this work from foreign technological periodicals and
books. In this way the Editor has embodied much practical information
otherwise inaccessible to most English-speaking people.

Each recipe is to be regarded as a basis of experiment, to be modified
to suit the particular purpose in hand, or the peculiar conditions
which may affect the experimenter. Chemicals are not always of uniform
relative purity and strength; heat or cold may markedly influence the
result obtained, and lack of skill in the handling of utensils and
instruments may sometimes cause failure. Inasmuch as a particular
formula may not always be applicable, the Editor has thought it
advisable to give as many recipes as his space would allow under
each heading. In some instances a series of formulas is given which
apparently differ but slightly in their ingredients. This has been done
on the principle that one or more may be chosen for the purpose in hand.

Recognizing the fact that works of a similar character are not unknown,
the Editor has endeavored to present in these pages the most modern
methods and formulas. Naturally, old recipes and so-called trade
secrets which have proven their value by long use are also included,
particularly where no noteworthy advance has been made; but the primary
aim has been to modernize and bring the entire work up to the present
date.

 THE EDITOR.

 JANUARY, 1914.




«PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED»


 Apothecary, The.
 Berliner Drog. Zeitung.
 Brass World.
 British Journal of Photography.
 Chemical News.
 Chemiker Zeitung Repertorium.
 Chemisch Technische Fabrikant.
 Chemische Zeitung.
 Chemist-Druggist.
 Comptes Rendus.
 Cooley’s Receipts.
 Cosmos.
 Dekorationsmaler, Der.
 Deutsche Drog. Zeitung.
 Deutsche Goldschmiede Zeitung.
 Deutsche Handwerk.
 Deutsche Maler Zeitung.
 Deutsche Topfer und Ziefler Zeitung.
 Dingler’s Polytechnic Journal.
 Drogisten Zeitung.
 Druggists’ Circular.
 English Mechanic.
 Farben Zeitung.
 Gummi Zeitung.
 Journal der Goldschmiedekunst.
 Journal of Applied Microscopy.
 Journal of the Franklin Institute.
 Journal Society of Chemical Industry.
 Journal Suisse d’Horlogerie.
 Keramische Rundschau.
 La Nature.
 La Science en Famille.
 La Vie Scientifique.
 Lack und Farben Industrie.
 Legierungen.
 Le Genie Civil.
 Le Praticien.
 Leipziger Farber und Zeugdrucker Zeitung.
 Maler Zeitung.
 Metallarbeiter.
 Mining and Scientific Press.
 Neueste Erfindungen und Erfahrungen.
 Nouvelles Scientifiques.
 Oils, Colors, and Drysalteries.
 Papier-Zeitung.
 Parfumer, Der.
 Pharmaceutische Zeitung.
 Pharmaceutische Centralhalle.
 Pharmaceutische Era.
 Pharmaceutische Journal.
 Pharmaceutische Journal Formulary.
 Photo Times.
 Polytech. Centralblatt.
 Polyt. Notizblatt.
 Popular Science News.
 Pottery Gazette.
 Practical Druggist.
 Revue Chronometrique.
 Revue de la Droguerie.
 Revue des Produits Chimiques.
 Revue Industrielle.
 Science, Arts and Nature.
 Science Pratique.
 Seifensieder Zeitung, Der.
 Seifenfabrikant, Der.
 Spatula.
 Stein der Weisen, Der.
 Sudd. Apoth. Zeitung.
 Technisches Centralblatt.
 Technische Rundschau.
 Uhland’s Technische Rundschau.
 Verzinnen Verzinken Vernickeln, Das.
 Werkmeister Zeitung.
 Wiener Drogisten Zeitung.
 Wiener Gewerbe Zeitung.
 Zeitschrift für die Gesammte Kohlensaure Industrie.




{9}

«HENLEY’S BOOK OF RECIPES»


ABRASION REMEDY: See Cosmetics and Ointments.

ABSINTHE: See Wines and Liquors.


«Acid-Proofing»


«An Acid-Proof Table Top.»—

 1.

 Copper sulphate             1 part
 Potassium chlorate          1 part
 Water                       8 parts

Boil until salts are dissolved.

 2.

 Aniline hydrochlorate       3 parts
 Water                      20 parts

Or, if more readily procurable:

 Aniline                     6 parts
 Hydrochloric acid           9 parts
 Water                      50 parts

By the use of a brush two coats of solution No. 1 are applied while
hot; the second coat as soon as the first is dry. Then two coats of
solution No. 2, and the wood allowed to dry thoroughly. Later, a coat
of raw linseed oil is to be applied, using a cloth instead of a brush,
in order to get a thinner coat of the oil.

A writer in the _Journal of Applied Microscopy_ states that he has used
this method upon some old laboratory tables which had been finished in
the usual way, the wood having been filled oiled, and varnished. After
scraping off the varnish down to the wood, the solutions were applied,
and the result was very satisfactory.

After some experimentations the formula was modified without materially
affecting the cost, and apparently increasing the resistance of the
wood to the action of strong acids and alkalies. The modified formula
follows:

 1.

 Iron sulphate               4 parts
 Copper sulphate             4 parts
 Potassium permanganate      8 parts
 Water, q. s.              100 parts

 2.

 Aniline                    12 parts
 Hydrochloric acid          18 parts
 Water, q. s.              100 parts

Or:

 Aniline hydrochlorate      15 parts
 Water, q. s.              100 parts

Solution No. 2 has not been changed, except to arrange the parts per
hundred.

The method of application is the same, except that after solution No. 1
has dried the excess of the solution which has dried upon the surface
of the wood is thoroughly rubbed off before the application of solution
No. 2. The black color does not appear at once, but usually requires a
few hours before becoming ebony black. The linseed oil may be diluted
with turpentine without disadvantage, and after a few applications the
surface will take on a dull and not displeasing polish. The table tops
are easily cleaned by washing with water or suds after a course of work
is completed, and the application of another coat of oil puts them in
excellent order for another course of work. Strong acids or alkalies
when spilled, if soon wiped off, have scarcely a perceptible effect.

A slate or tile top is expensive not only in its original cost, but
also as a destroyer of glassware. Wood tops when painted, oiled, or
paraffined have objectionable features, the latter especially in warm
weather. Old table tops, after the paint or oil is scraped off down to
the wood, take the above finish nearly as well as the new wood.


«To Make Wood Acid- and Chlorine-Proof.»—Take 6 pounds of wood tar and
12 pounds rosin, and melt them together in an iron kettle, after which
stir in 8 pounds finely powdered brick dust. The damaged parts must be
cleaned perfectly and dried, whereupon they may be painted over with
the warm preparation or filled up and drawn off, leaving the film on
the inside.


«Protecting Cement Against Acid.»—A paint to protect cement against
acid is obtained by mixing pure asbestos, very finely powdered,
with a thick solution of {10} sodium silicate. The sodium silicate
must be as alkaline as possible. The asbestos is first rubbed with
a small quantity of the silicate, until a cake is obtained and then
kept in well-closed vessels. For use this cake is simply thinned with
a solution of the silicate, which furnishes a paint two or three
applications of which protect the walls of reservoirs, etc., against
any acid solid or liquid. This mass may also be employed for making a
coating of sandstone.


«To Make Corks Impermeable and Acid-Proof.»—Choose your corks
carefully. Then plunge them into a solution of gelatin or common glue,
15 parts, in 24 parts of glycerine and 500 parts of water, heated to
44° or 48° C. (112°–120° F.), and keep them there for several hours. On
removing the corks, which should be weighted down in the solution, dry
them in the shade until they are free from all surplus moisture. They
are now perfectly tight, retaining at the same time the greater portion
of their elasticity and suppleness. To render them acid-proof, they
should be treated with a mixture of vaseline, 2 parts, and paraffine
7 parts, heated to about 105° F. This second operation may be avoided
by adding to the gelatin solution a little ammonium dichromate and
afterwards exposing the corks to the light.


«Lining for Acid Receptacles.»—Plates are formed of 1 part of brown
slate, 2 of powdered glass, and 1 of Portland cement, the whole worked
up with silicate of soda, molded and dried. Make a cement composed of
ground slate and silicate of soda and smear the surface for the lining;
then, while it is still plastic, apply the plates prepared as above
described. Instead of these plates, slabs of glass or porcelain or
similar substances may be employed with the same cement.

ACACIA, MUCILAGE OF: See Adhesives under Mucilages.

ACID-PROOF GLASS: See Glass.

ACID-RESISTING PAINT: See Paint.

ACIDS, SOLDERING: See Solders.

ACID STAINS FROM THE SKIN, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and
Methods.

ACID TEST FOR VINEGAR: See Vinegar.


«Adhesives»


«GLUES:»


«Manufacture of Glue.»—I.—The usual process of removing the phosphate
of lime from bones for glue-making purposes by means of dilute
hydrochloric acid has the disadvantage that the acid cannot be
regenerated. Attempts to use sulphurous acid instead have so far proved
unsuccessful, as, even with the large quantities used, the process
is very slow. According to a German invention this difficulty with
sulphurous acid can be avoided by using it in aqueous solution under
pressure. The solution of the lime goes on very rapidly, it is claimed,
and no troublesome precipitation of calcium sulphite takes place. Both
phosphate of lime and sulphurous acid are regenerated from the lyes by
simple distillation.

II.—Bones may be treated with successive quantities of combined
sulphurous acid and water, from which the heat of combination has been
previously dissipated, the solution being removed after each treatment,
before the bone salts dissolved therein precipitate, and before the
temperature rises above 74° F.—U. S. Pat. 783,784.

III.—A patent relating to the process for treating animal sinews,
preparatory for the glue factory, has been granted to Florsheim,
Chicago, and consists in immersing animal sinews successively in
petroleum or benzine to remove the outer fleshy animal skin; in
a hardening or preserving bath, as boric acid, or alum or copper
sulphate; and in an alkaline bath to remove fatty matter from the
fibrous part of the sinews. The sinews are afterwards tanned and
disintegrated.


«Test for Glue.»—The more water the glue takes up, swelling it, the
better it is. Four ounces of the glue to be examined are soaked for
about 12 hours in a cool place in 4 pounds of cold water. If the glue
has dissolved after this time, it is of bad quality and of little
value; but if it is coherent, gelatinous, and weighing double, it is
good; if it weighs up to 16 ounces, it is very good; if as much as 20
ounces, it may be called excellent.


«To Prevent Glue from Cracking.»—To prevent glue from cracking, which
frequently occurs when glued articles are {11} exposed to the heat of a
stove, a little chloride of potassium is added. This prevents the glue
from becoming dry enough to crack. Glue thus treated will adhere to
glass, metals, etc., and may also be used for pasting on labels.


«Preventing the Putrefaction of Strong Glues.»—The fatty matter always
existing in small quantity in sheets of ordinary glue affects the
adhesive properties and facilitates the development of bacteria, and
consequently putrefaction and decomposition. These inconveniences are
remedied by adding a small quantity of caustic soda to the dissolved
glue. The soda prevents decomposition absolutely; with the fatty matter
it forms a hard soap which renders it harmless.


«Liquid Glues.»—

 I.—Glue                    3 ounces
     Gelatin                3 ounces
     Acetic acid            4 ounces
     Water                  2 ounces
     Alum                  30 grains

Heat together for 6 hours, skim, and add:

 II.—Alcohol                  1 fluid ounce
      Brown glue, No. 2.      2 pounds
      Sodium carbonate       11 ounces
      Water               3 1⁠/⁠2 pints
      Oil of clove          160 minims

Dissolve the soda in the water, pour the solution over the dry glue,
let stand over night or till thoroughly soaked and swelled, then heat
carefully on a water bath until dissolved. When nearly cold stir in the
oil of cloves.

By using white glue, a finer article, fit for fancy work, may be made.

III.—Dissolve by heating 60 parts of borax in 420 parts of water,
add 480 parts dextrin (pale yellow) and 50 parts of glucose and heat
carefully with continued stirring, to complete solution; replace the
evaporated water and pour through flannel.

The glue made in this way remains clear quite a long time, and
possesses great adhesive power; it also dries very quickly, but upon
careless and extended heating above 90° C. (194° F.), it is apt to turn
brown and brittle.

IV.—Pour 50 parts of warm (not hot) water over 50 parts of Cologne glue
and allow to soak over night. Next day the swelled glue is dissolved
with moderate heat, and if still too thick, a little more water is
added. When this is done, add from 2 1⁠/⁠2 to 3 parts of crude nitric
acid, stir well, and fill the liquid glue in well-corked bottles. This
is a good liquid steam glue.

V.—Soak 1 pound of good glue in a quart of water for a few hours, then
melt the glue by heating it, together with the unabsorbed water, then
stir in 1⁠/⁠4 pound dry white lead, and when that is well mixed pour in
4 fluidounces of alcohol and continue the boiling 5 minutes longer.

VI.—Soak 1 pound of good glue in 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints of cold water for
5 hours, then add 3 ounces of zinc sulphate and 2 fluidounces of
hydrochloric acid, and keep the mixture heated for 10 or 12 hours at
175° to 190° F. The glue remains liquid and may be used for sticking a
variety of materials.

VII.—A very inexpensive liquid glue may be prepared by first soaking
and then dissolving gelatin in twice its own weight of water at a very
gentle heat; then add glacial acetic acid in weight equal to the weight
of the dry gelatin. It should be remembered, however, that all acid
glues are not generally applicable.

 VIII.—Glue                   200 parts
        Dilute acetic acid    400 parts

Dissolve by the aid of heat and add:

      Alcohol                25 parts
      Alum                    5 parts

 IX.—Glue                     5 parts
      Calcium chloride        1 part
      Water                   1 part

  X.—Sugar of lead        1 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Alum                1 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Gum arabic          2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Wheat flour             1 av. lb.
      Water, q. s.

Dissolve the gum in 2 quarts of warm water; when cold mix in the flour,
and add the sugar of lead and alum dissolved in water; heat the whole
over a slow fire until it shows signs of ebullition. Let it cool, and
add enough gum water to bring it to the proper consistence.

XI.—Dilute 1 part of official phosphoric acid with 2 parts of water and
neutralize the solution with carbonate of ammonium. Add to the liquid
an equal quantity of water, warm it on a water bath, and dissolve in it
sufficient glue to form a thick syrupy liquid. Keep in well-stoppered
bottles.

XII.—Dissolve 3 parts of glue in small pieces in 12 to 15 of saccharate
of lime. By heating, the glue dissolves rapidly and remains liquid,
when cold, without loss of adhesive power. Any desirable consistence
can be secured by varying the amount of saccharate of lime. Thick
glue retains its muddy color, while a thin solution becomes clear on
standing.

The saccharate of lime is prepared by {12} dissolving 1 part of sugar
in 3 parts of water, and after adding 1⁠/⁠4 part of the weight of the
sugar of slaked lime, heating the whole from 149° to 185° F., allowing
it to macerate for several days, shaking it frequently. The solution,
which has the properties of mucilage, is then decanted from the
sediment.

XIII.—In a solution of borax in water soak a good quantity of glue
until it has thoroughly imbibed the liquid. Pour off the surplus
solution and then put on the water bath and melt the glue. Cool down
until the glue begins to set, then add, drop by drop, with agitation,
enough acetic acid to check the tendency to solidification. If, after
becoming quite cold, there is still a tendency to solidification, add a
few drops more of the acid. The liquid should be of the consistence of
ordinary mucilage at all times.

 XIV.—Gelatin                     100 parts
       Cabinetmakers’ glue        100 parts
       Alcohol                     25 parts
       Alum                         2 parts
       Acetic acid, 20 per cent   800 parts

Soak the gelatin and glue with the acetic acid and heat on a water bath
until fluid; then add the alum and alcohol.

 XV.—Glue                         10 parts
      Water                       15 parts
      Sodium salicylate            1 part

XVI.—Soak 5 parts of Cologne glue in an aqueous calcium chloride
solution (1:4) and heat on the water bath until dissolved, replacing
the evaporating water; or slack 100 parts of lime with 150 parts of hot
water, dissolve 60 parts of sugar in 180 parts of water, and add 15
parts of the slacked lime to the solution, heating the whole to 75° C.
(167° F.). Place aside for a few days, shaking from time to time. In
the clear sugar-lime solution collected by decanting soak 60 parts of
glue and assist the solution by moderate heating.

XVII.—Molasses, 100 parts, dissolved in 300 parts of water, 25 parts
of quicklime (slaked to powder), being then stirred in and the
mixture heated to 167° F. on a water bath, with frequent stirrings.
After settling for a few days a large portion of the lime will have
dissolved, and the clear, white, thick solution, when decanted, behaves
like rubber solution and makes a highly adherent coating.

XVIII.—Dissolve bone glue, 250 parts, by heating in 1,000 parts of
water, and add to the solution barium peroxide 10 parts, sulphuric acid
(66° B.) 5 parts, and water 15 parts. Heat for 48 hours on the water
bath to 80° C. (176° F.). Thus a syrupy liquid is obtained, which is
allowed to settle and is then decanted. This glue has no unpleasant
odor, and does not mold.

XIX.—A glue possessing the adhesive qualities of ordinary joiners’
glue, but constituting a pale yellow liquid which is ready for use
without requiring heating and possesses great resistance to dampness,
is produced by treating dry casein with a diluted borax solution or
with enough ammonia solution to cause a faintly alkaline reaction. The
preparation may be employed alone or mixed with liquid starch in any
proportion.


«Glue for Celluloid.»—I.—Two parts shellac, 3 parts spirits of camphor,
and 4 parts strong alcohol dissolved in a warm place, give an excellent
gluing agent to fix wood, tin, and other bodies to celluloid. The glue
must be kept well corked up.

II.—A collodion solution may be used, or an alcoholic solution of fine
celluloid shavings.


«Glue to Form Paper Pads.»—

 I.—Glue                            3 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Glycerine                      8     ounces
     Water, a sufficient quantity.

Pour upon the glue more than enough water to cover it and let stand for
several hours, then decant the greater portion of the water; apply heat
until the glue is dissolved, and add the glycerin. If the mixture is
too thick, add more water.

 II.—Glue                         6     ounces
      Alum                       30     grains
      Acetic acid                   1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Alcohol                     1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Water                       6 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

Mix all but the alcohol, digest on a water bath till the glue is
dissolved, allow to cool and add the alcohol.

 III.—Glue                        5 ounces
       Water                      1 ounce
       Calcium chloride           1 ounce

Dissolve the calcium chloride in the water, add the glue, macerate
until it is thoroughly softened, and then heat until completely
dissolved.

 IV.—Glue                        20 ounces
      Glycerine                   5 ounces
      Syrupy glucose              1 ounce
      Tannin                     50 grains

Cover the glue with cold water, and let stand over night. In the
morning pour off superfluous water, throw the glue on muslin, and
manipulate so as to get rid of as much moisture as possible, then put
in a water bath and melt. Add the {13} glycerine and syrup, and stir
well in. Finally, dissolve the tannin in the smallest quantity of water
possible and add.

This mixture must be used hot.

 V.—Glue                         15 ounces
     Glycerine                    5 ounces
     Linseed oil                  2 ounces
     Sugar                        1 ounce

Soak the glue as before, melt, add the sugar and glycerine, continuing
the heat, and finally add the oil gradually under constant stirring.

This must be used hot.


«Glue for Tablets.»—

 I.—Glue                          3 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Glycerine                    8     ounces
     Water, a sufficient quantity.

Pour upon the glue more than enough water to cover it and let stand for
several hours, then decant the greater portion of the water; apply heat
until the glue is dissolved, and add the glycerine. If the mixture is
too thick, add more water.

 II.—Glue                         6     ounces
      Alum                       30     grains
      Acetic acid                   1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Alcohol                     1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Water                       6 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

Mix all but the alcohol, digest on a water bath till the glue is
dissolved, allow to cool and add the alcohol.

 III.—Glue                        5 ounces
       Water                      1 ounce
       Calcium chloride           1 ounce

Dissolve the calcium chloride in the water, add the glue, macerate
until it is thoroughly softened, and then apply heat until completely
dissolved.

IV.—Glue, 1 pound; glycerine, 4 ounces; glucose syrup, 2
tablespoonfuls; tannin, 1⁠/⁠10 ounce. Use warm, and give an hour to dry
and set on the pads. This can be colored with any aniline dye.


«Marine Glue.»—Marine glue is a product consisting of shellac and
caoutchouc, which is mixed differently according to the use for which
it is required. The quantity of benzol used as solvent governs the
hardness or softness of the glue.

I.—One part Pará caoutchouc is dissolved in 12 parts benzol; 20
parts powdered shellac are added to the solution, and the mixture is
carefully heated.

II.—Stronger glue is obtained by dissolving 10 parts good crude
caoutchouc in 120 parts benzine or naphtha which solution is poured
slowly and in a fine stream into 20 parts asphaltum melted in a kettle,
stirring constantly and heating. Pour the finished glue, after the
solvent has almost evaporated and the mass has become quite uniform,
into flat molds, in which it solidifies into very hard tablets of dark
brown or black color. For use, these glue tablets are first soaked in
boiling water and then heated over a free flame until the marine glue
has become thinly liquid. The pieces to be glued are also warmed and a
very durable union is obtained.

III.—Cut caoutchouc into small pieces and dissolve in coal naphtha by
heat and agitation. Add to this solution powdered shellac, and heat
the whole, constantly stirring until combination takes place, then pour
it on metal plates to form sheets. When used it must be heated to 248°
F., and applied with a brush.


«Water-Proof Glues.»—I.—The glue is put in water till it is soft, and
subsequently melted in linseed oil at moderate heat. This glue is
affected neither by water nor by vapors.

II.—Dissolve a small quantity of sandarac and mastic in a little
alcohol, and add a little turpentine. The solution is boiled in a
kettle over the fire, and an equal quantity of a strong hot solution of
glue and isinglass is added. Then filter through a cloth while hot.

III.—Water-proof glue may also be produced by the simple addition of
bichromate of potassium to the liquid glue solution, and subsequent
exposure to the air.

IV.—Mix glue as usual, and then add linseed oil in the proportion of
1 part oil to 8 parts glue. If it is desired that the mixture remain
liquid, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of nitric acid should be added to every pound of
glue. This will also prevent the glue from souring.

V.—In 1,000 parts of rectified alcohol dissolve 60 parts of sandarac
and as much mastic whereupon add 60 parts of white oil of turpentine.
Next, prepare a rather strong glue solution and add about the like
quantity of isinglass, heating the solution until it commences to boil;
then slowly add the hot glue solution till a thin paste forms, which
can still be filtered through a cloth. Heat the solution before use and
employ like ordinary glue. A connection effected with this glue is not
dissolved by cold water and even resists hot water for a long time.

VI.—Soak 1,000 parts of Cologne glue in cold water for 12 hours and in
another vessel for the same length of time 150 parts of isinglass in a
mixture of lamp spirit and water. Then dissolve both masses together on
the water bath in a suitable vessel, thinning, if necessary, with some
hot water. Next add 100 {14} parts of linseed oil varnish and filter
hot through linen.

VII.—Ordinary glue is kept in water until it swells up without losing
its shape. Thus softened it is placed in an iron crucible without
adding water; then add linseed oil according to the quantity of the
glue and leave this mixture to boil over a slow fire until a gelatinous
mass results. Such glue unites materials in a very durable manner. It
adheres firmly and hardens quickly. Its chief advantage, however,
consists in that it neither absorbs water nor allows it to pass
through, whereby the connecting places are often destroyed. A little
borax will prevent putrefaction.

VIII.—Bichromate of potassium 40 parts (by weight); gelatin glue, 55
parts; alum, 5 parts. Dissolve the glue in a little water and add the
bichromate of potassium and the alum.

IX.—This preparation permits an absolutely permanent gluing of pieces
of cardboard, even when they are moistened by water. Melt together
equal parts of good pitch and gutta-percha; of this take 9 parts, and
add to it 3 parts of boiled linseed oil and 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts of litharge.
Place this over the fire and stir it till all the ingredients are
intimately mixed. The mixture may be diluted with a little benzine or
oil of turpentine, and must be warm when used.


«Glue to Fasten Linoleum on Iron Stairs.»—I.—Use a mixture of glue,
isinglass, and dextrin which, dissolved in water and heated, is given
an admixture of turpentine. The strips pasted down must be weighted
with boards and brick on top until the adhesive agent has hardened.

II.—Soak 3 parts of glue in 8 parts water, add 1⁠/⁠2 part hydrochloric
acid and 3⁠/⁠4 part zinc vitriol and let this mixture boil several
hours. Coat the floor and the back of the linoleum with this. Press the
linoleum down uniformly and firmly and weight it for some time.


«Glue for Attaching Gloss to Precious Metals.»—Sandarac varnish, 15
parts; marine glue, 5 parts; drying oil, 5 parts; white lead, 5 parts;
Spanish white, 5 parts; turpentine, 5 parts. Triturate all to form a
rather homogeneous paste. This glue becomes very hard and resisting.


«Elastic Glue.»—Although elastic glue is less durable than rubber,
and will not stand much heat, yet it is cheaper than rubber, and is
not, like rubber affected by oil colors. Hence it is largely used for
printing rollers and stamps. For stamps, good glue is soaked for 24
hours in soft water. The water is poured off, and the swollen glue is
melted and mixed with glycerine and a little salicylic acid and cast
into molds. The durability is increased by painting the mass with a
solution of tannin, or, better, of bichromate of potassium. Printing
rollers require greater firmness and elasticity. The mass for them
once consisted solely of glue and vinegar, and their manufacture was
very difficult. The use of glycerine has remedied this, and gives
great elasticity without adhesiveness, and has removed the liability
of moldiness. Swollen glue, which has been superficially dried, is
fused with glycerine and cast into oil molds. Similar mixtures are
used for casting plaster ornaments, etc., and give very sharp casts.
A mass consisting of glue and glycerine is poured over the model in a
box. When the mold is removed, it is painted with plaster outside and
with boiled oil inside, and can then be used many times for making
reproductions of the model.


«Glue for Paper and Metal.»—A glue which will keep well and adhere
tightly is obtained by diluting 1,000 parts by weight of potato starch
in 1,200 parts by weight of water and adding 50 parts by weight of
pure nitric acid. The mixture is kept in a hot place for 48 hours,
taking care to stir frequently. It is afterwards boiled to a thick and
transparent consistency, diluted with water if there is occasion, and
then there are added in the form of a screened powder, 2 parts of sal
ammoniac and 1 part of sulphur flowers.


«Glue for Attaching Cloth Strips to Iron.»—Soak 500 parts of Cologne
glue in the evening with clean cold water in a clean vessel; in the
morning pour off the water, place the softened glue without admixture
of water into a clean copper or enamel receptacle, which is put on a
moderate low fire (charcoal or steam apparatus). During the dissolution
the mass must be continually stirred with a wooden trowel or spatula.
If the glue is too thick, it is thinned with diluted spirit, but not
with water. As soon as the glue has reached the boiling point, about
50 parts of linseed oil varnish (boiled oil) is added to the mass with
constant stirring. When the latter has been stirred up well, add 50
parts of powdered colophony and shake it into the mass with stirring,
subsequently removing the glue from the fire. In order to increase the
binding qualities and to guard against moisture, it is well still to
add about 50 parts of isinglass, which has been previously cut {15}
into narrow strips and placed, well beaten, in a vessel, into which
enough spirit of wine has been poured to cover all. When dissolved, the
last-named mass is added to the boiling glue with constant stirring.
The adhesive agent is now ready for use and is employed hot, it
being advisable to warm the iron also. Apply glue only to a surface
equivalent to a single strip at a time. The strips are pressed down
with a stiff brush or a wad of cloth.


«Glue for Leather or Cardboard.»—To attach leather to cardboard
dissolve good glue (softened by spelling in water) with a little
turpentine and enough water in an ordinary glue pot, and then having
made a thick paste with starch in the proportion of 2 parts by weight,
of starch powder for every 1 part, by weight, of dry glue, mix the
compounds and allow the mixture to become cold before application to
the cardboard.


«For Wood, Glass, Cardboard, and all Articles of a Metallic or Mineral
Character.»—Take boiled linseed oil 20 parts, Flemish glue 20 parts,
hydrated lime 15 parts, powdered turpentine 5 parts, alum 5 parts
acetic acid 5 parts. Dissolve the glue with the acetic acid, add the
alum, then the hydrated lime, and finally the turpentine and the boiled
linseed oil. Triturate all well until it forms a homogeneous paste and
keep in well-closed flasks. Use like any other glue.


«Glue for Uniting Metals with Fabrics.»—Cologne glue of good quality
is soaked and boiled down to the consistency of that used by
cabinetmakers. Then add, with constant stirring, sifted wood ashes
until a moderately thick, homogeneous mass results. Use hot and press
the pieces well together during the drying. For tinfoil, about 2 per
cent of boracic acid should be added instead of the wood ashes.


«Glue or Paste for Making Paper Boxes.»—

 Chloral hydrate            5 parts
 Gelatin, white             8 parts
 Gum arabic                 2 parts
 Boiling water             30 parts

Mix the chloral, gelatin, and gum arabic in a porcelain container, pour
the boiling water over the mixture and let stand for 1 day, giving it
a vigorous stirring several times during the day. In cold weather this
is apt to get hard and stiff, but this may be obviated by standing the
container in warm water for a few minutes. This paste adheres to any
surface whatever.


«Natural Glue for Cementing Porcelain, Crystal Glass, etc.»—The large
shell snails which are found in vineyards have at the extremity of
their body a small, whitish bladder filled with a substance of greasy
and gelatinous aspect. If this substance extracted from the bladder
is applied on the fragments of porcelain or any body whatever, which
are juxtaposed by being made to touch at all parts, they acquire such
adhesion that if one strives to separate them by a blow, they are
more liable to break at another place than the cemented seam. It is
necessary to give this glue sufficient time to dry perfectly, so as to
permit it to acquire the highest degree of strength and tenacity.


«Belt Glue.»—A glue for belts can be prepared as follows: Soak 50
parts of gelatin in water, pour off the excess of water, and heat on
the water bath. With good stirring add, first, 5 parts, by weight, of
glycerine, then 10 parts, by weight, of turpentine, and 5 parts, by
weight, of linseed oil varnish and thin with water as required. The
ends of the belts to be glued are cut off obliquely and warmed; then
the hot glue is applied, and the united parts are subjected to strong
pressure, allowing them to dry thus for 24 hours before the belts are
used.


«Chromium Glue for Wood, Paper, and Cloth.»—I.—(_a_) One-half pound
strong glue (any glue if color is immaterial, white fish glue
otherwise); soak 12 hours in 12 fluidounces of cold water. (_b_)
One-quarter pound gelatin; soak 2 hours in 12 fluidounces cold water.
(_c_) Two ounces bichromate of potassium dissolved in 8 fluidounces
boiling water. Dissolve (_a_) after soaking, in a glue pot, and add
(_b_). After (_a_) and (_b_) are mixed and dissolved, stir in (_c_).
This glue is exceedingly strong, and if the article cemented be exposed
to strong sunlight for 1 hour, the glue becomes perfectly waterproof.
Of course, it is understood that the exposure to sunlight is to be made
after the glue is thoroughly dry. The one objectionable feature of this
cement is its color, which is a yellow-brown. By substituting chrome
alum in place of the bichromate, an olive color is obtained.

II.—Use a moderately strong gelatin solution (containing 5 to 10
per cent of dry gelatin), to which about 1 part of acid chromate of
potassium in solution is added to every 5 parts of gelatin. This
mixture has the property of becoming insoluble by water through the
action of sunlight under partial reduction of the chromic acid. {16}


«Fireproof Glue.»—

 Raw linseed oil                  8 parts
 Glue or gelatin                  1 part
 Quicklime                        2 parts

Soak the glue or gelatin in the oil for 10 to 12 hours, and then melt
it by gently heating the oil, and when perfectly fluid stir in the
quicklime until the whole mass is homogeneous, then spread out in
layers to dry gradually, out of the sun’s rays. For use, reheat the
glue in a glue pot in the ordinary way of melting glue.


«CEMENTS.»

Under this heading will be found only cements for causing one substance
to adhere to another. Cements used primarily as fillers, such as dental
cements, will be found under Cements, Putties, etc.


«Cutlers’ Cements for Fixing Knife Blades into Handles.»—

  I.—Rosin                          4 pounds
      Beeswax                        1 pound
      Plaster of Paris or brickdust  1 pound

 II.—Pitch                          5 pounds
      Wood ashes                     1 pound
      Tallow                         1 pound

III.—Rosin, 12; sulphur flowers, 3; iron filings, 5. Melt together,
fill the handle while hot, and insert the instrument.

IV.—Plaster of Paris is ordinarily used for fastening loose handles.
It is made into a moderately thick paste with water run into the hole
in the head of the pestle, the handle inserted and held in place till
the cement hardens. Some add sand to the paste, and claim to get better
results.

V.—Boil together 1 part of caustic soda, 3 parts of rosin, and 5 parts
of water till homogeneous and add 4 parts of plaster of Paris. The
paste sets in half an hour and is but little affected by water.

VI.—Equal quantities of gutta percha and shellac are melted together
and well stirred. This is best done in an iron capsule placed on a
sandbath and heated over a gas furnace or on the top of a stove. The
combination possesses both hardness and toughness, qualities that make
it particularly desirable in mending mortars and pestles. In using, the
articles to be cemented should be warmed to about the melting point of
the mixture and retained in proper position until cool, when they are
ready for use.

 VII.—Rosin                    600 parts by weight
       Sulphur                  150 parts by weight
       Iron filings             250 parts by weight

Pour the mixture, hot, into the opening of the heated handle and shove
in the knife likewise heated.

VIII.—Melt sufficient black rosin, and incorporate thoroughly with it
one-fifth its weight of very fine silver sand. Make the pestle hot,
pour in a little of the mixture, then force the handle well home, and
set aside for a day before using.

IX.—Make a smooth, moderately soft paste with litharge and glycerine;
fill the hole in the pestle with the cement, and firmly press the
handle in place, keeping it under pressure for three or four days.


«Cements for Stone.»—I.—An excellent cement for broken marble consists
of 4 parts of gypsum and 1 part of finely powdered gum arabic. Mix
intimately. Then with a cold solution of borax make into a mortarlike
mass. Smear on each face of the parts to be joined, and fasten the bits
of marble together. In the course of a few days the cement becomes
very hard and holds very tenaciously. The object mended should not be
touched for several days. In mending colored marbles the cement may be
given the hue of the marble by adding the color to the borax solution.

II.—A cement which dries instantaneously, qualifying it for all sorts
of repairing and only presenting the disadvantage of having to be
freshly prepared each time, notwithstanding any subsequent heating, may
be made as follows: In a metal vessel or iron spoon melt 4 to 5 parts
of rosin (or preferably mastic) and 1 part of beeswax. This mixture
must be applied rapidly, it being of advantage slightly to heat the
surfaces to be united, which naturally must have been previously well
cleaned.

III.—Slaked lime, 10 parts; chalk, 15 parts; kaolin, 5 parts; mix, and
immediately before use stir with a corresponding amount of potash water
glass.

IV.—Cement on Marble Slabs.—The whole marble slab is thoroughly warmed
and laid face down upon a neatly cleaned planing bench upon which a
woolen cloth is spread so as not to injure the polish of the slab. Next
apply to the slab very hot, weak glue and quickly sift hot plaster of
Paris on the glue in a thin even layer, stirring the plaster rapidly
into the applied glue by means of a strong spatula, so that a uniform
glue-plaster coating is formed on the warm slab. Before this has time
to harden tip the respective piece of furniture on the slab. The frame,
likewise warmed, will adhere very firmly to the slab after two days.
Besides, this process has the advantage of great cleanliness. {17}

V.—The following is a recipe used by marble workers, and which probably
can be used to advantage: Flour of sulphur, 1 part; hydrochlorate of
ammonia, 2 parts; iron filings, 16 parts. The above substances must
be reduced to a powder, and securely preserved in closely stoppered
vessels. When the cement is to be employed, take 20 parts very fine
iron filings and 1 part of the above powder; mix them together with
enough water to form a manageable paste. This paste solidifies in 20
days and becomes as hard as iron. A recipe for another cement useful
for joining small pieces of marble or alabaster is as follows: Add
1⁠/⁠2 pint of vinegar to 1⁠/⁠2 pint skimmed milk; mix the curd with the
whites of 5 eggs, well beaten, and sufficient powdered quicklime sifted
in with constant stirring so as to form a paste. It resists water and a
moderate degree of heat.

VI.—Cement for Iron and Marble.—For fastening iron to marble or stone a
good cement is made as follows: Thirty parts plaster of Paris, 10 parts
iron filings, 1⁠/⁠2 part sal ammoniac mixed with vinegar to a fluid
paste fresh for use.


«Cement for Sandstones.»—One part sulphur and 1 part rosin are melted
separately; the melted masses are mixed and 3 parts litharge and 2
parts ground glass stirred in. The latter ingredients must be perfectly
dry, and have been well pulverized and mixed previously.

Equally good cement is obtained by melting together 1 part pitch and
1⁠/⁠10 part wax, and mixing with 2 parts brickdust.

The stones to be cemented, or between the joints of which the putty
is to be poured, must be perfectly dry. If practicable, they should
be warmed a little, and the surfaces to which the putty is to adhere
painted with oil varnish once or twice. The above two formulæ are of
especial value in case the stones are very much exposed to the heat
of the sun in summer, as well as to cold, rain, and snow in winter.
Experience has shown that in these instances the above-mentioned
cements give better satisfaction than the other brands of cement.


«Cements for Attaching Objects to Glass.»—

 Rosin              1 part
 Yellow wax         2 parts

Melt together.


«To Attach Copper to Glass.»—Boil 1 part of caustic soda and 3 parts of
colophony in 5 parts of water and mix with the like quantity of plaster
of Paris. This cement is not attacked by water, heat, and petroleum.
If, in place of the plaster of Paris, zinc white, white lead, or slaked
lime is used, the cement hardens more slowly.


«To Fasten Brass upon Glass.»—Boil together 1 part of caustic soda, 3
parts of rosin, 3 parts of gypsum, and 5 parts of water. The cement
made in this way hardens in about half an hour, hence it must
be applied quickly. During the preparation it should be stirred
constantly. All the ingredients used must be in a finely powdered state.


«Uniting Glass with Horn.»—(1) A solution of 2 parts of gelatin in
20 parts water is evaporated up to one-sixth of its volume and 1⁠/⁠3
mastic dissolved in 1⁠/⁠2 spirit added and some zinc white stirred in.
The putty is applied warm; it dries easily and can be kept a long time.
(2) Mix gold size with the equal volume of water glass.


«To Cement Glass to Iron.»—

 I.—Rosin                  5 ounces
     Yellow wax             1 ounce
     Venetian red           1 ounce

Melt the wax and rosin on a water bath and add, under constant
stirring, the Venetian red previously well dried. Stir until nearly
cool, so as to prevent the Venetian red from settling to the bottom.

  II.—Portland cement       2 ounces
       Prepared chalk        1 ounce
       Fine sand             1 ounce
       Solution of sodium silicate
         enough to form a semi-liquid
         paste.
 III.—Litharge              2 parts
       White lead            1 part

Work into a pasty condition by using 3 parts boiled linseed oil, 1 part
copal varnish.


«Celluloid Cements.»—I.—To mend broken draughting triangles and other
celluloid articles, use 3 parts alcohol and 4 parts ether mixed
together and applied to the fracture with a brush until the edges
become warm. The edges are then stuck together, and left to dry for at
least 24 hours.

II.—Camphor, 1 part; alcohol, 4 parts. Dissolve and add equal quantity
(by weight) of shellac to this solution.

III.—If firmness is desired in putting celluloid on wood, tin, etc.,
the following gluing agent is recommended, viz.: A compound of 2 parts
shellac, 3 parts spirit of camphor, and 4 parts strong alcohol. {18}

 IV.—Shellac                    2 ounces
      Spirits of camphor         2 ounces
      Alcohol, 90 per cent       6 to 8 ounces

V.—Make a moderately strong glue or solution of gelatin. In a dark
place or a dark room mix with the above a small amount of concentrated
solution of potassium dichromate. Coat the back of the label, which
must be clean, with a thin layer of the mixture. Strongly press the
label against the bottle and keep the two in close contact by tying
with twine or otherwise. Expose to sunlight for some hours; this causes
the cement to be insoluble even in hot water.

 VI.—Lime                     av. oz. 1
      White of egg             av. oz. 2 1⁠/⁠2
      Plaster of Paris         av. oz. 5 1⁠/⁠2
      Water                    fl. oz. 1

Reduce the lime to a fine powder; mix it with the white of egg by
trituration, forming a uniform paste. Dilute with water, rapidly
incorporate the plaster of Paris, and use the cement immediately. The
surfaces to be cemented must first be moistened with water so that the
cement will readily adhere. The pieces must be firmly pressed together
and kept in this position for about 12 hours.


«Cementing Celluloid and Hard-Rubber Articles.»—I.—Celluloid articles
can be mended by making a mixture composed of 3 parts of alcohol and 4
parts of ether. This mixture should be kept in a well-corked bottle,
and when celluloid articles are to be mended, the broken surfaces are
painted over with the alcohol and ether mixture until the surfaces
soften: then press together and bind and allow to dry for at least 24
hours.

II.—Dissolve 1 part of gum camphor in 4 parts of alcohol; dissolve an
equal weight of shellac in such strong camphor solution. The cement
is applied warm and the parts united must not be disturbed until the
cement is hard. Hard-rubber articles are never mended to form a strong
joint.

III.—Melt together equal parts of gutta percha and real asphaltum. The
cement is applied hot, and the broken surfaces pressed together and
held in place while cooling.


«Sign-Letter Cements.»—

 I.—Copal varnish              15 parts
     Drying oil                  5 parts
     Turpentine (spirits)        3 parts
     Oil of turpentine           2 parts
     Liquefied glue              5 parts

Melt all together on a water bath until well mixed, and then add 10
parts slaked lime.

II.—Mix 100 parts finely powdered white litharge with 50 parts dry
white lead, knead together 3 parts linseed oil varnish and 1 part copal
varnish into a firm dough. Coat the side to be attached with this,
removing the superfluous cement. It will dry quickly and become very
hard.

 III.—Copal varnish                         15 parts
       Linseed-oil varnish                    5 parts
       Raw turpentine                         3 parts
       Oil of turpentine                      2 parts
       Carpenters’ glue, dissolved in water   5 parts
       Precipitated chalk                    10 parts

  IV.—Mastic gum                             1 part
       Litharge, lead                         2 parts
       White lead                             1 part
       Linseed oil                            3 parts

Melt together to a homogeneous mass. Apply hot. To make a thorough and
reliable job, the letters should be heated to at least the temperature
of the cement.


«To Fix Gold Letters, etc., upon Glass.»—I.—The glass must be entirely
clean and polished, and the medium is prepared in the following manner:
One ounce fish glue or isinglass is dissolved in water so that the
latter covers the glue. When this is dissolved a quart of rectified
spirit of wine is added, and enough water is poured in to make up
one-quarter the whole. The substance must be kept well corked.

II.—Take 1⁠/⁠2 quart of the best rum and 1⁠/⁠4 ounce fish glue, which
is dissolved in the former at a moderate degree of heat. Then add 1⁠/⁠2
quart distilled water, and filter through a piece of old linen. The
glass is laid upon a perfectly level table and is covered with this
substance to the thickness of 1⁠/⁠8 inch, using a clean brush. Seize
the gold leaf with a pointed object and place it smoothly upon the
prepared mass, and it will be attracted by the glass at once. After 5
minutes hold the glass slightly slanting so that the superfluous mass
can run off, and leave the plate in this position for 24 hours, when
it will be perfectly dry. Now trace the letters or the design on a
piece of paper, and perforate the lines with a thick needle, making
the holes 1⁠/⁠16 inch apart. Then place the perforated paper upon the
surface of the glass, and stamp the tracery on with powdered chalk.
The paper pattern is then carefully removed, and the accurate design
will remain upon the gold. The outlines are now filled out with an oily
gold mass, mixed with a little chrome orange and diluted with boiled
oil or turpentine. When all is dry the superfluous gold is washed off
{19} with water by means of a common rag. The back of the glass is then
painted with a suitable color.


«Attaching Enamel Letters to Glass.»—To affix enamel letters to glass,
first clean the surface of the glass perfectly, leaving no grease or
sticky substance of any kind adhering to the surface. Then with a piece
of soap sketch the outlines of the design. Make the proper division
of the guide lines, and strike off accurately the position each letter
is to occupy. Then to the back of the letters apply a cement made as
follows: White lead ground in oil, 2 parts; dry white lead, 3 parts.
Mix to a soft putty consistency with good copal varnish.

With a small knife or spatula apply the cement to the back of the
letters, observing especial care in getting the mixture well and
uniformly laid around the inside edges of the letter. In attaching
the letters to the glass make sure to expel the air from beneath the
characters, and to do this, work them up and down and sidewise. If the
weather be at all warm, support the letters while drying by pressing
tiny beads of sealing wax against the glass, close to the under side
or bottom of the letters. With a putty knife, keenly sharpened on one
edge, next remove all the surplus cement. Give the letters a hard, firm
pressure against the glass around all edges to securely guard against
the disruptive attacks of moisture.

The seepage of moisture beneath the surface of the letters is the main
cause of their early detachment from the glass.

The removal of the letters from the glass may be effected by applying
turpentine to the top of the characters, allowing it to soak down and
through the cement. Oxalic acid applied in the same way will usually
slick the letters off in a trice.


«Cement for Porcelain Letters.»—Slake 15 parts of fresh quicklime in 20
parts of water. Melt 50 parts of caoutchouc and 50 parts of linseed-oil
varnish together, and bring the mixture to a boil. While boiling,
pour the liquid on the slaked lime, little by little, under constant
stirring. Pass the mixture, while still hot, through muslin, to remove
any possible lumps, and let cool. It takes the cement 2 days to set
completely, but when dry it makes a joint that will resist a great
deal of strain. By thinning the mixture down with oil of turpentine, a
brilliant, powerfully adhesive varnish is obtained.


«Water-Glass Cements.»—I.—Water glass (sodium of potassium silicate),
which is frequently recommended for cementing glass, does not, as is
often asserted, form a vitreous connection between the joined surfaces;
and, in fact, some of the commercial varieties will not even dry, but
merely form a thick paste, which has a strong affinity for moisture.
Good 30° B. water glass is, however, suitable for mending articles that
are exposed to heat, and is best applied to surfaces that have been
gently warmed; when the pieces are put together they should be pressed
warmly, to expel any superfluous cement, and then heated strongly.

To repair cracked glasses or bottles through which water will leak,
water glasses may be used, the application being effected in the
following easy manner: The vessel is warmed to induce rarefaction of
the internal air, after which the mouth is closed, either by a cork
in the case of bottles, or by a piece of parchment or bladder if a
wide-mouthed vessel is under treatment.

While still hot, the outside of the crack is covered with a little
glass, and the vessel set aside to cool, whereupon the difference
between the pressure of the external and internal air will force the
cement into the fissure and close it completely. All that is then
necessary is to take off the cover and leave the vessel to warm for a
few hours. Subsequently rinse it out with lime water, followed by clean
water, and it will then hold any liquid, acids and alkaline fluids
alone excepted.

II.—When water glass is brought into contact with calcium chloride,
a calcium silicate is at once formed which is insoluble in water. It
seems possible that this reaction may be used in binding together
masses of sand, etc. The process indicated has long been used in the
preservation of stone which has become “weathered.” The stone is first
brushed with the water glass and afterwards with a solution of calcium
chloride. The conditions here are of course different.

Calcium chloride must not be confounded with the so-called “chloride of
lime” which is a mixture of calcium hypochlorite and other bodies.


«To Fasten Paper Tickets to Glass.»—To attach paper tickets to glass,
the employment of water glass is efficacious. Care should be taken
to spread this product on the glass and not on the paper, and then
to apply the paper dry, which should be done immediately. When the
solution is dry the paper cannot be {20} detached. The silicate should
be somewhat diluted. It is spread on the glass with a rag or a small
sponge.


«JEWELERS’ CEMENTS.»

Jewelers and goldsmiths require, for the cementing of genuine and
colored gems, as well as for the placing of colored folio under
certain stones, very adhesive gluing agents, which must, however,
be colorless. In this respect these are distinguished chiefly by the
so-called diamond cement and the regular jewelers’ cement. Diamond
cement is much esteemed by jewelers for cementing precious stones and
corals, but may also be employed with advantage for laying colored
fluxes of glass on white glass. The diamond cement is of such a nature
as to be able to remain for some time in contact with water without
becoming soft. It adheres best between glass or between precious
stones. It is composed as follows: Isinglass 8 parts, gum ammoniac 1
part, galbanum 1 part, spirit of wine 4 parts. Soak the isinglass in
water with admixture of a little spirit of wine and add the solution
of the gums in the remainder of the spirit of wine. Before use, heat
the diamond cement a little so as to soften it. Jewelers’ cement is
used for similar purposes as is the diamond cement, and is prepared
from: Isinglass (dry) 10 parts, mastic varnish 5 parts. Dissolve the
isinglass in very little water, adding some strong spirit of wine. The
mastic varnish is prepared by pouring a mixture of highly rectified
spirit of wine and benzine over finely powdered mastic and dissolving
it in the smallest possible quantity of liquid. The two solutions of
isinglass and mastic are intimately ground together in a porcelain dish.


«Armenian Cement.»—The celebrated “Armenian” cement, so called formerly
used by Turkish and Oriental jewelers generally, for setting precious
stones, “facing diamonds,” rubies, etc., is made as follows:

 Mastic gum                10 parts
 Isinglass (fish glue)     20 parts
 Gum ammoniac               5 parts
 Alcohol absolute          60 parts
 Alcohol, 50 per cent      35 parts
 Water                    100 parts

Dissolve the mastic in the absolute alcohol; dissolve, by the aid of
gentle heat, on the water bath, the isinglass in the water, and add 10
parts of the dilute alcohol. Now dissolve the ammoniacum in the residue
of the dilute alcohol. Add the first solution to the second, mix
thoroughly by agitation and then add the solution of gum ammoniac and
stir well in. Finally put on the water bath, and keeping at a moderate
heat, evaporate the whole down to 175 parts.


«Cement for Enameled Dials.»—The following is a good cement for
enameled dials, plates, or other pieces: Grind into a fine powder
2 1⁠/⁠2 parts of dammar rosin and 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts of copal, using
colorless pieces if possible. Next add 2 parts of Venetian turpentine
and enough spirit of wine so that the whole forms a thick paste. To
this grind 3 parts of the finest zinc white. The mass now has the
consistency of prepared oil paint. To remove the yellow tinge of the
cement add a trifle of Berlin blue to the zinc white. Finally, the
whole is heated until the spirit of wine is driven off and a molten
mass remains, which is allowed to cool and is kept for use. Heat the
parts to be cemented.


«Watch-Lid Cement.»—The hardest cement for fixing on watch lids is
shellac. If the lids are exceedingly thin the engraving will always
press through. Before cementing it on the inside of the lid, in order
not to injure the polish, it is coated with chalk dissolved in alcohol,
which is first allowed to dry. Next melt the shellac on the stick, heat
the watch lid and put it on. After the engraving has been done, simply
force the lid off and remove the remaining shellac from the latter by
light tapping. If this does not remove it completely lay the lid in
alcohol, leaving it therein until all the shellac has dissolved. All
that remains to be done now is to wash out the watch lid.


«Jewelers’ Glue Cement.»—Dissolve on a water bath 50 parts of fish glue
in a little 95-per-cent alcohol, adding 4 parts, by weight, of gum
ammoniac. On the other hand, dissolve 2 parts, by weight, of mastic in
10 parts, by weight, of alcohol. Mix these two solutions and preserve
in a well-corked flask. For use it suffices to soften it on the water
bath.


«Casein Cements.»—

 I.—Borax                      5 parts
     Water                     95 parts
     Casein, sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the borax in water and incorporate enough casein to produce a
mass of the proper consistency.

II.—The casein is made feebly alkaline by means of soda or potash lye
and {21} then subjected for about 24 hours to a temperature of 140° F.
Next follow the customary admixture, such as lime and water glass, and
finally, to accomplish a quicker resinification, substances containing
tannin are added. For tannic admixtures to the partially disintegrated
casein, slight quantities—about 1 per cent—of gallic acid, cutch, or
quercitannic acid are employed. The feebly alkaline casein cement
containing tannic acid is used in the well-known manner for the gluing
together of wood.


«For Metals.»—Make a paste with 16 ounces casein, 20 ounces slaked
lime, and 20 ounces of sand, in water.


«For Glass.»—I.—Dissolve casein in a concentrated solution of borax.

II.—Make a paste of casein and water glass.


«Pasteboard and Paper Cement.»—I.—Let pure glue swell in cold water;
pour and press off the excess; put on the water bath and melt. Paper
or other material cemented with this is then immediately, before the
cement dries, submitted to the action of formaldehyde and dried. The
cement resists the action of water, even hot.

II.—Melt together equal parts of good pitch and gutta percha. To 9
parts of this mass add 3 parts of boiled linseed oil and 1⁠/⁠5 part
litharge. The heat is kept up until, with constant stirring, an
intimate union of all the ingredients has taken place. The mixture is
diluted with a little benzine or oil of turpentine and applied while
still warm. The cement is waterproof.

III.—The _National Druggist_ says that experience with pasting or
cementing parchment paper seems to show that about the best agent
is casein cement, made by dissolving casein in a saturated aqueous
solution of borax.

IV.—The following is recommended for paper boxes:

 Chloral hydrate     5 parts
 Gelatin, white      8 parts
 Gum arabic          2 parts
 Boiling water      30 parts

Mix the chloral, gelatin, and gum arabic in a porcelain container, pour
the boiling water over the mixture and let stand for 1 day, giving it
a vigorous stirring several times during the day. In cold weather this
is apt to get hard and stiff, but this may be obviated by standing the
container in warm water for a few minutes. This paste adheres to any
surface whatever.


«Waterproof Cements for Glass, Stoneware, and Metal.»—I.—Make a paste
of sulphur, sal ammoniac, iron filings, and boiled oil.

II.—Mix together dry: Whiting, 6 pounds; plaster of Paris, 3 pounds;
sand, 3 pounds; litharge, 3 pounds; rosin, 1 pound. Make to a paste
with copal varnish.

III.—Make a paste of boiled oil, 6 pounds; copal, 6 pounds; litharge, 2
pounds; white lead, 1 pound.

IV.—Make a paste with boiled oil, 3 pounds; brickdust 2 pounds; dry
slaked lime, 1 pound.

V.—Dissolve 93 ounces of alum and 93 ounces of sugar of lead in water
to concentration. Dissolve separately 152 ounces of gum arabic in 25
gallons of water, and then stir in 62 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of flour. Then heat
to a uniform paste with the metallic salts, but take care not to boil
the mass.

VI.—For Iron and Marble to Stand in Heat.—In 3 pounds of water dissolve
first, 1 pound water glass and then 1 pound of borax. With the solution
make 2 pounds of clay and 1 pound of barytes, first mixed dry, to a
paste.

VII.—Glue to Resist Boiling Water.—Dissolve separately in water 55
pounds of glue and a mixture of 40 pounds of bichromate and 5 pounds of
alum. Mix as wanted.

VIII. (Chinese Glue).—Dissolve shellac in 10 times its weight of
ammonia.

IX.—Make a paste of 40 ounces of dry slaked lime 10 ounces of alum, and
50 ounces of white of egg.

 X.—Alcohol         1,000 parts
     Sandarac           60 parts
     Mastic             60 parts
     Turpentine oil     60 parts

Dissolve the gums in the alcohol and add the oil and stir in. Now
prepare a solution of equal parts of glue and isinglass, by soaking 125
parts of each in cold water until it becomes saturated, pouring and
pressing off the residue, and melting on the water bath. This should
produce a volume of glue nearly equal to that of the solution of gums.
The latter should, in the meantime, have been cautiously raised to
the boiling point on the water bath, and then mixed with the hot glue
solution.

It is said that articles united with this substance will stand the
strain of cold water for an unlimited time, and it takes hot water even
a long time to affect it. {22}

 XI.—Burgundy pitch                 6 parts
      Gutta percha                   1 part
      Pumice stone, in fine powder   3 parts

Melt the gutta percha very carefully add the pumice stone, and lastly
the pitch, and stir until homogeneous.

Use while still hot. This cement will withstand water and dilute
mineral acids.


«LEATHER AND RUBBER CEMENTS.»

I.—Use a melted mixture of gutta percha and genuine asphalt, applied
hot. The hard-rubber goods must be kept pressed together until the
cement has cooled.

II.—A cement which is effective for cementing rubber to iron and which
is especially valuable for fastening rubber bands to bandsaw wheels is
made as follows: Powdered shellac, 1 part; strong water of ammonia,
10 parts. Put the shellac in the ammonia water and set it away in a
tightly closed jar for 3 or 4 weeks. By that time the mixture will
become a perfectly liquid transparent mass and is then ready for
use. When applied to rubber the ammonia softens it, but it quickly
evaporates, leaving the rubber in the same condition as before. The
shellac clings to the iron and thus forms a firm bond between the iron
and the rubber.

 III.—Gutta percha white    1 drachm
       Carbon disulphide     1 ounce

Dissolve, filter, and add:

 India rubber         15 grains

Dissolve.


«Cement for Metal on Hard Rubber.»—I.—Soak good Cologne glue and boil
down so as to give it the consistency of joiners’ glue, and add with
constant stirring, enough sifted wood ashes until a homogeneous,
moderately thick mass results. Use warm and fit the pieces well
together while drying.


«How to Unite Rubber and Leather.»—II.—Roughen both surfaces, the
leather and the rubber, with a sharp glass edge; apply to both a
diluted solution of gutta percha in carbon bisulphide and let this
solution soak into the material. Then press upon each surface a skin
of gutta percha 1⁠/⁠10 of an inch in thickness between rolls. The two
surfaces are now united in a press, which should be warm but not hot.
This method should answer in all cases in which it is applicable. The
other prescription covers cases in which a press cannot be used. Cut
30 parts of rubber into small pieces, and dissolve it in 140 parts of
carbon bisulphide, the vessel being placed on a water bath of 30° C.
(86° F.). Further, melt 10 parts of rubber with 15 of colophony, and
add 35 parts of oil of turpentine. When the rubber has been completely
dissolved, the two liquids may be mixed. The resulting cement must be
kept well corked.


«To Fasten Rubber to Wood.»—I.—Make a cement by macerating virgin gum
rubber, or as pure rubber as can be had, cut in small pieces, in just
enough naphtha or gasoline to cover it. Let it stand in a very tightly
corked or sealed jar for 14 days, or a sufficient time to become
dissolved, shaking the mixture daily.

II.—Dissolve pulverized gum shellac, 1 ounce, in 9 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of
strong ammonia. This of course must be kept tightly corked. It will not
be as elastic as the first preparation.

III.—Fuse together shellac and gutta percha in equal weights.

 IV.—India rubber             8 ounces
      Gutta percha             4 ounces
      Isinglass                2 ounces
      Bisulphide of carbon    32 ounces

  V.—India rubber             5 ounces
      Gum mastic               1 ounce
      Chloroform               3 ounces

 VI.—Gutta percha            16 ounces
      India rubber             4 ounces
      Pitch                    4 ounces
      Shellac                  1 ounce
      Linseed oil              1 ounce

Amalgamate by heat.

VII.—Mix 1 ounce of oil of turpentine with 10 ounces of bisulphide of
carbon in which as much gutta percha as possible has been dissolved.

VIII.—Amalgamate by heat:

 Gutta percha         100 ounces
 Venice turpentine     80 ounces
 Shellac                8 ounces
 India rubber           2 ounces
 Liquid storax         10 ounces

IX.—Amalgamate by heat:

 India rubber         100 ounces
 Rosin                 15 ounces
 Shellac               10 ounces

Then dissolve in bisulphide of carbon.

X.—Make the following solutions separately and mix:

 (_a_)  India rubber         5 ounces
        Chloroform         140 ounces

 (_b_)  India rubber         5 ounces
        Rosin                2 ounces
        Venice turpentine    1 ounce
        Oil of turpentine   20 ounces

{23}


«Cement for Patching Rubber Boots and Shoes.»—

 I.—India rubber, finely chopped   100 parts
     Rosin                           15 parts
     Shellac                         10 parts
     Carbon disulphide, q. s. to dissolve.

This will not only unite leather to leather, india rubber, etc., but
will unite rubber to almost any substance.

 II.—Caoutchouc, finely cut      4 parts
      India rubber, finely cut    1 part
      Carbon disulphide          32 parts

Dissolve the caoutchouc in the carbon disulphide, add the rubber, let
macerate a few days, then mash with a palette knife to a smooth paste.
The vessel in which the solution is made in both instances above must
be kept tightly closed, and should have frequent agitations.

III.—Take 100 parts of crude rubber or caoutchouc, cut it up in small
bits, and dissolve it in sufficient carbon bisulphide, add to it 15
parts of rosin and 10 parts of gum lac. The user must not overlook the
great inflammability and exceedingly volatile nature of the carbon
bisulphide.


«Tire Cements.»—

 I.—India rubber      15 grams
     Chloroform         2 ounces
     Mastic           1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Mix the india rubber and chloroform together, and when dissolved, the
mastic is added in powder. It is then allowed to stand a week or two
before using.

II.—The following is recommended as very good for cementing pneumatic
tires to bicycle wheels:

 Shellac         1 ounce
 Gutta percha    1 ounce
 Sulphur        45 grains
 Red lead       45 grains

Melt together the shellac and gutta percha, then add, with constant
stirring, the sulphur and red lead. Use while hot.

 III.—Raw gutta percha       16 ounces
       Carbon bisulphide      72 ounces
       Eau de Cologne      2 2⁠/⁠3 ounces

This cement is the subject of an English patent and is recommended for
patching cycle and motor tires, insulating electric wires, etc.

IV.—A good thick shellac varnish with which a small amount of castor
oil has been mixed will be found a very excellent bicycle rim cement.
The formula recommended by Edel is as follows:

 Shellac         1 pound
 Alcohol         1 pint

Mix and dissolve, then add:

 Castor oil    1⁠/⁠2 ounce

The castor oil prevents the cement from becoming hard and brittle.

A cement used to fasten bicycle tires may be made by melting together
at a gentle heat equal parts of gutta percha and asphalt. Apply hot.
Sometimes a small quantity each of sulphur and red lead is added (about
1 part of each to 20 parts of cement).


«Cements for Leather.»—

 I.—Gutta percha                20 parts
     Syrian asphalt, powdered    20 parts
     Carbon disulphide           50 parts
     Oil of turpentine           10 parts

The gutta percha, shredded fine, is dissolved in the carbon disulphide
and turpentine oil. To the solution add the asphalt and set away for
several days, or until the asphalt is dissolved. The cement should have
the consistency of honey. If the preparation is thinner than this let
it stand, open, for a few days. Articles to be patched should first be
washed with benzine.

 II.—Glue             1 ounce
      Starch paste     2 ounces
      Turpentine       1 drachm
      Water, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the glue in sufficient water with heat; mix the starch paste
with water; add the turpentine, and finally mix with the glue while hot.

III.—Soak for one day 1 pound of common glue in enough water to cover,
and 1 pound of isinglass in ale droppings. Then mix together and heat
gently until boiling. At this point add a little pure tannin and keep
boiling for an hour. If the glue and isinglass when mixed are too
thick, add water. This cement should be used warm and the jointed
leather pressed tightly together for 12 hours.

IV.—A waterproof cement for leather caoutchouc, or balata, is prepared
by dissolving gutta percha, caoutchouc, benzoin, gum lac, mastic,
etc., in some convenient solvent like carbon disulphide, chloroform,
ether, or alcohol. The best solvent, however, in the case of gutta
percha, is carbon disulphide and ether for mastic. The most favorable
proportions are as follows: Gutta percha, 200 to 300 parts to 100 parts
of the solvent, and 75 to 85 parts of mastic to 100 parts of ether.
From 5 to 8 parts of the former solution are mixed with 1 {24} part of
the latter, and the mixture is then boiled on the water bath, or in a
vessel fitted with a water jacket.

V.—Make a solution of 200 to 300 parts of caoutchouc, gutta percha,
india rubber, benzoin, or similar gum, in 1,000 parts of carbon
disulphide, chloroform, ether, or alcohol, and of this add 5 to 8 parts
to a solution of mastic (75 to 125 parts) in ether 100 parts, of equal
volume and boil together. Use hot water as the boiling agent, or boil
very cautiously on the water bath.

VI.—Forty parts of aluminum acetate, 10° B., 10 parts of glue, 10 parts
of rye flour. These materials are either to be simultaneously mixed and
boiled, or else the glue is to be dissolved in the aluminum acetate,
and the flour stirred into the solution. This is an excellent cement
for leather, and is used in so-called art work with leather, and with
leather articles which are made of several pieces. It is to be applied
warm.


«Rubber Cement for Cloth.»—The following formulas have been recommended:

I.—Caoutchouc, 5 parts; chloroform, 3 parts. Dissolve and add gum
mastic (powder) 1 part.

II.—Gutta percha, 16 parts; india rubber, 4 parts; pitch, 2 parts;
shellac, 1 part; linseed oil, 2 parts. Reduce the solids to small
pieces, melt together with the oil and mix well.

III.—The following cement for mending rubber shoes and tires will
answer similar purposes:

 Caoutchouc in shavings      10  parts by weight
 Rosin                        4  parts by weight
 Gum turpentine              40  parts by weight
 Oil turpentine, enough.

Melt together first the caoutchouc and rosin, then add the gum
turpentine, and when all is liquefied, add enough of oil of turpentine
to preserve it liquid. A second solution is prepared by dissolving
together:

 Caoutchouc                  10  parts by weight
 Chloroform                 280  parts by weight

For use these two solutions are mixed. Wash the hole in the rubber shoe
over with the cement, then a piece of linen dipped in it is placed
over it; as soon as the linen adheres to the sole, the cement is then
applied as thickly as required.


«CEMENTS FOR METALS AND FOR ATTACHING VARIOUS SUBSTANCES TO METALS:»


«Cements for Iron.»—I.—To make a good cement for iron on iron, make a
thick paste, with water, of powdered iron, 60 parts; sal ammoniac, 2
parts, and sulphur flowers, 1 part. Use while fresh.

II.—Sulphur flowers, 6 parts; dry white lead 6 parts, and powdered
borax, 1 part. Mix by sifting and keep as a dry powder in a closed tin
box. To use, make into a thin paste with strong sulphuric acid and
press together immediately. This cement will harden in 5 days.

 III.—Graphite            50 pounds
       Whiting             15 pounds
       Litharge            15 pounds

Make to a paste with a boiled oil.

IV.—Make a paste of white lead and asbestos.

V.—Make a paste of litharge and glycerine. Red lead may be added. This
also does for stone.

VI.—Make a paste of boiled oil of equal parts of white lead, pipe clay,
and black oxide of manganese.

VII.—Make iron filings to a paste with water glass.

 VIII.—Sal ammoniac      4 ounces
        Sulphur           2 ounces
        Iron filings     32 ounces

Make as much as is to be used at once to a paste with a little water.
This remark applies to both the following dry recipes:

 IX.—Iron filings              160 ounces
      Lime                       80 ounces
      Red lead                   16 ounces
      Alum                        8 ounces
      Sal ammoniac                2 ounces

  X.—Clay                       10 ounces
      Iron filings                4 ounces
      Salt                        1 ounce
      Borax                       1 ounce
      Black oxide of manganese    2 ounces

XI.—Mix:

 Iron filings      180 ounces
 Lime               45 ounces
 Salt                8 ounces

XII.—Mix:

 Iron filings      140 ounces
 Hydraulic lime     20 ounces
 Sand               25 ounces
 Sal ammoniac        3 ounces

Either of these last two mixtures is made into a paste with strong
vinegar just before use.

XIII.—Mix equal weights of zinc oxide and black oxide of manganese into
a paste with water glass.

XIV.—Copal varnish, 15 parts; hydrated lime, 10 parts; glue _de
nerfs_ (of sinews), 5 parts; fat drying oil, 5 parts; {25} powdered
turpentine, 3 parts; essence of turpentine, 2 parts. Dissolve the
glue _de nerfs_ on the water bath, add all the other substances, and
triturate intimately.

XV.—Copal varnish, 15 parts; powdered turpentine, 3 parts; essence
of turpentine, 2 parts; powdered fish glue, 3 parts; iron filings, 3
parts; ocher, 10 parts.

XVI.—To make a cement for cast iron, take 16 ounces cast-iron borings;
2 ounces sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce sulphur. Mix well and keep dry.
When ready to use take 1 part of this powder to 20 parts of cast-iron
borings and mix thoroughly into a stiff paste, adding a little water.

 XVII.—Litharge             2 parts
        Boiled linseed oil   2 parts
        White lead           1 part
        Copal                1 part

Heat together until of a uniform consistence and apply warm.

XVIII.—A cement for iron which is said to be perfectly waterproof and
fireproof is made by working up a mixture of equal weights of red lead
and litharge with glycerine till the mass is perfectly homogeneous and
has the consistency of a glazier’s putty. This cement is said to answer
well, even for very large iron vessels, and to be unsurpassable for
stopping up cracks in large iron pans of steam pipes.


«Cement for Metal, Glass, and Porcelain.»—A soft alloy is prepared by
mixing from 30 to 36 parts of copper precipitated in the form of a
fine brown powder, with sulphuric acid of a specific gravity of 1.85
in a cast-iron or porcelain mortar and incorporating by stirring with
75 parts of mercury, the acid being afterwards removed by washing with
water. In from 10 to 14 hours the amalgam becomes harder than tin, but
when heated to 692° F., it can be kneaded like wax. In this condition
it is applied to the surface to be cemented, and will fix them firmly
together on cooling.

Dissolve 1 drachm of gum mastic in 3 drachms of spirits of wine. In
a separate vessel containing water soak 3 drachms of isinglass. When
thoroughly soaked take it out of the water and put it into 5 drachms
of spirits of wine. Take a piece of gum ammoniacum the size of a large
pea and grind it up finely with a little spirits of wine and isinglass
until it has dissolved. Then mix the whole together with sufficient
heat. It will be found most convenient to place the vessel on a
hot-water bath. Keep this cement in a bottle closely stoppered, and
when it is to be used, place it in hot water until dissolved.


«Cements for Fastening Porcelain to Metal.»—I.—Mix equal parts of
alcohol (95 per cent) and water, and make a paste by incorporating
the liquid with 300 parts of finely pulverized chalk and 250 parts of
starch.

II.—Mix finely powdered burned lime, 300 parts, with powdered starch,
250 parts, and moisten the mixture with a compound of equal parts of
water and alcohol of 95 per cent until a paste results.

III.—Cement or plaster can be used if the surfaces are sufficiently
large; cement is the better article when the object may be exposed
to moisture or subjected to much pressure. A process which can be
recommended consists in mingling equal weights of chalk, brickdust,
clay, and Romain cement. These materials, pulverized and sifted are
incorporated with linseed oil in the proportion of half a kilo of oil
to 3 kilos of the mingled powder. The Romain or Romanic cement is so
designated from the district in France where the calcareous stone from
which it is prepared is found in considerable quantity. Although its
adhesive qualities are unquestioned, there are undoubtedly American
cements equally as good.

IV.—Acetate of lead, 46 1⁠/⁠2 parts by weight; alum, 46 1⁠/⁠2 parts by
weight; gum arabic, 76 parts by weight; flour, 500 parts by weight;
water, 2,000 parts by weight. Dissolve the acetate of lead and the alum
in a little water; on the other hand dissolve the gum arabic in water
by pouring, for instance, the 2 liters of boiling water on the gum
arabic reduced to powder. When the gum has dissolved, add the flour,
put all on the fire, and stir well with a piece of wood; then add the
solution of acetate of lead and the alum; agitate well so as to prevent
any lumps from forming; retire from the fire before allowing to boil.
This glue is used cold, does not peel off, and is excellent to make
wood, glass, cardboard, etc. adhere to metals.


«Cement for Leather and Iron.»—To face a cast-iron pulley with leather
apply acetic acid to the face of the pulley with a brush, which will
roughen it by rusting, and then when dry apply a cement made of 1 pound
of fish glue and 1⁠/⁠2 pound of common glue, melted in a mixture of
alcohol and water. The leather should then be placed on the pulley and
dried under pressure. {26}


«Amber Cements.»—I.—To solder together two pieces of yellow amber,
slightly heat the parts to be united and moisten them with a solution
of caustic soda; then bring the two pieces together quickly.

II.—Dissolve in a closed bottle 75 parts of cut-up caoutchouc in 60
parts of chloroform. Add 15 parts of mastic and let the mixture stand
in the cold until all has dissolved.

III.—Moisten the pieces to be joined with caustic potash and press
them together when warm. The union is so perfect that no trace of the
juncture is visible. A concentrated alcoholic solution of the rosin
over the amber, soluble in alcohol, is also employed for this purpose.
Another medium is a solution of hard and very finely powdered copal in
pure sulphuric ether. Coat both fractures, previously well cleaned,
with this solution and endeavor to combine them intimately by tying or
pressing.

IV.—In 30 parts by weight of copal dissolve 30 parts by weight of
alumina by means of a water bath. Bathe the surface to be cemented with
this gelatinous liquid, but very slightly. Unite the fractures and
press them together firmly until the mixture is dry.


«Acid-Proof Cements for Stoneware and Glass.»—I.—Mix with the aid of
heat equal weights of pitch, rosin, and plaster of Paris.

II.—Mix silicate of soda to a paste with ground glass.

III.—Mix boiled oil to a paste with china clay.

IV.—Mix coal tar to a paste with pipe clay.

V.—Mix boiled oil to a paste with quicklime.

VI.—Mix with the aid of heat: Sulphur, 100 pounds; tallow, 2 pounds;
rosin, 2 pounds. Thicken with ground glass.

VII.—Mix with the aid of heat: Rosin, 2 pounds; sulphur, 2 pounds;
brickdust, 4 pounds.

VIII.—Mix with the aid of heat 2 pounds of india rubber and 4 pounds of
oiled oil. Thicken with 12 pounds of pipe clay.

IX.—Fuse 100 pounds of india rubber with 7 pounds of tallow. Then make
to a paste with dry slaked lime and finally add 20 pounds of red lead.

X.—Mix with the aid of heat: Rosin, 24 pounds; red ocher, 8 pounds;
boiled oil, 2 pounds; plaster of Paris, 4 pounds.


«Acid-Proof Cement for Wood, Metals, etc.»—

 I.—Powdered asbestos            2 parts
     Ground baryta                1 part
     Sodium water-glass solution  2 parts

Mix.

II.—To withstand hot nitric acid the following is used:

 Sodium water-glass solution      2 parts
 Sand                             1 part
 Asbestos                         1 part

Mix.

 III.—Asbestos                   2 parts
       Sulphate of barium         3 parts
       Silicate of sodium         2 parts

By mixing these ingredients a cement strong enough to resist the
strongest nitric acid will be obtained.

IV.—If hot acids are dealt with, the following mixture will be found to
possess still more resistant powers:

 Silicate of sodium (50° Baumé)   2 parts
 Fine sand                        1 part
 Asbestos                         1 part

Both these cements take a few hours to set. If the cement is wanted to
set at once, use silicate of potassium, instead of silicate of sodium.
This mixture will be instantly effective and possesses the same power
of resistance as the other.


«Directions for Repairing Broken Glass, Porcelain, Bric-à-Brac.»—Broken
glass, china, bric-à-brac, and picture frames, not to name casts,
require each a different cement—in fact, several different cements.
Glass may be beautifully mended to look at, but seldom so as to be
safely used. For clear glass the best cement is isinglass dissolved in
gin. Put 2 ounces of isinglass in a clean, wide-mouthed bottle, add
half a pint of gin, and set in the sun until dissolved. Shake well
every day, and before using strain through double lawn, squeezing very
gently.

Spread a white cloth over the mending table and supply it with plenty
of clean linen rags, strong rubber bands, and narrow white tape,
also a basin of tepid water and a clean soft towel. Wash the broken
glass very clean, especially along the break, but take care not to
chip it further. Wet both broken edges well with the glue, using a
camel’s-hair pencil. Fit the break to a nicety, then slip on rubber
bands length- and cross-wise, every way they will hold. If they will
not hold true as upon a stemmed {27} thing, a vase or jug or scent
bottle, string half a dozen bands of the same size and strength upon a
bit of tape, and tie the tape about neck or base before beginning the
gluing. After the parts are joined slip another tape through the same
bands and tie it above the fracture; thus with all their strength the
bands pull the break together. The bands can be used thus on casts of
china—in fact, to hold anything mendable. In glass mending the greater
the pressure the better—if only it stops short of the breaking point.
Properly made the isinglass cement is as clear as water. When the
pieces fit true one on the other the break should be hardly visible, if
the pressure has been great enough to force out the tiny bubbles, which
otherwise refract the light and make the line of cleavage distressingly
apparent. Mended glass may be used to hold dry things—as rose leaves,
sachets, violet powder, even candies and fruits. But it will not bear
to have any sort of liquid left standing in it, nor to be washed beyond
a quick rinsing in tepid water. In wiping always use a very soft towel,
and pat the vessel dry with due regard to its infirmities.

Mend a lamp loose in the collar with sifted plaster of Paris mixed to a
very soft paste with beaten white of egg. Have everything ready before
wetting up the plaster, and work quickly so it may set in place. With
several lamps to mend wet enough plaster for one at a time. It takes
less than 5 minutes to set, and is utterly worthless if one tries
working it over. Metal work apart from the glass needs the soldering
iron. Dust the break well with powdered rosin, tie the parts firmly
together, lay the stick of solder above the break, and fetch the iron
down on it lightly but firmly. When the solder cools, remove the melted
rosin with a cloth dipped in alcohol.

Since breakables have so unhappy a knack of fracturing themselves in
such fashion they cannot possibly stand upright, one needs a sand box.
It is only a box of handy size with 8 inches of clean, coarse sand in
the bottom. Along with it there should be some small leaden weights,
with rings cast in them, running from an ounce to a quarter pound. Two
of each weight are needed. In use, tapes are tied to the rings, and
the pair of weights swung outside the edges of the box, so as to press
in place the upper part of a broken thing to which the tapes have been
fastened.

Set broken platters on edge in the sand box with the break up. The
sand will hold them firm, and the broken bit can be slapped on. It
is the same with plates and saucers. None of these commonly requires
weighting. But very fine pieces where an invisible seam is wanted
should be held firm until partly set, then have the pair of heaviest
weights accurately balanced across the broken piece. The weights are
also very useful to prop and stay topheavy articles and balance them so
they shall not get out of kilter. A cup broken, as is so common with
cups, can have the tape passed around it, crossing inside the handle,
then be set firmly in the sand, face down, and be held by the hanging
weights pulling one against the other.

The most dependable cement for china is pure white lead, ground
in linseed oil, so thick it will barely spread smoothly with a
knife. Given time enough to harden (some 3 months), it makes a seam
practically indestructible. The objection to it is that it always shows
in a staring white line. A better cement for fine china is white of egg
and plaster. Sift the plaster three times and tie a generous pinch of
it loosely in mosquito netting. Then beat the egg until it will stick
to the plaster. Have the broken edge very clean, cover both with the
beaten egg, dust well with the plaster, fit together at once, tie,
using rubber bands if possible, wrap loosely in very soft tissue paper,
and bury head and ears in the sand box, taking care that the break lies
so that the sand will hold it together. Leave in the box 24 hours.
After a week the superfluous plaster may be gently scraped away.


«General Formulas for Cements for Repairing Porcelain, Glassware,
Crockery, Plaster, and Meerschaum.»—I.—An excellent cement for joining
broken crockery and similar small articles can be made by melting 4 or
5 parts of rosin (or, better still, gum mastic) with 1 part of beeswax
in an iron spoon or similar vessel. Apply while hot. It will not stand
great heat.

II.—An excellent cement for porcelain and stoneware is obtained by
mixing 20 parts of fish glue with an equal weight of crystallizable
acetic acid and evaporate the mixture carefully to a syrupy consistency
so that it forms a gelatinous mass on cooling. For use the cement thus
obtained is made liquid again by heating and applied to the fracture
with a brush. The pieces should now be pressed firmly together, by
winding a twine tightly around them, until the cement has hardened.

III.—For luting vessels made of glass, {28} porcelain, etc., which
are to be used to hold strong acids, a mixture of asbestos powder,
water glass, and an indifferent powder (permanent white, sand, etc.)
is recommended. To begin with, asbestos powder is made into a pulp
with three or four times the quantity (weight) of a solution of soda
water glass (of 30° B.). The same is exceedingly fat and plastic, but
is not very well suited for working, as it shrinks too much and cracks
when drying. By an addition of fine writing sand of the same weight
as the asbestos used, the mass can be made less fat, so as to obviate
shrinking, without detracting from the plasticity. Small vessels were
molded from it and dried in the air, to be tested afterwards. Put in
water, the hardened mass becomes soft again and falls apart. Brought
into contact, however, with very strong mineral acids, it becomes even
firmer and withstands the liquid perfectly. Concentrated nitric acid
was kept in such small vessels without the mass being visibly attacked
or anything penetrating it. The action of the acid manifestly has the
effect that silicic acid is set free from the water glass in excess,
which clogs up the pores entirely and contributes to the lutation.
Later on, the mass cannot be dissolved by pure water any more. The mass
is also highly fireproof. One of the molded bodies can be kept glowing
in a Bunsen gas flame for about half a day after treatment with acid,
without slagging in the least. For many purposes it ought to be welcome
to have such a mass at hand. It cannot be kept ready for use, however,
as it hardens a few hours after being prepared; if potash water glass
is used, instead of the soda composition, this induration takes place
still more quickly.

IV.—Cement for Glass, Porcelain, etc.—

 Isinglass (fish glue)      50 parts
 Gum ammoniac                4 parts
 Gum mastic                  2 parts
 Alcohol, 95 per cent       10 parts
 Water, q. s.

Soak the isinglass in cold water over night, or until it has become
swollen and soft throughout. In the morning throw off any superfluous
fluid and throw the isinglass on a clean towel or other coarse cloth,
and hang it up in such a way that any free residual water will drain
away. Upon doing this thoroughly depends, in a great measure, the
strength of the cement. When the gelatin has become thoroughly drained
put it into a flask or other container, place it in the water bath and
heat carefully until it becomes fluid, being careful not to let it come
to a boil, as this injures its adhesive properties (the same may be
said in regard to glues and gelatins of all kinds). Dissolve the gums
in the alcohol and add the solution to the gelatin after removing the
same from the water bath, and letting it cool down to about 160° F.
Stir well together or mix by agitation.

The following precautions must be observed: 1. Both surfaces to be
joined must be absolutely clean, free from dust, dirt, grease, etc.
2. Where the cement is one that requires the application of heat
before use, the objects to be united should also _be heated to a point
at least as high as the melting point of the cement_. Otherwise, the
cement on application is chilled and consequently fails to make a
lasting joint. 3. The thinner the layer of cement the stronger the
joint; avoid, therefore, using too much of the binding material. Cover
both surfaces to be united, coapt them exactly, and press together as
closely as possible. In this manner the thinnest possible layer is
secured. 4. Bind the parts securely together, and let remain without
loosening or attempting to use the article for 2 or 3 days or longer. A
liquid cement acquires its full strength only after evaporation of the
fluids used as solvents, and this can occur only from the infinitesimal
line of exposed surface.

V.—Liquid Porcelain Cement.—Fish glue, 20 parts; glass acetic acid, 20
parts; heat together until the mass gelatinizes on cooling.

VI.—Take 1 ounce of Russian isinglass, cut in small pieces, and bruise
well; then add 6 ounces of warm water, and leave it in a warm place
for from 24 to 48 hours. Evaporate the resulting solution to about 3
ounces. Next dissolve 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of mastic in 4 ounces of alcohol,
and add the mastic solution to the isinglass in small quantities at a
time, continuing the heat and stirring well. While still hot strain the
liquid through muslin.

VII.—For optical glasses, Canada balsam is employed, the two pieces
being firmly pressed together. After a while, especially by humidity,
punctures will form, and the glass is separated by a mist of varying
reflexes, while in certain climates the heat will melt the balsam. For
all other glass articles which require only simple treatment, such as
knobs of covers, plates, etc., silicate of potash is excellent.

VIII.—Glass Cement.—Dissolve in 150 parts of acetic acid of 96 per
cent, 100 {29} parts of gelatin by the use of heat, and add ammonium
bichromate, 5 parts. This glue must be kept away from the light.

 IX.—White glue                 10 parts
      Potassium bichromate        2 parts
      Water                     100 parts

The glue is dissolved in a portion of the water by the aid of heat,
the bichromate in the remainder, and the liquids mixed, the mixing
being done in a feebly lighted place, and the mixture is then kept
in the dark. It is applied in feeble light, being reliquefied by
gentle heat, and the glass, the fractured pieces being tightly clamped
together, is then exposed to a strong light for some time. By this
exposure the cement becomes insoluble. This is waterproof cement for
glass.

X.—Diamond Glass Cement.—Dissolve 100 parts of fish glue in 150 parts
of 90 per cent alcohol and add, with constant stirring, 200 parts of
powdered rosin. This cement must be preserved in absolutely tight
bottles, as it solidifies very quickly.

XI.—To unite objects of crystal dissolve 8 parts of caoutchouc and 100
parts of gum mastic in 600 parts of chloroform. Set aside, hermetically
closed, for 8 days; then apply with a brush, cold.

XII.—To make a transparent cement for glass, digest together for a week
in the cold 1 ounce of india rubber, 67 ounces of chloroform, and 40
ounces of mastic.

XIII.—A mixture of traumaticin, a solution of caoutchouc in chloroform,
and a concentrated solution of water glass make a capital cement for
uniting articles of glass. Not only is the joint very strong, but it
is transparent. Neither changes of temperature nor moisture affect the
cement.

XIV.—A transparent cement for porcelain is prepared by dissolving 75
parts of india rubber, cut into small pieces, in a bottle containing
60 parts chloroform; to this add 15 parts green mastic. Let the
bottle stand in the cold until the ingredients have become thoroughly
dissolved.

XV.—Some preparations resist the action of heat and moisture a short
time, but generally yield very quickly. The following cement for glass
has proven most resistant to liquids and heat:

 Silver litharge          1,000 parts
 White lead                  50 parts
 Boiled linseed oil           3 parts
 Copal varnish                1 part

Mix the lead and litharge thoroughly, and the oil and copal in the
same manner, and preserve separately. When needed for use, mix in
the proportions indicated (150 parts of the powder to 4 parts of the
liquid) and knead well together. Apply to the edges of the glass, bind
the broken parts together, and let stand for from 24 to 48 hours.

XVI.—To reunite plaster articles dissolve small pieces of celluloid in
ether; in a quarter of an hour decant, and use the pasty deposit which
remains for smearing the edges of the articles. It dries rapidly and is
insoluble in water.

XVII.—To Mend Wedgwood Mortars.—It is easy enough to mend mortars so
that they may be used for making emulsions and other light work which
does not tax their strength too much. But a mended mortar will hardly
be able to stand the force required for powdering hard substances. A
good cement for mending mortars is the following:

 _a._—Glass flour elutriated               10 parts
       Fluorspar, powdered and elutriated   20 parts
       Silicate of soda                     60 parts

Both glass and fluorspar must be in the finest possible condition,
which is best done by shaking each in fine powder, with water allowing
the coarser particles to deposit, and then to pour off the remainder,
which holds the finest particles in suspension. The mixture must be
made very rapidly by quick stirring, and when thoroughly mixed must be
at once applied. This is said to yield an excellent cement.

 _b._—Freshly burnt plaster of Paris  5 parts
       Freshly burnt lime              1 part
       White of egg, sufficient.

Reduce the first two ingredients to a very fine powder and mix them
well; moisten the two surfaces to be united with a small quantity of
white of egg to make them adhesive; then mix the powder very rapidly
with the white of egg and apply the mixture to the broken surfaces. If
they are large, two persons should do this, each applying the cement
to one portion. The pieces are then firmly pressed together and left
undisturbed for several days. The less cement is used the better will
the articles hold together.

_c._—If there is no objection to dark-colored cement, the very best
that can be used is probably marine glue. This is made thus: Ten parts
of caoutchouc or india rubber are dissolved in 120 parts of benzine
or petroleum naphtha, with {30} the aid of a gentle heat. When the
solution is complete, which sometimes requires from 10 to 14 days,
20 parts of asphalt are melted in an iron vessel and the caoutchouc
solution is poured in very slowly in a fine stream and under continued
heating, until the mass has become homogeneous and nearly all the
solvent has been driven off. It is then poured out and cast into
greased tin molds. It forms dark brown or black cakes, which are very
hard to break. This cement requires considerable heat to melt it; and
to prevent it from being burnt it is best to heat a capsule containing
a piece of it first on a water bath until the cake softens and begins
to be liquid. It is then carefully wiped dry and heated over a naked
flame, under constant stirring, up to about 300° F. The edges of the
article to be mended should, if possible, also be heated to at least
212° F., so as to permit the cement to be applied at leisure and with
care. The thinner the cement is applied the better it binds.


«Meerschaum Cements.»—I.—If the material is genuine (natural)
meerschaum a lasting joint can be made between the parts by proceeding
as follows: Clean a clove or two of garlic (the fresher the better) by
removing all the outside hull of skin; throw into a little mortar and
mash to a paste. Rub this paste over each surface to be united and join
quickly. Bring the parts as closely together as possible and fasten in
this position. Have ready some boiling fresh milk; place the article in
it and continue the boiling for 30 minutes. Remove and let cool slowly.
If properly done, this makes a joint that will stand any ordinary
treatment, and is nearly invisible. For composition, use a cement made
of quicklime, rubbed to a thick cream with egg albumen.

II.—Mix very fine meerschaum shavings with albumen or dissolve casein
in water glass, stir finely powdered magnesia into the mass, and use
the cement at once. This hardens quickly.


«Asbestos Cement.»—Ground asbestos may be made into a cement which
will stand a high degree of heat by simply mixing it with a solution
of sodium silicate. By subsequent treatment with a solution of calcium
chloride the mass may be made insoluble, silicate of calcium being
formed.

A cement said to stand a high degree of heat and to be suitable for
cementing glass, porcelain, or other vessels intended to hold corrosive
acids, is this one:

 I.—Asbestos         2 parts
     Barium sulphate  3 parts
     Sodium silicate  2 parts

By mixing these ingredients a cement strong enough to resist the
strongest nitric acid will be obtained. If hot acids are dealt with,
the following mixture will be found to possess still more resistant
powers:

 II.—Sodium silicate   2 parts
      Fine sand         1 part
      Asbestos powder   1 part

Both these cements take a few hours to set. If the cement is wanted to
set at once, use potassium silicate instead of sodium silicate. This
mixture will be instantly effective, and possesses the same power of
resistance as the other.


«Parisian Cement.»—Mix 1 part of finely ground glass powder, obtained
by levigation, with 3 parts of finely powdered zinc oxide rendered
perfectly free from carbonic acid by calcination. Besides prepare a
solution of 1 part, by weight, of borax in a very small quantity of
hot water and mix this with 50 parts of a highly concentrated zinc
chloride solution of 1.5 to 1.6 specific gravity. As is well known the
mixture of this powder with the liquid into a soft uniform paste is
accomplished only immediately before use. The induration to a stonelike
mass takes place within a few minutes, the admixture of borax retarding
the solidification somewhat. The pure white color of the powder may be
tinted with ocher, manganese, etc., according to the shade desired.


«Strong Cement.»—Pour over well-washed and cleaned casein 12 1⁠/⁠2
parts of boiled linseed oil and the same amount of castor oil. Boil.
Stir actively and add a small amount of a saturated aqueous solution of
alum; remove from the fire and set aside. After a while a milky looking
fluid will separate and rise. This should be poured off. To the residue
add 120 parts of rock candy syrup and 6 parts of dextrin.


«A Cheap and Excellent Cement.»—A cheap and excellent cement, insoluble
after drying in water, petroleum, oils, carbon disulphide, etc., very
hard when dry and of very considerable tensile strength, is composed
of casein and some tannic-acid compound, as, for instance, calcium
tannate, and is prepared as follows:

First, a tannin solution is prepared either by dissolving a tannin
salt, or by extraction from vegetable sources (as barks from certain
trees, etc.), to which {31} is added clear lime water (obtained by
filtering milk of lime, or by letting the milk stand until the lime
subsides) until no further precipitation occurs, and red litmus paper
plunged in the fluid is turned blue. The liquid is now separated
from its precipitate, either by decantation or otherwise, and the
precipitate is dried. In operating with large quantities of the
substance, this is done by passing a stream of atmospheric air through
the same. The lime tannate obtained thus is then mixed with casein in
proportions running from 1:1 up to 1:10, and the mixture, thoroughly
dried, is milled into the consistency of the finest powder. This
powder has now only to be mixed with water to be ready for use, the
consistency of the preparation depending upon the use to which it is to
be put.


«Universal Cement.»—Take gum arabic, 100 parts, by weight; starch, 75
parts, by weight; white sugar, 21 parts, by weight; camphor, 4 parts,
by weight. Dissolve the gum arabic in a little water; also dissolve the
starch in a little water. Mix and add the sugar and camphor. Boil on
the water bath until a paste is formed which, on coating, will thicken.


«Cement for Ivory.»—Melt together equal parts of gutta percha and
ordinary pitch. The pieces to be united have to be warmed.


«Cement for Belts.»—Mix 50 parts, by weight, of fish glue with equal
parts of whey and acetic acid. Then add 50 parts, by weight, of garlic
in paste form and boil the whole on the water bath. At the same time
make a solution of 100 parts, by weight, of gelatin in the same
quantity of whey, and mix both liquids. To the whole add, finally,
50 parts, by weight, of 90-per-cent alcohol and, after filtration,
a cement is obtained which can be readily applied with a brush and
possesses extraordinary binding qualities.


«Cement for Chemical Apparatus.»—Melt together 20 parts of gutta
percha, 10 parts of yellow wax, and 30 parts of shellac.


«Size Over Portland Cement.»—The best size to use on Portland cement
molding for wall paper would ordinarily be glue and alum size put on
thin and warm, made in proportion of 1⁠/⁠2 pound of glue and same
weight of alum dissolved in separate pails, then poured together.


«Aquarium Cements.»—

 I.—Litharge                   3 ounces
     Fine white sand            3 ounces
     Plaster of Paris           3 ounces
     Rosin, in fine powder      1 ounce
     Linseed oil, enough.
     Drier, enough.

Mix the first three ingredients, add sufficient linseed oil to make a
homogeneous paste, and then add a small quantity of drier. This should
stand a few hours before it is used. It is said that glass joined to
iron with this cement will break before it will come loose.

 II.—Litharge                           1 ounce
      Fine white sand                    1 ounce
      Plaster of Paris                   1 ounce
      Manganese borate                  20 grains
      Rosin, in fine powder          3 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
      Linseed varnish oil, enough.

III.—Take equal parts of flowers of sulphur, ammonium chloride, and
iron filings, and mix thoroughly with boiled linseed oil. Finally, add
enough white lead to form a thin paste.

 IV.—Powdered graphite        6 parts
      Slaked lime              3 parts
      Barium sulphate          8 parts
      Linseed varnish oil      7 parts

V.—Simply mix equal parts of white and red lead with a little
kettle-boiled linseed oil.


«Substitute for Cement on Grinder Disks.»—A good substitute in place of
glue or various kinds of cement for fastening emery cloth to the disks
of grinders of the Gardner type is to heat or warm the disk and apply a
thin coating of beeswax; then put the emery cloth in place and allow to
set and cool under pressure.


«Knockenplombe.»—If 1 part of thymol be mixed with 2 parts of iodoform
we obtain a substance that retains its fluidity down to 72° C.
(161.6° F.). If the temperature be carried down to 60° C. (140° F.)
it suddenly becomes solid and hard. If, in its liquid condition, this
substance be mixed intimately with an equal quantity of calcined bone,
it forms a cement that can be molded or kneaded into any shape, that,
at the temperature of the body (98° F.), becomes as hard as stone, a
fact that suggests many useful purposes to which the mixture may be put.


«Cement for General Use.»—Take gum arabic, 100 parts, by weight;
starch, 75 {32} parts by weight; white sugar, 21 parts, by weight;
camphor, 4 parts, by weight. Dissolve the gum arabic in a little water.
On the other hand, dissolve the starch also in some water. When this is
done add the sugar and the camphor and put in a water bath. Boil until
a paste is formed, which must be rather thin, because it will thicken
on cooling.


«Strong Cement.»—Pour over well-washed and cleaned casein 12 1⁠/⁠2
parts of boiled linseed oil and the same amount of castor oil, put on
the fire and bring to a boil; stir actively and add a small amount of
a saturated aqueous solution of alum; remove from the fire and set
aside. After standing a while a milky-looking fluid will separate at
the bottom and rise to the top. This should be poured off and to the
residue add 120 parts of rock-candy syrup and 6 parts of dextrine.


«Syndeticon.»—I.—Slake 100 parts of burnt lime with 50 parts of water,
pour off the supernatant water; next, dissolve 60 parts of lump sugar
in 160 parts of water, add to the solution 15 parts of the slaked
lime, heat to 70° or 80° C. (158° to 176° F.), and set aside, shaking
frequently. Finally dissolve 50 to 60 parts of genuine Cologne glue in
250 parts of the clear solution.

II.—A solution of 10 parts gum arabic and 30 parts of sugar in 100
parts of soda water glass.

III.—A hot solution of 50 parts of Cologne glue in 60 parts of a
20-per-cent aqueous calcium-chloride solution.

IV.—A solution of 50 parts of Cologne glue in 60 parts of acetic acid.

V.—Soak isinglass (fish bladder) in acetic acid of 70 per cent until it
swells up, then rub it up, adding a little water during the process.


«“Shio Liao.”»—Under this name the Chinese manufacture an excellent
cement which takes the place of glue, and with which gypsum, marble,
porcelain, stone, and stoneware can be cemented. It consists of the
following parts (by weight): Slaked powdered lime, 54 parts; powdered
alum, 6 parts; and fresh, well-strained blood, 40 parts. These
materials are stirred thoroughly until an intimately bound mass of
the consistency of a more or less stiff salve is obtained. In paste
form this mass is used as cement; in a liquid state it is employed for
painting all sorts of articles which are to be rendered waterproof and
durable. Cardboard covers, which are coated with it two or three times,
become as hard as wood. The Chinese paint their houses with “shio liao”
and glaze their barrels with it, in which they transport oil and other
greasy substances.


«LUTES.»

Lutes always consist of a menstruum and dissolved or suspended solids,
and they must not be attacked by the gases and liquids coming in
contact with them. In some cases the constituents of the lute react to
form a more strongly adhering mass.

The conditions of application are, in brief:

(_a_) Heating the composition to make it plastic until firmly fixed in
place.

(_b_) Heating the surfaces.

(_c_) Applying the lute with water or a volatile solvent, which is
allowed to volatilize.

(_d_) Moistening the surfaces with water, oil, etc. (the menstruum of
the lute itself).

(_e_) Applying the lute in workable condition and the setting taking
place by chemical reactions.

(_f_) Setting by hydration.

(_g_) Setting by oxidation.

These principles will be found to cover nearly all cases.

Joints should not be ill-fitting, depending upon the lute to do what
the pipes or other parts of the apparatus should do. In most cases one
part of the fitting should overlap the other, so as to make a small
amount of the lute effective and to keep the parts of the apparatus
rigid, as a luted joint is not supposed to be a particularly strong
one, but rather one quickly applied, effective while in place and
easily removed.

Very moderate amounts of the lute should be used, as large amounts are
likely to develop cracks, be rubbed off, etc.

A classification may be given as follows:

(1) Plaster of Paris.

(2) Hydraulic cement.

(3) Clay.

(4) Lime.

(5) Asphalt and pitch.

(6) Rosin.

(7) Rubber.

(8) Linseed oil.

(9) Casein and albumen.

(10) Silicates of soda and oxychloride cements.

(11) Flour and starch.

(12) Miscellaneous, including core compounds.

I. Plaster of Paris is, of course, often used alone as a paste; which
quickly {33} solidifies, for gas and wood distillation retorts, etc.,
and similar places where quickness of setting is requisite. It is more
often, however, used with some fibrous material to give it greater
strength. Asbestos is the most commonly used material of these, as it
will stand a high temperature. When that is not so important, straw,
plush trimmings, hair, etc., are used as binders, while broken stone,
glass, and various mineral substances are used as fillers, but they do
not add anything to the strength. These lutes seem to be particularly
suitable for oil vapors and hydrocarbon gases.

Formulas:

 (1) Plaster and water.
 (2) Plaster (wet) and asbestos.
 (3) Plaster (wet) and straw.
 (4) Plaster (wet) and plush trimmings.
 (5) Plaster (wet) and hair.
 (6) Plaster (wet) and broken stone, etc.

II. Hydraulic Cement.—Cement is used either alone or with sand,
asbestos, etc. These lutes are suitable for nitric acid. When used
with substances such as rosin or sulphur, cement is probably employed
because it is in such a fine state of division and used as a filler and
not because of any powers of setting by hydration.

Formulas:

 (1) Cement—neat.
 (2) Cement and asbestos.
 (3) Cement and sand.

III. Clay.—This most frequently enters into the composition of lutes as
a filler, but even then the very finely divided condition of certain
grades renders it valuable, as it gives body to a liquid, such as
linseed oil, which, unless stiffened, would be pervious to a gas,
the clay in all cases being neutral. Thus, for luting pipes carrying
chlorine, a stiff paste of clay and molasses has been suggested by
Theo. Köller in _Die Surrogate_, but it soon gives way.

Formulas:

 (1) Clay and linseed oil.
 (2) Same, using fire clay.
 (3) Clay and molasses.

(1) Is suitable for steam, etc.; (2) for chlorine, and (3) for oil
vapors.

IV. Lime is used in the old lute known as putty, which consists of
caustic lime and linseed oil. Frequently the lime is replaced by chalk
and china clay, but the lime should be, in part at least, caustic, so
as to form a certain amount of lime soap. Lime is also used in silicate
and casein compositions, which are very strong and useful, but will be
described elsewhere.

Formulas:

 (1)  Lime and boiled oil to stiff mass.
 (2)  Clay, etc., boiled oil to stiff mass.

V. Asphalt and Pitch.—These substances are used in lutes somewhat
interchangeably. As a rule, pitch makes the stronger lutes. Tar is
sometimes used, but, because of the light oils and, frequently, water
contained, it is not so good as either of the others.

Asphalt dissolved in benzol is very useful for uniting glass for
photographic, microscopical, and other uses. Also for coating wood,
concrete, etc., where the melted asphalt would be too thick to cover
well. Benzol is the cheapest solvent that is satisfactory for this
purpose, as the only one that is cheaper would be a petroleum naphtha,
which does not dissolve all the constituents of the asphalt. For
waterproofing wood, brick, concrete, etc., melted asphalt alone is
much used, but when a little paraffine is added, it improves its
waterproofing qualities, and in particular cases boiled oil is also
added to advantage.

Formulas:

 1. Refined lake asphalt.

 2. Asphalt                4 parts
    Paraffine              1 part

 3. Asphalt               10 parts
    Paraffine              2 parts
    Boiled oil             1 part

Any of these may be thinned with hot benzol or toluol. Toluol is
less volatile than benzol and about as cheap, if not cheaper, the
straw-colored grades being about 24 cents per gallon.

Examples of so-called “stone cement” are:

 4. Pitch                 8 parts
    Rosin                 6 parts
    Wax                   1 part
    Plaster          1⁠/⁠4 to 1⁠/⁠2 part

 5. Pitch                 8 parts
    Rosin                 7 parts
    Sulphur               2 parts
    Stone powder          1 part

These compositions are used to unite slate slabs and stoneware for
domestic, engineering, and chemical purposes. Various rosin and pitch
mixtures are used for these purposes, and the proportions of these two
ingredients are determined by the consistency desired. Sulphur and
stone powder are added to prevent the formation of cracks, sulphur
acting chemically and stone powder mechanically. {34} Where the lute
would come in contact with acid or vapors of the same, limestone should
not be the powder used, otherwise it is about the best. Wax is a useful
ingredient to keep the composition from getting brittle with age.

A class of lutes under this general grouping that are much used are
so-called “marine glues” (q. v.). They must be tough and elastic. When
used for calking on a vessel they must expand and contract with the
temperature and not crack or come loose.

Formulas:

 6. Pitch                  3 parts
    Shellac                2 parts
    Pure crude rubber      1 part

 7. Pitch                  1 part
    Shellac                1 part
    Rubber substitute      1 part

These are used by melting over a burner.

VI. Rosin, Shellac, and Wax.—A strong cement, used as a stone cement,
is:

 1. Rosin                  8 parts
    Wax                    1 part
    Turpentine             1 part

It has little or no body, and is used in thin layers.

For nitric and hydrochloric acid vapors:

 2. Rosin                  1 part
    Sulphur                1 part
    Fire clay              2 parts

Sulphur gives great hardness and permanency to rosin lutes, but this
composition is somewhat brittle.

Good waterproof lutes of this class are:

 3. Rosin                  1 part
    Wax                    1 part
    Powdered stone         2 parts

 4. Shellac                5 parts
    Wax                    1 part
    Turpentine             1 part
    Chalk, etc.      8 to 10 parts

For a soft air-tight paste for ground-glass surfaces:

 5. Wax                    1 part
    Vaseline               1 part

6. A strong cement, without body, for metals (other than copper or
alloys of same), porcelain, and glass is made by letting 1 part of
finely powdered shellac stand with 10 parts of ammonia water until
solution is effected.

VII. Rubber.—Because of its toughness, elasticity, and resistance to
alterative influences, rubber is a very useful constituent in lutes,
but its price makes its use very limited.

Leather Cement.

 1. Asphalt                1 part
    Rosin                  1 part
    Gutta percha           4 parts
    Carbon disulphide     20 parts

To stand acid vapors:

 2. Rubber                 1 part
    Linseed oil            3 parts
    Fire clay              3 parts

3. Plain Rubber Cement.—Cut the crude rubber in small pieces and then
add the solvent. Carbon disulphide is the best, benzol good and much
cheaper, but gasoline is probably most extensively used because of its
cheapness.

4. To make corks and wood impervious to steam and water, soak them in
a rubber solution as above; if it is desired to protect them from oil
vapors, use glue composition. (See Section IX.)

VIII. Linseed Oil.—This is one of the most generally useful substances
we have for luting purposes, if absorbed by a porous substance that is
inert.

Formulas: 1. China clay of general utility for aqueous vapors.

Linseed oil of general utility for aqueous vapors.

2. Lime forming the well-known putty.

Linseed oil forming the well-known putty.

3. Red or white lead and linseed oil.

These mixtures become very strong when set and are best diluted with
powdered glass, clay, or graphite. There are almost an endless number
of lutes using metallic oxides and linseed oil. A very good one, not
getting as hard as those containing lead, is:

4. Oxide of iron and linseed oil.

IX. Casein, Albumen, and Glue.—These, if properly made, become very
tough and tenacious; they stand moderate heat and oil vapors, but not
acid vapors.

 1. Finely powdered casein    12 parts
    Slaked lime (fresh)       50 parts
    Fine sand                 50 parts
    Water to thick mush.

A very strong cement which stands moderate heat is the following:

 2. Casein in very fine powder       1 part
    Rubbed up with silicate of soda  3 parts

A strong lute for general purposes, {35} which must be used promptly
when made:

3. White of egg made into a paste with slaked lime.

A composition for soaking corks, wood, packing, etc., to render them
impervious to oil vapors, is:

 Gelatine or good glue         2 parts
 Glycerine              1⁠/⁠2 to 1 part
 Water                         6 parts
 Oil of wintergreen, etc., to keep from spoiling.

X. Silicate of Oxychloride Cements.—For oil vapors, standing the
highest heat:

1. A stiff paste of silicate of soda and asbestos.

Gaskets for superheated steam, retorts, furnaces, etc.:

2. Silicate of soda and powdered glass; dry the mixture and heat.

Not so strong, however, as the following:

 3. Silicate of soda           50 parts
    Asbestos                   15 parts
    Slaked lime                10 parts

Metal Cement:

 4. Silicate of soda            1 part
    Oxides of metal, such
      as zinc oxide; litharge,
      iron oxide,
      singly or mixed           1 part

Very hard and extra strong compositions:

 5. Zinc oxide                  2 parts
    Zinc chloride               1 part
    Water to make a paste.

 6. Magnesium oxide             2 parts
    Magnesium chloride          1 part
    Water to make a paste.

XI. Flour and Starch Compositions.—

1. The well-known flaxseed poultice sets very tough, but does not stand
water or condensed steam.

2. Flour and molasses, made by making a stiff composition of the two.
This is an excellent lute to have at hand at all times for emergency
use, etc.

3. Stiff paste of flour and strong zinc-chloride solution forms a
more impervious lute, and is more permanent as a cement. This is good
for most purposes, at ordinary temperature, where it would not be in
contact with nitric-acid vapors or condensing steam.

4. A mixture of dextrine and fine sand makes a good composition, mainly
used as core compound.

XII. Miscellaneous.—

 1. Litharge.
    Glycerine.

Mixed to form a stiff paste, sets and becomes very hard and strong, and
is very useful for inserting glass tubes, etc., in iron or brass.

For a high heat:

 2. Alumina              1 part
    Sand                 4 parts
    Slaked lime          1 part
    Borax              1⁠/⁠2 part
    Water sufficient.

A class of mixtures that can be classified only according to their
intended use are core compounds.

 I.—Dextrine, about          1 part
     Sand, about             10 parts
     With enough water to form a paste.

II.—Powdered anthracite coal, with molasses to form a stiff paste.

 III.—Rosin, partly saponified by soda lye  1 part
       Flour                                 2 parts
       Sand (with sufficient water)          4 parts

(These proportions are approximate and the amount of sand can be
increased for some purposes.)

 IV.—Glue, powdered                 1 part
      Flour                          4 parts
      Sand (with sufficient water)   6 parts

For some purposes the following mixture is used. It does not seem to be
a gasket or a core compound:

 V.—Oats (or wheat) ground   25 parts
     Glue, powdered            6 parts
     Sal ammoniac              1 part

_Paper read by Samuel S. Sadtler before the Franklin Institute._


«PASTES:»


«Dextrine Pastes.»—

 I.—Borax, powdered          60 parts
     Dextrine, light yellow  480 parts
     Glucose                  50 parts
     Water                   420 parts

By the aid of heat, dissolve the borax in the water and add the
dextrine and glucose. Continue the heat, but do not let the mixture
boil, and stir constantly until a homogeneous solution is obtained,
from time to time renewing the water lost by evaporation with hot
water. Finally, bring up to full weight (1,000 parts) by the addition
of hot water, then strain through flannel. Prepared in this manner the
paste remains bright and clear for a long time. It has extraordinary
adhesive properties and dries very rapidly. If care is not taken to
keep the cooking temperature below the boiling point of water, the
paste is apt to become brown and to be very brittle on drying. {36}

II.—Dissolve in hot water a sufficient quantity of dextrine to bring
it to the consistency of honey. This forms a strong adhesive paste
that will keep a long time unchanged, if the water is not allowed to
evaporate. Sheets of paper may be prepared for extempore labels by
coating one side with the paste and allowing it to dry; by slightly
wetting the gummed side, the label will adhere to glass. This paste is
very useful in the office or laboratory.

III.—Pour over 1,000 parts of dextrine 450 parts of soft water and stir
the mixture for 10 minutes. After the dextrine has absorbed the water,
put the mixture over the fire, or, preferably, on a water bath, and
heat, with lively stirring for 5 minutes, or until it forms a light
milk-like liquid, on the surface of which little bubbles begin to form
and the liquid is apparently beginning to boil. Do not allow it to come
to a boil. Remove from the fire and set in a bucket of cold water to
cool off. When cold add to every 1,000 parts of the solution 51 parts
glycerine and as much salicylic acid as will stand on the tip of a
knife blade. If the solution is too thick, thin it with water that has
been boiled and cooled off again. Do not add any more glycerine or the
solution will never set.

IV.—Soften 175 parts of thick dextrine with cold water and 250 parts of
boiling water added. Boil for 5 minutes and then add 30 parts of dilute
acetic acid, 30 parts glycerine, and a drop or two of clove oil.

V.—Powder coarsely 400 parts dextrine and dissolve in 600 parts of
water. Add 20 parts glycerine and 10 parts glucose and heat to 90° C.
(195° F.).

VI.—Stir 400 parts of dextrine with water and thin the mass with 200
parts more water, 20 parts glucose, and 10 parts aluminum sulphate.
Heat the whole to 90° C. (195° F.) in the water bath until the whole
mass becomes clear and liquid.

VII.—Warm 2 parts of dextrine, 5 parts of water, 1 part of acetic acid,
1 part of alcohol together, with occasional stirring until a complete
solution is attained.

VIII.—Dissolve by the aid of heat 100 parts of builders’ glue in 200
parts of water add 2 parts of bleached shellac dissolved previously
in 50 parts of alcohol. Dissolve by the aid of heat 50 parts of
dextrine in 50 parts of water, and mix the two solutions by stirring
the second slowly into the first. Strain the mixture through a cloth
into a shallow dish and let it harden. When needed cut off a piece of
sufficient size and warm until it becomes liquid and if necessary or
advisable thin with water.

IX.—Stir up 10 parts of dextrine with sufficient water to make a thick
broth. Then, over a light fire, heat and add 25 parts of sodium water
glass.

X.—Dissolve 5 parts of dextrine in water and add 1 part of alum.


«Fastening Cork to Metal.»—In fastening cork to iron and brass, even
when these are lacquered, a good sealing wax containing shellac will
be found to serve the purpose nicely. Wax prepared with rosin is not
suitable. The cork surface is painted with the melted sealing wax.
The surface of the metal is heated with a spirit flame entirely free
from soot, until the sealing wax melts when pressed upon the metallic
surface. The wax is held in the flame until it burns, and it is then
applied to the hot surface of the metal. The cork surface painted with
sealing wax is now held in the flame, and as soon as the wax begins to
melt the cork is pressed firmly on the metallic surface bearing the wax.


«To Paste Celluloid on Wood, Tin, or Leather.»—To attach celluloid to
wood, tin, or leather, a mixture of 1 part of shellac, 1 part of spirit
of camphor, 3 to 4 parts of alcohol and spirit of camphor (90°) is well
adapted, in which 1 part of camphor is dissolved without heating in 7
parts of spirit of wine of 0.832 specific gravity, adding 2 parts of
water.


«To Paste Paper Signs on Metal or Cloth.»—A piece of gutta percha of
the same size as the label is laid under the latter and the whole is
heated. If the heating cannot be accomplished by means of a spirit lamp
the label should be ironed down under a protective cloth or paper in
the same manner as woolen goods are pressed. This method is also very
useful for attaching paper labels to minerals.


«Paste for Fastening Leather, Oilcloth, or Similar Stuff to Table
or Desk Tops, etc.»—Use the same paste for leather as for oilcloth
or other goods, but moisten the leather before applying the paste.
Prepare the paste as follows: Mix 2 1⁠/⁠4 pounds of good wheat flour
with 2 tablespoonfuls of pulverized gum arabic or powdered rosin and
2 tablespoonfuls of pulverized alum in a clean dish with water enough
to make a uniformly thick batter; set it over a slow fire and stir
continuously until the paste is uniform and free from lumps. When the
mass has become so stout that the wooden spoon or stick will stand in
it {37} upright, it is taken from the fire and placed in another dish
and covered so that no skin will form on top. When cold, the table or
desk top, etc., is covered with a thin coat of the paste, the cloth,
etc., carefully laid on and smoothed from the center toward the edges
with a rolling pin. The trimming of edges is accomplished when the
paste has dried. To smooth out the leather after pasting, a woolen
cloth is of the best service.


«To Paste Paper on Smooth Iron.»—Over a water bath dissolve 200 parts,
by weight, of gelatine in 150 parts, by weight, of water; while
stirring add 50 parts, by weight, of acetic acid, 50 parts alcohol,
and 50 parts, by weight, of pulverized alum. The spot upon which it is
desired to attach the paper must first be rubbed with a bit of fine
emery paper.


«Paste for Affixing Cloth to Metal.»—

 Starch          20 parts
 Sugar           10 parts
 Zinc chloride    1 part
 Water          100 parts

Mix the ingredients and stir until a perfectly smooth liquid results
entirely free from lumps, then warm gradually until the liquid thickens.


«To Fix Paper upon Polished Metal.»—Dissolve 400 parts, by weight, of
dextrine in 600 parts, by weight, of water; add to this 10 parts, by
weight, of glucose, and heat almost to boiling.


«Albumen Paste.»—Fresh egg albumen is recommended as a paste for
affixing labels on bottles. It is said that labels put on with this
substance, and well dried at the time, will not loosen even when
bottles are put into water and left there for some time. Albumen, dry,
is almost proof against mold or ferments. As to cost, it is but little
if any higher than gum arabic, the white of one egg being sufficient to
attach at least 100 medium-sized labels.


«Paste for Parchment Paper.»—The best agent is made by dissolving
casein in a saturated aqueous solution of borax.


«Medical Paste.»—As an adhesive agent for medicinal purposes Professor
Reihl, of Leipsic, recommends the viscous substance contained in the
white mistletoe. It is largely present in the berries and the bark
of the plant; it is called viscin, and can be produced at one-tenth
the price of caoutchouc. Solutions in benzine may be used like those
of caoutchouc without causing any irritation if applied mixed with
medicinal remedies to the skin.


«Paste That Will Not Mold.»—Mix good white flour with cold water into a
thick paste. Be sure to stir out all the lumps; then add boiling water,
stirring all the time until thoroughly cooked. To 6 quarts of this add
1⁠/⁠2 pound light brown sugar and 1⁠/⁠4 ounce corrosive sublimate,
dissolved in a little hot water. When the paste is cool add 1 drachm
oil of lavender. This paste will keep for a long time.


«Pasting Wood and Cardboard on Metal.»—In a little water dissolve
50 parts of lead acetate and 5 parts of alum. In another receptacle
dissolve 75 parts of gum arabic in 2,000 parts of water. Into this
gum-arabic solution pour 500 parts of flour, stirring constantly, and
heat gradually to the boiling point. Mingle the solution first prepared
with the second solution. It should be kept in mind that, owing to the
lead acetate, this preparation is poisonous.


«Agar Agar Paste.»—The agar agar is broken up small, wetted with water,
and exposed in an earthenware vessel to the action of ozone pumped
under pressure into the vessel from the ozonizing apparatus. About an
hour of this bleaches the agar agar and makes it freely soluble in
boiling water, when solutions far more concentrated than has hitherto
been possible can be prepared. On cooling, the solutions assume a milky
appearance, but form no lumps and are readily reliquefied by heating.
If the solution is completely evaporated, as of course happens when
the adhesive is allowed to dry after use, it leaves a firmly holding
mass which is insoluble in cold water. Among the uses to which the
preparation can be applied are the dressing of textile fabrics and
paper sizing, and the production of photographic papers, as well as the
ordinary uses of an adhesive.


«Strongly Adhesive Paste.»—Four parts glue are soaked a few hours in
15 parts cold water, and moderately heated till the solution becomes
perfectly clear, when 65 parts boiling water are added, while stirring.
In another vessel 30 parts boiled starch are previously stirred
together with 20 parts cold water, so that a thin, milky liquid without
lumps results. The boiling glue solution is poured into this while
stirring constantly, and the whole is kept boiling another 10 minutes.


«Paste for Tissue Paper.»—

 (_a_) Pulverized gum arabic   2 ounces
       White sugar             4 drachms
       Boiling water           3 fluidounces {38}
 (_b_) Common laundry starch   1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
       Cold water              3     fluidounces

Make into a batter and pour into

 Boiling water           32    fluidounces

Mix (_a_) with (_b_), and keep in a wide-mouthed bottle.


«Waterproof and Acidproof Pastes.»—

  I.—Chromic acid                      2 1⁠/⁠2 parts
      Stronger ammonia                 15     parts
      Sulphuric acid                      1⁠/⁠2 part
      Cuprammonium solution            30     parts
      Fine white paper                  4     parts
 II.—Isinglass, a sufficient quantity
      Acetic acid                       1     part
      Water                             7     parts

Dissolve sufficient isinglass in the mixture of acetic acid and water
to make a thin mucilage.

One of the solutions is applied to the surface of one sheet of paper
and the other to the other sheet, and they are then pressed together.

III.—A fair knotting varnish free from surplus oil is by far the best
adhesive for fixing labels, especially on metal surfaces. It dries
instantly, insuring a speedy job and immediate packing, if needful,
without fear of derangement. It has great tenacity, and is not only
absolutely damp-proof itself, but is actually repellent of moisture, to
which all water pastes are subject. It costs more, but the additional
expense is often infinitesimal compared with the pleasure of a
satisfactory result.


«Balkan Paste.»—

 Pale glue           4     ounces
 White loaf sugar    2     ounces
 Powdered starch     1     ounce
 White dextrine        1⁠/⁠4 pound
 Pure glycerine      3     ounces
 Carbolic acid         1⁠/⁠4 ounce
 Boiling water      32     ounces

Cut up the glue and steep it in 1⁠/⁠2 pint boiling water; when softened
melt in a saucepan; add sugar, starch, and dextrine, and lastly the
glycerine, in which carbolic acid has been mixed; add remainder of
water, and boil until it thickens. Pour into jars or bottles.


«Permanent Paste.»—

 I.—Wheat flour       1 pound
     Water, cold       1 quart
     Nitric acid       4 fluidrachms
     Boric acid       40 grains
     Oil of cloves    20 minims

Mix the flour, boric acid, and water, then strain the mixture; add
the nitric acid, apply heat with constant stirring until the mixture
thickens; when nearly cold add the oil of cloves. This paste will have
a pleasant smell, will not attract flies, and can be thinned by the
addition of cold water as needed.

II.—Dissolve 4 ounces alum in 4 quarts hot water. When cool add as much
flour as will make it of the usual consistency; then stir into it 1⁠/⁠2
ounce powdered rosin; next add a little water in which a dozen cloves
have been steeped; then boil it until thick as mush, stirring from the
bottom all the time. Thin with warm water for use.


«Preservatives for Paste.»—Various antiseptics are employed for the
preservation of flour paste, mucilage, etc. Boric and salicylic acids,
oil of cloves, oil of sassafras, and solution of formaldehyde are among
those which have given best service. A durable starch paste is produced
by adding some borax to the water used in making it. A paste from 10
parts (weight) starch to 100 parts (weight) water with 1 per cent borax
added will keep many weeks, while without this addition it will sour
after six days. In the case of a gluing material prepared from starch
paste and joiners’ glue, borax has also demonstrated its preserving
qualities. The solution is made by mixing 10 parts (weight) starch into
a paste with water and adding 10 parts (weight) glue soaked in water to
the hot solution; the addition of 1⁠/⁠10 part (weight) of borax to the
solution will cause it to keep for weeks. It is equal to the best glue,
but should be warmed and stirred before use.


«Board-Sizing.»—A cheap sizing for rough, weather-beaten boards may be
made by dissolving shellac in sal soda and adding some heavy-bodied
pigment. This size will stick to grease spots. Linseed oil may be
added if desired. Limewater and linseed oil make a good heavy sizing,
but hard to spread. They are usually used half and half, though these
proportions may be varied somewhat.


«Rice Paste.»—Mix the rice flour with cold water, and boil it over a
gentle fire until it thickens. This paste is quite white and becomes
transparent on drying. It is very adherent and of great use for many
purposes.


«Casein Paste.»—A solution of tannin, prepared from a bark or from
commercial tannin, is precipitated with limewater, the lime being added
until the solution just turns red litmus paper blue. The supernatant
liquid is then decanted, {39} and the precipitate is dried without
artificial heat. The resulting calcium tannate is then mixed, according
to the purpose for which the adhesive is intended, with from 1 to 10
times its weight of dry casein by grinding in a mill. The adhesive
compound is soluble in water, petroleum, oils, and carbon bisulphide.
It is very strong, and is applied in the form of a paste with water.


«PASTES FOR PAPERHANGERS.»

I.—Use a cheap grade of rye or wheat flour, mix thoroughly with cold
water to about the consistency of dough, or a little thinner, being
careful to remove all lumps; stir in a tablespoonful of powdered alum
to a quart of flour, then pour in boiling water, stirring rapidly until
the flour is thoroughly cooked. Let this cool before using, and thin
with cold water.

II.—Venetian Paste.—

 (_a_)  4 ounces white or fish glue
        8 fluidounces cold water
 (_b_)  2 fluidounces Venice turpentine
 (_c_)  1 pound rye flour
       16 fluidounces (1 pint) cold water
 (_d_) 64 fluidounces (1⁠/⁠2 gallon) boiling water

Soak the 4 ounces of glue in the cold water for 4 hours; dissolve on
a water bath (glue pot), and while hot stir in the Venice turpentine.
Make up (_c_) into a batter free from lumps and pour into (_d_). Stir
briskly, and finally add the glue solution. This makes a very strong
paste, and it will adhere to a painted surface, owing to the Venice
turpentine in its composition.

III.—Strong Adhesive Paste.—

 (_a_) 4     pounds rye flour
         1⁠/⁠2 gallon cold water
 (_b_) 1 1⁠/⁠2 gallons boiling water
 (_c_) 2     ounces pulverized rosin

Make (_a_) into a batter free from lumps; then pour into (_b_). Boil
if necessary, and while hot stir in the pulverized rosin a little at a
time. This paste is exceedingly strong, and will stick heavy wall paper
or thin leather. If the paste be too thick, thin with a little hot
water; never thin paste with cold water.

IV.—Flour Paste.—

 (_a_)  2 pounds wheat flour
       32 fluidounces (1 quart) cold water
 (_b_) 1 ounce alum
        4 fluidounces hot water
 (_c_) 96 fluidounces (1⁠/⁠2 gallon) boiling water

Work the wheat flour into a batter free from lumps with the cold water.
Dissolve the alum as designated in (_b_). Now stir in (_a_) and (_c_)
and, if necessary, continue boiling until the paste thickens into a
semitransparent mucilage, after which stir in solution (_b_). The above
makes a very fine paste for wall paper.

V.—Elastic or Pliable Paste.—

 (_a_)  4 ounces common starch
        2 ounces white dextrine
       10 fluidounces cold water

 (_b_)  1 ounce borax
        3 fluidounces glycerine
       64 fluidounces (1⁠/⁠2 gallon) boiling water

Beat to a batter the ingredients of (_a_). Dissolve the borax in the
boiling water; then add the glycerine, after which pour (_a_) into
solution (_b_). Stir until it becomes translucent. This paste will not
crack, and, being very pliable, is used for paper, cloth, leather, and
other material where flexibility is required.

VI.—A paste with which wall paper can be attached to wood or masonry,
adhering to it firmly in spite of dampness, is prepared, as usual, of
rye flour, to which, however, are added, after the boiling, 8 1⁠/⁠3
parts, by weight, of good linseed-oil varnish and 8 1⁠/⁠3 parts, by
weight, of turpentine to every 500 parts, by weight.

VII.—Paste for Wall Paper.—Soak 18 pounds of bolus (bole) in water,
after it has been beaten into small fragments, and pour off the
supernatant water. Boil 10 ounces of glue into glue water, mix it
well with the softened bolus and 2 pounds plaster of Paris and strain
through a sieve by means of a brush. Thin the mass with water to the
consistency of a thin paste. The paste is now ready for use. It is not
only much cheaper than other varieties, but has the advantage over them
of adhering better to whitewashed walls, and especially such as have
been repeatedly coated over the old coatings which were not thoroughly
removed. For hanging fine wall paper this paste is less commendable, as
it forms a white color, with which the paper might easily become soiled
if great care is not exercised in applying it. If the fine wall paper
is mounted on ground paper, however, it can be recommended for pasting
the ground paper on the wall.


«LABEL PASTES:»


«Pastes to Affix Labels to Tin.»—Labels separate from tin because the
paste becomes too dry. Some moisture is presumably always present; but
more is required to cause continued adhesion in the case of tin than
where the container is of {40} glass. Paste may be kept moist by the
addition of calcium chloride, which is strongly hygroscopic, or of
glycerine.

The following formulas for pastes of the type indicated were proposed
by Leo Eliel:

 I.—Tragacanth                  1 ounce
     Acacia                      4 ounces
     Thymol                     14 grains
     Glycerine                   4 ounces
     Water, sufficient to make   2 pints

Dissolve the gums in 1 pint of water, strain, and add the glycerine, in
which the thymol is suspended; shake well and add sufficient water to
make 2 pints. This separates on standing, but a single shake mixes it
sufficiently for use.

 II.—Rye flour         8 ounces
      Powdered acacia   1 ounce
      Glycerine         2 ounces
      Oil of cloves    40 drops

Rub the rye flour and acacia to a smooth paste with 8 ounces of cold
water; strain through cheese cloth, and pour into 1 pint of boiling
water, and continue the heat until as thick as desired. When nearly
cold add the glycerine and oil of cloves.

 III.—Rye flour               5 parts
       Venice turpentine       1 part
       Liquid glue, a sufficient quantity

Rub up the flour with the turpentine and then add sufficient freshly
prepared glue (glue or gelatine dissolved in water) to make a stiff
paste. This paste dries slowly.

 IV.—Dextrine                   2 parts
      Acetic acid                1 part
      Water                      5 parts
      Alcohol, 95 per cent.      1 part

Dissolve the dextrine and acetic acid in water by heating together in
the water bath, and to the solution add the alcohol.

 V.—Dextrine       3 pounds
     Borax          2 ounces
     Glucose        5 drachms
     Water   3 pints 2 ounces

Dissolve the borax in the water by warming, then add the dextrine and
glucose, and continue to heat gently until dissolved.

Another variety is made by dissolving a cheap Ghatti gum in limewater,
but it keeps badly.

VI.—Add tartaric acid to thick flour paste. The paste is to be boiled
until quite thick, and the acid, previously dissolved in a little
water, is added, the proportion being about 2 ounces to the pint of
paste.

VII.—Gum arabic, 50 parts; glycerine, 10 parts; water, 30 parts; liq.
Stibii chlorat., 2 parts.

VIII.—Boil rye flour and strong glue water into a mass to which are
added, for 1,000 parts, good linseed-oil varnish 30 parts and oil of
turpentine 30 parts. This mixture furnishes a gluing agent which, it
is claimed, even renders the labels proof against being loosened by
moisture.

IX.—Pour 140 parts of distilled cold water over 100 parts of gum arabic
in a wide-necked bottle and dissolve by frequent shaking. To the
solution, which is ready after standing for about 3 days, add 10 parts
of glycerine; later, 20 parts of diluted acetic acid, and finally 6
parts of aluminum sulphate, then straining it through a fine-hair sieve.

X.—Good glue is said to be obtained by dissolving 1 part of powdered
sugar in 4 parts of soda water glass.

XI.—A glue for bottle labels is prepared by dissolving borax in water;
soak glue in this solution and dissolve the glue by boiling. Carefully
drop as much acetic acid into the solution as will allow it to remain
thin on cooling. Labels affixed with this agent adhere firmly and do
not become moldy in damp cellars.

XII.—Dissolve some isinglass in acetic acid and brush the labels over
with it. There will be no cause to complain of their coming off, nor
of striking through the paper. Take a wide-mouthed bottle, fill about
two-thirds with commercial acetic acid, and put in as much isinglass as
the liquid will hold, and set aside in a warm place until completely
dissolved. When cold it should form a jelly. To use it place the bottle
in hot water. The cork should be well-fitting and smeared with vaseline
or melted paraffine.


«How to Paste Labels on Tin.»—Brush over the entire back of the label
with a flour paste, fold the label loosely by sticking both ends
together without creasing the center, and throw to one side until this
process has been gone through with the whole lot. Then unfold each
label and place it on the can in the regular manner. The paste ought
not to be thicker than maple syrup. When of this consistency it soaks
through the label and makes it pliable and in a condition to be easily
rubbed into position. If the paste is too thick it dries quickly, and
does not soak through the label sufficiently. After the labels have
been placed upon the cans the latter must be {41} kept apart until dry.
In putting the paste upon the labels in the first place, follow the
method of placing the dry labels over one another, back sides up, with
the edge of each just protruding over the edge of the one beneath it,
so that the fingers may easily grasp the label after the pasting has
been done.


«Druggists’ Label Paste.»—This paste, when carefully made, is an
admirable one for label use, and a very little will go a long way:

 Wheat flour      4     ounces
 Nitric acid      1     drachm
 Boric acid      10     grains
 Oil of cloves    5     drops
 Carbolic acid      1⁠/⁠2 drachm

Stir flour and water together, mixing thoroughly, and add the other
ingredients. After the stuff is well mixed, heat it, watching very
carefully and removing the instant it stiffens.


«To Attach Glass Labels to Bottles.»—Melt together 1 part of rosin and
2 parts of yellow wax, and use while warm.


«Photographic Mountants (see also Photography).»—Owing to the nature
of the different papers used for printing photographs, it is a
matter of extreme importance to use a mountant that shall not set up
decomposition in the coating of the print. For example, a mountant that
exhibits acidity or alkalinity is injurious with most varieties of
paper; and in photography the following formulas for pastes, mucilages,
etc., have therefore been selected with regard to their absolute
immunity from setting up decomposition in the print or changing its
tone in any way. One of the usual mountants is rice starch or else
rice water. The latter is boiled to a thick jelly, strained, and the
strained mass used as an agglutinant for attaching photographic prints
to the mounts. There is nothing of an injurious nature whatever in this
mountant, neither is there in a mucilage made with gum dragon.

This gum (also called gum tragacanth) is usually in the form of curls
(i.e., leaf gum), which take a long time to properly dissolve in
water—several weeks, in fact—but during the past few years there has
been put on the market a powdered gum dragon which does not occupy so
many days in dissolving. To make a mucilage from gum dragon a very
large volume of water is required. For example, 1 ounce of the gum,
either leaf or powder, will swell up and convert 1 gallon of water into
a thickish mucilage in the course of 2 or 3 weeks. Only cold water must
be used, and before using the mucilage, all whitish lumps (which are
particles of undissolved gum) should be picked out or else the mucilage
strained. The time of solution can be considerably shortened (to a few
hours) by acidifying the water in which the gum is placed with a little
sulphuric or oxalic acid; but as the resultant mucilage would contain
traces of their presence, such acids are not permissible when the
gum-dragon mucilage is to be used for mounting photographs.

Glycerine and gum arabic make a very good adhesive of a fluid nature
suited to mounting photographs; and although glycerine is hygroscopic
by itself, such tendency to absorb moisture is checked by the reverse
nature of the gum arabic; consequently an ideal fluid mucilage is
produced. The proportions of the several ingredients are these:

 Gum arabic, genuine (gum acacia, not Bassora gum)   4 ounces
 Boiling water                                      12 ounces
 Glycerine, pure                                     1 ounce

First dissolve the gum in the water, and then stir in the glycerine,
and allow all _débris_ from the gum to deposit before using. The
following adhesive compound is also one that is free from chemical
reactions, and is suited for photographic purposes:

 Water                     2 pints
 Gum dragon, powdered      1 ounce
 Gum arabic, genuine       4 ounces
 Glycerine                 4 ounces

Mix the gum arabic with half the water, and in the remainder of the
water dissolve the gum dragon. When both solids are dissolved, mix them
together, and then stir in the glycerine.

The following paste will be found a useful mountant:

 Gum arabic, genuine       1 ounce
 Rice starch               1 ounce
 White sugar               4 ounces
 Water, q. s.

Dissolve the gum in just sufficient water to completely dissolve it,
then add the sugar, and when that has completely dissolved stir in the
starch paste, and then boil the mixture until the starch is properly
cooked.

A very strong, stiff paste for fastening cardboard mounts to frames,
wood, and other materials is prepared by making a bowl of starch
paste in the usual way, and then adding 1 ounce of Venice turpentine
per pound of paste, and {42} boiling and stirring the mixture until
the thick turpentine has become well incorporated. Venice turpentine
stirred into flour paste and boiled will also be found a very
adhesive cement for fastening cardboard, strawboard, leatherette, and
skiver leather to wood or metal; but owing to the resinous nature
of the Venice turpentine, such pastes are not suitable for mounting
photographic prints. The following half-dozen compounds are suitable
mountants to use with silver prints:

 Alcohol, absolute          10 ounces
 Gelatine, good              1 ounce
 Glycerine            1⁠/⁠2 to 1 ounce

Soak the gelatine in water for an hour or two until it is completely
softened; take the gelatine out of the water, and allow it to drain,
and put it into a bottle and pour alcohol over it; add the glycerine
(if the gelatine is soft, use only 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; if the gelatine is
hard, use 1 ounce of the glycerine), then melt the gelatine by standing
the bottle in a vessel of hot water, and shake up very well. For use,
remelt by heat. The alcohol prevents the prints from stretching or
cockling, as they are apt to, under the influence of the gelatine.

In the following compound, however, only sufficient alcohol is used to
serve as an antiseptic, and prevent the agglutinant from decomposing:
Dissolve 4 ounces of photographic gelatine in 16 ounces of water (first
soaking the gelatine therein for an hour or two until it is completely
softened), then remove the gelatine from the water, allow it to drain,
and put it into the bottle, and pour the alcohol over it, and put in
the glycerine (if the gelatine is soft, use only 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; if the
gelatine is hard, use 1 ounce of the glycerine), then melt the gelatine
by standing the bottle in a vessel of hot water, and shake up well and
mix thoroughly. For use, remelt by heat. The alcohol prevents the print
from stretching or cockling up under the influence of the gelatine.

The following paste agglutinant is one that is very permanent and
useful for all purposes required in a photographic studio: Take 5 pints
of water, 10 ounces of arrowroot, 1 ounce of gelatine, and a 1⁠/⁠2 pint
(10 fluidounces) of alcohol, and proceed to combine them as follows:
Make arrowroot into a thick cream with a little of the water, and in
the remainder of the water soak the gelatine for a few hours, after
which melt the gelatine in the water by heating it, add the arrowroot
paste, and bring the mixture to the boil and allow to boil for 4 or 5
minutes, then allow to cool, and mix in the alcohol, adding a few drops
of oil of cloves.

Perhaps one of the most useful compounds for photographic purposes is
that prepared as follows: Soak 4 ounces of hard gelatine in 15 ounces
of water for a few hours, then melt the gelatine by heating it in a
glue pot until the solution is quite clear and free from lumps, stir in
65 fluidounces of cold water so that it is free from lumps, and pour in
the boiling-hot solution of gelatine and continue stirring, and if the
starch is not completely cooked, boil up the mixture for a few minutes
until it “blows,” being careful to keep it well stirred so as not to
burn; when cold add a few drops of carbolic acid or some essential oil
as an antiseptic to prevent the compound from decomposing or becoming
sour.

A useful photographic mucilage, which is very liquid, is obtained
by mixing equal bulks of gum-arabic and gum-dragon mucilages of the
same consistence. The mixture of these mucilages will be considerably
thinner than either of them when alone.

As an agglutinant for general use in the studio, the following is
recommended: Dissolve 2 ounces of gum arabic in 5 ounces of water,
and for every 250 parts of the mucilage add 20 parts of a solution of
sulphate of aluminum, prepared by dissolving 1 part of the sulphate
in 20 parts of water (common alum should not be used, only the pure
aluminum sulphate, because common alum is a mixture of sulphates, and
usually contaminated with iron salts). The addition of the sulphate
solution to the gum mucilage renders the latter less hygroscopic, and
practically waterproof, besides being very adhesive to any materials,
particularly those exhibiting a smooth surface.


«MUCILAGES:»


«For Affixing Labels to Glass and Other Objects.»—I.—The mucilage is
made by simply pouring over the gum enough water to a little more
than cover it, and then, as the gum swells, adding more water from
time to time in small portions, until the mucilage is brought to such
consistency that it may be easily spread with the brush. The mucilage
keeps fairly well without the addition of any antiseptic.

 II.—Tragacanth                  1 ounce
      Acacia                      4 ounces
      Thymol                     14 grains
      Glycerine                   4 ounces
      Water, sufficient to make   2 pints

{43}

Dissolve the gums in 1 pint of water, strain and add the glycerine, in
which the thymol is suspended; shake well and add sufficient water to
make 2 pints. This separates on standing, but a single shake mixes it
sufficiently for use.

 III.—Rye flour             8 ounces
       Powdered acacia       1 ounce
       Glycerine             2 ounces
       Oil of cloves        40 drops
       Water, a sufficient quantity.

Rub the rye flour and the acacia to a smooth paste with 8 ounces of
cold water; strain through cheese cloth, and pour into 1 pint of
boiling water and continue the heat until as thick as desired. When
nearly cold add the glycerine and oil of cloves.

IV.—One part, by weight, of tragacanth, when mixed with 95-per-cent
alcohol to form 4 fluidounces, forms a liquid in which a portion of
the tragacanth is dissolved and the remainder suspended; this remains
permanently fluid, never deteriorates, and can be used in place of the
present mucilage; 4 to 8 minims to each ounce of mixture is sufficient
to suspend any of the insoluble substances usually given in mixtures.

V.—To 250 parts of gum-arabic mucilage add 20 parts of water and 2
parts of sulphate of alumina and heat until dissolved.

VI.—Dissolve 1⁠/⁠2 pound gum tragacanth, powdered, 1⁠/⁠4 pound gum
arabic, powdered, cold water to the desired consistency, and add 40
drops carbolic acid.


«Mucilage of Acacia.»—Put the gum, which should be of the best kind,
in a flask the size of which should be large enough to contain the
mucilage with about one-fifth of its space to spare (i. e., the product
should fill it about four-fifths full). Now tare, and wash the gum with
distilled water, letting the latter drain away as much as possible
before proceeding further. Add the requisite quantity of distilled
water slowly, which, however, should first have added to it about 10
per cent of limewater. Now cork the flask, and lay it, without shaking,
horizontally in a cool place and let it remain quietly for about 3
hours, then give it a half turn to the right without disturbing its
horizontal position. Repeat this operation three or four times during
the day, and keep it up until the gum is completely dissolved (which
will not be until the fourth day probably), then strain through a thin
cloth previously wet with distilled water, avoiding, in so doing, the
formation of foam or bubbles. This precaution should also be observed
in decantation of the percolate into smaller bottles provided with
paraffine corks. The small amount of limewater, as will be understood,
is added to the solvent water in order to prevent the action of free
acid.


«Commercial Mucilage.»—Dissolve 1⁠/⁠2 pound white glue in equal parts
water and strong vinegar, and add 1⁠/⁠4 as much alcohol and 1⁠/⁠2 ounce
alum dissolved in a little water. To proceed, first get good glue and
soak in cold water until it swells and softens. Use pale vinegar. Pour
off the cold water, then melt the glue to a thick paste in hot water,
and add the vinegar hot. When a little cool add the alcohol and alum
water.


«To Render Gum Arabic More Adhesive.»—I.—Add crystallized aluminum
sulphate in the proportion of 2 dissolved in 20 parts of water to 250
parts of concentrated gum solution (75 parts of gum in 175 parts of
water).

II.—Add to 250 parts of concentrated gum solution (2 parts of gum in 5
parts of water) 2 parts of crystallized aluminum sulphate dissolved in
20 parts of water. This mixture glues even unsized paper, pasteboard
on pasteboard, wood on wood, glass, porcelain, and other substances on
which labels frequently do not adhere well.


«Envelope Gum.»—The gum used by the United States Government on postage
stamps is probably one of the best that could be used not only for
envelopes but for labels as well. It will stick to almost any surface.
Its composition is said to be the following:

 Gum arabic            1 part
 Starch                1 part
 Sugar                 4 parts
 Water, sufficient to give the desired consistency.

The gum arabic is first dissolved in some water, the sugar added, then
the starch, after which the mixture is boiled for a few minutes in
order to dissolve the starch, after which it is thinned down to the
desired consistency.

Cheaper envelope gums can be made by substituting dextrine for the gum
arabic, glucose for the sugar, and adding boric acid to preserve and
help stiffen it.


«Mucilage to Make Wood and Pasteboard Adhere to Metals.»—Dissolve 50
parts, by weight, of lead acetate together with 5 parts, by weight,
of alum in a little water. Make a separate solution of 75 parts, by
weight, of gum arabic in 2,000 parts, by weight, of water, stir in
this 500 {44} parts, by weight, of flour, and heat slowly to boiling,
stirring the while. Let it cool somewhat, and mix with it the solution
containing the lead acetate and alum, stirring them well together.


«Preservation of Gum Solution.»—Put a small piece of camphor in the
mucilage bottle. Camphor vapors are generated which kill all the
bacterial germs that have entered the bottle. The gum maintains its
adhesiveness to the last drop.

ADULTERANTS IN FOODS: See Foods.

ADUROL DEVELOPER: See Photography.

ÆSCO-QUININE: See Horse Chestnut.

AGAR AGAR PASTE: See Adhesives.


«AGATE, BUTTONS OF ARTIFICIAL.»

Prepare a mixture or frit of 33 parts of quartz sand, 65 parts calcium
phosphate, and 2 parts of potash. The frit, which has been reduced by
heat to the fusing point, is finely ground, intimately mingled with a
small quantity of kaolin and pressed in molds which yield button-shaped
masses. These masses, after having been fired, are given a transparent
glaze by any of the well-known processes.

AGATE (IMITATION): See Gems, Artificial.

AGING OF SILK: See Silk.

AGING, SILVER AND GOLD: See Plating.


«AIR BATH.»

This air bath is employed in cases in which, upon drying or heating
substances, acid vapors arise because the walls of the bath are not
attacked by them. For the production of the drying apparatus take a
flask with the bottom burst off or a bell jar tubulated above. This
is placed either upon a sand bath or upon asbestos paper, previously
laid upon a piece of sheet iron. The sand bath or the sheet iron is
put on a tripod, so that it can be heated by means of a burner placed
underneath. The substance to be dried is placed in a glass or porcelain
dish, which is put under the bell jar, and if desired the drying dish
may be hung on the tripod. For regulating the temperature the tubulure
of the jar is closed with a pierced cork, through whose aperture the
thermometer is thrust. In order to permit the vapors to escape, the
cork is grooved lengthwise along the periphery.

AIR BUBBLES IN GELATINE: See Gelatine.

AIR, EXCLUSION OF, FROM SOLUTIONS: See Photography.


«AIR-PURIFYING.»


«Ozonatine» is a fragrant air-purifying preparation consisting of
dextrogyrate turpentine oil scented with slight quantities of fragrant
oils.

ALABASTER CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

ALBATA METAL: See Alloys.


«ALBUMEN IN URINE, DETECTION OF.»

Patein (_Pharm. Zeit._) recommends the following test for albumen in
urine: Dissolve 250 grams of citric acid in a sufficient quantity of
water, add enough ammonia to neutralize, then 50 grams of alcohol,
and finally enough water to make 1 liter. To the acid (or acidulated)
urine, one-tenth its volume of the ammonium-citrate solution made
as above is added, and the whole heated in the usual manner. The
appearance of the faintest turbidity is said to indicate with positive
certainty the presence of albumen.

ALBUMEN PAPER: See Photography.

ALBUMEN PASTE: See Adhesives.


«Alcohol»

After the manuscript of this book was ready for the press, Congress
passed the bill which has since become a law, whereby the prohibitive
tax on industrial or denatured alcohol is removed. So important is this
legislative measure that the Editor has deemed it wise to insert an
article on the sources of alcohol and the manufacture of alcohol from
farm products. Because the first portion of the book was in type when
this step was decided upon, the Editor was compelled to relegate to a
later page a monograph which should properly have appeared here. The
reader will find the matter on alcohol referred to under the heading
{45} “Spirit”; likewise methods of denaturing and a list of denaturants.

ALCOHOL, DILUTION OF: See Tables.


«Alcohol, Tests for Absolute.»—The committee for the compilation of the
German Arzneibuch established the following tests for the determination
of absolute alcohol:

Absolute alcohol is a clear, colorless, volatile, readily imflammable
liquid which burns with a faintly luminous flame. Absolute alcohol has
a peculiar odor, a burning taste, and does not affect litmus paper.
Boiling point, 78.50. Specific gravity, 0.795 to 0.797. One hundred
parts contain 99.7 to 99.4 parts, by volume, or 99.6 to 99.0 parts, by
weight, of alcohol.

Absolute alcohol should have no foreign smell and should mix with water
without cloudiness.

After the admixture of 5 drops of silver-nitrate solution, 10 cubic
centimeters of absolute alcohol should not become turbid or colored
even on heating.

A mixture of 10 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol and 0.2 cubic
centimeter of potash lye evaporated down to 1 cubic centimeter should
not exhibit an odor of fusel oil after supersaturation with dilute
sulphuric acid.

Five cubic centimeters of sulphuric acid, carefully covered, in a
test tube, with a stratum of 5 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol,
should not form a rose-colored zone at the surface of contact, even on
standing for some time.

The red color of a mixture of 10 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol
and 1 cubic centimeter of potassium-permanganate solution should not
pass into yellow before 20 minutes.

Absolute alcohol should not be dyed by hydrogen sulphide water or by
aqueous ammonia.

Five cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol should not leave behind a
weighable residue after evaporation on water bath.


«Absolute Alcohol.»—If gelatine be suspended in ordinary alcohol
it will absorb the water, but as it is insoluble in alcohol, that
substance will remain behind, and thus nearly absolute alcohol will be
obtained without distillation.


«Perfumed Denaturized Alcohol.»—

 East India lemon oil      1,250 parts
 Mirbane oil               1,000 parts
 Cassia oil                   50 parts
 Clove oil                    75 parts
 Lemon oil                   100 parts
 Amyl acetate                500 parts
 Spirit (95 per cent)      7,000 parts

Dissolve the oils in the spirit and add the amyl acetate. The mixture
serves for destroying the bad odor of denaturized spirit in distilling.
Use 50 parts of the perfume per 1,000 parts of spirit.


«Solid Alcohol.»—I.—Heat 1,000 parts of denaturized alcohol (90 per
cent) in a flask of double the capacity on the water bath to about
140° F., and then mix with 28 to 30 parts of well-dried, rasped
Venetian soap and 2 parts of gum lac. After repeated shaking, complete
dissolution will take place. The solution is put, while still warm,
into metallic vessels, closing them up at once and allowing the mixture
to cool therein. The admixture of gum lac effects a better preservation
and also prevents the evaporation of the alcohol. On lighting the solid
spirit the soap remains behind.

II.—Smaragdine is a trade name for solidified alcohol. It consists of
alcohol and gun cotton, colored with malachite green. It appears in the
market in the form of small cubes.


«Alcohol in Fermented Beers.»—Experience has shown that 1⁠/⁠4 pound of
sugar to 1 gallon of water yields about 2 per cent of proof spirit,
or about 1 per cent of absolute alcohol. Beyond this amount it is not
safe to go, if the legal limit is to be observed, yet a ginger beer
brewed with 1⁠/⁠4 pound per gallon of sugar would be a very wishy-washy
compound, and there is little doubt that a much larger quantity is
generally used. The more sugar that is used—up to 1 1⁠/⁠2 or 1 1⁠/⁠4
pounds per gallon—the better the drink will be and the more customers
will relish it; but it will be as “strong” as lager and contain perhaps
5 per cent of alcohol, which will make it anything but a “temperance”
drink. Any maker who is using as much as even 1⁠/⁠2 pound of sugar per
gallon is bound to get more spirit than the law allows. Meanwhile it is
scarcely accurate to term ginger beers, etc., non-alcoholic.


«Alcohol Deodorizer.»—

 Alcohol                  160     ounces
 Powdered quicklime       300     grains
 Powdered alum            150     grains
 Spirit of nitrous ether    1 1⁠/⁠4 drachms

Mix the lime and alum intimately by trituration; add the alcohol and
shake well; then add the spirit of nitrous ether; set aside for 7 days
and filter through animal charcoal.


«Denaturized Alcohol.»—There are two general classes or degrees of
denaturizing, viz., the “complete” and the “incomplete,” according
to the purpose for {46} which the alcohol so denaturized is to be
ultimately used.

I.—Complete denaturization by the German system is accomplished by the
addition to every 100 liters (equal to 26 1⁠/⁠2 gallons) of spirits:

(_a_) Two and one-half liters of the “standard” denaturizer, made of 4
parts of wood alcohol, 1 part of pyridine (a nitrogenous base obtained
by distilling bone oil or coal tar), with the addition of 50 grams to
each liter of oil of lavender or rosemary.

(_b_) One and one-fourth liters of the above “standard” and 2 liters of
benzol with every 100 liters of alcohol.

II.—Incomplete denaturization—i. e., sufficient to prevent alcohol
from being drunk, but not to disqualify it from use for various
special purposes, for which the wholly denaturized spirits would be
unavailable—is accomplished by several methods as follows, the quantity
and nature of each substance given being the prescribed dose for each
100 liters (26 1⁠/⁠2 gallons) of spirits:

(_c_) Five liters of wood alcohol or 1⁠/⁠2 liter of pyridine.

(_d_) Twenty liters of solution of shellac, containing 1 part gum to
2 parts alcohol of 90-per-cent purity. Alcohol for the manufacture of
celluloid and pegamoid is denaturized.

(_e_) By the addition of 1 kilogram of camphor or 2 liters oil of
turpentine or 1⁠/⁠2 liter benzol to each 100 liters of spirits. Alcohol
to be used in the manufacture of ethers, aldehyde, agaricin, white
lead, bromo-silver gelatines, photographic papers and plates, electrode
plates, collodion, salicylic acid and salts, aniline chemistry, and a
great number of other purposes, is denaturized by the addition of—

(_f_) Ten liters sulphuric ether, or 1 part of benzol, or 1⁠/⁠2 part
oil of turpentine, or 0.025 part of animal oil.

For the manufacture of varnishes and inks alcohol is denaturized by the
addition of oil of turpentine or animal oil, and for the production of
soda soaps by the addition of 1 kilogram of castor oil. Alcohol for the
production of lanolin is prepared by adding 5 liters of benzine to each
hectoliter of spirits.


«ALE.»

The ale of the modern brewer is manufactured in several varieties,
which are determined by the wants of the consumer and the particular
market for which it is intended. Thus, the finer kinds of Burton, East
India, Bavarian, and other like ales, having undergone a thorough
fermentation, contain only a small quantity of undecomposed sugar and
gum, varying from 1 to 5 per cent. Some of these are highly “hopped” or
“bittered,” the further to promote their preservation during transit
and change of temperature. Mild or sweet ales, on the contrary, are
less accentuated by lengthened fermentation, and abound in saccharine
and gummy matter. They are, therefore, more nutritious, though less
intoxicating, than those previously referred to.

In brewing the finer kinds of ales, pale malt and the best hops of the
current season’s growth are always employed; and when it is desired to
produce a liquor possessing little color, very great attention is paid
to their selection. With the same object, the boiling is conducted with
more than the usual precautions, and the fermentation is carried on
at a somewhat lower temperature than that commonly allowed for other
varieties of beer. For ordinary ale, intended for immediate use, the
malt may be all pale; but, if the liquor be brewed for keeping, and
in warm weather, when a slight color is not objectionable, one-fifth,
or even one-fourth of amber malt may be advantageously employed. From
4 1⁠/⁠2 to 6 pounds of hops is the quantity commonly used to the
one-fourth of malt, for ordinary ales; and 7 pounds to 10 pounds for
“keeping” ales. The proportions, however, must greatly depend on the
intended quality and description of the brewing and the period that
will be allowed for its maturation.

The stronger varieties of ale usually contain from 6 to 8 per cent
of “absolute alcohol”; ordinary strong ale, 4 1⁠/⁠2 to 6 per cent;
mild ale, 3 to 4 percent; and table ale, 1 to 1 1⁠/⁠2 per cent (each
by volume); together with some undecomposed saccharine, gummy, and
extractive matter, the bitter and narcotic principles of the hop, some
acetic acid formed by the oxidation of the alcohol, and very small and
variable quantities of mineral and saline matter.

Ordinary ale-wort (preferably pale), sufficient to produce 1 barrel,
is slowly boiled with about 3 handfuls of hops, and 12 to 14 pounds of
crushed groats, until the whole of the soluble matter of the latter
is extracted. The resulting liquor, after being run through a coarse
strainer and become lukewarm, is fermented with 2 or 3 pints of yeast;
and, as soon as the fermentation is at its height, is either closely
bunged up for draft or is at once put into strong stoneware bottles,
which are then well corked and wired.

White ale is said to be very nutritious, though apt to prove laxative
to those {47} unaccustomed to its use. It is drunk in a state of
effervescence or lively fermentation; the glass or cup containing it
being kept in constant motion, when removed from the mouth, until the
whole is consumed, in order that the thicker portion may not subside to
the bottom.

ALE, GINGER: See Beverages.

ALFENIDE METAL: See Alloys.

ALKALI, HOW TO DETECT: See Soaps.

ALKALOIDS, ANTIDOTES TO: See Atropine.


«Alloys»

No general rules can be given for alloying metals. Alloys differing
greatly in fusibility are commonly made by adding the more fusible
ones, either in the melted state or in small portions at a time, to
the other melted or heated to the lowest possible temperature at which
a perfect union will take place between them. The mixture is usually
effected under a flux, or some material that will promote liquefaction
and prevent volatilization and unnecessary exposure to the air. Thus,
in melting lead and tin together for solder, rosin or tallow is thrown
upon the surface is rubbed with sal ammoniac; and in combining some
metals, powdered charcoal is used for the same purpose. Mercury or
quicksilver combines with many metals in the cold, forming AMALGAMS, or
easily fusible alloys (q. v.).

Alloys generally possess characteristics unshared by their component
metals. Thus, copper and zinc form brass, which has a different
density, hardness, and color from either of its constituents. Whether
the metals tend to unite in atomic proportions or in any definite ratio
is still undetermined. The evidence afforded by the natural alloys
of gold and silver, and by the phenomena accompanying the cooling of
several alloys from the state of fusion, goes far to prove that such
is the case (Rudberg). The subject is, however, one of considerable
difficulty, as metals and metallic compounds are generally soluble
in each other, and unite by simple fusion and contact. That they do
not combine indifferently with each other, but exercise a species of
elective affinity not dissimilar to other bodies, is clearly shown
by the homogeneity and superior quality of many alloys in which the
constituent metals are in atomic proportion. The variation of the
specific gravity and melting points of alloys from the mean of those
of their component metals also affords strong evidence of a chemical
change having taken place. Thus, alloys generally melt at lower
temperatures than their separate metals. They also usually possess more
tenacity and hardness than the mean of their constituents.

Matthiessen found that when weights are suspended to spirals of
hard-drawn wire made of copper, gold, or platinum, they become nearly
straightened when stretched by a moderate weight; but wires of equal
dimensions composed of copper-tin (12 per cent of tin), silver-platinum
(36 per cent of platinum), and gold-copper (84 per cent of copper)
scarcely undergo any permanent change in form when subjected to tension
by the same weight.

The same chemist gives the following approximate results upon the
tenacity of certain metals and wires hard-drawn through the same gauge
(No. 23):

                                  Pounds
 Copper, breaking strain           25–30
 Tin, breaking strain      under       7
 Lead, breaking strain     under       7
 Tin-lead (20% lead)       about       7
 Tin-copper (12% copper)   about       7
 Copper-tin (12% tin)      about   80–90
 Gold (12% tin)                    20–25
 Gold-copper (8.4% copper)         70–75
 Silver (8.4% copper)              45–50
 Platinum (8.4% copper)            45–50
 Silver-platinum (30% platinum)    75–80

On the other hand, the malleability, ductility, and power of resisting
oxygen of alloys is generally diminished. The alloy formed of two
brittle metals is always brittle; that of a brittle and a ductile
metal, generally so; and even two ductile metals sometimes unite to
form a brittle compound. The alloys formed of metals having different
fusing points are usually malleable while cold and brittle while hot.
The action of the air on alloys is generally less than on their simple
metals, unless the former are heated. A mixture of 1 part of tin and 3
parts of lead is scarcely acted on at common temperatures; but at a red
heat it readily takes fire, and continues to burn for some time like
a piece of bad turf. In like manner, a mixture of tin and zinc, when
strongly heated, decomposes both moist air and steam with rapidity.

The specific gravity of alloys is rarely {48} the arithmetical mean
of that of their constituents, as commonly taught; and in many cases
considerable condensation or expansion occurs. When there is a strong
affinity between two metals, the density of their alloy is generally
greater than the calculated mean; and vice versa, as may be seen in the
following table:

 ALLOYS HAVING A DENSITY
 Greater than the Mean of their Constituents:

 Copper and bismuth,
 Copper and palladium,
 Copper and tin,
 Copper and zinc,
 Gold and antimony,
 Gold and bismuth,
 Gold and cobalt,
 Gold and tin,
 Gold and zinc,
 Lead and antimony,
 Palladium and bismuth,
 Silver and antimony,
 Silver and bismuth,
 Silver and lead,
 Silver and tin,
 Silver and zinc.

 Less than the Mean of their Constituents:

 Gold and copper,
 Gold and iridium,
 Gold and iron,
 Gold and lead,
 Gold and nickel,
 Gold and silver,
 Iron and antimony,
 Iron and bismuth,
 Iron and lead,
 Nickel and arsenic,
 Silver and copper,
 Tin and antimony,
 Tin and lead,
 Tin and palladium,
 Zinc and antimony.


«Compounding Alloys.»—Considerable experience is necessary to insure
success in compounding alloys, especially when the metals employed vary
greatly in fusibility and volatility. The following are rules supplied
by an experienced workman:

1. Melt the least fusible, oxidizable, and volatile first, and then add
the others heated to their point of fusion or near it. Thus, if it is
desired to make an alloy of exactly 1 part of copper and 3 of zinc, it
will be impossible to do so by putting proportions of the metals in a
crucible and exposing the whole to heat. Much of the zinc would fly off
in vapor before the copper was melted. First, melt the copper and add
the zinc, which has been melted in another crucible. The zinc should be
in excess, as some of it will be lost anyway.

2. Some alloys, as copper and zinc, copper and arsenic, may be formed
by exposing heated plates of the least fusible metal to the vapor of
the other. In making brass in the large way, thin plates of copper are
dissolved, as it were, in melted zinc until the proper proportions have
been obtained.

3. The surface of all oxidizable metals should be covered with some
protecting agent, as tallow for very fusible ones, rosin for lead and
tin, charcoal for zinc, copper, etc.

4. Stir the metal before casting and if possible, when casting, with a
whitewood stick; this is much better for the purpose than an iron rod.

5. If possible, add a small portion of old alloy to the new. If
the alloy is required to make sharp castings and strength is not a
very great object, the proportion of old alloy to the new should be
increased. In all cases a new or thoroughly well-cleansed crucible
should be used.

To obtain metals and metallic alloys from their compounds, such as
oxides, sulphides, chlorides, etc., a process lately patented makes use
of the reducing qualities of aluminum or its alloys with magnesium. The
finely powdered material (e. g., chromic oxide) is placed in a crucible
mixed with aluminum oxide. The mixture is set afire by means of a
soldering pipe or a burning magnesium wire, and the desired reaction
takes place. For igniting, one may also employ with advantage a special
priming cartridge consisting of pulverized aluminum to which a little
magnesium may be mixed, and peroxide of magnesia, which is shaped into
balls and lighted with a magnesium wire. By suitable additions to the
pulverized mixture, alloys containing aluminum, magnetism, chromium,
manganese, copper, iron, boron, silicic acid, etc., are obtained.


«ALUMINUM ALLOYS.»

M. H. Pecheux has contributed to the _Comptes Rendus_, from time to
time, the results of his investigations into the alloys of aluminum
with soft metals, and the following constitutes a brief summary of his
observations:


«Lead.»—When aluminum is melted and lead is added in proportion
greater than 10 per cent, the metals separate on cooling into three
layers—lead, aluminum, and between them an alloy containing from 90 to
97 per cent of aluminum. {49} The alloys with 93, 95, and 98 per cent
have densities of 2.745, 2.674, and 2.600 respectively, and melting
points near that of aluminum. Their color is like that of aluminum,
but they are less lustrous. All are malleable, easily cut, softer
than aluminum, and have a granular fracture. On remelting they become
somewhat richer in lead, through a tendency to liquation. They do not
oxidize in moist air, nor at their melting points. They are attacked in
the cold by hydrochloric and by strong sulphuric acid, with evolution
of hydrogen, and by strong nitric acid when hot; strong solution of
potassium hydroxide also attacks them. They are without action on
distilled water, whether cold or hot.


«Zinc.»—Well-defined alloys were obtained, corresponding to the
formulas Zn_〈3〉Al, Zn_〈2〉Al, ZnAl, ZnAl_〈2〉, ZnAl_〈3〉, ZnAl_〈4〉,
ZnAl_〈6〉, ZnAl_〈10〉, ZnAl_〈12〉. Their melting points and densities
all lie between those of zinc and aluminum, and those containing most
zinc are the hardest. They are all dissolved by cold hydrochloric acid
and by hot dilute nitric acid. Cold concentrated nitric acid attacks
the first three, and cold dilute acid the first five. The Zn_〈3〉Al,
ZnAl_〈6〉, ZnAl_〈10〉, and ZnAl_〈12〉 are only slightly affected by
cold potassium-hydroxide solution; the others are strongly attacked,
potassium zincate and aluminate probably being formed.


«Tin.»—A filed rod of tin-aluminum alloy plunged in cold water gives
off for some minutes bubbles of gas, composed of hydrogen and oxygen
in explosive proportions. An unfiled rod, or a filed rod of either
aluminum or tin, is without action, though the unfiled rod of alloy
will act on boiling water. The filed rod of alloy, in faintly acid
solution of copper or zinc sulphate, becomes covered with a deposit
of copper or zinc, while bubbles of oxygen are given off. M. Pecheux
believes that the metals are truly alloyed only at the surface, and
that filing lays bare an almost infinitely numerous series of junctions
of the two metals, which, heated by the filing, act as thermocouples.


«Bismuth.»—By the method used for lead, bismuth alloys were obtained
containing 75, 85, 88, and 94 per cent of aluminum, with densities
2.86, 2.79, 2.78, and 2.74 respectively. They were sonorous, brittle,
finely grained, and homogeneous, silver-white, and with melting points
between those of their constituents, but nearer that of aluminum. They
are not oxidized in air at the temperature of casting, but are readily
attacked by acids, concentrated or dilute, and by potassium-hydroxide
solution. The filed alloys behave like those of tin, but still more
markedly.


«Magnesium.»—These were obtained with 66, 68, 73, 77, and 85 per cent
of aluminum, and densities 2.24, 2.47, 2.32, 2.37, 2.47. They are
brittle, with large granular fracture, silver-white, file well, take
a good polish, and have melting points near that of aluminum. Being
viscous when melted, they are difficult to cast, and when slowly cooled
form a gray, spongy mass which cannot be remelted. They do not oxidize
in air at the ordinary temperatures, but burn readily at a bright-red
heat. They are attacked violently by acids and by potassium-hydroxide
solution, decompose hydrogen peroxide, and slowly decompose water even
in the cold.


«Tin, Bismuth, and Magnesium.»—The action of water on these alloys
just referred to has been recently demonstrated on a larger scale, 5
to 6 cubic centimeters of hydrogen having been obtained in 20 minutes
from 2 cubic centimeters of the filed tin alloy. The bismuth alloy
yielded more hydrogen than the tin alloy, and the magnesium alloy more
than the bismuth alloy. The oxygen of the decomposed water unites
with the aluminum. Larger quantities of hydrogen are obtained from
copper-sulphate solution, apart from the decomposition of this solution
by precipitation of copper at the expense of the metal alloyed with the
aluminum. The alloys of aluminum with zinc and lead do not decompose
pure water, but do decompose the water of copper-sulphate solution,
and, more slowly, that of zinc-sulphate solution.

Aluminum is a metal whose properties are very materially influenced
by a proportionately small addition of copper. Alloys of 99 per cent
aluminum and 1 per cent of copper are hard, brittle, and bluish in
color; 95 per cent of aluminum and 5 per cent of copper give an alloy
which can be hammered, but with 10 percent of copper the metal can no
longer be worked. With 80 per cent and upward of copper are obtained
alloys of a beautiful yellow color, and these mixtures, containing
from 5 to 10 percent of aluminum and from 90 to 95 per cent of copper,
are the genuine aluminum bronzes. The 10-per-cent alloys are of a pure
golden-yellow color; with 5 per cent of aluminum they are reddish
yellow, like gold heavily alloyed with copper, and a 2-per-cent
admixture is of an almost pure copper red. {50} As the proportion of
copper increases, the brittleness is diminished, and alloys containing
10 per cent and less of aluminum can be used for industrial purposes,
the best consisting of 90 per cent of copper and 10 of aluminum. The
hardness of this alloy approaches that of the general bronzes, whence
its name. It can be stretched out into thin sheets between rollers,
worked under the hammer, and shaped as desired by beating or pressure,
in powerful stamping presses. On account of its hardness it takes a
fine polish, and its peculiar greenish-gold color resembles that of
gold alloyed with copper and silver together.

Alloys with a still greater proportion of copper approach this metal
more and more nearly in their character; the color of an alloy, for
instance, composed of 95 per cent of copper and 5 per cent of aluminum,
can be distinguished from pure gold only by direct comparison, and the
metal is very hard, and also very malleable.


«Electrical Conductivity of Aluminum Alloys.»—During three years’
exposure to the atmosphere, copper-aluminum alloys in one test
gradually diminished in conductivity in proportion to the amount of
copper they contained. The nickel-copper aluminum alloys, which show
such remarkably increased tensile strength as compared with good
commercial aluminum, considerably diminished in total conductivity.
On the other hand, the manganese-copper aluminum alloys suffered
comparatively little diminution in total conductivity, and one of them
retained comparatively high tensile strength. It was thought that an
examination of the structure of these alloys by aid of microphotography
might throw some light on the great difference which exists between
some of their physical properties. For instance, a nickel-copper
aluminum alloy has 1.6 times the tensile strength of ordinary
commercial aluminum. Under a magnification of 800 diameters practically
no structure could be discovered. Considering the remarkable
crystalline structure exhibited by ordinary commercial aluminum near
the surface of an ingot, when allowed to solidify at an ordinary rate,
the want of structure in these alloys must be attributed to the process
of drawing down. The inference is that the great difference which
exists between their tensile strengths and other qualities is not due
to variation in structure.


«Colored Alloys of Aluminum.»—A purple scintillating composition is
produced by an alloyage of 78 parts of gold and 22 parts aluminum.
With platinum a gold-colored alloy is obtained; with palladium a
copper-colored one; and with cobalt and nickel one of a yellow color.
Easily fusible metals of the color of aluminum give white alloys. Metal
difficult of fusion, such as iridium, osmium, titanium, etc., appear in
abnormal tones of color through such alloyages.


«Aluminum-Brass.»—Aluminum, 1 per cent; specific gravity, 8.35; tensile
strength, 40. Aluminum, 3 per cent; specific gravity, 8.33; tensile
strength, 65. The last named is harder than the first.


«Aluminum-Copper.»—Minikin is principally aluminum with a small
percentage of copper and nickel. It is alloyed by mixing the aluminum
and copper, then adding the nickel. It resembles palladium and is very
strong.


«Aluminum-Silver.»—I.—Silver, 3 per cent; aluminum, 97 per cent. A
handsome color.

II.—A silver aluminum that is easily worked into various articles
contains about one-fourth silver and three-fourths of aluminum.


«Aluminum-Tin.»—Bourbon metal is composed of equal parts of aluminum
and tin; it solders readily.


«Aluminum-Tungsten.»—A new metal alloy consisting of aluminum and
tungsten is used of late in France in the construction of conveyances,
especially carriages, bicycles, and motor vehicles. The French call
it partinium; the composition of the new alloy varies according to
the purposes for which it is used. It is considerably cheaper than
aluminum, almost as light, and has a greater resistance. The strength
is stated at 32 to 37 kilograms per square millimeter.


«Aluminum-Zinc.»—Zinc, 3 per cent; aluminum, 97 per cent. Very ductile,
white, and harder than aluminum.

AMALGAMS: See Fusible Alloys.


«Anti-Friction Bearing or Babbitt Metals.»—These alloys are usually
supported by bearings of brass, into which it is poured after they have
been tinned, and heated and put together with an exact model of the
axle, or other working piece, plastic clay being previously applied,
in the usual manner, as a lute or outer mold. Soft gun metal is also
excellent, and is much used for bearings. They all become less heated
in working than the {51} harder metals, and less grease or oil is
consequently required when they are used.

I.—An anti-friction metal of excellent quality and one that has been
used with success is made as follows: 17 parts zinc; 1 part copper;
1 1⁠/⁠2 parts antimony; prepared in the following way: Melt the copper
in a small crucible, then add the antimony, and lastly the zinc, care
being taken not to burn the zinc. Burning can be prevented by allowing
the copper and antimony to cool slightly before adding the zinc. This
metal is preferably cast into the shape desired and is not used
as a lining metal because it requires too great a heat to pour. It
machines nicely and takes a fine polish on bearing surfaces. It has the
appearance of aluminum when finished. Use a lubricating oil made from
any good grade of machine oil to which 3 parts of kerosene have been
added.

II.—Copper, 6 parts; tin, 12 parts; lead, 150 parts; antimony, 30
parts; wrought iron, 1 part; cast iron, 1 part. For certain purposes
the composition is modified as follows: Copper, 16 parts; tin, 40
parts; lead, 120 parts; antimony, 24 parts; wrought iron, 1 part; cast
iron, 1 part. In both cases the wrought iron is cut up in small pieces,
and in this state it will melt readily in fused copper and cast iron.
After the mixture has been well stirred, the tin, lead, and antimony
are added; these are previously melted in separate crucibles, and when
mingled the whole mass is again stirred thoroughly. The product may
then be run into ingots, to be employed when needed. When run into the
molds the surface should be well skimmed, for in this state it oxidizes
rapidly. The proportions may be varied without materially affecting the
results.

III.—From tin, 16 to 20 parts; antimony, 2 parts; lead, 1 part; fused
together, and then blended with copper, 80 parts. Used where there is
much friction or high velocity.

IV.—Zinc, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; copper, 20 parts. Used when the metal
is exposed to violent shocks.

V.—Lead, 1 part; tin, 2 parts; zinc, 4 parts; copper, 68 parts. Used
when the metal is exposed to heat.

VI.—Tin, 48 to 50 parts; antimony, 5 parts; copper, 1 part.

VII.—(Fenton’s.) Tin, with some zinc, and a little copper.

VIII.—(Ordinary.) Tin, or hard pewter, with or without a small portion
of antimony or copper. Without the last it is apt to spread out under
the weight of heavy machinery. Used for the bearings of locomotives,
etc.

The following two compositions are for motor and dynamo shafts: 100
pounds tin; 10 pounds copper; 10 pounds antimony.

83 1⁠/⁠2 pounds tin; 8 1⁠/⁠4 pounds antimony; 8 1⁠/⁠4 pounds copper.

IX.—Lead, 75 parts; antimony, 23 parts; tin, 2 parts.

X.—Magnolia Metal.—This is composed of 40 parts of lead, 7 1⁠/⁠2 parts
of antimony, 2 1⁠/⁠2 of tin, 1⁠/⁠8 of bismuth, 1⁠/⁠8 of aluminum, and
1⁠/⁠4 of graphite. It is used as an anti-friction metal, and takes its
name from its manufacturer’s mark, a magnolia flower.

ARGENTAN: See German Silver, under this title.


«BELL METAL.»

The composition of bell metal varies considerably, as may be seen below:

I.—(Standard.) Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts; fused together and
cast. The most sonorous of all the alloys of copper and tin. It is
easily fusible, and has a fine compact grain, and a vitreous conchoidal
and yellowish-red fracture. According to Klaproth, the finest-toned
Indian gongs have this composition.

II.—(Founder’s Standard.) Copper, 77 parts; tin, 21 parts; antimony, 2
parts. Slightly paler and inferior to No. I.

III.—Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. Very deep-toned and sonorous.
Used in China and India for the larger gongs, tam-tams, etc.

IV.—Copper, 78 to 80 parts; tin, 22 to 20 parts. Usual composition of
Chinese cymbals, tam-tams, etc.

V.—Copper, 75 (= 3) parts; tin, 25 (= 1) part. Somewhat brittle. In
fracture, semivitreous and bluish-red. Used for church and other large
bells.

VI.—Copper, 80 parts; tin, 10 1⁠/⁠4 parts; zinc, 5 1⁠/⁠2 parts; lead,
4 1⁠/⁠4 parts. English bell metal, according to Thomson. Inferior to
the last; the lead being apt to form isolated drops, to the injury of
the uniformity of the alloy.

VII.—Copper, 68 parts; tin, 32 parts. Brittle; fracture conchoidal
and ash-gray. Best proportions for house bells, hand bells, etc.; for
which, however, 2 of copper and 1 of tin is commonly substituted by the
founders.

VIII.—Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 1⁠/⁠2 parts; iron, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts. Used
by the Paris houses for the bells of small clocks.

IX.—Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Used, like the
last, for very small bells.

X.—Copper, 70 parts; tin, 26 parts; {52} zinc, 2 parts. Used for the
bells of repeating watches.

XI.—Melt together copper, 100 parts; tin, 25 parts. After being cast
into the required object, it should be made red-hot, and then plunged
immediately into cold water in order to impart to it the requisite
degree of sonorousness. For cymbals and gongs.

XII.—Melt together copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. When cold it has to
be hammered out with frequent annealing.

XIII.—Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts; This is superior to the former,
and it can be rolled out. For tam-tams and gongs.

XIV.—Melt together copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 to 56 parts; iron 1⁠/⁠44
part. Used in making the bells of ornamental French clocks.

Castings in bell metal are all more or less brittle; and, when recent,
have a color varying from a dark ash-gray to grayish-white, which is
darkest in the more cuprous varieties, in which it turns somewhat on
the yellowish-red or bluish-red. The larger the proportion of copper
in the alloy, the deeper and graver the tone of the bells formed of
it. The addition of tin, iron, or zinc, causes them to give out their
tones sharper. Bismuth and lead are also often used to modify the tone,
which each metal affects differently. The addition of antimony and
bismuth is frequently made by the founder to give a more crystalline
grain to the alloy. All these conditions are, however, prejudicial
to the sonorousness of bells, and of very doubtful utility. Rapid
refrigeration increases the sonorousness of all these alloys. Hence
M. D’Arcet recommends that the “pieces” be heated to a cherry-red
after they are cast, and after having been suddenly plunged into cold
water, that they be submitted to well-regulated pressure by skillful
hammering, until they assume their proper form; after which they are
to be again heated and allowed to cool slowly in the air. This is the
method adopted by the Chinese with their gongs, etc., a casing of sheet
iron being employed by them to support and protect the pieces during
the exposure to heat. In a general way, however, bells are formed and
completed by simple casting. This is necessarily the case with all
very large bells. Where the quality of their tones is the chief object
sought after, the greatest care should be taken to use commercially
pure copper. The presence of a very little lead or any similar metal
greatly lessens the sonorousness of this alloy; while that of silver
increases it.

The specific gravity of a large bell is seldom uniform through its
whole substance; nor can the specific gravity from any given portion
of its constituent metals be exactly calculated owing to the many
interfering circumstances. The nearer this uniformity is approached,
or, in other words, chemical combination is complete, the more durable
and finer-toned will be the bell. In general, it is found necessary to
take about one-tenth more metal than the weight of the intended bell,
or bells, in order to allow for waste and scorification during the
operations of fusing and casting.


«BISMUTH ALLOYS.»

Bismuth possesses the unusual quality of expanding in cooling. It is,
therefore, introduced in many alloys to reduce or check shrinkage in
the mold.

For delicate castings, and for taking impressions from dies, medals,
etc., various bismuth alloys are in use, whose composition corresponds
to the following figures:

             I  II  III  IV
 Bismuth     6   5   2    8
 Tin         3   2   1    3
 Lead       13   3   1    5

V.—Cliché Metal.—This alloy is composed of tin, 48 parts; lead,
32.5; bismuth, 9; and antimony, 10.5. It is especially well adapted
to dabbing rollers for printing cotton goods, and as it possesses a
considerable degree of hardness, it wears well.

VI.—For filling out defective places in metallic castings, an alloy of
bismuth 1 part, antimony 3, lead 8, can be advantageously used.

VII.—For Cementing Glass.—Most of the cements in ordinary use are
dissolved, or at least softened, by petroleum. An alloy of lead 3
parts, tin 2, bismuth 2.5, melting at 212° F., is not affected by
petroleum, and is therefore very useful for cementing lamps made of
metal and glass combined.

LIPOWITZ’S BISMUTH ALLOY: See Cadmium Alloys.


«BRASS.»

In general brass is composed of two-thirds copper and one-third zinc,
but a little lead or tin is sometimes advantageous, as the following:

I.—Red copper, 66 parts; zinc, 34 parts; lead, 1 part.

II.—Copper, 66 parts; zinc, 32 parts; tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part.

III.—Copper, 64.5 parts; zinc, 33.5 parts; lead, 1.5 parts; tin, 0.5
part.


«Brass-Aluminum.»—A small addition of aluminum to brass (1.5 to 8
per cent) {53} greatly increases its hardness and elasticity, and
this alloy is also easily worked for any purpose. Brass containing 8
per cent of aluminum has the valuable property of being but slightly
affected by acids or gases. A larger percentage of aluminum makes the
brass brittle. It is to be noted that aluminum brass decreases very
materially in volume in casting, and the casts must be cooled slowly or
they will be brittle. It is an alloy easily made, and its low price,
combined with its excellent qualities, would seem to make it in many
cases an advantageous substitute for the expensive phosphorous bronze.


«Bristol Brass (Prince’s Metal).»—This alloy, which possesses
properties similar to those of French brass, is prepared in the
following proportions:

           I    II    III
 Copper  75.7  67.2  60.8
 Zinc    24.3  32.8  39.2

Particular care is required to prevent the zinc from evaporating during
the fusing, and for this purpose it is customary to put only half of it
into the first melting, and to add the remainder when the first mass is
liquefied.


«Brass-Iron (Aich’s Metal).»—This is a variety of brass with an
admixture of iron, which gives it a considerable degree of tenacity.
It is especially adapted for purposes which require a hard and, at the
same time, tenacious metal. Analyses of the various kinds of this metal
show considerable variation in the proportions. Even the amount of
iron, to which the hardening effect must be attributed, may vary within
wide limits without materially modifying the tenacity which is the
essential characteristic of this alloy.

I.—The best variety of Aich’s metal consists of copper, 60 parts;
zinc, 38.2; iron, 1.8. The predominating quality of this alloy is its
hardness, which is claimed to be not inferior to that of certain kinds
of steel. It has a beautiful golden-yellow color, and is said not to
oxidize easily, a valuable property for articles exposed to the action
of air and water.

II.—Copper, 60.2 parts; zinc, 38.2; iron, 1.6. The permissible
variations in the content of iron are from 0.4 to 3 per cent.

Sterro metal may properly be considered in connection with Aich’s
metal, since its constituents are the same and its properties very
similar. The principal difference between the two metals is that sterro
metal contains a much larger amount of iron. The composition of this
alloy varies considerably with different manufacturers.

III.—Two varieties of excellent quality are the product of the Rosthorn
factory, in Lower Austria—copper, 55.33 parts; zinc, 41.80; iron, 4.66.
Also

IV.—English sterro metal (Gedge’s alloy for ship sheathing), copper, 60
parts; zinc, 38.125; iron, 1.5.

The great value of this alloy lies in its strength, which is equaled
only by that of the best steel. As an illustration of this, a
wrought-iron pipe broke with a pressure of 267 atmospheres, while a
similar pipe of sterro metal withstood the enormous pressure of 763
atmospheres without cracking. Besides its remarkable strength, it
possesses a high degree of elasticity, and is, therefore, particularly
suitable for purposes which require the combination of these two
qualities, such as the construction of hydraulic cylinders. It is well
known that these cylinders, at a certain pressure, begin to sweat, that
is, the interior pressure is so great that the water permeates through
the pores of the steel. With a sterro metal cylinder, the pressure can
be considerably increased without any moisture being perceptible on the
outside of the cylinder.

Sterro metal can be made even more hard and dense, if required
for special purposes, but this is effected rather by mechanical
manipulation than by any change in the chemical composition. If rolled
or hammered in heat, its strength is increased, and it acquires, in
addition, an exceedingly high degree of tenacity. Special care must be
taken, however, in hammering not to overheat the metal, as in this case
it would become brittle and might crack under the hammer. Sterro metal
is especially suitable for all the purposes for which the so-called red
metal has been in the past almost exclusively used. Axle bearings, for
example, made of sterro metal have such excellent qualities that many
machine factories are now using this material entirely for the purpose.


«Cast Brass.»—The various articles of bronze, so called, statuettes,
clock cases, etc., made in France, where this industry has attained
great perfection and extensive proportions, are not, in many cases,
genuine bronze, but fine cast brass. Following are the compositions of
a few mixtures of metals most frequently used by French manufacturers:

          Copper   Zinc   Tin    Lead
   I      63.70   33.55   2.50   0.25
  II      64.45   32.44   0.25   2.86
 III      70.90   24.05   2.00   3.05
  IV      72.43   22.75   1.87   2.95

{54}

Their special advantage is that they can be readily cast, worked with
file and chisel, and easily gilded.


«To Cast Yellow Brass.»—If good, clean, yellow brass sand castings
are desired, the brass should not contain over 30 per cent of zinc.
This will assure an alloy of good color and one which will run free
and clean. Tin or lead may be added without affecting the property of
casting clean. A mixture of 7 pounds of copper, 3 pounds of spelter, 4
ounces of tin, and 3 ounces of lead makes a good casting alloy and one
which will cut free and is strong. If a stronger alloy be desired, more
tin may be added, but 4 ounces is usually sufficient. If the alloy be
too hard, reduce the proportion of tin.


«Leaf Brass.»—This alloy is also called Dutch gold, or imitation gold
leaf. It is made of copper, 77.75 to 84.5 parts; zinc, 15.5 to 22.25.
Its color is pale or bright yellow or greenish, according to the
proportions of the metals. It has an unusual degree of ductility.


«Malleable Brass.»—This metal is affected less by sea water than
pure copper, and was formerly much used for ship sheathing, and for
making nails and rivets which were to come in contact with sea water.
At the present day it has lost much of its importance, since all the
larger ships are made of steel. It is usually composed of copper, 60
to 62 parts; and zinc, 40 to 38 parts. It is sometimes called yellow
metal, or Müntz metal (called after its inventor), and is prepared
with certain precautions, directed toward obtaining as fine a grain as
possible, experience having shown that only a fine-grained alloy of
uniform density can resist the action of the sea water evenly. A metal
of uneven density will wear in holes. To obtain as uniform a grain as
possible, small samples taken from the fused mass are cooled quickly
and examined as to fracture. If they do not show the desired uniform
grain, some zinc is added to the mass. After it has permeated the whole
mass, a fresh sample is taken and tested, this being continued until
the desired result is reached. It is scarcely necessary to remark that
considerable experience is required to tell the correct composition
of the alloy from the fracture. The mass is finally poured into molds
and rolled cold. Malleable brass can be worked warm, like iron, being
ductile in heat, a valuable quality.

Experiments with malleable brass show that all alloys containing up
to 58.33 per cent of copper and up to 41.67 per cent of zinc are
malleable. There is, in addition, a second group of such alloys, with
61.54 per cent of copper and 38.46 per cent of zinc, which are also
malleable in heat.

The preparation of these alloys requires considerable experience,
and is best accomplished by melting the metals together in the usual
manner, and heating the fused mass as strongly as possible. It must
be covered with a layer of charcoal dust to prevent oxidation of the
zinc. The mass becomes thinly fluid, and an intimate mixture of the
constituents is effected. Small pieces of the same alloy are thrown
into the liquid mass until it no longer shows a reflecting surface,
when it is cast into ingots in iron molds. The ingots are plunged
into water while still red-hot, and acquire by this treatment a very
high degree of ductility. The alloy, properly prepared, has a fibrous
fracture and a reddish-yellow color.


«Sheet Brass» (For Sheet and Wire).—In the preparation of brass for
the manufacture of wire, an especially pure quality of copper must be
used; without this, all efforts to produce a suitable quality of brass
will be in vain. That pure copper is indispensable to the manufacture
of good, ductile brass may be seen from the great difference in the
composition of the various kinds, all of which answer their purpose,
but contain widely varying quantities of copper and zinc. The following
table shows the composition of some excellent qualities of brass
suitable for making sheet and wire:

 ───────────────────+──────+──────+──────+─────
 Brass Sheet—Source │Copper│ Zinc │ Lead │ Tin
 ───────────────────+──────+──────+──────+─────
 Jemappes           │ 64.6 │ 33.7 │ 1.4  │ 0.2
 Stolberg           │ 64.8 │ 32.8 │ 2.0  │ 0.4
 Romilly            │ 70.1 │ 29.26│ 0.38 │ 0.17
 Rosthorn (Vienna)  │ 68.1 │ 31.9 │  —   │  —
 Rosthorn (Vienna)  │ 71.5 │ 28.5 │  —   │  —
 Rosthorn (Vienna)  │ 71.1 │ 27.6 │ 1.3  │  —
 Iserlohn & Romilly │ 70.1 │ 29.9 │  —   │  —
 Lüdenscheid        │ 72.73│ 27.27│  —   │  —
 (Brittle)          │ 63.66│ 33.02│ 2.52 │  —
 Hegermühl          │ 70.16│ 27.45│ 0.79 │ 0.20
 Oker               │ 68.98│ 29.54│ 0.97 │  —
                    │      │      │      │
   Brass Wire—      │      │      │      │
 England            │ 70.29│ 29.26│ 0.28 │ 0.17
 Augsburg           │ 71.89│ 27.63│ 0.85 │  —
 Neustadt           │ 70.16│ 27.45│ 0.2  │ 0.79
 Neustadt           │ 71.36│ 28.15│  —   │  —
 Neustadt           │ 71.5 │ 28.5 │  —   │  —
 Neustadt           │ 71.0 │ 27.6 │  —   │  —
 (Good quality)     │ 65.4 │ 34.6 │  —   │  —
 (Brittle)          │ 65.5 │ 32.4 │ 2.1  │  —
 For wire and sheet │ 67.0 │ 32.0 │ 0.5  │ 0.5
 ───────────────────+──────+──────+──────+─────

{55}

As the above figures show, the percentage of zinc in the different
kinds of brass lies between 27 and 34. Recently, alloys containing a
somewhat larger quantity of zinc have been used, it having been found
that the toughness and ductility of the brass are increased thereby,
without injury to its tenacity. Alloys containing up to 37 per cent
of zinc possess a high degree of ductility in the cold, and are well
adapted for wire and sheet.


«Gilders’ Sheet Brass.»—Copper, 1 part; zinc, 1 part; tin, 1⁠/⁠10 part;
lead, 1⁠/⁠10 part. Very readily fusible and very dense.


«White Brass.»—Birmingham platina is an alloy of a pure white, almost
silver-white color, remaining unaffected by tolerably long exposure
to the atmosphere. Unfortunately this alloy is so brittle that it can
rarely be shaped except by casting. It is used only in the manufacture
of buttons. The alloy is poured into molds giving rather sharp
impressions and allowing the design on the button (letters or coat of
arms) to stand out prominently with careful stamping. The composition
of this alloy, also known by the name of platinum lead, is as follows:

                    I      II
 Copper            46.5     4
 Zinc              53.5    16

III.—Zinc, 80 parts; copper, 10 parts; iron, 10 parts.


«BRITANNIA METAL.»

Britannia metal is an alloy consisting principally of tin and
antimony. Many varieties contain only these two metals, and may be
considered simply as tin hardened with antimony, while others contain,
in addition, certain quantities of copper, sometimes lead, and
occasionally, though rarely on account of its cost, bismuth. Britannia
metal is always of a silvery-white color, with a bluish tinge, and its
hardness makes it capable of taking a high polish, which is not lost
through exposure to the air. Ninety per cent of tin and 10 per cent
of antimony gives a composition which is the best for many purposes,
especially for casting, as it fills out the molds well, and is readily
fusible. In some cases, where articles made from it are to be subjected
to constant wear, a harder alloy is required. In the proportions given
above, the metal is indeed much harder than tin, but would still soon
give way under usage.

A table is appended, giving the composition of some of the varieties of
Britannia metal and their special names.

 ───────────────────────+─────+────────+──────+──────+────
                        │ Tin │Antimony│Copper│ Zinc │Lead
 ───────────────────────+─────+────────+──────+──────+────
 English                │81.90│ 16.25  │ 1.84 │  —   │ —
 English                │90.62│  7.81  │ 1.46 │  —   │ —
 English                │90.1 │  6.3   │ 3.1  │ 0.5  │ —
 English                │85.4 │  9.66  │ 0.81 │ 3.06 │ —
 Pewter                 │81.2 │  5.7   │ 1.60 │  —   │11.5
 Pewter                 │89.3 │  7.6   │ 1.8  │  —   │ 1.8
 Tutania                │91.4 │  —     │  0.7 │ 0.3  │ 7.6
 Queen’s metal          │88.5 │  7.1   │  3.5 │ 0.9  │  —
 German                 │72.0 │ 24.0   │  4.0 │  —   │  —
 German                 │84.0 │  9.0   │  2.0 │ 5.0  │  —
 German (for casting)   │20.0 │ 64.0   │ 10.0 │ 6.0  │  —
 Malleable (for casting)│48.0 │  —     │  3.0 │48.0  │ 1.0
 ───────────────────────+─────+────────+──────+──────+────

Britannia metal is prepared by melting the copper alone first, then
adding a part of the tin and the whole of the antimony. The heat can
then be quickly moderated, as the melting point of the new alloy is
much lower than that of copper. Finally, the rest of the tin is added,
and the mixture stirred constantly for some time to make it thoroughly
homogeneous.

An alloy which bears a resemblance to Britannia metal is Ashberry
metal, for which there are two formulas.

                                  I  II
 Copper                           2   3
 Tin                              8  79
 Antimony                        14  15
 Zinc                             1   2
 Nickel                           2   1


«BRONZES.»

The composition of bronze must be effected immediately before the
casting, for bronze cannot be kept in store ready prepared. In forming
the alloy, the refractory compound, copper, is first melted separately,
the other metals, tin, zinc, etc., previously heated, being then added;
the whole is then stirred and the casting carried out without loss of
time. The process of forming the alloy must be effected quickly, so
that there may be no loss of zinc, tin, or lead through oxidation,
and also no interruption to the flow of metal, as metal added after
an interval of time will not combine perfectly with the metal already
poured in. It is important, therefore, to ascertain the specific
weights of the metals, for the heavier metal will naturally tend to
sink to the bottom and the lighter to collect at the top. Only in this
way, and by vigorous stirring, can the complete blending of the two
metals be secured. In adding the zinc, great care {56} must be taken
that the latter sinks at once to the level of the copper, otherwise a
considerable portion will be volatilized before reaching the copper.
When the castings are made, they must be cooled as quickly as possible,
for the components of bronze have a tendency to form separate alloys of
various composition, thus producing the so-called tin spots. This is
much more likely to occur with a slow than with a sudden cooling of the
mass.


«Annealing Bronze.»—This process is more particularly employed in
the preparation of alloys used in the manufacture of cymbals, gongs,
bells, etc. The alloy is naturally brittle, and acquires the properties
essential to the purpose for which it is intended only after casting.
The instruments are plunged into cold water while red-hot, hammered,
reheated, and slowly cooled, when they become soft and sonorous. The
alloy of copper and tin has the peculiar property that, whereas steel
becomes hard through cooling, this mixture, when cooled suddenly,
becomes noticeably soft and more malleable. The alloy is heated to a
dark-red heat, or, in the case of thin articles, to the melting point
of lead, and then plunged in cold water. The alloy may be hammered
without splitting or breaking.


«Aluminum Bronze.»—This is prepared by melting the finest copper in a
crucible, and adding the aluminum. The copper is cooled thereby to the
thickly fluid point, but at the moment of the combination of the two
metals, so much heat is released that the alloy becomes white hot and
thinly fluid. Aluminum bronze thus prepared is usually brittle, and
acquires its best qualities only after having been remelted several
times. It may be remarked that, in order to obtain a bronze of the best
quality, only the very purest copper must be used; with an inferior
quality of copper, all labor is wasted. Aluminum bronze is not affected
by exposure to the air; and its beautiful color makes it very suitable
for manufacturing various ornamental articles, including clock cases,
door knobs, etc.

Aluminum bronze wire is almost as strong as good steel wire, and
castings made from it are almost as hard as steely iron; its resistance
to bending or sagging is great.

I.—A good formula is 90 to 95 per cent of aluminum and 5 to 10 per
cent of copper, of golden color, which keeps well in the air, without
soon becoming dull and changing color like pure copper and its alloys
with tin and zinc (bronze, brass, etc.). It can be cast excellently,
can be filed well and turned, possesses an extraordinary hardness and
firmness, and attains a high degree of polish; it is malleable and
forgeable. On the latter quality are founded applications which were
formerly never thought of, viz.: forged works of art for decorative
purposes. An alloy of 95 parts aluminum and 5 parts copper is used
here. The technical working of bronze is not materially different from
that of iron. The metal, especially in a hot condition, is worked like
iron on the anvil, with hammer and chisel, only that the temperature
to be maintained in forging lies between dark and light cherry red.
If the articles are not forged in one piece and the putting together
of the separate parts becomes necessary, riveting or soldering has to
be resorted to. Besides forging, aluminum bronze is well suited for
embossing, which is not surprising considering the high percentage of
copper. After finishing the pieces, the metal can be toned in manifold
ways by treatment with acid.

II.—Copper, 89 to 98 per cent; aluminum and nickel, 1 to 2 per cent.
Aluminum and nickel change in the opposite way, that is to say, in
increasing the percentage of nickel the amount of aluminum is decreased
by the equal quantity. It should be borne in mind that the best ratio
is aluminum, 9.5 per cent; nickel, 1 to 1.5 per cent at most. In
preparing the alloy a deoxidizing agent is added, viz., phosphorus to
0.5 per cent; magnesium to 1.5 per cent. The phosphorus should always
be added in the form of phosphorous copper or phosphor aluminum of
exactly determined percentage. It is first added to the copper, then
the aluminum and the nickel, and finally the magnesium, the last named
at the moment of liquidity, are admixed.

III.—A gold bronze, containing 3 to 5 per cent aluminum; specific
gravity, 8.37 to 8.15. Handsome golden color. This alloy oxidizes less
on heating than copper and iron, and is therefore especially adapted
for locomotive fireboxes and spindles, etc.

IV.—A steel bronze containing on an average 8.5 per cent aluminum
(including 1 per cent silicium); specific gravity, 7.7. Very ductile
and tough, but slightly elastic; hence its use is excluded where, with
large demands upon tension and pressure, no permanent change of form
must ensue. This is changed by working, such as rolling, drawing,
etc. {57} Especially useful where infrangibility is desired, as in
machinery, ordnance, etc. At high temperature this bronze loses its
elasticity again.

V.—This contains 8.5 per cent aluminum and 1 1⁠/⁠2 to 2 per cent
silicium. Its use is advisable in cases where the metal is to possess a
good elasticity, even in the cast state, and to retain it after being
worked in red heat.

VI.—An acid bronze, containing 10 per cent aluminum; specific gravity,
7.65. Especially serviceable to resist oxidation and the action of
acids.

VII.—Diamond bronze, containing 10 per cent aluminum and 2 per cent
silicium. Specific gravity, 7.3. Very hard; of great firmness, but
brittle.


«Art Bronzes.» (See also Aluminum Bronzes and Japanese Bronzes under
this title.)—I.—Copper, 84 parts; zinc, 11 parts; tin, 5 parts.

II.—Copper, 90 parts; zinc, 6 parts; tin, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts.

III.—Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 30 parts; tin, 5 parts.

IV.—Copper, 90 parts; tin, 5 parts; zinc, 4 parts; lead, 1 part.

V.—Copper, 85 parts; zinc, 10 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.

VI.—Copper, 72 parts; zinc, 23 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.


«Statuary Bronze.»—Many of the antique statues were made of genuine
bronze, which has advantages for this purpose, but has been superseded
in modern times by mixtures of metals containing, besides copper and
tin—the constituents of real bronze—a quantity of zinc, the alloy thus
formed being really an intermediate product between bronze and brass.
The reason for the use of such mixtures lies partly in the comparative
cheapness of their production as compared with genuine bronze, and
partly in the purpose for which the metal is to be used. A thoroughly
good statuary bronze must become thinly fluid in fusing, fill the molds
out sharply, allow of being easily worked with the file, and must take
on the beautiful green coating called patina, after being exposed to
the air for a short time.

Genuine bronze, however strongly heated, does not become thin enough to
fill out the molds well, and it is also difficult to obtain homogeneous
castings from it. Brass alone is also too thickly fluid, and not hard
enough for the required fine chiseling or chasing of the finished
object. Alloys containing zinc and tin, in addition to copper, can be
prepared in such a manner that they will become very thinly fluid, and
will give fine castings which can easily be worked with the file and
chisel. The best proportions seem to be from 10 to 18 per cent of zinc
and from 2 to 4 per cent of tin. In point of hardness, statuary bronze
holds an intermediate position between genuine bronze and brass, being
harder and tougher than the latter, but not so much so as the former.

Since statuary bronze is used principally for artistic purposes, much
depends upon the color. This can be varied from pale yellow to orange
yellow by slightly varying the content of tin or zinc, which must, of
course, still be kept between the limits given above. Too much tin
makes the alloy brittle and difficult to chisel; with too much zinc, on
the other hand, the warm tone of color is lost, and the bronze does not
acquire a fine patina.

The best proportions for statuary bronze are very definitely known at
the present day; yet it sometimes happens that large castings have not
the right character. They are either defective in color, or they do not
take on a fine patina, or they are difficult to chisel. These phenomena
may be due to the use of impure metals—containing oxides, iron, lead,
etc.—or to improper treatment of the alloy in melting. With the most
careful work possible, there is a considerable loss in melting—3 per
cent at the very least, and sometimes as much as 10. This is due to the
large proportion of zinc, and it is evident that, in consequence of it,
the nature of the alloy will be different from what might be expected
from the quantities of metals used in its manufacture.

It has been remarked that slight variations in composition quickly
change the color of the alloy. The following table gives a series of
alloys of different colors, suitable for statuary bronze:

 ──────+────────+───────+──────+───────────────
       │ Copper │  Zinc │  Tin │   Color
 ──────+────────+───────+──────+───────────────
    I  │ 84.42  │ 11.28 │ 4.30 │ Reddish yellow
   II  │ 84.00  │ 11.00 │ 5.00 │ Orange red
  III  │ 83.05  │ 13.03 │ 3.92 │ Orange red
   IV  │ 83.00  │ 12.00 │ 5.00 │ Orange red
    V  │ 81.05  │ 15.32 │ 3.63 │ Orange yellow
   VI  │ 81.00  │ 15.00 │ 4.00 │ Orange yellow
  VII  │ 78.09  │ 18.47 │ 3.44 │ Orange yellow
 VIII  │ 73.58  │ 23.27 │ 3.15 │ Orange yellow
   IX  │ 73.00  │ 23.00 │ 4.00 │ Pale orange
    X  │ 70.36  │ 26.88 │ 2.76 │ Pale yellow
   XI  │ 70.00  │ 27.00 │ 3.00 │ Pale yellow
  XII  │ 65.95  │ 31.56 │ 2.49 │ Pale yellow
 ──────+────────+───────+──────+───────────────

{58}

Perhaps the most satisfactory bronze metal is the alloy used in France
for more than a century. It contains 91.60 per cent of copper, 5.33 per
cent of zinc, 1.70 per cent of tin, and 1.37 per cent of lead. Somewhat
more zinc is taken for articles to be gilded.


«Bismuth Bronze.»—Copper, 52 parts; nickel, 30 parts; zinc, 12 parts;
lead, 5 parts; bismuth, 1 part. For metallic mirrors, lamp reflectors,
etc.

Gun Bronze.—See Phosphor Bronze under this title.


«Japanese Bronzes.»—The formulas given below contain a large percentage
of lead, which greatly improves the patina. The ingredients and the
ratio of their parts for several sorts of modern Japanese bronze follow:

I.—Copper, 81.62 per cent; tin, 4.61 per cent; lead, 10.21 per cent.

II.—Copper, 76.60 per cent; tin, 4.38 per cent; lead, 11.88 per cent;
zinc, 6.53 per cent.

III.—Copper, 88.55 per cent; tin, 2.42 per cent; lead, 4.72 per cent;
zinc, 3.20 per cent.

Sometimes a little antimony is added just before casting, and such a
composition would be represented more nearly by this formula:

IV.—Copper, 68.25 per cent; tin, 5.47 per cent; zinc, 8.88 per cent;
lead, 17.06 per cent; antimony, 0.34 per cent.

For imitation Japanese bronze, see Plating under Bronzing.


«Machine Bronze.»—I.—Copper, 89 per cent; tin, 11 per cent.

II.—Copper, 80 per cent; tin, 16 per cent.


«Phosphor Bronze.»—Phosphor bronze is bronze containing varying amounts
of phosphorus, from a few hundredths of 1 per cent to 1 or 2 per cent.
Bronze containing simply copper and tin is very liable to be defective
from the presence of oxygen, sulphur, or occluded gases. Oxygen causes
the metal to be spongy and weak. Sulphur and occluded gases cause
porosity. Oxygen gets into the metal by absorption from the air. It
can be eliminated by adding to the metal something which combines with
the oxygen and then fluxes off. Such deoxidizers are zinc, antimony,
aluminum, manganese, silicon, and phosphorus. Sulphur and occluded
gases can be eliminated by melting the metal, exposing it to the
air, and letting it thus absorb some oxygen, which then burns the
sulphur and gas. The oxygen can then be removed by adding one of the
above-mentioned deoxidizers. The important use of phosphorus in bronze
is, therefore, to remove oxygen and also indirectly to destroy occluded
gas and sulphur.

A bronze is sometimes made with an extra high percentage of phosphorus,
namely, 6 per cent. This alloy is made so as to have phosphorus in
convenient form for use, and the process of manufacture is as follows:
Ninety pounds of copper are melted under charcoal in a No. 70 crucible,
which holds about 200 pounds of metal when full; 11 pounds of tin are
added and the metal is allowed to become hot. The crucible is then
removed from the furnace and 7 pounds of phosphorus are introduced
in the following manner: A 3-gallon stone jar, half full of dilute
solution of blue vitriol, is weighed. Then the weights are increased 7
pounds, and phosphorus in sticks about 4 inches long is added till the
scales balance again. The phosphorus is left in this solution half an
hour or longer, the phosphorus being given a coating of copper, so that
it may be dried and exposed to the air without igniting. Have ready a
pan about 30 inches square and 6 inches deep, containing about 2 inches
of water. Over the water is a wire netting, which is laid loose on
ledges or supports along the inner sides of the pan. On the netting is
blotting paper, and on this the phosphorus is laid to dry when taken
out of the blue-vitriol solution. The pan also has a lid which can be
put down in case of ignition of the phosphorus.

The phosphorus is now ready for introduction into the metal. This
is done by means of a cup-shaped instrument called a retort or
phosphorizer. One man holds the retort on the rim of the crucible
in a horizontal position. A second man takes about three pieces
of phosphorus and throws them into the retort. The first man then
immediately plunges the mouth of the retort below the surface of the
metal before the phosphorus has a chance to fall or flow out. Of course
the phosphorus immediately melts and also begins to volatilize. As the
phosphorus comes in contact with the metal, it combines with it. This
process is continued till all the 7 pounds of phosphorus has been put
into the metal. The metal is then poured into slabs about 3 inches by 4
inches by 1 inch thick. The metal is so hard that a greater thickness
would make it difficult to break it up. When finished, the metal
contains, by analysis, 6 per cent of phosphorus. When phosphorus is to
be added to metal, a little of this hardener is employed.

Copper is a soft, ductile metal, with its melting point at about
2,000° F. {59} Molten copper has the marked property of absorbing
various gases. It is for this reason that it is so difficult to make
sound castings of clear copper. Molten copper combines readily with
the oxygen of the air, forming oxide of copper, which dissolves in the
copper and mixes homogeneously with it.

A casting made from such metal would be very spongy. The bad effect of
oxygen is intended to be overcome by adding zinc to the extent of 1
per cent or more. This result can be much more effectively attained
by the use of aluminum, manganese, or phosphorus. The action of these
substances is to combine with the oxygen, and as the product formed
separates and goes to the surface, the metal is left in a sound
condition. Aluminum and manganese deoxidize copper and bronze very
effectively, and the oxide formed goes to the surface as a scum. When a
casting is made from such metal, the oxide or scum, instead of freeing
itself from the casting perfectly, generally remains in the top part
of the casting mixed with the metal, as a fractured surface will show.
Phosphorus deoxidizes copper, and the oxide formed leaves the metal
in the form of a gas, so that a casting made from such metal shows a
clean fracture throughout, although the metal is not so dense as when
aluminum or manganese is used.

Copper also has the property of absorbing or occluding carbon monoxide.
But the carbonic oxide thus absorbed is in a different condition from
the oxygen absorbed. When oxygen is absorbed by copper, the oxygen
combines chemically with the copper and loses its own identity as
a gas. But when coal gas is absorbed by the copper, it keeps its
own physical identity and simply exists in the copper in a state of
solution. All natural waters, such as lake water, river water, spring
water, etc., contain air in solution or occlusion. When such water is
cooled and frozen, just at the time of changing from the liquid to the
solid state, the dissolved gas separates and forms air bubbles, which
remain entangled in the ice. The carbonic oxide which is dissolved or
occluded in copper acts in exactly the same way.

Hydrogen acts in exactly the same manner as carbonic oxide. Sulphur
also has a bad effect upon copper and bronze. Sulphur combines with
copper and other metals, forming sulphide of copper, etc. When
molten copper or bronze containing sulphur comes in contact with air
it absorbs some oxygen, and this in turn combines with the sulphur
present, forming sulphur dioxide, which is a gas which remains occluded
in the metal.

Tin is a soft, white metal, melting at 440° F. Toward gases it acts
something like copper, but not in so marked a degree. Although copper
and tin are both soft, yet when mixed they make a harder metal. When
bronze cools from the molten state, the copper and the copper-tin alloy
tend to crystallize by themselves. The quicker the cooling occurs the
less separation will there be, and also the fracture will be more
homogeneous in appearance.

Gun bronze contains copper and tin in the proportion of 9 or 10 parts
of copper to 1 of tin. This is the metal used when an ordinary bronze
casting is wanted. A harder bronze is copper and tin in the ratio of
6 to 1. This is often used as a bearing metal. When either of these
metals is to be turned in the machine shop, they should contain about
3 per cent of lead, which will make them work very much better, but
it also decreases their tensile strength. Bearing metal now generally
contains about 10 per cent of lead, with copper and tin in varying
ratios. The large percentage of lead is put in that the metal may wear
away slower. Lead, although a metal having properties similar to tin,
acts entirely different toward copper. Copper and tin have a good deal
of affinity for each other, but copper and lead show no attraction at
all for each other. Copper and tin mix in all proportions, but copper
and lead mix only to a very limited extent. About 3 per cent of lead
can be mixed with copper. With bronze about 15 per cent to 20 per
cent of lead can be mixed. In bearing bronze the lead keeps its own
physical properties, so that the constituent lead melts long before
the metal attains a red heat. It sometimes happens when a bearing runs
warm that the lead actually sweats out and forms pimples on the metal.
Or, sometimes, in remelting a bearing bronze casting the lead may be
seen to drop out while the metal is warming up. All of these metals,
however, should contain something to flux or deoxidize them, such as
zinc, manganese, aluminum, silicon, antimony, or phosphorus.

The phosphor bronze bearing metal in vogue has the following
composition: Copper, 79.7 per cent; tin, 10 per cent; lead, 10 percent;
and phosphorus, 0.3 per cent.

Melt 140 pounds of copper in a No. 70 pot, covering with charcoal. When
copper is all melted, add 17 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of tin to 17 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
of lead, and allow the metal to become sufficiently warm, but {60}
not any hotter than is needed. Then add 10 pounds of “hardener” (made
as previously described) and stir well. Remove from furnace, skim off
the charcoal, cool the metal with gates to as low a temperature as is
consistent with getting a good casting, stir well again, and pour. The
molds for this kind of work are faced with plumbago.

There are several firms that make phosphor-bronze bearings with a
composition similar to the above one, and most of them, or perhaps all,
make it by melting the metals and then charging with phosphorus to the
extent of 0.7 to 1 per cent. But some metal from all brands contains
occluded gas. So that after such metal is cast (in about two minutes
or so) the metal will ooze or sweat out through the gate, and such a
casting will be found to be porous. But not one such experience with
metal made as described above has yet been found.

This practical point should be heeded, viz., that pig phosphor bronze
should be brought to the specifications that the metal should have
shrunk in the ingot mold in cooling, as shown by the concave surface
of the upper side, and that it should make a casting in a sand mold
without rising in the gate after being poured.

In bearing metal, occluded gas is very objectionable, because the gas,
in trying to free itself, shoves the very hard copper-tin compound
(which has a low melting point and remains liquid after the copper has
begun to set) into spots, and thus causes hard spots in the metal.

Phosphorus is very dangerous to handle, and there is great risk from
fire with it, so that many would not care to handle the phosphorus
itself. But phosphor copper containing 5 per cent of phosphorus, and
phosphor tin containing 2 to 7 per cent of phosphorus, and several
other such alloys can be obtained in the market. It may be suggested
to those who wish to make phosphor bronze, but do not want to handle
phosphorus itself, to make it by using the proper amounts of one of
these high phosphorus alloys. In using phosphorus it is only necessary
to use enough to thoroughly deoxidize the metal, say 0.3 per cent. More
than this will make the metal harder, but not any sounder.

Phosphor bronze is not a special kind of alloy, but any bronze can be
made into phosphor bronze; it is, in fact, simply a deoxidized bronze,
produced under treatment with phosphorus compounds.

Although the effect of phosphorus in improving the quality of bronze
has been known for more than fifty years, it is only of late that
the mode for preparing phosphor bronze has been perfected. It is now
manufactured in many localities. Besides its action in reducing the
oxides dissolved in the alloy, the phosphorus exerts another very
material influence upon the properties of the bronze. The ordinary
bronzes consist of mixtures in which the copper is really the only
crystallized constituent, since the tin crystallizes with great
difficulty. As a consequence of this dissimilarity in the nature of
the two metals, the alloy is not so solid as it would be if both were
crystallized. The phosphorus causes the tin to crystallize, and the
result is a more homogeneous mixture of the two metals.

If enough phosphorus is added, so that its presence can be detected
in the finished bronze, the latter may be considered an alloy of
crystallized phosphor tin with copper. If the content of phosphor
is still more increased, a part of the copper combines with the
phosphorus, and the bronze then contains, besides copper and tin,
compounds of crystallized copper phosphide with phosphide of tin.
The strength and tenacity of the bronze are not lessened by a larger
amount of phosphorus, and its hardness is considerably increased. Most
phosphor bronzes are equal in this respect to the best steel, and some
even surpass it in general properties.

The phosphorus is added to the bronze in the form of copper phosphide
or phosphide of tin, the two being sometimes used together. They must
be specially prepared for this purpose, and the best methods will be
here given. Copper phosphide is prepared by heating a mixture of 4
parts of superphosphate of lime, 2 parts of granulated copper, and
1 part of finely pulverized coal in a crucible at a temperature not
too high. The melted copper phosphide, containing 14 per cent of
phosphorus, separates on the bottom of the crucible.

Tin phosphide is prepared as follows: Place a bar of zinc in an aqueous
solution of tin chloride. The tin will be separated in the form of a
sponge-like mass. Collect it, and put it into a crucible, upon the
bottom of which sticks of phosphorus have been placed. Press the tin
tightly into the crucible, and expose to a gentle heat. Continue the
heating until flames of burning phosphorus are no longer observed
on the crucible. The pure tin phosphide, in the form of a coarsely
crystalline mass, tin-white in color, will be found on the bottom of
the crucible.

To prepare the phosphor bronze, the {61} alloy to be treated is melted
in the usual way, and small pieces of the copper phosphide and tin
phosphide are added.

Phosphor bronze, properly prepared, has nearly the same melting point
as that of ordinary bronze. In cooling, however, it has the peculiarity
of passing directly from the liquid to the solid state, without first
becoming thickly fluid. In a melted state it retains a perfectly bright
surface, while ordinary bronze in this condition is always covered with
a thin film of oxide.

If phosphor bronze is kept for a long time at the melting point, there
is not any loss of tin, but the amount of phosphorus is slightly
diminished.

The most valuable properties of phosphor bronze are its extraordinary
tenacity and strength. It can be rolled, hammered, and stretched cold,
and its strength is nearly double that of the best ordinary bronze.
It is principally used in cases where great strength and power of
resistance to outward influences are required, as, for instance, in
objects which are to be exposed to the action of sea water.

Phosphor bronze containing about 4 per cent of tin is excellently
well adapted for sheet bronze. With not more than 5 per cent of tin,
it can be used, forged, for firearms. Seven to 10 per cent of tin
gives the greatest hardness, and such bronze is especially suited to
the manufacture of axle bearings, cylinders for steam fire engines,
cogwheels, and, in general, for parts of machines where great strength
and hardness are required. Phosphor bronze, if exposed to the air,
soon becomes covered with a beautiful, closely adhering patina, and is
therefore well adapted to purposes of art. The amount of phosphorus
added varies from 0.25 to 2.5 per cent, according to the purpose of
the bronze. The composition of a number of kinds of phosphor bronze is
given below:

 ─────+──────+─────+─────+─────+────+───────
      │Copper│ Tin │ Zinc│ Lead│Iron│Phosp-
      │      │     │     │     │    │horus
 ─────+──────+─────+─────+─────+────+───────
    I.│ 85.55│ 9.85│ 3.77│ 0.62│trs.│ 0.05
   II.│  —   │ 4–15│  —  │ 4–15│ —  │ 0.5–3
  III.│  —   │ 4–15│ 8–20│ 4–15│ —  │ .25–2
   IV.│ 77.85│11.00│ 7.65│  —  │ —  │  —
    V.│ 72.50│ 8.00│17.00│  —  │ —  │  —
   VI.│ 73.50│ 6.00│19.00│  —  │ —  │  —
  VII.│ 74.50│11.00│11.00│  —  │ —  │  —
 VIII.│ 83.50│ 8.00│ 3.00│  —  │ —  │  —
   IX.│ 90.34│ 8.90│  —  │  —  │ —  │ 0.76
    X.│ 90.86│ 8.56│  —  │  —  │ —  │ 0.196
   XI.│ 94.71│ 4.39│  —  │  —  │ —  │ 0.053
 ─────+──────+─────+─────+─────+────+───────

I for axle bearings, II and III for harder and softer axle bearings, IV
to VIII for railroad purposes, IV especially for valves of locomotives,
V and VI axle bearings for wagons, VII for connecting rods, VIII for
piston rods in hydraulic presses.


«Steel Bronze».—Copper, 60; ferromanganese (containing 70 to 80 per
cent manganese), 40; zinc, 15.


«Silicon Bronze.»—Silicon, similarly to phosphorus, acts as a
deoxidizing agent, and the bronzes produced under its influence are
very ductile and elastic, do not rust, and are very strong. On account
of these qualities silicon bronze is much used for telegraph and
telephone wires. The process of manufacture is similar to that of
phosphor bronze; the silicon is used in the form of copper silicide.
Some good silicon bronzes are as follows:

                      I       II
 Copper             97.12    97.37
 Tin                 1.14     1.32
 Zinc                1.10     1.27
 Silicon             0.05     0.07


«Sun Bronze.»—The alloy called sun bronze contains 10 parts of
aluminum, 30 to 50 parts of copper, and 40 to 60 parts of cobalt. The
mixture known by the name of metalline has 25 per cent of aluminum, 30
of copper, 10 of iron, and 35 of cobalt. These alloys melt at a point
approaching the melting point of copper, are tenacious, ductile, and
very hard.


«Tobin Bronze.»—This alloy is nearly similar in composition and
properties to Delta metal.

              I       II    III     IV
 Copper     61.203  59.00  61.20  82.67
 Zinc       27.440  38.40  37.14   3.23
 Tin         0.906   2.16   0.90  12.40
 Iron        0.180   0.11   0.18   0.10
 Lead        0.359   0.31   0.35   2.14
 Silver        —      —      —     0.07
 Phosphorus    —      —      —     0.005

The alloy marked IV is sometimes called deoxidized bronze.

Violet-colored bronze is 50 parts copper and 50 parts antimony.


«CADMIUM ALLOYS:»

See also Fusible Alloys.


«Lipowitz’s Alloy.»—I.—This alloy is composed of cadmium, 3 parts; tin,
4; bismuth, 15; and lead, 8. The simplest method of preparation is to
heat the metals, in small pieces, in a crucible, stirring constantly,
as soon as fusion {62} begins, with a stick of hard wood. The stirring
is important, in order to prevent the metals, whose specific gravity
varies considerably, from being deposited in layers. The alloy softens
at 140° F. and melts completely at 158° F. The color is silvery
white, with a luster like polished silver, and the metal can be bent,
hammered, and turned. These properties would make it valuable for many
purposes where a beautiful appearance is of special importance, but
on account of the considerable amount of cadmium and bismuth which it
contains, it is rather expensive, and therefore limited in use. Casts
of small animals, insects, lizards, etc., have been prepared from it,
which were equal in sharpness to the best galvanoplastic work. Plaster
of Paris is poured over the animal to be cast, and after sharp drying,
the animal is removed and the mold filled up with Lipowitz’s metal.
The mold is placed in a vessel of water, and by heating to the boiling
point the metal is melted and deposited in the finest impressions of
the mold.

This alloy is most excellent for soldering tin, lead, Britannia metal,
and nickel, being especially adapted to the last two metals on account
of its silver-white color. But here again its costliness prevents its
general use, and cheaper alloys possessing the same properties have
been sought. In cases where the silver-white color and the low melting
point are not of the first importance, the alloys given below may very
well be used in the place of it.

II.—Cadmium alloy (melting point, 170° F.): Cadmium, 2 parts; tin, 3;
lead, 11; bismuth, 16.

III.—Cadmium alloy (melting point, 167° F.): Cadmium, 10 parts; tin, 3;
lead, 8; bismuth, 8.

Cadmium alloys (melting point, 203° F.):

                      IV  V  VI
 Cadmium               1  1  1  parts
 Tin                   2  3  1  parts
 Bismuth               3  5  2  parts

VII.—A very fusible alloy, melting at 150° F., is composed of tin, 1 or
2 parts; lead, 2 or 3; bismuth, 4 or 15; cadmium, 1 or 2.

VIII.—Wood’s alloy melts between 140° and 161.5° F. It is composed of
lead, 4 parts; tin, 2; bismuth, 5 to 8; cadmium, 1 to 2. In color it
resembles platinum, and is malleable to a certain extent.

IX.—Cadmium alloy (melting point, 179.5° F.): Cadmium, 1 part; lead, 6
parts; bismuth, 7. This, like the preceding, can be used for soldering
in hot water.

X.—Cadmium alloy (melting point, 300° F.): Cadmium, 2 parts; tin, 4;
lead, 2. This is an excellent soft solder, with a melting point about
86 degrees below that of lead and tin alone.


«Cadmium Alloys with Gold, Silver, and Copper.»—I.—Gold, 750 parts;
silver, 166 parts; cadmium, 84 parts. A malleable and ductile alloy of
green color.

II.—Gold, 750 parts; silver, 125 parts; and cadmium, 125 parts.
Malleable and ductile alloy of yellowish-green hue.

III.—Gold, 746 parts; silver, 114 parts; copper, 97 parts; and cadmium,
43 parts. Likewise a malleable and ductile alloy of a peculiar green
shade. All these alloys are suitable for plating. As regards their
production, each must be carefully melted together from its ingredients
in a covered crucible lined with coal dust, or in a graphite crucible.
Next, the alloy has to be remelted in a graphite crucible with charcoal
(or rosin powder) and borax. If, in spite thereof, a considerable
portion of the cadmium should have evaporated, the alloy must be
re-fused once more with an addition of cadmium.


«ALLOYS FOR CASTING COINS, MEDALLIONS, ETC.»

Alloys which fulfill the requirements of the medalist, and capable,
therefore, of reproducing all details, are the following:

                      I  II
 Tin                  3   6 parts
 Lead                13   8 parts
 Bismuth              6  14 parts

III.—A soft alloy suitable to take impressions of woodcuts, coins,
metals, engravings, etc., and which must melt at a low degree of heat,
is made out of bismuth, 3 parts; tin, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts; lead, 2 1⁠/⁠2
parts; and worn-out type, 1 part.


«Acid-proof Alloy.»—This alloy is characterized by its power of
resisting the action of acids, and is therefore especially adapted
to making cocks, pipes, etc., which are to come in contact with acid
fluids. It is composed of copper, zinc, lead, tin, iron, nickel,
cobalt, and antimony, in the following proportions:

 Copper                74.75 parts
 Zinc                   0.61 parts
 Lead                  16.35 parts
 Tin                    0.91 parts
 Iron                   0.43 parts
 Nickel or Cobalt       0.24 parts
 Antimony               6.78 parts

{63}


«Albata Metal.»—Copper, 40 parts; zinc, 32 parts; and nickel, 8 parts.


«Alfenide Metal.»—Copper, 60 parts; zinc, 30; nickel, 10; traces of
iron.


«Bath Metal.»—This alloy is used especially in England for the
manufacture of teapots, and is very popular owing to the fine white
color it possesses. It takes a high polish, and articles made from
this alloy acquire in the course of time, upon only being rubbed with a
white cloth, a permanent silver luster. The composition of Bath metal
is copper, 55 parts; zinc, 45 parts.


«Baudoin Metal.»—This is composed of 72 parts of copper, 16.6 of
nickel, 1.8 of cobalt, 1 of zinc; 1⁠/⁠2 per cent of aluminum may be
added.


«CASTING COPPER:»


«Macht’s Yellow Metal.»—I.—This alloy consists of 33 parts of copper
and 25 of zinc. It has a dark golden-yellow color, great tenacity,
and can be forged at a red heat, properties which make it especially
suitable for fine castings.

II.—Yellow.—Copper, 67 to 70 parts; zinc, 33 to 30 parts.

III.—Red.—Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts.


«Copper Arsenic.»—Arsenic imparts to copper a very fine white color,
and makes it very hard and brittle. Before German silver was known,
these alloys were sometimes used for the manufacture of such cast
articles as were not to come in contact with iron. When exposed to the
air, they soon lose their whiteness and take on a brownish shade. On
account of this, as well as the poisonous character of the arsenic,
they are very little used at the present time. Alloys of copper and
arsenic are best prepared by pressing firmly into a crucible a mixture
of 70 parts of copper and 30 of arsenic (the copper to be used in the
form of fine shavings) and fusing this mixture in a furnace with a good
draught, under a cover of glass.


«Copper Iron.»—The alloys of copper and iron are little used in the
industries of the present day, but it would seem that in earlier times
they were frequently prepared for the purpose of giving a considerable
degree of hardness to copper; for in antique casts, consisting
principally of copper, we regularly find large quantities of iron,
which leads to the supposition that they were added intentionally.

These alloys, when of a certain composition, have considerable strength
and hardness. With an increase in the quantity of the iron the hardness
increases, but the solidity is lessened. A copper and iron alloy of
considerable strength, and at the same time very hard, is made of
copper, 66 parts; iron, 34. These alloys acquire, on exposure to air,
an ugly color inclining toward black, and are therefore not adapted for
articles of art.


«Copper Nickel.»—A. Morrell, of New York, has obtained a patent on
a nickel-copper alloy which he claims is valuable on account of its
noncorrosive qualities, therefore making it desirable for ships, boiler
tubes, and other uses where the metal comes much in contact with water.
The process of making the metal is by smelting ore containing sulphide
of nickel and copper, and besemerizing the resultant matter. This
is calcined in order to obtain the nickel and copper in the form of
oxides. The latter are reduced in reverberating furnace with carbon, or
the like, so as to produce an alloy which preferably contains 2 parts
of nickel and 1 part of copper.


«Delta Metal.»—An alloy widely used for making parts of machinery,
and also for artistic purposes, is the so-called Delta metal. This is
a variety of brass hardened with iron; some manufacturers add small
quantities of tin and lead; also, in some cases, nickel. The following
analysis of Delta metal (from the factory at Düsseldorf) will show its
usual composition:

 ──────────+───────+───────+───────+─────+─────
           │   I   │   II  │  III  │  IV │  V
 ──────────+───────+───────+───────+─────+─────
 Copper    │ 55.94 │  55.80│  55.82│54.22│58.65
 Zinc      │ 41.61 │  40.07│  41.41│42.25│38.95
 Lead      │  0.72 │   1.82│   0.76│ 1.10│ 0.67
 Iron      │  0.87 │   1.28│   0.86│ 0.99│ 1.62
 Manganese │  0.81 │   0.96│   1.38│ 1.09│  —
 Nickel    │traces.│traces.│   0.06│ 0.16│ 0.11
 Phosphorus│  0.013│  0.011│traces.│ 0.02│  —
 ──────────+───────+───────+───────+─────+─────

I is cast, II hammered, III rolled, and IV hot-stamped metal. Delta
metal is produced by heating zinc very strongly in crucibles (to about
1600° F.), and adding ferromanganese or “spiegeleisen,” producing an
alloy of 95 per cent zinc and 5 per cent of iron. Copper and brass and
a very small amount of copper phosphate are also added. {64}


«Gong Metal.»—A sonorous metal for cymbals, gongs, and tam-tams
consists of 100 parts of copper with 25 parts tin. Ignite the piece
after it is cast and plunge it into cold water immediately.


«Production of Minargent.»—This alloy consists of copper, 500 parts;
nickel, 350; tungsten, 25, and aluminum, 5. The metal obtained
possesses a handsome white color and greatly resembles silver.


«Minofor.»—The so-called Minofor metal is composed of copper, tin,
antimony, zinc, and iron in the following proportions:

                          I      II
 Copper                  3.26     4
 Tin                    67.53    66
 Antimony               17.00    20
 Zinc                    8.94     9
 Iron                     —       1

Minargent and Minofor are sometimes used in England for purposes in
which the ordinary Britannia metal, 2 parts tin and 1 part antimony,
might equally well be employed; the latter surpasses both of them in
beauty of color, but they are, on the other hand, harder.


«Retz Alloy.»—This alloy, which resists the corrosive action of
alkalies and acids, is composed of 15 parts of copper, 2.34 of tin,
1.82 of lead, and 1 of antimony. It can be utilized in the manufacture
of receivers, for which porcelain and ebonite are usually employed.


«Ruoltz Metal.»—This comprises 20 parts of silver, 50 of copper, 30 of
nickel. These proportions may, however, vary.


«Tissier’s Metal.»—This alloy contains arsenic, is of a beautiful
tombac red color, and very hard. Its composition varies a great deal,
but the peculiar alloy which gives the name is composed of copper, 97
parts; zinc, 2 parts; arsenic, 1 or 2. It may be considered a brass
with a very high percentage of copper, and hardened by the addition of
arsenic. It is sometimes used for axle bearings, but other alloys are
equally suitable for this purpose, and are to be preferred on account
of the absence of arsenic, which is always dangerous.


«FILE ALLOYS.»—Many copper-tin alloys are employed for the making
of files which, in distinction from the steel files, are designated
composition files. Such alloys have the following compositions:


«Geneva Composition Files.»—

                          I     II
 Copper                 64.4    62
 Tin                    18.0    20
 Zinc                   10.0    10
 Lead                    7.6     8


«Vogel’s Composition Files.»—

              III    IV    V
 Copper       57.0  61.5  73.0
 Tin          28.5  31.0  19.0
 Zinc         78.0   —     8.0
 Lead          7.0   8.5   8.0

VI.—Another alloy for composition files is copper, 8 parts; tin, 2;
zinc, 1, and lead, 1—fused under a cover of borax.


«EASILY FUSIBLE OR PLASTIC ALLOYS.»

(These have a fusing point usually below 300° F.)

(See also Solders.)

I. Rose’s Alloy.—Bismuth, 2 parts; lead, 1 part; tin, 1 part. Melting
point, 200° F.

II. Darcet Alloy.—This is composed of 8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead,
and 3 of tin. It melts at 176° F. To impart greater fusibility, 1⁠/⁠16
part of mercury is added; the fusing is then lowered to 149° F.

III.—Newton alloy melts at 212° F., and is composed of 5 parts of
bismuth, 2 of lead, and 3 of tin.

IV.—Wood’s Metal.—

 Tin                 2 parts
 Lead                4 parts
 Bismuth        5 to 8 parts

This silvery, fine-grained alloy fuses between 151° and 162° F., and is
excellently adapted to soldering.

V.—Bismuth, 7 parts; lead, 6 parts; cadmium, 1 part. Melting point,
180° F.

VI.—Bismuth, 7 to 8 parts; lead, 4; tin, 2; cadmium, 1 to 2. Melting
point, 149° to 160° F.


«Other easily fusible alloys:»

                   VII     VIII   IX
 Lead               1        2     3
 Tin                1        2     3
 Bismuth            1        1     1
 Melting Point    258° F.  283°  311°


«Fusible Alloys for Electric Installations.»—These alloys are
employed in electric installations as current interrupters. Serving
as conductors on a short length of circuit, they melt as soon as the
current becomes too strong. Following is the composition of some of
these alloys.

 ────+───────────+──────+─────+─────────+────────
     │  Fusing   │      │     │         │
     │temperature│ Lead │ Tin │ Bismuth │Cadmium
 ────+───────────+──────+─────+─────────+────────
   I │  203° F.  │  250 │ 500 │   500   │    —
  II │  193° F.  │  397 │  —  │   532   │    71
 III │  168° F.  │  344 │  94 │   500   │    62
  IV │  153° F.  │  260 │ 148 │   522   │    70
   V │  150° F.  │  249 │ 142 │   501   │   108
  VI │  145° F.  │  267 │ 136 │   500   │   100
 ────+───────────+──────+─────+─────────+────────

{65}

These alloys are prepared by melting the lead in a stearine bath and
adding successively, and during the cooling, first, the cadmium;
second, the bismuth; third, the tin. It is absolutely necessary to
proceed in this manner, since these metals fuse at temperatures ranging
from 850° F. (for lead), to 551° F. (for tin).


«Fusible Safety Alloys for Steam Boilers.»—

 ───────+───────+────+────+────────+────────
        │       │    │    │ Melting│ Atmos.
        │Bismuth│Lead│Zinc│  point │pressure
 ───────+───────+────+────+────────+────────
    I.  │   8   │  5 │  3 │ 212° F.│  1
   II.  │   8   │  8 │  4 │ 235° F.│  1.5
  III.  │   8   │  8 │  3 │ 253° F.│  2
   IV.  │   8   │ 10 │  8 │ 266° F.│  2.5
    V.  │   8   │ 12 │  8 │ 270° F.│  3
   VI.  │   8   │ 16 │ 14 │ 280° F.│  3.5
  VII.  │   8   │ 16 │ 12 │ 285° F.│  4
 VIII.  │   8   │ 22 │ 24 │ 309° F.│  5
   IX.  │   8   │ 32 │ 36 │ 320° F.│  6
    X.  │   8   │ 32 │ 28 │ 330° F.│  7
   XI.  │   8   │ 30 │ 24 │ 340° F.│  8
 ───────+───────+────+────+────────+────────


«Lipowitz Metal.»—This amalgam is prepared as follows: Melt in a dish,
cadmium, 3 parts, by weight; tin, 4 parts; bismuth, 15 parts; and
lead, 8 parts, adding to the alloy, while still in fusion, 2 parts
of quicksilver previously heated to about 212° F. The amalgamation
proceeds easily and smoothly. The liquid mass in the dish, which
should be taken from the fire immediately upon the introduction of the
mercury, is stirred until the contents solidify. While Lipowitz alloy
softens already at 140° F. and fuses perfectly at 158°, the amalgam has
a still lower fusing point, which lies around 143 3⁠/⁠5° F.

This amalgam is excellently adapted for the production of impressions
of various objects of nature, direct impressions of leaves, and other
delicate parts of plants having been made with its aid which, in point
of sharpness, are equal to the best plaster casts and have a very
pleasing appearance. The amalgam has a silver-white color and a fine
gloss. It is perfectly constant to atmospheric influences. This amalgam
has also been used with good success for the making of small statuettes
and busts, which are hollow and can be readily gilt or bronzed by
electro-deposition. The production of small statues is successfully
carried out by making a hollow gypsum mold of the articles to be cast
and heating the mold evenly to about 140° F. A corresponding quantity
of the molten amalgam is then poured in and the mold moved rapidly to
and fro, so that the alloy is thrown against the sides all over. The
shaking should be continued until it is certain that the amalgam has
solidified. When the mold has cooled off it is taken apart and the
seams removed by means of a sharp knife. If the operation is carried on
correctly, a chasing of the cast mass becomes unnecessary, since the
alloy fills out the finest depressions of the mold with the greatest
sharpness.


«Amalgam for Plaster.»—Tin, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; mercury, 1 part.
Melt the bismuth and the tin together, and when the two metals are in
fusion add the mercury while stirring. For use, rub up the amalgam with
a little white of egg and brush like a varnish on the plaster articles.


«Plastic Metal Composition.»—I. Copper oxide is reduced by means of
hydrogen or copper sulphate by boiling a solution of the same in water
with some zinc filings in order to obtain entirely pure copper. Of the
copper powder obtained in this manner, 20, 30, or 36 parts, by weight,
according to the degree of hardness desired for the composition (the
greater the quantity of copper used the harder will the composition
become), are thoroughly moistened in a cast-iron or porcelain mortar
with sulphuric acid of 1.85 specific gravity; 70 parts, by weight,
of mercury are then added to this paste, the whole being constantly
stirred. When all the copper has been thoroughly amalgamated with the
mercury, the sulphuric acid is washed out again with boiling water,
and in 12 hours after it has become cold the composition will be
so hard that it can be polished. It is impervious to the action of
dilute acids, alcohol, ether, and boiling water. It contains the same
specific gravity, alike in the soft or the hard condition. When used
as a cement, it can at any time be rendered soft and plastic in the
following manner: If applied while hot and plastic to the deoxidized
surfaces of two pieces of metal, these latter will unite so firmly that
in about 10 or 12 hours the metal may be subjected to any mechanical
process. The properties of this composition render it very useful for
various purposes, and it forms a most effective cement for fine metal
articles which cannot be soldered in fire.

II.—Bismuth, 5.5 parts; lead, 3; tin, 1.5.

III. Alloy d’Homburg.—Bismuth, {66} 3 parts; lead, 3; tin, 3. This
alloy is fusible at 251° F., and is of a silvery white. It is employed
for reproductions of medals.

IV. Alloy Valentine Rose.—Bismuth, 4 to 6 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 2
to 3 parts. This alloy fuses at 212° to 250° F.

V. Alloy Rose père.—Bismuth, 2 parts; lead, 2; tin, 2. This alloy fuses
at 199° F.

The remainder are plastic alloys for reproducing cuts, medals, coins,
etc.:

VI.—Bismuth, 4 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part.

VII.—Bismuth, 3 parts; lead, 3 parts; tin, 2 parts.

VIII.—Bismuth, 4 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 2 parts.

IX.—Bismuth, 5 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 3 parts.

X.—Bismuth, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 2 parts.


«Quick-Water.»—That the amalgam may easily take hold of bronze objects
and remain there, it is customary to cover the perfectly cleansed
and shining article with a thin coat of mercury, which is usually
accomplished by dipping it into a so-called quick-water bath.

In the form of minute globules the mercury immediately separates itself
from the solution and clings to the bronze object, which thereupon
presents the appearance of being plated with silver. After it has been
well rinsed in clean water, the amalgam may be evenly and without
difficulty applied with the scratch brush.

This quick-water (in reality a solution of mercurous nitrate), is made
in the simplest manner by taking 10 parts of mercury and pouring over
it 11 parts of nitric acid of a specific gravity equal to 1.33; now
let it stand until every part of the mercury is dissolved; then, while
stirring vigorously, add 540 parts of water. This solution must be kept
in closed flasks or bottles to prevent impurities, such as dust, etc.,
from falling into it.

The preparatory work on the object to be gilded consists mainly in
cleansing it from every trace of oxidation. First, it must be well
annealed by placing it in a bed of glowing coal, care being exercised
that the heating be uniform. When cooled, this piece is plunged into a
highly diluted sulphuric-acid bath in order to dissolve in a measure
the oxide. Next it is dipped in a 36° nitric-acid bath, of a specific
gravity equal to 1.33, and brushed off with a long brush; it is now
dipped into nitric acid into which a little lampblack and table salt
have been thrown. It is now ready for washing in clean water and drying
in unsoiled sawdust. It is of the greatest importance that the surface
to be gilded should appear of a pale yellow tint all over. If it be too
smooth the gold will not take hold easily, and if it be too dull it
will require too much gold to cover it.


«GOLD ALLOYS:»


«Colored Gold Alloys.»—The alloys of gold with copper have a reddish
tinge; those of gold with silver are whiter, and an alloy of gold,
silver, and copper together is distinguished by a greenish tone.
Manufacturers of gold ware make use of these different colors, one
piece being frequently composed of several pieces of varying color.
Below are given some of these alloys, with their colors:

 ──────+──────+──────+──────+─────+───────
       │ Gold │Silver│Copper│Steel│Cadmium
 ──────+──────+──────+──────+─────+───────
    I. │ 2.6  │  1.0 │  —   │ —   │  —
   II. │ 75.0 │ 16.6 │  —   │ —   │  8.4
  III. │ 74.6 │ 11.4 │  9.7 │ —   │  4.3
   IV. │ 75.0 │ 12.6 │  —   │ —   │ 12.5
    V. │  1.0 │  2.0 │  —   │ —   │  —
   VI. │  4.0 │  3.0 │  1.0 │ —   │  —
  VII. │ 14.7 │  7.0 │  6.0 │ —   │  —
 VIII. │ 14.7 │  9.0 │  4.0 │ —   │  —
   IX. │  3.0 │  1.0 │  1.0 │ —   │  —
    X. │ 10.0 │  1.0 │  4.0 │ —   │  —
   XI. │  1.0 │  —   │  1.0 │ —   │  —
  XII. │  1.0 │  —   │  2.0 │ —   │  —
 XIII. │ 30.0 │  3.0 │  —   │ 2.0 │  —
  XIV. │  4.0 │  —   │  —   │ 1.0 │  —
   XV. │ 29.0 │ 11.0 │  —   │ —   │  —
  XVI. │  1.3 │  —   │  —   │ 1.0 │  —
 ──────+──────+──────+──────+─────+───────

Nos. I, II, III, and IV are green gold; No. V is pale yellow; Nos.
VI, VII, and VIII bright yellow; Nos. IX and X pale red; Nos. XI and
XII bright red; Nos. XIII, XIV, and XV gray; while No. XVI exhibits a
bluish tint. The finished gold ware, before being put upon the market,
is subjected to a special treatment, consisting either in the simple
pickling or in the so-called coloring, which operation is conducted
especially with alloys of low degree of fineness, the object being to
give the layers a superficial layer of pure gold.

The presence of silver considerably modifies the color of gold, and the
jeweler makes use of this property to obtain alloys of various shades.
The following proportions are to be observed, viz.: {67}

                        Gold  Silver  Copper
      Color of Gold     per     per     per
                       1,000   1,000   1,000
    I. Green             750     250     —
   II. Dead leaves       700     300     —
  III. Sea green         600     400     —
   IV. Pink              750     200      50
    V. English yellow    750     125     125
   VI. English white     750     150     100
  VII. Whiter            750     170      80
 VIII. Less white        750     190      60
   IX. Red               750      —      250

Other colored gold alloys are the following:

X. Blue.—Fine gold, 75; iron, 25.

XI. Dark Gray.—Fine gold, 94; iron, 6.

XII. Pale Gray.—Fine gold, 191; iron, 9.

XIII. Cassel Yellow.—Fine gold, 75; fine silver, 12 1⁠/⁠2; rose copper,
12 1⁠/⁠2.

The above figures are understood to be by weight.

The gold solders, known in France under the names of _soudures au
quart_ (13 1⁠/⁠2 carat), _au tiers_ (12 carat), and _au deux_ (9
carat), are composed of 3, 2, or 1 part of gold respectively, with 1
part of an alloy consisting of two-thirds silver and one-third copper.
Gold also forms with aluminum a series of alloys of greatly varying
coloration, the most curious of them, composed of 22 parts of aluminum
for 88 parts of gold, possessing a pretty purple shade. But all these
alloys, of a highly crystalline base, are very brittle and cannot be
worked, for which reason their handsome colorings have not yet been
capable of being utilized.


«Enameling Alloys.»—I. Transparent.—This alloy should possess the
property of transmitting rays of light so as to give the highest
possible effect to the enamel. The alloy of gold for transparent green
should be pale; a red or copper alloy does not do for green enamel,
the copper has a tendency to darken the color and thus take away a
part of its brilliancy. The following alloy for transparent green
possesses about the nearest print, in color, to the enamel—which
should represent, as near as possible, the color and brilliancy of the
emerald—that can be arrived at:

                    ozs.  dwts.  grs.
 Fine gold           0     18      8
 Fine silver         0      1      6
 Fine copper         0      0     10

No borax must be used in the melting of this alloy, it being of a more
fusible nature than the ordinary alloy, and will not take so high a
heat in enameling.

II. Red Enamel.—The enamel which forms this color being of a higher
fusing point, if proper care be not taken, the gold will melt first,
and the work become ruined. In the preparation of red enamel, the
coloring matter is usually an oxide of gold, and this so raises the
temperature at which it melts that, in order to prevent any mishap, the
gold to be enameled on should be what is called a 22-carat red, that
is, it should contain a preponderance of copper in the alloying mixture
so as to raise the fusing point of the gold. The formula is:

                   ozs.  dwts.  grs.
 Fine gold          0     18      8
 Fine silver        0      0     10
 Fine copper        0      1      6


«Gold-leaf Alloys.»—All gold made into leaf is more or less alloyed.
The gold used by the goldbeater is alloyed according to the variety
of color required. Fine gold is commonly supposed to be incapable of
being reduced to thin leaves. This, however, is not the case, although
its use for ordinary purposes is undesirable on account of its greater
cost. It also adheres by contact of one leaf with another, thus causing
spoiled material and wasted labor; but for work exposed to the weather
it is much preferable, as it is more durable and does not tarnish or
change color.

The following is a list of the principal classes of leaf recognized
and ordinarily prepared by beaters with the proportion of alloy they
contain:

                       Gold   Silver  Copper
                       grs.    grs.    grs.
    I. Red gold      456–460    —     20–24
   II. Pale red        464      —        16
  III. Extra deep      456      12       12
   IV. Deep            444      24       12
    V. Citron          440      30       10
   VI. Yellow          408      72      —
  VII. Pale yellow     384      96      —
 VIII. Lemon           360     120      —
   IX. Green or pale   312     168      —
    X. White           240     240      —


«Gold-Plate Alloys.»—Gold, 92 parts; copper, 8 parts.

II.—Gold, 84 parts; copper, 16 parts.

III.—Gold, 75 parts; copper, 25 parts.


«IMITATION GOLD.»

I.—One hundred parts, by weight, of copper of the purest quality; 14
of zinc or tin; 6 of magnesia; 3⁠/⁠6 of sal ammoniac, limestone, and
cream of tartar. The copper is first melted, then the magnesia, sal
ammoniac, limestone, and cream of tartar in powder are added separately
and gradually. The whole mass is kept stirred for a half hour, the zinc
or tin being dropped in piece by piece, the {68} stirring being kept up
till they melt. Finally the crucible is covered and the mass is kept
in fusion 35 minutes and, the same being removed, the metal is poured
into molds, and is then ready for use. The alloy thus made is said to
be fine-grained, malleable, takes a high polish, and does not easily
oxidize.

II.—An invention, patented in Germany, covers a metallic alloy, to
take the place of gold, which, even if exposed for some time to the
action of ammoniacal and acid vapors, does not oxidize or lose its gold
color. It can be rolled and worked like gold and has the appearance of
genuine gold without containing the slightest admixture of that metal.
The alloy consists of copper and antimony in the approximate ratio of
100 to 6, and is produced by adding to molten copper, as soon as it has
reached a certain degree of heat, the said percentage of antimony. When
the antimony has likewise melted and entered into intimate union with
the copper, some charcoal ashes, magnesium, and lime spar are added to
the mass when the latter is still in the crucible.

III. Aluminum Gold.—This alloy, called Nuremberg gold, is used for
making cheap gold ware, and is excellent for this purpose, as its color
is exactly that of pure gold, and does not change in the air. Articles
made of Nuremberg gold need no gilding, and retain their color under
the hardest usage; even the fracture of this alloy shows the pure gold
color. The composition is usually 90 parts of copper, 2.5 of gold, and
7.5 of aluminum.

IV.—Imitation gold, capable of being worked and drawn into wire,
consists of 950 parts copper, 45 aluminum, and 2 to 5 of silver.

V.—Chrysochalk is similar in composition to Mannheim gold:

                    I    II
 Copper           90.5  58.68
 Zinc              7.9  40.22
 Lead              1.6   1.90

In color it resembles gold, but quickly loses its beauty if exposed to
the air, on account of the oxidation of the copper. It can, however, be
kept bright for a long time by a coating of colorless varnish, which
excludes the air and prevents oxidation. Chrysochalk is used for most
of the ordinary imitations of gold. Cheap watch chains and jewelry are
manufactured from it, and it is widely used by the manufacturers of
imitation bronze ornaments.


«Mannheim Gold or Similor.»—Mannheim gold is composed of copper, zinc,
and tin, in proportions about as follows:

                     I    II
 Copper            83.7  89.8
 Zinc               9.3   9.9
 Tin                7.0   0.6

It has a fine yellow color, and was formerly much used in making
buttons and pressed articles resembling gold. Later alloys, however,
surpass it in color, and it has fallen somewhat into disuse. One
variety of Mannheim gold, so called, contains 1.40 parts of brass
(composition 3 Cu_〈2〉 1 Zn) to 10 of copper and 0.1 of zinc.


«Mosaic Gold.»—This is an alloy composed—with slight deviations—of 100
parts of copper and 50 to 55 of zinc. It has a beautiful color, closely
resembling that of gold, and is distinguished by a very fine grain,
which makes it especially suitable for the manufacture of castings
which are afterwards to be gilded. The best method of obtaining a
thoroughly homogeneous mixture of the two metals is first to put into
the crucible one-half of the zinc to be used, place the cover upon it,
and fuse the mixture under a cover of borax at as low a temperature as
possible. Have ready the other half of the zinc, cut into small pieces
and heated almost to melting, and when the contents of the crucible are
liquid throw it in, a small portion at a time, stirring constantly to
effect as intimate a mixture of the metals as possible.


«Oreïde or Oroïde (French Gold).»—The so-called French gold, when
polished, so closely resembles genuine gold in color that it can
scarcely be distinguished from it. Besides its beautiful color, it
has the valuable properties of being very ductile and tenacious, so
that it can easily be stamped into any desired shape; it also takes
a high polish. It is frequently used for the manufacture of spoons,
forks, etc., but is unsuitable for this purpose on account of the large
amount of copper contained in it, rendering it injurious to health. The
directions for preparing this alloy vary greatly. The products of some
Paris factories show the following composition:

                            I   II    III
 Copper                    90  80.5  86.21
 Zinc                      10  14.5  31.52
 Tin                       —    —     0.48
 Iron                      —    —     0.24

A special receipt for oreïde is the following:

IV.—Melt 100 parts of copper and add, with constant stirring, 6 parts
of magnesia, 3.6 of sal ammoniac, 1.8 of lime, and 9 of crude tartar.
Stir again {69} thoroughly, and add 17 parts of granulated zinc, and
after mixing it with the copper by vigorous stirring keep the alloy
liquid for one hour. Then carefully remove the scum and pour off the
alloy.


«Pinchbeck.»—This was first manufactured in England. Its dark gold
color is the best imitation of gold alloyed with copper. Being very
ductile, it can easily be rolled out into thin plates, which can be
given any desired shape by stamping. It does not readily oxidize, and
thus fulfills all the requirements for making cheap jewelry, which is
its principal use.

 Copper                 88.8  93.6
 Zinc                   11.2   6.4

Or

 Copper                  2.1  1.28
 Zinc                     —   0.7
 Brass                   1.0  0.7


«Palladium Gold.»—Alloys of gold, copper, silver, and palladium have a
brownish-red color and are nearly as hard as iron. They are sometimes
(although rarely) used for the bearings for the axles of the wheels of
fine watches, as they invite little friction and do not rust in the
air. The composition used in the Swiss and English watch factories
consists usually of gold 18 parts, copper 13 parts, silver 11, and
palladium 6.


«Talmi Gold.»—The name of talmi gold was first applied to articles
of jewelry, chains, earrings, bracelets, etc., brought from Paris,
and distinguished by beautiful workmanship, a low price, and great
durability. Later, when this alloy had acquired a considerable
reputation, articles were introduced under the same name, but which
were really made of other metals, and which retained their beautiful
gold color only as long as they were not used. The fine varieties of
talmi gold are manufactured from brass, copper, or tombac, covered with
a thin plate of gold, combined with the base by rolling, under strong
pressure. The plates are then rolled out by passing through rollers,
and the coating not only acquires considerable density, but adheres so
closely to the base that the metal will keep its beautiful appearance
for years. Of late, many articles of talmi gold have been introduced
whose gold coating is produced by electroplating, and is in many cases
so thin that hard rubbing will bring through the color of the base.
Such articles, of course, are not durable. In genuine talmi gold, the
coating, even though it may be thin, adheres very closely to the base,
for the reason that the two metals are actually welded by the rolling,
and also because alloyed gold is always used, which is much harder
than pure gold. The pure gold of electroplating is very soft. The
composition of some varieties of talmi gold are here given. It will be
seen that the content of gold varies greatly, and the durability of the
alloy will, of course, correspond to this. The alloys I, II, III are
genuine Paris talmi gold; IV, V, and VI are electroplated imitations;
and VII is an alloy of a wrong composition, to which the gold does not
adhere firmly:

       Copper   Zinc     Tin  Iron  Gold
   I.    89.9    9.3     —     —     1.3

  II.    90.8    8.3     —     —     0.9

 III.    90.0    8.9     —     —     0.9

  IV.    90.7   89.0     —     —     0.5
         88.2   11.4

   V.    87.5   12.4     —     —     0.3
         83.1   17.0

  VI.    93.5    6.6     —     —     0.05
         84.5   15.8

 VII.    86.0   12.0     1.1   0.3    —


«Japanese Alloys.»—In Japan some specialties in metallic alloys are in
use of which the composition is as follows:

Shadke consists of copper with from 1 to 10 per cent of gold. Articles
made from this alloy are laid in a pickle of blue vitriol, alum, and
verdigris, until they acquire a bluish-black color.

Gui-shi-bu-ichi is an alloy of copper containing 30 to 50 per cent of
silver. It possesses a peculiar gray shade.

Mokume consists of several compositions. Thus, about 30 gold foils
(genuine) are welded together with shadke, copper, silver, and
gui-shi-bu-ichi and pierced. The pierced holes are, after firmly
hammering together the plates, filled up with the above-named pickle.

The finest Japanese brass consists of 10 parts copper and 8 parts zinc,
and is called siachu. The bell metal kara kane is composed of copper 10
parts, tin 10 parts, iron 0.5 part, and zinc 1.5 parts. The copper is
first fused, then the remaining metals are added in rotation.


«GERMAN SILVER OR ARGENTAN.»

The composition of this alloy varies considerably, but from the
adjoined figures an average may be found, which will represent,
approximately, the normal composition:

 Copper             50 to 66 parts
 Zinc               19 to 31 parts
 Nickel             13 to 18 parts

The properties of the different kinds, such as their color, ductility,
fusibility, {70} etc., vary with the proportions of the single metals.
For making spoons, forks, cups, candlesticks, etc., the most suitable
proportions are 50 parts of copper, 25 of zinc, and 25 of nickel. This
metal has a beautiful blue-white color, and does not tarnish easily.

German silver is sometimes so brittle that a spoon, if allowed to
fall upon the floor, will break; this, of course, indicates faulty
composition. But the following table will show how the character of the
alloy changes with the varying percentage of the metals composing it:

      Copper  Zinc  Nickel      Quality
   I.    8     3.5     4    Finest quality.
  II.    8     3.5     6    Beautiful, but refractory.
 III.    8     6.5     3    Ordinary, readily fusible.
  IV.   52    26.0    22    First quality.
   V.   59    30.0    11    Second quality.
  VI.   63    31.0     6    Third quality.

The following analyses give further particulars in regard to different
kinds of German silver:

 ───────────+──────+──────+──────+─────+──────
  For sheet │Copper│ Zinc │Nickel│ Lead│ Iron
 ───────────+──────+──────+──────+─────+──────
 (French)   │ 50.0 │ 31.3 │ 18.7 │  —  │  —
 (French)   │ 50.0 │ 30.0 │ 20.0 │  —  │  —
 (French)   │ 58.3 │ 25.0 │ 16.7 │  —  │  —
 Vienna     │ 50.0 │ 25.0 │ 25.0 │  —  │  —
 Vienna     │ 55.6 │ 22.0 │ 22.0 │  —  │  —
 Vienna     │ 60.0 │ 20.0 │ 20.0 │  —  │  —
 Berlin     │ 54.0 │ 28.0 │ 18.0 │  —  │  —
 Berlin     │ 55.5 │ 29.1 │ 17.5 │  —  │  —
 English    │ 63.34│ 17.01│ 19.13│  —  │  —
 English    │ 62.40│ 22.15│ 15.05│  —  │  —
 English    │ 62.63│ 26.05│ 10.85│  —  │  —
 English    │ 57.40│ 25.  │ 13.0 │  —  │ 3.0
 Chinese    │ 26.3 │ 36.8 │ 36.8 │  —  │  —
 Chinese    │ 43.8 │ 40.6 │ 15.6 │  —  │  —
 Chinese    │ 45.7 │ 36.9 │ 17.9 │  —  │  —
 Chinese    │ 40.4 │ 25.4 │ 31.6 │  —  │ 2.6
 Castings   │ 48.5 │ 24.3 │ 24.3 │ 2.9 │  —
 Castings   │ 54.5 │ 21.8 │ 21.8 │ 1.9 │  —
 Castings   │ 58.3 │ 19.4 │ 19.4 │ 2.9 │  —
 Castings   │ 57.8 │ 27.1 │ 14.3 │ 0.8 │  —
 Castings   │ 57.  │ 20.0 │ 20.0 │ 3.0 │  —
 ───────────+──────+──────+──────+─────+──────

In some kinds of German silver are found varying quantities of iron,
manganese, tin, and very frequently lead, added for the purpose
of changing the properties of the alloy or cheapening the cost of
production. But all these metals have a detrimental rather than
a beneficial effect upon the general character of the alloy, and
especially lessen its power of resistance to the action of dilute
acids, one of its most valuable properties. Lead makes it more fusible;
tin acts somewhat as in bronze, making it denser and more resonant, and
enabling it to take a higher polish. With iron or manganese the alloy
is whiter, but it becomes at the same time more refractory and its
tendency toward brittleness is increased.


«SUBSTITUTES FOR GERMAN SILVER.»

There are many formulas for alloys which claim to be substitutes for
German silver; but no one of them has yet become an article of general
commerce. It will be sufficient to note these materials briefly, giving
the composition of the most important.


«Nickel Bronze.»—This is prepared by fusing together very highly
purified nickel (99.5 per cent) with copper, tin, and zinc. A bronze is
produced containing 20 per cent of nickel, light-colored and very hard.


«Bismuth Bronze.»—

                    I    II    III   IV
 Copper           25.0  45.0  69.0  47.0
 Nickel           24.0  32.5  10.0  30.9
 Antimony         50.0    —     —     —
 Bismuth           1.0   1.0   1.0   0.1
 Tin                —   16.0  15.0   1.0
 Zinc               —   21.5  20.0  21.0
 Aluminum           —     —    1.0    —

I is hard and very lustrous, suitable for lamp reflectors and axle
bearings; II is hard, resonant, and not affected by sea water, for
parts of ships, pipes, telegraph wires, and piano strings; III and IV
are for cups, spoons, etc.


«Manganese Argentan.»—

 Copper               52 to 50 parts
 Nickel               17 to 15 parts
 Zinc                  5 to 10 parts
 Manganese             1 to  5 parts
 Copper, with 15 per
   cent phosphorus.    3 to  5 parts

Readily cast for objects of art.


«Aphtite.»—

 Iron                       66 parts
 Nickel                     23 parts
 Tungsten                    4 parts
 Copper                      5 parts


«Arguzoid.»—

 Copper              55.78  parts
 Zinc                23.198 parts
 Nickel              13.406 parts
 Tin                  4.035 parts
 Lead                 3.544 parts

Silver white, almost ductile, suited for artistic purposes. {71}


«Ferro-Argentan.»—

 Copper               70.0 parts
 Nickel               20.0 parts
 Zinc                  5.5 parts
 Cadmium               4.5 parts

Resembles silver; worked like German silver.


«Silver Bronze.»—Manganese, 18 per cent; aluminum, 1.2 per cent;
silicium, 5 per cent; zinc, 13 per cent; copper, 67.5 per cent. The
electric resistance of silver bronze is greater than that of German
silver, hence it ought to be highly suitable for rheostats.


«Instrument Alloys.»—The following are suitable for physical and
optical instruments, metallic mirrors, telescopes, etc.:

I.—Copper, 62 parts; tin, 33 parts; lead, 5 parts.

II.—Copper, 80; antimony, 11; lead, 9.

III.—Copper, 10; tin, 10; antimony, 10; lead, 40.

IV.—Copper, 30; tin, 50; silver, 2; arsenic, 1.

V.—Copper, 66; tin, 33.

VI.—Copper, 64; tin, 26.

VII.—Steel, 90; nickel, 10.

VIII.—Platinum, 60; copper, 40.

IX.—Platinum, 45; steel, 55.

X.—Platinum, 55; iron, 45.

XI.—Platinum, 15; steel, 85.

XII.—Platinum, 20; copper, 79; arsenic, 1.

XIII.—Platinum, 62; iron, 28; gold, 10.

XIV.—Gold, 48; zinc, 52.

XV.—Steel, 50; rhodium, 50.

XVI.—Platinum, 12; iridium, 88.

XVII.—Copper, 89.5; tin, 8.5; zinc, 2.


«LEAD ALLOYS.»

The following alloys, principally lead, are used for various purposes:


«Bibra Alloy.»—This contains 8 parts of bismuth, 9 of tin, and 38 to 40
of lead.


«Metallic Coffins.»—Tin, 40 parts; lead, 45 parts; copper, 15 parts.


«Plates for Engraving.»—I.—Lead, 84 parts; antimony, 16 parts.

II.—Lead, 86 parts; antimony, 14 parts.

III.—Lead, 87 parts; antimony, 12 parts; copper, 1 part.

IV.—Lead, 81 parts; antimony, 14 parts; tin, 5 parts.

V.—Lead, 73 parts; antimony, 17 parts; zinc, 10 parts.

VI.—Tin, 53 parts; lead, 43 parts; antimony, 4 parts.

Hard lead is made of lead, 84 parts; antimony, 16 parts.


«Sheet Metal Alloy.»—

 Tin                  35   parts
 Lead                250   parts
 Copper                2.5 parts
 Zinc                  0.5 part

This alloy has a fine white color, and can be readily rolled into thin
sheets. For that reason it is well adapted for lining tea chests
and for the production of tobacco and chocolate wrappers. The copper
and zinc are used in the form of fine shavings. The alloy should be
immediately cast into thin plates, which can then be passed through
rolls.


«MAGNETIC ALLOYS.»

Alloys which can be magnetized most strongly are composed of copper,
manganese, and aluminum, the quantities of manganese and aluminum being
proportional to their atomic weights (55.0 to 27.1, or about 2 to 1).
The maximum magnetization increases rapidly with increase of manganese,
but alloys containing much manganese are exceedingly brittle and cannot
be wrought. The highest practicable proportion of manganese at present
is 24 per cent.

These magnetic alloys were studied by Hensler, Haupt, and Starck, and
Gumlich has recently examined them at the Physikalisch—technische
Reichsanstalt, with very remarkable and interesting results.

The two alloys examined were composed as follows:

Alloy I.—Copper, 61.5 per cent; manganese, 23.5 per cent; aluminum, 15
per cent; lead, 0.1 per cent, with traces of iron and silicon.

Alloy II.—Copper, 67.7 per cent; manganese, 20.5 per cent; aluminum,
10.7 per cent; lead, 1.2 per cent, with traces of iron and silicon.

Alloy II could be worked without difficulty, but alloy I was so
brittle that it broke under the hammer. A bar 7 inches long and 1⁠/⁠4
inch thick was obtained by grinding. This broke in two during the
measurements, but, fortunately, without invalidating them. Such a
material is evidently unsuited to practical uses.

The behavior of magnetic alloys at high temperatures is very peculiar.
Alloy I is indifferent to temperature changes, which scarcely affect
its magnetic properties, but the behavior of alloy II is very
different. Prolonged heating to 230° F. produces a great increase in
its capability of magnetization, which, after 544 hours’ heating, rises
from 1.9 to 3.2 kilogauss, {72} approaching the strength of alloy I.
But when alloy II is heated to 329° F., its capability of magnetization
fails again and the material suffers permanent injury, which can be
partly, but not wholly, cured by prolonged heating.

Another singular phenomenon was exhibited by both of these alloys. When
a bar of iron is magnetized by an electric current, it acquires its
full magnetic strength almost instantaneously on the closure of the
circuit. The magnetic alloys, on the contrary, do not attain their full
magnetization for several minutes. In some of the experiments a gradual
increase was observed even after the current had been flowing five
minutes.

In magnetic strength alloy I proved far superior to alloy II, which
contained smaller proportions of manganese and aluminum. Alloy I showed
magnetic strengths up to 4.5 kilogauss, while the highest magnetization
obtained with alloy II was only 1.9 kilogauss. But even alloy II may
be called strongly magnetic, for its maximum magnetization is about
one-tenth that of good wrought iron (18 to 20 kilogauss), or one-sixth
that of cast iron (10 to 12 kilogauss). Alloy I is nearly equal in
magnetic properties to nickel, which can be magnetized up to about 5
kilogauss.


«MANGANESE ALLOYS:»


«Manganese bronze» is a bronze deprived of its oxide by an admixture of
manganese. The manganese is used as copper manganese containing 10 to
30 per cent manganese and added to the bronze to the amount of 0.5 to 2
per cent.


«Manganese Copper.»—The alloys of copper with manganese have a
beautiful silvery color, considerable ductility, great hardness and
tenacity, and are more readily fusible than ordinary bronze. A special
characteristic is that they exactly fill out the molds, without the
formation of blowholes, and present no difficulties in casting.

Cupromanganese is suitable for many purposes for which nothing else but
bronze can advantageously be used, and the cost of its production is no
greater than that of genuine bronze. In preparing the alloy, the copper
is used in the form of fine grains, obtained by pouring melted copper
into cold water. These copper grains are mixed with the dry oxide of
manganese, and the mixture put into a crucible holding about 66 pounds.
Enough space must be left in the crucible to allow a thick cover of
charcoal, as the manganese oxidizes easily. The crucible is placed in
a well-drawing wind furnace and subjected to a strong white heat. The
oxide of manganese is completely reduced to manganese, which at once
combines with the copper to form an alloy. In order to prevent, as far
as possible, the access of air to the fusing mass, it is advisable to
cover the crucible with a lid which has an aperture in the center for
the escape of the carbonic oxide formed during the reduction.

When the reduction is complete and the metals fused, the lid is removed
and the contents of the crucible stirred with an iron rod, in order
to make the alloy as homogeneous as possible. By repeated remelting
of the cupromanganese a considerable quantity of the manganese is
reconverted into oxide; it is, therefore, advisable to make the
casts directly from the crucible. When poured out, the alloy rapidly
solidifies, and resembles in appearance good German silver. Another
reason for avoiding remelting is that the crucible is strongly attacked
by the cupromanganese, and can be used but a few times.

The best kinds of cupromanganese contain between 10 and 30 per cent
of manganese. They have a beautiful white color, are hard, tougher
than copper, and can be worked under the hammer or with rolls. Some
varieties of cupromanganese which are especially valuable for technical
purposes are given below:

               I  II  III  IV
 Copper       75  60   65  60
 Manganese    25  25   20  20
 Zinc         —   15    5  —
 Tin          —   —    —   10
 Nickel       —   —    10  10


«Manganin.»—This is an alloy of copper, nickel, and manganese for
electric resistances.


«MIRROR ALLOYS:»


«Amalgams for Mirrors.»—I.—Tin, 70 parts; mercury, 30 parts.

II.—For curved mirrors. Tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part;
mercury, 9 parts.

III.—For glass balls. Tin, 80 parts; mercury, 20 parts.

IV.—Metallic cement. Copper, 30 parts; mercury, 70 parts.

V.—Mirror metal.—Copper, 100 parts; tin, 50 parts; Chinese copper, 8
parts; lead, 1 part; antimony, 1 part.


«Reflector Metals.»—I.—(Cooper’s.) Copper, 35 parts; platinum, 6;
zinc, 2; tin, 16.5; arsenic, 1. On account of the hardness of this
alloy, it takes a very high polish; it is impervious to the effects
of the weather, and is therefore remarkably {73} well adapted to the
manufacture of mirrors for fine optical instruments.

II.—(Duppler’s.) Zinc, 20 parts; silver, 80 parts.

III.—Copper, 66.22 parts; tin, 33.11 parts; arsenic, 0.67 part.

IV.—Copper, 64 parts; tin, 32 parts; arsenic, 4 parts.

V.—Copper, 82.18 parts; lead, 9.22 parts; antimony, 8.60 parts.

VI.—(Little’s.) Copper, 69.01 parts; tin, 30.82 parts; zinc, 2.44
parts; arsenic, 1.83 parts.


«Speculum Metal.»—Alloys consisting of 2 parts of copper and 1 of tin
can be very brilliantly polished, and will serve for mirrors. Good
speculum metal should have a very fine-grained fracture, should be
white and very hard, the highest degree of polish depending upon these
qualities. A composition to meet these requirements must contain at
least 35 to 36 per cent of copper. Attempts have frequently been made
to increase the hardness of speculum metal by additions of nickel,
antimony, and arsenic. With the exception of nickel, these substances
have the effect of causing the metal to lose its high luster easily,
any considerable quantity of arsenic in particular having this effect.

The real speculum metal seems to be a combination of the formula
Cu_〈4〉Sn, composed of copper 68.21 per cent, tin 31.7. An alloy of
this nature is sometimes separated from ordnance bronze by incorrect
treatment, causing the so-called tin spots; but this has not the pure
white color which distinguishes the speculum metal containing 31.5
per cent of tin. By increasing the percentage of copper the color
gradually shades into yellow; with a larger amount of tin into blue. It
is dangerous to increase the tin too much, as this changes the other
properties of the alloy, and it becomes too brittle to be worked.
Below is a table showing different compositions of speculum metal. The
standard alloy is undoubtedly the best.

                        Copper   Tin     Zinc   Arsenic   Silver
 Standard alloy          68.21   31.7     —        —        —
 Otto’s alloy            68.5    31.5     —        —        —
 Richardson’s alloy      65.3    30.0    0.7      2.        2.
 Sollit’s alloy          64.6    31.3    4.1     Nickel     —
 Chinese speculum metal  80.83    —       —       8.5    Antimony
 Old Roman               63.39   19.05    —      17.29     Lead


«PALLADIUM ALLOYS.»

I.—An alloy of palladium 24 parts, gold 80, is white, hard as steel,
unchangeable in the air, and can, like the other alloys of palladium,
be used for dental purposes.

II.—Palladium 6 parts, gold 18, silver 11, and copper 13, gives a
reddish-brown, hard, and very fine-grained alloy, suitable for the
bearings of pivots in clock works.

The alloys of most of the other platinum metals, so called, are little
used on account of their rarity and costliness. Iridium and rhodium
give great hardness to steel, but the commercial rhodium and iridium
steel, so called, frequently contains not a trace of either. The
alloy of iridium with osmium has great hardness and resistance and is
recommended for pivots, fine instruments, and points of ship compasses.


«Palladium Silver.»—This alloy, composed of 9 parts of palladium and 1
of silver, is used almost exclusively for dental purposes, and is well
suited to the manufacture of artificial teeth, as it does not oxidize.
An alloy even more frequently used than this consists of platinum 10
parts, palladium 8, and gold 6.


«Palladium Bearing Metal.»—This alloy is extremely hard, and is used
instead of jewel bearings in watches. It is composed of palladium 24
parts, gold 72, silver 44, copper 92.


«PLATINUM ALLOYS.»

Platinum has usually been alloyed with silver in goldsmith’s work,
2 parts silver to 1 of platinum being taken to form the favorite
“platinum silver.” The object has been to produce an alloy having a
white appearance, which can be polished, and at the same time has a low
melting point. In addition to this platinum alloy the following are
well known:

I.—A mixture of 7 parts platinum with 3 parts iridium. This gives to
platinum the hardness of steel, which can be still further increased by
taking 4 parts of iridium.

II.—An alloy of 9 parts platinum and 1 part iridium is used by the
French in the manufacture of measuring instruments of great resisting
power.

Compounds of copper, nickel, cadmium, and tungsten are also used in
the construction of parts of watches; the latter acquire considerable
hardness without becoming magnetic or rusting like steel.

III.—For this purpose a compound of {74} 62.75 parts platinum, 18 parts
copper, 1.25 parts cadmium, and 18 parts nickel is much recommended.

IV.—Very ductile platinum-copper alloys have also been made, e. g.,
the so-called Cooper gold, consisting of 3 parts platinum and 13 parts
copper, which is almost equal to 18-carat gold in regard to color,
finish, and ductility. If 4 per cent of platinum is taken, these
latter alloys acquire a rose-red color, while a golden-yellow color
can be produced by further adding from 1 to 2 per cent (in all 5 to 6
per cent) of platinum. The last-named alloy is extensively used for
ornaments, likewise alloy V.

V.—Ten parts platinum, 60 parts nickel, and 220 parts brass, or 2 parts
platinum, 1 part nickel and silver respectively, 2 parts brass, and 5
parts copper; this also gives a golden-yellow color.

VI.—For table utensils a favorite alloy is composed of 1 part platinum,
100 parts nickel, and 10 parts tin. Articles made of the latter alloy
are impervious to atmospheric action and keep their polish for a long
time. Pure white platinum alloys have for some time been used in dental
work, and they have also proved serviceable for jewelry.

VII.—A mixture of 30 parts platinum, 10 parts gold, and 3 parts silver,
or 7 parts platinum, 2 parts gold, and 3 parts silver.

VIII.—For enameled articles: Platinum, 35 parts; silver, 65 parts.
First fuse the silver, then add the platinum in the spongy form. A good
solder for this is platinum 80 parts, copper 20 parts.

IX.—For pens: Platinum, 4 parts; silver, 3 parts; copper, 1 part.


«Platinum Gold.»—Small quantities of platinum change the
characteristics of gold in many respects. With a small percentage the
color is noticeably lighter than that of pure gold, and the alloys are
extremely elastic; alloys containing more than 20 per cent of platinum,
however, almost entirely lose their elasticity. The melting point of
the platinum-gold alloy is high, and alloys containing 70 per cent
of platinum can be fused only in the flame of oxyhydrogen gas, like
platinum itself. Alloys with a smaller percentage of platinum can be
prepared in furnaces, but require the strongest white heat. In order
to avoid the chance of an imperfect alloy from too low a temperature,
it is always safer to fuse them with the oxyhydrogen flame. The alloys
of platinum and gold have a somewhat limited application. Those which
contain from 5 to 10 per cent of platinum are used for sheet and wire
in the manufacture of artificial teeth.


«Platinum-Gold Alloys for Dental Purposes.»—

                     I  II  III
 Platinum            6  14   10
 Gold                2   4    6
 Silver              1   6   —
 Palladium           —   —    8


«Platinum Silver.»—An addition of platinum to silver makes it harder,
but also more brittle, and changes the white color to gray. An alloy
which contains only a very small percentage of platinum is noticeably
darker in color than pure silver. Such alloys are prepared under the
name of _platine au titre_, containing between 17 and 35 per cent of
platinum. They are almost exclusively used for dental purposes.


«Imitation Platinum.»—I.—Brass, 100 parts; zinc, 65 parts.

II.—Brass, 120 parts; zinc, 75 parts.

III.—Copper, 5 parts; nickel, 4 parts; zinc, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts; antimony, 1
part; lead, 1 part; iron, 1 part; tin, 1 part.


«Cooper’s Pen Metal.»—This alloy is especially well adapted to the
manufacture of pens, on account of its great hardness, elasticity, and
power of resistance to atmospheric influences, and would certainly have
superseded steel if it were possible to produce it more cheaply than
is the case. The compositions most frequently used for pen metal are
copper 1 part, platinum 4, and silver 3; or, copper 21, platinum 50,
and silver 36.

Pens have been manufactured, consisting of several sections, each of
a different alloy, suited to the special purpose of the part. Thus,
for instance, the sides of the pen are made of the elastic composition
just described; the upper part is of an alloy of silver and platinum;
and the point is made either of minute cut rubies or of an extremely
hard alloy of osmium and iridium, joined to the body of the pen by
melting in the flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. The price of such
pens, made of expensive materials and at the cost of great labor, is of
course exceedingly high, but their excellent qualities repay the extra
expense. They are not in the least affected by any kind of ink, are
most durable, and can be used constantly for years without showing any
signs of wear.

The great hardness and resistance to the atmosphere of Cooper’s alloys
make them very suitable for manufacturing {75} mathematical instruments
where great precision is required. It can scarcely be calculated how
long a chronometer, for instance, whose wheels are constructed of this
alloy, will run before showing any irregularities due to wear. In the
construction of such instruments, the price of the material is not to
be taken into account, since the cost of the labor in their manufacture
so far exceeds this.


«PEWTER.»

This is an alloy of tin and lead only, or of tin with antimony and
copper. The first is properly called pewter. Three varieties are known
in trade:

I (Plate Pewter).—From tin, 79 per cent; antimony, 7 per cent; bismuth
and copper, of each 2 per cent; fused together. Used to make plates,
teapots, etc. Takes a fine polish.

II (Triple Pewter).—From tin, 79 per cent; antimony, 15 per cent; lead,
6 per cent; as the last. Used for minor articles, syringes, toys, etc.

III (Ley Pewter).—From tin, 80 per cent; lead, 20 per cent. Used for
measures, inkstands, etc.

According to the report of a French commission, pewter containing more
than 18 parts of lead to 82 parts of tin is unsafe for measures for
wine and similar liquors, and, indeed, for any other utensils exposed
to contact with food or beverages. The legal specific gravity of pewter
in France is 7.764; if it be greater, it contains an excess of lead,
and is liable to prove poisonous. The proportions of these metals may
be approximately determined from the specific gravity; but correctly
only by an assay for the purpose.


«SILVER ALLOYS:»


«Aluminum Silver.»—Aluminum and silver form beautiful white alloys
which are considerably harder than pure aluminum, and take a very high
polish. They have the advantage over copper alloys of being unchanged
by exposure to the air, and of retaining their white color.

The properties of aluminum and silver alloys vary considerably
according to the percentage of aluminum.

I.—An alloy of 100 parts of aluminum and 5 parts of silver is very
similar to pure aluminum, but is harder and takes a finer polish.

II.—One hundred and sixty-nine parts of aluminum and 5 of silver make
an elastic alloy, recommended for watch springs and dessert knives.

III.—An alloy of equal parts of silver and aluminum is as hard as
bronze.

IV.—Five parts of aluminum and 1 part of silver make an alloy that is
easily worked.

V.—Also aluminum, 3 parts, and silver, 1 part.

VI. Tiers-Argent.—This alloy is prepared chiefly in Paris, and used
for the manufacture of various utensils. As indicated by its name
(one-third silver), it consists of 33.33 parts of silver and 66.66
parts of aluminum. Its advantages over silver consist in its lower
price and greater hardness; it can also be stamped and engraved more
easily than the alloys of copper and silver.

VII.—This is a hard alloy which has been found very useful for the
operating levers of certain machines, such as the spacing lever of
a typewriter. The metal now generally used for this purpose by the
various typewriter companies is “aluminum silver,” or “silver metal.”
The proportions are given as follows:

 Copper                    57.00
 Nickel                    20.00
 Zinc                      20.00
 Aluminum                   3.00

This alloy when used on typewriting machines is nickel-plated for the
sake of the first appearance, but so far as corrosion is concerned,
nickeling is unnecessary. The alloy is stiff and strong and cannot be
bent to any extent without breaking, especially if the percentage of
aluminum is increased to 3.5 per cent; it casts free from pinholes and
blowholes; the liquid metal completely fills the mold, giving sharp,
clean castings, true to pattern; its cost is not greater than brass;
its color is silver white, and its hardness makes it susceptible to a
high polish.


«Arsenic.»—Alloys which contain small quantities of arsenic are
very ductile, have a beautiful white color, and were formerly used
in England in the manufacture of tableware. They are not, however,
suitable for this purpose, on account of the poisonous character of the
arsenic. They are composed usually of 49 parts of silver, 49 of copper,
and 2 of arsenic.


«China Silver.»—Copper, 65.24 per cent; tin, 19.52 per cent; nickel,
13.00 per cent; silver, 2.05 per cent.


«Copper-Silver.»—When silver is alloyed with copper only one proportion
is known which will give a uniform casting. The proportion is 72 per
cent silver to 28 per cent copper. With more silver than 72 per cent
the center of a cast bar will be {76} richer than the outside, which
chills first; while with a less percentage than 72 per cent the center
of the bar will be poorer and the outside richer than the average. This
characteristic of silver-copper alloys is known to metallurgists as
“segregation.”

When nickel is added to the silver and copper, several good alloys may
be formed, as the following French compositions:

                 I      II    III
 Silver          33     40    20
 Copper        37–42  30–40  45–55
 Nickel        25–30  20–30  25–35

The whitening of alloys of silver and copper is best accomplished by
annealing the alloy until it turns black on the surface. Cool in a
mixture of 20 parts, by weight, of concentrated sulphuric acid to 1,000
parts of distilled water and leave therein for some time. In place of
the sulphuric acid, 40 parts of potassium bisulphate may be used per
1,000 parts of liquid. Repeat the process if necessary.


«Copper, Silver, and Cadmium Alloys.»—Cadmium added to silver
alloys gives great flexibility and ductility, without affecting the
white color; these properties are valuable in the manufacture of
silver-plated ware and wire. The proportions of the metals vary in
these alloys. Some of the most important varieties are given below.

          Silver  Copper  Cadmium
   I.       980     15        5
  II.       950     15       35
 III.       900     18       82
  IV.       860     20      180
   V.       666     25      309
  VI.       667     50      284
 VII.       500     50      450

In preparing these alloys, the great volatility of cadmium must be
taken into account. It is customary to prepare first the alloy of
silver and copper, and add the cadmium, which, as in the case of the
alloys of silver and zinc, must be wrapped in paper. After putting it
in, the mass is quickly stirred, and the alloy poured immediately into
the molds. This is the surest way to prevent the volatilization of the
cadmium.


«Silver, Copper, Nickel, and Zinc Alloys.»—These alloys, from the
metals contained in them, may be characterized as argentan or German
silver with a certain percentage of silver. They have been used for
making small coins, as in the older coins of Switzerland. Being quite
hard, they have the advantage of wearing well, but soon lose their
beautiful white color and take on a disagreeable shade of yellow, like
poor brass. The silver contained in them can be regained only by a
laborious process, which is a great drawback to their use in coinage.
The composition of the Swiss fractional coins is as follows:

             20 centimes  10 centimes  5 centimes
 Silver           15           10            5
 Copper           50           55           60
 Nickel           25           25           25
 Zinc             10           10           10


«Mousset’s Alloy.»—Copper, 59.06; silver, 27.56; zinc, 9.57; nickel,
3.42. This alloy is yellowish with a reddish tinge, but white on
the fractured surface. It ranks next after Argent-Ruolz, which also
contains sometimes certain quantities of zinc, and in this case may be
classed together with the alloy just described. The following alloys
can be rolled into sheet or drawn into wire:

                  I    II   III
 Silver          33.3  34   40.0
 Copper          41.8  42   44.6
 Nickel           8.6   8    4.6
 Zinc            16.3  16   10.8


«Japanese (Gray) Silver.»—An alloy is prepared in Japan which consists
of equal parts of copper and silver, and which is given a beautiful
gray color by boiling in a solution of alum, to which copper sulphate
and verdigris are added. The so-called “mokum,” also a Japanese alloy,
is prepared by placing thin plates of gold, silver, copper, and the
alloy just described over each other and stretching them under the
hammer. The cross sections of the thin plates obtained in this way show
the colors of the different metals, which give them a peculiar striped
appearance. Mokum is principally used for decorations upon gold and
silver articles.


«Silver-Zinc.»—Silver and zinc have great affinity for each other, and
alloys of these two metals are therefore easily made. The required
quantity of zinc, wrapped in paper, is thrown into the melted and
strongly heated silver, the mass is thoroughly stirred with an iron
rod, and at once poured out into molds. Alloys of silver and zinc can
be obtained which are both ductile and flexible. An alloy consisting of
2 parts of zinc and 1 of silver closely resembles silver in color, and
is quite ductile. With a larger proportion of zinc the alloy becomes
brittle. In preparing the alloy, a somewhat larger quantity of zinc
must be taken than the {77} finished alloy is intended to contain, as a
small amount always volatilizes.


«Imitation Silver Alloys.»—There are a number of alloys, composed of
different metals, which resemble silver, and may be briefly mentioned
here.

I.—Warne’s metal is composed of tin 10 parts, bismuth 7, and cobalt 3.
It is white, fine-grained, but quite difficult to fuse.

II.—Tonca’s metal contains copper 5 parts, nickel 4, tin 1, lead 1,
iron 1, zinc 1, antimony 1. It is hard, difficult to fuse, not very
ductile, and cannot be recommended.

III.—Trabuk metal contains tin 87.5, nickel 5.5, antimony 5, bismuth 5.

IV.—Tourun-Leonard’s metal is composed of 500 parts of tin and 64 of
bell metal.

V.—Silveroid is an alloy of copper, nickel, tin, zinc, and lead.

VI.—Minargent. Copper, 100 parts; nickel, 70 parts; tungsten, 5 parts;
aluminum, 1 part.

VII.—Nickel, 23 parts; aluminum, 5 parts; copper, 5 parts; iron, 65
parts; tungsten, 4 parts.

VIII.—Argasoid. Tin, 4.035; lead, 3.544; copper, 55.780; nickel,
13.406; zinc, 23.198; iron, trace.

SOLDERS: See Solders.


«STEEL ALLOYS: See also Steel.»


«For Locomotive Cylinders.»—This mixture consists of 20 per cent steel
castings, old steel springs, etc.; 20 per cent No. 2 coke iron, and
60 per cent scrap. From this it is stated a good solid metal can be
obtained, the castings being free from honeycombing, and finishing
better than the ordinary cast-iron mixture, over which it has the
advantage of 24 per cent greater strength. Its constituents are:
Silicon, 1.51; manganese, 0.33; phosphorus, 0.65; sulphur, 0.068;
combined carbon, 0.62; graphite, 2.45.

Nickel steel is composed of nickel 36 per cent, steel 64 per cent.

Tungsten steel is crucible steel with 5 to 12 per cent tungsten.


«STEREOTYPE METAL.»

 Lead     2 parts
 Tin      3 parts
 Bismuth  5 parts

The melting point of this alloy is 196° F. The alloy is rather costly
because of the amount of bismuth which it contains. The following
mixtures are cheaper:

             I  II  III  IV
 Tin         1  3   1    2
 Lead        1  5   1.5  2
 Bismuth     2  8   3    5
 Antimony   —   —   —    1


«TIN ALLOYS:»


«Alloys for Dentists’ Molds and Dies.»—I.—Very hard. Tin, 16 parts;
antimony, 1 part; zinc, 1 part.

II.—Softer than the former. Tin, 8 parts; zinc, 1 part; antimony, 1
part.

III.—Very hard. Tin, 12 parts; antimony, 2 parts; copper, 1 part.


«Cadmium Alloy, about the Hardness of Zinc.»—Tin, 10 parts; antimony, 1
part; cadmium, 1 part.


«Tin-Lead.»—Tin is one of those metals which is not at all susceptible
to the action of acids, while lead, on the other hand, is very easily
attacked by them. In such alloys, consequently, used for cooking
utensils, the amount of lead must be limited, and should properly
not exceed 10 or 15 per cent; but cases have been known in which the
so-called tin contained a third part, by weight, of lead.

Alloys containing from 10 to 15 per cent of lead have a beautiful
white color, are considerably harder than pure tin, and much cheaper.
Many alloys of tin and lead are very lustrous, and are used for
stage jewelry and mirrors for reflecting the light of lamps, etc. An
especially brilliant alloy is called “Fahlun brilliants.” It is used
for stage jewelry, and consists of 29 parts of tin and 19 of lead. It
is poured into molds faceted in the same way as diamonds, and when seen
by artificial light, the effect is that of diamonds. Other alloys of
tin and lead are employed in the manufacture of toys. These must fill
the molds well, and must also be cheap, and therefore as much as 50 per
cent of lead is used. Toys can also be made from type metal, which is
even cheaper than the alloys of tin and lead, but has the disadvantage
of readily breaking if the articles are sharply bent. The alloys of tin
and lead give very good castings, if sharp iron or brass molds are used.

 Lead    19 parts
 Tin     29 parts

This alloy is very bright and possesses a permanent sheen. It is
well adapted for the making of artificial gems for stage use. It is
customary in carrying out the process to start with two parts of tin
and one part of lead. Tin is added until a sample drop which is allowed
to fall upon an iron plate forms a mirror. The artificial gems are
produced by {78} dipping into the molten alloy pieces of glass cut to
the proper shape. The tin coating of metal which adheres to the glass
cools rapidly and adheres tenaciously. Outwardly these artificial gems
appear rough and gray, but inwardly they are highly reflective and
quite deceptive when seen in artificial light.

If the reflective surfaces be coated with red, blue, or green aniline,
various colored effects can be obtained. Instead of fragile glass the
gems may be produced by means of well-polished pieces of steel or
bronze.


«Other Tin-Lead Alloys.»—Percentage of lead and specific gravity.

 P. C.     S. G.
   0      7.290
   1      7.316
   2      7.342
   3      7.369
   4      7.396
   5      7.423
   6      7.450
   7      7.477
   8      7.505
   9      7.533
  10      7.562
  11      7.590
  12      7.619
  13      7.648
  14      7.677
  15      7.706
  16      7.735
  17      7.764
  18      7.794
  19      7.824
  20      7.854
  21      7.885
  22      7.916
  23      7.947
  24      7.978
  25      8.009
  26      8.041
  27      8.073
  28      8.105
  29      8.137
  30      8.169
  31      8.202
  32      8.235
  33      8.268
  34      8.302
  35      8.336
  36      8.379
  37      8.405
  38      8.440
  39      8.476
  40      8.512
  41      8.548
  42      8.584
  43      8.621
  44      8.658
  45      8.695
  46      8.732
  47      8.770
  48      8.808
  49      8.846
  50      8.884
  60      9.299
  70      9.736
  80     10.225
  90     10.767
 100     11.370


«Tin Statuettes, Buttons, etc.»—

 I.—Tin     4 parts
     Lead    3 parts

This is a very soft solder which sharply reproduces all details.

Another easily fusible alloy but somewhat harder, is the following:

 II.—Tin.      8 parts
      Lead      6 parts
      Antimony  0.5 part


«Miscellaneous Tin Alloys.»—I.—Alger Metal.—Tin, 90 parts; antimony, 10
parts. This alloy is suitable as a protector.

II. Argentine Metal.—Tin, 85.5 per cent; antimony, 14.5 per cent.

III.—Ashberry metal is composed of 78 to 82 parts of tin, 16 to 20 of
antimony, 2 to 3 of copper.

IV. Quen’s Metal.—Tin, 9 parts; lead, 1 part; antimony, 1 part;
bismuth, 1 part.


«Type Metal.»—An alloy which is to serve for type metal must be readily
cast, fill out the molds sharply, and be as hard as possible. It is
difficult to satisfy all these requirements, but an alloy of antimony
and lead answers the purpose best. At the present day there are a great
many formulas for type metal in which other metals besides lead and
antimony are used, either to make the alloy more readily fusible, as
in the case of additions of bismuth, or to give it greater power of
resistance, the latter being of especial importance for types that are
subjected to constant use. Copper and iron have been recommended for
this purpose, but the fusibility of the alloys is greatly impaired by
these, and the manufacture of the types is consequently more difficult
than with an alloy of lead and antimony alone. In the following table
some alloys suitable for casting type are given:

       Lead  Antimony  Copper  Bismuth  Zinc  Tin  Nickel
    I    3      1        —       —       —     —     —
   II    5      1        —       —       —     —     —
  III   10      1        —       —       —     —     —
   IV   10      2        —        1      —     —     —
    V   70     18         2      —       —     10    —
   VI   60     20        —       —       —     20    —
  VII   55     25        —       —       —     20    —
 VIII   55     30        —       —       —     15    —
   IX  100     30         8       2      —     20     8
    X    6     —          4      —       90    —     —

The French and English types contain a certain amount of tin, as shown
by the following analyses:

              English Types    French Types
              I     II   III
 Lead        69.2  61.3  55.0   55
 Antimony    19.5  18.8  22.7   30
 Tin          9.1  20.2  22.1   15
 Copper       1.7   —     —     —

Ledebur gives the composition of type metal as follows:

             I    II   III   IV
 Lead        75   60   80   82
 Antimony    23   25   20   14.8
 Tin         22   15   —     3.2

WATCHMAKERS’ ALLOYS: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.


«WHITE METALS.»

The so-called white metals are employed almost exclusively for
bearings. (See Anti-friction Metals under Alloys.) In the technology of
mechanics an accurate distinction is made between the different kinds
of metals for bearings; and they may be classed in two groups, red
brass and white metal. The {79} red-brass bearings are characterized by
great hardness and power of resistance, and are principally used for
bearings of heavily loaded and rapidly revolving axles. For the axles
of large and heavy flywheels, revolving at great speed, bearings of red
brass are preferable to white metal, though more expensive.

In recent years many machinists have found it advantageous to
substitute for the soft alloys generally in use for bearings a
metal almost as hard as the axle itself. Phosphor bronze (q. v.) is
frequently employed for this purpose, as it can easily be made as hard
as wrought or cast steel. In this case the metal is used in a thin
layer, and serves only, as it were, to fill out the small interstices
caused by wear on the axle and bearing, the latter being usually made
of some rather easily fusible alloy of lead and tin. Such bearings are
very durable, but expensive, and can only be used for large machines.
For small machines, running gently and uniformly, white-metal bearings
are preferred, and do excellent work, if the axle is not too heavily
loaded. For axles which have a high rate of revolution, bearings made
of quite hard metals are chosen, and with proper care—which, indeed,
must be given to bearings of any material—they will last for a long
time without needing repair.

       WHITE METAL FOR BEARING.
 ──────+───────────────────────+──────+────────+──────+──────+──────+──────
       │                       │ Tin  │Antimony│ Zinc │ Iron │ Lead │Copper
 ──────+───────────────────────+──────+────────+──────+──────+──────+──────
     I │German, light loads    │ 85.00│  10.00 │ —  — │ —  — │ —  — │  5.00
    II │German, light loads    │ 82.00│  11.00 │ —  — │ —  — │ —  — │  7.00
   III │German, light loads    │ 80.00│  12.00 │ —  — │ —  — │ —  — │  8.00
    IV │German, light loads    │ 76.00│  17.00 │ —  — │ —  — │ —  — │  7.00
     V │German, light loads    │  3.00│   1.00 │  5.00│ —  — │  3.00│  1.00
    VI │German, heavy loads    │ 90.00│   8.00 │ —  — │ —  — │ —  — │  2.00
   VII │German, heavy loads    │ 86.81│   7.62 │ —  — │ —  — │ —  — │  5.57
  VIII │English, heavy loads   │ 17.47│  —  —  │ 76.14│ —  — │ —  — │  5.62
    IX │English, medium loads  │ 76.70│  15.50 │ —  — │ —  — │ —  — │  7.80
     X │English, medium loads  │ 72.00│  26.00 │ —  — │ —  — │ —  — │  2.00
    XI │For mills              │ 15.00│  —  —  │ 40.00│ —  — │ 42.00│  3.00
   XII │For mills              │ —  — │   1.00 │  5.00│ —  — │  5.00│ —  —
  XIII │For mills              │ —  — │   1.00 │ 10.00│ —  — │  2.00│ —  —
   XIV │Heavy axles            │ 72.70│  18.20 │ —  — │ —  — │ —  — │  9.10
    XV │Heavy axles            │ 38.00│   6.00 │ 47.00│ —  — │  4.00│  1.00
   XVI │Rapidly revolving axles│ 17.00│  77.00 │ —  — │ —  — │ —  — │  6.00
  XVII │Very hard metal        │ 55.00│  —  —  │ —  — │ 70.00│ —  — │  2.50
 XVIII │Very hard metal        │ 12.00│  82.00 │  2.00│ —  — │ —  — │  4.00
   XIX │Cheap metal            │  2.00│   2.00 │ 88.00│ —  — │ —  — │  8.00
    XX │Cheap metal            │  1.50│   1.50 │ 90.00│ —  — │ —  — │  7.00
 ──────+───────────────────────+──────+────────+──────+──────+──────+──────

Other white bearing metals are:

XXI.—Tin, 8.5; antimony, 10; copper, 5 parts.

XXII.—Tin, 42; antimony, 16; lead, 42 parts.

XXIII.—Tin, 72; antimony, 26; copper, 2 parts.

XXIV.—Tin, 81; antimony, 12.5; copper, 6.5 parts.


«White Metals Based on Copper.»—

I.—Copper, 65 parts; arsenic, 55 parts.

II.—Copper, 64 parts; arsenic, 50 parts.

III.—Copper, 10 parts; zinc, 20 parts; nickel, 30 parts.

IV.—Nickel, 70 parts; copper, 30 parts; zinc, 20 parts.

V.—Nickel, 60 parts; copper, 30 parts; zinc, 30 parts.

VI.—Copper, 8 parts; nickel, 4 parts; zinc, 4 parts.

VII.—Copper, 10 parts; nickel, 5 parts; zinc, 5 parts.

VIII.—Copper, 8 parts; nickel, 3 parts; zinc, 4 parts.

IX.—Copper, 50 parts; nickel, 25 parts; zinc, 25 parts.

X.—Copper, 55 parts; nickel, 24 parts; zinc, 21 parts.

XI.—Copper, 55 parts; nickel, 24 parts; zinc, 16 parts; iron, 2 parts;
tin, 3 parts.

IX, X, and XI are suitable for tableware.

XII.—Copper, 67 parts, and arsenic, 53 parts.

XIII.—Copper, 63 parts, and arsenic, 57 parts.

XII and XIII are bright gray, unaffected by the temperature of boiling
water; they are fusible at red heat.


«White Metals Based on Platinum.»—

I.—Platinum, 1 part; copper, 4 parts; or platinum, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts;
copper, 3 1⁠/⁠2 parts.

II.—Platinum, 10 parts; tin, 90 parts; or platinum, 8 parts; tin, 92
parts.

III.—Platinum, 7 parts; copper, 13 parts; tin, 80 parts.

IV.—Platinum, 2 parts; steel, 98 parts.

V.—Platinum, 2.5 parts; steel, 97.5 parts.

IV and V are for gun metal.


«Miscellaneous White-Metal Alloys.»—

I.—For lining cross-head slides: Lead, 65 parts; antimony, 25 parts;
copper, 10 parts. Some object to white metal containing lead or zinc.
It has been found, however, that lead and zinc have properties of great
use in these alloys.

II.—Tin, 85 parts; antimony, 7 1⁠/⁠2 parts; copper, 7 1⁠/⁠2 parts.

III.—Tin, 90 parts; copper, 3 parts; antimony, 7 parts. {80}


«ZINC ALLOYS:»


«Bidery Metal.»—This is sometimes composed of 31 parts of zinc, 2
parts of copper, and 2 parts of lead; the whole is melted on a layer
of rosin or wax to avoid oxidation. This metal is very resistive; it
does not oxidize in air or moisture. It takes its name from the town of
Bider, near Hyderabad (India), where it was prepared for the first time
industrially for the manufacture of different utensils.

Other compositions of Indian Bidery metal (frequently imitated in
England) are about as follows:

                P.C.  P.C.   P.C.
 Copper         3.5   11.4    16
 Zinc          93.4   84.3   112
 Tin            —      1.4     2
 Lead           3.1    2.9     4

Erhardt recommends the following as being both ductile and hard:

 Zinc                   89 to 93
 Tin                     9 to  6
 Lead                    2 to  4
 Copper                  2 to  4

The tin is first melted, and the lead, zinc, and copper added
successively.


«Zinc-Nickel.»—Zinc, 90 parts; nickel, 10 parts. Used in powder form
for painting and cloth printing purposes.


«Platine for Dress Buttons.»—Copper, 43 parts; zinc, 57 parts.


«UNCLASSIFIED ALLOYS:»


«Alloys for Drawing Colors on Steel.»—Alloys of various composition are
successfully used for drawing colors on steel. To draw to a straw color
use 2 parts of lead and 1 part of tin, and melt in an iron ladle. Hold
the steel piece to be drawn in the alloy as it melts and it will turn
to straw color. This mixture melts at a temperature of about 437° F.
For darker yellow use 9 parts of lead to 4 parts of tin, which melts at
458° F. For purple, use 3 parts of lead to 1 part of tin, the melting
temperature being 482° F. For violet, use 9 parts of lead to 2 parts of
tin, which melts at 494° F. Lead without any alloy will draw steel to a
dark blue. The above apply to steel only since iron requires a somewhat
greater heat and is more or less uncertain in handling.


«Alloy for Pattern Letters and Figures.»—A good alloy for casting
pattern letters and figures and similar small parts of brass, iron,
or plaster molds, is made of lead 80 parts, and antimony 20 parts. A
better alloy will be lead 70 parts, antimony and bismuth each 15 parts.
To insure perfect work the molds should be quite hot by placing them
over a Bunsen burner.


«Alloy for Caliper and Gage-Rod Castings.»—A mixture of 30 parts zinc
to 70 parts aluminum gives a light and durable alloy for gage rods and
caliper legs; the gage rods must be steel tipped, for the alloy is soft
and wears away too rapidly for gage points.


«Alloys for Small Casting Molds.»—Tin, 75 parts, and lead, 22 parts;
or 75 parts of zinc and 25 parts of tin; or 30 parts of tin and 70
parts of lead; or 60 parts of lead and 40 parts of bismuth.

ALLOYS FOR METAL FOIL: See Metal Foil.

ALMOND COLD CREAM: See Cosmetics.

ALMOND LIQUEURS: See Wines and Liquors.

ALTARS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.


«ALUM:»


«Burnt Alum.»—I.—Heat the alum in a porcelain dish or other suitable
vessel till it liquefies, then raise and continue the heat, not
allowing it to exceed 400°, till aqueous vapor ceases to be disengaged,
and the salt has lost 47 per cent of its weight. Reduce the residue to
powder, and preserve it in a well-stoppered bottle.—_Cooley._

II.—Heat ordinary alum (alumina alum) with constant stirring in an iron
pan in which it will first melt quietly, and then commence to form
blisters. Continue heating until a dry white mass of a loose character
remains, which is powdered and kept in well-closed glasses.

ALUM BATH: See Photography.


«Aluminum and its Treatment»


«HOW TO COLOR ALUMINUM:»


«Blanching of Aluminum.»—Aluminum is one of the metals most inalterable
by air; nevertheless, the objects of aluminum tarnish quickly enough
without being {81} altered. They may be restored to their mat whiteness
in the following manner: Immerse the aluminum articles in a boiling
bath of caustic potash; next plunge them quickly into nitric acid,
rinse and let dry. It must be understood that this method is applicable
only to pieces entirely of aluminum.


«Decolorized Aluminum.»—Gray or unsightly aluminum may be restored
to its white color by washing with a mixture of 30 parts of borax
dissolved in 1,000 parts of water, with a few drops of ammonia added.


«Mat Aluminum.»—In order to impart to aluminum the appearance of mat
silver, plunge the article into a hot bath composed of a 10-per-cent
solution of caustic soda saturated with kitchen salt. Leave it in the
bath for 15 to 20 seconds, then wash and brush; put back into the bath
for half a minute, wash anew and dry in sawdust.


«To Blacken Aluminum.»—I.—The surface of the sheet to be colored is
polished with very fine emery powder or finest emery cloth. After
polishing pour a thin layer of olive oil over the surface and heat
slowly over an alcohol flame. Large sheets must, of course, be heated
in the drying oven. After a short while pour on oil again, in order
to obtain absolute uniformity of the coating, and heat the plate once
more. Under the action of the heat the plate turns first brown, then
black, according to the degrees of heat. When the desired coloration
has been attained, the plate is polished over again, after cooling,
with a woolen rag or soft leather.

 II.—White arsenic          1 ounce
      Sulphate of iron       1 ounce
      Hydrochloric acid     12 ounces
      Water                 12 ounces

When the arsenic and iron are dissolved by the acid add the water.
The aluminum to be blackened should be well cleaned with fine emery
powder and washed before immersing in the blackening solution. When the
deposit of black is deep enough dry off with fine sawdust and lacquer.


«Decorating Aluminum.»—A process for decorating aluminum, patented
in Germany, prescribes that the objects be first corroded, which is
usually done with caustic soda lye, or, better still, by a new method
which consists in heating 3 parts of sulphuric acid with 1 part of
water to 140° to 158° F., in an enameled vessel. Into this liquid dip
the aluminum articles, rinsing them off clean and then drying them
well. The corroded articles are now placed in a bath consisting of
1,000 parts of alcohol (90 per cent), 1.50 parts of antimony, 250 parts
of chemically pure hydrochloric acid, 100 parts of manganous nitrate,
and 20 parts of purified and finely elutriated graphite. In this bath,
which is heated to 86°–95° F., the objects are left until fumes develop
around them, which takes place in a few seconds. Now they are put over
a coal fire or similar arrangement until the alcohol is burned up
and there is no more smoke. After they are somewhat cooled off, they
are laid into cold water and worked with a brush, then rinsed with
water and well dried. The pieces are now provided with a gray metallic
coating, consisting mainly of antimony, manganese, and graphite. This
metallic layer renders them capable of receiving a lacquer which is
best prepared from 1,000 parts of alcohol (90 per cent), 50 parts of
sandarac, 100 parts of shellac, and 100 parts of nigrosine (black
aniline color). Then the articles are quickly but thoroughly rinsed
off, dried in warmed air for a few minutes, and baked in ovens or over
a moderate coal fire until they do not smoke any more and no more gloss
can be seen. Finally they are rubbed with a cotton rag saturated with
thin linseed-oil varnish, and the objects thus treated now appear dull
black, like velvet. The covering withstands all action of the weather,
so that cooking vessels coated with this varnish on the outside can
be placed on the fire without injury to the coating. If the articles
are engraved, the aluminum appears almost glossy white under the black
layer at the engraved places. When the pieces have been provided with
the gray metallic coating, colored lacquer may also be applied with the
brush. In this manner paintings, etc., may be done on aluminum, while
not possible on unprepared aluminum surfaces, which will not retain
them.


«Making Castings in Aluminum.»—The method adopted in preparing molds
and cores for aluminum work is necessarily somewhat the same as for
brass, but there are particular points which need attention to insure
successful work. Both in the sand and the making of the molds there
are some small differences which make considerable variation in
the results, and the temperature at which the metal is poured is a
consideration of some importance.

In selecting the sand, which should {82} not have been previously used,
that of a fine grain should be chosen, but it should not have any
excess of aluminous matter, or it will not permit of the free escape of
gases and air, this being an important matter. Besides this, the sand
must be used as dry as possible consistent with its holding against the
flow of the metal, and having only moderate compression in ramming.

In making the molds it is necessary to remember that aluminum has a
large contraction in cooling, and also that at certain temperatures
it is very weak and tears readily, while all metals shrink away from
the mold when this is wholly outside the casting, but they shrink on
to cores or portions of the mold partly inclosed by metal. Thus, if
casting a plate or bar of metal, it will shrink away from the mold in
all directions; but if casting a square frame, it shrinks away from
the outside only, while it shrinks on to the central part or core.
With brass, or iron, or such metals, this is not of much importance,
but with some others, including aluminum, it is of great importance,
because if the core or inclosed sand will not give somewhat with the
contraction of the metal, torn or fractured castings will be the
result. Both for outside and inside molds, and with cores used with
aluminum, the sand should be compressed as little as possible, and
hard ramming must in every case be avoided, particularly where the
metal surrounds the sand. The molds must be very freely vented, and
not only at the joint of the mold, but by using the vent wire freely
through the body of the mold itself; in fact, for brass the venting
would be considered excessive. With aluminum it is, however, necessary
to get the air off as rapidly as possible, because the metal soon gets
sluggish in the mold, and unless it runs up quickly it runs faint
at the edges. The ingates should be wide and of fair area, but need
careful making to prevent their drawing where they enter the casting,
the method of doing this being known to most molders.

If it is considered desirable to use a specially made-up facing sand
for the molds where the metal is of some thickness, the use of a little
pea or bean meal will be all that is necessary. To use this, first
dry as much sand as may be required and pass through a 20-mesh sieve,
and to each bushel of the fine sand rub in about 4 quarts of meal,
afterwards again passing through the sieve to insure regular mixing.
This sand should then be damped as required, being careful that all
parts are equally moist, rubbing on a board being a good way to get it
tough, and in good condition, with the minimum of moisture.

The molds should not be sleeked with tools, but they may be dusted
over with plumbago or steatite, smoothing with a camel’s-hair brush,
in cases in which a very smooth face is required on the castings.
Preferably, however, the use of the brush even should be avoided.
Patterns for aluminum should be kept smooth and well varnished.

In melting the metal it is necessary to use a plumbago crucible which
is clean and which has not been used for other metals. Clay or silica
crucibles are not good for this metal, especially silica, on account
of the metal absorbing silicon and becoming hard under some conditions
of melting. A steady fire is necessary, and the fuel should reach only
about halfway up the crucible, as it is not desirable to overheat the
crucible or metal. The metal absorbs heat for some time and then fuses
with some rapidity, hence the desirability of a steady heat; and as the
metal should be poured when of a claret color under the film of oxide
which forms on the surface, too rapid a heating is not advisable. The
molding should always be well in advance of the pouring, because the
metal should be used as soon as it is ready; for not only is waste
caused, but the metal loses condition if kept in a molten state for
long periods. The metal should be poured rapidly, but steadily, and
when cast up there should not be a large head of metal left on top of
the runner. In fact, it is rather a disadvantage to leave a large head,
as this tends to draw rather than to feed the casting.

With properly prepared molds, and careful melting, fluxes are not
required, but ground cryolite—a fluoride of sodium and aluminum—is
sometimes used to increase the fluidity of the metal. In using this, a
few ounces according to the bulk of metal to be treated is put into the
molten metal before it is taken from the furnace, and well stirred in,
and as soon as the reaction apparently ceases the pot is lifted and the
metal at once skimmed and poured. The use of sodium in any form with
aluminum is very undesirable, however, and should be avoided, and the
same remark applies to tin, but there is no objection to alloying with
zinc, when the metal thus produced is sold as an alloy.

Aluminum also casts very well in molds of plaster of Paris and crushed
bath brick when such molds are perfectly dry {83} and well vented,
smoothness being secured by brushing over with dry steatite or
plumbago. When casting in metal molds, these should be well brushed out
with steatite or plumbago, and made fairly hot before pouring, as in
cold molds the metal curdles and becomes sluggish, with the result that
the castings run up faint.


«To Increase the Toughness, Density, and Tenacity of Aluminum.»—For the
purpose of improving aluminum, without increasing its specific gravity,
the aluminum is mixed with 4 to 7 per cent of phosphorus, whereby the
density, tenacity, and especially the toughness are said to be enhanced.


«WORKING OF SHEET ALUMINUM:»

The great secret, if there is any, in working aluminum, either pure or
alloyed, consists in the proper lubricant and the shape of the tool.
Another great disadvantage in the proper working of the metal is that,
when a manufacturer desires to make up an article, he will procure the
pure metal in order to make his samples, which, of course, is harder to
work than the alloy. But the different grades of aluminum sheet which
are on the market are so numerous for different classes of work that it
might be advisable to consider them for a moment before passing to the
method of working them.

The pure metal, to begin with, can be purchased of all degrees of
hardness, from the annealed, or what is known as the “dead soft”
stock, to the pure aluminum hard rolled. Then comes a harder grade of
alloys, running from “dead soft” metal, which will draw up hard, to
the same metal hard rolled; and, still again, another set of alloys
which, perhaps, are a little harder still when hard rolled, and will,
when starting with the “dead soft,” spin up into a utensil which, when
finished, will probably be as stiff as brass. These latter alloys
are finding a large sale for replacing brass used in all classes of
manufactured articles.

To start with lathe work on aluminum, probably more difficulty has been
found here, especially in working pure metal, and more complaints are
heard from this source than from any other. As stated before, however,
these difficulties can all be readily overcome, if the proper tools
and the proper lubricants are used, as automatic screw machines are
now made so that they can be operated when working aluminum just as
readily as when they are working brass, and in some cases more readily.
To start with the question of the tool, this should be made as what is
known as a “shearing tool,” that is, instead of a short, stubby point,
such as would be used in turning brass, the point should be lengthened
out and a lot of clearance provided on the inside of the tool, so as
to give the chips of the metal a good chance to free themselves and
not cause a clogging around the point of the tool—a similar tool, for
instance, to what would be used for turning wood.

The best lubricant to be used would be coal oil or water, and plenty of
it. The latter is almost as good as coal oil if enough of it is used,
and with either of these lubricants and a tool properly made, there
should be no difficulty whatsoever in the rapid working of aluminum,
either on the lathe or on automatic screw machines.

To go from the lathe to the drawing press, the same tools here would
be used in drawing up shapes of aluminum as are used for drawing up
brass or other metals; the only precaution necessary in this instance
being to use a proper lubricant, which in this case is a cheap grade of
vaseline, or in some cases lard oil, but in the majority of instances
better results will be secured by the use of vaseline. Aluminum is
probably susceptible of deeper drawing with less occasion to anneal
than any of the other commercial metals. It requires but one-third or
one-fourth of as much annealing as brass or copper. For instance, an
article which is now manufactured in brass, requiring, say, three or
four operations before the article is finished, would probably have
to be annealed after every operation. With aluminum, however, if the
proper grade is used, it is generally possible to perform these three
operations without annealing the metal at all, and at the same time to
produce a finished article which, to all intents and purposes, is as
stiff as an article made of sheet brass.

Too much stress cannot be laid on the fact of starting with the proper
grade of metal, for either through ignorance or by not observing this
point is the foundation of the majority of the complaints that aluminum
“has been tried and found wanting.” If, however, it should be found
necessary to anneal aluminum, this can be readily accomplished by
heating it in an ordinary muffle, being careful that the temperature
shall not be too high—about 650° or 700° F. The best test as to when
the metal has reached the proper temperature is to take a soft pine
stick and draw it across the {84} metal. If it chars the stick and
leaves a black mark on the metal, it is sufficiently annealed and is in
a proper condition to proceed with further operation.

Next taking up the question of spinning aluminum, success again
depends particularly on starting with the proper metal. The most
satisfactory speed for articles from 5 to 8 inches in diameter is
about 2,600 revolutions a minute, and for larger or smaller diameters
the speed should be so regulated as to give the same velocity at the
circumference. Aluminum is a very easy metal to spin and no difficulty
should be found at all in spinning the proper grades of sheets.
Several factories that are using large quantities of aluminum now, both
for spinning and stamping, are paying their men by the piece the same
amount that they formerly paid on brass and tin work, and it is stated
that the men working on this basis make anywhere from 10 to 20 per cent
more wages by working aluminum.

After aluminum has been manufactured into the shape of an article, the
next process is the finishing of it. The best polish can be obtained
by first cutting down the metal with an ordinary rag buff on which
use tripoli, and then finish it with a dry red rouge which comes in
the lump form, or that which is known as “White Diamond Rouge.” One
point, however, that it is necessary to observe carefully is that both
the tripoli and the rouge should be procured ground as fine as it is
possible to grind them; for, if this is not done, the metal will have
little fine scratches all over it, and will not appear as bright and as
handsome as it otherwise would.

If it is desired to put on a frosted appearance, this can either
be done by scratch brushing or sand blasting. A brass wire scratch
brush, made of crimped wire of No. 32 to No. 36 B. & S. gage, with
three or four rows of bristles, will probably give the best results.
This work of scratch brushing can be somewhat lessened, however, if,
before applying the scratch brush to the surface of the aluminum, the
article is first cut down by the use of a porpoise-hide wheel and fine
Connecticut sand, placing the sand between the surface of the aluminum
and the wheel, so that the skin and the irregularities on the surface
are removed, and then putting the article on a buffing wheel before
attempting to scratch brush it. This method, however, is probably more
advantageous in the treating of aluminum castings than for articles
manufactured out of the sheet metal, as in the majority of cases it is
simply necessary before scratch brushing to cut down the article with
tripoli, and then polish it with rouge as already described, before
putting on the scratch brush; in this way the brush seems to take hold
quicker and better, and to produce a more uniform polish.

An effect similar to the scratch-brush finish can be got by sand
blasting, and by first sand blasting and then scratch brushing the
sheets, a good finish is obtained with very much less labor than by
scratch brushing alone. Another very pretty frosted effect is procured
by first sand blasting and then treated as hereinafter described
by “dipping” and “frosting,” and many variations in the finish of
aluminum can be got by varying the treatment, either by cutting
down with tripoli and polishing, scratch brushing, sand blasting,
dipping, and frosting, and by combinations of those treatments. A very
pretty mottled effect is secured on aluminum by first polishing and
then scratch brushing and then holding the aluminum against a soft
pine wheel, run at a high rate of speed on a lathe, and by careful
manipulation, quite regular forms of a mottled appearance can be
obtained.

The dipping and frosting of aluminum sheet is probably the cheapest way
of producing a nice finish. First remove all grease and dirt from the
article by dipping in benzine, then dip into water in order that the
benzine adhering to the article may be removed, so as not to affect
the strength of the solution into which it is next dipped. After they
have been taken out of the water and well shaken, the articles should
be plunged in a strong solution of caustic soda or caustic potash,
and left there a sufficient length of time until the aluminum starts
to turn black. Then they should be removed, dipped in water again,
and then into a solution of concentrated nitric and sulphuric acid,
composed of 24 parts of nitric acid to 1 part of sulphuric acid. After
being removed, the article should be washed thoroughly in water and
dried in hot sawdust in the usual way. This finish can also be varied
somewhat by making the solution of caustic soda of varying degrees of
strength, or by adding a small amount of common salt to the solution.

In burnishing the metal use a bloodstone or a steel burnisher. In
burnishing use a mixture of melted vaseline and coal oil, or a solution
composed of 2 tablespoonfuls of ground borax dissolved in about a quart
of hot water, with a few {85} drops of ammonia added. In engraving,
which adds materially to the appearance of finished castings, book
covers, picture frames, and similar articles made of sheet, probably
the best lubricant to use on an engraver’s tool in order to obtain a
clean cut, which is bright, is naphtha or coal oil, or a mixture of
coal oil and vaseline. The naphtha, however, is preferred, owing to the
fact that it does not destroy the satin finish in the neighborhood of
the cut, as the other lubricants are very apt to do. There is, however,
as much skill required in using and making a tool in order to give a
bright, clean cut as there is in the choice of the lubricant to be
used. The tool should be made somewhat on the same plan as the lathe
tools already outlined. That is, they should be brought to a sharp
point and be “cut back” rather far, so as to give plenty of clearance.

There has been one class of work in aluminum that has been developed
lately and only to a certain extent, in which there are great
possibilities, and that is in drop forging the metal. Some very
superior bicycle parts have been manufactured by drop forging. This can
be accomplished probably more readily with aluminum than with other
metals, for the reason that it is not necessary with all the alloys
to work them hot; consequently, they can be worked and handled more
rapidly.

ALUMINUM, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

ALUMINUM ALLOYS: See Alloys.

ALUMINUM BRONZE: See Alloys under Bronzes.

ALUMINUM CASTINGS: See Casting.

ALUMINUM PAPER: See Paper.

ALUMINUM PLATING: See Plating.

ALUMINUM POLISHES: See Polishes.


«Amalgams»

See also Easily Fusible Alloys under Alloys.

The name amalgam is given to alloys of metals containing mercury. The
term comes to us from the alchemists. It signifies softening, because
an excess of mercury dissolves a large number of metals.


«Preparation of Amalgams.»—Mercury forms amalgams with most metals.
It unites directly and readily, either cold or hot, with potassium,
sodium, barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, cadmium, tin,
antimony, lead, bismuth, silver, and gold; directly, but more
difficultly, with aluminum, copper, and palladium. This combination
takes place oftenest at the ordinary temperature; certain metals,
however, like aluminum and antimony, combine only when heated in
presence of quicksilver.

Quicksilver has no direct action on metals of high fusing points:
manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt, uranium, platinum, and their
congeners. Still, amalgams of these metals can be obtained of butyrous
consistency, either by electrolysis of their saline solutions,
employing quicksilver as the negative electrode, or by the action
of an alkaline amalgam (potassium or sodium), on their concentrated
and neutral saline solutions. These same refractory metals are also
amalgamated superficially when immersed in the amalgam of sodium or of
ammonium in presence of water.

Processes for preparing amalgams by double decomposition between an
alkaline amalgam and a metallic salt, or by electrolysis of saline
solutions, with employment of mercury as the negative electrode,
apply _a fortiori_ to metals capable of combining directly with the
quicksilver. The latter of these methods is especially utilized for the
preparation of alkaline earthy metals by electrolytic decomposition of
the solutions of their salts or hydrated oxides with quicksilver as a
cathode.


«General Properties of Amalgams.»—Amalgams are liquid when the
quicksilver is in great excess; solid, but readily fusible, when the
alloyed metal predominates.

They have a metallic luster, and a metallic structure which renders
them brittle. They even form crystallized metallic combinations of
constant proportions, dissolved in an excess of quicksilver, when the
excess is separated by compression in a chamois skin, or by filtration
in a glass funnel of slender stem, terminating with an orifice almost
capillary.

According as the fusing heat of a metal is less or greater than
its combination heat with quicksilver, the amalgamation of this
metal produces an elevation or a lowering of temperature. Thus {86}
potassium, sodium, and cadmium, in alloy with quicksilver, disengage
heat; while zinc, antimony, tin, bismuth, lead, and silver combine
with mercury with absorption of heat. The amalgamation of 162 parts of
quicksilver with 21 parts of lead, 12 parts of tin or of antimony, and
28.5 parts of bismuth, lowers the temperature of the mixture 79° F.

Amalgams formed with disengagement of heat are electro-negative with
reference to the metals alloyed with the quicksilver. The products with
absorption of heat are electro-negative with reference to the metals
combined with the quicksilver; consequently, in a battery of elements
of pure cadmium and amalgamated cadmium, the cadmium will be the
negative pole; in case of zinc and amalgamated zinc, the zinc will be
the positive pole.

Heat decomposes all amalgams, vaporizing the mercury and leaving the
metal alloys as a residue.

Water is decomposed by the amalgams of potassium and sodium, because
the heat of formation of these amalgams, although considerable, is even
less than the heat disengaged by potassium and sodium, on decomposing
water. The alkaline amalgams may, therefore, serve as a source of
nascent hydrogen in presence of water, giving rise to an action less
energetic, and often more advantageous, than that of the alkaline
metals alone. Thus is caused the frequent employment of sodium amalgam
for hydrogenizing a large number of bodies. As a consequence of their
action on water, the alkaline amalgams are changed by moist air, with
production of free alkali or alkaline carbonate.


«Applications of Potassium Amalgams.»—I.—They furnish a process for
preparing potassium by the decomposition of potash by the electric
current, by employing quicksilver as the cathode, and vaporizing the
quicksilver of the amalgam formed by heating this in a current of dry
hydrogen.

II.—They can serve for the preparation of the amalgams of the metals,
other than those of the alkaline group, by decomposing the salts of
these metals, with formation of a salt of potash and of the amalgam of
the metal corresponding to the original salt.

III.—They can be employed as a source of nascent hydrogen in presence
of water for hydrogenizing many substances.


«Applications of Sodium Amalgams.»—These are nearly the same as those
of the potassium amalgams, but the sodium amalgams are employed almost
exclusively, because sodium is easier to handle than potassium, and is
cheaper. These employments are the following:

I.—Sodium amalgam furnishes a process for the preparation of sodium
when soda is decomposed by means of the electric current, employing
quicksilver as the cathode, and afterwards vaporizing the quicksilver
of the amalgam formed by heating this in a current of dry hydrogen.

II.—Amalgams of sodium serve for the preparation of amalgams of the
other metals, particularly alkaline earthy metals and metals of high
fusing points, by decomposing the salts of these metals, with formation
of a salt of soda and of the amalgam of the metal corresponding to the
original salt.

III.—They serve for amalgamating superficially the metals of high
fusing point, called “refractory,” such as iron and platinum, when a
well-cleaned plate of these metals is immersed in sodium amalgam in
presence of water.

IV.—An amalgam of 2 or 3 per cent of sodium is employed in the
processes of extraction of gold by amalgamation. It has the property of
rendering quicksilver more brilliant, and consequently more energetic,
by acting as a deoxidant on the pellicle of oxide formed on its surface
in presence of certain ores, which, by keeping it separated from the
particles of gold, destroy its activity. Sodium amalgam of 3 per
cent is utilized with success for the amalgamated plates employed in
crushers and other apparatus for treating the ores of gold. If a few
drops of this amalgam are spread on a plate of copper, of tin, or of
zinc, a brilliant coating of an amalgam of tin, copper, or zinc is
immediately formed.

V.—Amalgams of from 2 to 8 per cent of sodium serve frequently in
laboratories for reducing or hydrogenizing organic combinations,
without running the risk of a partial destruction of these compounds by
too intense action, as may occur by employing free sodium instead of
its amalgam.


«Applications of Barium Amalgams.»—These can, by distillation, furnish
barium. It is one of the processes for preparing this metal, which,
when thus obtained, almost always retains a little sodium.


«Applications of Strontium Amalgams.»—These amalgams, washed and dried
rapidly immediately after their preparation, and then heated to a
nascent red {87} in a current of dry hydrogen, yield a fused mass of
strontium.


«Applications of Cadmium Amalgams.»—Amalgams of cadmium, formed of
equal weights of cadmium and quicksilver, have much power of cohesion
and are quite malleable; the case is the same with an amalgam formed of
1 part of cadmium and 2 parts of quicksilver. They are used as dental
cements for plugging teeth; for the same purpose an amalgam of 2 parts
of quicksilver, 1 part of cadmium, and 2 parts of tin may be used.


«Applications of Zinc Amalgams.»—The principal employment of zinc
amalgams is their use as a cathode or negative electrode in the
batteries of Munson, Daniels, and Lechanché. This combination is
designed to render the zinc non-attackable by the exciting liquid of
the battery with open circuit. The action of the mercury is to prevent
the zinc from forming a large number of small voltaic elements when
foreign bodies are mingled with the metal; in a word, the giving to
ordinary zinc the properties of pure zinc, and consequently of causing
a great saving in expense.

For amalgamating a zinc plate it is plunged for a few seconds into
water in which there is one-sixteenth in volume of sulphuric acid,
then rubbing with a copper-wire brush which has been dipped in the
quicksilver. The mercury takes more readily on the zinc when, after the
zinc has been cleaned with water sharpened with sulphuric acid, it is
moistened with a solution of corrosive sublimate, which is reduced and
furnishes a first very thin coat of amalgam, on which the quicksilver
is immediately fixed by simple immersion without rubbing.

The zinc of a battery may be amalgamated by putting at the bottom of
the compartment containing each element, a little quicksilver in such
a way that the zinc touches the liquid. The amalgamation is effected
under the influence of the current, but this process applies only
on condition that the zinc alone touches the bottom of the vessel
containing the quicksilver.


«Applications of Manganese Amalgams.»—These may serve for the
preparation of manganese. For this purpose it is sufficient to distill
in a current of pure hydrogen. The manganese remains in the form of a
grayish powder.


«Applications of Tin Amalgams.»—I.—Tinning of glass. This operation
is accomplished in the following manner: On a cast-iron table, quite
horizontal, a sheet of tin of the dimensions of the glass is spread
out and covered with a layer of quicksilver, 5 or 6 millimeters in
thickness. The glass is made to slide on the sheet of tin in such a
way as to drive off the excess of quicksilver; when the two surfaces
are covered without interposition of air, weights are placed on the
glass. In a few days, the glass may be removed, having been covered
with an adhering pellicle of amalgam of 4 parts of tin and 1 part of
quicksilver. (See also Mirrors.)

II.—An amalgam consisting of 2 parts of zinc and 1 part tin may be
used for covering the cushions of frictional electric machines. This
amalgam is prepared by first melting the zinc and tin in a crucible and
adding the quicksilver previously heated.

III.—Mention has been made of the cadmium amalgam employed for plugging
teeth, an amalgam of 2 parts of quicksilver, 2 parts of tin, and 1 part
of cadmium. For the same purpose an amalgam of tin, silver, and gold is
employed. (See also Cements, Dental.)


«Applications of Copper Amalgams.»—I.—An amalgam of 30 per cent of
copper has been employed for filling teeth. This use has been abandoned
on account of the inconvenience occasioned by the great changeableness
of the product.

II.—The amalgam of 30 per cent of copper, designated by the name of
“metallic mastic,” is an excellent cement for repairing objects and
utensils of porcelain. For this employment, the broken surfaces are
heated to 662° F., and a little of the amalgam, previously heated to
the consistency of melted wax, is applied.

III.—Copper amalgam, of 30 to 45 per cent of copper, rendered
plastic by heating and grinding, may serve for obtaining with slight
compression copies of delicate objects, which may, after hardening of
the amalgam, be reproduced, either in wax or by galvanic process.

IV.—According to Debray, when a medal, obtained with an amalgam of
45 per cent of copper, by compression in the soft state, in molds of
gutta percha, is heated progressively to redness in an atmosphere of
hydrogen, the quicksilver is volatilized gradually, and the particles
of copper come together without fusion in such a way as to produce a
faithful reproduction, formed exclusively of metallic copper, of the
original medal.

V.—In the metallurgy of gold, the crushers are furnished with
amalgamated plates of copper for retaining the gold. The preparation
of these plates, {88} which are at least 0.128 inches in thickness, is
delicate, requiring about two weeks. They are freed from greasy matter
by rubbing with ashes, or, better, with a little sand and caustic soda,
or if more rapid action is desired, with a cloth dipped in dilute
nitric acid; they are washed with water, then with a solution of
potassium cyanide, and finally brushed with a mixture of sal ammoniac
and a little quicksilver, until the surface is completely amalgamated.
They are finally made to absorb as much quicksilver as possible. But
the plates thus treated are useful for only a few days when they are
sufficiently covered with a layer of gold amalgam; in the meantime
they occasion loss of time and of gold. So it is preferable to cover
them artificially with a little gold amalgam, which is prepared by
dissolving gold in quicksilver. Sometimes the amalgam of gold is
replaced by an amalgam of silver, which is readily poured and more
economical.

Another method giving better results consists in silvering copper slabs
by electroplating and covering them with a layer of silver. Then it
is only necessary to apply a little quicksilver, which adheres quite
rapidly, so that they are ready for use almost immediately, and are
quite active at the outset.

These amalgamation slabs ought to be cleaned before each operation.
Potassium cyanide removes fatty matter, and sal ammoniac the oxides of
the low metals.


«Applications of Lead Amalgams.»—These meet with an interesting
employment for the autogenous soldering of lead. After the surfaces
to be soldered have been well cleaned, a layer of lead amalgam is
applied. It is afterwards sufficient to pass along the line of junction
a soldering iron heated to redness, in order that the heat should cause
the volatilization of the quicksilver, and that the lead, liberated in
a state of fine division, should be melted and cause the adherence of
the two surfaces. The only precaution necessary is to avoid breathing
the mercurial vapor, which is quite poisonous.


«Applications of Bismuth Amalgams.»—The amalgam formed of 1 per cent of
bismuth and 4 parts of quicksilver will cause the strong adherence of
glass. It is employed with advantage in the tinning of glass globes.
For this operation it is poured into a dry hot receiver, and then
passed over the whole surface of the glass; it solidifies on cooling.
For the purpose of economizing the bismuth, the price of which is high,
the preceding amalgam is replaced by another composed of 2 parts of
quicksilver, 1 part of bismuth, 1 part of lead, and 1 part of tin. The
bismuth, broken into small fragments, is added to the tin and lead,
previously melted in the crucible, and when the mixture of the three
metals becomes fluid, the quicksilver is poured in, while stirring with
an iron rod. The impurities floating on the surface are removed, and
when the temperature is sufficiently lowered this amalgam is slowly
poured into the vessels to be tinned, which have been previously
well cleaned and slightly heated. M. Ditte recommends for the same
employment, as a very strong adherent to the glass, an amalgam obtained
by dissolving hot 2 parts of bismuth and 1 part of lead in a solution
of 1 part of tin in 10 parts of quicksilver. By causing a quantity of
this amalgam to move around the inside of a receiver, clean, dry, and
slightly heated, the surface will be covered with a thin, brilliant
layer, which hardens quite rapidly.

For the injection of anatomical pieces an amalgam formed of 10 parts
of quicksilver, 50 parts of bismuth, 31 parts of lead, and 18 parts
of tin, fusible at 77.5° and solidifiable at 60° C., is made use of;
or, again, an amalgam composed of 9 parts of Darcet alloy and 1 part
of quicksilver fusible at 127 1⁠/⁠2° F., and pasty at a still lower
temperature. This last amalgam may also be used for filling carious
teeth. The Darcet alloy, as known, contains 2 parts of bismuth, 1 part
of lead, and 1 part of tin, and melts at 199 1⁠/⁠2° F. The addition of
1 part of quicksilver lowers the fusing point to 104° F.


«Applications of Silver Amalgams.»—I.—In the silvering of mirrors by
the Petitjean method, which has almost universally replaced tinning,
the property of silver in readily amalgamating is taken advantage of,
by substituting the glass after silvering to the action of a dilute
solution of double cyanide of mercury and potassium in such a manner
as to form an amalgam of white and brilliant silver adhering strongly
to the glass. To facilitate the operation and utilize all the silver,
while economizing the double cyanide, M. Lenoir has recommended the
following: Sprinkle the glass at the time when it is covered with the
mercurial solution with very fine zinc powder, which precipitates the
quicksilver and regulates the amalgamation.

II.—The metallurgy of silver also takes advantage of the property
of this {89} metal in combining cold with quicksilver; this for the
treatment of poor silver ores.

In the Saxon or Freiburg process for treating silver ores, recourse is
had to quicksilver in the case of amalgam in amalgamating casks, in
which the ore, after grinding, is shaken with disks of iron, and with
mercury and water. The amalgam, collected and filtered under strong
pressure, contains from 30 to 33 per cent of silver. It is distilled
either in cylindrical retorts of cast iron, furnished with an exit
tube immersed in the water for condensing the mercurial vapors, or on
plates of iron, arranged over each other along a vertical iron stem,
supported by a tripod at the bottom of a tank filled with water, and
covered with an iron receiver, which is itself surrounded with ignited
charcoal. It should be remarked that the last portions of quicksilver
in a silver amalgam submitted to distillation are volatilized only
under the action of a high and prolonged temperature.


«Applications of Gold Amalgams.»—I.—Gilding with quicksilver. This
process of gilding, much employed formerly, is now but little used.
It can be applied only to metals slightly fusible and capable of
amalgamation, like silver, copper, bronze, and brass. Iron can also be
gilded by this method, provided it is previously covered with a coating
of copper. To perform this gilding the surface is well cleaned, and the
gold amalgam, consisting of 2 parts of gold and 1 part of quicksilver,
prepared as mentioned before, is applied. The piece is afterwards
heated to about the red, so as to volatilize the mercury. The gold
remains, superficially alloyed with the metal, and forms an extremely
solid layer of deadened gold, which can be afterwards polished. The
volatilization should be effected under a chimney having strong
draught, in order to avoid the poisonous action of the mercurial vapors.

II.—The amalgamation of gold finds its principal applications in the
treatment of auriferous ores. The extraction of small spangles of gold
scattered in gold-bearing sands is based on the ready dissolution of
gold in quicksilver, and on the formation of an amalgam of solid gold
by compression and filtering through a chamois skin, in a state more or
less liquid. The spangles of gold are shaken with about their weight
of quicksilver, collected in the cavities of sluices and mixed with a
small quantity of sand. The gold is dissolved and the sand remains.
The amalgam thus obtained is compressed in a chamois skin, so as to
separate the excess of mercury which passes through the pores of the
skin; or, yet again, it is filtered through a glass funnel having a
very slender stem, with almost capillary termination. In both cases an
amalgam of solid gold remains, which is submitted to the action of heat
in a crucible or cast-iron retort, communicating with a bent-iron tube,
of which the extremity, surrounded with a cloth immersed in water,
is arranged above a receiver half full of water. The quicksilver is
vaporized and condensed in the water. The gold remains in the retort.

The property of gold of combining readily with quicksilver is also
used in many kinds of amalgamating apparatus for extraction and in the
metallurgy of gold.

In various operations it is essential to keep the quicksilver active
by preserving its limpidity. For this purpose potassium cyanide and
ammonium chloride are especially employed; sometimes wood ashes,
carbonate of soda, hyposulphite of soda, nitrate of potash, cupric
sulphate, sea salt, and lime; the latter for precipitating the soluble
sulphates proceeding from the decomposition of pyrites.

The amalgamation of gold is favored by a temperature of 38° to 45° C.
(100° to 113° F.), and still more by the employment of quicksilver
in the nascent state. This last property is the base of the Designol
process, which consists in treating auriferous or auro-argentiferous
ores, first ground with sea salt, in revolving cylinders of cast
iron, with iron and mercury bichloride, in such a way that the
mercury precipitated collects the gold and eventually the silver more
efficaciously.


«Gold Amalgam.»—Eight parts of gold and 1 of mercury are formed into an
amalgam for plating by rendering the gold into thin plates, making it
red hot, and then putting it into the mercury while the latter is also
heated to ebullition. The gold immediately disappears in combination
with the mercury, after which the mixture may be turned into water to
cool. It is then ready for use.


«Zinc Amalgam for Electric Batteries.»—Dissolve 2 parts of mercury in
1 part of aqua regia. This accomplished, add 5 parts of hydrochloric
acid. This solution is made warm. It suffices to dip the zinc to be
amalgamated into this liquid only for a few seconds. {90}


«Amalgam for Cementing Glass, Porcelain, Etc.»—Take tin 2 parts, and
cadmium 1 part. Fuse in an iron spoon or some vessel of the same
material. When the two materials are in fusion add a little mercury,
previously heated. Place all in an iron crucible and boil, agitating
the mass with a pestle. This amalgam is soft and can be kneaded between
the fingers. It may be employed for luting glass or porcelain vessels,
as well as for filling teeth. It hardens in a short while.


«Amalgam for Silvering Glass Balls.»—Lead, 25 parts; tin, 25 parts;
bismuth, 25 parts; mercury, 25 parts; or, lead, 20 parts; tin, 20
parts; bismuth, 20 parts; mercury, 40 parts. Melt the lead and the tin,
then add the bismuth; skim several times and add the mercury, stirring
the composition vigorously.

(See also Mirror-Silvering).


«Copper Amalgam.»—Copper amalgam, or so-called Viennese metal cement,
crystallizes with the greatest readiness and acquires such hardness on
solidifying that it can be polished like gold. The amalgam may also be
worked under the hammer or between rollers; it can also be stamped,
and retains its metallic luster for a long time in the air. In air
containing hydrogen sulphide, however, it quickly tarnishes and turns
black. A very special property of copper amalgam consists in that it
becomes very soft when laid in water, and attains such pliancy that
it can be employed for modeling the most delicate objects. After a
few hours the amalgam congeals again into a very fine-grained, rather
malleable mass. An important application of copper amalgam is that for
cementing metals. All that is necessary for this purpose is to heat the
metals, which must be bright, to 80–90° C. (176–194° F.), to apply the
amalgam and to press the metal pieces together. They will cohere as
firmly as though soldered together.

Copper amalgam may be prepared in the following manner:

Place strips of zinc in a solution of blue vitriol and agitate the
solution thoroughly. The copper thus obtained in the form of a very
fine powder is washed and, while still moist, treated in a mortar with
a solution of mercury nitrate. The copper powder thereby amalgamates
more readily with the quicksilver. Next, hot water is poured over the
copper, the mortar is kept hot, and the mercury added. Knead with the
pestle of the mortar until the copper, pulverulent in the beginning,
has united with the mercury into a very plastic mass. The longer the
kneading is continued the more uniform will be the mass. As soon as the
amalgam has acquired the suitable character—for its production 3 parts
of copper and 7 parts of mercury are used—the water is poured off and
the amalgam still soft is given the shape in which it is to be kept.

For cementing purposes, the amalgam is rolled out into small cylinders,
whose diameter is about 0.16 to 0.2 inches, with a length of a few
inches. In order to produce with this amalgam impressions of castings,
which are made after woodcuts, the amalgam is rolled out hot into a
thin plate and pressed firmly onto the likewise heated plaster cast.
After the amalgam has hardened the thin plate of it may be reinforced
by pouring on molten type metal.


«Silver Amalgam.»—Silver amalgam can easily be made with the help of
finely powdered silver. The mercury need only be heated to 250° to
300° C. (482° to 572° F.); silver powder is then sprinkled on it, and
mixed with it by stirring. The vessel is heated for several minutes
and then allowed to cool, the excess of mercury being removed from the
granulated crystalline amalgam by pressing in a leather bag. Silver
amalgam can also easily be made by dissolving silver in nitric acid,
evaporating the solution till the excess of free acid is eliminated,
diluting with distilled water, and adding mercury to the fluid in
the proportion of 4 parts, by weight, of mercury to 1 of the silver
originally used. The mercury precipitates the silver in a metallic
state, and immediately forms an amalgam with it; the fluid standing
above after a time contains no more silver, but consists of a solution
of mercury nitrate mixed with whatever copper was contained in the
dissolved silver in the form of copper nitrate. The absence of a
white precipitate, if a few drops of hydrochloric acid are added to a
sample of the fluid in a test tube, shows that all the silver has been
eliminated from the solution and is present in the form of amalgam.


«Amalgam for the Rubber of Electric Machines.»—Mercury, 100 parts;
zinc, 50 parts; tin, 50 parts. This amalgam reduced to powder and
incorporated with grease can be applied to the rubber of electric
machines.

AMALGAM GOLD PLATING: See Gilding under Plating.


«AMBER:»


«Imitation Amber.»—Melt carefully together pine rosin, 1; lacca in
tabulis, 2; white colophony, 15 parts. {91}

AMBER CEMENT: See Adhesives under Cements.

AMBER VARNISH: See Varnishes.

AMBROSIA POWDER: See Salts (Effervescent).

AMIDOL DEVELOPER: See Photography.

AMETHYST (IMITATION): See Gems, Artificial.

AMMON-CARBONITE: See Explosives.


«Ammonia»


«Household Ammonia.»—(See also Household Formulas.)—Household ammonia is
simply diluted ammonia water to which borax and soap have been added.
To make it cloudy add potassium nitrate or methylated spirit. The
following are good formulas:

 I.—Ammonia water                    16 parts
     Yellow soap                      64 parts
     Potassium nitrate                 1 part
     Soft water, sufficient to make  200 parts

Shave up the soap and dissolve it in the water by heating, add the
potassium nitrate and dissolve. Cool, strain, skim off any suds or
bubbles, add the ammonia, mix, and bottle at once.

 II.—Yellow soap               10 grains
      Borax                      1 drachm
      Lavender water            20 minims
      Stronger ammonia water     6 ounces
      Water, enough to make     20 ounces

Dissolve the soap and borax in 5 ounces of boiling water; when cold add
the lavender water and ammonia, and make up to a pint with water.

 III.—Methylated spirit         1 gallon
       Soft water                1 gallon
       Stronger ammonia water    1 gallon

  IV.—Ammonia water             5 pints
       Distilled water           5 pints
       Soap                    100 grains
       Olive oil                 5 drachms

Cut the soap in shavings, boil with the oil and water, cool, add the
ammonia water, and bottle. For use in laundries, baths, and for general
household purposes add one tablespoonful to one gallon of water.

V.—The best quality:

 Alcohol, 94 per cent     4 ounces
 Soft water               4 gallons
 Oil of rosemary          4 drachms
 Oil of citronella        3 drachms

Dissolve the oils in the alcohol and add to the water. To the mixture
add 4 ounces of talc (or fuller’s earth will answer), mix thoroughly,
strain through canvas, and to the colate add 1, 2, or 3 gallons of
ammonia water, according to the strength desired, in which has been
dissolved 1, 2, or 3 ounces of white curd, or soft soap.


«Liquor Ammonii Anisatus.»—

 Oil of anise, by weight           1 part
 Alcohol, by weight               24 parts
 Water of ammonia, by weight       5 parts

Dissolve the oil in the alcohol and add the water of ammonia.

It should be a clear, yellowish liquid.


«Violet Color for Ammonia.»—A purple-blue color may be given to ammonia
water by adding an aqueous solution of litmus. The shade, when pale
enough, will probably meet all views as to a violet color.


«Perfumed Ammonia Water.»—The following are typical formulas:

  I.—Stronger water of ammonia    6     ounces
      Lavender water               1     ounce
      Soft soap                   10     grains
      Water, enough to make       16     ounces

 II.—Soft soap                    1     ounce
      Borax                        2     drachms
      Cologne water                  1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Stronger water of ammonia    5 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Water, enough to make       12     ounces

Rub up the soap and borax with water until dissolved, strain and add
the other ingredients. The perfumes may be varied to suit the price.

AMMONIA FOR FIXING PRINTS: See Photography.

ANGOSTURA BITTERS: See Wines and Liquors.

ANILINE: See Dyes.

ANILINE IN PIGMENTS, TESTS FOR: See Pigments.

ANILINE STAINS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods. {92}

ANISE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

ANKARA: See Butter.

ANNEALING OF STEEL, TOOLS, WIRE, AND SPRINGS: See Steel.

ANODYNES: See Pain Killers.

ANT DESTROYERS: See Insecticides.


«Antidotes for Poisons»


«POISON, SYMPTOMS AND ANTIDOTES.»

When a person has taken poison the first thing to do is to compel the
patient to vomit, and for that purpose give any emetic that can be most
readily and quickly obtained, and which is prompt and energetic, but
safe in its action. For this purpose there is, perhaps, nothing better
than a large teaspoonful of ground mustard in a tumblerful of warm
water, and it has the advantage of being almost always at hand. If the
dry mustard is not to be had use mixed mustard from the mustard pot.
Its operation may generally be facilitated by the addition of a like
quantity of common table salt. If the mustard is not at hand, give two
or three teaspoonfuls of powdered alum in syrup or molasses, and give
freely of warm water to drink; or give 10 to 20 grains of sulphate of
zinc (white vitriol), or 20 to 30 grains of ipecac, with 1 or 2 grains
of tartar emetic, in a large cup of warm water, and repeat every ten
minutes until three or four doses are given, unless free vomiting is
sooner produced. After vomiting has taken place large draughts of warm
water should be given, so that the vomiting will continue until the
poisonous substances have been thoroughly evacuated, and then suitable
antidotes should be given. If vomiting cannot be produced the stomach
pump should be used. When it is known what particular kind of poison
has been swallowed, then the proper antidote for that poison should
be given; but when this cannot be ascertained, as is often the case,
give freely of equal parts of calcined magnesia, pulverized charcoal,
and sesquioxide of iron, in a sufficient quantity of water. This is
a very harmless mixture and is likely to be of great benefit, as the
ingredients, though very simple, are antidotes for the most common
and active poisons. In case this mixture cannot be obtained, the
stomach should be soothed and protected by the free administration of
demulcent, mucilaginous, or oleaginous drinks, such as the whites of
eggs, milk, mucilage of gum arabic, or slippery-elm bark, flaxseed tea,
starch, wheat flour, or arrowroot mixed in water, linseed or olive
oil, or melted butter or lard. Subsequently the bowels should be moved
by some gentle laxative, as a tablespoonful or two of castor oil, or
a teaspoonful of calcined magnesia; and pain or other evidence of
inflammation must be relieved by the administration of a few drops of
laudanum, and the repeated application of hot poultices, fomentations,
and mustard plasters.

The following are the names of the substances that may give rise to
poisoning, most commonly used, and their antidotes:


«Mineral Acids—Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol), Nitric Acid (Aqua
Fortis), Muriatic Acid (Spirits of Salts).»—Symptoms: Acid, burning
taste in the mouth, acute pain in the throat, stomach, and bowels;
frequent vomiting, generally bloody; mouth and lips excoriated,
shriveled, white or yellow; hiccough, copious stools, more or less
bloody, with great tenderness in the abdomen; difficult breathing,
irregular pulse, excessive thirst, while drink increases the pain and
rarely remains in the stomach; frequent but vain efforts to urinate;
cold sweats, altered countenance; convulsions, generally preceding
death. Nitric acid causes yellow stains; sulphuric acid, black ones.
Treatment: Mix calcined magnesia in milk or water to the consistence
of cream, and give freely to drink a glassful every couple of minutes,
if it can be swallowed. Common soap (hard or soft), chalk, whiting, or
even mortar from the wall mixed in water may be given, until magnesia
can be obtained. Promote vomiting by tickling the throat, if necessary,
and when the poison is got rid of, flaxseed or slippery-elm tea, gruel,
or other mild drinks. The inflammation which always follows needs good
treatment to save the patient’s life.


«Vegetable Acids—Acetic, Citric, Oxalic, Tartaric.»—Symptoms: Intense
burning pain of mouth, throat, and stomach; vomiting blood which is
highly acid, violent purging, collapse, stupor, death.

Oxalic acid is frequently taken in {93} mistake for Epsom salts, to
which in shops it often bears a strong resemblance. Treatment: Give
chalk or magnesia in a large quantity of water, or large draughts of
limewater. If these are not at hand, scrape the wall or ceiling, and
give the scrapings mixed with water.


«Prussic or Hydrocyanic Acid—Laurel Water, Cyanide of Potassium,
Bitter Almond Oil, Etc.»—Symptoms: In large doses almost invariably
instantaneously fatal; when not immediately fatal, sudden loss of sense
and control of the voluntary muscles. The odor of the poison generally
noticeable on the breath. Treatment: Chlorine, in the form of chlorine
water, in doses of from 1 to 4 fluidrachms, diluted. Weak solution of
chloride lime of soda; water of ammonia (spirits of hartshorn), largely
diluted, may be given, and the vapor of it cautiously inhaled. Cold
affusion, and chloroform in half to teaspoonful doses in glycerine
or mucilage, repeated every few minutes, until the symptoms are
ameliorated. Artificial respiration.


«Aconite—Monkshood, Wolfsbane.»—Symptoms: Numbness and tingling in the
mouth and throat, and afterwards in other portions of the body, with
sore throat, pain over the stomach, and vomiting; dimness of vision,
dizziness, great prostration, loss of sensibility, and delirium.
Treatment: An emetic and then brandy in tablespoonful doses, in ice
water, every half hour; spirits of ammonia in half-teaspoonful doses
in like manner; the cold douche over the head and chest, warmth to the
extremities, etc.


«Alkalis and Their Salts—Concentrated Lye, Wood-ash Lye, Caustic
Potash, Ammonia, Hartshorn.»—Symptoms: Caustic, acrid taste, excessive
heat in the throat, stomach, and intestines; vomiting of bloody matter,
cold sweats, hiccough, purging of bloody stools. Treatment: The
common vegetable acids. Common vinegar, being always at hand, is most
frequently used. The fixed oils, as castor, flaxseed, almond, and olive
oils form soaps with the alkalis and thus also destroy their caustic
effect. They should be given in large quantity.


«Antimony and Its Preparations—Tartar Emetic, Antimonial Wine, Kerme’s
Mineral.»—Symptoms: Faintness and nausea, soon followed by painful
and continued vomiting, severe diarrhea, constriction and burning
sensation in the throat, cramps, or spasmodic twitchings, with symptoms
of nervous derangement, and great prostration of strength, often
terminating in death. Treatment: If vomiting has not been produced, it
should be effected by tickling the fauces, and administering copious
draughts of warm water. Astringent infusions, such as of gall, oak
bark, Peruvian bark, act as antidotes, and should be given promptly.
Powdered yellow bark may be used until the infusion is prepared, or
very strong green tea should be given. To stop the vomiting, should it
continue, blister over the stomach by applying a cloth wet with strong
spirits of hartshorn, and then sprinkle on one-eighth to one-fourth of
a grain of morphia.


«Arsenic and Its Preparations—Ratsbane, Fowler’s Solution,
Etc.»—Symptoms: Generally within an hour pain and heat are felt in
the stomach, soon followed by vomiting, with a burning dryness of the
throat and great thirst; the matters vomited are generally colored
either green yellow, or brown, and are sometimes bloody. Diarrhea
or dysentery ensues, while the pulse becomes small and rapid, yet
irregular. Breathing much oppressed; difficulty in vomiting may occur,
while cramps, convulsions, or even paralysis often precede death,
which sometimes takes place within five or six hours after arsenic
has been taken. Treatment: Give a prompt emetic, and then hydrate of
peroxide of iron (recently prepared) in tablespoonful doses every 10 or
15 minutes until the urgent symptoms are relieved. In the absence of
this, or while it is being prepared, give large draughts of new milk
and raw eggs, limewater and oil, melted butter, magnesia in a large
quantity of water, or even if nothing else is at hand, flour and water,
always, however, giving an emetic the first thing, or causing vomiting
by tickling the throat with a feather, etc. The inflammation of the
stomach which follows must be treated by blisters, hot fomentations,
mucilaginous drinks, and the like.


«Belladonna, or Deadly Nightshade.»—Symptoms: Dryness of the mouth
and throat, great thirst, difficulty of swallowing, nausea, dimness,
confusion or loss of vision, great enlargement of the pupils,
dizziness, delirium, and coma. Treatment: There is no known antidote.
Give a prompt emetic and then reliance must be placed on continual
stimulation with brandy, whisky, etc., and to necessary artificial
respiration. Opium and its preparations, as morphia, laudanum, etc.,
are thought by some to {94} counteract the effect of belladonna, and
may be given in small and repeated doses, as also strong black coffee
and green tea.

Blue Vitriol, or Blue Stone.—See Copper.


«Cantharides (Spanish or Blistering Fly) and Modern Potato
Bug.»—Symptoms: Sickening odor of the breath, sour taste, with burning
heat in the throat, stomach, and bowels; frequent vomiting, often
bloody; copious bloody stools, great pain in the stomach, with burning
sensation in the bladder and difficulty to urinate followed with
terrible convulsions, delirium, and death. Treatment: Excite vomiting
by drinking plentifully of sweet oil or other wholesome oils, sugar and
water, milk, or slippery-elm tea; give injections of castor oil and
starch, or warm milk. The inflammatory symptoms which generally follow
must be treated by a physician. Camphorated oil or camphorated spirits
should be rubbed over the bowels, stomach, and thighs.

Caustic Potash.—See Alkalis under this title.


«Cobalt, or Fly Powder.»—Symptoms: Heat and pain in the throat and
stomach, violent retching and vomiting, cold and clammy skin, small
and feeble pulse, hurried and difficult breathing, diarrhea, etc.
Treatment: An emetic, followed by the free administration of milk,
eggs, wheat flour and water, and mucilaginous drinks.


«Copper—Blue Vitriol, Verdigris or Pickles or Food Cooked in Copper
Vessels.»—Symptoms: General inflammation of the alimentary canal,
suppression of urine; hiccough, a disagreeable metallic taste,
vomiting, violent colic, excessive thirst, sense of tightness of the
throat, anxiety; faintness, giddiness, and cramps and convulsions
generally precede death. Treatment: Large doses of simple syrup as warm
as can be swallowed, until the stomach rejects the amount it contains.
The whites of eggs and large quantities of milk. Hydrated peroxide of
iron.


«Creosote—Carbolic Acid.»—Symptoms: Burning pain, acrid, pungent taste,
thirst, vomiting, purging, etc. Treatment: An emetic and the free
administration of albumen, as the whites of eggs, or, in the absence of
these, milk, or flour and water.

Corrosive Sublimate.—See Mercury under this title.


«Deadly Nightshade.»—See Belladonna under this title.


«Foxglove, or Digitalis.»—Symptoms: Loss of strength, feeble,
fluttering pulse, faintness, nausea and vomiting and stupor; cold
perspiration, dilated pupils, sighing, irregular breathing, and
sometimes convulsions. Treatment: After vomiting, give brandy and
ammonia in frequently repeated doses, apply warmth to the extremities,
and if necessary resort to artificial respiration.


«Gases—Carbonic Acid, Chlorine, Cyanogen, Hydrosulphuric Acid,
Etc.»—Symptoms: Great drowsiness, difficult respiration, features
swollen, face blue as in strangulation. Treatment: Artificial
respiration, cold douche, friction with stimulating substances to the
surface of the body. Inhalation of steam containing preparations of
ammonia. Cupping from nape of neck. Internal use of chloroform.


«Hellebore, or Indian Poke.»—Symptoms: Violent vomiting and purging,
bloody stools, great anxiety, tremors, vertigo, fainting, sinking of
the pulse, cold sweats, and convulsions. Treatment: Excite speedy
vomiting by large draughts of warm water, molasses and water, tickling
the throat with the finger or a feather, and emetics; give oily and
mucilaginous drinks, oily purgatives, and clysters, acids, strong
coffee, camphor, and opium.


«Hemlock (Conium).»—Symptoms: Dryness of the throat, tremors,
dizziness, difficulty of swallowing, prostration, and faintness,
limbs powerless or paralyzed, pupils dilated, pulse rapid and feeble;
insensibility and convulsions sometimes precede death. Treatment:
Empty the stomach and give brandy in tablespoonful doses, with half
teaspoonful of spirits of ammonia, frequently repeated, and if much
pain and vomiting, give bromide of ammonium in 5-grain doses every half
hour. Artificial respiration may be required.


«Henbane, or Hyoscyamus.»—Symptoms: Muscular twitching, inability to
articulate plainly, dimness of vision and stupor; later, vomiting
and purging, small intermittent pulse, convulsive movement of the
extremities, and coma. Treatment: Similar to opium poisoning, which see.


«Iodine.»—Symptoms: Burning pain in throat, lacerating pain in the
stomach, fruitless effort to vomit, excessive tenderness of the
epigastrium. Treatment: {95} Free emesis, prompt administration of
starch, wheat flour, or arrowroot, beaten up in water.


«Lead—Acetate of Lead, Sugar of Lead, Dry White Lead, Red Lead,
Litharge, or Pickles, Wine, or Vinegar Sweetened by Lead.»—Symptoms:
When taken in large doses, a sweet but astringent metallic taste
exists, with constriction in the throat, pain in the region of
the stomach, painful, obstinate, and frequently bloody vomitings,
hiccough, convulsions or spasms, and death. When taken in small but
long-continued doses it produces colic, called painters’ colic; great
pain, obstinate constipation, and in extreme cases paralytic symptoms,
especially wrist-drop, with a blue line along the edge of the gums.
Treatment: To counteract the poison give alum in water 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounce
to a quart; or, better still, Epsom salts or Glauber’s salts, an ounce
of either in a quart of water; or dilute sulphuric acid, a teaspoonful
to a quart of water. If a large quantity of sugar of lead has been
recently taken, empty the stomach by an emetic of sulphate of zinc
(1 drachm in a quart of water), giving one-fourth to commence, and
repeating smaller doses until free vomiting is produced; castor oil
should be given to clear the bowels and injections of oil and starch
freely administered. If the body is cold use the warm bath.

Meadow Saffron.—See Belladonna.

Laudanum.—See Opium.


«Lobelia—Indian Poke.»—Symptoms: Excessive vomiting and purging,
pains in the bowels, contraction of the pupils, delirium, coma, and
convulsions. Treatment: Mustard over the stomach, and brandy and
ammonia.


«Mercury—Corrosive Sublimate» (bug poisons frequently contain this
poison), Red Precipitate, Chinese or English Vermilion.—Symptoms:
Acrid, metallic taste in the mouth, immediate constriction and burning
in the throat, with anxiety and tearing pains in both stomach and
bowels, sickness, and vomiting of various-colored fluids, and sometimes
bloody and profuse diarrhea, with difficulty and pain in urinating;
pulse quick, small, and hard; faint sensations, great debility,
difficult breathing, cramps, cold sweats, syncope, and convulsions.
Treatment: If vomiting does not already exist, emetics must be given
immediately—white of eggs in continuous large doses, and infusion
of catechu afterwards, sweet milk, mixtures of flour and water in
successive cupfuls, and to check excessive salivation put a half ounce
of chlorate of potash in a tumbler of water, and use freely as a
gargle, and swallow a tablespoonful every hour or two.

Morphine.—See Opium.


«Nitrate of Silver (Lunar Caustic).»—Symptoms: Intense pain and
vomiting, and purging of blood, mucus, and shreds of mucous membranes;
and if these stand they become dark. Treatment: Give freely of a
solution of common salt in water, which decomposes the poison, and
afterwards flaxseed or slippery-elm-bark tea, and after a while a dose
of castor oil.


«Opium and All Its Compounds—Morphine, Laudanum, Paregoric,
Etc.»—Symptoms: Giddiness, drowsiness, increasing to stupor, and
insensibility; pulse usually, at first, quick and irregular, and
breathing hurried, and afterwards pulse slow and feeble, and
respiration slow and noisy; the pupils are contracted and the eyes
and face congested, and later, as death approaches, the extremities
become cold, the surface is covered with cold, clammy perspiration,
and the sphincters relax. The effects of opium and its preparations,
in poisonous doses, appear in from a half to two hours from its
administration. Treatment: Empty the stomach immediately with an
emetic or with the stomach pump. Then give very strong coffee without
milk; put mustard plasters on the wrists and ankles; douche the head
and chest with cold water, and if the patient is cold and sinking,
give brandy, or whisky and ammonia. Belladonna is thought by many
to counteract the poisonous effects of opium, and may be given in
doses of half to a teaspoonful of the tincture, or 2 grains of the
extract, every 20 minutes, until some effect is observed in causing
the pupils to expand. Use warmth and friction, and if possible prevent
sleep for some hours, for which purpose the patient should be walked
about between two persons. Finally, as a last resort, use artificial
respiration, persistence in which will sometimes be rewarded with
success in apparently hopeless cases. Electricity should also be tried.

Cooley advises as follows: Vomiting must be induced as soon as
possible, by means of a strong emetic and tickling the fauces. If this
does not succeed, the stomach pump should be applied. The emetic may
consist of a half drachm of sulphate of zinc dissolved in a half pint
of warm water, of which one-third should {96} be taken at once, and the
remainder at the rate of a wineglassful every 5 or 10 minutes, until
vomiting commences. When there is much drowsiness or stupor 1 or 2
fluidrachms of tincture of capsicum will be found a useful addition; or
one of the formulas for emetic draughts may be taken instead. Infusion
of galls, cinchona, or oak bark should be freely administered before
the emetic, and water soured with vinegar and lemon juice, after the
stomach has been well cleared out. To rouse the system spirit and
water or strong coffee may be given. To keep the sufferer awake, rough
friction should be applied to the skin, an upright posture preserved,
and walking exercise enforced, if necessary. When this is ineffectual
cold water may be dashed over the chest, head, and spine, or mild
shocks of electricity may be had recourse to. To allow the sufferer to
sleep is to abandon him to destruction. Bleeding may be subsequently
necessary in plethoric habits, or in threatened congestion. The
costiveness that accompanies convalescence may be best met by aromatic
aperients; and the general tone of the habit restored by stimulating
tonics and the shower bath. The smallest fatal dose of opium in
the case of an adult within our recollection was 4 1⁠/⁠2 grains.
Children are much more susceptible to the action of opium than of
other medicines, and hence the dose of it for them must be diminished
considerably below that indicated by the common method of calculation
depending on the age.

Oxalic Acid.—See Acids.


«Phosphorus—Found in Lucifer Matches and Some Rat Poisons.»—Symptoms:
Symptoms of irritant poisoning; pain in the stomach and bowels;
vomiting, diarrhea; tenderness and tension of the abdomen. Treatment:
An emetic is to be promptly given; copious draughts containing magnesia
in suspension; mucilaginous drinks. General treatment for inflammatory
symptoms.


«Poisonous Mushrooms.»—Symptoms: Nausea, heat and pains in the stomach
and bowels; vomiting and purging, thirst, convulsions, and faintings;
pulse small and frequent, dilated pupil and stupor, cold sweats and
death. Treatment: The stomach and bowels are to be cleared by an emetic
of ground mustard or sulphate of zinc, followed by frequent doses of
Glauber’s or of Epsom salts, and large stimulating clysters. After
the poison is evacuated, either may be given with small quantities of
brandy and water. But if inflammatory symptoms manifest themselves such
stimuli should be avoided, and these symptoms appropriately treated.
A hypodermic injection of 1⁠/⁠62 grain of atropine is the latest
discovered antidote.

Potash.—See Alkali.

Prussic or Hydrocyanic Acid.—See Acids.


«Poison Ivy.»—Symptoms: Contact with, and with many persons the
near approach to, the vine gives rise to violent erysipelatous
inflammation, especially of the face and hands, attended with itching,
redness, burning, and swelling, with watery blisters. Treatment:
Give saline laxatives, and apply weak sugar of lead and laudanum, or
limewater and sweet oil, or bathe the parts freely with spirits of
niter. Anointing with oil will prevent poisoning from it.


«Saltpeter (Nitrate of Potash).»—Symptoms: Only poisonous in large
quantities, and then causes nausea, painful vomiting, purging,
convulsions, faintness, feeble pulse, cold feet and hands, with tearing
pains in stomach and bowels. Treatment: Treat as is directed for
arsenic, for there is no antidote known, and emptying the stomach and
bowels with mild drinks must be relied on.


«Savine.»—Symptoms: Sharp pains in the bowels, hot skin, rapid pulse,
violent vomiting and sometimes purging, with great prostration.
Treatment: Mustard and hot fomentations over the stomach and bowels
and ice allowed in the stomach only until the inflammation ceases. If
prostration comes on, food and stimulants must be given by injection.


«Stramonium, Thorn Apple, or Jamestown Weed.»—Symptoms: Vertigo,
headache, perversion of vision, slight delirium, sense of suffocation,
disposition to sleep, bowels relaxed, and all secretions augmented.
Treatment: Same as for belladonna.


«Snake Bites, Cure for.»—The Inspector of Police in the Bengal
Government reports that of 939 cases in which ammonia was freely
administered, 207 victims have recovered, and in the cured instances
the remedy was not administered till about 3 1⁠/⁠2 hours after the
attack; on the average of the fatal cases the corresponding duration of
time was 4 1⁠/⁠2 hours.


«Strychnine or Nux Vomica.»—The characteristic symptom is the special
influence exerted upon the nervous system, {97} which is manifested by
a general contraction of all the muscles of the body, with rigidity of
the spinal column. A profound calm soon succeeds, which is followed
by a new tetanic seizure, longer than the first, during which the
respiration is suspended. These symptoms then cease, the breathing
becomes easy, and there is stupor, followed by another general
contraction. In fatal cases these attacks are renewed, at intervals,
with increasing violence, until death ensues. One phenomenon which is
found only in poisonings by substances containing strychnine is that
touching any part of the body, or even threatening to do so, instantly
produces the tetanic spasm. Antidote: The stomach should be immediately
cleared by means of an emetic, tickling the fauces, etc. To counteract
the asphyxia from tetanus, etc., artificial respiration should be
practiced with diligence and care. “If the poison has been applied
externally, we ought immediately to cauterize the part, and apply a
ligature tightly above the wound. If the poison has been swallowed for
some time we should give a purgative clyster, and administer draughts
containing sulphuric ether or oil of turpentine, which in most cases
produce a salutary effect. Lastly, injections of chlorine and decoction
of tannin are of value.”

According to Ch. Gunther the greatest reliance may be placed on full
doses of opium, assisted by venesection, in cases of poisoning by
strychnia or nux vomica. His plan is to administer this drug in the
form of solution or mixture, in combination with a saline aperient.

Another treatment is to give, if obtainable, 1 ounce or more of bone
charcoal mixed with water, and follow with an active emetic; then to
give chloroform in teaspoonful doses, in flour and water or glycerine,
every few minutes while the spasms last, and afterwards brandy and
stimulants, and warmth of the extremities if necessary. Recoveries have
followed the free and prompt administration of oils or melted butter or
lard. In all cases empty the stomach if possible.

Sulphate of Zinc—White Vitriol.—See Zinc.


«Tin—Chloride of Tin, Solution of Tin (used by dyers), Oxide of Tin,
or Putty Powder.»—Symptoms: Vomiting, pains in the stomach, anxiety,
restlessness, frequent pulse, delirium, etc. Treatment: Empty the
stomach, and give whites of eggs in water, milk in large quantities, or
flour beaten up in water, with magnesia or chalk.

Tartar Emetic.—See Antimony.


«Tobacco.»—Symptoms: Vertigo, stupor, fainting, nausea, vomiting,
sudden nervous debility, cold sweat, tremors, and at times fatal
prostration. Treatment: After the stomach is empty apply mustard to the
abdomen and to the extremities, and give strong coffee, with brandy and
other stimulants, with warmth to the extremities.


«Zinc—Oxide of Zinc, Sulphate of Zinc, White Vitriol, Acetate of
Zinc.»—Symptoms: Violent vomiting, astringent taste, burning pain in
the stomach, pale countenance, cold extremities, dull eyes, fluttering
pulse. Death seldom ensues, in consequence of the emetic effect.
Treatment: The vomiting may be relieved by copious draughts of warm
water. Carbonate of soda, administered in solution, will decompose the
sulphate of zinc. Milk and albumen will also act as antidotes. General
principles to be observed in the subsequent treatment.


«Woorara.»—Symptoms: When taken into the stomach it is inert; when
absorbed through a wound it causes sudden stupor and insensibility,
frothing at the mouth, and speedy death. Treatment: Suck the wound
immediately, or cut it out and tie a cord around the limb between the
wound and the heart. Apply iodine, or iodide of potassium, and give it
internally, and try artificial respiration.


«ANTIFERMENTS.»

The following are tried and useful formulas:

I.—Sulphite (not sulphate) of lime, in fine powder, 1 part; marble
dust, ground oyster shells, or chalk, 7 parts; mix, and pack tight, so
as to exclude the air.

II.—Sulphite (not sulphate) of potassa, 1 part; new black-mustard seed
(ground in a pepper mill), 7 parts; mix, and pack so as to exclude air
and moisture perfectly. Dose (of either), 1⁠/⁠2 ounce to 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
per hogshead.

III.—Mustard seed, 14 pounds; cloves and capsicum, of each, 1 1⁠/⁠4
pounds; mix, and grind them to powder in a pepper mill. Dose, 1⁠/⁠4 to
1⁠/⁠2 pound per hogshead.

A portion of any one of these compounds added to cider, or the like,
soon allays fermentation, when excessive, or when it has been renewed.
The first formula is preferred when there is a tendency to acidity.
The second and third may be advantageously used for wine and beer, as
{98} well as for cider. The third compound greatly improves the flavor
and the apparent strength of the liquor, and also improves its keeping
qualities.


«Anchovy Preparations»


«Extemporaneous Anchovy Sauce.»—

 Anchovies, chopped small    3 or 4
 Butter                      3 ounces
 Water                       2 ounces
 Vinegar                     1 ounce
 Flour                       1 ounce

Mix, place over the fire, and stir until the mixture thickens. Then rub
through a coarse sieve.


«Essence of Anchovies.»—Remove the bones from 1 pound of anchovies,
reduce the remaining portions of the fish to a pulp in a Wedgewood
mortar, and pass through a clean hair or brass sieve. Boil the bones
and other portions which will not pass through the sieve in 1 pint of
water for 15 minutes, and strain. To the strained liquor add 2 1⁠/⁠2
ounces of salt and 2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of flour, and the pulped anchovies.
Let the whole simmer over the fire for three or four minutes; remove
from the fire, and when the mixture has cooled a little add 4 ounces of
strong vinegar. The product (nearly 3 pounds) may be then bottled, and
the corks tied over with bladder, and either waxed or capsuled.


«Anchovy Paste.»—

 Anchovies            7     pounds
 Water                9     pints
 Salt                 1     pound
 Flour                1     pound
 Capsicum               1⁠/⁠4 ounce
 Grated lemon peel    1
 Mushroom catsup      4     ounces


«Anchovy Butter.»—

 Anchovies, boned and beaten to a paste   1 part
 Butter                                   2 parts
 Spice                                    enough

ANTIFOULING COMPOSITIONS: See Paints.

ANTIFREEZING SOLUTION: See Freezing Preventives.

ANTIFRICTION METAL: See Alloys, under Phosphor Bronze and Antifriction
Metals.


«ANTIQUES, TO PRESERVE.»

The best process for the preservation of antique metallic articles
consists in a retransformation of the metallic oxides into metal
by the electrolytic method. For this purpose a zinc strip is wound
around the article and the latter is laid in a soda-lye solution of 5
per cent, or suspended as the negative pole of a small battery in a
potassium cyanide solution of 2 per cent. Where this method does not
seem practicable it is advisable to edulcorate the objects in running
water, in which operation fragile or easily destroyed articles may be
protected by winding with gauze; next, they should be carefully dried,
first in the air, then with moderate heat, and finally protected from
further destruction by immersion in melted paraffine. A dry place is
required for storing the articles, since paraffine is not perfectly
impermeable to water in the shape of steam.

ANTIRUST COMPOSITIONS: See Rust Preventives.


«Antiseptics»


«Antiseptic Powders.»—

   I.—Borax                  3     ounces
       Dried alum             3     ounces
       Thymol                22     grains
       Eucalyptol            20     drops
       Menthol                1 1⁠/⁠2 grains
       Phenol                15     grains
       Oil of gaultheria      4     drops
       Carmine to give a pink tint.

  II.—Alum, powdered              50 parts by weight
       Borax, powdered             50 parts by weight
       Carbolic acid, crystals      5 parts by weight
       Oil of eucalyptus            5 parts by weight
       Oil of wintergreen           5 parts by weight
       Menthol                      5 parts by weight
       Thymol                       5 parts by weight

 III.—Boracic acid            10 ounces
       Sodium biborate          4 ounces
       Alum                     1 ounce
       Zinc sulphocarbolate     1 ounce
       Thymic acid              1 drachm.

Mix thoroughly. For an antiseptic wash dissolve 1 or 2 drachms in a
quart of warm water.

IV.—Ektogan is a new dusting powder which is a mixture of zinc
hydroxide and dioxide. It is equivalent to about 8 per cent of active
oxygen. It is a yellowish-white odorless and tasteless powder,
insoluble in water. It is used externally in wounds and in skin
diseases as a moist dressing mixed with citric, tartaric, or {99}
tannic acid, which causes the liberation of oxygen. With iodides it
liberates iodine. It is stated to be strongly antiseptic; it is used in
the form of a powder, a gauze, and a plaster.


«Antiseptic Pencils.»—

 I.—Tannin                q. s.
     Alcohol, q. s         1 part
     Ether, q. s           3 parts

Make into a mass, using as an excipient the alcohol and ether
previously mixed. Roll into pencils of the desired length and
thickness. Then coat with collodion, roll in pure silver leaf, and
finally coat with the following solution of gelatine and set aside to
dry:

 Gelatine    1 drachm
 Water       1 pint

Dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat.

When wanted for use, shave away a portion of the covering, dip the
pencil into tepid water and apply.

II.—Pencils for stopping bleeding are prepared by mixing:

 Purified alum     480     parts by weight
 Borax              24     parts by weight
 Oxide zinc          2 1⁠/⁠2 parts by weight
 Thymol              8     parts by weight
 Formalin            4     parts by weight

Melting carefully in a water bath, adding some perfume, and forming
mixture into pencils or cones.

A very convenient way to form into pencils where no mold need be made
is to take a small glass tube, roll a piece of oil paper around the
tube, remove the glass tube, crimp the paper tube thus formed on one
end and stand it on end or in a bottle, and pour the melted solution in
it and leave until cool, then remove the paper.


«Antiseptic Paste (Poison) for Organic Specimens.»—

 (_a_) Wheat flour                        16 ounces
       Beat to a batter with cold water   16 fluidounces
       Then pour into boiling water       32 fluidounces

 (_b_) Pulverized gum arabic               2 ounces
       Dissolve in boiling water           4 fluidounces

 (_c_) Pulverized alum                     2 ounces
       Dissolve in boiling water           4 fluidounces

 (_d_) Acetate of lead                     2 ounces
       Dissolve in boiling water           4 fluidounces

 (_e_) Corrosive sublimate                10 grains

Mix (_a_) and (_b_) while hot and continue to simmer; meanwhile stir in
(_c_) and mix thoroughly; then add (_d_). Stir briskly, and pour in the
dry corrosive sublimate. This paste is very poisonous. It is used for
anatomical work and for pasting organic tissue, labels on skeletons,
etc.


«Mouth Antiseptics.»—I.—Thymic acid, 25 centigrams (3 1⁠/⁠4 grains):
benzoic acid, 3 grams (45 grains); essence of peppermint, 75 centigrams
(10 minims); tincture of eucalyptus, 15 grams (4 1⁠/⁠2 drachms);
alcohol, 100 grams (3 ounces). Put sufficient in a glass of water to
render latter milky.

II.—Tannin, 12 grams (3 drachms); menthol, 8 grams (2 drachms); thymol,
1 gram (15 grains); tincture benzoin, 6 grams (90 minims); alcohol, 100
grams (3 ounces). Ten drops in a half-glassful of tepid water.

See also Dentifrices for Mouth Washes.


«Antiseptic Paste.»—Difficulty is often experienced in applying an
antiseptic dressing to moist surfaces, such as the lips after operation
for harelip. A paste for this purpose is described by its originator,
Socin. The composition is: Zinc oxide, 50 parts; zinc chloride, 5
parts; distilled water, 50 parts. The paste is applied to the wound,
previously dried by means of a brush or spatula, allowed to dry on, and
to remain in place five or six days. It may then be removed and a fresh
application made.

 Potassium bicarbonate         32.0 grams
 Sodium benzoate               32.0 grams
 Sodium borate                  8.0 grams
 Thymol                         0.2 gram
 Eucalyptol                     2.0 c. cent.
 Oil of peppermint              0.2 c. cent.
 Oil of wintergreen             0.4 c. cent.
 Tincture of cudbear           15.0 c. cent.
 Alcohol.                      60.0 c. cent.
 Glycerine                    250.0 c. cent.
 Water, enough to make      1,000.0 c. centimeters

Dissolve the salts in 650 cubic centimeters of water, and the thymol,
eucalyptol, and oils in the alcohol. Mix the alcoholic solution with
the glycerine and add the aqueous liquid, then the tincture of cudbear,
and lastly enough water to make 1,000 cubic centimeters. Allow to stand
a few days, then filter, adding a little magnesium carbonate to the
filter, if necessary, to get a brilliant filtrate.

This is from the Formulary of the Bournemouth Pharmaceutical
Association, as reported in the Canadian Pharmaceutical Association:
{100}


«Alkaline Glycerine of Thymol.»—

 Sodium bicarbonate    100 grains
 Sodium biborate       200 grains
 Sodium benzoate        80 grains
 Sodium salicylate      40 grains
 Menthol                 2 grains
 Pumilio pine oil        4 minims
 Wintergreen oil         2 minims
 Thymol                  4 grains
 Eucalyptol             12 minims


«Compound Solution of Thymol.»—

 A

 Benzoic acid       64 grains
 Borax              64 grains
 Boric acid        128 grains
 Distilled water     6 ounces

Dissolve.

 B

 Thymol                    20 grains
 Menthol                    6 grains
 Eucalyptol                 4 minims
 Oil of wintergreen         4 minims
 Oil of peppermint          2 minims
 Oil of thyme               1 minim
 Alcohol (90 per cent)      3 ounces

Dissolve.

Mix solutions A and B, make up to 20 fluidounces with distilled water,
and filter.


«Oil of Cinnamon as an Antiseptic.»—Oil of cinnamon in a 9-per-cent
emulsion, when used upon the hands, completely sterilizes them. A 7- to
8-per-cent emulsion is equal to a 1-per-cent solution of corrosive
sublimate and is certainly far more agreeable to use. Oil of thyme in
an 11-per-cent solution is equal to a 7-per-cent solution of cinnamon
oil.


«Green Coloring for Antiseptic Solutions.»—The safest coloring
substance for use in a preparation intended either for internal
administration or for application to the skin is the coloring matter
of leaves, chlorophyll. A tincture of spinach or of grass made by
macerating 2 ounces of the freshly cut leaves in a pint of alcohol for
five days will be found to give good results. If the pure coloring
substance is wanted the solvent should be evaporated off.


«Antiseptic Bromine Solution.»—

 Bromine            1 ounce
 Sodium chloride    8 ounces
 Water              8 pints

Dissolve the sodium chloride in the water and add the bromine. This
solution is to be diluted, when applied to broken skin surfaces, 1 part
with 15 parts of water.


«Substitute for Rubber Gloves.»—Murphy has found that a 4-, 6-, or
8-per-cent solution of gutta-percha in benzine, when applied to the
hands of the surgeon or the skin of the patient, will seal these
surfaces with an insoluble, impervious, and practically imperceptible
coating—a coating that will not allow the secretions of the skin to
escape, and will not admit secretions, blood, or pus into the crevices
of the skin. At the same time it does not impair the sense of touch nor
the pliability of the skin. A similar solution in acetone also meets
most of the requirements.

Murphy’s routine method of hand preparation is as follows: First, five
to seven minutes’ scrubbing with spirits of green soap and running
hot water; second, three minutes’ washing with alcohol; third, when
the hands are thoroughly dried, the gutta-percha solution is poured
over the hands and forearms, care being taken to fill in around and
beneath the nails. The hands must be kept exposed to the air with the
fingers separated until thoroughly dry. The coating is very thin and
can be recognized only by its glazed appearance. It will resist soap
and water, but is easily removed by washing in benzine. The hands can
be washed in bichloride or any of the antiseptic solutions without
interfering with the coating or affecting the skin. If the operations
be many, or prolonged, the coating wears away from the tips of the
fingers, but is easily renewed. For the remaining portion of the hands
one application is sufficient for a whole morning’s work.

The 4-per-cent solution of rubber wears better on the tips of the
fingers, in handling instruments, sponges, and tissues than the acetone
solution.

For the abdomen the acetone solution has the advantage, and it dries in
three to four seconds after its application, while the benzine solution
takes from three to four and a half minutes to make a dry, firm coating.

The preparation of the patient’s skin consists in five minutes’
scrubbing with spirits of green soap, washing with ether, followed by
alcohol. The surface is then swabbed over thoroughly with the benzine
or acetone solution.

The gutta-percha solution is prepared by dissolving the pure
gutta-percha chips in sterile benzine or acetone. These solutions do
not stand boiling, as this impairs the adhesiveness and elasticity of
the coating.

ANTISEPTICS FOR CAGED BIRDS: See Veterinary Formulas. {101}

APOLLINARIS: See Waters.

APPLE SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts.

AQUA FORTIS FOR BRIGHT LUSTER: See Castings.

AQUA FORTIS FOR THE TOUCHSTONE: See Gold.

AQUARIUM CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

AQUARIUM PUTTY: See Putty.

ARGENTAN: See Alloys.

ARMENIAN CEMENT: See Adhesives under Jewelers’ Cements.

ARMS, OIL FOR: See Lubricants.

ARNICA SALVE: See Ointments.

ARSENIC ALLOYS: See Alloys.

ASBESTOS CEMENT: See Adhesives.

ASBESTOS FABRIC: See Fireproofing.

ASPHALT AS AN INGREDIENT OF INDIA RUBBER: See Rubber.

ASPHALT IN PAINTING: See Paint.

ASPHALT VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

ASSAYING: See Gold.


«ASTHMA CURES.»—_Asthma Papers._—I.—Impregnate bibulous paper with the
following: Extract of stramonium, 10; potassium nitrate, 17; sugar, 20;
warm water, 200 parts. Dry.

II.—Blotting or gray filter paper, 120; potassium nitrate, 60; powdered
belladonna leaves, 5; powdered stramonium leaves, 5; powdered digitalis
leaves, 5; powdered lobelia, 5; myrrh, 10; olibanum, 10; phellandrium
fruits, 5 parts.

_Stramonium Candle._—Powdered stramonium leaves, 120; potassium
nitrate, 72; Peruvian balsam, 3; powdered sugar, 1; powdered
tragacanth, 4 parts. (Water, q. s. to mass; roll into suitable shapes
and dry.)

_Cleary’s Asthma Fumigating Powder._—Powdered stramonium, 15; powdered
belladonna leaves, 15; powdered opium, 2; potassium nitrate, 5.

_Asthma Fumigating Powders._—I.—Powdered stramonium leaves, 4; powdered
aniseed, 2; potassium nitrate, 2 parts.

II.—Powdered stramonium, 30; potassium nitrate, 5; powdered tea, 15;
powdered eucalyptus leaves, 15; powdered Indian hemp, 15; powdered
lobelia, 15; powdered aniseed, 2; distilled water, 45 parts. (All the
herbal ingredients in coarse powder; moisten with the water in which
the potassium nitrate has been previously dissolved, and dry.)

_Schiffmann’s Asthma Powder._—Potassium nitrate, 25; stramonium, 70;
belladonna leaves, 5 parts.

_Neumeyer’s Asthma Powder._—Potassium nitrate, 6 parts; sugar, 4;
stramonium, 6; powdered lobelia, 1.

_Fischer’s Asthma Powder._—Stramonium, 5 parts; potassium nitrate, 1;
powdered _Achillea millefolium_ leaves, 1.

_Vorlaender’s Asthma Powder._—Stramonium, 150; lobelia, 80; arnica
flowers, 80; potassium nitrate, 30; potassium iodide, 3; naphthol,
1,100 parts.


«Asthma Cigarettes.»—I.—Belladonna leaves, 5 parts; stramonium leaves,
5 parts; digitalis leaves, 5 parts; sage leaves, 5 parts; potassium
nitrate, 75 parts; tincture of benzoin, 40 parts; boiling water, 1,000
parts. Extract the leaves with the boiling water, filter, and in the
filtrate dissolve the salts. Immerse in the fluid sheets of bibulous
paper (Swedish filter paper will answer) and let remain for 24 hours.
At the end of this time remove, dry, cut into pieces about 2 3⁠/⁠4 by 4
inches, and roll into cigarettes.

II.—Sodium arseniate, 3 grains; extract of belladonna, 8 grains;
extract of stramonium, 8 grains. Dissolve the arseniate of sodium in a
small quantity of water, and rub it with the two extracts. Then soak up
the whole mixture with fine blotting paper, which is dried and cut into
24 equal parts. Each part is rolled up in a piece of cigarette paper.
Four or five inhalations are generally sufficient as a dose.

ASTHMA IN CANARIES: See Veterinary Formulas.

ASTRINGENT FOR HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas.

ATOMIC WEIGHTS: See Weights and Measures. {102}


«ATROPINE, ANTIDOTE TO.»

The usual physiological antidotes to the mydriatic alkaloids from
belladonna, stramonium, and hyoscyamus are morphine or eserine. Strong
tea, coffee, or brandy are usually administered as stimulants. Chief
reliance has usually been placed upon a stomach siphon and plenty of
water to wash out the contents of the stomach. The best antidote ever
reported was that of muscarine extracted by alcohol from the mushroom,
_Amanita muscaria_, but the difficulty of securing the same has
caused it to be overlooked and almost forgotten. Experiments with this
antidote showed it to be an almost perfect opposite of atropine in its
effects upon the animal body and that it neutralized poisonous doses.


«AQUA AROMATICA.»—

 Cort. cinnam. chinens      3 parts
 Flor. lavandulæ            5 parts
 Fol. Menth. pip.           5 parts
 Fol. rosmarini             5 parts
 Fol. salviæ               10 parts
 Fruct. fœniculi            3 parts
 Spiritus                  70 parts
 Aqua                     300 parts

Macerate the drugs in the mixed alcohol and water for 24 hours and
distill 200 parts.


«AQUA REGIA.»—Aqua regia consists in principle of 2 parts of
hydrochloric acid and 1 part of nitric acid. But this quantity varies
according to the shop where it is used for gilding or jewelry, and
sometimes the proportion is brought to 4 parts of hydrochloric acid to
1 of nitric acid.

AUTOMOBILES, ANTIFREEZING SOLUTION FOR: See Freezing Preventives.

AXLE GREASE: See Lubricants.

BABBITT METAL: See Alloys.


«Baking Powders»

I.—Tartaric acid, 3 parts; sodium bicarbonate, 1 part; starch, 0.75
part. Of this baking powder the required amount for 500 parts of flour
is about 20 parts for rich cake, and 15 parts for lean cake.

The substances employed must be dry, each having been previously
sifted by itself, so that no coarse pieces are present; the starch
is mixed with the sodium bicarbonate before the acid is added. When
large quantities are prepared the mixing is done by machine; smaller
quantities are best mixed together in a spacious mortar, and then
passed repeatedly through a sieve. Instead of starch, flour may be
used, but starch is preferable, because it interferes with the action
of the acid on the alkali.

II.—A formula proposed by Crampton, of the United States Department of
Agriculture, as the result of an investigation of the leading baking
powders of the market, is:

 Potassium bitartrate  2 parts
 Sodium bicarbonate    1 part
 Cornstarch            1 part

The addition of the starch serves the double purpose of a “filler” to
increase the weight of the powder and as a preservative. A mixture of
the chemicals alone does not keep well.

The stability of the preparation is increased by drying each ingredient
separately by exposure to a gentle heat, mixing at once, and
immediately placing in bottles or cans and excluding access of air and
consequently of moisture.

This is not a cheap powder; but it is the best that can be made, as to
healthfulness.

 III.—Sodium acid phosphate        20 parts
       Calcium acid phosphate       20 parts
       Sodium bicarbonate           25 parts
       Starch                       35 parts

Caution as to drying the ingredients and keeping them dry must be
observed. Even the mixing should be done in a room free from excessive
humidity.

IV.—Alum Baking Powder.—

 Ammonium alum, anhydrous   15 parts
 Sodium bicarbonate         18 parts
 Cornstarch, q. s. to make  100 parts.

Mix. The available carbon dioxide yielded is 7 1⁠/⁠2 per cent or 8 per
cent.

BALANCE SPRING: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

BALDNESS: See Hair Preparations.

BALL BLUE: See Laundry Preparations.


«BALSAMS:»

See also Ointments. {103}


«Wild-Cherry Balsam.»—

 Wild-cherry bark             1 ounce
 Licorice root                1 ounce
 Ipecac                       1 ounce
 Bloodroot                    1 drachm
 Sassafras                    1 drachm
 Compound tincture of opium   1 fluidounce
 Fluid extract of cubeb       4 fluidrachms

Moisten the ground drugs with the fluid extract and tincture and enough
menstruum consisting of 25 per cent alcohol, and after six or eight
hours pack in a percolator, and pour on menstruum until percolation
begins. Then cork the orifice, cover the percolator, and allow to
macerate for 24 hours. Then percolate to 10 fluidounces, pouring back
the first portion of percolate until it comes through clear. In the
percolate dissolve 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of ammonium chloride and 1⁠/⁠2 pound of
sugar by cold percolation, adding simple syrup to make 16 fluidounces.
Finally add 1 fluidrachm of chloroform.


«Balsam Spray Solution.»—

 Oil of Scotch pine                    30 minims
 Oil of eucalyptus                      1 drachm
 Oil of cinnamon                       30 minims
 Menthol crystals                      q. s.
 Fluid extract of balm-of-Gilead buds   1 drachm
 Tincture of benzoin, enough to make    4 ounces

This formula can, of course, be modified to suit your requirements. The
oils of eucalyptus and cinnamon can be omitted and such quantities of
tincture of tolu and tincture of myrrh incorporated as may be desired.


«Birch Balsam.»—

                       Parts by
                        weight
 Alcohol                30,000
 Birch juice             3,000
 Glycerine               1,000
 Bergamot oil               90
 Vanillin                   10
 Geranium oil               50
 Water                  14,000

BALSAM STAINS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

BANANA BRONZING SOLUTION: See Plating.

BANANA SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts.

BANANA TRICK, THE BURNING: See Pyrotechnics.

BANJO SOUR: See Beverages under Lemonade.

BAR POLISHES: See Polishes.

BARBERS’-ITCH CURE: See Ointments.

BARBERS’ POWDER: See Cosmetics.

BAROMETERS (PAPER): See Hygrometers and Hygroscopes.

BATH, AIR: See Air Bath.

BATH METAL: See Alloys.

BATH POWDER: See Cosmetics.


«BATH TABLETS, EFFERVESCENT.»

 Tartaric acid           10 parts
 Sodium bicarbonate       9 parts
 Rice flour               6 parts

A few spoonfuls of this, when stirred into a bathtubful of water,
causes a copious liberation of carbon dioxide, which is refreshing.
This mixture can be made into tablets by compression, moistening, if
necessary, with alcohol. Water, of course, cannot be used in making
them, as its presence causes the decomposition referred to. Perfume
may be added to this powder, essential oils being a good form. Oil
of lavender would be a suitable addition, in the proportion of a
fluidrachm or more to the pound of powder. A better but more expensive
perfume may be obtained by mixing 1 part of oil of rose geranium with 6
parts of oil of lavender. A perfume still more desirable may be had by
adding a mixture of the oils from which Cologne water is made. For an
ordinary quality the following will suffice:

 Oil of lavender          4 fluidrachms
 Oil of rosemary          4 fluidrachms
 Oil of bergamot          1 fluidounce
 Oil of lemon             2 fluidounces
 Oil of clove            30 minims

For the first quality the following may be taken:

 Oil of neroli            6 fluidrachms
 Oil of rosemary          3 fluidrachms
 Oil of bergamot          3 fluidrachms
 Oil of cedrat            7 fluidrachms
 Oil of orange peel       7 fluidrachms

A fluidrachm or more of either of these mixtures may be used to the
pound, as in the case of lavender.

These mixtures may also be used in the preparation of a bath powder
{104} (non-effervescent) made by mixing equal parts of powdered soap
and powdered borax.

BATH-TUB ENAMEL: See Varnishes.

BATH-TUB PAINTS: See Paint.


«BATTERY FILLERS AND SOLUTIONS.»

I.—In the so-called dry batteries the exciting substance is a paste
instead of a fluid; moisture is necessary to cause the reaction. These
pastes are generally secret preparations. One of the earlier “dry”
batteries is that of Gassner. The apparatus consists of a containing
vessel of zinc, which forms the positive element; the negative one is a
cylinder of carbon, and the space between is filled with a paste, the
recipe for which is:

 Oxide of zinc            1 part
 Sal ammoniac             1 part
 Plaster                  3 parts
 Chloride of zinc         1 part
 Water                    2 parts

The usual form of chloride-of-silver battery consists of a sealed cell
containing a zinc electrode, the two being generally separated by some
form of porous septum. Around the platinum or silver electrode is cast
a quantity of silver chloride. This is melted and generally poured into
molds surrounding the metallic electrode. The exciting fluid is either
a solution of ammonium chloride, caustic potassa, or soda, or zinc
sulphate. As ordinarily constructed, these cells contain a paste of the
electrolyte, and are sealed up hermetically in glass or hard-rubber
receptacles.

II.—The following formula is said to yield a serviceable filling for
dry batteries:

 Charcoal                                  3 ounces
 Graphite                                  1 ounce
 Manganese dioxide                         3 ounces
 Calcium hydrate                           1 ounce
 Arsenic acid                              1 ounce
 Glucose mixed with dextrine or starch     1 ounce

Intimately mix, and then work into a paste of proper consistency with
a saturated solution of sodium and ammonium chlorides containing
one-tenth of its volume of a mercury-bichloride solution and an equal
volume of hydrochloric acid. Add the fluid gradually, and well work up
the mass.

 III.—Calcium chloride, crystallized   30 parts
       Calcium chloride, granulated     30 parts
       Ammonium sulphate                15 parts
       Zinc sulphate                    25 parts


«Solutions for Batteries.»—The almost exclusively employed solution
of sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) presents the drawback that the
zinc rods, glasses, etc., after a short use, become covered with a
fine, yellow, very difficultly soluble, basic zinc salt, whereby the
generation of the electric current is impaired, and finally arrested
altogether. This evil may be remedied by an admixture of cane sugar.
For a battery of ordinary size about 20 to 25 grams of sugar, dissolved
in warm water, is sufficient per 50 to 60 grams of sal ammoniac. After
prolonged use only large crystals (of a zinc saccharate) form, which,
however, become attached only to the zinc rod in a few places, having
very little disadvantageous effect upon the action of the batteries and
being easy to remove, owing to their ready solubility.

BAUDOIN METAL: See Alloys.


«BAY RUM.»

 I.—Oil of bay         1 drachm
     Alcohol           18 ounces
     Water             18 ounces

Mix and filter through magnesia.

 II.—Bay-leaf otto             1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Magnesium carbonate       1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Jamaica rum             2     pints
      Alcohol                 3     pints
      Water                   3     pints

Triturate the otto with the magnesium carbonate, gradually adding
the other ingredients, previously mixed, and filter. If the rum
employed contains sufficient sugar or mucilaginous matter to cause any
stickiness to be felt on the skin, rectification will be necessary.

BEAR FAT: See Fats.

BEARING LUBRICANT: See Lubricants.

BEARING METAL: See Babbitt Metal, Bearing Metal, and Phosphor Bronze,
under Alloys.

BEDBUG DESTROYERS: See Insecticides.


«BEEF, IRON, AND WINE.»

 Extract of beef               512 grains
 Detannated sherry wine         26 ounces
 Alcohol                         4 ounces
 Citrate of iron and ammonia   256 grains
 Simple sirup                   12 ounces {105}
 Tincture of orange              2 ounces
 Tincture of cardamom co.        1 ounce
 Citric acid                    10 grains
 Water, enough to make          4 pints

Let stand 24 hours, agitate frequently, and filter. See that the orange
is fresh.

BEEF PEPTONOIDS: See Peptonoids.

BEEF PRESERVATIVES: See Foods.

BEEF TEA: See Beverages.

BEERS, ALCOHOL IN: See Alcohol.

BEER, GINGER, HOP-BITTER, SCOTCH, AND SPRUCE: See Beverages.


«BEER, RESTORATION OF SPOILED.»

I.—Powdered chalk is poured into the cask and allowed to remain in the
beer until completely precipitated.

II.—The liquor of boiled raisins may be poured into the beer, with the
result that the sour taste of the beer is disguised.

III.—A small quantity of a solution of potash will remove the sour
taste of beer. Too much potash must not be added; otherwise the stomach
will suffer. Beer thus restored will not keep long.

IV.—If the beer is not completely spoiled it may be restored by the
addition of coarsely powdered charcoal.

V.—If the addition of any of the above-mentioned substances should
affect the taste of the beer, a little powdered zingiber may be used to
advantage. Syrup or molasses may also be employed.


«BEES, FOUL BROOD IN.»

“Foul brood” is a contagious disease to which bees are subject. It is
caused by bacteria and its presence may be known by the bees becoming
languid. Dark, stringy, and elastic masses are found in the bottom
of the cells, while the caps are sunken or irregularly punctured.
Frequently the disease is said to be accompanied by a peculiar
offensive odor. Prompt removal of diseased colonies, their transfer to
clean and thoroughly disinfected hives, and feeding on antiseptically
treated honey or syrup are the means taken for the prevention and cure
of the disease. The antiseptics used are salicylic acid, carbolic acid,
or formic acid. Spraying the brood with any one of these remedies in
a solution and feeding with a honey or syrup medicated with them will
usually be all that is required by way of treatment. It is also said
that access to salt water is important for the health of bees.

BEETLE POWDER: See Insecticides.

BELL METAL: See Alloys.

BELLADONNA, ANTIDOTES TO: See Antidotes and Atropine.


«BELT PASTES FOR INCREASING ADHESION.»

 I.—Tallow                 50 parts
     Caster oil, crude      20 parts
     Fish oil               20 parts
     Colophony              10 parts

Melt on a moderate fire and stir until the mass cools.

II.—Melt 250 parts of gum elastic with 250 parts of oil of turpentine
in an iron, well-closed crucible at 122° F. (caution!) and mix well
with 200 parts of colophony. After further melting add 200 parts of
yellow wax and stir carefully. Melt in 750 parts of heated train oil,
250 parts of tallow, and to this add, with constant stirring, the
first mixture when the latter is still warm, and let cool slowly with
stirring. This grease is intended for cotton belts.

 III.—Gutta-percha        40 parts
       Rosin               10 parts
       Asphalt             15 parts
       Petroleum           60 parts

Heat in a glass vessel on the water bath for a few hours, until a
uniform solution is obtained. Let cool and add 15 parts of carbon
disulphide and allow the mixture to stand, shaking it frequently.

_Directions for Use._—The leather belts to be cemented should first
be roughened at the joints, and after the cement has been applied
they should be subjected to a strong pressure between warm rollers,
whereupon they will adhere together with much tenacity.


«Preservation of Belts.»—In a well-covered iron vessel heat at a
temperature of 50° C. (152° F.) 1 part by weight of caoutchouc, cut in
small pieces, with 1 part by weight of rectified turpentine. When the
caoutchouc is dissolved add 0.8 part of colophony, stir until this is
dissolved, and add to the mixture 0.1 part of yellow wax. Into another
vessel of suitable size pour 3 parts of fish oil, add 1 part of tallow,
and heat the mixture until the tallow is melted; then pour on the
contents of the first vessel, constantly stirring—an operation to be
continued until the matter is cooled and congealed. This grease is to
be rubbed {106} on the inside of the belts from time to time, while
they are in use. The belts run easily and do not slip. The grease may
also serve for improving old belts. For this purpose the grease should
be rubbed on both sides in a warm place. A first layer is allowed to
soak in, and another applied.


«To Make a Belt Pull.»—Hold a piece of tar soap on the inside of the
belt while it is running.

BELT CEMENT: See Adhesives.

BELT GLUE: See Adhesives.

BELT LUBRICANT: See Lubricants.

BÉNÉDICTINE: See Wines and Liquors.


«Benzine»


«Benzine, to Color Green.»—Probably the simplest and cheapest as well
as the best method of coloring benzine green is to dissolve in it
sufficient oil soluble aniline green of the desired tint to give the
required shade.


«Purification of Benzine.»—Ill-smelling benzine, mixed with about 1 to
2 per cent of its weight of free fatty acid, will dissolve therein.
One-fourth per cent of tannin is added and all is mixed well. Enough
potash or soda lye, or even lime milk, is added until the fatty acids
are saponified, and the tannic acid is neutralized, shaking repeatedly.
After a while the milky liquid separates into two layers, viz., a
salty, soapy, mud-sediment and clear, colorless, and almost odorless
benzine above. This benzine, filtered, may be employed for many
technical purposes, but gives an excellent, pure product upon a second
distillation.

Fatty acid from tallow, olive oil, or other fats may be used, but care
should be taken that they have as slight an odor of rancid fat as
possible. The so-called elaine or olein—more correctly oleic acid—of
the candle factories may likewise be employed, but it should first
be agitated with a 1⁠/⁠10-per-cent soda solution to get rid of the
bad-smelling fatty acids, especially the butyric acid.


«The Prevention of the Inflammability of Benzine.»—A mixture of
9 volumes tetrachloride and 1 volume of benzine is practicably
inflammable. The flame is soon extinguished by itself.


«Substitute for Benzine as a Cleansing Agent.»—

 I.—Chloroform                       75 parts
     Ether                            75 parts
     Alcohol                         600 parts
     Decoction of quillaya bark   22,500 parts

Mix.

 II.—Acetic ether, technically pure   10 parts
      Amyl acetate                     10 parts
      Ammonia water                    10 parts
      Alcohol dilute                   70 parts

Mix.

 III.—Acetone                   1 part
       Ammonia water             1 part
       Alcohol dilute            1 part

Mix.


«Deodorizing Benzine.»—

 I.—Benzine                    20 ounces
     Oil of lavender             1 fluidrachm
     Potassium dichromate        1 ounce
     Sulphuric acid              1 fluidounce
     Water                      20 fluidounces

Dissolve the dichromate in the water, add the acid and, when the
solution is cold, the benzine. Shake every hour during the day, allow
to stand all night, decant the benzine, wash with a pint of water and
again decant, then add the oil of lavender.

II.—First add to the benzine 1 to 2 per cent of oleic acid, which
dissolves. Then about a quarter of 1 per cent of tannin is incorporated
by shaking. A sufficient quantity of caustic potassa solution, or
milk of lime, to combine with the acids is then well shaken into the
mixture, and the whole allowed to stand. The benzine rises to the
top of the watery fluid, sufficiently deodorized and decolorized for
practical purposes.

III.—To 1,750 parts of water add 250 parts of sulphuric acid, and
when it has cooled down add 30 parts of potassium permanganate and
let dissolve. Add this solution to 4,500 parts of benzine, stir well
together, and set aside for 24 hours. Now decant the benzine and to it
add a solution of 7 1⁠/⁠2 parts of potassium permanganate and 15 parts
of sodium hydrate in 1,000 parts of water, and agitate the substances
well together. Let stand until the benzine separates, then draw off.

IV.—Dissolve 3 parts of litharge and 18 parts of sodium hydrate in 40
parts of water. Add this to 200–250 parts of benzine and agitate well
together for two minutes, then let settle and draw off the benzine.
Rinse the latter by agitating {107} it with plenty of clear water, let
settle, draw off the benzine, and, if necessary, repeat the operation.

BENZINE, CLEANING WITH: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under
Miscellaneous Methods.

BENZOIC ACID IN FOOD: See Food.

BENZOIN SOAP: See Soap.


«BENZOPARAL:»

A neutral, bland, oily preparation of benzoin, useful for applying
various antiseptics by the aid of an atomizer, nebulizer, or
vaporizer. Can be used plain or in combination with other easily
dissolved medicinals.

 Paraffine, liquid              16 ounces
 Gum benzoin                     1 ounce

Digest on a sand bath for a half hour and filter.


«Beverages»


«GINGER ALE AND GINGER BEER:»


«Old-Fashioned Ginger Beer.»—

 Lemons, large and sound        6     only
 Ginger, bruised                3     ounces
 Sugar                          6     cups
 Yeast, compressed                1⁠/⁠4 cake
 Boiling water                  4     gallons
 Water                                enough

Slice the lemons into a large earthenware vessel, removing the seed.
Add the ginger, sugar, and water. When the mixture has cooled to
lukewarmness, add the yeast, first diffused in a little water. Cover
the vessel with a piece of cheese cloth, and let the beer stand 24
hours. At the end of that time strain and bottle it. Cork securely, but
not so tightly that the bottles would break before the corks would fly
out, and keep in a cool place.


«Ginger Beer.»—Honey gives the beverage a peculiar softness and, from
not having fermented with yeast, is the less violent in its action when
opened. Ingredients: White sugar, 1⁠/⁠4 pound; honey, 1⁠/⁠4 pound;
bruised ginger, 5 ounces; juice of sufficient lemons to suit the taste;
water, 4 1⁠/⁠2 gallons. Boil the ginger in 3 quarts of the water for
half an hour, then add the ginger, lemon juice, and honey, with the
remainder of the water; then strain through a cloth; when cold, add the
quarter of the white of an egg and a teaspoonful of essence of lemon.
Let the whole stand for four days before bottling. This quantity will
make a hundred bottles.


«Ginger Beer without Yeast.»—

 Ginger, bruised                1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Sugar                         20     pounds
 Lemons                         1     dozen
 Honey                          1     pound
 Water                                enough

Boil the ginger in 3 gallons of water for half an hour; add the sugar,
the lemons (bruised and sliced), the honey, and 17 gallons of water.
Strain and, after three or four days, bottle.


«Package Pop.»—

 Cream of tartar                3 ounces
 Ginger, bruised                1 ounce
 Sugar                         24 ounces
 Citric acid                    2 drachms

Put up in a package, and direct that it be shaken in 1 1⁠/⁠2 gallons of
boiling water, strained when cooled, fermented with 1 ounce of yeast,
and bottled.


«Ginger-Ale Extract.»—

 I.—Jamaica ginger, coarse powder             4 ounces
     Mace, powder                            1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Canada snakeroot, coarse powder          60 grains
     Oil of lemon                              1 fluidrachm
     Alcohol                                  12 fluidounces
     Water                                     4 fluidounces
     Magnesium carbonate or purified talcum    1 av. ounce

Mix the first four ingredients, and make 16 fluidounces of tincture
with the alcohol and water, by percolation. Dissolve the oil of lemon
in a small quantity of alcohol, rub with magnesia or talcum, add
gradually with constant trituration the tincture, and filter. The
extract may be fortified by adding 4 avoirdupois ounces of powdered
grains of paradise to the ginger, etc., of the above before extraction
with alcohol and water.

 II.—Capsicum, coarse powder    8 ounces
      Water                      6 pints
      Essence of ginger          8 fluidounces
      Diluted alcohol            7 fluidounces
      Vanilla extract            2 fluidounces
      Oil of lemon              20 drops
      Caramel                    1 fluidounce

Boil the capsicum with water for three hours, occasionally replacing
the water lost by evaporation; filter, concentrate the filtrate on a
hot water bath to the consistency of a thin extract, add the remaining
ingredients, and filter. {108}

 III.—Jamaica ginger, ground        12 ounces
       Lemon peel, fresh, cut fine    2 ounces
       Capsicum, powder               1 ounce
       Calcined magnesia              1 ounce
       Alcohol                        sufficient
       Water                          sufficient

Extract the mixed ginger and capsicum by percolation so as to obtain
16 fluidounces of water, set the mixture aside for 24 hours, shaking
vigorously from time to time, then filter, and pass through the filter
enough of a mixture of 2 volumes of alcohol and 1 of water to make the
filtrate measure 32 fluidounces. In the latter macerate the lemon peel
for 7 days, and again filter.


«Ginger Beer.»—

 Brown sugar              2 pounds
 Boiling water            2 gallons
 Cream of tartar          1 ounce
 Bruised ginger root      2 ounces

Infuse the ginger in the boiling water, add the sugar and cream of
tartar; when lukewarm strain; then add half pint good yeast. Let it
stand all night, then bottle; one lemon and the white of an egg may be
added to fine it.


«Lemon Beer.»—

 Boiling water            1 gallon
 Lemon, sliced            1
 Ginger, bruised          1 ounce
 Yeast                    1 teacupful
 Sugar                    1 pound

Let it stand 12 to 20 hours, and it is ready to be bottled.


«Hop Beer.»—

 Water                    5 quarts
 Hops                     6 ounces

Boil 3 hours, strain the liquor, add:

 Water                    5 quarts
 Bruised ginger           4 ounces

and boil a little longer, strain, and add 4 pounds of sugar, and when
milk-warm, 1 pint of yeast. Let it ferment; in 24 hours it is ready for
bottling.


«Œnanthic Ether as a Flavoring for Ginger Ale.»—A fruity, vinous
bouquet and delightful flavor are produced by the presence of œnanthic
ether or brandy flavor in ginger ale. This ether throws off a rich,
pungent, vinous odor, and gives a smoothness very agreeable to any
liquor or beverage of which it forms a part. It is a favorite with
“brandy sophisticators.” Add a few drops of the ether (previously
dissolved in eight times its bulk of Cologne spirit) to the ginger-ale
syrup just before bottling.


«Soluble Extract of Ginger Ale.»—Of the following three formulas the
first is intended for soda-fountain use, the second is a “cheap”
extract for the bottlers who want a one-ounce-to-the-gallon extract,
and the third is a bottlers’ extract to be used in the proportion of
three ounces to a gallon of syrup. This latter is a most satisfactory
extract and has been sold with most creditable results, both as to
clearness of the finished ginger ale and delicacy of flavor.

It will be noted that in these formulas oleoresin of ginger is used in
addition to the powdered root. Those who do not mind the additional
expense might use one-fourth of the same quantity of volatile oil of
ginger instead. This should develop an excellent flavor, since the oil
is approximately sixteen times as strong as the oleoresin, and has the
additional advantage of being free from resinous extractive.

The following are the formulas:

I.—(To be used in the proportion of 4 ounces of extract to 1 gallon of
syrup.)

 Jamaica ginger, in fine powder   8 pounds
 Capsicum, in fine powder         6 ounces
 Alcohol, a sufficient quantity.

Mix the powders intimately, moisten them with a sufficient quantity of
alcohol, and set aside for 4 hours. Pack in a cylindrical percolator
and percolate with alcohol until 10 pints of percolate have resulted.
Place the percolate in a bottle of the capacity of 16 pints, and add to
it 2 fluidrachms of oleoresin of ginger; shake, add 2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of
finely powdered pumice stone, and agitate thoroughly at intervals of
one-half hour for 12 hours. Then add 14 pints of water in quantities
of 1 pint at each addition, shaking briskly meanwhile. This part of
the operation is most important. Set the mixture aside for 24 hours,
agitating it strongly every hour or so during that period. Then take

 Oil of lemon               1 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces
 Oil of rose (or geranium)  3     fluidrachms
 Oil of bergamot            2     fluidrachms {109}
 Oil of cinnamon            3     fluidrachms
 Magnesium carbonate        3     fluidounces

Rub the oils with the magnesia in a large mortar and add 9 ounces of
the clear portion of the ginger mixture to which have been previously
added 2 ounces of alcohol, and continue trituration, rinsing out
the mortar with the ginger mixture. Pass the ginger mixture through
a double filter and add through the filter the mixture of oils and
magnesia; finally pass enough water through the filter to make the
resulting product measure 24 pints, or 3 gallons. If the operator
should desire an extract of more or less pungency, he may obtain his
desired effect by increasing or decreasing the quantity of powdered
capsicum in the formula.

II.—(To be used in the proportion of 1 ounce to 1 gallon of syrup.)

 Ginger, in moderately fine powder   6     pounds
 Capsicum, in fine powder            2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Alcohol, a sufficient quantity.

Mix, moisten the powder with 3 pints of alcohol, and set aside in
a suitable vessel for 4 hours. Then pack the powder firmly in a
cylindrical percolator, and percolate until 6 pints of extract are
obtained. Set this mixture aside and label Percolate No. 1, and
continue the percolation with 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints of alcohol mixed with
1 1⁠/⁠2 pints of water. Set the resultant tincture aside, and label
Percolate No. 2.

Take oleoresin ginger 5 fluid ounces and add to Percolate No. 1. Then
take:

 Oil of lemon             1 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces
 Oil of cinnamon          1     fluidounce
 Oil of geranium            1⁠/⁠2 fluidounce
 Magnesium carbonate      8     ounces

Triturate the oils with the magnesia, add gradually Percolate No.
2, and set aside. Then place Percolate No. 1 in a large bottle, add
3 1⁠/⁠4 pounds of finely powdered pumice stone, and shake at intervals
of half an hour for six hours. This being completed, add the mixture of
oils, and later 10 pints of water, in quantities of 1⁠/⁠2 a pint at a
time, shaking vigorously after each solution. Let the mixture stand for
24 hours, shaking it at intervals, and then pass it through a double
filter. Finally add enough water through the filter to make the product
measure 24 pints, or 3 gallons.

III.—(To be used in proportion of 3 ounces to 1 gallon of syrup.)

 Ginger, in moderately fine powder      8 pounds
 Capsicum, in moderately fine powder    2 pounds
 Alcohol, q. s.

Mix, moisten with alcohol, and set aside as in the preceding formula;
then percolate with alcohol until 10 pints of extract are obtained. To
this add oleoresin of ginger 3 drachms, and place in a large bottle.
Add 2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of powdered pumice stone, and shake as directed for
formula No. 1. Then add 14 pints of water, in quantities of 1 pint at
a time, shaking vigorously after each addition. Set the mixture aside
for 24 hours, shaking at intervals. Then take:

 Oil of lemon              1 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces
 Oil of geranium             1⁠/⁠2 fluidounce
 Oil of cinnamon           3     fluidrachms
 Magnesia carbonate        3     ounces

Rub these in a mortar with the magnesia, and add 9 ounces of the clear
portion of the ginger mixture mixed with 2 ounces of alcohol, rubbing
the mixture until it becomes smooth. Prepare a double filter, and
filter the ginger mixture, adding through the filter the mixture of
oils and magnesia. Finally add enough water through the filter to make
the final product measure 24 pints, or 3 gallons.

If these formulas are properly manipulated the extracts should keep
for a reasonable length of time without a precipitate. If, however, a
precipitate occur after the extract has stood for a week, it should be
refiltered.


«LEMONADES:»


«Lemonade Preparations for the Sick.»—I.—Strawberry Lemonade: Citric
acid, 6 parts; water, 100 parts; sugar, 450 parts; strawberry syrup,
600 parts; cherry syrup, 300 parts; claret, 450 parts; aromatic
tincture, ad lib.

II.—Lemonade Powder: Sodium bicarbonate, 65; tartaric acid, 60; sugar,
125; lemon oil, 12 drops.

III.—Lemonade juice: Sugar syrup, 200; tartaric acid, 15; distilled
water, 100; lemon oil, 3; tincture of vanilla, 6 drops.

IV.—Lemonade Lozenges: Tartaric acid, 10; sugar, 30; gum arabic, 2;
powdered starch, 0.5; lemon oil, 6 drops; tincture of vanilla, 25
drops; and sufficient diluted spirit of wine so that 30 lozenges can be
made with it.


«Lemonade for Diabetics.»—The following is said to be useful for
assuaging the thirst of diabetics: {110}

 Citric acid                1 part
 Glycerine                 50 parts
 Cognac                    50 parts
 Distilled water          500 parts


«Hot Lemonade.»—Take 2 large, fresh lemons, and wash them clean with
cold water. Roll them until soft; then divide each into halves, and
use a lemon-squeezer or reamer to express the juice into a small
pitcher. Remove all the seeds from the juice, to which add 4 or
more tablespoonfuls of white sugar, according to taste. A pint of
boiling water is now added, and the mixture stirred until the sugar is
dissolved. The beverage is very effective in producing perspiration,
and should be drunk while hot. The same formula may be used for making
cold lemonade, by substituting ice water for the hot water, and adding
a piece of lemon peel. If desired, a weaker lemonade may be made by
using more water.


«Lemonades, Lemon and Sour Drinks for Soda-Water Fountains.»—Plain
Lemonade.—Juice of 1 lemon; pulverized sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; filtered
water, sufficient; shaved ice, sufficient.

Mix and shake well. Garnish with fruit, and serve with both spoon and
straws.

Huyler’s Lemonade.—Juice of 1 lemon; simple syrup, 2 ounces; soda
water, sufficient. Dress with sliced pineapple, and serve with straws.
In mixing, do not shake, but stir with a spoon.

Pineapple Lemonade.—Juice of 1 lemon; pineapple syrup, 2 ounces; soda
water, sufficient. Dress with fruit. Serve with straws.

Seltzer Lemonade.—Juice of 1 lemon; pulverized sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls.
Fill with seltzer. Dress with sliced lemon.

Apollinaris Lemonade.—The same as seltzer, substituting apollinaris
water for seltzer.

Limeade.—Juice of 1 lime; pulverized sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; water,
sufficient. Where fresh limes are not obtainable, use bottled lime
juice.

Orangeade.—Juice of 1 orange; pulverized sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; water,
sufficient; shaved ice, sufficient. Dress with sliced orange and
cherries. Serve with straws.

Seltzer and Lemon.—Juice of 1 lemon; seltzer, sufficient. Serve in a
small glass.

Claret Lemonade.—Juice of 1 lemon; pulverized sugar, 3 teaspoonfuls.
Make lemonade, pour into a glass containing shaved ice until the glass
lacks about one inch of being full. Pour in sufficient claret to fill
the glass. Dress with cherries and sliced pineapple.

Claret Punch.—Juice of 1 lemon; pulverized sugar, 3 teaspoonfuls;
claret wine, 2 ounces; shaved ice, sufficient. Serve in small glass.
Dress with sliced lemon, and fruit in season. Bright red cherries and
plums make attractive garnishings.

Raspberry Lemonade.—I.—Juice of 1 lemon; 3 teaspoonfuls powdered sugar;
1 tablespoonful raspberry juice; shaved ice; plain water; shake.

II.—Juice of 1 lemon; 2 teaspoonfuls powdered sugar; 1⁠/⁠2 ounce
raspberry syrup; shaved ice; water; shake.

Banjo Sour.—Pare a lemon, cut it in two, add a large tablespoonful of
sugar, then thoroughly muddle it; add the white of an egg; an ounce of
sloe gin; 3 or 4 dashes of abricotine; shake well; strain into a goblet
or fizz glass, and fill balance with soda; decorate with a slice of
pineapple and cherry.

Orgeat Punch.—Orgeat syrup, 12 drachms; brandy, 1 ounce; juice of 1
lemon.

Granola.—Orange syrup, 1 ounce; grape syrup, 1 ounce; juice of 1⁠/⁠2
lemon; shaved ice, q. s. Serve with straws. Dress with sliced lemon or
pineapple.

American Lemonade.—One ounce orange syrup; 1 ounce lemon syrup; 1
teaspoonful powdered sugar; 1 dash acid-phosphate solution; 1⁠/⁠3 glass
shaved ice. Fill with coarse stream. Add slice of orange, and run two
straws through it.

Old-Fashioned Lemonade.—Put in a freezer and freeze almost hard, then
add the fruits, and freeze very hard. Serve in a silver sherbet cup.

“Ping Pong” Frappé.—Grape juice, unfermented, 1 quart; port wine
(California), 1⁠/⁠2 pint; lemon syrup, 12 ounces; pineapple syrup, 2
ounces; orange syrup, 4 ounces; Bénédictine cordial, 4 ounces; sugar, 1
pound.

Dissolve sugar in grape juice and put in wine; add the syrup and
cordial; serve from a punch bowl, with ladle, into 12-ounce narrow
lemonade glass and fill with solid stream; garnish with slice of orange
and pineapple, and serve with straw.

Orange Frappé.—Glass half full of fine ice; tablespoonful powdered
sugar; 1⁠/⁠2 ounce orange syrup; 2 dashes lemon syrup; dash prepared
raspberry; 1⁠/⁠4 ounce {111} acid-phosphate solution. Fill with soda
and stir well; strain into a mineral glass and serve.


«Hot Lemonades.»—

 I.—Lemon essence                   4 fluidrachms
     Solution of citric acid         1 fluidounce
     Syrup, enough to make          32 fluidounces

In serving, draw 2 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces of the syrup into an 8-ounce mug,
fill with hot water, and serve with a spoon.

 II.—Lemon                          1
      Alcohol                        1 fluidounce
      Solution of citric acid        2 fluidrachms
      Sugar                         20 av. ounces
      Water                         20 fluidounces
      White of                       1 egg

Grate the peel of the lemon, macerate with the alcohol for a day;
express; also express the lemon, mix the two, add the sugar and water,
dissolve by agitation, and add the solution of citric acid and the
white of egg, the latter first beaten to a froth. Serve like the
preceding.


«Egg Lemonade.»—I.—Break 1 egg into a soda glass, add 1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces
lemon syrup, a drachm of lemon juice, and a little shaved ice; then
draw carbonated water to fill the glass, stirring well.

 II.—Shaved ice                   1⁠/⁠2 tumblerful
      Powdered sugar                 4 tablespoonfuls
      Juice of                       1 lemon
      Yolk of                        1 egg

Shake well, and add carbonated water to fill the glass.


«HOT SODA-WATER DRINKS:»


«Chocolate.»—I.—This may be prepared in two ways, from the powdered
cocoa or from a syrup. To prepare the cocoa for use, dry mix with an
equal quantity of pulverized sugar and use a heaping teaspoonful to a
mug. To prepare a syrup, take 12 ounces of cocoa, 5 pints of water, and
4 pounds of sugar. Reduce the cocoa to a smooth paste with a little
warm water. Put on the fire. When the water becomes hot add the paste,
and then allow to boil for 3 or 4 minutes; remove from fire and add the
sugar; stir carefully while heating, to prevent scorching; when cold
add 3 drachms of vanilla; 1⁠/⁠2 to 3⁠/⁠4 ounce will suffice for a cup
of chocolate; top off with whipped cream.

 II.—Baker’s fountain chocolate     1 pound
      Syrup                          1 gallon
      Extract vanilla                enough

Shave the chocolate into a gallon porcelained evaporating dish and melt
with a gentle heat, stirring with a thin-bladed spatula. When melted
remove from the fire and add 1 ounce of cold water, mixing well. Add
gradually 1 gallon of hot syrup and strain; flavor to suit. Use 1 ounce
to a mug.

III.—Hot Egg Chocolate.—Break a fresh egg into a soda tumbler; add
1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces chocolate syrup and 1 ounce cream; shake thoroughly, add
hot soda slowly into the shaker, stirring meanwhile; strain carefully
into mug; top off with whipped cream and serve.

IV.—Hot Chocolate and Milk.—

 Chocolate syrup      1 ounce
 Hot milk             4 ounces

Stir well, fill mug with hot soda and serve.

V.—Hot Egg Chocolate.—One egg, 1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces chocolate syrup, 1
teaspoonful sweet cream; shake, strain, add 1 cup hot soda, and 1
tablespoonful whipped cream.


«Coffee.»—I.—Make an extract by macerating 1 pound of the best Mocha
and Java with 8 ounces of water for 20 minutes, then add hot water
enough to percolate 1 pint. One or 2 drachms of this extract will make
a delicious cup of coffee. Serve either with or without cream, and let
customer sweeten to taste.

II.—Pack 1⁠/⁠2 pound of pulverized coffee in a percolator. Percolate
with 2 quarts of boiling water, letting it run through twice. Add to
this 2 quarts of milk; keep hot in an urn and draw as a finished drink.
Add a lump of sugar and top off with whipped cream.

III.—Coffee syrup may be made by adding boiling water from the
apparatus to 1 pound of coffee, placed in a suitable filter or
coffeepot, until 2 quarts of the infusion are obtained. Add to this 3
pounds of sugar. In dispensing, first put sufficient cream in the cup,
add the coffee, then sweeten, if necessary, and mix with the stream
from the draught tube.

 IV.—Mocha coffee (ground fine)   4 ounces
      Java coffee (ground fine)    4 ounces
      Granulated sugar             6 pounds
      Hot water                    q. s.

Percolate the coffee with hot water until the percolate measures 72
ounces. Dissolve the sugar in the percolate by agitation without heat
and strain.


«Hot Egg Orangeade.»—One egg; juice {112} of 1⁠/⁠2 orange; 2
teaspoonfuls powdered sugar. Shake, strain, add 1 cup of hot water.
Stir, serve with nutmeg.


«Hot Egg Bouillon.»—One-half ounce liquid extract beef; 1 egg; salt and
pepper; hot water to fill 8-ounce mug. Stir extract, egg, and seasoning
together; add water, still stirring; strain and serve.


«Hot Celery Punch.»—One-quarter ounce of clam juice; 1⁠/⁠4 ounce beef
extract; 1 ounce of cream; 4 dashes of celery essence. Stir while
adding hot water, and serve with spices.


«Chicken Bouillon.»—Two ounces concentrated chicken; 1⁠/⁠2 ounce sweet
cream and spice. Stir while adding hot water.


«Ginger.»—

 Fluid extract of ginger             2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Sugar                              40     ounces
 Water, to                           2 1⁠/⁠2 pints

Take 10 ounces of the sugar and mix with the fluid extract of ginger;
heat on the water bath until the alcohol is evaporated. Then mix with
20 ounces of water and shake till dissolved. Filter and add the balance
of the water and the sugar. Dissolve by agitation.


«Cocoa Syrup.»—

 I.—Cocoa, light, soluble            4 ounces
     Granulated sugar                 2 pounds
     Boiling hot water                1 quart
     Extract vanilla                  1 ounce

Dissolve the cocoa in the hot water, by stirring, then add the sugar
and dissolve. Strain, and when cold add the vanilla extract.

 II.—Cocoa syrup                     2 ounces
      Cream                           1 ounce

Turn on the hot water stream and stir while filling. Top off with
whipped cream.


«Hot Soda Toddy.»—

 Lemon juice                     2 fluidrachms
 Lemon syrup                     1 fluidounce
 Aromatic bitters                1 fluidrachm
 Hot water, enough to fill an 8-ounce mug.

Sprinkle with nutmeg or cinnamon.


«Hot Orange Phosphate.»—

 Orange syrup                     1 fluidounce
 Solution of acid phosphate       1 fluidrachm
 Hot water, enough to fill an 8-ounce mug.

It is prepared more acceptably by mixing the juice of half an orange
with acid phosphate, sugar, and hot water.


«Pepsin Phosphate.»—One teaspoonful of liquid pepsin; 2 dashes of acid
phosphate; 1 ounce of lemon syrup; 1 cup hot water.


«Cream Beef Tea.»—Use 1 teaspoonful of liquid beef extract in a mug of
hot water, season with salt and pepper, then stir in a tablespoonful of
rich cream. Put a teaspoonful of whipped cream on top and serve with
flakes.


«Cherry Phosphate.»—Cherry-phosphate syrup, 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; hot water
to make 8 ounces.

Cherry-phosphate syrup is made as follows: Cherry juice, 3 pints;
sugar, 6 pounds; water, 1 pint; acid phosphate, 4 ounces. Bring to a
boil, and when cool add the acid phosphate.


«Celery Clam Punch.»—Clam juice, 2 drachms; beef extract, 1 drachm;
cream, 1 ounce; essence of celery, 5 drops; hot water to make 8 ounces.


«Claret Punch.»—Claret wine, 2 ounces; sugar, 3 teaspoonfuls; juice of
1⁠/⁠2 lemon; hot water to make 8 ounces.


«Ginger.»—Extract of ginger, 2 drachms; sugar, 2 drachms; lemon juice,
2 dashes; hot water to make 8 ounces.


«Lemon Juice, Plain.»—Fresh lemon juice, 2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms; lemon syrup,
1 ounce; hot water, q. s. to make 8 ounces.


«Lime Juice.»—Lime juice, 3⁠/⁠4 drachm; lemon syrup, 1 ounce; hot water
to make 8 ounces. Mix. Eberle remarks that lemon juice or lime juice
enters into many combinations. In plain soda it may be combined with
ginger and other flavors, as, for instance, chocolate and coffee.


«Lemonade.»—Juice of 1 lemon; powdered sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; hot water
to make 8 ounces. A small piece of fresh lemon peel twisted over the
cup lends an added flavor.


«Hot Malt.»—Extract of malt, 1 ounce; cherry syrup, 1 ounce; hot water,
sufficient to make 8 ounces. Mix.


«Malted Milk.»—Horlick’s malted milk, 2 tablespoonfuls; hot water,
quantity sufficient to make 8 ounces; flavoring to suit. Mix. Essence
of coffee, chocolate, etc., and many of the fruit syrups go well with
malted milk.


«Hot Malted Milk Coffee (or Chocolate).»—Malted milk, 2 teaspoonfuls;
coffee (or chocolate) syrup, 1 ounce; hot water, quantity sufficient to
make 8 ounces.


«Hot Beef Tea.»—I.—Best beef extract, 1 tablespoonful; sweet cream,
1 ounce; hot {113} water, 7 ounces; pepper, salt, etc., quantity
sufficient. Mix.

II.—Extract beef bouillon, 1 teaspoonful; extract aromatic soup herbs
(see Condiments), 10 drops; hot soda, 1 cupful. Mix.

 III.—Extract of beef                 1 teaspoonful
       Hot water                       q. s.
       Pepper, salt, and celery salt.

Mix.


«Hot Bouillon.»—

 Beef extract                   1 ounce
 Hot water, q. s. to make       8 ounces
 Pepper, salt, etc.             q. s.

Mix.


«Clam Bouillon.»—

 I.—Clam juice                      12 drachms
     Cream                            2 ounces
     Hot water, q. s. to make         8 ounces

Mix.

 II.—Extract clam bouillon           2 ounces
      Prepared milk                   2 drachms
      Extract of aromatic soup herbs  5 drops
      Extract white pepper            5 drops
      Hot soda                        1 cupful

Mix.

III.—Clam juice may be served with hot water, salt and pepper added.
Adding butter makes this bouillon a broth.

It may also be served with milk or cream, lemon juice, tomato catsup,
etc. Hot oyster juice may be served in the same way.


«Hot Tea.»—

  I.—Tea syrup                       sufficient
      Hot water, q. s. to make        1 cupful

 II.—Loaf sugar                      4 cubes
      Extract of Oolong tea, about    1 dessertsp’ful
      Prepared milk, about            1 dessertsp’ful
      Hot soda                        1 cupful
      Whipped cream                   1 tablespoonful

Mix the tea extract, sugar, and prepared milk, pour on water, and
dissolve. Top off with whipped cream.


«Hot Egg Drinks.»—I.—One-half to 1 ounce liquid extract of beef, 1 egg,
salt and pepper to season, hot water to fill an 8-ounce mug. Stir the
extract, egg, and seasoning together with a spoon, to get well mixed,
add the water, stirring briskly meanwhile; then strain, and serve.
Or shake the egg and extract in a shaker, add the water, and mix by
pouring back and forth several times, from shaker to mug.

II.—Hot Egg Chocolate.—One to 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces chocolate syrup, 1 egg,
1⁠/⁠2 ounce cream, hot water sufficient to fill an 8-ounce mug.

Mix the syrup, egg, and cream together in an egg-shaker; shake as in
making cold drinks; add the hot water, and mix all by pouring back and
forth several times, from shaker to mug. Or, prepare by beating the egg
with a spoon, add the syrup and cream, mix all quickly with the spoon,
and add hot water, stirring constantly, and strain.

III.—Hot Egg Coffee.—One egg, 1 dessertspoonful extract of coffee, 1
teaspoonful sweet cream, 1 ounce syrup. Shake well, strain, and add 1
cupful hot water and top with whipped cream.

IV.—Hot Egg Lemonade.—One egg, juice of 1 lemon, 3 teaspoonfuls
powdered sugar. Beat the egg with lemon juice and sugar thoroughly. Mix
while adding the water. Serve grated nutmeg and cinnamon. The amount of
lemon juice and sugar may be varied to suit different tastes.

V.—Hot Egg Milk.—Two teaspoonfuls sugar, 1 ounce cream, 1 egg, hot
milk to fill an 8-ounce mug. Prepare as in hot egg chocolate, top with
whipped cream, and sprinkle with nutmeg. If there are no facilities for
keeping hot milk, use about 2 ounces of cream, and fill mug with hot
water.

VI.—Hot Egg Nogg.—Plain syrup, 3⁠/⁠4 ounce; brandy, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce;
Angostura bitters, 3 drops; 1 egg. Put in shaker and beat well. Strain
in 10-ounce mug, and fill with hot milk; finish with whipped cream and
nutmeg.

VII.—Hot Egg Phosphate.—Two ounces lemon syrup, 1 egg, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce
solution of acid phosphate. Mix in a glass, and shake together
thoroughly; pour into another glass, heated previously, and slowly draw
full of hot water; season with nutmeg.

VIII.—Hot Egg Phosphate.—Break fresh egg into shaker and add 1⁠/⁠2
ounce pineapple syrup, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce orange syrup, 1 dash phosphate.
Shake, without ice, and pour into bouillon cup. Draw cupful of hot
water, sprinkle a touch of cinnamon, and serve with wafers.


«FANCY SODA DRINKS:»


«Coffee Cream Soda.»—Serve in a 12-ounce glass. Draw 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of
syrup and 1 ounce of cream. Into the shaker draw 8 ounces of carbonated
water, pour into the glass sufficient to fill it to within {114} 1 inch
of the top; pour from glass to shaker and back, once or twice, to mix
thoroughly; give the drink a rich, creamy appearance, and make it cream
sufficiently to fill the glass.


«Iced Coffee.»—Serve in a 10-ounce glass. Draw 1 ounce into glass, fill
nearly full with ice-cold milk, and mix by stirring.


«Egg Malted Milk Coffee.»—Prepare same as malted milk coffee, with the
exception of adding the egg before shaking, and top off with a little
nutmeg, if desired. This drink is sometimes called coffee light lunch.


«Coffee Frappé.»—Serve in a 12-ounce glass. Coffee syrup, 1 1⁠/⁠2
ounces; white of 1 egg; 1 to 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of pure, rich, sweet cream;
a small portion of fine shaved ice; shake thoroughly to beat the white
of the egg light, and then remove the glass, leaving the contents in
the shaker. Now fill the shaker two-thirds full, using the fine stream
only. Draw as quickly as possible that the drink may be nice and light.
Now pour into glass and back, and then strain into a clean glass.
Serve at once, and without straws. This should be drunk at once, else
it will settle, and lose its lightness and richness.


«Coffee Nogg.»—

 Coffee syrup                   2 ounces
 Brandy                         4 drachms
 Cream                          2 ounces
 One egg.


«Coffee Cocktail.»—

 Coffee syrup                   1 ounce
 One egg.
 Port wine                      1 ounce
 Brandy                         2 drachms

Shake, strain into a small glass, and add soda. Mace on top.


«Chocolate and Milk.»—

 Chocolate syrup                2 ounces
 Sweet milk, sufficient.

Fill a glass half full of shaved ice, put in the syrup, and add
milk until the glass is almost full. Shake well, and serve without
straining. Put whipped cream on top and serve with straws.


«Chocolate Frappé.»—

 Frozen whipped cream, sufficient.
 Shaved ice, sufficient.

Fill a glass half full of frozen whipped cream, fill with shaved ice
nearly to the top, and pour in chocolate syrup. Other syrups may be
used, if desired.


«Royal Frappé.»—This drink consists of 3 parts black coffee and 1 part
of brandy, frozen in a cooler, and served while in a semifrozen state.


«Mint Julep.»—One-half tumbler shaved ice, teaspoonful powdered sugar,
dash lemon juice, 2 or 3 sprigs of fresh mint. Crush the mint against
side of the glass to get the flavor. Then add claret syrup, 1⁠/⁠2
ounce; raspberry syrup, 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; and draw carbonated water
nearly to fill glass. Insert bunch of mint and fill glass, leaving
full of shaved ice. Serve with straws, and decorate with fruits of the
season.


«Grape Glacé.»—Beat thoroughly the whites of 4 eggs and stir in 1 pound
of powdered sugar, then add 1 pint grape juice, 1 pint water, and 1
pound more of powdered sugar. Stir well until sugar is dissolved, and
serve from a pitcher or glass dish, with ladle.


«“Golf Goblet.”»—Serve in a 12-ounce glass; fill two-thirds full of
cracked ice, add 1⁠/⁠2 ounce pineapple juice, 1 teaspoonful lemon
juice, 1 teaspoonful raspberry vinegar. Put spoon in glass, and fill
to within one-half inch of top with carbonated water; add shaved ice,
heaping full. Put strawberry or cherry on top, and stick slice of
orange down side of glass. Serve with spoon and straws.


«Goldenade.»—Shaved ice, 1⁠/⁠2 tumblerful; powdered sugar; juice of 1
lemon; yolk of 1 egg. Shake well, add soda water from large stream,
turn from tumbler to shaker, and vice versa, several times, and strain
through julep strainer into a 12-ounce tumbler.


«Lunar Blend.»—Take two mixing glasses, break an egg, putting the
yolk in one glass, the white into the other; into the glass with the
yolk add 1 ounce cherry syrup and some cracked ice; shake, add small
quantity soda, and strain into a 12-ounce glass. Into the other mixing
glass add 1 ounce plain sweet cream, and beat with bar spoons until
well whipped; add 1⁠/⁠2 ounce lemon syrup, then transfer it into the
shaker, and add soda from fine stream only, and float on top of the one
containing the yolk and sherry. Serve with two straws.


«Egg Chocolate.»—

 Chocolate syrup                2 ounces
 Cream                          4 ounces
 White of one egg. {115}


«Egg Crême de Menthe.»—

 Mint syrup                  12 drachms
 Cream                        3 ounces
 White of one egg.
 Whisky                       4 drachms


«Egg Sherbet.»—

 Sherry syrup                 4 drachms
 Pineapple syrup              4 drachms
 Raspberry syrup              4 drachms
 One egg.
 Cream.


«Egg Claret.»—

 Claret syrup                 2 ounces
 Cream                        3 ounces
 One egg.


«Royal Mist.»—

 Orange syrup                 1 ounce
 Catawba syrup                1 ounce
 Cream                        2 ounces
 One egg.


«Banana Cream.»—

 Banana syrup                12 drachms
 Cream                        4 ounces
 One egg.


«Egg Coffee.»—

 Coffee syrup                 2 ounces
 Cream                        3 ounces
 One egg.
 Shaved ice.


«Cocoa Mint.»—

 Chocolate syrup              1 ounce
 Peppermint syrup             1 ounce
 White of one egg.
 Cream                        2 ounces

The peppermint syrup is made as follows:

 Oil of peppermint           30 minims
 Syrup simplex                1 gallon
 Soda foam                    1 ounce


«Egg Lemonade.»—

 Juice of one lemon.
 Pulverized sugar             3 teasp’fuls
 One egg.
 Water, q. s.

Shake well, using plenty of ice, and serve in a small glass.


«Nadjy.»—

 Raspberry juice              1 ounce
 Pineapple syrup              1 ounce
 One egg.
 Cream                        2 ounces


«Siberian Flip.»—

 Orange syrup                 1 ounce
 Pineapple syrup              1 ounce
 One egg.
 Cream                        2 ounces


«Egg Orgeat.»—

 Orgeat syrup                12 drachms
 Cream                        3 ounces
 One egg.


«Normona.»—

 Peach syrup                  1 ounce
 Grape syrup                  1 ounce
 Cream                        3 ounces
 Brandy                       2 drachms
 One egg.


«Silver Fizz.»—

 Catawba syrup                2 ounces
 Holland gin                  2 drachms
 Lemon juice                  8 dashes
 White of one egg.


«Golden Fizz.»—

 Claret syrup                 2     ounces
 Holland gin                    1⁠/⁠4 ounce
 Lemon juice                  8     dashes
 Yolk of one egg.


«Rose Cream.»—

 Rose syrup                  12 drachms
 Cream                        4 ounces
 White of one egg.


«Violet Cream.»—

 Violet syrup                12 drachms
 Cream                        4 ounces
 White of one egg.


«Rose Mint.»—

 Rose syrup                   6 drachms
 Mint syrup                   6 drachms
 Cream                        3 ounces
 White of one egg.


«Currant Cream.»—

 Red-currant syrup            2 ounces
 Cream                        3 ounces
 One egg.


«Quince Flip.»—

 Quince syrup                 2 ounces
 Cream                        3 ounces
 One egg.
 Shaved ice.


«Coffee Nogg.»—

 Coffee syrup                 2 ounces
 Brandy                       4 drachms
 Cream                        2 ounces
 One egg.


«Egg Sour.»—

 Juice of one lemon.
 Simple syrup                12 drachms
 One egg.

Shake, strain, and fill with soda. Mace on top. {116}


«Lemon Sour.»—

 Lemon syrup                 12 drachms
 Juice of one lemon.
 One egg.


«Raspberry Sour.»—

 Raspberry syrup             12 drachms
 One egg.
 Juice of one lemon.


«Yama.»—

 One egg.
 Cream                        2     ounces
 Sugar                        2     teaspoonfuls
 Jamaica rum                    1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Shake well, put into cup, and add hot water. Serve with whipped cream,
and sprinkle mace on top.


«Prairie Oyster.»—

 Cider vinegar                2 ounces
 One egg.

Put vinegar into glass, and break into it the egg. Season with salt and
pepper. Serve without mixing.


«Fruit Frappé.»—

 Granulated gelatin           1 ounce
 Juice of six lemons.
 Beaten whites of two eggs.
 Water                        5 quarts
 Syrup                        1 quart
 Maraschino cherries          8 ounces
 Sliced peach                 4 ounces
 Sliced pineapple             4 ounces
 Whole strawberries           4 ounces
 Sliced orange                4 ounces

Dissolve the gelatin in 1 quart boiling hot water; add the syrup and
the balance of the water; add the whites of the eggs and lemon juice.


«KOUMISS.»

The original koumiss is the Russian, made from mare’s milk, while that
produced in this country and other parts of Europe is usually, probably
always, made from cow’s milk. For this reason there is a difference in
the preparation which may or may not be of consequence. It has been
asserted that the ferment used in Russia differs from ordinary yeast,
but this has not been established.

In an article on this subject, contributed by D. H. Davies to the
_Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions_, it is pointed out that
mare’s milk contains less casein and fatty matter than cow’s milk, and
he states that it is “therefore far more easy of digestion.” He thinks
that cow’s milk yields a better preparation when diluted with water to
reduce the percentage of casein, etc. He proposes the following formula:

 Fresh milk                  12 ounces
 Water                        4 ounces
 Brown sugar                150 grains
 Compressed yeast            24 grains
 Milk sugar                   3 drachms

Dissolve the milk sugar in the water, add to the milk, rub the yeast
and brown sugar down in a mortar with a little of the mixture, then
strain into the other portion.

Strong bottles are very essential, champagne bottles being frequently
used, and the corks should fit tightly; in fact, it is almost necessary
to use a bottling machine for the purpose, and once the cork is
properly fixed it should be wired down. Many failures have resulted
because the corks did not fit properly, the result being that the
carbon dioxide escaped as formed and left a worthless preparation. It
is further necessary to keep the preparation at a moderate temperature,
and to be sure that the article is properly finished the operator
should gently shake the bottles each day for about 10 minutes to
prevent the clotting of the casein. It is well to take the precaution
of rolling a cloth around the bottle during the shaking process, as
the amount of gas generated is great, and should the bottle be weak it
might explode.

Kogelman says that if 1 volume of buttermilk be mixed with 1 or 2
volumes of sweet milk, in a short time lively fermentation sets in, and
in about 3 days the work is completed. This, according to the author,
produces a wine-scented fluid, rich in alcohol, carbon dioxide, lactic
acid, and casein, which, according to all investigations yet made, is
identical with koumiss. The following practical hints are given for
the production of a good article: The sweet milk used should not be
entirely freed from cream; the bottles should be of strong glass; the
fermenting milk must be industriously shaken by the operator at least
3 times a day, and then the cork put in firmly, so that the fluid will
become well charged with carbon-dioxide gas; the bottles must be daily
opened and at least twice each day brought nearly to a horizontal
position, in order to allow the carbon dioxide to escape and air to
enter; otherwise fermentation rapidly ceases. If a drink is desired
strong in carbonic acid, the bottles, toward the end of fermentation,
should be placed with the necks down. In order to ferment a fresh
quantity of milk, simply add 1⁠/⁠3 of its volume of either actively
fermenting or freshly fermented milk. The temperature should be from
50° to 60° F., about 60° being the most favorable. {117}

Here are some miscellaneous formulas:

I.—Fill a quart champagne bottle up to the neck with pure milk; add
2 tablespoonfuls of white sugar, after dissolving the same in a
little water over a hot fire; add also a quarter of a 2-cent cake
of compressed yeast. Then tie the cork in the bottle securely, and
shake the mixture well; place it in a room of the temperature of 50°
to 95° F. for 6 hours, and finally in the ice box over night. Handle
wrapped in a towel as protection if the bottle should burst. Be sure
that the milk is pure, that the bottle is sound, that the yeast is
fresh, to open the mixture in the morning with great care, on account
of its effervescent properties; and be sure not to drink it at all
if there is any curdle or thickening part resembling cheese, as this
indicates that the fermentation has been prolonged beyond the proper
time.

II.—Dilute the milk with 1⁠/⁠6 part of hot water, and while still tepid
add 1⁠/⁠8 of very sour (but otherwise good) buttermilk. Put it into a
wide jug, cover with a clean cloth, and let stand in a warmish place
(about 75° F.) for 24 hours; stir up well, and leave for another 24
hours. Then beat thoroughly together, and pour from jug to jug till
perfectly smooth and creamy. It is now “still” koumiss, and may be
drunk at once. To make it sparkling, which is generally preferred, put
it into champagne or soda-water bottles; do not quite fill them, secure
the corks well, and lay them in a cool cellar. It will then keep for
6 or 8 weeks, though it becomes increasingly acid. To mature some for
drinking quickly, it is as well to keep a bottle or two to start with
in some warmer place, and from time to time shake vigorously. With this
treatment it should, in about 3 days, become sufficiently effervescent
to spurt freely through a champagne tap, which must be used for drawing
it off as required. Later on, when very frothy and acid it is more
pleasant to drink if a little sweetened water (or milk and water) is
first put into the glass. Shake the bottle, and hold it inverted well
into the tumbler before turning the tap. Having made one lot of koumiss
as above you can use some of that instead of buttermilk as a ferment
for a second lot, and so on 5 or 6 times in succession; after which it
will be found advisable to begin again as at first. Mare’s milk is the
best for koumiss; then ass’s milk. Cow’s milk may be made more like
them by adding a little sugar of milk (or even loaf sugar) with the
hot water before fermenting. But perhaps the chief drawback to cow’s
milk is that the cream separates permanently, whereas that of mare’s
milk will remix. Hence use partially skimmed milk; for if there is much
cream it only forms little lumps of butter, which are apt to clog the
tap, or are left behind in the bottle.


«Kwass.»—Kwass is a popular drink among the Russian population of
Kunzews, prepared as follows: In a big kettle put from 13 to 15 quarts
of water, and bring to a boil, and when in active ebullition pour in
500 grams of malt. Let boil for 20 minutes, remove from the fire, let
cool down, and strain off. The liquid is now put into a clean keg or
barrel, 30 grams (about an ounce) of best compressed yeast added along
with about 600 grams (20 ounces) of sugar, and the cask is put in a
warm place to ferment. As soon as bubbles of carbonic gas are detected
on the surface of the liquid, it is a signal that the latter is ready
for bottling. In each of the bottles, which should be strong and clean,
put one big raisin, fill, cork, and wire down. The bottles should be
placed on the side, and in the coolest place available—best, on ice.
The liquor is ready for drinking in from 2 to 3 days, and is said to be
most palatable.


«“Braga.”»—Braga is a liquid of milky turbidity, resembling _café au
lait_ in color, and forming a considerable precipitate if left alone.
When shaken it sparkles and a little gas escapes. Its taste is more or
less acid, possessing a pleasant flavor.

About 35 parts of crushed millet, to which a little wheat flour is
added, are placed in a large kettle. On this about 400 parts of water
are poured. The mixture is stirred well and boiled for 3 hours. After
settling for 1 hour the lost water is renewed and the boiling continued
for another 10 hours. A viscous mass remains in the kettle, which
substance is spread upon large tables to cool. After it is perfectly
cool, it is stirred with water in a wooden trough and left to ferment
for 8 hours. This pulp is sifted, mixed with a little water, and after
an hour the braga is ready for sale. The taste is a little sweetish at
first, but becomes more and more sourish in time. Fermentation begins
only in the trough.


«WINTER BEVERAGES:»


«Campchello.»—Thoroughly beat the yolks of 12 fresh eggs with 2 1⁠/⁠4
pounds finely powdered, refined sugar, the juice {118} of 3 lemons and
2 oranges, and 3 bottles of Grâves or other white wine, over the fire,
until rising. Remove, and slowly beat 1 bottle of Jamaica rum with it.


«Egg Wine.»—Vigorously beat 4 whole eggs and the yolks of 4 with 1⁠/⁠2
pound of fine sugar; next add 2 quarts of white wine and beat over a
moderate fire until rising.


«Bavaroise au Cognac.»—Beat up the yolks of 8 eggs in 1 quart of good
milk over the fire, until boiling, then quickly add 5 ounces of sugar
and 1⁠/⁠8 quart of fine cognac.


«Bavaroise au Café.»—Heat 1 pint of strong coffee and 1 pint of milk,
5 ounces of sugar, and the yolks of 8 eggs, until boiling, then add
1⁠/⁠16 quart of Jamaica rum.


«Carbonated Pineapple Champagne.»—

 Plain syrup, 42°            10     gallons
 Essence of pineapple         8     drachms
 Tincture of lemon            5     ounces
 Carbonate of magnesia        1     ounce
 Liquid saffron               2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Citric-acid solution        30     ounces
 Caramel                      2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

Filter before adding the citric-acid solution and limejuice. Use 2
ounces to each bottle.


«A German Drink.»—To 100 parts of water add from 10 to 15 parts of
sugar, dissolve and add to the syrup thus formed an aqueous extract of
0.8 parts of green or black tea. Add fresh beer or brewers’ yeast, put
in a warm place and let ferment. When fermentation has progressed to a
certain point the liquid is cleared, and then bottled, corked, and the
corks tied down. The drink is said to be very pleasant.


«Limejuice Cordial.»—Limejuice cordial that will keep good for any
length of time may be made as follows: Sugar, 6 pounds; water, 4 pints;
citric acid, 4 ounces; boric acid, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce. Dissolve by the aid of
a gentle heat, and when cold add refined limejuice, 60 ounces; tincture
of lemon peel, 4 ounces; water to make up to 2 gallons, and color with
caramel.


«Summer Drink.»—

 Chopped ice                  2     tablespoonfuls
 Chocolate syrup              2     tablespoonfuls
 Whipped cream                3     tablespoonfuls
 Milk                           1⁠/⁠2 cup
 Carbonated water               1⁠/⁠4 cup

Shake or stir well before drinking. A tablespoonful of vanilla ice
cream is a desirable addition. A plainer drink is made by combining the
syrup, 3⁠/⁠4 cup of milk, and the ice, and shaking well.


«American Champagne.»—Good cider (crab-apple cider is the best), 7
gallons; best fourth-proof brandy, 1 quart; genuine champagne wine, 5
pints; milk, 1 gallon; bitartrate of potassa, 2 ounces. Mix, let stand
a short time; bottle while fermenting. An excellent imitation.


«British Champagne.»—Loaf sugar, 56 pounds; brown sugar (pale), 48
pounds; water (warm), 45 gallons; white tartar, 4 ounces; mix, and at
a proper temperature add yeast, 1 quart; and afterwards sweet cider,
5 gallons; bruised wild cherries, 14 or 15 ounces; pale spirits, 1
gallon; orris powder, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce. Bottle while fermenting.


«Champagne Cider.»—Good pale cider, 1 hogshead; spirits, 3 gallons;
sugar, 20 pounds; mix, and let it stand one fortnight; then fine with
skimmed milk, 1⁠/⁠2 gallon; this will be very pale, and a similar
article, when properly bottled and labeled, opens so briskly that even
good judges have mistaken it for genuine champagne.


«BEER:»


«Scotch Beer.»—Add 1 peck malt to 4 gallons of boiling water and let it
mash for 8 hours, and then strain, and in the strained liquor boil:

 Hops                         4 ounces
 Coriander seeds              1 ounce
 Honey                        1 pound
 Orange peel                  2 ounces
 Bruised ginger               1 ounce

Boil for half an hour, then strain and ferment in the usual way.


«Hop Bitter Beer.»—

 Coriander seeds              2 ounces
 Orange peel                  4 ounces
 Ginger                       1 ounce
 Gentian root               1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Boil in 5 gallons of water for half an hour, then strain and put into
the liquor 4 ounces hops and 3 pounds of sugar, and simmer for 15
minutes, then add sufficient yeast, and bottle when ready.


«Sarsaparilla Beer.»—I.—Compound extract of sarsaparilla, 1 1⁠/⁠2
ounces; hot water, 1 pint; dissolve, and when cold, add of good pale or
East India ale, 7 pints.

II.—Sarsaparilla (sliced), 1 pound; guaiacum bark (bruised small),
1⁠/⁠4 pound; guaiacum wood (rasped) and licorice root (sliced), of
each, 2 ounces; aniseed (bruised), 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; mezereon {119}
root-bark, 1 ounce; cloves (cut small), 1⁠/⁠4 ounce; moist sugar,
3 1⁠/⁠2 pounds; hot water (not boiling), 9 quarts; mix in a clean
stone jar, and keep it in a moderately warm room (shaking it twice or
thrice daily) until active fermentation sets in, then let it repose
for about a week, when it will be ready for use. This is said to be
superior to the other preparations of sarsaparilla as an alterative or
purifier of the blood, particularly in old affections. That usually
made has generally only 1⁠/⁠2 of the above quantity of sugar, for which
molasses is often substituted; but in either case it will not keep
well; whereas, with proper caution, the products of the above formulas
may be kept for 1 or even 2 years. No yeast must be used. Dose: A small
tumblerful 3 or 4 times a day, or oftener.


«Spruce Beer.»—I.—Sugar, 1 pound; essence of spruce, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce;
boiling water, 1 gallon; mix well, and when nearly cold add of yeast
1⁠/⁠2 wineglassful; and the next day bottle like ginger beer.

II.—Essence of spruce, 1⁠/⁠2 pint; pimento and ginger (bruised), of
each, 5 ounces; hops, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; water, 3 gallons; boil the whole for
10 minutes, then add of moist sugar, 12 pounds (or good molasses, 14
pounds); warm water, 11 gallons; mix well, and, when only lukewarm,
further add of yeast, 1 pint; after the liquid has fermented for about
24 hours, bottle it.

This is diuretic and antiscorbutic. It is regarded as an agreeable
summer drink, and often found useful during long sea voyages. When made
with lump sugar it is called White Spruce Beer; when with moist sugar
or treacle, Brown Spruce Beer. An inferior sort is made by using less
sugar or more water.


«Treacle Beer.»—I.—From treacle or molasses, 3⁠/⁠4 to 2 pounds per
gallon (according to the desired strength); hops, 1⁠/⁠4 to 3⁠/⁠4 ounce;
yeast, a tablespoonful; water, q. s.; treated as below.

II.—Hops, 1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds; corianders, 1 ounce; capsicum pods (cut
small), 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; water, 8 gallons; boil for 10 or 15 minutes, and
strain the liquor through a coarse sieve into a barrel containing
treacle, 28 pounds; then throw back the hops, etc., into the copper and
reboil them, for 10 minutes, with a second 8 gallons of water, which
must be strained into the barrel, as before; next “rummage” the whole
well with a stout stick, add of cold water 21 gallons (sufficient to
make the whole measure 37 gallons), and, again after mixing, stir in
1⁠/⁠2 pint of good fresh yeast; lastly, let it remain for 24 hours in a
moderately warm place, after which it may be put into the cellar, and
in 2 or 3 days bottled or tapped on draught. In a week it will be fit
to drink. For a stronger beer, 36 pounds, or even half a hundredweight
of molasses may be used. It will then keep good for a twelvemonth. This
is a wholesome drink, but apt to prove laxative when taken in large
quantities.


«Weiss Beer.»—This differs from the ordinary lager beer in that it
contains wheat malt. The proportions are 2⁠/⁠3 wheat to 1⁠/⁠3 barley
malt, 1 pound hops being used with a peck of the combined malt to each
20 gallons of water. A good deal depends on the yeast, which must be of
a special kind, the best grades being imported from Germany.


«Yellow Coloring for Beverages.»—The coloring agents employed are
fustic, saffron, turmeric, quercitron, and the various aniline dyes.
Here are some formulas:

 I.—Saffron                      1 ounce
     Deodorized alcohol           4 fluidounces
     Distilled water              4 fluidounces

Mix alcohol and water, and then add the saffron. Allow the mixture to
stand in a warm place for several days, shaking occasionally; then
filter. The tincture thus prepared has a deep orange color, and when
diluted or used in small quantities gives a beautiful yellow tint to
syrups, etc.

 II.—Ground fustic wood          1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Deodorized alcohol          4     fluidounces
      Distilled water             4     fluidounces

This color may be made in the same manner as the liquid saffron, and is
a fine coloring for many purposes.

 III.—Turmeric powder            2 ounces
       Alcohol, dilute           16 ounces

Macerate for several days, agitating frequently, and filter. For some
beverages the addition of this tincture is not to be recommended, as it
possesses a very spicy taste.

The nonpoisonous aniline dyes recommended for coloring confectionery,
beverages, liquors, essences, etc., yellow are those known as acid
yellow R and tropæolin 000 (orange I).

BICYCLE-TIRE CEMENT: See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements.

BICYCLE VARNISHES: See Varnishes. {120}

BIDERY METAL: See Alloys.

BILLIARD BALLS: See Ivory and Casein.

BIRCH BALSAM: See Balsam.

BIRCH WATER: See Hair Preparations.

BIRD DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES: See Veterinary Formulas.


«BIRD FOODS:»

See also Veterinary Formulas.


«Mixed Birdseed.»—

 Canary seed                  6 parts
 Rape seed                    2 parts
 Maw seed                     1 part
 Millet seed                  2 parts


«Mocking-Bird Food.»—

 Cayenne pepper               2 ounces
 Rape seed                    8 ounces
 Hemp seed                   16 ounces
 Corn meal                    2 ounces
 Rice                         2 ounces
 Cracker                      8 ounces
 Lard oil                     2 ounces

Mix the solids, grinding to a coarse powder, and incorporate the oil.


«Food for Redbirds.»—

 Sunflower seed               8 ounces
 Hemp seed                   16 ounces
 Canary seed                 10 ounces
 Wheat                        8 ounces
 Rice                         6 ounces

Mix and grind to coarse powder.

BIRD LIME: See Lime.

BIRD PASTE: See Canary-Bird Paste.

BISCHOFF: See Wines and Liquors.

BISCUIT, DOG: See Dog Biscuit.

BISMUTH ALLOYS: See Alloys.

BISMUTH, PURIFICATION OF: See Gold.

BITTERS: See Wines and Liquors.

BITTER WATER: See Waters.

BLACKING FOR HARNESS: See Leather.

BLACKING FOR SHOES: See Shoedressings.

BLACKING, STOVE: See Stove Blackings and Polishes.

BLACKBERRY CORDIAL AND BLACKBERRY MIXTURE AS A CHOLERA REMEDY: See
Cholera Remedy.

BLACKBOARD PAINT AND VARNISH: See Paint and Varnish.

BLACKHEAD REMEDIES: See Cosmetics.

BLANKET WASHING: See Household Formulas.

BLASTING POWDER: See Explosives.


«Bleaching»


«Linen.»—Mix common bleaching powder in the proportion of 1 pound to
a gallon of water; stir it occasionally for 3 days, let it settle,
and pour it off clear. Then make a lye of 1 pound of soda to 1 gallon
of boiling water, in which soak the linen for 12 hours, and boil it
half an hour; next soak it in the bleaching liquor, made as above; and
lastly, wash it in the usual manner. Discolored linen or muslin may be
restored by putting a portion of bleaching liquor into the tub wherein
the articles are soaking.


«Straw.»—I.—Dip the straw in a solution of oxygenated muriatic acid,
saturated with potash. (Oxygenated muriate of lime is much cheaper.)
The straw is thus rendered very white, and its flexibility is increased.

II.—Straw is bleached by simply exposing it in a closed chamber to
the fumes of burning sulphur. An old flour barrel is the apparatus
most used for the purpose by milliners, a flat stone being laid on the
ground, the sulphur ignited thereon, and the barrel containing the
goods to be bleached turned over it. The goods should be previously
washed in pure water.


«Wool, Silk, or Straw.»—Mix together 4 pounds of oxalic acid, 4 pounds
of table salt, water 50 gallons. The goods are laid in this mixture
for 1 hour; they are then generally well bleached, and only require
to be thoroughly rinsed and worked. For bleaching straw it is best to
soak the goods in caustic soda, and afterwards to make use of chloride
of lime or Javelle water. The excess of {121} chlorine is afterwards
removed by hyposulphite of soda.


«Feathers.»—Place the feathers from 3 to 4 hours in a tepid dilute
solution of bichromate of potassa, to which, cautiously, some nitric
acid has been added (a small quantity only). To remove a greenish hue
induced by this solution, place them in a dilute solution of sulphuric
acid, in water, whereby the feathers become perfectly white and
bleached.


«Bleaching Solution.»—Aluminum hypochloride, or Wilson’s bleaching
liquid, is produced by adding to a clear solution of lime chloride a
solution of aluminum sulphate (alumina, alum) as long as a precipitate
keeps forming. By mutual decomposition aluminum chloride results, which
remains in solution, and lime sulphate (gypsum), which separates out in
the form of an insoluble salt.


«BLIGHT REMEDIES.»

   I.—Soft soap                  40 parts
       Amyl alcohol               50 parts
       Methylated spirit          20 parts
       Water                   1,000 parts
  II.—Soft soap                  30 parts
       Sulphureted potash          2 parts
       Amyl alcohol               32 parts
       Water                   1,000 parts
 III.—Soft soap                  15 parts
       Sulphureted potash         29 parts
       Water                   1,000 parts

BLEACHING SOLUTIONS FOR THE LAUNDRY: See Laundry Preparations.

BLEACHING SOLUTION FOR PHOTOGRAPHS: See Photography.

BLEEDING, LOCAL: See Styptics.

BLISTER CURE: See Turpentine.

BLISTERS, FOR HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas.

BLOCK, HOLLOW CONCRETE BUILDING: See Stone, Artificial.

BLOCK FOR SOLDERING: See Soldering.

BLOTTING PAPER: See Paper.


«BLUE FROM GREEN AT NIGHT, TO DISTINGUISH:»

To distinguish blue from green at night, use either the light of a
magnesium wire for this purpose or take a number of Swedish (parlor)
matches, light them, and as soon as they flash up, observe the 2
colors, when the difference can be easily told.

BLUE (BALL): See Dyes.

BLUING: See Laundry Preparations.

BLUING OF STEEL: See Steel.


«BLUE PRINTS, TO MAKE CHANGES AND CORRECTIONS ON:»

Use a solution of sodium carbonate and water, with a little red ink
mixed in. This gives a very pleasing pink color to the changes which,
at the same time, is very noticeable. The amount of sodium carbonate
used depends upon the surface of the blue-print paper, as some
coarse-grained papers will look better if less soda is used and _vice
versa_. However, the amount of powdered soda held on a small coin
dissolved in a bottle of water gives good results.

BLUE-PRINT PAPER MAKING: See Photography.

BLUE PRINTS, TO TURN BROWN: See Photography, under Toning.


«BOIL REMEDY.»

Take a piece of soft linen or borated gauze, rub some vaseline upon
one side of it, quickly pour upon it some chloroform, apply it to the
unopened boil or carbuncle, and place a bandage over all. It smarts
a little at first, but this is soon succeeded by a pleasing, cool
sensation. The patient is given a bottle of the remedy, and directed to
change the cloth often. In from 2 hours to 1 day the boil (no matter
how indurated) softens and opens.


«Boiler Compounds»

There are three chemicals which are known to attack boiler scale.
These are caustic soda, soda ash, and tannic-acid compounds, the last
being derived from sumac, catechu, and the exhausted bark liquor from
tanneries.

Caustic soda in large excess is injurious to boiler fittings, gaskets,
valves, {122} etc. That it is injurious, in reasonable excess, to the
boiler tubes themselves is yet to be proved. Foaming and priming may be
caused through excess of caustic soda or soda ash, as is well known by
every practical engineer. Tannic acid is to be condemned and the use
of its salts is not to be recommended. It may unite with the organic
matter, present in the form of albuminoids, and with calcium and
magnesium carbonates. That it removes scale is an assured fact; that it
removes iron with the scale is also assured, as tannic acid corrodes an
iron surface rapidly.

Compounds of vegetable origin are widely advertised, but they often
contain dextrine and gum, both of which are dangerous, as they coat
the tubes with a compact scale, not permitting the water to reach the
iron. Molasses is acid and should not be used in the boiler. Starch
substances generally should be avoided. Kerosene must be dangerous, as
it is very volatile and must soon leave the boiler and pass over and
through the engine.

There are two materials the use of which in boilers is not prohibited
through action upon the metal itself or on account of price. These are
soda ash and caustic soda. Sodium triphosphate and sodium fluoride
have both been used with success, but their cost is several hundred per
cent greater than soda ash. If prescribed as per analysis, in slight
excess, there should be no injurious results through the use of caustic
soda and soda ash. It would be practicable to manufacture an intimate
mixture of caustic soda and carbonate of soda, containing enough of
each to soften the average water of a given district.

There is a great deal of fraud in connection with boiler compounds
generally. The better class of venders advertise to prepare a special
compound for special water. This is expensive, save on a large scale,
in reference to a particular water, for it would mean a score or more
of tanks with men to make up the mixtures. The less honest of the
boiler-compound guild consign each sample of water to the sewer and
send the regular goods. Others have a stock analysis which is sent
to customers of a given locality, whether it contains iron, lime, or
magnesium sulphates or carbonates.

Any expense for softening water in excess of 3 cents per 1,000
gallons is for the privilege of using a ready-made softener. Every
superintendent in charge of a plant should insist that the compound
used be pronounced by competent authority free from injurious
materials, and that it be adapted to the water in use.

Boiler compounds should contain only such ingredients as will
neutralize the scale-forming salts present. They should be used only
by prescription, so many gallons per 1,000 gallons of feed water. A
properly proportioned mixture of soda ought to answer the demands of
all plants depending upon that method of softening water in limestone
and shale regions.

The honest boiler compounds are, however, useful for small isolated
plants, because of the simplicity of their action. For plants of from
75 to 150 horse power two 24-hour settling tanks will answer the
purpose of a softening system. Each of these, capable of holding a
day’s supply, provided with a soda tank in common, and with sludge
valves, has paddles for stirring the contents. Large plants are
operated on this principle, serving boilers of many thousand horse
power. Such a system has an advantage over a continuous system, in
that the exact amount of chemical solutions required for softening the
particular water can be applied. For some variations of such a system,
several companies have secured patents. The fundamental principles,
however, have been used for many years and are not patentable.


«Prevention of Boiler Scale.»—The lime contained in the feed water,
either as bicarbonate or as sulphate, is precipitated in the shape
of a light mud, but the walls of the boiler remain perfectly bright
without being attacked in any manner. While under ordinary atmospheric
pressure calcium chromate in solution is precipitated by soda or
Glauber’s salt as calcium carbonate or as calcium sulphate; the latter
is separated under higher pressure by chromates as calcium chromate. An
excess of chromates or chromic acid does not exercise any deleterious
action upon the metal, nor upon the materials used for packing. By the
slight admixture of chromates, two pounds are sufficient for a small
boiler for weeks; no injurious ingredients are carried in by the wet
steam, the injection water, on the contrary, having been found to be
chemically pure.


«Protecting Boiler Plates from Scale.»—

I.—For a 5-horse-power boiler, fed with water which contains calcic
sulphate, take catechu, 2 pounds; dextrine, 1 pound; crystallized soda,
2 pounds; potash, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; cane sugar, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; alum, 1⁠/⁠2
pound; gum arabic, 1⁠/⁠2 pound. {123}

II.—For a boiler of the same size, fed with water which contains lime:
Turmeric, 2 pounds; dextrine, 1 pound; sodium bicarbonate, 2 pounds;
potash, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; alum, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; molasses, 1⁠/⁠2 pound.

III.—For a boiler of the same size, fed with water which contains iron:
Gamboge, 2 pounds; soda, 2 pounds; dextrine, 1 pound; potash, 1⁠/⁠2
pound; sugar, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; alum, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; gum arabic, 1⁠/⁠2 pound.

IV.—For a boiler of the same size, fed with sea water: Catechu, 2
pounds; Glauber’s salt, 2 pounds; dextrine, 2 pounds; alum, 1⁠/⁠2
pound; gum arabic, 1⁠/⁠2 pound.

When these preparations are used add 1 quart of water, and in ordinary
cases charge the boiler every month; but if the incrustation is very
bad, charge every two weeks.

V.—Place within the boiler of 100 horse power 1 bucketful of washing
soda; put in 2 gallons of kerosene oil (after closing the blow-off
cock), and fill the boiler with water. Feed in at least 1 quart of
kerosene oil every day through a sight-feed oil cup attached to the
feed pipe near the boiler—i. e., between the heater and the boiler—so
that the oil is not entrapped within the heater. If it is inconvenient
to open the boiler, then dissolve the washing soda in hot water and
feed it in with the pump or through a tallow cock (attached between the
ejector and the valve in the suction pipe) when the ejector is working.

VI.—A paint for protecting boiler plates from scale, and patented
in Germany, is composed of 10 pounds each of train oil, horse fat,
paraffine, and of finely ground zinc white. To this mixture is added
40 pounds of graphite and 10 pounds of soot made together into a paste
with 1 1⁠/⁠2 gallons of water, and about a pound of carbolic acid.
The horse fat and the zinc oxide make a soap difficult to fuse, which
adheres strongly to the plates, and binds the graphite and the soot.
The paraffine prevents the water from penetrating the coats. The scale
which forms on this application can be detached, it is said, with a
wooden mallet, without injuring the paint.

VII.—M. E. Asselin, of Paris, recommends the use of glycerine as a
preventive. It increases the solubility of combinations of lime, and
especially of the sulphate. It forms with these combinations soluble
compounds. When the quantity of lime becomes so great that it can no
longer be dissolved, nor form soluble combinations, it is deposited
in a gelatinous substance, which never adheres to the surface of the
iron plates. The gelatinous substances thus formed are not carried
with the steam into the cylinder of the engine. M. Asselin advises the
employment of 1 pound of glycerine for every 300 pounds or 400 pounds
of coal burnt.


«Prevention of Electrolysis.»—In order to prevent the eating away of
the sheets and tubes by electrolytic action, it has long been the
practice of marine engineers to suspend slabs of zinc in their boilers.
The zinc, being more susceptible to the electrolytic action than the
iron, is eaten away, while the iron remains unimpaired. The use of
zinc in this way has been found also to reduce the trouble from boiler
scale. Whether it be due to the formation of hydrogen bubbles between
the heating surfaces and incipient scale, to the presence in the water
of the zinc salts resulting from the dissolution of the zinc, or to
whatever cause, it appears to be a general conclusion among those who
have used it that the zinc helps the scale, as well as the corrosion.
Nobody has ever claimed for it that it prevented the attachment of
scale altogether, but the consensus of opinion is that it “helps some.”


«BOILER PRESSURE.»

It hardly pays to reduce pressure on boilers, except in very extreme
cases, but if it can be done by throttling before the steam reaches
the cylinder of the engine it would be an advantage, because this
retains the heat units due to the higher pressure in the steam, and
the throttling has a slight superheating effect. As a matter of fact,
tests go to show that for light loads and high pressure a throttling
engine may do better than an automatic cut-off. The ideal arrangement
is to throttle the steam for light loads; for heavier loads, allow the
variable cut-off to come into play. This practice has been carried into
effect by the design of Mr. E. J. Armstrong, in which he arranges the
shaft governor so that there is negative lead up to nearly one-quarter
cut-off, after which the lead becomes positive, and this has the effect
of throttling the steam for the earlier loads and undoubtedly gives
better economy, in addition to making the engine run more quietly.


«BONE BLACK:»


«Bone or Ivory Black.»—All bones (and ivory is bone in a sense) consist
of a framework of crystallized matter or bone earth, in the interstices
of which organic matter is embedded. Hence if {124} bones are heated
red-hot in a closed vessel, the organic matter is destroyed, leaving
carbon, in a finely divided state, lodged in the bony framework. If
the heat is applied gradually the bone retains its shape, but is quite
black and of much less weight than at first. This bone black or animal
charcoal is a substance which has great power of absorbing coloring
matter from liquids, so that it is largely used for bleaching such
liquids. For example, in the vast industry of beet-sugar manufacture
the solutions first made are very dark in color, but after filtration
through animal charcoal will give colorless crystals on evaporation.
Chemical trades require such large quantities of bone charcoal that its
production is a large industry in itself. As in breaking up the charred
bones a considerable amount of waste is produced, in the form of dust
and small grains which cannot be used for bleaching purposes, this
waste should be worked up into a pigment. This is done by dissolving
out the mineral with hydrochloric acid, and then rinsing and drying the
carbon.

The mineral basis of bones consists mainly of the phosphates of lime
and magnesia, salts soluble in not too dilute hydrochloric acid. A vat
is half filled with the above-mentioned waste, which is then just
covered with a mixture of equal volumes of commercial hydrochloric acid
and water. As the mineral matter also contains carbonates, a lively
effervescence at once ensues, and small quantities of hydrofluoric
acid are also formed from the decomposition of calcium fluoride in the
bones. Now hydrofluoric acid is a very dangerous substance, as air
containing even traces of it is very injurious to the lungs. Hence
the addition of hydrochloric acid should be done in the open air, and
the vat should be left by itself until the evolution of fumes ceases.
A plug is then pulled out at the bottom and the carbon is thoroughly
drained. It is then stirred up with water and again drained, when
it has fully settled to the bottom. This rinsing with clear water
is repeated till all the hydrochloric acid is washed away and only
pure carbon remains in the vat. As for pigment-making purposes it is
essential that the carbon should be as finely divided as possible, it
is as well to grind the washed carbon in an ordinary color mill. Very
little power is required for this purpose, as when once the bone earth
is removed the carbon particles have little cohesion. The properly
ground mass forms a deep-black mud, which can be left to dry or be
dried by artificial heat. When dry, the purified bone black is of a
pure black and makes a most excellent pigment.

Bone black is put upon the market under all sorts of names, such as
ivory black, _ebur ustum_, Frankfort black, neutral black, etc. All
these consist of finely ground bone black purified from mineral matter.
If leather scraps or dried blood are to be worked up, iron tubes are
employed, closed at one end, and with a well-fitting lid with a small
hole in it at the other. As these bodies give off large volumes of
combustible gas during the charring, it is a good plan to lead the
vapors from the hole by a bent tube so that they can be burnt and help
to supply the heat required and so save fuel. Leather or blood gives
a charcoal which hardly requires treatment with hydrochloric acid,
for the amount of mineral salts present is so small that its removal
appears superfluous.


«BONES, A TEST FOR BROKEN.»

Place a stethoscope on one side of the supposed fracture, and a
tuning fork on the other. When the latter is vibrated, and there is
no breakage, the sound will be heard distinctly through bone and
stethoscope. Should any doubt exist, comparison should be made with
the same bone on the other side of the body. This test shows the
difference in the power of conducting sound possessed by bone and soft
tissue.

BONE BLEACHES: See Ivory.

BONE FAT: See Fats.

BONE FAT, PURIFICATION AND BLEACHING OF: See Soap.

BONE POLISHES: See Polishes.

BONE FERTILIZERS: See Fertilizers.

BONES, TREATMENT OF, IN MANUFACTURING GLUE: See Adhesives.

BONE, UNITING GLASS WITH: See Adhesives.


«BOOKS, THEIR HANDLING AND PRESERVATION:»


«The Preservation of Books in Hot Climates.»—Books in hot climates
quickly deteriorate unless carefully guarded. There are three
destructive agencies: (1) damp, (2) a small black insect, (3)
cockroaches. {125}

(1) Books which are kept in a damp atmosphere deteriorate on account of
molds and fungi that grow rapidly when the conditions are favorable.
Books are best kept on open, airy, well-lighted shelves. When there has
been a prolonged spell of moist weather their covers should be wiped,
and they should be placed in the sun or before a fire for a few hours.
Damp also causes the bindings and leaves of some books to separate.

(2) A small black insect, one-eighth of an inch long and a sixteenth
of an inch broad, somewhat resembling a beetle, is very destructive,
and books will be found, if left untouched, after a few months to have
numerous holes in the covers and leaves. If this insect be allowed
plenty of time for its ravages it will make so many holes that bindings
originally strong can be easily torn to pieces. All damage may be
prevented by coating the covers of books with the varnish described
under (3). When books are found to contain the insects they should be
well wrapped and placed in the sun before varnishing.

(3) The appearance of a fine binding may be destroyed in a single night
by cockroaches. The lettering of the binding may, in two or three
days, be completely obliterated.

The following varnishes have been found to prevent effectually the
ravages of cockroaches and of all insects that feed upon books:

 I.—Dammar resin         2     ounces
     Mastic               2     ounces
     Canada balsam        1     ounce
     Creosote               1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Spirit of wine      20     fl. ounces

Macerate with occasional shaking for a few days if wanted at once, but
for a longer time when possible, as a better varnish will result after
a maceration of several months.

II.—Corrosive sublimate, 1 ounce; carbolic acid, 1 ounce; methylated or
rum spirit, 1 quart.

Where it is necessary to keep books or paper of any description in
boxes, cupboards, or closed bookcases, some naphthalene balls or
camphor should be always present with them. If camphor be used it is
best to wrap it in paper, otherwise it volatilizes more quickly than is
necessary. In dry weather the doors of closed bookcases should be left
open occasionally, as a damp, still atmosphere is most favorable for
deterioration.


«How to Open a Book.»—Never force the back of the book. Hold the book
with its back on a smooth or covered table; let the front board down,
then the other, holding the leaves in one hand while you open a few
leaves at the back, then a few at the front, and so on, alternately
opening back and front, gently pressing open the sections till you
reach the center of the volume. Do this two or three times and you will
obtain the best results. Open the volume violently or carelessly in any
one place and you will probably break the back or cause a start in the
leaves.

BOOK DISINFECTANT: See Disinfectants.

BOOKS, TO REMOVE FINGER-MARKS FROM: See Cleaning Preparations and
Methods.

BOOKBINDERS’ VARNISH: See Varnishes.

BOOKWORMS: See Insecticides.

BOOT DRESSINGS: See Shoe Dressings.

BOOT LUBRICANT: See Lubricant.

BOOTS, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.


«BORAX FOR SPRINKLING.»

I.—Sprinkling borax is not only cheaper, but also dissolves less in
soldering than pure borax.

The borax is heated in a metal vessel until it has lost its water of
crystallization and mixed with calcined cooking salt and potash—borax,
8 parts; cooking salt, 3 parts; potash, 3 parts. Next it is pounded in
a mortar into a fine powder, constituting the sprinkling borax.

II.—Another kind of sprinkling borax is prepared by substituting
glass-gall for the potash. Glass-gall is the froth floating on the
melted glass, which can be skimmed off.

The borax is either dusted on in powder form from a sprinkling box or
stirred with water before use into a thin paste.

BORAX AND BORIC ACID IN FOOD: See Food.

BORDEAUX MIXTURE: See Insecticides.

BOROTONIC: See Dentifrices. {126}

BOTTLE-CAP LACQUER: See Lacquer.

BOTTLE CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under
Miscellaneous Methods.

BOTTLE STOPPERS: See Stoppers.

BOTTLE VARNISH: See Varnishes.

BOTTLE WAX: See Photography.

BOUILLON: See Beverages.

BOURBON METALS: See Alloys.

BOWLS OF FIRE TRICK: See Pyrotechnics.

BOX GLUE: See Adhesives.

BRAGA: See Beverages.


«BRAN, SAWDUST IN.»

For the detection of sawdust in bran use a solution of 1 part of
phloroglucin in 15 parts of alcohol, 15 parts of water, and 10 parts
of syrupy phosphoric acid. Place 2 parts of the solution in a small
porcelain dish, add a knifepointful of the bran and heat moderately.
Sawdust is dyed red while bran parts only seldom acquire a faint red
color. By a microscopic examination of the reddish parts, sawdust will
be readily recognized.


«Bottles»


«Magic Bottles.»—

The mystery of the “wonderful bottle,” from which can be poured in
succession port wine, sherry, claret, water, champagne, or ink, at the
will of the operator, is easily explained. The materials consist of an
ordinary dark-colored pint wine bottle, seven wine glasses of different
patterns, and the chemicals described below:

Solution A: A mixture of tincture of ferric chloride, drachms vi;
hydrochloric acid, drachms ii.

Solution B: Saturated solution of ammonium sulphocyanide, drachm i.

Solution C: Strong solution of ferric chloride, drachm i.

Solution D: A weak solution of ammonium sulphocyanide.

Solution E: Concentrated solution of lead acetate.

Solution F: Solution of ammonium sulphide, drachm i; or pyrogallic
acid, drachm i.

Package G: Pulverized potassium bicarbonate, drachm iss.

Having poured two teaspoonfuls of solution A into the wine bottle,
treat the wine glasses with the different solutions, noting and
remembering into which glasses the several solutions are placed. Into
No. 1 wine glass pour one or two drops of solution B; into No. 2 glass
pour one or two drops of solution C; into No. 3 one or two drops of
Solution D; leave No. 4 glass empty; into No. 5 glass pour a few drops
of Solution E; into No. 6 glass place a few grains of Package G; into
No. 7 glass pour a little of solution F.

Request some one to bring you some cold drinking water, and to
guarantee that it is pure show that your wine bottle is (practically)
empty. Fill it up from the carafe, and having asked the audience
whether you shall produce wine or water, milk or ink, etc., you may
obtain any of these by pouring a little of the water from the bottle
into the prepared glass. Thus No. 1 glass gives a port-wine color; No.
2 gives a sherry color; No. 3 gives a claret color; No. 4 is left
empty to prove that the solution in the bottle is colorless; No. 5
produces milk; No. 6, effervescing champagne; No. 7, ink.


«Bottle-Capping Mixtures.»—

I.—Soak 7 pounds of good gelatin in 10 ounces of glycerine and 60
ounces of water, and heat over a water bath until dissolved, and add
any desired color. Pigments may be used, and various tints can be
obtained by the use of aniline colors. The resulting compound should be
stored in jars. To apply liquefy the mass and dip the cork and portion
of the neck of the bottle into the liquid; it sets very quickly.

 II.—Gelatin                1 ounce
      Gum arabic             1 ounce
      Boric acid            20 grains
      Starch                 1 ounce
      Water                 16 fluidounces

Mix the gelatin, gum arabic, and boric acid with 14 fluidounces of cold
water, stir occasionally until the gum is dissolved, heat the mixture
to boiling, remove the scum, and strain. Also mix the starch intimately
with the remainder of the water, and stir this mixture into the hot
gelatin mixture until a uniform product results. As noted above, the
composition may be tinted with any suitable dye. Before using, it must
be softened by the application of heat. {127}

 III.—Shellac                    3     ounces
       Venice turpentine          1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
       Boric acid                72     grains
       Powdered talcum            3     ounces
       Ether                      6     fluidrams
       Alcohol                   12 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces

Dissolve the shellac, turpentine, and boric acid in the mixed alcohol
and ether, color with a spirit-soluble dye, and add the talcum. During
use the mixture must be agitated frequently.


«Show Bottles.»—

I.—Place in a cylindrical bottle the following liquids in the order
named:

First, sulphuric acid, tinted blue with indigo; second, chloroform;
third, glycerine, slightly tinted with caramel; fourth, castor oil,
colored with alkanet root; fifth, 40-per-cent alcohol, slightly tinted
with aniline green; sixth, cod-liver oil, containing 1 per cent of oil
of turpentine. The liquids are held in place by force of gravity, and
alternate with fluids which are not miscible, so that the strata of
layers are clearly defined and do not mingle by diffusion.

 II.—Chromic acid                1 drachm
      Commercial “muriatic” acid  2 ounces
      Nitric acid                 2 ounces
      Water, enough to make       3 gallons

The color is magenta.

The following makes a fine pink for show carboys:

 III.—Cobalt oxide               2 parts
       Nitric acid, c. p.         1 part
       Hydrochloric acid          1 part

Mix and dissolve, and to the solution add:

 Strongest water of ammonia            6 parts
 Sulphuric acid                        1 part
 Water, distilled, q. s. to make     400 parts

This should be left standing in a dark, cool place for at least a month
before putting in the window.

IV.—Green.—Copper sulphate, 300 parts, by weight; hydrochloric acid,
450 parts, by weight; distilled water, to 4,500 parts, by weight.

V.—Blue.—Copper sulphate, 480 parts, by weight; sulphuric acid, 60
parts, by weight; distilled water, to 450 parts, by weight.

VI.—Yellowish Brown.—Potassium dichromate, 120 parts, by weight; nitric
acid, 150 parts, by weight; distilled water, to 4,500 parts, by weight.

VII.—Yellow.—Potassium dichromate, 30 parts, by weight; sodium
bicarbonate, 225 parts, by weight; distilled water, to 4,500 parts, by
weight.

VIII.—Red.—Liquid ferric chloride, officinal, 60 parts, by weight;
concentrated ammonium-acetate solution, 120 parts, by weight; acetic
acid, 30 per cent, 30 parts, by weight; distilled water, to 9,000
parts, by weight.

IX.—Crimson.—Potassium iodide, 7.5 parts, by weight; iodine, 7.5 parts,
by weight; hydrochloric acid, 60 parts, by weight; distilled water, to
4,500 parts, by weight.

All the solutions IV to IX should be filtered. If distilled water be
used these solutions should keep for five to ten years. In order to
prevent them from freezing, either add 10 per cent of alcohol, or
reduce the quantity of water by 10 per cent.


«A Cheap and Excellent Warming Bottle.»—Mix sodium acetate and sodium
hyposulphate in the proportion of 1 part of the former to 9 parts of
the latter, and with the mixture fill an earthenware bottle about
three-quarters full. Close the vessel well with a cork and place it
either in hot water or in the oven, and let remain until the salts
within melt. For at least a half day the jug will radiate its heat,
and need only be well shaken from time to time to renew its heat-giving
energy.


«Bottle Deodorizer.»—Powdered black mustard seed is successfully
employed. Pour a little of it with some lukewarm water into the
receptacle, rinsing it afterwards with water. If necessary, repeat the
process.

BRANDY AND BRANDY BITTERS See Wines and Liquors.


«Brass»

Formulas for the making of Brass will be found under Alloys.


«Colors for Polished Brass.»—The brass objects are put into boiling
solutions composed of different salts, and the intensity of the shade
obtained is dependent upon the duration of the immersion. With a
solution composed of

 Sulphate of copper         120 grains
 Hydrochlorate of ammonia    30 grains
 Water                        1 quart

greenish shades are obtained. With the following solution all the
shades of brown from orange brown to cinnamon are obtained: {128}

 Chlorate of potash        150 grains
 Sulphate of copper        150 grains
 Water                       1 quart

The following solution gives the brass first a rosy tint and then
colors it violet and blue:

 Sulphate of copper        435 grains
 Hyposulphite of soda      300 grains
 Cream of tartar           150 grains
 Water                       1 pint

Upon adding to the last solution

 Ammoniacal sulphate of iron   300 grains
 Hyposulphite of soda          300 grains

there are obtained, according to the duration of the immersion,
yellowish, orange, rosy, then bluish shades. Upon polarizing the
ebullition the blue tint gives way to yellow, and finally to a pretty
gray. Silver, under the same circumstances, becomes very beautifully
colored. After a long ebullition in the following solution we obtain a
yellow-brown shade, and then a remarkable fire red:

 Chlorate of potash         75 grains
 Carbonate of nickel        30 grains
 Salt of nickel             75 grains
 Water                      16 ounces

The following solution gives a beautiful, dark-brown color:

 Chlorate of potash         75 grains
 Salt of nickel            150 grains
 Water                      10 ounces

The following gives, in the first place, a red, which passes to blue,
then to pale lilac, and finally to white:

 Orpiment                   75 grains
 Crystallized sal sodæ     150 grains
 Water                      10 ounces

The following gives a yellow brown:

 Salt of nickel             75 grains
 Sulphate of copper         75 grains
 Chlorate of potash         75 grains
 Water                      10 ounces

On mixing the following solutions, sulphur separates and the brass
becomes covered with iridescent crystallizations:

  I.—Cream of tartar            75 grains
      Sulphate of copper         75 grains
      Water                      10 ounces

 II.—Hyposulphite of soda      225 grains
      Water                       5 ounces

Upon leaving the brass objects immersed in the following mixture
contained in corked vessels they at length acquire a very beautiful
blue color:

 Hepar of sulphur           15 grains
 Ammonia                    75 grains
 Water                       4 ounces


«Miscellaneous Coloring of Brass.»—Yellow to bright red: Dissolve
2 parts native copper carbonate with 1 part caustic soda in 10
parts water. Dip for a few minutes into the liquor, the various
shades desired being obtained according to the length of time of
the immersion. Green: Dissolve 1 part copper acetate (verdigris), 1
part blue vitriol, and 1 part alum in 10 parts of water and boil the
articles therein. Black: For optical articles, photographic apparatus,
plates, rings, screws, etc., dissolve 45 parts of malachite (native
copper carbonate) in 1,000 parts of sal ammoniac. For use clean and
remove the grease from the article by pickling and dip it into the
bath until the coating is strong enough. The bath operates better and
quicker if heated. Should the oxidation be a failure it should be
removed by dipping into the brass pickle.

A verdigris color on brass is produced by treating the articles with
dilute acids, acetic acid, or sulphuric acid, and drying.

Brown in all varieties of shades is obtained by immersing the metal in
solutions of nitrates or ferric chloride after it has been corroded
with dilute nitric acid, cleaned with sand and water, and dried. The
strength of the solutions governs the deepness of the resulting color.

Violet is caused by immersing the thoroughly cleaned objects in a
solution of ammonium chloride.

Chocolate color results if red ferric oxide is strewn on and burned
off, followed by polishing with a small quantity of galena.

Olive green is produced by blackening the surface with a solution of
iron in hydrochloric acid, polishing with galena, and coating hot with
a lacquer composed of 1 part varnish, 4 parts cincuma, and 1 part
gamboge.

A steel-blue coloring is obtained by means of a dilute boiling solution
of chloride of arsenic, and a blue one by a treatment with strong
hyposulphite of soda. Another formula for bluing brass is: Dissolve 10
parts of antimony chloride in 200 parts of water, and add 30 parts of
pure hydrochloric acid. Dip the article until it is well blued, then
wash and dry in sawdust.

Black is much used for optical brass articles and is produced by
coating with a solution of platinum or auric chloride mixed with
nitrate of tin.


«Coloring Unpolished Brass.»—A yellow color of handsome effect is
obtained on {129} unpolished brass by means of antimony-chloride
solution. This is produced by finely powdering gray antimony and
boiling it with hydrochloric acid. With formation of hydrogen sulphide
a solution of antimony results, which must not be diluted with water,
since a white precipitate of antimony oxychloride is immediately
formed upon admixture of water. For dilution, completely saturated
cooking-salt solution is employed, using for 1 part of antimony
chloride 2 parts of salt solution.


«Coloring Fluid for Brass.»—Caustic soda, 33 parts; water, 24 parts;
hydrated carbonate of copper, 5.5 parts.

Dissolve the salt in water and dip the metal in the solution obtained.
The intensity of the color will be proportional to the time of
immersion. After removing the object from the liquid, rinse with water
and dry in sawdust.


«Black Color on Brass.»—A black or oxidized surface on brass is
produced by a solution of carbonate of copper in ammonia. The work is
immersed and allowed to remain until the required tint is observed. The
carbonate of copper is best used in a plastic condition, as it is then
much more easily dissolved. Plastic carbonate of copper may be mixed
as follows: Make a solution of blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) in
hot water, and add a strong solution of common washing soda to it as
long as any precipitate forms. The precipitate is allowed to settle,
and the clear liquid is poured off. Hot water is added, and the mass
stirred and again allowed to settle. This operation is repeated six or
eight times to remove the impurities. After the water has been removed
during the last pouring, and nothing is left but an emulsion of the
thick plastic carbonate in a small quantity of water, liquid ammonia
is added until everything is dissolved and a clear, deep-blue liquid
is produced. If too strong, water may be added, but a strong solution
is better than a weak one. If it is desired to make the solution from
commercial plastic carbonate of copper the following directions may
be followed: Dissolve 1 pound of the plastic carbonate of copper in 2
gallons of strong ammonia. This gives the required strength of solution.

The brass which it is desired to blacken is first boiled in a strong
potash solution to remove grease and oil, then well rinsed and dipped
in the copper solution, which has previously been heated to from 150°
to 175° F. This solution, if heated too hot, gives off all the ammonia.
The brass is left in the solution until the required tint is produced.
The color produced is uniform, black, and tenacious. The brass is
rinsed and dried in sawdust. A great variety of effects may be produced
by first finishing the brass before blackening, as the oxidizing
process does not injure the texture of the metal. A satisfactory finish
is produced by first rendering the surface of the brass matt, either
by scratch-brush or similar methods, as the black finish thus produced
by the copper solution is dead—one of the most pleasing effects of an
oxidized surface. Various effects may also be produced by coloring the
entire article and then buffing the exposed portions.

The best results in the use of this solution are obtained by the use of
the so-called red metals—i. e., those in which the copper predominates.
The reason for this is obvious. Ordinary sheet brass consists of about
2 parts of copper and 1 part of zinc, so that the large quantity of the
latter somewhat hinders the production of a deep-black surface. Yellow
brass is colored black by the solution, but it is well to use some
metal having a reddish tint, indicating the presence of a large amount
of copper. The varieties of sheet brass known as gilding or bronze work
well. Copper also gives excellent results. Where the best results are
desired on yellow brass a very light electroplate of copper before
the oxidizing works well and gives an excellent black. With the usual
articles made of yellow brass this is rarely done, but the oxidation
carried out directly.


«Black Finish for Brass.»—I.—A handsome black finish may be put on
brass by the following process: Dissolve in 1,000 parts of ammonia
water 45 parts of natural malachite, and in the solution put the object
to be blackened, after first having carefully and thoroughly cleaned
the same. After letting it stand a short time gradually warm the
mixture, examining the article from time to time to ascertain if the
color is deep enough. Rinse and let dry.

II.—The blacking of brass may be accomplished by immersing it in the
following solution and then heating over a Bunsen burner or a spirit
flame: Add a saturated solution of ammonium carbonate to a saturated
copper-sulphate solution, until the precipitate resulting in the
beginning has almost entirely dissolved. The immersion and heating are
repeated until the brass turns dark; then it is brushed and dipped in
negative varnish or dull varnish. {130}


«To Give a Brown Color to Brass.»—I.—In 1,000 parts of rain or
distilled water dissolve 5 parts each of verdigris (copper acetate)
and ammonium chloride. Let the solution stand 4 hours, then add 1,500
parts of water. Remove the brass to be browned from its attachment to
the fixtures and make the surface perfectly bright and smooth and free
from grease. Place it over a charcoal fire and heat until it “sizzes”
when touched with the dampened finger. The solution is then painted
over the surface with a brush or swabbed on with a rag. If one swabbing
does not produce a sufficient depth of color, repeat the heating and
the application of the liquid until a fine durable brown is produced.
For door plates, knobs, and ornamental fixtures generally, this is one
of the handsomest as well as the most durable surfaces, and is easily
applied.

II.—A very handsome brown may be produced on brass castings by
immersing the thoroughly cleaned and dried articles in a warm solution
of 15 parts of sodium hydrate and 5 parts of cupric carbonate in 100
parts of water. The metal turns dark yellow, light brown, and finally
dark brown, with a greenish shimmer, and, when the desired shade is
reached, is taken out of the bath, rinsed, and dried.

III.—Paint the cleaned and dried surface uniformly with a dilute
solution of ammonium sulphide. When this coating is dry, it is rubbed
over, and then painted with a dilute ammoniacal solution of arsenic
sulphide, until the required depth of color is attained. If the results
are not satisfactory the painting can be repeated after washing over
with ammonia. Prolonged immersion in the second solution produces a
grayish-green film, which looks well, and acquires luster when polished
with a cloth.


«Refinishing Gas Fixtures.»—Gas fixtures which have become dirty or
tarnished from use may be improved in appearance by painting with
bronze paint and then, if a still better finish is required, varnishing
after the paint is thoroughly dry with some light-colored varnish that
will give a hard and brilliant coating.

If the bronze paint is made up with ordinary varnish it is liable to
become discolored from acid which may be present in the varnish. One
method proposed for obviating this is to mix the varnish with about
five times its volume of spirit of turpentine, add to the mixture dried
slaked lime in the proportion of about 40 grains to the pint, agitate
well, repeating the agitation several times, and finally allowing the
suspended matter to settle and decanting the clear liquid. The object
of this is to neutralize any acid which may be present. To determine
how effectively this has been done the varnish may be chemically tested.


«Steel Blue and Old Silver on Brass.»—For the former dissolve 100
parts of carbonic carbonate in 750 parts of ammonia and dilute this
solution with distilled water, whereupon the cleaned articles are
dipped into the liquid by means of a brass wire. After two to three
minutes take them out, rinse in clean water, and dry in sawdust.
Old silver on brass is produced as follows: The articles are first
silvered and next painted with a thin paste consisting of graphite,
6 parts; pulverized hematite, 1 part; and turpentine. Use a soft
brush and dry well; then brush off the powder. Oxidized silver is
obtained by dipping the silvered goods into a heated solution of liver
of sulphur, 5 parts; ammonia carbonate, 10 parts; and water, 10,000
parts. Only substantially silvered objects are suited for oxidation,
as a weak silvering is taken off by this solution. Unsatisfactory
coloring is removed with potassium-cyanide solution. It is advisable
to lay the articles in hydrogen sulphide-ammonia solution diluted with
water,wherein they acquire a blue to a deep-black shade.


«Tombac Color on Brass.»—This is produced by immersion in a mixture of
copper carbonate, 10 parts; caustic soda, 30 parts; water, 200 parts.
This layer will only endure wiping with a cloth, not vigorous scouring
with sand.


«Graining of Brass.»—Brass parts of timepieces are frequently provided
with a dead grained surface. For this purpose they are fastened with
flat-headed pins on cork disks and brushed with a paste of water and
finest powdered pumice stone. Next they are thoroughly washed and
placed in a solution of 10 quarts of water, 30 grains of mercuric
nitrate, and 60 grains of sulphuric acid. In this amalgamating solution
the objects become at once covered with a layer of mercury, which forms
an amalgam with the copper, while the zinc passes into solution. After
the articles have again been washed they are treated with graining
powder, which consists of silver powder, tartar, and cooking salt.
These substances must be pure, dry, and very finely pulverized. The
mixing is done with moderate heat. According {131} to whether a coarser
or finer grain is desired, more cooking salt or more tartar must be
contained in the powder. The ordinary proportions are:

 Silver powder    28       28   28 parts
 Tartar          283  110–140   85 parts
 Cooking salt    900      370  900 parts

This powder is moistened with water and applied to the object. Place
the article with the cork support in a flat dish and rub on the paste
with a stiff brush while turning the dish incessantly. Gradually fresh
portions of graining powder are put on until the desired grain is
obtained. These turn out the rounder the more the dish and brush are
turned. When the right grain is attained, rinse off with water, and
treat the object with a scratch brush, with employment of a decoction
of saponaria. The brushes must be moved around in a circle in brushing
with the pumice stone, as well as in rubbing on the graining powder and
in using the scratch brush. The required silver powder is produced by
precipitating a diluted solution of silver nitrate with some strips of
sheet copper. The precipitated silver powder is washed out on a paper
filter and dried at moderate heat.


«The Dead, or Matt, Dip for Brass.»—The dead dip is used to impart a
satiny or crystalline finish to the surface. The bright dip gives a
smooth, shiny, and perfectly even surface, but the dead dip is the
most pleasing of any dip finish, and can be used as a base for many
secondary finishes.

The dead dip is a mixture of oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) and
aqua fortis (nitric acid) in which there is enough sulphate of zinc
(white vitriol) to saturate the solution. It is in the presence of the
sulphate of zinc that the essential difference between the bright and
the dead dip exists. Without it the dead or matt surface cannot be
obtained.

The method generally practiced is to add the sulphate of zinc to the
mixed acids (sulphuric and nitric), so that some remains undissolved in
the bottom of the vessel. It is found that the sulphate of zinc occurs
in small crystals having the appearance of very coarse granulated
sugar. These crystals readily settle to the bottom of the vessel and
do not do the work of matting properly. If they are finely pulverized
the dip is slightly improved, but it is impossible to pulverize such
material to a fineness that will do the desired work. The use of
sulphate of zinc, then, leaves much to be desired.

The most modern method of making up the dead dip is to produce the
sulphate of zinc directly in the solution and in the precipitated form.
It is well known that the most finely divided materials are those which
are produced by precipitation, and in the dead dip it is very important
that the sulphate of zinc shall be finely divided so that it will not
immediately settle to the bottom. Therefore it should be precipitated
so that when it is mixed with the acids it will not settle immediately.
The method of making the sulphate of zinc directly in the solution is
as follows:

Take 1 gallon of yellow aqua fortis (38° F.) and place in a stone crock
which is surrounded with cold water. The cold water is to keep the
heat, formed by the reaction, from evaporating the acid. Add metallic
zinc in small pieces until the acid will dissolve no more. The zinc
may be in any convenient form—sheet clippings, lumps, granulated,
etc., that may be added little by little. If all is added at once it
will boil over. When the acid will dissolve no more zinc it will be
found that some of the acid has evaporated by the heat, and it will be
necessary to add enough fresh acid to make up to the original gallon.
When this is done add 1 gallon of strong oil of vitriol. The mixture
should be stirred with a wooden paddle while the oil of vitriol is
being added.

As the sulphuric acid is being added the solution begins to grow milky,
and finally the whole has the consistency of thick cream. This is
caused by the sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) precipitating out the
sulphate of zinc. Thus the very finely divided precipitate of sulphate
of zinc is formed. If one desires to use known quantities of acid and
zinc the following amounts may be taken: Oil of vitriol, 1 gallon; aqua
fortis (38° F.), 1 gallon; metallic zinc, 6 ounces.

In dissolving the zinc in the aqua fortis it is necessary to be sure
that none remains undissolved in the bottom.

The dead or matt dip is used hot, and, therefore, is kept in a stone
crock surrounded with hot water. The articles to be matted are polished
and cleaned, and the dip thoroughly stirred with a wooden paddle, so
as to bring up the sulphate of zinc which has settled. Dip the work in
the solution and allow it to remain until the matt is obtained. This
is a point which can be learned only by experience. When the brass
article is first introduced there is a rapid action on the surface,
but in a few seconds this slows down. Remove the article and rinse and
immediately dip into the usual bright dip. This {132} is necessary for
the reason that the dead dip produces a dark coating upon the surface,
which, were it left on, would not show the real effect or the color of
the metal. The bright dip, however, removes this and exposes the true
dead surface.

The usual rule for making up the dead dip is to use equal parts of oil
of vitriol and aqua fortis; but these may be altered to suit the case.
More oil of vitriol gives a finer matt, while a larger quantity of
aqua fortis will give a coarser matt. When the dip becomes old it is
unnecessary to add more zinc, as a little goes into the solution each
time anything is dipped. After a while, however, the solution becomes
loaded with copper salts, and should be thrown away.

A new dip does not work well, and will not give good results when used
at once. It is usual to allow it to remain over night, when it will be
found to be in a better working condition in the morning. A new dip
will frequently refuse to work, and the addition of a little water will
often start it. The water must be used sparingly, however, and only
when necessary. Water, as a usual thing, spoils a dead dip, and must be
avoided. After a while it may be necessary to add a little more aqua
fortis, and this may be introduced as desired. Much care is needed in
working the dead dip, and it requires constant watching and experience.
The chief difficulty in working the dead dip is to match a given
article. The only way that it can be done is to “cut and try,” and add
aqua fortis or oil of vitriol as the case requires.

The dead or matt dip can be obtained only upon brass or German silver;
in other words, only on alloys which contain zinc. The best results are
obtained upon yellow brass high in zinc.


«To Improve Deadened Brass Parts.»—Clock parts matted with oilstone
and oil, such as the hour wheels, minute wheels, etc., obtain, by mere
grinding, a somewhat dull appearance, with a sensitive surface which
readily takes spots. This may be improved by preparing the following
powder, rubbing a little of it on a buff stick, and treating the
deadened parts, which have been cleansed with benzine, by rubbing with
slight pressure on cork. This imparts to the articles a handsome,
permanent, metallic matt luster. The smoothing powder consists of 2
parts of jewelers’ red and 8 parts of lime carbonate, levigated in
water, and well dried. Jewelers’ red alone may be employed, but this
requires some practice and care, especially in the treatment of wheels,
because rays are liable to form from the teeth toward the center.


«Pickle for Brass.»—Stir 10 parts (by weight) of shining soot or snuff,
10 parts of cooking salt, and 10 parts of red tartar with 250 parts
of nitric acid, and afterwards add 250 parts of sulphuric acid; or
else mix 7 parts of aqua fortis (nitric acid) with 10 parts of English
sulphuric acid. For the mixing ratio of the acid, the kind and alloy of
the metal should be the guidance, and it is best found out by practical
trials. The better the alloy and the less the percentage of zinc or
lead, the handsomer will be the color. Genuine bronze, for instance,
acquires a golden shade. In order to give brass the appearance of
handsome gilding it is often coated with gold varnish by applying same
thinly with a brush or sponge and immediately heating the metal over a
coal fire.


«Pickling Brass to Look Like Gold.»—To pickle brass so as to make it
resemble gold allow a mixture of 6 parts of chemically pure nitric
acid and 1 part of English sulphuric acid to act for some hours upon
the surface of the brass; then wash with a warm solution, 20 parts of
tartar in 50 parts of water, and rub off neatly with dry sawdust. Then
coat the article with the proper varnish.


«Pickle for Dipping Brass.»—To improve the appearance of brass, tombac,
and copper goods, they are usually dipped. For this purpose they are
first immersed in diluted oil of vitriol (brown sulphuric acid),
proportion, 1 to 10; next in a mixture of 10 parts of red tartar; 10
parts of cooking salt; 250 parts of English sulphuric acid, as well as
250 parts of aqua fortis (only for a moment), rinsing off well in water
and drying in sawdust. For obtaining a handsome matt gold color 1⁠/⁠20
part of zinc vitriol (zinc sulphate) is still added to the pickle.


«Restoration of Brass Articles.»—The brass articles are first freed
from adhering dirt by the use of hot soda lye; if bronzed they are
dipped in a highly dilute solution of sulphuric acid and rinsed in
clean water. Next they are yellowed in a mixture of nitric acid, 75
parts; sulphuric acid, 100 parts; shining lampblack, 2 parts; cooking
salt, 1 part; then rinsed and polished and, to prevent oxidation,
coated with a colorless spirit varnish, a celluloid varnish being best
for this purpose.


«Tempering Brass.»—If hammered too brittle brass can be tempered and
made {133} of a more even hardness throughout by warming it, as in
tempering steel; but the heat must not be nearly so great. Brass,
heated to the blue heat of steel, is almost soft again. To soften
brass, heat it nearly to a dull red and allow it to cool, or, if time
is an object, it may be cooled by plunging into water.


«Drawing Temper from Brass.»—Brass is rendered hard by hammering or
rolling, therefore when a brass object requires to be tempered the
material must be prepared before the article is shaped. Temper may be
drawn from brass by heating it to a cherry red and then simply plunging
it into water, the same as though steel were to be tempered.

BRASS, FASTENING PORCELAIN TO: See Adhesives.

BRASS POLISHES: See Polishes.

BRASS SOLDERS: See Solders.

BRASS BRONZING: See Plating.

BRASS CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

BRASS PLATINIZING: See Plating.

BRASS, SAND HOLES IN: See Castings.

BRASSING: See Plating.

BREAD, DOG: See Dog Biscuit.


«BREATH PERFUMES:»

See also Dentifrices.


«Remedies for Fetid Breath.»—Fetid breath may be due to the expelled
air (i. e., to disease of the respirational tract), to gases thrown
off from the digestive tract, or to a diseased mouth. In the first two
cases medication must be directed to the causative diseases, with the
last, antisepsis principally and the neutralization of the saliva, also
the removal of all residual food of dental caries.

 I.—Potassium permanganate       1 part
     Distilled water             10 parts

Mix and dissolve. Add from 5 to 8 drops of this solution to a glass of
water and with it gargle the mouth.

 II.—Infusion of salvia        250 parts
      Glycerine                  30 parts
      Tincture of myrrh          12 parts
      Tincture of lavender       12 parts
      Labarraque’s solution      30 parts

Mix. Rinse the mouth frequently with this mixture.

 III.—Decoction of chamomile    30 parts
       Glycerine                 80 parts
       Chlorinated water         15 parts

Mix. Use as a gargle and mouth wash.

 IV.—Peppermint water          500 parts
      Cherry-laurel water        60 parts
      Borax                      25 parts

Mix and dissolve. Use as gargle and mouth wash.

 V.—Thymol                       3 parts
     Spirit of cochlearia       300 parts
     Tincture of rhatany        100 parts
     Oil of peppermint           15 parts
     Oil of cloves               10 parts

Mix. Gargle and wash mouth well with 10 drops in a glass of water.

 VI.—Salol                           5 parts
      Alcohol                     1,000 parts
      Tincture of white canella      30 parts
      Oil of peppermint               1 part

Mix. Use as a dentifrice.

 VII.—Hydrogen peroxide         25 parts
       Distilled water          100 parts

Mix. Gargle the mouth twice daily with 2 tablespoonfuls of the mixture
in a glass of water.

 VIII.—Sodium bicarbonate        2 parts
        Distilled water          70 parts
        Spirit of cochlearia     30 parts

Mix a half-teaspoonful in a wineglassful of water. Wash mouth two or
three times daily.


«BRICK STAIN.»

To stain brick flat the color of brownstone, add black to Venetian red
until the desired shade is obtained. If color ground in oil is used,
thin with turpentine, using a little japan as a drier. If necessary to
get the desired shade add yellow ocher to the mixture of red and black.
If the work is part old and part new, rub the wall down, using a brick
{134} for a rubber, until the surface is uniform, and keep it well wet
while rubbing with cement water, made by stirring Portland cement into
water until the water looks the color of the cement. This operation
fills the pores of the brick and makes a smooth, uniform surface to
paint on. Tinge the wash with a little dry Venetian red and lampblack.
This will help bring the brick to a uniform color, so that an even
color can be obtained with one coat of stain.

BRICKS: See Ceramics.

BRICKS OF SAND-LIME: See Stone, Artificial.

BRICK POLISHES: See Polishes.

BRICK WALLS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods and
Household Formulas.

BRICK WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

BRICKMAKERS’ NOTES: See Ceramics.

BRIDGE PAINT: See Paint.

BRILLIANTINE: See Hair Preparations.

BRIMSTONE (BURNING): See Pyrotechnics.

BRIONY ROOTS: THEIR PRESERVATION: See Roots.

BRITANNIA METAL: See Alloys.

BRITANNIA METAL, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

BRITANNIA, SILVERPLATING: See Plating.

BROMINE, ANTISEPTIC: See Antiseptics.


«BROMOFORM.»

Bromoform is insoluble in dilute alcohol, but may be dissolved by the
aid of glycerine. The following formula has been devised:

 Bromoform                       1     part
 Alcohol                         2     parts
 Compound tincture of cardamon   2     parts
 Glycerine                       1 1⁠/⁠2 parts

Some other formulas are:


«Syrup of Bromoform.»—Bromoform, 5 parts; alcohol (95 per cent), 45
parts; glycerine, 150 parts; syrup, 800 parts. Mix in the order given
and place the container in warm water until the syrup becomes perfectly
clear.


«Emulsion of Bromoform.»—Add 3 parts of bromoform to 20 parts of
expressed oil of almond; emulsify this mixture in the usual manner
with 2 parts of powdered tragacanth, 4 parts of powdered acacia, and
sufficient water, using for the completed emulsion a total of 120 parts
of water, and add, finally, 4 parts of cherry-laurel water.


«Bromoform Rum.»—Bromoform, 1.2 parts; chloroform, 0.8 parts; rum,
sufficient to make 120 parts. Claimed to be an effective remedy in the
treatment of whooping cough.

BRONZES: See Alloys.

BRONZE CASTING: See Casting.

BRONZE, IMITATION: See Plaster.

BRONZE POLISHES: See Polishes.

BRONZE, RENOVATION OF: See Cleaning Compounds.


«Bronze Powders, Liquid Bronzes, Bronze Substitutes, and Bronzing»


«BRONZE POWDERS.»

Gold bronze is a mixture of equal parts of oxide of tin and sulphur,
which are heated for some time in an earthen retort. Silver bronze is
a mixture of equal parts of bismuth, tin, and mercury, which are fused
in a crucible, adding the mercury only when the tin and the bismuth are
in fusion. Next reduce to a very fine powder. To apply these bronzes,
white of egg, gum arabic, or varnish is used. It is preferable to apply
them dry upon one of the above-named mediums serving as size, than to
mix them with the liquids themselves, for in the latter case their
luster is impaired.


«Simple Coloring of Bronze Powder.»—In order to impart different
colors to {135} bronze powders, such as pale yellow, dark yellow to
copper red, the powder is heated with constant stirring in flat iron
pans until through the oxidation of the copper—the bronzes consist of
the brass powder of an alloy from which the so-called Dutch gold is
produced—the desired shade of color is reached. As a rule a very small
quantity of fat, wax, or even paraffine is added in this operation. The
bronze powders are employed to produce coatings or certain finishes on
metals themselves or to give articles of wood, stone, pasteboard, etc.,
a metallic appearance.


«General Directions for Bronzing.»—The choice of bronze powders is
determined by the degree of brilliancy to be obtained. The powder is
mixed with strong gum water or isinglass, and laid on with a brush or
pencil, almost but not absolutely dry. A piece of soft leather, wrapped
around the finger, is dipped into the powder and rubbed over the work;
when all this has been covered with the bronze it must be left to dry,
and the loose powder is then cleared away with a hair pencil.


«LIQUID BRONZES.»


«Liquid Bronzes.»—I.—For the production of liquid bronze, acid-free
varnish should be used, as bronze ground with ordinary varnish will
form verdigris. For the deacidification of dammar rosin pour 1,000
parts of petroleum benzine over 350 parts of finely ground dammar
rosin, and dissolve by repeated shaking. Next add to the solution 250
parts of a 10-per-cent aqueous solution of caustic soda and shake up
well for 10 minutes. After standing for a short time two strata will
have formed, the upper one consisting of benzine-rosin solution and
the lower, aqueous one containing the resinic acid dissolved as soda
salts. Pour off the benzine layers and agitate again assiduously with
250 parts of the 10-per-cent caustic-soda solution. Now set aside for a
complete classification and separation of the two liquids. The dammar
solution siphoned off will be perfectly free from acid. To obtain
gold-bronze varnish add to the deacidified dammar solution about 250
parts of bronze or brocade per liter.

II.—Or else carefully mix 100 parts of finely ground dammar rosin
with 30 parts of calcined soda and heat to fusion, in which state it
is maintained 2 or 3 hours with frequent stirring. Let cool, grind
the turbid mass obtained, and pour a little coal benzine or petroleum
benzine over it in a flask. By repeated shaking of the flask the
soluble portion of the molten mass is dissolved; filter after allowing
to settle; into the filtrate put 300 to 400 parts of bronze powder of
any desired shade, the brocades being especially well adapted for this
purpose. If the metallic powder remains distributed over the mass for a
long time it is of the right consistency; if it deposits quickly it is
too thin and a part of the solvent must be evaporated before stirring
in the bronze powder.

III.—A liquid bronze, which, while it contains no metallic constituent,
yet possesses a metallic luster and a bronze appearance, and answers
excellently for many purposes, is made as follows: Dissolve by the aid
of gentle heat 10 parts of aniline red and 5 parts of aniline purple in
100 parts of alcohol. When solution is complete, add 5 parts of benzoic
acid, raise the heat, and let boil from 5 to 10 minutes, or until the
greenish color of the mixture passes over to a clear bronze brown. For
“marbling” or bronzing paper articles, this answers particularly well.


«Incombustible Bronze Tincture.»—Finely pulverize 5 parts, by weight,
of prime Dammar rosin and 1.5 parts of ammonia soda. Heat gently,
and stir frequently, until no more carbonic acid bubbles up. Cool and
pulverize again. Put the powder into a glass carboy, and pour over it
50 parts of carbon tetrachloride; let this stand for 2 days, stirring
frequently. Then filter. Ten parts of the fluid are mixed with 5 parts
of metallic bronze of any desired shade, and put into bottles. Shake
well before using.


«General Formulas for Bronzing Preparations.»—I.—Take 240 parts
subacetate of copper, 120 parts oxide of zinc in powder form, 60 parts
borax, 60 parts saltpeter, and 3.5 parts corrosive sublimate. Prepare a
paste from it with oil, stir together, and continue working with boiled
linseed oil and turpentine.

II.—Dissolve 120 parts sulphate of copper and add 120 parts chipping
of tin; stir well and gather the precipitating copper. After complete
drying, grind very finely in boiled linseed oil and turpentine.

III.—Melt in a crucible 60 parts sulphur and 60 parts stannic acid;
stir with a clay tube until the mixture takes on the appearance of
Dutch gold and pour out. When cold mix the color with boiled linseed
oil and turpentine, adding a small quantity of drier. These three
bronzes must be covered with a pale, resistant {136} lacquer, otherwise
they will soon tarnish in rooms where gas is burned.


«Florentine Bronzes.»—I.—To produce a Florentine bronzing, apply to the
articles, which must have previously been dipped, a varnish composed
of cherry gum lac dissolved in alcohol. This varnish is put on with a
brush, and after that the bronzed piece is passed through the stove.

II.—If the article is of brass it must be given a coat of copper by
means of the battery. Next dip a brush in olive oil and brush the piece
uniformly; let dry for 5 or 6 hours and place in sawdust. Then heat the
article on a moderate charcoal dust fire.


«Preparation of French Bronze.»—French bronze may be prepared by
reducing to a powder hematite, 5 parts, and plumbago, 8 parts, and
mixing into a paste with spirit of wine. Apply the composition with
a soft brush to the article to be bronzed and set it aside for some
hours. By polishing with a tolerably hard brush the article will assume
the beautiful appearance of real bronze. The desired tint may be
regulated by the proportions of the ingredients.


«How to Bronze Metals.»—Prepare a solution of 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of sodium
hyposulphite in 1 pint of water and add to the same a solution of
1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of lead acetate dissolved in 1 pint of water.

If, instead of lead acetate, an equal weight of sulphuric acid (1 1⁠/⁠2
ounces) is added to the sodium hyposulphite and the process carried on
as before, the brass becomes coated with a very beautiful red, which
changes to green, and finally a splendid brown with a green and red
iridescence. This last is a very durable coating and may be especially
recommended. It is very difficult to obtain exact shades by this
process without some experience. The thorough cleansing of all articles
from grease by boiling in potash is absolutely necessary to success.
By substituting other metal salts for the lead acetate many changes in
tints and quality of the coatings can also be effected.

When this mixture is heated to a temperature a little below the boiling
point it precipitates sulphide of lead in a state of fine division.
If some metal is present some of the lead is precipitated on the
surface and, according to the thickness of the layer, different colors
are produced. To produce an even color the articles must be evenly
heated. By immersion of brass articles for 5 minutes the same may be
coated with colors varying from gold to copper red, then to carmine,
dark red, and from light blue to blue white, and at last a reddish
white, depending on the time the metal remains in the solution and
the temperature used. Iron objects treated in this solution take a
steel-blue color, zinc a brown color. In the case of copper objects a
golden yellow cannot be obtained.


«New Bronzing Liquid.»—Dissolve 10 parts of fuchsine and 5 parts of
aniline purple in 100 parts of alcohol (95 per cent) and add to the
solution 5 parts of benzoic acid. Boil the whole for 10 minutes until
the color turns bronze brown. This liquid can be applied to all metals
and dries quickly.


«A Bronze for Brass.»—Immerse the articles, freed from dirt and grease,
in a cold solution of 10 parts of potassium permanganate, 50 parts of
iron sulphate, 5 parts of hydrochloric acid in 1,000 parts of water.
Let remain 30 seconds, then withdraw, rinse, and let dry in fine, soft
sawdust. If the articles have become too dark, or if a reddish-brown
color be desired, immerse for about 1 minute in a warm (140° F.)
solution of chromic acid, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 10 parts;
potassium permanganate, 10 parts; iron sulphate, 50 parts; water,
1,000 parts. Treat as before. If the latter solution alone be used
the product will be a brighter dark-yellow or reddish-brown color. By
heating in a drying oven the tone of the colors is improved.


«To Bronze Copper.»—This process is analogous to the one practiced at
the Mint of Paris for bronzing medals.

Spread on the copper object a solution composed of:

 Acetate or chlorhydrate of ammonia    30 parts
 Sea salt                              10 parts
 Cream of tartar                       10 parts
 Acetate of copper                     10 parts
 Diluted acetic acid                  100 parts

Let dry for 24 to 48 hours at an ordinary temperature. The surface of
the metal will become covered with a series of varying tints. Brush
with a waxed brush. The green portions soaked with chlorhydrate of
ammonia will assume a blue coloring, and those treated with carbonate
will be thick and darkened.


«Bronzing and Patinizing of Small Zinc Articles.»—Coatings of bronze
tones and patina shades may be produced on zinc by means of various
liquids, but the {137} articles, before being worked upon, should be
rubbed down with very fine glass or emery paper, to make them not only
perfectly metallic, but also somewhat rough, as a consequence of which
the bronze or patina coatings will adhere much better. The best bronze
or patina effects on bronze are obtained by electroplating the article
with a fairly thick deposit of brass rich in copper and then treating
it like genuine bronze. The solutions used, however, must always be
highly diluted, otherwise they may eat entirely through the thin
metallic coating.


«Bronzing of Zinc.»—Mix thoroughly 30 parts of sal ammoniac, 10 parts
of oxalate of potash, and 1,000 parts of vinegar. Apply with a brush or
a rag several times, until the desired tint is produced.


«Bronze Gilding on Smooth Moldings.»—A perfect substitute for dead
gilding cannot be obtained by bronzing, because of the radically
different reflection of the light, for the matt gilding presents to the
light a perfectly smooth surface, while in bronzing every little scale
of bronze reflects the light in a different direction. In consequence
of this diffusion of light, all bronzing, even the best executed,
is somewhat darker and dimmer than leaf gilding. This dimness, it is
true, extends over the whole surface, and therefore is not perceptible
to the layman, and cannot be called an evil, as the genuine leaf gold
is so spotted that a bronzed surface is cleaner than a gilt one. The
following process is the best known at present: Choose only the best
bronze, which is first prepared thick with pure spirit. Next add a
quantity of water and stir again. After the precipitation, which occurs
promptly, the water is poured off and renewed repeatedly by fresh
water. When the spirit has been washed out again in this manner, the
remaining deposit, i. e., the bronze, is thinned with clean, good gold
size. The bronze must be thin enough just to cover. The moldings are
coated twice, the second time commencing at the opposite end. Under no
circumstances should the dry, dead gilding give off color when grasping
it firmly. If it does that, either the size is inferior or the solution
too weak or the mixture too thick.


«Incombustible Bronze Tincture.»—Five parts of prime dammar rosin and
1.5 parts of ammonia soda, very finely pulverized. Heat gently, with
frequent stirring, until the evolution of carbonic acid ceases. Then
take from the fire, and when cool pulverize again. Put the powder into
a glass carboy, and pour over it 50 parts of carbon tetrachloride; let
this stand for 2 days, stirring frequently, then filter. Ten parts of
the fluid are to be mixed with each 5 parts of metallic bronze of any
desired shade, and put into bottles. Shake the tincture well before
using.


«Bronzing Engraved Ornaments.»—Take bronze and stir with it pale copal
varnish diluted one-half with turpentine. With this paint the ornaments
neatly. In 1⁠/⁠2 hour the bronze will have dried. The places from which
the bronze is to be removed, i. e., where the bronze has overrun the
polished surface, are dabbed with a small rag soaked with kerosene,
taking care that it is not too wet, so as to prevent the kerosene
from running into the ornament. After a short while the bronze will
have dissolved and can be wiped off with a soft rag. If this does not
remove it entirely, dab and wipe again. Finally finish wiping with
an especially soft, clean rag. Kerosene does not attack polish on
wood. The bronze must become dull and yet adhere firmly, under which
condition it has a hardened color. If it does not become dull the
varnish is too strong and should be diluted with turpentine.


«Durable Bronze on Banners.»—To render bronzes durable on banners,
etc., the ground must be primed with gum arabic and a little glycerine.
Then apply the bronze solution, prepared with dammar and one-tenth
varnish. Instead of gum arabic with glycerine, gelatine glue may also
be employed as an underlay.


«BRONZE SUBSTITUTES.»

The following recipe is used in making imitation gold bronzes:

 Sandarac                           50 parts
 Mastic                             10 parts
 Venice turpentine                   5 parts
 Alcohol                           135 parts

In the above dissolve:

 Metanil yellow and gold orange    0.4 parts

and add

 Aluminum, finely powdered          20 parts

and shake.

If a deeper shade is desired it is well to use ethyl orange and gold
orange in the same proportion, instead of the dyes.

For the production of imitation copper bronze take the above-mentioned
rosin mixture and dissolve therein only gold {138} orange 0.8 parts,
and add aluminum 20 parts, whereby a handsome copper color is produced.
Metanil yellow 0.4 parts without gold orange gives with the same amount
of lacquer a greenish tone of bronze. The pigments must not be made use
of in larger quantities, because the luster of the bronze is materially
affected. Only pigments of certain properties, such as solubility
in alcohol, relative constancy to reductive agents, are suitable;
unsuitable are, for instance, naphthol yellow, phenylene-diamin,
etc. Likewise only a lacquer of certain composition is fit for use,
other lacquers of commerce, such as zapon (celluloid) lacquer being
unsuitable. The bronzes prepared in this manner excel in luster and
color effect; the cost is very low. They are suitable for bronzing
low-priced articles, as tinware, toys, etc. Under the action of sun
and moisture the articles lose some of their luster, but objects kept
indoors such as figures of plaster of Paris, inkstands, wooden boxes,
etc., retain their brilliancy for years.

Some use powdered aluminum and yellow organic dyestuffs, such as
gold orange. These are employed together with a varnish of certain
composition, which imparts the necessary gloss to the mixture.


«BRONZE COLORING:»


«To Color Bronze.»—Bronze articles acquire handsome tempering colors by
heating. In order to impart an old appearance to new objects of bronze,
they may be heated over a flame and rubbed with a woolen rag dipped in
finely powdered graphite, until the desired shade is attained. Or else
a paste is applied on the article, consisting of graphite 5 parts and
bloodstone 15 parts, with a sufficient quantity of alcohol. After 24
hours brush off the dry powder. A hot solution composed of sal ammoniac
4 parts, sorrel salt 1 part, vinegar 200 parts, may also be brushed
on. Another way is to dip the pieces into a boiling solution of cupric
acetate 20 parts, and sal ammoniac 10 parts, dissolved in 60 to 100
parts of vinegar.

Patent bronzes (products colored by means of aniline dyes) have
hitherto been used in the manufacture of toys and _de luxe_ or fancy
paper, but makers of wall or stained paper have recently given their
attention to these products. Wall—or _moiré_—paper prepared with
these dyes furnishes covers or prints of silken gloss with a peculiar
double-color effect in which the metallic brilliancy characteristic
of bronze combines with the shades of the tar pigments used. Very
beautiful reliefs, giving rise to the most charming play of colors in
perpendicular or laterally reflected light, are produced by pressing
the paper lengths or web painted with aniline-bronze dyes. The brass
brocade and tin bronzes serve as bases for the aniline dyes; of the
tar pigments only basic aniline dyes soluble in alcohol are used. In
coloring the pulverized bronze care must be taken that the latter is
as free as possible from organic fats. Tar dyes should be dissolved
in as concentrated a form as possible in alcohol and stirred with the
bronze, the pigment being then fixed on the vehicle with an alcoholic
solution of tannin. The patent bronze is then dried by allowing the
alcohol to evaporate. This method of coloring is purely mechanical,
as the tar dyes do not combine with the metallic bronze, as is the
case with pigments in which hydrate of alumina is used. A coating of
aniline bronze of this kind is therefore very sensitive to moisture,
unless spread over the paper surface with a suitable protective binding
medium, or protected by a transparent coat of varnish, which of course
must not interfere with the special color effect.


«Pickle for Bronzes.»—Sulphuric acid, 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 500
parts; soot, 10 parts; sea salt, 5 parts.


«Imitation Japanese Bronze.»—When the copper or coppered article is
perfectly dry and the copper or copper coating made brilliant, which
is produced by rubbing with a soft brush, put graphite over the piece
to be bronzed so that the copper is simply dyed. Wipe off the raised
portions with a damp cloth, so that the copper makes its appearance.
Next put on a thin coat of Japanese varnish; wipe the relief again and
let dry. Apply 1 or 2 coats after the first is perfectly dry. Handsome
smoked hues may be obtained by holding the bronze either over the dust
of lighted peat or powdered rosin thrown on lighted coal, so as to
obtain a smoke which will change the color of the varnish employed. The
varnish must be liquid enough to be worked easily, for this style of
bronzing is only applicable to brass.


«Green Bronze on Iron.»—Abietate of silver, 1 part; essence of
lavender, 19 parts. Dissolve the abietate of silver in the essence
of lavender. After the articles have been well pickled apply the
abietate-of-silver solution with a brush; next place the objects in a
stove and let the temperature attain about 150° C.


«Blue Bronze.»—Blue bronze is {139} produced by the wet process by
coloring white bronze (silver composition) with aniline blue. A
blue-bronze color can be produced in the ordinary way from white-bronze
color, the product of pure English tin, and with an alum solution
consisting of 20 parts of alum in 4,500 parts of water boiled for 5
hours and washed clean and dried. The bronze prepared in this manner
is placed in a porcelain dish, mixed with a solution of 15 parts of
aniline blue in 1,500 parts of alcohol, stirring the bronze powder and
liquid until the alcohol has evaporated entirely and the bronze color
becomes dry. This manipulation must be repeated 6 or 8 times, until the
desired blue shade is reached. When the bronze is dark enough it is
washed out in warm water, and before entirely dry 1 tablespoonful of
petroleum is poured on 2 pounds of bronze, which is intimately mixed
and spread out into a thin layer, exposed to the air, whereby the smell
is caused to disappear in a few days.


«Bronzing with Soluble Glass.»—To bronze wood, porcelain, glass, and
metal by means of a water-glass solution, coat the article with potash
water-glass of 30° Bé. and sprinkle on the respective bronze powder.


«Brown Oxidation on Bronze.»—Genuine bronze can be beautifully oxidized
by painting it with a solution of 4 parts of sal ammoniac and 1 part
of oxalium (oxalate of potash) in 200 parts of vinegar, allowing it
to dry, and repeating the operation several times. These articles,
protected against rain, soon lose the unpleasant glaring metallic
luster and assume instead a soft brown tint, which bronze articles
otherwise acquire only after several years’ exposure to the atmosphere.
A beautiful bronze color which will remain unaffected by heat can be
imparted to bronze articles by the following process: The object is
first washed in a solution of 1 part of crystallized verdigris and 2
parts of sal ammoniac in 260 parts of water, and then dried before an
open fire till the green color begins to disappear. The operation is
repeated 10 to 20 times, but with a solution of 1 part of verdigris
crystals and 2 parts of sal ammoniac in 600 parts of water. The color
of the article, olive green at first, gradually turns to brown, which
will remain unaltered even when exposed to strong heat.


«BRONZE POWDERS:»

See also Plating for general methods of bronzing, and Varnishes.


«Gold and Silver Bronze Powders.»—Genuine gold bronze is produced from
the waste and parings obtained in gold beating. The parings, etc., are
ground with honey or a gum solution, upon a glass plate or under hard
granite stones, into a very fine powder, which is repeatedly washed out
with water and dried. There are various shades of gold bronze, viz.,
red, reddish, deep yellow, pale yellow, as well as greenish. These
tints are caused by the various percentages of gold or the various
mixtures of the gold with silver and copper.

By the use of various salt solutions or acidulated substances other
shades can be imparted to bronze. In water containing sulphuric acid,
nitric acid, or hydrochloric acid, it turns a bright yellow; by
treatment with a solution of crystallized verdigris or blue vitriol in
water it assumes more of a reddish hue; other tints are obtained with
the aid of cooking salt, tartar, green vitriol, or saltpeter in water.

Gold bronze is also obtained by dissolving gold in aqua regia and
mixing with a solution of green vitriol in water, whereupon the gold
falls down as a metallic powder which may be treated in different
ways. The green vitriol, however, must be dissolved in boiling water
and mixed in a glass, drop by drop, with sulphuric acid and stirred
until the basic iron sulphate separating in flakes has redissolved.
Another way of producing gold bronze is by dissolving gold in aqua
regia and evaporating the solution in a porcelain dish. When it is
almost dry add a little pure hydrochloric acid and repeat this to
drive out all the free chlorine and to produce a pure hydrochlorate
of gold. The gold salt is dissolved in distilled water, taking 1⁠/⁠2
liter per ducat (3 1⁠/⁠2 grams fine gold); into this solution drop,
while stirring by means of a glass rod, an 8° solution (by Beaumé) of
antimony chloride, as long as a precipitate forms. This deposit is gold
bronze, which, dried after removal of all liquids, is chiefly employed
in painting, for bronzing, and for china and glass decoration.

Metallic gold powder is, furthermore, obtained by dissolving pure
and alloyed gold in aqua regia and precipitating it again by an
electro-positive metal, such as iron or zinc, which is placed in the
liquid in the form of rods. The gold is completely separated thereby.
The rods must be perfectly clean and polished bright. The color of
the gold bronze depends upon the proportions of the gold. In order
to further increase the brilliancy the dried substance may still be
ground. {140}


«Mosaic Gold.»—Mosaic gold, generally a compound of tin, 64.63 parts,
and sulphur, 35.37 parts, is odorless and tasteless, and dissolves
only in chlorine solution, aqua regia, and boiling potash lye. It is
employed principally for bronzing plaster-of-Paris figures, copper,
and brass, by mixing it with 6 parts of bone ashes, rubbing it on wet,
or applying it with varnish or white of egg in the preparation of gold
paper or for gilding cardboard and wood. Mosaic gold of golden-yellow
color is produced by heating 6 parts of sulphur and 16 parts of tin
amalgam with equal parts of mercury and 4 parts of sulphur; 8 parts of
precipitate from stannic muriate (stannic acid) and 4 parts of sulphur
also give a handsome mosaic gold.

The handsomest, purest, and most gold-like mosaic gold is obtained by
melting 12 parts of pure tin, free from lead, and mixing with 6 parts
of mercury to an amalgam. This is mixed with 7 parts of flowers of
sulphur and 6 parts of sal ammoniac, whereupon the mass is subjected
for several hours to a heat which at first does not attain redness, but
eventually when no more fumes are generated is increased to dark-red
heat. This operation is conducted either in a glass retort or in an
earthenware crucible. The sal ammoniac escapes first on heating, next
vermilion sublimates and some stannic chloride, while the mosaic gold
remains on the bottom, the upper layer, consisting of lustrous, golden,
delicately translucent leaflets, being the handsomest mosaic gold.


«Genuine Silver Bronze.»—This is obtained by the finely ground waste
from beating leaf silver or by dissolving silver in aqua fortis. This
solution is then diluted with water and brightly scoured copper plates
are put in, whereby the silver precipitates as a metallic powder.


«Imitation Silver Bronze.»—This is obtained through the waste in
beating imitation leaf silver, which, finely ground, is then washed
and dried. In order to increase the luster it is ground again in a dry
condition.


«Mosaic Silver.»—Mosaic silver is an amalgam of equal parts of mercury,
bismuth, and tin. One may also melt 50 parts of good tin in a crucible,
and as soon as it becomes liquid add 50 parts of bismuth, stirring all
with an iron wire until the bismuth is fused as well. As soon as this
occurs the crucible must be removed from the fire; then stir in, as
long as the contents are still liquid, 25 parts of mercury and mix the
whole mass evenly until it can be ground on a stone slab.

BRONZE VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

BRONZING SOLUTIONS FOR PAINTS: See Paints.

BRONZING OF WOOD: See Wood.

BROOCHES, PHOTOGRAPHS ON: See Photography.

BROWN OINTMENT: See Ointments.

BROWNING OF STEEL: See Plating.

BROWNSTONE, IMITATION: See Brick Stain.

BRUNETTE POWDER: See Cosmetics.


«Brushes»


«HOW TO TAKE CARE OF PAINT AND VARNISH BRUSHES.»

It is a good plan to fill the varnish brush before putting it in the
keeper.

Whitewash or kalsomine brushes should not be put into newly slaked lime
or hot kalsomine.

Cement-set brushes should never be put in any alcohol mixture, such as
shelacs and spirit stains.

Varnish brushes should be selected with a view to their possessing the
following qualities: 1st, excellence of material; 2d, excellence of
make, which includes fullness of hair or bristles and permanency of
binding; 3d, life and spring, or elasticity sufficient to enable the
varnisher to spread the varnish without reducing it with turpentine;
and 4th, springing, when in use, to a true chisel edge.


«Temperature for Brushes.»—The bristles of every brush are held in
place by the handle. It passes through the shank of the brush and
is kiln-dried to fit perfectly. If it shrinks, however, its outward
tension is lost and the bristles loosened. For this reason the first
principle in brush care is to keep the tool, when it is new or not
soaking, in a cool place, out of hot rooms, and any temperature that
would tend to shrink the wood of the handle.


«Cleaning Paint Brushes.»—No new brush should be dipped in the paint
and put to work without first being {141} cleaned. By working it with
a brisk movement back and forth through the hand most of the dust and
loose hairs will be taken out. A paint brush, when thus thoroughly dry
cleaned, should be placed in water for a few minutes, not long enough
to soak or swell it, but only until wet through, and then swung and
shaken dry. It is then ready to dip in the paint, and although some of
the hairs may still be loose, most of them will come out in the first
few minutes’ working and can be easily picked from the surface.


«Cleaning Varnish Brushes.»—Varnish brushes, and brushes used in
varnish stain, buggy paint, and all color in varnish require different
handling than paint brushes. They should be more thoroughly dry
cleaned, in order that all loose hairs may be worked out. After working
them through the hand it is a good thing to pass the brush back and
forth over a sheet of sandpaper. This rough surface will pull out the
loose bristles and smooth down the rough ends of the chisel point. The
brush should then be washed by working it for a few minutes in clean
turpentine and swinging it dry. It should never be put in water. For
carriage work and fine varnishing the brush should be broken in on the
rubbing coat in order to work out all the dust particles before it is
used on the finishing coats.


«Setting the Paint-Brush Bristles.»—For the first 2 or 3 days new
brushes require special care while at rest. They should be dipped in
raw oil or the paint itself and smoothed out carefully, then laid on
their sides over night. The chisel-pointed brushes should be set at an
incline, the handle supported just enough to allow the brush to lie
along the point. This is done to prevent twisting of the bristles, and
to keep the shape of the brush. It is necessary to do this only 2 or 3
times before the shape becomes set.


«Paint Brushes at Rest.»—An important principle in brush care is never
to leave the brush on end while at rest. Even for temporary rest during
a job the brush should never stand on end. At night it should always
be placed in a “brush-keeper”—a water-tight box, or a paint keg, with
nails driven through the sides on which the brushes can be suspended in
water. Holes are bored in the handles so the brush will hang free of
the bottom, but with the bristles entirely under water. Before placing
them in water the brushes should be wiped so as not to be too full of
paint, but not cleaned.


«Varnish Brushes at Rest.»—Varnish brushes should be kept at rest in
turpentine and varnish, or better, in some of the varnish that the
brush is used for. They should preferably not be kept in turpentine, as
that makes the brush “lousy”—roughening the bristles.


«Washing Brushes.»—All brushes should be washed in benzine or
turpentine and shaken dry—not whipped—when it is desired to change from
one color to another, or from one varnish to another.


«To Restore Brushes.»—A good remedy to restore lettering brushes which
have lost their elasticity and do not keep a point, is as follows:

Put the pencil in oil and brush it several times over a hot iron in
such a manner that the hairs touch the iron from each side; then dip
the pencil quickly in cold water.


«A Removable Binding.»—The bristle bunch of brushes is bound with rope
so as to keep them together for use. Instead of the twine, a covering
of rubber may be employed, which is easily slipped over the bristles
and can be conveniently removed again. The cleaning of the brush is
much facilitated thereby, and the breadth of the stripe to be drawn
with the brush can be accurately regulated, according to how far the
covering is slipped over the brush.

See also Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

BUBBLES IN GELATIN: See Gelatin.

BUBBLE (SOAP) LIQUID: See Soap Bubble Liquid.


«BUBBLES.»

Bubbles of air often adhere to molds immersed in depositing solutions.
They may be prevented by previously dipping the object into spirits
of wine, or be removed by the aid of a soft brush, or by directing a
powerful current of the liquid against them by means of a vulcanized
india-rubber bladder, with a long and curved glass tube attached to it;
but the liquid should be free from sediment.

BUG KILLERS: See Insecticides.

BUNIONS: See Corn Cures. {142}


«BURNS:»

See also Ointments and Turpentine.


«Mixture for Burns.»—I.—A mixture of castor oil with the white of egg
is recommended for burns. The eggs are broken into a bowl and the
castor oil slowly poured in while the eggs are beaten. Enough oil is
added to make a thick, creamy paste, which is applied to the burn. The
applications are repeated often enough to prevent their becoming dry or
sticky. Leave the surface uncovered.

II.—Put 27 parts, by measure, of menthol into 44 parts, by measure, of
witch hazel (distillate) and apply freely. A good plan is to bandage
the parts and wet the wrappings with this mixture.

III.—A very efficacious remedy for burns is a solution of cooking
salt in water. It is best to immerse fingers, hands, and arms in the
solution, which must be tolerably strong. For burns in the face and
other parts of the body, salt water poultices are applied.


«Butter»

(See also Foods.)


«Butter Color.»—Orlean, 80 parts, by weight; curcuma root (turmeric),
80 parts, by weight; olive oil, 240 parts, by weight; saffron, 1 part,
by weight; alcohol, 5 parts, by weight. The orlean and turmeric are
macerated with olive oil and expressed. The weight of the filtered
liquid is made up again to 240 parts, by weight, with olive oil, next
the filtered saffron-alcohol extract is added, and the alcohol is
expelled again by heating the mixture.


«Artificial Butter.»—I.—Carefully washed beef suet furnishes a basis
for the manufactures of an edible substitute for natural butter. The
thoroughly washed and finely chopped suet is rendered in a steam-heated
tank; 1,000 parts of fat, 300 parts of water, 1 part of potassium
carbonate, and 2 stomachs of pigs or sheep, are taken. The temperature
of the mixture is raised to 113° F. After 2 hours, under the influence
of the pepsin in the stomachs, the membranes are dissolved and the fat
is melted and rises to the top of the mixture. After the addition of a
little salt the melted fat is drawn off, stood to cool so as to allow
the stearine and palmitin to separate, and then pressed in bags in a
hydraulic press. Forty to 50 per cent of solid stearine remains, while
50 to 60 per cent of fluid oleopalmitin (so-called “oleomargarine”)
is pressed out. The “oleo oil” is then mixed with 10 per cent of its
weight of milk and a little butter color and churned. The product is
then worked, salted, and constituted the “oleomargarine,” or butter
substitute. Leaf lard can be worked in the same way as beef suet, and
will yield an oleopalmitin suitable for churning up into a butter
substitute.

II.—Fat from freshly slaughtered cattle after thorough washing is
placed in clean water and surrounded with ice, where it is allowed to
remain until all animal heat has been removed. It is then cut into
small pieces by machinery and cooked at a temperature of about 150° F.
(65.6° C.) until the fat in liquid form has separated from the tissue,
then settled until it is perfectly clear. Then it is drawn into the
graining vats and allowed to stand for a day, when it is ready for
the presses. The pressing extracts the stearine, leaving a product
commercially known as oleo oil which, when churned with cream or milk,
or both, and with usually a proportion of creamery butter, the whole
being properly salted, gives the new food product, oleomargarine.

III.—In making butterine use neutral lard, which is made from selected
leaf lard in a very similar manner to oleo oil, excepting that no
stearine is extracted. This neutral lard is cured in salt brine for
from 48 to 70 hours at an ice-water temperature. It is then taken and,
with the desired proportion of oleo oil and fine butter, is churned
with cream and milk, producing an article which when properly salted
and packed is ready for the market. In both cases coloring matter is
used, which is the same as that used by dairymen to color their butter.
At certain seasons of the year—viz., in cold weather, a small quantity
of sesame oil or salad oil made from cottonseed oil is used to soften
the texture of the product.

IV.—“Ankara” is a substance which in general appearance resembles a
good article of butter, being rather firmer at ordinary temperatures
than that substance, approaching the consistency of cocoa butter. It
is quite odorless, but in taste it resembles that of a fair article of
butter and, what is more, its behavior under heat is very similar to
that of butter—it browns and forms a sort of spume like that of fat.
Ankara consists of a base of cocoa butter, carrying about 10 per cent
of milk, colored with yolk of egg. While not derived from milk, on the
one hand, nor does it come from a single vegetable or animal fat on the
other, {143} ankara may be considered as belonging to the category of
the margarines. Ankara is obtained in the market in the form of cakes
or tablets of 2 pounds in weight.

V.—Fresh butter, 150 parts, by weight; animal fat, 80 parts, by weight;
sunflower oil, 40 parts, by weight; cocoanut oil, 30 parts, by weight.

VI.—Fresh butter, 100 parts, by weight; animal fat, 100 parts, by
weight; sunflower oil, 80 parts, by weight; cocoanut oil, 20 parts, by
weight.

VII.—Fresh butter, 50 parts, by weight; animal fat, 150 parts, by
weight; sunflower oil, 80 parts, by weight; cocoanut oil, 20 parts, by
weight.

It is seen that these three varieties contain respectively 50, 33, and
about 16 per cent of cow’s butter. The appearance of the mixture is
nearly perfect.

Formulas V to VII are for a Russian artificial butter called “Perepusk.”


«To Impart the Aroma and Taste of Natural Butter to Margarine.»—In
order to give margarine the aroma and flavor of cow butter, add to it
a fatty acid product, which is obtained by saponification of butter,
decomposition of the soap, and distillation in the vacuum at about 140°
F. The addition of the product is made upon emulsification of the fats
with milk. The margarine will keep for months.


«Harmless Butter Color.»—Alum, pulverized finely, 30 parts; extract
of turmeric, 1 part. With the extract dampen the powder as evenly as
possible, then spread out and dry over some hot surface. When dry,
again pulverize thoroughly. Protect the product from the light. As much
of the powder as will lie on the point of a penknife is added to a
churnful of milk, or cream, before churning, and it gives a beautiful
golden color, entirely harmless. To make the extract of turmeric add
1 part of powdered turmeric to 5 parts of alcohol, and let macerate
together for fully a week.


«To Sweeten Rancid Butter.»—I.—Wash the butter first with fresh milk
and afterwards with spring water, carefully working out the residual
water.

II.—Add 25 to 30 drops of lime chloride to every 2 pounds of butter,
work the mass up thoroughly, then wash in plenty of fresh, cold water,
and work out the residual water.

III.—Melt the butter in a water bath, along with some freshly burned
animal charcoal, coarsely powdered and carefully sifted to free it
from dust. After this has remained in contact for a few minutes, the
butter is strained through a clean flannel. If the rancid odor is not
completely removed, complete the process.


«An English Margarine.»—A mixture of edible fats of suitable
consistency, e. g., oleo oil, 5 parts; neutral lard, 7 parts; and
butter, 1 part; is mixed with albuminous “batter,” 4 parts, with
the addition of 1 part of salt as a preservative. If the albuminous
constituent be composed of the whites and yolks of eggs beaten to a
foam the product will have the consistency and color of butter. The
molten fats are added to the egg batter and the whole is stirred
at a temperature sufficient to produce coagulation of the albumen
(150–200° F.). The mass is then cooled gradually with continuous
stirring, and the salt is worked in.


«Olive-Oil Paste.»—If an ounce of peeled garlic be rubbed up into a
pulp, in a clean Wedgwood mortar, and to this be added from 3 to 4
ounces of good olive oil, with constant rubbing up with the pestle, the
oil becomes converted into a pasty mass, like butter. It is possible
that the mucilage obtainable from other bulbs of the _Lilium_ tribe
would prove equally efficient in conferring semi-solidity on the oil,
without imparting any strong smell. The above composition is largely
used by the Spanish peasantry, instead of butter, which runs liquid in
the Spanish summer. It is known as “aleoli.” The more easily solidified
portion of olive oil is stearine, and this may be cheaply prepared from
mutton fat. If added, in certain proportions, to olive oil, it would
certainly raise its melting point.


«BUTTERMILK, ARTIFICIAL.»

Buttermilk powder, 10 parts; vinegar, 1 part; syrup of buckthorn, 1
part. Dissolve the powder in the water and add the vinegar and syrup.
The powder is prepared as follows: Sodium chloride, 50 parts; milk
sugar, 100 parts; potassium nitrate, 5 parts; alum, 5 parts. Mix.

BUTTER, ARTIFICIAL: TESTS FOR: See Foods.

BUTTER COLORANT: See Foods.

BUTTONS OF ARTIFICIAL AGATE: See Agate.

CADMIUM ALLOYS: See Alloys. {144}


«CALCIUM CARBIDE:»


«Preservation and Use of Calcium Carbide.»—Calcium carbide is readily
attacked by the air and the moisture contained in the generators and
consequently decomposes during the storing, with formation of acetylene
gas. Aside from the loss, this decomposition is also attended with
dangers. One of the oldest methods of preservation is the saturation of
the carbide with petroleum. In using such carbide a layer of petroleum
forms on the surface of the water in the generator, which prevents the
water from evaporating, thus limiting the subsequent generation of
acetylene from the remaining carbide. Instead of petroleum many other
substances have been proposed which answer the purpose equally well, e.
g., toluol, oils, solid bodies, which previously have to be liquefied,
such as stearine, paraffine, rosin, etc.

Of a different nature is a medium offered by Létang of Paris. He
employs sugar or saccharine bodies to which he adds, if necessary, a
little petroleum, turpentine, vaseline, or varnish of any kind, as well
as chalk, limestone, talc, sulphur, or sand. The carbide is coated
with this mixture. The saccharine substances dissolve in the generating
water, and also have a dissolving action on the slaked lime, which is
formed by the decomposition of the carbide which admits of its easy
removal.

According to another process carbide is put on the market in such a
shape that, without weighing, merely by counting or measuring one is
in a position to use equivalent quantities for every charge. Gearing
casts molten carbide in the shape of bars, and pours a layer of
gelatin, glue, and water soluble varnish over the carbide bars. Others
make shells containing a certain quantity of reduced carbide. For this
ordinary and varnished pasteboard, wax paper, tinfoil, thin sheet zinc,
and similar substances may be used which ward off atmospheric moisture,
thus protecting the carbide from premature decomposition. Before use,
the cartridge-like shell is pierced or cut open, so that the water can
get at the contents. The more or less reduced carbide is filled in the
shell, either without any admixture or united into a compact mass by a
binding agent, such as colophony, pitch, tar, sand, etc.


«Deodorization of Calcium Carbide.»—Calcium carbide is known to possess
a very unpleasant odor because it constantly develops small quantities
of impure acetylene in contact with the moisture of the air. Le Roy,
of Rouen, proposes for portable—especially bicycle—lamps, in which
the evil is more noticeable than in large plants, simply to pour some
petroleum over the carbide and to pour off the remainder not absorbed.
The petroleum, to which it is well to add some nitro-benzol (mirbane
essence), prevents the access of air to the carbide, but permits a very
satisfactory generation of gas on admission of water.

CALCIUM SULPHIDE (LUMINOUS): See Paints.

CALFSKIN: See Leather.

CAMERA RENOVATION: See Photography.


«CAMPHOR PREPARATIONS:»


«Fragrant Naphthalene Camphor.»—

 Naphthalene white, in scales   3,000 parts
 Camphor                        1,000 parts

Melt on the steam bath and add to the hot mass:

 Coumarin                           2 parts
 Mirbane oil                       10 parts

Cast in plates or compressed tablets. The preparation is employed as a
moth preventive.


«Powdered Camphor in Permanent Form.»—I.—Powder the camphor in the
usual manner, with the addition of a little alcohol. When it is nearly
reduced to the proper degree of fineness add a few drops of fluid
petrolatum and immediately triturate again. In this manner a powder as
fine as flour is obtained, which does not cake together. This powdered
camphor may be used for all purposes except for solution in alcohol,
as it will impart to the latter a faint opalescence, owing to the
insolubility of the petrolatum.

II.—Take equal parts of strong ether and alcohol to reduce the camphor
to powder. It is claimed for this method that it only takes one-half
of the time required when alcohol alone is used, and that the camphor
dries more quickly. Before sifting add 1 per cent of white vaseline and
5 per cent of sugar of milk. Triturate fairly dry, spread out in the
air, say 15 minutes, then pass through a moderately fine wire sieve,
using a stubby shaving brush to assist in working it through. {145}


«Camphor Pomade»—

 Oil of bitter almonds     1     drachm
 Oil of cloves            20     drops
 Camphor                   1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 White wax                 4 ounces
 Lard, prepared            1 pound

Melt the wax and lard together, then add the camphor in saturated
solution in spirit; put in the oils when nearly cold.


«Camphor Ice.»—

 I.—White wax                    16 parts
     Benzoated suet               48 parts
     Camphor, powdered             8 parts
     Essential oil, to perfume.

Melt the wax and suet together. When nearly cold, add the camphor and
perfume, mix well, and pour into molds.

 II.—Oil of almond                    16 parts
      White wax                         4 parts
      Spermaceti                        4 parts
      Paraffine                         8 parts
      Camphor, powdered                 1 part
      Perfume, quantity sufficient.

Dissolve the camphor in the oil by the aid of a gentle heat. Melt the
solids together, remove, and let cool, but before the mixture begins to
set add the camphorated oil and the perfume, mix, and pour into molds.

 III.—Stearine (stearic acid)   8 pounds
       Lard                     10 pounds
       White wax                 5 pounds
       Spermaceti                5 pounds

Melt on a water bath in an earthen or porcelain dish; strain into a
similar vessel; add a solution of 2 ounces powdered borax in 1 pound
of glycerine, previously warmed, to the melted substance when at the
point of cooling; stir well; add camphor, 2 pounds, powdered by means
of alcohol, 3 ounces; stir well and pour into molds.

CAMPHOR SUBSTITUTES IN THE PREPARATION OF CELLULOID: See Celluloid.

CAMPHOR AND RHUBARB AS A REMEDY FOR CHOLERA: See Cholera Remedies.

CAN VARNISH: See Varnishes.


«CANARY-BIRD PASTE.»

The following is a formula much used by German canary-bird raisers:

 Sweet almonds, blanched    16 parts
 Pea meal                   32 parts
 Butter, fresh (unsalted)    3 parts
 Honey, quantity sufficient to make a stiff paste.

The ingredients are worked into a stiff paste, which is pressed through
a colander or large sieve to granulate the mass. Some add to every 5
pounds, 10 or 15 grains of saffron and the yolks of 2 eggs.

CANARY BIRDS AND THEIR DISEASES: See Veterinary Formulas.


«CANDLES:»


«Coloring Ceresine Candles for the Christmas Tree.»—For coloring these
candles only dye stuffs soluble in oil can be employed. Blue: 23–24
lavender blue, pale or dark, 100–120 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine.
Violet: 26 fast violet R, 150 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Silver
gray: 29 silver gray, 150 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Yellow and
orange: 30 wax yellow, medium, 200 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine;
61 old gold, 200 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Pink and red: 27
peach-pink, or 29 chamois, about 100 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine.
Green: 16–17 brilliant green, 33 May green, 41 May green, 200–250
parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. The above-named colors should be
ground in oil and the ceresine tinted with them afterwards.


«Manufacture of Composite Paraffine Candles.»—Three parts of
hydroxy-stearic acid are dissolved in 1 part of a suitable solvent (e.
g., stearic acid), and the solution is mixed with paraffine wax to form
a stock for the manufacture of composite candles.


«Transparent Candles.»—The following are two recipes given in a German
patent specification. The figures denote parts by weight:

I.—Paraffine wax, 70; stearine, 15; petroleum, 15.

II.—Paraffine wax, 90; stearine, 5; petroleum, 5. Recipe I of course
gives candles more transparent than does recipe II. The 15 per cent may
be regarded as the extreme limit consistent with proper solidity of the
candles.


«To Prevent the Trickling of Burning Candles.»—Dip the candles in the
following mixture:

 Magnesium sulphate    15 parts
 Dextrin               15 parts
 Water                100 parts

The solution dries quickly and does not affect the burning of the
candle. {146}


«Candle Coloring.»—Candles are colored either throughout or they
sometimes consist of a white body that is covered with a colored layer
of paraffine wax. According to the material from which candles are made
(stearine, paraffine, or ozokerite), the process of coloring varies.

Stearine, owing to its acid character, dissolves the coal-tar colors
much more readily than do the perfectly neutral paraffine and ozokerite
waxes. For coloring stearine the necessary quantity of the color is
added to the melted mass and well stirred in; if the solution effected
happens to be incomplete, a small addition of alcohol will prove an
effective remedy. It is also an advantage to dissolve the colors
previously in alcohol and add the concentrated solution to the melted
stearine. The alcohol soon evaporates, and has no injurious effect on
the quality of the stearine.

For a number of years there have been on the market so-called “fat
colors,” formed by making concentrated solutions of the color, and also
special preparations of the colors in stearine. They are more easily
applied, and are, therefore, preferred to the powdered aniline colors,
which are apt to cause trouble by being accidentally distributed
in soluble particles, where they are not wanted. Since paraffine
and ozokerite dissolve comparatively little, they will not become
colored, and so must be colored indirectly. One way is to dissolve the
color in oleic acid or in stearine acid and add the solution to the
wax to be colored. Turpentine may be employed for the same purpose.
Concerning the colors suitable for candles, there are the eosine colors
previously mentioned, and also chroline yellow, auramine, taniline
blue, tartrazine, brilliant green, etc. The latter, however, bleaches
so rapidly that it can hardly be recommended. An interesting phenomenon
is the change some colors undergo in a warm temperature; for instance,
some blues turn red at a moderate degree of heat (120° F.) and return
to blue only when completely cooled off; this will be noticed while the
candle mixture is being melted previous to molding into candles.

CANDLES (FUMIGATING): See Fumigants.

CANDY COLORS AND FLAVORS: See Confectionery.

CANDY: See Confectionery.

CANVAS WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

CAOUTCHOUC: See Rubber.

CAOUTCHOUC SOLUTION FOR PAINTS: See Paint.

CAPPING MIXTURES FOR BOTTLES: See Bottle-Capping Mixtures.

CAPSULE VARNISH: See Varnishes.


«CARAMEL:»


«Cloudless Caramel Coloring.»—I.—When it is perfectly understood that
in the manufacture of caramel, sugar is to be deprived of the one
molecule of its water of constitution, it will be apparent that heat
must not be carried on to the point of carbonization. Cloudy caramel is
due to the fact that part of the sugar has been dissociated and reduced
to carbon, which is insoluble in water. Hence the cloudiness. Caramel
may be made on a small scale in the following manner: Place 4 or 5
ounces of granulated sugar in a shallow porcelain-lined evaporating
dish and apply either a direct heat or that of an oil bath, continuing
the heat until caramelization takes place or until tumescence ceases
and the mass has assumed a dark-brown color. Then carefully add
sufficient water to bring the viscid mass to the consistence of a heavy
syrup. Extreme _care_ must be taken and the face and hands protected
during the addition of the water, owing to the intensity of the heat of
the mass, and consequent sputtering.

II.—The ordinary sugar coloring material is made from sugar or glucose
by heating it, while being constantly stirred, up to a temperature of
about 405° F. A metal pan capable of holding nearly ten times as much
as the sugar used, is necessary so as to retain the mass in its swollen
condition. As soon as it froths up so as nearly to fill the pan, an
action which occurs suddenly, the fire must instantly be extinguished
or removed. The finished product will be insoluble if more than about
15 per cent of its weight is driven off by the heat.

CARAMEL IN FOOD: See Food.

CARAMELS: See Confectionery. {147}


«CARBOLIC ACID.»


«Perfumed Carbolic Acid.»—

 I.—Carbolic acid (cryst.)    1 ounce
     Alcohol                   1 ounce
     Oil bergamot             10 minims
     Oil eucalyptus           10 minims
     Oil citronella            3 minims
     Tincture cudbear         10 minims
     Water, to make           10 ounces

Set aside for several days, and then filter through fuller’s earth.

 II.—Carbolic acid (cryst.)    4 drachms
      Cologne water             4 drachms
      Dilute acetic acid        9 ounces

Keep in a cool place for a few days, and filter.


«Treatment of Carbolic-Acid Burns.»—Thoroughly wash the hands with
alcohol, and the burning and tingling will almost immediately cease.
Unless employed immediately, however, the alcohol has no effect. When
the time elapsed since the burning is too great for alcohol to be of
value, brush the burns with a saturated solution of picric acid in
water.


«Decolorization of Carbolic Acid.»—To decolorize the acid the following
simple method is recommended. For purifying carbolic acid which has
already become quite brown-red on account of having been kept in a tin
vessel, the receptacle is exposed for a short time to a temperature of
25° C. (77° F.), thus causing only a part of the contents to melt. In
this state the acid is put into glass funnels and left to stand for 10
to 12 days in a room which is likewise kept at the above temperature.
Clear white crystals form from the drippings, which remained unchanged,
protected from air and light, while by repeating the same process more
clear crystals are obtained from the solidified dark colored mother
lye. In this manner 75 to 80 per cent of clear product is obtained
altogether.


«Disguising Odor of Carbolic Acid.»—Any stronger smelling substance
will disguise the odor of carbolic acid, to an extent at least, but it
is a difficult odor to disguise on account of its persistence. Camphor
and some of the volatile oils, such as peppermint, cajeput, caraway,
clove, and wintergreen may be used.


«To Restore Reddened Carbolic Acid.»—Demont’s method consists in
melting the acid on the water bath, adding 12 per cent of alcohol of
95 per cent, letting cool down and, after the greater part of the
substance has crystallized out, decanting the liquid residue. The
crystals obtained in this manner are snowy white, and on being melted
yield a nearly colorless liquid. The alcohol may be recovered by
redistillation at a low temperature. This is a rather costly procedure.

CARBOLIC SOAP: See Soap.


«CARBOLINEUM:»

See also Paints and Wood.


«Preparation of Carbolineum.»—I.—Melt together 50 parts of American
rosin (F) and 150 parts of pale paraffine oil (yellow oil), and add,
with stirring, 20 parts of rosin oil (rectified).

II.—Sixty parts, by weight, of black coal tar oil of a specific gravity
higher than 1.10; 25 parts, by weight, of creosote oil; 25 parts, by
weight, of beechwood tar oil of a higher specific weight than 0.9. Mix
together and heat to about 347° F., or until the fumes given off begin
to deposit soot. The resulting carbolineum is brown, and of somewhat
thick consistency; when cool it is ready for use and is packed in
casks. This improved carbolineum is applied to wood or masonry with
a brush; the surfaces treated dry quickly, very soon loose the odor
of the carbolineum, and are effectively protected from dampness and
formation of fungi.

CARBON PRINTING: See Photography.

CARBON PROCESS IN PHOTOGRAPHY: See Photography.

CARBONYLE: See Wood.

CARBUNCLE REMEDIES: See Boil Remedy.

CARDS (PLAYING), TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

CARDBOARD, WATERPROOF GLUE FOR: See Adhesives under Cements and
Waterproof Glues.

CARDBOARD, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

CARMINATIVES: See Pain Killers.

CARPET PRESERVATION: See Household Formulas.

CARPET SOAP: See Soap. {148}

CARRIAGE-TOP DRESSING: See Leather.

CARRON OIL: See Cosmetics.

CASE HARDENING: See Steel.


«Casein»


«Dried Casein, its Manufacture and Uses.»—For the production of casein,
skimmed milk or buttermilk is used, articles of slight value, as they
cannot be employed for feeding hogs or for making cheese, except of a
very inferior sort, of little or no alimentive qualities. This milk
is heated to from 70° to 90° C. (175°–195° F.), and sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid is added until it no longer causes precipitation. The
precipitate is washed to free it from residual lactose, redissolved
in a sodium carbonate solution, and again precipitated, this time by
lactic acid. It is again washed, dried, and pulverized. It takes 8
gallons of skimmed milk to make 1 pound of dry casein.

In the manufacture of fancy papers, or papers that are made to imitate
the appearance of various cloths, laces, and silks, casein is very
widely used. It is also largely used in waterproofing tissues, for
preparation of waterproof products, and various articles prepared
from agglomeration of cork (packing boards, etc.). With lime water
casein makes a glue that resists heat, steam, etc. It also enters into
the manufacture of the various articles made from artificial ivory
(billiard balls, combs, toilet boxes, etc.), imitation of celluloid,
meerschaum, etc., and is finding new uses every day.

Casein, as known, may act the part of an acid and combine with bases
to form caseinates or caseates; among these compounds, caseinates of
potash, of soda, and of ammonia are the only ones soluble in water;
all the others are insoluble and may be readily prepared by double
decomposition. Thus, for example, to obtain caseinate of alumina
it is sufficient to add to a solution of casein in caustic soda, a
solution of sulphate of alumina; an insoluble precipitate of casein, or
caseinate of alumina, is instantly formed.

This precipitate ought to be freed from the sulphate of soda (formed by
double decomposition), by means of prolonged washing. Pure, ordinary
cellulose may be incorporated with it by this process, producing a new
compound, cheaper than pure cellulose, although possessing the same
properties, and capable of replacing it in all its applications.

According to the results desired, in transparency, color, hardness,
etc., the most suitable caseinate should be selected. Thus, if a
translucent compound is to be obtained, the caseinate of alumina yields
the best. If a white compound is desired, the caseinate of zinc, or of
magnesia, should be chosen; and for colored products the caseinates of
iron, copper, and nickel will give varied tints.

The process employed for the new products, with a base of celluloid and
caseinate, is as follows: On one hand casein is dissolved in a solution
of caustic soda (100 parts of water for 10 to 25 parts of soda), and
this liquid is filtered to separate the matters not dissolved and
the impurities. On the other hand, a salt of the base of which the
caseinate is desired is dissolved, and the solution filtered. It is
well not to operate on too concentrated a solution. The two solutions
are mixed in a receptacle provided with a mechanical stirrer, in order
to obtain the insoluble caseinate precipitate in as finely divided a
state as possible. This precipitate should be washed thoroughly, so
as to free it from the soda salt formed by double decomposition, but
on account of its gummy or pasty state, this washing presents certain
difficulties, and should be done carefully. After the washing the
mass is freed from the greater part of water contained, by draining,
followed by drying, or energetic pressing; then it is washed in
alcohol, dried or pressed again, and is ready to be incorporated in the
plastic mass of the celluloid.

For the latter immersion and washing it has been found that an
addition of 1 to 5 per cent of borax is advantageous, for it renders
the mass more plastic, and facilitates the operation of mixing. This
may be conducted in a mixing apparatus; but, in practice, it is found
preferable to effect it with a rolling mill, operating as follows:

The nitro-cellulose is introduced in the plastic state, and moistened
with a solution of camphor in alcohol (40 to 50 parts of camphor in
50 to 70 of alcohol for 100 of nitro-cellulose) as it is practiced in
celluloid factories.

This plastic mass of nitro-cellulose is placed in a rolling mill,
the cylinders of which are slightly heated at the same time as the
caseinate, prepared as above; then the whole mass is worked by the
cylinders until the mixture of the two {149} is perfectly homogeneous,
and the final mass is sufficiently hard to be drawn out in leaves in
the same way as practiced for pure celluloid.

These leaves are placed in hydraulic presses, where they are
compressed, first hot, then cold, and the block thus formed is
afterwards cut into leaves of the thickness desired. These leaves
are dried in an apparatus in the same way as ordinary celluloid. The
product resembles celluloid, and has all its properties. At 90° to
100° C. (194° to 212° F.), it becomes quite plastic, and is easily
molded. It may be sawed, filed, turned, and carved without difficulty,
and takes on a superb polish. It burns less readily than celluloid,
and its combustibility diminishes in proportion as the percentage of
caseinate increases; finally, the cost price is less than that of
celluloid, and by using a large proportion of caseinate, products may
be manufactured at an extremely low cost.


«Phosphate of Casein and its Production.»—The process is designed
to produce a strongly acid compound of phosphoric acid and casein,
practically stable and not hydroscopic, which may be employed as an
acid ingredient in bakers’ yeast and for other purposes.

The phosphoric acid may be obtained by any convenient method; for
example, by decomposing dicalcic or monocalcic phosphate with sulphuric
acid. The commercial phosphoric acid may also be employed.

The casein may be precipitated from the skimmed milk by means of
a suitable acid, and should be washed with cold water to remove
impurities. A caseinate may also be employed, such as a compound of
casein and an alkali or an alkaline earth.

The new compound is produced in the following way: A sufficient
quantity of phosphoric acid is incorporated with the casein or a
caseinate in such a way as to insure sufficient acidity in the
resulting compound. The employment of 23 to 25 parts by weight of
phosphoric acid with 75 to 77 parts of casein constitutes a good
proportion.

An aqueous solution of phosphoric acid is made, and the casein
introduced in the proportion of 25 to 50 per cent of the weight of
the phosphoric acid present. The mixture is then heated till the
curdled form of the casein disappears, and it assumes a uniform fluid
form. Then the mixture is concentrated to a syrupy consistency. The
remainder of the casein or of the caseinate is added and mixed with
the solution until it is intimately incorporated and the mass becomes
uniform. The compound is dried in a current of hot air, or in any other
way that will not discolor it, and it is ground to a fine powder. The
intimate union of the phosphoric acid and casein during the gradual
concentration of the mixture and during the grinding and drying,
removes the hydroscopic property of the phosphoric acid, and produces
a dry and stable product, which may be regarded as a hyperphosphate of
casein. When it is mixed with water, it swells and dissolves slowly.
When this compound is mingled with its equivalent of sodium bicarbonate
it yields about 17 per cent of gas.

CASEIN CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

CASEIN VARNISH: See Varnishes.


«CASKS:»


«To Render Shrunken Wooden Casks Watertight.»—When a wooden receptacle
has dried up it naturally cannot hold the water poured into it for the
purpose of swelling it, and the pouring has to be repeated many times
before the desired end is reached. A much quicker way is to stuff the
receptacle full of straw or bad hay, laying a stone on top and then
filling the vessel with water. Although the water runs off again, the
moistened straw remains behind and greatly assists the swelling up of
the wood.

CASSIUS, PURPLE OF: See Gold.

CASKET TRIMMINGS: See Castings.

CASTS (PLASTER), PRESERVATION OF: See Plaster.

CASTS, REPAIRING OF BROKEN: See Adhesives and Lutes.

CASTS FROM WAX MODELS: See Modeling.


«Casting»


«Castings Out of Various Metals.»—Until recent years metal castings
were all made in sand molds; that is, the patterns were used for the
impressions in the sand, the same as iron castings are produced to-day.
Nearly all of the softer metals are now cast in brass, copper, zinc,
or iron molds, and only the silver {150} and German silver articles,
like wire real bronze, are cast the old way, in sand. Aluminum can
be readily cast in iron molds, especially if the molds have been
previously heated to nearly the same temperature as the molten
aluminum, and after the molds are full the metal is cooled gradually
and the casting taken out as soon as cooled enough to prevent breaking
from the shrinkage. Large bicycle frames have been successfully cast in
this manner.

The French bronzes, which are imitations, are cast in copper or brass
molds. The material used is principally zinc and tin, and an unlimited
number of castings can be made in the mold, but if a real bronze piece
is to be produced it must be out of copper and the mold made in sand.
To make the castings hollow, with sand, a core is required. This fills
the inside of the figure so that the molten copper runs around it, and
as the core is made out of sand, the same can be afterwards washed out.
If the casting is to be hollow and is to be cast in a metal mold, then
the process is very simple. The mold is filled with molten metal, and
when the operator thinks the desired thickness has cooled next to the
walls, he pours out the balance. An experienced man can make hollow
castings in this way, and make the walls of any thickness.

Casket hardware trimmings, which are so extensively used on coffins,
especially the handles, are nearly all cast out of tin and antimony,
and in brass molds. The metal used is brittle, and requires
strengthening at the weak portions, and this is mostly done with wood
filling or with iron rods, which are secured in the molds before the
metal is poured in.

Aluminum castings, which one has procured at the foundries, are usually
alloyed with zinc. This has a close affinity with aluminum, and alloys
readily; but this mixture is a detriment and causes much trouble
afterwards. While this alloy assists the molder to produce his castings
easily, on the other hand it will not polish well and will corrode in a
short time. Those difficulties may be avoided if pure aluminum is used.

Plaster of Paris molds are the easiest made for pieces where only a few
castings are wanted. The only difficulty is that it requires a few days
to dry the plaster thoroughly, and that is absolutely necessary to use
them successfully. Not only can the softer metals be run into plaster
molds, but gold and silver can be run into them. A plaster mold should
be well smoked over a gaslight, or until well covered with a layer of
soot, and the metal should be poured in as cool a state as it will run.


«To Prevent the Adhesion of Modeling Sand to Castings.»—Use a mixture
of finely ground coke and graphite. Although the former material is
highly porous, possessing this quality even as a fine powder, and
the fine pulverization is a difficult operation, still the invention
attains its purpose of producing an absolutely smooth surface. This is
accomplished by mixing both substances intimately and adding melted
rosin, whereupon the whole mass is exposed to heat, so that the rosin
decomposes, its carbon residue filling up the finest pores of the
coke. The rosin, in melting, carries the fine graphite particles along
into the pores. After cooling the mass is first ground in edge mills,
then again in a suitable manner and sifted. Surprising results are
obtained with this material. It is advisable to take proportionately
little graphite, as the different co-efficients of expansion of the
two substances may easily exercise a disturbing action. One-fifth of
graphite, in respect to the whole mass, gives the best results, but it
is advisable to add plenty of rosin. The liquid mixture must, before
burning, possess the consistency of mortar.


«Sand Holes in Cast-Brass Work.»—Cast-brass work, when it presents
numerous and deep sand holes, should be well dipped into the dipping
acid before being polished, in order thoroughly to clean these
objectionable cavities; and the polishing should be pushed to an extent
sufficient to obliterate the smaller sand holes, if possible, as this
class of work looks very unsightly, when plated and finished, if
pitted all over with minute hollows. The larger holes cannot, without
considerable labor, be obliterated; indeed, it not infrequently happens
that in endeavoring to work out such cavities they become enlarged, as
they often extend deep into the body of the metal. An experienced hand
knows how far he dare go in polishing work of this awkward character.


«Black Wash for Casting Molds.»—Gumlac, 1 part; wood spirit, 2 parts;
lampblack, in sufficient quantity to color.


«How to Make a Plaster Cast of a Coin or Medal.»—The most exact
observance of any written or printed directions is no guarantee of
success. Practice alone can give expertness in this work. {151} The
composition of the mold is of the most varied, but the materials most
generally used are plaster of Paris and brick dust, in the proportion
of 2 parts of the first to 1 of the second, stirred in water, with the
addition of a little sal ammoniac. The best quality of plaster for
this purpose is the so-called alabaster, and the brick dust should
be as finely powdered as possible. The addition of clay, dried and
very finely powdered, is recommended. With very delicate objects the
proportion of plaster may be slightly increased. The dry material
should be thoroughly mixed before the addition of water.

As the geometrically exact contour of the coin or medal is often the
cause of breaking of the edges, the operator sometimes uses wax to
make the edges appear half round and it also allows the casting to be
more easily removed from the second half of the mold. Each half of the
mold should be about the thickness of the finger. The keys, so called,
of every plaster casting must not be forgotten. In the first casting
some little half-spherical cavities should be scooped out, which will
appear in the second half-round knobs, and which, by engaging with the
depressions, will ensure exactness in the finished mold.

After the plaster has set, cut a canal for the flow of the molten
casting material, then dry the mold thoroughly in an oven strongly
heated. The halves are now ready to be bound together with a light
wire. When bound heat the mold gradually and slowly and let the mouth
of the canal remain underneath while the heating is in progress,
in order to prevent the possible entry of dirt or foreign matter.
The heating should be continued as long as there is a suspicion of
remaining moisture. When finally assured of this fact, take out the
mold, open it, and blow it out, to make sure of absolute cleanness.
Close and bind again and place on a hearth of fine, hot sand. The mold
should still be glowing when the casting is made. The ladle should
contain plenty of metal, so as to hold the heat while the casting is
being made. The presence of a little zinc in the metal ensures a sharp
casting. Finally, to ensure success, it is always better to provide two
molds in case of accident. Even the most practiced metal molders take
this precaution, especially when casting delicate objects.


«How to Make Castings of Insects.»—The object—a dead beetle, for
example—is first arranged in a natural position, and the feet are
connected with an oval rim of wax. It is then fixed in the center of
a paper or wooden box by means of pieces of fine wire, so that it is
perfectly free, and thicker wires are run from the sides of the box
to the object, which subsequently serve to form air channels in the
mold by their removal. A wooden stick, tapering toward the bottom, is
placed upon the back of the insect to produce a runner for casting.
The box is then filled up with a paste with 3 parts of plaster of
Paris and 1 of brick dust, made up with a solution of alum and sal
ammoniac. It is also well first to brush the object with this paste
to prevent the formation of air bubbles. After the mold thus formed
has set, the object is removed from the interior by first reducing it
to ashes. It is, therefore, allowed to dry, very slowly at first, by
leaving in the shade at a normal temperature (as in India this is much
higher than in our zone, it will be necessary to place the mold in a
moderately warm place), and afterwards heating gradually to a red heat.
This incinerates the object, and melts the waxen base upon which it
is placed. The latter escapes, and is burned as it does so, and the
object, reduced to fine ashes, is removed through the wire holes as
suggested above. The casting is then made in the ordinary manner.


«Casting of Soft Metal Castings.»—I.—It is often difficult to form flat
back or half castings out of the softer metals so that they will run
full, owing mostly to the thin edges and frail connections. Instead of
using solid metal backs for the molds it is better to use cardboard,
or heavy, smooth paper, fastened to a wooden board fitted to the back
of the other half of the mold. By this means very thin castings may be
produced that would be more difficult with a solid metal back.

II.—To obtain a full casting in brass molds for soft metal two
important points should be observed. One is to have the deep recesses
vented so the air will escape, and the other is to have the mold
properly blued. The bluing is best done by dipping the mold in
sulphuric acid, then placing it on a gas stove until the mold is a dark
color. Unless this bluing is done it will be impossible to obtain a
sharp casting.


«Drosses.»—All the softer grades of metal throw off considerable dross,
which is usually skimmed off; especially with tin and its composition.
Should much of this gather on the top of the molten {152} metal, the
drosses should all be saved, and melted down when there is enough for
a kettle full. Dross may be remelted five or six times before all the
good metal is out.


«Fuel.»—Where a good soft coal can be had at a low price, as in the
middle West, this is perhaps the cheapest and easiest fuel to use;
and, besides, it has some advantages over gas, which is so much used
in the East. A soft-coal fire can be regulated to keep the metal at
an even temperature, and it is especially handy to keep the metal in
a molten state during the noon hour. This refers particularly to the
gas furnaces that are operated from the power plant in the shop; when
this power shuts down during the noon hour the metal becomes chilled,
and much time is lost by the remelting after one o’clock, or at the
beginning in the morning.


«Molds.»—I.—Brass molds for the casting of soft metal ornaments out
of britannia, pewter, spelter, etc., should be made out of brass that
contains enough zinc to produce a light-colored brass. While this hard
brass is more difficult for the mold maker to cut, the superiority
over the dark red copper-colored brass is that it will stand more heat
and rougher usage and thereby offset the extra labor of cutting the
hard brass. The mold should be heavy enough to retain sufficient heat
while the worker is removing a finished casting from the mold so that
the next pouring will come full. If the mold is too light it cools more
quickly, and consequently the castings are chilled and will not run
full. Where the molds are heavy enough they will admit the use of a
swab and water after each pouring. This chills the casting so that it
can be removed easily with the plyers.

II.—Molds for the use of soft metal castings may be made out of soft
metal. This is done with articles that are not numerous, or not often
used; and may be looked upon as temporary. The molds are made in
part the same as when of brass, and out of tin that contains as much
hardening as possible. The hardening consists of antimony and copper.
This metal mold must be painted over several times with Spanish red,
which tends to prevent the metal from melting. The metal must not be
used too hot, otherwise it will melt the mold. By a little careful
manipulation many pieces can be cast with these molds.

III.—New iron or brass molds must be blued before they can be used for
casting purposes. This is done by placing the mold face downward on a
charcoal fire, or by swabbing with sulphuric acid, then placing over a
gas flame or charcoal fire until the mold is perfectly oxidized.

IV.—A good substantial mold for small castings of soft metal is made of
brass. The expense of making the cast mold is considerable, however,
and, on that account, some manufacturers are making their molds by
electro-deposition. This produces a much cheaper mold, which can be
made very quickly. The electro-deposited mold, however, is very frail
in comparison with a brass casting, and consequently must be handled
very carefully to keep its shape. The electro-deposited ones are made
out of copper, and the backs filled in with a softer metal. The handles
are secured with screws.


«Plaster Molds.»—Castings of any metal can be done in a plaster mold,
provided the mold has dried, at a moderate heat, for several days.
Smoke the mold well with a brand of rosin to insure a full cast. Where
there are only one or two ornaments or figures to cast, it may be done
in a mold made out of dental plaster. After the mold is made and set
enough so that it can be taken apart, it should be placed in a warm
place and left to dry for a day or two. When ready to use the inside
should be well smoked over a gaslight; the mold should be well warmed
and the metal must not be too hot. Very good castings may be obtained
this way; the only objection being the length of time needed for a
thorough drying of the mold.


«Temperature of Metal.»—Metals for casting purposes should not be
overheated. If any of the softer metals show blue colors after cooling
it is an indication that the metal is too hot. The metal should be
heated enough so that it can be poured, and the finished casting have
a bright, clean appearance. The mold may be very warm, then the metal
need not be so hot for bright, clean castings. Some of the metals will
not stand reheating too often, as this will cause them to run sluggish.
Britannia metal should not be skimmed or stirred too much, otherwise
there will be too much loss in the dross.

CASTING IN WAX: See Modeling.

CASTINGS, TO SOFTEN IRON: See Iron. {153}


«CASTOR OIL:»


«Purifying Rancid Castor Oil.»—To clean rancid castor oil mix 100
parts of the oil at 95° F. with a mixture of 1 part of alcohol (96 per
cent) and 1 part of sulphuric acid. Allow to settle for 24 hours and
then carefully decant from the precipitate. Now wash with warm water,
boiling for 1⁠/⁠2 hour; allow to settle for 24 hours in well closed
vessels, after which time the purified oil may be taken off.


«How to Pour Out Castor Oil.»—Any one who has tried to pour castor
oil from a square, 5-gallon can, when it is full, knows how difficult
it is to avoid a mess. This, however, may be avoided by having a hole
punched in the cap which screws onto the can, and a tube, 2 inches
long and 3⁠/⁠4 of an inch in diameter, soldered on. With a wire nail
a hole is punched in the top of the can between the screw cap and the
edge of the can. This will admit air while pouring. Resting the can
on a table, with the screw-cap tube to the rear, the can is carefully
tilted forward with one hand and the shop bottle held in the other.
In this way the bottle may be filled without spilling any of the oil
and that, too, without a funnel. It is preferable to rest the can on
a table when pouring from a 1- or 2-gallon square varnish can, when
filling shop bottles. With the opening to the rear, the can is likewise
tilted forward slowly so as to allow the surface of the liquid to
become “at rest.” Even mobile liquids, such as spirits of turpentine,
may be poured into shop bottles without a funnel. Of course, the main
thing is that the can be lowered slowly, otherwise the first portion
may spurt out over the bottle. With 5-gallon round cans it is possible
to fill shop bottles in the same manner by resting the can on a box or
counter. When a funnel is used for non-greasy liquids, the funnel may
be slightly raised with the thumb and little finger from the neck of
the bottle, while holding the bottle by the neck between the middle and
ring fingers, to allow egress of air.


«Tasteless Castor Oil.»—

 I.—Pure castor oil      1 pint
     Cologne spirit       3 fluidounces
     Oil of wintergreen  40 minims
     Oil of sassafras    20 minims
     Oil of anise        15 minims
     Saccharine           5 grains
     Hot water, a sufficient quantity.

Place the castor oil in a gallon bottle. Add a pint of hot water and
shake vigorously for about 15 minutes. Then pour the mixture into a
vessel with a stopcock at its base, and allow the mixture to stand for
12 hours. Draw off the oil, excepting the last portion, which must be
rejected. Dissolve the essential oils and saccharine in the cologne
spirit and add to the washed castor oil.

II.—First prepare an aromatic solution of saccharine as follows:

 Refined saccharine   25 parts
 Vanillin              5 parts
 Absolute alcohol    950 parts
 Oil of cinnamon      20 parts

Dissolve the saccharine and vanillin in the alcohol, then add the
cinnamon oil, agitate well and filter. Of this liquid add 20 parts
to 980 parts of castor oil and mix by agitation. Castor oil, like
cod-liver oil, may be rendered nearly tasteless, it is claimed, by
treating it as follows: Into a matrass of suitable size put 50 parts
of freshly roasted coffee, ground as fine as possible, and 25 parts of
purified and freshly prepared bone or ivory black. Pour over the mass
1,000 parts of the oil to be deodorized and rendered tasteless, and
mix. Cork the container tightly, put on a water bath, and raise the
temperature to about 140° F. Keep at this heat from 15 to 20 minutes,
then let cool down, slowly, to 90°, at which temperature let stand for
3 hours. Finally filter, and put up in small, well-stoppered bottles.

 III.—Vanillin                                    3 grains
       Garantose                                   4 grains
       Ol. menth. pip.                             8 minims
       Alcoholis                                   3 drachms
       Ol. ricinus                                12 ounces
       Ol. olivæ (imported), quantity sufficient   1 pint

M. ft. sol.

Mix vanillin, garantose, ol. menth. pip. with alcohol and add castor
oil and olive oil.

Dose: One drachm to 2 fluidounces.

IV.—The following keeps well:

 Castor oil                      24 parts
 Glycerine                       24 parts
 Tincture of orange peel          8 parts
 Tincture of senega               2 parts
 Cinnamon water enough to make  100 parts

Mix and make an emulsion. Dose is 1 tablespoonful.

V.—One part of common cooking molasses to 2 of castor oil is the best
{154} disguise for the taste of the oil that can be used.

 VI.—Castor oil            1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Powdered acacia       2     drachms
      Sugar                 2     drachms
      Peppermint water      4     ounces

Triturate the sugar and acacia, adding the oil gradually; when these
have been thoroughly incorporated add the peppermint water in small
portions, triturating the mixture until an emulsion is formed.

VII.—This formula for an emulsion is said to yield a fairly
satisfactory product:

 Castor oil                   500 c.c.
 Mucilage of acacia           125 c.c.
 Spirit of gaultheria          10 grams
 Sugar                          1 gram
 Sodium bicarbonate             1 gram

 VIII.—Castor oil                     1 ounce
        Compound tincture of cardamom  4 drachms
        Oil of wintergreen             3 drops
        Powdered acacia                3 drachms
        Sugar                          2 drachms
        Cinnamon water enough to make 4 ounces.
   IX.—Castor oil                    12 ounces
        Vanillin                       3 grains
        Saccharine                     4 grains
        Oil of peppermint              8 minims
        Alcohol                        3 drachms
        Olive oil enough to make 1 pint.

In any case, use only a fresh oil.


«How to Take Castor Oil.»—The disgust for castor oil is due to the
odor, not to the taste. If the patient grips the nostrils firmly before
pouring out the dose, drinks the oil complacently, and then thoroughly
cleanses the mouth, lips, larynx, etc., with water, removing the last
vestige of the oil before removing the fingers, he will not get the
least taste from the oil, which is bland and tasteless. It all depends
upon preventing any oil from entering the nose during the time while
there is any oil present.


«Castor-Oil Chocolate Lozenges.»—

 Cacao, free from oil      250 parts
 Castor oil                250 parts
 Sugar, pulverized         500 parts
 Vanillin sugar              5 parts

Mix the chocolate and oil and heat in the water, both under constant
stirring. Have the sugar well dried and add, stirring constantly, to
the molten mass. Continue the heat for 30 minutes, then pour out and
divide into lozenges in the usual way.

CAT DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES: See Insecticides and Veterinary
Formulas.


«CATATYPY.»

It is a well-known fact that the reactions of the compounds of silver,
platinum, and chromium in photographic processes are generally
voluntary ones and that the light really acts only as an accelerator,
that is to say the chemical properties of the preparations also change
in the dark, though a longer time is required. When these preparations
are exposed to the light under a negative, the modification of their
chemical properties is accelerated in such a way that, through the
gradations of the tone-values in the negative, the positive print is
formed. Now it has been found that we also have such accelerators in
material substances that can be used in the light, the process being
termed catalysis. It is remarkable that these substances, called
catalyzers, apparently do not take part in the process, but bring about
merely by their presence, decomposition or combination of other bodies
during or upon contact. Hence, catalysis may be defined, in short, as
the act of changing or accelerating the speed of a chemical reaction
by means of agents which appear to remain stable.

Professor Ostwald and Dr. O. Gros, of the Leipsic University, have
given the name of “catatypy” to the new copying process. The use
of light is entirely done away with, except that for the sake of
convenience the manipulations are executed in the light. All that
is necessary is to bring paper and negative into contact, no matter
whether in the light or in the dark. Hence the negative (if necessary
a positive may also be employed) need not even be transparent, for the
ascending and descending action of the tone values in the positive
picture is produced only by the quantity in the varying density of the
silver powder contained in the negative. Hence no photographic (light)
picture, but a catatypic picture (produced by contact) is created, but
the final result is the same.

Catatypy is carried out as follows: Pour dioxide of hydrogen over the
negative, which can be done without any damage to the latter, and lay a
piece of paper on (sized or unsized, rough or smooth, according to the
effect desired); by a contact lasting a few seconds the paper receives
the picture, dioxide of hydrogen being destroyed. From a single
application several prints can be made. The acquired picture—still
{155} invisible—may now in the further course of the process, have
a reducing or oxydizing action. As picture-producing bodies, the
large group of iron salts are above all eminently adapted, but other
substances, such as chromium, manganese, etc., as well as pigments with
glue solutions may also be employed. The development takes place as
follows: When the paper which has been in contact with the negative is
drawn through a solution of ferrous oxide, the protoxide is transformed
into oxide by the peroxide, hence a yellow positive picture, consisting
of iron oxide, results, which can be readily changed into other
compounds, so that the most varying tones of color can be obtained.
With the use of pigments, in conjunction with a glue solution, the
action is as follows: In the places where the picture is, the layer
with the pigments becomes insoluble and all other dye stuffs can be
washed off with water.

The chemical inks and reductions, as well as color pigments, of which
the pictures consist, have been carefully tested and are composed of
such as are known to possess unlimited durability.

After a short contact, simply immerse the picture in the respective
solution, wash out, and a permanent picture is obtained.

CATERPILLAR DESTROYERS: See Insecticides.


«CATGUT:»


«Preparation of Catgut Sutures.»—The catgut is stretched tightly
over a glass plate tanned in 5 per cent watery extract of quebracho,
washed for a short time in water, subjected to the action of a 4 per
cent formalin solution for 24 to 48 hours, washed in running water
for 24 hours, boiled in water for 10 to 15 minutes, and stored in a
mixture of absolute alcohol with 5 per cent glycerine and 4 per cent
carbolic acid. In experiments on dogs, this suture material in aseptic
wounds remained intact for 65 days, and was absorbed after 83 days. In
infected wounds it was absorbed after 32 days.

CATSUP (ADULTERATED): See Foods.

CATTLE DIPS AND APPLICATIONS: See Disinfectants and Insecticides.

CEILING CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, and also
Household Formulas.


«CELERY COMPOUND.»

 Celery (seed ground)          25     parts
 Coca leaves (ground)          25     parts
 Black haw (ground)            25     parts
 Hyoscyamus leaves (ground)    12 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Podophyllum (powdered)        10     parts
 Orange peel (ground)           6     parts
 Sugar (granulated)           100     parts
 Alcohol                      150     parts
 Water, q. s. ad.             400     parts

Mix the alcohol with 150 parts of water and macerate drugs for 24
hours; pack in percolator and pour on menstruum till 340 parts is
obtained; dissolve sugar in it and strain.

CELLS, SOLUTIONS AND FILLERS FOR BATTERY: See Battery Solutions and
Fillers.

CELLARS, WATERPROOF: See Household Formulas.

CELLOIDIN PAPER: See Paper.


«Celluloid»


«New Celluloid.»—M. Ortmann has ascertained that turpentine produced
by the _Pinus larix_, generally denominated Venice turpentine,
in combination with acetone (dimethyl ketone), yields the best
results; but other turpentines, such as the American from the _Pinus
australis_, the Canada turpentine from the _Pinus balsamea_, the
French turpentine from the _Pinus maritima_, and ketones, such as
the ketone of methyl-ethyl, the ketone of dinaphthyl, the ketone of
methyl-oxynaphthyl, and the ketone of dioxy-naphthyl, may be employed.

To put this process in practice, 1,000 parts of pyroxyline is prepared
in the usual manner, and mixed with 65 parts of turpentine, or 250
parts of ketone and 250 parts of ether; 500 parts or 750 parts of
methyl alcohol is added, and a colorant, such as desired. Instead of
turpentine, rosins derived from it may be employed. If the employment
of camphor is desired to a certain extent, it may be added to the
mixture. The whole is shaken and left at rest for about 12 hours. It is
then passed between hot rollers, and finally pressed, cut, and dried,
like ordinary celluloid. {156}

The product thus obtained is without odor, when camphor is not
employed; and in appearance and properties it cannot be distinguished
from ordinary celluloid, while the expense of production is
considerably reduced.


«Formol Albumen for Preparation of Celluloid.»—Formol has the property
of forming combinations with most albuminoid substances. These are
not identical with reference to plasticity, and the use which may be
derived from them for the manufacture of plastic substances. This
difference explains why albumen should not be confounded with gelatin
or casein. With this in view, the Société Anonyme l’Oyonnaxienne has
originated the following processes:

I.—The albumen may be that of the egg or that of the blood, which are
readily found in trade. The formolizing may be effected in the moist
state or in the dry state. The dry or moist albumen is brought into
contact with the solution of commercial formol diluted to 5 or 10 per
cent for an hour. Care must be taken to pulverize the albumen, if it
is dry. The formol penetrates rapidly into the albuminoid matter, and
is filtered or decanted and washed with water until all the formol
in excess has completely disappeared; this it is easy to ascertain by
means of aniline water, which produces a turbid white as long as a
trace of formic aldehyde remains.

The formol albumen is afterwards dried at low temperature by submitting
it to the action of a current of dry air at a temperature not
exceeding 107° F. Thus obtained, the product appears as a transparent
corneous substance. On pulverizing, it becomes opaque and loses its
transparency. It is completely insoluble in water, but swells in this
liquid.

II.—The formol albumen is reduced to a perfectly homogeneous powder,
and mixed intimately with the plastic matter before rolling. This
cannot be considered an adequate means for effecting the mixture. It
is necessary to introduce the formol albumen, in the course of the
moistening, either by making an emulsion with camphor alcohol, or by
mixing it thoroughly with nitro-cellulose, or by making simultaneously
a thorough mixture of the three substances. When the mixture is
accomplished, the paste is rolled according to the usual operation.
The quantity of formol albumen to add is variable, being diminished
according to the quantity of camphor.

Instead of adding the desiccated formol albumen, it may previously be
swollen in water in order to render it more malleable.

Instead of simple water, alkalinized or acidified water may be taken
for this purpose, or even alcoholized water. The albumen, then, should
be pressed between paper or cloth, in order to remove the excess of
moisture.


«Plastic Substances of Nitro-Cellulose Base.»—To manufacture plastic
substances the Compagnie Française du Celluloid commences by submitting
casein to a special operation. It is soaked with a solution of acetate
of urea in alcohol; for 100 parts of casein 5 parts of acetate of
urea and 50 parts of alcohol are employed. The mass swells, and in
48 hours the casein is thoroughly penetrated. It is then ready to be
incorporated with the camphored nitro-cellulose. The nitro-cellulose,
having received the addition of camphor, is soaked in the alcohol, and
the mass is well mixed. The casein prepared as described is introduced
into the mass. The whole is mixed and left at rest for 2 days.

The plastic pulp thus obtained is rolled, cut, and dried like ordinary
cellulose, and by the same processes and apparatus. The pulp may also
be converted into tubes and other forms, like ordinary celluloid.

It is advisable to subject the improved plastic pulp to a treatment
with formaldehyde for the purpose of rendering insoluble the casein
incorporated in the celluloid. The plastic product of nitro-cellulose
base, thus obtained, presents in employment the same general properties
as ordinary celluloid. It may be applied to the various manufacturing
processes in use for the preparation of articles of all kinds, and
its cost price diminishes more or less according to the proportion of
casein associated with the ordinary celluloid. In this plastic product
various colorants may be incorporated, and the appearance of shell,
pearl, wood, marble, or ivory may also be imparted.


«Improved Celluloid.»—This product is obtained by mingling with
celluloid, under suitable conditions, gelatin or strong glue of gelatin
base. It is clear that the replacement of part of the celluloid by the
gelatin, of which the cost is much less, lowers materially the cost
of the final product. The result is obtained without detriment to the
qualities of the objects. These are said to be of superior properties,
having more firmness than those of celluloid. And the new material
{157} is worked more readily than the celluloid employed alone.

The new product may be prepared in open air or in a closed vessel under
pressure. When operated in the air, the gelatin is first immersed cold
(in any form, and in a state more or less pure) in alcohol marking
about 140° F., with the addition of a certain quantity (for example,
5 to 10 per cent) of crystallizable acetic acid. In a few hours the
material has swollen considerably, and it is then introduced in alcohol
of about 90 per cent, and at the same time the celluloid pulp (camphor
and gun cotton), taking care to add a little acetone. The proportion of
celluloid in the mixture may be 50 to 75 per cent of the weight of the
gelatin, more or less, according to the result desired. After heating
the mixture slightly, it is worked, cold, by the rollers ordinarily
employed for celluloid and other similar pastes, or by any other
suitable methods.

The preparation in a closed vessel does not differ from that which
has been described, except for the introduction of the mixture of
gelatin, celluloid, alcohol, and acetone, at the moment when the
heating is to be accomplished in an autoclave heated with steam,
capable of supporting a pressure of 2 to 5 pounds, and furnished with
a mechanical agitator. This method of proceeding abridges the operation
considerably; the paste comes from the autoclave well mingled, and is
then submitted to the action of rollers. There is but little work in
distilling the alcohol and acetic acid in the autoclave. These may be
recovered, and on account of their evaporation the mass presents the
desired consistency when it reaches the rollers. Whichever of the two
methods of preparation may be employed, the substance may be rolled as
in the ordinary process, if a boiler with agitator is made use of; the
mass may be produced in any form.


«Preparation of Uninflammable Celluloid.»—The operation of this process
by Woodward is the following: In a receiver of glass or porcelain,
liquefied fish glue and gum arabic are introduced and allowed to swell
for 24 hours in a very dry position, allowing the air to circulate
freely. The receiver is not covered. Afterwards it is heated on a water
bath, and the contents stirred (for example, by means of a porcelain
spatula) until the gum is completely liquefied. The heating of the mass
should not exceed 77° F. Then the gelatin is added in such a way that
there are no solid pieces. The receiver is removed from the water bath
and colza oil added, while agitating anew. When the mixture is complete
it is left to repose for 24 hours.

Before cooling, the mixture is passed through a sieve in order to
retain the pieces which may not have been dissolved. After swelling,
and the dissolution and purification by means of the sieve, it is
allowed to rest still in the same position, with access of air. The
films formed while cooling may be removed. The treatment of celluloid
necessitates employing a solution completely colorless and clear. The
celluloid to be treated while it is still in the pasty state should be
in a receiver of glass, porcelain, or similar material.

The mass containing the fish glue is poured in, drop by drop, while
stirring carefully, taking care to pour it in the middle of the
celluloid and to increase the surface of contact.

When the mixture is complete, the celluloid is ready to be employed and
does not produce flame when exposed.

The solution of fish glue may be prepared by allowing 200 parts of it
to swell for 48 hours in 1,000 parts of cold distilled water. It is
then passed through the sieve, and the pieces which may remain are
broken up, in order to mingle them thoroughly with the water. Ten parts
of kitchen salt are then added, and the whole mass passed through the
sieve.

This product may be utilized for the preparation of photographic films
or for those used for cinematographs, or for replacing hard caoutchouc
for the insulation of electric conductors, and for the preparation of
plastic objects.


«Substitute for Camphor in the Preparation of Celluloid and Applicable
to Other Purposes.»—In this process commercial oil of turpentine, after
being rectified by distillation over caustic soda, is subjected to
the action of gaseous chlorhydric acid, in order to produce the solid
monochlorhydrate of turpentine. After having, by means of the press,
extracted the liquid monochlorhydrate, and after several washings with
cold water, the solid matter is desiccated and introduced into an
autoclave apparatus capable of resisting a pressure of 6 atmospheres.
Fifty per cent of caustic soda, calculated on the weight of the
monochlorhydrate, and mingled with an equal quantity of alcohol, is
added in the form of a thick solution. The apparatus is closed and
heated for several hours at the {158} temperature of 284° to 302° F.
The material is washed several times for freeing it from the mingled
sodium chloride and sodium hydrate, and the camphor resulting from this
operation is treated in the following manner:

In an autoclave constructed for the purpose, camphene and water
strongly mixed with sulphuric acid are introduced and heated so as
to attain 9 pounds of pressure. Then an electric current is applied,
capable of producing the decomposition of water. The mass is constantly
stirred, either mechanically or more simply by allowing a little of the
steam to escape by a tap. In an hour, at least, the material is drawn
from the apparatus, washed and dried, sublimed according to need, and
is then suitable for replacing camphor in its industrial employments,
for the camphene is converted entirely or in greater part into camphor,
either right-hand camphor, or a product optically inactive, according
to the origin of the oil of turpentine made use of.

In the electrolytic oxidation of the camphene, instead of using
acidulated water, whatever is capable of furnishing, under the
influence of the electric current, the oxygen necessary for the
reaction, such as oxygenized water, barium bioxide, and the
permanganates, may be employed.


«Plastic and Elastic Composition.»—Formaldehyde has the property, as
known, of removing from gelatin its solubility and its fusibility, but
it has also another property, prejudicial in certain applications, of
rendering the composition hard and friable. In order to remedy this
prejudicial action M. Deborda adds to the gelatin treated by means of
formaldehyde, oil of turpentine, or a mixture of oil of turpentine and
German turpentine or Venice turpentine. The addition removes from the
composition its friability and hardness, imparting to it great softness
and elasticity. The effect is accomplished by a slight proportion, 5 to
10 per cent.


«Production of Substances Resembling Celluloid.»—Most of the
substitutes for camphor in the preparation of celluloid are attended
with inconveniences limiting their employment and sometimes causing
their rejection. Thus, in one case the celluloid does not allow of the
preparation of transparent bodies; in another it occasions too much
softness in the products manufactured; and in still another it does not
allow of pressing, folding, or other operations, because the mass is
too brittle; in still others combinations are produced which in time
are affected unfavorably by the coloring substances employed.

Callenberg has found that the halogenous derivatives of etherized oils,
principally oil of turpentine, and especially the solid chloride of
turpentine, which is of a snowy and brilliant white, and of agreeable
odor, are suitable for yielding, either alone or mixed with camphor or
one of its substitutes, and combined by ordinary means with nitrated
cellulose, or other ethers of cellulose, treated with acetic ether, a
celluloidic product, which, it is said, is not inferior to ordinary
celluloid and has the advantage of reduced cost.


«Elastic Substitute for Celluloid.»—Acetic cellulose, like
nitro-cellulose, can be converted into an elastic corneous compound.
The substances particularly suitable for the operation are organic
substances containing one or more hydroxy, aldehydic, amide, or
ketonic groups, as well as the acid amides. Probably a bond is formed
when these combinations act on the acetate of cellulose, but the bond
cannot well be defined, considering the complex nature of the molecule
of cellulose. According to the mode of preparation, the substances
obtained form a hard mass, more or less flexible. In the soft state,
copies of engraved designs can be reproduced in their finest details.
When hardened, they can be cut and polished. In certain respects
they resemble celluloid, without its inflammability, and they can be
employed in the same manner. They can be produced by the following
methods—the Lederer process:

I.—Melt together 1 part of acetate of cellulose and 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
of phenol at about the temperature of 104° to 122° F. When a clear
solution is obtained place the mass of reaction on plates of glass or
metal slightly heated and allow it to cool gradually. After a rest of
several days the mass, which at the outset is similar to caoutchouc, is
hard and forms flexible plates, which can be worked like celluloid.

II.—Compress an intimate mixture of equal parts of acetic cellulose and
hydrate of chloride or of aniline, at a temperature of 122° to 140° F.,
and proceed as in the previous case.

In the same way a ketone may be employed, as acetophenone, or an acid
amide, as acetamide.

III.—A transparent, celluloid-like substance which is useful for the
{159} production of plates, tubes, and other articles, but especially
as an underlay for sensitive films in photography, is produced by
dissolving 1.8 parts, by weight, of nitro-cellulose in 16 parts of
glacial acetic acid, with heating and stirring and addition of 5 parts
of gelatin. After this has swelled up, add 7.5 parts, by weight, of
alcohol (96 per cent), stirring constantly. The syrupy product may be
pressed into molds or poured, after further dilution with the said
solvents in the stated proportion, upon glass plates to form thin
layers. The dried articles are well washed with water, which may
contain a trace of soda lye, and dried again. Photographic foundations
produced in this manner do not change, nor attack the layers sensitive
to light, nor do they become electric, and in developing they remain
flat.

IV.—Viscose is the name of a new product of the class of substances
like celluloid, pegamoid, etc., substances having most varied and
valuable applications. It is obtained directly from cellulose by
mascerating this substance in a 1 per cent dilution of hydrochloric
acid. The maceration is allowed to continue for several hours, and at
its close the liquid is decanted and the residue is pressed off and
washed thoroughly. The mass (of which we will suppose there is 100
grams) is then treated with a 20 per cent aqueous solution of sodium
hydrate, which dissolves it. The solution is allowed to stand for 3
days in a tightly closed vessel; 100 grams carbon disulphide are then
added, the vessel closed and allowed to stand for 12 hours longer, when
it is ready for purification. Viscose thus formed is soluble in water,
cold or tepid, and yields a solution of a pale brownish color, from
which it is precipitated by alcohol and sodium chloride, which purifies
it, but at the expense of much of its solubility. A solution of the
precipitated article is colorless, or of a slightly pale yellow. Under
the action of heat, long continued, viscose is decomposed, yielding
cellulose, caustic soda, and carbon disulphide.

See also Casein for Celluloid Substitutes.


«Celluloid of Reduced Inflammability.»—I.—A practicable method consists
in incorporating silica, which does not harm the essential properties
of the celluloid. The material is divided by the usual methods, and
dissolved by means of the usual solvents, to which silica has been
added, either in the state of amylic, ethylic, or methylic silicate,
or in the state of any ether derivative of silicic acid. The suitable
proportions vary according to the degree of inflammability desired, and
according to the proportion of silica in the ether derivative employed;
but sufficient freedom from inflammability for practical purposes is
attained by the following proportions: Fifty-five to 65 parts in volume
of the solvent of the celluloid, and 35 to 45 parts of the derivative
of silicic acid.

When the ether derivative is in the solid form, such, for instance,
as ethyl disilicate, it is brought to the liquid state by means of
any of the solvents. The union of the solvent and of the derivative
is accomplished by mixing the two liquids and shaking out the air as
much as possible. The incorporation of this mixture with the celluloid,
previously divided or reduced to the state of chips, is effected by
pouring the mixture on the chips, or inversely, shaking or stirring
as free from the air as possible. The usual methods are employed for
the desiccation of the mass. A good result is obtained by drying very
slowly, preferably at a temperature not above 10° C. (50° F.). The
resulting residue is a new product scarcely distinguished from ordinary
celluloid, except that the inherent inflammability is considerably
reduced. It is not important to employ any individual silicate or
derivative. A mixture of the silicates or derivatives mentioned will
accomplish the same results.

II.—Any ignited body is extinguished in a gaseous medium which is
unsuitable for combustion; the attempt has therefore been made to find
products capable of producing an uninflammable gas; and products have
been selected that yield chlorine, and others producing bromine; it
is also necessary that these bodies should be soluble in a solvent of
celluloid; therefore, among chlorated products, ferric chloride has
been taken; this is soluble in the ether-alcohol mixture.

This is the process: An ether-alcohol solution of celluloid is
made; then an ether-alcohol solution of ferric perchloride. The two
solutions are mingled, and a clear, syrupy liquid of yellow color,
yielding no precipitate, is obtained. The liquid is poured into a
cup or any suitable vessel; it is left for spontaneous evaporation,
and a substance of shell-color is produced, which, after washing and
drying, effects the desired result. The celluloid thus treated loses
none of its properties in pliability and transparency, and is not only
uninflammable, but also incombustible. {160}

Of bromated compounds, calcium bromide has been selected, which
produces nearly the same result; the product obtained fuses in the
flame; outside, it is extinguished, without the power of ignition.

It may be objected that ferric perchloride and calcium bromide, being
soluble in water, may present to the celluloid a surface capable of
being affected by moist air; but the mass of celluloid, not being
liable to penetration by water, fixes the chlorinated or brominated
product. Still, as the celluloid undergoes a slight decomposition,
on exposure to the light, allowing small quantities of camphor to
evaporate, the surface of the perchlorinated celluloid may be fixed by
immersion in albuminous water, after previous treatment with a solution
of oxalic acid, if a light yellow product is desired.

For preventing the calcium bromide from eventually oozing on the
surface of the celluloid, by reason of its deliquescence, it may be
fixed by immersing the celluloid in water acidulated with sulphuric
acid. For industrial products, such as toilet articles, celluloid with
ferric perchloride may be employed.

Another method of preparing an uninflammable celluloid, based on the
principle above mentioned, consists in mixing bromide of camphor with
cotton powder, adding castor oil to soften the product, in order that
it may be less brittle. The latter product is not incombustible, but
it is uninflammable, and its facility of preparation reduces at least
one-half the apparatus ordinarily made use of in the manufacture of
celluloid. The manufacture of this product is not at all dangerous,
for the camphor bromide is strictly uninflammable, and may be melted
without any danger of dissolving the gun cotton.

III.—Dissolve 25 parts of ordinary celluloidin in 250 parts of acetone
and add a solution of 50 parts of magnesium chloride in 150 parts of
alcohol, until a paste results, which occurs with a proportion of about
100 parts of the former solution to 20 parts of the latter solution.
This paste is carefully mixed and worked through, then dried, and gives
an absolutely incombustible material.

IV.—Glass-like plates which are impervious to acids, salts, and
alkalies, flexible, odorless, and infrangible, and still possess a
transparency similar to ordinary glass, are said to be obtained by
dissolving 4 to 8 per cent of collodion wool (soluble pyroxylin) in
1 per cent of ether or alcohol and mixing the solution with 2 to 4
per cent of castor oil, or a similar non-resinifying oil, and with 4
to 6 per cent of Canada balsam. The inflammability of these plates
is claimed to be much less than with others of collodion, and may
be almost entirely obviated by admixture of magnesium chloride. An
addition of zinc white produces the appearance of ivory.


«Solvents for Celluloid.»—Celluloid dissolves in acetone, sulphuric
ether, alcohol, oil of turpentine, benzine, amyl acetate, etc., alone,
or in various combinations of these agents. The following are some
proportions for solutions of celluloid:

   I.—Celluloid            5 parts
       Amyl acetate        10 parts
       Acetone             16 parts
       Sulphuric ether     16 parts

  II.—Celluloid           10 parts
       Sulphuric ether     30 parts
       Acetone             30 parts
       Amyl acetate        30 parts
       Camphor              3 parts

 III.—Celluloid            5 parts
       Alcohol             50 parts
       Camphor              5 parts

  IV.—Celluloid            5 parts
       Amyl acetate        50 parts

   V.—Celluloid            5 parts
       Amyl acetate        25 parts
       Acetone             25 parts


«Softening and Cementing Celluloid.»—If celluloid is to be warmed
only sufficiently to be able to bend it, a bath in boiling water will
answer. In steam at 120° C. (248° F.), however, it becomes so soft that
it may be easily kneaded like dough, so that one may even imbed in it
metal, wood, or any similar material. If it be intended to soften it
to solubility, the celluloid must then be scraped fine and macerated
in 90 per cent alcohol, whereupon it takes on the character of cement
and may be used to join broken pieces of celluloid together. Solutions
of celluloid may be prepared: 1. With 5 parts, by weight, of celluloid
in 16 parts, by weight, each of amyl acetate, acetone, and sulphuric
ether. 2. With 10 parts, by weight, of celluloid in 30 parts, by
weight, each of sulphuric ether, acetone, amyl acetate, and 4 parts,
by weight, camphor. 3. With 5 parts, by weight, celluloid in 50 parts,
by weight, alcohol and 5 parts, by weight, camphor. 4. With 5 parts,
by weight, celluloid in 50 parts, by weight, amyl acetate. 5. With 5
parts, by weight, celluloid in 25 parts, by weight, amyl acetate and 25
parts, by weight, acetone. {161}

It is often desirable to soften celluloid so that it will not break
when hammered. Dipping it in water warmed to 40° C. (104° F.) will
suffice for this.


«Mending Celluloid.»—Celluloid dishes which show cracks are easily
repaired by brushing the surface repeatedly with alcohol, 3 parts, and
ether, 4 parts, until the mass turns soft and can be readily squeezed
together. The pressure must be maintained for about one day. By putting
only 1 part of ether in 3 parts of alcohol and adding a little shellac,
a cement for celluloid is obtained, which, applied warm, produces
quicker results. Another very useful gluing agent for celluloid
receptacles is concentrated acetic acid. The celluloid fragments dabbed
with it stick together almost instantaneously.

See also Adhesives for Methods of Mending Celluloid.


«Printing on Celluloid.»—Printing on celluloid may be done in the
usual way. Make ready the form so as to be perfectly level on the
impression—that is, uniform to impressional touch on the face. The
tympan should be hard. Bring up the form squarely, allowing for about
a 3- or 4-sheet cardboard to be withdrawn from the tympan when about
to proceed with printing on the celluloid; this is to allow for the
thickness of the sheet of celluloid. Use live but dry and well-seasoned
rollers. Special inks of different colors are made for this kind of
presswork; in black a good card-job quality will be found about right,
if a few drops of copal varnish are mixed with the ink before beginning
to print.


«Colored Celluloid.»—

Black: First dip into pure water, then into a solution of nitrate of
silver; let dry in the light.

Yellow: First immerse in a solution of nitrate of lead, then in a
concentrated solution of chromate of potash.

Brown: Dip into a solution of permanganate of potash made strongly
alkaline by the addition of soda.

Blue: Dip into a solution of indigo neutralized by the addition of soda.

Red: First dip into a diluted bath of nitric acid; then into an
ammoniacal solution of carmine.

Green: Dip into a solution of verdigris.

Aniline colors may also be employed but they are less permanent.


«Bleaching Celluloid.»—If the celluloid has become discolored
throughout, its whiteness can hardly be restored, but if merely
superficially discolored, wipe with a woolen rag wet with absolute
alcohol and ether mixed in equal proportions. This dissolves and
removes a minute superficial layer and lays bare a new surface. To
restore the polish rub briskly first with a woolen cloth and finish
with silk or fine chamois. A little jeweler’s rouge or putzpomade
greatly facilitates matters. Ink marks may be removed in the same
manner. Printer’s ink may be removed from celluloid by rubbing first
with oil of turpentine and afterwards with alcohol and ether.


«Process of Impregnating Fabrics with Celluloid.»—The fabric is first
saturated with a dilute celluloid solution of the consistency of olive
oil, which solution penetrates deeply into the tissue; dry quickly
in a heating chamber and saturate with a more concentrated celluloid
solution, about as viscous as molasses. If oil be added to the
celluloid solution, the quantity should be small in the first solution,
e. g., 1 to 2 per cent, in the following ones 5 to 8 per cent, while
the outer layer contains very little or no oil. A fabric impregnated in
this manner possesses a very flexible surface, because the outer layer
may be very thin, while the interior consists of many flexible fibers
surrounded by celluloid.

CELLULOID CEMENTS AND GLUES: See Adhesives.

CELLULOID LACQUER: See Lacquer.

CELLULOID PUTTY: See Cements.


«Cements»

(See also Putties.)

For Adhesive Cements intended for repairing broken articles, see
Adhesives.


«Putty for Celluloid.»—To fasten celluloid to wood, tin, etc., use a
compound of 2 parts shellac, 3 parts spirit of camphor, and 4 parts
strong alcohol.


«Plumbers’ Cement.»—A plumbers’ cement consists of 1 part black rosin,
melted, and 2 parts of brickdust, thoroughly powdered and dried.


«Cement for Steam and Water Pipes.»—A cement for pipe joints is made as
follows: Ten pounds fine yellow ocher; 4 pounds {162} ground litharge;
4 pounds whiting, and 1⁠/⁠2 pound of hemp, cut up fine. Mix together
thoroughly with linseed oil to about the consistency of putty.


«Gutter Cement.»—Stir sand and fine lime into boiled paint skins while
hot and thick. Use hot.


«Cement for Pipe Joints.»—A good cement for making tight joints in
pumps, pipes, etc., is made of a mixture of 15 parts of slaked lime, 30
parts of graphite, and 40 parts of barium sulphate. The ingredients are
powdered, well mixed together, and stirred up with 15 parts of boiled
oil. A stiffer preparation can be made by increasing the proportions
of graphite and barium sulphate to 30 and 40 parts respectively, and
omitting the lime. Another cement for the same purpose consists of 15
parts of chalk and 50 of graphite, ground, washed, mixed, and reground
to fine powder. To this mixture is added 20 parts of ground litharge,
and the whole mixed to a stiff paste with about 15 parts of boiled oil.
This last preparation possesses the advantage of remaining plastic for
a long time when stored in a cool place. Finally, a good and simple
mixture for tightening screw connections is made from powdered shellac
dissolved in 10 per cent ammonia. The mucinous mass is painted over the
screw threads, after the latter have been thoroughly cleaned, and the
fitting is screwed home. The ammonia soon volatilizes, leaving behind a
mass which hardens quickly, makes a tight joint, and is impervious to
hot and cold water.


«Protection for Cement Work.»—A coating of soluble glass will impart to
cement surfaces exposed to ammonia not only a protective covering, but
also increased solidness.

Cemented surfaces can be protected from the action of the weather by
repeated coats of a green vitriol solution consisting of 1 part of
green vitriol and 3 parts of water. Two coatings of 5 per cent soap
water are said to render the cement waterproof; after drying and
rubbing with a cloth or brush, this coating will become glossy like
oil paint. This application is especially recommended for sick rooms,
since the walls can be readily cleaned by washing with soapy water.
The coating is rendered more and more waterproof thereby. The green
vitriol solution is likewise commendable for application on old and new
plastering, since it produces thereon waterproof coatings. From old
plastering the loose particles have first to be removed by washing.


«Puncture Cement.»—A patented preparation for automatically repairing
punctures in bicycle tires consists of glycerine holding gelatinous
silica or aluminum hydrate in suspension. Three volumes of glycerine
are mixed with 1 volume of liquid water glass, and an acid is stirred
in. The resulting jelly is diluted with 3 additional volumes of
glycerine, and from 4 to 6 ounces of this fluid are placed in each
tire. In case of puncture, the internal pressure of the air forces the
fluid into the hole, which it closes.


«To Fix Iron in Stone.»—Of the quickly hardening cements, lead and
sulphur, the latter is popularly employed. It can be rendered still
more suitable for purposes of pouring by the admixture of Portland
cement, which is stirred into the molten sulphur in the ratio of 1 to
3 parts by weight. The strength of the latter is increased by this
addition, since the formation of so coarse a crystalline structure as
that of solidifying pure sulphur is disturbed by the powder added.


«White Portland Cement.»—Mix together feldspar, 40–100 parts, by
weight; kaolin, 100 parts; limestone, 700 parts; magnesite, 20–40
parts; and sodium chloride, 2.5–5 parts, all as pure as possible, and
heat to 1430° to 1500° C. (2606° to 2732° F.), until the whole has
become sintered together, and forms a nice, white cement-like mass.


«Cement for Closing Cracks in Stoves.»—Make a putty of reduced iron
(iron by hydrogen) and a solution of sodium or potassium silicate, and
force it into the crack. If the crack be a very narrow one, make the
iron and silicate into paste instead of putty. This material grows
firmer and harder the longer the mended article is used.


«Cement for Waterpipe.»—I.—Mix together 11 parts, by weight, Portland
cement; 4 parts, by weight, lead white; 1 part, by weight, litharge;
and make to a paste with boiled oil in which 3 per cent of its weight
of colophony has been dissolved.

II.—Mix 1 part, by weight, torn-up wadding; 1 part, by weight, of
quicklime, and 3 parts, by weight, of boiled oil. This cement must be
used as soon as made.


«Cement for Pallet Stones.»—Place small pieces of shellac around the
stone when in position and subject it to heat. Often the lac spreads
unevenly or swells up; and this, in addition to being unsightly, is apt
to displace the stone. This can be avoided as follows: The pallets are
{163} held in long sliding tongs. Take a piece of shellac, heat it and
roll it into a cylinder between the fingers; again heat the extremity
and draw it out into a fine thread. This thread will break off, leaving
a point at the end of the lac. Now heat the tongs at a little distance
from the pallets, testing the degree of heat by touching the tongs with
the shellac. When it melts easily, lightly touch the two sides of the
notch with it; a very thin layer can thus be spread over them, and the
pallet stone can then be placed in position and held until cold enough.
The tongs will not lose the heat suddenly, so that the stone can easily
be raised or lowered as required. The projecting particles of cement
can be removed by a brass wire filed to an angle and forming a scraper.
To cement a ruby pin, or the like, one may also use shellac dissolved
in spirit, applied in the consistency of syrup, and liquefied again by
means of a hot pincette, by seizing the stone with it.


«DENTAL CEMENTS:»


«Fairthorne’s Cement.»—Powdered glass, 5 parts; powdered borax, 4
parts; silicic acid, 8 parts; zinc oxide, 200 parts. Powder very
finely and mix; then tint with a small quantity of golden ocher or
manganese. The compound, mixed before use with concentrated syrupy
zinc-chloride solution, soon becomes as hard as marble and constitutes
a very durable tooth cement.


«Huebner’s Cement.»—Zinc oxide, 500.0 parts; powdered manganese, 1.5
parts; yellow ocher, powdered, 1.5–4.0 parts; powdered borax, 10.0
parts; powdered glass, 100.0 parts.

As a binding liquid it is well to use acid-free zinc chloride,
which can be prepared by dissolving pure zinc, free from iron, in
concentrated, pure, hydrochloric acid, in such a manner that zinc is
always in excess. When no more hydrogen is evolved the zinc in excess
is still left in the solution for some time. The latter is filtered and
boiled down to the consistency of syrup.

Commercial zinc oxide cannot be employed without previous treatment,
because it is too loose; the denser it is the better is it adapted for
dental cements, and the harder the latter will be. For this reason it
is well, in order to obtain a dense product, to stir the commercial
pure zinc oxide into a stiff paste with water to which 2 per cent of
nitric acid has been added; the paste is dried and heated for some time
at white heat in a Hessian crucible.

After cooling, the zinc oxide, thus obtained, is very finely powdered
and kept in hermetically sealed vessels, so that it cannot absorb
carbonic acid. The dental cement prepared with such zinc oxide turns
very hard and solidifies with the concentrated zinc-chloride solution
in a few minutes.


«Phosphate Cement.»—Concentrate pure phosphoric acid till semi-solid,
and mix aluminum phosphate with it by heating. For use, mix with zinc
oxide to the consistency of putty. The cement is said to set in 2
minutes.


«Zinc Amalgam, or Dentists’ Zinc.»—This consists of pure zinc filings
combined with twice their weight of mercury, a gentle heat being
employed to render the union more complete. It is best applied as soon
as made. Its color is gray, and it is said to be effective and durable.


«Sorel’s Cement.»—Mix zinc oxide with half its bulk of fine sand, add a
solution of zinc chloride of 1.260 specific gravity, and rub the whole
thoroughly together in a mortar. The mixture must be applied at once,
as it hardens very quickly.


«Metallic Cement.»—Pure tin, with a small proportion of cadmium and
sufficient mercury, forms the most lasting and, for all practical
purposes, the least objectionable amalgam. Melt 2 parts of tin with 1
of cadmium, run it into ingots, and reduce it to filings. Form these
into a fluid amalgam with mercury, and squeeze out the excess of the
latter through leather. Work up the solid residue in the hand, and
press it into the tooth. Or melt some beeswax in a pipkin, throw in
5 parts of cadmium, and when melted add 7 or 8 parts of tin in small
pieces. Pour the melted metals into an iron or wooden box, and shake
them until cold, so as to obtain the alloy in a powder. This is mixed
with 2 1⁠/⁠2 to 3 times its weight of mercury in the palm of the hand,
and used as above described.

CEMENT COLORS: See Stone.

CEMENT, MORDANT FOR: See Mordants.

CEMENT, PAINTS FOR: See Paint.

CEMENT, PROTECTION OF, AGAINST ACID: See Acid-Proofing. {164}

CHAIN OF FIRE: See Pyrotechnics.

CHAINS (WATCH), TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.


«CHALK FOR TAILORS.»

Knead together ordinary pipe clay, moistened with ultramarine blue for
blue, finely ground ocher for yellow, etc., until they are uniformly
mixed, roll out into thin sheets, cut and press into wooden or metallic
molds, well oiled to prevent sticking, and allow to dry slowly at
ordinary temperature or at a very gentle heat.

CHAPPED HANDS: See Cosmetics.

CHARTA SINAPIS: See Mustard Paper.

CHARTREUSE: See Wines and Liquors.


«Ceramics»

GROUND CERAMICS—LAYING OIL FOR: See Oil.


«Notes for Potters, Glass-, and Brick-makers.»—It is of the highest
importance in selecting oxides, minerals, etc., for manufacturing
different articles, for potters’ use, to secure pure goods, especially
in the purchase of the following: Lead, manganese, oxide of zinc,
borax, whiting, oxide of iron, and oxide of cobalt. The different
ingredients comprising any given color or glaze should be thoroughly
mixed before being calcined, otherwise the mass will be of a streaky
or variegated kind. Calcination requires care, especially in the
manufacture of enamel colors. Over-firing, particularly of colors or
enamels composed in part of lead, borax, antimony, or litharge, causes
a dullness of shade, or film, that reduces their value for decorative
purposes, where clearness and brilliancy are of the first importance.

To arrest the unsightly defect of “crazing,” the following have been
the most successful methods employed, in the order given:

I.—Flux made of 10 parts tincal; 4 parts oxide of zinc; 1 part soda.

II.—A calcination of 5 parts oxide of zinc; 1 part pearl ash.

III.—Addition of raw oxide of zinc, 6 pounds to each hundredweight of
glaze.

To glazed brick and tile makers, whose chief difficulty appears to
be the production of a slip to suit the contraction of their clay,
and adhere strongly to either a clay or a burnt brick or tile, the
following method may be recommended:

Mix together:

 Ball clay          10     parts
 Cornwall stone     10     parts
 China clay          7     parts
 Flint               6 1⁠/⁠2 parts

To be mixed and lawned one week before use.


«To Cut Pottery.»—Pottery or any soft or even hard stone substance
can be cut without chipping by a disk of soft iron, the edge of which
has been charged with emery, diamond, or other grinding powder, that
can be obtained at any tool agency. The cutting has to be done with a
liberal supply of water fed continually to the revolving disk and the
substance to be cut.


«BRICK AND TILEMAKERS’ GLAZED BRICKS:»


«White.»—When the brick or tile leaves the press, with a very soft
brush cover the part to be glazed with No. 1 Slip; afterwards dip the
face in the same mixture.


«No. 1 Slip.»—

 Same clay as brick     9 parts
 Flint                  1 part
 Ball clay              5 parts
 China                  4 parts

Allow the brick to remain slowly drying for 8 to 10 hours, then when
moist dip in the white body.


«White Body.»—

 China clay      24 parts
 Ball clay        8 parts
 Feldspar         8 parts
 Flint            4 parts

The brick should now be dried slowly but thoroughly, and when perfectly
dry dip the face in clean cold water, and immediately afterwards in
glaze.


«Hard Glaze.»—

 Feldspar             18     parts
 Cornwall stone        3 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Whiting               1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Oxide of zinc         1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Plaster of Paris        3⁠/⁠4 part

{165}


«Soft Glaze.»—

 White lead        13     parts
 Feldspar          20     parts
 Oxide of zinc      3     parts
 Plaster of Paris   1     part
 Flint glass       13     parts
 Cornwall stone     3 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Paris white        1 1⁠/⁠4 parts

Where clay is used that will stand a very high fire, the white lead and
glass may be left out. A wire brush should now be used to remove all
superfluous glaze, etc., from the sides and ends of the brick, which
is then ready for the kiln. In placing, set the bricks face to face,
about an inch space being left between the two glazed faces. All the
mixtures, after being mixed with water to the consistency of cream,
must be passed 2 or 3 times through a very fine lawn. The kiln must not
be opened till perfectly cold.


«Process for Colored Glazes.»—Use color, 1 part, to white body, 7
parts. Use color, 1 part, to glaze, 9 parts.


«Preparation of Colors.»—The specified ingredients should all be
obtained finely ground, and after being mixed in the proportions given
should, in a saggar or some clay vessel, be fired in the brick kiln and
afterwards ground for use. In firing the ingredients the highest heat
attainable is necessary.


«Turquoise.»—

 Oxide of zinc     8     parts
 Oxide of cobalt   1 1⁠/⁠4 parts


«Grass Green.»—

 Oxide of chrome    6     parts
 Flint              1     part
 Oxide of copper      1⁠/⁠2 part


«Royal Blue.»—

 Pure alumina       20 parts
 Oxide of zinc       8 parts
 Oxide of cobalt     4 parts


«Mazarine Blue.»—

 Oxide of cobalt      10 parts
 Paris white           9 parts
 Sulphate barytes      1 part


«Red Brown.»—

 Oxide of zinc         40 parts
 Crocus of martis       6 parts
 Oxide of chrome        6 parts
 Red lead               5 parts
 Boracic acid           5 parts
 Red oxide of iron      1 part


«Orange.»—

 Pure alumina             5     parts
 Oxide of zinc            2     parts
 Bichromate of potash     1     part
 Iron scale                 1⁠/⁠2 part


«Claret Brown.»—

 Bichromate of potash    2 parts
 Flint                   2 parts
 Oxide of zinc           1 part
 Iron scale              1 part


«Blue Green.»—

 Oxide of chrome     6     parts
 Flint               2     parts
 Oxide of cobalt       3⁠/⁠4 part


«Sky Blue.»—

 Flint               9     parts
 Oxide of zinc      13     parts
 Cobalt              2 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Phosphate soda      1     part


«Chrome Green.»—

 Oxide of chrome        3 parts
 Oxide of copper        1 part
 Carbonate of cobalt    1 part
 Oxide of cobalt        2 parts


«Olive.»—

 Oxide of chrome     3 parts
 Oxide of zinc       2 parts
 Flint               5 parts
 Oxide of cobalt     1 part


«Blood Red.»—

 Oxide of zinc        30 parts
 Crocus martis         7 parts
 Oxide of chrome       7 parts
 Litharge              5 parts
 Borax                 5 parts
 Red oxide of iron     2 parts


«Black.»—

 Chromate of iron   24 parts
 Oxide of nickel     2 parts
 Oxide of tin        2 parts
 Oxide of cobalt     5 parts


«Imperial Blue.»—

 Oxide of cobalt     10     parts
 Black color          1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Paris white          7 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Flint                2 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Carbonate of soda    1     part


«Mahogany.»—

 Chromate of iron      30 parts
 Oxide of manganese    20 parts
 Oxide of zinc         12 parts
 Oxide of tin           4 parts
 Crocus martis          2 parts


«Gordon Green.»—

 Oxide of chrome        12     parts
 Paris white             8     parts
 Bichromate of potash    4 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Oxide of cobalt           3⁠/⁠4 part


«Violet.»—

 Oxide of cobalt       2 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Oxide of manganese    4     parts
 Oxide of zinc         8     parts
 Cornwall stone        8     parts

{166}


«Lavender.»—

 Calcined oxide of zinc    5     parts
 Carbonate of cobalt         3⁠/⁠4 part
 Oxide of nickel             1⁠/⁠4 part
 Paris white               1     part


«Brown.»—

 Manganese            4 parts
 Oxide of chrome      2 parts
 Oxide of zinc        4 parts
 Sulphate barytes     2 parts


«Dove.»—

 Oxide of nickel     7 parts
 Oxide of cobalt     2 parts
 Oxide of chrome     1 part
 Oxide of flint     18 parts
 Paris white         3 parts


«Yellow Green.»—

 Flint                   6     parts
 Paris white             4     parts
 Bichromate of potash    4 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Red lead                2     parts
 Fluorspar               2     parts
 Plaster of Paris        1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Oxide of copper           1⁠/⁠2 part


«BODIES REQUIRING NO STAIN:»


«Ivory.»—

 Cane marl    16 parts
 Ball clay    12 parts
 Feldspar      8 parts
 China clay    6 parts
 Flint         4 parts


«Cream.»—

 Ball clay    22     parts
 China clay    5 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Flint         5     parts
 Feldspar      3 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Cane marl    12     parts


«Black.»—

 Ball clay          120 parts
 Ground ocher       120 parts
 Ground manganese    35 parts


«Buff.»—

 Ball clay         12 parts
 China clay        10 parts
 Feldspar           8 parts
 Bull fire clay    16 parts
 Yellow ocher       3 parts


«Drab.»—

 Cane marl    30 parts
 Ball clay    10 parts
 Stone         7 parts
 Feldspar      4 parts


«Brown.»—

 Red marl            50 parts
 China clay           7 parts
 Ground manganese     6 parts
 Feldspar             3 parts

In making mazarine blue glazed bricks use the white body and stain the
glaze only.

 Mazarine blue          1 part
 Glaze                  7 parts

For royal blue use 1 part stain to 6 parts white body, and glaze
unstained.


«Blood-Red Stain.»—Numerous brick manufacturers possess beds of clay
from which good and sound bricks or tiles can be made, the only
drawback being that the clay does not burn a good color. In many cases
this arises from the fact that the clay contains more or less sulphur
or other impurity, which spoils the external appearance of the finished
article. The following stain will convert clay of any color into a
rich, deep red, mixed in proportions of stain, 1 part, to clay, 60
parts.


«Stain.»—

 Crocus martis         20 parts
 Yellow ocher           4 parts
 Sulphate of iron      10 parts
 Red oxide of iron      2 parts

A still cheaper method is to put a slip or external coating upon the
goods. The slip being quite opaque, effectively hides the natural color
of the brick or tile upon which it may be used.

The process is to mix:

 Blood-red stain        1 part
 Good red clay          6 parts

Add water until the mixture becomes about the consistency of cream,
then with a sponge force the liquid two or three times through a very
fine brass wire lawn, No. 80, and dip the goods in the liquid as soon
as they are pressed or molded.


«Blue Paviors.»—Blue paving bricks may be produced with almost any kind
of clay that will stand a fair amount of heat, by adopting the same
methods as in the former case of blood-red bricks, that is, the clay
may be stained throughout, or an outside coating may be applied.


«Stain for Blue Paviors.»—

 Ground ironstone      20 parts
 Chromate of iron       5 parts
 Manganese              6 parts
 Oxide of nickel        1 part

Use 1 part clay and 1 part stain for coating, and 50 or 60 parts clay
and 1 part stain for staining through.

Fire blue paviors very hard.


«Buff Terra-Cotta Slip.»—

 Buff fire clay        16 parts
 China clay             6 parts {167}
 Yellow ocher           3 parts
 Ball clay             10 parts
 Flint                  4 parts

Add water to the materials after mixing well, pass through the fine
lawn, and dip the goods when soft in the liquid.


«Transparent Glaze.»—

 Ground flint glass     4     parts
 Ground white lead      4     parts
 Ground oxide of zinc     1⁠/⁠4 part

This glaze is suitable for bricks or tiles made of very good red clay,
the natural color of the clay showing through the glaze. The goods
must first be fired sufficiently hard to make them durable, afterwards
glazed, and fired again. The glaze being comparatively soft will fuse
at about half the heat required for the first burning. The glaze may
be stained, if desired, with any of the colors given in glazed-brick
recipes, in the following proportions: Stain, 1 part; glaze, 1 part.


«SPECIAL RECIPES FOR POTTERY AND BRICK AND TILE WORKS:»


«Vitrifiable Bodies.»—The following mixtures will flux only at a very
high heat. They require no glaze when a proper heat is attained, and
they are admirably adapted for stoneware glazes.

   I.—Cornwall stone             20     parts
       Feldspar                   12     parts
       China clay                  3     parts
       Whiting                     2     parts
       Plaster of Paris            1 1⁠/⁠2 parts

  II.—Feldspar                   30     parts
       Flint                       9     parts
       Stone                       8     parts
       China clay                  3     parts

 III.—Feldspar                   20     parts
       Stone                       5     parts
       Oxide of zinc               3     parts
       Whiting                     2     parts
       Plaster of Paris            1     part
       Soda crystals, dissolved    1     part


«Special Glazes for Bricks or Pottery at One Burning.»—To run these
glazes intense heat is required.

  I.—Cornwall stone         40     parts
      Flint                   7     parts
      Paris white             4     parts
      Ball clay              15     parts
      Oxide of zinc           6     parts
      White lead             15     parts

 II.—Feldspar               20     parts
      Cornwall stone          5     parts
      Oxide of zinc           3     parts
      Flint                   3     parts
      Lynn sand               1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
      Sulphate barytes        1 1⁠/⁠2 parts

 III.—Feldspar             25      parts
       Cornwall stone        6      parts
       Oxide of zinc         2      parts
       China clay            2      parts

  IV.—Cornwall stone      118      parts
       Feldspar             40      parts
       Paris white          28      parts
       Flint                 4      parts

   V.—Feldspar             16      parts
       China clay            4      parts
       Stone                 4      parts
       Oxide of zinc         2      parts
       Plaster of Paris      1      part

  VI.—Feldspar             10      parts
       Stone                 5      parts
       Flint                 2      parts
       Plaster                  1⁠/⁠2 part

The following glaze is excellent for bricks in the biscuit and pottery,
which require an easy firing:


«White.»—

 White lead            20 parts
 Stone                  9 parts
 Flint                  9 parts
 Borax                  4 parts
 Oxide of zinc          2 parts
 Feldspar               3 parts

These materials should be procured finely ground, and after being
thoroughly mixed should be placed in a fire-clay crucible, and be
fired for 5 or 6 hours, sharply, or until the material runs down into
a liquid, then with a pair of iron tongs draw the crucible from the
kiln and pour the liquid into a bucket of cold water, grind the flux
to an extremely fine powder, and spread a coating upon the plate to be
enameled, previously brushing a little gum thereon. The plate must then
be fired until a sufficient heat is attained to run or fuse the powder.


«POTTERY BODIES AND GLAZES:»


«Ordinary.»—

   I.—China clay          2 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       Stone               1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       Bone                3     parts

  II.—China clay          5     parts
       Stone               2 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       Bone                7     parts
       Barytes             3     parts

 III.—Chain clay          5     parts
       Stone               3     parts
       Flint                 1⁠/⁠4 part
       Barytes             8     parts


«Superior.»—

 I.—China clay             35 parts
     Cornwall stone         23 parts
     Bone                   40 parts
     Flint                   2 parts {168}

  II.—China clay            35 parts
       Cornwall stone         8 parts
       Bone                  50 parts
       Flint                  3 parts
       Blue clay              4 parts

 III.—China clay             8 parts
       Cornwall stone        40 parts
       Bone                  29 parts
       Flint                  5 parts
       Blue clay             18 parts

  IV.—China clay            32 parts
       Cornwall stone        23 parts
       Bone                  34 parts
       Flint                  6 parts
       Blue clay              5 parts

   V.—China clay             7 parts
       Stone                 40 parts
       Bone                  28 parts
       Flint                  5 parts
       Blue clay             20 parts


«Finest China Bodies.»—

   I.—China clay           20 parts
       Bone                 60 parts
       Feldspar             20 parts

  II.—China clay           30 parts
       Bone                 40 parts
       Feldspar             30 parts

 III.—China clay           25 parts
       Stone                10 parts
       Bone                 45 parts
       Feldspar             20 parts

  IV.—China clay           30 parts
       Stone                15 parts
       Bone                 35 parts
       Feldspar             20 parts


«Earthenware Bodies.»—

   I.—Ball clay         13     parts
       China clay         9 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       Flint              5 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       Cornwall stone     4     parts

  II.—Ball clay         12 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       China clay         8     parts
       Flint              5 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       Cornwall stone     2 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       One pint of cobalt stain to 1 ton of glaze.

 III.—Ball clay          13 1⁠/⁠4 parts
       China clay         11     parts
       Flint               4     parts
       Cornwall stone      5     parts
       Feldspar            4     parts
       Stain as required.

  IV.—Ball clay          18 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       China clay         13 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       Flint               8 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       Stone               4     parts
       Blue stain, 2 pints to ton.

  V.—Ball clay             15 parts
      China clay            12 parts
      Flint                  6 parts
      Stone                  4 parts
      Feldspar               4 parts
      Blue stain, 2 pints to ton.

 VI. (Parian).—
      Stone                 11 parts
      Feldspar              10 parts
      China clay             8 parts


«COLORED BODIES:»


«Ivory Body.»—

 Ball clay         22     parts
 China              5 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Flint              5     parts
 Stone              3 1⁠/⁠2 parts


«Dark Drab Body.»—

 Cane marl             30 parts
 Ball clay             10 parts
 Cornwall stone         7 parts
 Feldspar               4 parts


«Black Body.»—

 Ball clay            120 parts
 Ocher                120 parts
 Manganese             35 parts
 Cobalt carbonate       2 parts

Grind the three last mentioned ingredients first.


«Caledonia Body.»—

 Yellow clay           32 parts
 China clay            10 parts
 Flint                  4 parts


«Brown Body.»—

 Red clay          50     parts
 Common clay        7 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Manganese          1     part
 Flint              1     part


«Jasper Body.»—

 Cawk clay             10     parts
 Blue clay             10     parts
 Bone                   5     parts
 Flint                  2     parts
 Cobalt                   1⁠/⁠4 part


«Stone Body.»—

 Stone                 48 parts
 Blue clay             25 parts
 China clay            24 parts
 Cobalt                10 parts


«Egyptian Black.»—

 Blue clay            235 parts
 Calcined ocher       225 parts
 Manganese             45 parts
 China clay            15 parts


«Ironstone Body.»—

 Stone                200 parts
 Cornwall clay        150 parts {169}
 Blue clay            200 parts
 Flint                100 parts
 Calx                   1 part


«Cream Body.»—

 Blue clay          1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Brown clay         1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Black clay         1     part
 Cornish clay       1     part
 Common ball clay     1⁠/⁠4 part
 Buff color           1⁠/⁠4 part


«Light Drab.»—

 Cane marl             30 parts
 Ball clay             24 parts
 Feldspar               7 parts


«Sage Body.»—

 Cane marl             15 parts
 Ball clay             15 parts
 China clay             5 parts
 Stained with turquoise stain.


«COLORED GLAZES FOR POTTERY:»


«Blue.»—

 White glaze          100 parts
 Oxide of cobalt        3 parts
 Red lead              10 parts
 Flowing blue           3 parts
 Enamel blue            3 parts

Grind.


«Pink.»—

 White glaze          100 parts
 Red lead               8 parts
 Marone pink U. G.      8 parts
 Enamel red             3 parts

Grind.


«Buff.»—

 White glaze          100 parts
 Red lead              10 parts
 Buff color             8 parts

Grind.


«Ivory.»—

 White glaze          100 parts
 Red lead               8 parts
 Enamel amber           8 parts
 Yellow underglaze      2 parts

Grind.


«Turquoise.»—

 White glaze          100 parts
 Red lead              10 parts
 Carbonate of soda      5 parts
 Enamel blue            4 parts
 Malachite, 110         4 parts

Grind.


«Yellow.»—

 I.—White glaze           100 parts
     Red lead               10 parts
     Oxide of uranium        8 parts

Grind.

 II.—Dried flint            5 parts
      Cornwall stone        15 parts
      Litharge              50 parts
      Yellow underglaze      4 parts

 Grind.


 «Green.»—

 I.—Oxide of copper         8 parts
     Flint of glass          3 parts
     Flint                   1 part
     Red lead                6 parts

 Grind, then take:

 Of above               1 part
 White glaze            6 parts

 Or stronger as required.

 II.—Red lead                  60     parts
      Stone                     24     parts
      Flint                     12     parts
      Flint glass               12     parts
      China clay                 3     parts
      Calcined oxide of copper  14     parts
      Oxide of cobalt              1⁠/⁠4 part

 Grind only.


 «Green Glaze, Best.»—

 III.—Stone            80     parts
       Flint             8     parts
       Soda crystals     4     parts
       Borax             3 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       Niter             2     parts
       Whiting           2     parts
       Oxide of cobalt     1⁠/⁠4 part

 Glost fire, then take:

 Above frit                60     parts
 Red lead                  57     parts
 Calcined oxide of copper   5 1⁠/⁠4 parts


 «Black.»—

 Red lead              24 parts
 Raddle                 4 parts
 Manganese              4 parts
 Flint                  2 parts
 Oxide of cobalt        2 parts
 Carbonate of cobalt    2 parts

 Glost fire.


 «WHITE GLAZES:»


 «China.»—Frit:

 I.—Stone                   6 parts
     Niter                   2 parts
     Borax                  12 parts
     Flint                   4 parts
     Pearl ash               2 parts

 To mill:

 Frit              24     parts
 Stone             15 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Flint              6 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 White lead        31     parts

{170}

II.—Frit:

 Stone                 24 parts
 Borax                 53 parts
 Lynn sand             40 parts
 Feldspar              32 parts
 Paris white           16 parts

To mill:

 Frit                  90 parts
 Stone                 30 parts
 White lead            90 parts
 Flint                  4 parts
 Glass                  2 parts

III.—Frit:

 Stone                 50 parts
 Borax                 40 parts
 Flint                 30 parts
 Flint glass           30 parts
 Pearl barytes         10 parts

To mill:

 Frit                 160     parts
 Red lead              30     parts
 Enamel blue              1⁠/⁠2 part
 Flint glass            2     parts

IV.—Frit:

 Borax                100 parts
 China clay            55 parts
 Whiting               60 parts
 Feldspar              75 parts

To mill:

 Frit                 200     parts
 China clay            16     parts
 White clay             3 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Stone                  3     parts
 Flint                  2     parts

V.—Frit:

 Stone                 40 parts
 Flint                 25 parts
 Niter                 10 parts
 Borax                 20 parts
 White lead            10 parts
 Flint glass           40 parts

To mill:

 Frit                 145 parts
 Stone                 56 parts
 Borax                 16 parts
 Flint                 15 parts
 Red lead              60 parts
 Flint glass            8 parts


«Earthenware.»—Frit:

 I.—Flint                 108 parts
     China clay             45 parts
     Paris white            60 parts
     Borax                  80 parts
     Soda crystals          30 parts

To mill:

 Frit                 270 parts
 Flint                 20 parts
 Paris white           15 parts
 Stone                 80 parts
 White lead            65 parts

II.—Frit:

 Flint                 62 parts
 China clay            30 parts
 Paris white           38 parts
 Boracic acid          48 parts
 Soda crystals         26 parts

To mill:

 Frit                 230 parts
 Stone                160 parts
 Flint                 60 parts
 Lead                 120 parts

III.—Frit:

 Stone                 56 parts
 Paris white           55 parts
 Flint                 60 parts
 China clay            20 parts
 Borax                120 parts
 Soda crystals         15 parts

To mill:

 Frit                 212 parts
 Stone                130 parts
 Flint                 50 parts
 Lead                 110 parts

Stain as required.

IV.—Frit:

 Stone                100 parts
 Flint                 44 parts
 Paris white           46 parts
 Borax                 70 parts
 Niter                 10 parts

To mill:

 Frit                 200 parts
 Stone                 60 parts
 Lead                  80 parts


«Pearl White Glaze.»—Frit:

 Flint                 50 parts
 Stone                100 parts
 Paris white           20 parts
 Borax                 60 parts
 Soda crystals         20 parts

To mill:

 Frit                 178 pounds
 Lead                  55 pounds
 Stain                  3 ounces


«Opaque Glaze.»—Frit:

 Borax                 74     parts
 Stone                 94     parts
 Flint                 30     parts
 China clay            22     parts
 Pearl ash              5 1⁠/⁠2 parts

To mill:

 Frit                 175 parts
 Lead                  46 parts {171}
 Flint                 10 parts
 Oxide of tin          12 parts
 Flint glass           12 parts


«Glaze for Granite.»—Frit:

 I.—Stone                 100 parts
     Flint                  80 parts
     China clay             30 parts
     Paris white            30 parts
     Feldspar               40 parts
     Soda crystals          40 parts
     Borax                  80 parts

To mill:

 Frit                 360 parts
 Flint                 50 parts
 Stone                 50 parts
 Lead                  80 parts

II.—Frit:

 Borax                100 parts
 Stone                 50 parts
 Flint                 50 parts
 Paris white           40 parts
 China clay            20 parts

To mill:

 Frit                 210 parts
 Stone                104 parts
 Flint                 64 parts
 Lead                  95 parts


«Raw Glazes.»—White:

 I.—White lead            160 parts
     Borax                  32 parts
     Stone                  48 parts
     Flint                  52 parts

Stain with blue and grind.

 II.—White lead            80 parts
      Litharge              60 parts
      Boracic acid          40 parts
      Stone                 45 parts
      Flint                 50 parts

Treat as foregoing.

 III.—White lead          100 parts
       Borax                 4 parts
       Flint                11 parts
       Cornwall stone       50 parts

  IV.—Red lead             80 parts
       Litharge             60 parts
       Tincal               40 parts
       Stone                40 parts
       Flint                52 parts


«ROCKINGHAM GLAZES.»

  I.—Litharge              50     parts
      Stone                  7 1⁠/⁠2 parts
      Red marl               3     parts
      Oxide of manganese     5     parts
      Red oxide of iron      1     part

 II.—White lead            30     parts
      Stone                  3     parts
      Flint                  9     parts
      Red marl               3     parts
      Manganese              5     parts

 III.—Red lead             20 parts
       Stone                 3 parts
       Flint                 2 parts
       China clay            2 parts
       Manganese             3 parts
       Red oxide of iron     1 part


«Stoneware Bodies.»—

 Ball clay             14 parts
 China clay            10 parts
 Stone                  8 parts

 Ball clay              8 parts
 China clay             5 parts
 Flint                  3 parts
 Stone                  4 parts

 Ball clay             14 parts
 China clay            11 parts
 Flint                  4 parts
 Stone                  5 parts
 Feldspar               4 parts

 Cane marl             16 parts
 China clay            10 parts
 Stone                  9 parts
 Flint                  5 parts


«Glazes.»—Hard glaze:

 Stone                 10     parts
 Flint                  5     parts
 Whiting                1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Red lead              10     parts

Hard glaze:

 Feldspar              25 parts
 Flint                  5 parts
 Red lead              15 parts
 Plaster                1 part

Softer:

 White lead            13     parts
 Flint glass           10     parts
 Feldspar              18     parts
 Stone                  3     parts
 Whiting                1 1⁠/⁠2 parts

Best:

 Feldspar              20 parts
 Flint glass           14     parts
 White lead            14     parts
 Stone                  3     parts
 Oxide of zinc          3     parts
 Whiting                1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Plaster                1     part


«Rockingham Bodies.»—

 Ball clay             20 parts
 China clay            13 parts
 Flint                  7 parts
 Stone                  1 part

 Cane marl             22 parts
 China clay            15 parts
 Flint                  8 parts
 Feldspar               1 part {172}


«Glazes.»—

   I.—Red lead           60 parts
       Stone               8 parts
       Red clay            3 parts
       Best manganese      5 parts

  II.—White lead         60 parts
       Feldspar            6 parts
       Flint              16 parts
       Red clay            6 parts
       Manganese          12 parts

 III.—Red lead          100 parts
       Stone              15 parts
       Flint              10 parts
       China clay         10 parts
       Manganese          40 parts
       Crocus martis       2 parts

  IV.—Litharge          100 parts
       Feldspar           14 parts
       China clay         20 parts
       Manganese          40 parts
       Oxide of iron       2 parts


«Jet.»—Procure some first-class red marl, add water, and, by passing
through a fine lawn, make it into a slip, and dip the ware therein.

When fired use the following:

Glaze.—

 Stone            60     parts
 Flint            30     parts
 Paris white       7 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Red lead        140     parts

One part mazarine blue stain to 10 parts glaze.

Mazarine Blue Stain.—

 Oxide of cobalt     10 parts
 Paris white          9 parts
 Sulphate barytes     1 part

Calcine.

Another Process Body.—

 Ball clay       16 parts
 China clay      12 parts
 Flint clay       9 parts
 Stone clay       6 parts
 Black stain      7 parts

Glaze.—

 Litharge        70 parts
 Paris white      3 parts
 Flint           12 parts
 Stone           30 parts
 Black stain     20 parts

Black Stain.—

 Chromate of iron        12 parts
 Oxide of nickel          2 parts
 Oxide of tin             2 parts
 Carbonate of cobalt      5 parts
 Oxide of manganese       2 parts

Calcine and grind.

Blue Stains.—

 I.—Oxide of cobalt     2 1⁠/⁠2 parts
     Oxide of zinc       7 1⁠/⁠2 parts
     Stone               7 1⁠/⁠2 parts

Fire this very hard.

 II.—Zinc               6 pounds
      Flint              4 pounds
      China clay         4 pounds
      Oxide of cobalt    5 ounces

Hard fire.

 III.—Whiting             3 3⁠/⁠4 parts
       Flint               3 3⁠/⁠4 parts
       Oxide of cobalt     2 1⁠/⁠2 parts

Glost fire.

Turquoise Stain.—

 Prepared cobalt         1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Oxide of zinc           6     parts
 China clay              6     parts
 Carbonate of soda.      1     part

Hard fire.


«MATERIALS:»


«Tin Ash.»—

 Old lead       4 parts
 Grain tin      2 parts

Melt in an iron ladle, and pour out in water, then spread on a dish,
and calcine in glost oven with plenty of air.


«Oxide of Tin.»—

 Granulated tin    5     pounds
 Niter               1⁠/⁠2 pound

Put on saucers and fire in glost oven.


«Oxide of Chrome» is made by mixing powdered bichromate of potash with
sulphur as follows:

 Potash              6 parts
 Flowers of sulphur  1 part

Put in saggar, inside kiln, so that fumes are carried away, and place 4
or 5 pieces of red-hot iron on the top so as to ignite it. Leave about
12 hours, then pound very fine, and put in saggar again. Calcine in
hard place of biscuit oven. Wash this until the water is quite clear,
and dry for use.


«Production of Luster Colors on Porcelain and Glazed Pottery.»—The
luster colors are readily decomposed by acids and atmospheric
influences, because they do not contain, in consequence of the low
baking temperature, enough silicic acid to form resistive compounds.
In order to attain this, G. Alefeld has patented a process according
to which such compounds are added to the luster preparations as
leave behind after the burning an acid which transforms the luster
preparation into more resisting {173} compounds. In this connection
the admixture of such bodies has been found advantageous, as they form
phosphides with the metallic oxides of the lusters after the burning.
These phosphides are especially fitted for the production of saturated
resisting compounds, not only on account of their insolubility in
water, but also on account of their colorings. Similarly titanic,
molybdic, tungstic, and vanadic compounds may be produced. The metallic
phosphates produced by the burning give a luster coating which, as
regards gloss, is not inferior to the non-saturated metallic oxides,
while it materially excels them in power of resistance. Since the
lusters to be applied are used dissolved in essential oils, it is
necessary to make the admixture of phosphoric substance also in a form
soluble in essential oils. For the production of this admixture the
respective chlorides, preeminently phosphoric chloride, are suitable.
They are mixed with oil of lavender in the ratio of 1 to 5, and the
resulting reaction product is added to the commercial metallic oxide
luster, singly or in conjunction with precious metal preparations
(glossy gold, silver, platinum, etc.) in the approximate proportion
of 5 to 1. Then proceed as usual. Instead of the chlorides, nitrates
and acetates, as well as any readily destructible organic compounds,
may also be employed, which are entered into fusing rosin or rosinous
liquids.


«Metallic Luster on Pottery.»—According to a process patented in
Germany, a mixture is prepared from various natural or artificial
varieties of ocher, to which 25–50 per cent of finely powdered more or
less metalliferous or sulphurous coal is added. The mass treated in
this manner is brought together in saggars with finely divided organic
substances, such as sawdust, shavings, wood-wool, cut straw, etc., and
subjected to feeble red heat. After the heating the material is taken
out. The glazings now exhibit that thin but stable metallic color which
is governed by the substances used. Besides coal, salts and oxides of
silver, cobalt, cadmium, chrome iron, nickel, manganese, copper, or
zinc may be employed. The color-giving layer is removed by washing or
brushing, while the desired color is burned in and remains. In this
manner handsome shades can be produced.


«Metallic Glazes on Enamels.»—The formulas used by the Arabs and their
Italian successors are partly disclosed in manuscripts in the British
and South Kensington Museums; two are given below:

                        Arab  Italian
 Copper sulphide       26.87    24.74
 Silver sulphide        1.15     1.03
 Mercury sulphide        —      24.74
 Red ocher             71.98    49.49

These were ground with vinegar and applied with the brush to the
already baked enamel. A great variety of iridescent and metallic tones
can be obtained by one or the other, or a mixture of the following
formulas:

                      I  II  III  IV   V   VI
 Copper carbonate    30  —    —   28  —    95
 Copper oxalate      —   —    —   —    5   —
 Copper sulphide     —   20   —   —   —    —
 Silver carbonate    —    3   —    2   1    5
 Bismuth subnitrate  —   12   —   —   10   —
 Stannous oxide      —   —    25  —   —    —
 Red ocher           70  85   55  70  84   —

Silver chloride and yellow ocher may be respectively substituted for
silver carbonate and red ocher. The ingredients, ground with a little
gum tragacanth and water, are applied with a brush to enamels melting
about 1814° F., and are furnaced at 1202° F. in a reducing atmosphere.
After cooling the ferruginous deposit is rubbed off, and the colors
thus brought out.

Sulphur, free or combined, is not necessary, cinnabar has no action,
ocher may be dispensed with, and any organic gummy matter may be
used instead of vinegar, and broom is not needed in the furnace. The
intensity and tone of the iridescence depend on the duration of the
reduction, and the nature of the enamel. Enamels containing a coloring
base—copper, iron, antimony, nickel—especially in presence of tin, give
the best results.


«To Toughen China.»—To toughen china or glass place the new article
in cold water, bring to boil gradually, boil for 4 hours, and leave
standing in the water till cool. Glass or china toughened in this way
will never crack with hot water.


«How to Tell Pottery and Porcelain.»—The following simple test
will serve: Hold the piece up to the light, and if it can be seen
through—that is, if it is translucent—it is porcelain. Pottery is
opaque, and not so hard and white as porcelain. The main differences in
the manufacture of stoneware, earthenware, and porcelain are due to the
ingredients used, to the way they are mixed, and to the degree of heat
to which they are {174} subjected in firing. Most of the old English
wares found in this country are pottery or semichina, although the term
china is commonly applied to them all.


«Cheese»


«Manufacture.»—The process of cheese making is one which is eminently
interesting and scientific, and which, in every gradation, depends
on principles which chemistry has developed and illustrated. When
a vegetable or mineral acid is added to milk, and heat applied, a
coagulum is formed, which, when separated from the liquid portion,
constitutes cheese. Neutral salts, earthy and metallic salts, sugar,
and gum arabic, as well as some other substances, also produce the same
effect; but that which answers the purpose best, and which is almost
exclusively used by dairy farmers, is rennet, or the mucous membrane of
the last stomach of the calf. Alkalies dissolve this curd at a boiling
heat, and acids again precipitate it. The solubility of casein in milk
is occasioned by the presence of the phosphates and other salts of the
alkalies. In fresh milk these substances may be readily detected by the
property it possesses of restoring the color of reddened litmus paper.
The addition of an acid neutralizes the alkali, and so precipitates
the curd in an insoluble state. The philosophy of cheese making is
thus expounded by Liebig:

“The acid indispensable to the coagulation of milk is not added to the
milk in the preparation of cheese, but it is formed in the milk at the
expense of the milk-sugar present. A small quantity of water is left
in contact with a small quantity of a calf’s stomach for a few hours,
or for a night; the water absorbs so minute a portion of the mucous
membrane as to be scarcely ponderable; this is mixed with milk; its
state of transformation is communicated (and this is a most important
circumstance) not to the cheese, but to the milk-sugar, the elements
of which transpose themselves into lactic acid, which neutralizes
the alkalies, and thus causes the separation of the cheese. By means
of litmus paper the process may be followed and observed through all
its stages; the alkaline reaction of the milk ceases as soon as the
coagulation begins. If the cheese is not immediately separated from the
whey, the formation of lactic acid continues, the fluid turns acid, and
the cheese itself passes into a state of decomposition.

“When cheese-curd is kept in a cool place a series of transformation
takes place, in consequence of which it assumes entirely new
properties; it gradually becomes semi-transparent, and more or less
soft, throughout the whole mass; it exhibits a feebly acid reaction,
and develops the characteristic caseous odor. Fresh cheese is very
sparingly soluble in water, but after having been left to itself for
two or three years it becomes (especially if all the fat be previously
removed) almost completely soluble in cold water, forming with it a
solution which, like milk, is coagulated by the addition of the acetic
or any mineral acid. The cheese, which whilst fresh is insoluble,
returns during the maturation, or ripening, as it is called, to a state
similar to that in which it originally existed in the milk. In those
English, Dutch, and Swiss cheeses which are nearly inodorous, and in
the superior kinds of French cheese, the casein of the milk is present
in its unaltered state.

“The odor and flavor of the cheese is due to the decomposition of the
butter; the non-volatile acids, the margaric and oleic acids, and
the volatile butyric acid, capric and caproic acids are liberated in
consequence of the decomposition of glycerine. Butyric acid imparts
to cheese its characteristic caseous odor, and the differences in
its pungency or aromatic flavor depend upon the proportion of free
butyric, capric, and caproic acids present. In the cheese of certain
dairies and districts, valerianic acid has been detected along with the
other acids just referred to. Messrs Jljenjo and Laskowski found this
acid in the cheese of Limbourg, and M. Bolard in that of Roquefort.

“The transition of the insoluble into soluble casein depends upon
the decomposition of the phosphate of lime by the margaric acid of
the butter; margarate of lime is formed, whilst the phosphoric acid
combines with the casein, forming a compound soluble in water.

“The bad smell of inferior kinds of cheese, especially those called
meager or poor cheeses, is caused by certain fetid products containing
sulphur, and which are formed by the decomposition or putrefaction of
the casein. The alteration which the butter undergoes (that is, in
becoming rancid), or which occurs in the milk-sugar still present,
being transmitted to the casein, changes both the composition of the
latter substance and its nutritive qualities.

“The principal conditions for the preparation of the superior kinds
of cheese {175} (other obvious circumstances being of course duly
regarded) are a careful removal of the whey, which holds the milk-sugar
in solution, and a low temperature during the maturation or ripening of
the cheese.”

Cheese differs vastly in quality and flavor according to the method
employed in its manufacture and the richness of the milk of which it
is made. Much depends upon the quantity of cream it contains, and,
consequently, when a superior quality of cheese is desired cream is
frequently added to the curd. This plan is adopted in the manufacture
of Stilton cheese and others of a like description. The addition of
a pound or two of butter to the curd for a middling size cheese also
vastly improves the quality of the product. To insure the richness of
the milk, not only should the cows be properly fed, but certain breeds
chosen. Those of Alderney, Cheddar, Cheshire, etc., have been widely
preferred.

The materials employed in making cheese are milk and rennet. Rennet is
used either fresh or salted and dried; generally in the latter state.
The milk may be of any kind, according to the quality of the cheese
required. Cows’ milk is that generally employed, but occasionally ewes’
milk is used; and sometimes, though more rarely, that from goats.

In preparing his cheese the dairy farmer puts the greater portion of
the milk into a large tub, to which he adds the remainder, sufficiently
heated to raise the temperature to that of new milk. The whole is
then whisked together, the rennet or rennet liquor added, and the tub
covered over. It is now allowed to stand until completely “turned,”
when the curd is gently struck down several times with the skimming
dish, after which it is allowed to subside. The vat, covered with
cheese cloth, is next placed on a “horse” or “ladder” over the tub,
and filled with curd by means of the skimmer, care being taken to
allow as little as possible of the oily particles or butter to run
back with the whey. The curd is pressed down with the hands, and more
added as it sinks. This process is repeated until the curd rises
to about two inches above the edge. The newly formed cheese, thus
partially separated from the whey, is now placed in a clean tub, and
a proper quantity of salt, as well as of annotta, added when that
coloring is used, after which a board is placed over and under it, and
pressure applied for about 2 or 3 hours. The cheese is next turned
out and surrounded by a fresh cheese cloth, and then again submitted
to pressure in the cheese press for 8 or 10 hours, after which it is
commonly removed from the press, salted all over, and again pressed
for 15 to 20 hours. The quality of the cheese especially depends on
this part of the process, as if any of the whey is left in the cheese
it rapidly becomes bad-flavored. Before placing it in the press the
last time the common practice is to pare the edges smooth and sightly.
It now only remains to wash the outside of the cheese in warm whey or
water, to wipe it dry, and to color it with annotta or reddle, as is
usually done.

The storing of the newly made cheese is the next point that engages the
attention of the maker and wholesale dealer. The same principles which
influence the maturation or ripening of fermented liquors also operate
here. A cool cellar, neither damp nor dry, and which is uninfluenced by
change of weather or season, is commonly regarded as the best for the
purpose. If possible, the temperature should on no account be permitted
to exceed 50° or 52° F. at any portion of the year. An average of
about 45° F. is preferable when it can be procured. A place exposed to
sudden changes of temperature is as unfit for storing cheese as it is
for storing beer. “The quality of Roquefort cheese, which is prepared
from sheep’s milk, and is very excellent, depends exclusively upon the
places where the cheeses are kept after pressing and during maturation.
These are cellars, communicating with mountain grottoes and caverns
which are kept constantly cool, at about 41° to 42° F., by currents
of air from clefts in the mountains. The value of these cellars as
storehouses varies with their property of maintaining an equable and
low temperature.”

It will thus be seen that very slight differences in the materials,
in the preparation, or in storing of the cheese, materially influence
the quality and flavor of this article. The richness of the milk; the
addition to or subtraction of cream from the milk; the separation of
the curd from the whey with or without compression; the salting of
the curd; the collection of the curd, either whole or broken, before
pressing; the addition of coloring matter, as annotta or saffron, or
of flavoring; the place and method of storing; and the length of time
allowed for maturation, all tend to alter the taste and odor of the
cheese in some or other particular, and that in a way readily {176}
perceptible to the palate of the connoisseur. No other alimentary
substance appears to be so seriously affected by slight variations
in the quality of the materials from which it is made, or by such
apparently trifling differences in the methods of preparing.

The varieties of cheese met with in commerce are very numerous, and
differ greatly from each other in richness, color, and flavor. These
are commonly distinguished by names indicative of the places in which
they have been manufactured, or of the quality of the materials from
which they have been prepared. Thus we have Dutch, Gloucester, Stilton,
skimmed milk, raw milk, cream, and other cheeses; names which explain
themselves. The following are the principal varieties:


«American Factory.»—Same as Cheddar.


«Brickbat.»—Named from its form; made, in Wiltshire, of new milk and
cream.


«Brie.»—A soft, white, cream cheese of French origin.


«Cheddar.»—A fine, spongy kind of cheese, the eyes or vesicles
of which contain a rich oil; made up into round, thick cheeses of
considerable size (150 to 200 pounds).


«Cheshire.»—From new milk, without skimming, the morning’s milk being
mixed with that of the preceding evening’s, previously warmed, so that
the whole may be brought to the heat of new milk. To this the rennet
is added, in less quantity than is commonly used for other kinds of
cheese. On this point much of the flavor and mildness of the cheese is
said to depend. A piece of dried rennet, of the size of a half-dollar
put into a pint of water over night, and allowed to stand until the
next morning, is sufficient for 18 or 20 gallons of milk; in large,
round, thick cheeses (100 to 200 pounds each). They are generally
solid, homogeneous, and dry, and friable rather than viscid.


«Cottenham.»—A rich kind of cheese, in flavor and consistence not
unlike Stilton, from which, however, it differs in shape, being flatter
and broader than the latter.


«Cream.»—From the “strippings” (the last of the milk drawn from the cow
at each milking), from a mixture of milk and cream, or from raw cream
only, according to the quality desired. It is usually made in small
oblong, square, or rounded cakes, a general pressure only (that of a
2- or 4-pound weight) being applied to press out the whey. After 12
hours it is placed upon a board or wooden trencher, and turned every
day until dry. It ripens in about 3 weeks. A little salt is generally
added, and frequently a little powdered lump sugar.


«Damson.»—Prepared from damsons boiled with a little water, the pulp
passed through a sieve, and then boiled with about one-fourth the
weight of sugar, until the mixture solidifies on cooling; it is next
poured into small tin molds previously dusted out with sugar. Cherry
cheese, gooseberry cheese, plum cheese, etc., are prepared in the same
way, using the respective kinds of fruit. They are all very agreeable
candies or confections.


«Derbyshire.»—A small, white, rich variety, very similar to Dunlop
cheese.


«Dunlop.»—Rich, white, and buttery; in round forms, weighing from 30 to
60 pounds.


«Dutch (Holland).»—Of a globular form, 5 to 14 pounds each. Those from
Edam are very highly salted; those from Gouda less so.


«Emmenthaler.»—Same as Gruyère.


«Gloucester.»—Single Gloucester, from milk deprived of part of its
cream; double Gloucester, from milk retaining the whole of the cream.
Mild tasted, semi-buttery consistence, without being friable; in large,
round, flattish forms.


«Green or Sage.»—From milk mixed with the juice of an infusion or
decoction of sage leaves, to which marigold flowers and parsley are
frequently added.


«Gruyère.»—A fine kind of cheese made in Switzerland, and largely
consumed on the Continent. It is firm and dry, and exhibits numerous
cells of considerable magnitude.


«Holland.»—Same as Dutch.


«Leguminous.»—The Chinese prepare an actual cheese from peas, called
tao-foo, which they sell in the streets of Canton. The paste from
steeped ground peas is boiled, which causes the starch to dissolve with
the casein; after straining the liquid it is coagulated by a solution
of gypsum; this coagulum is worked up like sour milk, salted, and
pressed into molds.


«Limburger.»—A strong variety of cheese, soft and well ripened.


«Lincoln.»—From new milk and cream; in pieces about 2 inches thick.
Soft, and will not keep over 2 or 3 months. {177}


«Neufchâtel.»—A much-esteemed variety of Swiss cheese; made of cream,
and weighs about 5 or 6 ounces.


«Norfolk.»—Dyed yellow with annotta or saffron; good, but not superior;
in cheeses of 30 to 50 pounds.


«Parmesan.»—From the curd of skimmed milk, hardened by a gentle heat.
The rennet is added at about 120°, and an hour afterwards the curdling
milk is set on a slow fire until heated to about 150° F., during which
the curd separates in small lumps. A few pinches of saffron are then
thrown in. About a fortnight after making the outer crust is cut off,
and the new surface varnished with linseed oil, and one side colored
red.


«Roquefort.»—From ewes’ milk; the best prepared in France. It greatly
resembles Stilton, but is scarcely of equal richness or quality, and
possesses a peculiar pungency and flavor.


«Roquefort, Imitation.»—The gluten of wheat is kneaded with a little
salt and a small portion of a solution of starch, and made up into
cheeses. It is said that this mixture soon acquires the taste, smell,
and unctuosity of cheese, and when kept a certain time is not to
be distinguished from the celebrated Roquefort cheese, of which it
possesses all the peculiar pungency. By slightly varying the process
other kinds of cheese may be imitated.


«Sage.»—Same as green cheese.


«Slipcoat or Soft.»—A very rich, white cheese, somewhat resembling
butter; for present use only.


«Stilton.»—The richest and finest cheese made in England. From raw
milk to which cream taken from other milk is added; in cheeses
generally twice as high as they are broad. Like wine, this cheese is
vastly improved by age, and is therefore seldom eaten before it is 2
years old. A spurious appearance of age is sometimes given to it by
placing it in a warm, damp cellar, or by surrounding it with masses of
fermenting straw or dung.


«Suffolk.»—From skimmed milk; in round, flat forms, from 24 to 30
pounds each. Very hard and horny.


«Swiss.»—The principal cheeses made in Switzerland are the Gruyère, the
Neufchâtel, and the Schabzieger or green cheese. The latter is flavored
with melitot.


«Westphalian.»—Made in small balls or rolls of about 1 pound each.
It derives its peculiar flavor from the curd being allowed to become
partially putrid before being pressed. In small balls or rolls of about
1 pound each.


«Wiltshire.»—Resembles Cheshire or Gloucester. The outside is painted
with reddle or red ocher or whey.


«York.»—From cream. It will not keep.

We give below the composition of some of the principal varieties of
cheese:

                               Double
                   Cheddar   Gloucester   Skim
 Water              36.64      35.61      43.64
 Casein             23.38      21.76      45.64
 Fatty matter       35.44      38.16       5.76
 Mineral matter      4.54       4.47       4.96
                   ──────      ──────    ──────
                   100.00      100.00    100.00

                                       Stilton     Cotherstone
 Water                                  32.18         38.28
 Butter                                 37.36         30.89
 Casein                                 24.31         23.93
 Milk, sugar, and extractive matters     2.22          3.70
 Mineral matter                          3.93          3.20
                                       ──────        ──────
                                       100.00        100.00

                                            Gruyère   Ordinary
                                            (Swiss)    Dutch
 Water                                       40.00     36.10
 Casein                                      31.50     29.40
 Fatty matter                                24.00     27.50
 Salts                                        3.00       .90
 Non─nitrogenous organic matter and loss.     1.50      6.10
                                            ──────    ──────
                                            100.00    100.00

When a whole cheese is cut, and the consumption small, it is generally
found to become unpleasantly dry, and to lose flavor before it is
consumed. This is best prevented by cutting a sufficient quantity for a
few days’ consumption from the cheese, and keeping the remainder in a
cool place, rather damp than dry, spreading a thin film of butter over
the fresh surface, and covering it with a cloth or pan to keep off the
dirt. This removes the objection existing in small families against
purchasing a whole cheese at a time. The common practice of buying
small quantities of cheese should be avoided, as not only a higher
price is paid for any given quality, but there is little likelihood of
obtaining exactly the same flavor twice running. Should cheese become
too dry to be {178} agreeable, it may be used for stewing, or for
making grated cheese, or Welsh rarebits.


«Goats’ Milk Cheese.»—Goats’ milk cheese is made as follows: Warm 20
quarts of milk and coagulate it with rennet, either the powder or
extract. Separate the curds from the whey in a colander. After a few
days the dry curd may be shaped into larger or smaller cheeses, the
former only salted, the latter containing salt and caraway seed. The
cheeses must be turned every day, and sprinkled with salt, and any mold
removed. After a few days they may be put away on shelves to ripen,
and left for several weeks. Pure goat’s milk cheese should be firm and
solid all the way through. Twenty quarts of milk will make about 4
pounds of cheese.

CHEESE COLORANT: See Food.

CHEMICAL GARDENS: See Gardens, Chemical.

CHERRY BALSAM: See Balsam.

CHERRY CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.


«Chewing Gums»


«Manufacture.»—The making of chewing gum is by no means the simple
operation which it seems to be. Much experience in manipulation is
necessary to succeed, and the published formulas can at best serve as a
guide rather than as something to be absolutely and blindly followed.
Thus, if the mass is either too hard or soft, change the proportions
until it is right; often it will be found that different purchases of
the same article will vary in their characteristics when worked up. But
given a basis, the manufacturer can flavor and alter to suit himself.
The most successful manufacturers attribute their success to the
employment of the most approved machinery and the greatest attention to
details. The working formulas and the processes of these manufacturers
are guarded as trade secrets, and aside from publishing general
formulas, little information can be given.

Chicle gum is purified by boiling with water and separating the foreign
matter. Flavorings, pepsin, sugar, etc., are worked in under pressure
by suitable machinery. Formula:

 I.—Gum chicle        1 pound
     Sugar             2 pounds
     Glucose           1 pound
     Caramel butter    1 pound

First mash and soften the gum at a gentle heat. Place the sugar and
glucose in a small copper pan; add enough water to dissolve the sugar;
set on a fire and cook to 244° F.; lift off the fire; add the caramel
butter and lastly the gum; mix well into a smooth paste; roll out on a
smooth marble, dusting with finely powdered sugar, run through sizing
machine to the proper thickness, cut into strips, and again into thin
slices.

 II.—Chicle               6 ounces
      Paraffine            2 ounces
      Balsam of Tolu       2 drachms
      Balsam of Peru       1 drachm
      Sugar               20 ounces
      Glucose              8 ounces
      Water                6 ounces
      Flavoring, enough.

Triturate the chicle and balsams in water, take out and add the
paraffine, first heated. Boil the sugar, glucose, and water together to
what is known to confectioners as “crack” heat, pour the syrup over
the oil slab and turn into it the gum mixture, which will make it tough
and plastic. Add any desired flavor.

 III.—Gum chicle.       122 parts
       Paraffine          42 parts
       Balsam of Tolu.     4 parts
       Sugar             384 parts
       Water              48 parts

Dissolve the sugar in the water by the aid of heat and pour the
resultant syrup on an oiled slab. Melt the gum, balsam, and paraffine
together and pour on top of the syrup, and work the whole up together.

 IV.—Gum chicle        240 parts
      White wax          64 parts
      Sugar             640 parts
      Glucose           128 parts
      Water             192 parts
      Balsam of Peru      4 parts
      Flavoring matter, enough.

Proceed as indicated in II.

 V.—Balsam of Tolu    4 parts
     Benzoin           1 part
     White wax         1 part
     Paraffine         1 part
     Powdered sugar    1 part

Melt together, mix well, and roll into sticks of the usual dimensions.

Mix, and, when sufficiently cool, roll out into sticks or any other
desirable form. {179}

Spruce Chewing Gum.—

 Spruce gum         20 parts
 Chicle             20 parts
 Sugar, powdered    60 parts

Melt the gums separately, mix while hot, and immediately add the sugar,
a small portion at a time, kneading it thoroughly on a hot slab. When
completely incorporated remove to a cold slab, previously dusted with
powdered sugar, roll out at once into sheets, and cut into sticks. Any
desired flavor or color may be added to or incorporated with the sugar.

CHICKEN-COOP APPLICATION: See Insecticides.

CHICKEN DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES: See Veterinary Formulas.

CHICORY, TESTS FOR: See Foods.

CHILBLAINS: See Ointments.

CHILBLAIN SOAP: See Soap.

CHILDREN, DOSES FOR: See Doses.

CHILLS, BITTERS FOR: See Wines and Liquors.

CHINA CEMENTS: See Adhesives and Lutes.

CHINA: See Ceramics.

CHINA, TO REMOVE BURNED LETTERS FROM: See Cleaning Preparations and
Methods, under Miscellaneous Methods.

CHINA REPAIRING: See Porcelain.


«CHINA RIVETING.»

China riveting is best left to practical men, but it can be done with a
drill made from a splinter of a diamond fixed on a handle. If this is
not to be had, get a small three-cornered file, harden it by placing
it in the fire till red hot, and then plunging it in cold water. Next
grind the point on a grindstone and finish on an oilstone. With the
point pick out the place to be bored, taking care to do it gently for
fear of breaking the article. In a little while a piece will break off,
then the hole can easily be made by working the point round. The wire
may then be passed through and fastened. A good cement may be made from
1 ounce of grated cheese, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of finely powdered quicklime, and
white of egg sufficient to make a paste. The less cement applied the
better, using a feather to spread it over the broken edge.

CHLORIDES, PLATT’S: See Disinfectants.

CHLORINE-PROOFING: See Acid-Proofing.


«CHOCOLATE.»

Prepare 1,000 parts of finished cacao and 30 parts of fresh cacao oil,
in a warmed, polished, iron mortar, into a liquid substance, add to it
800 parts of finely powdered sugar, and, after a good consistency has
been reached, 60 parts of powdered iron lactate and 60 parts of sugar
syrup, finely rubbed together. Scent with 40 parts of vanilla sugar. Of
this mass weigh out tablets of 125 parts into the molds.


«Coating Tablets with Chocolate.»—If a chocolate which is free from
sugar be placed in a dish over a water bath, it will melt into a fluid
of proper consistence for coating tablets. No water must be added. The
coating is formed by dipping the tablets. When they are sufficiently
hardened they are laid on oiled paper to dry.

CHOCOLATE CASTOR-OIL LOZENGES: See Castor Oil.

CHOCOLATE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

CHOCOLATE EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts.

CHOCOLATE SODA WATER: See Beverages.

CHOKING IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.


«CHOLERA REMEDIES:»


«Sun Cholera Mixture.»—

 Tincture of opium       1 part
 Tincture of capsicum    1 part
 Tincture of rhubarb     1 part
 Spirit of camphor       1 part
 Spirit of peppermint    1 part


«Squibb’s Diarrhea Mixture.»—

 Tincture opium       40 parts
 Tincture capsicum    40 parts
 Spirit camphor       40 parts
 Chloroform           15 parts
 Alcohol              65 parts {180}


«Aromatic Rhubarb.—»

 Cinnamon, ground        8 parts
 Rhubarb                 8 parts
 Calumba                 4 parts
 Saffron                 1 part
 Powdered opium          2 parts
 Oil peppermint          5 parts
 Alcohol, q. s. ad.    100 parts

Macerate the ground drugs with 75 parts alcohol in a closely covered
percolator for several days, then allow percolation to proceed, using
sufficient alcohol to obtain 95 parts of percolate. In percolate
dissolve the oil of peppermint.


«Rhubarb and Camphor.—»

 Tincture capsicum      2 ounces
 Tincture opium         2 ounces
 Tincture camphor       3 ounces
 Tincture catechu       4 ounces
 Tincture rhubarb       4 ounces
 Spirit peppermint      4 ounces


«Blackberry Mixture.—»

 Fluid extract blackberry root         2 pints
 Fluid ginger, soluble             5 1⁠/⁠3 ounces
 Fluid catechu                     5 1⁠/⁠3 ounces
 Fluid opium for tincture            160 minims
 Brandy                                8 ounces
 Sugar                                 4 pounds
 Essence cloves                      256 minims
 Essence cinnamon                    256 minims
 Chloroform                          128 minims
 Alcohol (25 per cent), q. s. ad.      1 gallon

CHOWCHOW: See Condiments.

CHROME YELLOW, TEST FOR: See Pigments.

CHROMIUM GLUE: See Adhesives.


«CHROMO MAKING.»

The production of chromo pictures requires a little skill. Practice is
necessary. The glass plate to be used should be washed off with warm
water, and then laid in a 10 per cent solution of nitric acid. After
one hour, wash with clean, cold water, dry with a towel, and polish the
plate with good alcohol on the inside—hollow side—until no finger marks
or streaks are visible. This is best ascertained by breathing on the
glass; the breath should show an even blue surface on the glass.

Coat the unmounted photograph to be colored with benzine by means of
wadding, but without pressure, so that the retouching of the picture
is not disturbed. Place 2 tablets of ordinary kitchen gelatin in
8 3⁠/⁠4 ounces of distilled or pure rain water, soak for an hour,
and then heat until the gelatin has completely dissolved. Pour this
warm solution over the polished side of the glass, so that the liquid
is evenly distributed. The best way is to pour the solution on the
upper right-hand corner, allowing it to flow into the left-hand
corner, from there to the left below and right below, finally letting
the superfluous liquid run off. Take the photograph, which has been
previously slightly moistened on the back, lay it with the picture side
on the gelatin-covered plate, centering it nicely, and squeeze out
the excess gelatin solution gently, preferably by means of a rubber
squeegee. Care must be taken, however, not to displace the picture in
this manipulation, as it is easily spoiled.

The solution must never be allowed to boil, since this would render
the gelatin brittle and would result in the picture, after having been
finished, cracking off from the glass in a short time. When the picture
has been attached to the glass plate without blisters (which is best
observed from the back), the edge of the glass is cleansed of gelatin,
preferably by means of a small sponge and lukewarm water, and the plate
is allowed to dry over night.

When the picture and the gelatin are perfectly dry, coat the back
of the picture a few times with castor oil until it is perfectly
transparent; carefully remove the oil without rubbing, and proceed with
the painting, which is best accomplished with good, not over-thick oil
colors. The coloring must be observed from the glass side, and for this
reason the small details, such as eyes, lips, beard, and hair, should
first be sketched in. When the first coat is dry the dress and the
flesh tints are painted. The whole surface may be painted over, and it
is not necessary to paint shadows, as these are already present in the
picture, and consequently show the color through in varying strength.

When the coloring has dried, a second glass plate should be laid on for
protection, pasting the two edges together with narrow strips of linen.


«Cider»


«To Make Cider.»—Pick the apples off the tree by hand. Every apple
before going into the press should be carefully {181} wiped. As soon as
a charge of apples is ground, remove the pomace and put in a cask with
a false bottom and a strainer beneath it, and a vessel to catch the
drainage from pomace. As fast as the juice runs from the press place it
in clean, sweet, open tubs or casks with the heads out and provide with
a faucet, put in about two inches above bottom. The juice should be
closely watched and as soon as the least sign of fermentation appears
(bubbles on top, etc.) it should be run off into casks prepared for
this purpose and placed in a moderately cool room. The barrels should
be entirely filled, or as near to the bunghole as possible. After
fermentation is well under way the spume or foam should be scraped off
with a spoon several times a day. When fermentation has ceased the
cider is racked off into clean casks, filled to the bunghole, and the
bung driven in tightly. It is now ready for use or for bottling.


«Champagne Cider.»—I.—To convert ordinary cider into champagne cider,
proceed as follows: To 100 gallons of good cider add 3 gallons of
strained honey (or 24 pounds of white sugar will answer), stir in
well, tightly bung, and let alone for a week. Clarify the cider by
adding a half gallon of skimmed milk, or 4 ounces of gelatin dissolved
in sufficient hot water and add 4 gallons of proof spirit. Let
stand 3 days longer, then syphon off, bottle, cork, and tie or wire
down. Bunging the cask tightly is done in order to induce a slow
fermentation, and thus retain in the cider as much carbonic acid as
possible.

II.—Put 10 gallons of old and clean cider in a strong and iron-bound
cask, pitched within (a sound beer cask is the very thing), and add and
stir in well 40 ounces of simple syrup. Add 5 ounces of tartaric acid,
let dissolve, then add 7 1⁠/⁠2 ounces sodium bicarbonate in powder.
Have the bung ready and the moment the soda is added put it in and
drive it home. The cider will be ready for use in a few hours.


«Cider Preservative.»—I.—The addition of 154 grains of bismuth
subnitrate to 22 gallons of cider prevents, or materially retards, the
hardening of the beverage on exposure to air; moreover, the bismuth
salt renders alcoholic fermentation more complete.

II.—Calcium sulphite (sulphite of lime) is largely used to prevent
fermentation in cider. About 1⁠/⁠8 to 1⁠/⁠4 of an ounce of the sulphite
is required for 1 gallon of cider. It should first be dissolved in a
small quantity of cider, then added to the bulk, and the whole agitated
until thoroughly mixed. The barrel should then be bunged and allowed to
stand for several days, until the action of the sulphite is exerted.
It will preserve the sweetness of cider perfectly, but care should be
taken not to add too much, as that would impart a slight sulphurous
taste.


«Artificial Ciders.»—To 25 gallons of soft water add 2 pounds of
tartaric acid, 25 or 30 pounds of sugar, and a pint of yeast; put in a
warm place, and let ferment for 15 days, then add the flavoring matter
to suit taste. The various fruit ethers are for sale at any wholesale
drug house.


«Bottling Sweet Cider.»—Champagne quarts are generally used for
bottling cider, as they are strong and will stand pressure, besides
being a convenient size for consumers. In making cider champagne the
liquor should be clarified and bottled in the sweet condition, that is
to say, before the greater part of the sugar which it contains has been
converted into alcohol by fermentation. The fermentation continues, to
a certain extent, in the bottle, transforming more of the sugar into
alcohol, and the carbonic acid, being unable to escape, is dissolved
in the cider and produces the sparkling.

The greater the quantity of sugar contained in the liquor, when it is
bottled, the more complete is its carbonation by the carbonic-acid gas,
and consequently the more sparkling it is when poured out. But this is
true only within certain limits, for if the production of sugar is too
high the fermentation will be arrested.

To make the most sparkling cider the liquor is allowed to stand for
three, four, five, or six weeks, during which fermentation proceeds.
The time varies according to the nature of the apples, and also to the
temperature; when it is very warm the first fermentation is usually
completed in 7 days.

Before bottling, the liquid must be fined, and this is best done with
catechu dissolved in cold cider, 2 ounces of catechu to the barrel of
cider. This is well stirred and left to settle for a few days.

The cider at this stage is still sweet, and it is a point of
considerable nicety not to carry the first fermentation too far. The
bottle should not be quite filled, so as to allow more freedom for the
carbonic-acid gas which forms.

When the bottles have been filled, {182} corked, and wired down, they
should be placed in a good cellar, which should be dry, or else the
cider will taste of the cork. The bottles should not be laid for four
or five weeks, or breakage will ensue. When they are being laid they
should be placed on laths of wood or on dry sand; they should never be
allowed on cold or damp floors.

Should the cider be relatively poor in sugar, or if it has been
fermented too far, about 1 ounce of powdered loaf sugar can be added
to each bottle, or else a measure of sugar syrup before pouring in the
cider.


«Imitation Cider.»—

I.—A formula for an imitation cider is as follows:

 Rain water                  100 gallons
 Honey, unstrained             6 gallons
 Catechu, powdered             3 ounces
 Alum, powdered                5 ounces
 Yeast (brewer’s preferably)   2 pints

Mix and put in a warm place to ferment. Let ferment for about 15 days;
then add the following, stirring well in:

 Bitter almonds, crushed    8 ounces
 Cloves                     8 ounces

Let stand 24 hours, add two or three gallons of good whiskey, and rack
off into clean casks. Bung tightly, let stand 48 hours, then bottle. If
a higher color is desired use caramel sufficient to produce the correct
tinge. If honey is not obtainable, use sugar-house molasses instead,
but honey is preferable.

II.—The following, when properly prepared, makes a passable substitute
for cider, and a very pleasant drink:

 Catechu, powdered    3 parts
 Alum, powdered       5 parts
 Honey              640 parts
 Water           12,800 parts
 Yeast               32 parts

Dissolve the catechu, alum, and honey in the water, add the yeast,
and put in some warm place to ferment. The container should be filled
to the square opening, made by sawing out five or six inches of the
center of a stave, and the spume skimmed off daily as it arises. In
cooler weather from 2 weeks to 18 days will be required for thorough
fermentation. In warmer weather from 12 to 13 days will be sufficient.
When fermentation is complete add the following solution:

 Oil of bitter almonds  1 part
 Oil of clover          1 part
 Caramel               32 parts
 Alcohol              192 parts

The alcohol may be replaced by twice its volume of good bourbon
whiskey. A much cheaper, but correspondingly poor substitute for the
above may be made as follows:

Twenty-five gallons of soft water, 2 pounds tartaric acid, 25 pounds of
brown sugar, and 1 pint of yeast are allowed to stand in a warm place,
in a clean cask with the bung out, for 24 hours. Then bung up the cask,
after adding 3 gallons of whiskey, and let stand for 48 hours, after
which the liquor is ready for use.

CIDER VINEGAR: See Vinegar.


«Cigars»


«Cigar Sizes and Colors.»—Cigars are named according to their color
and shape. A dead-black cigar, for instance, is an “Oscuro,” a very
dark-brown one is a “Colorado,” a medium brown is a “Colorado Claro,”
and a yellowish light brown is a “Claro.” Most smokers know the names
of the shades from “Claro” to “Colorado,” and that is as far as most
of them need to know. As to the shapes, a “Napoleon” is the biggest of
all cigars—being 7 inches long; a “Perfecto” swells in the middle and
tapers down to a very small head at the lighting end; a “Panatela”
is a thin, straight, up-and-down cigar without the graceful curve of
the “Perfecto”; a “Conchas” is very short and fat, and a “Londres” is
shaped like a “Perfecto” except that it does not taper to so small a
head at the lighting end. A “Reina Victoria” is a “Londres” that comes
packed in a ribbon-tied bundle of 50 pieces, instead of in the usual
four layers of 13, 12, 13 and 12.


«How to Keep Cigars.»—Cigars kept in a case are influenced every time
the case is opened. Whatever of taint there may be in the atmosphere
rushes into the case, and is finally taken up by the cigars. Even
though the cigars have the appearance of freshness, it is not the
original freshness in which they were received from the factory. They
have been dry, or comparatively so, and have absorbed more moisture
than has been put in the case, and it matters not what that moisture
may be, it can never restore the flavor that was lost during the
drying-out process.

After all, it is a comparatively simple matter to take good care of
cigars. All that is necessary is a comparatively air-tight, zinc-lined
chest. This should be {183} behind the counter in a place where the
temperature is even. When a customer calls for a cigar the dealer
takes the box out of the chest, serves his customer, and then puts the
box back again. The box being opened for a moment the cigars are not
perceptibly affected. The cigars in the close, heavy chest are always
safe from atmospheric influences, as the boxes are closed, and the
chest is open but a moment, while the dealer is taking out a box from
which to serve his customer.

Some of the best dealers have either a large chest or a cool vault in
which they keep their stock, taking out from time to time whatever they
need for use. Some have a number of small chests, in which they keep
different brands, so as to avoid opening and closing one particular
chest so often.

It may be said that it is only the higher priced cigars that need
special care in handling, although the cheaper grades are not to be
handled carelessly. The Havana cigars are more susceptible to change,
for there is a delicacy of flavor to be preserved that is never present
in the cheaper grades of cigars.

Every dealer must, of course, make a display in his show case, but he
need not serve his patrons with these cigars. The shrinkage in value of
the cigars in the case is merely a business proposition of profit and
loss.


«Cigar Flavoring.»—I.—Macerate 2 ounces of cinnamon and 4 ounces of
tonka beans, ground fine, in 1 quart of rum.

II.—Moisten ordinary cigars with a strong tincture of cascarilla, to
which a little gum benzoin and storax may be added. Some persons add a
small quantity of camphor or oil of cloves or cassia.

 III.—Tincture of valerian     4 drachms
       Butyric aldehyde         4 drachms
       Nitrous ether            1 drachm
       Tincture vanilla         2 drachms
       Alcohol                  5 ounces
       Water enough to make    16 ounces

 IV.—Extract vanilla          4 ounces
      Alcohol                1⁠/⁠2 gallon
      Jamaica rum            1⁠/⁠2 gallon
      Tincture valerian        8 ounces
      Caraway seed             2 ounces
      English valerian root    2 ounces
      Bitter orange peel       2 ounces
      Tonka beans              4 drachms
      Myrrh                   16 ounces

Soak the myrrh for 3 days in 6 quarts of water, add the alcohol,
tincture valerian, and extract of vanilla, and after grinding the other
ingredients to a coarse powder, put all together in a jug and macerate
for 2 weeks, occasionally shaking; lastly, strain.

V.—Into a bottle filled with 1⁠/⁠2 pint of French brandy put 1 1⁠/⁠4
ounces of cascarilla bark and 1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces of vanilla previously
ground with 1⁠/⁠2 pound of sugar; carefully close up the flask and
distil in a warm place. After 3 days pour off the liquid, and add 1⁠/⁠4
pint of mastic extract. The finished cigars are moistened with this
liquid, packed in boxes, and preserved from air by a well-closed lid.
They are said to acquire a pleasant flavor and mild strength through
this treatment.


«Cigar Spots.»—The speckled appearance of certain wrappers is due to
the work of a species of fungus that attacks the growing tobacco. In
a certain district of Sumatra, which produces an exceptionally fine
tobacco for wrappers, the leaves of the plant are commonly speckled in
this way. Several patents have been obtained for methods of spotting
tobacco leaves artificially. A St. Louis firm uses a solution composed
of:

 Sodium carbonate        3 parts
 Calx chlorinata         1 part
 Hot water               8 parts

Dissolve the washing soda in the hot water, add the chlorinated lime,
and heat the mixture to a boiling temperature for 3 minutes. When cool,
decant into earthenware or stoneware jugs, cork tightly, and keep in a
cool place. The corks of jugs not intended for immediate use should be
covered with a piece of bladder or strong parchment paper, and tightly
tied down to prevent the escape of gas, and consequent weakening of the
bleaching power of the fluid. The prepared liquor is sprinkled on the
tobacco, the latter being then exposed to light and air, when, it is
said, the disagreeable odor produced soon disappears.

CINCHONA: See Wines and Liquors.

CINNAMON ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts.

CINNAMON OIL AS AN ANTISEPTIC: See Antiseptics.

CITRATE OF MAGNESIUM: See Magnesium Citrate.

CLARET LEMONADE AND CLARET PUNCH: See Beverages, under Lemonades. {184}

CLARIFICATION OF GELATIN AND GLUE: See Gelatin.


«CLARIFYING.»

Clarification is the process by which any solid particles suspended in
a liquid are either caused to coalesce together or to adhere to the
medium used for clarifying, that they may be removed by filtration
(which would previously have been impossible), so as to render the
liquid clear.

One of the best agents for this purpose is albumen. When clarifying
vegetable extracts, the albumen which is naturally present in most
plants accomplishes this purpose easily, provided the vegetable matter
is extracted in the cold, so as to get as much albumen as possible in
solution.

Egg albumen may also be used. The effect of albumen may be increased
by the addition of cellulose, in the form of a fine magma of filtering
paper. This has the further advantage that the subsequent filtration is
much facilitated.

Suspended particles of gum or pectin may be removed by cautious
precipitation with tannin, of which only an exceedingly small amount is
usually necessary. It combines with the gelatinous substances better
with the aid of heat than in the cold. There must be no excess of
tannin used.

Another method of clarifying liquids turbid from particles of gum,
albumen, pectin, etc., is to add to them a definite quantity of
alcohol. This causes the former substances to separate in more or less
large flakes. The quantity of alcohol required varies greatly according
to the nature of the liquid. It should be determined in each case by an
experiment on a small scale.

Resinous or waxy substances, such as are occasionally met with in
honey, etc., may be removed by the addition of bole, pulped filtering
paper, and heating to boiling.

In each case the clarifying process may be hastened by making the
separating particles specifically heavier; that is, by incorporating
some heavier substance, such as talcum, etc., which may cause the
flocculi to sink more rapidly, and to form a compact sediment.

Clarifying powder for alcoholic liquids:

 Egg albumen, dry       40 parts
 Sugar of milk          40 parts
 Starch                 20 parts

Reduce them to very fine powder, and mix thoroughly.

For clarifying liquors, wines, essences, etc., take for every quart of
liquid 75 grains of the above mixture, shake repeatedly in the course
of a few days, the mixture being kept in a warm room, then filter.

Powdered talcum renders the same service, and has the additional
advantage of being entirely insoluble. However, the above mixture acts
more energetically.


«CLAY:»


«Claying Mixture for Forges.»—Twenty parts fire clay; 20 parts
cast-iron turnings; 1 part common salt; 1⁠/⁠2 part sal ammoniac; all by
measure.

The materials should be thoroughly mixed dry and then wet down to the
consistency of common mortar, constantly stirring the mass as the
wetting proceeds. A rough mold shaped to fit the tuyère opening, a
trowel, and a few minutes’ time are all that are needed to complete
the successful claying of the forge. This mixture dries hard and when
glazed by the fire will last.


«Plastic Modeling Clay.»—A permanently plastic clay can be obtained
by first mixing it with glycerine, turpentine, or similar bodies,
and then adding vaseline or petroleum residues rich in vaseline. The
proportion of clay to the vaseline varies according to the desired
consistency of the product, the admixture of vaseline varying from
10 to 50 per cent. It is obvious that the hardness of the material
decreases with the amount of vaseline added, so that the one richest in
vaseline will be the softest. By the use of various varieties of clay
and the suitable choice of admixtures, the plasticity, as well as the
color of the mass, may be varied.


«Cleaning Preparations and Methods»

(See also Soaps, Polishes, and Household Formulas).


«TO REMOVE STAINS FROM THE HANDS:»


«Removal of Aniline-Dye Stains from the Skin.»—Rub the stained skin
with a pinch of slightly moistened red crystals of chromic trioxide
until a distinct sensation of warmth announces the destruction of the
dye stuff by oxidation and an incipient irritation of the skin. Then
rinse with soap and water. A single application usually suffices to
remove {185} the stain. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the
poisonousness and strong caustic action of chromic trioxide; but only
moderate caution is required to avoid evil effects.


«Pyrogallic-Acid Stains on the Fingers» (see also Photography).—Pyro
stains may be prevented fairly well by rubbing in a little wool fat
before beginning work. A very effective way of eliminating developer
stains is to dip the finger tips occasionally during development
into the clearing bath. It is best to use the clearing bath, with
ample friction, before resorting to soap, as the latter seems to have
a fixing effect upon the stain. Lemon peel is useful for removing
pyro stains, and so are the ammonium persulphate reducer and the
thiocarbamide clearer.


«To Clean Very Soiled Hands.»—In the morning wash in warm water, using
a stiff brush, and apply glycerine. Repeat the application two or three
times during the day, washing and brushing an hour or so afterwards,
or apply a warm solution of soda or potash, and wash in warm water,
using a stiff brush as before. Finally, rub the hands with pumice or
infusorial earth. There are soaps made especially for this purpose,
similar to those for use on woodwork, etc., in which infusorial earth
or similar matter is incorporated.


«To Remove Nitric-Acid Stains.»—One plan to avoid stains is to use
rubber finger stalls, or rubber gloves. Nitric-acid stains can be
removed from the hands by painting the stains with a solution of
permanganate of potash, and washing off the permanganate with a 5 per
cent solution of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid. After this wash the
hands with pure castile soap. Any soap that roughens the skin should be
avoided at all times. Castile soap is the best to keep the skin in good
condition.


«CLEANING GILDED ARTICLES:»


«To Clean Gilt Frames and Gilded Surfaces Generally.»—Dip a soft brush
in alcohol to which a few drops of ammonia water has been added, and
with it go over the surface. Do not rub—at least, not roughly, or
harshly. In the course of five minutes the dirt will have become soft,
and easy of removal. Then go over the surface again gently with the
same or a similar brush dipped in rain water. Now lay the damp article
in the sunlight to dry. If there is no sunlight, place it near a warm
(but not _hot_) stove, and let dry completely. In order to avoid
streaks, take care that the position of the article, during the drying,
is not exactly vertical.


«To Clean Fire-Gilt Articles.»—Fire-gilt articles are cleaned,
according to their condition, with water, diluted hydrochloric acid,
ammonia, or potash solution. If hydrochloric acid is employed thorough
dilution with water is especially necessary. The acidity should hardly
be noticeable on the tongue.

To clean gilt articles, such as gold moldings, etc., when they have
become tarnished or covered with flyspecks, etc., rub them slowly with
an onion cut in half and dipped in rectified alcohol, and wash off
lightly with a moist soft sponge after about 2 hours.


«Cleaning Gilded and Polychromed Work on Altars.»—To clean bright
gold a fine little sponge is used which is moistened but lightly with
tartaric acid and passed over the gilding. Next go over the gilt work
with a small sponge saturated with alcohol to remove all dirt. For matt
gilding, use only a white flannel dipped in lye, and carefully wipe
off the dead gold with this, drying next with a fine linen rag. To
clean polychromed work sponge with a lye of rain water, 1,000 parts,
and calcined potash, 68 parts, and immediately wash off with a clean
sponge and water, so that the lye does not attack the paint too much.


«SPOT AND STAIN REMOVERS:»


«To Remove Aniline Stains.»—

 I.—Sodium nitrate            7 grains
     Diluted sulphuric acid   15 grains
     Water                     1 ounce

Let the mixture stand a day or two before using. Apply to the spot with
a sponge, and rinse the goods with plenty of water.

II.—An excellent medium for the removal of aniline stains, which are
often very stubborn, has been found to be liquid opodeldoc. After its
use the stains are said to disappear at once and entirely.


«Cleansing Fluids.»—A spot remover is made as follows:

 I.—Saponine             7 parts
     Water              130 parts
     Alcohol             70 parts
     Benzine          1,788 parts
     Oil mirbane          5 parts

 II.—Benzene (benzol)    89 parts
      Ascetic ether       10 parts
      Pear oil             1 part

This yields an effective grease eradicator, of an agreeable odor. {186}

III.—To Remove Stains of Sulphate of copper, or of salts of mercury,
silver, or gold from the hands, etc., wash them first with a dilute
solution either of ammonia, iodide, bromide, or cyanide of potassium,
and then with plenty of water; if the stains are old ones they should
first be rubbed with the strongest acetic acid and then treated as
above.


«Removal of Picric-Acid Stains.»—I.—Recent stains of picric acid may
be removed readily if the stain is covered with a layer of magnesium
carbonate, the carbonate moistened with a little water to form a paste,
and the paste then rubbed over the spot.

 II.—Apply a solution of
      Boric acid           4 parts
      Sodium benzoate      1 part
      Water              100 parts

III.—Dr. Prieur, of Besançon, recommends lithium carbonate for the
removal of picric-acid stains from the skin or from linen. The method
of using it is simply to lay a small pinch on the stain, and moisten
the latter with water. Fresh stains disappear almost instantly, and old
ones in a minute or two.


«To Remove Finger Marks from Books, etc.»—I.—Pour benzol (not benzine
or gasoline, but Merck’s “c. p.” crystallizable) on calcined magnesia
until it becomes a crumbling mass, and apply this to the spot, rubbing
it in lightly, with the tip of the finger. When the benzol evaporates,
brush off. Any dirt that remains can be removed by using a piece of
soft rubber.

II.—If the foregoing fails (which it sometimes, though rarely, does),
try the following: Make a hot solution of sodium hydrate in distilled
water, of strength of from 3 per cent to 5 per cent, according to the
age, etc., of the stain. Have prepared some bits of heavy blotting
paper somewhat larger than the spot to be removed; also, a blotting
pad, or several pieces of heavy blotting paper. Lay the soiled page
face downward on the blotting pad, then, saturating one of the bits
of blotter with the hot sodium hydrate solution, put it on the stain
and go over it with a hot smoothing iron. If one application does not
remove all the grease or stain, repeat the operation. Then saturate
another bit of blotting paper with a 4 per cent or 5 per cent solution
of hydrochloric acid in distilled water, apply it to the place, and
pass the iron over it to neutralize the strong alkali. This process
will instantly restore any faded writing or printing, and make the
paper bright and fresh again.


«Glycerine as a Detergent.»—For certain kinds of obstinate spots (such
as coffee and chocolate, for instance) there is no better detergent
than glycerine, especially for fabrics with delicate colors. Apply the
glycerine to the spot, with a sponge or otherwise, let stand a minute
or so, then wash off with water or alcohol. Hot glycerine is even more
efficient than cold.


«CLEANING SKINS AND LEATHER»: See also Leather.


«To Clean Colored Leather.»—Pour carbon bisulphide on non-vulcanized
gutta-percha, and allow it to stand about 24 hours. After shaking
actively add more gutta-percha gradually until the solution becomes of
gelatinous consistency. This mixture is applied in suitable quantity
to oil-stained, colored leather and allowed to dry two or three hours.
The subsequent operation consists merely in removing the coat of
gutta-percha from the surface of the leather—that is, rubbing it with
the fingers, and rolling it off the surface.

The color is not injured in the least by the sulphuret of carbon; only
those leathers on which a dressing containing starch has been used look
a little lighter in color, but the better class of leathers are not so
dressed. The dry gutta-percha can be redissolved in sulphuret of carbon
and used over again.


«To Clean Skins Used for Polishing Purposes.»—First beat them
thoroughly to get rid of dust, then go over the surface on both sides
with a piece of good white soap and lay them in warm water in which
has been put a little soda. Let them lie here for 2 hours, then wash
them in plenty of tepid water, rubbing them vigorously until perfectly
clean. This bath should also be made alkaline with soda. The skins are
finally rinsed in warm water, and dried quickly. Cold water must be
avoided at all stages of the cleansing process, as it has a tendency to
shrink and harden the skins.

The best way to clean a chamois skin is to wash and rinse it out in
clean water immediately after use, but this practice is apt to be
neglected so that the skin becomes saturated with dirt and grime. To
clean it, first thoroughly soak in clean, soft water. Then, after
soaping it and rolling it into a compact wad, beat with a small round
stick—a buggy spoke, say—turning the wad over repeatedly, and keeping
it well wet and soaped. This should suffice to loosen the dirt. Then
rinse in clean water until the skin {187} is clean. As wringing by
hand is apt to injure the chamois skin, it is advisable to use a small
clothes wringer. Before using the skin again rinse it in clear water to
which a little pulverized alum has been added.


«STRAW-HAT RENOVATION:»


«To Renovate Straw Hats.»—I.—Hats made of natural (uncolored) straw,
which have become soiled by wear, may be cleaned by thoroughly sponging
with a weak solution of tartaric acid in water, followed by water
alone. The hat after being so treated should be fastened by the rim to
a board by means of pins, so that it will keep its shape in drying.

II.—Sponge the straw with a solution of

                         By weight
 Sodium hyposulphite     10 parts
 Glycerine                5 parts
 Alcohol                 10 parts
 Water                   75 parts

Lay aside in a damp place for 24 hours and then apply

                         By weight
 Citric acid              2 parts
 Alcohol                 10 parts
 Water                   90 parts

Press with a moderately hot iron, after stiffening with weak gum water,
if necessary.

III.—If the hat has become much darkened in tint by wear the fumes of
burning sulphur may be employed. The material should be first cleaned
by thoroughly sponging with an aqueous solution of potassium carbonate,
followed by a similar application of water, and it is then suspended
over the sulphur fumes. These are generated by placing in a metal or
earthen dish, so mounted as to keep the heat from setting fire to
anything beneath, some brimstone (roll sulphur), and sprinkling over
it some live coals to start combustion. The operation is conducted in
a deep box or barrel, the dish of burning sulphur being placed at the
bottom, and the article to be bleached being suspended from a string
stretched across the top. A cover not fitting so tightly as to exclude
all air is placed over it, and the apparatus allowed to stand for a few
hours.

Hats so treated will require to be stiffened by the application of a
little gum water, and pressed on a block with a hot iron to bring them
back into shape.


«Waterproof Stiffening for Straw Hats.»—If a waterproof stiffening is
required use one of the varnishes for which formulas follow:

 I.—Copal              450 parts
     Sandarac            75 parts
     Venice turpentine   40 parts
     Castor oil           5 parts
     Alcohol            800 parts

 II.—Shellac            500 parts
      Sandarac           175 parts
      Venice turpentine   50 parts
      Castor oil          15 parts
      Alcohol          2,000 parts

 III.—Shellac            750 parts
       Rosin              150 parts
       Venice turpentine  150 parts
       Castor oil          20 parts
       Alcohol          2,500 parts


«How to Clean a Panama Hat.»—Scrub with castile soap and warm water, a
nail brush being used as an aid to get the dirt away. The hat is then
placed in the hot sun to dry and in the course of two or three hours is
ready for use. It will not only be as clean as when new, but it will
retain its shape admirably. The cleaned hat will be a trifle stiff at
first, but will soon grow supple under wear.

A little glycerine added to the rinsing water entirely prevents the
stiffness and brittleness acquired by some hats in drying, while a
little ammonia in the washing water materially assists in the scrubbing
process. Ivory, or, in fact, any good white soap, will answer as well
as castile for the purpose. It is well to rinse a second time, adding
the glycerine to the water used the second time. Immerse the hat
completely in the rinse water, moving it about to get rid of traces of
the dirty water. When the hat has been thoroughly rinsed, press out the
surplus water, using a Turkish bath towel for the purpose, and let it
rest on the towel when drying.


«PAINT, VARNISH, AND ENAMEL REMOVERS:»


«To Remove Old Oil, Paint, or Varnish Coats.»—I.—Apply a mixture of
about 5 parts of potassium silicate (water glass, 36 per cent), about 1
part of soda lye (40 per cent), and 1 part of ammonia. The composition
dissolves the old varnish coat, as well as the paint, down to the
bottom. The varnish coatings which are to be removed may be brushed off
or left for days in a hardened state. Upon being thoroughly moistened
with water the old varnish may be readily washed off, the lacquer as
well as the oil paint coming off completely. The ammonia otherwise
employed dissolves the varnish, but not the paint. {188}

II.—Apply a mixture of 1 part oil of turpentine and 2 parts of ammonia.
This is effective, even if the coatings withstand the strongest lye.
The two liquids are shaken in a bottle until they mix like milk. The
mixture is applied to the coating with a little oakum; after a few
minutes the old paint can be wiped off.


«To Clean Brushes and Vessels of Dry Paint» (see also Brushes and
Paints).—The cleaning of the brushes and vessels in which the varnish
or oil paint had dried is usually done by boiling with soda solution.
This frequently spoils the brushes or cracks the vessels if of glass;
besides, the process is rather slow and dirty. A much more suitable
remedy is amyl acetate, which is a liquid with a pleasant odor of
fruit drops, used mainly for dissolving and cementing celluloid. If
amyl acetate is poured over a paint brush the varnish or hardened
paint dissolves almost immediately and the brush is again rendered
serviceable at once. If necessary, the process is repeated. For
cleaning vessels shake the liquid about in them, which softens the
paint so that it can be readily removed with paper. In this manner much
labor can be saved. The amyl acetate can be easily removed from the
brushes, etc., by alcohol or oil of turpentine.


«Varnish and Paint Remover.»—Dissolve 20 parts of caustic soda (98 per
cent) in 100 parts of water, mix the solution with 20 parts of mineral
oil, and stir in a kettle provided with a mechanical stirrer, until the
emulsion is complete. Now add, with stirring, 20 parts of sawdust and
pass the whole through a paint mill to obtain a uniform intermixture.
Apply the paste moist.


«To Remove Varnish from Metal.»—To remove old varnish from metals, it
suffices to dip the articles in equal parts of ammonia and alcohol (95
per cent).


«To Remove Water Stains from Varnished Furniture.»—Pour olive oil into
a dish and scrape a little white wax into it. This mixture should be
heated until the wax melts and rubbed sparingly on the stains. Finally,
rub the surface with a linen rag until it is restored to brilliancy.


«To Remove Paint, Varnish, etc., from Wood.»—Varnish, paint, etc., no
matter how old and hard, may be softened in a few minutes so that they
can be easily scraped off, by applying the following mixture:

 Water glass                       5 parts
 Soda lye, 40° B. (27 per cent)    1 part
 Ammonia water                     1 part

Mix.


«Removing Varnish, etc.»—A patent has been taken out in England for a
liquid for removing varnish, lacquer, tar, and paint. The composition
is made by mixing 4 ounces of benzol, 3 ounces of fusel oil, and 1
ounce of alcohol. It is stated by the inventor that this mixture, if
applied to a painted or varnished surface, will make the surface quite
clean in less than 10 minutes, and that a paint-soaked brush “as hard
as iron” can be made as soft and pliable as new by simply soaking for
an hour or so in the mixture.


«To Remove Enamel and Tin Solder.»—Pour enough of oil of vitriol
(concentrated sulphuric acid) over powdered fluorspar in an earthen or
lead vessel, so as just to cover the parts whereby hydrofluoric acid is
generated. For use, dip the article suspended on a wire into the liquid
until the enamel or the tin is eaten away or dissolved, which does
not injure the articles in any way. If heated, the liquid acts more
rapidly. The work should always be conducted in the open air, and care
should be taken not to inhale the fumes, which are highly injurious to
the health, and not to get any liquid on the skin, as hydrofluoric acid
is one of the most dangerous poisons. Hydrofluoric acid must be kept in
earthen or leaden vessels, as it destroys glass.


«Removing Paint and Varnish from Wood.»—The following compound is given
as one which will clean paint or varnish from wood or stone without
injuring the material:

 Flour or wood pulp     385 parts
 Hydrochloric acid      450 parts
 Bleaching powder       160 parts
 Turpentine               5 parts

This mixture is applied to the surface and left on for some time. It
is then brushed off, and brings the paint away with it. It keeps moist
quite long enough to be easily removed after it has acted.


«Paste for Removing Old Paint or Varnish Coats.»—

 I.—Sodium hydrate          5 parts
     Soluble soda glass      3 parts
     Flour paste             6 parts
     Water                   4 parts

 II.—Soap                   10 parts
      Potassium hydrate       7 parts
      Potassium silicate      2 parts

{189}


«To Remove Old Enamel.»—Lay the articles horizontally in a vessel
containing a concentrated solution of alum and boil them. The solution
should be just sufficient to cover the pieces. In 20 or 25 minutes the
old enamel will fall into dust, and the article can be polished with
emery. If narrow and deep vessels are used the operation will require
more time.


«INK ERADICATORS:»


«Two-Solution Ink Remover.»—

 I.—(_a_) Citric acid                         1 part
           Concentrated solution of borax      2 parts
           Distilled water                    16 parts

Dissolve the acid in the water, add the borax solution, and mix by
agitation.

 (_b_) Chloride of lime                    3 parts
       Water                              16 parts
       Concentrated borax solution         2 part

Add the chloride of lime to the water, shake well and set aside for a
week, then decant the clear liquid and to it add the borax solution.

For use, saturate the spot with solution (_a_), apply a blotter to take
off the excess of liquid, then apply solution (_b_). When the stain
has disappeared, apply the blotter and wet the spot with clean water;
finally dry between two sheets of blotting paper.

II.—(_a_) Mix, in equal parts, potassium chloride, potassium
hypochlorite, and oil of peppermint. (_b_) Sodium chloride,
hydrochloric acid and water, in equal parts.

Wet the spot with (_a_), let dry, then brush it over lightly with
(_b_), and rinse in clear water.

A good single mixture which will answer for most inks is made by mixing
citric acid and alum in equal parts. If desired to vend in a liquid
form add an equal part of water. In use, the powder is spread well over
the spot and (if on cloth or woven fabrics) well rubbed in with the
fingers. A few drops of water are then added, and also rubbed in. A
final rinsing with water completes the process.


«Ink Erasers.»—I.—Inks made with nutgalls and copperas can be removed
by using a moderately concentrated solution of oxalic acid, followed by
use of pure water and frequent drying with clean blotting paper. Most
other black inks are erased by use of a weak solution of chlorinated
lime, followed by dilute acetic acid and water, with frequent drying
with blotters. Malachite green ink is bleached by ammonia water; silver
inks by potassium cyanide or sodium hyposulphite. Some aniline colors
are easily removed by alcohol, and nearly all by chlorinated lime,
followed by diluted acetic acid or vinegar. In all cases apply the
substances with camel’s-hair brushes or feathers, and allow them to
remain no longer than necessary, after which rinse well with water and
dry with blotting paper.

 II.—Citric acid                      1 part
      Water, distilled                10 parts
      Concentrated solution of borax   2 parts

Dissolve the citric acid in the water and add the borax. Apply to the
paper with a delicate camel’s-hair pencil, removing any excess of water
with a blotter. A mixture of oxalic, citric, and tartaric acids, in
equal parts, dissolved in just enough water to give a clean solution,
acts energetically on most inks.


«Erasing Powder or Pounce.»—Alum, 1 part; amber, 1 part; sulphur, 1
part; saltpeter, 1 part. Mix well together and keep in a glass bottle.
If a little of this powder is placed on an ink spot or fresh writing,
rubbing very lightly with a clean linen rag, the spot or the writing
will disappear at once.


«Removing Ink Stains.»—I.—The material requiring treatment should first
be soaked in clean, warm water, the superfluous moisture removed, and
the fabric spread over a clean cloth. Now allow a few minims of liquor
ammoniæ fortis, specific gravity 0.891, to drop on the ink spot, then
saturate a tiny tuft of absorbent cotton-wool with acidum phosphoricum
dilutum, B. P., and apply repeatedly and with firm pressure over the
stain; repeat the procedure two or three times, and finally rinse well
in warm water, afterwards drying in the sun, when every trace of ink
will have vanished. This method is equally reliable for old and fresh
ink stains, is rapid in action, and will not injure the most delicate
fabric.

II.—To remove ink spots the fabric is soaked in warm water, then it is
squeezed out and spread upon a clean piece of linen. Now apply a few
drops of liquid ammonia of a specific gravity of 0.891 to the spot,
and dab it next with a wad of cotton which has been saturated with
dilute phosphoric acid. After repeating the process several times and
drying the piece in the sun, the ink spot will have disappeared without
leaving the slightest trace. {190}

III.—Ink spots may be removed by the following mixture:

 Oxalic acid          10 parts
 Stannic chloride      2 parts
 Acetic acid           5 parts
 Water to make       500 parts

Mix.

IV.—The customary method of cleansing ink spots is to use oxalic acid.
Thick blotting paper is soaked in a concentrated solution and dried.
It is then laid immediately on the blot, and in many instances will
take the latter out without leaving a trace behind. In more stubborn
cases the cloth is dipped in boiling water and rubbed with crystals of
oxalic acid, after which it is soaked in a weak solution of chloride
of lime—say 1 ounce to a quart of water. Under such circumstances the
linen should be thoroughly rinsed in several waters afterwards. Oxalic
acid is undesirable for certain fabrics because it removes the color.

V.—Here is a more harmless method: Equal parts of cream of tartar and
citric acid, powdered fine, and mixed together. This forms the “salts
of lemon” sold by druggists. Procure a hot dinner plate, lay the part
stained in the plate, and moisten with hot water; next rub in the
above powder with the bowl of a spoon until the stains disappear; then
rinse in clean water and dry.


«To Remove Red (Aniline) Ink.»—Stains of red anilines, except eosine,
are at once removed by moistening with alcohol of 94 per cent,
acidulated with acetic acid. Eosine does not disappear so easily. The
amount of acetic acid to be used is ascertained by adding it, drop by
drop, to the alcohol, testing the mixture from time to time, until when
dropped on the stain, the latter at once disappears.


«CLEANING OF WALLS, CEILINGS, AND WALL PAPER:»

See also Household Formulas.


«To Renovate Brick Walls.»—Dissolve glue in water in the proportion of
1 ounce of glue to every gallon of water; add, while hot, a piece of
alum the size of a hen’s egg, 1⁠/⁠2 pound Venetian red, and 1 pound
Spanish brown. Add more water if too dark; more red and brown if too
light.


«Cleaning Painted Doors, Walls, etc.»—The following recipe is designed
for painted objects that are much soiled. Simmer gently on the fire,
stirring constantly, 30 parts, by weight, of pulverized borax, and 450
parts of brown soap of good quality, cut in small pieces, in 3,000
parts of water. The liquid is applied by means of flannel and rinsed
off at once with pure water.


«To Remove Aniline Stains from Ceilings, etc.»—In renewing ceilings,
the old aniline color stains are often very annoying, as they penetrate
the new coating. Painting over with shellac or oil paint will bring
relief, but other drawbacks appear. A very practical remedy is to
place a tin vessel on the floor of the room, and to burn a quantity of
sulphur in it after the doors and windows of the room have been closed.
The sulphur vapors destroy the aniline stains, which disappear entirely.


«Old Ceilings.»—In dealing with old ceilings the distemper must be
washed off down to the plaster face, all cracks raked out and stopped
with putty (plaster of Paris and distemper mixed), and the whole rubbed
smooth with pumice stone and water; stained parts should be painted
with oil color, and the whole distempered. If old ceilings are in bad
condition it is desirable that they should be lined with paper, which
should have a coat of weak size before being distempered.


«Oil Stains on Wall Paper.»—Make a medium thick paste of pipe clay and
water, applying it carefully flat upon the oil stain, but avoiding all
friction. The paste is allowed to remain 10 to 12 hours, after which
time it is very carefully removed with a soft rag. In many cases a
repeated action will be necessary until the purpose desired is fully
reached. Finally, however, this will be obtained without blurring or
destroying the design of the wall paper, unless it be of the cheapest
variety. In the case of a light, delicate paper, the paste should be
composed of magnesia and benzine.


«To Clean Painted Walls.»—A simple method is to put a little aqua
ammonia in moderately warm water, dampen a flannel with it, and gently
wipe over the painted surface. No scrubbing is necessary.


«Treatment of Whitewashed Walls.»—It is suggested that whitewashed
walls which it is desired to paper, with a view to preventing peeling,
should be treated with water, after which the scraper should be
vigorously used. If the whitewash has been thoroughly soaked it can
easily be removed with the scraper. Care should be taken that every
part of the wall is well scraped. {191}


«Cleaning Wall Paper.»—I.—To clean wall paper the dust should first
be removed by lightly brushing, preferably with a feather duster, and
the surface then gently rubbed with slices of moderately stale bread,
the discolored surface of the bread being removed from time to time,
so as to expose a fresh portion for use. Care should be taken to avoid
scratching the paper with the crust of the bread, and the rubbing
should be in one direction, the surface being systematically gone over,
as in painting, to avoid the production of streaks.

II.—Mix 4 ounces of powdered pumice with 1 quart of flour, and with the
aid of water make a stiff dough. Form the dough into rolls 2 inches in
diameter and 6 inches long; sew each roll separately in a cotton cloth,
then boil for 40 or 50 minutes, so as to render the mass firm. Allow to
stand for several hours, remove the crust, and they are ready for use.

III.—Bread will clean paper; but unless it is properly used the job
will be a very tedious one. Select a “tin” loaf at least two days old.
Cut off the crust at one end, and rub down the paper, commencing at
the top. Do not rub the bread backwards and forwards, but in single
strokes. When the end gets dirty take a very sharp knife and pare off a
thin layer; then proceed as before.

It is well to make sure that the walls are quite dry before using the
bread, or it may smear the pattern. If the room is furnished it will,
of course, be necessary to place cloths around the room to catch the
crumbs.

IV.—A preparation for cleansing wall paper that often proves much more
effectual than ordinary bread, especially when the paper is very dirty,
is made by mixing 2⁠/⁠3 dough and 1⁠/⁠3 plaster of Paris. This should
be made a day before it is needed for use, and should be very gently
baked.

If there are any grease spots they should be removed by holding a hot
flatiron against a piece of blotting paper placed over them. If this
fails, a little fuller’s earth or pipe clay should be made into a paste
with water, and this should then be carefully plastered over the grease
spots and allowed to remain till quite dry, when it will be found to
have absorbed the grease.

V.—Mix together 1 pound each of rye flour and white flour into a dough,
which is partially cooked and the crust removed. To this 1 ounce common
salt and 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of powdered naphthaline are added, and finally 1
ounce of corn meal, and 1⁠/⁠8 ounce of burnt umber. The composition
is formed into a mass, of the proper size to be grasped in the hand,
and in use it should be drawn in one direction over the surface to be
cleaned.

VI.—Procure a soft, flat sponge, being careful that there are no
hard or gritty places in it, then get a bucket of new, clean, dry,
wheat bran. Hold the sponge flat side up, and put a handful of bran
on it, then quickly turn against the wall, and rub the wall gently
and carefully with it; then repeat the operation. Hold a large pan or
spread down a drip cloth to catch the bran as it falls, but never use
the same bran twice. Still another way is to use Canton flannel in
strips a foot wide and about 3 yards long. Roll a strip around a stick
1 inch thick and 10 inches long, so as to have the ends of the stick
covered, with the nap of the cloth outside. As the cloth gets soiled,
unroll the soiled part and roll it up with the soiled face inside.

In this way one can change places on the cloth when soiled and use
the whole face of the cloth. To take out a grease spot requires care.
First, take several thicknesses of brown wrapping paper and make a pad,
place it against the grease spot, and hold a hot flatiron against it to
draw out the grease, which will soak into the brown paper. Be careful
to have enough layers of brown paper to keep the iron from scorching
or discoloring the wall paper. If the first application does not take
out nearly all the grease, repeat with clean brown paper or a blotting
pad. Then take an ounce vial of washed sulphuric ether and a soft,
fine, clean sponge and sponge the spot carefully until all the grease
disappears. Do not wipe the place with the sponge and ether, but dab
the sponge carefully against the place. A small quantity of ether is
advised, as it is very inflammable.


«CLOTHES AND FABRIC CLEANERS:»


«Soaps for Clothing and Fabrics.»—When the fabric is washable and the
color fast, ordinary soap and water are sufficient for removing grease
and the ordinarily attendant dirt; but special soaps are made which may
possibly be more effectual.

 I.—Powdered borax         30 parts
     Extract of soap bark   30 parts
     Ox gall (fresh)       120 parts
     Castile soap          450 parts

First make the soap-bark extract by boiling the crushed bark in water
until it has assumed a dark color, then strain the liquid into an
evaporating dish, and {192} by the aid of heat evaporate it to a solid
extract; then powder and mix it with the borax and the ox gall. Melt
the castile soap by adding a small quantity of water and warming, then
add the other ingredients and mix well.

About 100 parts of soap bark make 20 parts of extract.

 II.—Castile soap            2   pounds
      Potassium carbonate     1⁠/⁠2 pound
      Camphor                 1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Alcohol                 1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Ammonia water           1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Hot water, 1⁠/⁠2 pint, or sufficient.

Dissolve the potassium carbonate in the water, add the soap previously
reduced to thin shavings, keep warm over a water bath, stirring
occasionally, until dissolved, adding more water if necessary, and
finally, when of a consistence to become semisolid on cooling,
remove from the fire. When nearly ready to set, stir in the camphor,
previously dissolved in the alcohol and the ammonia.

The soap will apparently be quite as efficacious without the camphor
and ammonia.

If a paste is desired, a potash soap should be used instead of the
castile in the foregoing formula, and a portion or all of the water
omitted. Soaps made from potash remain soft, while soda soaps harden on
the evaporation of the water which they contain when first made.

A liquid preparation may be obtained, of course, by the addition of
sufficient water, and some more alcohol would probably improve it.


«Clothes-Cleaning Fluids:»

See also Household Formulas.

 I.—Borax                1 ounce
     Castile soap         1 ounce
     Sodium carbonate     3 drachms
     Ammonia water        5 ounces
     Alcohol              4 ounces
     Acetone              4 ounces
     Hot water to make    4 pints

Dissolve the borax, sodium bicarbonate, and soap in the hot water, mix
the acetone and alcohol together, unite the two solutions, and then add
the ammonia water. The addition of a couple of ounces of rose water
will render it somewhat fragrant.

II.—A strong decoction of soap bark, preserved by the addition of
alcohol, forms a good liquid cleanser for fabrics of the more delicate
sort.

 III.—Chloroform                              15 parts
       Ether                                   15 parts
       Alcohol                                120 parts
       Decoction of quillaia bark of 30°    4,500 parts

 IV.—Acetic ether      10 parts
      Amyl acetate      10 parts
      Liquid ammonia    10 parts
      Dilute alcohol    70 parts

V.—Another good non-inflammable spot remover consists of equal parts
of acetone, ammonia, and diluted alcohol. For use in large quantities
carbon tetrachloride is suggested.

 VI.—Castile soap       4 av. ounces
      Water, boiling    32 fluidounces

 Dissolve and add:

 Water      1 gallon
 Ammonia    8 fluidounces
 Ether      2 fluidounces
 Alcohol    4 fluidounces


«To Remove Spots from Tracing Cloth.»—It is best to use benzine,
which is applied by means of a cotton rag. The benzine also takes
off lead-pencil marks, but does not attack India and other inks. The
places treated with benzine should subsequently be rubbed with a little
talcum, otherwise it would not be possible to use the pen on them.


«Removal of Paint from Clothing.»—Before paint becomes “dry” it can be
removed from cloth by the liberal application of turpentine or benzine.
If the spot is not large, it may be immersed in the liquid; otherwise,
a thick, folded, absorbent cloth should be placed under the fabric
which has been spotted, and the liquid sponged on freely enough that
it may soak through, carrying the greasy matter with it. Some skill
in manipulation is requisite to avoid simply spreading the stain and
leaving a “ring” to show how far it has extended.

When benzine is used the operator must be careful to apply it only in
the absence of light or fire, on account of the extremely inflammable
character of the vapor.

Varnish stains, when fresh, are treated in the same way, but the action
of the solvent may possibly not be so complete on account of the gum
rosins present.

When either paint or varnish has dried, its removal becomes more
difficult. In such case soaking in strong ammonia water may answer. An
emulsion, formed by shaking together 2 parts of ammonia water and 1 of
spirits of turpentine, has been recommended.


«To Remove Vaseline Stains from Clothing.»—Moisten the spots with a
mixture of 1 part of aniline oil, 1 of {193} powdered soap, and 10 of
water. After allowing the cloth to lie for 5 or 10 minutes, wash with
water.


«To Remove Grease Spots from Plush.»—Place fresh bread rolls in the
oven, break them apart as soon as they have become very hot, and rub
the spots with the crumbs, continuing the work by using new rolls until
all traces of fat have disappeared from the fabric. Purified benzine,
which does not alter even the most delicate colors, is also useful for
this purpose.


«To Remove Iron Rust from Muslin and Linen.»—Wet with lemon juice and
salt and expose to the sun. If one application does not remove the
spots, a second rarely fails to do so.


«Keroclean.»—This non-inflammable cleanser removes grease spots from
delicate fabrics without injury, cleans all kinds of jewelry and
tableware by removing fats and tarnish, kills moths, insects, and
household pests by suffocation and extermination, and cleans ironware
by removing rust, brassware by removing grease, copperware by removing
verdigris. It is as clear as water and will stand any fire test.

 Kerosene.                             1 ounce
 Carbon tetrachloride (commercial).    3 ounces
 Oil of citronella                     2 drachms

Mix, and filter if necessary. If a strong odor of carbon bisulphide is
detected in the carbon tetrachloride first shake with powdered charcoal
and filter.


«To Clean Gold and Silver Lace.»—I.—Alkaline liquids sometimes used for
cleaning gold lace are unsuitable, for they generally corrode or change
the color of the silk. A solution of soap also interferes with certain
colors, and should therefore not be employed. Alcohol is an effectual
remedy for restoring the luster of gold, and it may be used without any
danger to the silk, but where the gold is worn off, and the base metal
exposed, it is not so successful in accomplishing its purpose, as by
removing the tarnish the base metal becomes more distinguishable from
the fine gold.

II.—To clean silver lace take alabaster in very fine powder, lay the
lace upon a cloth, and with a soft brush take up some of the powder,
and rub both sides with it till it becomes bright and clean, afterwards
polish with another brush until all remnants of the powder are removed,
and it exhibits a lustrous surface.

III.—Silver laces are put in curdled milk for 24 hours. A piece of
Venetian soap, or any other good soap, is scraped and stirred into 2
quarts of rain water. To this a quantity of honey and fresh ox gall
is added, and the whole is stirred for some time. If it becomes too
thick, more water is added. This mass is allowed to stand for half a
day, and the wet laces are painted with it. Wrap a wet cloth around the
roller of a mangle, wind the laces over this, put another wet cloth on
top, and press, wetting and repeating the application several times.
Next, dip the laces in a clear solution of equal parts of sugar and gum
arabic, pass them again through the mangle, between two clean pieces of
cloth, and hang them up to dry thoroughly, attaching a weight to the
lower end.

IV.—Soak gold laces over night in cheap white wine and then proceed as
with silver laces. If the gold is worn off, put 771 grains of shellac,
31 grains of dragon’s blood, 31 grains of turmeric in strong alcohol
and pour off the ruby-colored fluid. Dip a fine hair pencil in this,
paint the pieces to be renewed, and hold a hot flatiron a few inches
above them, so that only the laces receive the heat.

V.—Silver embroideries may also be cleaned by dusting them with Vienna
lime, and brushing off with a velvet brush.

For gildings the stuff is dipped in a solution of gold chloride, and
this is reduced by means of hydrogen in another vessel.

For silvering, one of the following two processes may be employed:
(_a_) Painting with a solution of 1 part of phosphorus in 15 parts
bisulphide of carbon and dipping in a solution of nitrate of silver;
(_b_) dipping for 2 hours in a solution of nitrate of silver, mixed
with ammonia, then exposing to a current of pure hydrogen.


«To Remove Silver Stains from White Fabrics.»—Moisten the fabric
for two or three minutes with a solution of 5 parts of bromine and
500 parts of water. Then rinse in clear water. If a yellowish stain
remains, immerse in a solution of 150 parts of sodium hyposulphite in
500 parts of water, and again rinse in clear water.


«Rust-Spot Remover.»—Dissolve potassium bioxalate, 200 parts, in
distilled water, 8,800 parts; add glycerine, 1,000 parts, and filter.
Moisten the rust or ink spots with this solution; let the linen, etc.,
lie for 3 hours, rubbing the moistened spots frequently, and then wash
well with water. {194}


«To Clean Quilts.»—Quilts are cleaned by first washing them in lukewarm
soapsuds, then laying them in cold, soft (rain) water over night. The
next day they are pressed as dry as possible and hung up; the ends, in
which the moisture remains for a long time, must be wrung out from time
to time.

It is very essential to beat the drying quilts frequently with a smooth
stick or board. This will have the effect of swelling up the wadding,
and preventing it from felting. Furthermore, the quilts should be
repeatedly turned during the drying from right to left and also from
top to bottom. In this manner streaks are avoided.


«Removal of Peruvian-Balsam Stains.»—The fabric is spread out, a piece
of filter paper being placed beneath the stain, and the latter is then
copiously moistened with chloroform, applied by means of a tuft of
cotton wool. Rubbing is to be avoided.


«Solution for Removing Nitrate of Silver Spots.»—

 Bichloride of mercury    5 parts
 Ammonium chloride        5 parts
 Distilled water         40 parts

Apply the mixture to the spots with a cloth, then rub. This removes,
almost instantaneously, even old stains on linen, cotton, or wool.
Stains on the skin thus treated become whitish yellow and soon
disappear.


«Cleaning Tracings.»—Tracing cloth can be very quickly and easily
cleaned, and pencil marks removed by the use of benzine, which is
applied with a cotton swab. It may be rubbed freely over the tracing
without injury to lines drawn in ink, or even in water color, but the
pencil marks and dirt will quickly disappear. The benzine evaporates
almost immediately, leaving the tracing unharmed. The surface, however,
has been softened and must be rubbed down with talc, or some similar
substance, before drawing any more ink lines.

The glaze may be restored to tracing cloth after using the eraser by
rubbing the roughened surface with a piece of hard wax from an old
phonograph cylinder. The surface thus produced is superior to that of
the original glaze, as it is absolutely oil- and water-proof.


«Rags for Cleaning and Polishing.»—Immerse flannel rags in a solution
of 20 parts of dextrine and 30 parts of oxalic acid in 20 parts of
logwood decoction; gently wring them out, and sift over them a mixture
of finely powdered tripoli and pumice stone. Pile the moist rags one
upon another, placing a layer of the powder between each two. Then
press, separate, and dry.


«Cleaning Powder.»—

 Bole                  500 parts
 Magnesium carbonate    50 parts

Mix and make into a paste with a small quantity of benzine or water;
apply to stains made by fats or oils on the clothing and when dry
remove with a brush.


«CLEANING PAINTED AND VARNISHED SURFACES:»


«Cleaning and Preserving Polished Woodwork.»—Rub down all the polished
work with a very weak alcoholic solution of shellac (1 to 20 or even
1 to 30) and linseed oil, spread on a linen cloth. The rubbing should
be firm and hard. Spots on the polished surface, made by alcohol,
tinctures, water, etc., should be removed as far as possible and as
soon as possible after they are made, by the use of boiled linseed
oil. Afterwards they should be rubbed with the shellac and linseed oil
solution on a soft linen rag. If the spots are due to acids go over
them with a little dilute ammonia water. Ink spots may be removed with
dilute or (if necessary) concentrated hydrochloric acid, following its
use with dilute ammonia water. In extreme cases it may be necessary to
use the scraper or sandpaper, or both.

Oak as a general thing is not polished, but has a matt surface which
can be washed with water and soap. First all stains and spots should be
gone over with a sponge or a soft brush and very weak ammonia water.
The carved work should be freed of dust, etc., by the use of a stiff
brush, and finally washed with dilute ammonia water. When dry it should
be gone over very thinly and evenly with brunoline applied with a soft
pencil. If it is desired to give an especially handsome finish, after
the surface is entirely dry, give it a preliminary coat of brunoline
and follow this on the day after with a second. Brunoline may be
purchased of any dealer in paints. To make it, put 70 parts of linseed
oil in a very capacious vessel (on account of the foam that ensues) and
add to it 20 parts of powdered litharge, 20 parts of powdered minium,
and 10 parts of lead acetate, also powdered. Boil until the oil is
completely oxidized, stirring constantly. When completely oxidized the
oil is no longer red, but is of a dark brown color. When it acquires
{195} this color, remove from the fire, and add 160 parts of turpentine
oil, and stir well. This brunoline serves splendidly for polishing
furniture or other polished wood.


«To Clean Lacquered Goods.»—Papier-maché and lacquered goods may
be cleaned perfectly by rubbing thoroughly with a paste made of
wheat flour and olive oil. Apply with a bit of soft flannel or old
linen, rubbing hard; wipe off and polish by rubbing with an old silk
handkerchief.


«Polish for Varnished Work.»—To renovate varnished work make a polish
of 1 quart good vinegar, 2 ounces butter of antimony, 2 ounces alcohol,
and 1 quart oil. Shake well before using.


«To Clean Paintings.»—To clean an oil painting, take it out of its
frame, lay a piece of cloth moistened with rain water on it, and
leave it for a while to take up the dirt from the picture. Several
applications may be required to secure a perfect result. Then wipe the
picture very gently with a tuft of cotton wool damped with absolutely
pure linseed oil. Gold frames may be cleaned with a freshly cut onion;
they should be wiped with a soft sponge wet with rain water a few
hours after the application of the onion, and finally wiped with a soft
rag.


«Removing and Preventing Match Marks.»—The unsightly marks made on a
painted surface by striking matches on it can sometimes be removed by
scrubbing with soapsuds and a stiff brush. To prevent match marks dip a
bit of flannel in alboline (liquid vaseline), and with it go over the
surface, rubbing it hard. A second rubbing with a dry bit of flannel
completes the job. A man may “strike” a match there all day, and
neither get a light nor make a mark.


«GLOVE CLEANERS:»


«Powder for Cleaning Gloves.»—

 I.—White bole or pipe clay    60.0 parts
     Orris root (powdered)      30.0 parts
     Powdered grain soap         7.5 parts
     Powdered borax             15.0 parts
     Ammonium chloride           2.5 parts

Mix the above ingredients. Moisten the gloves with a damp cloth, rub on
the powder, and brush off after drying.

II.—Four pounds powdered pipe clay, 2 pounds powdered white soap, 1
ounce lemon oil, thoroughly rubbed together. To use, make powder into a
thin cream with water and rub on the gloves while on the hands. This is
a cheaply produced compound, and does its work effectually.


«Soaps and Pastes for Cleaning Gloves.»—

 I.—Soft soap.               1 ounce
     Water.                   4 ounces
     Oil of lemon           1⁠/⁠2 drachm
     Precipitated chalk, a
       sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the soap in the water, add the oil, and make into a stiff
paste with a sufficient quantity of chalk.

 II.—White hard soap.    1 part
      Talcum.             1 part
      Water               4 parts

Shave the soap into ribbons, dissolve in the water by the aid of heat,
and incorporate the talcum.

 III.—Curd soap          1 av. ounce
       Water              4 fluidounces
       Oil of lemon.    1⁠/⁠2 fluidrachm
       French chalk, a sufficient quantity.

Shred the soap and melt it in the water by heat, add the oil of lemon,
and make into a stiff paste with French chalk.

 IV.—White castile soap, old and dry    15 parts
      Water                              15 parts
      Solution of chlorinated soda       16 parts
      Ammonia water                       1 part

Cut or shave up the soap, add the water, and heat on the water bath to
a smooth paste. Remove, let cool, and add the other ingredients and mix
thoroughly.

 V.—Castile soap, white, old, and dry    100 parts
     Water                                 75 parts
     Tincture of quillaia                  10 parts
     Ether, sulphuric                      10 parts
     Ammonia water, FF                      5 parts
     Benzine, deodorized                   75 parts

Melt the soap, previously finely shaved, in the water, bring to a
boil and remove from the fire. Let cool down, then add the other
ingredients, incorporating them thoroughly. This should be put up in
collapsible tubes or tightly closed metallic boxes. This is also useful
for clothing.


«Liquid Cloth and Glove Cleaner.»—

 Gasoline.               1 gallon
 Chloroform.             1 ounce
 Carbon disulphide       1 ounce {196}
 Essential oil almond    5 drops
 Oil bergamot            1 drachm
 Oil cloves              5 drops

Mix. To be applied with a sponge or soft cloth.


«STONE CLEANING:»


«Cleaning and Polishing Marble.»—I.—Marble that has become dirty by
ordinary use or exposure may be cleaned by a simple bath of soap and
water.

If this does not remove stains, a weak solution of oxalic acid should
be applied with a sponge or rag, washing quickly and thoroughly with
water to minimize injury to the surface.

Rubbing well after this with chalk moistened with water will, in a
measure, restore the luster. Another method of finishing is to apply a
solution of white wax in turpentine (about 1 in 10), rubbing thoroughly
with a piece of flannel or soft leather.

If the marble has been much exposed, so that its luster has been
seriously impaired, it may be necessary to repolish it in a more
thorough manner. This may be accomplished by rubbing it first with
sand, beginning with a moderately coarse-grained article and changing
this twice for finer kinds, after which tripoli or pumice is used.
The final polish is given by the so-called putty powder. A plate of
iron is generally used in applying the coarse sand; with the fine sand
a leaden plate is used; and the pumice is employed in the form of a
smooth-surfaced piece of convenient size. For the final polishing
coarse linen or bagging is used, wedged tightly into an iron planing
tool. During all these applications water is allowed to trickle over
the face of the stone.

The putty powder referred to is binoxide of tin, obtained by treating
metallic tin with nitric acid, which converts the metal into hydrated
metastannic acid. This, when heated, becomes anhydrous. In this
condition it is known as putty powder. In practice putty powder is
mixed with alum, sulphur, and other substances, the mixture used being
dependent upon the nature of the stone to be polished.

According to Warwick, colored marble should not be treated with soap
and water, but only with the solution of beeswax above mentioned.

II.—Take 2 parts of sodium bicarbonate, 1 part of powdered pumice
stone, and 1 part of finely pulverized chalk. Pass through a fine
sieve to screen out all particles capable of scratching the marble,
and add sufficient water to form a pasty mass. Rub the marble with it
vigorously, and end the cleaning with soap and water.

 III.—Ox gall                                   1 part
       Saturated solution of sodium carbonate    4 parts
       Oil of turpentine                         1 part
       Pipe clay enough to form a paste.

 IV.—Sodium carbonate     2 ounces
      Chlorinated lime.    1 ounce
      Water 14 ounces

Mix well and apply the magma to the marble with a cloth, rubbing
well in, and finally rubbing dry. It may be necessary to repeat this
operation.

V.—Wash the surface with a mixture of finely powdered pumice stone and
vinegar, and leave it for several hours; then brush it hard and wash it
clean. When dry, rub with whiting and wash leather.

 VI.—Soft soap.            4 parts
      Whiting               4 parts
      Sodium bicarbonate    1 part
      Copper sulphate       2 parts

Mix thoroughly and rub over the marble with a piece of flannel, and
leave it on for 24 hours, then wash it off with clean water, and
polish the marble with a piece of flannel or an old piece of felt.

VII.—A strong solution of oxalic acid effectually takes out ink
stains. In handling it the poisonous nature of this acid should not be
forgotten.

VIII.—Iron mold or ink spots may be taken out in the following manner:
Take 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of butter of antimony and 1 ounce of oxalic acid and
dissolve them in 1 pint of rain water; add enough flour to bring the
mixture to a proper consistency. Lay it evenly on the stained part with
a brush, and, after it has remained for a few days, wash it off and
repeat the process if the stain is not wholly removed.

IX.—To remove oil stains apply common clay saturated with benzine. If
the grease has remained in long the polish will be injured, but the
stain will be removed.

X.—The following method for removing rust from iron depends upon
the solubility of the sulphide of iron in a solution of cyanide of
potassium. Clay is made into a thin paste with ammonium sulphide, and
the rust spot smeared with the mixture, care being taken that the
spot is only just covered. After ten minutes this paste is washed off
and replaced by one consisting of white bole mixed with a solution of
potassium cyanide (1 to 4), which is in its turn {197} washed off after
about 2 1⁠/⁠2 hours. Should a reddish spot remain after washing off the
first paste, a second layer may be applied for about 5 minutes.

 XI.—Soft soap           4 ounces
      Whiting             4 ounces
      Sodium carbonate    1 ounce
      Water, a sufficient quantity.
Make into a thin paste, apply on the soiled surface, and wash off after
24 hours.

XII.—In a spacious tub place a tall vessel upside down. On this set the
article to be cleaned so that it will not stand in the water, which
would loosen the cemented parts. Into this tub pour a few inches of
cold water—hot water renders marble dull—take a soft brush and a piece
of Venetian soap, dip the former in the water and rub on the latter
carefully, brushing off the article from top to bottom. When in this
manner dust and dirt have been dissolved, wash off all soap particles
by means of a watering pot and cold water, dab the object with a clean
sponge, which absorbs the moisture, place it upon a cloth and carefully
dry with a very clean, soft cloth, rubbing gently. This treatment will
restore the former gloss to the marble.

XIII.—Mix and shake thoroughly in a bottle equal quantities of
sulphuric acid and lemon juice. Moisten the spots and rub them lightly
with a linen cloth and they will disappear.

XIV.—Ink spots are treated with acid oxalate of potassium; blood stains
by brushing with alabaster dust and distilled water, then bleaching
with chlorine solution. Alizarine ink and aniline ink spots can be
moderated by laying on rags saturated with Javelle water, chlorine
water, or chloride of lime paste. Old oil stains can only be effaced
by placing the whole piece of marble for hours in benzine. Fresh oil
or grease spots are obliterated by repeated applications of a little
damp, white clay and subsequent brushing with soap water or weak soda
solution. For many other spots an application of benzine and magnesia
is useful.

XV.—Marble slabs keep well and do not lose their fresh color if they
are cleaned with hot water only, without the addition of soap, which is
injurious to the color. Care must be taken that no liquid dries on the
marble. If spots of wine, coffee, beer, etc., have already appeared,
they are cleaned with diluted spirit of sal ammoniac, highly diluted
oxalic acid, Javelle water, ox gall, or, take a quantity of newly
slaked lime, mix it with water into a paste-like consistency, apply the
paste uniformly on the spot with a brush, and leave the coating alone
for two to three days before it is washed off. If the spots are not
removed by a single application, repeat the latter. In using Javelle
water 1 or 2 drops should be carefully poured on each spot, rinsing off
with water.


«To Remove Grease Spots from Marble.»—If the spots are fresh, rub them
over with a piece of cloth that has been dipped into pulverized china
clay, repeating the operation several times, and then brush with soap
and water. When the spots are old brush with distilled water and finest
French plaster energetically, then bleach with chloride of lime that is
put on a piece of white cloth. If the piece of marble is small enough
to permit it, soak it for a few hours in refined benzine.


«Preparation for Cleaning Marble, Furniture, and Metals, Especially
Copper.»—This preparation is claimed to give very quickly perfect
brilliancy, persisting without soiling either the hand or the
articles, and without leaving any odor of copper. The following is
the composition for 100 parts of the product: Wax, 2.4 parts; oil of
turpentine, 9.4 parts; acetic acid, 42 parts; citric acid, 42 parts;
white soap, 42 parts.


«Removing Oil Stains from Marble.»—Saturate fuller’s earth with a
solution of equal parts of soap liniment, ammonia, and water; apply
to the greasy part of the marble; keep there for some hours, pressed
down with a smoothing iron sufficiently hot to warm the mass, and as
it evaporates occasionally renew the solution. When wiped off dry the
stain will have nearly disappeared. Some days later, when more oil
works toward the surface repeat the operation. A few such treatments
should suffice.


«Cleaning Terra Cotta.»—After having carefully removed all dust, paint
the terra cotta, by means of a brush, with a mixture of slightly gummed
water and finely powdered terra cotta.


«Renovation of Polished and Varnished Surfaces of Wood, Stone,
etc.»—This is composed of the following ingredients, though the
proportions may be varied: Cereal flour or wood pulp, 38 1⁠/⁠2 parts;
hydrochloric acid, 45 parts; chloride of lime, 16 parts; turpentine,
1⁠/⁠2 part. After mixing the ingredients thoroughly in order to form
a homogeneous paste, the object to be treated is smeared with it and
allowed to stand for some time. The paste on the surface is then
removed by passing over it quickly a piece of soft {198} leather
or a brush, which will remove dirt, grease, and other deleterious
substances. By rubbing gently with a cloth or piece of leather a
polished surface will be imparted to wood, and objects of metal will be
rendered lustrous.

The addition of chloride of lime tends to keep the paste moist, thus
allowing the ready removal of the paste without damaging the varnish or
polish, while the turpentine serves as a disinfectant and renders the
odor less disagreeable during the operation.

The preparation is rapid in its action, and does not affect the
varnished or polished surfaces of wood or marble. While energetic
in its cleansing action on brass and other metallic objects, it is
attended with no corrosive effect.


«Nitrate of Silver Spots.»—To remove these spots from white marble,
they should be painted with Javelle water, and after having been
washed, passed over a concentrated solution of thiosulphate of soda
(hyposulphite).


«To Remove Oil-Paint Spots from Sandstones.»—This may be done by
washing the spots with pure turpentine oil, then covering the place
with white argillaceous earth (pipe clay), leaving it to dry, and
finally rubbing with sharp soda lye, using a brush. Caustic ammonia
also removes oil-paint spots from sandstones.


«RUST REMOVERS:»


«To Remove Rust from Iron or Steel Utensils.»—

I.—Apply the following solution by means of a brush, after having
removed any grease by rubbing with a clean, dry cloth: 100 parts of
stannic chloride are dissolved in 1,000 parts of water; this solution
is added to one containing 2 parts tartaric acid dissolved in 1,000
parts of water, and finally 20 cubic centimeters indigo solution,
diluted with 2,000 parts of water, are added. After allowing the
solution to act upon the stain for a few seconds, it is rubbed clean,
first with a moist cloth, then with a dry cloth; to restore the polish
use is made of silver sand and jewelers’ rouge.

II.—When the rust is recent it is removed by rubbing the metal with a
cork charged with oil. In this manner a perfect polish is obtained.
To take off old rust, mix equal parts of fine tripoli and flowers of
sulphur, mingling this mixture with olive oil, so as to form a paste.
Rub the iron with this preparation by means of a skin.

III.—The rusty piece is connected with a piece of zinc and placed in
water containing a little sulphuric acid. After the articles have been
in the liquid for several days or a week, the rust will have completely
disappeared. The length of time will depend upon the depth to which the
rust has penetrated. A little sulphuric acid may be added from time to
time, but the chief point is that the zinc always has good electric
contact with the iron. To insure this an iron wire may be firmly wound
around the iron object and connected with the zinc. The iron is not
attacked in the least, as long as the zinc is kept in good electric
contact with it. When the articles are taken from the liquid they
assume a dark gray or black color and are then washed and oiled.

IV.—The rust on iron and steel objects, especially large pieces, is
readily removed by rubbing the pieces with oil of tartar, or with very
fine emery and a little oil, or by putting powdered alum in strong
vinegar and rubbing with this alumed vinegar.

V.—Take cyanide of calcium, 25 parts; white soap, powdered, 25 parts;
Spanish white, 50 parts; and water, 200 parts. Triturate all well and
rub the piece with this paste. The effect will be quicker if before
using this paste the rusty object has been soaked for 5 to 10 minutes
in a solution of cyanide of potassium in the ratio of 1 part of cyanide
to 2 parts of water.

VI.—To remove rust from polished steel cyanide of potassium is
excellent. If possible, soak the instrument to be cleaned in a solution
of cyanide of potassium in the proportion of 1 ounce of cyanide to 4
ounces of water. Allow this to act till all loose rust is removed, and
then polish with cyanide soap. The latter is made as follows: Potassium
cyanide, precipitated chalk, white castile soap. Make a saturated
solution of the cyanide and add chalk sufficient to make a creamy
paste. Add the soap cut in fine shavings and thoroughly incorporate in
a mortar. When the mixture is stiff cease to add the soap. It should be
remembered that potassium cyanide is a virulent poison.

VII.—Apply turpentine or kerosene oil, and after letting it stand over
night, clean with finest emery cloth.

VIII.—To free articles of iron and steel from rust and imbedded grains
of sand the articles are treated with fluorhydric acid (about 2 per
cent) 1 to 2 hours, whereby the impurities but not the metal are
dissolved. This is followed by a washing with lime milk, to neutralize
any fluorhydric acid remaining. {199}


«To Remove Rust from Nickel.»—First grease the articles well; then,
after a few days, rub them with a rag charged with ammonia. If the rust
spots persist, add a few drops of hydrochloric acid to the ammonia,
rub and wipe off at once. Next rinse with water, dry, and polish with
tripoli.


«Removal of Rust.»—To take off the rust from small articles which glass
or emery paper would bite too deeply, the ink-erasing rubber used in
business offices may be employed. By beveling it, or cutting it to a
point as needful, it can be introduced into the smallest cavities and
windings, and a perfect cleaning be effected.


«To Remove Rust from Instruments.»—I.—Lay the instruments over night in
a saturated solution of chloride of tin. The rust spots will disappear
through reduction. Upon withdrawal from the solution the instruments
are rinsed with water, placed in a hot soda-soap solution, and dried.
Cleaning with absolute alcohol and polishing chalk may also follow.

II.—Make a solution of 1 part of kerosene in 200 parts of benzine or
carbon tetrachloride, and dip the instruments, which have been dried
by leaving them in heated air, in this, moving their parts, if movable,
as in forceps and scissors, about under the liquid, so that it may
enter all the crevices. Next lay the instruments on a plate in a dry
room, so that the benzine can evaporate. Needles are simply thrown in
the paraffine solution, and taken out with tongs or tweezers, after
which they are allowed to dry on a plate.

III.—Pour olive oil on the rust spots and leave for several days;
then rub with emery or tripoli, without wiping off the oil as far as
possible, or always bringing it back on the spot. Afterwards remove the
emery and the oil with a rag, rub again with emery soaked with vinegar,
and finally with fine plumbago on a piece of chamois skin.


«To Preserve Steel from Rust.»—To preserve steel from rust dissolve 1
part caoutchouc and 16 parts turpentine with a gentle heat, then add
8 parts boiled oil, and mix by bringing them to the heat of boiling
water. Apply to the steel with a brush, the same as varnish. It can be
removed again with a cloth soaked in turpentine.


«METAL CLEANING:»


«Cleaning and Preserving Medals, Coins, and Small Iron Articles.»—The
coating of silver chloride may be reduced with molten potassium
cyanide. Then boil the article in water, displace the water with
alcohol, and dry in a drying closet. When dry brush with a soft brush
and cover with “zaponlack” (any good transparent lacquer or varnish
will answer).

Instead of potassium cyanide alone, a mixture of that and potassium
carbonate may be used. After treatment in this way, delicate objects of
silver become less brittle. Another way is to put the article in molten
sodium carbonate and remove the silver carbonate thus formed, by acetic
acid of 50 per cent strength. This process produces the finest possible
polish.

The potassium-cyanide process may be used with all small iron objects.
For larger ones molten potassium rhodanide is recommended. This
converts the iron oxide into iron sulphide that is easily washed off
and leaves the surface of a fine black color.

Old coins may be cleansed by first immersing them in strong nitric acid
and then washing them in clean water. Wipe them dry before putting away.


«To Clean Old Medals.»—Immerse in lemon juice until the coating of
oxide has completely disappeared; 24 hours is generally sufficient,
but a longer time is not harmful.


«Steel Cleaner.»—Smear the object with oil, preferably petroleum, and
allow some days for penetration of the surface of the metal. Then rub
vigorously with a piece of flannel or willow wood. Or, with a paste
composed of olive oil, sulphur flowers, and tripoli, or of rotten
stone and oil. Finally, a coating may be employed, made of 10 parts
of potassium cyanide and 1 part of cream of tartar; or 25 parts of
potassium cyanide, with the addition of 55 parts of carbonate of lime
and 20 parts of white soap.


«Restoring Tarnished Gold.»—

 Sodium bicarbonate    20 ounces
 Chlorinated lime       1 ounce
 Common salt            1 ounce
 Water                 16 ounces

Mix well and apply with a soft brush.

A very small quantity of the solution is sufficient, and it may be used
either cold or lukewarm. Plain articles may be brightened by putting a
drop or two of the liquid upon them and lightly brushing the surface
with fine tissue paper. {200}


«Cleaning Copper.»—

I.—Use Armenian bole mixed into a paste with oleic acid.

 II.—Rotten stone            1 part
      Iron subcarbonate       3 parts
      Lard oil, a sufficient quantity.

 III.—Iron oxide             10 parts
       Pumice stone           32 parts
       Oleic acid, a sufficient quantity.

 IV.—Soap, cut fine         16 parts
      Precipitated chalk      2 parts
      Jewelers’ rouge         1 part
      Cream of tartar         1 part
      Magnesium carbonate     1 part
      Water, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the soap in the smallest quantity of water that will effect
solution over a water bath. Add the other ingredients to the solution
while still hot, stirring constantly.


«To Remove Hard Grease, Paint, etc., from Machinery.»—To remove grease,
paint, etc., from machinery add half a pound of caustic soda to 2
gallons of water and boil the parts to be cleaned in the fluid. It is
possible to use it several times before its strength is exhausted.


«Solutions for Cleaning Metals.»—

 I.—Water              20 parts
     Alum                2 parts
     Tripoli             2 parts
     Nitric acid         1 part

 II.—Water                40 parts
      Oxalic acid           2 parts
      Tripoli               7 parts


«To Cleanse Nickel.»—I.—Fifty parts of rectified alcohol; 1 part of
sulphuric acid; 1 part of nitric acid. Plunge the piece in the bath
for 10 to 15 seconds, rinse it off in cold water, and dip it next into
rectified alcohol. Dry with a fine linen rag or with sawdust.

 II.—Stearine oil         1 part
      Ammonia water       25 parts
      Benzine             50 parts
      Alcohol             75 parts

Rub up the stearine with the ammonia, add the benzine and then the
alcohol, and agitate until homogeneous. Put in wide-mouthed vessels and
close carefully.


«To Clean Petroleum Lamp Burners.»—Dissolve in a quart of soft water an
ounce or an ounce and a half of washing soda, using an old half-gallon
tomato can. Into this put the burner after removing the wick, set it on
the stove, and let it boil strongly for 5 or 6 minutes, then take out,
rinse under the tap, and dry. Every particle of carbonaceous matter
will thus be got rid of, and the burner be as clean and serviceable as
new. This ought to be done at least every month, but the light would be
better if it were done every 2 weeks.


«Gold-Ware Cleaner.»—

 Acetic acid           2 parts
 Sulphuric acid        2 parts
 Oxalic acid           1 part
 Jewelers’ rouge       2 parts
 Distilled water     200 parts

Mix the acids and water and stir in the rouge, after first rubbing it
up with a portion of the liquid. With a clean cloth, wet with this
mixture, go well over the article. Rinse off with hot water and dry.


«Silverware Cleaner.»—Make a thin paste of levigated (not precipitated)
chalk and sodium hyposulphite, in equal parts, rubbed up in distilled
water. Apply this paste to the surface, rubbing well with a soft brush.
Rinse in clear water and dry in sawdust. Some authorities advise the
cleaner to let the paste dry on the ware, and then to rub off and rinse
with hot water.


«Silver-Coin Cleaner.»—Make a bath of 10 parts of sulphuric acid and 90
parts of water, and let the coin lie in this until the crust of silver
sulphide is dissolved. From 5 to 10 minutes usually suffice. Rinse
in running water, then rub with a soft brush and castile soap, rinse
again, dry with a soft cloth, and then carefully rub with chamois.


«Cleaning Silver-Plated Ware.»—Into a wide-mouthed bottle provided with
a good cork put the following mixture:

 Cream of tartar       2 parts
 Levigated chalk       2 parts
 Alum                  1 part

Powder the alum and rub up with the other ingredients, and cork
tightly. When required for use wet sufficient of the powder and
with soft linen rags rub the article, being careful not to use much
pressure, as otherwise the thin layer of plating may be cut through.
Rinse in hot suds, and afterwards in clear water, and dry in sawdust.
When badly blackened with silver sulphide, if small, the article may be
dipped for an instant in hydrochloric acid and immediately rinsed in
running water. Larger articles may be treated as coins are—immersed for
2 or 3 minutes in a 10 per cent aqueous solution of sulphuric acid, or
the surface may be rapidly wiped {201} with a swab carrying nitric acid
and instantly rinsed in running water.


«Cleaning Gilt Bronze Ware.»—If greasy, wash carefully in suds, or,
better, dip into a hot solution of caustic potash, and then wash in
suds with a soft rag, and rinse in running water. If not then clean and
bright, dip into the following mixture:

 Nitric acid          10 parts
 Aluminum sulphate     1 part
 Water                40 parts

Mix. Rinse in running water.


«Britannia Metal Cleaner.»—Rub first with jewelers’ rouge made into a
paste with oil; wash in suds, rinse, dry, and finish with chamois or
wash leather.


«To Remove Ink Stains on Silver.»—Silver articles in domestic use, and
especially silver or plated inkstands, frequently become badly stained
with ink. These stains cannot be removed by ordinary processes, but
readily yield to a paste of chloride of lime and water. Javelle water
may be also used.


«Removing Egg Stains.»—A pinch of table salt taken between the thumb
and finger and rubbed on the spot with the end of the finger will
usually remove the darkest egg stain from silver.


«To Clean Silver Ornaments.»—Make a strong solution of soft soap and
water, and in this boil the articles for a few minutes—five will
usually be enough. Take out, pour the soap solution into a basin, and
as soon as the liquid has cooled down sufficiently to be borne by the
hand, with a soft brush scrub the articles with it. Rinse in boiling
water and place on a porous substance (a bit of tiling, a brick, or
unglazed earthenware) to dry. Finally give a light rubbing with a
chamois. Articles thus treated look as bright as new.


«Solvent for Iron Rust.»—Articles attacked by rust may be conveniently
cleaned by dipping them into a well-saturated solution of stannic
chloride. The length of time of the action must be regulated according
to the thickness of the rust. As a rule 12 to 24 hours will suffice,
but it is essential to prevent an excess of acid in the bath, as this
is liable to attack the iron itself. After the objects have been
removed from the bath they must be rinsed with water, and subsequently
with ammonia, and then quickly dried. Greasing with vaseline seems to
prevent new formation of rust. Objects treated in this manner are said
to resemble dead silver.

Professor Weber proposed a diluted alkali, and it has been found that
after employing this remedy the dirt layer is loosened and the green
platina reappears. Potash has been found to be an efficacious remedy,
even in the case of statues that had apparently turned completely black.


«To Clean Polished Parts of Machines.»—Put in a flask 1,000 parts of
petroleum; add 20 parts of paraffine, shaved fine; cork the bottle
and stand aside for a couple of days, giving it an occasional shake.
The mixture is now ready for use. To use, shake the bottle, pour a
little of the liquid upon a woolen rag and rub evenly over the part
to be cleaned; or apply with a brush. Set the article aside and, next
day, rub it well with a dry, woolen rag. Every particle of rust,
resinified grease, etc., will disappear provided the article has not
been neglected too long. In this case a further application of the oil
will be necessary. If too great pressure has not been made, or the
rubbing continued too long, the residual oil finally leaves the surface
protected by a delicate layer of paraffine that will prevent rusting
for a long time.


«To Clean Articles of Nickel.»—Lay them for a few seconds in alcohol
containing 2 per cent of sulphuric acid; remove, wash in running water,
rinse in alcohol, and rub dry with a linen cloth. This process gives a
brilliant polish and is especially useful with plated articles on the
plating of which the usual polishing materials act very destructively.
The yellowest and brownest nickeled articles are restored to pristine
brilliancy by leaving them in the alcohol and acid for 15 seconds. Five
seconds suffice ordinarily.


«How to Renovate Bronzes.»—For gilt work, first remove all grease,
dirt, wax, etc., with a solution in water of potassium or sodium
hydrate, then dry, and with a soft rag apply the following:

 Sodium carbonate         7 parts
 Spanish whiting         15 parts
 Alcohol, 85 per cent    50 parts
 Water                  125 parts

Go over every part carefully, using a brush to get into the minute
crevices. When this dries on, brush off with a fine linen cloth or a
supple chamois skin.

Or the following plan may be used: Remove grease, etc., as directed
above, dry and go over the spots where the gilt surface is discolored
with a brush dipped in a solution of two parts of alum in 250 parts of
water and 65 parts of nitric acid. As soon as the gilding reappears
or the {202} surface becomes bright, wash off, and dry in the direct
sunlight.

Still another cleaner is made of nitric acid, 30 parts; aluminum
sulphate, 4 parts; distilled or rain water, 125 parts. Clean of grease,
etc., as above, and apply the solution with a camel’s-hair pencil.
Rinse off and dry in sawdust. Finally, some articles are best cleaned
by immersing in hot soap suds and rubbing with a soft brush. Rinse in
clear, hot water, using a soft brush to get the residual suds out of
crevices. Let dry, then finish by rubbing the gilt spots or places with
a soft, linen rag, or a bit of chamois.

There are some bronzes gilt with imitation gold and varnished. Where
the work is well done and the gilding has not been on too long, they
will deceive even the practiced eye. The deception, however, may easily
be detected by touching a spot on the gilt surface with a glass rod
dipped in a solution of corrosive sublimate. If the gilding is true no
discoloration will occur, but if false a brown spot will be produced.


«To Clean a Gas Stove.»—An easy method of removing grease spots
consists in immersing the separable parts for several hours in a warm
lye, heated to about 70° C. (158° F.), said lye to be made of 9 parts
of caustic soda and 180 parts of water. These pieces, together with
the fixed parts of the stove, may be well brushed with this lye and
afterwards rinsed in clean, warm water. The grease will be dissolved,
and the stove restored almost to its original state.


«Cleaning Copper Sinks.»—Make rotten stone into a stiff paste with soft
soap and water. Rub on with a woolen rag, and polish with dry whiting
and rotten stone. Finish with a leather and dry whiting. Many of the
substances and mixtures used to clean brass will effectively clean
copper. Oxalic acid is said to be the best medium for cleaning copper,
but after using it the surface of the copper must be well washed,
dried, and then rubbed with sweet oil and tripoli, or some other
polishing agent. Otherwise the metal will soon tarnish again.


«Treatment of Cast-Iron Grave Crosses.»—The rust must first be
thoroughly removed with a steel-wire brush. When this is done apply
one or two coats of red lead or graphite paint. After this priming has
become hard, paint with double-burnt lampblack and equal parts of oil
of turpentine and varnish. This coating is followed by one of lampblack
ground with coach varnish. Now paint the single portions with “mixtion”
(gilding oil) and gild as usual. Such crosses look better when they
are not altogether black. Ornaments may be very well treated in colors
with oil paint and then varnished. The crosses treated in this manner
are preserved for many years, but it is essential to use good exterior
or coach varnish for varnishing, and not the so-called black varnish,
which is mostly composed of asphalt or tar.


«Cleaning Inferior Gold Articles.»—The brown film which forms
on low-quality gold articles is removed by coating with fuming
hydrochloric acid, whereupon they are brushed off with Vienna lime and
petroleum. Finally, clean the objects with benzine, rinse again in pure
benzine, and dry in sawdust.


«To Clean Bronze.»—Clean the bronze with soft soap; next wash it in
plenty of water; wipe, let dry, and apply light encaustic mixture
composed of spirit of turpentine in which a small quantity of yellow
wax has been dissolved. The encaustic is spread by means of a linen or
woolen wad. For gilt bronze, add 1 spoonful of alkali to 3 spoonfuls of
water and rub the article with this by means of a ball of wadding. Next
wipe with a clean chamois, similar to that employed in silvering.


«How to Clean Brass and Steel.»—To clean brasses quickly and
economically, rub them with vinegar and salt or with oxalic acid.
Wash immediately after the rubbing, and polish with tripoli and sweet
oil. Unless the acid is washed off the article will tarnish quickly.
Copper kettles and saucepans, brass andirons, fenders, and candlesticks
and trays are best cleaned with vinegar and salt. Cooking vessels
in constant use need only to be well washed afterwards. Things for
show—even pots and pans—need the oil polishing, which gives a deep,
rich, yellow luster, good for six months. Oxalic acid and salt should
be employed for furniture brasses—if it touches the wood it only
improves the tone. Wipe the brasses well with a wet cloth, and polish
thoroughly with oil and tripoli. Sometimes powdered rotten stone does
better than the tripoli. Rub, after using, either with a dry cloth
or leather, until there is no trace of oil. The brass to be cleaned
must be freed completely from grease, caked dirt, and grime. Wash with
strong ammonia suds and rinse dry before beginning with the acid and
salt.

The best treatment for wrought steel is to wash it very clean with a
stiff brush {203} and ammonia soapsuds, rinse well, dry by heat, oil
plentifully with sweet oil, and dust thickly with powdered quicklime.
Let the lime stay on 2 days, then brush it off with a clean, very stiff
brush. Polish with a softer brush, and rub with cloths until the luster
comes out. By leaving the lime on, iron and steel may be kept from rust
almost indefinitely.

Before wetting any sort of bric-a-brac, and especially bronzes, remove
all the dust possible. After dusting, wash well in strong white
soapsuds and ammonia, rinse clean, polish with just a suspicion of oil
and rotten stone, and rub off afterwards every trace of the oil. Never
let acid touch a bronze surface, unless to eat and pit it for antique
effects.


«Composition for Cleaning Copper, Nickel, and other Metals.»—Wool
grease, 46 parts, by weight; fire clay, 30 parts, by weight; paraffine,
5 parts, by weight; Canova wax, 5 parts, by weight; cocoanut oil, 10
parts, by weight; oil of mirbane, 1 part, by weight. After mixing these
different ingredients, which constitute a paste, this is molded in
order to give a cylindrical form, and introduced into a case so that it
can be used like a stick of cosmetic.


«Putz Pomade.»—I.—Oxalic acid, 1 part; caput mortuum, 15 parts (or,
if white pomade is desired, tripoli, 12 parts); powdered pumice stone,
best grade, 20 parts; palm oil, 60 parts; petroleum or oleine, 4 parts.
Perfume with mirbane oil.

 II.—Oxalic acid                            1 part
      Peroxide of iron (jewelers’ rouge)    15 parts
      Rotten stone                          20 parts
      Palm oil                              60 parts
      Petrolatum                             5 parts

Pulverize the acid and the rotten stone and mix thoroughly with the
rouge. Sift to remove all grit, then make into a paste with the oil and
petrolatum. A little nitro-benzol may be added to scent the mixture.

 III.—Oleine                         40 parts
       Ceresine                        5 parts
       Tripoli                        40 parts
       Light mineral oil (0.870)      20 parts

Melt the oleine, ceresine, and mineral oil together, and stir in the
tripoli; next, grind evenly in a paint mill.


«To Clean Gummed Parts of Machinery.»—Boil about 10 to 15 parts of
caustic soda or 100 parts of soda in 1,000 parts of water, immerse
the parts to be cleaned in this for some time, or, better, boil them
with it. Then rinse and dry. For small shops this mode of cleaning is
doubtless the best.


«To Remove Silver Plating.»—I.—Put sulphuric acid 100 parts and
potassium nitrate (saltpeter) 10 parts in a vessel of stoneware or
porcelain, heated on the water bath. When the silver has left the
copper, rinse the objects several times. This silver stripping bath may
be used several times, if it is kept in a well-closed bottle. When it
is saturated with silver, decant the liquid, boil it to dryness, then
add the residue to the deposit, and melt in the crucible to obtain the
metal.

II.—Stripping silvered articles of the silvering may be accomplished
by the following mixture: Sulphuric acid, 60° B., 3 parts; nitric
acid, 40° B., 1 part; heat the mixture to about 166° F., and immerse
the articles by means of a copper wire. In a few seconds the acid
mixture will have done the work. A thorough rinsing off is, of course,
necessary.


«To Clean Zinc Articles.»—In order to clean articles of zinc, stir
rye bran into a paste with boiling water, and add a handful of silver
sand and a little vitriol. Rub the article with this paste, rinse with
water, dry, and polish with a cloth.


«To Remove Rust from Nickel.»—Smear the rusted parts well with grease
(ordinary animal fat will do), and allow the article to stand several
days. If the rust is not thick the grease and rust may be rubbed off
with a cloth dipped in ammonia. If the rust is very deep, apply a
diluted solution of hydrochloric acid, taking care that the acid does
not touch the metal, and the rust may be easily rubbed off. Then wash
the article and polish in the usual way.


«Compound for Cleaning Brass.»—To make a brass cleaning compound use
oxalic acid, 1 ounce; rotten stone, 6 ounces; enough whale oil and
spirits of turpentine of equal parts, to mix, and make a paste.


«To Clean Gilt Objects.»—I.—Into an ordinary drinking glass pour about
20 drops of ammonia, immerse the piece to be cleaned repeatedly in
this, and brush with a soft brush. Treat the article with pure water,
then with alcohol, and wipe with a soft rag.

II.—Boil common alum in soft, pure water, and immerse the article in
the solution, or rub the spot with it, and dry with sawdust.

III.—For cleaning picture frames, {204} moldings, and, in fact, all
kinds of gilded work, the best medium is liquor potassæ, diluted with
about 5 volumes of water. Dilute alcohol is also excellent. Methylated
wood spirit, if the odor is not objectionable, answers admirably.


«To Scale Cast Iron.»—To remove the scale from cast iron use a solution
of 1 part vitriol and 2 parts water; after mixing, apply to the scale
with a cloth rolled in the form of a brush, using enough to wet the
surface well. After 8 or 10 hours wash off with water, when the hard,
scaly surface will be completely removed.


«Cleaning Funnels and Measures.»—Funnels and measures used for
measuring varnishes, oils, etc., may be cleaned by soaking them in
a strong solution of lye or pearlash. Another mixture for the same
purpose consists of pearlash with quicklime in aqueous solution. The
measures are allowed to soak in the solution for a short time, when
the resinous matter of the paint or varnish is easily removed. A thin
coating of petroleum lubricating oils may be removed, it is said, by
the use of naphtha or petroleum benzine.


«To Clean Aluminum.»—I.—Aluminum articles are very hard to clean so
they will have a bright, new appearance. This is especially the case
with the matted or frosted pieces. To restore the pieces to brilliancy
place them for some time in water that has been slightly acidulated
with sulphuric acid.

II.—Wash the aluminum with coal-oil, gasoline or benzine, then put it
in a concentrated solution of caustic potash, and after washing it with
plenty of water, dip it in the bath composed of 2⁠/⁠3 nitric acid and
1⁠/⁠3 water. Next, subject it to a bath of concentrated nitric acid,
and finally to a mixture of rum and olive oil. To render aluminum
capable of being worked like pure copper, 2⁠/⁠3 of oil of turpentine
and 1⁠/⁠3 stearic acid are used. For polishing by hand, take a solution
of 30 parts of borax and 1,000 parts of water, to which a few drops of
spirits of ammonia have been added.


«How to Clean Tarnished Silver.»—I.—If the articles are only slightly
tarnished, mix 3 parts of best washed and purified chalk and 1 part of
white soap, adding water, till a thin paste is formed, which should
be rubbed on the silver with a dry brush, till the articles are quite
bright. As a substitute, whiting, mixed with caustic ammonia to form a
paste, may be used. This mixture is very effective, but it irritates
the eyes and nose.

II.—An efficacious preparation is obtained by mixing beech-wood ashes,
2 parts; Venetian soap, 4⁠/⁠100 part; cooking salt, 2 parts; rain
water, 8 parts. Brush the silver with this lye, using a somewhat stiff
brush.

III.—A solution of crystallized potassium permanganate has been
recommended.

IV.—A grayish violet film which silverware acquires from perspiration,
can be readily removed by means of ammonia.

V.—To remove spots from silver lay it for 4 hours in soapmakers’ lye,
then throw on fine powdered gypsum, moisten the latter with vinegar
to cause it to adhere, dry near the fire, and wipe off. Next rub the
spot with dry bran. This not only causes it to disappear, but gives
extraordinary gloss to the silver.

VI.—Cleaning with the usual fine powders is attended with some
difficulty and inconvenience. An excellent result is obtained without
injury to the silver by employing a saturated solution of hyposulphite
of soda, which is put on with a brush or rag. The article is then
washed with plenty of water.

VII.—Never use soap on silverware, as it dulls the luster, giving the
article more the appearance of pewter than silver. When it wants
cleaning, rub it with a piece of soft leather and prepared chalk, made
into a paste with pure water, entirely free from grit.


«To Clean Dull Gold.»—I.—Take 80 parts, by weight, of chloride of lime,
and rub it up with gradual addition of water in a porcelain mortar
into a thin, even paste, which is put into a solution of 80 parts, by
weight, of bicarbonate of soda, and 20 parts, by weight, of salt, in
3,000 parts, by weight, of water. Shake it, and let stand a few days
before using. If the preparation is to be kept for any length of time
the bottle should be placed, well corked, in the cellar. For use, lay
the tarnished articles in a dish, pour the liquid, which has previously
been well shaken, over them so as just to cover them, and leave them
therein for a few days.

 II.—Bicarbonate of soda.  31   parts
      Chloride of lime      15.5 parts
      Cooking salt          15   parts
      Water                240   parts

Grind the chloride of lime with a little water to a thin paste, in a
porcelain vessel, and add the remaining chemicals. Wash the objects
with the aid of a soft brush with the solution, rinse several times in
water, and dry in fine sawdust. {205}


«Cleaning Bronze Objects.»—Employ powdered chicory mixed with water,
so as to obtain a paste, which is applied with a brush. After the
brushing, rinse off and dry in the sun or near a stove.


«Cleaning Gilded Bronzes.»—I.—Commence by removing the spots of grease
and wax with a little potash or soda dissolved in water. Let dry, and
apply the following mixture with a rag: Carbonate of soda, 7 parts;
whiting, 15 parts; alcohol (85°), 50 parts; water, 125 parts. When this
coating is dry pass a fine linen cloth or a piece of supple skin over
it. The hollow parts are cleaned with a brush.

II.—After removing the grease spots, let dry and pass over all the
damaged parts a pencil dipped in the following mixture: Alum, 2 parts;
nitric acid, 65; water, 250 parts. When the gilding becomes bright,
wipe, and dry in the sun or near a fire.

III.—Wash in hot water containing a little soda, dry, and pass over
the gilding a pencil soaked in a liquid made of 30 parts nitric acid,
4 parts of aluminum phosphate, and 125 parts of pure water. Dry in
sawdust.

IV.—Immerse the objects in boiling soap water, and facilitate the
action of the soap by rubbing with a soft brush; put the objects in hot
water, brush them carefully, and let them dry in the air; when they are
quite dry rub the shining parts only with an old linen cloth or a soft
leather, without touching the others.


«Stripping Gilt Articles.»—Degilding or stripping gilt articles may
be done by attaching the object to the positive pole of a battery and
immersing it in a solution composed of 1 pound of cyanide dissolved in
about 1 gallon of water. Desilvering may be effected in the same manner.


«To Clean Tarnished Zinc.»—Apply with a rag a mixture of 1 part
sulphuric acid with 12 parts of water. Rinse the zinc with clear water.


«Cleaning Pewter Articles.»—Pour hot lye of wood ashes upon the tin,
throw on sand, and rub with a hard, woolen rag, hat felt, or whisk
until all particles of dirt have been dissolved. To polish pewter
plates it is well to have the turner make similar wooden forms fitting
the plates, and to rub them clean this way. Next they are rinsed with
clean water and placed on a table with a clean linen cover on which
they are left to dry without being touched, otherwise spots will
appear. This scouring is not necessary so often if the pewter is rubbed
with wheat bran after use and cleaned perfectly. New pewter is polished
with a paste of whiting and brandy, rubbing the dishes with it until
the mass becomes dry.


«To Clean Files.»—Files which have become clogged with tin or lead are
cleaned by dipping for a few seconds into concentrated nitric acid.
To remove iron filings from the file cuts, a bath of blue vitriol is
employed. After the files have been rinsed in water they are likewise
dipped in nitric acid. File-ridges closed up by zinc are cleaned by
immersing the files in diluted sulphuric acid. Such as have become
filled with copper or brass are also treated with nitric acid, but here
the process has to be repeated several times. The files should always
be rinsed in water after the treatment, brushed with a stiff brush, and
dried in sawdust or by pouring alcohol over them, and letting it burn
off on the file.


«Scale Pan Cleaner.»—About the quickest cleaner for brass scale pans
is a solution of potassium bichromate in dilute sulphuric acid, using
about 1 part of chromate, in powder, to 3 parts of acid and 6 parts of
water. In this imbibe a cloth wrapped around a stick (to protect the
hands), and with it rub the pans. Do this at tap or hydrant, so that no
time is lost in placing the pan in running water after having rubbed
it with the acid solution. For pans not very badly soiled rubbing with
ammonia water and rinsing is sufficient.


«Tarnish on Electro-Plate Goods.»—This tarnish can be removed by
dipping the article for from 1 to 15 minutes—that is, until the tarnish
shall have been removed—in a pickle of the following composition: Rain
water 2 gallons and potassium cyanide 1⁠/⁠2 pound. Dissolve together,
and fill into a stone jug or jar, and close tightly. The article,
after having been immersed, must be taken out and thoroughly rinsed in
several waters, then dried with fine, clean sawdust. Tarnish on jewelry
can be speedily removed by this process; but if the cyanide is not
completely removed it will corrode the goods.


«OIL-, GREASE-, PAINT-SPOT ERADICATORS:»


«Grease- and Paint-Spot Eradicators.»—

 I.—Benzol                      500 parts
     Benzine                     500 parts
     Soap, best white, shaved      5 parts
     Water, warm, sufficient.

{206}

Dissolve the soap in the warm water, using from 50 to 60 parts. Mix
the benzol and benzine, and add the soap solution, a little at a
time, shaking up well after each addition. If the mixture is slow in
emulsifying, add at one time from 50 to 100 parts of warm water, and
shake violently. Set the emulsion aside for a few days, or until it
separates, then decant the superfluous water, and pour the residual
pasty mass, after stirring it up well, into suitable boxes.

 II.—Soap spirit                      100 parts
      Ammonia solution, 10 per cent     25 parts
      Acetic ether                      15 parts

 III.—Extract of quillaia   1 part
       Borax                 1 part
       Ox gall, fresh        6 parts
       Tallow soap          15 parts

Triturate the quillaia and borax together, incorporate the ox gall,
and, finally, add the tallow soap and mix thoroughly by kneading. The
product is a plastic mass, which may be rolled into sticks or put up
into boxes.


«Removing Oil Spots from Leather.»—To remove oil stains from leather,
dab the spot carefully with spirits of sal ammoniac, and after allowing
it to act for a while, wash with clean water. This treatment may have
to be repeated a few times, taking care, however, not to injure the
color of the leather. Sometimes the spot may be removed very simply by
spreading the place rather thickly with butter and letting this act for
a few hours. Next scrape off the butter with the point of a knife, and
rinse the stain with soap and lukewarm water.


«To Clean Linoleum.»—Rust spots and other stains can be removed from
linoleum by rubbing with steel chips.


«To Remove Putty, Grease, etc., from Plate Glass.»—To remove all
kinds of greasy materials from glass, and to leave the latter bright
and clean, use a paste made of benzine and burnt magnesia of such
consistence that when the mass is pressed between the fingers a drop of
benzine will exude. With this mixture and a wad of cotton, go over the
entire surface of the glass, rubbing it well. One rubbing is usually
sufficient. After drying, any of the substance left in the corners,
etc., is easily removed by brushing with a suitable brush. The same
preparation is very useful for cleaning mirrors and removing grease
stains from books, papers, etc.


«Removing Spots from Furniture.»—White spots on polished tables are
removed in the following manner: Coat the spot with oil and pour on a
rag a few drops of “mixtura balsamica oleosa,” which can be bought in
every drug store, and rub on the spot, which will disappear immediately.


«To Remove Spots from Drawings, etc.»—Place soapstone, fine meerschaum
shavings, amianthus, or powdered magnesia on the spot, and, if
necessary, lay on white filtering paper, saturating it with peroxide of
hydrogen. Allow this to act for a few hours, and remove the application
with a brush. If necessary, repeat the operation. In this manner black
coffee spots were removed from a valuable diagram without erasure by
knife or rubber.


«WATCHMAKERS’ AND JEWELERS’ CLEANING PREPARATIONS:»


«To Clean the Tops of Clocks in Repairing.»—Sprinkle whiting on the
top. Pour good vinegar over this and rub vigorously. Rinse in clean
water and dry slowly in the sun or at the fire. A good polish will be
obtained.


«To Clean Watch Chains.»—Gold or silver watch chains can be cleaned with
a very excellent result, no matter whether they be matt or polished,
by laying them for a few seconds in pure aqua ammonia; they are then
rinsed in alcohol, and finally shaken in clean sawdust, free from
sand. Imitation gold and plated chains are first cleaned in benzine,
then rinsed in alcohol, and afterwards shaken in dry sawdust. Ordinary
chains are first dipped in the following pickle: Pure nitric acid is
mixed with concentrated sulphuric acid in the proportion of 10 parts of
the former to 2 parts of the latter; a little table salt is added. The
chains are boiled in this mixture, then rinsed several times in water,
afterwards in alcohol, and finally dried in sawdust.


«Cleaning Brass Mountings on Clock Cases, etc.»—The brass mountings are
first cleaned of dirt by dipping them for a short time into boiling
soda lye, and next are pickled, still warm, if possible, in a mixture
consisting of nitric acid, 60 parts; sulphuric acid, 40 parts; cooking
salt, 1 part; and shining soot (lampblack), 1⁠/⁠2 part, whereby they
acquire a handsome golden-yellow coloring. The pickling mixture,
however, must not be employed immediately after pouring together the
acids, which causes a strong generation of heat, but should settle
for at least {207} 1 day. This makes the articles handsomer and more
uniform. After the dipping the objects are rinsed in plenty of clean
water and dried on a hot, iron plate, and at the same time warmed for
lacquering. Since the pieces would be lacquered too thick and unevenly
in pure gold varnish, this is diluted with alcohol, 1 part of gold
varnish sufficing for 10 parts of alcohol. Into this liquid dip the
mountings previously warmed and dry them again on the hot plate.


«Gilt Zinc Clocks.»—It frequently happens that clocks of gilt zinc
become covered with green spots. To remove such spots the following
process is used: Soak a small wad of cotton in alkali and rub it on the
spot. The green color will disappear at once, but the gilding being
gone, a black spot will remain. Wipe off well to remove all traces
of the alkali. To replace the gilding, put on, by means of liquid
gum arabic, a little bronze powder of the color of the gilding. The
powdered bronze is applied dry with the aid of a brush or cotton wad.
When the gilding of the clock has become black or dull from age, it
may be revived by immersion in a bath of cyanide of potassium, but
frequently it suffices to wash it with a soft brush in soap and water,
in which a little carbonate of soda has been dissolved. Brush the piece
in the lather, rinse in clean water, and dry in rather hot sawdust.
The piece should be dried well inside and outside, as moisture will
cause it to turn black.


«To Clean Gummed Up Springs.»—Dissolve caustic soda in warm water,
place the spring in the solution and leave it there for about one half
hour. Any oil still adhering may now easily be taken off with a hard
brush; next, dry the spring with a clean cloth. In this manner gummed
up parts of tower clocks, locks, etc., may be quickly and thoroughly
cleaned, and oil paint may be removed from metal or wood. The lye is
sharp, but free from danger, nor are the steel parts attacked by it.


«To Clean Soldered Watch Cases.»—Gold, silver, and other metallic watch
cases which in soldering have been exposed to heat, are laid in diluted
sulphuric acid (1 part acid to 10 to 15 parts water), to free them from
oxide. Heating the acid accelerates the cleaning process. The articles
are then well rinsed in water and dried. Gold cases are next brushed
with powdered tripoli moistened with oil, to remove the pale spots
caused by the heat and boiling, and to restore the original color.
After that they are cleaned with soap water and finally polished with
rouge. Silver cases are polished after boiling, with a scratch brush
dipped in beer.


«A Simple Way to Clean a Clock.»—Take a bit of cotton the size of a
hen’s egg, dip it in kerosene and place it on the floor of the clock,
in the corner; shut the door of the clock, and wait 3 or 4 days. The
clock will be like a new one—and if you look inside you will find
the cotton batting black with dust. The fumes of the oil loosen the
particles of dust, and they fall, thus cleaning the clock.


«To Restore the Color of a Gold or Gilt Dial.»—Dip the dial for a few
seconds in the following mixture: Half an ounce of cyanide of potassium
is dissolved in a quart of hot water, and 2 ounces of strong ammonia,
mixed with 1⁠/⁠2 an ounce of alcohol, are added to the solution. On
removal from this bath, the dial should immediately be immersed in warm
water, then brushed with soap, rinsed, and dried in hot boxwood dust.
Or it may simply be immersed in dilute nitric acid; but in this case
any painted figures will be destroyed.


«A Bath for Cleaning Clocks.»—In an enameled iron or terra-cotta
vessel pour 2,000 parts of water, add 50 parts of scraped Marseilles
soap, 80 to 100 parts of whiting, and a small cup of spirits of
ammonia. To hasten the process of solution, warm, but do not allow to
boil.

If the clock is very dirty or much oxidized, immerse the pieces in the
bath while warm, and as long as necessary. Take them out with a skimmer
or strainer, and pour over them some benzine, letting the liquid fall
into an empty vessel. This being decanted and bottled can be used
indefinitely for rinsing.

If the bath has too much alkali or is used when too hot, it may affect
the polish and render it dull. This may be obviated by trying different
strengths of the alkali. Pieces of blued steel are not injured by the
alkali, even when pure.


«To Remove a Figure or Name from a Dial.»—Oil of spike lavender may
be employed for erasing a letter or number. Enamel powder made into a
paste with water, oil, or turpentine is also used for this purpose.
It should be previously levigated so as to obtain several degrees
of fineness. The powder used for repolishing the surface, where an
impression has been removed, must be extremely fine. It is applied with
a piece of {208} pegwood or ivory. The best method is to employ diamond
powder. Take a little of the powder, make into a paste with fine oil,
on the end of a copper polisher the surface of which has been freshly
filed and slightly rounded. The marks will rapidly disappear when
rubbed with this. The surface is left a little dull; it may be rendered
bright by rubbing with the same powder mixed with a greater quantity of
oil, and applied with a stick of pegwood. Watchmakers will do well to
try on disused dials several degrees of fineness of the diamond powder.


«Cleaning Pearls.»—Pearls turn yellow in the course of time by
absorbing perspiration on account of being worn in the hair, at the
throat, and on the arms. There are several ways of rendering them white
again.

I.—The best process is said to be to put the pearls into a bag with
wheat bran and to heat the bag over a coal fire, with constant motion.

II.—Another method is to bring 8 parts each of well-calcined, finely
powdered lime and wood charcoal, which has been strained through a
gauze sieve, to a boil with 500 parts of pure rain water, suspend
the pearls over the steam of the boiling water until they are warmed
through, and then boil them in the liquid for 5 minutes, turning
frequently. Let them cool in the liquid, take them out, and wash off
well with clean water.

III.—Place the pearls in a piece of fine linen, throw salt on them, and
tie them up. Next rinse the tied-up pearls in lukewarm water until all
the salt has been extracted, and dry them at an ordinary temperature.

IV.—The pearls may also be boiled about 1⁠/⁠4 hour in cow’s milk into
which a little cheese or soap has been scraped; take them out, rinse
off in fresh water, and dry them with a clean, white cloth.

V.—Another method is to have the pearls, strung on a silk thread or
wrapped up in thin gauze, mixed in a loaf of bread of barley flour and
to have the loaf baked well in an oven, but not too brown. When cool
remove the pearls.

VI.—Hang the pearls for a couple of minutes in hot, strong, wine
vinegar or highly diluted sulphuric acid, remove, and rinse them in
water. Do not leave them too long in the acid, otherwise they will be
injured by it.


«GLASS CLEANING:»


«Cleaning Preparation for Glass with Metal Decorations.»—Mix 1,000
parts of denaturized spirit (96 per cent) with 150 parts, by weight, of
ammonia; 20 parts of acetic ether; 15 parts of ethylic ether; 200 parts
of Vienna lime; 950 parts of bolus; and 550 parts of oleine. With this
mixture both glass and metal can be quickly and thoroughly cleaned. It
is particularly recommended for show windows ornamented with metal.


«Paste for Cleaning Glass.»—

 Prepared chalk               6 pounds
 Powdered French chalk    1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Phosphate calcium        2 1⁠/⁠4 pounds
 Quillaia bark            2 1⁠/⁠4 pounds
 Carbonate ammonia           18 ounces
 Rose pink                    6 ounces

Mix the ingredients, in fine powder, and sift through muslin. Then mix
with soft water to the consistency of cream, and apply to the glass
by means of a soft rag or sponge; allow it to dry on, wipe off with a
cloth, and polish with chamois.


«Cleaning Optical Lenses.»—For this purpose a German contemporary
recommends vegetable pith. The medulla of rushes, elders, or sunflowers
is cut out, the pieces are dried and pasted singly alongside of one
another upon a piece of cork, whereby a brush-like apparatus is
obtained, which is passed over the surface of the lens. For very small
lenses pointed pieces of elder pith are employed. To dip dirty and
greasy lenses into oil of turpentine or ether and rub them with a linen
rag, as has been proposed, seems hazardous, because the Canada balsam
with which the lenses are cemented might dissolve.


«To Remove Glue from Glass.»—If glue has simply dried upon the glass
hot water ought to remove it. If, however, the spots are due to size
(the gelatinous wash used by painters) when dried they become very
refractory and recourse must be had to chemical means for their
removal. The commonest size being a solution of gelatin, alum, and
rosin dissolved in a solution of soda and combined with starch, hot
solutions of caustic soda or of potash may be used. If that fails
to remove them, try diluted hydrochloric, sulphuric, or any of the
stronger acids. If the spots still remain some abrasive powder (flour
of emery) must be used and the glass repolished with jewelers’ rouge
applied by means of a chamois skin. Owing to the varied nature of sizes
used the above are only suggestions.


«Cleaning Window Panes.»—Take diluted nitric acid about as strong as
strong {209} vinegar and pass it over the glass pane, leave it to act
a minute and throw on pulverized whiting, but just enough to give off
a hissing sound. Now rub both with the hand over the whole pane and
polish with a dry rag. Rinse off with clean water and a little alcohol
and polish dry and clear. Repeat the process on the other side. The
nitric acid removes all impurities which have remained on the glass at
the factory, and even with inferior panes a good appearance is obtained.


«To Clean Store Windows.»—For cleaning the large panes of glass of
store windows, and also ordinary show cases, a semiliquid paste may be
employed, made of calcined magnesia and purified benzine. The glass
should be rubbed with a cotton rag until it is brilliant.


«Cleaning Lamp Globes.»—Pour 2 spoonfuls of a slightly heated solution
of potash into the globe, moisten the whole surface with it, and rub
the stains with a fine linen rag; rinse the globe with clean water and
carefully dry it with a fine, soft cloth.


«To Clean Mirrors.»—Rub the mirror with a ball of soft paper slightly
dampened with methylated spirits, then with a duster on which a little
whiting has been sprinkled, and finally polish with clean paper or a
wash leather. This treatment will make the glass beautifully bright.


«To Clean Milk Glass.»—To remove oil spots from milk glass panes and
lamp globes, knead burnt magnesia with benzine to a plastic mass, which
must be kept in a tight-closing bottle. A little of this substance
rubbed on the spot with a linen rag will make it disappear.


«To Remove Oil-Paint Spots from Glass.»—If the window panes have been
bespattered with oil paint in painting walls, the spots are, of course,
easily removed while wet. When they have become dry the operation is
more difficult and alcohol and turpentine in equal parts, or spirit of
sal ammoniac should be used to soften the paint. After that go over
it with chalk. Polishing with salt will also remove paint spots. The
salt grates somewhat, but it is not hard enough to cause scratches in
the glass; a subsequent polishing with chalk is also advisable, as the
drying of the salt might injure the glass. For scratching off soft
paint spots sheet zinc must be used, as it cannot damage the glass on
account of its softness. In the case of silicate paints (the so-called
weather-proof coatings) the panes must be especially protected, because
these paints destroy the polish of the glass. Rubbing the spots with
brown soap is also a good way of removing the spots, but care must be
taken in rinsing off that the window frames are not acted upon.


«Removing Silver Stains.»—The following solution will remove silver
stains from the hands, and also from woolen, linen, or cotton goods:

 Mercuric chloride     1 part
 Ammonia muriate       1 part
 Water                 8 parts

The compound is poisonous.


«MISCELLANEOUS CLEANING METHODS AND PROCESSES:»


«Universal Cleaner.»—

 Green soap                  20 to 25 parts
 Boiling water                    750 parts
 Liquid ammonia, caustic     30 to 40 parts
 Acetic ether                20 to 30 parts

Mix.


«To Clean Playing Cards.»—Slightly soiled playing cards may be made
clean by rubbing them with a soft rag dipped in a solution of camphor.
Very little of the latter is necessary.


«To Remove Vegetable Growth from Buildings.»—To remove moss and lichen
from stone and masonry, apply water in which 1 per cent of carbolic
acid has been dissolved. After a few hours the plants can be washed off
with water.


«Solid Cleansing Compound.»—The basis of most of the solid grease
eradicators is benzine and the simplest form is a benzine jelly made
by shaking 3 ounces of tincture of quillaia (soap bark) with enough
benzine to make 16 fluidounces. Benzine may also be solidified by the
use of a soap with addition of an excess of alkali. Formulas in which
soaps are used in this way follow:

 I.—Cocoanut-oil soap.        2 av. ounces
     Ammonia water             3 fluidounces
     Solution of potassium     1 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces
     Water enough to make     12 fluidounces

Dissolve the soap with the aid of heat in 4 fluidounces of water, add
the ammonia and potassa and the remainder of the water.

If the benzine is added in small portions, and thoroughly agitated,
2 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces of the above will be found sufficient to solidify
32 fluidounces of benzine. {210}

 II.—Castile soap, white      3 1⁠/⁠2 av. ounces
      Water, boiling           3 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces
      Water of ammonia             5 fluidrachms
      Benzine enough to make      16 fluidounces

Dissolve the soap in the water, and when cold, add the other
ingredients.


«To Clean Oily Bottles.»—Use 2 heaped tablespoonfuls (for every quart
of capacity) of fine sawdust or wheat bran, and shake well to cover the
interior surface thoroughly; let stand a few minutes and then add about
a gill of cold water. If the bottle be then rotated in a horizontal
position, it will usually be found clean after a single treatment. In
the case of drying oils, especially when old, the bottles should be
moistened inside with a little ether, and left standing a few hours
before the introduction of sawdust. This method is claimed to be more
rapid and convenient than the customary one of using strips of paper,
soap solution, etc.


«Cork Cleaner.»—Wash in 10 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid, then
immerse in a solution of sodium hyposulphite and hydrochloric acid.
Finally the corks are washed with a solution of soda and pure water.
Corks containing oil or fat cannot be cleaned by this method.


«To Clean Sponges.»—Rinse well first in very weak, warm, caustic-soda
lye, then with clean water, and finally leave the sponges in a solution
of bromine in water until clean. They will whiten sooner if exposed
to the sun in the bromine water. Then repeat the rinsings in weak
lye and clean water, using the latter till all smell of bromine has
disappeared. Dry quickly and in the sun if possible.

CLEARING BATHS: See Photography.

CLICHÉ METALS: See Alloys.

CLOCK-DIAL LETTERING: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

CLOCK-HAND COLORING: See Metals.

CLOCK OIL: See Oil.

CLOCK REPAIRING: See Watchmaking.

CLOCKMAKERS’ CLEANING PROCESSES: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

CLOTH TO IRON, GLUEING: See Adhesives.

CLOTHES CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods; also,
Household Formulas.

CLOTHS FOR POLISHING: See Polishes.

CLOTH, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

CLOTHING, CARE OF: See Household Formulas.

COACH VARNISH: See Varnishes.

COALS, TO EAT BURNING: See Pyrotechnics.

COAL OIL: See Oil.

COBALTIZING: See Plating.

COCOAS: See Beverages.

COCOA CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

COCOANUT CAKE: See Household Formulas and Recipes.

COCHINEAL INSECT REMEDY: See Insecticides.

COD-LIVER OIL AND ITS EMULSION: See Oil, Cod-Liver.


«COFFEE, SUBSTITUTES FOR.»

I.—Acorn.—From acorns deprived of their shells, husked, dried, and
roasted.

II.—Bean.—Horse beans roasted along with a little honey or sugar.

III.—Beet Root.—From the yellow beet root, sliced, dried in a kiln or
oven, and ground with a little coffee.

IV.—Dandelion.—From dandelion roots, sliced, dried, roasted, and ground
with a little caramel.

All the above are roasted, before grinding them, with a little fat or
lard. Those which are larger than coffee berries are cut into small
slices before being roasted. They possess none of the exhilarating
properties or medicinal virtues of the genuine coffee.

V.—Chicory.—This is a common adulterant. The roasted root is prepared
by cutting the full-grown root into slices, and exposing it to heat
in iron cylinders, along with about 1 1⁠/⁠2 per cent or 2 per cent
of lard, in a similar way to that adopted for coffee. When ground to
powder in a mill it constitutes the {211} chicory coffee so generally
employed both as a substitute for coffee and as an adulterant. The
addition of 1 part of good, fresh, roasted chicory to 10 or 12 parts
of coffee forms a mixture which yields a beverage of a fuller flavor,
and of a deeper color than that furnished by an equal quantity of
pure or unmixed coffee. In this way a less quantity of coffee may be
used, but it should be remembered that the article substituted for it
does not possess in any degree the peculiar exciting, soothing, and
hunger-staying properties of that valuable product. The use, however,
of a larger proportion of chicory than that just named imparts to
the beverage an insipid flavor, intermediate between that of treacle
and licorice; while the continual use of roasted chicory, or highly
chicorized coffee, seldom fails to weaken the powers of digestion and
derange the bowels.

COFFEE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

COFFEE EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts.

COFFEE SYRUPS: See Syrups.

COFFEE FOR THE SODA FOUNTAIN: See Beverages.

COIL SPRING: See Steel.

COIN CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

COINS, IMPRESSIONS OF: See Matrix Mass.

COIN METAL: See Alloys.

COLAS: See Veterinary Formulas.


«Cold and Cough Mixtures»


«Cough Syrup.»—The simplest form of cough syrup of good keeping quality
is syrup of wild cherry containing ammonium chloride in the dose of
2 1⁠/⁠2 grains to each teaspoonful. Most of the other compounds contain
ingredients that are prone to undergo fermentation.

 I.—Ipecacuanha wine                   1 fluidounce
     Spirit of anise                    1 fluidrachm
     Syrup                             16 fluidounces
     Syrup of squill                    8 fluidounces
     Tincture of Tolu                   4 fluidrachms
     Distilled water enough to make    30 fluidounces

 II.—Heroin                                    6 grains
      Aromatic sulphuric acid               1 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces
      Concentrated acid infusion of roses       4 fluidounces
      Distilled water                           5 fluidounces
      Glycerine                                 5 fluidounces
      Oxymel of squill                         10 fluidounces

 III.—Glycerine                       2 fluidounces
       Fluid extract of wild cherry    4 fluidounces
       Oxymel                         10 fluidounces
       Syrup                          10 fluidounces
       Cochineal, a sufficient quantity.


«Benzoic-Acid Pastilles.»—

 Benzoic acid       105 parts
 Rhatany extract    525 parts
 Tragacanth          35 parts
 Sugar              140 parts

The materials, in the shape of powders, are mixed well and sufficient
fruit paste added to bring the mass up to 4,500 parts. Roll out and
divide into lozenges weighing 20 grains each.


«Cough Balsam with Iceland Moss.»—

 Solution of morphine acetate    12 parts
 Sulphuric acid, dilute          12 parts
 Cherry-laurel water             12 parts
 Orange-flower water, triple     24 parts
 Syrup, simple                  128 parts
 Glycerine                       48 parts
 Tincture of saffron              8 parts
 Decoction of Iceland moss      112 parts

Mix. Dose: One teaspoonful.


«Balsamic Cough Syrup.»—

 Balsam of Peru                                  2 drachms
 Tincture of Tolu                                4 drachms
 Camphorated tincture of opium                   4 ounces
 Powdered extract licorice                       1 ounce
 Syrup squill                                    4 ounces
 Syrup dextrine (glucose) sufficient to make    16 ounces

Add the balsam of Peru to the tinctures, and in a mortar rub up the
extract of licorice with the syrups. Mix together and direct to be
taken in teaspoonful doses.


«Whooping-Cough Remedies.»—The following mixture is a spray to be used
{212} in the sick room in cases of whooping cough:

 Thymol                      1.0
 Tincture of eucalyptus     30.0
 Tincture of benzoin        30.0
 Alcohol                   100.0
 Water enough to make     1000.0

Mix. Pour some of the mixture on a cloth and hold to mouth so that the
mixture is inhaled, thereby giving relief.


«Expectorant Mixtures.»—

 I.—Ammon. chloride                    1 drachm
     Potass. chlorate                  30 grains
     Paregoric                          2 fluidrachms
     Syrup of ipecac                    2 fluidrachms
     Syrup wild cherry enough to make   2 fluidounces

Dose: One teaspoonful.

 II.—Potass. chlorate                        1 drachm
      Tincture guaiac                     3 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Tincture rhubarb                    1 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Syrup wild cherry enough to make        3 fluidounces

Dose: One teaspoonful.


«Eucalyptus Bonbons for Coughs.»—

 Eucalyptus oil          5 parts
 Tartaric acid          15 parts
 Extract of malt        24 parts
 Cacao                 100 parts
 Peppermint oil        1.4 parts
 Bonbon mass         2,203 parts

Mix and make into bonbons weighing 30 grains each.

COLD CREAM: See Cosmetics.

COLIC IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.


«COLLODION.»

 Turpentine           5 parts
 Ether and alcohol   10 parts
 Collodion           94 parts
 Castor oil           1 part

Dissolve the turpentine in the ether and alcohol mixture (in equal
parts) and filter, then add to the mixture of collodion and castor oil.
This makes a good elastic collodion.

See also Court Plaster, Liquid.

COLOGNE: See Perfumes.

COLOGNE FOR HEADACHES: See Headaches.

COLORS: See Dyes and Pigments.

COLORS, FUSIBLE ENAMEL: See Enameling.

COLORS FOR PAINTS: See Paint.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY: See Photography.

COLORS FOR SYRUPS: See Syrups.

CONCRETE: See Stone, Artificial.


«Condiments»


«Chowchow.»—

 Curry powder           4 ounces
 Mustard powder         6 ounces
 Ginger                 3 ounces
 Turmeric               2 ounces
 Cayenne                2 drachms
 Black pepper powder    2 drachms
 Coriander              1 drachm
 Allspice               1 drachm
 Mace                  30 grains
 Thyme                 30 grains
 Savory                30 grains
 Celery seed            2 drachms
 Cider vinegar          2 gallons

Mix all the powders with the vinegar, and steep the mixture over a very
gentle fire for 3 hours. The pickles are to be parboiled with salt, and
drained, and the spiced vinegar, prepared as above, is to be poured
over them while it is still warm. The chowchow keeps best in small
jars, tightly covered.


«Essence of Extract of Soup Herbs.»—Thyme, 4 ounces; winter savory, 4
ounces; sweet marjoram, 4 ounces; sweet basil, 4 ounces; grated lemon
peel, 1 ounce; eschalots, 2 ounces; bruised celery seed, 1 ounce;
alcohol (50 per cent), 64 ounces. Mix the vegetables, properly bruised,
add the alcohol, close the container and set aside in a moderately warm
place to digest for 15 days. Filter and press out. Preserve in 4-ounce
bottles, well corked.


«Tomato Bouillon Extract.»—Tomatoes, 1 quart; arrowroot, 2 ounces;
extract of beef, 1 ounce; bay leaves, 1 ounce; cloves, 2 ounces; red
pepper, 4 drachms; Worcestershire sauce, quantity sufficient to flavor.
Mix.


«Mock Turtle Extract.»—Extract of beef, 2 ounces; concentrated chicken,
2 ounces; clam juice, 8 ounces; tincture of black pepper, 1 ounce;
extract of celery, 3 drachms; extract of orange peel, soluble, 1
drachm; hot water enough to make 2 quarts. {213}


«RELISHES:»


«Digestive Relish.»—

I.—Two ounces Jamaica ginger; 2 ounces black peppercorns; 1 ounce
mustard seed; 1 ounce coriander fruit (seed); 1 ounce pimento
(allspice); 1⁠/⁠2 ounce mace; 1⁠/⁠2 ounce cloves; 1⁠/⁠2 ounce nutmegs;
1⁠/⁠2 ounce chili pods; 3 drachms cardamom seeds; 4 ounces garlic; 4
ounces eschalots; 4 pints malt vinegar.

Bruise spices, garlic, etc., and boil in vinegar for 15 minutes and
strain. To this add 2 1⁠/⁠2 pints mushroom ketchup; 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints India
soy.

Again simmer for 15 minutes and strain through muslin.

II.—One pound soy; 50 ounces best vinegar; 4 ounces ketchup; 4 ounces
garlic; 4 ounces eschalots; 4 ounces capsicum; 1⁠/⁠2 ounce cloves;
1⁠/⁠2 ounce mace; 1⁠/⁠4 ounce cinnamon; 1 drachm cardamom seeds. Boil
well and strain.


«Lincolnshire Relish.»—Two ounces garlic; 2 ounces Jamaica ginger;
3 ounces black peppercorns; 3⁠/⁠4 ounce cayenne pepper; 1⁠/⁠4 ounce
ossein; 3⁠/⁠4 ounce nutmeg; 2 ounces salt; 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints India soy.
Enough malt vinegar to make 1 gallon. Bruise spices, garlic, etc., and
simmer in 1⁠/⁠2 a gallon of vinegar for 20 minutes, strain and add soy
and sufficient vinegar to make 1 gallon, then boil for 5 minutes. Keep
in bulk as long as possible.


«Curry Powder.»—

 I.—Coriander seed       6 drachms
     Turmeric             5 scruples
     Fresh ginger     4 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
     Cumin seed          18 grains
     Black pepper        54 grains
     Poppy seed          94 grains
     Garlic               2 heads
     Cinnamon             1 scruple
     Cardamom             5 seeds
     Cloves               8 only
     Chillies        1 or 2 pods
     Grated cocoanut    1⁠/⁠2 nut

 II.—Coriander seed    1⁠/⁠4 pound
      Turmeric          1⁠/⁠4 pound
      Cinnamon seed       2 ounces
      Cayenne           1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Mustard             1 ounce
      Ground ginger       1 ounce
      Allspice          1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Fenugreek seed      2 ounces


«TABLE SAUCES:»


«Worcestershire Sauce.»—

 Pimento                2 drachms
 Clove                  1 drachm
 Black pepper           1 drachm
 Ginger                 1 drachm
 Curry powder           1 ounce
 Capsicum               1 drachm
 Mustard                2 ounces
 Shallots, bruised      2 ounces
 Salt                   2 ounces
 Brown sugar            8 ounces
 Tamarinds              4 ounces
 Sherry wine            1 pint
 Wine vinegar           2 pints

The spices must be freshly bruised. The ingredients are to simmer
together with the vinegar for an hour, adding more of the vinegar as it
is lost by evaporation; then add the wine, and if desired some caramel
coloring. Set aside for a week, strain, and bottle.


«Table Sauce.»—Brown sugar, 16 parts; tamarinds, 16 parts; onions,
4 parts; powdered ginger, 4 parts; salt, 4 parts; garlic, 2 parts;
cayenne, 2 parts; soy, 2 parts; ripe apples, 64 parts; mustard powder,
2 parts; curry powder, 1 part; vinegar, quantity sufficient. Pare and
core the apples, boil them in sufficient vinegar with the tamarinds and
raisins until soft, then pulp through a fine sieve. Pound the onions
and garlic in a mortar and add the pulp to that of the apples. Then add
the other ingredients and vinegar, 60 parts; heat to boiling, cool, and
add sherry wine, 10 parts, and enough vinegar to make the sauce just
pourable. If a sweet sauce is desired add sufficient treacle before
the final boiling.


«Epicure’s Sauce.»—Eight ounces tamarinds; 12 ounces sultana raisins; 2
ounces garlic; 4 ounces eschalots; 4 ounces horse-radish root; 2 ounces
black pepper; 1⁠/⁠2 ounce chili pods; 3 ounces raw Jamaica ginger;
1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds golden syrup; 1 pound burnt sugar (caramel); 1 ounce
powdered cloves; 1 pint India soy; 1 gallon malt vinegar. Bruise roots,
spices, etc., and boil in vinegar for 15 minutes, then strain. To the
strained liquor add golden syrup, soy, and burnt sugar, then simmer for
10 minutes.


«Piccalilli Sauce.»—One drachm chili pods; 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces black
peppercorns; 1⁠/⁠2 ounce pimento; 3⁠/⁠4 ounce garlic; 1⁠/⁠2 gallon malt
vinegar. Bruise spices and garlic, boil in the vinegar for 10 minutes,
and strain.

One ounce ground Jamaica ginger; 1 ounce turmeric; 2 ounces flower of
mustard; 2 ounces powdered natal arrowroot; 8 ounces strong acetic
acid. Rub powders in a mortar with acetic acid and add to above, then
boil for 5 minutes, or until it thickens.


«FLAVORING SPICES.»

I.—Five ounces powdered cinnamon bark; 2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces powdered cloves;
2 1⁠/⁠2 {214} ounces powdered nutmegs; 1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces powdered caraway
seeds; 1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces powdered coriander seeds; 1 ounce powdered
Jamaica ginger; 1⁠/⁠2 ounce powdered allspice. Let all be dry and in
fine powder. Mix and pass through a sieve.

II.—Pickling Spice.—Ten pounds small Jamaica ginger; 2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
black peppercorns; 1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds white peppercorns; 1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
allspice; 3⁠/⁠4 pound long pepper; 1 1⁠/⁠4 pounds mustard seed; 1⁠/⁠2
pound chili pods. Cut up ginger and long pepper into small pieces, and
mix all the other ingredients intimately.

One ounce to each pint of boiling vinegar is sufficient, but it may be
made stronger if desired hot.


«Essence of Savory Spices.»—Two and one-half ounces black peppercorns;
1 ounce pimento; 3⁠/⁠4 ounce nutmeg; 1⁠/⁠2 ounce mace; 1⁠/⁠2 ounce
cloves; 1⁠/⁠4 ounce cinnamon bark; 1⁠/⁠4 ounce caraway seeds; 20 grains
cayenne pepper; 15 ounces spirit of wine; 5 ounces distilled water.
Bruise all the spices and having mixed spirit and water, digest in
mixture 14 days, shaking frequently, then filter.


«MUSTARD:»


«The Prepared Mustards of Commerce.»—The mustard, i. e., the flower
or powdered seed, used in preparing the different condiments, is
derived from three varieties of Brassica (_Cruciferæ_)—_Brassica alba
L., Brassica nigra_, and _Brassica juncea_. The first yields the
“white” seed of commerce, which produces a mild mustard; the second the
“black” seed, yielding the more pungent powder; and the latter a very
pungent and oily mustard, much employed by Russians. The pungency of
the condiment is also affected by the method of preparing the paste,
excessive heat destroying the sharpness completely. The pungency
is further controlled and tempered, in the cold processes, by the
addition of wheat or rye flour, which also has the advantage of serving
as a binder of the mustard. The mustard flour is prepared by first
decorticating the seed, then grinding to a fine powder, the expression
of the fixed oil from which completes the process. This oil, unlike the
volatile, is of a mild, pleasant taste, and of a greenish color, which,
it is said, makes it valuable in the sophistication and imitation of
“olive” oils, refined, cottonseed, or peanut oil being thus converted
into _huile vierge de_ Lucca, Florence, or some other noted brand of
olive oil. It is also extensively used for illuminating purposes,
especially in southern Russia.

The flavors, other than that of the mustard itself, of the various
preparations are imparted by the judicious use of spices—cinnamon,
nutmeg, cloves, pimento, etc.—aromatic herbs, such as thyme, sage,
chervil, parsley, mint, marjoram, tarragon, etc., and finally chives,
onions, shallots, leeks, garlic, etc.

In preparing the mustards on a large scale, the mustard flower and
wheat or rye flour are mixed and ground to a smooth paste with vinegar,
must (unfermented grape juice), wine, or whatever is used in the
preparation, a mill similar to a drug or paint mill being used for the
purpose. This dough immediately becomes spongy, and in this condition,
technically called “cake,” is used as the basis of the various mustards
of commerce.


«Mustard Cakes.»—In the mixture, the amount of flour used depends
on the pungency of the mustard flower, and the flavor desired to be
imparted to the finished product. The cakes are broadly divided into
the yellow and the brown. A general formula for the yellow cake is:

Yellow mustard, from 20 to 30 per cent; salt, from 1 to 3 per cent;
spices, from 1⁠/⁠4 to 1⁠/⁠2 of 1 per cent; wheat flour, from 8 to 12
per cent.

Vinegar, must, or wine, complete the mixture.

The brown cake is made with black mustard, and contains about the
following proportions:

Black mustard, from 20 to 30 per cent; salt, from 1 to 3 per cent;
spices, from 1⁠/⁠4 to 1⁠/⁠2 of 1 per cent; wheat or rye flour, from 10
to 15 per cent.

The variations are so wide, however, that it is impossible to give
exact proportions. In the manufacture of table mustards, in fact,
as in every other kind of manufacture, excellence is attained only
by practice and the exercise of sound judgment and taste by the
manufacturer.


«Moutarde des Jesuittes.»—Twelve sardels and 280 capers are crushed
into a paste and stirred into 3 pints of boiling wine vinegar. Add 4
ounces of brown cake and 8 ounces of yellow cake and mix well.


«Kirschner Wine Mustard.»—Reduce 30 quarts of freshly expressed grape
juice to half that quantity, by boiling over a moderate fire, on a
water bath. Dissolve in the boiling liquid 5 pounds of sugar, and pour
the syrup through a colander containing 2 or 3 large horse-radishes cut
{215} into very thin slices and laid on a coarse towel spread over the
bottom and sides of the colander. To the colate add the following, all
in a state of fine powder:

 Cardamom seeds     2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 Nutmeg             2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 Cloves             4 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 Cinnamon               1 ounce
 Ginger                 1 ounce
 Brown mustard cake     6 pounds
 Yellow mustard cake    9 pounds

Grind all together to a perfectly smooth paste, and strain several
times through muslin.


«Duesseldorff Mustard.»—

 Brown mustard cake     10 ounces
 Yellow mustard cake    48 ounces
 Boiling water          96 ounces
 Wine vinegar           64 ounces
 Cinnamon                5 drachms
 Cloves                 15 drachms
 Sugar                  64 ounces
 Wine, good white       64 ounces

Mix after the general directions given above.


«German Table Mustard.»—

 Laurel leaves      8 ounces
 Cinnamon           5 drachms
 Cardamom seeds     2 drachms
 Sugar             64 ounces
 Wine vinegar      96 ounces
 Brown cake        10 ounces
 Yellow cake       48 ounces

Mix after general directions as given above.


«Krems Mustard, Sweet.»—

 Yellow cake           10 pounds
 Brown cake            20 pounds
 Fresh grape juice      6 pints

Mix and boil down to the proper consistency.


«Krems Mustard, Sour.»—

 Brown mustard flour     30 parts
 Yellow mustard flour    10 parts
 Grape juice, fresh       8 parts

Mix and boil down to a paste and then stir in 8 parts of wine vinegar.


«Tarragon Mustard.»—

 Brown mustard flour     40 parts
 Yellow mustard flour    20 parts
 Vinegar                  6 parts
 Tarragon vinegar         6 parts

Boil the mustard in the vinegar and add the tarragon vinegar.


«Tarragon Mustard, Sharp.»—This is prepared by adding to every 100
pounds of the above 21 ounces of white pepper, 5 ounces of pimento, and
2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of cloves, mixing thoroughly by grinding together in a
mill, then put in a warm spot and let stand for 10 days or 2 weeks.
Finally strain.


«Moutarde aux Epices.»—

 Mustard flour, yellow   10 pounds
 Mustard flour, brown    40 pounds
 Tarragon                 1 pound
 Basil, herb              5 ounces
 Laurel leaves           12 drachms
 White pepper             3 ounces
 Cloves                  12 drachms
 Mace                     2 drachms
 Vinegar                  1 gallon

Mix the herbs and macerate them in the vinegar to exhaustion, then add
to the mustards, and grind together. Set aside for a week or ten days,
then strain through muslin.

In all the foregoing formulas where the amount of salt is not
specified, it is to be added according to the taste or discretion of
the manufacturer.


«Mustard Vinegar.»—

 Celery, chopped fine                32 parts
 Tarragon, the fresh herb             6 parts
 Cloves, coarsely powdered            6 parts
 Onions, chopped fine                 6 parts
 Lemon peel, fresh, chopped fine      3 parts
 White-wine vinegar                 575 parts
 White wine                         515 parts
 Mustard seed, crushed              100 parts

Mix and macerate together for a week or 10 days in a warm place, then
strain off.


«Ravigotte Mustard.»—

 Parsley                 2 parts
 Chervil                 2 parts
 Chives                  2 parts
 Cloves                  1 part
 Garlic                  1 part
 Thyme                   1 part
 Tarragon                1 part
 Salt                    8 parts
 Olive oil               4 parts
 White-wine vinegar    128 parts
 Mustard flower, sufficient

Cut or bruise the plants and spices, and macerate them in the vinegar
for 15 or 20 days. Strain the liquid through a cloth and add the salt.
Rub up mustard with the olive oil in a vessel set in ice, adding a
little of the spiced vinegar from time to time, until the whole is
incorporated and the complete mixture makes 384 parts. {216}

CONDIMENTS, TESTS FOR ADULTERATED: See Foods.

CONDITION POWDERS FOR CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.

CONDUCTIVITY OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS: See Alloys.


«Confectionery»


«Cream Bonbons for Hoarseness.»—Stir into 500 parts of cream 500 parts
of white sugar. Put in a pan and cook, with continuous stirring, until
it becomes brown and viscid. Now put in a baking tin and smooth out, as
neatly as possible, to the thickness of, say, twice that of the back of
a table knife and let it harden. Before it gets completely hard draw
lines with a knife across the surface in such manner that when it is
quite hard it will break along them, easily, into bits the size of a
lozenge.


«Nut Candy Sticks.»—Cook to 320° F. 8 pounds best sugar in 2 pints
water, with 4 pounds glucose added. Pour out on an oiled slab and
add 5 pounds almonds, previously blanched, cut in small pieces, and
dried in the drying room. Mix up well together to incorporate the nuts
thoroughly with the sugar. When it has cooled enough to be handled,
form into a round mass on the slab and spin out in long, thin sticks.


«Fig Squares.»—Place 5 pounds of sugar and 5 pounds of glucose in a
copper pan, with water enough to dissolve the sugar. Set on the fire,
and when it starts to boil add 5 pounds of ground figs. Stir and cook
to 240° on the thermometer. Set off the fire, and then add 5 pounds of
fine cocoanuts; mix well and pour out on greased marble, roll smooth,
and cut like caramels.


«Caramels.»—Heat 10 pounds sugar and 8 pounds glucose in a copper
kettle until dissolved. Add cream to the mixture, at intervals, until
2 1⁠/⁠2 quarts are used. Add 2 1⁠/⁠4 pounds caramel butter and 12
ounces paraffine wax to the mixture. Cook to a rather stiff ball,
add nuts, pour out between iron bars and, when cool enough, cut into
strips. For the white ones flavor with vanilla, and add 2 pounds melted
chocolate liquor for the chocolate caramel when nearly cooked.


«Candy Orange Drops.»—It is comparatively easy to make a hard candy,
but to put the material into “drop” form apparently requires experience
and a machine. To make the candy itself, put, say, a pint of water
into a suitable pan or kettle, heat to boiling, and add gradually to
it 2 pounds or more of sugar, stirring well so as to avoid the risk of
burning the sugar. Continue boiling the syrup so formed until a little
of it poured on a cold slab forms a mass of the required hardness. If
the candy is to be of orange flavor, a little fresh oil of orange is
added just before the mass is ready to set and the taste is improved
according to the general view at least by adding, also, say, 2 drachms
of citric acid dissolved in a very little water. As a coloring an
infusion of safflower or tincture of turmeric is used.

To make such a mass into tablets, it is necessary only to pour out on
a well-greased slab, turning the edges back if inclined to run, until
the candy is firm, and then scoring with a knife so that it can easily
be broken into pieces when cold. To make “drops” a suitable mold is
necessary.

Experiment as to the sufficiency of the boiling in making candy may be
saved and greater certainty of a good result secured by the use of a
chemical thermometer. As the syrup is boiled and the water evaporates
the temperature of the liquid rises. When it reaches 220° F., the
sugar is then in a condition to yield the “thread” form; at 240° “soft
ball” is formed; at 245°, “hard ball”; at 252°, “crack”; and at 290°,
“hard crack.” By simply suspending the thermometer in the liquid and
observing it from time to time, one may know exactly when to end the
boiling.


«Gum Drops.»—Grind 25 pounds of Arabian or Senegal gum, place it in a
copper pan or in a steam jacket kettle, and pour 3 gallons of boiling
water over it; stir it up well. Now set the pan with the gum into
another pan containing boiling water and stir the gum slowly until
dissolved, then strain it through a No. 40 sieve. Cook 19 pounds of
sugar with sufficient water, 2 pounds of glucose, and a teaspoonful of
cream of tartar to a stiff ball, pour it over the gum, mix well, set
the pan on the kettle with the hot water, and let it steam for 1 1⁠/⁠2
hours, taking care that the water in the kettle does not run dry; then
open the door of the stove and cover the fire with ashes, and let the
gum settle for nearly an hour, then remove the scum which has settled
on top, flavor and run out with the {217} funnel dropper into the
starch impressions, and place the trays in the drying room for 2 days,
or until dry; then take the drops out of the starch, clean them off
well and place them in crystal pans, one or two layers. Cook sugar and
water to 34 1⁠/⁠2° on the syrup gauge and pour over the drops lukewarm.
Let stand in a moderately warm place over night, then drain the syrup
off, and about an hour afterwards knock the gum drops out on a clean
table, pick them apart, and place on trays until dry, when they are
ready for sale.


«A Good Summer Taffy.»—Place in a kettle 4 pounds of sugar, 3 pounds
of glucose, and 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints of water; when it boils drop in a piece
of butter half the size of an egg and about 2 ounces of paraffine wax.
Cook to 262°, pour on a slab, and when cool enough, pull, flavor, and
color if you wish. Pull until light, then spin out on the table in
strips about 3 inches wide and cut into 4- or 4 1⁠/⁠2-inch lengths.
Then wrap in wax paper for the counter. This taffy keeps long without
being grained by the heat.


«Chewing Candy.»—Place 20 pounds of sugar in a copper pan, add 20
pounds of glucose, and enough water to easily dissolve the sugar. Set
on the fire or cook in the steam pan in 2 quarts of water. Have a
pound of egg albumen soaked in 2 quarts of water. Beat this like eggs
into a very stiff froth, add gradually the sugar and glucose; when well
beaten up, add 5 pounds of powdered sugar, and beat at very little heat
either in the steam beater or on a pan of boiling water until light,
and does not stick to the back of the hand, flavor with vanilla, and
put in trays dusted with fine sugar. When cold it may be cut, or else
it may be stretched out on a sugar-dusted table, cut, and wrapped in
wax paper. This chewing candy has to be kept in a very dry place, or
else it will run and get sticky.


«Montpelier Cough Drops.»—

 Brown sugar           10 pounds
 Tartaric acid          2 ounces
 Cream of tartar      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Water              1 1⁠/⁠2 quarts
 Anise-seed flavoring, quantity sufficient

Melt the sugar in the water, and when at a sharp boil add the cream of
tartar. Cover the pan for 5 minutes. Remove the lid and let the sugar
boil up to crack degree. Turn out the batch on an oiled slab, and when
cool enough to handle mold in the acid and flavoring. Pass it through
the acid drop rollers, and when the drops are chipped up, and before
sifting, rub some icing with them.


«Medicated Cough Drops.»—

 Light-brown sugar     14 pounds
 Tartaric acid      1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Cream of tartar      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Water                  2 quarts
 Anise-seed, cayenne, clove, and peppermint
   flavoring, a few drops of each.

Proceed as before prescribed, but when sufficiently cool pass the batch
through the acid tablet rollers and dust with sugar.


«Horehound Candy.»—

 Dutch crushed sugar       10 pounds
 Dried horehound leaves     2 ounces
 Cream of tartar          3⁠/⁠4 ounce
 Water                      2 quarts
 Anise-seed flavoring, quantity sufficient.

Pour the water on the leaves and let it gently simmer till reduced to
3 pints; then strain the infusion through muslin, and add the liquid
to the sugar. Put the pan containing the syrup on the fire, and when
at a sharp boil add the cream of tartar. Put the lid on the pan for 5
minutes; then remove it, and let the sugar boil to stiff boil degree.
Take the pan off the fire and rub portions of the sugar against the
side until it produces a creamy appearance; then add the flavoring.
Stir all well, and pour into square tin frames, previously well oiled.


«Menthol Cough Drops.»—

 Gelatin                      1 ounce
 Glycerine (by weight)    2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Orange-flower water      2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Menthol                      5 grains
 Rectified spirits            1 drachm

Soak the gelatin in the water for 2 hours, then heat on a water bath
until dissolved, and add 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of glycerine. Dissolve the
menthol in the spirit, mix with the remainder of the glycerine, add
to the glyco-gelatin mass, and pour into an oiled tin tray (such as
the lid of a biscuit box). When the mass is cold divide into 10 dozen
pastilles.

Menthol pastilles are said to be an excellent remedy for tickling cough
as well as laryngitis. They should be freshly prepared, and cut oblong,
so that the patient may take half of one, or less, as may be necessary.


«Violet Flavor for Candy.»—Violet flavors, like violet perfumes, are
very complex mixtures, and their imitation is a {218} correspondingly
difficult undertaking. The basis is vanilla (or vanillin), rose, and
orris, with a very little of some pungent oil to bring up the flavor.
The following will give a basis upon which a satisfactory flavor may be
built:

 Oil of orris     1 drachm
 Oil of rose      1 drachm
 Vanillin         2 drachms
 Cumarin         30 grains
 Oil of clove    30 minims
 Alcohol         11 ounces
 Water            5 ounces

Make a solution, adding the water last.


«CONFECTIONERY COLORS.»—The following are excellent and entirely
harmless coloring agents for the purposes named:


«Red.»—Cochineal syrup prepared as follows:

 Cochineal, in coarse powder      6 parts
 Potassium carbonate              2 parts
 Distilled water                 15 parts
 Alcohol                         12 parts
 Simple syrup enough to make    500 parts

Rub up the potassium carbonate and the cochineal together, adding the
water and alcohol, little by little, under constant trituration. Set
aside over night, then add the syrup and filter.


«Pink.»—

 Carmine                        1 part
 Liquor potassæ                 6 parts
 Rose water, enough to make    48 parts

Mix. Should the color be too high, dilute with water until the
requisite tint is acquired.


«Orange.»—Tincture of red sandalwood, 1 part; ethereal tincture
of orlean, quantity sufficient. Add the tincture of orlean to the
sandalwood tincture until the desired shade of orange is obtained.

A red added to any of the yellows gives an orange color.

The aniline colors made by the “Aktiengesellschaft für
Anilin-Fabrikation,” of Berlin, are absolutely non-toxic, and can be
used for the purposes recommended, i. e., the coloration of syrups,
cakes, candies, etc., with perfect confidence in their innocuity.


«Pastille Yellow.»—

 Citron yellow II              7 parts
 Grape sugar, first quality    1 part
 White dextrine                2 parts


«Sap-Blue Paste.»—

 Dark blue      3 parts
 Grape sugar    1 part
 Water          6 parts


«Sugar-Black Paste.»—

 Carbon black    3 parts
 Grape sugar     1 part
 Water           6 parts


«Cinnabar Red.»*—

 Scarlet           65 parts
 White dextrine    30 parts
 Potato flour       5 parts


«Bluish Rose.»*—

 Grenadine         65 parts
 White dextrine    30 parts
 Potato flour       5 parts


«Yellowish Rose.»—

 Rosa II           60 parts
 Citron yellow      5 parts
 White dextrine    30 parts
 Potato flour       5 parts


«Violet.»—

 Red violet        65 parts
 White dextrine    30 parts
 Potato flour       5 parts


«Carmine Green.»—

 Woodruff (Waldmeister) green    55 parts
 Rosa II                          5 parts
 Dextrine                        35 parts
 Potato flour                     5 parts

To the colors marked with an asterisk (*) add, for every 4 pounds,
4 1⁠/⁠2 ounces, a grain and a half each of potassium iodide and sodium
nitrate. Colors given in form of powders should be dissolved in hot
water for use.


«Yellow.»—Various shades of yellow may be obtained by the maceration of
Besiello saffron, or turmeric, or grains d’Avignon in alcohol until a
strong tincture is obtained. Dilute with water until the desired shade
is obtained. An aqueous solution of quercitrine also gives an excellent
yellow.


«Blue.»—

 Indigo carmine   1 part
 Water            2 parts

Mix.

Indigo carmine is a beautiful, powerful, and harmless agent. It may
usually be bought commercially, but if it cannot be readily obtained,
proceed as follows:

Into a capsule put 30 grains of indigo in powder, place on a water
bath, and heat to dryness. When entirely dry put {219} into a large
porcelain mortar (the substance swells enormously under subsequent
treatment—hence the necessity for a large, or comparatively large,
mortar) and cautiously add, drop by drop, 120 grains, by weight, of
sulphuric acid, C. P., stirring continuously during the addition.
Cover the swollen mass closely, and set aside for 24 hours. Now add
3 fluidounces of distilled water, a few drops at a time, rubbing or
stirring continuously. Transfer the liquid thus obtained to a tall,
narrow, glass cylinder or beaker, cover and let stand for 4 days,
giving the liquid an occasional stirring. Make a strong solution of
sodium carbonate or bicarbonate, and at the end of the time named
cautiously neutralize the liquid, adding the carbonate a little at a
time, stirring the indigo solution and testing it after each addition,
as the least excess of alkali will cause the indigo to separate out,
and fall in a doughy mass. Stop when the test shows the near approach
of neutrality, as the slight remaining acidity will not affect the
taste or the properties of the liquid. Filter, and evaporate in the
water bath to dryness. The resultant matter is sulphindigotate of
potassium, or the “indigo carmine” of commerce.

Tincture of indigo may also be used as a harmless blue.


«Green.»—The addition of the solution indigo carmine to an infusion
of any of the matters given under “yellow” will produce a green color.
Tincture of crocus and glycerine in equal parts, with the addition
of indigo-carmine solution, also gives a fine green. A solution of
commercial chlorophyll gives grass-green, in shades varying according
to the concentration of the solution.


«Voice and Throat Lozenges.»—

 Catechu                191 grains
 Tannic acid            273 grains
 Tartaric acid          273 grains
 Capsicin                30 minims
 Black-currant paste      7 ounces
 Refined sugar, Mucilage of acacia, of each a sufficient quantity.

Mix to produce 7 pounds of lozenges.

CONSTIPATION IN BIRDS: See Veterinary Formulas.

COOKING TABLE: See Tables.

COOLING SCREEN: See Refrigeration.


«Copper»


«Annealing Copper.»—

Copper is almost universally annealed in muffles, in which it is
raised to the desired temperature, and subsequently allowed to cool
either in the air or in water. A muffle is nothing more or less than a
reverberatory furnace. It is necessary to watch the copper carefully,
so that when it has reached the right temperature it may be drawn from
the muffle and allowed to cool. This is important, for if the copper is
heated too high, or is left in the muffle at the ordinary temperature
of annealing too long, it is burnt, as the workmen say. Copper that has
been burnt is yellow, coarsely granular, and exceedingly brittle—even
more brittle at a red heat than when cold.

In the case of coarse wire it is found that only the surface is burnt,
while the interior is damaged less. This causes the exterior to split
loose from the interior when bent or rolled, thus giving the appearance
of a brittle copper tube with a copper wire snugly fitted into it.
Cracks a half inch in depth have been observed on the surface of an
ingot on its first pass through the rolls, all due to this exterior
burning. It is apparent that copper that has been thus overheated in
the muffle is entirely unfit for rolling. It is found that the purer
forms of copper are less liable to be harmed by overheating than
samples containing even a small amount of impurities. Even the ordinary
heating in a muffle will often suffice to burn in this manner the
surface of some specimens of copper, rendering them unfit for further
working. Copper that has been thus ruined is of use only to be refined
again.

As may be inferred only the highest grades of refined copper are used
for drawing or for rolling. This is not because the lower grades, when
refined, cannot stand sufficiently high tests, but because methods
of working are not adequate to prevent these grades of copper from
experiencing the deterioration due to overheating.

The process of refining copper consists in an oxidizing action followed
by a reducing action which, since it is performed by the aid of gases
generated by stirring the melted copper with a pole, is called poling.
The object of the oxidation is to oxidize and either volatilize or turn
to slag all the impurities contained in the copper. This procedure
is materially aided by the fact that the {220} suboxide of copper is
freely soluble in metallic copper and thus penetrates to all parts of
the copper, and parting with its oxygen, oxidizes the impurities. The
object of the reducing part of the refining process is to change the
excess of the suboxide of copper to metallic copper. Copper containing
even less than 1 per cent of the suboxide of copper shows decreased
malleability and ductility, and is both cold-short and red-short. If
the copper to be refined contains any impurities, such as arsenic
or antimony, it is well not to remove too much of the oxygen in the
refining process. If this is done, overpoled copper is produced. In
this condition it is brittle, granular, of a shining yellow color, and
more red-short than cold-short. When the refining has been properly
done, and neither too much nor too little oxygen is present, the copper
is in the condition of “tough pitch,” and is in a fit state to be
worked.

Copper is said to be “tough pitch” when it requires frequent bending
to break it, and when, after it is broken, the color is pale red, the
fracture has a silky luster, and is fibrous like a tuft of silk. On
hammering a piece to a thin plate it should show no cracks at the edge.
At tough pitch copper offers the highest degree of malleability and
ductility of which a given specimen is capable. This is the condition
in which refined copper is (or should be) placed on the market, and
if it could be worked without changing this tough pitch, any specimen
of copper that could be brought to this condition would be suitable
for rolling or drawing. But tough pitch is changed if oxygen is either
added or taken from refined copper.

By far the more important of these is the removal of oxygen, especially
from those specimens that contain more than a mere trace of impurities.
This is shown by the absolutely worthless condition of overpoled
copper. The addition of carbon also plays a very important part in the
production of overpoled copper.

That the addition of oxygen to refined copper is not so damaging
is shown by the fact that at present nearly all the copper that is
worked is considerably oxidized at some stage of the process, and not
especially to its detriment.

Burnt copper is nothing more or less than copper in the overpoled
condition. This is brought about by the action of reducing gases in
the muffle. By this means the small amount of oxygen necessary to give
the copper its tough pitch is removed. This oxygen is combined with
impurities in the copper, and thus renders them inert. For example,
the oxide of arsenic or antimony is incapable of combining more than
mechanically with the copper, but when its oxygen is removed the
arsenic or antimony is left free to combine with the copper. This
forms a brittle alloy, and one that corresponds almost exactly in
its properties with overpoled copper. To be sure overpoled copper is
supposed to contain carbon, but that this is not the essential ruling
principle in case of annealing is shown by the fact that pure copper
does not undergo this change under conditions that ruin impure copper,
and also by the fact that the same state may be produced by annealing
in pure hydrogen and thus removing the oxygen that renders the arsenic
or antimony inert. No attempt is made to deny the well-known fact that
carbon does combine with copper to the extent of 0.2 per cent and cause
it to become exceedingly brittle. It is simply claimed that this is
probably not what occurs in the production of so-called burnt copper
during annealing. The amount of impurities capable of rendering copper
easily burnt is exceedingly small. This may be better appreciated when
it is considered that from 0.01 to 0.2 per cent expresses the amount of
oxygen necessary to render the impurities inert. The removal of this
very small amount of oxygen, which is often so small as to be almost
within the limits of the errors of analysis, will suffice to render
copper overpoled and ruin it for any use.

There are methods of avoiding the numerous accidents that may occur in
the annealing of copper, due to a change of pitch. As already pointed
out, the quality of refined copper is lowered if oxygen be either added
to or taken from it. It is quite apparent, therefore, that a really
good method of annealing copper will prevent any change in the state
of oxidation. It is necessary to prevent access to the heated copper
both of atmospheric air, which would oxidize it, and of the reducing
gases used in heating the muffle, which would take oxygen away from it.
Obviously the only way of accomplishing this is to inclose the copper
when heated and till cool in an atmosphere that can neither oxidize
nor deoxidize copper. By so doing copper may be heated to the melting
point and allowed to cool again without suffering as regards its pitch.
There are comparatively few gases that can be used for this purpose,
but, fortunately, one which is exceedingly cheap and universally {221}
prevalent fulfills all requirements, viz., steam. In order to apply
the principles enunciated it is necessary only to anneal copper in the
ordinary annealing pots such as are used for iron, care being taken to
inclose the copper while heating and while cooling in an atmosphere
of steam. This will effectually exclude air and prevent the ingress
of gases used in heating the annealer. Twenty-four hours may be used
in the process, as in the annealing of iron wire, with no detriment
to the wire. This may seem incredible to those manufacturers who have
tried to anneal copper wire after the manner of annealing iron wire.
By this method perfectly bright annealed wire may be produced. Such a
process of annealing copper offers many advantages. It allows the use
of a grade of copper that has hitherto been worked only at a great
disadvantage, owing to its tendency to get out of pitch. It allows the
use of annealers such as are ordinarily employed for annealing iron,
and thus cheapens the annealing considerably as compared with the
present use of muffles. There is no chance of producing the overpoled
condition from the action of reducing gases used in heating the
muffles. There is no chance of producing the underpoled condition due
to the absorption of suboxide of copper. None of the metal is lost as
scale, and the saving that is thus effected amounts to a considerable
percentage of the total value of the copper. The expense and time
of cleaning are wholly saved. Incidentally bright annealed copper is
produced by a process which is applicable to copper of any shape,
size, or condition—a product that has hitherto been obtained only by
processes (mostly secret) which are too cumbersome and too expensive
for extensive use; and, as is the case with at least one process, with
the danger of producing the overpoled condition, often in only a small
section of the wire, but thus ruining the whole piece.


«COPPER COLORING:»


«Blacking Copper.»—To give a copper article a black covering, clean it
with emery paper, heat gently in a Bunsen or a spirit flame, immerse
for 10 seconds in solution of copper filings in dilute nitric acid, and
heat again.


«Red Coloring of Copper.»—A fine red color may be given to copper
by gradually heating it in an air bath. Prolonged heating at a
comparatively low temperature, or rapid heating at a high temperature,
produces the same result. As soon as the desired color is attained the
metal should be rapidly cooled by quenching in water. The metal thus
colored may be varnished.


«To Dye Copper Parts Violet and Orange.»—Polished copper acquires an
orange-like color leaning to gold, when dipped for a few seconds into a
solution of crystallized copper acetate. A handsome violet is obtained
by placing the metal for a few minutes in a solution of antimony
chloride and rubbing it afterwards with a piece of wood covered with
cotton. During this operation the copper must be heated to a degree
bearable to the hand. A crystalline appearance is produced by boiling
the article in copper sulphate.


«Pickle for Copper.»—Take nitric acid, 100 parts; kitchen salt, 2
parts; calcined soot, 2 parts; or nitric acid, 10 parts; sulphuric
acid, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 1 part. As these bleaching baths
attack the copper quickly, the objects must be left in only for a few
seconds, washing them afterwards in plenty of water, and drying in
sawdust, bran, or spent tan.


«Preparations of Copper Water.»—I.—Water, 1,000 parts; oxalic acid, 30
parts; spirit of wine, 100 parts; essence of turpentine, 50 parts;
fine tripoli, 100 parts.

II.—Water, 1,000 parts; oxalic acid, 30 parts; alcohol, 50 parts;
essence of turpentine, 40 parts; fine tripoli, 50 parts.

III.—Sulphuric acid, 300 parts; sulphate of alumina, 80 parts; water,
520 parts.


«Tempered Copper.»—Objects made of copper may be satisfactorily
tempered by subjecting them to a certain degree of heat for a
determined period of time and bestrewing them with powdered sulphur
during the heating. While hot the objects are plunged into a bath of
blue vitriol; after the bath they may be heated again.

COPPER ALLOYS: See Alloys.

COPPER CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

COPPER ETCHING: See Etching.

COPPER IN FOOD: See Food.

COPPER LACQUERS: See Lacquers. {222}

COPPER PAPER: See Paper, Metallic.

COPPER PATINIZING AND PLATING: See Plating.

COPPER POLISHES: See Polishes.

COPPER, SEPARATION OF GOLD FROM: See Gold.

COPPER SOLDER: See Solders.

COPPER VARNISHES: See Varnishes.


«COPYING PRINTED PICTURES.»

The so-called “metallic” paper used for steam-engine indicator cards
has a smooth surface, chemically prepared so that black lines can be
drawn upon it with pencils made of brass, copper, silver, aluminum, or
any of the softer metals. When used on the indicator it receives the
faint line drawn by a brass point at one end of the pencil arm, and
its special advantage over ordinary paper is that the metallic pencil
slides over its surface with very little friction, and keeps its point
much longer than a graphite pencil.

This paper can be used as a transfer paper for copying engravings or
sketches, or anything printed or written in ink or drawn in pencil.

The best copies can be obtained by following the directions below:
Lay the metallic transfer paper, face up, upon at least a dozen sheets
of blank paper, and lay the print face down upon it. On the back of
the print place a sheet of heavy paper, or thin cardboard, and run
the rubbing tool over this protecting sheet. In this manner it is
comparatively easy to prevent slipping, and prints 8 or 10 inches on a
side may be copied satisfactorily.

Line drawings printed from relief plates, or pictures with sharp
contrast of black and white, without any half-tones, give the best
copies. Very few half-tones can be transferred satisfactorily; almost
all give streaked, indistinct copies, and many of the results are
worthless.

The transfer taken off as described is a reverse of the original print.
If the question of right and left is not important this reversal will
seldom be objectionable, for it is easy to read backward what few
letters generally occur. However, if desired, the paper may be held
up to the light and examined from the back, or placed before a mirror
and viewed by means of its reflected image, when the true relations of
right and left will be seen. Moreover, if sufficiently important, an
exact counterpart of the original may be taken from the reversed copy
by laying another sheet face downward upon it, and rubbing on the back
of the fresh sheet just as was done in making the reversed copy. The
impression thus produced will be fainter than the first, but almost
always it can be made dark enough to show a distinct outline which may
afterwards be retouched with a lead pencil.

For indicator cards the paper is prepared by coating one surface with
a suitable compound, usually zinc oxide mixed with a little starch
and enough glue to make it adhere. After drying it is passed between
calendar rolls under great pressure. The various brands manufactured
for the trade, though perhaps equally good for indicator diagrams, are
not equally well suited for copying. If paper of firmer texture could
be prepared with the same surface finish, probably much larger copies
could be produced.

Other kinds of paper, notably the heavy plate papers used for some of
the best trade catalogues, possess this transfer property to a slight
degree, though they will not receive marks from a metallic pencil. The
latter feature would seem to recommend them for transfer purposes,
making them less likely to become soiled by contact with metallic
objects, but so far no kind has been found which will remove enough ink
to give copies anywhere near as dark as the indicator paper.

Fairly good transfers can be made from almost any common printers’ ink,
but some inks copy much better than others, and some yield only the
faintest impressions. The length of time since a picture was printed
does not seem to determine its copying quality. Some very old prints
can be copied better than new ones; in fact, it was by accidental
transfer to an indicator card from a book nearly a hundred years old
that the peculiar property of this “metallic” paper was discovered.


«Copying Process on Wood.»—If wood surfaces are exposed to direct
sunlight the wood will exhibit, after 2 weeks action, a browning of
dark tone in the exposed places. Certain parts of the surface being
covered up during the entire exposure to the sun, they retain their
original shade and are set off clearly and sharply against the parts
browned by the sunlight. Based on this property of the {223} wood is a
sun-copying process on wood. The method is used for producing tarsia
in imitation on wood. A pierced stencil of tin, wood, or paper is laid
on a freshly planed plate of wood, pasting it on in places to avoid
shifting, and put into a common copying frame. To prevent the wood from
warping a stretcher is employed, whereupon expose to the sun for from 8
to 14 days. After the brown shade has appeared the design obtained is
partly fixed by polishing or by a coating of varnish, lacquer, or wax.
Best suited for such works are the pine woods, especially the 5-year
fir and the cembra pine, which, after the exposure, show a yellowish
brown tone of handsome golden gloss, that stands out boldly, especially
after subsequent polishing, and cannot be replaced by any stain or by
pyrography. The design is sharper and clearer than that produced by
painting. In short, the total effect is pleasing.


«How to Reproduce Old Prints.»—Prepare a bath as follows: Sulphuric
acid, 3 to 5 parts (according to the antiquity of print, thickness of
paper, etc.); alcohol, 3 to 5 parts; water, 100 parts. In this soak
the print from 5 to 15 minutes (the time depending on age, etc., as
above), remove, spread face downward on a glass or ebonite plate, and
wash thoroughly in a gentle stream of running water. If the paper is
heavy, reverse the sides, and let the water flow over the face of the
print. Remove carefully and place on a heavy sheet of blotting paper,
cover with another, and press out every drop of water possible. Where
a wringing machine is convenient and sufficiently wide, passing the
blotters and print through the rollers is better than mere pressing
with the hands. The print, still moist, is then laid face upward on
a heavy glass plate (a marble slab or a lithographers’ stone answers
equally well), and smoothed out. With a very soft sponge go over the
surface with a thin coating of gum-arabic water. The print is now
ready for inking, which is done exactly as in lithographing, with a
roller and printers’ or lithographers’ ink, cut with oil of turpentine.
Suitable paper is then laid on and rolled with a dry roller. This gives
a reverse image of the print, which is then applied to a zinc plate or
a lithographers’ stone, and as many prints as desired pulled off in the
usual lithographing method. When carefully done and the right kind of
paper used, it is said that the imitation of the original is perfect in
every detail.


«To Copy Old Letters, Manuscripts, etc.»—If written in the commercial
ink of the period from 1860 to 1864, which was almost universally an
iron and tannin or gallic-acid ink, the following process may succeed:
Make a thin solution of glucose, or honey, in water, and with this
wet the paper in the usually observed way in copying recent documents
in the letter book, put in the press, and screw down tightly. Let it
remain in the press somewhat longer than in copying recent documents.
When removed, before attempting to separate the papers, expose to the
fumes of strong water of ammonia, copy side downward.


«CORDAGE»:

See also Ropes.


«Strong Twine.»—An extraordinarily strong pack thread or cord, stronger
even than the so-called “Zuckerschnur,” may be obtained by laying the
thread of fibers in a strong solution of alum, and then carefully
drying them.


«Preservation of Fishing Nets.»—The following recipe for the
preservation of fishing nets is also applicable to ropes, etc., in
contact with water. Some have been subjected to long test.

For 40 parts of cord, hemp, or cotton, 3 parts of kutch, 1 part of blue
vitriol, 1⁠/⁠2 part of potassium chromate, and 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts of wood
tar are required. The kutch is boiled with 150 parts of water until
dissolved, and then the blue vitriol is added. Next, the net is entered
and the tar added. The whole should be stirred well, and the cordage
must boil 5 to 8 minutes. Now take out the netting, lay it in another
vessel, cover up well, and leave alone for 12 hours. After that it is
dried well, spread out in a clean place, and coated with linseed oil.
Not before 6 hours have elapsed should it be folded together and put
into the water. The treatment with linseed oil may be omitted.

CORDAGE LUBRICANT: See Lubricants.

CORDAGE WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

CORDIALS: See Wines and Liquors.


«CORKS:»


«Impervious Corks.»—Corks which have been steeped in petrolatum are
said to be an excellent substitute for glass stoppers. Acid in no way
affects them and chemical fumes do not cause decay in them, neither do
they become fixed by a blow or long disuse. {224}


«Non-Porous Corks.»—For benzine, turpentine, and varnish cans, immerse
the corks in hot melted paraffine. Keep them under about 5 minutes;
hold them down with a piece of wire screen cut to fit the dish in which
you melt the paraffine. When taken out lay them on a screen till cool.
Cheap corks can in this way be made gas- and air-tight, and can be cut
and bored with ease.


«Substitute for Cork.»—Wood pulp or other ligneous material may be
treated to imitate cork. For the success of the composition it is
necessary that the constituents be mingled and treated under special
conditions. The volumetric proportions in which these constituents
combine with the best results are the following: Wood pulp, 3
parts; cornstalk pith, 1 part; gelatin, 1 part; glycerine, 1 part;
water, 4 parts; 20 per cent formic-aldehyde solution, 1 part; but
the proportions may be varied. After disintegrating the ligneous
substances, and while these are in a moist and hot condition they are
mingled with the solution of gelatin, glycerine, and water. The mass is
stirred thoroughly so as to obtain a homogeneous mixture. The excess
of moisture is removed. As a last operation the formic aldehyde is
introduced, and the mass is left to coagulate in this solution. The
formic aldehyde renders the product insoluble in nearly all liquids.
So it is in this last operation that it is necessary to be careful in
producing the composition properly. When the operation is terminated
the substance is submitted to pressure during its coagulation, either
by molding it at once into a desired form, or into a mass which is
afterwards converted into the finished product.

CORKS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under
Miscellaneous Methods.

CORK TO METAL, FASTENING: See Adhesives, under Pastes.

CORK AS A PRESERVATIVE: See Preserving.

CORKS, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.


«CORN CURES:»

I.—Salicylic-Acid Corn Cure.—Extract cannabis indica, 1 part, by
measure; salicylic acid, 10 parts, by measure; oil of turpentine, 5
parts, by measure; acetic acid, glacial, 2 parts, by measure; cocaine,
alkaloidal, 2 parts, by measure; collodion, elastic, sufficient to
make 100 parts. Apply a thin coating every night, putting each layer
directly on the preceding one. After a few applications, the mass drops
off, bringing the indurated portion, and frequently the whole of the
corn, off with it.

II.—Compound Salicylated Collodion Corn Cure.—Salicylic acid, 11 parts,
by weight; extract of Indian hemp, 2 parts, by weight; alcohol, 10
parts, by weight; flexible collodion, U. S. P., a sufficient quantity
to make 100 parts, by weight.

The extract is dissolved in the alcohol and the acid in about 50 parts,
by weight, of collodion, the solutions mixed, and the liquid made up to
the required amount. The Indian hemp is presumably intended to prevent
pain; whether it serves this or any other useful purpose seems a matter
of doubt. The acid is frequently used without this addition.

III.—Extract of cannabis indica, 90 grains; salicylic acid, 1 ounce;
alcohol, 1 ounce; collodion enough to make 10 ounces. Soften the
extract with the alcohol, then add the collodion, and lastly the acid.

IV.—Resorcin, 1 part, by weight; salicylic acid, 1 part, by weight;
lactic acid, 1 part, by weight; collodion elasticum, 10 parts, by
weight. Paint the corn daily for 5 or 6 days with the above solution
and take a foot bath in very hot water. The corn will readily come off.



«Corn Plaster.»—Yellow wax, 24 parts, by weight; Venice turpentine, 3
parts, by weight; rosin, 2 parts, by weight; salicylic acid, 2 parts,
by weight; balsam of Peru, 2 parts, by weight; lanolin, 4 parts, by
weight.


«Corn Cure.»—Melt soap plaster, 85 parts, by weight, and yellow wax,
5 parts by weight, in a vapor bath, and stir finely ground salicylic
acid, 10 parts, by weight, into it.


«Removal of Corns.»—The liquid used by chiropodists with pumice stone
for the removal of corns and callosities is usually nothing more than a
solution of potassa or concentrated lye, the pumice stone being dipped
into the solution by the operator just before using.


«Treatment of Bunions.»—Wear right and left stockings and shoes, the
inner edges of the sole of which are perfectly straight. The bunion is
bathed night and morning in a 4 per cent solution of carbolic acid for
a few minutes, followed by plain water. If, after several weeks, the
bursa is still distended with fluid, it is aspirated. If the bunion
is due to flatfoot, the arch of the foot must be restored by a plate.
When the joints are enlarged because of gout or {225} rheumatism, the
constitutional conditions must be treated. In other cases, osteotomy
and tenotomy are required.


«The Treatment of Corns.»—Any corn may be speedily and permanently
cured. The treatment is of three kinds—preventive, palliative, and
curative.

I.—The preventive treatment lies in adopting such measures as will
secure freedom from pressure and friction for the parts most liable to
corns. To this end a well-fitting shoe is essential. The shoes should
be of well-seasoned leather, soft and elastic, and should be cut to a
proper model.

II.—The palliative treatment is generally carried out with chemical
substances. The best method, is, briefly, as follows: A ring of
glycerine jelly is painted around the circumference of the corn, to
form a raised rampart. A piece of salicylic plaster mull is then cut
to the size and shape of the central depression, and applied to the
surface of the corn. This is then covered with a layer of glycerine
jelly, and before it sets a pad of cotton wool is applied to the
surface. This process is repeated as often as is necessary, until the
horny layer separates and is cast off.

If the point of a sharp, thin-bladed knife be introduced at the groove
which runs around the margin of the corn, and be made to penetrate
toward its central axis, by the exercise of a little manual dexterity
the horny part of the corn can be easily made to separate from the
parts beneath.

III.—Any method of treatment to be curative must secure the removal of
the entire corn, together with the underlying bursa. It is mainly in
connection with the latter structure that complications, which alone
make a corn a matter of serious import, are likely to arise. Freeland
confidently advises the full and complete excision of corns, on the
basis of his experience in upward of 60 cases.

Every precaution having been taken to render the operation aseptic,
a spot is selected for the injection of the anæsthetic solution. The
skin is rendered insensitive with ethyl chloride, and 5 minims of
a 4 per cent solution of cocaine is injected into the subcutaneous
tissue beneath the corn. After a wait of a few minutes the superficial
parts of the site of the incision are rendered insensitive with ethyl
chloride. Anæsthesia is now complete.

Two semielliptical incisions meeting at their extremities are made
through the skin abound the circumference of the growth, care being
taken that they penetrate well into the subcutaneous tissue. Seizing
the parts included in the incision with a pair of dissecting forceps,
a wedge-shaped piece of tissue—including the corn, a layer of skin and
subcutaneous tissue, and the bursa if present—is dissected out. The
oozing is pretty free, and it is sometimes necessary to torsion a small
vessel; but the hemorrhage is never severe. The edges of the wound are
brought together by one or two fine sutures; an antiseptic dressing
is applied, and the wound is left to heal—primary union in a few days
being the rule. The rapidity of the healing is often phenomenal. There
is produced a scar tissue at the site of the corn, but this leads to no
untoward results.


«Cosmetics»


«COLD CREAM.»

 I.—Oil of almonds    425   parts
     Lanolin           185   parts
     White wax          62   parts
     Spermaceti         62   parts
     Borax               4.5 parts
     Rose water        300   part

Melt together the first four ingredients, then incorporate the
solution of borax in the rose water.

 II.—Tragacanth                  125   parts
      Boric acid                  100   parts
      Glycerine                   140   parts
      Expressed oil of almonds     50   parts
      Glyconine                    50   parts
      Oil of lavender               0.5 parts
      Water enough to make      1,000   parts

Mix the tragacanth and the boric acid with the glycerine; add the
almond oil, lavender oil, and egg glycerite, which have been previously
well incorporated, and, lastly, add the water in divided portions until
a clear jelly of the desired consistency is obtained.

 III.—Oil of almonds                         26 ounces
       Castor oil (odorless)                   6 ounces
       Lard (benzoated)                        8 ounces
       White wax                               8 ounces
       Rose water (in winter less, in
         summer more, than quantity named)    12 ounces
       Orange-flower water                     8 ounces
       Oil of rose                            15 minims
       Extract of jasmine                      6 drachms
       Extract of cassia                       4 drachms
       Borax                                   2 ounces
       Glycerine                               4 ounces

{226}

Melt the oil of sweet almonds, wax, and lard together, and stir in the
castor oil; make a solution of the borax in the glycerine and rose
and orange-flower waters; add this solution, a little at a time, to
the melted fat, stirring constantly to insure thorough incorporation;
finally add the oil of rose dissolved in the extracts, and beat the
ointment until cold.

IV.—Spermaceti (pure), 1⁠/⁠4 ounce; white wax (pure), 1⁠/⁠4 ounce;
almond oil, 1⁠/⁠4 pound; butter of cocoa, 1⁠/⁠4 pound; lanolin, 2
ounces.

Melt and stir in 1 drachm of balsam of Peru. After settling, pour off
the clear portion and add 2 fluidrachms of orange-flower water and stir
briskly until it concretes.


«Camphorated Cold Cream.»—

 Oil of sweet almonds       8 fluidounces
 White wax                  1 ounce
 Spermaceti                 1 ounce
 Camphor                    1 ounce
 Rose water                 5 fluidounces
 Borax (in fine powder)     4 drachms
 Oil of rose               10 drops

Melt the wax and spermaceti, add the oil of sweet almonds, in which
the camphor has been dissolved with very gentle heat; then gradually
add the rose water, in which the borax has previously been dissolved,
beating or agitating constantly with a wooden spatula until cold.
Lastly add the oil of rose.


«Petrolatum Cold Cream.»—

 Petrolatum (white)      7 ounces
 Paraffine             1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Lanolin                 2 ounces
 Water                   3 ounces
 Oil of rose             3 drops
 Alcohol                 1 drachm

A small quantity of borax may be added, if desirable, and the perfume
may be varied to suit the taste.


«LIP SALVES:»


«Pomades for the Lips.»—Lip pomatum which is said always to retain a
handsome red color and never to grow rancid is prepared as follows:

 I.—Paraffine       80.0 parts
     Vaseline        80.0 parts
     Anchusine        0.5 parts
     Bergamot oil     1.0 part
     Lemon peel       1.0 part

 II.—Vaseline Pomade.—

 Vaseline oil, white    1,000 parts
 Wax, white               300 part
 Geranium oil, African.    40 parts
 Lemon oil.                20 parts

 III.—Rose Pomade.—

 Almond oil      1,000 parts
 Wax, white        300 parts
 Alkannin            3 parts
 Geranium oil       20 parts

 IV.—Yellow Pomade.—

 Vaseline oil, white.    1,000 parts
 Wax, white                200 parts
 Spermaceti                200 parts
 Saffron surrogate.         10 parts
 Clove oil.                 20 parts

 V.—White Pomade.—

 Vaseline oil, white            1,000 parts
 Wax, white.                      300 parts
 Bitter almond oil, genuine.       10 parts
 Lemon oil                          2 parts

 VI.—Paraffine        49.0 parts
      Vaseline.        49.0 parts
      Oil of lemon.    0.75 parts
      Oil of violet    0.75 parts
      Carmine, quantity sufficient.


«Lipol.»—For treating sore, rough, or inflamed lips, apply the
following night and morning, rubbing in well with the finger tips:
Camphor, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; menthol, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; eucalyptol, 1 drachm;
petrolatum (white), 1 pound; paraffine, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; alkanet root,
1⁠/⁠2 ounce; oil of bitter almonds, 15 drops; oil of cloves, 10 drops;
oil of cassia, 5 drops. Digest the root in the melted paraffine and
petrolatum, strain, add the other ingredients and pour into lip jars,
hot.


«MANICURE PREPARATIONS:»


«Powdered Nail Polishes.»—

 I.—Tin oxide      8 drachms
     Carmine      1⁠/⁠4 drachm
     Rose oil.      6 drops
     Neroli oil.    5 drops

 II.—Cinnabar.            1 drachm
      Infusorial earth.    8 drachms

 III.—Putty powder (fine).    4 drachms
       Carmine.                2 grains
       Oil of rose.            1 drop

 IV.—White castile soap.     1 part
      Hot water              16 parts
      Zinc chloride solution, 10 per cent, quantity sufficient.

Dissolve the soap in the water and to the solution add the
zinc-chloride solution until no further precipitation occurs. Let stand
over night; pour off the supernatant fluid, wash the precipitate {227}
well with water, and dry at the ordinary temperature. Carmine may be
added if desired.


«Polishing Pastes for the Nails.»—

 I.—Talcum.                5 drachms
     Stannous oxide.        3 drachms
     Powdered tragacanth    5 grains
     Glycerine              1 drachm
     Rose water, quantity sufficient.
     Solution of carmine sufficient to tint.

Make paste.

For softening the nails, curing hangnails, etc., an ointment is
sometimes used consisting of white petrolatum, 8 parts; powdered
castile soap, 1 part; and perfume to suit.

 II.—Eosine           10 grains
      White wax       1⁠/⁠2 drachm
      Spermaceti      1⁠/⁠2 drachm
      Soft paraffine    1 ounce
      Alcohol, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the eosine in as little alcohol as will suffice, melt the
other ingredients together, add the solution, and stir until cool.


«Nail-Cleaning Washes.»—

 I.—Tartaric acid        1 drachm
     Tincture of myrrh    1 drachm
     Cologne water        2 drachms
     Water                3 ounces

Dissolve the acid in the water; mix the tincture of myrrh and cologne,
and add to the acid solution.

Dip the nails in this solution, wipe, and polish with chamois skin.

 II.—Oxalic acid    30 grains
      Rose water      1 ounce


«Nail Varnish.»—

 Paraffine wax    60 grains
 Chloroform        2 ounces
 Oil of rose       3 drops


«POMADES:»

I.—Beef-Marrow Pomade.—

 Vaseline oil, yellow    20,000 parts
 Ceresine, yellow         3,000 parts
 Beef marrow              2,000 parts
 Saffron substitute          15 parts
 Lemon oil                   50 parts
 Bergamot oil                20 parts
 Clove oil                    5 parts
 Lavender oil.               10 parts

 II.—China Pomade.—

 Vaseline oil, yellow    20,000 parts
 Ceresine, yellow         5,000 parts
 Brilliant, brown            12 parts
 Peru balsam                 50 parts
 Lemon oil                    5 parts
 Bergamot oil                 5 parts
 Clove oil                    5 parts
 Lavender oil                 5 parts

III.—Crystalline Honey Pomade.—Nut oil, 125 drachms; spermaceti, 15
drachms; gamboge, 2 drachms; vervain oil, 10 drops; cinnamon oil, 20
drops; bergamot oil, 30 drops; rose oil, 3 drops. The spermaceti is
melted in the nut oil on a water bath and digested with the gamboge for
20 minutes; it is next strained, scented, and poured into cans which
are standing in water. The cooling must take place very slowly. Instead
of gamboge, butter color may be used. Any desired scent mixture may be
employed.

IV.—Herb Pomade.—

 Vaseline oil, yellow    20,000 parts
 Ceresine, yellow         5,000 parts
 Chlorophyll                 20 parts
 Lemon oil                   50 parts
 Clove oil                   20 parts
 Geranium oil, African       12 parts
 Curled mint oil.             4 parts

V.—Rose Pomade.—

 Vaseline oil, white    20,000 parts
 Ceresine, white         5,000 parts
 Alkannin                   15 parts
 Geranium oil, African      50 parts
 Palmarosa oil              30 parts
 Lemon oil                  20 parts

VI.—Strawberry Pomade.—When the strawberry season is on, and berries
are plenty and cheap, the following is timely:

 Strawberries, ripe and fresh    4 parts
 Lard, sweet and fresh          25 parts
 Tallow, fresh                   5 parts
 Alkanet tincture, quantity sufficient.
 Essential oil, quantity sufficient to perfume.

Melt lard and tallow together on the water bath at the temperature of
boiling water. Have the strawberries arranged on a straining cloth. Add
the alkanet tincture to the melted grease, stir in, and then pour the
mixture over the berries. Stir the strained fats until the mass {228}
begins to set, then add the perfume and stir in. A little artificial
essence of strawberries may be added. The odor usually employed is
rose, about 1 drop to every 2 pounds.

VII.—Stick Pomade.—

 Tallow                   500 parts
 Ceresine                 150 parts
 Wax, yellow               50 parts
 Rosin, light             200 parts
 Paraffine oil (thick)    300 parts
 Oil of cassia.             5 parts
 Oil of bergamot            5 parts
 Oil of clove               2 parts

VIII.—Vaseline Pomade.—Melt 250 parts of freshly rendered lard and 25
parts of white wax at moderate heat and mix well with 200 parts of
vaseline. Add 15 parts of bergamot oil, 3 parts of lavender oil, 2
parts of geranium oil, and 2 parts of lemon oil, mixing well.

IX.—Witch-Hazel Jelly.—

 Oil of sweet almonds             256 parts
 Extract of witch-hazel fluid      10 parts
 Glycerine                         32 parts
 oft soap                          20 parts
 Tincture of musk, quantity sufficient to perfume.

Mix in a large mortar the glycerine and soft soap and stir until
incorporated. Add and rub in the witch-hazel, and then add the oil,
slowly, letting it fall in a very thin, small stream, under constant
agitation; add the perfume, keeping up the agitation until complete
incorporation is attained. Ten drops of musk to a quart of jelly is
sufficient. Any other perfume may be used.


«Colors for Pomade.»—Pomade may be colored red by infusing alkanet in
the grease; yellow may be obtained by using annotto in the same way; an
oil-soluble chlorophyll will give a green color by admixture.

In coloring grease by means of alkanet or annotto it is best to tie
the drug up in a piece of coarse cloth, place in a small portion of
the grease, heat gently, squeezing well with a rod from time to time;
and then adding this strongly colored grease to the remainder. This
procedure obviates exposing the entire mass to heat, and neither
decantation nor straining is needed.


«Brocq’s Pomade for Itching.»—

 Acid phenic                    1 part
 Acid salicylic                 2 parts
 Acid tartaric                  3 parts
 Glycerole of starch    60 to 100 parts

Mix and make a pomade.


«White Cosmetique.»—

 Jasmine pomade     2 ounces
 Tuberose pomade    2 ounces
 White wax          2 ounces
 Refined suet       4 ounces
 Rose oil          15 minims

Melt the wax and suet over a water bath, then add the pomades, and
finally the otto.


«Glycerine and Cucumber Jelly.»—

 Gelatin     160 to 240 grains
 Boric acid         240 grains
 Glycerine            6 fluidounces
 Water               10 fluidounces

Perfume to suit. The perfume must be one that mixes without
opalescence, otherwise it mars the beauty of the preparation.
Orange-flower water or rose water could be substituted for the water
if desired, or another perfume consisting of

 Spirit of vanillin (15 grains per ounce)    2 fluidrachms
 Spirit of coumarin (15 grains per ounce)    2 fluidrachms
 Spirit of bitter almonds (1⁠/⁠8)              8 minims

to the quantities given above would prove agreeable.


«Cucumber Pomade.»—

 Cucumber pomade             2 ounces
 Powdered white soap       1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Powdered borax              2 drachms
 Cherry-laurel water         3 ounces
 Rectified spirit            3 ounces
 Distilled water to make    48 ounces

Rub the pomade with the soap and borax until intimately mixed, then
add the distilled water (which may be warmed to blood heat), ounce by
ounce, to form a smooth and uniform cream. When 40 ounces of water have
been so incorporated, dissolve any essential oils desired as perfume
in the spirit, and add the cherry-laurel water, making up to 48 ounces
with plain water.


«ROUGES AND PAINTS:»


«Grease Paints.»—Theatrical face paints are sold in sticks, and there
are many varieties of color. Yellows are obtained with ocher; browns
with burnt umber; and blue is made with ultramarine. These colors
should in each case be levigated finely along with their own weight
{229} of equal parts of precipitated chalk and oxide of zinc and
diluted with the same to the tint required, then made into sticks with
mutton suet (or vaseline or paraffine, equal parts) well perfumed. By
blending these colors, other tints may thus be obtained.


«White Grease Paints.»—

 I.—Prepared chalk                 4 av. ounces
     Zinc oxide                     4 av. ounces
     Bismuth subnitrate             4 av. ounces
     Asbestos powder                4 av. ounces
     Sweet almond oil, about    2 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces
     Camphor                       40 grains
     Oil peppermint                 3 fluidrachms
     Esobouquet extract             3 fluidrachms

Sufficient almond oil should be used to form a mass of proper
consistence.

 II.—Zinc oxide.             8 parts
      Bismuth subnitrate      8 parts
      Aluminum oxychloride    8 parts
      Almond oil, quantity sufficient, or 5–6 parts.
      Perfume, quantity sufficient.

Mix the zinc, bismuth, and aluminum oxychloride thoroughly; make into a
paste with the oil. Any perfume may be added, but that generally used
is composed of 1 drachm of essence of bouquet, 12 grains of camphor,
and 12 minims of oil of peppermint for every 3 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of paste.


«Bright Red.»—

 Zinc oxide              10 parts
 Bismuth subnitrate      10 parts
 Aluminum oxychloride    10 parts
 Almond oil, quantity sufficient.

Mix the zinc, bismuth, and aluminum salts, and to every 4 ounces of the
mixture add 2 1⁠/⁠4 grains of eosine dissolved in a drachm of essence
of bouquet, 12 minims oil of peppermint, and 12 grains of camphor. Make
the whole into a paste with almond oil.


«Red.»—

 Cacao butter       4 av. ounces
 White wax          4 av. ounces
 Olive oil          2 fluidounces
 Oil of rose        8 drops
 Oil of bergamot    3 drops
 Oil of neroli      2 drops
 Tincture musk      2 drops
 Carmine           90 grains
 Ammonia water      3 fluidrachms


«Deep, or Bordeaux, Red.»—

 Zinc oxide              30 parts
 Bismuth subnitrate      30 parts
 Aluminum oxychloride    30 parts
 Carmine                  1 part
 Ammonia water            5 parts
 Essence bouquet          3 parts
 Peppermint, camphor, etc., quantity sufficient.

Mix the zinc, bismuth, and aluminum salts. Dissolve the carmine in the
ammonia and add solution to the mixture. Add 24 grains of camphor, and
24 minims of oil of peppermint dissolved in the essence bouquet, and
make the whole into a paste with oil of sweet almonds.


«Vermilion.»—

 Vermilion                18 parts
 Tincture of saffron      12 parts
 Orris root, powdered     30 parts
 Chalk, precipitated     120 parts
 Zinc oxide              120 parts
 Camphor                   2 parts
 Essence bouquet           9 parts
 Oil of peppermint         2 parts
 Almond oil, quantity sufficient.

Mix as before.


«Pink.»—

 Zinc carbonate              250 parts
 Bismuth subnitrate          250 parts
 Asbestos                    250 parts
 Expressed oil of almonds    100 parts
 Camphor                      55 parts
 Oil of peppermint            55 parts
 Perfume                      25 parts
 Eosine                        1 part


«Dark Red.»—Like the preceding, but colored with a solution of carmine.


«Rouge.»—

 Zinc oxide.           2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Bismuth subnitrate    2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Aluminum plumbate     2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Eosine                    1 drachm
 Essence bouquet           2 drachms
 Camphor                   6 drachms
 Oil of peppermint        20 minims
 Almond oil, quantity sufficient.

Dissolve the eosine in the essence bouquet, and mix with the camphor
and peppermint; add the powder and make into a paste with almond oil.


«Black Grease Paints.»—

 I.—Soot                2 av. ounces
     Sweet almond oil    2 fluidounces
     Cacao butter        6 av. ounces
     Perfume, sufficient.

{230}

The soot should be derived from burning camphor and repeatedly washed
with alcohol. It should be triturated to a smooth mixture with the oil;
then add to the melted cacao butter; add the perfume, and form into
sticks.

Brown or other colors may be obtained by adding appropriate pigments,
such as finely levigated burned umber, sienna, ocher, jeweler’s rouge,
etc., to the foregoing base instead of lampblack.

 II.—Best lampblack    1 drachm
      Cacao butter      3 drachms
      Olive oil         3 drachms
      Oil of neroli     2 drops

Melt the cacao butter and oil, add the lampblack, and stir constantly
as the mixture cools, adding the perfume toward the end.

 III.—Lampblack       1 part
       Cacao butter    6 parts
       Oil neroli, sufficient.

Melt the cacao butter and the lampblack, and while cooling make an
intimate mixture, adding the perfume toward the last.

 IV.—Lampblack.                  1 part
      Expressed oil of almonds    1 part
      Oil cocoanut                1 part
      Perfume, sufficient.

Beat the lampblack into a stiff paste with glycerine. Apply with a
sponge; if necessary, mix a little water with it when using.

V.—Beat the finest lampblack into a stiff paste with glycerine and
apply with a sponge; if necessary, add a little water to the mixture
when using. Or you can make a grease paint as follows: Drop black, 2
drachms; almond oil, 2 drachms; cocoanut oil, 6 drachms; oil of lemon,
5 minims; oil of neroli, 1 minim. Mix.


«Fatty Face Powders.»—These have a small percentage of fat mixed with
them in order to make the powder adhere to the skin.

Dissolve 1 drachm anhydrous lanolin in 2 drachms of ether in a mortar.
Add 3 drachms of light magnesia. Mix well, dry, and then add the
following: French chalk, 2 ounces; powdered starch, 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces;
boric acid, 1 drachm; perfume, a sufficient quantity. A good perfume is
coumarin, 2 grains, and attar of rose, 2 minims.


«Nose Putty.»—I.—Mix 1 ounce wheat flour with 2 drachms of powdered
tragacanth and tint with carmine. Take as much of the powder as
necessary, knead into a stiff paste with a little water and apply to
the nose, having previously painted it with spirit gum.

II.—White wax, 8 parts; rosin, white, 8 parts; mutton suet, 4 parts;
color to suit. Melt together.


«Rose Powder.»—As a base take 200 parts of powdered iris root, add 600
parts of rose petals, 100 parts of sandalwood, 100 parts of patchouli,
3 parts of oil of geranium, and 2 parts of true rose oil.


«Rouge Tablets.»—There are two distinct classes of these tablets: those
in which the coloring matter is carmine, and those in which the aniline
colors are used. The best are those prepared with carmine, or ammonium
carminate, to speak more correctly. The following is an excellent
formula:

 Ammonium carminate    10 parts
 Talc, in powder       25 parts
 Dextrin                8 parts
 Simple syrup, sufficient.
 Perfume, to taste, sufficient.

Mix the talc and dextrin and add the perfume, preferably in the
shape of an essential oil (attar of rose, synthetic oil of jasmine,
or violet, etc.), using 6 to 8 drops to every 4 ounces of other
ingredients. Incorporate the ammonium carminate and add just enough
simple syrup to make a mass easily rolled out. Cut into tablets of
the desired size. The ammonium carminate is made by adding 1 part
of carmine to 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts of strong ammonia water. Mix in a vial,
cork tightly, and set aside until a solution is formed, shaking
occasionally. The ammonium carminate is made by dissolving carmine in
ammonia water to saturation.


«Rouge Palettes.»—To prepare rouge palettes rub up together:

 Carmine          9 parts
 French chalk    50 parts
 Almond oil      12 parts

Add enough tragacanth mucilage to make the mass adhere and spread the
whole evenly on the porcelain palette.


«Liquid Rouge.»—

 I.—Carmine                     4 parts
     Stronger ammonia water      4 parts
     Essence of rose            16 parts
     Rose water to make.       500 parts

Mix. A very delightful violet odor, if this is preferred, is obtained
by using ionone in place of rose essence. A cheaper preparation may be
made as follows: {231}

 II.—Eosine              1 part
      Distilled water    20 parts
      Glycerine           5 parts
      Cologne water      75 parts
      Alcohol           100 parts

Mix.

Rub together with 10 parts of almond oil and add sufficient mucilage of
tragacanth to make the mass adhere to the porcelain palette.

 III.—Carmine                     1 part
       Stronger ammonia water      1 part
       Attar of rose               4 parts
       Rose water                125 parts

Mix. Any other color may be used in place of rose, violet (ionone),
for instance, or heliotrope. A cheaper preparation may be made by
substituting eosine for the carmine, as follows:

 IV.—Eosine               1 part
      Distilled water     20 parts
      Glycerine            5 parts
      Cologne water       75 parts
      Alcohol            100 parts

Mix.


«Peach Tint.»—

 _a._—Buffalo eosine      4 drachms
       Distilled water    16 fluidounces

Mix.

 _b._—Pure hydrochloric acid    2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
       Distilled water              64 fluidounces

Mix.

Pour _a_ into _b_, shake, and set aside for a few hours; then pour
off the clear portion and collect the precipitate on a filter. Wash
with the same amount of _b_ and immediately throw the precipitate
into a glass measure, stirring in with a glass rod sufficient of _b_
to measure 16 ounces in all. Pass through a hair sieve to get out any
filtering paper. To every 16 ounces add 8 ounces of glycerine.


«Theater Rouge.»—Base:

 Cornstarch               4 drachms
 Powdered white talcum    6 drachms

Mix.

 _a._—Carminoline    10 grains
       Base            6 drachms
       Water           4 drachms

Dissolve the carminoline in the water, mix with the base and dry.

 _b._—Geranium red    10 grains
       Base             6 drachms
       Water            4 drachms

Mix as above and dry.


«SKIN FOODS.»

Wrinkles on the face yield to a wash consisting of 50 parts milk of
almonds (made with rose water) and 4 parts aluminum sulphate. Use
morning and night.

Rough skin is to be washed constantly in Vichy water. Besides this,
rough places are to have the following application twice daily—either a
few drops of:

 I.—Rose water    100 parts
     Glycerine      25 parts
     Tannin        3⁠/⁠4 part

Mix. Or use:

 II.—Orange-flower water    100 parts
      Glycerine               10 parts
      Borax                    2 parts

Mix. Sig.: Apply twice daily.


«“Beauty Cream.”»—This formula gives the skin a beautiful, smooth, and
fresh appearance, and, at the same time, serves to protect and preserve
it:

 Alum, powdered         10 grams
 Whites of               2 eggs
 Boric acid              3 grams
 Tincture of benzoin    40 drops
 Olive oil              40 drops
 Mucilage of acacia      5 drops
 Rice flour, quantity sufficient.
 Perfume, quantity sufficient.

Mix the alum and the white of eggs, without any addition of water
whatever, in an earthen vessel, and dissolve the alum by the aid of
very gentle heat (derived from a lamp, or gaslight, regulated to a very
small flame), and constant, even, stirring. This must continue until
the aqueous content of the albumen is completely driven off. Care must
be taken to avoid coagulation of the albumen (which occurs very easily,
as all know). Let the mass obtained in this manner get completely cold,
then throw into a Wedgwood mortar, add the boric acid, tincture of
benzoin, oil, mucilage (instead of which a solution of fine gelatin may
be used), etc., and rub up together, thickening it with the addition of
sufficient rice flour to give the desired consistence, and perfuming
at will. Instead of olive oil any pure fat, or fatty oil, may be used,
even vaseline or glycerine.


«Face Bleach or Beautifier.»—

 Syrupy lactic acid    40 ounces
 Glycerine             80 ounces
 Distilled water        5 gallons

Mix. Gradually add

 Tincture of benzoin    3 ounces

Color by adding {232}

 Carmine No. 40       40 grains
 Glycerine             1 ounce
 Ammonia solution    1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Water to              3 ounces

Heat this to drive off the ammonia, and mix all. Shake, set aside; then
filter, and add

 Solution of ionone    1 drachm

Add a few drachms of kaolin and filter until bright.


«BLACKHEAD REMEDIES.»

 I.—Lactic acid             1 drachm
     Boric acid              1 drachm
     Ceresine                1 drachm
     Paraffine oil           6 drachms
     Hydrous wool fat    1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Castor oil              6 drachms

II.—Unna advises hydrogen dioxide in the treatment of blackheads, his
prescription being:

 Hydrogen dioxide    20 to 40 parts
 Hydrous wool fat          10 parts
 Petrolatum                30 parts

 III.—Thymol                             1 part
       Boric acid                         2 parts
       Tincture of witch-hazel           18 parts
       Rose water sufficient to make    200 parts

Mix. Apply to the face night and morning with a sponge, first washing
the face with hot water and castile soap, and drying it with a coarse
towel, using force enough to start the dried secretions. An excellent
plan is to steam the face by holding it over a basin of hot water,
keeping the head covered with a cloth.

 IV.—Ichthyol      1 drachm
      Zinc oxide    2 drachms
      Starch        2 drachms
      Petrolatum    3 drachms

This paste should be applied at night. The face should first be
thoroughly steamed or washed in water as hot as can be comfortably
borne. All pustules should then be opened and blackheads emptied with
as little violence as possible. After careful drying the paste should
be thoroughly rubbed into the affected areas. In the morning, after
removing the paste with a bland soap, bathe with cool water and dry
with little friction.


«HAND CREAMS AND LOTIONS:»


«Chapped Skin.»—

 I.—Glycerine        8 parts
     Bay rum          4 parts
     Ammonia water    4 parts
     Rose water       4 parts

Mix the bay rum and glycerine, add the ammonia water, and finally the
rose water. It is especially efficacious after shaving.

II.—As glycerine is bad for the skin of many people, here is a recipe
which will be found more generally satisfactory as it contains less
glycerine: Bay rum, 3 ounces; glycerine, 1 ounce; carbolic acid, 1⁠/⁠2
drachm (30 drops). Wash the hands well and apply while hands are soft,
preferably just before going to bed. Rub in thoroughly. This rarely
fails to cure the worst “chaps” in two nights.

III.—A sure remedy for chapped hands consists in keeping them carefully
dry and greasing them now and then with an anhydrous fat (not cold
cream). The best substances for the purpose are unguentum cereum or
oleum olivarum.

If the skin of the hands is already cracked the following preparation
will heal it:

Finely ground zinc oxide, 5.0 parts; bismuth oxychloride, 2.0 parts;
with fat oil, 12.0 parts; next add glycerine, 5.0 parts; lanolin, 30.0
parts; and scent with rose water, 10.0 parts.

IV.—Wax salve (olive oil 7 parts, and yellow wax 3 parts), or pure
olive oil.


«Hand-Cleaning Paste.»—Cleaning pastes are composed of soap and grit,
either with or without some free alkali. Any soap may be used, but a
white soap is preferred. Castile soap does not make as firm a paste
as soap made from animal fats, and the latter also lather better. For
grit, anything may be used, from powdered pumice to fine sand.

A good paste may be made by dissolving soap in the least possible
quantity of hot water, and as it cools and sets stirring in the grit. A
good formula is:

 White soap    2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Fine sand         1 pound
 Water         5 1⁠/⁠2 pints


«Lotion for the Hands.»—

 Boric acid    1 drachm
 Glycerine     6 drachms

Dissolve by heat and mix with

 Lanolin     6 drachms
 Vaseline    1 ounce

Add any perfume desired. The borated glycerine should be cooled before
mixing it with the lanolin.


«Cosmetic Jelly.»—

 Tragacanth (white ribbon)    60 grains
 Rose water                   14 ounces

Macerate for two days and strain forcibly through coarse muslin or
cheese {233} cloth. Add glycerine and alcohol, of each 1 ounce. Perfume
to suit. Use immediately after bathing, rubbing in well until dry.


«Perspiring Hands.»—I.—Take rectified eau de cologne, 50 parts (by
weight); belladonna dye, 8 parts; glycerine, 3 parts; rub gently twice
or three times a day with half a tablespoonful of this mixture. One
may also employ chalk, carbonate of magnesia, rice starch, hot and
cold baths of the hands (as hot and as cold as can be borne), during 6
minutes, followed by a solution of 4 parts of tannin in 32 of glycerine.

II.—Rub the hands several times per day with the following mixture:

               By weight
 Rose water    125 parts
 Borax          10 parts
 Glycerine       8 parts


«Hand Bleach.»—Lanolin, 30 parts; glycerine, 20 parts; borax, 10 parts;
eucalyptol, 2 parts; essential oil of almonds, 1 part. After rubbing
the hands with this mixture, cover them with gloves during the night.

For the removal of developing stains, see Photography.


«MASSAGE CREAMS:»


«Massage Application.»—

White potash soap, shaved 20 parts Glycerine 30 parts Water 30 parts
Alcohol (90 per cent) 10 parts

Dissolve the soap by heating it with the glycerine and water, mixed.
Add the alcohol, and for every 30 ounces of the solution add 5 or 6
drops of the mistura oleoso balsamica, German Pharmacopœia. Filter
while hot.


«Medicated Massage Balls.»—They are the balls of paraffine wax
molded with a smooth or rough surface with menthol, camphor, oil of
wintergreen, oil of peppermint, etc., added before shaping. Specially
useful in headaches, neuralgias, and rheumatic affections, and many
other afflictions of the skin and bones. The method of using them is
to roll the ball over the affected part by the aid of the palm of the
hand with pressure. Continue until relief is obtained or a sensation
of warmth. The only external method for the treatment of all kinds of
headaches is the menthol medicated massage ball. This may be made with
smooth or corrugated surfaces. Keep wrapped in foil in cool places.


«Casein Massage Cream.»—The basis of the modern massage cream is
casein. Casein is now produced very cheaply in the powdered form, and
by treatment with glycerine and perfumes it is possible to turn out a
satisfactory cream. The following formula is suggested:

 Skimmed milk            1 gallon
 Water of ammonia        1 ounce
 Acetic acid             1 ounce
 Oil of rose geranium    1 drachm
 Oil of bitter almond    1 drachm
 Oil of anise            2 drachms
 Cold cream (see below), enough.
 Carmine enough to color.

Add the water of ammonia to the milk and let it stand 24 hours. Then
add the acetic acid and let it stand another 24 hours. Then strain
through cheese cloth and add the oils. Work this thoroughly in a
Wedgwood mortar, adding enough carmine to color it a delicate pink. To
the product thus obtained add an equal amount of cold cream made by the
formula herewith given:

 White wax            4 ounces
 Spermaceti           4 ounces
 White petrolatum    12 ounces
 Rose water          14 ounces
 Borax               80 grains

Melt the wax, spermaceti, and petrolatum together over a water bath;
dissolve the borax in the rose water and add to the melted mass at one
time. Agitate violently. Presumably the borax solution should be of the
same temperature as the melted mass.


«Massage Skin Foods.»—

This preparation is used in massage for removing wrinkles:

 I.—White wax             1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Spermaceti            1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Cocoanut oil            1 ounce
     Lanolin                 1 ounce
     Oil of sweet almonds    2 ounces

Melt in a porcelain dish, remove from the fire, and add

 Orange-flower water    1 ounce
 Tincture of benzoin    3 drops

Beat briskly until creamy.

 II.—Snow-white cold cream    4 ounces
      Lanolin                  4 ounces
      Oil of Theobroma         4 ounces
      White petrolatum oil     4 ounces
      Distilled water          4 ounces

In hot weather add

 Spermaceti    1 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 White wax     2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms

{234}

In winter the two latter are left out and the proportion of cocoa
butter is modified. Prepared and perfumed in proportion same as cold
cream.

 III.—White petrolatum    7 av. ounces
       Paraffine wax     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
       Lanolin             2 av. ounces
       Water               3 fluidounces
       Oil of rose         3 drops
       Vanillin            2 grains
       Alcohol             1 fluidrachm

Melt the paraffine, add the lanolin and petrolatum, and when these
have melted pour the mixture into a warm mortar, and, with constant
stirring, incorporate the water. When nearly cold add the oil and
vanillin, dissolved in the alcohol.

Preparations of this kind should be rubbed into the skin vigorously, as
friction assists the absorbed fat in developing the muscles, and also
imparts softness and fullness to the skin.


«SKIN BLEACHES, BALMS, LOTIONS, ETC.:»

See also Cleaning Methods and Photography for removal of stains caused
by photographic developers.


«Astringent Wash for Flabby Skin.»—This is used to correct coarse
pores, and to remedy an oily or flabby skin. Apply with sponge night
and morning:

 Cucumber juice        1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Tincture of benzoin     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Cologne                   1 ounce
 Elder-flower water        5 ounces

Put the tincture of benzoin in an 8-ounce bottle, add the other
ingredients, previously mixed, and shake slightly. There will be some
precipitation of benzoin in this mixture, but it will settle out, or it
may be strained out through cheese cloth.


«Bleaching Skin Salves.»—A skin-bleaching action, due to the presence
of hydrogen peroxide, is possessed by the following mixtures:

 I.—Lanolin              30 parts
     Bitter almond oil    10 parts

Mix and stir with this salve base a solution of

 Borax                1 part
 Glycerine            15 parts
 Hydrogen peroxide    15 parts

For impure skin the following composition is recommended:

 II.—White mercurial ointment    5 grams
      Zinc ointment               5 grams
      Lanolin                    30 grams
      Bitter almond oil          10 grams

And gradually stir into this a solution of

 Borax                        2 grams
 Glycerine                   30 grams
 Rose water                  10 grams
 Concentrated nitric acid     5 drops

 III.—Lanolin                 30 grams
 Oil sweet almond              10 grams
 Borax                          1 gram
 Glycerine                     15 grams
 Solution hydrogen peroxide    15 grams

Mix the lanolin and oil, then incorporate the borax previously
dissolved in the mixture of glycerine and peroxide solution.

 IV.—Ointment ammoniac mercury     5 grams
 Ointment zinc oxide                5 grams
 Lanolin                           30 grams
 Oil sweet almond                  10 grams
 Borax                              2 grams
 Glycerine                         30 grams
 Rose water                        10 grams
 Nitric acid, C. P.                 5 drops

Prepare in a similar manner as the foregoing. Rose oil in either
ointment makes a good perfume. Both ointments may, of course, be
employed as a general skin bleach, which, in fact, is their real
office—cosmetic creams.


«Emollient Skin Balm.»—

 Quince seed             1 ounce
 Water                   7 ounces
 Glycerine           1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Alcohol             4 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Salicylic acid          6 grains
 Carbolic acid          10 grains
 Oil of bay             10 drops
 Oil of cloves           5 drops
 Oil of orange peel     10 drops
 Oil of wintergreen      8 drops
 Oil of rose             2 drops

Digest the quince seed in the water for 24 hours, and then press
through a cloth; dissolve the salicylic acid in the alcohol; add the
carbolic acid to the glycerine; put all together, shake well, and
bottle.


«Skin Lotion.»—

 Zinc sulphocarbolate            30 grains
 Alcohol (90 per cent)            4 fluidrachms
 Glycerine                        2 fluidrachms
 Tincture of cochineal            1 fluidrachm
 Orange-flower water          1 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces
 Rose water (triple) to make      6 fluidounces

{235}


«Skin Discoloration.»—Discoloration of the neck may be removed by
the use of acids, the simplest of which is that in buttermilk, but
if the action of this is too slow try 4 ounces of lactic acid, 2 of
glycerine, and 1 of rose water. These will mix without heating. Apply
several times daily with a soft linen rag; pour a small quantity into
a saucer and dip the cloth into this. If the skin becomes sore use
less of the remedy and allay the redness and smarting with a good cold
cream. It is always an acid that removes freckles and discolorations,
by burning them off. It is well to be slow in its use until you find
how severe its action is. It is not wise to try for home making any of
the prescriptions which include corrosive sublimate or any other deadly
poison. Peroxide of hydrogen diluted with 5 times as much water, also
will bleach discolorations. Do not try any of these bleaches on a skin
freshly sunburned. For that, wash in hot water, or add to the hot water
application enough witch-hazel to scent the water, and after that has
dried into the skin it will be soon enough to try other applications.


«Detergent for Skin Stains.»—Moritz Weiss has introduced a detergent
paste which will remove stains from the skin without attacking it, is
non-poisonous, and can be used without hot water. Moisten the hands
with a little cold water, apply a small quantity of the paste to the
stained skin, rub the hands together for a few minutes, and rinse with
cold water. The preparation is a mixture of soft soap and hard tallow,
melted together over the fire and incorporated with a little emery
powder, flint, glass, sand, quartz, pumice stone, etc., with a little
essential oil to mask the smell of the soap. The mixture sets to a mass
like putty, but does not dry hard. The approximate proportions of the
ingredients are: Soft soap, 30 per cent; tallow, 15 per cent; emery
powder, 55 per cent, and a few drops of essential oil.

If an extra detergent quality is desired, 4 ounces of sodium carbonate
may be added, and the quantity of soap may be reduced. Paste thus made
will attack grease, etc., more readily, but it is harder on the skin.


«Removing Inground Dirt.»—

 Egg albumen                 8 parts
 Boric acid                  1 part
 Glycerine                  32 parts
 Perfume to suit.
 Distilled water to make    50 parts

Dissolve the boric acid in a sufficient quantity of water; mix the
albumen and glycerine and pass through a silk strainer. Finally, mix
the two fluids and add the residue of water.

Every time the hands are washed, dry on a towel, and then moisten them
lightly but thoroughly with the liquid, and dry on a soft towel without
rubbing. At night, on retiring, apply the mixture and wipe slightly or
just enough to take up superfluous liquid; or, better still, sleep in a
pair of cotton gloves.


«TOILET CREAMS:»


«Almond Cold Creams.»—A liquid almond cream may be made by the appended
formula. It has been known as milk of almond:

 I.—Sweet almonds           5 ounces
 White castile soap          2 drachms
 White wax                   2 drachms
 Spermaceti                  2 drachms
 Oil of bitter almonds      10 minims
 Oil of bergamot            20 minims
 Alcohol                     6 fluidounces
 Water, a sufficient quantity.

Beat the almonds in a smooth mortar until as much divided as their
nature will admit; then gradually add water in very small quantities,
continuing the beating until a smooth paste is obtained; add to this,
gradually, one pint of water, stirring well all the time. Strain the
resulting emulsion without pressure through a cotton cloth previously
well washed to remove all foreign matter. If new, the cloth will
contain starch, etc., which must be removed. Add, through the strainer,
enough water to bring the measure of the strained liquid to 1 pint.
While this operation is going on let the soap be shaved into thin
ribbons, and melted, with enough water to cover it, over a very gentle
fire or on a water bath. When fluid add the wax and spermaceti in large
pieces, so as to allow them to melt slowly, and thereby better effect
union with the soap. Stir occasionally. When all is melted place the
soapy mixture in a mortar, run into it slowly the emulsion, blending
the two all the while with the pestle. Care must be taken not to add
the emulsion faster than it can be incorporated with the soap. Lastly
add the alcohol in which the perfumes have been previously dissolved,
in the same manner, using great care.

This preparation is troublesome to make and rather expensive, and it
is perhaps no better for the purpose than glycerine. The mistake is
often made of applying the latter too freely, its “stickiness” being
unpleasant, and it is {236} best to dilute it largely with water. Such
a lotion may be made by mixing

 Glycerine       1 part
 Rose water      9 parts

Plain water may, of course, be used as the diluent, but a slightly
perfumed preparation is generally considered more desirable. The
perfume may easily be obtained by dissolving a very small proportion of
handkerchief “extract” or some essential oil in the glycerine, and then
mixing with plain water.

 II.—White wax             1⁠/⁠4 ounce
 Spermaceti               2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Oil of sweet almonds     2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

Melt, remove from the fire, and add

 Rose water      1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

Beat until creamy: not until cold. When the cream begins to thicken add
a few drops of oil of rose. Only the finest almond oil should be used.
Be careful in weighing the wax and spermaceti. These precautions will
insure a good product.

 III.—White wax           4 ounces
 Spermaceti                3 ounces
 Sweet almond oil          6 fluidounces
 Glycerine                 4 fluidounces
 Oil of rose geranium      1 fluidrachm
 Tincture of benzoin       4 fluidrachms

Melt the wax and spermaceti, add the oil of sweet almonds, then beat in
the glycerine, tincture of benzoin, and oil of rose geranium. When all
are incorporated to a smooth, creamy mass, pour into molds.

 IV.—Sweet almonds, blanched      5 ounces
 Castile soap, white             120 grains
 White wax                       120 grains
 Spermaceti                      120 grains
 Oil of bitter almonds            10 drops
 Oil of bergamot                  20 drops
 Alcohol                           6 fluidounces
 Water, sufficient.

Make an emulsion of the almonds with water so as to obtain 16
fluidounces of product, straining through cotton which has previously
been washed to remove starch. Dissolve the soap with the aid of heat
in the necessary amount of water to form a liquid, add the wax and
spermaceti, continue the heat until the latter is melted, transfer to
a mortar, and incorporate the almond emulsion slowly with constant
stirring until all has been added and a smooth cream has been formed.
Finally, add the two volatile oils.

V.—Melt, at moderate heat,

                By weight.
 White wax       100 parts
 Spermaceti    1,000 parts

Then stir in

              By weight.
 Almond oil    500 parts
 Rose water    260 parts

And scent with

                By weight.
 Bergamot oil     10 parts
 Geranium oil      5 parts
 Lemon oil         4 parts

                    By weight.
 VI.—Castor oil     500 parts
 White wax           100 parts
 Almond oil          150 parts

Melt at moderate heat and scent with

                 By weight.
 Geranium oil       6 parts
 Lemon oil          5 parts
 Bergamot oil      10 parts

                     By weight.
 VII.—Almond oil     400 parts
 Lanoline             200 parts
 White wax             60 parts
 Spermaceti            60 parts
 Rose water           300 parts

                            By weight.
 VIII.—White wax              6 parts
 Tallow, freshly tried out     4 parts
 Spermaceti                    2 parts
 Oil of sweet almonds          6 parts

Melt together and while still hot add, with constant stirring, 1 part
of sodium carbonate dissolved in 79 parts of hot water. Stir until
cold. Perfume to the taste.

 IX.—Ointment of rose water      1 ounce
 Oil of sweet almonds.            1 fluidounce
 Glycerine                        1 fluidounce
 Boric acid                     100 grains
 Solution of soda             2 1⁠/⁠4 fluidounces
 Mucilage of quince seed.         4 fluidounces
 Water enough to make            40 fluidounces
 Oil of rose, oil of bitter almonds, of each sufficient to perfume.

Heat the ointment, oil, and solution of soda together, stirring
constantly until an emulsion or saponaceous mixture is {237} formed.
Then warm together the glycerine, acid, and mucilage and about 30
fluidounces of water; mix with the emulsion, stir until cold, and add
the remainder of the water. Lastly, add the volatile oils.

The rose-water ointment used should be the “cold cream” of the United
States Pharmacopœia.

 X.—Spermaceti            2 ounces
 White wax                 2 ounces
 Sweet almond oil         14 fluidounces
 Water, distilled          7 fluidounces
 Borax, powder            60 grains
 Coumarin                1⁠/⁠2 grain
 Oil of bergamot          24 drops
 Oil of rose               6 drops
 Oil of bitter almonds     8 drops
 Tincture of ambergris     5 drops

Melt the spermaceti and wax, add the sweet almond oil, incorporate the
water in which the borax has previously been dissolved, and finally add
the oils of bergamot, rose, and bitter almond.

 XI.—Honey                     2 av. ounces
 Castile soap, white powder     1 av. ounce
 Oil sweet almonds             26 fluidounces
 Oil bitter almonds             1 fluidrachm
 Oil bergamot                 1⁠/⁠2 fluidrachm
 Oil cloves                    15 drops
 Peru balsam                    1 fluidrachm
 Liquor potassa. Solution carmine, of each sufficient.

Mix the honey with the soap in a mortar, and add enough liquor potassa
(about 1 fluidrachm) to produce a nice cream. Mix the volatile oils and
balsam with the sweet almond oil, mix this with the cream, and continue
the trituration until thoroughly mixed. Finally add, if desired, enough
carmine solution to impart a rose tint.

 XII.—White wax       800 parts
 Spermaceti            800 parts
 Sweet almond oil    5,600 parts
 Distilled water     2,800 parts
 Borax                  50 parts
 Bergamot oil           20 parts
 Attar of rose           5 parts
 Coumarin              0.1 part

Add for each pound of the cream 5 drops of etheric oil of bitter
almonds, and 3 drops tincture of ambra. Proceed as in making cold cream.

The following also makes a fine cream:

 XIII.—Spermaceti                3 parts
        White wax                 2 parts
        Oil of almonds, fresh    12 parts
        Rose water, double        1 part
        Glycerine, pure           1 part

Melt on a water bath the spermaceti and wax, add the oil (which should
be fresh), and pour the whole into a slightly warmed mortar, under
constant and lively stirring, to prevent granulation. Continue the
trituration until the mass has a white, creamy appearance, and is about
the consistence of butter at ordinary temperature. Add, little by
little, under constant stirring, the orange-flower water and glycerine
mixed, and finally the perfume as before. Continue the stirring for 15
or 20 minutes, then immediately put into containers.


«Chappine Cream.»—

 Quince seed         2 drachms
 Glycerine       1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Water           1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Lead acetate       10 grains
 Flavoring, sufficient.

Macerate the quince seed in water, strain, add the glycerine and lead
acetate, previously dissolved in sufficient water; flavor with jockey
club or orange essence.


«Cucumber Creams.»—

 I.—White wax           3 ounces
     Spermaceti          3 ounces
     Benzoinated lard    8 ounces
     Cucumbers           3 ounces

Melt together the wax, spermaceti, and lard, and infuse in the liquid
the cucumbers previously grated. Allow to cool, stirring well; let
stand a day, remelt, strain and again stir the “cream” until cold.

 II.—Benzoinated lard    5 ounces
      Suet                3 ounces
      Cucumber juice     10 ounces
      Proceed as in making cold cream.


«Glycerine Creams.»—

 I.—Oil of sweet almonds    100 parts
     White wax                13 parts
     Glycerine, pure          25 parts
     Add a sufficient quantity of any suitable perfume.

Melt, on the water bath, the oil, wax, and glycerine together, remove
and as the mass cools down add the perfume in sufficient quantity to
make a creamy mass. {238}

 II.—Quince seed               1 ounce
      Boric acid               16 grains
      Starch                    1 ounce
      Glycerine                16 ounces
      Carbolic acid            30 minims
      Alcohol                  12 ounces
      Oil of lavender          30 minims
      Oil of rose              10 drops
      Extract of white rose     1 ounce
      Water enough to make     64 ounces

Dissolve the boric acid in a quart of water and in this solution
macerate the quince seed for 3 hours; then strain. Heat together the
starch and the glycerine until the starch granules are broken, and
mix with this the carbolic acid. Dissolve the oils and the extract of
rose in the alcohol, and add to the quince-seed mucilage; then mix all
together, strain, and add water enough to make the product weigh 64
ounces.

 III.—Glycerine             1 ounce
       Borax                 2 drachms
       Boracic acid          1 drachm
       Oil rose geranium    30 drops
       Oil bitter almond    15 drops
       Milk                  1 gallon

Heat the milk until it curdles and allow it to stand 12 hours. Strain
it through cheese cloth and allow it to stand again for 12 hours. Mix
in the salts and glycerine and triturate in a mortar, finally adding
the odors and coloring if wanted. The curdled milk must be entirely
free from water to avoid separation. If the milk will not curdle fast
enough the addition of 1 ounce of water ammonia to a gallon will hasten
it. Take a gallon of milk, add 1 ounce ammonia water, heat (not boil),
allow to stand 24 hours, and no trouble will be found in forming a good
base for the cream.

IV.—This is offered as a substitute for cucumber cream for toilet
uses. Melt 15 parts, by weight, of gelatin in hot water containing 15
parts, by weight, of boracic acid as well as 150 parts, by weight, of
glycerine; the total amount of water used should not exceed 300 parts,
by weight. It may be perfumed or not.


«Lanolin Creams.»—

 I.—Anhydrous lanolin    650 parts
     Peach-kernel oil     200 parts
     Water                150 parts

Perfume with about 15 drops of ionone or 20 drops of synthetic
ylang-ylang.

 II.—Lanolin               40 parts
      Olive oil             15 parts
      Paraffine ointment    10 parts
      Aqua naphæ            10 parts
      Distilled water       15 parts
      Glycerine              5 parts
      Boric acid             4 parts
      Borax                  4 parts
      Geranium oil, sufficient.
      Extract, triple, of ylang-ylang, quantity sufficient.

 III.—Anhydrous lanolin    650 drachms
       Almond oil           200 drachms
       Water                150 drachms
       Oil of ylang-ylang     5 drops

Preparations which have been introduced years ago for the care of the
skin and complexion are the glycerine gelées, which have the advantage
over lanolin that they go further, but present the drawback of not
being so quickly absorbed by the skin. These products are filled either
into glasses or into tubes. The latter way is preferable and is more
and more adopted, owing to the convenience of handling.

A good recipe for such a gelée is the following:

Moisten white tragacanth powder, 50 parts, with glycerine, 200 parts,
and spirit of wine, 100 parts, and shake with a suitable amount of
perfume; then quickly mix and shake with warm distilled water, 650
parts.

A transparent slime will form immediately which can be drawn off at
once.


«Mucilage Creams.»—

 I.—Starch                 30 parts
     Carrageen mucilage    480 parts
     Boric acid             15 parts
     Glycerine             240 parts
     Cologne water         240 parts

Boil the starch in the carrageen mucilage, add the boric acid and the
glycerine. Let cool, and add the cologne water.

 II.—Linseed mucilage    240 parts
      Boric acid            2 parts
      Salicylic acid      1.3 parts
      Glycerine            60 parts
      Cologne water       120 parts
      Rose water          120 parts

Instead of the cologne water any extracts may be used. Lilac and
ylang-ylang are recommended.


«Witch-Hazel Creams.»—

 I.—Quince seed             90 grains
     Boric acid               8 grains
     Glycerine                4 fluidounces
     Alcohol                  6 fluidounces
     Carbolic acid            6 drachms
     Cologne water            4 fluidounces
     Oil lavender flowers    40 drops {239}
     Glycerite starch         4 av. ounces
     Distilled witch-hazel extract enough to make 32 fluidounces.

Dissolve the boric acid in 16 ounces of the witch-hazel extract,
macerate the quince seed in the solution for 3 hours, strain, add the
glycerine, carbolic acid, and glycerite, and mix well. Mix the alcohol,
cologne water, lavender oil, and mucilages, incorporate with the
previous mixture, and add enough witch-hazel extract to bring to the
measure of 32 fluidounces.

 II.—Quince seed       4 ounces
 Hot water             16 ounces
 Glycerine             32 ounces
 Witch-hazel water    128 ounces
 Boric acid             6 ounces
 Rose extract           2 ounces
 Violet extract         1 ounce

Macerate the quince seed in the hot water; add the glycerine and
witch-hazel, in which the boric acid has been previously dissolved; let
the mixture stand for 2 days, stirring occasionally; strain and add the
perfume.


«Skin Cream for Collapsible Tubes.»—

 I.—White vaseline       6 ounces
 White wax                1 ounce
 Spermaceti               5 drachms
 Subchloride bismuth      6 drachms
 Attar of rose            6 minims
 Oil of bitter almonds    1 minim
 Rectified spirit       1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Melt the vaseline, wax, and spermaceti together, and while cooling
incorporate the subchloride of bismuth (in warm mortar). Dissolve the
oils in the alcohol, and add to the fatty mixture, stirring all until
uniform and cold. In cold weather the quantities of wax and spermaceti
may be reduced.

 II.—Lanolin                 1 ounce
 Almond oil                   1 ounce
 Oleate of zinc (powder)      3 drachms
 Extract of white rose    1 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 Glycerine                    2 drachms
 Rose water                   2 drachms


«Face Cream Without Grease.»—

 Quince seed             10 parts
 Boiling water        1,000 parts
 Borax                    5 parts
 Boric acid               5 parts
 Glycerine              100 parts
 Alcohol, 94 per cent   125 parts
 Attar of rose, quantity sufficient to perfume.

Macerate the quince seed in half of the boiling water, with frequent
agitations, for 2 hours and 30 minutes, then strain off. In the
residue of the boiling water dissolve the borax and boric acid, add
the glycerine and the perfume, the latter dissolved in the alcohol.
Now add, little by little, the colate of quince seed, under constant
agitation, which should be kept up for 5 minutes after the last portion
of the colate is added.


«TOILET MILKS:»


«Cucumber Milk.»—

 Simple cerate               2     pounds
 Powdered borax             11 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Powdered castile soap      10     ounces
 Glycerine                  26     ounces
 Alcohol                    24     ounces
 Cucumber juice             32     ounces
 Water to                    5     gallons
 Ionone                      1     drachm
 Jasmine                       1⁠/⁠2 drachm
 Neroli                        1⁠/⁠2 drachm
 Rhodinol                   15     minims

To the melted cerate in a hot water bath add the soap and stir well,
keeping up the heat until perfectly mixed. Add 8 ounces of borax to 1
gallon of boiling water, and pour gradually into the hot melted soap
and cerate; add the remainder of the borax and hot water, then the
heated juice and glycerine, and lastly the alcohol. Shake well while
cooling, set aside for 48 hours, and siphon off any water that may
separate. Shake well, and repeat after standing again if necessary;
then perfume.


«Cucumber Juice.»—It is well to make a large quantity, as it keeps
indefinitely. Washed unpeeled cucumbers are grated and pressed; the
juice is heated, skimmed and boiled for 5 minutes, then cooled and
filtered. Add 1 part of alcohol to 2 parts of juice, let stand for 12
hours or more, and filter until clear.


«Glycerine Milk.»—

 Glycerine             1,150 parts
 Starch, powdered        160 parts
 Distilled water         400 parts
 Tincture of benzoin      20 parts

Rub up 80 parts of the starch with the glycerine, then put the mixture
on the steam bath and heat, under continuous stirring, until it forms a
jellylike mass. Remove from the bath and stir in the remainder of the
starch. Finally, add the water and tincture and stir till homogeneous.


«Lanolin Toilet Milk.»—

 White castile soap, powdered    22 grains
 Lanolin                          1 ounce
 Tincture benzoin                12 drachms
 Water, enough.

{240}

Dissolve the soap in 2 fluidounces of warm water, also mix the lanolin
with 2 fluidounces of warm water; then incorporate the two with each
other, finally adding the tincture. The latter may be replaced by 90
grains of powdered borax.


«Jasmine Milk.»—To 25 parts of water add gradually, with constant
stirring, 1 part of zinc white, 2 quarts of grain spirit, and 0.15 to
0.25 part of glycerine; finally stir in 0.07 to 0.10 part of jasmine
essence. Filter the mixture and fill into glass bottles. For use as a
cosmetic, rub on the raspberry paste on retiring at night, and in the
morning use the jasmine milk to remove the paste from the skin. The two
work together in their effect.


«SUNBURN AND FRECKLE REMEDIES.»

I.—Apply over the affected skin a solution of corrosive sublimate, 1 in
500, or, if the patient can stand it, 1 in 300, morning and evening,
and for the night apply emplastrum hydrargyri compositum to the spots.
In the morning remove the plaster and all remnants of it by rubbing
fresh butter or cold cream over the spots.

For redness of the skin apply each other day zinc oxide ointment or
ointment of bismuth subnitrate.

II.—Besnier recommends removal of the mercurial ointment with green
soap, and the use, at night, of an ointment composed of vaseline and
Vigo’s plaster (emplastrum hydrargyri compositum), in equal parts. In
the morning wash off with soap and warm water, and apply the following:

 Vaseline, white      20 parts
 Bismuth carbonate     5 parts
 Kaolin                5 parts

Mix, and make an ointment.

III.—Leloir has found the following of service. Clean the affected part
with green soap or with alcohol, and then apply several coats of the
following:

 Acid chrysophanic     15 parts
 Chloroform           100 parts

Mix. Apply with a camel’s-hair pencil.

When the application dries thoroughly, go over it with a layer of
traumaticine. This application will loosen itself in several days, when
the process should be repeated.

IV.—When the skin is only slightly discolored use a pomade of salicylic
acid, or apply the following:

 Acid chrysophanic, from    1 to 4 parts
 Acid salicylic             1 to 2 parts
 Collodion                      40 parts

V.—When there is need for a more complicated treatment, the following
is used:

 (_a_) Corrosive sublimate              1 part
       Orange-flower water          7,500 parts
       Acid, hydrochloric, dilute     500 parts

 (_b_) Bitter almonds               4,500 parts
       Glycerine                    2,500 parts
       Orange-flower water         25,000 parts

Rub up to an emulsion in a porcelain capsule. Filter and add, drop by
drop, and under constant stirring, 5 grams of tincture of benzoin.
Finally mix the two solutions, adding the second to the first.

This preparation is applied with a sponge, on retiring, to the affected
places, and allowed to dry on.

VI.—According to Brocq the following should be penciled over the
affected spots:

 Fresh pure milk                     50 parts
 Glycerine                           30 parts
 Acid, hydrochloric, concentrated     5 parts
 Ammonium chlorate                    3 parts

VII.—Other external remedies that may be used are lactic acid diluted
with 3 volumes of water, applied with a glass rod; dilute nitric acid,
and, finally, peroxide of hydrogen, which last is a very powerful
agent. Should it cause too much inflammation, the latter may be
assuaged by using an ointment of zinc oxide or bismuth subnitrate—or
one may use the following:

 Kaolin                  4 parts
 Vaseline               10 parts
 Glycerine               4 parts
 Magnesium carbonate     2 parts
 Zinc oxide              2 parts


«Freckle Remedies.»—

 I.—Poppy oil               1 part
     Lead acetate            2 parts
     Tincture benzoin        1 part
     Tincture quillaia       5 parts
     Spirit nitrous ether    1 part
     Rose water             95 parts


Saponify the oil with the lead acetate; add the rose water, and follow
with the tinctures.

 II.—Chloral hydrate    2 drachms
      Carbolic acid      1 drachm {241}
      Tincture iodine   60 drops
      Glycerine          1 ounce

Mix and dissolve. Apply with a camel’s-hair pencil at night.

 III.—Distilled vinegar              660 parts
       Lemons, cut in small pieces    135 parts
       Alcohol, 85 per cent            88 parts
       Lavender oil                    23 parts
       Water                           88 parts
       Citron oil                       6 parts

This mixture is allowed to stand for 3 or 4 days in the sun and
filtered. Coat, by means of a sponge before retiring, the places of the
skin where the freckles are and allow to dry.


«Freckles and Liver Spots.»—Modern dermatological methods of treating
freckles and liver spots are based partly on remedies that cause
desquamation and those that depigmentate (or destroy or neutralize
pigmentation). Both methods may be distinguished in respect to their
effects and mode of using into the following: The active ingredients of
the desquamative pastes are reductives which promote the formation of
epithelium and hence expedite desquamation.

There are many such methods, and especially to be mentioned is that of
Unna, who uses resorcin for the purpose. Lassar makes use of a paste of
naphthol and sulphur.


«Sunburn Remedies.»—

 I.—Zinc sulphocarbolate     1 part
     Glycerine.              20 parts
     Rose water              70 parts
     Alcohol, 90 per cent     8 parts
     Cologne water            1 part
     Spirit of camphor        1 part

 II.—Borax             4 parts
 Potassium chlorate     2 parts
 Glycerine             10 parts
 Alcohol                4 parts
 Rose water to make    90 parts

 III.—Citric acid             2 drachms
 Ferrous sulphate (cryst.)    18 grains
 Camphor                       2 grains
 Elder-flower water            3 fluidounces

 IV.—Potassium carbonate     3 parts
 Sodium chloride              2 parts
 Orange-flower water         15 parts
 Rose water                  65 parts

 V.—Boroglycerine, 50 per cent    1 part
 Ointment of rose water            9 parts

 VI.—Sodium bicarbonate      1 part
 Ointment of rose water       7 parts

 VII.—Bicarbonate of soda            2 drachms
 Powdered borax                       1 drachm
 Compound tincture of lavender    1 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 Glycerine                            1 ounce
 Rose water                           4 ounces

Dissolve the soda and borax in the glycerine and rose water, and add
the tincture. Apply with a small piece of sponge 2 or 3 times a day.
Then gently dry by dabbing with a soft towel.

 VIII.—Quince seeds      2 drachms
 Distilled water         10 ounces
 Glycerine                2 ounces
 Alcohol, 94 per cent     1 ounce
 Rose water               2 ounces

Boil the seeds in the water for 10 minutes, then strain off the liquid,
and when cold add to it the glycerine, alcohol, and rose water.

 IX.—White soft soap    2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Glycerine          1 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Almond oil            11 drachms

Well mix the glycerine and soap in a mortar, and very gradually add the
oil, stirring constantly until perfectly mixed.

 X.—Subnitrate of bismuth    1 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
     Powdered French chalk       30 grains
     Glycerine                    2 drachms
     Rose water               1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

Mix the powders, and rub down carefully with the glycerine; then add
the rose water. Shake the bottle before use.

 XI.—Glycerine cream             2 drachms
      Jordan almonds              4 drachms
      Rose water                  5 ounces
      Essential oil of almonds    3 drops

Blanch the almonds, and then dry and beat them up into a perfectly
smooth paste; then mix in the glycerine cream and essential oil.
Gradually add the rose water, stirring well after each addition; then
strain through muslin.


«Tan and Freckle Lotion.»—

Solution A:

Potassium iodide, iodine, glycerine, and infusion rose.

Dissolve the potassium iodide in a {242} small quantity of the infusion
and a drachm of the glycerine; with this fluid moisten the iodine in
a glass of water and rub it down, gradually adding more liquid, until
complete solution has been obtained; then stir in the remainder of the
ingredients, and bottle the mixture.

Solution B:

Sodium thiosulphate and rose water. With a small camel’s-hair pencil
or piece of fine sponge apply a little of solution A to the tanned or
freckled surface, until a slight or tolerably uniform brownish yellow
skin has been produced. At the expiration of 15 or 20 minutes moisten a
piece of cambric, lint, or soft rag with B and lay it upon the affected
part, removing, squeezing away the liquid, soaking it afresh, and again
applying until the iodine stain has disappeared. Repeat the process
thrice daily, but diminish the frequency of application if tenderness
be produced.


«A Cure for Tan.»—Bichloride of mercury, in coarse powder, 10 grains;
distilled water, 1 pint. Agitate the two together until a complete
solution is obtained. Add 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of glycerine. Apply with a small
sponge as often as agreeable. This is not strong enough to blister
and skin the face in average cases. It may be increased or reduced
in strength by adding to or taking from the amount of bichloride of
mercury. Do not forget that this last ingredient is a powerful poison
and should be kept out of the reach of children and ignorant persons.


«Improved Carron Oil.»—Superior to the old and more suitable. A
desirable preparation for burns, tan, freckle, sunburn, scalds,
abrasions, or lung affections. Does not oxidize so quickly or dry up so
rapidly and less liable to rancidity.

 Linseed oil          2 ounces
 Limewater            2 ounces
 Paraffine, liquid    1 ounce

Mix the linseed oil and water, and add the paraffine. Shake well before
using.


«LIVER SPOTS.»

 I.—Corrosive sublimate     1 part
     White sugar           190 parts
     White of egg           34 parts
     Lemon juice           275 parts
     Water to make       2,500 parts

Mix the sublimate, sugar, and albumen intimately, then add the lemon
juice and water. Dissolve, shake well, and after standing an hour,
filter. Apply in the morning after the usual ablutions, and let dry on
the face.

II.—Bichloride of mercury, in coarse powder, 8 grains; witch-hazel, 2
ounces; rose water, 2 ounces.

Agitate until a solution is obtained. Mop over the affected parts. Keep
out of the way of ignorant persons and children.


«TOILET POWDERS:»


«Almond Powders for the Toilet.»—

 I.—Almond meal    6,000 parts
     Bran meal      3,000 parts
     Soap powder      600 parts
     Bergamot oil      50 parts
     Lemon oil         15 parts
     Clove oil         15 parts
     Neroli oil         6 parts

 II.—Almond meal       7,000 parts
      Bran meal         2,000 parts
      Violet root         900 parts
      Borax               350 parts
      Bitter almond oil    18 parts
      Palmarosa oil        36 parts
      Bergamot oil         10 parts

 III.—Almond meal       3,000 parts
       Bran meal         3,000 parts
       Wheat flour       3,000 parts
       Sand                100 parts
       Lemon oil            40 parts
       Bitter almond oil    10 parts


«Bath Powder.»—

 Borax                 4 ounces
 Salicylic acid        1 drachm
 Extract of cassia     1 drachm
 Extract of jasmine    1 drachm
 Oil of lavender      20 minims

Rub the oil and extracts with the borax and salicylic acid until the
alcohol has evaporated. Use a heaping teaspoonful to the body bath.


«Brunette or Rachelle.»—

 Base                         9 pounds
 Powdered Florentine orris    1 pound
 Perfume the same.
 Powdered yellow ocher        (av.) 3 ounces 120 grains
 Carmine No. 40               60 grains

Rub down the carmine and ocher with alcohol in a mortar, and spread on
glass to dry; then mix and sift.


«Violet Poudre de Riz.»—

 I.—Cornstarch             7 pounds
     Rice flour             1 pound
     Powdered talc          1 pound
     Powdered orris root    1 pound
     Extract of cassia      3 ounces
     Extract of jasmine     1 ounce

{243}

II.—Cheaper.

 Potato starch        8 pounds
 Powdered talc        1 pound
 Powdered orris       1 pound
 Extract of cassia    3 ounces


«Barber’s Powder.»—

 Cornstarch            5 pounds
 Precipitated chalk    3 pounds
 Powdered talc         2 pounds
 Oil of neroli         1 drachm
 Oil of cedrat         1 drachm
 Oil of orange         2 drachms
 Extract of jasmine    1 ounce


«Rose Poudre de Riz.»—

 I.—Cornstarch               9 pounds
     Powdered talc            1 pound
     Oil of rose          1 1⁠/⁠4 drachms
     Extract of jasmine       6 drachms

 II.—Potato starch           9 pounds
      Powdered talc           1 pound
      Oil of rose           1⁠/⁠2 drachm
      Extract of jasmine    1⁠/⁠2 ounce


«Ideal Cosmetic Powder.»—The following combines the best qualities that
a powder for the skin should have:

 Zinc, white                         50 parts
 Calcium carbonate, precipitated    300 parts
 Steatite, best white                50 parts
 Starch, wheat, or rice             100 parts
 Extract white rose, triple           3 parts
 Extract jasmine, triple              3 parts
 Extract orange flower, triple        3 parts
 Extract of cassia, triple            3 parts
 Tincture of myrrh                    1 part

Powder the solids and mix thoroughly by repeated siftings.


«Flesh Face Powder.»—

 Base                          9 pounds
 Powdered Florentine orris     1 pound
 Carmine No. 40              250 grains
 Extract of jasmine          100 minims
 Oil of neroli                20 minims
 Vanillin                      5 grains
 Artificial musk              30 grains
 White heliotropin            30 grains
 Coumarin                      1 grain

Rub the carmine with a portion of the base and alcohol in a mortar,
mixing the perfume the same way in another large mortar, and adding the
orris. Mix and sift all until specks of carmine disappear on rubbing.


«White Face Powder.»—

 Base                         9 pounds
 Powdered Florentine orris    1 pound

Perfume the same. Mix and sift.


«Talcum Powders.»—Talc, when used as a toilet powder should be in a
state of very fine division. Antiseptics are sometimes added in small
proportion, but these are presumably of little or no value in the
quantity allowable, and may prove irritating. For general use, at all
events, the talcum alone is the best and the safest. As a perfume, rose
oil may be employed, but on account of its cost, rose geranium oil
is probably more frequently used. A satisfactory proportion is 1⁠/⁠2
drachm of the oil to a pound of the powder. In order that the perfume
may be thoroughly disseminated throughout the powder, the oil should
be triturated first with a small portion of it; this should then be
further triturated with a larger portion, and, if the quantity operated
on be large, the final mixing may be effected by sifting. Many odors
besides that of rose would be suitable for a toilet powder. Ylang-ylang
would doubtless prove very attractive, but expensive.

The following formulas for other varieties of the powder may prove
useful:

Violet Talc.—

 I.—Powdered talc          14 ounces
     Powdered orris root     2 ounces
     Extract of cassia     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Extract of jasmine    1⁠/⁠4 ounce

Rose Talc.—

 II.—Powdered talc          5 pounds
      Oil of rose          1⁠/⁠2 drachm
      Extract of jasmine     4 ounces

Tea-Rose Talc.—

 III.—Powdered talc         5 pounds
       Oil of rose          50 drops
       Oil of wintergreen    4 drops
       Extract of jasmine    2 ounces

Borated Apple Blossom.—

 IV.—Powdered talc             22 pounds
      Magnesium carbonate    2 3⁠/⁠4 pounds
      Powdered boric acid        1 pound

Mix.

 Carnation pink blossom (Schimmel’s)    2 ounces
 Extract of trefle                      2 drachms

To 12 drachms of this mixture add:

 Neroli         1 drachm
 Vanillin     1⁠/⁠2 drachm
 Alcohol to     3 ounces

Sufficient for 25 pounds. {244}

 V.—Talcum             8 ounces
 Starch                 8 ounces
 Oil of neroli         10 drops
 Oil of ylang-ylang     5 drops

 VI.—Talcum           12 ounces
 Starch                 4 ounces
 Orris root             2 ounces
 Oil of bergamot       12 drops

 VII.—Talcum          14 ounces
 Starch                 2 ounces
 Lanolin              1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Oil of rose           10 drops
 Oil of neroli          5 drops


«TOILET VINEGARS:»


«Pumillo Toilet Vinegar.»—

 Alcohol, 80 per cent    1,600 parts
 Vinegar, 10 per cent      840 parts
 Oil of pinu spumillo       44 parts
 Oil of lavender             4 parts
 Oil of lemon                2 parts
 Oil of bergamot             2 parts

Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, add the vinegar, let stand for a week
and filter.


«Vinaigre Rouge.»—

 Acetic acid               24 parts
 Alum                       3 parts
 Peru balsam                1 part
 Carmine, No. 40           12 parts
 Ammonia water              6 parts
 Rose water, distilled    575 parts
 Alcohol                1,250 parts

Dissolve the balsam of Peru in the alcohol, and the alum in the rose
water. Mix the two solutions, add the acetic acid, and let stand
overnight. Dissolve the carmine in the ammonia water and add to
mixture. Shake thoroughly, let stand for a few minutes, then decant.


«TOILET WATERS:»


«“Beauty Water.”»—

 Fresh egg albumen    500 parts
 Alcohol              125 parts
 Lemon oil              2 parts
 Lavender oil           2 parts
 Oil of thyme           2 parts

Mix the ingredients well together. When first mixed the liquid becomes
flocculent, but after standing for 2 or 3 days clears up—sometimes
becomes perfectly clear, and may be decanted. It forms a light,
amber-colored liquid that remains clear for months.

At night, before retiring, pour about a teaspoonful of the water in the
palm of the hand, and rub it over the face and neck, letting it dry on.
In the morning, about an hour before the bath, repeat the operation,
also letting the liquid dry on the skin. The regular use of this
preparation for 4 weeks will give the skin an extraordinary fineness,
clearness, and freshness.


«Rottmanner’s Beauty Water.»—Koller says that this preparation consists
of 1 part of camphor, 5 parts of milk of sulphur, and 50 parts of rose
water.


«Birch Waters.»—Birch water, which has many cosmetic applications,
especially as a hair wash, or an ingredient in hair washes, may be
prepared as follows:

 I.—Alcohol, 96 per cent       3,500 parts
     Water                        700 parts
     Potash soap                  200 parts
     Glycerine                    150 parts
     Oil of birch buds             50 parts
     Essence of spring flowers    100 parts
     Chlorophyll, quantity sufficient to color.

Mix the water with 700 parts of the alcohol, and in the mixture
dissolve the soap. Add the essence of spring flowers and birch oil to
the remainder of the alcohol, mix well, and to the mixture add, little
by little, and with constant agitation, the soap mixture. Finally,
add the glycerine, mix thoroughly, and set aside for 8 days, filter
and color the filtrate with chlorophyll, to which is added a little
tincture of saffron. To use, add an equal volume of water to produce a
lather.

 II.—Alcohol, 96 per cent    2,000 parts
      Water                     500 parts
      Tincture of cantharides    25 parts
      Salicylic acid             25 parts
      Glycerine                 100 parts
      Oil of birch buds          40 parts
      Bergamot oil               30 parts
      Geranium oil                5 parts

Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, add the acid and tincture of
cantharides; mix the water and glycerine and add, and, finally, color
as before.

 III.—Alcohol        30,000 parts
       Birch juice     3,000 parts
       Glycerine       1,000 parts
       Bergamot oil       90 parts
       Vanillin           10 parts
       Geranium oil       50 parts
       Water          14,000 parts

 IV.—Alcohol         40,000 parts
      Oil of birch       150 parts
      Bergamot oil       100 parts
      Lemon oil           50 parts {245}
      Palmarosa oil      100 parts
      Glycerine        2,000 parts
      Borax              150 parts
      Water           20,000 parts


«Violet Ammonia Water.»—Most preparations of this character consist
of either coarsely powdered ammonium carbonate, with or without the
addition of ammonia water, or of a coarsely powdered mixture, which
slowly evolves the odor of ammonia, the whole being perfumed by the
addition of volatile oil, pomade essences, or handkerchief extract. The
following are typical formulas:

I.—Moisten coarsely powdered ammonium carbonate, contained in a
suitable bottle, with a mixture of concentrated tincture of orris root,
2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 drachm; violet extract, 3
drachms.

II.—Fill suitable bottles with coarsely powdered ammonium carbonate and
add to the salt as much of the following solution as it will absorb:
Oil of orris, 5 minims; oil of lavender flowers, 10 minims; violet
extract, 30 minims; stronger water of ammonia, 2 fluidounces.

III.—The following is a formula for a liquid preparation: Extract
violet, 8 fluidrachms; extract cassia, 8 fluidrachms; spirit of rose,
4 fluidrachms; tincture of orris, 4 fluidrachms; cologne spirit, 1
pint; spirit of ammonia, 1 ounce. Spirit of ionone may be used instead
of extract of violet.


«Violet Witch-Hazel.»—

 Spirit of ionone                                  1⁠/⁠2 drachm
 Rose water                                          6 ounces
 Distilled extract of witch-hazel enough to make    16 ounces


«Cotton»


«BLEACHING OF COTTON:»

I.—Bleaching by Steaming.—The singed and washed cotton goods are passed
through hydrochloric acid of 2° Bé. Leave them in heaps during 1 hour,
wash, pass through sodium hypochlorite of 10° Bé. diluted with 10 times
the volume of water. Let the pieces lie in heaps for 1 hour, wash, pass
through caustic soda lye of 38° Bé. diluted with 8 times its volume
of water, steam, put again through sodium chloride, wash, acidulate
slightly with hydrochloric acid, wash and dry. Should the whiteness not
be sufficient, repeat the operations.

II.—Bleaching with Calcium Sulphite.—The cotton goods are impregnated
with 1 part, by weight, of water, 1 part of caustic lime, and 1⁠/⁠2
part of bisulphite of 40° Bé.; next steamed during 1–2 hours at a
pressure of 1⁠/⁠2 atmosphere, washed, acidulated, washed and dried.
The result is as white a fabric as by the old method with caustic
lime, soda, and calcium chloride. The bisulphite may also be replaced
by calcium hydrosulphite, and, instead of steaming, the fabric may be
boiled for several hours with calcium sulphite.

III.—Bleaching of Vegetable Fibers with Hydrogen Peroxide.—Pass the
pieces through a solution containing caustic soda, soap, hydrogen
peroxide, and burnt magnesia. The pieces are piled in heaps on
carriages; the latter are shoved into the well-known apparatus of
Mather & Platt (kier), and the liquid is pumped on for 6 hours, at a
pressure of 2⁠/⁠3 atmosphere. Next wash, acidulate, wash and dry. The
bleaching may also be done on an ordinary reeling vat. For 5 pieces are
needed about 1,000 parts, by weight, of water; 10 parts, by weight,
of solid caustic soda; 1 part of burnt magnesia; 30 parts, by weight,
of hydrogen peroxide. After 3–4 hours’ boiling, wash, acidulate, wash
and dry. The bleaching may also be performed by passing through barium
peroxide, then through sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid, and next
through soda lye. It is practicable also to commence with the latter
and finally give a treatment with hydrogen peroxide.

The whiteness obtained by the above process is handsomer than that
produced by the old method with hypochlorites, and the fabric is
weakened to a less extent.


«TESTS FOR COTTON.»

I.—Cotton, when freed from extraneous matter by boiling with potash,
and afterwards with hydrochloric acid, yields pure cellulose or
absorbent cotton, which, according to the U. S. P., is soluble in
copper ammonium sulphate solution. The B. P. is more specific and
states that cotton is soluble in a concentrated solution of copper
ammonium sulphate. The standard test solution (B. P.) is made by
dissolving 10 parts of copper sulphate in 160 parts of distilled
water, and cautiously adding solution of ammonia to the liquid until
the precipitate first formed is nearly dissolved. The product is
then filtered and the filtrate made up to 200 parts with distilled
{246} water. The concentrated solution is prepared by using a smaller
quantity of distilled water.

II.—Schweitzer’s reagent for textile fibers and cellulose is made
by dissolving 10 parts of copper sulphate in 100 parts of water and
adding a solution of 5 parts of potassium hydrate in 50 parts of water;
then wash the precipitate and dissolve in 20 per cent ammonia until
saturated. This solution dissolves cotton, linen, and silk, but not
wool. The reagent is said to be especially useful in microscopy, as it
rapidly dissolves cellulose, but has no action on lignin.

III.—Jandrier’s Test for Cotton in Woolen Fabrics.—Wash the sample of
fabric and treat with sulphuric acid (20 Bé.) for half an hour on the
water bath. To 100 to 200 parts of this solution add 1 part resorcin,
and overlay on concentrated sulphuric acid free from nitrous products.
The heat developed is sufficient to give a color at the contact point
of the liquids, but intensity of color may be increased by slightly
heating. If the product resulting from treating the cotton is made
up 1 in 1,000, resorcin will give an orange color; alphanaphtol a
purple; gallic acid a green gradually becoming violet down in the acid;
hydroquinone or pyrogallol a brown; morphine or codeine, a lavender;
thymol or menthol a pink. Cotton may be detected in colored goods,
using boneblack to decolorize the solution, if necessary.

IV.—Overbeck’s test for cotton in woolen consists in soaking the fabric
in an aqueous solution of alloxantine (1 in 10), and after drying
expose to ammonia vapor and rinse in water. Woolen material is colored
crimson, cotton remains blue.

V.—Liebermann’s Test.—Dye the fabric for half an hour in fuchsine
solution rendered light yellow by caustic soda solution and then washed
with water—silk is colored dark red; wool, light red; flax, pink; and
cotton remains colorless.

To Distinguish Cotton from Linen.—Take a sample about an inch and
a half square of the cloth to be tested and plunge it into a tepid
alcoholic solution of cyanine. After the coloring matter has been
absorbed by the fiber, rinse it in water and then plunge into dilute
sulphuric acid. If it is of cotton the sample will be almost completely
bleached, while linen preserves the blue color almost unchanged. If the
sample be then plunged in ammonia, the blue will be strongly reinforced.


«Aromatic Cotton.»—Aromatic cotton is produced as follows: Mix camphor,
5 parts; pine-leaf oil, 5 parts; clove oil, 5 parts; spirit of wine (90
per cent), 80 parts; and distribute evenly on cotton, 500 parts, by
means of an atomizer. The cotton is left pressed together in a tightly
closed tin vessel for a few days.


«Cotton Degreasing.»—Cotton waste, in a greasy condition, is placed
in an acid-proof apparatus, where it is simultaneously freed from
grease, etc., and prepared for bleaching by the following process,
which is performed without the waste being removed from the apparatus:
(1) treatment with a solvent, such as benzine; (2) steaming, for the
purpose of vaporizing and expelling from the cotton waste the solvent
still remaining in it after as much as possible of this has been
recovered by draining; (3) treatment with a mineral acid; (4) boiling
with an alkali lye; (5) washing with water.


«COTTONSEED HULLS AS STOCK FOOD.»

Cottonseed hulls or other material containing fiber difficult of
digestion are thoroughly mixed with about 5 per cent of their weight
of hydrochloric acid (specific gravity, 1.16), and heated in a closed
vessel, provided with a stirrer, to a temperature of 212° to 300° F.
The amount of acid to be added depends on the material employed and
on the duration of the heating. By heating for 30 minutes the above
percentage of acid is required, but the quantity may be reduced if the
heating is prolonged. After heating, the substance is ground and at the
same time mixed with some basic substances such as sodium carbonate,
chalk, cottonseed kernel meal, etc., to neutralize the acid. During
the heating, the acid vapors coming from the mixture may be led into a
second quantity of material contained in a separate vessel, air being
drawn through both vessels to facilitate the removal of the acid vapors.

COTTONSEED OIL: See Oil.

COTTONSEED OIL IN FOOD, TESTS FOR: See Foods.

COTTONSEED OIL IN LARD, DETECTION OF: See Foods and Lard.

COUGH CANDY: See Confectionery.

COUGH MIXTURES FOR CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas. {247}

COUGH MIXTURES AND REMEDIES: See Cold and Cough Mixtures.


«Court Plasters»

(See also Plasters.)


«Liquid Court Plaster.»—I.—If soluble guncotton is dissolved in acetone
in the proportion of about 1 part, by weight, of the former to 35 or
40 parts, by volume, of the latter, and half a part each of castor oil
and glycerine be added, a colorless, elastic, and flexible film will
form on the skin wherever it is applied. Unlike ordinary collodion it
will not be likely to dry and peel off. If tinted very slightly with
alkanet and saffron it can be made to assume the color of the skin so
that when applied it is scarcely observable. A mixture of warm solution
of sodium silicate and casein, about 9 parts of the former to 1 part of
the latter, gelatinizes and forms a sort of liquid court plaster.

II.—In order to make liquid court plaster flexible, collodion, U. S.
P., is the best liquid that can possibly be recommended. It may be made
by weighing successively into a tarred bottle:

 Collodion             4 av. ounces
 Canada turpentine    95 grains
 Castor oil           57 grains

Before applying, the skin should be perfectly dry; each application or
layer should be permitted to harden. Three or four coats are usually
sufficient.

III.—Procure an ounce bottle and fill it three-fourths full of flexible
collodion, and fill up with ether. Apply to cuts, bruises, etc., and it
protects them and will not wash off. If the ether evaporates, leaving
it too thick for use, have more ether put in to liquefy it. It is a
good thing to have in the house and in the tool chest.

COW DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES: See Veterinary Formulas.

CRAYONS: See Pencils.


«CRAYONS FOR GRAINING AND MARBLING.»

Heat 4 parts of water and 1 part of white wax over a fire until the
wax has completely dissolved. Stir in 1 part of purified potash. When
an intimate combination has taken place, allow to cool and add a
proportionate quantity of gum arabic. With this mixture the desired
colors are ground thick enough so that they can be conveniently rolled
into a pencil with chalk. The desired shades must be composed on the
grinding slab as they are wanted, and must not be simply left in their
natural tone. Use, for instance, umber, Vandyke brown, and white lead
for oak; umber alone would be too dark for walnut use. All the earth
colors can be conveniently worked up. It is best to prepare 2 or 3
crayons of each set, mixing the first a little lighter by the addition
of white lead and leaving the others a little darker. The pencils
should be kept in a dry place and are more suitable for graining and
marbling than brushes, since they can be used with either oil or water.

CRAYONS FOR WRITING ON GLASS: See Etching, and Glass.


«Cream»

(See also Milk.)


«Whipped Cream.»—There are many ways to whip cream. The following is
very highly indorsed: Keep the cream on ice until ready to whip. Take
2 earthen vessels about 6 inches in diameter. Into 1 bowl put 1 pint
of rich sweet cream, 2 teaspoonfuls powdered sugar, and 5 drops of best
vanilla extract. Add the white of 1 egg and beat with large egg beater
or use whipping apparatus until 2 inches of froth has formed; skim off
the froth into the other vessel and so proceed whipping and skimming
until all the cream in the first vessel has been exhausted. The whipped
cream will stand up all day and should be let stand in the vessel on
ice.

Special machines have been constructed for whipping cream, but most
dispensers prepare it with an ordinary egg beater. Genuine whipped
cream is nothing other than pure cream into which air has been forced
by the action of the different apparatus manufactured for the purpose;
care must, however, be exercised in order that butter is not produced
instead of whipped cream. To avoid this the temperature of the cream
must be kept at a low degree and the whipping must not be too violent
or prolonged; hence the following rules must be observed in order to
produce the desired result: {248}

1. Secure pure cream and as fresh as possible.

2. Surround the bowl in which the cream is being whipped with cracked
ice, and perform the operation in a cool place.

3. As rapidly as the whipped cream arises, skim it off and place it in
another bowl, likewise surrounded with ice.

4. Do not whip the cream too long or too violently.

5. The downward motion of the beater should be more forcible than the
upward, as the first has a tendency to force the air into the cream,
while the second, on the contrary, tends to expel it.

6. A little powdered sugar should be added to the cream after it is
whipped, in order to sweeten it.

7. Make whipped cream in small quantities and keep it on ice.

I.—Cummins’s Whipped Cream.—Place 12 ounces of rich cream on the ice
for about 1 hour; then with a whipper beat to a consistency that will
withstand its own weight.

II.—Eberle’s Whipped Cream.—Take a pint of fresh, sweet cream, which
has been chilled by being placed on the ice, add to it a heaping
tablespoonful of powdered sugar and 2 ounces of a solution of gelatin
(a spoonful dissolved in 2 ounces of water), whip slowly for a minute
or two until a heavy froth gathers on top. Skim off the dense froth,
and put in container for counter use; continue this until you have
frothed all that is possible.

III.—Foy’s Whipped Cream.—Use only pure cream; have it ice cold, and
in a convenient dish for whipping with a wire whipper. A clear, easy,
quick, and convenient way is to use a beater. Fill about one-half full
of cream, and beat vigorously for 2 or 3 minutes; a little powdered
sugar may be added before beating. The cream may be left in the beater,
and placed on ice.

IV.—American Soda Fountain Company’s Whipped Cream.—Take 2 earthen
bowls and 2 tin pans, each 6 or 8 inches greater in diameter than the
bowls; place a bowl in each pan, surround it with broken ice, put the
cream to be whipped in 1 bowl, and whip it with a whipped cream churn.
The cream should be pure and rich, and neither sugar nor gelatin should
be added to it. As the whipped cream rises and fills the bowl, remove
the churn, and skim off the whipped cream into the other bowl.

The philosophy of the process is that the churn drives air into the
cream, and blows an infinity of tiny bubbles, which forms the whipped
cream; therefore, in churning, raise the dasher gently and slowly,
and bring it down quickly and forcibly. When the second bowl is full
of whipped cream, pour off the liquid cream, which has settled to the
bottom, into the first bowl, and whip it again. Keep the whipped cream
on ice.

The addition of an even teaspoonful of salt to 1 quart of sweet cream,
before whipping, will make it whip up very readily and stiff, and stand
up much longer and better.


«CRESOL EMULSION.»

One of the best starting points for the preparation is the “creosote”
obtained from blast furnaces, which is rich in cresols and contains
comparatively little phenols. The proportions used are: Creosote, 30
parts; soft soap, 10 parts; and solution of soda (10 per cent), 30
parts. Boil the ingredients together for an hour, then place aside to
settle. The dark fluid is afterwards drained from any oily portion
floating upon the top.

CREAM, COLD: See Cosmetics.

CREAMS FOR THE FACE AND SKIN: See Cosmetics.

CREOSOTE SOAP: See Soap.

CROCKERY: See Ceramics.

CROCKERY CEMENTS: See Adhesives.


«CROCUS.»

The substance known as “crocus,” which is so exceedingly useful as
a polishing medium for steel, etc., may be very generally obtained
in the cinders produced from coal containing iron. It will be easily
recognized by its rusty color, and should be collected and reduced to
a powder for future use. Steel burnishers may be brought to a high
state of polish with this substance by rubbing them upon a buff made of
soldiers’ belt or hard wood. After this operation, the burnisher should
be rubbed on a second buff charged with jewelers’ rouge.

CRYSTAL CEMENTS FOR REUNITING BROKEN PIECES: See Adhesives, under
Cements. {249}

CRYSTALLIZATION, ORNAMENTAL: See Gardens, Chemical.

CUCUMBER ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts.

CUCUMBER JELLY, JUICE, AND MILK: See Cosmetics.

CURAÇOA CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

CURTAINS, COLORING OF: See Laundry Preparations.

CURRY POWDER: See Condiments.


«CUSTARD POWDER:»

 Corn flour         7 pounds
 Arrowroot          8 pounds
 Oil of almond     20 drops
 Oil of nutmegs    10 drops
 Tincture of saffron to color.

Mix the tincture with a little of the mixed flours; then add the
essential oils and make into a paste; dry this until it can be reduced
to a powder, and then mix all the ingredients by sifting several times
through a fine hair sieve.

CUTLERY CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

CYLINDER OIL: See Lubricants.

CYMBAL METAL: See Alloys.


«Damaskeening»

Damaskeening, practiced from most ancient times, consists in
ornamentally inlaying one metal with another, followed usually by
polishing. Generally gold or silver is employed for inlaying. The
article to be decorated by damaskeening is usually of iron (steel) or
copper; in Oriental (especially Japanese) work, also frequently of
bronze, which has been blackened, or, at least, darkened, so that the
damaskeening is effectively set off from the ground. If the design
consists of lines, the grooves are dug out with the graver in such
a manner that they are wider at the bottom, so as to hold the metal
forced in. Next, the gold or silver pieces suitably formed are laid on
top and hammered in so as to fill up the opening. Finally the surface
is gone over again, so that the surface of the inlay is perfectly
even with the rest. If the inlays, however, are not in the form of
lines, but are composed of larger pieces of certain outlines, they are
sometimes allowed to project beyond the surface of the metal decorated.
At times there are inlays again in the raised portions of another
metal; thus, Japanese bronze articles often contain figures of raised
gold inlaid with silver.

Owing to the high value which damaskeening imparts to articles
artistically decorated, many attempts have been made to obtain similar
effects in a cheaper manner. One is electro-etching, described further
on. Another process for the wholesale manufacture of objects closely
resembling damaskeened work is the following: By means of a steel
punch, on which the decorations to be produced project in relief, the
designs are stamped by means of a drop hammer or a stamping press into
gold plated or silver plated sheet metal on the side which is to show
the damaskeening, finally grinding off the surface, so that the sunken
portions are again level. Naturally, the stamped portion, as long as
the depth of the stamping is at least equal to the thickness of the
precious metal on top, will appear inlaid.

It is believed that much of the early damaskeening was done by welding
together iron and either a steel or an impure or alloyed iron, and
treating the surface with a corroding acid that affected the steel or
alloy without changing the iron.

The variety or damaskeening known as koftgari or kuft-work, practiced
in India, was produced by rough-etching a metallic surface and laying
on gold-leaf, which was imbedded so that it adhered only to the etched
parts of the design.


«Damaskeening by Electrolysis.»—Damaskeening of metallic plates may be
done by electrolysis. A copper plate is covered with an isolating layer
of feeble thickness, such as wax, and the desired design is scratched
in it by the use of a pointed tool. The plate is suspended in a bath of
sulphate of copper, connecting it with the positive pole of a battery,
while a second copper plate is connected with the negative pole. The
current etches grooves wherever the wax has been removed. When enough
has {250} been eaten away, remove the plate from the bath, cleanse it
with a little hydrochloric acid to remove any traces of oxide of copper
which might appear on the lines of the design; then wash it in plenty
of water and place it in a bath of silver or nickel, connecting it now
with the negative pole, the positive pole being represented by a leaf
of platinum. After a certain time the hollows are completely filled
with a deposit of silver or nickel, and it only remains to polish the
plate, which has the appearance of a piece damaskeened by hand.


«Damaskeening on Enamel Dials.»—Dip the dial into molten yellow wax,
trace on the dial the designs desired, penetrating down to the enamel.
Dip the dial in a fluorhydric acid a sufficient length of time that
it may eat to the desired depth. Next, wash in several waters, remove
the wax by means of turpentine, i. e., leave the piece covered with
wax immersed in essence of turpentine. By filling up the hollows thus
obtained with enamel very pretty effects are produced.

DANDRUFF CURE: See Hair Preparations.


«DECALCOMANIA PROCESSES:»

See also Chromos, Copying Processes, and Transfer Processes.

The decalcomania process of transferring pictures requires that the
print (usually in colors) be made on a specially prepared paper. Prints
made on decalcomania paper may be transferred in the reverse to china
ware, wood, celluloid, metal, or any hard smooth surface, and being
varnished after transfer (or burnt in, in the case of pottery) acquire
a fair degree of permanence. The original print is destroyed by the
transfer.


«Applying Decalcomania Pictures on Ceramic Products under a Glaze.»—A
biscuit-baked object is first coated with a mixture of alcohol,
shellac, varnish, and liquid glue. Then the prepared picture print is
transferred on to this adhesive layer in the customary manner. The
glaze, however, does not adhere to this coating and would, therefore,
not cover the picture when fused on. To attain this, the layer bearing
the transfer picture, as well as the latter, are simultaneously coated
with a dextrin solution of about 10 per cent. When this dextrin
coating is dry, the picture is glazed. The mixing proportions of the
two solutions employed, as well as of the adhesive and the dextrin
solutions, vary somewhat according to the physical conditions of the
porcelain, its porosity, etc. The following may serve for an example:
Dissolve 5 parts of shellac or equivalent gum in 25 parts of spirit and
emulsify this liquid with 20 parts of varnish and 8 parts of liquid
glue. After drying, the glaze is put on and the ware thus prepared is
placed in the grate fire.

The process described is especially adapted for film pictures, i. e.,
for such as bear the picture on a cohering layer, usually consisting
of collodion. It cannot be employed outright for gum pictures, i.
e., for such pictures as are composed of different pressed surfaces,
consisting mainly of gum or similar material. If this process is to be
adapted to these pictures as well, the ware, which has been given the
biscuit baking, is first provided with a crude glaze coating, whereupon
the details of the process are carried out as described above with the
exception that there is another glaze coating between the adhesive
coat and the biscuit-baked ware. In this case the article is also
immediately placed in the grate fire. It is immaterial which of the two
kinds of metachromatypes (transfer pictures) is used, in every case the
baking in the muffle, etc., is dropped. The transfer pictures may also
be produced in all colors for the grate fire.


«Decalcomania Paper.»—Smooth unsized paper, not too thick, is coated
with the following solutions:

I.—Gelatin, 10 parts, dissolved in 300 parts warm water. This solution
is applied with a sponge. The paper should be dried flat.

II.—Starch, 50 parts; gum tragacanth, dissolved in 600 parts of water.
(The gum tragacanth is soaked in 300 parts of water; in the other 300
parts the starch is boiled to a paste; the two are then poured together
and boiled.) The dried paper is brushed with this paste uniformly, a
fairly thick coat being applied. The paper is then allowed to dry again.

III.—One part blood albumen is soaked in 3 parts water for 24 hours. A
small quantity of sal ammoniac is added.

The paper, after having been coated with these three solutions and
dried, is run through the printing press, the pictures, however, being
printed reversed so that it may appear in its true position when
transferred. Any colored inks may be used. {251}

IV.—A transfer paper, known as “décalque rapide,” invented by J. B.
Duramy, consists of a paper of the kind generally used for making
pottery transfers, but coated with a mixture of gum and arrowroot
solutions in the proportion of 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts of the latter to 100 of
the former. The coating is applied in the ordinary manner, but the
paper is only semi-glazed. Furthermore, to decorate pottery ware by
means of this new transfer paper, there is no need to immerse the ware
in a bath in order to get the paper to draw off, as it will come away
when moistened with a damp sponge, after having been in position for
less than 5 minutes, whereas the ordinary papers require a much longer
time.


«Picture Transferrer.»—A very weak solution of soft soap and pearlashes
is used to transfer recent prints, such as illustrations from papers,
magazines, etc., to unglazed paper, on the decalcomania principle. Such
a solution is:

 I.—Soft soap         1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Pearlash            2 drachms
     Distilled water    16 fluidounces

The print is laid upon a flat surface, such as a drawing board, and
moistened with the liquid. The paper on which the reproduction is
required is laid over this, and then a sheet of thicker paper placed on
the top, and the whole rubbed evenly and hard with a blunt instrument,
such as the bowl of a spoon, until the desired depth of color in the
transferrer is obtained. Another and more artistic process is to cover
the print with a transparent sheet of material coated with wax, to
trace out the pictures with a point and to take rubbings of the same
after powdering with plumbago.

 II.—Hard soap     1 drachm
      Glycerine    30 grains
      Alcohol       4 fluidrachms
      Water         1 fluidounce

Dampen the printed matter with the solution by sponging, and proceed as
with I.

DEHORNERS: See Horn.

DELTA METAL: See Alloys.

DEMON BOWLS OF FIRE: See Pyrotechnics.

DENTAL CEMENTS: See Cements.


«Dentifrices»


«TOOTH POWDERS:»

A perfect tooth powder that will clean the teeth and mouth with
thoroughness need contain but few ingredients and is easily made. For
the base there is nothing better than precipitated chalk; it possesses
all the detergent and polishing properties necessary for the thorough
cleansing of the teeth, and it is too soft to do any injury to soft or
to defective or thinly enameled teeth. This cannot be said of pumice,
cuttlebone, charcoal, kieselguhr, and similar abradants that are used
in tooth powders. Their use is reprehensible in a tooth powder. The
use of pumice or other active abradant is well enough occasionally, by
persons afflicted with a growth of tartar on the teeth, but even then
it is best applied by a competent dentist. Abrading powders have much
to answer for in hastening the day of the toothless race.

Next in value comes soap. Powdered white castile soap is usually an
ingredient of tooth powders. There is nothing so effective for removing
sordes or thickened mucus from the gums or mouth. But used alone or in
too large proportions, the taste is unpleasant. Orris possesses no
cleansing properties, but is used for its flavor and because it is most
effective for masking the taste of the soap. Sugar or saccharine may
be used for sweetening, and for flavoring almost anything can be used.
Flavors should, in the main, be used singly, though mixed flavors lack
the clean taste of simple flavors.

The most popular tooth powder sold is the white, saponaceous,
wintergreen-flavored powder, and here is a formula for this type:

 I.—Precipitated chalk                  1 pound
     White castile soap                  1 ounce
     Florentine orris                    2 ounces
     Sugar (or saccharine, 2 grains)     1 ounce
     Oil of wintergreen                1⁠/⁠4 ounce

The first four ingredients should be in the finest possible powder and
well dried. Triturate the oil of wintergreen with part of the chalk,
and mix this with the balance of the chalk. Sift each ingredient
separately through a sieve (No. 80 or finer), and mix well together,
afterwards sifting the mixture 5 or 6 times. The finer the sieve and
the more the mixture is sifted, the finer and lighter the powder will
be. {252}

This powder will cost about 15 cents a pound.

Pink, rose-flavored powder of the Caswell and Hazard, Hudnut, or
McMahan type, once so popular in New York. It was made in two styles,
with and without soap.

 II.—Precipitated chalk      1 pound
      Florentine orris        2 ounces
      Sugar               1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      White castile soap      1 ounce
      No. 40 carmine         15 grains
      Oil of rose            12 drops
      Oil of cloves           4 drops

Dissolve the carmine in an ounce of water of ammonia and triturate
this with part of the chalk until the chalk is uniformly dyed. Then
spread it in a thin layer on a sheet of paper and allow the ammonia to
evaporate. When there is no ammoniacal odor left, mix this dyed chalk
with the rest of the chalk and sift the whole several times until
thoroughly mixed. Then proceed to make up the powder as in the previous
formula, first sifting each ingredient separately and then together,
being careful thoroughly to triturate the oils of rose and cloves
with the orris after it is sifted and before it is added to the other
powders. The oil of cloves is used to back up the oil of rose. It
strengthens and accentuates the rose odor. Be careful not to get a drop
too much, or it will predominate over the rose.


«Violet Tooth Powder.»—

 Precipitated chalk      1 pound
 Florentine orris        4 ounces
 Castile soap            1 ounce
 Sugar               1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Extract of violet     1⁠/⁠4 ounce
 Evergreen coloring, R. & F., quantity sufficient.

Proceed as in the second formula, dyeing the chalk with the evergreen
coloring to the desired shade before mixing.

 III.—Precipitated chalk              16 pounds
       Powdered orris                   4 pounds
       Powdered cuttlefish bone         2 pounds
       Ultramarine                  9 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
       Geranium lake                  340 grains
       Jasmine                        110 minims
       Oil of neroli                  110 minims
       Oil of bitter almonds           35 minims
       Vanillin                        50 grains
       Artificial musk (Lautier’s)     60 grains
       Saccharine                     140 grains

Rub up the perfumes with 2 ounces of alcohol, dissolve the saccharine
in warm water, add all to the orris, and set aside to dry. Rub the
colors up with water and some chalk, and when dry pass all through a
mixer and sifter twice to bring out the color.


«Camphorated and Carbolated Powders.»—A camphorated tooth powder may
be made by leaving out the oil of wintergreen in the first formula and
adding 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of powdered camphor.

Carbolated tooth powder may likewise be made with the first formula
by substituting 2 drachms of liquefied carbolic acid for the oil of
wintergreen. But the tooth powder gradually loses the odor and taste
of the acid. It is not of much utility anyway, as the castile soap in
the powder is of far greater antiseptic power than the small amount of
carbolic acid that can safely be combined in a tooth powder. Soap is
one of the best antiseptics.

Alkaline salts, borax, sodium bicarbonate, etc., are superfluous in
a powder already containing soap. The only useful purpose they might
serve is to correct acidity of the mouth, and that end can be reached
much better by rinsing the mouth with a solution of sodium bicarbonate.
Acids have no place in tooth powders, the French Codex to the contrary
notwithstanding.


«Peppermint as a Flavor.»—In France and all over Europe peppermint is
the popular flavor, as wintergreen is in this country.

English apothecaries use sugar of milk and heavy calcined magnesia in
many of their tooth powders. Neither has any particular virtue as a
tooth cleanser, but both are harmless. Cane sugar is preferable to milk
sugar as a sweetener, and saccharine is more efficient, though objected
to by some; it should be used in the proportion of 2 to 5 grains to the
pound of powder, and great care taken to have it thoroughly distributed
throughout.

An antiseptic tooth powder, containing the antiseptic ingredients of
listerine, is popular in some localities.

 IV.—Precipitated chalk     1 pound
      Castile soap           5 drachms
      Borax                  3 drachms
      Thymol                20 grains
      Menthol               20 grains
      Eucalyptol            20 grains
      Oil of wintergreen    20 grains
      Alcohol              1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Dissolve the thymol and oils in the alcohol, and triturate with the
chalk, and proceed as in the first formula. {253}

One fault with this powder is the disagreeable taste of the thymol.
This may be omitted and the oil of wintergreen increased to the
improvement of the taste, but with some loss of antiseptic power.


«Antiseptic Powder.»—

 V.—Boric acid              50 parts
     Salicylic acid          50 parts
     Dragon’s blood          20 parts
     Calcium carbonate    1,000 parts
     Essence spearmint       12 parts

Reduce the dragon’s blood and calcium carbonate to the finest powder,
and mix the ingredients thoroughly. The powder should be used twice a
day, or even oftener, in bad cases. It is especially recommended in
cases where the enamel has become eroded from the effects of iron.


«Menthol Tooth Powder.»—Menthol leaves a cool and pleasant sensation
in the mouth, and is excellent for fetid breath. It may be added to
most formulas by taking an equal quantity of oil of wintergreen and
dissolving in alcohol.

 Menthol                  1 part
 Salol                    8 parts
 Soap, grated fine       20 parts
 Calcium carbonate       20 parts
 Magnesia carbonate      60 parts
 Essential oil of mint    2 parts

Powder finely and mix. If there is much tartar on the teeth it will be
well to add to this formula from 10 to 20 parts of pumice, powdered
very finely.


«Tooth Powders and Pastes.»—Although the direct object of these is
to keep the teeth clean and white, they also prevent decay, if it
is only by force of mere cleanliness, and in this way (and also by
removing decomposing particles of food) tend to keep the breath
sweet and wholesome. The necessary properties of a tooth powder are
cleansing power unaccompanied by any abrading or chemical action on
the teeth themselves, a certain amount of antiseptic power to enable
it to deal with particles of stale food, and a complete absence of
any disagreeable taste or smell. These conditions are easy to realize
in practice, and there is a very large number of efficient and good
powders, as well as not a few which are apt to injure the teeth if
care is not taken to rinse out the mouth very thoroughly after using.
These powders include some of the best cleansers, and have hence
been admitted in the following recipes, mostly taken from English
collections.

I.—Charcoal and sugar, equal weights. Mix and flavor with clove oil.

 II.—Charcoal    156 parts
      Red kino    156 parts
      Sugar         6 parts


Flavor with peppermint oil

 III.—Charcoal              270 parts
       Sulphate of quinine     1 part
       Magnesia                1 part

Scent to liking.

 IV.—Charcoal                30 parts
      Cream of tartar          8 parts
      Yellow cinchona bark     4 parts
      Sugar                   15 parts

Scent with oil of cloves.

 V.—Sugar             120 parts
     Alum               10 parts
     Cream of tartar    20 parts
     Cochineal           3 parts

 VI.—Cream of Tartar            1,000 parts
     Alum                         190 parts
     Carbonate of magnesia        375 parts
     Sugar                        375 parts
     Cochineal                     75 parts
     Essence Ceylon cinnamon       90 parts
     Essence cloves                75 parts
     Essence English peppermint    45 parts

 VII.—Sugar                  200 parts
       Cream of tartar       400 parts
       Magnesia              400 parts
       Starch                400 parts
       Cinnamon               32 parts
       Mace                   11 parts
       Sulphate of quinine    16 parts
       Carmine                17 parts

Scent with oil of peppermint and oil of rose.

 VIII.—Bleaching powder     11 parts
        Red coral           12 parts

 IX.—Red cinchona bark        12 parts
      Magnesia                 50 parts
      Cochineal                 9 parts
      Alum                      6 parts
      Cream of tartar         100 parts {254}
      English peppermint oil    4 parts
      Cinnamon oil              2 parts

Grind the first five ingredients separately, then mix the alum with the
cochineal, and then add to it the cream of tartar and the bark. In the
meantime the magnesia is mixed with the essential oils, and finally the
whole mass is mixed through a very fine silk sieve.

 X.—Whitewood charcoal    250 parts
     Cinchona bark         125 parts
     Sugar                 250 parts
     Peppermint oil         12 parts
     Cinnamon oil            8 parts

 XI.—Precipitated chalk     750 parts
      Cream of tartar        250 parts
      Florence orris root    250 parts
      Sal ammoniac            60 parts
      Ambergris                4 parts
      Cinnamon                 4 parts
      Coriander                4 parts
      Cloves                   4 parts
      Rosewood                 4 parts

 XII.—Dragon’s blood        250 parts
       Cream of tartar        30 parts
       Florence orris root    30 parts
       Cinnamon               16 parts
       Cloves                  8 parts

 XIII.—Precipitated chalk    500 parts
        Dragon’s blood        250 parts
        Red sandalwood        125 parts
        Alum                  125 parts
        Orris root            250 parts
        Cloves                 15 parts
        Cinnamon               15 parts
        Vanilla                 8 parts
        Rosewood               15 parts
        Carmine lake          250 parts
        Carmine                 8 parts

 XIV.—Cream of tartar    150 parts
       Alum                25 parts
       Cochineal           12 parts
       Cloves              25 parts
       Cinnamon            25 parts
       Rosewood             6 parts

Scent with essence of rose.

 XV.—Coral                20 parts
      Sugar                20 parts
      Wood charcoal         6 parts
      Essence of vervain    1 part

 XVI.—Precipitated chalk    500 parts
       Orris root            500 parts
       Carmine                 1 part
       Sugar                   1 part
       Essence of rose         4 parts
       Essence of neroli       4 parts

 XVII.—Cinchona bark            50 parts
        Chalk                   100 parts
        Myrrh                    50 parts
        Orris root              100 parts
        Cinnamon                 50 parts
        Carbonate of ammonia    100 parts
        Oil of cloves.            2 parts

 XVIII.—Gum arabic           30 parts
         Cutch                80 parts
         Licorice juice      550 parts
         Cascarilla           20 parts
         Mastic               20 parts
         Orris root           20 parts
         Oil of cloves         5 parts
         Oil of peppermint    15 parts
         Extract of amber      5 parts
         Extract of musk       5 parts

 XIX.—Chalk         200 parts
       Cuttlebone    100 parts
       Orris root    100 parts
       Bergamot oil    2 parts
       Lemon oil       4 parts
       Neroli oil      1 part
       Portugal oil    2 parts

 XX.—Borax         50 parts
      Chalk        100 parts
      Myrrh         25 parts
      Orris root    22 parts
      Cinnamon      25 parts

 XXI.—Wood charcoal    30 parts
       White honey      30 parts
       Vanilla sugar    30 parts
       Cinchona bark    16 parts

Flavor with oil of peppermint.

 XXII.—Syrup of 33° B.             38 parts
        Cuttlebone                 200 parts
        Carmine lake                30 parts
        English oil of peppermint    5 parts {255}

 XXIII.—Red coral    50 parts
         Cinnamon     12 parts
         Cochineal     6 parts
         Alum      2 1⁠/⁠8 parts
         Honey       125 parts
         Water         6 parts

Triturate the cochineal and the alum with the water. Then, after
allowing them to stand for 24 hours, put in the honey, the coral, and
the cinnamon. When the effervescence has ceased, which happens in about
48 hours, flavor with essential oils to taste.

 XXIV.—Well-skimmed honey     50 parts
        Syrup of peppermint    50 parts
        Orris root             12 parts
        Sal ammoniac           12 parts
        Cream of tartar        12 parts
        Tincture of cinnamon    3 parts
        Tincture of cloves      3 parts
        Tincture of vanilla     3 parts
        Oil of cloves           1 part

 XXV.—Cream of tartar    120 parts
       Pumice             120 parts
       Alum                30 parts
       Cochineal           30 parts
       Bergamot oil         3 parts
       Clove                3 parts

Make to a thick paste with honey or sugar.

 XXVI.—Honey                 250 parts
        Precipitated chalk    250 parts
        Orris root            250 parts
        Tincture of opium       7 parts
        Tincture of myrrh       7 parts
        Oil of rose             2 parts
        Oil of cloves           2 parts
        Oil of nutmeg           2 parts

 XXVII.—Florentine orris       6 parts
         Magnesium carbonate    2 parts
         Almond soap           12 parts
         Calcium carbonate     60 parts
         Thymol                 1 part
         Alcohol, quantity sufficient.

Powder the solids and mix. Dissolve the thymol in as little alcohol
as possible, and add perfume in a mixture in equal parts of oil of
peppermint, oil of clove, oil of lemon, and oil of eucalyptus. About 1
minim of each to every ounce of powder will be sufficient.

XXVIII.—Myrrh, 10 parts; sodium chloride, 10 parts; soot, 5 parts;
soap, 5 parts; lime carbonate, 500 parts.

XXIX.—Camphor, 5 parts; soap, 10 parts; saccharine, 0.25 parts; thymol,
0.5 parts; lime carbonate, 500 parts. Scent, as desired, with rose oil,
sassafras oil, wintergreen oil, or peppermint oil.

XXX.—Powdered camphor, 6 parts; myrrh, 15 parts; powdered Peruvian
bark, 6 parts; distilled water, 12 parts; alcohol of 80° F., 50 parts.
Macerate the powders in the alcohol for a week and then filter.

XXXI.—Soap, 1; saccharine. 0.025; thymol, 0.05; lime carbonate, 50;
sassafras essence, enough to perfume.

XXXII.—Camphor, 0.5; soap, 1; saccharine, 0.025; calcium carbonate, 50;
oil of sassafras, or cassia, or of gaultheria, enough to perfume.

XXXIII.—Myrrh, 1; sodium chloride, 1; soap, 50; lime carbonate, 50;
rose oil as required.

XXXIV.—Precipitated calcium carbonate, 60 parts; quinine sulphate, 2
parts; saponine, 0.1 part; saccharine, 0.1 part; carmine as required;
oil of peppermint, sufficient.

XXXV.—Boracic acid, 100 parts; powdered starch, 50 parts; quinine
hydrochlorate, 10 parts; saccharine, 1 part; vanillin (dissolved in
alcohol), 1.5 parts.


«Neutral Tooth Powder.»—Potassium chlorate, 200 parts; starch, 200
parts; carmine lake, 40 parts; saccharine (in alcoholic solution), 1
part; vanillin (dissolved in alcohol), 1 part.


«Tooth Powder for Children.»—

 Magnesia carbonate    10 parts
 Medicinal soap        10 parts
 Sepia powder          80 parts
 Peppermint oil, quantity sufficient to flavor.


«Flavorings for Dentifrice.»—

I.—Sassafras oil, true 1 drachm Pinus pumilio oil 20 minims Bitter
orange oil 20 minims Wintergreen oil 2 minims Anise oil 4 minims Rose
geranium oil 1 minim Alcohol 1 ounce

Use according to taste.

 II.—Oil of peppermint, English    4 parts
      Oil of aniseed                6 parts {256}
      Oil of clove                  1 part
      Oil of cinnamon               1 part
      Saffron                       1 part
      Deodorized alcohol          350 parts
      Water                       300 parts

Or, cassia, 4 parts, and vanilla, 1⁠/⁠2 part, may be substituted for
the saffron.


«LIQUID DENTIFRICES AND TOOTH WASHES:»


«A French Dentifrice.»—I.—A preparation which has a reputation in
France as a liquid dentifrice is composed of alcohol, 96 per cent,
1,000 parts; Mitcham peppermint oil, 30 parts; aniseed oil, 5 parts;
oil of Acorus calamus, 0.5 parts. Finely powdered cochineal and cream
of tartar, 5 parts each, are used to tint the solution. The mixed
ingredients are set aside for 14 days before filtering.

Sozodont.—

II.—The liquid tooth preparation “Sozodont” is said to contain: Soap
powder, 60 parts; glycerine, 60 parts; alcohol, 360 parts; water, 220
parts; oils of peppermint, of aniseed, of clover, and of cinnamon, 1
part each; oil of wintergreen, 1–200 part.

 III.—Thymol                                 2 grains
       Benzoic acid                          24 grains
       Tincture eucalyptus                    2 drachms
       Alcohol quantity sufficient to make    2 ounces.

Mix. Sig.: A teaspoonful diluted with half a wineglassful of water.

 IV.—Carbolic acid, pure     2 ounces
      Glycerine, 1,260°       1 ounce
      Oil wintergreen         6 drachms
      Oil cinnamon            3 drachms
      Powdered cochineal    1⁠/⁠2 drachm
      S. V. R                40 ounces
      Distilled water        40 ounces

Dissolve the acid in the glycerine with the aid of a gentle heat and
the essential oils in the spirit; mix together, and add the water and
cochineal; then let the preparation stand for a week and filter.

A mixture of caramel and cochineal coloring, N. F., gives an agreeable
red color for saponaceous tooth washes. It is not permanent, however.

Variations of this formula follow:

 V.—White castile soap      1 ounce
     Tincture of asarum      2 drachms
     Oil of peppermint     1⁠/⁠2 drachm
     Oil of wintergreen    1⁠/⁠2 drachm
     Oil of cloves           5 drops
     Oil of cassia           5 drops
     Glycerine               4 ounces
     Alcohol                14 ounces
     Water                  14 ounces

 VI.—White castile soap    1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Oil of orange            10 minims
      Oil of cassia             5 minims
      Oil of wintergreen       15 minims
      Glycerine                 3 ounces
      Alcohol                   8 ounces
      Water enough to make 1 quart.

 VII.—White castile soap    3 ounces
       Glycerine             5 ounces
       Water                20 ounces
       Alcohol              30 ounces
       Oil of peppermint     1 drachm
       Oil of wintergreen    1 drachm
       Oil of orange peel    1 drachm
       Oil of anise          1 drachm
       Oil of cassia         1 drachm

Beat up the soap with the glycerine; dissolve the oils in the alcohol
and add to the soap and glycerine. Stir well until the soap is
completely dissolved.

 VIII.—White castile soap    1 ounce
        Orris root            4 ounces
        Rose leaves           4 ounces
        Oil of rose         1⁠/⁠2 drachm
        Oil of neroli       1⁠/⁠2 drachm
        Cochineal           1⁠/⁠2 ounce
        Diluted alcohol       2 quarts

If the wash is intended simply as an elixir for sweetening the breath,
the following preparation, resembling the celebrated eau de botot, will
be found very desirable:

 IX.—Oil of peppermint        30 minims
      Oil of spearmint         15 minims
      Oil of cloves             5 minims
      Oil of red cedar wood    60 minims
      Tincture of myrrh         1 ounce
      Alcohol                   1 pint

Care must be taken not to confound the oil of cedar tops with the oil
of cedar wood. The former has an odor like turpentine; the latter has
the fragrance of the red cedar wood.

For a cleansing wash, a solution of soap is to be recommended. It may
be made after the following formula:

 X.—White castile soap      1 ounce
     Alcohol                 6 ounces
     Glycerine               4 ounces
     Hot water               6 ounces
     Oil of peppermint      15 minims
     Oil of wintergreen     20 minims
     Oil of cloves           5 minims
     Extract of vanilla    1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Dissolve the soap in the hot water and add the glycerine and extract of
vanilla. Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, mix the solutions, and after
24 hours filter through paper. {257}

It is customary to color such preparations. An agreeable brown-yellow
tint may be given by the addition of a small quantity of caramel. A red
color may be given by cochineal. The color will fade, but will be found
reasonably permanent when kept from strong light.


«TOOTH SOAPS AND PASTES:»


«Tooth Soaps.»—

 I.—White castile soap    225 parts
     Precipitated chalk    225 parts
     Orris root            225 parts
     Oil of peppermint       7 parts
     Oil of cloves           4 parts
     Water, a sufficient quantity.

 II.—Castile soap           100 drachms
      Precipitated chalk     100 drachms
      Powdered orris root    100 drachms
      White sugar             50 drachms
      Rose water              50 drachms
      Oil of cloves          100 drops
      Oil of peppermint        3 drachms

Dissolve the soap in water, add the rose water, then rub up with the
sugar with which the oils have been previously triturated, the orris
root and the precipitated chalk.

III.—Potassium chlorate, 20 drachms; powdered white soap, 10 drachms;
precipitated chalk, 20 drachms; peppermint oil, 15 drops; clove oil, 5
drops; glycerine, sufficient to mass. Use with a soft brush.


«Saponaceous Tooth Pastes.»—

 I.—Precipitated carbonate of lime    90 parts
     Soap powder                       30 parts
     Ossa sepia, powdered              15 parts
     Tincture of cocaine               45 parts
     Oil of peppermint                  6 parts
     Oil of ylang-ylang               0.3 parts
     Glycerine                         30 parts
     Rose water to cause liquefaction. Carmine solution to color.

 II.—Precipitated carbonate of lime    150 parts
      Soap powder                        45 parts
      Arrowroot                          45 parts
      Oil of eucalyptus                   2 parts
      Oil of peppermint                   1 part
      Oil of geranium                     1 part
      Oil of cloves                    0.25 parts
      Oil of aniseed                   0.25 parts
      Glycerine                          45 parts
      Chloroform water to cause liquefaction. Carmine solution to color.

Cherry Tooth Paste.—

 III.—Clarified honey        100 drachms
       Precipitated chalk     100 drachms
       Powdered orris root    100 drachms
       Powdered rose leaves    60 drops
       Oil of cloves           55 drops
       Oil of mace             55 drops
       Oil of geranium         55 drops

Chinese Tooth Paste.—

 IV.—Powdered pumice     100 drachms
      Starch               20 drachms
      Oil of peppermint    40 drops
      Carmine             1⁠/⁠4 drachm

Eucalyptus Paste.—Forty drachms precipitated chalk, 11 drachms soap
powder, 11 drachms wheaten starch, 1⁠/⁠4 drachm carmine, 30 drops
oil of peppermint, 30 drops oil of geranium, 60 drops eucalyptus
oil, 2 drops oil of cloves, 12 drops oil of anise mixed together and
incorporated to a paste, with a mixture of equal parts of glycerine and
spirit.

Myrrh Tooth Paste.—

 Precipitated chalk    8 ounces
 Orris                 8 ounces
 White castile soap    2 ounces
 Borax                 2 ounces
 Myrrh                 1 ounce
 Glycerine, quantity sufficient.

Color and perfume to suit.

A thousand grams of levigated powdered oyster shells are rubbed up
with 12 drachms of cochineal to a homogeneous powder. To this is added
1 drachm of potassium permanganate and 1 drachm boric acid and rubbed
well up. Foam up 200 drachms castile soap and 5 drachms chemically pure
glycerine and mix it with the foregoing mass, adding by teaspoonful 150
grams of boiling strained honey. The whole mass is again thoroughly
rubbed up, adding while doing so 200 drops honey. Finally the mass
should be put into a mortar and pounded for an hour and then kneaded
with the hands for 2 hours.

Tooth Paste to be put in Collapsible Tubes.—

 Calcium carbonate, levigated        100 parts
 Cuttlefish bone, in fine powder      25 parts
 Castile soap, old white, powdered    25 parts
 Tincture of carmine, ammoniated       4 parts
 Simple syrup                         25 parts {258}
 Menthol                               2 parts
 Alcohol                               5 parts
 Attar of rose or other perfume, quantity sufficient.
 Rose water sufficient to make a paste.

Beat the soap with a little rose water, then warm until softened, add
syrup and tincture of carmine. Dissolve the perfume and menthol in
the alcohol and add to soap mixture. Add the solids and incorporate
thoroughly. Finally, work to a proper consistency for filling into
collapsible tubes, adding water, if necessary.


«MOUTH WASHES.»

 I.—Quillaia bark    125 parts
     Glycerine         95 parts
     Alcohol          155 parts

Macerate for 4 days and add:

 Acid. carbol. cryst    4 parts
 Ol. geranii          0.6 parts
 Ol. caryophyll       0.6 parts
 Ol. rosæ             0.6 parts
 Ol. cinnam           0.6 parts
 Tinct. ratanhæ        45 parts
 Aqua rosæ            900 parts

Macerate again for 4 days and filter.

 Thymol              20 parts
 Peppermint oil      10 parts
 Clove oil            5 parts
 Sage oil             5 parts
 Marjoram oil         3 parts
 Sassafras oil        3 parts
 Wintergreen oil    0.5 parts
 Coumarin           0.5 parts
 Alcohol, dil.    1,000 parts

A teaspoonful in a glass of water.

 II.—Tincture orris (1 in 4)    1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
      Lavender water               1⁠/⁠2 part
      Tinct. cinnamon (1 in 8)       1 part
      Tinct. yellow cinch bark       1 part
      Eau de cologne                 2 parts

Orris and Rose.—

 III.—Orris root          30 drachms
       Rose leaves          8 drachms
       Soap bark            8 drachms
       Cochineal        3 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
       Diluted alcohol    475 drachms
       Oil rose            30 drops
       Oil neroli          40 drops

Myrrh Astringent.—

 IV.—Tincture myrrh     125 drachms
      Tincture benzoin    50 drachms
      Tincture cinchona    8 drachms
      Alcohol            225 drachms
      Oil of rose         30 drops

Borotonic.—

 V.—Acid boric                         20 parts
     Oil wintergreen                    10 parts
     Glycerine                         110 parts
     Alcohol                           150 parts
     Distilled water enough to make    600 parts

Sweet Salicyl.—

 VI.—Acid salicylic        4 parts
      Saccharine            1 part
      Sodium bicarbonate    1 part
      Alcohol             200 parts

Foaming Orange.—

 VII.—Castile soap       29 drachms
       Oil orange         10 drops
       Oil cinnamon        5 drops
       Distilled water    30 drachms
       Alcohol            90 drachms

Australian Mint.—

 VIII.—Thymol               0.25 parts
        Acid benzoic            3 parts
        Tincture eucalyptus    15 parts
        Alcohol               100 parts
        Oil peppermint       0.75 parts

Fragrant Dentine.—

 IX.—Soap bark     125 parts
      Glycerine      95 parts
      Alcohol       155 parts
      Rose water    450 parts

Macerate for 4 days and add:

 Carbolic acid, cryst    4 parts
 Oil geranium          0.6 parts
 Oil cloves            0.6 parts
 Oil rose              0.6 parts
 Oil cinnamon          0.6 parts
 Tincture rhatany       45 parts
 Rose water            450 parts

Allow to stand 4 days; then filter.

Aromantiseptic.—

 X.—Thymol                20 parts
     Oil peppermint        10 parts
     Oil cloves             5 parts
     Oil sage               5 parts
     Oil marjoram           3 parts
     Oil sassafras          3 parts
     Oil wintergreen      0.5 parts
     Coumarin             0.5 parts
     Diluted alcohol    1,000 parts

The products of the foregoing formulas are used in the proportion of 1
teaspoonful in a half glassful of water.

Foaming.—

 XI.—Soap bark, powder            2 ounces
      Cochineal powder            60 grains
      Glycerine                    3 ounces {259}
      Alcohol                     10 ounces
      Water sufficient to make    32 ounces

Mix the soap, cochineal, glycerine alcohol, and water together;
let macerate for several days; filter and flavor; if same produces
turbidity, shake up the mixture with magnesium carbonate, and filter
through paper.

Odonter.—

 XII.—Soap bark, powder            2 ounces
       Cudbear, powder              4 drachms
       Glycerine                    4 ounces
       Alcohol                     14 ounces
       Water sufficient to make    32 ounces

Mix, and let macerate with frequent agitation, for several days;
filter; add flavor; if necessary filter again through magnesium
carbonate or paper pulp.

Sweet Anise.—

 XIII.—Soap bark                    2 ounces
        Aniseed                      4 drachms
        Cloves                       4 drachms
        Cinnamon                     4 drachms
        Cochineal                   60 grains
        Vanilla                     60 grains
        Oil of peppermint            1 drachm
        Alcohol                     16 ounces
        Water sufficient to make    32 ounces

Reduce the drugs to coarse powder, dissolve the oil of peppermint in
the alcohol, add equal parts of water, and macerate therein the powders
for 5 to 6 days, with frequent agitation; place in percolator and
percolate until 32 fluidounces have been obtained. Let stand for a week
and filter through paper; if necessary to make it perfectly bright and
clear, shake up with some magnesia, and again filter.

Saponaceous.—

 XIV.—White castile soap    2 ounces
       Glycerine             2 ounces
       Alcohol               8 ounces
       Water                 4 ounces
       Oil peppermint       20 drops
       Oil wintergreen      30 drops
       Solution of carmine N. F. sufficient to color.

Dissolve the soap in the alcohol and water, add the other ingredients,
and filter.

 XV.—Crystallized carbolic acid    4 parts
      Eucalyptol                    1 part
      Salol                         2 parts
      Menthol                    0.25 parts
      Thymol                      0.1 part
      Alcohol                     100 parts

Dye with cochineal (1 1⁠/⁠2 per cent).


«Jackson’s Mouth Wash.»—Fresh lemon peel, 10 parts; fresh sweet orange
peel, 10 parts; angelica root, 10 parts; guaiacum wood, 30 parts;
balsam of Tolu, 12 parts; benzoin, 12 parts; Peruvian balsam, 4 parts;
myrrh, 3 parts; alcohol (90 per cent), 500 parts.


«Tablets for Antiseptic Mouth Wash.»—Heliotropine, 0.01 part;
saccharine, 0.01 part; salicylic acid, 0.01 part; menthol, 1 part; milk
sugar, 5 parts. These tablets may be dyed green, red, or blue, with
chlorophyll, eosine, and indigo carmine, respectively.


«Depilatories»


«Depilatory Cream.»—The depilatory cream largely used in New York
hospitals for the removal of hair from the skin previous to operations:

 I.—Barium sulphide        3 parts
     Starch                 1 part
     Water, sufficient quantity.

The mixed powders are to be made into a paste with water, and applied
in a moderately thick layer to the parts to be denuded of hair, the
excess of the latter having been previously trimmed off with a pair
of scissors. From time to time a small part of the surface should be
examined, and when it is seen that the hair can be removed, the mass
should be washed off. The barium sulphide should be quite fresh. It can
be prepared by making barium sulphate and its own weight of charcoal
into a paste with linseed oil, rolling the paste into the shape of a
sausage, and placing it upon a bright fire to incinerate. When it has
ceased to burn, and is a white hot mass, remove from the fire, cool,
and powder.

The formula is given with some reserve, for preparations of this kind
are usually unsafe unless used with great care. It should be removed
promptly when the skin begins to burn.

 II.—Barium sulphide                     25 parts
      Soap                                 5 parts
      Talc                                35 parts
      Starch                              35 parts
      Benzaldehyde sufficient to make    120 parts

Powder the solids and mix. To use, to a part of this mixture add 3
parts of water, at the time of its application, and with a camel’s-hair
pencil paint the mixture evenly over the spot to be freed of hair. Let
remain in contact with the {260} skin for 5 minutes, then wash off with
a sponge, and in the course of 5 minutes longer the hair will come off
on slight friction with the sponge.

Strontium sulphide is an efficient depilatory. A convenient form of
applying it is as follows:

 III.—Strontium sulphide   2 parts
       Zinc oxide           3 parts
       Powdered starch      3 parts

Mix well and keep in the dry state until wanted for use, taking then
a sufficient quantity, forming into a paste with warm water and
applying to the surface to be deprived of hair. Allow to remain from
1 to 5 minutes, according to the nature of the hair and skin; it is
not advisable to continue the application longer than the last named
period. Remove in all cases at once when any caustic action is felt.
After the removal of the paste, scrape the skin gently but firmly with
a blunt-edged blade (a paper knife, for instance) until the loosened
hair is removed. Then immediately wash the denuded surface well with
warm water, and apply cold cream or some similar emollient as a
dressing.

                               By weight
 IV.—Alcohol                   12 parts
      Collodion                 35 parts
      Iodine                  0.75 parts
      Essence of turpentine    1.5 parts
      Castor oil                 2 parts

Apply with a brush on the affected parts for 3 or 4 days in thick
coats. When the collodion plaster thus formed is pulled off, the hairs
adhere to its inner surface.

V.—Rosin sticks are intended for the removal of hairs and are made
from colophony with an admixture of 10 per cent of yellow wax. The
sticks are heated like a stick of sealing wax until soft or semi-liquid
(142° F.), and lightly applied on the place from which the hair is to
be removed, and the mass is allowed to cool. These rosin sticks are
said to give good satisfaction.

DEPTHINGS, VERIFICATION OF: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

DESILVERING: See Plating.

DETERGENTS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

DEVELOPERS FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC PURPOSES: See Photography.

DEXTRIN PASTES AND MUCILAGES: See Adhesives.

DIAL CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Jewelers’ Cements.

DIAL CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

DIAL REPAIRING: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

DIAMALT: See Milk.


«DIAMOND TESTS:»

See also Gems and Jewelers’ Formulas.

To Distinguish Genuine Diamonds.—If characters or marks of any
kind are drawn with an aluminum pencil on glass, porcelain, or any
substance containing silex, the marks cannot be erased by rubbing,
however energetic the friction, and even acids will not cause them to
disappear entirely, unless the surface is entirely freed from greasy
matter, which can be accomplished by rubbing with whiting and passing a
moistened cloth over the surface at the time of writing. So, in order
to distinguish the true diamond from the false, it is necessary only
to wipe the stone carefully and trace a line on it with an aluminum
pencil, and then rub it briskly with a moistened cloth. If the line
continues visible, the stone is surely false. If, on the contrary,
the stone is a true diamond, the line will disappear without leaving a
trace, and without injury to the stone.

The common test for recognizing the diamond is the file, which does not
cut it, though it readily attacks imitations. There are other stones
not affected by the file, but they have characteristics of color and
other effects by which they are readily distinguished.

This test should be confirmed by others. From the following the reader
can select the most convenient:

A piece of glass on which the edge of a diamond is drawn, will be cut
without much pressure; a slight blow is sufficient to separate the
glass. An imitation may scratch the glass, but this will not be cut as
with the diamond. {261}

If a small drop of water is placed upon the face of a diamond and moved
about by means of the point of a pin, it will preserve its globular
form, provided the stone is clean and dry. If the attempt is made on
glass, the drop will spread.

A diamond immersed in a glass of water will be distinctly visible, and
will shine clearly through the liquid. The imitation stone will be
confounded with the water and will be nearly invisible.

By looking through a diamond with a glass at a black point on a sheet
of white paper, a single distinct point will be seen. Several points,
or a foggy point will appear if the stone is spurious.

Hydrofluoric acid dissolves all imitations, but has no effect on true
diamonds. This acid is kept in gutta-percha bottles.

For an eye practiced in comparisons it is not difficult to discern
that the facets in the cut of a true diamond are not as regular as are
those of the imitation; for in cutting and polishing the real stone an
effort is made to preserve the original as much as possible, preferring
some slight irregularities in the planes and edges to the loss in
the weight, for we all know that diamonds are sold by weight. In an
imitation, however, whether of paste or another less valuable stone,
there is always an abundance of cheap material which may be cut away
and thereby form a perfect-appearing stone.

Take a piece of a fabric, striped red and white, and draw the stone to
be tested over the colors. If it is an imitation, the colors will be
seen through it, while a diamond will not allow them to be seen.

A genuine diamond, rubbed on wood or metal, after having been
previously exposed to the light of the electric arc, becomes
phosphorescent in darkness, which does not occur with imitations.

Heat the stone to be tested, after giving it a coating of borax, and
let it fall into cold water. A diamond will undergo the test without
the slightest damage; the glass will be broken in pieces.

Finally, try with the fingers to crush an imitation and a genuine
diamond between two coins, and you will soon see the difference.

DIAMOND CEMENT: See Adhesives, under Jewelers’ Cements.

DIARRHEA IN BIRDS: See Veterinary Formulas.

DIARRHEA REMEDIES: See Cholera Remedies.


«Die Venting.»—Many pressmen have spent hours and days in the endeavor
to produce sharp and full impressions on figured patterns. If all
the deep recesses in deep-figured dies are vented to allow the air
to escape when the blow is struck, it will do much to obtain perfect
impressions, and requires only half the force that is necessary in
unvented dies. This is not known in many shops and consequently this
little air costs much in power and worry.


«DIGESTIVE POWDERS AND TABLETS.»

 I.—Sodium bicarbonate    93 parts
     Sodium chlorate        4 parts
     Calcium carbonate      3 parts
     Pepsin                 5 parts
     Ammonium carbonate     1 part

 II.—Sodium bicarbonate             120 parts
      Sodium chlorate                  5 parts
      Sal physiologic (see below)      4 parts
      Magnesium carbonate             10 parts

 III.—Pepsin, saccharated (U. S. P.)    10 drachms
       Pancreatin                        10 drachms
       Diastase                          50 drachms
       Acid, lactic                      40 drops
       Sugar of milk                     40 drachms

 IV.—Pancreatin             3 parts
      Sodium bicarbonate    15 parts
      Milk sugar             2 parts


«Sal Physiologicum.»—The formula for this ingredient, the so-called
nutritive salt (_Nahrsalz_), is as follows:

 Calcium phosphate               40 parts
 Potassium sulphate               2 parts
 Sodium phosphate                20 parts
 Sulphuric, precipitated          5 parts
 Sodium chlorate                 60 parts
 Magnesium phosphate              5 parts
 Carlsbad salts, artificial      60 parts
 Silicic acid                    10 parts
 Calcium fluoride             2 1⁠/⁠2 parts


«Digestive Tablets.»—

 Powdered double refined sugar    300 parts
 Subnitrate bismuth                60 parts
 Saccharated pepsin                45 parts
 Pancreatin                        45 parts
 Mucilage                          35 parts
 Ginger                            30 parts

Mix and divide into suitable sizes. {262}

DIOGEN DEVELOPER: See Photography.

DIP FOR BRASS: See Plating and Brass.

DIPS: See Metals.

DIPS FOR CATTLE: See Disinfectants and Veterinary Formulas.

DISH WASHING: See Household Formulas


«Disinfectants»


«Disinfecting Fluids.»—

 I.—Creosote                    40 gallons
     Rosin, powdered             56 pounds
     Caustic soda lye, 38° Tw     9 gallons
     Boiling water               12 gallons
     Methylated spirit            1 gallon
     Black treacle               14 pounds

Melt the rosin and add the creosote; run in the lyes; then add the
matter and methylated spirit mixed together, and add the treacle; boil
all till dissolved and mix well together.

 II.—Hot water                  120 pounds
      Caustic soda lye, 38° B    120 pounds
      Rosin                      300 pounds
      Creosote                   450 pounds

Boil together the water, lye, and rosin, till dissolved; turn off steam
and stir in the creosote; keep on steam to nearly boiling all the time,
but so as not to boil over, until thoroughly incorporated.

 III.—Fresh-made soap (hard yellow)    7 pounds
       Gas tar                         21 pounds
       Water, with 2 pounds soda       21 pounds

Dissolve soap (cut in fine shavings) in the gas tar; then add slowly
the soda and water which has been dissolved.

 IV.—Rosin                                     1     cwt.
      Caustic soda lye, 18° B                  16     gallons
      Black tar oil                               1⁠/⁠2 gallon
      Nitro-naphthalene dissolved in boiling
                    water (about 1⁠/⁠2 gallon)    2     pounds

Melt the rosin, add the caustic lye; then stir in the tar oil and add
the nitro-naphthalene.

 V.—Camphor                         1 ounce
     Carbolic acid (75 per cent)    12 ounces
     Aqua ammonia                   10 drachms
     Soft salt water                 8 drachms

To be diluted when required for use.

 VI.—Heavy tar oil                                       10 gallons
      Caustic soda dissolved in 5 gallons water 600° F    30 pounds

Mix the soda lyes with the oil, and heat the mixture gently with
constant stirring; add, when just on the boil, 20 pounds of refuse
fat or tallow and 20 pounds of soft soap; continue the heat until
thoroughly saponified, and add water gradually to make up 40 gallons.
Let it settle; then decant the clear liquid.


«Disinfecting Fluids or Weed-Killers.»—

I.—Cold water, 20 gallons; powdered rosin, 56 pounds; creosote oil,
40 gallons; sulphuric acid, 1⁠/⁠2 gallon; caustic soda lye, 30° B., 9
gallons.

Heat water and dissolve the rosin; then add creosote and boil to a
brown mass and shut off steam; next run in sulphuric acid and then the
lyes.

 II.—Water                                  40 gallons
      Powdered black rosin                   56 pounds
      Sulphuric acid                      2 1⁠/⁠2 gallons
      Creosote                               10 gallons
      Melted pitch                           24 pounds
      Pearlash boiled in 10 gallons water    56 pounds

Boil water and dissolve rosin and acid; then add creosote and boil well
again; add pitch and run in pearlash solution (boiling); then shut off
steam.

III. (White).—Water, 40 gallons; turpentine, 2 gallons; ammonia, 1⁠/⁠2
gallon; carbolic crystals, 14 pounds; caustic lyes, 2 gallons; white
sugar, 60 pounds, dissolved in 40 pounds water.

Heat water to boiling, and add first turpentine, next ammonia, and then
carbolic crystals. Stir well until thoroughly dissolved, and add lyes
and sugar solution.


«DISINFECTING POWDERS.»

 I.—Sulphate of iron    100 parts
     Sulphate of zinc     50 parts
     Oak bark, powder     40 parts
     Tar                   5 parts
     Oil                   5 parts

II.—Mix together chloride of lime and burnt umber, add water, and set
on plates. {263}


«Blue Sanitary Powder.»—

 Powdered alum                     2 pounds
 Oil of eucalyptus                12 ounces
 Rectified spirits of tar          6 ounces
 Rectified spirit of turpentine    2 ounces
 Ultramarine blue (common)       3⁠/⁠4 ounces
 Common salt                      14 pounds

Mix alum with about 3 pounds of salt in a large mortar, gradually add
oil of eucalyptus and spirits, then put in the ultramarine blue, and
lastly remaining salt, mixing all well, and passing through a sieve.


«Carbolic Powder.» (Strong).—Slaked lime in fine powder, 1 cwt.;
carbolic acid, 75 per cent, 2 gallons.

Color with aniline dye and then pass through a moderately fine sieve
and put into tins or casks and keep air-tight.


«Pink Carbolized Sanitary Powder.»—

 Powdered alum                         6 ounces
 Powdered green copperas               5 pounds
 Powdered red lead                     5 pounds
 Calvert’s No. 5 carbolic acid    12 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Spirit of turpentine              1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Calais sand                          10 pounds
 Slaked lime                          60 pounds

Mix carbolic acid with turpentine and sand, then add the other
ingredients, lastly the slaked lime and, after mixing, pass through a
sieve. It is advisable to use lime that has been slaked some time.


«Cuspidor Powder.»—Peat rubble is ground to a powder, and 100 parts
put into a mixing machine, which can be hermetically sealed. Then 15
parts of blue vitriol are added either very finely pulverized or in
a saturated aqueous solution. Next are added 2 parts of formalin,
and lastly 1 part of ground cloves, orange peel, or a sufficient
quantity of some volatile oil, to give the desired perfume. The mixing
machine is then closed, and kept at work until the constituents
are perfectly mixed; the powder is then ready to be put up for the
market. Its purpose is to effect a rapid absorption of the sputum,
with simultaneous destruction of any microbes present, and to prevent
decomposition and consequent unpleasant odors.


«Deodorants for Water-Closets.»—

 I.—Ferric chloride              4 parts
     Zinc chloride                5 parts
     Aluminum chloride            5 parts
     Calcium chloride             4 parts
     Magnesium chloride           3 parts
     Water sufficient to make    90 parts

Dissolve, and add to each gallon 10 grains thymol and 1⁠/⁠4 ounce oil
of rosemary, previously dissolved in about 6 quarts of alcohol, and
filter.

 II.—Sulphuric acid, fuming      90 parts
      Potassium permanganate      45 parts
      Water                    4,200 parts

Dissolve the permanganate in the water, and add under the acid. This is
said to be a most powerful disinfectant, deodorizer, and germicide. It
should not be used where there are metal trimmings.


«Formaldehyde for Disinfecting Books, Papers, etc.»—The property of
formaldehyde of penetrating all kinds of paper, even when folded
together in several layers, may be utilized for a perfect disinfection
of books and letters, especially at a temperature of 86° to 122° F. in
a closed room. The degree of penetration as well as the disinfecting
power of the formaldehyde depend upon the method of generating the gas.
Letters, paper in closed envelopes, are completely disinfected only in
12 hours, books in 24 hours at a temperature of 122° F. when 70 cubic
centimeters of formo-chloral—17.5 g. of gas—per cubic meter of space
are used. Books must be stood up in such a manner that the gas can
enter from the sides. Bacilli of typhoid preserve their vitality longer
upon unsized paper and on filtering paper than on other varieties.

There is much difference of opinion as to the disinfecting and
deodorizing power of formaldehyde when used to disinfect wooden
tierces. While some have found it to answer well, others have got
variable results, or failed of success. The explanation seems to be
that those who have obtained poor results have not allowed time for
the disinfectant to penetrate the pores of the wood, the method of
application being wrong. The solution is thrown into the tierce, which
is then steamed out at once, whereby the aldehyde is volatilized before
it has had time to do its work. If the formal and the steam, instead of
being used in succession, were used together, the steam would carry the
disinfectant into the pores of the wood. But a still better plan is to
give the aldehyde more time. {264}

Another point to be remembered in all cases of disinfection by
formaldehyde is that a mechanical cleansing must precede the action of
the antiseptic. If there are thick deposits of organic matter which
can be easily dislodged with a scrubbing brush, they can only be
disinfected by the use of large quantities of formaldehyde used during
a long period of time.


«General Disinfectants.»—

 I.—Alum 10 ounces
     Sodium carbonate     10 ounces
     Ammonium chloride     2 ounces
     Zinc chloride         1 ounce
     Sodium chloride       2 ounces
     Hydrochloric acid, quantity sufficient.
     Water to make 1 gallon.

Dissolve the alum in one half gallon of boiling water, and add the
sodium carbonate; then add hydrochloric acid until the precipitate
formed is dissolved. Dissolve the other salt in water and add to the
previous solution. Finally add enough water to make the whole measure 1
gallon, and filter.

In use, this is diluted with 7 parts of water.

II.—For the Sick Room.—In using this ventilate frequently: Guaiac, 10
parts; eucalyptol, 8 parts; phenol, 6 parts; menthol, 4 parts; thymol,
2 parts; oil of cloves, 1 part; alcohol of 90 per cent, 170 parts.

Atomizer Liquid for Sick Rooms.—

 III.—Eucalyptol              10 parts by weight
       Thyme oil                5 parts by weight
       Lemon oil                5 parts by weight
       Lavender oil             5 parts by weight
       Spirit, 90 per cent    110 parts by weight

To a pint of water a teaspoonful for evaporation.

Non-Poisonous Sheep Dips.—Paste.—

 I.—Creosote (containing 15 per cent
           to 20 per cent of carbolic acid)    2 parts
     Stearine or Yorkshire grease specific
           gravity, 1340                       1 part
     Black rosin, 5 per cent to 10 per cent.

Melt the rosin and add grease and soda lyes, and then add creosote cold.

 II.—Creosote                  1 part
      Crude hard rosin oil      1 part

Put rosin oil in copper and heat to about 220° F., and add as much
caustic soda powder, 98 per cent strength, as the oil will take up.
The quantity depends upon the amount of acetic acid in the oil. If too
much soda is added it will remain at the bottom. When the rosin oil has
taken up the soda add creosote, and let it stand.


«Odorless Disinfectants.»—

 I.—Ferric chloride          4 parts
     Zinc chloride            5 parts
     Aluminum chloride        5 parts
     Calcium chloride         4 parts
     Manganese chloride       3 parts
     Water                   69 parts

If desired, 10 grains thymol and 2 fluidrachms oil of rosemary,
previously dissolved in about 12 fluidrachms of alcohol, may be added
to each gallon.

 II.—Alum                   10 parts
      Sodium carbonate       10 parts
      Ammonium chloride       2 parts
      Sodium chloride         2 parts
      Zinc chloride           1 part
      Hydrochloric acid, sufficient.
      Water                 100 parts

Dissolve the alum in about 50 parts boiling water and add the sodium
carbonate. The resulting precipitate of aluminum hydrate dissolve
with the aid of just sufficient hydrochloric acid, and add the other
ingredients previously dissolved in the remainder of the water.

 III.—Mercuric chloride       1 part
       Cupric sulphate        10 parts
       Zinc sulphate          50 parts
       Sodium chloride        65 parts
       Water to make 1,000 parts.


«Paris Salts.»—The disinfectant known by this name is a mixture made
from the following recipe:

 Zinc sulphate            49 parts
 Ammonia alum             49 parts
 Potash permanganate       1 part
 Lime                      1 part

The ingredients are fused together, mixed with a little calcium
chloride, and perfumed with thymol.


«Platt’s Chlorides.»—

 I.—Aluminum sulphate      6 ounces
     Zinc chloride          1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Sodium chloride        2 ounces
     Calcium chloride       3 ounces
     Water enough to make 2 pints.

II.—A more elaborate formula for a preparation said to resemble the
proprietary article is as follows: {265}

 Zinc, in strips            4 ounces
 Lead carbonate             2 ounces
 Chlorinated lime           1 ounce
 Magnesium carbonate      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Aluminum hydrate       1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Potassium hydrate        1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Hydrochloric acid         16 ounces
 Water                     16 ounces
 Whiting, enough.

Dissolve the zinc in the acid; then add the other salts singly in the
order named, letting each dissolve before the next is added. When
all are dissolved add the water to the solution, and after a couple
of hours add a little whiting to neutralize any excess of acid; then
filter.

Zinc chloride ranks very low among disinfectants, and the use of such
solutions as these, by giving a false sense of security from disease
germs, may be the means of spreading rather than of checking the spread
of sickness.


«Disinfecting Coating.»—Carbolic acid, 2 parts; manganese, 3 parts;
calcium chloride, 2 parts; china clay, 10 parts; infusorial earth, 4
parts; dextrin, 2 parts; and water, 10 parts.

DISTEMPER IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.

DIURETIC BALL: See Veterinary Formulas.

DOG APPLICATIONS: See Insecticides.


«DOG BISCUIT.»

The waste portions of meat and tallow, including the skin and fiber,
have for years been imported from South American tallow factories in
the form of blocks. Most of the dog bread consists principally of these
remnants, chopped and mixed with flour. They contain a good deal of
firm fibrous tissue, and a large percentage of fat, but are lacking
in nutritive salts, which must be added to make good dog bread, just
as in the case of the meat flour made from the waste of meat extract
factories. The flesh of dead animals is not used by any reputable
manufacturers, for the reason that it gives a dark color to the dough,
has an unpleasant odor, and if not properly sterilized would be
injurious to dogs as a steady diet.

Wheat flour, containing as little bran as possible, is generally
used, oats, rye, or Indian meal being only mixed in to make special
varieties, or, as in the case of Indian meal, for cheapness. Rye flour
would give a good flavor, but it dries slowly, and the biscuits would
have to go through a special process of drying after baking, else they
would mold and spoil. Dog bread must be made from good wheat flour, of
a medium sort, mixed with 15 or 16 per cent of sweet, dry chopped meat,
well baked and dried like pilot bread or crackers. This is the rule for
all the standard dog bread on the market. There are admixtures which
affect more or less its nutritive value, such as salt, vegetables,
chopped bones, or bone meal, phosphate of lime, and other nutritive
salts. In preparing the dough and in baking, care must be taken to keep
it light and porous.

DOG DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES: See Veterinary Formulas.

DOG SOAP: See Soap.

DONARITE: See Explosives.

DOORS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.


«DOSES FOR ADULTS AND CHILDREN.»

The usual method pursued by medical men in calculating the doses of
medicine for children is to average the dose in proportion to their
approximate weight or to figure out a dose upon the assumption that at
12 years of age half of an adult dose will be about right. Calculated
on this basis the doses for those under 12 will be in direct proportion
to the age in years plus 12, divided into the age. By this rule a child
1 year old should get 1 plus 12, or 13, dividing 1, or 1⁠/⁠13 of an
adult dose. If the child is 2 years old it should get 2 plus 12, or 14,
dividing 2, or 1⁠/⁠7 of an adult dose. A child of 3 years should get
3 plus 12, or 15, dividing 3, or 1⁠/⁠5 of an adult dose. A child of 4
should get 4 plus 12, or 16, dividing 4, or 1⁠/⁠4 of an adult dose.

As both children and adults vary materially in size when of the same
age the calculation by approximate weights is the more accurate way.
Taking the weight of the average adult as 150 pounds, then a boy, man,
or woman, whatever the age, weighing only 75 pounds should receive
only one-half of an adult dose, and a man of 300 pounds, provided his
weight is the result of a properly proportioned body, and not due to
mere adipose {266} tissue, should be double that of the average adult.
If the weight is due to mere fat or to some diseased condition of the
body, such a calculation would be entirely wrong. The object of the
calculation is to get as nearly as possible to the amount of dilution
the dose undergoes in the blood or in the intestinal contents of the
patient. Each volume of blood should receive exactly the same dose in
order to give the same results, other conditions being equal.

DOSE TABLE FOR VETERINARY PURPOSES: See Veterinary Formulas.


«DRAWINGS, PRESERVATION OF.»

Working designs and sketches are easily soiled and rendered unsuitable
for further use. This can be easily avoided by coating them with
collodion, to which 24 per cent of stearine from a good stearine candle
has been added. Lay the drawing on a glass plate or a board, and pour
on the collodion, as the photographer treats his plates. After 10 or
20 minutes the design will be dry and perfectly white, possessing a
dull luster, and being so well protected that it may be washed off with
water without fear of spoiling it.

DRAWINGS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

DRIERS: See Siccatives.

DRILLING, LUBRICANT FOR: See Lubricants.

DRINKS FOR SUMMER AND WINTER: See Beverages.

DROPS, TABLE OF: See Tables.

DRYING OILS: See Oil.

DRY ROT: See Rot.

DUBBING FOR LEATHER: See Lubricants.

DUST-LAYING: See Oil.

DUST PREVENTERS AND DUST CLOTHS: See Household Formulas.


«Dyes»

In accordance with the requirements of dyers, many of the following
recipes describe dyes for large quantities of goods, but to make them
equally adapted for the use of private families they are usually given
in even quantities, so that it is an easy matter to ascertain the
quantity of materials required for dyeing, when once the weight of
the goods is known, the quantity of materials used being reduced in
proportion to the smaller quantity of goods.

Employ soft water for all dyeing purposes, if it can be procured,
using 4 gallons water to 1 pound of goods; for larger quantities a
little less water will do. Let all the implements used in dyeing be
kept perfectly clean. Prepare the goods by scouring well with soap and
water, washing out the soap well, and dipping in warm water, before
immersion in the dye or mordant. Goods should be well aired, rinsed,
and properly hung up after dyeing. Silks and fine goods should be
tenderly handled, otherwise injury to the fabric will result.


«Aniline Black.»—Water, 20 to 30 parts; chlorate of potassa, 1 part;
sal ammoniac, 1 part; chloride of copper, 1 part; aniline and
hydrochloric acid, each 1 part, previously mixed together. It is
essential that the preparation should be acid, and the more acid it is
the more rapid will be the production of the blacks; if too much so, it
may injure the fabric. The fabric or yarn is dried in ageing rooms at a
low temperature for 24 hours, and washed afterwards.


«Black on Cotton.»—For 40 pounds goods, use sumac, 30 pounds; boil
3⁠/⁠4 of an hour; let the goods steep overnight, and immerse them in
limewater, 40 minutes, remove, and allow them to drip 3⁠/⁠4 of an hour;
add copperas, 4 pounds, to the sumac liquor, and dip 1 hour more; next
work them through limewater for 20 minutes; then make a new dye of
logwood, 20 pounds, boil 2 1⁠/⁠2 hours, and enter the goods 3 hours;
then add bichromate of potash, 1 pound, to the new dye, and dip 1 hour
more. Work in clean cold water and dry out of the sun.


«Black Straw Hat Varnish.»—Best alcohol, 4 ounces; pulverized black
sealing wax, 1 ounce. Place in a phial, and put the phial into a warm
place, stirring or shaking occasionally until the wax is dissolved.
Apply it when warm before the fire or in the sun. This makes a
beautiful gloss. {267}


«Chrome Black for Wool.»—For 40 pounds of goods, use blue vitriol,
3 pounds; boil a short time, then dip the wool or fabric 3⁠/⁠4 of
an hour, airing frequently. Take out the goods, and make a dye with
logwood, 24 pounds; boil 1⁠/⁠2 hour, dip 3⁠/⁠4 of an hour, air the
goods, and dip 1⁠/⁠4 of an hour longer; then wash in strong soapsuds. A
good fast color.


«Black Dye on Wool, for Mixtures.»—For 50 pounds of wool, take
bichromate of potash, 1 pound, 4 ounces; ground argal, 15 ounces; boil
together and put in the fabric, stirring well, and let it remain in the
dye 5 hours. Take it out, rinse slightly in clean water, then make a
new dye, into which put logwood, 1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds. Boil 1 1⁠/⁠4 hours,
adding chamber lye, 5 pints. Let the fabric remain in all night, and
wash out in clean water.


«Bismarck Brown.»—Mix together 1 pound Bismarck, 5 gallons water, and
3⁠/⁠4 pound sulphuric acid. This paste dissolves easily in hot water
and may be used directly for dyeing. A liquid dye may be prepared by
making the bulk of the above mixture to 2 gallons with alcohol. To dye,
sour with sulphuric acid; add a quantity of sulphate of soda, immerse
the wool, and add the color by small portions, keeping the temperature
under 212° F. Very interesting shades may be developed by combining the
color with indigo paste or picric acid.


«Chestnut Brown for Straw Bonnets.»—For 25 hats, use ground sanders,
1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds; ground curcuma, 2 pounds; powdered gallnuts or sumac,
3⁠/⁠4 pound; rasped logwood, 1⁠/⁠10 pound. Boil together with the hats
in a large kettle (so as not to crowd), for 2 hours, then withdraw the
hats, rinse, and let them remain overnight in a bath of nitrate of 4°
Bé., when they are washed. A darker brown may be obtained by increasing
the quantity of sanders. To give the hats the desired luster, they are
brushed with a brush of couchgrass, when dry.


«Cinnamon or Brown for Cotton and Silk.»—Give the goods as much color,
from a solution of blue vitriol, 2 ounces, to water, 1 gallon, as they
will take up in dipping 15 minutes; then turn them through limewater.
This will make a beautiful sky blue of much durability. The fabric
should next be run through a solution of prussiate of potash, 1 ounce,
to water, 1 gallon.


«Brown Dye for Cotton or Linen.»—Give the pieces a mixed mordant of
acetate of alumina and acetate of iron, and then dye them in a bath of
madder, or madder and fustic. When the acetate of alumina predominates,
the dye has an amaranth tint. A cinnamon tint is obtained by first
giving a mordant of alum, next a madder bath, then a bath of fustic, to
which a little green copperas has been added.


«Brown for Silk.»—Dissolve annatto, 1 pound; pearlash, 4 pounds, in
boiling water, and pass the silk through it for 2 hours; then take
it out, squeeze well, and dry. Next give it a mordant of alum, and
pass through a bath of brazil wood, and afterwards through a bath of
logwood, to which a little green copperas has been added; wring it out
and dry; afterwards rinse well.


«Brown Dye for Wool.»—This may be induced by a decoction of oak bark,
with variety of shade according to the quantity employed. If the goods
be first passed through a mordant of alum the color will be brightened.


«Brown for Cotton.»—Catechu or terra japonica gives cotton a brown
color; blue vitriol turns it to the bronze; green copperas darkens it,
when applied as a mordant and the stuff is boiled in the bath. Acetate
of alumina as a mordant brightens it. The French color Carmelite is
given with catechu, 1 pound; verdigris, 4 ounces; and sal ammoniac, 5
ounces.


«Dark Snuff Brown for Wool.»—For 50 pounds of goods, take camwood, 10
pounds, boil for 20 minutes, then dip the goods for 3⁠/⁠4 of an hour;
take them out, and add to the dye, fustic, 25 pounds, boil 12 minutes,
and dip the goods 3⁠/⁠4 of an hour; then add blue vitriol, 10 ounces,
copperas, 2 pounds, 8 ounces; dip again 40 minutes. Add more copperas
if the shade is required darker.


«Brown for Wool and Silk.»—Infusion or decoction of walnut peels
dyes wool and silk a brown color, which is brightened by alum.
Horse-chestnut peels also impart a brown color; a mordant of muriate of
tin turns it on the bronze, and sugar of lead the reddish brown.


«Alkali Blue and Nicholson’s Blue.»—Dissolve 1 pound of the dye in 10
gallons boiling water, and add this by small portions to the dye bath,
which should be rendered alkaline by borax. The fabric should be well
worked about between each addition of the color. The temperature must
be kept under 212° F. To develop the color, wash with water {268} and
pass through a bath containing sulphuric acid.


«Aniline Blue.»—To 100 pounds of fabric, dissolve 1 1⁠/⁠4 pounds
aniline blue in 3 quarts hot alcohol, strain through a filter, and add
it to a bath of 130° F.; also 10 pounds Glauber’s salts, and 5 pounds
acetic acid. Immerse the goods and handle them well for 20 minutes.
Next heat slowly to 200° F.; then add 5 pounds sulphuric acid diluted
with water. Let the whole boil 20 minutes longer; then rinse and dry.
If the aniline be added in 2 or 3 proportions during the process of
coloring, it will facilitate the evenness of the color.


«Blue on Cotton.»—For 40 pounds of goods, use copperas, 2 pounds; boil
and dip 20 minutes; dip in soapsuds, and return to the dye 3 or 4
times; then make a new bath with prussiate of potash, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; oil
of vitriol, 1 1⁠/⁠4 pints; boil 1⁠/⁠2 hour, rinse out and dry.


«Sky Blue on Cotton.»—For 60 pounds of goods, blue vitriol, 5 pounds.
Boil a short time, then enter the goods, dip 3 hours, and transfer to
a bath of strong limewater. A fine brown color will be imparted to the
goods if they are then put through a solution of prussiate of potash.


«Blue Dye for Hosiery.»—One hundred pounds of wool are colored with 4
pounds Guatemala or 3 pounds Bengal indigo, in the soda or wood vat.
Then boil in a kettle a few minutes, 5 pounds of cudbear or 8 pounds
of archil paste; add 1 pound of soda, or, better, 1 pail of urine;
then cool the dye to about 170° F. and enter the wool. Handle well for
about 20 minutes, then take it out, cool, rinse, and dry. It makes no
difference whether the cudbear is put in before or after the indigo.
Three ounces of aniline purple dissolved in alcohol, 1⁠/⁠2 pint, can be
used instead of the cudbear. Wood spirit is cheaper than alcohol, and
is much used by dyers for the purpose of dissolving aniline colors. It
produces a very pretty shade, but should never be used on mixed goods
which have to be bleached.


«Dark-Blue Dye.»—This dye is suitable for thibets and lastings. Boil
100 pounds of the fabric for 1 1⁠/⁠2 hours in a solution of alum,
25 pounds; tartar, 4 pounds; mordant, 6 pounds; extract of indigo,
6 pounds; cool as usual. Boil in fresh water from 8 to 10 pounds of
logwood, in a bag or otherwise, then cool the dye to 170° F. Reel the
fabric quickly at first, then let it boil strongly for 1 hour. This is
a very good imitation of indigo blue.


«Saxon Blue.»—For 100 pounds thibet or comb yarn, use alum, 20 pounds;
cream of tartar, 3 pounds; mordant, 2 pounds; extract of indigo,
3 pounds; or carmine, 1 pound, makes a better color. When all is
dissolved, cool the kettle to 180° F.; enter and handle quickly at
first, then let the fabric boil 1⁠/⁠2 hour, or until even. Long boiling
dims the color. Zephyr worsted yarn ought to be prepared, first, by
boiling it in a solution of alum and sulphuric acid; the indigo is
added afterwards.


«Logwood and Indigo Blue.»—For 100 pounds of cloth. Color the cloth
first by one or two dips in the vat of indigo blue, and rinse it well,
and then boil it in a solution of 20 pounds of alum, 2 pounds of
half-refined tartar, and 5 pounds of mordant, for 2 hours; finally take
it out and cool. In fresh water boil 10 pounds of good logwood for half
an hour in a bag or otherwise; cool off to 170° F. before entering.
Handle well over a reel, let it boil for half an hour; then take it
out, cool and rinse. This is a very firm blue.


«Blue Purple for Silk.»—For 40 pounds of goods, take bichromate of
potash, 8 ounces; alum, 1 pound; dissolve all and bring the water to a
boil, and put in the goods; boil 1 hour. Then empty the dye, and make
a new dye with logwood, 8 pounds, or extract of logwood, 1 pound 4
ounces, and boil in this 1 hour longer. Grade the color by using more
or less logwood, as dark or light color is wanted.


«Blue Purple for Wool.»—One hundred pounds of wool are first dipped in
the blue vat to a light shade, then boiled in a solution of 15 pounds
of alum and 3 pounds of half-refined tartar, for 1 1⁠/⁠2 hours, the
wool taken out, cooled, and let stand 24 hours. Then boil in fresh
water 8 pounds of powdered cochineal for a few minutes, cool the kettle
to 170° F. Handle the prepared wool in this for 1 hour, when it is
ready to cool, rinse and dry. By coloring first with cochineal, as
aforesaid, and finishing in the blue vat, the fast purple or dahlia, so
much admired in German broadcloths, will be produced. Tin acids must
not be used in this color.


«To Make Extract of Indigo Blue.»—Take of vitriol, 2 pounds, and stir
into it finely pulverized indigo, 8 ounces, stirring briskly for the
first half hour; then {269} cover up, and stir 4 or 5 times daily for
a few days. Add a little pulverized chalk, stirring it up, and keep
adding it as long as it foams; it will neutralize the acid. Keep it
closely corked.


«Light Silver Drab.»—For 50 pounds of goods, use logwood, 1⁠/⁠2 pound;
alum, about the same quantity; boil well, enter the goods, and dip them
for 1 hour. Grade the color to any desired shade by using equal parts
of logwood and alum.


«GRAY DYES:»


«Slate Dye for Silk.»—For a small quantity, take a pan of warm water
and about a teacupful of logwood liquor, pretty strong, and a piece of
pearlash the size of a nut; take gray-colored goods and handle a little
in this liquid, and it is finished. If too much logwood is used, the
color will be too dark.


«Slate for Straw Hats.»—First, soak in rather strong warm suds for 15
minutes to remove sizing or stiffening; then rinse in warm water to get
out the soap. Scald cudbear, 1 ounce, in sufficient water to cover the
hat; work it in this dye at 180° F., until a light purple is obtained.
Have a vessel of cold water, blued with the extract of indigo, 1⁠/⁠2
ounce, and work or stir the bonnet in this until the tint pleases. Dry,
then rinse out with cold water, and dry again in the shade. If the
purple is too deep in shade the final slate will be too dark.


«Silver Gray for Straw.»—For 25 hats, select the whitest hats and
soften them in a bath of crystallized soda to which some clean
limewater has been added. Boil for 2 hours in a large vessel, using for
a bath a decoction of the following: Alum, 4 pounds; tartaric acid,
3⁠/⁠8 pound; some ammoniacal cochineal, and carmine of indigo. A little
sulphuric acid may be necessary in order to neutralize the alkali of
the cochineal dye. If the last-mentioned ingredients are used, let
the hats remain for an hour longer in the boiling bath, then rinse in
slightly acidulated water.


«Dark Steel.»—Mix black and white wool together in the proportion of
50 pounds of black wool to 7 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of white. For large or small
quantities, keep the same proportion, mixing carefully and thoroughly.


«GREEN DYES:»


«Aniline Green for Silk.»—Iodine green or night green dissolves easily
in warm water. For a liquid dye 1 pound may be dissolved in 1 gallon
alcohol, and mixed with 2 gallons water, containing 1 ounce sulphuric
acid.


«Aniline Green for Wool.»—Prepare two baths, one containing the
dissolved dye and a quantity of carbonate of soda or borax. In this
the wool is placed, and the temperature raised to 212° F. A grayish
green is produced, which must be brightened and fixed in a second bath
of water 100° F., to which some acetic acid has been added. Cotton
requires preparation by sumac.


«Green for Cotton.»—For 40 pounds of goods, use fustic, 10 pounds; blue
vitriol, 10 ounces; soft soap, 2 1⁠/⁠2 quarts; and logwood chips, 1
pound 4 ounces. Soak the logwood overnight in a brass vessel, and put
it on the fire in the morning, adding the other ingredients. When quite
hot it is ready for dyeing; enter the goods at once, and handle well.
Different shades may be obtained by letting part of the goods remain
longer in the dye.


«Green for Silk.»—Boil green ebony in water, and let it settle. Take
the clear liquor as hot as the hands can bear, and handle the goods in
it until of a bright yellow. Take water and put in a little sulphate of
indigo; handle goods in this till of the shade desired. The ebony may
previously be boiled in a bag to prevent it from sticking to the silk.


«Green for Wool and Silk.»—Take equal quantities of yellow oak and
hickory bark, make a strong yellow bath by boiling, and shade to the
desired tint by adding a small quantity of extract of indigo.


«Green Fustic Dye.»—For 50 pounds of goods, use 50 pounds of fustic
with alum, 11 pounds. Soak in water until the strength is extracted,
put in the goods until of a good yellow color, remove the chips, and
add extract of indigo in small quantities at a time, until the color is
satisfactory.


«PURPLE AND VIOLET DYES:»


«Aniline Violet and Purple.»—Acidulate the bath by sulphuric acid, or
use sulphate of soda; both these substances render the shade bluish.
Dye at 212° F. To give a fair middle shade to 10 pounds of wool, a
quantity of solution equal to 1⁠/⁠2 to 3⁠/⁠4 ounces of the solid dye
will be required. The color of the dyed fabric is improved by washing
in soap and water, and then passing through a bath soured by sulphuric
acid.


«Purple.»—For 40 pounds of goods, use {270} alum, 3 pounds; muriate
of tin, 4 teacups; pulverized cochineal, 1 pound; cream of tartar, 2
pounds. Boil the alum, tin, and cream of tartar, for 20 minutes, add
the cochineal and boil 5 minutes; immerse the goods 2 hours; remove and
enter them in a new dye composed of brazil wood, 3 pounds; logwood, 7
pounds; alum, 4 pounds, and muriate of tin, 8 cupfuls, adding a little
extract of indigo.


«Purple for Cotton.»—Get up a tub of hot logwood liquor, enter 3
pieces, give them 5 ends, and hedge out. Enter them in a clean alum
tub, give them 5 ends, and hedge out. Get up another tub of logwood
liquor, enter, give them 5 ends, and hedge out; renew the alum tub,
give 5 ends in that, and finish.


«Purple for Silk.»—For 10 pounds of goods, enter the goods in a blue
dye bath, and secure a light-blue color, dry, and dip in a warm
solution containing alum, 2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds. Should a deeper color be
required, add a little extract of indigo.


«Solferino and Magenta for Woolen, Silk, or Cotton.»—For 1 pound of
woolen goods, magenta shade, 96 grains, apothecaries’ weight, of
aniline red, will be required. Dissolve in a little warm alcohol,
using, say, 6 fluidounces, or about 6 gills alcohol per ounce of
aniline. Many dyers use wood spirits because of its cheapness. For a
solferino shade, use 64 grains aniline red, and dissolve in 4 ounces
alcohol, to each 1 pound of goods. Cold water, 1 quart, will dissolve
these small quantities of aniline red, but the cleanest and quickest
way will be found by using the alcohol, or wood spirits. Clean the
cloth and goods by steeping at a gentle heat in weak soapsuds, rinse
in several masses of clean water and lay aside moist. The alcoholic
solution of aniline is to be added from time to time to the warm or
hot dye bath, till the color on the goods is of the desired shade. The
goods are to be removed from the dye bath before each addition of the
alcoholic solution, and the bath is to be well stirred before the goods
are returned. The alcoholic solution should be first dropped into a
little water, and well mixed, and the mixture should then be strained
into the dye bath. If the color is not dark enough after working from
20 to 30 minutes, repeat the removal of the goods from the bath, and
the addition of the solution, and the re-immersion of the goods from
15 to 30 minutes more, or until suited, then remove from the bath and
rinse in several masses of clean water, and dry in the shade. Use about
4 gallons water for dye bath for 1 pound of goods; less water for
larger quantities.


«Violet for Silk or Wool.»—A good violet dye may be given by passing
the goods first through a solution of verdigris, then through a
decoction of logwood, and lastly through alum water. A fast violet may
be given by dyeing the goods crimson with cochineal, without alum or
tartar, and after rinsing passing them through the indigo vat. Linens
or cottons are first galled with 18 per cent of gallnuts, next passed
through a mordant of alum, iron liquor, and sulphate of copper, working
them well, then worked in a madder bath made with an equal weight of
root, and lastly brightened with soap or soda.


«Violet for Straw Bonnets.»—Take alum, 4 pounds; tartaric acid, 1
pound; chloride of tin, 1 pound. Dissolve and boil, allowing the hats
to remain in the boiling solution 2 hours; then add enough decoction
of logwood, carmine, and indigo to induce the desired shade, and rinse
finally in water in which some alum has been dissolved.


«Wine Color.»—For 50 pounds of goods, use camwood, 10 pounds, and boil
20 minutes; dip the goods 1⁠/⁠2 hour, boil again, and dip 40 minutes;
then darken with blue vitriol, 15 ounces, and 5 pounds of copperas.


«Lilac for Silk.»—For 5 pounds of silk, use archil, 7 1⁠/⁠2 pounds,
and mix well with the liquor. Make it boil 1 hour, and dip the silk
quickly; then let it cool, and wash in river water. A fine half violet,
or lilac, more or less full, will be obtained.


«RED, CRIMSON, AND PINK DYES:»


«Aniline Red.»—Inclose the aniline in a small muslin bag. Have a kettle
(tin or brass) filled with moderately hot water and rub the substance
out. Then immerse the goods to be colored, and in a short time they are
done. It improves the color to wring the goods out of strong soapsuds
before putting them in the dye. This is a permanent color on wool or
silk.


«Red Madder.»—To 100 pounds of fabric, use 20 pounds of alum, 5 pounds
of tartar, and 5 pounds of muriate of tin. When these are dissolved,
enter the goods and let them boil for 2 hours, then take out, let cool,
and lay overnight. Into fresh water, stir 75 pounds of good {271}
madder, and enter the fabric at 120° F. and bring it up to 200° F. in
the course of an hour. Handle well to secure evenness, then rinse and
dry.


«Red for Wool.»—For 40 pounds of goods, make a tolerably thick paste of
lac dye and sulphuric acid, and allow it to stand for a day. Then take
tartar, 4 pounds, tin liquor, 2 pounds 8 ounces, and 3 pounds of the
paste; make a hot bath with sufficient water, and enter the goods for
3⁠/⁠4 hour; afterwards carefully rinse and dry.


«Crimson for Silk.»—For 1 pound of goods, use alum, 3 ounces; dip
at hand heat 1 hour; take out and drain, while making a new dye, by
boiling for 10 minutes, cochineal, 3 ounces; bruised nutgalls, 2
ounces; and cream of tartar, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce, in 1 pail of water. When a
little cool begin to dip, raising the heat to a boil, continuing to dip
1 hour. Wash and dry.


«Aniline Scarlet.»—For every 40 pounds of goods, dissolve 5 pounds
white vitriol (sulphate of zinc) at 180° F., place the goods in this
bath for 10 minutes, then add the color, prepared by boiling for a few
minutes, 1 pound aniline scarlet in 3 gallons water, stirring the same
continually. This solution has to be filtered before being added to
the bath. The goods remain in the latter for 15 minutes, when they have
become browned and must be boiled for another half hour in the same
bath after the solution of sal ammoniac. The more of this is added the
deeper will be the shade.


«Scarlet with Cochineal.»—For 50 pounds of wool, yarn, or cloth, use
cream of tartar, 1 pound 9 ounces; cochineal, pulverized, 12 1⁠/⁠2
ounces; muriate of tin or scarlet spirit, 8 pounds. After boiling the
dye, enter the goods, work them well for 15 minutes, then boil them
1 1⁠/⁠2 hours, slowly agitating the goods while boiling, wash in clean
water, and dry out of the sun.


«Scarlet with Lac Dye.»—For 100 pounds of flannel or yarn, take 25
pounds of ground lac dye, 15 pounds of scarlet spirit (made as per
directions below), 5 pounds of tartar, 1 pound of flavine, or according
to shade, 1 pound of tin crystals, 5 pounds of muriatic acid. Boil
all for 15 minutes, then cool the dye to 170° F. Enter the goods, and
handle them quickly at first. Let boil 1 hour, and rinse while yet hot,
before the gum and impurities harden. This color stands scouring with
soap better than cochineal scarlet. A small quantity of sulphuric acid
may be added to dissolve the gum.


«Muriate of Tin or Scarlet Spirit.»—Take 16 pounds muriatic acid, 22°
Bé.; 1 pound feathered tin, and water, 2 pounds. The acid should be put
in a stoneware pot, and the tin added, and allowed to dissolve. The
mixture should be kept a few days before using. The tin is feathered
or granulated by melting in a suitable vessel, and pouring it from a
height of about 5 feet into a pailful of water. This is a most powerful
agent in certain colors, such as scarlets, oranges, pinks, etc.


«Pink for Cotton.»—For 40 pounds of goods, use redwood, 20 pounds;
muriate of tin, 2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds. Boil the redwood 1 hour, turn off into
a large vessel, add the muriate of tin, and put in the goods. Let it
stand 5 or 10 minutes, and a good fast pink will be produced.


«Pink for Wool.»—For 60 pounds of goods, take alum, 5 pounds 12 ounces;
boil and immerse the goods 50 minutes; then add to the dye cochineal
well pulverized, 1 pound, 4 ounces; cream of tartar, 5 pounds; boil and
enter the goods while boiling, until the color is satisfactory.


«YELLOW, ORANGE, AND BRONZE DYES:»


«Aniline Yellow.»—This color is slightly soluble in water, and for
dyers’ use may be used directly for the preparation of the bath dye,
but is best used by dissolving 1 pound of dye in 2 gallons alcohol.
Temperature of bath should be under 200° F. The color is much improved
and brightened by a trace of sulphuric acid.


«Yellow for Cotton.»—For 40 pounds goods, use sugar of lead, 3 pounds
8 ounces; dip the goods 2 hours. Make a new dye with bichromate of
potash, 2 pounds; dip until the color suits, wring out and dry. If not
yellow enough repeat the operation.


«Yellow for Silk.»—For 10 pounds of goods, use sugar of lead, ounces;
alum, 2 pounds. Enter the goods, and let them remain 12 hours; remove
them, drain, and make a new dye with fustic, 10 pounds. Immerse until
the color suits.


«Orange.»—I.—For 50 pounds of goods, use argal, 3 pounds; muriate of
tin, 1 quart; boil and dip 1 hour; then add to the dye, fustic, 25
pounds; madder, 2 1⁠/⁠2 {272} quarts; and dip again 40 minutes. If
preferred, cochineal, 1 pound 4 ounces, may be used instead of the
madder, as a better color is induced by it.

II.—For 40 pounds of goods, use sugar of lead, 2 pounds, and boil 15
minutes. When a little cool, enter the goods, and dip for 2 hours,
wring them out, make a fresh dye with bichromate of potash, 4 pounds;
madder, 1 pound, and immerse until the desired color is secured. The
shade may be varied by dipping in limewater.


«Bronze.»—Sulphate or muriate of manganese dissolved in water with a
little tartaric acid imparts a beautiful bronze tint. The stuff after
being put through the solution must be turned through a weak lye of
potash, and afterwards through another of chloride of lime, to brighten
and fix it.

Prussiate of copper gives a bronze or yellowish-brown color to silk.
The piece well mordanted with blue vitriol may be passed through a
solution of prussiate of potash.


«Mulberry for Silk.»—For 5 pounds of silk, use alum, 1 pound 4 ounces;
dip 50 minutes, wash out, and make a dye with brazil wood, 5 ounces,
and logwood, 1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces, by boiling together. Dip in this 1⁠/⁠2
hour; then add more brazil wood and logwood, equal parts, until the
color suits.


«FEATHER DYES.»

I.—Cut some white curd soap in small pieces, pour boiling water on
them, and add a little pearlash. When the soap is quite dissolved, and
the mixture cool enough for the hand to bear, plunge the feathers into
it, and draw them through the hand till the dirt appears squeezed out
of them; pass them through a clean lather with some blue in it; then
rinse them in cold water with blue to give them a good color. Beat them
against the hand to shake off the water, and dry by shaking them near a
fire. When perfectly dry, coil each fiber separately with a blunt knife
or ivory folder.

II.—Black.—Immerse for 2 or 3 days in a bath, at first hot, of logwood,
8 parts, and copperas or acetate of iron, 1 part.

III.—Blue.—Same as II, but with the indigo vat.

IV.—Brown.—By using any of the brown dyes for silk or woolen.

V.—Crimson.—A mordant of alum, followed by a hot bath of brazil wood,
afterwards by a weak dye of cudbear.

VI.—Pink or Rose.—With safflower or lemon juice.

VII.—Plum.—With the red dye, followed by an alkaline bath.

VIII.—Red.—A mordant of alum, followed by a bath of brazil wood.

IX.—Yellow.—A mordant of alum, followed by a bath of turmeric or weld.

X.—Green.—Take of verdigris and verditer, of each 1 ounce; gum water, 1
pint; mix them well and dip the feathers, they having been first soaked
in hot water, into the said mixture.

XI.—Purple.—Use lake and indigo.

XII.—Carnation.—Vermilion and smalt.


«DYES FOR ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS.»

The French employ velvet, fine cambric, and kid for the petals, and
taffeta for the leaves. Very recently thin plates of bleached whalebone
have been used for some portions of the artificial flowers.

Colors and Stains.—I.—Blue.—Indigo dissolved in oil of vitriol, and the
acid partly neutralized with salt of tartar or whiting.

II.—Green.—A solution of distilled verdigris.

III.—Lilac.—Liquid archil.

IV.—Red.—Carmine dissolved in a solution of salt of tartar, or in
spirits of hartshorn.

V.—Violet.—Liquid archil mixed with a little salt of tartar.

VI.—Yellow.—Tincture of turmeric. The colors are generally applied with
the fingers.


«DYES FOR FURS:»

I.—Brown.—Use tincture of logwood.

II.—Red.—Use ground brazil wood, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; water, 1 1⁠/⁠2 quarts;
cochineal, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; boil the brazil wood in the water 1 hour;
strain and add the cochineal; boil 15 minutes.

III.—Scarlet.—Boil 1⁠/⁠2 ounce saffron in 1⁠/⁠2 pint of water, and pass
over the work before applying the red.

IV.—Blue.—Use logwood, 7 ounces; blue vitriol, 1 ounce; water, 22
ounces; boil.

V.—Purple.—Use logwood, 11 ounces; alum, 6 ounces; water, 29 ounces.

VI.—Green.—Use strong vinegar, 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints; best verdigris, 2 ounces,
ground fine; sap green, 1⁠/⁠4 ounce; mix all together and boil. {273}


«DYES FOR HATS.»

The hats should be at first strongly galled by boiling a long time in a
decoction of galls with a little logwood so that the dye may penetrate
into their substance; after which a proper quantity of vitriol and
decoction of logwood, with a little verdigris, are added, and the hats
kept in this mixture for a considerable time. They are afterwards put
into a fresh liquor of logwood, galls, vitriol, and verdigris, and,
when the hats are costly, or of a hair which with difficulty takes the
dye, the same process is repeated a third time. For obtaining the most
perfect color, the hair or wool is dyed blue before it is formed into
hats.

The ordinary bath for dyeing hats, employed by London manufacturers,
consists, for 12 dozen, of 144 pounds of logwood; 12 pounds of green
sulphate of iron or copperas; 7 1⁠/⁠2 pounds verdigris. The logwood
having been introduced into the copper and digested for some time, the
copperas and verdigris are added in successive quantities, and in the
above proportions, along with every successive 2 or 3 dozen of hats
suspended upon the dripping machine. Each set of hats, after being
exposed to the bath with occasional airings during 40 minutes, is taken
off the pegs, and laid out upon the ground to be more completely
blackened by the peroxydizement of the iron with the atmospheric
oxygen. In 3 or 4 hours the dyeing is completed. When fully dyed, the
hats are well washed in running water.

Straw hats or bonnets may be dyed black by boiling them 3 or 4 hours
in a strong liquor of logwood, adding a little copperas occasionally.
Let the bonnets remain in the liquor all night; then take out to dry in
the air. If the black is not satisfactory, dye again after drying. Rub
inside and out with a sponge moistened in fine oil; then block.

I.—Red Dye.—Boil ground brazil wood in a lye of potash, and boil your
straw hats in it.

II.—Blue Dye.—Take a sufficient quantity of potash lye, 1 pound of
litmus or lacmus, ground; make a decoction and then put in the straw,
and boil it.


«TO DYE, STIFFEN, AND BLEACH FELT HATS.»

Felt hats are dyed by repeated immersion, drawing and dipping in a
hot watery solution of logwood, 38 parts; green vitriol, 3 parts;
verdigris, 2 parts; repeat the immersions and drawing with exposure
to the air 13 or 14 times, or until the color suits, each step in
the process lasting from 10 to 15 minutes. Aniline colors may be
advantageously used instead of the above. For a stiffening, dissolve
borax, 10 parts; carbonate of potash, 3 parts, in hot water; then add
shellac, 50 parts, and boil until all is dissolved; apply with a sponge
or a brush, or by immersing the hat when it is cold, and dip at once in
very dilute sulphuric or acetic acid to neutralize the alkali and fix
the shellac. Felt hats can be bleached by the use of sulphuric acid gas.


«LIQUID DYE COLORS.»

These colors, thickened with a little gum, may be used as inks in
writing, or as colors to tint maps, foils, artificial flowers, etc., or
to paint on velvet:

I.—Blue.—Dilute Saxon blue or sulphate of indigo with water. If
required for delicate work, neutralize with chalk.

II.—Purple.—Add a little alum to a strained decoction of logwood.

III.—Green.—Dissolve sap green in water and add a little alum.

IV.—Yellow.—Dissolve annatto in a weak lye of subcarbonate of soda or
potash.

V.—Golden Color.—Steep French berries in hot water, strain, and add a
little gum and alum.

VI.—Red.—Dissolve carmine in ammonia, or in weak carbonate of potash
water, or infuse powdered cochineal in water, strain, and add a little
gum in water.


«UNCLASSIFIED DYERS’ RECIPES:»


«To Cleanse Wool.»—Make a hot bath composed of water, 4 parts; and
urine, 1 part; enter the wool, teasing and opening it out to admit the
full action of the liquid. After 20 minutes’ immersion, remove from the
liquid and allow it to drain; then rinse in clean running water, and
spread out to dry. The liquid is good for subsequent operations, only
keep up the proportions, and use no soap.


«To Extract Oil Spots from Finished Goods.»—Saturate the spot with
benzine; then place two pieces of very soft blotting paper under
and two upon it, press well with a hot iron, and the grease will be
absorbed.


«New Mordant for Aniline Colors.»—Immerse the goods for some hours in
a bath of cold water in which chloride or acetate of zinc has been
dissolved until the solution shows 2° Bé. For the wool the {274}
mordanting bath should be at a boiling heat, and the goods should
also be placed in a warm bath of tannin, 90° F., for half an hour. In
dyeing, a hot solution of the color must be used to which should be
added, in the case of the cotton, some chloride of zinc, and, in the
case of the wool, a certain amount of tannin solution.


«To Render Aniline Colors Soluble in Water.»—A solution of gelatin in
acetic acid of almost the consistence of syrups is first made, and the
aniline in fine is gradually added, stirring all the time so as to make
a homogeneous paste. The mixture is then to be heated over a water bath
to the temperature of boiling water and kept at that heat for some time.


«Limewater for Dyers’ Use.»—Put some lime, 1 pound, and strong
limewater, 1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds, into a pail of water; rummage well for 7
or 8 minutes. Then let it rest until the lime is precipitated and the
water clear; add this quantity to a tubful of clear water.


«To Renew Old Silks.»—Unravel and put them in a tub, cover with cold
water, and let them remain 1 hour. Dip them up and down, but do not
wring; hang up to drain, and iron while very damp.


«Fuller’s Purifier for Cloths.»—Dry, pulverize, and sift the following
ingredients: Fuller’s earth, 6 pounds; French chalk, 4 ounces; pipe
clay, 1 pound. Make into a paste with rectified oil of turpentine, 1
ounce; alcohol, 2 ounces; melted oil soap, 1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds. Compound the
mixture into cakes of any desired size, keeping them in water, or small
wooden boxes.


«To Fix Dyes.»—Dissolve 20 ounces of gelatin in water, and add 3 ounces
of bichromate of potash. This is done in a dark room. The coloring
matter is then added and the goods submitted thereto, after which they
are exposed to the action of light. The pigment thus becomes insoluble
in water and the color is fast.


«DYES AND DYESTUFFS.»

Prominent among natural dyestuffs is the coloring matter obtained
from logwood and known as “hæmatein.” The color-forming substance (or
chromogen), hæmatoxylin, exists in the logwood partly free and partly
as a glucoside. When pure, hæmatoxylin forms nearly colorless crystals,
but on oxidation, especially in the presence of an alkali, it is
converted into the coloring matter hæmatein, which forms colored lakes
with metallic bases, yielding violets, blues, and blacks with various
mordants. Logwood comes into commerce in the form of logs, chips, and
extracts. The chips are moistened with water and exposed in heaps so
as to induce fermentation, alkalies and oxidizing agents being added
to promote the “curing” or oxidation. When complete and the chips have
assumed a deep reddish-brown color, the decoction is made which is
employed in dyeing. The extract offers convenience in transportation,
storage, and use. It is now usually made from logwood chips that
have not been cured. The chips are treated in an extractor, pressure
often being used. The extract is sometimes adulterated with chestnut,
hemlock, and quercitron extracts, and with glucose or molasses.

Fustic is the heart-wood of certain species of trees indigenous to
the West Indies and tropical South America. It is sold as chips and
extract, yields a coloring principle which forms lemon-yellow lakes
with alumina and is chiefly used in dyeing wool. Young fustic is the
heart-wood of a sumac native to the shores of the Mediterranean, which
yields an orange-colored lake with alumina and tin salts.

Cutch, or catechu, is obtained from the wood and pods of the _Acacia
catechu_, and from the betel nut, both native in India. Cutch appears
in commerce in dark-brown lumps, which form a dark-brown solution with
water. It contains catechu-tannic acid, as tannin and catechin, and is
extensively used in weighting black silks, as a mordant for certain
basic coal-tar dyes, as a brown dye on cotton, and for calico printing.

Indigo, which is obtained from the glucoside indican existing in
the indigo plant and in woad, is one of the oldest dyestuffs.
It is obtained from the plant by a process of fermentation and
oxidation. Indigo appears in commerce in dark-blue cubical cakes,
varying very much in composition as they often contain indigo red
and indigo brown, besides moisture, mineral matters, and glutinous
substances. Consequently the color varies. Powdered indigo dissolves
in concentrated fuming sulphuric acid, forming monosulphonic and
disulphonic acids. On neutralizing these solutions with sodium
carbonate and precipitating the indigo carmine with common salt there
is obtained the indigo extract, soluble indigo, and indigo carmine of
commerce. True indigo carmine is the sodium salt of the disulphonic
acid, and when sold dry it is called “indigotine.”

One of the most important of the recent {275} achievements of chemistry
is the synthetic production of indigo on a commercial scale.

Artificial dyestuffs assumed preponderating importance with the
discovery of the lilac color mauve by Perkin in 1856, and fuchsine or
magenta by Verguin in 1895, for with each succeeding year other colors
have been discovered, until at the present time there are several
thousand artificial organic dyes or colors on the market. Since the
first of these were prepared from aniline or its derivatives the colors
were known as “aniline dyes,” but as a large number are now prepared
from other constituents of coal tar than aniline they are better
called “coal-tar dyestuffs.” There are many schemes of classification.
Benedikt-Knecht divides them into I, aniline or amine dyes; II, phenol
dyes; III, azo dyes; IV, quinoline and acridine derivatives; V,
anthracene dyes; and VI, artificial indigo.

Of the anthracene dyes, the alizarine is the most important, since this
is the coloring principle of the madder. The synthesis of alizarine
from anthracene was effected by Grabe and Liebermann in 1868. This
discovery produced a complete revolution in calico printing, turkey-red
dyeing, and in the manufacture of madder preparations. Madder finds
to-day only a very limited application in the dyeing of wool.

In textile dyeing and printing, substances called mordants are largely
used, either to fix or to develop the color on the fiber. Substances
of mineral origin, such as salts of aluminum, chromium, iron, copper,
antimony, and tin, principally, and many others to a less extent and of
organic origin, like acetic, oxalic, citric, tartaric, and lactic acid,
sulphonated oils, and tannins are employed as mordants.

Iron liquor, known as black liquor or pyrolignite of iron, is made by
dissolving scrap iron in pyroligneous acid. It is used as a mordant in
dyeing silks and cotton and in calico printing.

Red liquor is a solution of aluminum acetate in acetic acid, and is
produced by acting on calcium or lead acetate solutions with aluminum
sulphate or the double alums, the supernatant liquid forming the red
liquor. The red liquor of the trade is often the sulpho-acetate of
alumina resulting when the quantity of calcium or lead acetate is
insufficient to completely decompose the aluminum salt. Ordinarily the
solutions have a dark-brown color and a strong pyroligneous odor. It
is called red liquor because it was first used in dyeing reds. It is
employed as a mordant by the cotton dyer and largely by the printer.


«Non-Poisonous Textile and Egg Dyes for Household Use.»—The preparation
of non-poisonous colors for dyeing fabrics and eggs at home constitutes
a separate department in the manufacture of dyestuffs.

Certain classes of aniline dyes may be properly said to form the
materials. The essence of this color preparation consists chiefly in
diluting or weakening the coal-tar dyes, made in the aniline factories,
and bringing them down to a certain desired shade by the addition of
certain chemicals suited to their varying characteristics, which,
though weakening the color, act at the same time as the so-called
mordants.

The anilines are divided with reference to their characteristic
reactions into groups of basic, acid, moderately acid, as well as dyes
that are insoluble in water.

In cases where combinations of one or more colors are needed, only dyes
of similar reaction can be combined, that is, basic with basic, and
acid with acid.

For the purpose of reducing the original intensity of the colors, and
also as mordants, dextrin, Glauber’s salt, alum, or aluminum sulphate
is pressed into service. Where Glauber’s salt is used, the neutral
salt is exclusively employed, which can be had cheaply and in immense
quantities in the chemical industry. Since it is customary to pack
the color mixtures in two paper boxes, one stuck into the other, and
moreover since certain coal-tar dyes are only used in large crystals,
it is only reasonable that the mordants should be calcined and not put
up in the shape of crystallized salts, particularly since these latter
are prone to absorb the moisture from the air, and when thus wet likely
to form a compact mass very difficult to dissolve. This inconvenience
often occurs with the large crystals of fuchsine and methyl violet.
Because these two colors are mostly used in combination with dextrin to
color eggs, and since dextrin is also very hygroscopic, it is better
in these individual cases to employ calcined Glauber’s salt. In the
manufacture of egg colors the alkaline coloring coal-tar dyes are
mostly used, and they are to be found in a great variety of shades.

Of the non-poisonous egg dyes, there are some ten or a dozen numbers,
new red, carmine, scarlet, pink, violet, blue, yellow, orange, green,
brown, black, heliotrope, etc., which when mixed will {276} enable the
operator to form shades almost without number.

The manufacture of the egg dyes as carried on in the factory consists
in a mechanical mixing of basic coal-tar dyestuffs, also some direct
coloring benzidine dyestuffs, with dextrin in the ratio of about 1 part
of aniline dye to 8 parts of dextrin; under certain circumstances,
according to the concentrated state of the dyes, the reducing quantity
of the dextrin may be greatly increased. As reducing agents for these
colors insoluble substances may also be employed. A part also of the
egg dyes are treated with the neutral sulphate; for instance, light
brilliant green, because of its rubbing off, is made with dextrin and
Glauber’s salt in the proportion of 1:3:3.

For the dyeing of eggs such color mixtures are preferably employed as
contain along with the dye proper a fixing agent (dextrin) as well as a
medium for the superficial mordanting of the eggshell. The colors will
then be very brilliant.

Here are some recipes:

                              Parts
 Color      Dyestuff           by      Cit.    Dextrin
                              Weight   Acid
 Blue     Marine blue B. N.     3.5    35.0     60.0
 Brown    Vesuvin S.           30.0    37.5     30.0
 Green    Brilliant green O.   13.5    18.0     67.5
 Orange   Orange II.            9.0    18.0     75.0
 Red      Diamond fuchsine I.   3.5    18.0     75.0
 Pink     Eosin A.              4.5     —       90.0
 Violet   Methyl violet 6 B.    3.6    18.0     75.0
 Yellow   Naphthol yellow S.   13.5    36.0     67.5

Very little of these mixtures suffices for dyeing five eggs. The
coloring matter is dissolved in 600 parts by weight of boiling water,
while the eggs to be dyed are boiled hard, whereupon they are placed in
the dye solution until they seem sufficiently colored. The dyes should
be put up in waxed paper.


«Fast Stamping Color.»—Rub up separately, 20 parts of cupric sulphate
and 20 parts of anilic hydrochlorate, then mix carefully together,
after adding 10 parts of dextrin. The mixture is next ground with
5 parts of glycerine and sufficient water until a thick, uniform,
paste-like mass results, adapted for use by means of stencil and
bristle-brush. Aniline black is formed thereby in and upon the fiber,
which is not destroyed by boiling.


«New Mordanting Process.»—The ordinary method of mordanting wool with
a bichromate and a reducing agent always makes the fiber more or less
tender, and Amend proposed to substitute the use of a solution of
chromic acid containing 1 to 2 per cent of the weight of the wool,
at a temperature not exceeding 148° F., and to treat it afterwards
with a solution of sodium bisulphite. According to a recent French
patent, better results are obtained with neutral or slightly basic
chromium sulphocyanide. This salt, if neutral or only slightly basic,
will mordant wool at 148° F. The double sulphocyanide of chromium and
ammonium, got by dissolving chromic oxide in ammonium sulphocyanide,
can also be used. Nevertheless, in order to precipitate chromium
chromate on the fiber, it is advisable to have a soluble chromate and
a nitrate present, as well as a soluble copper salt and a free acid.
One example of the process is as follows: Make the bath with 2 to 3 per
cent of ammonio-chromium sulphocyanide, one-half of 1 per cent sodium
bichromate, one-third of 1 per cent sodium nitrite, one-third of 1 per
cent sulphate of copper, and 1.5 per cent sulphuric acid—percentages
based on the weight of the wool. Enter cold and slowly heat to about
140° to 150° F. Then work for half an hour, lift and rinse. The bath
does not exhaust and can be reinforced and used again.


«Process for Dyeing in Khaki Colors.»—Bichromate of potash or of soda,
chloride of manganese, and a solution of acetate of soda or formiate of
soda (15° Bé.) are dissolved successively in equal quantities.

The solution thus composed of these three salts is afterwards diluted
at will, according to the color desired, constituting a range from a
dark brown to a light olive green shade. The proportions of the three
salts may be increased or diminished, in order to obtain shades more or
less bister.

Cotton freed from its impurities by the usual methods, then fulled as
ordinarily, is immersed in the bath. After a period, varying according
to the results desired, the cotton, threads, or fabrics of cotton, are
washed thoroughly and plunged, still wet, into an alkaline solution, of
which the concentration ought never to be less than 14° Bé. This degree
of concentration is necessary to take hold of the fiber when the cotton
comes in contact with the alkaline bath, and by the contraction which
takes place the oxides of chrome and of manganese remain fixed in the
fibers.

This second operation is followed by washing in plenty of water, and
then the cotton is dried in the open air. If the color is judged to
be too pale, the threads or fabrics are immersed again in the initial
bath, left the necessary time for obtaining the desired shade, and then
{277} washed, but without passing them through an alkaline bath. This
process furnishes a series of khaki colors, solid to light, to fulling
and to chlorine.


«LAKES:»

Scarlet Lake.—In a vat holding 120 gallons provided with good agitating
apparatus, dissolve 8 pounds potash alum in 10 gallons hot water and
add 50 gallons cold water. Prepare a solution of 2 pounds ammonia soda
and add slowly to the alum solution, stirring all the time. In a second
vessel dissolve 5 pounds of brilliant scarlet aniline, by first making
it into a paste with cold water and afterwards pouring boiling water
over it; now let out steam into the vat until a temperature of 150°
to 165° F. is obtained. Next dissolve 10 pounds barium chloride in 10
gallons hot water in a separate vessel, add this very slowly, stir at
least 3 hours, keeping up temperature to the same figures. Fill up vat
with cold water and leave the preparation for the night. Next morning
the liquor (which should be of a bright red color) is drawn off, and
cold water again added. Wash by decantation 3 times, filter, press
gently, and make into pulp.

It is very important to precipitate the aluminum cold, and heat up
before adding the dyestuff. The chemicals used for precipitating must
be added very slowly and while constantly stirring. The quantity used
for the three washings is required each time to be double the quantity
originally used.

I.—Madder Lakes.—Prepare from the root 1 pound best madder, alum water
(1 pound alum with 1 1⁠/⁠2 gallons of water), saturated solution of
carbonate of potash (3⁠/⁠4 pound carbonate of potash to 1⁠/⁠2 gallon of
water).

The madder root is inclosed in a linen bag of fine texture, and bruised
with a pestle in a large mortar with 2 gallons of water (free from
lime) added in small quantities at a time, until all the coloring
matter is extracted. Make this liquor boil, and gradually pour into the
boiling water solution. Add the carbonate of potash solution gradually,
stirring all the time. Let the mixture stand for 12 hours and drop and
dry as required.

II.—Garancine Process.—This is the method usually employed in
preference to that from the root. Garancine is prepared by steeping
madder root in sulphate of soda and washing.

 Garancine                             2 pounds
 Alum (dissolved in a little water)    2 pounds
 Chloride of tin                     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Sufficient carbonate of potash or soda to precipitate the alum.

Boil the garancine in 4 gallons of pure water; add the alum, and
continue boiling from 1 to 2 hours. Allow the product to partially
settle and filter through flannel before cooling. Add to the filtrate
the chloride of tin, and sufficient of the potash or soda solution to
precipitate the alum; filter through flannel and wash well. The first
filtrate may be used for lake of an inferior quality, and the garancine
originally employed may also be treated as above, when a lake slightly
inferior to the first may be obtained.

Maroon Lake.—Take of a mixture made of:

 2⁠/⁠3 Sapan wood,
    1⁠/⁠3 Lima wood                  56 parts
 Soda crystals                     42 parts
 Alum                              56 parts

Extract the color from the woods as for rose pink, and next boil the
soda and alum together and add to the woods solution cold. This must be
washed clean before adding to the wood liquor.

Carnation Lake.—

 Water                                  42 gallons
 Cochineal                              12 pounds
 Salts of tartar                     1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Potash alum                           3⁠/⁠4 pound
 Nitrous acid, nitromuriate of tin      44 pounds
 Muriatic acid, nitromuriate of tin     60 pounds
 Pure block tin, nitromuriate of tin    22 pounds

Should give specific gravity 1.310.

Boil the water with close steam, taking care that _no iron_ touches it;
add the cochineal and boil for not more than five minutes; then turn
off the steam and add salts of tartar and afterwards carefully add the
alum. If it should not rise, put on steam until it does, pass through a
120-mesh sieve into a settling vat, and let it stand for 48 hours (not
for precipitation). Add gradually nitromuriate of tin until the test
on blotting paper (given below) shows that the separation is complete.
Draw off clear water after it has settled, and filter. To test, rub a
little of the paste on blotting paper, then dry on steam chest or on
the hand, and if on bending it cracks, too much tin has been used.

To Test the Color to See if it is Precipitating.—Put a drop of
color on white blotting paper, and if the color spreads, it is not
precipitating. If there is a {278} colorless ring around the spot of
color it shows that precipitation is taking place; if the white ring is
too strong, too much has been used.


«BLACK LAKES FOR WALL-PAPER MANUFACTURE:»

Bluish-Black Lake.—Boil well 220 parts of Domingo logwood in 1,000
parts of water to which 2 parts of ammonia soda have been added; to the
boiling logwood add next 25 parts of green vitriol and then 3.5 parts
of sodium bichromate. The precipitated logwood lake is washed out well
twice and then filtered.

Black Lake AI.—Logwood extract, Sanford, 120 parts; green vitriol, 30
parts; acetic acid, 7° Bé., 10 parts; sodium bichromate, 16 parts;
powdered alum, 20 parts. The logwood extract is first dissolved in
boiling water and brought to 25° Bé. by the addition of cold water.
Then the remaining ingredients are added in rotation, the salts
in substance, finely powdered, with constant stirring. After the
precipitation, wash twice and filter.

Aniline Black Lake.—In the precipitating vat filled with 200 parts of
cold water enter with constant stirring in the order mentioned the
following solutions kept in readiness: Forty parts of alum dissolved in
800 parts of water; 10 parts of calcined soda dissolved in 100 parts
of water; 30 parts of azo black dissolved in 1,500 parts of water; 0.6
parts of “brilliant green” dissolved in 100 parts of water; 0.24 parts
of new fuchsine dissolved in 60 parts of water; 65 parts of barium
chloride dissolved in 1,250 parts of water. Allow to settle for 24
hours, wash the lake three times and filter it.


«Carmine Lake for Wall Paper and Colored Papers.»—Ammonia soda (98
per cent), 57.5 parts by weight; spirits (96 per cent), 40 parts by
weight; corallin (dark), 10 parts by weight; corallin (pale), 5 parts
by weight; spirit of sal ammoniac (16° Bé.), 8 parts by weight; sodium
phosphate, 30 parts by weight; stannic chloride, 5 parts by weight;
barium chloride, 75 parts by weight. Dissolve the corallin in the
spirit, and filter the solution carefully into eight bottles, each
containing 1 part of the above quantity of spirit of sal ammoniac, and
let stand. The soda should meanwhile be dissolved in hot water and
the solution run into the stirring vat, in which there is cold water
to the height of 17 inches. Add the sodium phosphate, which has been
dissolved in a copper vessel, then the corallin solution, and next the
stannic chloride diluted with 3 pailfuls of cold water. Lastly the
barium chloride solution is added. The day previous barium chloride is
dissolved in a cask in as little boiling water as possible, and the
receptacle is filled entirely with cold water. On the day following,
allow the same to run in slowly during a period of three-fourths of
an hour, stir till evening, allow to settle for 2 days, draw off and
filter.


«English Pink.»—

 Quercitron bark    200 parts
 Lime                10 parts
 Alum                10 parts
 Terra alba         300 parts
 Whiting            200 parts
 Sugar of lead        7 parts

Put the bark into a tub, slake lime in another tub, and add the clear
limewater to wash the bark; repeat this 3 times, letting the bark stand
in each water 24 hours. Run liquor into the tub below and add the terra
alba and whiting; wash well in the top tub and run into liquor below
through a hair sieve, stirring well.

Dissolve the sugar of lead in warm water and pour gently into the
tub, stirring all the time; then dissolve the alum and run in while
stirring; press slightly, drop, and dry as required.


«Dutch Pink.»—

 I.—Quercitron bark       200 parts
     Lime                   20 parts
     Alum                   20 parts
     Whiting               100 parts
     Terra alba            200 parts
     White sugar of lead    10 parts

 II.—Quercitron bark      300 parts
      Lime                  10 parts
      Alum                  10 parts
      Terra alba           400 parts
      Whiting              100 parts
      Sugar of lead          7 parts

Put the bark into a tub with cold water, slake 28 pounds of lime, and
add the limewater to the bark. (This draws all the color out of the
wood.) Dissolve alum in water and run it into bark liquor. The alum
solution must be just warm. Dissolve sugar of lead and add it to above,
and afterwards add the terra alba and whiting. The product should now
be in a pulp, and must be dropped and dried as required.


«Rose Pink.»—I.—Light.

 Sapan wood     100 parts
 Lima           100 parts
 Paris white    200 parts
 Alum           210 parts {279}

 II.—Deep.
      Sapan wood     300 parts
      Lima           300 parts
      Terra alba     400 parts
      Paris white    120 parts
      Lime            12 parts
      Alum           200 parts

 III.—Sapan wood   200 parts
       Alum         104 parts
       Whiting      124 parts

Boil the woods together in 4 waters and let the products stand until
cold; wash in the whiting and terra alba through a hair sieve, and
afterwards run in the alum. If a deep color is required slake 12 pounds
lime and run it in at the last through a hair sieve. Let the alum be
just warm or it will show in the pink.


«DYES, COLORS, ETC., FOR TEXTILE GOODS:»


«Aniline Black.»—This black is produced by carefully oxidizing aniline
hydrochloride. The exact stage of oxidation must be carefully regulated
or the product will be a different body (quinone). There are several
suitable oxidizing agents, such as chromic acid, potassic bichromate,
ferrocyanide of potassium, etc., but one of the easiest to manipulate
is potassic chlorate, which by reacting on copper sulphate produces
potassic sulphate and copper chlorate. This is easily decomposed,
its solution giving off gases at 60° F. which consist essentially
of chloride anhydrate. But one of the most useful agents for the
production of aniline black is vanadate of ammonia, 1 part of which
will do the work of 4,000 parts of copper. Many other salts besides
copper may be used for producing aniline black, but the following
method is one of the best to follow in making this dye:

 Aniline hydrochloride                40 parts
 Potassic chlorate                    20 parts
 Copper sulphate                      40 parts
 Chloride of ammonia (sal ammoniac)   16 parts
 Warm water at 60° F                 500 parts

After warming a few minutes the mass froths up. The vapor should not be
inhaled. Then set aside, and if the mass is not totally black in a few
hours, again heat to 60° F., and expose to the air for a few days, and
finally wash away all the soluble salts and the black is fit for use.


«Aniline Black Substitutes.»—I.—Make a solution of

 Aniline (fluid measure)                          30 parts
 Toluidine (by weight)                            10 parts
 Pure hydrochloric acid, B. P. (fluid measure)    60 parts
 Soluble gum arabic (fluid measure)               60 parts

Dissolve the toluidine in the aniline and add the acid, and finally the
mucilage.

II.—Mix together at gentle heat:

 Starch paste              13 quarts
 Potassic chlorate        350 scruples
 Sulphate of copper       300 scruples
 Sal ammoniac             300 scruples
 Aniline hydrochloride    800 scruples

Add 5 per cent of alizarine oil, and then steep it for 2 hours in the
dye bath of red liquor of 2 1⁠/⁠2° Tw. Dye in a bath made up of 1⁠/⁠2
ounce of rose bengal and 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of red liquor to every 70
ounces of cotton fabric dyed, first entering the fabric at 112° F., and
raising it to 140° F., working for 1 hour, or until the desirable shade
is obtained; then rinse and dry.


«Blush Pink on Cotton Textile.»—Rose bengal or fast pink will give this
shade. The mordant to use is a 5 per cent solution of stannate of soda
and another 5 per cent solution of alum.

Dissolve in a vessel (_a_) 8 1⁠/⁠2 parts of chloride of copper in 30
parts of water, and then add 10 parts chloride of sodium and 9 1⁠/⁠2
parts liquid ammonia.

In a second vessel dissolve (_b_) 30 parts aniline hydrochlorate in 20
parts of water, and add 20 parts of a solution of gum arabic prepared
by dissolving 1 part of gum in 2 parts of water.

Finally mix 1 part of _a_ with 4 parts of _b_; expose the mixture to
the air for a few days to develop from a greenish to a black color.
Dilute for use, or else dry the thick compound to a powder.

If new liquor is used as the mordant, mix 1 part of this with 4 parts
of water, and after working the fabric for 1 to 2 hours in the cold
liquor, wring or squeeze it out and dry; before working it in the
dye liquor, thoroughly wet the fabric by rinsing it in hot water at
a spring boil; then cool by washing in the dye bath until the shade
desired is attained, and again rinse and dry.

The red liquor or acetate of aluminum may be made by dissolving 13
ounces of alum in 69 ounces of water and mixing this with a solution
made by dissolving 7 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of acetate of lime, also dissolved
in 69 ounces of water. Stir well, allow it to settle, and filter or
decanter {280} off the clear fluid for use, and use this mixture
2 1⁠/⁠2° Tw.

The fabric is first put into the stannate of soda mordant for a few
minutes, then wrung out and put into the alum mordant for about the
same time; then it is again wrung out and entered in the dye bath at
120° F. and dyed to shade desired, and afterwards rinsed in cold water
and dried.

The dye bath is made of 1⁠/⁠4 ounce of rose bengal per gallon of water.
If fast pink is the dye used, the mordant used would be Turkey red oil
and red liquor. Use 8 ounces of Turkey red oil per gallon of water. Put
the fabric into this, then wring out the textile and work in red liquor
of 7° Tw. for about 2 hours, then wring out and dye in a separate bath
made up of eosine, or fast pink, in water in which a little alum has
been dissolved.


«To Dye Woolen Yarns, etc., Various Shades of Magenta.»—To prepare
the dye bath dissolve 1 pound of roseine in 15 gallons of water. For
a concentrated solution use only 10 gallons of water, while if a very
much concentrated color is needed, dissolve the dye in methylated
spirit of wine, and dilute this spirituous tincture with an equal
quantity of water.

No mordant is required in using this color in dyeing woolen goods.
The dyeing operation consists simply in putting the goods into the dye
bath at 190° F. and working them therein until the desired shade is
obtained, then rinsing in cold water and drying.

If the water used in preparing the dye is at all alkaline, make use
of the acid roseine dissolved in water in which a little sulphuric
acid has been mixed, and work, gradually raising to the boiling point,
and keep up the temperature for 30 minutes, or according to the shade
desired. Put about 20 per cent sulphate of soda into the dye bath.


«Maroon Dye for Woolens.»—To prepare the dye bath, dissolve about 1
pound of maroon dye in boiling water, with or without the addition of
methylated spirit of wine. For dark shades dissolve in boiling water,
only slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and filter before use.
No mordant is required with this dye when dyeing wool, but for the
bright shade a little curd soap may be dissolved in the dye bath before
proceeding to dye the wool, while for the dark shade it is best to put
in a little acetate of soda. To use the dye, first dye in a weak bath
and gradually strengthen it until the desired shade is obtained, at the
same time gradually increasing the temperature until just below the
boiling point.


«To Dye Woolens with Blue de Lyons.»—Dissolve 8 ounces of blue dye in
1 gallon of methylated spirit, which has been slightly soured with
sulphuric acid, and boil the solution over a water bath until it is
perfectly clear. To prepare the dye bath, add more or less of the
spirituous tincture to a 10- or 15-gallon dye bath of water, which has
been slightly soured with sulphuric acid.


«Rich Orange on Woolen.»—Dissolve 1 pound of phosphine in 15 gallons
of boiling water, and stir the fluid until the acid has dissolved.
No mordant is required to dye wool. First work the goods about in a
weak solution, and finally in one of full strength, to which a little
acetate of soda has been added. Keep up the temperature to just below
the boiling point while working the goods in the dye bath.


«DYEING SILK OR COTTON FABRICS WITH ANILINE DYES:»


«Aniline Blue on Cotton.»—Prepare a dye bath by dissolving 1 pound of
aniline blue (soluble in spirit) in 10 gallons of water, and set it
aside to settle. Meanwhile prepare a mordant while boiling 35 ounces
of sumac (or 5 1⁠/⁠2 ounces tannic acid in 30 gallons of water) and
then dissolve therein 17 ounces of curd soap. Boil up and filter. Put
the cotton goods in the hot liquid and let them remain therein for 12
hours. Then wring them out and make up a dye bath of 2 1⁠/⁠2° Tw. with
red liquor. Add dye color according to the shade desired. Put in the
goods and work them until the color is correct, keeping the temperature
at the boiling point.


«To Dye Silk a Delicate Greenish Yellow.»—Dissolve 2 ounces of
citronine in 1 gallon of methylated spirit and keep the solution hot
over a water bath until perfectly clear.

To prepare silk fabrics, wash them in a weak soap liquor that has been
just sweetened (i. e., its alkalinity turned to a slight sourness) with
a little sulphuric acid. Work the goods until dyed to shade, and then
rinse them in cold water that has been slightly acidulated with acetic,
tartaric, or citric acid.


«To Dye Cotton Dark Brown.»—Prepare a mordant bath of 10 pounds
of catechu, 2 pounds of logwood extract, and 1⁠/⁠4 pound magenta
(roseine), and bring to a boil; work the goods therein for 3 hours at
that temperature; then put {281} into a fresh dye bath made up of 3
pounds of bichromate of potash and 2 pounds of sal soda, and dye to
shade. These proportions are for a dye bath to dye 100 pounds of cotton
goods at a time.


«To Dye Silk Peacock Blue.»—Make up a dye bath by putting 1 pint of
sulphuric acid at 170° Tw., and 10 ounces of methylin blue crystal dye
liquor of 120° to 160° Tw., with a dye bath that will hold 80 pounds of
goods. Put in the silk at 130° F., and raise to 140° F., and work up to
shade required.


«To Dye Felt Goods.»—Owing to this material being composed of animal
and vegetable fiber it is not an easy matter always to produce evenness
of shade. The best process to insure success is to steep well the felt
in an acid bath of from 6° to 12° Bé., and then wash away all traces
of acid. Some dyers make the fulling stock the medium of conveying the
dye, while others partially dye before fulling, or else dye after that
process.

The fulling stock for 72 ounces of beaver consists of a mixture of

 Black lead or plumbago    16 ounces
 Venetian red              48 ounces
 Indigo extract (fluid)     5 ounces

Ordinary Drab.—

 Common plumbago           12 ounces
 Best plumbago             12 ounces
 Archil extract (fluid)    15 ounces
 Indigo extract            10 ounces

Mix into fluid paste with water and add sulphuric acid at 30° Tw. For
the dye liquor make a boiling-hot solution of the aniline dye and allow
it to cool; then put into an earthenware vessel holding water and heat
to 83° F., and add sufficient dye liquor to give the quantity of felt
the desired shade. First moisten well the felted matter (or the hair,
if dyed before felting) with water, and then work it about in the above
dye bath at 140° F. To deepen the shade, add more dye liquor, lifting
out the material to be dyed before adding the fresh dye liquor, so that
it can be well stirred up and thoroughly mixed with the exhausted bath.


«Brown Shades.»—Bismarck brown will give good results, particularly
if the dyed goods are afterwards steeped or passed through a weak
solution (pale straw color) of bichromate of potash. This will give a
substantial look to the color. Any of the aniline colors suitable for
cotton or wool, or those suited for mixed cotton and wool goods may be
used.


«Blue.»—Use either China blue, dense ferry blue, or serge blue, first
making the material acid before dyeing.


«Green.»—Use brilliant green and have the material neutral, i. e.,
neither acid nor alkali; or else steep in a bath of sumac before dyeing.


«Plum Color.»—Use maroon (neutral or acid) and work in an acid bath or
else sumac.


«Black.»—Use negrosin in an acid bath, or else mordant in two salts and
dye slightly acid.


«Soluble Blue, Ball Blue, etc.»—A soluble blue has for many years
been readily obtainable in commerce which is similar in appearance to
Prussian blue, but, unlike the latter, is freely soluble in water. This
blue is said to be potassium ferri-ferrocyanide.

To prepare instead of buying it ready made, gradually add to a boiling
solution of potassium ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash) an
equivalent quantity of hot solution of ferrous sulphate, boiling for 2
hours and washing the precipitate on a filter until the washings assume
a dark-blue color. The moist precipitate can at once be dissolved by
the further addition of a sufficient quantity of water. About 64 parts
of the iron salt is necessary to convert 100 parts of the potassium
salt into the blue compound.

If the blue is to be sent out in the liquid form, it is desirable
that the solution should be a perfect one. To attain that end the
water employed should be free from mineral substances, and it is best
to filter the solution through several thicknesses of fine cotton
cloth before bottling; or if made in large quantities this method may
be modified by allowing it to stand some days to settle, when the
top portion can be siphoned off for use, the bottom only requiring
filtration.

The ball blue sold for laundry use consists of ultramarine. Balls or
tablets of this substance are formed by mixing it with glucose or
glucose and dextrin, and pressing into shape. When glucose alone is
used, the product has a tendency to become soft on keeping, which
tendency may be counteracted by a proper proportion of dextrin.
Bicarbonate of sodium is added as a filler to cheapen the product, the
quantity used and the quality of the ultramarine employed being both
regulated by the price at which the product is to sell.


«New Production of Indigo.»—Forty parts of a freshly prepared ammonium
sulphide solution containing 10 per cent {282} of hydrogen sulphide
are made to flow quickly and with constant stirring into a heated
solution of 20 parts of isatine anilide in 60 parts of alcohol. With
spontaneous heating and temporary green and blue coloration, an
immediate separation of indigo in small crystalline needles of a faint
copper luster takes place. Boil for a short time, whereupon the indigo
is filtered off, rewashed with alcohol, and dried.


«To Dye Feathers.»—A prerequisite to the dyeing of feathers appears
to be softening them, which is sometimes accomplished by soaking them
in warm water, and sometimes an alkali, such as ammonium or sodium
carbonate, is added. This latter method would apparently be preferable
on account of the removal of any greasy matter that may be present.

When so prepared the feathers may be dyed by immersion in any dye
liquor. An old-time recipe for black is immersion in a bath of ferric
nitrate suitably diluted with water, and then in an infusion of equal
parts of logwood and quercitron. Doubtless an aniline dye would prove
equally efficient and would be less troublesome to use.

After dyeing, feathers are dipped in an emulsion formed by agitating
any bland fixed oil with water containing a little potassium
carbonate, and are then dried by gently swinging them in warm air. This
operation gives the gloss.

Curling where required is effected by slightly warming the feathers
before a fire, and then stroking with a blunt metallic edge, as the
back of a knife. A certain amount of manual dexterity is necessary to
carry the whole process to a successful ending.

DYES FOR FOOD: See Foods.

DYES FOR LEATHER: See Leather.

DYE STAINS, THEIR REMOVAL FROM THE SKIN: See Cleaning Preparations and
Methods.

DYNAMITE: See Explosives.

EARTHENWARE: See Ceramics.

EAU DE QUININE: See Hair Preparations.

EBONY: See Wood.

EBONY LACQUER: See Lacquers.


«ECZEMA DUSTING POWDER FOR CHILDREN.»

Starch, French chalk, lycopodium, of each, 40 parts; bismuth
subnitrate, 2 parts; salicylic acid, 2 parts; menthol, 1 part. Apply
freely to the affected parts.


«Eggs»

The age of eggs may be approximately judged by taking advantage of the
fact that as they grow old their density decreases through evaporation
of moisture. According to Siebel, a new-laid egg placed in a vessel of
brine made in the proportion of 2 ounces of salt to 1 pint of water,
will at once sink to the bottom. An egg 1 day old will sink below the
surface, but not to the bottom, while one 3 days old will swim just
immersed in the liquid. If more than 3 days old the egg will float on
the surface, the amount of shell exposed increasing with age; and if 2
weeks old, only a little of the shell will dip in the liquid.

The New York State Experiment Station studied the changes in the
specific gravity of the eggs on keeping and found that on an average
fresh eggs had a specific gravity of 1.090; after they were 10 days
old, of 1.072; after 20 days, of 1.053; and after 30 days, of 1.035.
The test was not continued further. The changes in specific gravity
correspond to the changes in water content. When eggs are kept they
continually lose water by evaporation through the pores in the shell.
After 10 days the average loss was found to be 1.60 per cent of the
total water present in the egg when perfectly fresh; after 20 days,
3.16 per cent; and after 30 days, 5 per cent. The average temperature
of the room where the eggs were kept was 63.8° F. The evaporation was
found to increase somewhat with increased temperature. None of the eggs
used in the 30-day test spoiled.

Fresh eggs are preserved in a number of ways which may, for
convenience, be grouped under two general classes: (1) Use of low
temperature, i. e., cold storage; and (2) excluding the air by coating,
covering, or immersing the eggs, some material or solution being
used which may or may not be a germicide. The two methods are often
combined. The {283} first method owes its value to the fact that
microörganisms, like larger forms of plant life, will not grow below
a certain temperature, the necessary degree of cold varying with the
species. So far as experiment shows, it is impossible to kill these
minute plants, popularly called “bacteria” or “germs,” by any degree
of cold; and so, very low temperature is unnecessary for preserving
eggs, even if it were not undesirable for other reasons, such as injury
by freezing and increased cost. According to a report of the Canadian
commission of agriculture and dairying:

Eggs are sometimes removed from the shells and stored in bulk, usually
on a commercial scale, in cans containing about 50 pounds each. The
temperature recommended is about 30° F., or a little below freezing,
and it is said they will keep any desired length of time. They must
be used soon after they have been removed from storage and have been
thawed.

Water glass or soluble glass is the popular name for potassium
silicate, or sodium silicate, the commercial article often being a
mixture of the two. The commercial water glass is used for preserving
eggs, as it is much cheaper than the chemically pure article which is
required for many scientific purposes. Water glass is commonly sold in
two forms, a syrup-thick liquid of about the consistency of molasses,
and a powder. The thick syrup, the form perhaps most usually seen, is
sometimes sold wholesale as low as 1 3⁠/⁠4 cents per pound in carboy
lots. The retail price varies, though 10 cents per pound, according to
the North Dakota Experiment Station, seems to be the price commonly
asked. According to the results obtained at this station a solution
of the desired strength for preserving eggs may be made by dissolving
1 part of the syrup-thick water glass in 10 parts, by measure, of
water. If the water-glass powder is used, less is required for a given
quantity of water. Much of the water glass offered for sale is very
alkaline. Such material should not be used, as the eggs preserved in
it will not keep well. Only pure water should be used in making the
solution, and it is best to boil it and cool it before mixing with the
water glass.

The solution should be carefully poured over the eggs packed in a
suitable vessel, which must be clean and sweet, and if wooden kegs or
barrels are used they should be thoroughly scalded before packing the
eggs in them. The packed eggs should be stored in a cool place. If they
are placed where it is too warm, silicate deposits on the shell and the
eggs do not keep well. The North Dakota Experiment Station found it
best not to wash the eggs before packing, as this removes the natural
mucilaginous coating on the outside of the shell. The station states
that 1 gallon of the solution is sufficient for 50 dozen eggs if they
are properly packed.

It is, perhaps, too much to expect that eggs packed in any way will
be just as satisfactory for table use as the fresh article. The
opinion seems to be, however, that those preserved with water glass
are superior to most of those preserved otherwise. The shells of eggs
preserved in water glass are apt to crack in boiling. It is stated that
this may be prevented by puncturing the blunt end of the egg with a pin
before putting it into the water.


«To Discover the Age of Eggs.»—The most reliable method of arriving at
the age of hens’ eggs is that by specific gravity. Make a solution of
cooking salt (sodium chloride) in rain or distilled water, of about
one part of salt to two parts of water, and in this place the eggs to
be tested. A perfectly fresh egg (of from 1 to 36 hours old) will sink
completely, lying horizontally on the bottom of the vessel; when from
two to three days old, the egg also sinks, but not to the bottom,
remaining just below the surface of the water, with a slight tendency
of the large end to rise. In eggs of four or five days old this
tendency of the large end to rise becomes more marked, and it increases
from day to day, until at the end of the fifth day the long axis of the
egg (an imaginary line drawn through the center lengthwise) will stand
at an angle of 20° from the perpendicular. This angle is increased
daily, until at the end of the eighth day it is at about 45°; on the
fourteenth day it is 60°; on the twenty-first day it is 75°, while at
the end of 4 weeks the egg stands perfectly upright in the liquid, the
point or small end downward.

This action is based on the fact that the air cavity in the big end
of the egg increases in size and capacity, from day to day, as the
egg grows older. An apparatus (originally devised by a German poultry
fancier) based on this principle, and by means of which the age of an
egg maintained at ordinary temperature may be told approximately to
within a day, is made by placing a scale of degrees, drawn from O° to
90° (the latter representing the perpendicular) behind the vessel {284}
containing the solution, and observing the angle made by the axis of
the egg with the perpendicular line. This gives the age of the egg with
great accuracy.


«Weights of Eggs.»—The following table shows the variation in weight
between eggs of the same family of chickens and of the comparative
value of the product of different kinds of fowls:

                           Weight of
                    Whole Eggs,  Shell,
                      Grains.   Grains.    Net.
 Common hen, small    635.60     84.86    550.54
 Common hen, mean     738.35     92.58    645.77
 Common hen, large    802.36     93.25    709.11
 Italian hen          840.00     92.50    747.50
 Houdan               956.60     93.50    853.10
 La Flesche           926.50     94.25    835.25
 Brahma             1,025.50    114.86    910.64

From this it will be seen that the Houdans and Brahmas are the
most profitable producers, as far as food value of the product is
concerned—provided, of course, they are equally prolific with the
ordinary fowl.

Another calculation is the number of eggs to the pound, of the various
weights. This is as follows:

 Small ordinary eggs (635 grains)    12.20 to pound
 Large ordinary eggs (802 grains)     9.25 to pound
 Houdan eggs                          8.0  to pound
 Brahma, mean                         7.4  to pound
 Brahma, large                        7.1  to pound


«Dried Yolk of Egg.»—To prepare this, the yolks of eggs, separated
from the whites, are thoroughly mixed with 1⁠/⁠3 their weight of
water. The resulting emulsion is strained and evaporated under reduced
pressure at a temperature of 87° to 122° F., to a paste. The latter is
further dried over quicklime or a similar absorbent of moisture, at a
temperature of 77° to 86° F., and ground to a fine powder.


«Egg Oil.»—

 Yolks of eggs (about 250)    5.0 parts
 Distilled water              0.3 parts

Beat this together and heat the mass with constant stirring in a dish
on the water bath until it thickens and a sample exhibits oil upon
pressing between the fingers. Squeeze out between hot plates, mix the
turbid oil obtained with 0.05 parts of dehydrated Glauber’s salt,
shake repeatedly, and finally allow to settle. The oil, which must be
decanted clear from the sediment, gives a yield of at least 0.5 parts
of egg oil.


«Artificial Egg Oil.»—

 Yellow beeswax    0.2 parts
 Cacao oil         0.5 parts

Melt on the water bath and gradually add 9 parts of olive oil.


«Egg Powder.»—

 Sodium bicarbonate    8 ounces
 Tartaric acid         3 ounces
 Cream tartar          5 ounces
 Turmeric, powdered    3 drachms
 Ground rice          16 ounces

Mix and pass through a fine sieve. One teaspoonful to a dessertspoonful
(according to article to be made), to be mixed with each half pound of
flour.


«The Preservation of Eggs.»—The spoiling of eggs is due to the entrance
of air carrying germs through the shells. Normally the shell has a
surface coating of mucilaginous matter, which prevents for a time the
entrance of these harmful organisms into the egg. But if this coating
is removed or softened by washing or otherwise the keeping quality
of the egg is much reduced. These facts explain why many methods of
preservation have not been entirely successful, and suggest that the
methods employed should be based upon the idea of protecting and
rendering more effective the natural coating of the shell, so that air
bearing the germs that cause decomposition may be completely excluded.

Eggs are often packed in lime, salt, or other products, or are put in
cold storage for winter use, but such eggs are very far from being
perfect when they come upon the market. German authorities declare
that water glass more closely conforms to the requirements of a good
preservative than any of the substances commonly employed. A 10 per
cent solution of water glass is said to preserve eggs so effectually
that at the end of three and one-half months eggs still appeared to be
perfectly fresh. In most packed eggs the yolk settles to one side, and
the egg is then inferior in quality. In eggs preserved in water glass
the yolk retained its normal position in the egg, and in taste they
were not to be distinguished from fresh, unpacked store eggs.

Of twenty methods tested in Germany, the three which proved most
effective were coating the eggs with vaseline, preserving them in
limewater, and preserving them in water glass. The conclusion was
reached that the last is preferable, because varnishing the eggs with
vaseline takes considerable time, and treating them with limewater is
likely to give the eggs a limy flavor. {285}

Other methods follow:

I.—Eggs can be preserved for winter use by coating them, when perfectly
fresh, with paraffine. As the spores of fungi get into eggs almost as
soon as they are laid, it is necessary to rub every egg with chloroform
or wrap it a few minutes in a chloroform soaked rag before dipping it
into the melted paraffine. If only a trace of the chloroform enters
the shell the development of such germs as may have gained access to
freshly laid eggs is prevented. The paraffine coating excludes all
future contamination from germ-laden air, and with no fungi growing
within, they retain their freshness and natural taste.

II.—Preserving with Lime.—Dissolve in each gallon of water 12 ounces
of quicklime, 6 ounces of common salt, 1 drachm of soda, 1⁠/⁠2 drachm
saltpeter, 1⁠/⁠2 drachm tartar, and 1 1⁠/⁠2 drachms of borax. The fluid
is brought into a barrel and sufficient quicklime to cover the bottom
is then poured in. Upon this is placed a layer of eggs, quicklime is
again thrown in and so on until the barrel is filled so that the liquor
stands about 10 inches deep over the last layer of eggs. The barrel is
then covered with a cloth, upon which is scattered some lime.

III.—Melt 4 ounces of clear beeswax in a porcelain dish over a gentle
fire, and stir in 8 ounces of olive oil. Let the solution of wax in oil
cool somewhat, then dip the fresh eggs one by one into it so as to coat
every part of the shell. A momentary dip is sufficient, all excess of
the mixture being wiped off with a cotton cloth. The oil is absorbed in
the shell, the wax hermetically closing all the pores.

IV.—The Reinhard method is said to cause such chemical changes in the
surface of the eggshell that it is closed up perfectly air-tight and an
admittance of air is entirely excluded, even in case of long-continued
storing. The eggs are for a short time exposed to the direct action of
sulphuric acid, whereby the surface of the eggshell, which consists
chiefly of lime carbonate, is transformed into lime sulphate. The
dense texture of the surface thus produced forms a complete protection
against the access of the outside air, which admits of storing the egg
for a very long time, without the contents of the egg suffering any
disadvantageous changes regarding taste and odor. The egg does not
require any special treatment to prevent cracking on boiling, etc.

Some object to this on the ground that sulphuric acid is a dangerous
poison, that might, on occasion, penetrate the shell.

V.—Take about half a dozen eggs and place them in a netting (not so
many as would chill the water below the boiling point, even for an
instant), into a boiling solution of boric acid, withdraw immediately,
and pack. Or put up, in oil, carrying 2 per cent or 3 per cent of
salicylic acid. Eggs treated in this way are said to taste, after six
months, absolutely as fresh as they were when first put up. The eggs
should be as fresh as possible, and should be thoroughly clean before
dipping. The philosophy of the process is that the dipping in boiling
boric acid solution not only kills all bacteria existing on, or in, the
shell and membrane, but reinforces these latter by a very thin layer
of coagulated albumen; while the packing in salicylated oil prevents
the admission of fresh germs from the atmosphere. Salicylic acid is
objected to on the same grounds as sulphuric acid.

VI.—Dissolve sodium silicate in boiling water, to about the consistency
of a syrup (or about 1 part of the silicate to 3 parts water). The eggs
should be as fresh as possible, and must be thoroughly clean. They
should be immersed in the solution in such manner that every part of
each egg is covered with the liquid, then removed and let dry. If the
solution is kept at or near the boiling temperature, the preservative
effect is said to be much more certain and to last longer.

EGG CHOCOLATE: See Beverages.

EGG DYES: See Dyes.

EGG LEMONADE: See Beverages, under Lemonade.

EGG PHOSPHATE: See Beverages.

EGG-STAIN REMOVER: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

EGGS, TESTS FOR: See Foods.

EIKONOGEN DEVELOPER: See Photography.

EKTOGAN: See Antiseptics. {286}


«ELAINE SUBSTITUTE.»

A substitute for elaine for woolen yarns is obtained by boiling 4
pounds carrageen moss in 25 gallons water for 3 hours. The soda is
then put in and the boiling continued for another half hour; 2 pounds
fleabane seeds are gradually added, and a little water to make up for
the evaporation. After a further 1 1⁠/⁠2 hours boiling, the extract is
passed through a fine sieve and well mixed with 25 pounds cottonseed
oil, 12 1⁠/⁠2 pounds sweet oil, and 12 1⁠/⁠2 pounds ammonia solution
of 0.96 specific gravity. Next day stir in 25 pounds saponified elaine
and 13 pounds of odorless petroleum of 0.885 specific gravity. The
resulting emulsion keeps well, dissolves perfectly in lukewarm water,
and answers its purpose excellently.

ELECTRODEPOSITION PROCESSES: See Plating.

ELECTROLYSIS IN BOILERS: See Boiler Compounds.


«Electroplating and Electrotyping»

(See also Plating.)


«PROCESS OF ELECTROPLATING.»

First, clean the articles to be plated. To remove grease, warm the
pieces before a slow fire of charcoal or coke, or in a dull red stove.
Delicate or soldered articles should be boiled in a solution of caustic
potash, the latter being dissolved in 10 times its weight of water.

The scouring bath is composed of 100 parts of water to from 5 to 20
parts of sulphuric acid. The articles may be put in hot and should be
left in the bath till the surface turns to an ocher red tint.

The articles, after having been cleansed of grease by the potash
solution, must be washed in water and rinsed before being scoured.
Copper or glass tongs must then be used for moving the articles,
as they must not afterwards be handled. For small pieces, suitable
earthenware or porcelain strainers may be used.

The next stage is the spent nitric acid bath. This consists of nitric
acid weakened by previous use. The articles are left in until the red
color disappears, so that after rinsing they show a uniform metallic
tint. The rinsing should be thoroughly carried out.

Having been well shaken and drained, the articles are next subjected to
the strong nitric acid bath, which is made up as follows:

 Nitric acid of 36° Bé               100 volumes
 Chloride of sodium (common salt)      1 volume
 Calcined soot (lampblack)             1 volume

The articles must be immersed in this bath for only a few seconds.
Avoid overheating or using too cold a bath. They are next rinsed
thoroughly with cold water and are again subjected to a strong nitric
acid bath to give them a bright or dull appearance as required.

To produce a bright finish, plunge them for a few seconds (moving
them about rapidly at the same time) in a cold bath of the following
composition:

 Nitric acid             100 volumes
 Sulphuric acid          100 volumes
 Chloride of sodium        1 volume

Again rinse thoroughly in cold water. The corresponding bath giving a
dull or matt appearance is composed of:

 Nitric acid            200 volumes
 Sulphuric acid         100 volumes
 Sea salt                 1 volume
 Sulphate of zinc    1 to 5 volumes

The duration of immersion in this bath varies from 5 to 20 minutes,
according to the dullness required. Wash with plenty of water. The
articles will then have an unpleasant appearance, which will disappear
on plunging them for a moment into the brightening bath and rinsing
quickly.

The pieces are next treated with the nitrate of mercury bath for a few
seconds.

 Plain water           10,000 parts
 Nitrate of mercury        10 parts
 Sulphuric acid            20 parts

It is necessary to stir this bath before using it. For large articles
the proportion of mercury should be greater. An article badly cleaned
will come out in various shades and lacking its metallic brightness. It
is better to throw a spent bath away than attempt to strengthen it.

The various pieces, after having passed through these several
processes, are then ready for the plating bath.

A few words on the subject of gilding may not be amiss. Small articles
are gilded hot, large ones cold. The cold cyanide of gold and potassium
bath is composed as follows:

 Distilled water              10,000 parts
 Pure cyanide of potassium       200 parts
 Pure gold                       100 parts

The gold, transformed into chloride, is dissolved in 2,000 parts of
water and {287} the cyanide in 8,000 parts. The two solutions are then
mixed and boiled for half an hour.

The anode must be entirely submerged in the bath, suspended from
platinum wires and withdrawn immediately the bath is out of action.


«Hot Gold Bath.»—Zinc, tin, lead, antimony and the alloys of these
metals are better if previously covered with copper.

The following are the formulas for the other metals per 10,000 parts of
distilled water:

Crystallized phosphate of soda, 600 parts; alloys rich in copper
castings, 500 parts.

Bisulphide of soda, 100 parts; alloys rich in copper, 125 parts.

Pure cyanide of potassium, 10 parts; alloys rich in copper, 5 parts.
Pure gold transformed into chloride, 10 parts; alloys rich in copper,
10 parts.

Dissolve the phosphate of soda hot in 8,000 parts water, let the
chloride of gold cool in 1,000 parts water; mix little by little the
second solution with the first; dissolve the cyanide and bisulphide in
1,000 parts water and mix this last solution with the other two. The
temperature of the bath may vary between 122° and 175° F.


«Silvering.»—For amateurs a bath of 10 parts silver per 1,000 is
sufficient. Dissolve 150 parts nitrate of silver, equivalent to 100
parts pure silver, in 10,000 parts of water and add 250 parts pure
cyanide of potassium. Stir it up until completely dissolved, and then
filter the solution. Silvering is generally effected cold, except in
the case of small articles. Iron, steel, zinc, lead, and tin are better
if previously copper-plated and then silvered hot. The cleaned articles
are first treated in a nitrate of mercury bath, being kept continually
in motion.

With excess of current the pieces become gray, and blacken. In the cold
bath anodes of platinum or silver should be employed. Old baths are, in
this case, preferable to new. They may, if required, be artificially
aged by the addition of 1 or 2 parts in 1,000 of liquid ammonia.

If the anode blackens, the bath is too weak. If it becomes white, there
is too much current, and the deposit, being too rapid, does not adhere.
The deposit may be taken as normal and regular when the anode becomes
gray during the passage of the current and white again when it ceases
to flow.

The nickel vat should be of glass, porcelain, or earthenware, or a
case lined with impermeable gum. The best nickel bath is prepared by
dissolving to saturation, in hot distilled water, nickel sulphate and
ammonium, free from oxides or alkalies and alkaline earthy metals. The
proportion of salt to dissolve is 1 part, by weight, to 10 of water.
Filter after cooling and the bath is then ready for use.

When the bath is ready and the battery set up, the wires from the
latter are joined by binding screws to two metal bars resting on the
edge of the vat. The bar joined to the positive pole of the battery
supports, through the intervention of a nickel-plated copper hook, a
plate of nickel, constituting the soluble anode, which restores to the
bath the metal deposited on the cathode by the electrolytic action.
From the other bar are suspended the articles to be plated. These
latter should be well polished before being put into the bath. To
remove all grease, scrub them with brushes soaked in a hot solution of
whiting, boiled in water and carbonate of soda.

Copper and its alloys are cleaned well in a few seconds by immersion in
a bath composed of 10 parts, by weight, of water, and 1 part of nitric
acid. For rough articles, 2 parts water, 1 nitric acid, and 1 sulphuric
acid. For steel and polished castings, 100 parts water to 1 sulphuric
acid. The articles should remain in the bath until the whole surface
is of a uniform gray tint. They are then rubbed with powdered pumice
stone till the solid metal appears. Iron and steel castings are left
in the bath for three or four hours and then scrubbed with well-sifted
sand.

If the current be too strong, the nickel is deposited gray or even
black. An hour or so is time enough to render the coat sufficiently
thick and in a condition to stand polishing. When the articles are
removed from the bath they are washed in water and dried in hot sawdust.

To polish the articles they should be taken in one hand and rubbed
rapidly backward and forward on a strip of cloth soaked in polishing
powder boiled in water, the cloth being firmly fixed at one end and
held in the other hand. The hollow parts are polished by means of cloth
pads of various sizes fixed on sticks. These pads must be dipped in the
polishing paste when using them. The articles, when well brightened,
are washed in water to get rid of the paste and the wool threads, and
finally dried in sawdust. {288}


«SOME NOTES ON ELECTROTYPING, PLATING, AND GILDING.»

The first step in the process is the preparation of the mold. The
substance originally used for the construction of this was plaster
of Paris. This substance is, however, porous and must be rendered
impermeable. The materials most commonly used of later years are
stearine, wax, marine glue, gelatin, india rubber, and fusible alloys.
With hollow molds it is a good plan to arrange an internal skeleton of
platinum, for ultimate connection with the anodes, in order to secure
a good electrical contact with all parts of the mold. When covering
several pieces at once, it is as well to connect each of them with the
negative pole by an iron or lead wire of suitable dimensions.

Having prepared the molds in the usual way—by obtaining an impression
in the material when soft, and allowing it to set—they should be given
a metallic coating on their active surfaces of pure powdered plumbago
applied with a polishing brush.

For delicate and intricate objects, the wet process is most suitable.
It consists in painting the object with two or more coats of nitrate
of silver and ultimately reducing it by a solution of phosphorus in
bisulphide of carbon.

The plating baths are prepared as follows:

A quantity of water is put in a jar and to it is added from 8 to
10 parts in 100 of sulphuric acid, in small quantities, stirring
continually in order to dissipate the heat generated by the admixture
of acid and water. Sulphate of copper (bluestone) is then dissolved in
the acidulated water at the normal temperature until it will take up
no more. The solution is always used cold and must be maintained in
a saturated condition by the addition of copper sulphate crystals or
suitable anodes.

For use it should be poured into vessels of clay, porcelain, glass,
hard brown earthenware, or india rubber. For large baths wood may be
used, lined on the interior with an impervious coating of acid-proof
cement, india rubber, marine glue, or even varnished lead sheets.

If the solution be too weak and the current on the other hand be
too strong, the resulting deposit will be of a black color. If
too concentrated a solution and too weak a current be employed, a
crystalline deposit is obtained. To insure a perfect result, a happy
medium in all things is necessary.

During the process of deposition, the pieces should be moved about in
the bath as much as possible in order to preserve the homogeneity of
the liquid. If this be not attended to, stratification and circulation
of the liquid is produced by the decomposition of the anode, and is
rendered visible by the appearance of long, vertical lines on the
cathode.

For amateurs and others performing small and occasional experiments,
the following simple apparatus will be serviceable. Place the solution
of sulphate of copper in an earthenware or porcelain jar, in the center
of which is a porous pot containing amalgamated zinc and a solution
of sulphuric acid and water, about 2 or 3 parts in 100. At the top of
the zinc a brass rod is fixed, supporting a circle of the same metal,
the diameter of which is between that of the containing vessel and the
porous pot. From this metallic circle the pieces are suspended in such
a manner that the parts to be covered are turned toward the porous
pot. Two small horsehair bags filled with copper sulphate crystals are
suspended in the solution to maintain its saturation.


«ELM TEA.»

 Powdered slippery elm bark            2 teaspoonfuls
   (or the equivalent in whole bar)
 Boiling water                         1 cup
 Sugar, enough.
 Lemon juice, enough.

Pour the water upon the bark. When cool, strain and flavor with lemon
juice and add sugar. This is soothing in case of inflammation of the
mucous membrane.


«EMBALMING FLUIDS.»

Success in the use of any embalming fluid depends largely on
manipulation, an important part of the process being the thorough
removal of fluid from the circulatory system before undertaking the
injection of the embalming liquid.

 I.—Solution zinc chloride (U. S. P.)               1 gallon
     Solution sodium chloride 6 ounces to pint       6 pints
     Solution mercury bichloride, 1 ounce to pint    4 pints
     Alcohol                                         4 pints
     Carbolic acid (pure)                            8 ounces
     Glycerine                                      24 fluidounces

{289}

Mix the glycerine and carbolic acid, then all the other ingredients,
when a clear solution of 3 gallons results, which is the proper amount
for a body weighing 150 pounds.

 II.—Arsenious acid    100 parts
      Sodium hydrate     50 parts
      Carbolic acid and water, of each a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the arsenious acid and the soda in 140 parts of water by the
aid of heat. When the solution is cold, drop carbolic acid into it
until it becomes opalescent, and finally add water until the finished
product measures 700 parts.

 III.—Salicylic acid          4 drachms
       Boric acid              5 drachms
       Potassium carbonate     1 drachm
       Oil of cinnamon         3 drachms
       Oil of cloves           3 drachms
       Glycerine               5 ounces
       Alcohol                12 ounces
       Hot water              12 ounces

Dissolve the first 3 ingredients in the water and glycerine, the oils
in the alcohol, and mix the solutions.

 IV.—Thymol       15 grains
      Alcohol     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Glycerine    10 ounces
      Water         5 ounces

 V.—Cooking salt                            500 parts
     Alum                                    750 parts
     Arsenious acid                          350 parts
     Zinc chloride                           120 parts
     Mercury chloride                         90 parts
     Formaldehyde solution, 40 per cent    6,000 parts
     Water, up to                         24,000 parts

 VI.—Arsenious acid                   360 grains
      Mercuric chloride              1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces
      Alcohol                            9 ounces
      Sol. ac. carbolic, 5 per cent    120 ounces

From 10 to 12 pints are injected into the carotid artery—at first
slowly and afterwards at intervals of from 15 to 30 minutes.

EMERALD (IMITATION): See Gems, Artificial.


«EMERY:»


«Emery Grinder.»—Shellac, melted together with emery and fixed to
a short metal rod, forms the grinder used for opening the holes in
enameled watch dials and similar work. The grinder is generally rotated
with the thumb and forefinger, and water is used to lubricate its
cutting part, which soon wears away. The grinder is reshaped by heating
the shellac and molding the mass while it is in a plastic condition.


«Preparing Emery for Lapping.»—To prepare emery for lapping
screw-gages, plugs, etc., fill a half-pint bottle with machine oil
and flour emery, 7 parts oil to 1 part emery, by bulk. Mix thoroughly
and let stand for 20 minutes to settle. Take the bottle and pour off
one-half the contents without disturbing the settlings. The portion
poured off contains only the finest emery and will never scratch the
work.

For surface lapping put some flour emery in a linen bag and tie up
closely with a string. Dust out the emery by striking the bag against
the surface plate; use turpentine for rough lapping and the dry surface
plate for finishing.


«Removing Glaze from Emery Wheels.»—If the wheel is not altogether too
hard, it can sometimes be remedied by reducing the face of the wheel to
about 1⁠/⁠8 inch, or by reducing the speed, or by both. Emery wheels
should be turned off so that they will run true before using. A wheel
that glazes immediately after it has been turned off, can sometimes
be corrected by loosening the nut, and allowing the wheel to assume a
slightly different position, when it is again tightened.


«Emery Substitute.»—For making artificial emery, 1,634 parts of the
following substances may be employed: Seven hundred and fifty-nine
parts of bauxite, 700 parts of coke, and 96 parts of a flux, which may
be a carbonate of lime, of potash, or of soda, preferably carbonate
of lime on account of its low price. These materials are arranged in
alternate layers and fused in an oven having a good draught. They are
said to yield an artificial emery similar to the natural emery of
Smyrna and Naxos, and at low cost.


«EMULSIFIERS:»


«Rosin Soap as an Emulsifier.»—The soap should be made by boiling
gently for 2 hours, in an evaporating dish, a mixture of 1,800 grains
rosin and 300 caustic soda with 20 fluidounces water. Upon cooling,
the soap separates as a yellow mass, which is drained from the liquid,
squeezed, then heated on a water bath until it is dry and friable.
Fixed oils may be emulsified by adding 1 ounce {290} to a solution
of 10 grains soap in 1 ounce water. Volatile oils require 10 grains
rosin soap, 2 3⁠/⁠4 ounces water, and 2 drachms oil. Creosote requires
double this amount of soap. Thymol may be rendered miscible with water
by dissolving 18 grains together with 20 grains soap in 3 fluidounces
alcohol, then adding enough water to make 6 fluidounces. Of course many
other substances may be emulsified with the same emulsifier.


«Yolk of Egg as an Emulsifier.»—The domestic ointment of Unona,
consisting of a mixture of oil and yolk of egg, is miscible in all
proportions with water. It is proposed to utilize this fact by
substituting a diluted ointment for the gum emulsions in general use,
the following being given as a general formula:

 Yolk of egg             10 parts
 Balsam Peru         1 to 2 parts
 Zinc oxide         5 to 10 parts
 Distilled water        100 parts

If desired, 33 parts of vinegar may be substituted for the same
amount of water, while oil of cade, oil of birch, lianthral or storax
may be substituted for the balsam Peru, and an equal quantity of
talc, magnesium carbonate, sulphur of bismuth subcarbonate, may be
introduced in place of the oxide of zinc. A further variation in the
character of the liquid may be introduced by the use of medicated or
perfumed waters instead of the plain distilled water. Where so diluted,
as in the above formula, the yolk of egg separates out after long
standing, but the mixture quickly reëmulsifies upon shaking. Tar and
balsams can be emulsified by mixing with double their quantity of yolk
of egg, then diluting by the addition of small quantities of water or
milk.


«Emulgen.»—This emulsifying agent has the following composition:
Gluten, 5; gum acacia, 5; gum tragacanth, 20; glycerine, 20; water, 50;
alcohol, 10. This mixture forms a clear grayish jelly.

EMULSIONS OF PETROLEUM: See Petroleum.


«Enameling»

(See also Ceramics, Glazes, Paints, Waterproofing, and Varnishes.)


«COMMERCIAL ENAMELING.»

Commercial enameling includes: (1) Hollow ware enameling for domestic
use; (2) hollow ware enameling for chemical use; (3) enameling
locomotive and other tubes; (4) enameling drain and water pipes; (5)
signboard enameling.

There is one defect to which all enamel ware is subject, and that is
chipping. This may be caused by (1) imperfect mixing of the enamels;
(2) imperfect fusing; (3) imperfect pickling of the iron; (4) rough
usage. With ordinary care a well-enameled article has been known to
last in daily use for 10 or 12 years, whereas defective enameling,
say, on a sign tablet—which is exempt from rough usage—may not have
a life exceeding a few months. All enameled articles, such as hollow
ware and sign tablets, first receive a coating of a composition chiefly
composed of glass called “gray,” and this is followed by a deposit of
“white,” any additional color required being laid above the white.
In the mixing and depositing of these mixtures lie the secrets of
successful enameling. The “gray” has to be fused not only on but also
into the metal at a bright red—almost white—heat, and it is obvious
that its constituents must be arranged and proportioned to expand
and contract in a somewhat uniform manner with the iron itself. The
“white” has to be fused on the surface of the gray, but the gray being
much harder is not affected by the second firing. If it were liquid it
would become mixed with the white and destroy its purity. Frequently,
owing to inferior chemicals, imperfect mixing or fusing, a second
coating of white is necessary, in order to produce a surface of the
necessary purity and luster. The difficulties of enameling are thus
easily understood. Unless the metals and chemicals are so arranged and
manipulated that their capacities of expansion and contraction are
approximately the same, inferior work will be produced. Oxide of iron
on the surface of the plates, inferior chemicals, incorrect mixings,
insufficient or overheating in the process of fusing, prevent that
chemical combination which is essential to successful enameling. The
coatings will be laid on and not combined, with the result that there
will be inequalities in expansion and contraction which will cause the
enamel to chip off immediately if submitted to anything approaching
rough usage, and in a very short time if submitted to chemical or
ordinary atmospheric conditions.

The manufacture of sign tablets is the simplest form to which this
important art is adapted. Sign-tablet enameling is, however, kept as
great a secret as any other type. This branch of the industry {291} is
divided up as follows: (1) Setting the plates; (2) scaling and pickling
the plates; (3) mixing the enamel constituents; (4) melting the enamel
constituents; (5) grinding the enamel constituents; (6) applying the
enamel; (7) drying the enamel coatings; (8) fusing the enamel on the
articles; (9) lettering—including alphabetical and other drawing,
spacing, and artistic art in arrangement; (10) stencil cutting on paper
and stencil metal; (11) brushing; (12) refusing. Distinctive branches
of this work have distinctive experts, the arrangement being generally
as follows: Nos. 1 and 2 may or may not be combined; Nos. 3 and 5
may or may not be combined; Nos. 4, 7, 8, and 12 generally combined;
No. 6 generally the work of girls; Nos. 9 and 10 generally combined;
No. 11 generally the work of girls and boys. The twelve processes,
therefore, require six classes of trained workpeople, and incompetence
or carelessness at any section can only result in imperfect plates or
“wasters.”

A brief description of these processes will enable the reader to
understand the more detailed and technical description to follow, and
is, therefore, not out of place. Ordinary iron sheets will do for the
manufacture of sign tablets; but a specially prepared charcoal plate
can be had at a slightly increased price. The latter type is the
best, for in many cases the scaling and pickling may, to a certain
extent, be dispensed with. To make this article, however, as complete
as possible, we shall begin from the lowest rung of the manufacturing
ladder—i. e., from the first steps in the working of suitable iron.

I.—Setting.—The plates may be received in sheets, and cut to the
required size at the enameling factory, or, what is more general,
received in sizes according to specification. The former are more
liable to have buckled slightly or become dented, and have to be
restored to a smooth and uniform surface by hammering on a flat plate.
The operation seems simple, but an inexperienced operator may entirely
fail to produce the desired result, and, if he does succeed, it is
with the expenditure of a great amount of time. An expert setter with
comparatively few and well-directed strokes brings an imperfect plate
into truth and in readiness for the next operation.

II.—Scaling and Pickling.—The annealing of the sheets in special
furnaces loosens the scale, which can then be easily removed, after
which immersion for some time in diluted sulphuric or muriatic acid
thoroughly cleans the plate. Firing to a red heat follows, and then a
generous course of scrubbing, and the last traces of acid are removed
by dipping in boiling soda solution. Scouring with sand and washing in
clean water may follow, and the metal has then a perfect and chemically
clean surface.

III.—Mixing the Enamel Constituents.—Ground, foundation, or gray.—All
articles, whether hollow ware or plates, are operated upon in a
very similar manner. Both require the foundation coating generally
called “gray.” The gray constituents vary considerably in different
manufactures; but as regards the use of lead, it is universally
conceded that while it may in many instances be used with advantage in
the enameling of sign tablets, etc., it should under no circumstances
be introduced into the coating of articles for culinary purposes, or in
which acids are to be used. The first successful commercial composition
of this covering was: Cullet (broken glass), carbonate of soda, and
boracic acid. This composition remained constant for many years, but
ultimately gave place to the following: Cullet, red lead, borax, niter.
The borax and red lead form the fluxes, while the niter is to “purify”
the mass. Some of the later mixings consist of the following: Silica
powder, crystallized or calcium borax, white lead, fused together.
This would be called a frit, and with it should be pulverized powdered
silica, clay, magnesia. This recipe is one requiring a very high
temperature for fusing: Silica powder, borax, fused and ground with
silica, clay, magnesia. This requires a slightly lower temperature:
Frit of silica powder, borax, feldspar, fused together, and then ground
with clay, feldspar, and magnesia.

The approximate quantities of each constituent will be given later,
but it must always be remembered that no hard-and-fast line can be
laid down. Chemicals vary in purity, the furnaces vary in temperature,
the pounding, grinding, and mixing are not always done alike, and each
of these exerts a certain influence on the character of the “melt.”
These compositions may be applied to the metal either in the form of
a powder or of a liquid. Some few years ago the powder coating was in
general use, but at the present time the liquid form is in favor, as
it is considered easier of application, capable of giving a coating
more uniform in thickness and less costly. In using the powder coating
the plate is rubbed with a cloth dipped in a gum {292} solution, and
the powder then carefully dusted through a sieve over the surface. In
this condition the plate is submitted to the fusing process. In using
the liquid material the plate surface is dipped into or has the liquid
mixing carefully poured over it, any surplus being drained off, and
any parts which are not to be coated being wiped clean by a cloth. The
coating is then dried in suitable stoves, after which it is ready for
fusing on to the iron. The gray coating should be fairly uniform and
smooth, free from holes or blisters, and thoroughly covering every part
of the iron which is to be subjected to any outside influence. Cooling
slowly is important. Rapid cooling frequently causes chipping of the
coating, and in any case it will greatly reduce the tenacity of the
connection existing between the glaze and the metal.

Generally the next surface is a white one, and it depends upon the
class of article, the character of the enamels, and the efficiency
of application, whether one coat or two will be required. Roughly
speaking, the coating is composed of a glass to which is added oxide of
tin, oxide of lead, or some other suitable opaque white chemical. The
mixture must be so constituted as to fuse at a lower temperature than
the foundation covering. If its temperature of fusion were the same
the result would be that the gray would melt on the iron and become
incorporated with the white, thus loosening the attachment of the mass
to the iron and also destroying the purity of the white itself. Bone
ash is sometimes used, as it becomes uniformly distributed throughout
the melt, and remains in suspension instead of settling. Bone ash and
oxide of lead are, however, in much less demand than oxide of tin. The
lead is especially falling into disfavor, for the following reasons:
Firstly, it requires special and laborious treatment; secondly, it
gives a yellowish-white color; thirdly, it cannot resist the action
of acids. The following is a recipe which was in very general use for
some years: Glass (cullet), powdered flint, lead, soda (crystals),
niter, arsenic. Another consists of the following: Borax, glass, silica
powder, oxide of tin, niter, soda, magnesia, clay. These are fused
together, and when being ground a mixture of Nos. 1, 3, 7, and boracic
acid is added.

Enamel mixings containing glass or china are now generally in use,
although for several years the experience of manufacturers using glass
was not satisfactory. Improved compositions and working now make this
constituent a most useful, and, in fact, an almost essential element.
The glass should be white broken glass, and as uniform in character as
possible, as colored glass would impart a tinge of its own color to the
mixing.

The following are two distinct glazes which do not contain glass or
porcelain: Feldspar, oxide of tin, niter, soda. This is free from any
poisonous body and requires no additions: Silica powder, oxide of tin,
borax, soda, niter, carbonate of ammonia, or magnesia.

Alkalies.—Of the alkalies which are necessary to produce complete
fusion of and combination with the quartz, soda is chiefly applied in
enamel manufactures, as the fusing temperature is then lower.

Bone Ash.—This material will not add opacity, but only
semi-transparency to the enamel, and is therefore not much used.

Boracic Acid.—Boracic acid is sometimes substituted for silicic acid,
but generally about 15 per cent of the former to 85 per cent of the
latter is added. Borax as a flux is, however, much more easily used and
is therefore largely employed in enamel factories.

Borax.—Calcined borax, that is, borax from which a large proportion of
the natural moisture has been eliminated, is best for enamel purposes.
It is a flux that melts at medium heat, and enters into the formation
of the vitreous basis. Borax has also the property of thoroughly
distributing oxide colors in the enamels.

Clay.—Only a fairly pure clay can be used in enamel mixings, and the
varieties of clay available are therefore limited. The two best are
pipe—or white—clay and china clay—kaolin. The latter is purer than the
former, and in addition to acting as a flux, it is used to increase the
viscosity of mixings and therefore the opacity. It is used in much the
same way as oxide of tin.

Cryolite.—Ground cryolite is a white mineral, easily fusible, and
sometimes used in enamel mixings. It is closely associated with
aluminum.

Cullet.—This is the general material used as a basis. Clear glass only
should be introduced; and as the compositions of glass vary greatly,
small experimental frits should always be made to arrive at the correct
quantity to be added.

Feldspar.—The introduction of feldspar into an enamel frit increases
consistency. The common white variety is {293} generally used, and
its preliminary treatment by pounding is similar to that adopted with
quartz.

Fluor-Spar.—In this mineral we have another flux, which fuses at a red
heat.

Fluxes.—These are for the purpose of regulating the temperature of
fusion of a mixing—frit—some being better adapted for this purpose than
others. This, however, is not the only consideration, for the character
of the flux depends upon the composition or chemical changes to which
the ingredients are to be subjected. The fluxes are borax, clays,
cullet, porcelain, feldspar, gypsum, and fluorspar.

Glass.—Glass is composed of lime, silicic acid, and soda or potash. The
use of the glass is to form the hard, crystal-like foundation.

Gypsum.—This mineral is sometimes used in conjunction with baryta and
fluor-spar.

Lead.—Crystallized carbonate of lead, or “lead white,” is frequently
used in enamels when a low temperature for fusion is required. It
should never be used on articles to be submitted to chemical action,
or for culinary use. Minium is a specially prepared oxide of lead, and
suitable for enameling purposes, but is expensive.

Lime.—Lime is in the form of carbonate of calcium when used.

Magnesium Carbonate is used only in small quantities in enamel mixings.
It necessitates a higher temperature for fusion, but does not affect
the color to the slightest extent if pure.

Manganese.—As a decolorant, this mineral is very powerful, and
therefore only small quantities must be used. Purity of the mineral is
essential—i. e., it should contain from 95 to 98 per cent of binoxide
of manganese.

Niter.—At a certain temperature niter shows a chemical change, which,
when affected by some of the other constituents, assists in the
formation of the vitreous base.

Porcelain.—Broken uncolored porcelain is sometimes used in enamel
manufacture. Its composition: Quartz, china clay, and feldspar. It
increases viscosity.

Red Lead.—This decolorant is sometimes called purifier. It will,
however, interfere with certain coloring media, and when this is the
case its use should at once be discontinued.

Silicic Acid.—Quartz, sand, rock crystal, and flint stone are all
forms of this acid in crystallized form. By itself it is practically
infusible, but it can be incorporated with other materials to form
mixings requiring varying temperatures for fusion.

Soda.—The soda in general use is carbonate of soda—58 per cent—or
enameling soda. The latter is specially prepared, so as to free it
almost entirely from iron, and admit of the production of a pure white
enamel when such is required.

Tin Oxide.—All enamels must contain white ingredients to produce
opacity, and the most generally used is oxide of tin. By itself it
cannot be fused, but with proper manipulation it becomes diffused
throughout the enamel mass. On the quantity added depends the denseness
or degree of opacity imparted to the enamel.

It will be understood that the enamel constituents are divided into
four distinct groups: I. Fundamental media. II. Flux media. III.
Decolorant media. IV. Coloring media. We have briefly considered the
three first named, and we will now proceed to No. IV. The coloring
material used is in every case a metallic oxide, so that, so far
as this goes, the coloring of an enamel frit is easy enough. Great
care is, however, necessary, and at times many difficulties present
themselves, which can only be overcome by experience. Coloring oxides
are very frequently adulterated, and certain kinds of the adulterants
are injurious to the frit and to the finish of the color.


«Comparison of Hollow Ware and Sign-Tablet Enameling.»—The enameling
for sign tablets is much the same as for hollow ware; the mixings are
practically alike, but, as a general rule, the mixing is applied in
a much more liquid form on the latter. It is easy to understand that
hollow ware in everyday use receives rougher usage than tablets. By
handling, it is submitted to compression, expansion, and more or less
violence due to falls, knocks, etc., and unless, therefore, the enamel
coating follows the changes of the metal due to these causes, the
connection between the two will become loosened and chipping will take
place.

The enamel, therefore, though much alike for both purposes, should be
so prepared for hollow ware that it will be capable of withstanding the
changes to which we have referred. In all cases it must be remembered
that the thinner the coat of the enamel the better it will be {294}
distributed over the iron, and the greater will be its adherence to
the iron. Any article heavily enameled is always liable to chip,
especially if submitted to the slightest bending action, and therefore
any excess of material added to a plate means that it will always be
readily liable to separate from the plate. In hollow-ware enameling the
preparation of each frit generally receives somewhat more attention
than for plate enameling. The grinding is more effectively carried out,
in order to remove almost every possibility of roughness on any part of
the surface, especially the inside surface.

The iron used in tablet and hollow-ware manufacture is rolled sheet
iron. It is supplied in a variety of qualities. Charcoal iron is purer
than ordinary plate iron, more ductile, and therefore capable of
being driven out to various forms and depths by stamping presses. The
surface of the charcoal iron is not so liable to become oxidized, and
therefore can be more readily made chemically clean for the reception
of the enamels. Some manufacturers use charcoal plates for tablet work,
but these are expensive; the ordinary plates, carefully pickled and
cleaned, adapt themselves to the work satisfactorily.

The sheet irons generally used for the enameling purposes referred to
vary in gauge. The finer the iron the greater must be the care used in
coating it with enamel. Thin iron will rapidly become hot or cool, the
temperatures changing much more quickly than that of the mixing. Unless
care, therefore, is used, the result of fusing will be that the enamel
mass will not have become thoroughly liquid, and its adherence to the
iron will be imperfect.

If, however, the temperature is gradually raised to the maximum, and
sympathetic combination takes place, the dangers of rapid cooling are
avoided. Again, the iron, in losing its temperature more rapidly than
the enamel, will contract, thus loosening its contact with the glaze,
and the latter will either then, or after a short period of usage,
chip off. We then arrive at the following hard-and-fast rules: (1) In
all classes of enameling, but particularly where thin iron sheets are
used, the temperature of the plate and its covering must be raised very
gradually and very uniformly. (2) In all cases a plate which has had
a glaze fused on its surface must be cooled very gradually and very
uniformly. The importance of these rules cannot be over-estimated, and
will, therefore, be referred to in a more practical way later.

In enameling factories no causes are more prolific in the production
of waste than these, and in many cases the defects produced are
erroneously attributed to something else. Cast iron is much easier to
enamel than wrought iron. This is due to the granular character of its
composition. It retains the enamels in its small microscopic recesses,
and greater uniformity can be arrived at with greater ease. Cast-iron
enameled sign tablets and hollow ware were at one time made, but their
great weight made it impossible for them ever to come into general use.

Wrought-iron plates, if examined microscopically, will show that they
are of a fibrous structure, the fibers running in the direction in
which they have been rolled. The enamels, therefore, will be more
liable to flow longitudinally than transversely, and this tendency
will be more accentuated at some places than at others. This, however,
is prevented by giving the iron sheets what might be described as
a cast-iron finish. The sheets to be enameled should be thoroughly
scoured in all directions by quartz or flint sand, no part of the
surface being neglected. This thorough scrubbing will roughen the
surface sufficiently to make it uniformly retentive of enamel mixture,
and in no cases should it be omitted or carelessly carried out.


«Copper Enameling.»—On a clean copper surface the enameling process
is easy. The foundation glaze is not essential, and when required the
most beautiful results of blended colors can be obtained by very little
additional experience to ordinary enameling.

When the vase or other article has been hammered out to the required
shape in copper, it is passed on to another class of artisans, who
prepare it for the hands of the enameler. The design or designs are
sketched carefully. The working appliances consist only of a pointed
tool, two or three small punches of varying sizes, and a hammer. With
this small equipment the operator sets to work. The spaces between each
dividing line are gradually lowered by hammering, and when this has
been uniformly completed, each little recess is ready to receive its
allotment of enamel. More accurate work even than this can be obtained
by the introduction of flat wire. This wire is soldered or fixed on the
vase, and forms the outline for the entire design. It may be of brass,
copper, or gold, but is fixed and built round every item of the whole
design with the most {295} laborious care. It stands above the surface
of the design on the copper articles, but the little recesses formed
by it are then gradually filled up by enamel in successive fusings.
The whole surface of the article is now ground perfectly smooth and
polished until its luster is raised to the highest point possible, and
when this stage has been reached the article is ready for the market.


«From the Sheet to the Sign Tablet.»—The plates are generally in
lengths of 6 feet by 2 feet, 6 feet by 3 feet, etc., the gauge
generally being from 14 to 22, according to the size and class of
plates to be enameled. These must be cut, but some enamelers prefer
to order their plates in specified sizes, which does away with the
necessity of cutting at the enameling factory. In order, however, to
make this article complete, we will assume that a stock of large plates
is kept on hand, the sizes being 6 feet by 3 feet and 6 feet by 2
feet. An order for sign tablets is given; particulars, say as follows:
Length, 2 feet by 12 inches, white letters on blue ground; lettering,
The Engineer, 33 Norfolk Street; block letters, no border line, 2
holes. For ordinary purposes these particulars would be sufficient for
the enameler.

Stage I.—Cutting the plate is the first operation. The plates 6 feet
by 2 feet would first be cut down the center in a circular cutting
machine, thus forming two strips, 6 feet by 12 inches. Each strip would
then be cut into three lengths of 2 feet each. If a guillotine had to
be used instead of a circular cutter, the plate would be first cut
transversely at distances of 2 feet, thus forming three square pieces
of 2 feet by 2 feet. These would then be subdivided longitudinally into
two lengths each, the pieces being then 2 feet by 12 inches. Each sheet
would thus be cut into six plates.

Stage II.—The cut plates should next have any roughness removed from
the edges, then punched with two holes—one at each end, followed by
leveling or setting. This is done by hammering carefully on a true flat
surface.

Stage III.—The plates should then be taken and dipped into a
hydrochloric acid bath made up of equal quantities of the acid and
water. The plates are then raised to a red heat in the stoves, and on
removal it will be found that the scale—iron oxide—has become loosened,
and will readily fall off, leaving a clean metallic surface. A second
course of cleaning then follows in diluted sulphuric acid—1 part acid
to 20 parts water. In this bath the iron may be kept for about 12
hours. In some cases a much stronger bath is used, and the plates are
left in only a very short time. The bath is constructed of hard wood
coated inside with suitable varnish.

In mixing the sulphuric acid bath it must be remembered that the acid
should be slowly poured into the water under continuous stirring.
Following the bath, the metal is rinsed in water, after which it is
thoroughly scoured with fine flinty sand. Rinsing again follows, but
in boiling water, and then the metal is allowed to dry. The enameling
process should immediately follow the drying, for if kept for any
length of time the surface of the metal again becomes oxidized. In
hollow-ware enameling the hydrochloric acid bath may be omitted.

Stage IV.—The plates are now ready for the reception of the foundation
or gray coating. If powder is used the plate is wiped over with a gum
solution, and then the powder is carefully and uniformly dusted through
a fine sieve over the surface. The plate is then reversed and the
operation repeated on the other side. If a liquid “gray” is to be used
it should have a consistency of cream, and be poured or brushed with
equal care over the two surfaces in succession, after the plate has
been heated to be only just bearable to the touch. The plates are then
put on rests, or petits, in a drying stove heated to about 160° F.,
and when thoroughly dry they are ready for the fusing operation. The
petits, with the plates, are placed on a long fork fixed on a wagon,
which can be moved backward and forward on rails; the door of the
fusing oven is then raised and the wagon moved forward. The fork enters
the oven just above fire clay brick supports arranged to receive the
petits. The fork is then withdrawn and the door closed. The stove has a
cherry-red, almost white, heat and in a few minutes the enamel coating
has been uniformly melted, and the plates are ready to be removed on
the petits and fork in the same manner as they were inserted. Rapid
cooling must now be carefully avoided, otherwise the enamel and
the iron will be liable to separate, and chipping will result. The
temperature of fusion should be about 2,192° F.† When all the plates
have been thus prepared they are carefully examined and defective ones
laid aside, the others being now ready for the next operation. {296}

 ────────────────────────────

 † Melting a piece of copper will approximately represent this
 temperature.

Stage V.—The coating of the plate with white is the next stage. The
temperature of fusion of the white glaze is lower than that of the
gray, so that the plate will remain a shorter time in the stove, or
be submitted to a somewhat lower temperature. The latter system is to
be strongly recommended in order to prevent any possibility of fusion
of the ground mass. The white should be made as liquid as possible
consistent with good results. The advantages of thin coatings have
already been explained, but if the mixing is too thin the ground
coating will not only be irregularly covered. but, in fusion, bubbles
will be produced, owing to the steam escaping, and these are fatal
to the sale of any kind of enameled ware. When the plate has been
thoroughly dried and fusion has taken place, slow and steady cooling
is absolutely essential. Special muffles are frequently built for this
purpose, and their use is the means of preventing a large number of
wasters. Before putting on the glaze, care must be taken to remove the
gray from any part which is not to be coated. The temperature of fusion
should be about 1,890° F.,† and the time taken is about 5 minutes.

 ────────────────────────────

 † Melting a piece of brass will represent this temperature.

Stage VI.—The stencil must be cut with perfect exactitude. The letters
should be as clear as possible, proportioned, and spaced to obtain the
best effects as regards boldness and appearance. Stencils may be cut
either from paper or from specially prepared soft metal, called stencil
metal. The former are satisfactory enough when only a few plates are
required from one stencil, but when large quantities are required, say,
60 upward, metal stencils should be used. The paper should be thick,
tough, and strong, and is prepared in the following manner: Shellac
is dissolved in methylated spirits to the ordinary liquid gum form,
and this is spread over both sides of the paper with a brush. When
thoroughly dry a second protective coating is added, and the paper is
then ready for stencil work. The stencil cutter’s outfit consists of
suitable knives, steel rule, scales of various fractions to an inch, a
large sheet of glass on which the cutting is done, and alphabets and
numerals of various characters and types. For ordinary lettering one
stencil is enough, but for more intricate designs 2, 3, and even 4
stencils may be required. In the preparation of the plates referred to
in the paragraph preceding Stage I, only 1 stencil would be necessary.
The paper before preparation would be measured out to the exact size of
the plate, and the letters would be drawn in. The cutting would then
be done, and the result shown at Fig. 1 would be obtained, the black
parts being cut out. The lines or corners of each letter or figure
should be perfectly clear and clean, for any flaw in the stencil will
be reproduced on the plate.

[Illustration: Fig. 1]

[Illustration: Fig. 2]

Stage VII.—The next stage is the application of the blue enamel. The
operation is almost identical with that of the white, but when the
coating has been applied and dried, the lettering must be brushed out
before it is fused. The coating is generally applied by a badger brush
after a little gum water has been added; the effect of this is to make
the blue more compact.

Stage VIII.—The next operation is brushing; the stencil is carefully
placed over the plate, and held in position, and with a small hand
brush with hard bristles the stencil is brushed over. This brushing
removes all the blue coating, which shows the lettering and leaves
the rest of the white intact. When this has been done, the stencil
is removed and the connecting ribs of the lettering—some of which are
marked X in Fig. 2—are then removed by hand, the instrument generally
being a pointed stick of box or other similar wood.

Stage IX.—Fusing follows as in the case of the white glaze, and the
plate is complete. One coat of blue should be sufficient, but if any
defects are apparent a second layer is necessary.

The white and blue glazes are applied only on the front side of the
plate, the back side being left coated with gray only.


«From the Sheet to the Hollow Ware.»—In hollow-ware enameling, the
iron is received in squares, circles, or oblongs, of the size required
for the ware to be turned out. It is soft and ductile, and by means
of suitable punches and dies it is driven in a stamping press to the
necessary shape. For shallow articles only one operation is necessary,
but for deeper articles from 2 to 6 operations may be {297} required,
annealing in a specially constructed furnace taking place between each.
Following the “drawing” operations comes that of trimming; this may be
done in a press or spinning lathe, the object being to trim the edges
and remove all roughness. The articles are now ready for enameling.
For explanation, let us suppose they are tumblers, to be white inside,
and blue outside. The gray is first laid on, then the white, and
lastly the blue—that is, after the pickling and cleaning operations
have been performed. The line of demarcation between the blue and
white must be clear, otherwise the appearance of the article will not
be satisfactory. The process of enameling is exactly the same as for
sign-plate enameling, but more care must be exercised in order to
obtain a smoother surface. While the liquid enamels are being applied,
circular articles should be steadily rotated in order to let the
coating flow uniformly and prevent thick and thin places. The enameling
of “whole drawn” ironware presents no difficulty to the ordinary
enameler, but with articles which are seamed or riveted, special care
and experience is necessary.

Seamed or riveted parts are, of course, thicker than the ordinary
plate, will expand and contract differently, will take longer to
heat and longer to cool, and the conclusion, therefore, that must
be arrived at is that the thickness should be reduced as much as
possible, and the joints be made as smooth as possible. Unless special
precautions are taken, cracks will be seen on articles of this kind
running in straight lines from the rivets or seams. To avoid these, the
enamel liquid must be reduced to the greatest stage of liquidity, the
heat must be raised slowly, and in cooling the articles should pass
through, say, 2 or 3 muffles, each one having a lower temperature than
the preceding one. It is now generally conceded that the slower and
more uniform the cooling process, the greater will be the durability
of the enamel. Feldspar is an almost absolutely necessary addition to
the gray in successful hollow-ware enameling, and the compositions of
both gray and white should be such as to demand a high temperature for
fusion. The utensils with the gray coating should first be raised to
almost a red heat in a muffle, and then placed in a furnace raised to
a white heat. The white should be treated similarly, and in this way
the time taken for complete fusion at the last stage will be about 4
minutes.

The outside enamel on utensils is less viscous than the inside enamel,
and should also be applied as thinly as possible.


«Stoves and Furnaces.»—Fritting and Fusing.—The best results are
obtained in enameling when the thoroughly ground and mixed constituents
are fused together, reground, and then applied to the metal surface. In
cheap enamels the gray is sometimes applied without being previously
melted, but it lacks the durability which is obtained by thorough
fusion and regrinding. In smelting enamel one of two kinds of furnaces
may be used, viz., tank or crucible. The former is better adapted to
the melting of considerable quantities of ordinary enamel, while the
latter is more suitable for smaller quantities or for finer enamels as
the mixture is protected from the direct action of the flames by covers
on the crucibles. The number of tanks and crucibles in connection
with each furnace depends upon the heating capacity of the furnace
and upon the out-turn required. They are so arranged that all or any
of them can be used or put out of use readily by means of valves and
dampers. Generally, they are arranged in groups of from 6 to 12, placed
in a straight or circular line, but the object aimed at is complete
combustion of the fuel, and the utilization of the heat to the fullest
extent. One arrangement is to have the flame pass along the bottom and
sides of the tank and then over the top to the chimney.

The general system in use is, however, the crucible system. The
crucibles are made from the best fire clay, and the most satisfactory
are sold under the name of “Hessian crucibles.” The chief objection to
the use of the crucibles is that of cost. They are expensive, and in
many factories the life of the crucible is very short, in some cases
not extending beyond one period of fusion. When this, however, is the
rule rather than the exception, the results are due to carelessness.
Sudden heating or cooling of the crucible will cause it to crack or
fall to pieces, but for this there is no excuse. Running the molten
material quickly out of the crucible and replacing it hurriedly with
a fresh cold mixing is liable—in fact, almost certain—to produce
fracture, not only causing the destruction of the crucible, but also
the loss of the mixing. New crucibles should be thoroughly dried in a
gentle heat for some days and then gradually raised to the requisite
temperature which they {298} must sustain for the purposes of fusion.
Sometimes unglazed porcelain crucibles specially prepared with a large
proportion of china clay are used. These are, however, expensive and
require special attention during the first melt. The life of all
crucibles can be lengthened by: (1) Gradually heating them before
putting them into the fire; (2) never replacing a frit with a cold
mass for the succeeding one; it should first be heated in a stove and
then introduced into the crucible; (3) carefully protecting the hot
crucibles from cold draughts or rapid cooling.

[Illustration: Fig. 3]


«Melting and Melting Furnaces.»—The arrangement of the melting furnace
must be such as to protect the whole of the crucible from chills. The
usual pit furnaces, with slight modifications, are suitable for this
purpose. The crucible shown at _b_ in Fig. 3 is of the type already
described; at the top it is fitted with a lid, _a_, hinged at the
middle, and at the bottom it is pierced by a 2-inch conical hole.†
The hole, while melting is going on, is plugged up with a specially
prepared stopper. The crucible stands on a tubular fireproof support,
_c_, which allows the molten mass to be easily run off into a tub of
water, which is placed in the chamber, _d_. The fuel is thrown in from
the top, and the supply must be kept uniform. From 4 to 6 of these
furnaces are connected with the same chimney; but before passing to
the chimney the hot gases are in some cases used for heating purposes
in connection with the drying stove. The plug used may be either a
permanent iron one coated with a very hard enamel or made from a
composition of quartz powder and water. An uncovered iron plug would be
unsuitable owing to the action of the iron on the ingredients of the
mixing.

 ────────────────────────────

 † Two inches for gray, one inch for glaze; the hole should he wider at
 the top.

In some cases only a very small hole is made in the crucible and no
stopper used, the fusion of the mixing automatically closing up the
hole. In some other factories no hole is made in the crucible, and
when fusion is complete the crucible is removed and the mixing poured
out. The two latter systems are bad; in the first there is always some
waste of material through leakage, and in the latter the operation of
removing the crucible is clumsy and difficult, while the exposure to
the colder atmosphere frequently causes rupture.

The plug used should be connected with a rod, as shown in Fig. 3,
which passes through a slot in one-half of the hinged lid, _a_. When
fusion is complete this half is turned over, and the plug pulled up,
thus allowing the molten mass to fall through into the vat of water
placed underneath. The mixing in the crucibles, as it becomes molten,
settles down, and more material can then be added until the crucible
is nearly full. If the mixing is correctly composed, and has been
thoroughly fused, it should flow freely from the crucible when the plug
is withdrawn. Fusing generally requires only to be done once, but for
fine enamels the operation may be repeated. The running off into the
water is necessary in order to make the mass brittle and easy to grind.
If this was not done it would again form into hard flinty lumps and
require much time and labor to reduce to a powder.

A careful record should be kept of the loss in weight of the dried
material at each operation. The weighings should be made at the
following points: (1) Before and after melting; (2) after crushing.

The time required for melting varies greatly, but from 6 to 9 hours
may be considered as the extreme limits. Gas is much used for raising
the necessary heat for melting. The generator may be {299} placed in
any convenient position, but a very good system is to have it in the
center of a battery of muffles, any or all of which can be brought into
use. When quartz stoppers are used there is considerable trouble in
their preparation, and as each new batch of material requires a fresh
stopper, wrought-iron stoppers have been introduced in many factories.
These are coated with an enamel requiring a much higher temperature of
fusion than the fundamental substance, and this coating prevents the
iron having any injurious action on the frit.


«Fusing.»—For fusing the enamel muffle furnaces are used; these
furnaces are simple in construction, being designed specially for:
(1) Minimum consumption of fuel; (2) maximum heat in the muffle; (3)
protection of the inside of the muffle from dust, draughts, etc.

The muffle furnaces may be of any size, but in order to economize fuel,
it is obvious that they should be no larger than is necessary for the
class and quantity of work being turned out. For sign-plate enameling
the interior of the muffle may be as much as 10 feet by 5 feet wide
by 3 feet in height, but a furnace of this kind would be absolutely
ruinous for a concern where only about a dozen small hollow-ware
articles were enameled at a time. The best system is to have 2 or 3
muffle furnaces of different dimensions, as in this way all or any one
of them can be brought into use as the character and number of the
articles may require. The temperature throughout the muffle is not
uniform, the end next to the furnace being hotter than that next to
the door. In plate enameling it is therefore necessary that the plates
should be turned so that uniform fusion of the enamel may take place.
In the working of hollow ware the articles should be first placed at
the front of the muffle and then moved toward the back. The front of
the furnace is closed in by a vertically sliding door or lid, and in
this an aperture is cut, through which the process of fusion can be
inspected. All openings to the muffle should be used as little as
possible; otherwise cold air is admitted, and the inside temperature
rapidly lowered.

[Illustration: Fig. 4]

Fig. 4 shows a simple arrangement of a muffle furnace; _a_ is the
furnace itself, with an opening, _e_, through which the fuel is fed;
_b_ is the muffle; _c_ shows the firebars, and _d_ the cinder box; _f_
is a rest or plate on which is placed the articles to be enameled. The
plate or petits on which the articles rest while being put into the
muffle should be almost red hot, as the whole heat of the muffle in
this way begins to act immediately on the enamel coating. The articles
inside the muffles can be moved about when necessary, either by a hook
or a pair of tongs, but care must be taken that every part of the
vessel or plate is submitted to the same amount of heat.

[Illustration: Fig. 5]

In Figs. 5, 6, and 7 are given drawings of an arrangement of furnaces,
etc., connected with an enameling factory at {300} present working.
The stoves shown in Fig. 5 are drying stoves fired from the end by
charcoal, and having a temperature of about 160° F. Fig. 6 shows the
arrangement of the flues for the passage of the gases round the fusing
oven. The section through the line _A B_, Fig. 5, as shown in Fig.
7, and the section through the frit kilns, as shown in Fig. 8, are
sufficiently explanatory. The frit kilns and the fusing oven flues
both lead to the brick chimney, but the stoves are connected to a
wrought-iron chimney shown in Fig. 6. Another arrangement would have
been to so arrange the stoves that the gases from the frit kilns could
have been utilized for heating purposes.

[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH FUSING OVEN

Fig. 6]

[Illustration: SECTION ON A. B.

Fig. 7]

[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH FRIT KILNS

Fig. 8]


«Fuel.»—The consumption of fuel in an enameling factory is the most
serious item of the expenditure. Ill-constructed or badly proportioned
stoves may represent any loss of coal from a quarter to one ton per
day, and as great and uniform temperatures must be maintained, fuel of
low quality and price is not desirable. In the melting stoves either
arranged as tank or crucible furnaces, the character of the coal must
not be neglected, as light dust, iron oxide, or injurious gases will
enter into the crucibles through any opening, especially if the draught
is not very great. Almost any of the various kinds of fuel may be used,
provided that the system of combustion is specially arranged for in
the construction of the furnaces. Charcoal is one of the best fuels
available, its calorific value being so great; but its cost is in some
places almost prohibitive. Wood burns too quickly, and is therefore
expensive, and necessitates incessant firing.

For practical purposes we are thus often left to a selection of some
type of coal. A coal with comparatively little heating power at a
cheap price will be found more expensive in the end than one costing
more, but capable of more rapid combustion and possessing more heat
yielding gases. Cheap and hard coals give the fireman an amount of
labor which is excessive. The proper maintenance of the temperature
of the stove is almost impossible. Anthracite is excellent in every
way, as it consists of nearly pure carbon, giving off a high degree
of heat without smoke. Its use, of course, necessitates the use of a
blower, but to this there can be no objection. Any coal which will burn
freely and clean, giving off no excessive smoke, and capable of almost
complete combustion, will give satisfaction in enameling; but it must
not be forgotten that the consumption of fuel is so large that both
price and quality must be carefully considered. Experimental tests must
be made from time to time. A cheap, common coal will never give good
results, and a good expensive coal will make the cost of manufacture
so great that the prices of the enameled articles will render them
unsalable. Any ordinary small factory will use from 2 to 4 tons per
day of coal, and it will thus be seen that the financial success of a
concern lies to a very great extent at the mouth of the furnace. Coke
is a good medium for obtaining the necessary heat required in enameling
if it can be got at a reasonable price. With a good draught a uniform
temperature can be easily kept up, and the use of this by-product is,
therefore, to be recommended. {301}

With good coal and a furnace constructed to utilize the heat given
off to the fullest extent, there may still be unnecessary waste.
The arrangement of the bars should only be made by those who fully
understand the character of the coal and the objects in view. The
fireman in charge should be thoroughly experienced and reliable, as
much waste is frequently traced to imperfect feeding of the fuel.

Each charge of articles should be as large as possible, as fusing will
take place equally as well on many articles as on few. The charges
should follow one another as rapidly as can be conveniently carried
out; and where this is not done there is a lack of organization which
should be immediately remedied.

[Illustration: GRINDING MILL

Fig. 9]


«Mills.»—Any hard substances must first be broken up and pounded in
a pounding or stamping mill, or in any other suitable manner, thus
reducing the lumps to a granular condition. When this has been done,
the coarse is separated from the fine parts and the former again
operated on. The next process is roller grinding for reducing the
hard fritted granular particles to a fine powder. These mills vary
in construction, but a satisfactory type is shown in Fig. 9. Motion
is conveyed by a belt to the driving pulley, and this is transmitted
from the pinion to the large bevel, which is connected by a shaft to
the ground plate. As this revolves the material causes the mill wheels
to revolve, and in this way the material is reduced to a powder. The
rollers are of reduced diameter on the inner side to prevent slippage,
and when all the parts are made of iron, the metal must be close
grained and of very hard structure, so as to reduce the amount removed
by wear to a minimum. When the materials are ground wet, the powder
should be carefully protected from dust and thoroughly dried before
passing to the next operation.

[Illustration: GLAZING MILL

Fig. 10]

The glazing or enamel mills are shown in Fig. 10. These mills consist
of a strong iron frame securely bolted to a stone foundation. In the
sketch shown the framing carries 2 mills, but 3 or 4 can be arranged
for. A common arrangement for small factories consists of 2 large
mills, and 1 smaller mill, driven from the same shaft. One of the mills
is used for foundation or gray mixings, the second for white, and the
smallest one for colored mixings. In these mills it is essential that
the construction is such as to prevent any iron fitting coming into
contact with the mixing, for, as has already been explained, the iron
will cause discoloration. The ground plate is composed of quartz and
is immovable. It is surrounded by a wooden casing—as shown at _a_—and
bound together by iron hoops. The millstones are heavy, rectangular
blocks of quartz, called “French burr stone,” and into the center the
spindle, _b_, is led. The powdered material mixed with about three
times its bulk of water is poured into the vats, _a_, and the grinding
stones are then set in motion. When a condition ready for enameling
has been reached the mixture is run off through the valves, _c_. Each
mill can be thrown out of gear when required, by means of a clutch box,
without interfering with the working of the others. The grinding stones
wear rapidly and require to be refaced from time to time. To avoid
stoppage of the work, therefore, it is advisable to always have a spare
set in readiness to replace those removed for refacing. The composition
of the stones should not be neglected, for, in many cases, faults in
the enamel have been traced to the wearing away of stones containing
earthy or metallic matter. {302}


«Enamel Mixing.»—All constituents of which an enamel glaze is composed
must be intimately mixed together. This can only be done by reducing
each to a fine powder and thoroughly stirring them up together. This
part of the work is often carried out in a very superficial manner, one
material showing much larger lumps than another. Under circumstances
such as these it is absurd to imagine that in fusion equal distribution
will take place. What really happens is that some parts of the mass
are insufficiently supplied with certain properties while others have
too much. A mixture of this class can produce only unsatisfactory
results in every respect, for the variations referred to will produce
variations in the completeness of fusion in the viscous character of
the mass, and in the color.

The mixing can be done by thoroughly stirring the various ingredients
together, and a much better and cheaper system is mixing in rotating
barrels or churns. These are mounted on axles which rest in bearings,
one axle being long enough to carry a pulley. From the driving shaft a
belt is led to the cask, which then rotates at a speed of from 40 to 60
revolutions per minute, and in about a quarter of an hour the operation
is complete. The cask should not exceed the 5-gallon size, and should
at no time be more than two-thirds full. Two casks of this kind give
better results than one twice the size. The materials are shot into the
cask in their correct proportions through a large bung hole, which is
then closed over by a close-fitting lid.


«Mixings.»—For gray or fundamental coatings:

 I.—Almost any kind of glass    49  per cent
     Oxide of lead               47  per cent
     Fused borax                  4  per cent

 II.—Glass (any kind)           61  per cent
      Red lead                   22  per cent
      Borax                      16  per cent
      Niter                       1  per cent

 III.—Quartz                   67.5 per cent
       Borax                    29.5 per cent
       Soda (enameling)          3   per cent

The above is specially adapted for iron pipes.

 IV.—Frit of silica powder    60  per cent
      Borax                    33  per cent
      White lead                7  per cent

Fused and then ground with—

 Three-tenths weight of silica frit.
 Clay, three-tenths weight of silica frit.
 Magnesia, one-sixth weight of white lead.

 V.—Silica           65 per cent
     Borax            14 per cent
     Oxide of lead     4 per cent
     Clay             15 per cent
     Magnesia          2 per cent

No. V gives a fair average of several mixings which are in use, but it
can be varied slightly to suit different conditions of work.


«Defects in the Gray or Ground Coating.»—Chipping is the most
disastrous. This may be prevented by the addition of some bitter salt,
say from 3 to 4 per cent of the weight of the frit.

The addition of magnesia when it has been omitted from the frit may
also act as a preventive, but it should only be added in very small
quantities, not exceeding 2.5 per cent, otherwise the temperature
required for fusion will be very great.


«Coating and Fusion.»—Difficulties of either may generally be done away
with by reducing the magnesia used in the frit to a minimum.

A soft surface is always the outcome of a mixing which can be fused at
a low temperature. It is due to too much lead or an insufficiency of
clay or silica powder.

A hard surface is due to the quantity of lead in the mixing being too
small. Increase the quantity and introduce potash, say about 2.5 per
cent.

The gray or fundamental mixing should be kept together in a condition
only just sufficiently liquid to allow of being poured out. When
required to be applied to the plate, the water necessary to lower it to
the consistency of thick cream can then be added gradually, energetic
stirring of the mass taking place simultaneously in order to obtain
uniform distribution.

The time required for fusion may vary from 15 minutes to 25 minutes,
but should never exceed the latter. If it does, it shows that the
mixing is too viscous, and the remedy would be the addition and
thorough intermixture of calcined borax or boracic acid. Should this
fail, then remelting or a new frit is necessary.

A highly glazed surface on leaving the muffle shows that the
composition is too fluid and requires the addition of clay, glass,
silica powder or other substance to increase the viscosity.

As has been already explained, the glaze is much more important than
the fundamental coating. Discoloration or slight flaws which could be
tolerated in the latter would be fatal to the former. {303}

In glazes, oxide of lead need not be used. It should never be used in
a coating for vessels which are to contain acids or be used as cooking
utensils. It may be used in sign-tablet production.

For pipes the following glaze gives good results:

 I.—Feldspar        33    per cent
     Borax           22.5  per cent
     Quartz          16.5  per cent
     Oxide of tin    15    per cent
     Soda             8    per cent
     Fluorspar        3.75 per cent
     Saltpeter        2.25 per cent

For sign tablets the following gives fair results, although some of the
succeeding ones are in more general use:

 II.—Cullet            20    per cent
      Powdered flint    15    per cent
      Lead              52    per cent
      Soda               4.5  per cent
      Arsenic            4.5  per cent
      Niter              4    per cent

 III.—Frit of silica powder    30    per cent
       Oxide of tin             18    per cent
       Borax                    17    per cent
       Soda                      8.6  per cent
       Niter                     7.5  per cent
       White lead                5.5  per cent
       Carbonate of ammonia      5.5  per cent
       Magnesia                  4    per cent
       Silica powder             4    per cent

The following are useful for culinary utensils, as they do not contain
lead:

 IV.—Frit of silica powder    26    per cent
      Oxide of tin             21    per cent
      Borax                    20    per cent
      Soda                     10.25 per cent
      Niter                     7    per cent
      Carbonate of ammonia      5    per cent
      Magnesia                  3.25 per cent

This should be ground up with the following:

 Silica powder    4.25 per cent
 Oxide of tin     2.25 per cent
 Soda             0.5  per cent
 Magnesia         0.5  per cent

 V.—Feldspar        41   per cent
     Borax           35   per cent
     Oxide of tin    17   per cent
     Niter            7   per cent

 VI.—Borax              30    per cent
      Feldspar           22    per cent
      Silicate powder    17.5  per cent
      Oxide of tin       15    per cent
      Soda               13.5  per cent
      Niter               2    per cent

Borax will assist fusion. Quartz mixings require more soda than
feldspar mixings.

 VII.—Borax                            28    per cent
       Oxide of tin                     19.5  per cent
       Cullet (powdered white glass)    18    per cent
       Silica powder                    17.5  per cent
       Niter                             9.5  per cent
       Magnesia                          5    per cent
       Clay                              2.5  per cent

 VIII.—Borax                           26.75 per cent
        Cullet                          19    per cent
        Silica powder                   18.5  per cent
        Oxide of tin                    19    per cent
        Niter                            9.25 per cent
        Magnesia                         4.5  per cent
        Soda                             3    per cent

To No. VII must be added—while being ground—the following percentages
of the weight of the frit:

 Silica powder    18    per cent
 Borax             9    per cent
 Magnesia          5.25 per cent
 Boracic acid      1.5  per cent

To No. VIII should be similarly added the following percentages of the
frit:

 Silica powder    1.75 per cent
 Magnesia         1.75 per cent
 Soda             1    per cent

This mixing is one which is used in the production of some of the best
types of hollow ware for culinary purposes. The glaze should be kept in
tubs mixed with water until used, and it should be carefully protected
from dust.


«Defects in the Glaze or White.»—A bad white may be due to its being
insufficiently opaque. More oxide of tin is required. Cracks may
be prevented by the addition of carbonate of ammonia. Insufficient
luster can be avoided by adding to the quantity of soda and reducing
the borax. If the gray shows through the white it proves that the
temperature of fusion is too high or the viscosity of the mixing is
too great. If the coating is not uniformly spread it may be due to the
glaze being too thin; add magnesia. If the glaze separates from the
gray add some bitter salt. Viscosity will be increased by reducing the
quantity of borax. Immunity against chemical reaction is procured by
increasing the quantity of borax. An improved luster will be obtained
by adding native carbonate of soda. The greater the quantity of silicic
acid the greater must be the temperature for fusion. To reduce the
temperature add borax. Clay will increase the difficulty {304} of
fusion. Oxide of lead will make a frit more easily fusible. A purer
white can be obtained by adding a small quantity of smalt.


«Water.»—The character of the water used in the mixing of enamels is
too frequently taken for granted, for unsuitable water may render a
mixing almost entirely useless. Clean water, and with little or no
sulphur present, is essential. For very fine enamels it is advisable
to use carefully filtered water which has shown, after analysis, that
it is free from any matter which is injurious to any of the enamel
constituents.


«How to Tell the Character of Enamel.»—In the case of sign tablets
the characteristics looked to are appearance and the adherence of
the coatings to the iron. For the latter the tests are simple. The
plate if slightly bent should not crack the coating. An enamel plate
placed in boiling water for some time and then plunged into very cold
water should not show any cracks, however small, even after repeated
treatment of this kind.

Culinary utensils, and those to hold chemicals, should not only look
well, but should be capable of resisting the action of acids. Lead
should never enter into the composition of enamels of this class, as
they then become easily acted upon, and in the case of chipping present
a menace to health. The presence of lead is easily detected. Destroy
the outside coating of the enamel at some spot by the application
of strong nitric acid. Wash the part and apply a drop of ammonium
sulphide. If lead is present, the part will become almost black, but
remains unchanged in color if it is absent.

Another simple test is to switch up an egg in a vessel and allow it
to stand for about 24 hours. When poured out and rinsed with water a
dark stain will remain if lead is present in the enamel. To test the
power of chemical resistance is equally simple. Boil diluted vinegar
in the vessel for several minutes, and if a sediment is formed and the
luster and smoothness of the glaze destroyed or partially destroyed, it
follows that it is incapable of resisting the attacks of acids for any
length of time. There are several other tests adopted, but those given
present little difficulty in carrying out, and give reliable results.


«Wasters and Seconds: Repairing Old Articles.»—In all enameling there
must be certain articles turned out which are defective, but the
percentage should never be very great. The causes which most frequently
tend to the production of wasters are new mixings and a temperature
of fusion which is either too high or too low. There are two ways of
disposing of defective articles, viz.: (1) Chipping off the bad spots,
patching them up and selling them as “seconds”; (2) throwing the
articles into the waste heap. The best firms adopt the latter course,
because the recoating and firing of defective parts practically means a
repetition of the whole process, thus adding greatly to the cost, while
the selling price is reduced. Overheating in fusion is generally shown
by blisters or by the enamel being too thin in various places. Chipping
may be also due to this cause, the excessive heat having practically
fused the fundamental coating.

At this stage the defects may be remedied by breaking off the faulty
parts, patching them up, and then recoating the whole. With sign
tablets there is no objection to doing so, but with hollow ware the
fact remains that the article is faulty, no matter how carefully
defects may be hidden. As white is the most general coating used, and
shows up the defects more than the colored coatings, the greatest
care is necessary at every stage of the manufacture. While glowing
on the article, it should appear uniformly yellow, but on cooling it
should revert to a pure white shade. On examining different makes
of white coated articles, it will be found that some are more opaque
than others. The former are less durable than the latter, because
they contain a large percentage of oxide of tin, which reduces the
elasticity. To ensure hardness the mixing must be very liquid, and
this cannot be arrived at when a large quantity of oxide of tin is
introduced.

Old utensils which have become broken or chipped can be repaired,
although, except in the case of large articles, this is rarely done.
The operations necessary are: (1) The defective parts chipped off; (2)
submitted to a red heat for a few moments; (3) coated with gray on the
exposed iron; (4) fused; (5) coated with the glaze on the gray; (6)
fused.


«To Repair Enameled Signs.»—

 Copal                5 parts
 Damar                5 parts
 Venice turpentine    4 parts

Powder the rosins, mix with the turpentine and add enough alcohol
to form a thick liquid. To this add finely powdered zinc white in
sufficient quantity to yield a plastic mass. Coloring {305} matter may,
of course, be added if desired.

The mass after application is polished when it has become sufficiently
hard.


«Enamel for Copper Cooking Vessels.»—White fluorspar is ground to a
fine powder and strongly calcined with an equal volume of unburnt
gypsum, at a light glowing heat, stirring diligently. Grind the mixture
to a paste with water, paint the vessel with it, using a brush, or
pour in the paste like a glaze and dry the same. Increase the heat
gradually and bring the vessels with the glass substance quickly into
strong heat, under a suitable covering or a mantle of burnt clay. The
substance soon forms a white opaque enamel, which adheres firmly to the
copper. It can stand pretty hard knocks without cracking, is adapted
for cooking purposes and not attacked by acid matters. If the glassy
substance is desired to cling well and firmly to the copper, a sudden
and severe heat must be observed.


«To Pickle Black Iron-Plate Scrap Before Enameling.»—The black
iron-plate scraps are first dipped clean in a mixture of about 1 part
of sulphuric acid and 20 to 22 parts of water heated to 30° to 40° C.
(86° to 104° F.), and sharp quartz sand is then used for scouring. They
are then plunged for a few seconds in boiling water, taken out, and
allowed to dry. Rinsing with cold water and allowing to dry thus may
cause rust. The grains of quartz cut grooves in the fibers of the iron;
this helps the grounding to adhere well. With many kinds of plate it
is advisable to anneal after pickling, shutting off the air; by this
means the plates will be thoroughly clean and free from oxidation. Much
practice is required.—_The Engineer._


«ENAMELED IRON RECIPES.»

The first thing is to produce a flux to fuse at a moderate heat, which,
by flowing upon the plate, forms a uniform surface for the white or
colored enamels to work upon.

Flux for Enameled Iron.—

 White lead       10 parts
 Ball clay         1 part
 Flint glass      10 parts
 Whiting           1 part

The plates may then be coated with any of the following mixtures, which
may either be spread on as a powder with a little gum, as in the case
of the flux, or the colors may be mixed with oil and the plates dipped
therein when coated; the plate requires heating sufficiently to run the
enamels bright.

Soft Enamels for Iron, White.—

 Flint glass                16 parts
 Oxide of tin            1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Niter                   1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Red lead                    4 parts
 Flint or china clay         1 part

Black.—

 Red oxide of iron       1 1⁠/⁠4 parts
 Carbonate of cobalt     1 1⁠/⁠4 parts
 Red lead                    6 parts
 Borax                       2 parts
 Lynn sand                   2 parts

Yellow Coral.—

 Chromate of lead            1 part
 Red lead                2 3⁠/⁠4 parts
 Flint                       1 part
 Borax                     1⁠/⁠4 part

Canary.—

 Oxide of uranium            1 part
 Red lead                4 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Flint                   1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Flint glass                 1 part

Turquoise.—

 Red lead                   40 parts
 Flint glass                12 parts
 Borax                      16 parts
 Flint                      12 parts
 Enamel white               14 parts
 Oxide of copper             7 parts
 Oxide of cobalt           1⁠/⁠4 part

Red Brown.—

 Calcined sulphate of iron    1 part
 Flux No. 8 (see page 307)    3 parts

Mazarine Blue.—

 Oxide of cobalt            10 parts
 Paris white                 9 parts
 Sulphate barytes            1 part

Fire the above at an intense heat and for use take

 Above stain                  1 part
 Flux No. 8 (see page 307)    3 parts

Sky Blue.—

 Flint glass                30 parts
 White lead                 10 parts
 Pearlash                    2 parts
 Common salt                 2 parts
 Oxide of cobalt             4 parts
 Enamel, white               4 parts

Chrome Green.—

 Borax                      10 parts
 Oxide of chrome         4 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 White lead                  9 parts
 Flint glass                 9 parts
 Oxide of cobalt             2 parts
 Oxide of tin                1 part {306}

Coral Red.—

 Bichromate potash     1     part
 Red lead              4 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Sugar of lead         1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Flint                 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Flint glass           1     part

Enamel White.—Soft:

 Red lead             80     parts
 Opal glass           50     parts
 Flint                50     parts
 Borax                24     parts
 Arsenic               8     parts
 Niter                 6     parts

Enamel White.—

 Red lead             10     parts
 Flint                 6     parts
 Boracic acid          4     parts
 Niter                 1     part
 Soda crystals         1     part

Where the enameled work is intended to be exposed to the weather do not
use flux No. 8, but substitute the following:

 White lead            1     part
 Ground flint glass    1     part

All the enamels should, after being mixed, be melted in crucibles,
poured out when in liquid, and powdered or ground for use.


«FUSIBLE ENAMEL COLORS.»

The following colors are fusible by heat, and are all suitable for the
decoration of china and glass. In the following collection of recipes
certain terms are employed which may not be quite understood by persons
who are not connected with either the glass or porcelain industries,
such as “glost fire” and “run down,” and in such cases reference must
be made to the following definitions:

“Run down.” Sufficient heat to melt into liquid.

“Glost fire.” Ordinary glaze heat.

“Grind only.” No calcination required.

“Hard fire.” Highest heat attainable.

“Frit.” The ingredients partly composing a glaze, which require
calcination.

“Stone.” Always best Cornwall stone.

“Paris white.” Superior quality of whiting.

“Parts.” Always so many parts _by weight_, unless otherwise stated.

“D. L. Zinc.” Particular brand not essential. Any good quality oxide of
zinc will do.

Ruby and Maroon.—Preparation of silver:

 Nitric acid    1 ounce
 Water          1 ounce

Dissolve the silver till saturated, then put a plate of copper in the
solution to precipitate the silver in a metallic state. Wash well with
water to remove the acetate of copper.

Flux for Above.—Six dwts. white lead to 1 ounce prepared silver.

Tin Solution.—Put the acid (aqua regia) in a bottle, add tin in small
quantities until it becomes a dark-red color; let it stand about 4 days
before use. When the acid becomes saturated it will turn red at the
bottom of the bottle, then shake it up and add more tin; let it stand
and it will become clear.

Aqua Regia.—

 Nitric acid      2 parts
 Muriatic acid    1 part

Dissolve grain gold in the aqua regia so as to make a saturated
solution. Take a basin and fill it 3 parts full of water; drop the
solution of gold into it till it becomes an amber color. Into this
solution of gold gradually drop the solution of tin, until the
precipitate is complete. Wash the precipitate until the water becomes
tasteless, then dry slowly and flux as follows:

Flux No. I.—

 Borax       3 parts
 Red lead    3 parts
 Flint       2 parts

Run down.

Rose Mixture.—

 Purple of Cassius    1 ounce
 Flux No. 1           6 ounces
 Prepared silver      3 dwts.
 Flint glass          2 ounces

Grind.

Purple Mixture.—

 Purple of Cassius                1 ounce
 Flux No. 8 (see page 307)    2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Flint glass                      2 ounces

Grind.

Ruby.—

 Purple mixture    2 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Rose mixture      1 1⁠/⁠2 parts

Grind.

Maroon.—

 Rose mixture      1 part
 Purple mixture    2 parts

Grind. {307}

Black—Extra quality.—

 Red oxide of iron                  12 parts
 Carbonate of cobalt                12 parts
 Oxide of cobalt                     1 part
 Black flux A (see next formula)    80 parts

Glost fire.

Black Flux A.—

 Red lead            3 parts
 Calcined borax    1⁠/⁠2 part
 Lynn sand           1 part

Run down.

Black No. 2.—

 Oxide of copper                 1 part
 Carbonate of cobalt           1⁠/⁠2 part
 Flux No. 8 (see next column)    4 parts

Grind only.

Enamel White.—

 Arsenic    2 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Niter      1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Borax          4 parts
 Flint         16 parts
 Glass         16 parts
 Red lead      32 parts

Glost fire.

Turquoise.—China:

 Calcined copper               5 parts
 Whiting                       5 parts
 Phosphate of soda             8 parts
 Oxide of zinc                16 parts
 Soda crystals                 4 parts
 Magnesia                      2 parts
 Red lead                      8 parts
 Flux T (see next formula)    52 parts

Glost fire.

Flux T.—

 Borax    2 parts
 Sand     1 part

Run down.

Orange.—

 Orange U. G.                    1     part
 Flux No. 8 (see next column)    3     parts

Grind only.

Blue Green.—

 Flint glass            8 parts
 Enamel white          25 parts
 Borax                  8 parts
 Red lead              24 parts
 Flint                  6 parts
 Oxide of copper    2 1⁠/⁠2 parts

Glost heat.

Coral Red.—

 Chromate of potash        1 part
 Sugar of lead         1 1⁠/⁠2 parts

Dissolve in hot water, then dry. Take 1 part of above, 3 parts flux for
coral. Grind.

Flux for Coral.—

 Red lead       4 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Flint          1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Flint glass    1 1⁠/⁠2 parts

Run down.

Turquoise.—

 Oxide of copper     5 parts
 Borax              10 parts
 Flint              12 parts
 Enamel white       14 parts
 Red lead           40 parts

Glost fire.

Flux No. 8.—

 Red lead    6 parts
 Borax       4 parts
 Flint       2 parts

Run down.

Russian Green.—

 Malachite green                     10 parts
 Enamel yellow                        5 parts
 Majolica white                       5 parts
 Flux No. 8 (see previous formula)    2 parts

Grind only.

Amber.—

 Oxide of uranium    1 part
 Coral flux          8 parts

Grind only.

Gordon Green.—

 Yellow U. G.               5 parts
 Flux No. 8 (see above)    15 parts
 Malachite green           10 parts

Grind only.

Celadon.—

 Enamel light blue          1 part
 Malachite green            1 part
 Flux No. 8 (see above)    15 parts

Grind only.

Red Brown.—

 Sulphate of iron, fired    1 part
 Flux No. 8 (see above)     3 parts

Grind only.

Matt Blue.—

 Flux No. 8 (see above)    10 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Oxide of zinc                  5 parts
 Oxide of cobalt                4 parts

Glost fire, then take

 Of above base                 1 part
 Flux No. 8 (see above)    1 1⁠/⁠8 parts

Grind only. {308}


«PREPARATION OF ENAMELS.»

The base of enamel is glass, colored different shades by the addition
of metallic oxides mixed and melted with it.

The oxide of cobalt produces blue; red is obtained by the Cassius
process. The purple of Cassius, which is one of the most brilliant of
colors, is used almost exclusively in enameling and miniature painting;
it is produced by adding to a solution of gold chloride a solution of
tin chloride mixed with ferric chloride until a green color appears.
The oxide of iron and of copper also produces red, but of a less rich
tone; chrome produces green, and manganese violet; black is produced by
the mixture of these oxides. Antimony and arsenic also enter into the
composition of enamels.

Enamels are of two classes—opaque and transparent. The opacity is
caused by the presence of tin.

When the mingled glass and oxides have been put in the crucible,
this is placed in the furnace, heated to a temperature of 1,832° or
2,200° F. When the mixture becomes fused, it is stirred with a metal
rod. Two or three hours are necessary for the operation. The enamel is
then poured into water, which divides it into grains, or formed into
cakes or masses, which are left to cool.

For applying enamels to metals, gold, silver, or copper, it is
necessary to reduce them to powder, which is effected in an agate
mortar with the aid of a pestle of the same material. During the
operation the enamel ought to be soaked in water.

For dissolving the impurities which may have been formed during the
work, a few drops of nitric acid are poured in immediately afterwards,
well mixed, and then got rid of by repeated washing with filtered
water. This should be carefully done, stirring the enamel powder with a
glass rod, in order to keep the particles in suspension.

The powder is allowed to repose at the bottom of the vessel, after
making sure by the taste of the water that it does not contain any
trace of acid; only then is the enamel ready for use.

For enameling a jewel or other object it is necessary, first to heat
it strongly, in order to burn off any fatty matter, and afterwards to
cleanse it in a solution of nitric acid diluted with boiling water.
After rinsing with pure water and wiping with a very clean cloth, it is
heated slightly and is then ready to receive the enamel.

Enamels are applied with a steel tool in the form of a spatula; water
is the vehicle. When the layers of enamel have been applied, the
contained water is removed by means of a fine linen rag, pressing
slightly on the parts that have received the enamel. The tissue absorbs
the water, and nothing remains on the object except the enamel powder.
It is placed before the fire to remove every trace of moisture. Thus
prepared and put on a fire-clap slab, it is ready for its passage to
the heat which fixes the enamel. This operation is conducted in a
furnace, with a current of air whose temperature is about 1,832° F. In
this operation the fire-chamber ought not to contain any gas.

Enamels are fused at a temperature of 1,292° to 1,472° F. Great
attention is needed, for experience alone is the guide, and the
duration of the process is quite short. On coming from the fire, the
molecules composing the enamel powder have been fused together and
present to the eye a vitreous surface covering the metal and adhering
to it perfectly. Under the action of the heat the metallic oxides
contained in the enamel have met the oxide of the metal and formed one
body with it, thus adhering completely.


«JEWELERS’ ENAMELS.»

Melt together:

Transparent Red.—Cassius gold purple, 65 parts, by weight; crystal
glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 4 parts, by weight.

Transparent Blue.—Crystal glass, 34 parts, by weight; borax, 6 parts,
by weight; cobalt oxide, 4 parts, by weight.

Dark Blue.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 6 parts, by
weight; cobalt oxide, 4 parts, by weight; bone black, 4 parts, by
weight; arsenic acid, 2 parts, by weight.

Transparent Green.—Crystal glass, 80 parts, by weight; cupric oxide, 4
parts, by weight; borax, 2 parts, by weight.

Dark Green.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 8 parts, by
weight; cupric oxide, 4 parts, by weight; bone black, 4 parts by
weight; arsenic acid, 2 parts, by weight.

Black.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 8 parts, by weight;
cupric oxide, 4 parts, by weight; ferric oxide, 3 parts, by weight;
cobalt oxide, 4 parts, by weight; manganic oxide, 4 parts, by weight.

White.—I.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; stannic oxide, 6 parts,
by weight; borax, 6 parts, by weight; arsenic acid, 2 parts, by weight.

II.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; sodium antimonate, 10 parts, by
weight. {309}

The finely pulverized colored enamel is applied with a brush and
lavender oil on the white enamel already fused in and then only heated
until it melts. For certain purposes, the color compositions may also
be fused in without a white ground. The glass used for white, No. 2,
must be free from lead, otherwise the enamel will be unsightly.


«Various Enamels for Precious Metals»: White.—Crystal glass, 30 parts,
by weight; oxide of tin, 6 parts, by weight; borax, 6 parts, by weight;
dioxide of arsenic, 2 parts, by weight, or silicious sand, 50 parts,
by weight; powder, consisting of 15 of tin per 100 of lead, 100 parts,
by weight; carbonate of potassium, 40 parts, by weight. Fuse the whole
with a quantity of manganese. To take away the accidental coloring,
pour it into water, and after having pulverized it, melt again 3 or 4
times.

Opaque Blue.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 6 parts, by
weight; cobalt oxide, 4 parts, by weight; calcined bone, 4 parts, by
weight; dioxide of arsenic, 2 parts, by weight.

Transparent Green.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; blue verditer, 4
parts, by weight; borax, 2 parts, by weight.

Opaque Green.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 8 parts, by
weight; blue verditer, 4 parts, by weight; calcined bone, 4 parts, by
weight; dioxide of arsenic, 2 parts, by weight.

Black.—I.—Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 8 parts, by
weight; oxide of copper, 4 parts, by weight; oxide of iron, 3 parts,
by weight; oxide of cobalt, 4 parts, by weight; oxide of manganese, 4
parts, by weight.

II.—Take 1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight, of silver; 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts of copper;
3 1⁠/⁠2 parts of lead, and 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts of muriate of ammonia. Melt
together and pour into a crucible with twice as much pulverized
sulphur; the crucible is then to be immediately covered that the
sulphur may not take fire, and the mixture is to be calcined over
a smelting fire until the superfluous sulphur is burned away. The
compound is then to be coarsely pounded, and, with a solution of
muriate of ammonia, to be formed into a paste which is to be placed
upon the article it is designed to enamel. The article must then be
held over a spirit lamp till the compound upon it melts and flows.
After this it may be smoothed and polished up in safety.

See also Varnishes and Ceramics for other enamel formulas.

ENAMEL COLORS, QUICK DRYING: See Varnishes.

ENAMEL REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

ENAMELING ALLOYS: See Alloys.

ENGINES (GASOLINE), ANTI-FREEZING SOLUTION FOR: See Freezing
Preventives.


«ENGRAVING SPOON HANDLES.»

After the first monogram has been engraved, rub it with a mixture of 3
parts of beeswax, 3 of tallow, 1 of Canada balsam, and 1 of olive oil.
Remove any superfluous quantity, then moisten a piece of paper with
the tongue, and press it evenly upon the engraving. Lay a dry piece
of paper over it, hold both firmly with thumb and forefinger of left
hand, and rub over the surface with a polishing tool of steel or bone.
The wet paper is thereby pressed into the engraving, and, with care, a
clear impression is made. Remove the paper carefully, place it in the
same position on another handle, and a clear impression will be left.
The same paper can be used 2 dozen times or more.

ENGRAVING ON STEEL: See Steel.


«Engravings: Their Preservation»

(See also Pictures, Prints, and Lithographs.)


«Cleaning of Copperplate Engravings.»—Wash the sheet on both sides
by means of a soft sponge or brush with water to which 40 parts of
ammonium carbonate has been added per 1,000 parts of water, and rinse
the paper each time with clear water. Next moisten with water in
which a little wine vinegar has been admixed, rinse the sheet again
with water containing a little chloride of lime, and dry in the air,
preferably in the sun. The paper will become perfectly clear without
the print being injured.


«Restoration of Old Prints.»—Old engravings, woodcuts, or printed
sheets that have turned yellow may be rendered white by first washing
carefully in water containing a little hyposulphite of soda, and
then dipping for a minute in javelle water. To prepare the latter,
put 4 pounds of bicarbonate of soda in a pan, pour over it 1 gallon
of boiling water; boil for 15 minutes, then stir in 1 {310} pound of
chloride of lime. When cold, pour off the clear liquid, and keep in a
jug ready for use.

Surprising results are obtained from the use of hydrogen peroxide in
the restoration of old copper or steel engravings or lithographs which
have become soiled or yellow, and this without the least injury to the
picture. The cellulose which makes the substance of the paper resists
the action of ozone, and the black carbon color of these prints is
indestructible.

To remove grease or other spots of dirt before bleaching, the
engravings are treated with benzine. This is done by laying each one
out flat in a shallow vessel and pouring the benzine over it. As
benzine evaporates very rapidly, the vessel must be kept well covered,
and since its vapors are also exceedingly inflammable, no fire or
smoking should be allowed in the room. The picture is left for several
hours, then lifted out and dried in the air, and finally brushed
several times with a soft brush. The dust which was kept upon the paper
by the grease now lies more loosely upon it and can easily be removed
by brushing.

In many cases the above treatment is sufficient to improve the
appearance of the picture. In the case of very old or badly soiled
engravings, it is followed by a second, consisting in the immersion of
the picture in a solution of sodium carbonate or a very dilute solution
of caustic soda, it being left as before for several hours. After the
liquid has been poured off, the picture must be repeatedly rinsed in
clear water, to remove any remnant of the soda.

By these means the paper is so far cleansed that only spots of mold or
other discolorations remain. These may be removed by hydrogen peroxide,
in a fairly strong solution. The commercial peroxide may be diluted
with 2 parts water.

The picture is laid in a shallow vessel, the peroxide poured over it,
and the vessel placed in a strong light. Very soon the discolorations
will pale.


«To Reduce Engravings.»—Plaster casts, as we know, can be perceptibly
reduced in size by treatment with water or alcohol, and if this is
properly done, the reduction is so even that the cast loses nothing
of its clear outline, but sometimes even gains in this respect by
contraction. If it is desired to reduce an engraved plate, make a
plaster cast of it, treat this with water or alcohol, and fill the
new cast with some easily fusible metal. This model, which will be
considerably smaller than the original, is to be made again in plaster,
and again treated, until the desired size is reached. In this way
anything of the kind, even medallions, can be reproduced on a smaller
scale.

ENLARGEMENTS: See Photography.

ENVELOPE GUM: See Adhesives, under Mucilages.

EPIZOOTY: See Veterinary Formulas.


«Essences and Extracts of Fruits»


«Preservation of Fruit Juices.»—The juices of pulpy fruits, when
fresh, contain an active principle known as pectin, which is the
coagulating substance that forms the basis of fruit jellies. This it
is which prevents the juice of berries and similar fruits from passing
through filtering media. Pectin may be precipitated by the addition of
alcohol, or by fermentation. The latter is the best, as the addition
of alcohol to the fresh juices destroys their aroma and injures the
taste. The induction of a light fermentation is far the better method,
not only preserving, when carefully conducted, the taste and aroma of
the fruit, but yielding far more juice. The fruit is crushed and the
juice subsequently carefully but strongly pressed out. Sometimes the
crushed fruit is allowed to stand awhile, and to proceed to a light
fermentation before pressure is applied; but while a greater amount of
juice is thus obtained, the aroma and flavor of the product are very
sensibly injured by the procedure.

To the juice thus obtained, add from 1 to 2 per cent of sugar, and put
away in a cool place (where the temperature will not rise over 70° or
75° F.). Fermentation soon begins, and will proceed for a few days. As
soon as the development of carbonic acid gas ceases, the juice begins
to clear itself, from the surface downward, and in a short time all
solid matter will lie in a mass at the bottom, leaving the liquid
bright and clear. Draw off the latter with a siphon, very carefully,
so as not to disturb the sedimentary matter. Fermentation should be
induced in closed vessels only, as when conducted in open containers
a fungoid growth is apt to form on the surface, sometimes causing
putrefactive, and at others, an acetic, fermentation, in either event
spoiling the juice for {311} subsequent use, except as a vinegar. The
vessels, to effect the end desired, should be filled only two-thirds
or three-fourths full, and then carefully closed with a tight-fitting
cork, through which is passed a tube of glass, bent at the upper end,
the short end of which passes below the surface of a vessel filled with
water. As soon as fermentation commences the carbonic acid developed
thereby escapes through the tube into the water, whence it passes off
into the atmosphere. When bubbles no longer pass off from the tube the
operation should be interrupted, and decantation or siphoning, with
subsequent filtration, commenced.

By proceeding in this manner all the aroma and flavor of the juices
are retained. If it is intended for preservation for any length of
time the juice should be heated on a water bath to about 176° F. and
poured, while hot, into bottles which have been asepticized by filling
with cold water, and placing in a vessel similarly filled, bringing
to a boiling temperature, and maintaining at this temperature until
the juice, while still hot, is poured into them. If now closed with
corks similarly asepticized, or by dipping into hot melted paraffine,
the juice may be kept unaltered for years. It is better, however, to
make the juice at once into syrup, using the best refined sugar, and
boiling in a copper kettle (iron or tin spoil the color), following the
usual precautions as to skimming, etc. The syrup should be poured hot
into the bottles previously heated as before described.

Ripe fruit may be kept in suitable quantities for a considerable time
if covered with a solution of saccharine and left undisturbed, this,
too, without deteriorating the taste, color, or aroma of the fruit if
packed with care.

Whole fruit may be stored in bulk, by carefully and without fracture
filling into convenient-sized jars or bottles, and pouring thereon a
solution containing a quarter of an ounce of refined saccharine to the
gallon of water, so filling each vessel that the solution is within an
inch of the cork when pressed into position. The corks should first of
all be immersed in melted paraffine wax, then drained, and allowed to
cool. When fruit juices alone are required for storage purposes they
are prepared by subjecting the juicy fruits to considerable pressure,
by which process the juices are liberated.

The sound ripe fruits are crushed and packed into felt or flannel bags.
The fruit should be carefully selected, rotten or impaired portions
being carefully removed; this is important, or the whole stock would
be spoiled. Several methods are adopted for preserving and clarifying
fruit juices.

A common way in which they are kept from fermenting is by the use
of salicylic acid or other antiseptic substance, which destroys the
fermentative germ, or otherwise retards its action for a considerable
time. The use of this acid is seriously objected to by some as
injurious to the consumer. About 2 ounces of salicylic acid, previously
dissolved in alcohol, to 25 gallons of juice, or 40 grains to the
gallon, is generally considered the proper proportion.

Another method adopted is to fill the freshly prepared cold juice into
bottles until it reaches the necks, and on the top of this fruit juice
a little glycerine is placed.

Juices thus preserved will keep in an unchanged condition in any
season. Probably one of the best methods of preserving fruit juices is
to add 15 per cent of 95 per cent alcohol. On such an addition, albumen
and mucilaginous matter will be deposited. The juice may then be stored
in large bottles, jars, or barrels, if securely closed, and when clear,
so that further clarification is unnecessary, the juice should finally
be decanted or siphoned off.

A method applicable to most berries is as follows:

Take fresh, ripe berries, stem them, and rub through a No. 8 sieve,
rejecting all soft and green fruit. Add to each gallon of pulp thus
obtained 8 pounds of granulated sugar. Put on the fire and bring just
to a boil, stirring constantly. Just before removing from the fire, add
to each gallon 1 ounce of a saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic
acid, stirring well. Remove the scum, and, while still hot, put into
jars and hermetically seal. Put the jars in cold water, and raise them
to the boiling point, to prevent them from bursting by sudden expansion
on pouring hot fruit into them. Fill the jars entirely full, so as to
leave no air space when fruit cools and contracts.


«Prevention of Foaming and Partial Caramelization of Fruit
Juices.»—Fresh fruit juices carry a notable amount of free carbonic
acid, which must make its escape on heating the liquid. This will do
easily enough if the juice be heated in its natural state, but the
addition of the sugar so increases the density of the fluid that the
acid finds escape difficult, and often the result is foaming. As to the
burning or partial caramelization of {312} the syrup, that is easily
accounted for in the greater density of the syrup at the bottom of the
kettle—the lighter portion, or that still carrying imprisoned gases,
remaining on top until it is freed from them. Constant stirring can
prevent this only partially, since it cannot entirely overcome the
results of the natural forces in action. The consequence is more or
less caramelization. The remedy is very simple. Boil the juices first,
adding distilled water to make up for the loss by evaporation, and add
the sugar afterwards.


«ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS:»


«Almond Extracts.»—

   I.—Oil of bitter almonds    90 minims
     Alcohol, 94 per cent, quantity sufficient to make 8 ounces.

  II.—Oil of bitter almonds    80 minims
      Alcohol                   7 ounces
      Distilled water, quantity sufficient to make 8 ounces.

 III.—Oil of bitter almonds, deprived of its hydrocyanic acid    1 ounce
       Alcohol                                                   15 ounces

In order to remove the hydrocyanic acid in oil of bitter almonds,
dissolve 2 parts of ferrous sulphate in 16 parts of distilled water;
in another vessel slake 1 part freshly burned quicklime in a similar
quantity of distilled water, and to this add the solution of iron
sulphate, after the same has cooled. In the mixture put 4 parts of
almond oil, and thoroughly agitate the liquids together. Repeat the
agitation at an interval of 5 minutes, then filter. Put the filtrate
into a glass retort and distil until all the oil has passed over.
Remove any water that may be with the distillate by decantation, or
otherwise.


«Apricot Extract.»—

 Linalyl formate                      90 minims
 Glycerine                             1 ounce
 Amyl valerianate                      4 drachms
 Alcohol                              11 ounces
 Fluid extract orris                   1 ounce
 Water, quantity sufficient to make    1 pint.


«Apple Extract.»—

 Glycerine                             1 ounce
 Amyl valerianate                      4 drachms
 Linalyl formate                      45 minims
 Fluid extract orris                   1 ounce
 Alcohol                              11 ounces
 Water, quantity sufficient to make    1 pint.


«Apple Syrup.»—I.—Peel and remove the cores of, say, 5 parts of apples
and cut them into little bits. Put in a suitable vessel and pour over
them a mixture of 5 parts each of common white wine and water, and let
macerate together for 5 days at from 125° to 135° F., the vessel being
closed during the time. Then strain the liquid through a linen cloth,
using gentle pressure on the solid matter, forcing as much as possible
of it through the cloth. Boil 30 parts of sugar and 20 parts of water
together, and when boiling add to the resulting syrup the apple juice;
let it boil up for a minute or so, and strain through flannel.

II.—Good ripe apples are cut into small pieces and pounded to a pulp
in a mortar of any metal with the exception of iron. To 1 part of this
pulp add 11 parts of water. Allow this to stand for 12 hours. Colate.
To 11 parts of the colature add 1 part of sugar. Boil for 5 minutes.
Skim carefully. Bottle slightly warm. A small quantity of tartaric acid
may be added to heighten the flavor.


«Banana Syrup.»—Cut the fruit in slices and place in a jar; sprinkle
with sugar and cover the jar, which is then enveloped in straw and
placed in cold water and the latter is heated to the boiling point. The
jar is then removed, allowed to cool, and the juice poured into bottles.


«Cinnamon Essence.»—

 Oil of cinnamon         2 drachms
 Cinnamon, powdered      4 ounces
 Alcohol, deodorized    16 ounces
 Distilled water        16 ounces

Dissolve the oil in the alcohol, and add the water, an ounce at a time,
with agitation after each addition. Moisten the cinnamon with a little
of the water, add, and agitate. Cork tightly, and put in a warm place,
to macerate, 2 weeks, giving the flask a vigorous agitation several
times a day. Finally, filter through paper, and keep in small vials,
tightly stoppered.


«Chocolate Extract.»—Probably the best form of chocolate extract is
made as follows:

 Curaçao cocoa               400 parts
 Vanilla, chopped fine         1 part
 Alcohol of 55 per cent    2,000 parts

Mix and macerate together for 15 days, express and set aside. Pack the
residue in a percolator, and pour on boiling water (soft) and percolate
until 575 parts pass through. Put the percolate {313} in a flask, cork,
and let cool, then mix with the alcoholic extract. If it be desired to
make a syrup, before mixing the extract, add 1,000 parts of sugar to
the percolate, and with gentle heat dissolve the sugar. Mix the syrup
thus formed, after cooling, with the alcoholic extract.


«Coffee Extracts.»—In making coffee extract, care must be used to avoid
extracting the bitter properties of the coffee, as this is where most
manufacturers fail; in trying to get a strong extract they succeed only
in getting a bitter one.

I.—The coffee should be a mixture of Mocha, 3 parts; Old Government
Java, 5 parts; or, as some prefer, Mocha, 3 parts; Java, 3 parts; best
old Rio, 2 parts.

 Coffee, freshly roasted and pulverized    100 parts
 Boiling water                             600 parts

Pack the coffee, moistened with boiling water, in a strainer, or
dipper, placed in a vessel standing in the water bath at boiling point,
and let 400 parts of the water, in active ebullition, pass slowly
through it. Draw off the liquid as quickly as possible (best into
a vessel previously heated by boiling water to nearly the boiling
point), add 200 parts of boiling water, and pass the whole again
through the strainer (the container remaining in the water bath).
Remove from the bath; add 540 parts of sugar, and dissolve by agitation
while still hot.

II.—The following is based upon Liebig’s method of making coffee for
table use: Moisten 50 parts of coffee, freshly roasted and powdered as
before, with cold water, and add to it a little egg albumen and stir
in. Pour over the whole 400 parts of boiling water, set on the fire,
and let come to a boil. As the liquid foams, stir down with a spoon,
but let it come to a boil for a moment; add a little cold water, cover
tightly, and set aside in a warm place. Exhaust the residual coffee
with 300 parts of boiling water, as detailed in the first process, and
to the filtrate add carefully the now clarified extract, up to 600
parts, by adding boiling water. Proceed to make the syrup by the method
detailed above.

III.—To make a more permanent extract of coffee saturate 600 parts
of freshly roasted coffee, ground moderately fine, with any desired
quantity of a 1 in 3 mixture of alcohol of 94 per cent and distilled
water, and pack in a percolator. Close the faucet and let stand,
closely stoppered, for 24 hours; then pour on the residue of the
alcohol and water, and let run through, adding sufficient water, at
the last, so as to compensate for what boils away. Set this aside,
and continue the percolation, with boiling water, until the powder is
exhausted. Evaporate the resultant percolate down to the consistency of
the alcoholic extract, and mix the two. If desired, the result may be
evaporated down to condition of an extract. To dissolve, add boiling
water.

IV.—This essence is expressly adapted to boiling purposes. Take 3
pounds of good coffee, 4 ounces of granulated sugar, 4 pints of pure
alcohol, 6 pints of hot water. Have coffee fresh roasted and of a
medium grinding. Pack in a glass percolator, and percolate it with
a menstruum, consisting of the water and the alcohol. Repeat the
percolation until the desired strength is obtained, or the coffee
exhausted; then add the sugar and filter.

 V.—Mocha coffee    1 pound
     Java coffee     1 pound
     Glycerine, quantity sufficient.
     Water, quantity sufficient.

Grind the two coffees fine, and mix, then moisten with a mixture
of 1 part of glycerine and 3 parts of water, and pack in a glass
percolator, and percolate slowly until 30 ounces of the percolate is
obtained. It is a more complete extraction if the menstruum be poured
on in the condition of boiling, and it be allowed to macerate for
20 minutes before percolation commences. Coffee extract should, by
preference, be made in a glass percolator. A glycerine menstruum is
preferable to one of dilute alcohol, giving a finer product.

 VI.—Coffee, Java, roasted, No. 20 powder    4 ounces
      Glycerine, pure                         4 fluidounces
      Water, quantity sufficient.
      Boiling, quantity sufficient.

Moisten the coffee slightly with water, and pack firmly in a tin
percolator; pour on water, gradually, until 4 fluidounces are obtained,
then set aside. Place the coffee in a clean tin vessel, with 8
fluidounces of water, and boil for 5 minutes. Again place the coffee
in the percolator with the water (infusion), and when the liquid has
passed, or drained off, pack the grounds firmly, and pour on boiling
water until 8 fluidounces are obtained. When cold, mix the first
product, and add the glycerine, bottle, and cork well.

The excellence of this extract of coffee, from the manner of its
preparation, will be found by experience to be incomparably superior to
that made by the {314} formulas usually recommended, the reason being
apparent in the first step in the process.


«Coffee Essence.»—

 Best ground Mocha coffee    4 pounds
 Best ground chicory         2 pounds

Boil with 2 gallons of water in a closed vessel and when cold, strain,
press, and make up to 2 gallons, and to this add

 Rectified spirit of wine    8 ounces
 Pure glycerine (fluid)     16 ounces

Add syrup enough to make 4 gallons, and mix intimately.


«Cucumber Essence.»—Press the juice from cucumbers, mix with an equal
volume of alcohol and distil. If the distillate is not sufficiently
perfumed, more juice may be added and the mixture distilled. It is said
that the essence thus prepared will not spoil when mixed with fats in
the preparation of cosmetics.


«Fruit Jelly Extract.»—Fill into separate paper bags:

 Medium finely powdered gelatin       18 parts
 Medium finely powdered citric acid    3 parts

Likewise into a glass bottle a mixture of any desired

 Fruit essence     1 part
 Spirit of wine    1 part

and dissolve in the mixture for obtaining the desired color, raspberry
red or lemon yellow, 1⁠/⁠10 part.

For use, dissolve the gelatin and the citric acid in boiling water,
adding

 Sugar    125 parts

and mixing before cooling with the fruit essence mixture.


«Ginger Extracts.»—The following is an excellent method of preparing a
soluble essence or extract of ginger:

 I.—Jamaica ginger                    24 ounces
     Rectified spirits, 60 per cent    45 ounces
     Water                             15 ounces

Mix and let macerate together with frequent agitations for 10 days,
then percolate, press off, and filter. The yield should be 45 ounces.
Of this take 40 ounces and mix with an equal amount of distilled water.
Dissolve 6 drachms of sodium phosphate in 5 ounces of boiling water;
let cool and add the solution to the filtrate and water, mixing well.
Add 2 drachms of calcium chloride dissolved in 5 ounces of water,
nearly cold, and again thoroughly shake the whole. Let stand for 12
hours; then filter.

Put the filtrate in a still, and distil off, at as slow a temperature
as possible, 30 ounces. Set this distillate to one side, and continue
the distillation till another 40 ounces have passed, then let the still
cool. The residue in the still, some 18 ounces, is the desired essence.
Pour out all that is possible and wash the still with the 30 ounces
of distillate first set aside. This takes up all that is essential.
Finally, filter once more, through double filter paper and preserve the
filtrate—about 40 ounces, of an amber-colored liquid containing all of
the essentials of Jamaica ginger.

Soluble Essence of Ginger.—II.—The following is Harrop’s method of
proceeding:

 Fluid extract of ginger (U.S.)        4 ounces
 Pumice, in moderately fine powder     1 ounce
 Water enough to make                 12 ounces

Pour the fluid extract into a bottle, add the pumice and shake the
mixture and repeat the shaking in the course of several hours. Now
add the water in proportion of about 2 ounces, shaking well and
frequently after each addition. When all is added repeat the agitation
occasionally during 24 hours, then filter, returning the last portion
of the filtrate until it comes through clear, and if necessary add
sufficient water to make 12 ounces.

 III.—Jamaica ginger, ground    2 pounds
       Pumice stone, ground      2 ounces
       Lime, slaked              2 ounces
       Alcohol, dilute           4 pints

Rub the ginger with the pumice stone and lime until thoroughly mixed.
Moisten with the dilute alcohol until saturated and place in a narrow
percolator, being careful not to use force in packing, but simply
putting it in to obtain the position of a powder to be percolated, so
that the menstruum will go through uniformly. Finally, add the dilute
alcohol and proceed until 4 pints of percolate are obtained. Allow the
liquid to stand for 24 hours; then filter if necessary.

 IV.—Tincture ginger       480 parts
      Tincture capsicum      12 parts
      Oleoresin ginger        8 parts
      Magnesium carbonate    16 parts

Rub the oleoresin with the magnesia, and add the tinctures; add about
400 {315} parts of water, in divided portions, stirring vigorously the
while. Transfer the mixture to a bottle, and allow to stand 1 week,
shaking frequently; then filter, and make up 960 parts with water.

 V.—Fluid extract of ginger (U. S. P.)    4 ounces
     Pumice, powdered and washed           1 ounce
     Water enough to make                 12 ounces

Pour the fluid extract of ginger into a bottle, and add the pumice,
shake thoroughly, set aside, and repeat the operation in the course
of several hours. Add the water, in the proportion of about 2 ounces
at a time, agitating vigorously after each addition. When all is
added, repeat the agitation occasionally during 24 hours, then filter,
returning the first portion of the filtrate until it comes through
bright and clear. If necessary, pass water through the filter, enough
to make 12 fluidounces of filtrate.

 VI.—Strongest tincture of ginger    1 pint
      Fresh slaked lime.          1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Salt of tartar                1⁠/⁠4 ounce

 VII.—Jamaica ginger, ground                 32 parts
       Pumice stone, powdered                 32 parts
       Lime, slaked                            2 parts
       Alcohol, dilute, sufficient to make    32 parts

Rub the ginger with the pumice stone and lime, then moisten with
alcohol until it is saturated with it. Put in a narrow percolator,
using no force in packing. Allow the mass to stand for 24 hours, then
let run through. Filter if necessary.

VIII.—The following is insoluble:

 Cochin ginger, cut fine    1,000 parts
 Alcohol, 95 per cent       2,500 parts
 Water                      1,250 parts
 Glycerine                    250 parts

Digest together for 8 days in a very warm, not to say hot, place.
Decant, press off the roots, and add to the colature, then filter
through paper. This makes a strong, natural tasting essence.

IX.—Green Ginger Extract.—The green ginger root is freed from the
epidermis and surface dried by exposure to the air for a few hours.
It is then cut into thin slices and macerated for some days with an
equal weight of rectified spirit, which when filtered will yield an
essence possessing a very fine aroma and forming an almost perfectly
clear solution in water. If the ginger is allowed to dry more than the
few hours mentioned it will not produce a soluble essence. It is used
in some of the imported ginger ales as a flavoring only, and makes a
lovely ginger flavor.


«Hop Syrup.»—A palatable preparation not inferior to many of the
so-called hop bitters:

 Hops              2 parts
 Dandelion         2 parts
 Gentian           2 parts
 Chamomile         2 parts
 Stillingia        2 parts
 Orange peel       2 parts
 Alcohol          75 parts
 Water            75 parts
 Syrup, simple    50 parts

Coarsely powder the drugs and exhaust with the water and alcohol mixed.
Decant, press out and filter, and finally add the syrup. The dose is a
wineglassful 2 or 3 times daily.


«Lemon Essences.»—I.—Macerate the cut-up fresh peelings of 40 lemons
and 30 China oranges in 8 quarts of alcohol and 2 quarts of water,
for 2 or 3 days, then distil off 8 quarts. Every 100 parts of this
distillate is mixed with 75 parts of citric acid dissolved in 200 parts
of water, colored with a trace of orange and filtered through talc.
Each 200 parts of the filtrate is then mixed with 2 quarts of syrup.

II.—Twenty-five middle-sized lemons are thinly peeled, the peelings
finely cut, and the whole, lemons and peels, put to macerate in a
mixture of 3 pints 90 per cent alcohol and 5 quarts water. Let macerate
for 24 hours. Add 10 drops lemon and 10 drops orange oil; then slowly
distil off 4 quarts. The distillate will be turbid, but if left to
stand in a cool, dark place for a week it will filter off clear, and
should make a clear mixture with equal parts of water and simple syrup.
If it does not, add with a pipette, drop by drop, sufficient alcohol to
make it do so. Finally, dissolve in the mixture 4 drachms of vanillin,
and color with a few drops of tincture of turmeric and a little caramel.

III.—Peel thinly and lightly, 25 medium-sized fresh lemons and 1
orange, and cut the peelings into very small pieces. Macerate in 55
drachms 96 per cent alcohol, for 6 hours. Filter off the macerate
without pressing. Dilute the filtrate with 3 pints water and set aside
for eight days, shaking frequently. At {316} the end of this time
filter. The filtrate is usually clear, and if so, add 4 drachms of
vanillin. If not, proceed as in the second formula above.

IV.—Oil of lemon, select, 8 fluidounces; oil of lemon grass (fresh),
1 fluidrachm; peel, freshly grated, of 12 lemons; alcohol, 7 pints;
boiled water, 1 pint.

Mix and macerate for 7 days. If in a hurry for the product, percolate
through the lemon peel and filter. The addition of any other substance
than the oil and rind of the lemon is not recommended.

 V.—Fresh oil of lemon                        64 parts
     Lemon peel (outer rind) freshly grated    32 parts
     Oil of lemon grass                         1 part
     Alcohol                                  500 parts

Mix, let macerate for 14 days, and filter.

 VI.—Essence of lemon            1 3⁠/⁠4 ounces
      Rectified spirit of wine        6 ounces
      Pure glycerine                  3 ounces
      Pure phosphate calcium          4 ounces
      Distilled water to make         1 pint.

Mix essence of lemon, spirit of wine, glycerine, and 8 ounces of
distilled water, agitate briskly in a quart bottle for 10 minutes, and
introduce phosphate of calcium and again shake. Put in a filter and let
it pass through twice. Digest in filtrate for 2 or 3 days, add 1 1⁠/⁠2
ounces fresh lemon peel, and again filter.

 VII.—Oil of lemon                   6 parts
       Lemon peel (freshly grated)    4 parts
       Alcohol, sufficient.

Dissolve the oil of lemon in 90 parts of alcohol, add the lemon peel,
and macerate for 24 hours. Filter through paper, adding through the
filter enough alcohol to make the filtrate weigh 100 parts.

 VIII.—Exterior rind of lemon               2 ounces
        Alcohol, 95 per cent, deodorized    32 ounces
        Oil of lemon, recent                 3 fluidounces

Expose the lemon rind to the air until perfectly dry, then bruise in a
wedgwood mortar, and add it to the alcohol, agitating until the color
is extracted; then add the lemon oil.


«Natural Lemon Juice.»—I.—Take 4.20 parts of crystallized citric acid;
2 parts essence of lemons; 3 parts of alcohol of 96 per cent; 1⁠/⁠2
part calcium carbonate; 50 1⁠/⁠20 parts sodium phosphate, and 1⁠/⁠200
part calcium citrate, and dissolve the whole in sufficient water to
make 60 parts.

II.—Squeeze out the lemon juice, strain it to get rid of the seeds and
larger particles of pulp, etc., heat it to the boiling point, let it
cool down, add talc, shake well together and filter. If it is to be
kept a long time (as on a sea voyage) a little alcohol is added.


«Limejuice.»—This may be clarified by heating it either alone or mixed
with a small quantity of egg albumen, in a suitable vessel, without
stirring, to near the boiling point of water, until the impurities
have coagulated and either risen to the top or sunk to the bottom. It
is then filtered into clean bottles, which should be completely filled
and closed (with pointed corks), so that each cork has to displace a
portion of the liquid to be inserted. The bottles are sealed and kept
at an even temperature (in a cellar). In this way the juice may be
satisfactorily preserved.


«Nutmeg Essence.»—Oil of nutmeg, 2 drachms; mace, in powder, 1 ounce;
alcohol, 95 per cent, deodorized, 32 ounces.

Dissolve the oil in the alcohol by agitation, add the mace, agitate,
then stopper tightly, and macerate 12 hours. Filter through paper.


«Orange Extract.»—Grated peel of 24 oranges; alcohol, 1 quart; water,
1 quart; oil of orange, 4 drachms. Macerate the orange peel and oil of
orange with alcohol for 2 weeks. Add distilled water and filter.


«Orange Extract, Soluble.»—I.—Pure oil of orange, 1 1⁠/⁠4 fluidounces;
carbonate of magnesium, 2 ounces; alcohol, 12 fluidounces; water,
quantity sufficient to make 2 pints.

II.—Dissolve oil of orange in the alcohol, and rub it with the
carbonate of magnesium, in a mortar. Pour the mixture into a quart
bottle, and fill the bottle with water. Allow to macerate for a week or
more, shaking every day. Then filter through paper, adding enough water
through the paper to make filtrate measure 2 pints.


«Orange Peel, Soluble Extract.»—

 Freshly grated orange rind    1 part
 Deodorized alcohol            1 part

Macerate for 4 days and express. Add the expressed liquid to 10 per
cent of its weight of powdered magnesium carbonate {317} in a mortar,
and rub thoroughly until a smooth, creamy mixture results; then
gradually add the water, constantly stirring. Let stand for 48 hours,
then filter through paper. Keep in an amber bottle and cool place. To
make syrup of orange, add 1 part of this extract to 7 parts of heavy
simple syrup.


«Peach Extract.»—

 Linalyl formate         120 minims
 Amyl valerianate          8 drachms
 Fluid extract orris       2 ounces
 Oenanthic ether           2 drachms
 Oil rue (pure German)    30 minims
 Chloroform                2 drachms
 Glycerine                 2 ounces
 Alcohol, 70 per cent, to 3 pints.


«Pineapple Essence.»—A ripe, but not too soft, pineapple, weighing
about, say, 1 pound, is mashed up in a mortar with Tokay wine, 6
ounces. The mass is then brought into a flask with 1 pint of water, and
allowed to stand 2 hours. Alcohol, 90 per cent, 3⁠/⁠4 pint, is then
added and the mixture distilled until 7 quarts of distillate have been
collected. Cognac, 9 ounces, is then added to the distillation.


«Pistachio Essence.»—

 I.—Essence of almond         2 fluidounces
      Tincture of vanilla      4 fluidounces
      Oil of neroli            1 drop

 II.—Oil of orange peel       4 fluidrachms
      Oil of cassia            1 fluidrachm
      Oil of bitter almond    15 minims
      Oil of calamus          15 minims
      Oil of nutmeg        1 1⁠/⁠2 fluidrachms
      Oil of clove            30 minims
      Alcohol                 12 fluidounces
      Water                    4 fluidounces
      Magnesium carbonate      2 drachms

Shake together, allow to stand 24 hours, and filter.


«Pomegranate Essence.»—

 Oil of sweet orange          3 parts
 Oil of cloves                3 parts
 Tincture of vanilla         15 parts
 Tincture of ginger          10 parts
 Maraschino liqueur         150 parts
 Tincture of coccionella    165 parts
 Distilled water            150 parts
 Phosphoric acid, dilute     45 parts
 Alcohol, 95 per cent, quantity sufficient to make 1000 parts.

Mix and dissolve.


«Quince Extract.»—

 Fluid extract orris      2 ounces
 Oenanthic ether      1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Linalyl formate         90 minims
 Glycerine                2 ounces
 Alcohol, 70 per cent, to 3 pints.


«Raspberry Syrup, without Alcohol or Antiseptics.»—The majority of
producers of fruit juices are firmly convinced that the preservation of
these juices without the addition of alcohol, salicylic acid, etc., is
impossible. Herr Steiner’s process to the contrary is here reproduced:

The fruit is crushed and pressed; the juice, with 2 per cent of sugar
added, is poured into containers to about three-quarters of their
capacity, and there allowed to ferment. The containers are stoppered
with a cork through which runs a tube, whose open end is protected by a
bit of gum tubing, the extremity of which is immersed in a glass filled
with water. It should not go deeper than 4⁠/⁠10 of an inch high. The
evolution of carbonic gas begins in about 4 hours and is so sharp that
the point of the tube must not be immersed any deeper.

Ordinarily fermentation ceases on the tenth day, a fact that may be
ascertained by shaking the container sharply, when, if it has ceased,
no bubbles of gas will appear on the surface of the water.

The fermented juice is then filtered to get rid of the pectinic
matters, yeast, etc., and the filtrate should be poured back on the
filter several times. The juice filters quickly and comes off very
clear. The necessary amount of sugar to make a syrup is now added to
the liquid and allowed to dissolve gradually for 12 hours. At the end
of this time the liquid is put on the fire and allowed to boil up at
once, by which operation the solution of the sugar is made complete.
Straining through a tin strainer and filling into heated bottles
completes the process.

The addition of sugar to the freshly pressed juice has the advantage
of causing the fermentation to progress to the full limit, and also to
preserve, by the alcohol produced by fermentation, the beautiful red
color of the juice.

Any fermentation that may be permitted prior to the pressing out of the
juices is at the expense of aroma and flavor; but whether fermentation
occurs before or after pressure of the berry, the ordinary alcohol test
cannot determine whether the juice has been completely fermented (and
consequently whether the pectins have been completely separated) or
not. Since, in spite of the fact that the liquid remains limpid after 4
days’ {318} fermentation, the production of alcohol is progressing all
the time—a demonstration that fermentation cannot then be completed,
and that at least 10 days will be required for this purpose.

An abortive raspberry syrup is always due to an incomplete or faulty
fermentation, for too often does it occur that incompletely fermented
juices after a little time lose color and become turbid.

The habit of clarifying juices by shaking up with a bit of paper, talc,
etc., or boiling with albumen is a useless waste of time and labor.
By the process indicated the entire process of clarification occurs
automatically, so to speak.


«Deep Red Raspberry Syrup.»—A much deeper and richer color than that
ordinarily attained may be secured by adding to crushed raspberries,
before fermentation, small quantities of sugar, sifted over the surface
in layers. The ethylic alcohol produced by fermentation in this manner
aids in the extraction of the red coloring matter of the fruit.
Moreover, the fermented juice should never be cooked over a fire, but
by superheated steam. Only in this way can caramelization be completely
avoided. Only sugar free from ultramarine and chalk should be used in
making the syrup, as these impurities also have a bad influence on the
color.


«Raspberry Essences.»—

 I.—Raspberries, fresh      16 ounces
     Angelica (California)    6 fluidounces
     Brandy (California)      6 ounces
     Alcohol                  6 ounces
     Water, quantity sufficient.

Mash the berries to a pulp in a mortar or bowl, and transfer to a
flask, along with the Angelica, brandy, alcohol, and about 8 ounces of
water. Let macerate overnight, then distil off until 32 ounces have
passed over. Color red. The addition of a trifle of essence of vanilla
improves this essence.

 II.—Fresh raspberries    200 grams
      Water, distilled     100 grams
      Vanilla essence        2 grams

Pulp the raspberries, let stand at a temperature of about 70° F. for 48
hours, and then add 100 grams of water. Fifty grams are then distilled
off, and alcohol, 90 per cent, 25 grams, in which 0.01 vanillin has
been previously dissolved, is added to the distillate.


«Sarsaparilla, Soluble Extract.»—

 Pure oil of wintergreen     5 fluidrachms
 Pure oil of sassafras         5 fluidrachms
 Pure oil of anise             5 fluidrachms
 Carbonate of magnesium    2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Alcohol                       1 pint
 Water, quantity sufficient to make 2 pints.

Dissolve the various oils in the alcohol, and rub with carbonate of
magnesium in a mortar. Pour the mixture into a quart bottle, and fill
the bottle with water. Allow to macerate for a week or more, shaking
every day. Then filter through the paper, adding enough water through
the paper to make the finished product measure 2 pints.


«Strawberry Juice.»—Put into the water bath 1,000 parts of distilled
water and 600 parts of sugar and boil, with constant skimming, until
no more scum arises. Add 5 parts of citric acid and continue the
boiling until about 1,250 parts are left. Stir in, little by little,
500 parts of fresh strawberries, properly stemmed, and be particularly
careful not to crush the fruit. When all the berries are added, cover
the vessel, remove from the fire, put into a warm place and let stand,
closely covered, for 3 hours, or until the mass has cooled down to
the surrounding temperature, then strain off through flannel, being
careful not to crush the berries. Prepare a sufficient number of pint
bottles by filling them with warm water, putting them into a kettle
of the same and heating them to boiling, then rapidly emptying and
draining as quickly as possible. Into these pour the hot juice, cork
and seal the bottles as rapidly as possible. Juice thus prepared
retains all the aroma and flavor of the fresh berry, and if carefully
corked and sealed up will retain its properties a year.


«Strawberry Essence.»—

 Strawberries, fresh     16 ounces
 Angelica (California)    6 fluidounces
 Brandy (California)      6 ounces
 Alcohol                  8 ounces
 Water, quantity sufficient.

Mash the berries to a pulp in a mortar or bowl, and transfer to a
flask, along with the Angelica, brandy, alcohol, and about 8 ounces of
water. Let macerate overnight, then distil off until 32 ounces have
passed over. Color strawberry red. The addition of a little essence of
vanilla and a hint of lemon improves this essence. {319}


«Tea Extract.»—

 I.—Best Souchong tea    175 parts
     Cinnamon               3 parts
     Cloves                 3 parts
     Vanilla                1 part
     Arrack               800 parts
     Rum                  200 parts

Coarsely powder the cinnamon, clove, etc., mix the ingredients, and
let macerate for 3 days, then filter, press off, and make up to 1,000
parts, if necessary, by adding rum. The Souchong may be replaced by
any other brand of tea, and the place of the arrack may be occupied
by Santa Cruz, or New England rum. The addition of fluid extract of
kola nut not only improves the taste, but gives the drink a remarkably
stimulating property. The preparation makes a clear solution with
either hot or cold water and keeps well.

II.—Tea, any desirable variety, 16 ounces; glycerine, 4 ounces; hot
water, 4 pints; water, sufficient to make 1 pint.

Reduce the tea to a powder, moisten with sufficient of the glycerine
and alcohol mixed, with 4 ounces of water added, pack in percolator,
and pour on the alcohol (diluted with glycerine and water) until 12
ounces of percolate have been obtained. Set this aside, and complete
the percolation with the hot water. When this has passed through,
evaporate to 4 ounces, and add it to the percolate first obtained.


«Tonka Extract.»—

 Tonka beans       1 ounce
 Magnesium carbonate, quantity sufficient.
 Balsam of Peru    2 drachms
 Sugar             4 ounces
 Alcohol           8 ounces
 Water sufficient to make 16 ounces.

Mix the tonka, balsam of Peru, and magnesia, and rub together,
gradually adding the sugar until a homogeneous powder is obtained.
Pack in a percolator; mix the alcohol with an equal amount of water,
and pour over the powder, close the exit of the percolator, and let
macerate for 24 to 36 hours, then open the percolator, and let pass
through, gradually adding water until 16 ounces pass through.


«Vanilla Extracts.»—I.—Vanilla, in fine bits, 250 parts, is put into
1,350 parts of mixture, of 2,500 parts 95 per cent alcohol, and 1,500
parts distilled water. Cover tightly, put on the water bath, and digest
for 1 hour, at 140° F. Pour off the liquid and set aside. To the
residue in the bath, add half the remaining water, and treat in the
same manner. Pack the vanilla in an extraction apparatus, and treat
with 250 parts of alcohol and water, mixed in the same proportions as
before. Mix the results of the three infusions first made, filter, and
wash the filter paper with the results of the percolation, allowing the
filtered percolate to mingle with the filtrate of the mixed infusions.

II.—Take 60 parts of the best vanilla beans, cut into little pieces,
and put into a deep vessel, wrapped with a cloth to retain the heat as
long as possible. Shake over the vanilla 1 part of potassium carbonate
in powder, and immediately add 240 parts distilled water, in an active
state of ebullition. Cover the vessel closely, set aside until it is
completely cold, and then add 720 parts alcohol. Cover closely, and
set aside in a moderately warm place for 15 days, when the liquid is
strained off, the residue pressed, and the whole colate filtered. The
addition of 1 part musk to the vanilla before pouring on the hot water
improves this essence.

To prepare vanilla fountain syrup with extracts I or II, mix 25 minims
of the extract with 1 pint simple syrup. Color with caramel.

 III.—Vanilla beans, cut fine     1 ounce
 Sugar                             3 ounces
 Alcohol, 50 per cent              1 pint

Beat sugar and vanilla together to a fine powder. Pour on the dilute
alcohol, cork the vessel, and let stand for 2 weeks, shaking it up 2 or
3 times a day.

 IV.—Vanilla beans, chopped fine    30 parts
       Potassium carbonate            1 part
       Boiling water              1,450 parts
       Alcohol                      450 parts
       Essence of musk                1 part

Dissolve the potassium carbonate in the boiling water, add the vanilla,
cover the vessel, and let stand in a moderately warm place until cold.
Transfer to a wide-mouthed jar, add the alcohol, cork, and let macerate
for 15 days; then decant the clear essence and filter the remainder.
Mix the two liquids and add the essence of musk.

V.—Cut 60 parts of best vanilla beans into small bits; put into a
deep vessel, which should be well wrapped in a woolen cloth to retain
heat as long as possible. Shake over the beans 1 part of potassium
carbonate, in powder, then pour over the mass 240 parts distilled
water, in an {320} active state of ebullition, cover the vessel
closely, and set aside in a moderately warm place. When quite cold
add 720 parts alcohol, close the vessel tightly, and set aside in a
moderately warm place, to macerate for 15 days, then strain off, press
out, and set aside for a day or two. The liquid may then be filtered
and bottled. The addition of a little musk to the beans before pouring
on the hot water, is thought by many to greatly improve the product.
One part of this extract added to 300 parts simple syrup is excellent
for fountain purposes.

 VI.—Vanilla beans                 8 ounces
      Glycerine                     6 ounces
      Granulated sugar              1 pound
      Water                         4 pints
      Alcohol of cologne spirits    4 pints

Cut or grind the beans very fine; rub with the glycerine and put in a
wooden keg; dissolve the sugar in the water, first heating the water,
if convenient; mix the water and spirits, and add to the vanilla; pour
in keg. Keep in a warm place from 3 to 6 months before using. Shake
often. To clear, percolate through the dregs. If a dark, rich color is
desired add a little sugar coloring.

 VII.—Vanilla beans, good quality    16 ounces
       Alcohol                        64 fluidounces
       Glycerine                      24 fluidounces
       Water                          10 fluidounces
       Dilute alcohol, quantity sufficient.

Mix and macerate, with frequent agitation, for 3 weeks, filter, and add
dilute alcohol to make 1 gallon.

 VIII.—Vanilla beans, good quality    8 ounces
        Pumice stone, lump             1 ounce
        Rock candy                     8 ounces
        Alcohol and water, of each a sufficiency.

Cut the beans to fine shreds and triturate well with the pumice stone
and rock candy. Place the whole in a percolator and percolate with
a menstruum composed of 9 parts alcohol and 7 parts water until the
percolate passes through clear. Bring the bulk up to 1 gallon with the
same menstruum and set aside to ripen.

IX.—Cut up, as finely as possible, 20 parts of vanilla bean and with
40 parts of milk sugar (rendered as dry as possible by being kept in a
drying closet until it no longer loses weight) rub to a coarse powder.
Moisten with 10 parts of dilute alcohol, pack somewhat loosely in a
closed percolator and let stand for 2 hours. Add 40 parts of dilute
alcohol, close the percolator, and let stand 8 days. At the end of this
time add 110 parts of dilute alcohol, and let pass through. The residue
will repay working over. Dry it well, add 5 parts of vanillin, and 110
parts of milk sugar and pass through a sieve, then treat as before.

The following are cheap extracts:

 X.—Vanilla beans, chopped fine     5 parts
     Tonka beans, powdered          10 parts
     Sugar, powdered                14 parts
     Alcohol, 95 per cent           25 parts
     Water, quantity sufficient to make 100 parts.

Rub the sugar and vanilla to a fine powder, add the tonka beans, and
incorporate. Pack into a filter, and pour on 10 parts of alcohol, cut
with 15 parts of water; close the faucet, and let macerate overnight.
In the morning percolate with the remaining alcohol, added to 80 parts
of water, until 100 parts of percolate pass through.

 XI.—Vanilla beans         4 ounces
      Tonka beans           8 ounces
      Deodorized alcohol    8 pints
      Simple syrup          2 pints

Cut and bruise the vanilla beans, afterwards bruising the tonka beans.
Macerate for 14 days in one-half of the spirit, with occasional
agitation. Pour off the clear liquor and set aside; pour the remaining
spirits in the magma, and heat by means of the water bath to about
170° F. in a loosely covered vessel. Keep at this temperature 2 or 3
hours, and strain through flannel, with slight pressure. Mix the two
portions of liquid, and filter through felt. Add the syrup.


«White Pine and Tar Syrup.»—

 White pine bark         75 parts
 Wild cherry bark        75 parts
 Spikenard root          10 parts
 Balm of Gilead buds     10 parts
 Sanguinaria root         8 parts
 Sassafras bark           7 parts
 Sugar                  750 parts
 Chloroform               6 parts
 Syrup of tar            75 parts
 Alcohol, enough.
 Water, enough.
 Syrup enough to make 1,000 parts.

Reduce the first six ingredients to a coarse powder and by using a
menstruum composed of 1 in 3 alcohol, obtain 500 parts of a tincture
from them. In this {321} dissolve the sugar, add the syrup of tar and
the chloroform, and, finally, enough syrup to bring the measure of the
finished product up to 1,000 parts.


«Wild Cherry Extract.»—

 Oenanthic ether                                       2 fluidrachms
 Amyl acetate                                          2 fluidrachms
 Oil of bitter almonds (free from hydrocyanic acid)    1 fluidrachm
 Fluid extract of wild cherry                          3 fluidounces
 Glycerine                                             2 fluidounces
 Deodorized alcohol enough to make 16 fluidounces.


«HARMLESS COLORS FOR USE IN SYRUPS, ETC.:»

Red.—Cochineal syrup, prepared as follows:

 I.—Cochineal in coarse powder    6 parts
     Potassium carbonate           3 parts
     Distilled water              15 parts
     Alcohol, 95 per cent         12 parts
     Simple syrup to make 500 parts.

Rub the cochineal and potassium together, adding the water and alcohol
little by little, under constant trituration. Let stand overnight, add
the syrup, and filter.

 II.—Carmine, in fine powder    1 part
      Stronger ammonia water     4 parts
      Distilled water to make 24 parts.

Rub up the carmine and ammonia and to the solution add the water,
little by little, under constant trituration. If in standing this shows
a tendency to separate, a drop or two of ammonia will correct the
trouble.

Besides these there is caramel, which, of course, you know.

Pink.—

 III.—Carmine           1 part
       Liquor potassæ    6 parts
       Distilled water 40 parts

Mix. If the color is too high, dilute with distilled water until the
requisite color is obtained.


«To Test Fruit Juices and Syrups for Aniline Colors.»—Add to a sample
of the syrup or juice, in a test tube, its own volume of distilled
water, and agitate to get a thorough mixture, then add a few drops of
the standard solution of lead diacetate, shake, and filter. If the
syrup is free from aniline coloring matter the filtrate will be clear
as crystal, since the lead salt precipitates natural coloring matters,
but has no effect upon the aniline colors.


«To Test Fruit Juices for Salicylic Acid.»—Put a portion of the juice
to be tested in a large test tube, add the same volume of ether, close
the mouth of the tube and shake gently for 30 seconds. Set aside until
the liquid separates into two layers. Draw off the supernatant ethereal
portion and evaporate to dryness in a capsule. Dissolve the residue in
alcohol, dilute with 3 volumes of water, and add 1 drop of tincture of
iron chloride. If salicylic acid be present the characteristic purple
color will instantly disappear.


«Syrups Selected from the Formulary of the Pharmaceutical Society of
Antwerp.»—

_Dionine Syrup._—Dionine, 1 part; distilled water, 19 parts; simple
syrup, 1,980 parts. Mix.

_Jaborandi Syrup._—Tincture of jaborandi, 1 part; simple syrup, 19
parts. Mix.

_Convallaria Syrup._—Extract of convallaria, 1 part; distilled water,
4 parts; simple syrup, 95 parts. Dissolve the extract in the water and
mix.

_Codeine Phosphate Syrup._—Codeine phosphate, 3 parts; distilled water,
17 parts; simple syrup, 980 parts. Dissolve the codeine in the water
and mix with the syrup.

_Licorice Syrup._—Incised licorice root, 4 parts; dilute solution of
ammonia, 1 part; water, 20 parts. Mix and macerate for 12 hours at 58°
to 66° F. with frequent agitation; press, heat the liquid to boiling,
then evaporate to two parts on the water bath; add alcohol, 2 parts;
allow to stand for 12 hours; then filter. Add to the filtrate enough
simple syrup to bring the final weight to 20 parts.

_Maize Stigma Syrup._—Extract of maize stigmas, 1 part; distilled
water, 4 parts; simple syrup, 95 parts. Dissolve the extract in the
water, filter, and add the syrup.

_Ammonium Valerianate Solution._—Ammonium valerianate, 2 parts;
alcoholic extract of valerian, 1 part; distilled water, 47 parts.

_Kola Tincture._—Powdered kola nuts, 1 part; alcohol, 60 per cent, 5
parts. Macerate for 6 days, press, and filter.

_Bidet’s Liquid Vesicant._—Tincture of cantharides, tincture of
rosemary, chloroform, equal parts.

_Peptone Wine._—Dried peptone, 1 part; Malaga wine, 19 parts. Dissolve
without heat and filter after standing for several days. {322}


«Etching»


«General Instructions for Etching.»—In etching, two factors come into
consideration, (1) that which covers that part of the metal not exposed
to the etching fluid (the resist), and (2) the etching fluid itself.

In the process, a distinction is to be made between etching in relief
and etching in intaglio. In relief etching, the design is drawn or
painted upon the surface with the liquid etching-ground, so that after
etching and removal of the etching-ground, it appears raised. In
intaglio etching, the whole surface is covered with the etching-ground,
and the design put on with a needle; the ground being thus removed
at the points touched by the drawing, the latter, after etching and
removal of the etching-ground, is sunken.


«Covering Agents or Resists.»—The plate is enclosed by a border made
of grafting wax (yellow beeswax, 8 parts; pine rosin, 10 parts; beef
tallow, 2 parts; turpentine, 10 parts); or a mixture of yellow wax,
8 parts; lard, 3 parts; Burgundy pitch, 1⁠/⁠2 part. This mixture is
also used to cover the sides of vessels to be etched. Another compound
consists of wax, 5 parts; cobbler’s wax, 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts; turpentine, 1
part.


«Etching-Ground.»—I.—Soft: Wax, 2 parts; asphalt, 1 part; mastic,
1 part. II.—Wax, 3 parts; asphalt, 4 parts. III.—Mastic, 16 parts;
Burgundy pitch, 50 parts; melted wax, 125 parts; and melted asphalt,
200 parts added successively, and, after cooling, turpentine oil, 500
parts. If the ground should be deep black, lampblack is added.

Hard: Burgundy pitch, 125 parts; rosin, 125 parts, melted; and walnut
oil, 100 parts, added, the whole to be boiled until it can be drawn out
into long threads.


«Etching-Ground for Copper Engraving.»—White wax, 120 parts; mastic,
15 parts; Burgundy pitch, 60 parts; Syrian asphalt, 120 parts, melted
together; and 5 parts concentrated solution of rubber in rubber oil
added.


«Ground for Relief Etching.»—I.—Syrian asphalt, 500 parts, dissolved
in turpentine oil, 1,000 parts. II.—Asphalt, rosin, and wax, 200 parts
of each, are melted, and dissolved in turpentine oil, 1,200 parts. The
under side of the metal plate is protected by a coating of a spirituous
shellac solution, or by a solution of asphalt, 300 parts, in benzol,
600 parts.


«For Strongly Acid Solutions.»—I.—Black pitch, 1 part; Japanese wax, 2
parts; rosin, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts; Damar rosin, 1 part, melted together and
mixed with turpentine oil, 1 part. II.—Heavy black printers’ ink, 3
parts; rosin, 1 part; wax, 1 part.

For electro-etching, the following ground is recommended: Wax, 4 parts;
asphalt, 4 parts; pitch, 1 part.

If absolute surety is required respecting the resistance of the
etching-ground to the action of the etching fluids, several
etching-grounds are put on, one over the other; first (for instance), a
solution of rubber in benzol, then a spirituous shellac solution, and a
third stratum of asphalt dissolved in turpentine oil.

If the etching is to be of different degrees of depth, the places where
it is to be faint are stopped out with varnish, after they are deep
enough, and the object is put back into the bath for further etching.

For putting on a design before the etching, the following method may
be used: Cover the metal plate, tin plate for example, with a colored
or colorless spirit varnish; after drying, cover this, in a dark room,
with a solution of gelatin, 5 parts, and red potassium chromate, 1
part, in water, 100 parts; or with a solution of albumen, 2 parts;
ammonium bichromate, 2 parts, in water, 200 parts. After drying, put
the plate, covered with a stencil, in a copying or printing frame, and
expose to light. The sensitive gelatin stratum will become insoluble at
the places exposed. Place in water, and the gelatin will be dissolved
at the places covered by the stencil; dry, and remove the spirit
varnish from the places with spirit, then put into the etching fluid.


«Etching Fluids.»—The etching fluid is usually poured over the metallic
surface, which is enclosed in a border, as described before. If the
whole object is to be put into the fluid, it must be entirely covered
with the etching-ground. After etching it is washed with pure water,
dried with a linen cloth, and the etching-ground is then washed off
with turpentine oil or a light volatile camphor oil. The latter is very
good for the purpose.


«Etching Fluids for Iron and Steel.»—I.—Pure nitric acid, diluted for
light etching with 4 to 8 parts of water, for deep etching with an
equal weight of water.

II.—Tartaric acid, 1 part, by weight; mercuric chloride, 15 parts, by
weight; water, 420 parts; nitric acid, 16 to 20 drops, if 1 part equals
28 1⁠/⁠2 grains. {323}

III.—Spirit, 80 per cent, 120 parts, by weight; pure nitric acid, 8
parts; silver nitrate, 1 part.

IV.—Pure acetic acid, 30 per cent, 40 parts, by weight; absolute
alcohol, 10 parts; pure nitric acid, 10 parts.

V.—Fuming nitric acid, 10 parts, by weight; pure acetic acid, 30 per
cent, 50 parts, diluted with water if necessary or desired.

VI.—A chromic acid solution.

VII.—Bromine, 1 part; water, 100 parts. Or—mercuric chloride, 1 part;
water, 30 parts.

VIII.—Antimonic chloride, 1 part; water, 6 parts; hydrochloric acid, 6
parts.


«For Delicate Etchings on Steel.»—I.—Iodine, 2 parts; potassium iodide,
4 parts; water, 40 parts.

II.—Silver acetate, 8 parts, by weight; alcohol, 250 parts; water, 250
parts; pure nitric acid, 260 parts; ether, 64 parts; oxalic acid, 4
parts.

III.—A copper chloride solution.


«Etching Powder for Iron and Steel.»—Blue vitriol, 50 parts; common
salt, 50 parts; mixed and moistened with water.

For lustrous figures on a dull ground, as on sword blades, the whole
surface is polished, the portions which are to remain bright covered
with stencils and the object exposed to the fumes of nitric acid. This
is best done by pouring sulphuric acid, 20 parts, over common salt, 10
parts.


«Relief Etching of Copper, Steel, and Brass.»—Instead of nitric acid,
which has a tendency to lift up the etching-ground, by evolution of
gases, it is better to use a mixture of potassium bichromate, 150
parts; water, 800 parts; and concentrated sulphuric acid, 200 parts.
The etching is slow, but even, and there is no odor.


«For Etching Copper, Brass, and Tombac.»—Pure nitric acid diluted with
water to 18° Bé. The bubbles of gas given out should immediately be
removed with a feather that the etching may be even.

Another compound consists of a boiling solution of potassium chlorate,
2 parts, in water, 20 parts, poured into a mixture of nitric acid, 10
parts, and water, 70 parts. For delicate etchings dilute still more
with 100 to 200 parts of water.


«Etching Fluid for Copper.»—Weak: A boiling solution of potassium
chlorate, 20 parts, in water, 200 parts, poured into a mixture of pure
hydrochloric acid, 20 parts; water, 500 parts.

Stronger: A boiling solution of potassium chlorate, 25 parts, in water,
250 parts, poured into a mixture of pure hydrochloric acid, 250 parts;
water, 400 parts.

Very strong: A boiling solution of potassium chlorate, 30 parts, in
water, 300 parts, poured into a mixture of pure hydrochloric acid, 300
parts; water, 300 parts.

For etching on copper a saturated solution of bromine in dilute
hydrochloric acid may also be used; or a mixture of potassium
bichromate, 1⁠/⁠2 part; water, 1 part; crude nitric acid, 3 parts.

The following are also much used for copper and copper alloys:

I.—A copper chloride solution acidified with hydrochloric acid.

II.—Copper nitrate dissolved in water.

III.—A ferric chloride solution of 30° to 45° Bé. If chrome gelatin
or chrome albumen is used for the etching-ground, a spirituous ferric
chloride solution is employed. The etching process can be made slower
by adding common salt to the ferric chloride solution.


«Matt Etching of Copper.»—White vitriol, 1 to 5 parts; common salt, 1
part; concentrated sulphuric acid, 100 parts; nitric acid (36° Bé.),
200 parts, mixed together. The sulphuric acid is to be poured carefully
into the nitric acid, not the reverse.


«Etching Fluid for Brass.»—Nitric acid, 8 parts; mixed with water, 80
parts; into this mixture pour a hot solution of potassium chlorate, 3
parts, in water, 50 parts.


«Etching Fluid for Brass to Make Stencils.»—Mix nitric acid, of 1.3
specific weight, with enough fuming nitric acid to give a deep yellow
color. This mixture acts violently, and will eat through the strongest
sheet brass.


«Etching Fluid for Zinc.»—Boil pounded gallnuts, 40 parts, with water,
560 parts, until the whole amounts to 200 parts; filter, and add nitric
acid, 2 parts, and a few drops of hydrochloric acid. Ferric chloride
and antimonic chloride solutions may also be used to etch zinc.


«Relief Etching of Zinc.»—The design is to be drawn with a solution
of platinum chloride, 1 part, and rubber, 1 part, in water, 12 parts.
The zinc plate is placed in dilute sulphuric acid (1 in 16). The black
drawing will remain as it is.

Another compound for the drawing is made of blue vitriol, 2 parts;
copper chloride, 3 parts; water, 64 parts; pure hydrochloric acid, 1.1
specific weight. After the drawing is made, lay the plate in dilute
nitric acid (1 in 8). {324}


«Etching Fluid for Aluminum.»—Dilute hydrochloric acid serves this
purpose. Aluminum containing iron can be matted with soda lye, followed
by treatment with nitric acid. The lye dissolves the aluminum, and the
nitric acid dissolves the iron. Aluminum bronze is etched with nitric
acid.


«Etching Fluid for Tin or Pewter.»—Ferric chloride, or highly diluted
nitric acid.


«Etching Fluids for Silver.»—I.—Dilute pure nitric acid.

II.—Nitric acid (specific weight, 1.185), 172 parts; water, 320 parts;
potassium bichromate, 30 parts.


«Etching Fluid for Gold.»—Dilute aqua regia (= nitric and sulphuric
acids, in the proportion of 1 in 3).


«Etching Fluid for Copper, Zinc, and Steel.»—A mixture of 4 parts of
acetic acid (30 per cent), and alcohol, 1 part; to this is added
gradually, nitric acid, 1 part.


«Etching Fluid for Lead, Antimony, and Britannia Metal.»—Dilute nitric
acid.


«Etching Powder for Metals» (Tin, Silver, Iron, German Silver, Copper,
and Zinc).—Blue vitriol, 1 part; ferric oxide, 4 parts. The powder,
moistened, is applied to the places to be etched, as, for instance,
knife blades. Calcined green vitriol can also be used.


«Electro-Etching.»—This differs from ordinary etching in the use of a
bath, which does not of itself affect the metal, but is made capable of
doing so by the galvanic current.

Ordinary etching, seen under the microscope, consists of a succession
of uneven depressions, which widen out considerably at a certain
depth. In electro-etching, the line under the microscope appears as a
perfectly even furrow, not eaten out beneath, however deeply cut. The
work is, accordingly, finer and sharper; the fumes from the acids are
also avoided, and the etching can be modified by regulation of the
current. The preparation of the surface, by covering, stopping-out,
etc., is the same as in ordinary etching. At some uncovered place a
conducting wire is soldered on with soft solder, and covered with a
coat of varnish. The plate is then suspended in the bath, and acts as
the anode, with another similar plate for the cathode. If gradations in
etching are desired, the plates are taken out after a time, rinsed, and
covered, and returned to the bath.

For the bath dilute acids are used, or saline solutions. Thus, for
copper, dilute sulphuric acid, 1 in 20. For copper and brass, a
blue vitriol solution. For zinc, white vitriol or a zinc chloride
solution. For steel and iron, green vitriol, or an ammonium chloride
solution. For tin, a tin-salt solution. For silver, a silver nitrate
or potassium cyanide solution. For gold and platinum, gold chloride
and platinum chloride solutions, or a potassium cyanide solution. For
electro-etching a Leclauché or Bunsen battery is to be recommended. In
the former, the negative zinc pole is connected with a plate of the
same metal as that to be etched, and the positive iron pole with the
plate to be etched. In the Bunsen battery, the carbon pole is connected
with the object to be etched, the zinc pole with the metal plate.


«Etching Bath for Brass.»—1.—Mix nitric acid (specified gravity,
1.4), 8 parts, with water, 80 parts. 2.—Chlorate of potash, 3
parts, dissolved in 50 parts of water. Mix 1 and 2. For protecting
those portions which are not to be etched, any suitable acid-proof
composition can be used.


«Etching on Copper.»—I.—In order to do regular and quick etching on
copper take a copper plate silvered on the etching side. Trace on this
plate, either with varnish or lithographic ink, the design. When the
tracing is dry, place the plate in an iron bath, using a battery. The
designs traced with the varnish or ink are not attacked by the etching
fluid. When the plate is taken from the bath and has been washed and
dried, remove the varnish or ink with essence of turpentine; next pour
mercury on the places reserved by the varnish or ink; the mercury will
attack the silvered portions and the etching is quickly made. When the
mercury has done its duty gather up the excess and return to the bottle
with a paper funnel. Wash the plate in strong alum water, and heat.

II.—The plate must be first polished either with emery or fine pumice
stone, and after it has been dried with care, spread thereon a varnish
composed of equal parts of yellow wax and essence of turpentine. The
solution of the wax in the essence is accomplished in the cold; next
a little oil of turpentine and some lampblack are added. This varnish
is allowed to dry on, away from dust and humidity. When dry, trace the
design with a very fine point. Make a border with modeling wax, so as
to prevent the acid from running off. Pour on nitric acid if the plate
is of copper, or {325} hydrochloric acid diluted with water if the
plate is of zinc, allow the acid to act according to the desired depth
of the engraving; wash several times and remove the varnish by heating
the plate lightly. Wash with essence of turpentine and dry well in
sawdust or in the stove. For relief engraving the designs are traced
before the engraving on the plate with the resist varnish instead of
covering the plate entirely. These designs must be delicately executed
and without laps, as the acid eats away all the parts not protected by
the varnish.


«Etching Fluids for Copper.»—I.—A new etching fluid for copper plate
is hydrogen peroxide, to which a little dilute ammonia water is added.
It is said to bite in very rapidly and with great regularity and
uniformity.

II.—Another fluid is fuming hydrochloric acid (specific gravity,
1.19), 10 parts; water, 70 parts. To this add a solution of potassium
chlorate, 2 parts, dissolved in 20 parts of hot water. If the articles
to be etched are very delicate and fine this should be diluted with
from 100 to 200 parts of water.


«ETCHING ON GLASS.»

Names, designs, etc., can be etched on glass in three ways: First,
by means of an engraving wheel, a method which requires some manual
skill. Second, by means of a sand blast, making a stencil of the name,
fixing this on the glass, and then, by means of a blast of air, blowing
sand on the glass. Third, by the use of hydrofluoric acid. The glass
is covered with beeswax, paraffine wax, or some acid resisting ink or
varnish; the name or device is then etched out of the wax by means of a
knife, and the glass dipped in hydrofluoric acid, which eats away the
glass at those parts where the wax has been cut away.

Fancy work, ornamental figures, lettering, and monograms are most
easily and neatly cut into glass by the sand-blast process. Lines and
figures on tubes, jars, etc., may be deeply etched by smearing the
surface of the glass with beeswax, drawing the lines with a steel
point, and exposing the glass to the fumes of hydrofluoric acid. This
acid is obtained by putting powdered fluorspar into a tray made of
sheet lead and pouring sulphuric acid on it, after which the tray is
slightly warmed. The proportions will vary with the purity of the
materials used, fluorspar (except when in crystals) being generally
mixed with a large quantity of other matter. Enough acid to make a thin
paste with the powdered spar will be about right. Where a lead tray
is not at hand, the powdered spar may be poured on the glass and the
acid poured on it and left for some time. As a general rule, the marks
are opaque, but sometimes they are transparent. In this case cut them
deeply and fill up with black varnish, if they are required to be very
plain, as in the case of graduated vessels. Liquid hydrofluoric acid
has been recommended for etching, but is not always suitable, as it
leaves the surface on which it acts transparent.

There are two methods of marking bottles—dry etching, or by stamping
with etching inks. The first process is usually followed in glass
factories. A rubber stamp is necessary for this process, and the
letters should be made as large and clean cut as possible without
crowding them too much. Besides this, an etching powder is required.

A small quantity of the powder is poured into a porcelain dish, and
this is placed on a sand bath or over a gentle fire, and heated until
it is absolutely dry, so that it can be rubbed down to an impalpable
powder.

The bottle or other glass to be marked must be perfectly clean and dry.
The etching powder takes better when the vessel is somewhat warm.
The stamp should be provided with a roller which is kept constantly
supplied with a viscid oil which it distributes on the stamp and which
the stamp transfers to the glass surface. The powder is dusted on
the imprint thus made, by means of a camel’s-hair brush. Any surplus
falling on the unoiled surface may be removed with a fine long-haired
pencil. The printed bottle is transferred to a damp place and kept for
several minutes, the dampness aiding the etching powder in its work on
the glass surface. The bottle is then well washed in plain water.

Glass cylinders, large flasks, carboys, etc., may be treated in a
somewhat different manner. The stamp here is inserted, face upward,
between two horizontal boards, in such a manner that its face projects
about a quarter of a millimeter (say 0.01 inch) above the surface. Oil
is applied to the surface, after which the cylinder, carboy, or what
not, is rolled along the board and over the stamp. The design is thus
neatly transferred to the glass surface, and the rest of the operation
is as in the previous case.

For an etching ink for glassware the following is recommended:

 Ammonium fluoride    2 drachms
 Barium sulphate      2 drachms

Reduce to a fine powder in a mortar, {326} then transfer to a lead dish
and make into a thin writing-cream with hydrofluoric acid or fuming
sulphuric acid. Use a piece of lead to stir the mixture. The ink may be
put up in bottles coated with paraffine, which can be done by heating
the bottle, pouring in some melted paraffine, and letting it flow all
around. The writing is done with a quill, and in about half a minute
the ink is washed off.

Extreme caution must be observed in handling the acid, since when
brought in contact with the skin it produces dangerous sores very
difficult to heal. The vapor is also dangerously poisonous when inhaled.


«Hydrofluoric Formulas.»—I.—Dissolve about 0.72 ounces fluoride of
soda with 0.14 ounces sulphate of potash in 1⁠/⁠2 pint of water. Make
another solution of 0.28 ounces chloride of zinc and 1.30 ounces
hydrochloric acid in an equal quantity of water. Mix the solutions and
apply to the glass vessel with a pin or brush. At the end of half an
hour the design should be sufficiently etched.

II.—A mixture consisting of ammonium fluoride, common salt, and
carbonate of soda is prepared, and then placed in a gutta-percha
bottle containing fuming hydrofluoric acid and concentrated sulphuric
acid. In a separate vessel which is made of lead, potassium fluoride is
mixed with hydrochloric acid, and a little of this solution is added to
the former, along with a small quantity of sodium silicate and ammonia.
Some of the solution is dropped upon a rubber pad, and by means of a
suitable rubber stamp, bearing the design which is to be reproduced, is
transferred to the glass vessel that is to be etched.


«Etching with Wax.»—Spread wax or a preservative varnish on the glass,
and trace on this wax or varnish the letters or designs. If letters
are desired, trace them by hand or by the use of letters cut out in
tin, which apply on the wax, the inside contours being taken with a
fine point. When this is done, remove the excess of wax from the glass,
leaving only the full wax letters undisturbed. Make an edge of wax all
along the glass plate so as to prevent the acid from running over when
you pour it on to attack the glass. At the end of 3 to 4 hours remove
the acid, wash the glass well with hot water, next pour on essence of
turpentine or alcohol to take off the wax or the preservative varnish.
Pass again through clean water; the glass plate will have become dead
wherever the acid has eaten in, only the letters remaining polished.
For fancy designs it suffices to put on the back of the plate a black
or colored varnish, or tin foil, etc., to obtain a brilliant effect.


«Etching Glass by Means of Glue.»—It is necessary only to cover a piece
of ordinary or flint glass with a coat of glue dissolved in water in
order to see that the layer of glue, upon contracting through the
effect of drying, becomes detached from the glass and removes therefrom
numerous scales of varying thickness. The glass thus etched presents
a sort of regular and decorative design similar to the flowers of
frost deposited on windowpanes in winter. When salts that are readily
crystallizable and that exert no chemical action upon the gelatin are
dissolved in the latter the figures etched upon the glass exhibit a
crystalline appearance that recalls fern fronds.

Hyposulphite of soda and chlorate and nitrate of potash produce nearly
the same effects. A large number of mineral substances are attacked
by gelatin. Toughened glass is easily etched, and the same is the
case with fluorspar and polished marble. A piece of rock crystal, cut
at right angles with the axis and coated with isinglass, the action
of which seems to be particularly energetic, is likewise attacked
at different points, and the parts detached present a conchoidal
appearance. The contraction of the gelatin may be rendered visible by
applying a coating of glue to sheets of cardboard or lead, which bend
backward in drying and assume the form of an irregular cylinder.

Such etching of glass and different mineral substances by the action of
gelatin may be employed for the decoration of numerous objects.

Dissolve some common glue in ordinary water, heated by a water bath,
and add 6 per cent of its weight of potash alum. After the glue has
become perfectly melted, homogeneous, and of the consistency of syrup,
apply a layer, while it is still hot, to a glass object by means of a
brush. If the object is of ground glass the action of the glue will
be still more energetic. After half an hour apply a second coat in
such a way as to obtain a smooth, transparent surface destitute of air
bubbles. After the glue has become so hard that it no longer yields
to the pressure of the finger nail (say, in about 24 hours), put the
article in a warmer place, in which the temperature must not exceed
105° F. When the object is removed from the oven, after a few hours,
the glue will detach itself with {327} a noise and removes with it
numerous flakes of glass. All that the piece then requires is to be
carefully washed and dried.

The designs thus obtained are not always the same, the thickness of the
coat of glue, the time of drying, and various other conditions seeming
to act to modify the form and number of the flakes detached.

It is indispensable to employ glass objects of adequate thickness,
since, in covering mousseline glass with a layer of glue, the
mechanical action that it has to support during desiccation is so
powerful that it will break with an explosion. Glue, therefore, must
not be allowed to dry in glass vessels, since they would be corroded
and broken in a short time.


«Indelible Labels on Bottles.»—To affix indelible labels on bottles an
etching liquid is employed which is produced as follows:

Liquid I, in one bottle.—Dissolve 36 parts of sodium fluoride in 500
parts of distilled water and add 7 parts of potassium sulphate.

Liquid II, in another bottle.—Dissolve zinc chloride, 14 parts, in 500
parts of distilled water, and add 65 parts of concentrated hydrochloric
acid.

For use mix equal parts together and add a little dissolved India ink
to render the writing more visible.

The mixing cannot, however, be conducted in a vessel. It is best to use
a cube of paraffine which has been hollowed out.


«Etching on Marble or Ivory» (see also Ivory).—Cover the objects with
a coat of wax dissolved in 90 per cent alcohol, then trace the desired
designs by removing the wax with a sharp tool and distribute on the
tracing the following mixture: Hydrochloric acid, 1 part; acetic acid,
1 part. Repeat this operation several times, until the desired depth is
attained. Then take off the varnish with alcohol. The etching may be
embellished, filling up the hollows with any colored varnish, by wiping
the surface with a piece of linen fixed on a stick, to rub the varnish
into the cavities after it has been applied with a brush. The hollows
may be gilded or silvered by substituting “mixtion” for the varnish
and applying on this mixtion a leaf of gold or silver, cut in pieces
a little larger than the design to be covered; press down the gold by
means of a soft brush so as to cause it to penetrate to the bottom; let
dry and remove the protruding edges.


«Etching on Steel.»—The print should be heavily inked and powdered
with dragon’s blood several times. After each powdering heat slightly
and additional powder will stick, forming a heavy coating in 2 or 3
operations. Before proceeding to heat up, the plate should receive a
light etching in a weak solution of the acid described later on. The
purpose of this preliminary etching is to clean up the print, so that
the lines will not tend to thicken, as would be the case otherwise.
Next a good strong heating should be given. On top the dragon’s blood
plumbago may be used in addition. For etching use nitric acid mixed
with an even amount of acetic acid. Some operators use vinegar, based
on the same theory. When commencing the etching, start with a weak
solution and increase as soon as the plate is deep enough to allow
another powdering. If the operator is familiar with lithography, and
understands rolling up the print with a lithoroller, the etching of
steel is not harder than etching on zinc.


«Liquids for Etching Steel.»—

 I.—Iodine               2 parts
     Potassium iodide     5 parts
     Water               40 parts

 II.—Nitric acid         60 parts
      Water              120 parts
      Alcohol            200 parts
      Copper nitrate       8 parts

 III.—Glacial acetic acid    4 parts
       Nitric acid            1 part
       Alcohol                1 part

IV.—Mix 1 ounce sulphate of copper, 1⁠/⁠4 ounce alum, 1⁠/⁠2 teaspoonful
of salt (reduced to powder), with 1 gill of vinegar and 20 drops of
nitric acid. This fluid can be used either for etching deeply or for
frosting, according to the time it is allowed to act. The parts of the
work which are not to be etched should be protected with beeswax or
some similar substance.

V.—Nitric acid, 60 parts; water, 120 parts; alcohol, 200 parts; and
copper nitrate, 8 parts. Keep in a glass-stoppered bottle. To use
the fluid, cover the surface to be marked with a thin even coat of
wax and mark the lines with a machinist’s scriber. Wrap clean cotton
waste around the end of the scriber or a stick, and dip in the fluid,
applying it to the marked surface. In a few minutes the wax may be
scraped off, when fine lines will appear where the scriber marked the
wax. The drippings from a lighted wax candle can be used for the {328}
coating, and this may be evenly spread with a knife heated in the
candle flame.

VI.—For Hardened Steel.—Heat an iron or an old pillar-file with a
smooth side, and with it spread a thin, even coat of beeswax over the
brightened surface to be etched. With a sharp lead pencil (which is
preferable to a scriber) write or mark as wanted through the wax so
as to be sure to strike the steel surface. Then daub on with a stick
etching acid made as follows: Nitric acid, 3 parts; muriatic acid, 1
part. If a lead pencil has been used the acid will begin to bubble
immediately. Two or three minutes of the bubbling or foaming will be
sufficient for marking; then soak up the acid with a small piece of
blotting paper and remove the beeswax with a piece of cotton waste wet
with benzine, and if the piece be small enough dip it into a saturated
solution of sal soda, or if the piece be large swab over it with a
piece of waste. This neutralizes the remaining acid and prevents
rusting, which oil will not do.

If it is desired to coat the piece with beeswax without heating it,
dissolve pure beeswax in benzine until of the consistency of thick
cream and pour on to the steel, and even spread it by rocking or
blowing, and lay aside for it to harden; then use the lead pencil,
etc., as before. This method will take longer. Keep work from near the
fire or an open flame.

EUCALYPTUS BONBONS FOR COLDS AND COUGHS: See Cold and Cough Mixtures.

EXPECTORANTS: See Cold and Cough Mixtures.


«Explosives»

Explosives may be divided into two great classes—mechanical mixtures
and chemical compounds. In the former the combustible substances are
intimately mixed with some oxygen supplying material, as in the case
of gunpowder, where carbon and sulphur are intimately mixed with
potassium nitrate; while gun cotton and nitro-glycerine are examples
of the latter class, where each molecule of the substance contains the
necessary oxygen for the oxidation of the carbon and hydrogen present,
the oxygen being in feeble combination with nitrogen. Many explosives
are, however, mechanical mixtures of compounds which are themselves
explosive, e. g., cordite, which is mainly composed of gun cotton and
nitro-glycerine.

The most common and familiar of explosives is undoubtedly gunpowder.
The mixture first adopted appears to have consisted of equal parts
of the three ingredients—sulphur, charcoal, and niter; but some time
later the proportions, even now taken for all ordinary purposes, were
introduced, namely:

 Potassium nitrate    75 parts
 Charcoal             15 parts
 Sulphur              10 parts
                    ────
                     100 parts

Since gunpowder is a mechanical mixture, it is clear that the first aim
of the maker must be to obtain perfect incorporation, and, necessarily,
in order to obtain this, the materials must be in a very finely divided
state. Moreover, in order that uniformity of effect may be obtained,
purity of the original substances, the percentage of moisture present,
and the density of the finished powder are of importance.

The weighed quantities of the ingredients are first mixed in gun metal
or copper drums, having blades in the interior capable of working in
the opposite direction to that in which the drum itself is traveling.
After passing through a sieve, the mixture (green charge) is passed
on to the incorporating mills, where it is thoroughly ground under
heavy metal rollers, a small quantity of water being added to prevent
dust and facilitating incorporation, and during this process the
risk of explosion is greater possibly than at any other stage in the
manufacture. There are usually 6 mills working in the same building,
with partitions between. Over the bed of each mill is a horizontal
board, the “flash board,” which is connected with a tank of water
overhead, the arrangement being such that the upsetting of one tank
discharges the contents of the other tanks onto the corresponding mill
beds below, so that in the event of an accident the charge is drowned
in each case. The “mill cake” is now broken down between rollers, the
“meal” produced being placed in strong oak boxes and subjected to
hydraulic pressure, thus increasing its density and hardness, at the
same time bringing the ingredients into more intimate contact. After
once more breaking down the material (press cake), the powder only
requires special treatment to adapt it for the various purposes for
which it is intended.

The products of the combustion of powder and its manner of burning are
{329} largely influenced by the pressure, a property well illustrated
by the failure of a red-hot platinum wire to ignite a mass of powder
in a vacuum, only a few grains actually in contact with the platinum
undergoing combustion.

Nitro-glycerine is a substance of a similar chemical nature to gun
cotton, the principles of its formation and purification being very
similar, only in this case the materials and product are liquids,
thereby rendering the operations of manufacture and washing much
less difficult. The glycerine is sprayed into the acid mixture by
compressed-air injectors, care being taken that the temperature during
nitration does not rise above 86° F. The nitro-glycerine formed readily
separates from the mixed acids, and being insoluble in cold water, the
washing is comparatively simple.

Nitro-glycerine is an oily liquid readily soluble in most organic
solvents, but becomes solid at 3° or 4° above the freezing point of
water, and in this condition is less sensitive. It detonates when
heated to 500° F., or by a sudden blow, yielding carbon dioxide,
oxygen, nitrogen, and water. Being a fluid under ordinary conditions,
its uses as an explosive were limited, and Alfred Nobel conceived the
idea of mixing it with other substances which would act as absorbents,
first using charcoal and afterwards an infusorial earth, “kieselguhr,”
and obtaining what he termed “dynamite.” Nobel found that “collodion
cotton”—soluble gun cotton—could be converted by treatment with
nitro-glycerine into a jellylike mass which was more trustworthy in
action than the components alone, and from its nature the substance was
christened “blasting gelatin.”

Nobel took out a patent for a smokeless powder for use in guns, in
which these ingredients were adopted with or without the use of
retarding agents. The powders of this class are ballistite and filite,
the former being in sheets, the latter in threads. Originally camphor
was introduced, but its use has been abandoned, a small quantity of
aniline taking its place.

Sir Frederick Abel and Prof. Dewar patented in 1889 the use of
trinitro-cellulose and nitro-glycerine, for although, as is well known,
this form of nitro-cellulose is not soluble in nitro-glycerine, yet by
dissolving the bodies in a mutual solvent, perfect incorporation can be
attained. Acetone is the solvent used in the preparation of “cordite,”
and for all ammunition except blank charges a certain proportion of
vaseline is also added. The combustion of the powder without vaseline
gives products so free from solid or liquid substances that excessive
friction of the projectile in the gun causes rapid wearing of the
rifling, and it is chiefly to overcome this that the vaseline is
introduced, for on explosion a thin film of solid matter is deposited
in the gun, and acts as a lubricant.

The proportion of the ingredients are:

 Nitro-glycerine      58 parts
 Gun-cotton           37 parts
 Vaseline              5 parts

Gun cotton to be used for cordite is prepared as previously described,
but the alkali is omitted, and the mass is not submitted to great
pressure, to avoid making it so dense that ready absorption of
nitro-glycerine would not take place. The nitro-glycerine is poured
over the dried gun cotton and first well mixed by hand, afterwards in
a kneading machine with the requisite quantity of acetone for 3 1⁠/⁠2
hours. A water jacket is provided, since, on mixing, the temperature
rises. The vaseline is now added, and the kneading continued for a
similar period. The cordite paste is first subjected to a preliminary
pressing, and is finally forced through a hole of the proper size in
a plate either by hand or by hydraulic pressure. The smaller sizes
are wound on drums, while the larger cordite is cut off in suitable
lengths, the drums and cut material being dried at 100° F., thus
driving off the remainder of the acetone.

Cordite varies from yellow to dark brown in color, according to its
thickness. When ignited it burns with a strong flame, which may be
extinguished by a vigorous puff of air. Macnab and Ristori give the
yield of permanent gases from English cordite as 647 cubic centimeters,
containing a much higher per cent of carbon monoxide than the gases
evolved from the old form of powder. Sir Andrew Noble failed in
attempts to detonate the substance, and a rifle bullet fired into the
mass only caused it to burn quietly.


«Dynamite.»—Dynamite is ordinarily made up of 75 per cent
nitro-glycerine, 25 per cent infusorial earth; dualine contains 80
per cent nitro-glycerine, 20 per cent nitro-cellulose; rend-rock
has 40 per cent nitro-glycerine, 40 per cent nitrate of potash, 13
per cent cellulose, 7 per cent paraffine; giant powder, 36 per cent
nitro-glycerine, 48 per cent nitrate of potash, 8 per cent sulphur, 8
per cent rosin or charcoal.


«Smokeless Powder.»—The base of smokeless powders is nitrated
cellulose, {330} which has been treated in one of various ways to make
it burn slower than gun cotton, and also to render it less sensitive to
heat and shocks. As a rule, these powders are not only less inflammable
than gun cotton, but require stronger detonators. As metallic salts
cause smoke, they are not used in these powders. The smokeless powders
now in use may be divided into three groups: (1) Those consisting of
mixtures of nitro-glycerine and nitrated cellulose, which have been
converted into a hard, hornlike mass, either with or without the aid
of a solvent. To this group belongs ballistite, containing 50 per
cent of nitro-glycerine, 49 per cent of nitrated cellulose, and 1 per
cent of diphenylamin; also cordite (see further on), Lenord’s powder,
and amberite. This last contains 40 parts of nitro-glycerine and 56
parts of nitrated cellulose. (2) Those consisting mainly of nitrated
cellulose of any kind, which has been rendered hard and horny by
treatment with some solvent which is afterwards evaporated. These are
prepared by treating nitrated cellulose with ether or benzine, which
dissolves the collodion, and when evaporated leaves a hard film of
collodion on the surface of each grain. Sometimes a little camphor is
added to the solvent, and, remaining in the powder, greatly retards
its combustion. (3) Those consisting of nitro-derivatives of the
aromatic hydrocarbons, either with or without the admixture of nitrated
cellulose; to this group belong Dupont’s powder, consisting of nitrated
cellulose dissolved in nitro-benzine; indurite, consisting of cellulose
hexanitrate (freed from collodion by extraction with methyl alcohol),
made into a paste with nitro-benzine, and hardened by treatment with
steam until the excess of nitro-benzine is removed; and plastomeite,
consisting of dinitrotoluene and nitrated wood pulp.

Cordite is the specific name of a smokeless powder which has been
adopted by the English government as a military explosive. It contains
nitro-glycerine, 58 parts; gun cotton, 37 parts; and petrolatum, 5
parts. The nitro-glycerine and gun cotton are first mixed, 19.2 parts
of acetone added, and the pasty mass kneaded for several hours. The
petrolatum is then added and the mixture again kneaded. The paste is
then forced through fine openings to form threads, which are dried at
about 105° F. until the acetone evaporates. The threads, which resemble
brown twine, are then cut into short lengths for use.

Another process for the manufacture of smokeless powder is as follows:
Straw, preferably oat-straw, is treated in the usual way with a mixture
of nitric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid, and then washed in
water to free it from these, then boiled with water, and again with
a solution of potassium carbonate. It is next subjected, for 2 to 6
hours, to the action of a solution composed of 1,000 parts of water,
12.5 parts of potassium nitrate, 3.5 parts of potassium chlorate, 12.5
parts of zinc sulphate, and 12.5 parts of potassium permanganate. The
excess of solution is pressed out, and the mass is then pulverized,
granulated, and finally dried.

The warning as to the danger of experimenting with the manufacture of
ordinary gunpowder applies with renewed force when nitro-glycerine is
the subject of the experiment.


«Berge’s Blasting Powder.»—This is composed of chlorate of potash, 1
part; chromate of potash, 0.1 part; sugar, 0.45 parts; yellow wax,
0.09 parts. The proportions indicated may vary within certain limits,
according to the force desired. For the preparation, the chlorate and
the chromate of potash, as well as the sugar, are ground separately and
very finely, and sifted so that the grains of the different substances
may have the same size. At first any two of the substances are mixed as
thoroughly as possible, then the third is added. The yellow wax, cut
in small pieces, is finally added, and all the substances are worked
together to produce a homogeneous product. The sugar may be replaced
with charcoal or any other combustible body. For commercial needs, the
compound may be colored with any inert matter, also pulverized.


«Safety in Explosives».—Ammoniacal salts have been used in the
manufacture of explosives to render them proof against firedamp, but
not with the full success desired. Ammonium chloride has been utilized,
but inconveniences are met with, and the vapor is quite disagreeable.
In coöperation with equivalent quantities of soda and potash, its
action is regarded as favorable. Tests employing benzine vapor and coal
dust were made, and the comparative security calculated to be as given
below.

I.—Donarite, composed as follows: 80 per cent of nitrate of ammonia, 12
of trinitrotoluol, 4 of flour, 3.8 of nitro-glycerine, and 0.2 per cent
of cotton collodion. Security: Donarite alone, 87 parts; 95 per cent of
donarite and 5 per {331} cent of ammonium chloride, 125 parts; 90 per
cent of donarite and 10 per cent of ammonium chloride, 250 parts; 86
per cent of donarite and 5.5 per cent of ammonium chloride, with 8.5
per cent of nitrate of soda, 425 parts. The force of the explosion is
decreased about 8 per cent, while the security is quintupled.

II.—Roburite, with the following composition: 72.5 per cent nitrate
of ammonia; 12 binitro-benzol; 10 nitrate of potash; 5 sulphate of
ammonia; 0.5 per cent permanganate of potash. Security: Roburite
only, 325 parts; ammonium chloride, taking the place of sulphate of
ammonia, 400 parts. Here an intensification of the explosive force is
simultaneously produced.

III.—Ammon carbonite I, composed thus: 4 per cent nitro-glycerine; 75.5
nitrate of ammonia; 9.5 nitrate of potash; 9.5 coal dust; 10.5 flour.
Security: Ammon carbonite I only, 250 parts; 95 per cent A. C. I. and 5
per cent ammonium chloride, 400 parts; 92 per cent A. C. I. and 8 per
cent ammonium chloride, 500 parts. The addition of 5 per cent ammonium
chloride diminishes the explosive force only 3 per cent.

IV.—An explosive of nitro-glycerine base composed thus: 30 per cent
nitro-glycerine; 1 per cent cotton collodion; 52.6 nitrate of ammonia;
13 nitrate of potash; 3 to 4 per cent starch. Security of this mixture,
150 parts.

V.—Thirty per cent nitro-glycerine; 1 per cent cotton collodion; 47.3
nitrate of ammonia; 11.6 nitrate of potash; 3.1 starch; 7 per cent
ammonium chloride. This mixture has a security of 350 parts.


«Inflammable Explosive with Chlorate of Potash.»—Take as an agent
promoting combustion, potassium chlorate; as a combustible agent, an
oxidized, nitrated, or natural rosin. If, to such a mixture, another
body is added in order to render it soft and plastic, such as oil,
nitro-benzine, glucose, glycerine, the benefit of the discovery is
lost, for the mixture is rendered combustible with nitro-benzine,
fecula, sulphur, etc., and inexplosive with glycerine, glucose, and the
oil.

Of all the chlorates and perchlorates, potassium chlorate (KClO_〈3〉)
responds the best to what is desired. As to the rosins, they may be
varied, or even mixed. To obtain the oxidation or nitration of the
rosins, they are heated with nitric acid, more or less concentrated,
and with or without the addition of sulphuric acid. An oxidation,
sufficient and without danger, can be secured by a simple and practical
means. This is boiling them for several hours in water containing
nitric acid, which is renewed from time to time in correspondence
with its decomposition. The rosins recommended by M. Turpin are of
the terebinthine group, having for average formula C_〈20〉H_〈30〉O_〈2〉.
Colophony is the type.

The products, thus nitrated, are washed with boiling water, and, on
occasion, by a solution slightly alkaline, with a final washing with
pure water, and dried at a temperature of 230° F. or in the open air.

The mixing of the constituents of this explosive is preferably cold.
For this purpose they are used in the state of fine powder, and when
mixed in the tub, 2 1⁠/⁠2 to 5 per cent of a volatile dissolvent is
added, as alcohol, carbon sulphide, ether, or benzine. As soon as
thoroughly mingled, the mass is put either in an ordinary grainer, or
in a cylinder of wire cloth revolving horizontally on its axis, with
glass gobilles forming a screen, by the aid of which the graining is
rapidly accomplished. Thus a powder more or less finely granulated is
produced free from dust.

The proportions preferably employed are:

 1. Potassium chlorate    85 parts
    Natural rosin         15 parts

 2. Potassium chlorate    80 parts
    Nitrated rosin        20 parts

For employment in firedamp mines, there is added to these compounds
from 20 to 40 per cent of one of the following substances: Ammonium
oxalate, ammonium carbonate, oxalic acid, sodium bicarbonate, calcium
fluoride, or other substance of the nature to lower sufficiently the
temperature of the explosive flame.


«Gun Cotton.»—For the production of a high-grade gun cotton, it is
important that the cotton used should approach as near as possible pure
cellulose. The waste from cotton mills, thoroughly purified, is usually
employed. After careful chemical examination has been made to ascertain
its freedom from grease and other impurities, the cotton waste is
picked over by hand to remove such impurities as wood, cardboard,
string, etc. The cotton is then passed through the “teasing machine,”
which opens out all knots and lumps, thereby reducing it to a state
more suitable for the acid treatment and exposing to view any foreign
substances which may have escaped notice in the previous picking.
The cotton is then dried. When {332} perfectly dry, it is removed to
air-tight iron cases, in which it is allowed to cool. The iron cases
are taken to the dipping houses, and the cotton waste weighed into
small portions, which are then transferred as rapidly as possible to
the mixed acids, allowed to remain a few minutes, then removed to the
grating and the excess of acid squeezed out. The cotton now containing
about ten times its weight of acid is placed in an earthenware pot and
transferred to the steeping pits, where it is allowed to remain for 24
hours, a low temperature being maintained by a stream of cold water.

The cotton is now wholly converted into nitro-cellulose. The
superfluous acid is next removed by a centrifugal extractor, after
which the gun cotton is taken out of the machine and immediately
immersed in a large volume of water, and thoroughly washed until it
shows no acid reaction. The moisture is then run out and the gun
cotton is conveyed by tramway to the boiling vats, where it undergoes
several boilings by means of steam. When the “heat test” shows that
a sufficient degree of stability has been obtained, the gun cotton
is removed to a beating engine, and reduced to a very fine state of
division. When this process is completed the pulp is run by gravity
along wooden shoots, provided with “grit traps” and electromagnets,
which catch any traces of sand, iron, etc., into large “poachers,” in
which the gun cotton is continuously agitated, together with a large
quantity of water. In this way it is thoroughly washed and a blend made
of a large quantity of gun cotton.


«Soluble Gun Cotton.»—Soluble gun cotton is made on the same lines,
except that greater attention has to be paid to the physical condition
of the cotton used, and to the temperature and strength of acid
mixture, etc.

The term “soluble” usually implies that the gun cotton is dissolved
by a mixture of ethyl-ether and ethyl-alcohol, 2 parts of the former
to 1 of the latter being the proportions which yield the best solvent
action. The classification of nitro-celluloses according to their
solubility in ether-alcohol is misleading, except when the nitrogen
contents are also quoted.

The number of solvents for gun cotton which have at various times been
proposed is very large. Among the more important may be mentioned the
following: Alcohols (used chiefly in conjunction with other solvents),
methyl, ethyl, propyl, and amyl, methyl-amyl ether, acetic ether,
di-ethyl-ketone, methyl-ethyl ketone, amyl nitrate and acetate,
nitro-benzole, nitro-toluol, nitrated oils, glacial acetic acid,
camphor dissolved in alcohol, etc.

Some of the above may be called selective solvents, i. e., they
dissolve one particular variety of gun cotton better than others, so
that solubility in any given solvent must not be used to indicate
solubility in another. No nitro-cotton is entirely soluble in any
solvent. The solution, after standing some time, always deposits a
small amount of insoluble matter. Therefore, in making collodion
solutions, care should be taken to place the containing bottles in
a place free from vibration and shock. After standing a few weeks
the clear supernatant liquid may be decanted off. On a larger scale
collodion solutions are filtered under pressure through layers of
tightly packed cotton wool. The state of division is important. When
the end in view is the production of a strong film or thread, it is
advisable to use unpulped or only slightly pulped nitro-cellulose. In
this condition it also dissolves more easily than the finely pulped
material.


«FULMINATES:»


«Fulminating Antimony.»—Tartar emetic (dried), 100 parts; lampblack
or charcoal powder, 3 parts. Triturate together, put into a crucible
that it will three-fourths fill (previously rubbed inside with charcoal
powder). Cover it with a layer of dry charcoal powder, and lute on the
cover. After 3 hours’ exposure to a strong heat in a reverberatory
furnace, and 6 or 7 hours’ cooling, cautiously transfer the solid
contents of the crucible, as quickly as possible, without breaking,
to a wide-mouthed stoppered phial, where, after some time, it will
spontaneously crumble to a powder. When the above process is properly
conducted, the resulting powder contains potassium, and fulminates
violently on contact with water. A piece the size of a pea introduced
into a mass of gunpowder explodes it on being thrown into water, or on
its being moistened in any other manner.


«Fulminating Bismuth.»—Take bismuth, 120 parts; carbureted cream of
tartar, 60 parts; niter, 1 part.


«Fulminating Copper.»—Digest copper (in powder of filings) with
fulminate of mercury or of silver, and a little water. {333} It forms
soluble green crystals that explode with a green flame.


«Fulminating Mercury.»—Take mercury, 100 parts; nitric acid (specific
gravity, 1.4), 1,000 parts (or 740 parts, by measure). Dissolve by
a gentle heat, and when the solution has acquired the temperature
of 130° F., slowly pour it through a glass funnel tube into alcohol
(specific gravity, .830), 830 parts (or 1,000 parts, by measure). As
soon as the effervescence is over, and white fumes cease to be evolved,
filter through double paper, wash with cold water, and dry by steam
(not hotter than 212° F.) or hot water. The fulminate is then to be
packed in 100-grain paper parcels, and these stored in a tight box or
corked bottle. Product 130 per cent of the weight of mercury employed.


«Fulminating Powder.»—I.—Niter, 3 parts; carbonate of potash (dry),
2 parts; flowers of sulphur, 1 part; reduce them separately to fine
powder, before mixing them. A little of this compound (20 to 30
grains), slowly heated on a shovel over the fire, first fuses and
becomes brown, and then explodes with a deafening report.

II.—Sulphur, 1 part; chlorate of potassa, 3 parts. When triturated,
with strong pressure, in a marble or wedgwood-ware mortar, it produces
a series of loud reports. It also fulminates by percussion.

III.—Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; pure lampblack, 4 parts; sulphur,
1 part. A little placed on an anvil detonates with a loud report when
struck with a hammer.

EXPOSURES IN PHOTOGRAPHING: See Photography.

EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts.

EXTRACTS, TESTS FOR: See Foods.


«EYE LOTIONS:»


«“Black Eye” Lotion.»—“Black eyes” or other temporary discolorations
of the skin may be disguised by the application of pink grease paint,
or collodion colored by means of a little carmine. As lotions the
following have been recommended:

 I.—Ammonium chloride    1 part
     Alcohol              1 part
     Water               10 parts

Diluted acetic acid may be substituted for half of the water, and the
alcohol may be replaced by tincture of arnica, with advantage.

 II.—Potassium nitrate     15 grains
      Ammonium chloride     30 grains
      Aromatic vinegar       4 drachms
      Water to make 8 ounces.

III.—The following is to be applied with camel’s-hair pencil every 1,
2, or 3 hours. Be careful not to get it in the eyes, as it smarts. It
will remove the black discoloration overnight:

 Oxalic acid       15 grains
 Distilled water    1 ounce


«Foreign Matter in the Eye.»—If a piece of iron or other foreign matter
in the eye irritates it, and there is no way of removing it until
morning, take a raw Irish potato, grate it, and use as a poultice on
the eye. It will ease the eye so one can sleep, and sometimes draws the
piece out.


«Drops of Lime in the Eye.»—If lime has dropped in the eye, the
pouring-in of or the wiping-out with a few drops of oil is the best
remedy, as the causticity of the lime is Arrested thereby. Poppy-seed
oil or olive oil is prescribed, but pure linseed oil ought to render
the same service, as it is also used in the household. Subsequently,
the eye may be rinsed out with syrup, as the saccharine substance will
harden any remaining particles of lime and destroy all causticity
entirely.

FABRIC CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods and also
Household Formulas.

FABRICS, WATERPROOFING OF: See Waterproofing.

FACE BLACK AND FACE POWDER: See Cosmetics.


«Fats»


«Bear Fat.»—Fresh bears’ fat is white and very similar to lard in
appearance. The flank fat is softer and more transparent than the
kidney fat, and its odor recalls that of fresh bacon. Bears’ fat
differs from the fats of the dog, fox, and cat in having a lower
specific gravity, a very low melting point, and a fairly high iodine
value.


«Bleaching Bone Fat.»—Bone fat, which is principally obtained from
horse bones, is very dark colored in the crude state, and of an
extremely disagreeable smell. To remedy these defects it may be
bleached by the air or chemicals, the former method only giving good
results {334} when the fat has been recovered by means of steam. It
consists in cutting up the fat into small fragments and exposing it to
the air for several days, the mass being turned over at intervals with
a shovel. When sufficiently bleached in this manner, the fat is boiled
with half its own weight of water, which done, about 3 or 4 per cent
of salt is added, and the whole is boiled over again. This treatment,
which takes 2 or 3 weeks, sweetens the fat, makes it of the consistency
of butter, and reduces the color to a pale yellow. Light seems to play
no part in the operation, the change being effected solely by the
oxygen of the air. The chemical treatment has the advantage of being
more rapid, sufficient decoloration being produced in a few hours.
The fat, which should be free from gelatin, phosphate of lime, and
water, is placed in an iron pan along with an equal weight of brine
of 14° to 15° Bé. strength, with which it is boiled for 3 hours and
left to rest overnight. Next day the fat is drawn off into a wooden
vessel, where it is treated by degrees with a mixture of 2 parts of
potassium bichromate, dissolved in 6 of boiling water, and 8 parts of
hydrochloric acid (density 22° Bé.), this quantity being sufficient for
400 parts of fat. Decoloration proceeds gradually, and when complete
the fat is washed with hot water.


«Bleaching Tallows and Fats.»—Instead of exposing to the sun, which
is always attended with danger of rendering fats rancid, it is better
to liquefy these at a gentle heat, and then add 1⁠/⁠5 in weight of a
mixture of equal parts of kaolin and water. The fatty matter should
be worked up for a time and then left to separate. Kaolin has the
advantage of cheapness in price and of being readily procured.

Freshly burned animal charcoal would perhaps be a more satisfactory
decolorizer than kaolin, but it is more expensive to start with, and
not so easy to regenerate.

Exposure of tallow to the action of steam under high pressure (a
temperature of 250° or 260° F.) is also said to render it whiter and
harder.


«Coloring Matter in Fats.»—A simple method for the detection of the
addition of coloring matter to fats is here described. Ten parts, by
measure, of the melted fat are put into a small separating funnel and
dissolved in 10 parts, by measure, of petroleum ether. The solution is
then treated with 15 parts, by measure, of glacial acetic acid and the
whole shaken thoroughly. The addition of coloring matter is known by
the red or yellow coloration which appears in the lower layer of acetic
acid after the contents of the funnel have been allowed to settle. If
only a slight addition of coloring matter is suspected, the acetic acid
solution is run off into a porcelain basin and the latter heated on a
water bath, when the coloration will be seen more readily. This test
is intended for butter and margarine, but is also suitable for tallow,
lard, etc.


«Fatty Acid Fermentation Process.»—The production of fatty acids
from fats and oils by fermentation is growing in importance. These
particulars, which are the actual results from recent experiments on
a somewhat extended scale, are given: Seven hundred and fifty pounds
of cottonseed oil are mixed with 45 gallons of water and 3 1⁠/⁠2
pounds of acetic acid; this mixture is heated to a temperature of
85° F. Castor-oil seeds, 53 pounds, decorticated and ground, are mixed
thoroughly with 3 gallons of water and 4 1⁠/⁠2 gallons of the oil,
and this mixture is stirred into the oil and water; the whole mass is
then kept mixed for 12 hours by blowing air through, after which it is
allowed to stand for another 12 hours, being given a gentle stir by
hand at the end of every hour. After 24 hours the mass is heated to a
temperature of 180° F., which stops the fermentation and at the same
time allows the fatty acids to separate more freely. To assist in this
effect there is added 1 gallon of sulphuric acid (1 in 3) solution.

After 2 hours’ standing, the mass will have separated into three
layers—fatty acids on the top, glycerine water below, and a middle,
undefined layer. The glycerine water is run away, and the whole mass
left to stand for 2 hours. The middle portion is run off from the
separated fatty acids into another vessel, where it is mixed with 10
gallons of hot water, thoroughly stirred, and allowed to stand for 16
hours or more. The watery layer at the bottom, which contains some
glycerine, is then run off, while the residue is mixed with a further
quantity of 10 gallons of water, and again allowed to stand. The water
which separates out, also the layer of fatty acids that forms on the
top, are run off and mixed with the portions previously obtained. The
various glycerine waters are treated to recover the glycerine, while
the fatty acids are made marketable in any convenient way. {335}


«Preservation of Fats.»—To produce fats and oils containing both
iodine and sulphur, whereby they are preserved from going rancid, and
consequently can be utilized to more advantage for the usual purposes,
such as the manufacture of soaps, candles, etc., following is the
Loebell method:

The essential feature of the process is that the iodine is not
merely held in solution by the oil or fat, but enters into chemical
combination with the same; the sulphur also combines chemically with
the oil or fat, and from their reactions the preserving properties are
derived.

The process consists of heating, for example, 6 parts of oil with 1
part of sulphur to a temperature varying between 300° and 400° F.,
then, when at about 195° F., a solution of iodine and oil is added to
the mixture, which is constantly agitated until cool to prevent lumps
forming. A product is thus obtained which acquires the consistency of
butter, and contains both iodine and sulphur in combination.


«Purifying Oils and Fats.»—In purifying fatty oils and fats for edible
purposes the chief thing is to remove the free fatty acids, which is
done by the aid of solutions of alkalies and alkaline earths. The
subsequent precipitation of the resulting soapy emulsions, especially
when lime is used, entails prolonged heating to temperatures sometimes
as high as the boiling point of water. Furthermore, the amount of
alkalies taken is always greater than is chemically necessary, the
consequence being that some of the organic substances present are
attacked, and malodorous products are formed, a condition necessitating
the employment of animal charcoal, etc., as deodorizer.

To prevent the formation of these untoward products, which must
injuriously affect the quality of edible oils, C. Fresenius proposes
to accelerate the dispersion of the said emulsions by subjecting
the mixtures to an excess pressure of 1 to 1 1⁠/⁠2 atmospheres and
a corresponding temperature of about 220° F., for a short time, the
formation of decomposition products, and any injurious influence on
the taste and smell of the substance being prevented by the addition
of fresh charcoal, etc., beforehand. Charcoal may, and must in certain
cases, be replaced for this purpose by infusorial earth or fuller’s
earth. When this process is applied to cottonseed oil, 100 parts of
the oil are mixed with 1⁠/⁠10 part of fresh, pure charcoal, and 1⁠/⁠2
part of pure fuller’s earth. The mixture is next neutralized with
lime-water, and placed in an autoclave, where it is kept for an hour
under pressure, and at a temperature of 220° F. Under these conditions
the emulsion soon separates, and when this is accomplished the whole is
left to cool down in a closed vessel.

FATS, DECOMPOSITION OF: See Oil.


«FEATHER BLEACHING AND COLORING:»

See also Dyes.


«Bleaching and Coloring Feathers.»—Feathers, in their natural state,
are not adapted to undergo the processes of dyeing and bleaching; they
must be prepared by removing their oil and dirt. This is usually done
by washing them in moderately warm soap and water, and rinsing in
warm and cold water; or the oil may be chemically removed by the use
of benzine. To remove it entirely, the feathers must be left in the
cleansing fluid from a half hour to an hour, when they may be subjected
to the process of bleaching.


«Bleaching Plumes.»—Plumes may be almost entirely bleached by the use
of hydrogen peroxide, without injuring their texture.

In specially constructed glass troughs, made the length of an average
ostrich feather, 15 or 20 of these feathers can be treated at a time.
The bleaching fluid is made from a 30 per cent solution of hydrogen
peroxide, with enough ammonia added to make it neutral; in other words
when neutral, blue litmus paper will not turn red, and red will take
a pale violet tinge. The previously cleansed feathers are entirely
immersed in this bleaching bath, which may be diluted if desired. The
trough is covered with a glass plate and put in a dark place. From
time to time the feathers are stirred and turned, adding more hydrogen
peroxide. This process requires 10 to 12 hours and if necessary should
be repeated. After bleaching they are rinsed in distilled water or rain
water, dried in the air, and kept in motion while drying.

To insure success in coloring feathers in delicate tints, they must
be free from all impurities, and evenly white. It has been found of
advantage to rub the quill of heavy ostrich plumes while still moist
with carbonate of ammonia before the dyeing is begun.


«Methods of Dyeing Feathers.»—I.—A boiling hot neutral solution, the
feathers to be dried in a rotating apparatus. Suitable dyes for this
method are chrysoidin, {336} A, C; crystal vesuvin, 4 B C; phosphin
extra, leather yellow, O H; leather red, O, G B; leather brown, O;
morocco red, O; azophocphine, G O, B R O; fuchsine, cerise, G R;
grenadine, O; safranine, O; methylene violet, malachite green, crystal
brilliant green, methylene green, methylene gray, coal black II.

II.—A boiling hot sulphuric solution. Dyes, acid fuchsine, orseilline,
R B; acid cerise, O; acid maroon, O; opal blue, blue de lyon, R B;
cotton blue, No. 2, China blue No. 2, naphthalene green, O; patent
blue, V A; fast blue, O R; fast blue black, O; deep black, G; azo
yellow, victorine yellow, orange No. 2, fast brown O, ponceau G R R R,
fast red O, Bordeaux, G B R.

III.—An acetic solution. Dyes, Bengal pink G B, phloxine G O, rosolan O
B O F, rhodamine O 4 G, eosine A G, erythrosine.

By appropriate mixtures of the dyes of any one class, plumes can be
dyed every possible color. After dyeing they are rinsed, and dried in a
rotating apparatus. The final process is that of curling, which is done
by turning them round and round over a gentle heat. For white feathers
a little sulphur may be burned in the fire; for black or colored ones
a little sugar.

IV.—The spray method. The solution of the dye to be used is put into
an atomizer, and the spray directed to that part of the feather which
it is desired to color. By using different colors the most marvelous
effects and most delicate transitions from one color to another are
obtained. Any kind of an atomizer can be used, the rubber bulb, pump,
or bellows; the result is the same.

FELT WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

FERMENTATION PROCESS, FATTY ACID: See Fats.

FERMENTATION, PREVENTION OF: See Anti-Ferments and Wines and Liquors.

FERROUS OXALATE DEVELOPER: See Photography.


«Fertilizers»

(See also Phosphate, Artificial.)


«Plant Fertilizers.»—Plants are as sensitive to excessively minute
quantities of nutrient substances, such as salts of potassium, in the
soil, as they are to minute quantities of poisonous substances. Poisons
are said to be infinitely more sensitive reagents for the presence of
certain metallic salts than the most delicate chemical, the statement
having been made that a trace of copper which might be obtained by
distilling in a copper retort is fatal to the white and yellow lupin,
the castor-oil plant, and spirogyra. Coupin has found salts of silver,
mercury, copper, and cadmium especially fatal to plants. With copper
sulphate the limit of sensitiveness is placed at 1 in 700,000,000.
Devaux asserts that both phanerogams and cryptogams are poisoned by
solutions of salts of lead or copper diluted to the extent of 1 in
10,000,000, or less.

As a result of a series of experiments, Schloesing stated that the
nitrification of ammonium salts is not for all plants a necessary
preliminary to the absorption of nitrogen by the plant. While for some
plants, as for example buckwheat, the preferable form of the food
material is that of a nitrate, others, for instance, tropeolum, thrive
even better when the nitrogen is presented to them in an ammoniacal
form.


«Artificial Fertilizers for Pot Plants.»—Experiments on vegetation
have shown that a plant will thrive when the lacking substances are
supplied in a suitable form, e. g., in the following combinations:

I.—Calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate, potassium phosphate, magnesium
phosphate, ferric phosphate (sodium chloride).

II.—Calcium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, potassium sulphate, magnesium
phosphate, iron chloride (or sulphate) (sodium silicate).

It is well known that in nature nitrates are formed wherever
decomposition of organic nitrogenous substances takes place in the
air, the ammonia formed by the decomposition being oxidized to nitric
acid. These conditions for the formation of nitrates are present in
nearly every cornfield, and they are also the cause of the presence of
nitrates in water that has its source near stables, etc. In Peruvian
guano nitrogen is present partly in the form of potassium nitrate,
partly as ammonium phosphate and sulphate. As a nitrate it acts more
rapidly than in the form of ammonia, but in the latter case the effect
is more lasting. Phosphoric acid occurs in guano combined with ammonia,
potash, and chiefly with lime, the last being slower and more lasting
in action than the others. {337}

Nearly all artificial fertilizers conform, more or less, to one of the
following general formulas:

I.—Artificial Flower Fertilizer.—

                           1       2       3
 Ammonium nitrate        0.40    1.60    40.0 parts
 Ammonium phosphate      0.20    0.80    20.0 parts
 Potassium nitrate       0.25    1.00    25.0 parts
 Ammonium chloride       0.05    0.20     5.0 parts
 Calcium sulphate        0.06    0.24     6.0 parts
 Ferrous sulphate        0.04    0.16     4.0 parts
                         ────    ────   ─────
                         1.00    4.00   100.0 parts

Dissolve 1 part in 1,000 parts water, and water the flowers with it 2
or 3 times weekly. Dissolve 4 parts in 1,000 parts water, and water
with this quantity 10 or 12 pots of medium size.

II.—Compost for Indoor Plants.—

                          1       2      3
 Ammonium sulphate      0.30    1.20    30.0 parts
 Sodium chloride        0.30    1.20    30.0 parts
 Potassium nitrate      0.15    0.60    15.0 parts
 Magnesium sulphate     0.15    0.60    15.0 parts
 Magnesium phosphate    0.04    0.20     4.0 parts
 Sodium phosphate       0.06    0.24     6.0 parts
                        ────    ────   ─────
                        1.00    4.00   100.0 parts

One part to be dissolved in 1,000 parts water and the flowers watered
up to 3 times daily. Dissolve 4 parts in 1,000 parts water, and water
with this solution daily:

III.—Plant Food Solution.—

                                            1            2
 Potassium chloride                       0.16   or    12.5 parts
 Calcium nitrate                          0.71   or    58.0 parts
 Magnesium sulphate                       0.125  or    12.0 parts
 Potassium phosphate                      0.133  or    15.0 parts
 Iron phosphate, recently precipitated    0.032  or     2.5 parts
                                          ─────       ─────
                                          1.160  or   100.0 parts

This turbid mixture (1 part in 1,000 parts) is used alternately with
water for watering a pot of about 1 quart capacity; for smaller or
larger pots in proportion. After using the amount indicated, the
watering is continued with water alone.

IV.—Fertilizer with Organic Matter, for Pot Flowers.—

 Potassium nitrate     100.0 parts
 Ammonium phosphate    100.0 parts
 Phosphoric acid         2.5 parts
 Simple syrup          1,000 parts

Add not more than 10 parts to 1,000 parts water, and water alternately
with this and with water alone. For cactaceæ, crassulaceæ, and similar
plants, which do not assimilate organic matter directly, use distilled
water instead of syrup.

Chlorotic plants are painted with a dilute iron solution or iron is
added to the soil, which causes them to assume their natural green
color. The iron is used in form of ferric chloride or ferrous sulphate.

 V.—Sodium phosphate     4 ounces
     Sodium nitrate       4 ounces
     Ammonium sulphate    2 ounces
     Sugar                1 ounce

Use 2 teaspoonfuls to a gallon of water.

 VI.—Ammonium phosphate        30 parts
      Sodium nitrate            25 parts
      Potassium nitrate         25 parts
      Ammonium sulphate         20 parts
      Water                100,000 parts

One application of this a week is enough for the slower growing plants,
and 2 for the more rapid growing herbaceous ones.

 VII.—Calcium phosphate            4 ounces
       Potassium nitrate            1 ounce
       Potassium phosphate          1 ounce
       Magnesium sulphate           1 ounce
       Iron (ferric) phosphate    100 grains

VIII.—Pot plants, especially flowering plants kept around the house,
should be treated to an occasional dose of the following:

 Ammonium chloride    2 parts
 Sodium phosphate     4 parts
 Sodium nitrate       3 parts
 Water               80 parts

Mix and dissolve. To use, add 25 drops to the quart of water, and use
as in ordinary watering.

 IX.—Sugar                 1 part
      Potassium nitrate     2 parts
      Ammonium sulphate     4 parts

 X.—Ferric phosphate          1 part
     Magnesium sulphate        2 parts
     Potassium phosphate       2 parts
     Potassium nitrate         2 parts
     Calcium acid phosphate    8 parts

About a teaspoonful of either of these mixtures is added to a gallon of
water, and the plants sprinkled with the liquid.

For hastening the growth of flowers, the following fertilizer is
recommended: {338}

 XI.—Potassium nitrate        30 parts
      Potassium phosphate      25 parts
      Ammonium sulphate        10 parts
      Ammonium nitrate         35 parts

The following five are especially recommended for indoor use:

 XII.—Sodium chloride         10 parts
       Potassium nitrate        5 parts
       Magnesium sulphate       5 parts
       Magnesia                 1 part
       Sodium phosphate         2 parts

Mixed and bottled. Dissolve a teaspoonful daily in a quart of water and
water the plants with the solution.

 XIII.—Ammonium nitrate       40 parts
        Potassium nitrate      90 parts
        Ammonium phosphate     50 parts

Two grams is sufficient for a medium-sized flower pot.

 XIV.—Ammonium sulphate       10 parts
       Sodium chloride         10 parts
       Potassium nitrate        5 parts
       Magnesium sulphate       5 parts
       Magnesium carbonate      1 part
       Sodium phosphate        20 parts

One teaspoonful to 1 quart of water.

 XV.—Ammonium nitrate         40 parts
      Ammonium phosphate       20 parts
      Potassium nitrate      0.25 parts
      Ammonium chloride         5 parts
      Calcium sulphate          6 parts
      Ferrous sulphate          4 parts

Dissolve 2 parts in 1,000 of water, and water the plants with the
solution.

 XVI.—Potassium nitrate       20 parts
       Potassium phosphate     25 parts
       Ammonium sulphate       10 parts
       Ammonium nitrate        35 parts

This mixture produces a luxuriant foliage. If blooms are desired,
dispense with the ammonium nitrate.

XVII.—Saltpeter, 5 parts; cooking salt, 10 parts; bitter salt, 5 parts;
magnesia, 1 part; sodium phosphate, 2 parts. Mix and fill in bottles.
Dissolve a teaspoonful in 1 3⁠/⁠4 pints of hot water, and water the
flower pots with it each day.

XVIII.—Ammonium sulphate, 30 parts; sodium chloride, 30 parts; potash
niter, 15 parts; magnesium sulphate, 15 parts; magnesium phosphate, 4
parts; sodium phosphate, 6 parts. Dissolve 1 part in 1,000 parts water,
and apply 3 times per day.

XIX.—Calcium nitrate, 71 parts; potassium chlorate, 15 parts; magnesium
sulphate, 12.5 parts; potassium phosphate, 13.3 parts; freshly
precipitated ferric phosphate, 3.2 parts. A solution of 1 in 1,000 of
this mixture is applied, alternating with water, to the plants. After
using a certain quantity, pour on only water.

XX.—Ammonium phosphate, 300 parts; sodium nitrate, 250 parts;
potassium nitrate, 250 parts; and ammonium sulphate, 200 parts, are
mixed together. To every 1,000 parts of water dissolve 2 parts of the
mixture, and water the potted plants once a week with this solution.

XXI.—Potash niter, 20 parts; calcium carbonate, 20 parts; sodium
chlorate, 20 parts; calcium phosphate, 20 parts; sodium silicate, 14
parts; ferrous sulphate, 1.5 parts. Dissolve 1 part of the mixture in
1,000 parts water.


«Preparing Bone for Fertilizer.»—Bone, in its various forms, is the only
one of the insoluble phosphates that is now used directly upon the
soil, or without other change than is accomplished by mechanical action
or grinding. The terms used to indicate the character of the bone
have reference rather to their mechanical form than to the relative
availability of the phosphoric acid contained in them. The terms raw
bone, fine bone, boiled and steamed bone, etc., are used to indicate
methods of preparation, and inasmuch as bone is a material which is
useful largely in proportion to its rate of decay, its fineness has an
important bearing upon availability, since the finer the bone the more
surface is exposed to the action of those forces which cause decay or
solution, and the quicker will the constituents become available. In
the process of boiling or steaming, not only is the bone made finer
but its physical character in other respects is also changed, the
particles, whether fine or coarse, being made soft and crumbly rather
than dense or hard; hence it is more likely to act quickly than if the
same degree of fineness be obtained by simple grinding. The phosphoric
acid in fine steamed bone may all become available in 1 or 2 years,
while the coarser fatty raw bone sometimes resists final decay for 3
or 4 years or even longer. {339} Bone contains considerable nitrogen,
a fact which should be remembered in its use, particularly if used in
comparison with other phosphatic materials which do not contain this
element. Pure raw bone contains on an average 22 per cent of phosphoric
acid and 4 per cent of nitrogen. By steaming or boiling, a portion
of the organic substance containing nitrogen is extracted, which has
the effect of proportionately increasing the phosphoric acid in the
product; hence a steamed bone may contain as high as 28 per cent of
phosphoric acid and as low as 1 per cent of nitrogen. Steamed bone
is usually, therefore, much richer in phosphoric acid and has less
nitrogen than the raw bone.


«Brewers’ Yeast and Fertilizers.»—A mixture is made of about 2 parts of
yeast with 1 part of sodium chloride and 5 parts of calcium sulphate,
by weight, for use as a manure. Pure or impure yeast, or yeast
previously treated for the extraction of a portion of its constituents,
may be used, and the gypsum may be replaced by other earthy substances
of a similar non-corrosive nature.

Authorities seem to agree that lime is necessary to the plant, and if
it be wholly lacking in the soil, even though an abundance of all the
other essential elements is present, it cannot develop normally. Many
soils are well provided with lime by nature and it is seldom or never
necessary for those who cultivate them to resort to liming. It would be
just as irrational to apply lime where it is not needed as to omit it
where it is required, and hence arises the necessity of ascertaining
the needs of particular soils in this respect.

The method usually resorted to for ascertaining the amount of lime
in soils is to treat them with some strong mineral acid, such as
hydrochloric acid, and determine the amount of lime which is thus
dissolved. The fact that beets of all kinds make a ready response to
liming on soils which are deficient in lime may be utilized as the
basis of testing.

FEVER IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.

FIG SQUARES: See Confectionery.


«Files»


«Composition Files.»—These files, which are frequently used by
watchmakers and other metal workers for grinding and polishing, and
the color of which resembles silver, are composed of 8 parts copper, 2
parts tin, 1 part zinc, 1 part lead. They are cast in forms and treated
upon the grindstone; the metal is very hard, and therefore worked with
difficulty with the file.


«To Keep Files Clean» (see also Cleaning Preparations and Methods).—The
uneven working of a file is usually due to the fact that filings clog
the teeth of the file. To obviate this evil, scratch brush the files
before use, and then grease them with olive oil. A file prepared in
this manner lasts for a longer time, does not become so quickly filled
with filings and can be conveniently cleaned with an ordinary rough
brush.


«Recutting Old Files.»—Old files may be rendered useful again by the
following process: Boil them in a potash bath, brush them with a hard
brush and wipe off. Plunge for half a minute into nitric acid, and pass
over a cloth stretched tightly on a flat piece of wood. The effect will
be that the acid remains in the grooves, and will take away the steel
without attacking the top, which has been wiped dry. The operation may
be repeated according to the depth to be obtained. Before using the
files thus treated they should be rinsed in water and dried.

FILE METAL: See Alloys.

FILLERS FOR LETTERS: See Lettering.

FILLERS FOR WOOD: See Wood.


«FILTERS FOR WATER.»

A filter which possesses the advantages of being easily and cheaply
cleaned when dirty, and which frees water from mechanical impurities
with rapidity, may be formed by placing a stratum of sponge between two
perforated metallic plates, united by a central screw, and arranged in
such a manner as to permit of the sponge being compressed as required.
Water, under gentle pressure, flows with such rapidity through the
pores of compressed sponge, that it is said that a few square feet of
this substance will perfectly filter several millions of gallons of
water daily.

The sponges are cleaned thoroughly, rolled together as much as
possible, and placed in the escape pipe of a percolator in such a
manner that the larger portion of the sponge is in the pipe while the
smaller portion, spreading by itself, protrudes over the pipe toward
the interior {340} of the percolator, thus forming a flat filter
covering it. After a thorough moistening of the sponge it is said to
admit of a very quick and clear filtration of large quantities of
tinctures, juices, etc.

For filtering water on a small scale, and for domestic use,
“alcarrazas,” diaphragms of porous earthenware and filtering-stone and
layers of sand and charcoal, etc., are commonly employed as filtering.

A cheap, useful form of portable filter is the following, given in
the proceedings of the British Association: “Take any common vessel,
perforated below, such as a flower pot, fill the lower portion with
coarse pebbles, over which place a layer of finer ones, and on these
a layer of clean coarse sand. On the top of this a piece of burnt
clay perforated with small holes should be put, and on this again a
stratum of 3 or 4 inches thick of well-burnt, pounded animal charcoal.
A filter thus formed will last a considerable time, and will be found
particularly useful in removing noxious and putrescent substances held
in solution by water.”

The “portable filters,” in stoneware, that are commonly sold in the
shops, contain a stratum of sand, or coarsely powdered charcoal;
before, however, having access to this, the water has to pass through
a sponge, to remove the coarser portion of the impurities.


«Alum Process of Water Purification.»—Water may be filtered and
purified by precipitation, by means of alum, by adding a 4 per cent
solution to the water to be clarified until a precipitate is no longer
produced. After allowing the turbid mixture to stand for 8 hours,
the clear portion may be decanted or be siphoned off. About 2 grains
of alum is ordinarily required to purify a gallon of water. Potassa
alum only should be used, as ammonia alum cannot be used for this
purpose. The amount of alum required varies with the water, so that
an initial experiment is required whenever water from a new source is
being purified. If the purification is properly done, the water will
not contain any alum, but only a trace of potassium sulphate, for the
aluminum of the double sulphate unites with the various impurities to
form an insoluble compound which gradually settles out, mechanically
carrying with it suspended matter, while the sulphuric acid radical
unites with the calcium in the water to form insoluble calcium sulphate.

FILTER PAPER: See Paper.

FILM-STRIPPING: See Photography.

FINGER-TIPS, SPARKS FROM: See Pyrotechnics.

FIRES, COLORED: See Pyrotechnics.

FIREARM LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.


«FIRE EXTINGUISHERS:»

 I.—Calcium chloride         184 parts
     Magnesium chloride        57 parts
     Sodium chloride           13 parts
     Potassium bromide         22 parts
     Barium chloride            3 parts
     Water to make          1,000 parts

Dissolve and fill into hand grenades.

 II.—Iron sulphate             4 parts
      Ammonium sulphate        16 parts
      Water                   100 parts

Mix, dissolve, and fill into flasks.

 III.—Sodium chloride            430 parts
       Alum                       195 parts
       Glauber salts               50 parts
       Sodium carbonate, impure    35 parts
       Water glass                266 parts
       Water                      233 parts

Mix, etc.

 IV.—Sodium chloride          90 parts
      Ammonium chloride        45 parts
      Water                   300 parts

Mix, dissolve, and put into quart flasks of very thin glass, which are
to be kept conveniently disposed in the dwelling rooms, etc., of all
public institutions.

V.—Make 6 solutions as follows:

 _a._—Ammonium chloride               20 parts
       Water                        2,000 parts

 _b._—Alum, calcined and powdered     35 parts
       Water                        1,000 parts

 _c._—Ammonium sulphate, powdered     30 parts
       Water                          500 parts

 _d._—Sodium chloride                 20 parts
       Water                        4,000 parts

 _e._—Sodium carbonate                35 parts
       Water                          500 parts

 f.—Liquid water glass             450 parts

{341}

Mix the solutions in the order named and to the mixture, while still
yellow and turbid, add 2,000 parts of water, and let stand. When the
precipitate has subsided fill off the clear liquid into thin glass
(preferably blue, to deter decomposition) containers each of 3 pints to
a half gallon capacity.

 VI.—Calcium chloride       30 parts
      Magnesium chloride     10 parts
      Water                  60 parts

 VII.—Sodium chloride       20 parts
       Ammonium chloride      9 parts
       Water                 71 parts

 VIII.—Sodium carbonate     16 parts
        Sodium chloride      64 parts
        Water               920 parts

The most effective of all extinguishers is ammonia water. It is almost
instantaneous in its effect, and a small quantity only is required
to extinguish any fire. Next in value is carbonic acid gas. This may
be thrown from siphons or soda-water tanks. The vessel containing it
should be thrown into the fire in such a way as to insure its breaking.


«Dry Powder Fire Extinguishers.»—The efficacy of these is doubted by
good authorities. They should be tested before adoption.

 I.—Alum                    24 parts
     Ammonium sulphate       52 parts
     Ferrous sulphate         4 parts

 II.—Sodium chloride         8 parts
      Sodium bicarbonate      6 parts
      Sodium sulphate         2 parts
      Calcium chloride        2 parts
      Sodium silicate         2 parts

 III.—Sodium chloride        6 parts
       Ammonium chloride      6 parts
       Sodium bicarbonate     8 parts

 IV.—Ammonium chloride      10 parts
      Sodium sulphate         6 parts
      Sodium bicarbonate      4 parts


«Oil Extinguisher.»—To extinguish oils which have taken fire, a
fine-meshed wire net of the size of a boiling pan should be kept on
hand in every varnish factory, etc. In the same moment when the netting
is laid upon the burning surface, the flame is extinguished because
it is a glowing mass of gas, which the iron wire quickly cools off so
that it cannot glow any more. The use of water is excluded, and that of
earth and sand undesirable, because both dirty the oil.


«Substitute for Fire Grenades.»—A common quart bottle filled with
a saturated solution of common salt makes a cheap and efficient
substitute for the ordinary hand grenade. The salt forms a coating on
all that the water touches and makes it nearly incombustible.


«Fireproofing»


«For Textiles.»—I.—Up to the present this has generally been
accomplished by the use of a combination of water glass or soluble
glass and tungstate of soda. The following is cheaper and more suitable
for the purpose:

Equal parts, by weight, of commercial white copperas, Epsom salt, and
sal ammoniac are mingled together and mixed with three times their
weight of ammonia alum. This mixture soon changes into a moist pulp or
paste, that must be dried by a low heat. When dressing the material,
add 1⁠/⁠2 part of this combination to every 1 part of starch.

II.—Good results are also obtained from the following formula:
Supersaturate a quantity of superphosphate of lime with ammonia,
filter, and decolorize it with animal charcoal. Concentrate the
solution and mix with it 5 per cent of gelatinous silica, evaporate the
water, dry, and pulverize. For use mix 30 parts of this powder with
35 parts of gum and 35 parts of starch in sufficient water to make of
suitable consistency.

III.—As a sample of the Melunay process, introduced in France, the
following has been published: Apply to a cotton fabric like flannellet,
or other cotton goods, a solution of stannate of soda (or a salt
chemically equivalent) of the strength of 5 to 10° Bé., then dry the
fabric and saturate it again, this time with a solution of a titanium
salt; any soluble titanium salt is suitable. This salt should be
so concentrated that each 1,000 parts may contain about 62 parts
of titanium oxide. The fabrics are again dried, and the titanium
is ultimately fixed by means of a suitable alkaline bath. It is
advantageous to employ for this purpose a solution of silicate of soda
of about 14° Bé., but a mixed bath, composed of tungstate of soda and
ammonium chloride, may be employed. The objects are afterwards washed,
dried, and finished as necessary for trade. A variation consists in
treating the objects in a mixed bath containing titanium, tungsten, and
a suitable solvent.

IV.—Boil together, with constant {342} stirring, the following
ingredients until a homogeneous mass results:

 Linseed oil         77   parts
 Litharge            10   parts
 Sugar of lead        2   parts
 Lampblack            4   parts
 Oil turpentine       2   parts
 Umber                0.4 parts
 Japanese wax         0.3 parts
 Soap powder          1.2 parts
 Manila copal         0.7 parts
 Caoutchouc varnish   2   parts

V.—For Light Woven Fabrics.—Ammonium sulphate, 8 parts, by weight;
ammonium carbonate, 2.5 parts; borax, 2; boracic acid, 3; starch, 2;
or dextrin, 0.4, or gelatin, 0.4; water, 100. The fabric is to be
saturated with the mixture, previously heated to 86° F., and dried; it
can then be calendered in the ordinary way. The cost is only 2 or 3
cents for 16 yards or more of material.

VI.—For Rope and Straw Matting.—Ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac), 15
parts, by weight; boracic acid, 6 parts; borax, 3; water, 100. The
articles are to be left in the solution, heated to 212° F. for about 3
hours, then squeezed out and dried. The mixture costs about 5 cents a
quart.

VII.—For Clothing.—The following starch is recommended: Sodium
tungstate, perfectly neutral, 30 parts; borax, 20; wheat or rice
starch, 60. The constituents are to be finely pulverized, sharply
dried, and mixed, and the starch used like any other. Articles
stiffened with it, if set on fire, will not burst into flame, but only
smolder.

VIII.—For Tents.—

 Water                                100 parts by weight
 Ammonium sulphate, chemically pure    14 parts by weight
 Boracic acid                           1 parts by weight
 Hartshorn salt                         1 parts by weight
 Borax                                  3 parts by weight
 Glue water                             2 parts by weight

Boil the water, put ammonium sulphate into a vat, pour a part of the
boiling water on and then add the remaining materials in rotation. Next
follow the rest of the hot water. The vat should be kept covered until
the solution is complete.

IX.—For Stage Decorations.—Much recommended and used as a fireproofing
composition is a cheap mixture of borax, bitter salt, and water;
likewise for canvas a mixture of ammonium sulphate, gypsum, and water.
Ammonium sulphate and sodium tungstate are also named for impregnating
the canvas before painting.

X.—For Mosquito Netting.—Immerse in a 20 per cent solution of ammonium
sulphate. One pound of netting will require from 20 to 24 ounces of
the solution to thoroughly saturate. After withdrawing from the bath,
do not wring it out, but spread it over a pole or some such object,
and let it get about half dry, then iron it out with a hot iron. The
material (ammonium sulphate) is inoffensive.


«Fireproofing of Wood.»—Strictly speaking, it is impossible to render
wood completely incombustible, but an almost absolute immunity against
the attacks of fire can be imparted.

Gay-Lussac was one of the first to lay down the principal conditions
indispensable for rendering organic matters in general, and wood in
particular, uninflammable.

During the whole duration of the action of the heat the fibers must
be kept from contact with the air, which would cause combustion. The
presence of borates, silicates, etc., imparts this property to organic
bodies.

Combustible gases, disengaged by the action of the heat, must be
mingled in sufficient proportion with other gases difficult of
combustion in such a way that the disorganization of bodies by heat
will be reduced to a simple calcination without production of flame.
Salts volatile or decomposable by heat and not combustible, like
certain ammoniacal salts, afford excellent results.

Numerous processes have been recommended for combating the
inflammability of organic tissues, some consisting in external
applications, others in injection, under a certain pressure, of saline
solutions.

By simple superficial applications only illusory protection is
attained, for these coverings, instead of fireproofing the objects
on which they are applied, preserve them only for the moment from a
slight flame. Resistance to the fire being of only short duration,
these coatings scale off or are rapidly reduced to ashes and the parts
covered are again exposed. It often happens, too, that such coatings
have disappeared before the occurrence of a fire, so that the so-called
remedy becomes injurious from the false security occasioned. {343}

Some formulas recommended are as follows:

I.—For immersion or imbibition the following solution is advised:
Ammonium phosphate, 100 parts; boracic acid, 10 parts per 1,000; or
ammonium sulphate, 135 parts; sodium borate, 15 parts; boracic acid, 5
parts per 1,000. For each of these formulas two coats are necessary.

II.—For application with the brush the following compositions are the
best:

_a._ Apply hot, sodium silicate, 100 parts; Spanish white, 50 parts;
glue, 100 parts.

_b._ Apply successively and hot; for first application, water, 100
parts; aluminum sulphate, 20 parts; second application, water, 100
parts; liquid sodium silicate, 50 parts.

_c._ First application, 2 coats, hot; water, 100 parts; sodium
silicate, 50 parts; second application, 2 coatings; boiling water, 75
parts; gelatin, white, 200 parts; work up with asbestos, 50 parts;
borax, 30 parts; and boracic acid, 10 parts.

Oil paints rendered uninflammable by the addition of phosphate of
ammonia and borax in the form of impalpable powders incorporated in
the mass, mortar of plaster and asbestos and asbestos paint, are still
employed for preserving temporarily from limited exposure to a fire.

 III.—Sodium silicate, solid    350 parts
       Asbestos, powdered        350 parts
       Water, boiling          1,000 parts

Mix. Give several coatings, letting each dry before applying the next.

 IV.—Asbestos, powdered    35 parts
      Sodium borate         20 parts
      Water                100 parts
      Gum lac         10 to 15 parts

Dissolve the borax in the water by the aid of heat, and in the hot
solution dissolve the lac. When solution is complete incorporate the
asbestos. These last solutions give a superficial protection, the
efficiency of which depends upon the number of coatings given.

V.—Prepare a syrupy solution of sodium silicate, 1 part, and water,
3 parts, and coat the wood 2 to 3 times, thus imparting to it
great hardness. After drying, it is given a coating of lime of the
consistency of milk, and when this is almost dry, is fixed by a strong
solution of soluble glass, 2 parts of the syrupy mass to 3 parts of
water. If the lime is applied thick, repeat the treatment with the
soluble glass.

VI.—Subject the wood or wooden objects for 6 to 8 hours to the boiling
heat of a solution of 33 parts of manganese chloride, 20 parts of
orthophosphoric acid, 12 parts of magnesium carbonate, 10 parts of
boracic acid, and 25 parts of ammonium chloride in 1,000 parts of
water. The wood thus treated is said to be perfectly incombustible
even at great heat, and, besides, to be also protected by this method
against decay, injury by insects, and putrefaction.

VII.—One of the simplest methods is to saturate the timber with a
solution of tungstate of soda; if this is done in a vacuum chamber, by
means of which the wood is partly deprived of the air contained in its
cells, a very satisfactory result will be obtained. Payne’s process
consists in treating wood under these conditions first with solution of
sulphate of iron, and then with chloride of calcium; calcium sulphate
is thus precipitated in the tissues of the timber, which is rendered
incombustible and much more durable. There are several other methods
besides these, phosphate of ammonia and tungstate being most useful.
A coat of common whitewash is an excellent means of lessening the
combustibility of soft wood.


«Fireproofing Wood Pulp.»—The pulp is introduced into a boiler
containing a hot solution of sulphate and phosphate of ammonia and
provided with a stirring and mixing apparatus, as well as with an
arrangement for regulating the temperature. After treatment, the pulp
is taken out and compressed in order to free it from its humidity.
When dry, it may be used for the manufacture of paper or for analogous
purposes. Sawdust treated in the same manner may be used for packing
goods, for deadening walls, and as a jacketing for steam pipes.


«Fireproofing for Wood, Straw, Textiles, etc.»—The material to be made
fireproof is treated with a solution of 10 to 20 parts of potassium
carbonate and 4 to 8 parts of ammonium borate in 100 parts of water.
Wherever excessive heat occurs, this compound, which covers the
substance, is formed into a glassy mass, thus protecting the stuff from
burning; at the same time a considerable amount of carbonic acid is
given off, which smothers the flames. {344}


«MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS FOR FIREPROOFING.»

I.—In coating steel or other furnaces, first brush over the brickwork
to be covered a solution made by boiling 1 pound each of silicate
of soda and alum in 4 gallons of water, and follow immediately with
composition:

 Silica                 50 parts
 Plastic fire clay      10 parts
 Ball clay               3 parts

Mix well.

Fireproof Compositions.—II.—For furnaces, etc.:

 Pure silica (in grain)  60 parts
 Ground flint             8 parts
 Plaster of Paris         3 parts
 Ball clay                3 parts

Mix well together by passing once or more through a fine sieve, and use
in the same way as cement.

Fireproof Paper.—Paper is rendered fireproof by saturating it with a
solution of

 Ammonium sulphate    8 parts
 Boracic acid         3 parts
 Borax                2 parts
 Water              100 parts

For the same purpose sodium tungstate may also be employed.

Fireproof Coating.—A fireproof coating (so-called) consists of water,
100 parts; strong glue, 20 parts; silicate of soda, 38° Bé., 50 parts;
carbonate of soda, 35 parts; cork in pieces of the size of a pea, 100
parts.

Colored Fireproofing.—I.—Ammonium sulphate, 70 parts; borax, 50 parts;
glue, 1 part; and water up to 1,000 parts.

II.—Solution of glue, 5 parts, zinc chloride, 2 parts; sal ammoniac, 80
parts; borax, 57 parts; and water up to 700 parts.

If the coating is to be made visible by coloration, an addition of
10 parts of Cassel brown and 6 parts of soda per 1,000 parts is
recommended, which may be dissolved separately in a portion of the
water used.

FIREPROOFING CELLULOID: See Celluloid.

FIREPROOFING OF PAPER: See Paper.

FIREWORKS: See Pyrotechnics.

FILIGREE GILDING: See Plating.


«FISH BAIT.»

 Oil of rhodium      3 parts
 Oil of cumin        2 parts
 Tincture of musk    1 part

Mix. Put a drop or two on the bait, or rub trigger of trap with the
solution.


«FIXATIVES FOR CRAYON DRAWINGS, ETC.»

 I.—Shellac            40 parts by weight
     Sandarac           20 parts by weight
     Spirit of wine    940 parts by weight

II.—During the Civil War, when both alcohol and shellac often were
not purchasable, and where, in the field especially, ink was almost
unknown, and sized paper, of any description, a rarity, men in the
field were compelled to use the pencil for correspondence of all
sorts. Where the communication was of a nature to make its permanency
desirable, the paper was simply dipped in skim milk, which effected the
purpose admirably. Such documents written with a pencil on unsized
paper have stood the wear and rubbing of upward of 40 years.

To Fix Pounced Designs.—Take beer or milk or alcohol, in which a little
bleached shellac has been dissolved, and blow one of these liquids upon
the freshly pounced design by means of an atomizer. After drying, the
drawing will have the desired fixedness.

FIXING BATHS FOR PAPER AND NEGATIVES: See Photography.

FLANNELS, WHITENING OF: See Laundry Preparations.

FLASH-LIGHT APPARATUS AND POWDERS: See Photography.

FLAVORINGS: See Condiments.

FLEA DESTROYERS: See Insecticides.

FLIES IN THE HOUSE: See Household Formulas.

FLIES AND PAINT: See Paint.


«Floor Dressings»

(See also Paint, Polishes, Waxes, and Wood.)


«Oil Stains for Hard Floors.»—I.—Burnt sienna, slate brown, or wine
black, is ground with strong oil varnish in the paint mill. The glazing
color obtained {345} is thinned with a mixture of oil of turpentine
and applied with a brush on the respective object. The superfluous
stain is at once wiped away with a rag, so that only the absorbed stain
remains in the wood. If this is uneven, go over the light places again
with dark stain. In a similar manner all otherwise tinted and colored
oil stains are produced by merely grinding the respective color with
the corresponding addition of oil. Thus, green, red, and even blue
and violet shades on wood can be obtained, it being necessary only
to make a previous experiment with the stains on a piece of suitable
wood. In the case of soft wood, however, it is advisable to stain the
whole previously with ordinary nut stain (not too dark), and only after
drying to coat with oil stain, because the autumn rings of the wood
take no color, and would appear too light, and, therefore, disturb the
effect.

II.—Boil 25 parts, by weight, of fustic and 12 parts of Brazil wood
with 2,400 parts of soapmakers’ lye and 12 parts of potash, until
the liquid measures about 12 quarts. Dissolve in it, while warm, 30
parts of annatto and 75 of wax, and stir until cold. There will be a
sufficient quantity of the brownish-red stain to keep the floor of a
large room in good order for a year. The floor should be swept with
a brush broom daily, and wiped up twice a week with a damp cloth,
applying the stain, when necessary, to places where there is much wear,
and rubbing it in with a hard brush. Every 6 weeks put the stain all
over the floor, and brush it in well.

 III.—Neatsfoot oil         1 part
       Cottonseed oil        1 part
       Petroleum oil         1 part

 IV.—Beeswax                8 parts
      Water                 56 parts
      Potassium carbonate    4 parts

Dissolve the potash in 12 parts of water; heat together the wax and the
remaining water till the wax is liquefied; then mix the two and boil
together until a perfect emulsion is effected. Color, if desired, with
a solution of annatto.

 V.—Paraffine oil           8 parts
     Kerosene                1 part
     Limewater               1 part

Mix thoroughly. A coat of the mixture is applied to the floor with a
mop.


«Paraffining of Floors.»—The cracks and joints of the parquet floor
are filled with a putty consisting of Spanish white, 540 parts;
glue, 180 parts; sienna, 150 parts; umber, 110 parts; and calcareous
earth, 20 parts. After 48 hours apply the paraffine, which is
previously dissolved in petroleum, or preferably employed in a boiling
condition, in which case it will enter slightly into the floor. When
solidification sets in, the superfluous paraffine is scratched off and
an even, smooth surface of glossy color results, which withstands acids
and alkalies.


«Ball-Room Floor Powder.»—

 Hard paraffine         1 pound
 Powdered boric acid    7 pounds
 Oil lavender           1 drachm
 Oil neroli            20 minims

Melt the paraffine and add the boric acid and the perfumes. Mix well,
and sift through a 1⁠/⁠16 mesh sieve.


«Renovating Old Parquet Floors.»—Caustic soda lye, prepared by boiling
for 45 minutes with 1 part calcined soda, and 1 part slaked lime with
15 parts water, in a cast-iron pot, is applied to the parquet to be
renovated by means of a cloth attached to a stick. After a while
rub off the floor with a stiff brush, fine sand, and a sufficient
quantity of water, to remove the dirt and old wax. Spread a mixture of
concentrated sulphuric acid and water in the proportion of 1 to 8 on
the floor. The sulphuric acid will remove the particles of dirt and
wax which have entered the floor and enliven the color of the wood.
Finally, wax the parquet after it has been washed off with water and
dried completely.

FLOOR OIL: See Oils.

FLOOR PAPER: See Paper.

FLOOR POLISH: See Polishes.

FLOOR VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

FLOOR WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

FLOOR WAX: See Waxes.

FLORICIN OIL: See Oil.


«FLOWER PRESERVATIVES.»

I.—To preserve flowers they should be dipped in melted paraffine,
which should be just hot enough to maintain its fluidity. The flowers
should be dipped one at a time, held by the stalks and moved about for
an instant to get rid of air bubbles. Fresh cut flowers, free from
moisture, {346} are said to make excellent specimens when treated in
this way. A solution in which cut flowers may be kept immersed is made
as follows:

 Salicylic acid      20 grains
 Formaldehyde        10 minims
 Alcohol              2 fluidounces
 Distilled water      1 quart

II.—The English method of preserving flowers so as to retain their form
and color is to imbed the plants in a mixture of equal quantities of
plaster of Paris and lime, and gradually heat them to a temperature of
100° F. After this the flower looks dusty, but if it is laid aside for
an hour so as to absorb sufficient moisture to destroy its brittleness,
it can be dusted without injury. To remove the hoary appearance which
is often left, even after dusting, a varnish composed of 5 ounces
of dammar and 16 ounces of oil of turpentine should be used and a
second coat given if necessary. When the gum has been dissolved in
the turpentine, 16 ounces of benzoline should be added, and the whole
should be strained through fine muslin.

III.—Five hundred parts ether, 20 parts transparent copal, and 20 parts
sand. The flowers should be immersed in the varnish for 2 minutes,
then allowed to dry for 10 minutes, and this treatment should be
repeated 5 or 6 times.

IV.—Place the flowers in a solution of 30 grains of salicylic acid in 1
quart of water.

V.—Moisten 1,000 parts of fine white sand that has been previously well
washed and thoroughly dried and sifted, with a solution consisting of 3
parts of stearine, 3 parts of paraffine, 3 parts of salicylic acid, and
100 parts of alcohol. Work the sand up thoroughly so that every grain
of it is impregnated with the mixture, and then spread it out and let
it become perfectly dry. To use, place the flowers in a suitable box,
the bottom of which has been covered with a portion of the prepared
sand, and then dust the latter over them until all the interstices
have been completely filled with it. Close the box lightly and put it
in a place where it can be maintained at a temperature of from 86° to
104° F. for 2 or 3 days. At the expiration of this time remove the box
and let the sand escape. The flowers can then be put into suitable
receptacles or glass cases without fear of deterioration. Wilted or
withered flowers should be freshened up by dipping into a suitable
aniline solution, which will restore their color.

VI.—Stand the flowers upright in a box of proper size and pour over
and around them fine dry sand, until the flowers are completely
surrounded in every direction. Leave them in this way for 8 or 10 days,
then carefully pour off the sand. The flowers retain their color and
shape perfectly, but in very fleshy, juicy specimens the sand must be
renewed. To be effective the sand must be as nearly dry as possible.

VII.—A method of preserving cut flowers in a condition of freshness
is to dissolve small amounts of ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate,
sodium carbonate or camphor in the water into which the stems are
inserted. The presence of one or more of these drugs keeps the flowers
from losing their turgidity by stimulating the cells to action and by
opposing germ growth. Flowers that have already wilted are said to
revive quickly if the stems are inserted in a weak camphor water.


«Stuccoed Gypsum Flowers.»—Take natural flowers, and coat the lower
sides of their petals and stamens with paraffine or with a mixture of
glue, gypsum, and lime, which is applied lightly. Very fine parts of
the flowers, such as stamens, etc., may be previously supported by
special attachments of textures, wire, etc. After the drying of the
coating the whole is covered with shellac solution or with a mixture
of glue, gypsum, lime with lead acetate, oil, mucilage, glycerine,
colophony, etc. If desired, the surface may be painted with bronzes in
various shades. Such flowers are much employed in the shape of festoons
for decorating walls, etc.


«Artificial Coloring of Flowers.»—A method employed by florists to
impart a green color to the white petals of “carnation pinks” consists
in allowing long-stemmed flowers to stand in water containing a green
aniline dye. When the flowers are fresh they absorb the fluid readily,
and the dye is carried to the petals.

Where the original color of the flower is white, colored stripes
can be produced upon the petals by putting the cut ends into water
impregnated with a suitable aniline dye. Some dyes can thus be taken up
by the capillary action of the stem and deposited in the tissue of the
petal. If flowers are placed over a basin of water containing a very
small amount of ammonia in a bell glass, the colors of the petals will
generally show some marked change. Many violet-colored flowers when
so treated will become {347} green, and if the petals contain several
tints they will show greens where reds were, yellows where they were
white, and deep carmine will become black. When such flowers are put
into water they will retain their changed colors for hours.

If violet asters are moistened with very dilute nitric acid, the ray
florets become red and acquire an agreeable odor.

FLUID MEASURES: See Weights and Measures.


«FLUORESCENT LIQUIDS.»

Æsculin gives pale blue by (1) reflected light, straw color by (2)
transmitted light.

Amido-phthalic acid, pale violet (1), pale yellow (2).
Amido-terephthalic acid, bright green (1), pale green (2).

Eosine, yellow green (1), orange (2).

Fluorescein, intense green (1), orange yellow (2).

Fraxin, blue green (1), pale green (2).

Magdala red, opaque scarlet (1), brilliant carmine (2).

Quinine, pale blue (1), no color (2).

Safranine, yellow red (1), crimson (2).

FLUXES USED IN ENAMELING: See Enameling.

FLUXES FOR SOLDERING: See Soldering.


«Fly-Papers and Fly-Poisons»

(See also Insecticides.)


«Sticky Fly-Papers.»—The sticky material applied to the paper is the
following:

 I.—Boiled linseed oil    5 to 7 parts
     Gum thus              2 to 3 parts
     Non-drying oil        3 to 7 parts

For the non-drying oil, cottonseed, castor, or neatsfoot will answer—in
fact, any of the cheaper oils that do not readily dry or harden will
answer. The proper amount of each ingredient depends upon the condition
of the boiled oil. If it is boiled down very stiff, more of the other
ingredients will be necessary, while if thin, less will be required.

 II.—Rosin           8 parts
      Rapeseed oil    4 parts
      Honey           1 part

Melt the rosin and oil together, and incorporate the honey. Two parts
of raw linseed oil and 2 parts of honey may be used along with 8 parts
of rosin instead of the foregoing. Use paper already sized, as it comes
from the mills, on which to spread the mixture.

 III.—Castor oil    12 ounces
       Rosin         27 ounces

Melt together and spread on paper sized with glue, using 12 ounces glue
to 4 pints water.

 IV.—Rosin                8 ounces
      Venice turpentine    2 ounces
      Castor oil           2 ounces

Spread on paper sized with glue.


«Poisonous Fly-Papers.»—

 I.—Quassia chips                      150 parts
     Chloride of cobalt                  10 parts
     Tartar emetic                        2 parts
     Tincture of long pepper (1 to 4)    80 parts
     Water                              400 parts

Boil the quassia in the water until the liquid is reduced one-half,
strain, add the other ingredients, saturate common absorbent paper with
the solution, and dry. The paper is used in the ordinary way.

 II.—Potassium bichromate    10 ounces
      Sugar                    3 drachms
      Oil of black pepper      2 drachms
      Alcohol                  2 ounces
      Water                   14 ounces

Mix and let stand for several days, then soak unsized paper with the
solution.

 III.—Cobalt chloride     4 drachms
       Hot water          16 ounces
       Brown sugar         1 ounce

Dissolve the cobalt in the water and add the sugar, saturate unsized
paper in the solution, and hang up to dry.

 IV.—Quassia chips        150 parts
      Cobalt chloride       10 parts
      Tartrate antimony      2 parts
      Tincture of pepper    80 parts
      Water                400 parts

Boil chips in the water until the volume of the latter is reduced
one-half, add other ingredients and saturate paper and dry.


«Fly-Poison.»—

 Pepper             4 ounces
 Quassia            4 ounces
 Sugar              8 ounces
 Diluted alcohol    4 ounces

Mix dry and sprinkle around where the flies can get it.


«Non-Poisonous Fly-Papers.»—I.—Mix 25 parts of quassia decoction (1:10)
with 6 parts of brown sugar and 3 parts of ground pepper, and place on
flat dishes.

II.—Mix 1 part of ground pepper and 1 part of brown sugar with 16 parts
milk {348} or cream, and put the mixture on flat plates.

III.—Macerate 20 parts of quassia wood with 100 parts of water for 24
hours, boil one-half hour, and squeeze off 24 hours. The liquid is
mixed with 3 parts of molasses, and evaporated to 10 parts. Next add
1 part of alcohol. Soak blotting paper with this mixture, and put on
plates.

IV.—Dissolve 5 parts of potassium bichromate, 15 parts of sugar, and 1
part of essential pepper oil in 60 parts of water, and add 10 parts of
alcohol. Saturate unsized paper with this solution and dry well.

V.—Boil together for half an hour

 Ground quassia wood    18 pounds
 Broken colocynth        3 pounds
 Ground long pepper      5 pounds
 Water                  80 pounds

Then percolate and make up to 60 pounds if necessary with more water.
Then add 4 pounds of syrup. Unsized paper is soaked in this, and dried
as quickly as possible to prevent it from getting sour.

VI.—Mix together

 Ordinary syrup              100 ounces
 Honey                        30 ounces
 Extract of quassia wood       4 ounces
 Oil of aniseed, a few drops.


«Removing the Gum of Sticky Fly-Paper.»—The “gum” of sticky fly-paper
that has “leaked” over furniture and shelfware can be removed without
causing injury to either furniture or bottles.

The “gum” of sticky fly-paper, while being quite adhesive, is easily
dissolved with alcohol (grain or wood) or oil of turpentine. Alcohol
will not injure the shelfware, but it should not be used on varnished
furniture; in the latter case turpentine should be used.

FLY PROTECTIVES FOR ANIMALS: See Insecticides.


«FOAM PREPARATIONS.»

A harmless gum cream is the following:

I.—Digest 100 parts of Panama wood for 8 days with 400 parts of water
and 100 parts of spirits of wine (90 per cent). Pour off without strong
pressure and filter.

For every 5 parts of lemonade syrup take 5 parts of this extract,
whereby a magnificent, always uniform foam is obtained on the lemonade.

II.—Heat 200 parts of quillaia bark with distilled water during an hour
in a vapor bath, with frequent stirring, and squeeze out. Thin with
water if necessary and filter.


«FOOD ADULTERANTS, SIMPLE TESTS FOR THEIR DETECTION.»

Abstract of a monograph by W. D. Bigelow and Burton J. Howard,
published by the Department of Agriculture.

Generally speaking, the methods of chemical analysis employed in food
laboratories can be manipulated only by one who has had at least
the usual college course in chemistry, and some special training in
the examination of foods is almost as necessary. Again, most of the
apparatus and chemicals necessary are entirely beyond the reach of the
home, and the time consumed by the ordinary examination of a food is in
itself prohibitive.

Yet there are some simple tests which serve to point out certain forms
of adulteration and can be employed by the careful housewife with the
reagents in her medicine closet and the apparatus in her kitchen. The
number may be greatly extended by the purchase of a very few articles
that may be procured for a few cents at any drug store. In applying
these tests, one general rule must always be kept carefully in mind.
Every one, whether layman or chemist, must familiarize himself with a
reaction before drawing any conclusions from it. For instance, before
testing a sample of supposed coffee for starch, the method should
be applied to a sample of pure coffee (which can always be procured
unground) and to a mixture of pure coffee and starch prepared by the
operator.

Many manufacturers and dealers in foods have the ordinary senses so
highly developed that by their aid alone they can form an intelligent
opinion of the nature of a product, or of the character, and sometimes
even of the proportion of adulterants present. This is especially true
of such articles as coffee, wine, salad oils, flavoring extracts,
butter, and milk. The housewife finds herself constantly submitting
her purchases to this test. Her broad experience develops her senses
of taste and smell to a high degree, and her discrimination is often
sharper and more accurate than she herself realizes. The manufacturer
who has developed his natural senses most {349} highly appreciates best
the assistance or collaboration of the chemist, who can often come to
his relief when his own powers do not avail. So the housewife, by a few
simple chemical tests, can broaden her field of vision and detect many
impurities that are not evident to the senses.

There are here given methods adapted to this purpose, which may be
applied to milk, butter, coffee, spices, olive oil, vinegar, jams and
jellies, and flavoring extracts. In addition to this some general
methods for the detection of coloring matter and preservatives will be
given. All of the tests here described may be performed with utensils
found in any well-appointed kitchen. It will be convenient, however,
to secure a small glass funnel, about 3 inches in diameter, since
filtration is directed in a number of the methods prescribed. Filter
paper can best be prepared for the funnel by cutting a circular piece
about the proper size and folding it once through the middle, and then
again at right angles to the first fold. The paper may then be opened
without unfolding in such a way that three thicknesses lie together on
one side and only one thickness on the other. In this way the paper may
be made to fit nicely into the funnel.

Some additional apparatus, such as test tubes, racks for supporting
them, and glass rods, will be found more convenient for one who desires
to do considerable work on this subject, but can be dispensed with.
The most convenient size for test tubes is a diameter of from 1⁠/⁠2 to
5⁠/⁠8 inch, and a length of from 5 to 6 inches. A graduated cylinder
will also be found very convenient. If this is graduated according to
the metric system, a cylinder containing about 100 cubic centimeters
will be found to be convenient; if the English liquid measure is used
it may be graduated to from 3 to 8 ounces.


«Chemical Reagents.»—The word “reagent” is applied to “any substance
used to effect chemical change in another substance for the purpose
of identifying its component parts or determining its percentage
composition.” The following reagents are required in the methods here
given:

Turmeric paper.

Iron alum (crystal or powdered form).

Hydrochloric acid† (muriatic acid), concentrated.

Iodine tincture.

Potassium permanganate, 1 per cent solution.

Alcohol (grain alcohol).

Chloroform.

Boric acid or borax.

Ammonia water.

Halphen’s reagent.

 ────────────────────────────

 † Caution.—All tests in which hydrochloric acid is used should be
 conducted in glass or earthenware, for this acid attacks and will
 injure metal vessels. Care must also be taken not to bring it into
 contact with the flesh or clothes. If, by accident, a drop of it falls
 upon the clothes, ammonia, or in its absence a solution of saleratus
 or sal soda (washing soda), in water, should be applied promptly.

With the exception of the last reagent mentioned, these substances may
be obtained in any pharmacy. The Halphen reagent should be prepared by
a druggist, certainly not by an inexperienced person.

It is prepared as follows: An approximately 1 per cent solution
of sulphur is made by dissolving about 1⁠/⁠3 of a teaspoonful of
precipitated sulphur in 3 or 4 ounces of carbon bisulphide. This
solution mixed with an equal volume of amyl alcohol forms the reagent
required by the method. A smaller quantity than that indicated by these
directions may, of course, be prepared.

If turmeric paper be not available it may be made as follows: Place a
bit of turmeric powder (obtainable at any drug store) in alcohol, allow
it to stand for a few minutes, stir, allow it to stand again until it
settles, dip a strip of filter paper into the solution, and dry it.


«Determination of Preservatives.»—The following methods cover all of
the more important commercial preservatives with the exception of
sulphites and fluorides. These are quite frequently used for preserving
foods—the former with meat products and the latter with fruit
products—but, unfortunately, the methods for their detection are not
suitable for household use.


«Detection of Salicylic Acid.»—The determination of salicylic acid
can best be made with liquids. Solid and semi-solid foods, such as
jelly, should be dissolved, when soluble, in sufficient water to make
them thinly liquid. Foods containing insoluble matter, such as jam,
marmalade, and sausage, may be macerated with water and strained
through a piece of white cotton cloth. The maceration may be performed
by rubbing in a teacup or other convenient vessel with a heavy spoon.

Salicylic acid is used for preserving {350} fruit products of all
kinds, including beverages. It is frequently sold by drug stores as
fruit acid. Preserving powders consisting entirely of salicylic acid
are often carried from house to house by agents. It may be detected as
follows:

Between 2 and 3 ounces of the liquid obtained from the fruit products,
as described above, are placed in a narrow bottle holding 5 ounces,
about a quarter of a teaspoonful of cream of tartar (or, better,
a few drops of sulphuric acid) is added, the mixture shaken for 2
or 3 minutes, and filtered into a second small bottle. Three or 4
tablespoonfuls of chloroform are added to the clear liquid in the
second bottle and the liquids mixed by a somewhat vigorous rotary
motion, poured into an ordinary glass tumbler, and allowed to stand
till the chloroform settles out in the bottom. Shaking is avoided,
as it causes an emulsion which is difficult to break up. As much as
possible of the chloroform layer (which now contains the salicylic
acid) is removed (without any admixture of the aqueous liquid) by means
of a medicine dropper and placed in a test tube or small bottle with
about an equal amount of water and a small fragment—a little larger
than a pinhead—of iron alum. The mixture is thoroughly shaken and
allowed to stand till the chloroform again settles to the bottom. The
presence of salicylic acid is then indicated by the purple color of the
upper layer of liquid.


«Detection of Benzoic Acid.»—Benzoic acid is also used for preserving
fruit products. Extract the sample with chloroform as in the case
of salicylic acid; remove the chloroform layer and place it in a
white saucer, or, better, in a plain glass sauce dish. Set a basin
of water—as warm as the hand can bear—on the outside window ledge
and place the dish containing the chloroform extract in it, closing
the window until the chloroform has completely evaporated. In this
manner the operation may be conducted with safety even by one who is
not accustomed to handling chloroform. In warm weather the vessel of
warm water may, of course, be omitted. Benzoic acid, if present in
considerable amount, will now appear in the dish in characteristic
flat crystals. On warming the dish the unmistakable irritating odor
of benzoic acid may be obtained. This method will detect benzoic
acid in tomato catsup or other articles in which it is used in large
quantities. It is not sufficiently delicate, however, for the smaller
amount used with some articles, such as wine. It is often convenient to
extract a larger quantity of the sample and divide the chloroform layer
into two portions, testing one for salicylic acid and the other for
benzoic acid.


«Detection of Boric Acid and Borax.»—Boric acid (also called boracic
acid) and its compound with sodium (borax) are often used to preserve
animal products, such as sausage, butter, and sometimes milk. For the
detection of boric acid and borax, solids should be macerated with a
small amount of water and strained through a white cotton cloth. The
liquid obtained by treating solids in this manner is clarified somewhat
by thoroughly chilling and filtering through filter paper.

In testing butter place a heaping teaspoonful of the sample in a
teacup, add a couple of teaspoonfuls of hot water, and stand the cup in
a vessel containing a little hot water until the butter is thoroughly
melted. Mix the contents of the cup well by stirring with a teaspoon
and set the cup with the spoon in it in a cold place until the butter
is solid. The spoon with the butter (which adheres to it) is now
removed from the cup and the turbid liquid remaining strained through a
white cotton cloth, or, better, through filter paper. The liquid will
not all pass through the cloth or filter paper, but a sufficient amount
for the test may be secured readily.

In testing milk for boric acid 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of milk are placed
in a bottle with twice that amount of a solution of a teaspoonful of
alum in a pint of water, shaken vigorously, and filtered through filter
paper. Here again a clear or only slightly turbid liquid passes through
the paper.

About a teaspoonful of the liquid obtained by any one of the methods
mentioned above is placed in any dish, not metal, and 5 drops of
hydrochloric (muriatic) acid added. A strip of turmeric paper is dipped
into the liquid and then held in a warm place—near a stove or lamp—till
dry. If boric acid or borax was present in the sample the turmeric
paper becomes bright cherry red when dry. A drop of household ammonia
changes the red color to dark green or greenish black. If too much
hydrochloric acid is used the turmeric paper may take on a brownish-red
color even in the absence of boric acid. In this case, however, ammonia
changes the color to brown just as it does turmeric paper which has not
been dipped into the acid solution. {351}


«Detection of Formaldehyde.»—Formaldehyde is rarely used with other
foods than milk. The method for its detection in milk is given later.
For its detection in other foods it is usually necessary first to
separate it by distillation, a process which is scarcely available for
the average person without laboratory training and special apparatus.
For this reason no method is suggested here for the detection of
formaldehyde in other foods than milk.


«Detection of Saccharine.»—Saccharine has a certain preservative power,
but it is used not so much for this effect as because of the very
sweet taste which it imparts. It is extracted by means of chloroform,
as described under the detection of salicylic acid. In the case of
solid and semi-solid foods, the sample must, of course, be prepared by
extraction with water, as described under salicylic acid. The residue
left after the evaporation of the chloroform, if a considerable amount
of saccharine is present, has a distinctly sweet taste.

       *       *       *       *       *

The only other substance having a sweet taste which may be present
in foods, i. e., sugar, is not soluble in chloroform, and therefore
does not interfere with this reaction. Certain other bodies (tannins)
which have an astringent taste are present, and as they are soluble
in chloroform may sometimes mask the test for saccharine, but with
practice this difficulty is obviated.


«Determination of Artificial Colors: Detection of Coal-Tar
Dyes.»—Coloring matters used with foods are usually soluble in water.
If the food under examination be a liquid, it may therefore be treated
directly by the method given below. If it be a solid or a pasty
substance, soluble in water either in the cold or after heating, it
may be dissolved in sufficient water to form a thin liquid. If it
contains some insoluble material, it may be treated with sufficient
water to dissolve the soluble portion with the formation of a thin
liquid and filtered, and then strained through a clean white cotton
cloth to separate the insoluble portion. About a half teacupful of
the liquid thus described is heated to boiling, after adding a few
drops of hydrochloric acid and a small piece of white woolen cloth or
a few strands of white woolen yarn. (Before using, the wool should be
boiled with water containing a little soda, to remove any fat it may
contain, and then washed with water.) The wool is again washed, first
with hot and then with cold water, the water pressed out as completely
as possible, and the color of the fabric noted. If no marked color is
produced, the test may be discontinued and the product considered free
from artificial colors. If the fabric is colored, it may have taken
up coal-tar colors, some foreign vegetable colors, and if a fruit
product is being examined, some of the natural coloring matter of the
fruit. Rinse the fabric in hot water, and then boil for 2 or 3 minutes
in about one-third of a teacupful of water and 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls
of household ammonia. Remove and free from as much of the liquid as
possible by squeezing or wringing. Usually the fabric will retain the
greater part of the natural fruit color, while the coal-tar color
dissolves in dilute ammonia. The liquid is then stirred with a splinter
of wood and hydrochloric acid added, a drop or two at a time, until
there is no longer any odor of ammonia. (The atmosphere of the vessel
is sometimes charged with the ammonia for several minutes after it has
all been driven out of the liquid; therefore one should blow into the
dish to remove this air before deciding whether the ammonia odor has
been removed or not.) When enough acid has been added the liquid has
a sour taste, as may be determined by touching the splinter, used in
stirring, to the tongue.

A fresh piece of white woolen cloth is boiled in this liquid and
thoroughly washed. If this piece of cloth has a distinct color the food
under examination is artificially colored. The color used may have been
a coal-tar derivative, commonly called an aniline dye, or an artificial
color chemically prepared from some vegetable color. If of the first
class the dyed fabric is usually turned purple or blue by ammonia. In
either case, if the second fabric has a distinct color, it is evident
that the product under examination is artificially colored. Of course a
dull, faint tint must be disregarded.


«Detection of Copper.»—The presence of copper, often used to deepen
the green tint of imported canned peas, beans, spinach, etc., may be
detected as follows:

Mash some of the sample in a dish with a stiff kitchen spoon. Place a
teaspoonful of the pulp in a teacup with 3 teaspoonfuls of water and
add 30 drops of strong hydrochloric acid with a medicine dropper. Set
the cup on the stove in a saucepan containing boiling water. Drop a
bright iron brad or nail (wire nails are the best and tin carpet tacks
{352} will not answer the purpose) into the cup and keep the water in
the saucepan boiling for 20 minutes, stirring the contents of the cup
frequently with a splinter of wood. Pour out the contents of the cup
and examine the nail. If present in an appreciable amount the nail will
be heavily plated with copper.

Caution.—Be careful not to allow the hydrochloric acid to come in
contact with metals or with the flesh or clothing.


«Detection of Turmeric.»—In yellow spices, especially mustard and
mace, turmeric is often employed. This is especially true of prepared
mustard to which a sufficient amount of starch adulterant has been
added to reduce the natural color materially. If turmeric be employed
to restore the normal shade an indication of that fact may sometimes be
obtained by mixing a half teaspoonful of the sample in a white china
dish and mixing with it an equal amount of water, and a few drops (4
to 10) of household ammonia, when a marked brown color, which does
not appear in the absence of turmeric, is formed. At the present time
turmeric or a solution of curcuma (the coloring matter of turmeric)
is sometimes added to adulterated mustard in sufficient amount to
increase its color, but not to a sufficient extent to give the brown
appearance with ammonia described above. In such cases a teaspoonful
of the suspected sample may be thoroughly stirred with a couple of
tablespoonfuls of alcohol, the mixture allowed to settle for 15 minutes
or more, and the upper liquid poured off into a clean glass or bottle.
To about 1 tablespoonful of the liquid thus prepared and placed in a
small, clear dish (a glass salt cellar serves excellently) add 4 or 5
drops of a concentrated solution of boric acid or borax and about 10
drops of hydrochloric acid, and mix the solution by stirring with a
splinter of wood. A wedge-shaped strip of filter paper, about 2 or 3
inches long, 1 inch wide at the upper end, and 1⁠/⁠4 inch at the lower
end, is then suspended by pinning, so that its narrow end is immersed
in the solution, and is allowed to stand for a couple of hours. The
best results are obtained if the paper is so suspended that air can
circulate freely around it, i. e., not allowing it to touch anything
except the pin and the liquid in the dish. If turmeric be present a
cherry-red color forms on the filter paper a short distance below the
upper limit to which the liquid is absorbed by the paper, frequently
from 3⁠/⁠4 of an inch to an inch above the surface of the liquid
itself. A drop of household ammonia changes this red color to a dark
green, almost black. If too much hydrochloric acid is used a dirty
brownish color is produced.


«Detection of Caramel.»—A solution of caramel is used to color many
substances, such as vinegar and some distilled liquors. To detect it
two test tubes or small bottles of about equal size and shape should
be employed and an equal amount (2 or 3 tablespoonfuls or more) of the
suspected sample placed in each. To one of these bottles is added a
teaspoonful of fuller’s earth, the sample shaken vigorously for 2 or
3 minutes, and then filtered through filter paper, the first portion
of the filtered liquid being returned to the filter paper and the
sample finally collected into the test tube or bottle in which it
was originally placed, or a similar one. The filtered liquid is now
compared with the untreated sample. If it is markedly lighter in color
it may be taken for granted that the color of the liquid is due to
caramel, which is largely removed by fuller’s earth. In applying this
test, however, it must be borne in mind that caramel occurs naturally
in malt vinegar, being formed in the preparation of the malt. It is
evident that the tests require practice and experience before they can
be successfully performed. The housewife can use them, but must repeat
them frequently in order to become proficient in their use.


«EXAMINATION OF CERTAIN CLASSES OF FOODS:»


«Canned Vegetables.»—These are relatively free from adulteration by
means of foreign substances. The different grades of products may with
care be readily detected by the general appearance of the sample. The
purchaser is, of course, at the disadvantage of not being able to see
the product until the can is opened. By a study of the different brands
available in the vicinity, however, he can readily select those which
are preferable. As stated in an earlier part of this article, canned
tomatoes sometimes contain an artificial coloring matter, which may be
detected as described.

Canned sweet corn is sometimes sweetened with saccharine, which may be
detected as described.

It is believed that, as a rule, canned vegetables are free from
preservatives, although some instances of chemical preservation have
recently been reported in North Dakota, and some imported {353}
tomatoes have been found to be artificially preserved. The presence of
copper, often used for the artificial greening of imported canned peas,
beans, spinach, etc., may be detected as described.


«Coffee.»—There are a number of simple tests for the presence of the
adulterants of ground coffee. These are called simple because they can
be performed without the facilities of the chemical laboratory, and by
one who has not had the experience and training of a chemist. It must
be understood that they require careful observation and study, and that
one must perform them repeatedly in order to obtain reliable results.
Before applying them to the examination of an unknown sample, samples
of known character should be secured and studied. Unground coffee may
be ground in the home and mixed with various kinds of adulterants,
which can also be secured separately. Thus the articles themselves in
known mixtures may be studied, and when the same results are obtained
with unknown samples they can be correctly interpreted. These tests are
well known in the laboratory and may be used in the home of the careful
housewife who has the time and perseverance to master them.

Physical Tests.—The difference between the genuine ground coffee and
the adulterated article can often be detected by simple inspection with
the naked eye. This is particularly true if the product be coarsely
crushed rather than finely ground. In such condition pure coffee has a
quite uniform appearance, whereas the mixtures of peas, beans, cereals,
chicory, etc., often disclose their heterogeneous nature to the careful
observer. This is particularly true if a magnifying glass be employed.
The different articles composing the mixture may then be separated by
the point of a pen-knife. The dark, gummy-looking chicory particles
stand out in strong contrast to the other substances used, and their
nature can be determined by one who is familiar with them by their
astringent taste.

The appearance of the coffee particles is also quite distinct from
that of many of the coffee substitutes employed. The coffee has a
dull surface, whereas some of its substitutes, especially leguminous
products, often present the appearance of having a polished surface.

After a careful inspection of the sample with the naked eye, or,
better, with a magnifying glass, a portion of it may be placed in a
small bottle half full of water and shaken. The bottle is then placed
on the table for a moment. Pure coffee contains a large amount of oil,
by reason of which the greater portion of the sample will float. All
coffee substitutes and some particles of coffee sink to the bottom
of the liquid. A fair idea of the purity of the sample can often be
determined by the proportion of the sample which floats or sinks.

Chicory contains a substance which dissolves in water, imparting a
brownish-red color. When the suspected sample is dropped into a glass
of water, the grains of chicory which it contains may be seen slowly
sinking to the bottom, leaving a train of a dark-brown colored liquid
behind them. This test appears to lead to more errors in the hands
of inexperienced operators than any other test here given. Wrong
conclusions may be avoided by working first with known samples of
coffee and chicory as suggested above.

Many coffee substitutes are now sold as such and are advertised as
more wholesome than coffee. Notwithstanding the claims that are made
for them, a few of them contain a considerable percentage of coffee.
This may be determined by shaking a teaspoonful in a bottle half full
of water, as described above. The bottle must be thoroughly shaken
so as to wet every particle of the sample. Few particles of coffee
substitutes will float.

Chemical Tests.—Coffee contains no starch, while all of the substances,
except chicory, used for its adulteration and in the preparation
of coffee substitutes contain a considerable amount of starch. The
presence of such substitutes may, therefore, be detected by applying
the test for starch. In making this test less than a quarter of a
teaspoonful of ground coffee should be used, or a portion of the
ordinary infusion prepared for the table may be employed after
dilution. The amount of water that should be added can only be
determined by experience.


«Condimental Sauces.»—Tomato catsup and other condimental sauces are
frequently preserved and colored artificially. The preservatives
employed are usually salicylic acid and benzoic acid or their sodium
salts. These products may be detected by the methods given.

Coal-tar colors are frequently employed with this class of goods,
especially with those of a reddish tint, like tomato catsup. They may
be detected by the methods given. {354}


«DAIRY PRODUCTS:»


«Butter.»—Methods are available which, with a little practice, may be
employed to distinguish between fresh butter, renovated or process
butter, and oleomargarine.

These methods are commonly used in food and dairy laboratories. They
give reliable results. At the same time considerable practice is
necessary before we can interpret correctly the results obtained. Some
process butters are on the market which can be distinguished from
fresh butter only with extreme difficulty. During the last few years
considerable progress has been made in the attempt to renovate butter
in such a way that it will appear like fresh butter in all respects. A
study must be made of these methods if we would obtain reliable results.

The “spoon” test has been suggested as a household test, and is
commonly used by analytical chemists for distinguishing fresh butter
from renovated butter and oleomargarine. A lump of butter, 2 or 3
times the size of a pea, is placed in a large spoon and heated over
an alcohol or Bunsen burner. If more convenient the spoon may be
held above the chimney of an ordinary kerosene lamp, or it may even
be held over an ordinary illuminating gas burner. If the sample in
question be fresh butter it will boil quietly, with the evolution of
many small bubbles throughout the mass which produce a large amount
of foam. Oleomargarine and process butter, on the other hand, sputter
and crackle, making a noise similar to that heard when a green stick
is placed in a fire. Another point of distinction is noted if a small
portion of the sample be placed in a small bottle and set in a vessel
of water sufficiently warm to melt the butter. The sample is kept
melted from half an hour to an hour, when it is examined. If renovated
butter or oleomargarine, the fat will be turbid, while if genuine fresh
butter the fat will almost certainly be entirely clear.

To manipulate what is known as the “Waterhouse” or “milk” test, about
2 ounces of sweet milk are placed in a wide-mouthed bottle, which is
set in a vessel of boiling water. When the milk is thoroughly heated, a
teaspoonful of butter is added, and the mixture stirred with a splinter
of wood until the fat is melted. The bottle is then placed in a dish
of ice water and the stirring continued until the fat solidifies. If
the sample be butter, either fresh or renovated, it will be solidified
in a granular condition and distributed through the milk in small
particles. If, on the other hand, the sample consist of oleomargarine
it solidifies practically in one piece and may be lifted by the stirrer
from the milk.

By these two tests, the first of which distinguishes fresh butter from
process or renovated butter and oleomargarine, and the second of which
distinguishes oleomargarine from either fresh butter or renovated
butter, the nature of the sample under examination may be determined.


«Milk.»—The oldest and simplest method of adulterating milk is by
dilution with water. This destroys the natural yellowish-white color
and produces a bluish tint, which is sometimes corrected by the
addition of a small amount of coloring matter.

Another form of adulteration is the removal of the cream and the
sale as whole milk of skimmed or partially skimmed milk. Again, the
difficulty experienced in the preservation of milk in warm weather has
led to the widespread use of chemical preservatives.

_Detection of Water._—If a lactometer or hydrometer, which can be
obtained of dealers in chemical apparatus, be available, the specific
gravity of milk will afford some clew as to whether the sample has
been adulterated by dilution with water. Whole milk has a specific
gravity between 1.027 and 1.033. The specific gravity of skimmed milk
is higher, and milk very rich in cream is sometimes lower than these
figures. It is understood, of course, that by specific gravity is meant
the weight of a substance with reference to the weight of an equal
volume of water. The specific gravity of water is 1. It is obvious that
if water be added to a milk with the specific gravity of 1.030, the
specific gravity of the mixture will be somewhat below those figures.

An indication by means of a hydrometer or lactometer below the figure
1.027 therefore indicates either that the sample in question is a very
rich milk or that it is a milk (perhaps normal, perhaps skimmed) that
has been watered. The difference in appearance and nature of these
two extremes is sufficiently obvious to make use of the lactometer or
hydrometer of value as a preliminary test of the purity of milk.

_Detection of Color._—As previously stated, when milk is diluted by
means of water the natural yellowish-white color is changed to a bluish
tint, which is sometimes corrected by the addition {355} of coloring
matter. Coal-tar colors are usually employed for this purpose. A
reaction for these colors is often obtained in the method given below
for the detection of formaldehyde. When strong hydrochloric acid is
added to the milk in approximately equal proportions before the mixture
is heated a pink tinge sometimes is evident if a coal-tar color has
been added.

_Detection of Formaldehyde._—Formaldehyde is the substance most
commonly used for preserving milk and is rarely, if ever, added to any
other food. Its use is inexcusable and especially objectionable in milk
served to infants and invalids.

To detect formaldehyde in milk 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls of the sample are
placed in a teacup with at least an equal amount of strong hydrochloric
acid and a piece of ferric alum about as large as a pinhead, the
liquids being mixed by a gentle rotary motion. The cup is then placed
in a vessel of boiling water, no further heat being applied, and left
for 5 minutes. At the end of this time, if formaldehyde be present, the
mixture will be distinctly purple. If too much heat is applied, a muddy
appearance is imparted to the contents of the cup.

_Caution._—Great care must be exercised in working with hydrochloric
acid, as it is strongly corrosive.


«Edible Oils.»—With the exception of cottonseed oil, the adulterants
ordinarily used with edible oils are of such a nature that the
experience of a chemist and the facilities of a chemical laboratory are
essential to their detection. There is, however, a simple test for the
detection of cottonseed oil, known as the Halphen test, which may be
readily applied.

Great care must be taken in the manipulation of this test, as one
of the reagents employed—carbon bisulphide—is very inflammable. The
chemicals employed in the preparation of the reagent used for this
test are not household articles. They may, however, be obtained in any
pharmacy. The mixture should be prepared by a druggist rather than by
an inexperienced person who desires to use it.

In order to perform the test 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of this reagent are
mixed in a bottle with an equal volume of the suspected sample of oil
and heated in a vessel of boiling salt solution (prepared by dissolving
1 tablespoonful of salt in a pint of water) for 10 or 15 minutes. At
the end of that time, if even a small percentage of cottonseed oil be
present, the mixture will be of a distinct reddish color, and if the
sample consists largely or entirely of cottonseed oil, the color will
be deep red.


«Eggs.»—There is no better method for the testing of the freshness
of an egg than the familiar one of “candling,” which has long been
practiced by dealers. The room is darkened and the egg held between
the eye and a light; the presence of dark spots indicates that the egg
is not perfectly fresh, one that is fresh presenting a homogeneous,
translucent appearance. Moreover, there is found in the larger end of
a fresh egg, between the shell and the lining membrane, a small air
cell which, of course, is distinctly transparent. In an egg which is
not perfectly fresh this space is filled and hence presents the same
appearance as the rest of the egg.

It is now a matter of considerable importance to be able to distinguish
between fresh eggs and those that have been packed for a considerable
time. Until recently that was not a difficult matter. All of the
solutions that were formerly extensively used for that purpose gave
the shell a smooth, glistening appearance which is not found in the
fresh egg. This characteristic, however, is of less value now than
formerly, owing to the fact that packed eggs are usually preserved
in cold storage. There is now no means by which a fresh egg can be
distinguished from a packed egg without breaking it. Usually in eggs
that have been packed for a considerable time the white and yolk
slightly intermingle along the point of contact, and it is a difficult
matter to separate them. Packed eggs also have a tendency to adhere to
the shell on one side and when opened frequently have a musty odor.


«FLAVORING EXTRACTS.»

Although a large number of flavoring extracts are on the market,
vanilla and lemon extracts are used so much more commonly than other
flavors that a knowledge of their purity is of the greatest importance.
Only methods for the examination of those two products will be
considered.


«Vanilla Extract.»—Vanilla extract is made by extracting vanilla beans
with alcohol. It consists of an alcoholic solution of vanillin (the
characteristic flavoring matter of the vanilla bean) and several other
products, chiefly rosins, which, though present in but small amount and
having only a slight flavor in themselves, yet affect very materially
{356} the flavor of the product. Vanilla extract is sometimes
adulterated with the extract of the Tonka bean. This extract, to a
certain extent, resembles vanilla extract. The extract of the Tonka
bean, however, is far inferior to that of the vanilla bean. It has a
relatively penetrating, almost pungent odor, standing in sharp contrast
to the flavor of the vanilla extract. This odor is so different that
one who has given the matter some attention may readily distinguish the
two, and the quality of the vanilla extract may often be judged with a
fair degree of accuracy by means of the odor alone.

Another form of adulteration, and one that is now quite prevalent,
is the use of artificial vanillin in place of the extract of either
vanilla or Tonka beans. Artificial vanillin has, of course, the same
composition and characteristics as the natural vanillin of the vanilla
bean. Extracts made from it, however, are deficient in the rosins and
other products which are just as essential to the true vanilla, as is
vanillin itself. Since vanillin is thus obtained from another source so
readily, methods for the determination of the purity of vanilla extract
must depend upon the presence of other substances than vanillin.

_Detection of Caramel._—The coloring matter of vanilla extract is
due to substances naturally present in the vanilla bean and extracted
therefrom by alcohol. Artificial extracts made by dissolving artificial
vanillin in alcohol contain no color of themselves, and to supply it
caramel is commonly employed. Caramel may be detected in artificial
extracts by shaking and observing the color of the resulting foam after
a moment’s standing. The foam of pure extracts is colorless. If caramel
is present a color persists at the points of contact between the
bubbles until the last bubble has disappeared. The test with fuller’s
earth given for caramel in vinegar is also very satisfactory, but of
course requires the loss of the sample used for the test.

_Examination of the Rosin._—If pure vanilla extract be evaporated to
about one-third its volume the rosins become insoluble and settle to
the bottom of the dish. Artificial extracts remain clear under the
same conditions. In examining vanilla extract the character of these
rosins is studied. For this purpose a dish containing about an ounce
of the extract is placed on a teakettle or other vessel of boiling
water until the liquid evaporates to about one-third or less of its
volume. Owing to the evaporation of the alcohol the rosins will then be
insoluble. Water may be added to restore the liquid to approximately
its original volume. The rosin will then separate out as a brown
flocculent precipitate. A few drops of hydrochloric acid may be added
and the liquid stirred and the insoluble matter allowed to settle. It
is then filtered and the rosin on the filter paper washed with water.
The rosin is then dissolved in a little alcohol, and to 1 portion of
this solution is added a small particle of ferric alum, and to another
portion a few drops of hydrochloric acid, If the rosin be that of the
vanilla bean, neither ferric alum nor hydrochloric acid will produce
more than a slight change of color. With rosins from most other
sources, however, one or both of these substances yield a distinct
color change.

For filtering, a piece of filter paper should be folded once through
the middle and again at right angles to the first fold. It may now be
opened with one fold on one side and three on the other and fitted
into a glass funnel. When the paper is folded in this manner the
precipitated rosins may be readily washed with water. When the washing
is completed the rosins may be dissolved by pouring alcohol through the
filter. This work with the rosins will require some practice before it
can be successfully performed. It is of considerable value, however, in
judging of the purity of vanilla extract.


«Lemon Extract.»—By lemon extract is understood a solution of lemon
oil in strong alcohol. In order to contain as much lemon oil as
is supposed to be found in high-grade extracts the alcohol should
constitute about 80 per cent of the sample. The alcohol is therefore
the most valuable constituent of lemon extract, and manufacturers who
turn out a low-grade product usually do so because of their economy
of alcohol rather than of lemon oil. Owing to the fact that lemon
extract is practically a saturated solution of oil of lemon in strong
alcohol the sample may be examined by simple dilution with water. A
teaspoonful of the oil in question may be placed in the bottom of an
ordinary glass tumbler and 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls of water added. If the
sample in question be real lemon extract the lemon oil should be thrown
out of solution by reason of its insolubility in the alcohol after
its dilution with water. The result is at first a marked turbidity
and later the separation of the oil of lemon on the top {357} of
the aqueous liquid. If the sample remains perfectly clear after the
addition of water, or if a marked turbidity is not produced, it is a
low-grade product and contains very little, if any, oil of lemon.


«Fruit Products.»—Adulteration of fruit products is practically
confined to jellies and jams. Contrary to the general belief, gelatin
is never used in making fruit jelly. In the manufacture of the very
cheapest grade of jellies starch is sometimes employed. Jellies
containing starch, however, are so crude in their appearance that the
most superficial inspection is sufficient to demonstrate that they are
not pure fruit jellies. From their appearance no one would think it
worth while to examine them to determine their purity.

Natural fruit jellies become liquid on being warmed. A spoonful
dissolves readily in warm water, although considerable time is
required with those that are especially firm. The small fruits contain
practically no starch, as apples do, and the presence of starch in a
jelly indicates that some apple juice has probably been used in its
preparation.

_Detection of Starch._—Dissolve a teaspoonful of jelly in a half
teacupful of hot water, heat to boiling and add, drop by drop,
while stirring with a teaspoon, a solution of potassium permanganate
until the solution is almost colorless. Then allow the solution to
cool and test for starch with tincture of iodine, as directed later.
Artificially colored jellies are sometimes not decolorized by potassium
permanganate. Even without decolorizing, however, the blue color can
usually be seen.

_Detection of Glucose._—For the detection of glucose, a teaspoonful
of the jelly may be dissolved in a glass tumbler or bottle in 2 or 3
tablespoonfuls of water. The vessel in which the jelly is dissolved may
be placed in hot water if necessary to hasten the solution. In case a
jam or marmalade is being examined, the mixture is filtered to separate
the insoluble matter. The solution is allowed to cool, and an equal
volume or a little more of strong alcohol is added. If the sample is
a pure fruit product the addition of alcohol causes no precipitation,
except that a very slight amount of proteid bodies is thrown down. If
glucose has been employed in its manufacture, however, a dense white
precipitate separates and, after a time, settles to the bottom of the
liquid.

_Detection of Foreign Seeds._—In addition to the forms of adulteration
to which jellies are subject, jams are sometimes manufactured from
the exhausted fruit pulp left after removing the juice for making
jelly. When this is done residues from different fruits are sometimes
mixed. Exhausted raspberry or blackberry pulp may be used in making
“strawberry” jam and _vice versa_. Some instances are reported of
various small seeds, such as timothy, clover, and alfalfa seed, having
been used with jams made from seedless pulp.

With the aid of a small magnifying glass such forms of adulteration may
be detected, the observer familiarizing himself with the seeds of the
ordinary fruits.

_Detection of Preservatives and Colors._—With jellies and jams
salicylic and benzoic acids are sometimes employed. They may be
detected by the methods given.

Artificial colors, usually coal-tar derivatives, are sometimes used and
may be detected as described.


«Meat Products.»—As in many other classes of foods, certain questions
important in the judgment of meats require practical experience and
close observation rather than chemical training. This is especially
true of meat products. The general appearance of the meat must largely
guide the purchaser. If, however, the meat has been treated with
preservatives and coloring matter its appearance is so changed as to
deceive him. The preservatives employed with meat products are boric
acid, borax, and sulphites. The methods for the detection of sulphites
are not suitable for household use.

_Detection of Boric Acid and Borax._—To detect boric acid (if borax has
been used the same reaction will be obtained), about a tablespoonful
of the chopped meat is thoroughly macerated with a little hot water,
pressed through a bag, and 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of the liquid placed
in a sauce dish with 15 or 20 drops of strong hydrochloric acid for
each tablespoonful. The liquid is then filtered through filter paper,
and a piece of turmeric paper dipped into it and dried near a lamp or
stove. If boric acid or borax were used for preserving the sample, the
turmeric paper should be changed to a bright cherry-red color. If too
much hydrochloric acid has been employed a dirty brownish-red color is
obtained, which interferes with the color due to the presence of {358}
boric acid. When a drop of household ammonia is added to the colored
turmeric paper, it is turned a dark green, almost black color, if boric
acid is present. If the reddish color, however, was caused by the use
of too much hydrochloric acid this green color does not form.

_Caution._—The corrosive nature of hydrochloric acid must not be
forgotten. It must not be allowed to touch the flesh, clothes, or any
metal.

_Detection of Colors._—The detection of coloring matter in sausage is
often a difficult matter without the use of a compound microscope. It
may sometimes be separated, however, by macerating the meat with a
mixture of equal parts of glycerine and water to which a few drops of
acetic or hydrochloric acid have been added. After macerating for some
time the mixture is filtered and the coloring matter detected by means
of dyeing wool in the liquid thus obtained.


«Spices.»—Although ground spices are very frequently adulterated,
there are few methods that may be used by one who has not had chemical
training, and who is not skilled in the use of a compound microscope,
for the detection of the adulterants employed. The majority of the
substances used for the adulteration of spices are of a starchy
character. Unfortunately for our purposes, most of the common spices
also contain a considerable amount of starch. Cloves, mustard, and
cayenne, however, are practically free from starch, and the presence of
starch in the ground article is proof of adulteration.

_Detection of Starch in Cloves, Mustard, and Cayenne._—A half
teaspoonful of the spice in question is stirred into half a cupful
of boiling water, and the boiling continued for 2 or 3 minutes. The
mixture is then cooled. If of a dark color, it is diluted with a
sufficient amount of water to reduce the color to such an extent that
the reaction formed by starch and iodine may be clearly apparent if
starch be present. The amount of dilution can only be determined by
practice, but usually the liquid must be diluted with an equal volume
of water, or only 1⁠/⁠4 of a teaspoonful of the sample may be employed
originally. A single drop of tincture of iodine is now added. If
starch is present, a deep blue color, which in the presence of a large
amount of starch appears black, is formed. If no blue color appears,
the addition of the iodine tincture should be continued, drop by drop,
until the liquid shows by its color the presence of iodine in solution.

_Detection of Colors._—Spice substitutes are sometimes colored with
coal-tar colors. These products may be detected by the methods given.


«Vinegar.»—A person thoroughly familiar with vinegar can tell much
regarding the source of the article from its appearance, color, odor,
and taste.

If a glass be rinsed out with the sample of vinegar and allowed to
stand for a number of hours or overnight, the odor of the residue
remaining in the glass is quite different with different kinds of
vinegar. Thus, wine vinegar has the odor characteristic of wine, and
cider vinegar has a peculiar fruity odor. A small amount of practice
with this test enables one to distinguish with a high degree of
accuracy between wine and cider vinegars and the ordinary substitutes.

If a sample of vinegar be placed in a shallow dish on a warm stove
or boiling teakettle and heated to a temperature sufficient for
evaporation and not sufficient to burn the residue, the odor of the
warm residue is also characteristic of the different kinds of vinegar.
Thus, the residue from cider vinegar has the odor of baked apples
and the flavor is acid and somewhat astringent in taste, and that
from wine vinegar is equally characteristic. The residue obtained by
evaporating vinegar made from sugar-house products and from spirit and
wood vinegar colored by means of caramel has the peculiar bitter taste
characteristic of caramel.

If the residue be heated until it begins to burn, the odor of the
burning product also varies with different kinds of vinegar. Thus, the
residue from cider vinegar has the odor of scorched apples, while that
of vinegars made from sugar-house wastes and of distilled and wood
vinegars colored with a large amount of caramel has the odor of burnt
sugar. In noting these characteristics, however, it must be borne in
mind that, in order to make them conform to these tests, distilled and
wood vinegars often receive the addition of apple jelly.

The cheaper forms of vinegar, especially distilled and wood vinegar,
are commonly colored with caramel, which can be detected by the method
given.


«FOOD COLORANTS.»

(Most, if not all, of these colorants are injurious and should
therefore be used with extreme caution.)


«Sausage Color.»—To dye sausage red, certain tar dyestuffs are
employed, {359} especially the azo dyes, preference being given to the
so-called genuine red. For this purpose about 100 parts of dyestuff
are dissolved in 1,000 to 2,000 parts of hot water; when the solution
is complete, add a likewise hot solution of 45 to 50 parts of boracic
acid, whereupon the mixture should be stirred well for some time; then
filter, allow to cool, and preserve in tightly closing bottles. It is
absolutely necessary in using aniline colors to add a disinfectant to
the dyestuff solution, the object of which is, in case the sausage
should commence to decompose, to prevent the decomposition azo dyestuff
by the disengaged hydrogen. Instead of boracic acid, formalin may be
used as a disinfectant. Of this formalin, 38 per cent, add about 25 to
30 parts to the cooled and filtered dyestuff solution. This sausage
color is used by adding about 1 1⁠/⁠2 to 2 tablespoonfuls of it to the
preserving salt measured out for 100 kilos of sausage mass, stirring
well. The sausage turns neither gray nor yellow on storing.


«Cheese Color.»—I.—To produce a suitable, pretty yellow color, boil
100 parts of orlean or annatto with 75 parts of potassium carbonate in
1 1⁠/⁠2 to 2 liters of water, allow to cool, and filter after settling,
whereupon 15 to 18 parts of boracic acid are added to give keeping
qualities to the solution. According to another method, digest about
200 parts of orlean, 200 parts of potassium carbonate, and 100 parts
of turmeric for 10 to 12 days in 1,500 to 2,000 parts of 60 per cent
alcohol, filter, and keep in bottles. To 100,000 parts of milk to be
made into cheese add 1 1⁠/⁠2 to 2 small spoonfuls of this dye, which
imparts to the cheese a permanent and natural yellow appearance.

II.—To obtain a handsome yellow color for cheese, such as is demanded
for certain sorts, boil together 100 parts of annatto and 75 parts of
potassium carbonate in from 1,500 to 2,000 parts of pure water; let it
cool, stand it aside for a time, and filter, adding finally from 12 to
15 parts of boracic acid as a preservative. For coloring butter, there
is in the trade a mixture of bicarbonate of soda with 12 per cent to 15
per cent of sodium chloride, to which is added from 1 1⁠/⁠2 per cent to
2 per cent of powdered turmeric.


«Butter Color.»—For the coloring of butter there is in the market under
the name of butter powder a mixture of sodium bicarbonate with 12 to
15 per cent of sodium chloride and 1 1⁠/⁠2 to 2 per cent of powdered
turmeric; also a mixture of sodium bicarbonate, 1,500 parts; saffron
surrogate, 8 parts; and salicylic acid, 2 parts. For the preparation
of liquid butter color use a uniform solution of olive oil, 1,500
parts; powdered turmeric, 300 parts; orlean, 200 parts. The orlean
is applied on a plate of glass or tin in a thin layer and allowed to
dry perfectly, whereupon it is ground very fine and intimately mixed
with the powdered turmeric. This mixture is stirred into the oil with
digestion for several hours in the water bath. When a uniform, liquid
mass has resulted, it is filtered hot through a linen filter with wide
meshes. After cooling, the filtrate is filled into bottles. Fifty to
60 drops of this liquid color to 1 1⁠/⁠2 kilos of butter impart to the
latter a handsome golden yellow shade.


«INFANT FOODS:»

Infants’ (Malted) Food.—

 I.—Powdered malt              1 ounce
     Oatmeal (finest ground)    2 ounces
     Sugar of milk              4 ounces
     Baked flour                1 pound

Mix thoroughly.

II.—Infantine is a German infant food which is stated to contain egg
albumen, 5.5 per cent; fat, 0.08 per cent; water, 4.22 per cent;
carbohydrates, 86.58 per cent (of which 54.08 per cent is soluble in
water); and ash, 2.81 per cent (consisting of calcium, 10.11 per cent;
potassium, 2.64 per cent; sodium, 25.27 per cent; chlorine, 36.65 per
cent; sulphuric acid, 3.13 per cent; and phosphoric acid, 18.51 per
cent).


«MEAT PRESERVATIVES.»

(Most of these are considered injurious by the United States Department
of Agriculture and should therefore be used with extreme caution.)


«The Preservation of Meats.»—Decomposition of the meat sets in as
soon as the blood ceases to pulse in the veins, and it is therefore
necessary to properly preserve it until the time of its consumption.

The nature of preservation must be governed by circumstances such as
the kind and quality of the article to be preserved, length of time
and climatic condition, etc. While salt, vinegar, and alcohol merit
recognition on the strength of a long-continued usage as preservatives,
modern usage favors boric acid and borax, and solutions containing
salicylic acid and sulphuric acid are common, {360} and have been the
subject of severe criticism.

Many other methods of preservation have been tried with variable
degrees of success; and of the more thoroughly tested ones the
following probably include all of those deserving more than passing
mention or consideration.

1. The exclusion of external, atmospheric electricity, which has been
observed to materially reduce the decaying of meat, milk, butter, beer,
etc.

2. The retention of occluded electric currents. Meats from various
animals packed into the same packages, and surrounded by a conducting
medium, such as salt and water, liberate electricity.

3. The removal of the nerve centers. Carcasses with the brains and
spinal cord left therein will be found more prone to decomposition than
those wherefrom these organs have been removed.

4. Desiccation. Dried beef is an excellent example of this method
of preservation. Other methods coming under this heading are the
application of spices with ethereal oils, various herbs, coriander seed
extracted with vinegar, etc.

5. Reduction of temperature, i. e., cold storage.

6. Expulsion of air from the meat and the containers. Appert’s,
Willaumez’s, Redwood’s, and Prof. A. Vogel’s methods are representative
for this category of preservation. Phenyl paper, Dr. Busch’s,
Georges’s, and Medlock and Baily’s processes are equally well known.

7. The application of gases. Here may be mentioned Dr. Gamgee’s and
Bert and Reynoso’s processes, applying carbon dioxide and other
compressed gases, respectively.

Air-drying, powdering of meat, smoking, pickling, sugar or vinegar
curing are too well known to receive any further attention here.
Whatever process may be employed, preference should be given to
that which will secure the principal objects sought for, the most
satisfactory being at the same time not deleterious to health, and of
an easily applicable and inexpensive nature.


«To Preserve Beef, etc., in Hot Weather.»—Put the meat into a hot
oven and let it remain until the surface is browned all over, thus
coagulating the albumen of the surface and inclosing the body of the
meat in an impermeable envelope of cooked flesh. Pour some melted lard
or suet into a jar of sufficient size, and roll the latter around until
the sides are evenly coated to the depth of half an inch with the
material. Put in the meat, taking care that it does not touch the sides
of the jar (thus scraping away the envelope of grease), and fill up
with more suet or lard, being careful to completely cover and envelop
the meat. Thus prepared, the meat will remain absolutely fresh for a
long time, even in the hottest weather. When required for use the outer
portion may be left on or removed. The same fat may be used over and
over again by melting and retaining in the melted state a few moments
each time, by which means not only all solid portions of the meat which
have been retained fall to the bottom, but all septic microbes are
destroyed.


«Meat Preservatives.»—I.—_Barmenite Corning Agent_: For every 100
parts, by weight, take 25.2 parts, by weight, of saltpeter; 46.8 parts,
by weight, sodium chloride; 25.7 parts, by weight, cane sugar; 0.8
parts, by weight, plaster of Paris or gypsum; 0.1 part, by weight, of
some moistening material, and a trace of magnesia.

II.—_Carniform, A_: For every 100 parts, by weight, take 3.5 parts,
by weight, sodium diphosphate; 3.1 parts, by weight, water of
crystallization; 68.4 parts, by weight, sodium chloride; 24.9 parts,
by weight, saltpeter; together with traces of calcium phosphate,
magnesia, and sulphuric acid.

III.—_Carniform, B_: For every 100 parts, by weight, take 22.6
parts, by weight, sodium diphosphate; 17.3 parts, by weight, water
of crystallization; 59.7 parts, by weight, saltpeter; 0.6 parts, by
weight, calcium phosphate; with traces of sulphuric acid and magnesia.

IV.—_“Cervelatwurst” (spice powder)_: For 100 parts, by weight,
take 0.7 parts, by weight, of moistening; 3.5 parts, by weight,
spices—mostly pepper; 89 parts, by weight, sodium chloride; 5 parts, by
weight, saltpeter; 0.7 parts, by weight, gypsum; and traces of magnesia.

V.—_Cervelatwurst Salt_ (_spice powder_): For 100 parts, by weight,
take 7.5 parts, by weight, spices—mostly pepper; 1.6 parts, by weight,
moistener; 81.6 parts, by weight, sodium chloride; 2.5 parts, by
weight, saltpeter; 6.2 parts, by weight, cane sugar; and traces of
magnesia.

VI.—_Rubrolin Sausage_ (_spice powder_): For 100 parts by weight, take
53.5 parts, by weight, sal ammoniac, and 45.2 parts, by weight, of
saltpeter.

VII.—_Servator Special Milk and Butter Preserving Salt_: 80.3 per cent
of crystallized boracic acid; 10.7 per cent {361} sodium chloride;
and 9.5 per cent of benzoic acid. (Its use is, however, prohibited in
Germany.)

VIII.—_Wittenberg Pickling Salt_: For 100 parts, by weight, take 58.6
parts, by weight, sodium chloride; 40.5 parts, by weight, saltpeter;
0.5 parts, by weight, gypsum; traces of moisture and magnesia.

IX.—_Securo_: For a quart take 3.8 parts, by weight, aluminum oxide,
and 8 parts, by weight, acetic acid; basic acetate of alumina, 62
parts, by weight; sulphuric acid, 0.8 parts, by weight; sodium oxide,
with substantially traces of lime and magnesia.

X.—_Michels Cassala Salt_: This is partially disintegrated. 30.74 per
cent sodium chloride; 15.4 per cent sodium phosphate; 23.3 per cent
potassio-sodic tartrate; 16.9 per cent water of crystallization; 1.2
per cent aluminum oxide; and 2.1 per cent acetic acid as basic acetate
of alumina; 8.4 per cent sugar; 0.98 per cent benzoic acid; 0.5 per
cent sulphuric acid; and traces of lime.

XI.—_Corning Salt_: Sodium nitrate, 50 parts; powdered boracic acid, 45
parts; salicylic acid, 5 parts.

XII.—_Preservative Salt_: Potassium nitrate, 70 parts; sodium
bicarbonate, 15 parts; sodium chloride, 15 parts.

XIII.—_Another Corning Salt_: Potassium nitrate, 50 parts; sodium
chloride, 20 parts; powdered boracic acid, 20 parts; sugar, 10 parts.

XIV.—_Maciline_ (_offered as condiment and binding agent for
sausages_): A mixture of wheat flour and potato flour dyed intensely
yellow with an azo dyestuff and impregnated with oil of mace.

 XV.—Borax              80 parts
      Boric acid         17 parts
      Sodium chloride     3 parts

Reduce the ingredients to a powder and mix thoroughly.

 XVI.—Sodium sulphite, powdered   80 parts
       Sodium sulphate, powdered   20 parts

 XVII.—Sodium chloride            80 parts
        Borax                       8 parts
        Potassium nitrate          12 parts

Reduce to a powder and mix.

 XVIII.—Sodium nitrate            50 parts
         Salicylic acid             5 parts
         Boric acid                45 parts

 XIX.—Potassium nitrate           70 parts
       Sodium bicarbonate          15 parts
       Sodium chloride             15 parts

 XX.—Potassium nitrate            50 parts
      Sodium chloride              20 parts
      Boric acid                   20 parts
      Sugar                        10 parts


«A German Method of Preserving Meat.»—Entire unboweled cattle or large,
suitably severed pieces are sprinkled with acetic acid and then packed
and transported in sawdust impregnated with cooking salt and sterilized.


«Extract of Meat Containing Albumen.»—In the ordinary production
of meat extract, the albumen is more or less lost, partly through
precipitation by the acids or the acid salts of the meat extract,
partly through salting out by the salts of the extract, and partly
by coagulation at a higher temperature. A subsequent addition of
albumen is impracticable because the albumen is likewise precipitated,
insolubly, by the acids and salts contained in the extract. This
precipitation can be prevented, according to a French patent, by
neutralizing the extract before mixing with albumen, by the aid of
sodium bicarbonate. The drying of the mixture is accomplished in a
carbonic acid atmosphere. The preparation dissolves in cold or hot
water into a white, milky liquid and exhibits the smell and taste of
meat extract, if the albumen added was tasteless. The taste which the
extract loses by the neutralization returns in its original strength
after the mixture with albumen. In this manner a meat preparation
is obtained which contains larger quantities of albumen and is more
nutritious and palatable than other preparations.


«Foot-Powders and Solutions»

The following foot-powders have been recommended as dusting powders:

 I.—Boric acid                      2 ounces
     Zinc oleate                     1 ounce
     Talcum                          3 ounces

 II.—Oleate of zinc (powdered)    1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Boric acid                     1 ounce
      French chalk                   5 ounces
      Starch                     1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

{362}

 III.—Dried alum                    1 drachm
       Salicylic acid              1⁠/⁠2 drachm
       Wheat starch                  4 drachms
       Powdered talc             1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

 IV.—Formaldehyde solution          1 part
      Thymol                      1⁠/⁠10 part
      Zinc oxide                    35 parts
      Powdered starch               65 parts

 V.—Salicylic acid                  7 drachms
     Boric acid                      2 ounces, 440 grains
     Talcum                         38 ounces
     Slippery elm bark               1 ounce
     Orris root                      1 ounce

 VI.—Talc                          12 ounces
      Boric acid                    10 ounces
      Zinc oleate                    1 ounce
      Salicylic acid                 1 ounce
      Oil of eucalyptus              2 drachms

 VII.—Salicylic acid                7 drachms
       Boric acid                    3 ounces
       Talcum                       38 ounces
       Slippery elm, powdered        1 ounce
       Orris, powdered               1 ounce


«Salicylated Talcum.»—

 I.—Salicylic acid                  1 drachm
     Talcum                          6 ounces
     Lycopodium                      6 drachms
     Starch                          3 ounces
     Zinc oxide                      1 ounce
     Perfume, quantity sufficient.

 II.—Tannoform                      1 drachm
      Talcum                         2 drachms
      Lycopodium                    30 grains

Use as a dusting powder.


«Solutions for Perspiring Feet.»—

 I.—Balsam Peru                    15 minims
     Formic acid                     1 drachm
     Chloral hydrate                 1 drachm
     Alcohol to make 3 ounces.

Apply by means of absorbent cotton.

 II.—Boric acid                    15 grains
      Sodium borate                  6 drachms
      Salicylic acid                 6 drachms
      Glycerine                  1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Alcohol to make 3 ounces.

For local application.

FOOTSORES ON CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.


«FORMALDEHYDE:»

See also Disinfectants, Foods, and Milk.


«Commercial Formaldehyde.»—This extremely poisonous preservative is
obtained by passing the vapors of wood spirit, in the presence of air,
over copper heated to redness. The essential parts of the apparatus
employed are a metal chamber into which a feed-tube enters, and from
which 4 parallel copper tubes or oxidizers discharge by a common
exit tube. This chamber is fitted with inspection apertures, through
which the course of the process may be watched and controlled. The
wood spirit, stored in a reservoir, falls into a mixer where it is
volatilized and intimately mixed with air from a chamber which is
connected with a force pump. The gases after traversing the oxidizer
are led into a condensing coil, and the crude formaldehyde is
discharged into the receiver beneath.

The small amount of uncondensed gas is then led through a series of
two washers. The “formol” thus obtained is a mixture of water, methyl
alcohol, and 30 to 40 per cent of formaldehyde. It is rectified in a
still, by which the free methyl alcohol is removed and pure formol
obtained, containing 40 per cent of formaldehyde, chiefly in the form
of the acetal. Rectification must not be pushed too far, otherwise
the formaldehyde may become polymerized into trioxmethylene. When
once oxidation starts, the heat generated is sufficient to keep the
oxidizers red hot, so that the process works practically automatically.


«Determination of the Presence of Formaldehyde in Solutions.»—Lemme
makes use, for this purpose, of the fact that formaldehyde, in neutral
solutions of sodium sulphite, forms normal bisulphite salts, setting
free a corresponding quantity of sodium hydrate, that may be titrated
with sulphuric acid and phenolphthalein. The sodium sulphite solution
has an alkaline reaction toward phenolphthalein, and must be exactly
neutralized with sodium bisulphite. Then to 100 cubic centimeters of
this solution of 250 grams of sodium sulphite (Na_〈2〉SO_〈3〉 + 7 H_〈2〉O)
in 750 grams water, add 5 cubic centimeters of the suspected
formaldehyde solution. A strong red color is instantly produced.
Titrate with normal sulphuric acid until the color disappears. As the
exact disappearance of the color is not easily determined, a margin of
from 0.1 to 0.2 cubic centimeters may be allowed without the exactness
of the reaction being injured, since 1 cubic centimeter of normal acid
answers to only 0.03 grams of formaldehyde.

FORMALIN FOR GRAIN SMUT: See Grain. {363}


«FRAMES: THEIR PROTECTION FROM FLIES.»

Since there is great risk of damaging the gilt when trying to remove
flyspecks with spirits of wine, it has been found serviceable to
cover gilding with a copal varnish. This hardens and will stand rough
treatment, and may be renewed wherever removed.

FRAME CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

FRAME POLISHES: See Polishes.

FRAMING, PASSE-PARTOUT: See Passe-Partout.

FRECKLE LOTIONS: See Cosmetics.

FREEZING MIXTURES: See also Refrigeration and Refrigerants.


«Freezing Preventives»


«Liquid for Cooling Automobile Engines.»—In order to prevent freezing
of the jacket water, when the engine is not in operation in cold
weather, solutions are used, notably of glycerine and of calcium
chloride (CaCl_〈2〉). The proportions for the former solution are equal
parts of water and glycerine, by weight; for the latter, approximately
1⁠/⁠2 gallon of water to 8 pounds of CaCl_〈2〉, or a saturated solution
at 60° F. This solution (CaCl_〈2〉 + 6 H_〈2〉O) is then mixed with equal
parts of water, gallon for gallon. Many persons complain that CaCl_〈2〉
corrodes the metal parts, but this warning need do no more than urge
the automobilist to use only the chemically pure salt, carefully
avoiding the “chloride of lime” (CaOCl_〈2〉).

A practical manufacturing chemist of wide experience gives this:

A saturated solution of common salt is one of the best things to use.
It does not affect the metal of the engine, as many other salts would,
and is easily renewed. It will remain fluid down to 0° F., or a little
below.

Equal parts of glycerine and water is also good, and has the advantage
that it will not crystallize in the chambers, or evaporate readily.
It is the most convenient solution to use on this account, and may
repay the increased cost over brine, in the comfort of its use. It
needs only the occasional addition of a little water to make it last
all winter and leave the machinery clean when it is drawn off. With
brine an incrustation of salt as the water evaporates is bound to occur
which reduces the efficiency of the solution until it is removed. Water
frequently must be added to keep the original volume, and to hold the
salt in solution. A solution of calcium chloride is less troublesome so
far as crystallizing is concerned, but is said to have a tendency to
corrode the metals.


«Anti-Freezing Solution for Automobilists.»—Mix and filter 4 1⁠/⁠2
pounds pure calcium chloride and a gallon of warm water and put the
solution in the radiator or tank. Replace evaporation with clean water,
and leakage with solution. Pure calcium chloride retails at about 8
cents per pound, or can be procured from any wholesale drug store at 5
cents.


«Anti-Freezing, Non-Corrosive Solution.»—A solution for water-jackets
on gas engines that will not freeze at any temperature above 20° below
zero (F.) may be made by combining 100 parts of water, by weight, with
75 parts of carbonate potash and 50 parts of glycerine. This solution
is non-corrosive and will remain perfectly liquid at all temperatures
above its congealing point.


«Anti-Frost Solution.»—As an excellent remedy against the freezing of
shop windows, apply a mixture consisting of 55 parts of glycerine
dissolved in 1,000 parts of 62 per cent alcohol, containing, to improve
the odor, some oil of amber. As soon as the mixture clarifies, it is
rubbed over the inner surface of the glass. This treatment, it is
claimed, not only prevents the formation of frost, but also stops
sweating.


«Protection of Acetylene Apparatus from Frost.»—Alcohol, glycerine, and
calcium chloride have been recommended for the protection of acetylene
generators from frost. The employment of calcium chloride, which must
not be confounded with chloride of lime, appears preferable in all
points of view. A solution of 20 parts of calcium chloride in 80 parts
of water congeals only at 5° F. above zero. But as this temperature
does not generally penetrate the generators, it will answer to use 10
or 15 parts of the chloride for 100 parts of water, which will almost
always be sufficient to avoid congelation. Care must be taken not to
use sea salt or other alkaline or metallic salts, which deteriorate the
metal of the apparatus.


«FROST BITE.»

When the skin is as yet unbroken, Hugo Kuhl advises the following: {364}

 I.—Carbolized water            4 drachms
     Nitric acid                 1 drop
     Oil of geranium             1 drop

Mix. Pencil over the skin and then hold the penciled place near the
fire until the skin is quite dry.

If the skin is already broken, use the following ointment:

 II.—Hebra’s ointment          500 parts
      Glycerine                 100 parts
      Liquefied carbolic acid    15 parts

Mix. Apply to the broken skin occasionally.

 III.—Camphor                  25 parts
       Iodine, pure             50 parts
       Olive oil               500 parts
       Paraffine, solid        450 parts
       Alcohol, enough.

Dissolve the camphor in the oil and the iodine in the least possible
amount of alcohol. Melt the paraffine and add the mixed solutions.
When homogeneous pour into suitable molds. Wrap the pencils in
paraffine paper or tin foil, and pack in wooden boxes. By using more or
less olive oil the pencils may be made of any desired consistency.

IV.—Dissolve 5 parts of camphor in a mixture consisting of 5 parts of
ether and 5 parts of alcohol; then add collodion sufficient to make 100
parts.

V.—Dissolve 1 part of thymol in 5 parts of a mixture of ether and
alcohol, then add collodion sufficient to make 100 parts.

 VI.—Carbolic acid              2 parts
      Lead ointment             40 parts
      Lanolin                   40 parts
      Olive oil                 20 parts
      Lavender oil           1 1⁠/⁠2 parts

 VII.—Tannic acid              15 parts
       Lycopodium               15 parts
       Lard                     30 parts

 VIII.—Zinc oxide              15 parts
        Glycerine               45 parts
        Lanolin                 40 parts

 IX.—Ichthyol                  10 parts
      Resorcin                  10 parts
      Tannic acid               10 parts
      Distilled water           50 parts

Any of these is to be applied about twice a day.

FROSTED GLASS: See Glass.

FROST PREVENTIVE: See Freezing Preventives.

FROST REMOVERS: See Glass.

FRUIT ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts.


«Fruit Preserving»

(See also Essences, Extracts, and Preserves.)


«How to Keep Fruit.»—According to experiments of Max de Nansouty,
fruit carefully wrapped in silk paper and then buried in dry sand
will preserve a fresh appearance with a fresh odor or flavor, almost
indefinitely. It may also be preserved in dry excelsior, but not nearly
so well. In stubble or straw fruit rots very quickly, while in shavings
it mildews quickly. In short, wheat-straw fruit often takes on a musty
taste and odor, even when perfectly dry. Finally, when placed on wooden
tablets and exposed to the air, most fruit decays rapidly.

I.—Crushed Strawberry.—Put up by the following process, the fruit
retains its natural color and taste, and may be exposed to the air for
months, without fermenting:

Take fresh, ripe berries, stem them, and rub through a No. 8 sieve,
rejecting all soft and green fruit. Add to each gallon of pulp thus
obtained, 8 pounds of granulated sugar. Put on the fire and bring just
to a boil, stirring constantly. Just before removing from the fire, add
to each gallon 1 ounce of a saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic
acid, stirring well. Remove the scum, and, while still hot, put into
jars, and hermetically seal. Put the jars in cold water, and raise them
to the boiling point, to prevent them from bursting by sudden expansion
on pouring hot fruit into them. Fill the jars entirely full, so as to
leave no air space when fruit cools and contracts.

II.—Crushed Raspberry.—Prepare in the same manner as for crushed
strawberry, using 1⁠/⁠2 red raspberries and 1⁠/⁠2 black, to give a nice
color, and using 7 pounds of sugar to each gallon of pulp.

III.—Crushed Pineapple.—Secure a good brand of canned grated pineapple,
and drain off about one-half of the liquor, by placing on a strainer.
Add to each pound of pineapple 1 pound of granulated sugar. Place on
the fire, and bring to boiling point, stirring constantly. Just before
removing from the fire, add to each gallon of pulp 1 ounce saturated
alcoholic solution of salicylic acid. {365} Put into air-tight jars
until wanted for use.

IV.—Crushed Peach.—Take a good brand of canned yellow peaches, drain
off liquor, and rub through a No. 8 sieve. Add sugar, bring to the
boiling point, and when ready to remove from fire add to each gallon 1
ounce saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid. Put into jars and
seal hermetically.

V.—Crushed Apricot.—Prepared in similar manner to crushed peach, using
canned apricots.

VI.—Crushed Orange.—Secure oranges with a thin peel, and containing
plenty of juice. Remove the outer, or yellow peel, first, taking care
not to include any of the bitter peel. (The outer peel may be used in
making orange phosphate, or tincture of sweet orange peel.) Next remove
the inner, bitter peel, quarter, and remove the seeds. Extract part of
the juice, and grind the pulp through an ordinary meat grinder. Add
sugar, place on the fire, and bring to the boiling point. When ready to
remove, add to each gallon 1 ounce of saturated alcoholic solution of
salicylic acid and 1 ounce of glycerine. Put into air-tight jars.

VII.—Crushed Cherries.—Stone the cherries and grind them to a pulp.
Add sugar, and place on the fire, stirring constantly. Before removing,
add to each gallon 1 ounce of the saturated solution of salicylic acid.
Put into jars and seal.

VIII.—Fresh Crushed Fruits in Season.—In their various seasons berries
and fruits may be prepared in fresh lots for the soda fountain each
morning, by reducing the fruit to a pulp, and mixing this pulp with an
equal quantity of heavy simple syrup.

Berries should be rubbed through a sieve. In selecting berries, it is
better to use the medium-sized berries for the pulp, reserving the
extra large specimens for garnishing and decorative effects.

Mash the berries with a wooden masher, never using iron or copper
utensils, which may discolor the fruit.

Pineapple may be prepared by removing the rough outer skin and grating
the pulp upon an ordinary tin kitchen grater. The grater should be
scrupulously clean, and care should be taken not to grate off any of
the coarse, fibrous matter comprising the fruit’s core.

All crushed fruits are served as follows: Mix equal quantities of pulp
and simple syrup in the counter bowl; use 1 1⁠/⁠2 to 2 ounces to each
glass, adding the usual quantity of cream, or ice cream. Draw soda,
using a fine stream freely.

IX.—Glacés.—Crushed fruits, served in the following manner, make a
delicious and refreshing drink:

 Crushed fruit           12 drachms
 Juice of half a lemon.
 Shaved ice.

Put the ice into a small glass, add the fruit and lemon juice, stir
well, and serve with a spoon and straws.

FRUIT PRODUCTS, TESTS FOR: See Foods.

FRUIT SYRUPS: See Syrups.

FRUIT VINEGAR: See Vinegar.


«Fumigants»

(See also Disinfectants.)


«Fumigating Candles.»—I.—Lime wood charcoal, 6,000 parts, by weight,
saturated with water (containing saltpeter, 150 parts, by weight, in
solution), and dried again, is mixed with benzoin, 750 parts, by
weight; styrax, 700 parts, by weight; mastic, 100 parts, by weight;
cascarilla, 450 parts, by weight; Peruvian balsam, 40 parts, by weight;
Mitcham oil, lavender oil, lemon oil, and bergamot oil, 15 parts, by
weight, each; and neroli oil, 3 parts, by weight.

II.—Charcoal, 7,500 parts, by weight; saltpeter, 150 parts, by weight;
Tolu balsam, 500 parts, by weight; musk, 2 parts, by weight; rose oil,
1 part. The mixtures are crushed with thick tragacanth to a solid mass.

III.—Sandal wood, 48 parts, by weight; clove, 6 parts, by weight;
benzoin, 6 parts, by weight; licorice juice, 4 parts, by weight; potash
saltpeter, 2 parts, by weight; cascarilla bark, 1.5 parts, by weight;
cinnamon bark, 1.5 parts, by weight; musk, 0.05 parts, by weight. All
these substances are powdered and mixed, whereupon the following are
added: Styrax (liquid), 5 parts, by weight; cinnamon oil, 0.05 parts,
by weight; clove oil, 0.05 parts, by weight; geranium oil, 0.5 parts,
by weight; lavender oil, 0.2 parts, by weight; Peruvian balsam, 0.2
parts, by weight. The solid ingredients are each powdered separately,
then placed in the respective proportion in a {366} spacious porcelain
dish and intimately mixed by means of a flat spatula. The dish must be
covered up with a cloth in this operation. After the mixture has been
accomplished, add the essential oils and just enough solution of gum
arabic so that by subsequent kneading with the pestle a moldable dough
results which possesses sufficient solidity after drying. The mass is
pressed into metallic molds in the shape of cones not more than 3⁠/⁠4
of an inch in height.

IV.—Red Fumigating Candles.—Sandal wood, 1 part; gum benzoin, 1.5
parts; Tolu balsam, 0.250 parts; sandal oil, .025 parts; cassia oil,
.025 parts; clove oil, 25 parts; saltpeter, .090 parts. The powder is
mixed intimately, saturated with spirit of wine, in which the oils are
dissolved, and shaped into cones.

 V.—Wintergreen oil              1 part
     Tragacanth                  20 parts
     Saltpeter                   50 parts
     Phenol, crystallized       100 parts
     Charcoal, powdered         830 parts
     Water.

Dissolve the saltpeter in the water, stir the solution together with
the powdered charcoal and dry. Then add the tragacanth powder, also
the wintergreen oil and the phenol, and prepare from the mixture, by
means of a tragacanth solution containing 2 per cent of saltpeter, a
mass which can be shaped into candles.


«Fumigating Perfumes.»—These are used for quickly putting down bad
odors in the sick room, etc. They are decidedly antiseptic, and fulfil
their purpose admirably.

I.—Select good white blotting paper, and cut each large sheet
lengthwise into 3 equal pieces. Make a solution of 1 ounce of potassium
nitrate in 12 ounces of boiling water; place this solution in a large
plate, and draw each strip of paper over the solution so as to saturate
it. Then dry by hanging up. The dried paper is to be saturated in a
similar manner with either of the following solutions:

 (1) Siam benzoin            1 ounce
     Storax                  3 drachms
     Olibanum                2 scruples
     Mastic                  2 scruples
     Cascarilla              2 drachms
     Vanilla                 1 drachm
     Rectified spirit        8 ounces

Bruise the solids and macerate in the spirit 5 days, filter, and add

 Oil of cinnamon             8 parts
 Oil of cloves               8 parts
 Oil of bergamot             5 parts
 Oil of neroli               5 parts

Mix.

 (2) Benzoin             1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Sandal wood             1 ounce
     Spirit                  8 ounces

Macerate as No. 1, and add

 Essence of vetiver          3 ounces
 Oil of lemon grass         40 drops

Mix.

After the paper is dry, cut up into suitable sized pieces to go into
commercial envelopes.

 II.—Benzoin                    1 av. ounce
      Storax                     1 av. ounce
      Fumigating essence         2 fluidounces
      Ether                      1 fluidounce
      Acetic acid, glacial      20 drops
      Alcohol                    2 fluidounces

Dissolve the benzoin and storax in a mixture of the alcohol and ether,
filter and add the fumigating and the acetic acid. Spread the mixture
upon filtering or bibulous paper and allow it to dry. To prevent
sticking, dust the surface with talcum and preserve in wax paper. When
used the paper is simply warmed, or held over a lamp.

 III.—Musk                       0.2 parts
       Oil of rose                  1 part
       Benzoin                    100 parts
       Myrrh                       12 parts
       Orris root                 250 parts
       Alcohol (90 per cent)      500 parts

 IV.—Benzoin                      80 parts
      Balsam Tolu                  20 parts
      Storax                       20 parts
      Sandal wood                  20 parts
      Myrrh                        10 parts
      Cascarilla bark              20 parts
      Musk                        0.2 parts
      Alcohol                     250 parts


«Fumigating Ribbon.»—I.—Take 1⁠/⁠2-inch cotton tape and saturate it
with niter; when dry, saturate with the following tincture:

 Benzoin                 1 ounce
 Orris root              1 ounce
 Myrrh                   2 drachms
 Tolu balsam             2 drachms
 Musk                   10 grains
 Rectified spirit       10 ounces

Macerate for a week, filter, and add 10 minims of attar of rose.

II.—Another good formula which may also be used for fumigating paper,
is: {367}

 Olibanum                     2 ounces
 Storax                       1 ounce
 Benzoin                      6 drachms
 Peruvian balsam            1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Tolu balsam                  3 drachms
 Rectified spirit            10 ounces

Macerate 10 days, and filter.


«Perfumed Fumigating Pastilles.»—

 I.—Vegetable charcoal       6 ounces
     Benzoin                  1 ounce
     Nitrate of potash      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Tolu balsam              2 drachms
     Sandal wood              2 drachms
     Mucilage of tragacanth, a sufficiency.

Reduce the solids to fine powder, mix, and make into a stiff paste with
the mucilage. Divide this into cones 25 grains in weight, and dry with
a gentle heat.

 II.—Powdered willow charcoal      8 ounces
      Benzoic acid                  6 ounces
      Nitrate of potash             6 drachms
      Oil of thyme                1⁠/⁠2 drachm
      Oil of sandal wood          1⁠/⁠2 drachm
      Oil of caraway              1⁠/⁠2 drachm
      Oil of cloves               1⁠/⁠2 drachm
      Oil of lavender             1⁠/⁠2 drachm
      Oil of rose                 1⁠/⁠2 drachm
      Rose water                   10 ounces

Proceed as in I, but this recipe is better for the addition of 20
grains of powdered tragacanth.

 III.—Benzoin                     10 av. ounces
       Charcoal                    24 av. ounces
       Potassium nitrate            1 av. ounce
       Sassafras                    2 av. ounces
       Mucilage of acacia, sufficient.

Mix the first four in fine powder, add the mucilage, form a mass, and
make into conical pastilles.

 IV.—Potassium nitrate           375 grains
      Water                        25 fluidounces
      Charcoal wood, powder        30 av. ounces
      Tragacanth, powder          375 grains
      Storax                      300 grains
      Benzoin                     300 grains
      Vanillin                      8 grains
      Coumarin                      3 grains
      Musk                          3 grains
      Civet                     1 1⁠/⁠2 grains
      Oil of rose                  20 drops
      Oil of bergamot              15 drops
      Oil of ylang-ylang           10 drops
      Oil of rhodium               10 drops
      Oil of sandal wood            5 drops
      Oil of cinnamon               5 drops
      Oil of orris                  1 drop
      Oil of cascarilla             1 drop

Saturate the charcoal with the potassium nitrate dissolved in the
water, dry the mass, powder, add the other ingredients, and mix
thoroughly. Beat the mixture to a plastic mass with the addition of
sufficient mucilage of tragacanth containing 2 per cent of saltpeter
in solution, and form into cone-shaped pastilles. In order to evenly
distribute the storax throughout the mass, it may be previously
dissolved in a small amount of acetic ether.

 V.—Benzoin                        2 av. ounces
     Cascarilla                     1 av. ounce
     Myrrh                          1 av. ounce
     Potassium nitrate            1⁠/⁠2 av. ounce
     Potassium chlorate            60 grains
     Charcoal, wood                 4 av. ounces
     Oil of cloves                  1 fluidrachm
     Oil of cinnamon                1 fluidrachm
     Oil of lavender                1 fluidrachm
     Mucilage of tragacanth, sufficient.

Mix the first six ingredients previously reduced to fine powder, add
the oils, and then incorporate enough mucilage to form a mass. Divide
this into pastilles weighing about 60 grains and dry.

 VI.—Charcoal, powder             30 av. ounces
      Potassium nitrate           1⁠/⁠2 av. ounce
      Water                        33 fluidounces
      Tragacanth, powder          300 grains
      Tincture of benzoin       1 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces
      Peru balsam                 300 grains
      Storax, crude               300 grains
      Tolu balsam                 300 grains
      Oleo-balsamic mixture     2 1⁠/⁠2 fluidrachms
      Coumarin                      8 grains

Saturate the charcoal with the potassium nitrate dissolved in the
water, then dry, reduce to powder, and incorporate the tragacanth
and then the remaining ingredients. Form a mass by the addition of
sufficient mucilage of tragacanth containing 2 per cent of potassium
nitrate in solution and divide into pastilles.

 VII.—Powdered nitrate of potassium       1⁠/⁠2 ounce
       Powdered gum arabic                 1⁠/⁠2 ounce
       Powdered cascarilla bark (fresh)    1⁠/⁠2 ounce
       Powdered benzoin (fresh)              4 ounces {368}
       Powdered charcoal                     7 ounces
       Oil of eucalyptus                    25 drops
       Oil of cloves                        25 drops
       Water, a sufficiency.

Make a smooth paste, press into molds and dry.


«FURS:»


«To Clean Furs.»—For dark furs, warm a quantity of new bran in a pan,
taking care that it does not burn, to prevent which it must be briskly
stirred. When well warmed rub it thoroughly into the fur with the hand.
Repeat this 2 or 3 times, then shake the fur, and give it another sharp
rubbing until free from dust. For white furs: Lay them on a table, and
rub well with bran made moist with warm water; rub until quite dry, and
afterwards with dry bran. The wet bran should be put on with flannel,
then dry with book muslin. Light furs, in addition to the above, should
be well rubbed with magnesia or a piece of book muslin, after the bran
process, against the way of the fur.


«To Preserve Furs.»—I.—Furs may be preserved from moths and other
insects by placing a little colocynth pulp (bitter apple), or spice
(cloves, pimento, etc.), wrapped in muslin, among them; or they may be
washed in a very weak solution of corrosive sublimate in warm water (10
to 15 grains to the pint), and afterwards carefully dried. As well as
every other species of clothing, they should be kept in a clean, dry
place, from which they should be taken out occasionally, well beaten,
exposed to the air, and returned.

II.—Sprinkle the furs or woolen stuffs, as well as the drawers or boxes
in which they are kept, with spirits of turpentine, the unpleasant
scent of which will speedily evaporate on exposure of the stuffs to
the air. Some persons place sheets of paper moistened with spirits of
turpentine, over, under, or between pieces of cloth, etc., and find it
a very effectual method. Many woolen drapers put bits of camphor, the
size of a nutmeg, in papers, on different parts of the shelves in their
shops, and as they brush their cloths every 2, 3, or 4 months, this
keeps them free from moths; and this should be done in boxes where the
furs, etc., are put. A tallow candle is frequently put within each muff
when laid by. Snuff or pepper is also good.


«FURNACE JACKET.»

A piece of asbestos millboard—10 inches by 4 inches by 3⁠/⁠8 inch—is
perforated in about a dozen or more places with glycerined cork borers,
then nicked about an inch from each short end and immersed in water
until saturated; next the board is bent from the nicks at right angles
and the perforated portion shaped by bending it over a bottle with as
little force as possible. The result should be a perforated arched
tunnel, resting on narrow horizontal ledges at each side. Dry this
cover in the furnace, after setting it in position, and pressing it
well to the supports. Three such covers, weighing 1 pound, replaced
24 fire clay tiles, weighing 13 pounds, and a higher temperature was
obtained than with the latter.

FURNITURE CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

FURNITURE, ITS DECORATION: See Wood.

FURNITURE ENAMEL: See Varnishes.

FURNITURE POLISHES: See Polishes.

FURNITURE WAX: See Waxes.

FUSES: See Pyrotechnics.

FUSES FOR ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS: See Alloys.

FUNNELS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

GALVANIZED PAPER: See Paper, Metallic.

GAMBOGE STAIN: See Lacquers.

GAPES IN POULTRY: See Veterinary Formulas.

GARANCINE PROCESS: See Dyes.


«GARDENS, CHEMICAL:»

See also Sponges.

I.—Put some sand into a fish-globe or other suitable glass vessel to
the depth of 2 or 3 inches; in this place a few pieces of sulphate of
copper, aluminum, and iron; pour over the whole a solution of sodium
silicate (water glass), 1 part, and water, 3 parts, care being taken
not to disarrange the chemicals. Let this stand a week or so, when a
dense growth of the silicates of the various bases used will be seen in
various colors. Now displace {369} the solution of the sodium silicate
with clear water, by conveying a stream of water through a very small
rubber tube into the vessel. The water will gradually displace the
sodium silicate solution. Care must be taken not to disarrange or break
down the growth with the stream of water. A little experimenting,
experience and expertness will enable the operator to produce a very
pretty garden.

II.—This is a permanent chemical garden, which may be suspended by
brass chains with a lamp behind.

Prepare a small beaker or jar full of cold saturated solution of
Glauber’s salt, and into the solution suspend by means of threads a
kidney bean and a non-porous body, such as a marble, stone, glass, etc.
Cover the jar, and in a short time there will be seen radiating from
the bean small crystals of sulphate of sodium which will increase and
give the bean the aspect of a sea urchin, while the non-porous body
remains untouched. The bean appears to have a special partiality for
the crystals, which is due to the absorption of water by the bean, but
not of the salt. In this way a supersaturated solution is formed in
the immediate neighborhood of the bean, and the crystals, in forming,
attach themselves to its surface.

III.—A popular form of ornamental crystallization is that obtained by
immersing a zinc rod in a solution of a lead salt, thus obtaining the
“lead tree.” To prepare this, dissolve lead acetate in water, add a few
drops of nitric acid, and then suspend the zinc rod in the solution.
The lead is precipitated in large and beautiful plates until the
solution is exhausted or the zinc dissolved. In this case the action is
electro-chemical, the first portions of the lead precipitated forming
with the zinc a voltaic arrangement of sufficient power to decompose
the salt.

It is said that by substituting chloride of tin for the lead salt a
“tin tree” may be produced, while nitrate of silver under the same
conditions would produce a “silver tree.” In the latter case distilled
water should be used to prevent precipitation of the silver by possible
impurities contained in ordinary water.

GAS FIXTURES: See Brass.

GAS FIXTURES, BRONZING OF: See Plating.

GAS SOLDERING: See Soldering.

GAS-STOVES, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

GAS TRICK: See Pyrotechnics.

GEAR LUBRICANT: See Lubricants.


«GELATIN:»


«French Gelatin.»—Gelatin is derived from two sources, the parings of
skins, hides, etc., and from bones. The latter are submitted to the
action of dilute hydrochloric acid for several days, which attacks the
inorganic matters—carbonates, phosphates, etc., and leaves the ossein,
which is, so to say, an isomer of the skin substance. The skin, parings
of hide, etc., gathered from the shambles, butcher shops, etc., are
brought into the factory, and if not ready for immediate use are thrown
into quicklime, which preserves them for the time being. From the lime,
after washing, they pass into dilute acid, which removes the last
traces of lime, and are now ready for the treatment that is to furnish
the pure gelatin. The ossein from bones goes through the same stages
of treatment, into lime, washed and laid in dilute acid again. From
the acid bath the material goes into baths of water maintained at a
temperature not higher than from 175° to 195° F.

The gelatin manufacturer buys from the button-makers and manufacturers
of knife handles and bone articles generally, those parts of the bone
that they cannot use, some of which are pieces 8 inches long by a half
inch thick.

Bones gathered by the ragpickers furnish the strongest glue. The
parings of skin, hide, etc., are from those portions of bullock hides,
calf skins, etc., that cannot be made use of by the tanner, the heads,
legs, etc.

The gelatin made by Coignet for the Pharmacie Centrale de France is
made from skins procured from the tawers of Paris, who get it directly
from the abattoirs, which is as much as to say that the material is
guaranteed fresh and healthy, since these institutions are under rigid
inspection and surveillance of government inspectors and medical men.

There is a gelatin or glue, used exclusively for joiners, inside
carpenters, and ceiling makers (_plafonneurs_), called _rabbit
vermicelli_, and derived from rabbit skins. As the first treatment of
these skins is to saturate them with mercury bichloride, it is needless
to say the product is not employed in pharmacy. {370}


«To Clarify Solutions of Gelatin, Glues, etc.»—If 1 per cent of
ammonium fluoride be added to turbid solutions of gelatin or common
glue, or, in fact, of any gums, it quickly clarifies them. It causes a
deposition of ligneous matter, and also very materially increases the
adhesive power of such solutions.


«Air Bubbles in Gelatin.»—The presence of minute air bubbles in cakes
of commercial gelatin often imparts to them an unpleasant cloudy
appearance. These minute air bubbles are the result of the rapid,
continuous process of drying the sheets of gelatin by a counter-current
of hot air. Owing to the rapid drying a hard skin is formed on the
outside of the cake, leaving a central layer from which the moisture
escapes only with difficulty, and in which the air bubbles remain
behind. Since the best qualities of gelatin dry most rapidly, the
presence of these minute bubbles is, to a certain extent, an indication
of superiority, and they rarely occur in the poorer qualities of
gelatin. If dried slowly in the old way gelatin is liable to be damaged
by fermentation; in such cases large bubbles of gas are formed in the
sheets, and are a sign of bad quality.


«GEMS, ARTIFICIAL:»

See also Diamonds.

The raw materials for the production of artificial gems are the finest
silica and, as a rule, finely ground rock crystals; white sand and
quartz, which remain pure white even at a higher temperature, may also
be used.

Artificial borax is given the preference, since the native variety
frequently contains substances which color the glass. Lead carbonate
or red lead must be perfectly pure and not contain any protoxide,
since the latter gives the glass a dull, greenish hue. White lead and
red lead have to dissolve completely in dilute nitric acid or without
leaving a residue; the solution, neutralized as much as possible,
must not be reddened by prussiate of potash. In the former case tin
is present, in the latter copper. Arsenious acid and saltpeter must
be perfectly pure; they serve for the destruction of the organic
substances. The materials, without the coloring oxide, furnish the
starting quantity for the production of artificial gems; such glass
pastes are named “strass.”

The emerald, a precious stone of green color, is imitated by melting
1,000 parts of strass and 8 parts of chromic oxide. Artificial emeralds
are also obtained with cupric acid and ferric oxides, consisting of
43.84 parts of rock crystal; 21.92 parts of dry sodium carbonate; 7.2
parts of calcined and powdered borax; 7.2 parts of red lead; 3.65 parts
of saltpeter; 1.21 parts of red ferric oxide, and 0.6 parts of green
copper carbonate.

Agates are imitated by allowing fragments of variously colored pastes
to flow together, and stirring during the deliquation.

The amethyst is imitated by mixing 300 parts of a glass frit with 0.6
parts of gray manganese ore, or from 300 parts of frit containing 0.8
per cent of manganic oxide, 36.5 parts of saltpeter, 15 parts of borax,
and 15 parts of minium (red lead). A handsome amethyst is obtained by
melting together 1,000 parts of strass, 8 parts of manganese oxide, 5
parts of cobalt oxide, and 2 parts of gold purple.

Latterly, attempts have also been made to produce very hard glasses for
imitation stones from alumina and borax with the requisite coloring
agents.

Besides imitation stones there are also produced opaque glass pastes
bearing the name of the stones they resemble, e. g., aventurine,
azure-stone (lapis lazuli), chrysoprase, turquoise, obsidian, etc. For
these, especially pure materials, as belonging to the most important
ingredients of glassy bodies, are used, and certain quantities of red
lead and borax are also added.

GEM CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Jewelers’ Cements.

GERMAN SILVER: See Alloys.

GERMAN SILVER SOLDERS: See Solders.

GILDING: See Paints, Plating, and Varnishes.

GILDING GLASS: See Glass.

GILDING, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

GILDING, RENOVATION OF: See Cleaning Compounds.

GILDING SUBSTITUTE: See Plating.

GILT, TEST FOR: See Gold.

GILT WORK, TO BURNISH: See Gold. {371}

GINGERADE: See Beverages.

GINGER ALE AND GINGER BEER: See Beverages.

GINGER CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

GINGER EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts.


«Glass»


«Bent Glass.»—This was formerly used for show cases; its use in store
fronts is becoming more and more familiar, large plates being bent
for this purpose. It is much used in the construction of dwellings,
in windows, or rounded corners, and in towers; in coach fronts and in
rounded front china closets. Either plain glass or beveled glass may be
bent, and to any curve.

The number of molds required in a glass-bending establishment is large.

The bending is done in a kiln. Glass melts at 2,300° F.; the heat
employed in bending is 1,800° F. No pyrometer would stand long in that
heat, so the heat of the kiln is judged from the color of the flame
and other indications. Smaller pieces of glass are put into the molds
in the kilns with forks made for the purpose. The great molds used for
bending large sheets of glass are mounted on cars, that may be rolled
in and out of kilns. The glass is laid upon the top of the mold or
cavity, and is bent by its own weight. As it is softened by the heat
it sinks into the mold and so is bent. It may take an hour or two to
bend the glass, which is then left in the kiln from 24 to 36 hours to
anneal and cool. Glass of any kind or size is put into the kilns in
its finished state; the great heat to which it is subjected does not
disturb the polished surface. Despite every precaution more or less
glass is broken in bending. Bent glass costs about 50 per cent more
than the flat.

The use of bent glass is increasing, and there are 4 or 5 glass-bending
establishments in the United States, of which one is in the East.


«Colored Glass.»—R. Zsigmondy has made some interesting experiments
in coloring glass with metallic sulphides, such as molybdenite, and
sulphides of antimony, copper, bismuth, and nickel. Tests made with
batches of 20 to 40 pounds and with a heat not too great, give good
results as follows:

Sand, 65 parts; potash, 15 parts; soda, 5 parts; lime, 9 parts;
molybdenite, 3 parts; sulphide of sodium, 2 parts, gave a dark
reddish-brown glass. In thinner layers this glass appeared light
brownish yellow. Flashed with opal, it became a smutty black brown.

Sand, 50 parts; potash, 15 parts; soda, 5 parts; lime, 9 parts;
molybdenite, 1 part; sulphide of sodium, 2 parts, gave a yellow glass.

Sand, 10 parts; potash, 3.3 parts; soda, 0.27 parts; lime, 1.64 parts;
molybdenite, 0.03 parts, gave a reddish-yellow glass with a fine tinge
of red.

Sand, 100 parts; potash, 26 parts; soda, 108 parts; lime, 12 parts;
sulphide of copper, 1.7 parts; sulphide of sodium, 2.3 parts, gave a
dark-brown color, varying from sepia to sienna. In thick layers it was
no longer transparent, but still clear and unclouded. When heated this
glass became smutty black brown and clouded.

A fine copper red was obtained from sand, 10 parts; potash, 3 parts;
lime, 1.2 parts; soda, 0.25 parts; sulphide of copper, 7.5 parts;
sulphide of sodium, 10.5 parts; borax, 9.5 parts.

Attempts to color with sulphides of antimony and bismuth failed. But
the addition of 7 per cent of sulphide of nickel to an ordinary batch
gave a glass of fine amethyst color.


«Coloring Electric-Light Bulbs and Globes.»—Two substances suggest
themselves as excellent vehicles of color, and both water soluble—water
glass (potassium or sodium silicate) and gelatin. For tinting,
water-soluble aniline colors should be tried. The thickness of the
solution must be a matter of experimentation. Prior to dipping the
globes they should be made as free as possible from all grease, dirt,
etc. The gelatin solution should not be so thick that any appreciable
layer of it will form on the surface of the glass, and to prevent
cracking, some non-drying material should be added to it, say glycerine.


«Rose-Tint Glass.»—Selenium is now used for coloring glass. Rose-tinted
glass is made by adding selenium directly to the ingredients in the
melting pot. By mixing first with cadmium sulphide, orange red is
produced. This process is stated not to require the reheating of the
glass and its immersion in the coloring mixture, as in the ordinary
process of making red glass.


«CUTTING, DRILLING, GRINDING, AND SHAPING GLASS:»


«To Cut Glass.»—I.—Glass may be cut without a diamond. Dip a piece of
{372} common string in alcohol and squeeze it reasonably dry. Then tie
the string tightly around the glass on the line of cutting. Touch a
match to the string and let it burn off. The heat of the burning string
will weaken the glass in this particular place. While it is hot plunge
the glass under water, letting the arm go well under to the elbow, so
there will be no vibration when the glass is struck. With the free hand
strike the glass outside the line of cutting, giving a quick, sharp
stroke with a stick of wood, a long-bladed knife, or the like, and the
cut will be as clean and straight as if made by a regular glass cutter.

The same principle may be employed to cut bottles into vases, and to
form all sorts of pretty things, such as jewelry boxes, picture panes,
trays, small tablets, windows for a doll house, etc.

II.—Scratch the glass around the shape you desire with the corner of a
file or graver; then, having bent a piece of wire into the same shape,
heat it red hot and lay it upon the scratch and sink the glass into
cold water just deep enough for the water to come almost on a level
with its upper surface. It will rarely fail to break perfectly true.


«To Cut Glass Under Water.»—It is possible to cut a sheet of glass
roughly to any desired shape with an ordinary pair of scissors, if the
operation be performed under water. Of course, a smooth edge cannot be
obtained by such means, but it will be found satisfactory.


«Drilling, Shaping, and Filing Glass.»—Take any good piece of steel
wire, file to the shape of a drill, and then hold it in a flame till
it is at a dull red heat; then quench in metallic mercury. A piece of
good steel, thus treated, will bore through glass almost as easily as
through soft brass. In use, lubricate with oil of turpentine in which
camphor has been dissolved. When the point of the drill has touched the
other side put the glass in water, and proceed with the drilling very
slowly. If not possible to do this, reverse the work—turn the glass
over and drill, very carefully, from the opposite side. By proceeding
with care you can easily drill three holes through glass 3⁠/⁠16 inch
thick 1⁠/⁠4 of an inch apart. In making the drill be careful not to
make the point and the cutting edges too acute. The drill cuts more
slowly, but more safely, when the point and cutting edges are at a low
angle.


«To Make Holes in Thin Glass.»—To produce holes in panes of thin or
weak glass, provide the places to be perforated with a ring of moist
loam, whose center leaves free a portion of glass exactly the size of
the desired hole. Pour molten lead into the ring, and the glass and
lead will fall through at once. This process is based upon the rapid
heating of the glass.


«To Grind Glass.»—For the grinding of glass, iron, or steel laps and
fine sand are first used; after that, the sand is replaced by emery.
Then the polishing is started with pure lead or pure tin laps, and
finished with willow wood laps. The polishing powder is tin putty, but
peroxide of iron or dioxide of tin is a good polishing medium.

Pohl asserts that if glass is polished with crocus (Paris red) it
appears of a dark or a yellowish-brown tint. He contends that the
crocus enters the pores of the glass, and, to prevent this, he uses
zinc white with the most satisfactory results.


«A Home-Made Outfit for Grinding Glass.»—Provide two pieces of cork,
one concave and one convex (which may be cut to shape after fitting
to the lathe). Take a copper cent or other suitable article and
soft-solder a screw to fit the lathe, and then wax it to the cork; get
a cheap emery wheel, such as is used on sewing machines. Polish the
edge on the zinc collar of the emery wheel (or use a piece of zinc).
The other cork should be waxed to a penny and centered. Spectacle
lenses may be cut on the same emery wheel if the wheel is attached to
the lathe so as to revolve. Another method is to take a common piece of
window glass (green glass is the best) and make a grindstone of that,
using the flat surface for grinding. Cement it on a large chuck, the
glass being from 2 to 2 1⁠/⁠2 inches in diameter.


«To Drill Optical Glass.»—A graver sharpened to a long point is twisted
between the fingers, and pressed against the glass, the point being
moistened from time to time with turpentine. When the hole is finished
half way, the drilling should be commenced from the other side. The
starting should be begun with care, as otherwise the graver is likely
to slide out and scratch the lens. It is advisable to mark the point
of drilling with a diamond, and not to apply too great a pressure when
twisting the graver.


«Lubricants for Glass Drilling.»—I.—Put garlic, chopped in small
pieces, into spirit of turpentine and agitate the {373} mixture from
time to time. Filter at the end of a fortnight, and when you desire to
pierce the glass dip your bit or drill into this liquid, taking care to
moisten it constantly to prevent the drill, etc., from becoming heated.

II.—Place a little alum in acetic acid, dip your drill into this and
put a drop of it on the spot where the glass is to be pierced.


«GILDING GLASS.»

When it is desired to gild glass for decorative purposes use a solution
of gelatin in hot water, to which an equal quantity of alcohol has been
added. The glass to be gilded is covered with this solution and the
gold leaf put on while wet. A sheet of soft cotton must be pressed and
smoothed over the leaf until the gelatin below is evenly distributed.
This prevents spots in gilding. Careful apportionment of the gelatin
is necessary. If too much be used, the gold may become spotted; if too
little, the binding may be too weak to allow the gold to be polished.
The glass should be cleaned thoroughly before gilding. After the gold
leaf is put on the whole is allowed to dry for 10 or 20 minutes, when
the luster of the gold can be raised by a cautious rubbing with cotton.
Then another layer of gelatin is spread on with one stroke of a soft
brush, and, if especially good work be required, a second layer of gold
is put on and covered as before. In this case, however, the gelatin is
used hot. After the gilding has become perfectly dry the letters or
ornamentation are drawn and the surplus gold around the edges is taken
off. The gilding does not become thoroughly fixed until after several
months, and until then rough handling, washing, etc., should be avoided.

The best backing for glass gilding is asphaltum, with a little
lampblack, this to be mixed up with elastic varnish; outside finishing
varnish is the best, as the addition of this material gives durability.


«GLASS MANUFACTURING:»

See also Ceramics.

The blue tint of the common poison bottle is got by the addition of
black oxide of cobalt to the molten glass; the green tint of the
actinic glass bottle is obtained in the same way by the addition of
potassium bichromate, which is reduced to the basylous condition, and
the amber tint is produced by the addition of impure manganese dioxide,
a superior tint being produced by suphur in one form or another. The
formulas for various kinds of bottle glass, which indicate the general
composition of almost all glasses, are:

White Glass for Ordinary Molded Bottles.—

 Sand                     64 parts by weight
 Lime                      6 parts by weight
 Carbonate of sodium      23 parts by weight
 Nitrate of sodium         5 parts by weight

White Flint Glass Containing Lead.—

 Sand                    63 parts by weight
 Lime                     5 parts by weight
 Carbonate of sodium     21 parts by weight
 Nitrate of sodium        3 parts by weight
 Red lead                 8 parts by weight

Ordinary Green Glass for Dispensing Bottles.—

 Sand                     63 parts by weight
 Carbonate of sodium      26 parts by weight
 Lime                     11 parts by weight

Amixture for producing a good green flint glass is much the same as that
for the ordinary white flint glass, except that the lime, instead of
being the purest, is ordinary slaked lime, and the sodium nitrate is
omitted. Sand, lime, and sodium carbonate are the ordinary bases of
glass, while the sodium nitrate is the decolorizing agent.

Glass Refractory to Heat.—Fine sand, 70 parts; potash, 30 parts;
kaolin, 25 parts.

Transparent Ground Glass.—Take hold of the glass by one corner with an
ordinary pair of fire tongs. Hold it in front of a clear fire, and heat
to about 98° F., or just hot enough to be held comfortably in the hand.
Then hold the glass horizontally, ground side uppermost, and pour in
the center a little photographer’s dry-plate negative varnish. Tilt the
glass so that the varnish spreads over it evenly, then drain back the
surplus varnish into the bottle from one corner of the glass. Hold the
glass in front of the fire again for a few minutes and the varnish will
crystallize on its surface, making it transparent. The glass should not
be made too hot before the varnish is put on, or the varnish will not
run evenly. This method answers very well for self-made magic-lantern
slides. Ground glass may be made temporarily transparent by wiping with
a sponge dipped in paraffine or glycerine.


«WATER-TIGHT GLASS:»


«Water-Tight Glass Roofs.»—Glass roofs, the skeletons of which are
constructed {374} of iron, are extremely difficult to keep water-tight,
as the iron expands and contracts with atmospheric changes. To meet
this evil, it is necessary to use an elastic putty, which follows the
variations of the iron. A good formula is: Two parts rosin and one part
tallow, melted together and stirred together thoroughly with a little
minium. This putty is applied hot upon strips of linen or cotton cloth,
on top and below, and these are pasted while the putty is still warm,
with one edge on the iron ribs and the other, about one-fourth inch
broad, over the glass.


«Tightening Agent for Acid Receptacles.»—Cracked vessels of glass or
porcelain, for use in keeping acids, can be made tight by applying
a cement prepared in the following manner: Take finely sifted sand,
some asbestos with short fiber, a little magnesia and add enough
concentrated water glass to obtain a readily kneadable mass. The acid
renders the putty firm and waterproof.


«PENCILS FOR MARKING GLASS:»

See also Etching and Frosted Glass.

Crayons for Writing on Glass.—I.—The following is a good formula:

 Spermaceti             4 parts
 Tallow                 3 parts
 Wax                    2 parts
 Red lead               6 parts
 Potassium carbonate    1 part

Melt the spermaceti, tallow, and wax together over a slow fire, and
when melted stir in, a little at a time, the potassium carbonate
and red lead, previously well mixed. Continue the heat for 20 or 30
minutes, stirring constantly. Withdraw from the source of heat, and
let cool down somewhat, under constant stirring, at the temperature
of about 180° F.; before the mixture commences to set, pour off into
molds and let cool. The latter may be made of bits of glass tubing of
convenient diameter and length. After the mixture cools, drive the
crayons out by means of a rod that closely fits the diameter of the
tubes.

II.—Take sulphate of copper, 1 part, and whiting, 1 part. Reduce these
to a fine powder and mix with water; next roll this paste into the
shape of crayons and let dry. When it is desired to write on the glass
use one of these crayons and wipe the traced designs. To make them
reappear breathe on the glass.

III.—Melt together, spermaceti, 3 parts; talc, 3 parts, and wax, 2
parts. When melted stir in 6 parts of minium and 1 part of caustic
potash. Continue heating for 30 minutes, then cast in suitable molds.
When formed and ready to be put away dust them with talc powder, or
roll each pencil in paraffine powder.


«PREVENTION OF FOGGING, DIMMING, AND CLOUDING.»

I.—Place a few flat glass or porcelain dishes with calcium chloride in
each window. This substance eagerly absorbs all moisture from the air.
The contents of the dishes have to be renewed every 2 or 3 days, and
the moist calcium chloride rigorously dried, whereupon it may be used
over again.

II.—Apply to the inside face of the glass a thin layer of glycerine,
which does not permit the vapor to deposit in fine drops and thus
obstruct the light. Double glass may also be used. In this way the heat
of the inside is not in direct contact with the cold outside.

III.—By means of the finger slightly moistened, apply a film of soap of
any brand or kind to the mirror; then rub this off with a clean, dry
cloth; the mirror will be as bright and clear as ever; breathing on it
will not affect its clearness.

IV.—Window glass becomes dull during storage by reason of the presence
of much alkali. This can be avoided by taking sand, 160 parts; calcined
sodium sulphate, 75; powdered marble, 50; and coke, 4 to 5 parts. About
3 parts of the sodium sulphate may be replaced by an equal quantity of
potash.


«FROSTED GLASS.»

I.—A frosted appearance may be given to glass by covering it with a
mixture of

 Magnesium sulphate       6 ounces
 Dextrin                  2 ounces
 Water                   20 ounces

When this solution dries, the magnesium sulphate crystallizes in fine
needles.

II.—Another formula directs a strong solution of sodium or magnesium
sulphate, applied warm, and afterwards coated with a thin solution of
acacia.

III.—A more permanent “frost” may be put on the glass by painting with
white lead and oil, either smooth or in stipple effect. The use of lead
acetate with oil gives a more pleasing effect, perhaps, than the plain
white lead.

IV.—If still greater permanency is desired, the glass may be ground by
rubbing with some gritty substance. {375}

V.—For a temporary frosting, dip a piece of flat marble into glass
cutter’s sharp sand, moistened with water; rub over the glass, dipping
frequently in sand and water. If the frosting is required very fine,
finish off with emery and water. Mix together a strong, hot solution
of Epsom salt and a clear solution of gum arabic; apply warm. Or use a
strong solution of sodium sulphate, warm, and when cool, wash with gum
water. Or daub the glass with a lump of glazier’s putty, carefully and
uniformly, until the surface is equally covered. This is an excellent
imitation of ground glass, and is not disturbed by rain or damp.

VI.—This imitates ground glass:

 Sandarac        2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Mastic            1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Ether              24 ounces
 Benzine      16 to 18 ounces

VII.—Take white lead ground in a mixture of 3⁠/⁠4 varnish and 1⁠/⁠4
oil of turpentine, to which burnt white vitriol and white sugar of
lead are added for drier. The paint must be prepared exceedingly thin
and applied to the glass evenly, using a broad brush. If the windows
require a new coat, the old one is first removed by the use of a strong
lye, or else apply a mixture of hydrochloric acid, 2 parts; vitriol,
2 parts; copper sulphate, 1 part; and gum arabic 1 part, by means of
a brush. The production of this imitation frosting entails little
expense and is of special advantage when a temporary use of the glass
is desired.

VIII.—A little Epsom salt (sulphate of magnesia) stirred in beer with a
small dose of dextrin and applied on the panes by means of a sponge or
a brush permits of obtaining mat panes.


«Hoarfrost Glass.»—The feathery foams traced by frost on the inside of
the windows in cold weather may be imitated as follows:

The surface is first ground either by sand-blast or the ordinary
method, and is then covered with a sort of varnish. On being dried
either in the sun or by artificial heat, the varnish contracts
strongly, taking with it the particles of glass to which it adheres;
and as the contraction takes places along definite lines, the pattern
given by the removal of the particles of glass resembles very closely
the branching crystals of frostwork. A single coat gives a small,
delicate effect, while a thick film, formed by putting on 2, 3 or more
coats, contracts so strongly as to produce a large and bold design. By
using colored glass, a pattern in half-tint may be made on the colored
ground, and after decorating white glass, the back may be silvered or
gilded.


«Engraving, Matting, and Frosting.»—Cover the glass with a layer of
wax or of varnish on which the designs are traced with a graver or
pen-point; next, hydrofluoric acid is poured on the tracings. This
acid is very dangerous to handle, while the following process, though
furnishing the same results, does not present this drawback: Take
powdered fluoride of lime, 1 part, and sulphuric acid, 2 parts. Make
a homogeneous paste, which is spread on the parts reserved for the
engraving or frosting. At the end of 3 or 4 hours wash with water to
remove the acid, next with alcohol to take off the varnish, or with
essence of turpentine if wax has been employed for stopping off.


«To Render Window Panes Opaque.»—I.—Panes may be rendered mat and
non-transparent by painting them on one side with a liquid prepared
by grinding whiting with potash water-glass solution. After one or
two applications, the panes are perfectly opaque, while admitting the
light.

II.—Paint the panes with a solution of

 Dextrin             200 parts by weight
 Zinc vitriol        800 parts by weight
 Bitter salt         300 parts by weight
 In water          2,000 parts by weight

III.—For deadening panes already set in frames the following is
suitable: Dissolve 1 part of wax in 10 parts of oil of turpentine,
adding 1 part of varnish and 1 part of siccative. With this mixture
coat the panes on the outside and dab, while still wet, with a pad of
cotton wadding. If desired small quantities of Paris blue, madder lake,
etc., may be added to the wax solution.

IV.—For deadening window panes in factories and workshops: To beeswax
dissolved in oil of turpentine, add some dryer and varnish to obtain
a quicker drying and hardening. After the window pane has been coated
with this mixture on the outside, it is dabbed uniformly with a pad of
wadding. The wax may be tinted with glazing colors.


«Frosted Mirrors.»—I.—Cover with a solution of Epsom salts in stale
beer; apply with a sponge to the mirror, first wiping it clean and dry.
On drying, the Epsom salt crystallizes, giving very handsome frosted
effects, but the solution must not be applied on humid days {376} when
the glass is liable to be damp, for in that case the effect will be a
blurred one. When it is desirable to remove the coating, lukewarm water
will serve the purpose without damage to the luster of the mirror.

II.—The following mixture, when applied to a mirror and left to dry,
will form in many shapes, all radiating from a focus, this focus
forming anywhere on the glass, and when all dry tends to form a most
pleasing object to the eye.

 Sour ale                4 ounces
 Magnesium sulphate      1 ounce

Put on the mirror with a small, clean sponge and let dry. It is now
ready for the artist, and he may choose his own colors and subject.


«Crystalline Coatings or Frostwork on Glass or Paper.»—Dissolve a small
quantity of dextrin (gum arabic and tragacanth are not so suitable)
in aqueous salt solution as concentrated as possible, for instance,
in sulphate of magnesia (bitter salt), sulphate of zinc or any other
readily crystallizing salt; filter the solution through white blotting
paper and coat glass panes uniformly thin with the clear filtrate,
using a fine, broad badger brush; leave them lying at an ordinary
medium temperature about one-quarter hour in a horizontal position.

As the water slowly evaporates during this short time, handsome
crystalline patterns, closely resembling frostwork, will develop
gradually on the glass panes, which adhere so firmly to the glass or
the paper (if well-sized glazed paper had been used) that they will not
rub off easily. They can be permanently fixed by a subsequent coat of
alcoholic shellac solution.

Especially handsome effects are produced with colored glass panes thus
treated, and in the case of reflected light by colored paper.

For testing crystals as regards their optical behavior, among others
their behavior to polarized light, it is sufficient to pour a solution
of collodion wool (soluble peroxide lime for the preparation of
collodion) over the surface of glass with the crystalline designs,
and to pull off the dry collodion film carefully. If this is done
cautiously it is not difficult to lift the whole crystalline group
from the glass plate and to incorporate it with the glass-like, thin
collodion film.


«REMOVING WINDOW FROST.»

Here are fourteen methods of preventing frost on windows, arranged in
the order of their efficacy: 1, Flame of an alcohol lamp; 2, sulphuric
acid; 3, aqua ammonia; 4, glycerine; 5, aqua regia; 6, hydrochloric
acid; 7, benzine; 8, hydriodic acid; 9, boric acid; 10, alcohol; 11,
nitric acid; 12, cobalt nitrate; 13, infusion of nutgalls; 14, tincture
of ferrous sulphate. By the use of an alcohol lamp (which, of course,
has to be handled with great care) the results are immediate, and the
effect more nearly permanent than by any other methods. The sulphuric
acid application is made with a cotton cloth swab, care being taken not
to allow any dripping, and so with all other acids. The effect of the
aqua ammonia is almost instantaneous, but the window is frosted again
in a short time. With the glycerine there are very good results—but
slight stains on the window which may be easily removed.

The instructions for glycerine are: Dissolve 2 ounces of glycerine
in 1 quart of 62 per cent alcohol containing, to improve the odor,
some oil of amber. When the mixture clarifies it is rubbed over the
inner surface of the glass. This, it is claimed, not only prevents the
formation of frost, but also prevents sweating.


«To Prevent Dimming of Eyeglasses, etc.»—Mix olein-potash soap
with about 3 per cent of glycerine and a little oil turpentine.
Similar mixtures have also been recommended for polishing physicians’
reflectors, show-windows, etc., to prevent dimming.


«WRITING ON GLASS:»

See also Etching and Inks.


«Composition for Writing on Glass.»—To obtain mat designs on glass,
take sodium fluoride, 35 parts; potassium sulphate, 7 parts; zinc
chloride, 15 parts; hydrochloric acid, 65 parts; distilled water, 1,000
parts. Dissolve the sodium fluoride and the potassium sulphate in half
the water; dissolve the zinc chloride in the remaining water and add
the hydrochloric acid. Preserve these two solutions separately. For
use, mix a little of each solution and write on the glass with a pen or
brush.


«Ink for Writing on Glass.»—

 Shellac             20 parts
 Alcohol            150 parts
 Borax               35 parts
 Water              250 parts
 Water-soluble dye sufficient to color.

Dissolve the shellac in the alcohol, the borax in the water, and pour
the shellac {377} solution slowly into that of the borax. Then add the
coloring matter previously dissolved in a little water.

GLASS AND GLASSWARE CEMENT: See Adhesives and Amalgams.

GLASS CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

GLASS, COPPERING, GILDING, AND PLATING: See Plating.

GLASS ETCHING: See Etching.

GLASS, HOW TO AFFIX SIGN-LETTERS ON: See Adhesives under Sign-Letter
Cements.

GLASS, FASTENING METALS ON: See Adhesives.

GLASS LETTERING: See Lettering.

GLASS LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.

GLASS, PERCENTAGE OF LIGHT ABSORBED BY: See Light.

GLASS POLISHES: See Polishes.

GLASS, SILVERING OF: See Mirrors.

GLASS SOLDERS: See Solders.

GLASS, SOLUBLE, AS A CEMENT: See Adhesives.

GLASS, TO AFFIX PAPER ON: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Cements.

GLASS, TO SILVER: See Silver.


«Glazes»

(See also Ceramics, Enamels, Paints, and Varnishes.)


«Glazes for Cooking Vessels.»—Melt a frit of red lead, 22.9 parts
(by weight); crystallized boracic acid, 31 parts; enamel soda, 42.4
parts; cooking salt, 10 parts; gravel, 12 parts; feldspar, 8 parts.
According to the character of the clay, this frit is mixed with varying
quantities of sand, feldspar and kaolin, in the following manner:

 Frit              84     84     84     84
 Red lead           1.5    1.5    1.5    1.5
 Gravel             8      6      3     ────
 Feldspar          ────    2      5      8
 Kaolin, burnt      6.5    6.5    6.5    6.5

Glazes which are produced without addition of red lead to the frit,
are prepared as follows. Melt a frit of the following composition: Red
lead, 22.9 parts (by weight); boracic acid in crystals, 24.8 parts;
enamel soda, 37.1 parts; calcined potash, 6.9 parts; cooking salt, 10
parts; chalk, 10 parts; gravel, 12 parts; feldspar, 8 parts.

From the frit the following glazes are prepared:

 Frit              86.5   86.5   86.5   86.5
 Gravel             7      4.5    3     ────
 Feldspar          ────    2.5    4      7
 Kaolin, burnt      6.5    6.5    6.5    6.5


«Glazing on Size Colors.»—The essential condition for this work is a
well-sized foundation. For the glazing paint, size is likewise used as
a binder, but a little dissolved soap is added, of about the strength
employed for coating ceilings. Good veining can be done with this,
and a better effect can be produced in executing pieces which are to
appear in relief, such as car-touches, masks, knobs, etc., than with
the ordinary means. A skillful grainer may also impart to the work the
pleasant luster of natural wood. The same glazing method is applicable
to colored paintings. If the glazing colors are prepared with wax,
dissolved in French turpentine, one may likewise glaze with them on a
size-paint ground. Glazing tube-oil colors thinned with turpentine and
siccative, are also useful for this purpose. For the shadows, asphalt
and Van Dyke brown are recommended, while the contour may be painted
with size-paint.


«Coating Metallic Surfaces with Glass.»—Metallic surfaces may be coated
with glass by melting together 125 parts (by weight) of flint-glass
fragments, 20 parts of sodium carbonate, and 12 parts of boracic acid.
The molten mass is next poured on a hard and cold surface, stone or
metal. After it has cooled, it is powdered. Make a mixture of 50° Bé.
of this powder and sodium silicate (water glass). The metal to be
glazed is coated with this and heated in a muffle or any other oven
until the mixture melts and can be evenly distributed. This glass
coating adheres firmly to iron and steel.


«Glaze for Bricks.»—A glazing color for bricks patented in Germany is
a {378} composition of 12 parts (by weight) lead; 4 parts litharge;
3 parts quartzose sand; 4 parts white argillaceous earth; 2 parts
kitchen salt; 2 parts finely crushed glass, and 1 part saltpeter. These
ingredients are all reduced to a powder and then mixed with a suitable
quantity of water. The color prepared in this manner is said to possess
great durability, and to impart a fine luster to the bricks.

GLAZES FOR LAUNDRY: See Laundry Preparations.

GLOBES, HOW TO COLOR: See Glass-Coloring.

GLOBES, PERCENTAGE OF LIGHT ABSORBED BY: See Light.

GLOBES, SILVERING OF: See Mirrors.

GLOSS FOR PAPER: See Paper.

GLOVE-CLEANERS: See Cleaning Compounds.

GLOVES, SUBSTITUTE FOR RUBBER: See Antiseptics.

GLOVES, TESTING: See Rubber.

GLUCOSE IN JELLY: See Foods.


«Glue»

(Formulas for Glues and methods of manufacturing Glue will be found
under Adhesives.)


«Rendering Glue Insoluble in Water.»—Stuebling finds that the usual
mixture of bichromate and glue when used in the ordinary way does not
possess the waterproof properties with which it is generally credited.
If mixed in the daylight, it sets hard before it can be applied to the
surfaces to be glued, and if mixed and applied in the dark room it
remains just as soluble as ordinary glue, the light being unable to
penetrate the interior of the joints. Neither is a mixture of linseed
oil and glue of any use for this purpose. Happening to upset a strong
solution of alum—prepared for wood staining—into an adjacent glue pot,
he stirred up the two together out of curiosity and left them. Wishing
to use the glue a few days later, he tried to thin it down with water,
but unsuccessfully, the glue having set to a waterproof mass. Fresh
glue was then mixed with alum solution and used to join two pieces of
wood, these resisting the action of the water completely.


«To Bleach Glue.»—Dissolve the glue in water, by heat, and while hot,
add a mixture in equal parts of oxalic acid and zinc oxide, to an
amount equal to about 1 per cent of the glue. After the color has been
removed, strain through muslin.


«Method of Purifying Glue.»—The glue is soaked in cold water and
dissolved in a hot 25 per cent solution of magnesium sulphate. The
hot solution is filtered, and to the filtrate is added a 25 per cent
solution of magnesium sulphate containing 0.5 per cent of hydrochloric
acid (or, if necessary, sulphuric acid). A white flocculent precipitate
is obtained which is difficult to filter. The remainder of the glue in
the saline solution is extracted by treatment with magnesium sulphate.

The viscous matter is washed, then dissolved in hot water, and allowed
to cool, a quantity of weak alcohol acidulated by 1 per cent of
hydrochloric acid being added just before the mass solidifies. From 2
to 3 parts, by volume, of strong alcohol (methyl or ethyl) are then
added and the solution filtered, charcoal being used if necessary. The
glue is finally precipitated from this solution by neutralizing with
ammonia and washing with alcohol or water.


«To Distinguish Glue and Other Adhesive Agents.»—The product to be
examined is heated with hydrofluoric acid (50 per cent). If bone glue
is present in any reasonable quantity, an intense odor of butyric acid
arises at once, similar to that of Limburger cheese. But if dextrin
or gum arabic is present, only an odor of dextrine or fluorhydric
acid will be perceptible. Conduct the reaction with small quantities;
otherwise the smell will be so strong that it is hard to remove from
the room.

GLUE CLARIFIER: See Gelatin.


«Glycerine»


«Recovering Glycerine from Soap Boiler’s Lye.»—I.—Glycerine is obtained
as a by-product in making soap. For many years the lyes were thrown
away as waste, but now considerable quantities of glycerine are
recovered, which are much used in making explosive compounds.

When a metallic salt or one of the alkalies, as caustic soda, is added
to tallow, a stearite of the metal (common soap is stearite of sodium)
is formed, whereby the glycerine is eliminated. {379} This valuable
by-product is contained in the waste lye, and has formed the subject of
several patents.

Draw the lye off from the soap-pans; this contains a large quantity of
water, some salt and soap and a small quantity of glycerine, and the
great trouble is to concentrate the lye so that the large quantity of
water is eliminated, sometimes 10 to 12 days being occupied in doing
this. The soap and salt are easily removed.

To remove the soap, run the lye into a series of tanks alternating in
size step-like, so that as the first, which should be the largest,
becomes full, the liquor will flow into the second, from that into
the third, and so on; by this arrangement the rosinous and albuminous
matters will settle, and the soap still contained in the lyes will
float on the surface, from which it is removed by skimming.

After thus freeing the lye of the solid impurities, convey the purified
lye to the glycerine recovering department (wooden troughs or pipes
may be used to do this), and after concentrating by heating it in a
steam-jacketed boiler, and allowing it to cool somewhat, ladle out
the solid salt that separates, and afterwards concentrate the lye by
allowing it to flow into a tank, but before doing so let the fluid
come in contact with a hot blast of air or superheated steam, whereby
the crude discolored glycerine is obtained. This is further purified
by heating with animal charcoal to decolorize it, then distilling
several times in copper stills with superheated steam. The chief points
to attend to are: (1) The neutralizing and concentrating the lye as
much as possible and then separating the salts and solid matters; (2)
concentrating the purified lye, and mixing this fluid with oleic acid,
oil, tallow, or lard, and heating the mixture to 338° F., in a still,
by steam, and gradually raise the heat to 372° F.; (3) stirring the
liquor while being heated, and allowing the aqueous vapor to escape,
and when thus concentrated, saponifying the liquid with lime to
eliminate the glycerine; water is at the same time expelled, but this
is removed from the glycerine by evaporating the mixture.

II.—In W. E. Garrigues’s patent for the recovering of glycerine from
spent soap lyes, the liquid is neutralized with a mineral acid, and
after separation of the insoluble fatty acids it is concentrated
and then freed from mineral salts and volatile fatty acids, and the
concentrated glycerine solution treated with an alkaline substance and
distilled. Thus the soap lye may be neutralized with sulphuric acid,
and aluminum sulphate added to precipitate the insoluble fatty acids.
The filtrate from these is concentrated and the separated mineral salts
removed, after which barium chloride is added and then sufficient
sulphuric acid to liberate the volatile fatty acids combined with the
alkali. These acids are partially enveloped in the barium sulphate,
with which they can be separated from the liquid by filtration, while
the remaining portion can be expelled by evaporating the liquid in
a vacuum evaporator. Finally, the solution is treated with sodium
carbonate, and the glycerine distilled.

Glycerine Lotion.—

 Glycerine              4 ounces
 Essence bouquet      1⁠/⁠4 ounce
 Water                  4 ounces
 Cochineal coloring, a sufficient quantity.

(See also Cosmetics for Glycerine Lotions.)

GLYCERINE APPLICATIONS: See Cosmetics.

GLYCERINE AS A DETERGENT: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

GLYCERINE PROCESS: See Photography.

GLYCERINE SOAP: See Soap.

GLYCERINE DEVELOPER: See Photography.


«Gold»

(See also Jewelers’ Formulas.)


«Gold Printing on Oilcloth and Imitation Leather.»—Oilcloth can very
easily be gilt if the right degree of heat is observed. After the
engraving has been put in the press, the latter is heated slightly, so
that it is still possible to lay the palm of the hand on the heated
plate without any unpleasant sensation. Go over the oilcloth with a
rag in which a drop of olive oil has been rubbed up, which gives a
greasy film. No priming with white of egg or any other priming agent
should be done, since the gold leaf would stick. Avoid sprinkling on
gilding powder. The gold leaf is applied directly on the oilcloth;
then place in the lukewarm press, squeezing it down with {380} a quick
jerky motion and opening it at once. If the warm plate remains too
long on the oilcloth, the gold leaf will stick. When the impression
is done, the gold leaf is not swept off at once, but the oilcloth is
first allowed to cool completely for several minutes, since there is a
possibility that it has become slightly softened under the influence
of the heat, especially at the borders of the pressed figures, and the
gold would stick there if swept off immediately. The printing should be
sharp and neat and the gold glossy. For bronze printing on oilcloth, a
preliminary treatment of printing with varnish ground should be given.
The bronze is dusted on this varnish.

Imitation leather is generally treated in the same manner. The tough
paper substance is made to imitate leather perfectly as regards color
and pressing, especially the various sorts of calf, but the treatment
in press gilding differs entirely from that of genuine leather. The
stuff does not possess the porous, spongy nature of leather, but
on the contrary is very hard, and in the course of manufacture in
stained-paper factories is given an almost waterproof coating of color
and varnish. Hence the applied ground of white of egg penetrates but
slightly into this substance, and a thin layer of white of egg remains
on the surface. The consequence is that in gilding the gold leaf is
prone to become attached, the ground of albumen being quickly dissolved
under the action of the heat and put in a soft sticky state even in
places where there is no engraving. In order to avoid this the ground
is either printed only lukewarm, or this imitation leather is not
primed at all, but the gold is applied immediately upon going over the
surface with the oily rag. Print with a rather hot press, with about
the same amount of heat as is employed for printing shagreen and title
paper. A quick jerky printing, avoiding a long pressure of the plate,
is necessary.


«Liquid Gold.»—Take an evaporating dish, put into it 880 parts, by
weight, of pure gold; then 4,400 parts, by weight, of muriatic acid,
and 3,520 parts, by weight, nitric acid; place over a gas flame until
the gold is dissolved, and then add to it 22 parts, by weight, of pure
tin; when the tin is dissolved add 42 parts, by weight, of butter of
antimony. Let all remain over the gas until the mixture begins to
thicken. Now put into a glass and test with the hydrometer, which
should give about 1,800 specific gravity. Pour into a large glass
and fill up with water until the hydrometer shows 1090; pour all the
solution into a chemical pot and add to it 1,760 parts, by weight,
balsam of sulphur, stirring well all the while, and put it over the
gas again; in an hour it should give, on testing, 125° F.; gradually
increase the heat up to 185° F., when it should be well stirred and
then left to cool about 12 hours. Pour the watery fluid into a large
vessel and wash the dark-looking mass 5 or 6 times with hot water;
save each lot of water as it contains some portion of gold. Remove all
moisture from the dark mass by rolling on a slab and warming before the
fire occasionally so as to keep it soft. When quite dry add 2 1⁠/⁠4
times its weight of turpentine and put it over a small flame for
about 2 hours; then slightly increase the heat for another hour and a
half. Allow this to stand about 24 hours, and then take a glazed bowl
and spread over the bottom of it 1,760 parts, by weight, of finely
powdered bismuth; pour the prepared gold over it in several places.
Now take a vessel containing water and place inside the other vessel
containing the gold, and heat it so as to cause the water to boil for 3
hours; allow it to remain until settled and pour off the gold from the
settlings of the bismuth, and try it; if not quite right continue the
last process with bismuth until good; the bismuth causes the gold to
adhere.


«Preparation of Balsam of Sulphur.»—Take 16 parts oil of turpentine;
2 1⁠/⁠2 parts spirits of turpentine; 8 parts flour of sulphur.

Place all in a chemical pot and heat until it boils; continue the
boiling until no sulphur can be seen in it; now remove from the heat
and thin it with turpentine until about the thickness of treacle, then
warm it again, stirring well; allow it to cool until it reaches 45° F.,
then test it with the hydrometer, and if specific gravity is not 995
continue the addition of turpentine and warming until correct, let it
thoroughly cool, then bottle, keeping it air-tight.


«To Purify Bismuth.»—Take 6 parts bismuth metal, 3⁠/⁠4 part saltpeter.
Melt together in a biscuit cup, pour out on to a slab, and take away
all dirt, then grind into a fine powder.


«To Recover the Gold from the Remains of the Foregoing Process.»—Put
all the “watery” solutions into a large vessel and mix with a filtered
saturated solution of copperas; this will cause {381} a precipitate of
pure metallic gold to gradually subside; wash it with cold water and
dry in an evaporating dish.

All rags and settlings that are thick should be burnt in a crucible
until a yellow mass is seen; then take this and dissolve it in 2 parts
muriatic acid and 1 part nitric acid. Let it remain in a porcelain
dish until it begins to thicken, and crystals form on the sides. Add a
little nitric acid, and heat until crystals again form. Now take this
and mix with cold water, add a solution of copperas to it and allow it
to settle; pour off the water, and with fresh water wash till quite
free from acid. The gold may then be used again, and if great care is
exercised almost one-half the original quantity may be recovered.

The quantities given in the recipe should produce about 13 to 15 parts
of the liquid gold. It does not in use require any burnishing, and
should be fired at rose-color heat. If desired it can be fluxed with
Venice turpentine, oil of lavender, or almonds.


«Treatment of Brittle Gold.»—I.—Add to every 100 parts, by weight, 5
to 8 parts, by weight, of cupric chloride and melt until the oily
layer which forms has disappeared. Then pour out, and in most cases a
perfectly pliable gold will have been obtained. If this should not be
the case after the first fusion, repeat the operation with the same
quantity of cupric chloride. The cupric chloride must be kept in a
well-closed bottle, made tight with paraffine, and in a dry place.

II.—Pass chlorine gas through the molten gold, by which treatment most
of the gold which has otherwise been set aside as unfit for certain
kinds of work may be redeemed.


«Assaying of Gold.»—To determine the presence of gold in ores, etc.,
mix a small quantity of the finely powdered ore in a flask with an
equal volume of tincture of iodine, shake repeatedly and well, and
leave in contact about 1 hour, with repeated shaking. Next allow the
mixture to deposit and dip a narrow strip of filtering paper into the
solution. Allow the paper to absorb, next to dry; then dip it again
into the solution, repeating this 5 to 6 times, so that the filtering
paper is well saturated and impregnated. The strip is now calcined,
as it were, and the ashes, if gold is present, show a purple color.
The coloring disappears immediately if the ashes are moistened with
bromine water. The same test may also be modified as follows: Cover the
finely pulverized ore with bromine water, shake well and repeatedly
during about 1 hour of the contact, and filter. Now add to the solution
stannic protochloride in solution, whereby, in case gold is present,
a purple color (gold purple of Cassius) will at once appear. In case
the ore to be assayed contains sulphides, it is well to roast the ore
previously, and should it contain lime carbonate, it is advisable to
calcine the ore before in the presence of ammonium carbonate.


«Gold Welding.»—Gold may be welded together with any metal, if the
right methods are employed, but best with copper. Some recipes for
welding agents are here given.

I.—Two parts by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of green vitriol;
1 part by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of saltpeter; 6 parts by
weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of common salt; 1 part by weight (16
ounces equal 1 pound) of black manganic oxide or pulverized, and mixed
with 48 parts by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of good welding sand.

II.—Filings of the metal to be used in welding are mixed with melted
borax in the usual proportion. To be applied in the thickness desired.

III.—A mixture of 338 parts of sodium phosphate and 124 parts of
boracic acid is used when the metal is at dark-red heat. The metal is
then to be brought to a bright-red heat, and hammered at the same time.
The metal easily softens at a high temperature, and a wooden mallet
is best. All substances containing carbon should be removed from the
surface, as success depends upon the formation of a fusible copper
phosphate, which dissolves a thin layer of oxide on the surface, and
keeps the latter in good condition for welding.


«To Recover Gold-Leaf Waste.»—To recover the gold from color waste,
gold brushes, rags, etc., they are burned up to ashes. The ashes are
leached with boiling water containing hydrochloric acid. The auriferous
residuum is then boiled with aqua regia (1 part nitric acid and 3 parts
hydrochloric acid), whereby the gold is dissolved and gold chloride
results. After filtration and evaporation to dryness the product is
dissolved in water and precipitated with sulphate of protoxide of iron.
The precipitated gold powder is purified with hydrochloric acid.


«Gold from Acid Coloring Baths.»—I.—Different lots are to be poured
together {382} and the gold in them recovered. The following method
is recommended: Dissolve a handful of phosphate of iron in boiling
water, to which liquor add the coloring baths, whereby small particles
of gold are precipitated. Then draw off the water, being careful not
to dissolve the auriferous sediment at the bottom. Free this from all
traces of acid by washing with plenty of boiling water; it will require
3 or 4 separate washings, with sufficient time between each to allow
the water to cool and the sediment to settle before pouring off the
water. Then dry in an iron vessel by the fire and fuse in a covered
skittlepot with a flux.

II.—The collected old coloring baths are poured into a sufficiently
large pot, an optional quantity of nitro-muriatic acid is added, and
the pot is placed over the fire, during which time the fluid is stirred
with a wooden stick. It is taken from the fire after a while, diluted
largely with rain water and filtered through coarse paper. The gold is
recovered from the filtered solution with a solution of green vitriol
which is stored in air-tight bottles, then freshened with hot water,
and finally smelted with borax and a little saltpeter.


«Parting with Concentrated Sulphuric Acid.»—It is not necessary
scrupulously to observe the exact proportion of the gold to the silver.
After having prepared the auriferous silver, place it in a quantity of
concentrated sulphuric acid contained in a porcelain vessel, and let
it come to a violent boil. When the acid has either become saturated
and will dissolve no more, or when solution is complete, remove the
dissolving vessel from the fire, let it cool, and, for the purpose of
clarifying, pour dilute sulphuric acid into the solution. The dissolved
silver is next carefully decanted from the gold sediment upon the
bottom, another portion of concentrated acid is poured in, and the
gold is well boiled again, as it will still contain traces of silver;
this operation may be repeated as often as is deemed necessary. The
solution, poured into the glass jars, is well diluted with water, and
the silver is then precipitated by placing a sheet of copper in the
solution. The precipitate is then freshened with hot water, which
may also be done by washing upon the filter; the granulated silver
(sulphate of silver) is pressed out in linen, dried and smelted. The
freshened gold, after drying, is first smelted with bisulphate of soda,
in order to convert the last traces of silver into sulphate, and then
smelted with borax and a little saltpeter.


«To Remove Gold from Silver.»—I.—Gold is taken from the surface of
silver by spreading over it a paste, made of powdered sal ammoniac with
aqua fortis and heating it till the matter smokes and is nearly dry,
when the gold may be separated by rubbing it with the scratch brush.

II.—The alloy is to be melted and poured from a height into a vessel of
cold water, to which a rotary motion is imparted, or else it is to be
poured through a broom. By this means the metal is reduced to a fine
granular condition. The metallic substance is then treated with nitric
acid, and gently heated. Nitrate of silver is produced, which can be
reduced by any of the ordinary methods; while metallic gold remains as
a black sediment, which must be washed and melted.


«Simple Specific Gravity Test.»—A certain quantity of the metal is
taken and drawn out into a wire, which is to be exactly of the same
length as one from fine silver; of course, both must have been drawn
through the same hole, silver being nearly 1⁠/⁠2 lighter than gold,
it is natural that the one of fine silver must be lighter, and the
increased weight of the wire under test corresponds to the percentage
of gold contained in it.


«To Make Fat Oil Gold Size.»—First thin up the fat oil with turpentine
to workable condition; then mix a little very finely ground pigment
with the gold size, about as much as in a thin priming coat. Make the
size as nearly gold color as is convenient; chrome yellow tinted with
vermilion is as good as anything for this purpose. Then thin ready for
the brush with turpentine, and it will next be in order to run the size
through a very fine strainer. Add japan, as experience or experiment
may teach, to make it dry tacky about the time the leaf is to be laid.
Dry slowly, because the slower the size dries, the longer it will hold
its proper tackiness when it is once in that condition.


«To Dissolve Copper from Gold Articles.»—Take 2 ounces of
proto-sulphate of iron and dissolve it in 1⁠/⁠2 a pint of water, then
add to it in powder 2 ounces of nitrate of potash; boil the mixture for
some time, and afterwards pour it into a shallow vessel to cool and
crystallize; then to every part of the crystallized salt add 8 ounces
of muriatic acid, and preserve in a bottle for use. Equal parts of the
above preparation and of boiling water is a good proportion to use in
dissolving copper, or 1 part by weight {383} of nitric acid may be used
to 4 parts by weight of boiling water as a substitute.


«GOLD PURPLE.»

I.—The solution of stannous chloride necessary for the preparation of
gold purple is produced by dissolving pure tin in pure hydrochloric
acid (free from iron), in such a manner that some of the tin remains
undissolved, and evaporating the solution, into which a piece of tin is
laid, to crystallization.

II.—Recipe for Pale Purple.—Dissolve 2 parts by weight of tin in
boiling aqua regia, evaporate the solution at a moderate heat until it
becomes solid, dissolve in distilled water and add 2 parts by weight
of a solution of stannous chloride (specific gravity 1.7) dilute with
9,856 parts by weight of water, stir into the liquid a solution of
gold chloride prepared from 0.5 parts by weight of gold and containing
no excess of acid (the latter being brought about by evaporating the
solution of gold chloride to dryness and heating for some time to
about 320° F.). This liquid is dimmed by the admixture of 50 parts by
weight of liquid ammonia which eliminates the purple. The latter is
quickly filtered off, washed out and while still moist rubbed up with
the glass paste. This consists of enamel of lead 20 parts by weight;
quartzose sand, 1 part by weight; red lead, 2 parts by weight; and
calcined borax, 1 part by weight, with silver carbonate, 3 parts by
weight.

III.—Recipe for Dark Gold Purple.—Gold solution of 0.5 parts by weight
of gold, solution of stannous chloride (specific gravity 1.7) 7.5 parts
by weight; thin with 9,856 parts by weight of water, separate the
purple by a few drops of sulphuric acid, wash out the purple and mix
same with enamel of lead 10 parts by weight and silver carbonate, 0.5
parts by weight.

IV.—Recipe for Pink Purple.—Gold solution of 1 part by weight of gold;
solution of 50 parts by weight of alum in 19,712 parts by weight of
water; add 1.5 parts by weight of stannous chloride solution (specific
gravity 1.7) and enough ammonia until no more precipitate is formed;
mix the washed out precipitate, while still moist, with 70 parts by
weight of enamel of lead and 2.5 parts by weight of silver carbonate.
According to the composition of the purple various reds are obtained
in fusing it on; the latter may still be brightened up by a suitable
increase of the flux.


«To Render Pale Gold Darker.»—Take verdigris, 50 parts by weight and
very strong vinegar, 100 parts by weight. Dissolve the verdigris in the
vinegar, rub the pieces with it well, heat them and dip them in liquid
ammonia diluted with water. Repeat the operation if the desired shade
does not appear the first time. Rinse with clean water and dry.


«To Color Gold.»—Gilt objects are improved by boiling in the following
solution: Saltpeter, 2 parts by weight; cooking salt, 1 part by weight;
alum, 1 part by weight; water, 24 parts by weight; hydrochloric acid,
1 part by weight (1.12 specific gravity). In order to impart a rich
appearance to gilt articles, the following paste is applied: Alum, 3
parts by weight; saltpeter, 2 parts by weight; zinc vitriol, 1 part by
weight; cooking salt, 1 part by weight; made into a paste with water.
Next, heat until black, on a hot iron plate, wash with water, scratch
with vinegar and dry after washing.


«Gold-Leaf Striping.»—To secure a good job of gilding depends largely
for its beauty upon the sizing. Take tube chrome yellow ground in
oil, thin with wearing body varnish, and temper it ready for use with
turpentine. Apply in the evening with an ox-tail striper, and let it
stand until the next morning, when, under ordinary circumstances, it
will be ready for the gold leaf, etc. After the gilding is done, let
the job stand 24 hours before varnishing.


«Composition of Aqua Fortis for the Touch-Stone.»—Following are
the three compositions mostly in use: I.—Nitric acid, 30 parts;
hydrochloric acid, 3 parts; distilled water, 20 parts.

II.—Nitric acid, 980 parts by weight; hydrochloric acid, 20 parts by
weight.

III.—Nitric acid, 123 parts by weight; hydrochloric acid, 2 parts by
weight.


«To Remove Soft Solder from Gold.»—Place the work in spirits of salts
(hydrochloric acid) or remove as much as possible with the scraper,
using a gentle heat to remove the solder more easily.


«Tipping Gold Pens.»—Gold pens are usually tipped with iridium. This
is done by soldering very small pieces to the points and filing to the
proper shape.


«To Recognize Whether an Article is Gilt.»—Simply touch the object with
a glass rod previously dipped into a solution of bichloride of copper.
If the article has been gilt the spot touched should remain intact,
while it presents a {384} brown stain if no gold has been deposited on
its surface.


«To Burnish Gilt Work.»—Ale has proved a very good substitute for soap
and water in burnishing gilt as it increases the ease and smoothness
with which it is accomplished. Vinegar is a somewhat poorer substitute
for ale.


«White-Gold Plates Without Solder.»—The gold serving as a background
for white-gold is rolled in the desired dimensions and then made
perfectly even under a powerful press. It is then carefully treated
with a file until a perfectly smooth surface is obtained. After a
white-gold plate of the required thickness has been produced in the
same manner, the surfaces of the two plates to be united are coated
with borax and then pressed together by machine, which causes the
harder metal to be squeezed slightly into the surface of the other,
furnishing a more solid and compact mass. The metals, now partially
united, are firmly fastened together by means of strong iron wire and
a little more borax solution is put on the edges. Then heat to the
temperature necessary for a complete adhesion, but the heat must not
be so great as to cause an alloyage by fusing. The whole is finally
rolled out into the required thickness.


«To Fuse Gold Dust.»—Use such a crucible as is generally used for
melting brass; heat very hot; then add the gold dust mixed with
powdered borax; after some time a scum or slag will be on top, which
may be thickened by the addition of a little lime or bone ash. If the
dust contains any of the more oxidizable metals, add a little niter,
and skim off the slag or scum very carefully; when melted, grasp the
crucible with strong iron tongs, and pour off immediately into molds,
slightly greased. The slag and crucibles may be afterwards pulverized,
and the auriferous matter recovered from the mass through cupellation
by means of lead.

GOLD ALLOYS: See Alloys.

GOLD, EXTRACTION OF, BY AMALGAMATION: See Amalgams.

GOLD LETTERS ON GLASS, CEMENTS FOR AFFIXING: See Adhesives, under
Sign-Letter Cements.

GOLD, REDUCTION OF OLD PHOTOGRAPHIC: See Photography.

GOLD FOIL SUBSTITUTES AND GOLD LEAF: See Metal Foil.

GOLD-LEAF ALLOYS: See Alloys.

GOLD LEAF AND ITS APPLICATION: See Paints.

GOLD PLATING: See Plating.

GOLD, RECOVERY OF WASTE: See Jewelers’ Formulas.

GOLD RENOVATOR: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

GOLD, SEPARATION OF PLATINUM FROM: See Platinum.

GOLD SOLDERS: See Solders.

GOLD TESTING: See Jewelers’ Formulas.

GOLD VARNISH: See Varnishes.

GOLDWASSER: See Wines and Liquors.

GONG METAL: See Alloys.


«GRAIN.»


«Formalin Treatment of Seed Grain for Smut.»—Smut is a parasitic
fungus, and springs from a spore (which corresponds to a seed
in higher plants). This germinates when the grain is seeded and,
penetrating the little grain plant when but a few days old, grows up
within the grain stem. After entering the stem there is no evidence
of its presence until the grain begins to head. At this time the smut
plant robs the developing kernels of their nourishment and ripens a
mass of smut spores.

These spores usually ripen before the grain, and are blown about the
field, many spores becoming lodged on the ripening grain kernels. The
wholesale agent of infection is the threshing machine. For this reason
the safest plan is to treat all seed wheat and oats each year.

Secure a 40 per cent solution of formalin (the commercial name for
formaldehyde gas held in a water solution). About 1 ounce is required
for every 5 bushels of grain to be treated. {385}

Clean off a space on the barn floor or sweep a clean space on the hard
level ground and lay a good-sized canvas down, on which to spread out
the wheat. See that the place where the grain is to be treated is
swept clean and thoroughly sprinkled with the formalin solution before
placing the seed grain there.

Prepare the formalin solution immediately before use, as it is
volatile, and if kept may disappear by evaporation.

Use 4 ounces of formalin for 10 gallons of water. This is sufficient
for 600 pounds of grain. Put the solution in a barrel or tub,
thoroughly mixing.

The solution can be applied with the garden sprinkler. Care must be
taken to moisten the grain thoroughly. Sprinkle, stir the grain up
thoroughly and sprinkle again, until every kernel is wet.

After sprinkling, place the grain in a conical pile and cover with
horse-blankets, gunny sacks, etc. The smut that does the damage lies
just under the glume of the oats or on the basal hairs of the wheat.
Covering the treated grain holds the gas from the formalin _within_ the
pile, where it comes in contact with the kernels, killing such smut
spores as may have survived the previous treatment. After the grain has
remained in a covered pile 2 to 4 hours, spread it out again where the
wind can blow over it, to air and dry.

As soon as the grain can be taken in the hand without the kernels
sticking together, it can be sown in the field. The grain may be
treated in the forenoon and seeded in the afternoon.

Since this treatment swells the kernels it hastens germination and
should be done in the spring just before seeding time.

While the copper sulphate or bluestone treatment is valuable in killing
smut, the formalin treatment can be given in less time, is applied so
easily and is so effectual that it is recommended as a sure and ready
means of killing smut in wheat and oats.

GRAINING CRAYONS: See Crayons.

GRAINING COLORS: See Pigments.

GRAINING WITH PAINT: See Paint.

GRAINING, PALISANDER: See Palisander.

GRAPE JUICE, PRESERVATION OF: See Wines and Liquors.

GRAPHITE AS A LUBRICANT: See Lubricants.


«GRAVEL WALKS.»

For cleaning gravel walks any of the following may be used: I.—Gas-tar
liquor.

II.—Rock salt (cattle salt).

III.—Hydrochloric acid.

IV.—Sulphuric acid.

V.—Fresh limewater. The gas-tar liquor must be poured out a few times
in succession, and must not touch the tree roots and borders of the
paths. This medium is cheap. Cattle salt must likewise be thrown out
repeatedly. The use of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids is somewhat
expensive. Mix 60 parts of water with 10 parts of unslaked lime and
1 part of sulphuric acid in a kettle, and sprinkle the hot or cold
mixture on the walks by means of a watering pot. If limewater is used
alone it must be fresh—1 part of unslaked lime in 10 parts of water.


«GRAVERS:»


«To Prepare Gravers for Bright-Cutting.»—Set the gravers after the
sharpening on the oilstone on high-grade emery (tripoli) paper. Next,
hone them further on the rouge leather, but without tearing threads
from it. In this manner the silver and aluminum engravers grind their
gravers. A subsequent whetting of the graver on the touchstone is not
advisable, since it is too easily injured thereby. A graver prepared as
described gives excellent bright engraving and never fails.

In all bright-cutting the graver must be highly polished; but when
bright-cutting aluminum a lubricant like coal-oil or vaseline is
generally employed with the polished tool; a mixture of vaseline and
benzine is also used for this purpose. Another formula which may be
recommended for bright-cutting aluminum is composed of the following
ingredients: Mix 4 parts of oil of turpentine and 1 part of rum with
1 ounce of stearine. Immerse the graver in any of the mixtures before
making the bright-cut.

GREASES: See Lubricants.

GREASE ERADICATORS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods. {386}

GREASE PAINTS: See Cosmetics.

GREEN, TO DISTINGUISH BLUE FROM, AT NIGHT: See Blue.

GREEN GILDING: See Plating.

GRENADES: See Fire Extinguishers.

GRINDING: See Tool Setting.

GRINDER DISK CEMENT, SUBSTITUTE FOR: See Adhesives.


«GRINDSTONES:»


«To Mend Grindstones.»—The mending of defective places in grindstones
is best done with a mass consisting of earth-wax (so-called
stone-pitch), 5 parts, by weight; tar, 1 part; and powdered sandstone
or cement, 3 parts, which is heated to the boiling point and well
stirred together. Before pouring in the mass the places to be mended
must be heated by laying red-hot pieces of iron on them. The substance
is, in a tough state, poured into the hollows of the stone, and the
pouring must be continued, when it commences to solidify, until even
with the surface.


«Treatment of the Grindstone.»—The stone should not be left with the
lower part in the water. This will render it brittle at this spot,
causing it to wear off more quickly and thus lose its circularity. It
is best to moisten the stone only when in use, drop by drop from a
vessel fixed above it and to keep it quite dry otherwise. If the stone
is no longer round, it should be made so again by turning by means of
a piece of gas pipe or careful trimming, otherwise it will commence to
jump, thus becoming useless. It is important to clean all tools and
articles before grinding, carefully removing all grease, fat, etc.,
as the pores of the stone become clogged with these impurities, which
destroy its grain and diminish its strength. Should one side of the
grindstone be lighter, this irregularity can be equalized by affixing
pieces of lead, so as to obtain a uniform motion of the stone. It is
essential that the stone should be firm on the axis and not move to and
fro in the bearings.


«Grindstone Oil.»—Complaints are often heard that grindstones are
occasionally harder on one side than the other, the softer parts
wearing away in hollows, which render grinding difficult, and soon make
the stone useless. This defect can be remedied completely by means of
boiled linseed oil. When the stone is thoroughly dry, the soft side is
turned uppermost, and brushed over with boiled oil, which sinks into
the stone, until the latter is saturated. The operation takes about
3 to 4 hours in summer. As soon as the oil has dried, the stone may
be damped, and used without any further delay. Unlike other similar
remedies, this one does not prevent the stone from biting properly in
the oiled parts, and the life of the stone is considerably lengthened,
since it does not have to be dressed so often.

GROUNDS FOR GRAINING COLORS: See Pigments.


«GUMS:»

(See also Adhesives, under Mucilages.)


«Gums, their Solubility in Alcohol.»—The following table shows the
great range of solubility of the various gums, and of various specimens
of the same gum, in 60 per cent alcohol:

 Acajon                6.94 to 42.92
 Aden                  0.60 to 26.90
 Egyptian             46.34
 Yellow Amrad         26.90 to 32.16
 White Amrad           0.54 to  1.50
 Kordofan              1.40 to  6.06
 Australian           10.67 to 20.85
 Bombay               22.06 to 46.14
 Cape                  1.67 to  1.88
 Embavi               25.92
 Gedda                 1.24 to  1.30
 Ghatti               31.60 to 70.32
 Gheziereh             1.50 to 12.16
 Halebi                3.70 to 22.60
 La Plata              9.65
 Mogadore             27.66
 East Indian           3.24 to 74.84
 Persian               1.74 to 17.34
 Senegal               0.56 to 14.30


«Substitute for Gum Arabic.»—Dissolve 250 parts of glue in 1,000 parts
of boiling water and heat this glue solution on the water bath with a
mixture of about 10 parts of barium peroxide of 75 per cent BaO_〈2〉
and 5 parts of sulphuric acid (66°) mixed with 115 parts of water, for
about 24 hours. After the time has elapsed, pour off from the barium
sulphate, whereby a little sulphurous acid results owing to reduction
of the sulphuric acid, which has a bleaching action and makes the glue
somewhat paler. If this solution is mixed, with stirring, and dried
upon glass plates in the drying-room, a product which can hardly be
{387} distinguished from gum arabic is obtained. An envelope sealed
with this mucilage cannot be opened by moistening the envelope. The
traces of free acid which it contains prevent the invasion of bacteria,
hence all putrefaction.

The adhesive power of the artificial gum is so enormous that the use
of cork stoppers is quite excluded, since they crumble off every time
the bottle is opened, so that finally a perfect wreath around the inner
neck of the bottle is formed. Only metallic or porcelain stoppers
should be used.

GUM ARABIC, INCREASING ADHESION OF: See Adhesives, under Mucilages.

GUM BICHROMATE PROCESS: See Photography.

GUM DROPS: See Confectionery.

GUM-LAC: See Oil.

GUMS USED IN MAKING VARNISH: See Varnishes.

GUN BARRELS, TO BLUE: See Steel.

GUN BRONZE: See Alloys, under Phosphor Bronze.

GUN COTTON: See Explosives.

GUN LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.

GUNPOWDER: See Explosives.


«GUNPOWDER STAINS.»

A stain produced by the embedding of grains of gunpowder in the skin
is practically the same thing as a tattoo mark. The charcoal of the
gunpowder remains unaffected by the fluids of the tissues, and no
way is known of bringing it into solution there. The only method of
obliterating such marks is to take away with them the skin in which
they are embedded. This has been accomplished by the application of an
electric current, and by the use of caustics. When the destruction of
the true skin has been accomplished, it becomes a foreign body, and if
the destruction has extended to a sufficient depth, the other foreign
body, the coloring matter which has been tattooed in, may be expected
to be cast off with it.

Recently pepsin and papain have been proposed as applications to
remove the cuticle. A glycerole of either is tattooed into the skin
over the disfigured part; and it is said that the operation has proved
successful.

It is scarcely necessary to say that suppuration is likely to follow
such treatment, and that there is risk of scarring. In view of this it
becomes apparent that any such operation should be undertaken only by a
surgeon skilled in dermatological practice. An amateur might not only
cause the patient suffering without success in removal, but add another
disfigurement to the tattooing.

Carbolic acid has been applied to small portions of the affected area
at a time, with the result that the powder and skin were removed
simultaneously and, according to the physician reporting the case, with
little discomfort to the patient.

Rubbing the affected part with moistened ammonium chloride once or
twice a day has been reported as a slow but sure cure.


«GUTTA-PERCHA.»


«Gutta-Percha Substitute.»—I.—A decoction of birch bark is first
prepared, the external bark by preference, being evaporated. The
thick, black residue hardens on exposure to the air, and is said to
possess the properties of gutta-percha without developing any cracks.
It can be mixed with 50 per cent of India rubber or gutta-percha. The
compound is said to be cheap, and a good non-conductor of electricity.
Whether it possesses all the good qualities of gutta-percha is not
known.

II.—A new method of making gutta-percha consists of caoutchouc and a
rosin soap, the latter compounded of 100 parts of rosin, 100 parts
of Carnauba wax, and 40 parts of gas-tar, melted together and passed
through a sieve. They are heated to about 355° to 340° F., and slowly
saponified by stirring with 75 parts of limewater of specific gravity
1.06. The product is next put into a kneading machine along with an
equal quantity of caoutchouc cuttings, and worked in this machine at a
temperature of 195° F. or over. When sufficiently kneaded, the mass can
be rolled to render it more uniform.

GUTTER CEMENT: See Cement and Putty.


«GYPSUM:»

See also Plaster.


«Method of Hardening Gypsum and Rendering it Weather-Proof.»—Gypsum
possesses only a moderate degree of strength even after complete
hardening, {388} and pieces are very liable to be broken off. Various
methods have been tried, with a view to removing this defect and
increasing the hardness of gypsum. Of these methods, that of Wachsmuth,
for hardening articles made of gypsum and rendering them weather-proof,
deserves special notice. All methods of hardening articles made of
gypsum have this in common: the gypsum is first deprived of its
moisture, and then immersed in a solution of certain salts, such as
alum, green vitriol, etc. Articles treated by the methods hitherto in
vogue certainly acquire considerable hardness, but are no more capable
of resistance to the effects of water than crude gypsum. The object
of Wachsmuth’s process is not merely to harden the gypsum, but to
transform it on the surface into insoluble combinations. The process
is as follows: The article is first put into the required shape by
mechanical means, and then deprived of its moisture by heating to
212° to 302° F. It is then plunged into a heated solution of barium
hydrate, in which it is allowed to remain for a longer or shorter time,
according to its strength. When this part of the process is complete,
the article is smoothed by grinding, etc., and then placed in a
solution of about 10 per cent of oxalic acid in water. In a few hours
it is taken out, dried, and polished. It then possesses a hardness
surpassing that of marble, and is impervious to the action of water.
Nor does the polish sustain any injury from contact with water, whereas
gypsum articles hardened by the usual methods lose their polish after
a few minutes’ immersion in water. Articles treated by the method
described have the natural color of gypsum, but it is possible to add
a color to the gypsum during the hardening process. This is done by
plunging the gypsum, after it has been deprived of its moisture, and
before the treatment with the barium solution, into a solution of a
colored metallic sulphate, such as iron, copper, or chrome sulphate, or
into a solution of some coloring matter. Pigments soluble in the barium
or oxalic-acid solutions may also be added to the latter.

Gypsum may be hardened and rendered insoluble by ammonium borate
as follows: Dissolve boric acid in hot water and add sufficient
ammonia water to the solution that the borate at first separated is
redissolved. The gypsum to be cast is stirred in with this liquid,
and the mass treated in the ordinary way. Articles already cast are
simply washed with the liquid, which is quickly absorbed. The articles
withstand the weather as well as though they were of stone.

GYPSUM FLOWERS: See Flowers.

GYPSUM, PAINT FOR: See Paint.


«HAIR FOR MOUNTING.»

The microscopist or amateur, who shaves himself, need never resort to
the trouble of embedding and cutting hairs in the microtome in order
to secure very thin sections of the hair of the face. If he will first
shave himself closely “with the hair,” as the barbers say (i. e.,
in the direction of the natural growth of the hair), and afterwards
lightly “against the hair” (in the opposite direction to above), he
will find in the “scrapings” a multitude of exceedingly thin sections.
The technique is very simple. The lather and “scrapings” are put into
a saucer or large watch-glass and carefully washed with clean water.
This breaks down and dissolves the lather, leaving the hair sections
lying on the bottom of the glass. The after-treatment is that usually
employed in mounting similar objects.


«Hair Preparations»


«DANDRUFF CURES.»

The treatment of that condition of the scalp which is productive of
dandruff properly falls to the physician, but unfortunately the subject
has not been much studied. One cure is said to be a sulphur lotion
made by placing a little sublimed sulphur in water, shaking well, then
allowing to settle, and washing the head every morning with the clear
liquid.

Sulphur is said to be insoluble in water; yet a sulphur water made as
above indicated has long been in use as a hair wash. A little glycerine
improves the preparation, preventing the hair from becoming harsh by
repeated washings.

The exfoliated particles of skin or “scales” should be removed only
when entirely detached from the cuticle. They result from an irritation
which is increased by forcible removal, and hence endeavors to clean
the hair from them by combing or brushing it in such a way as to scrape
the scalp are liable to be worse than useless. It follows that gentle
handling of the hair is important when dandruff is present. {389}

 I.—Chloral hydrate              2 ounces
     Resorcin                     1 ounce
     Tannin                       1 ounce
     Alcohol                      8 ounces
     Glycerine                    4 ounces
     Rose water to make           4 pints

 II.—White wax               3 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Liquid petrolatum       2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Rose water                  1 ounce
      Borax                      15 grains
      Precipitated sulphur    3 1⁠/⁠2 drachms

Pine-Tar Dandruff Shampoo.—

 Pine tar           4 parts
 Linseed oil       40 parts

Heat these to 140° F.; make solution of potassa, U. S. P., 10 parts,
and water, 45 parts; add alcohol, 5 parts, and gradually add to the
heated oils, stirring constantly. Continue the heat until saponified
thoroughly; and make up with water to 128 parts. When almost cool, add
ol. lavender, ol. orange, and ol. bergamot, of each 2 parts.


«HAIR-CURLING LIQUIDS.»

It is impossible to render straight hair curly without the aid of
the iron or paper and other curlers. But it is possible, on the
other hand, to make artificial curls more durable and proof against
outside influences, such as especially dampness of the air. Below are
trustworthy recipes:

                         I         II
 Water                  70         80
 Spirit of wine         30         20
 Borax                   2         —
 Tincture of benzoin    —           3
 Perfume             ad. lib.    ad. lib.


«HAIR DRESSINGS AND WASHES:»

Dressings for the Hair.—

 I.—Oil of wintergreen.          20 drops
     Oil of almond, essential     35 drops
     Oil of rose, ethereal         1 drop
     Oil of violets               30 drops
     Tincture of cantharides      50 drops
     Almond oil                2,000 drops

Mix.

Hair Embrocation.—

 II.—Almond oil, sweet           280 parts
      Spirit of sal ammoniac      280 parts
      Spirit of rosemary          840 parts
      Honey water                 840 parts

Mix. Rub the scalp with it every morning by means of a sponge.

Hair Restorer.—

 III.—Tincture of cantharides      7 parts
       Gall tincture                7 parts
       Musk essence                 1 part
       Carmine                    0.5 part
       Rectified spirit of wine    28 parts
       Rose water 140 parts

To be used at night.

Rosemary Water.—

 IV.—Rosemary oil              1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
      Rectified spirit of wine      7 parts
      Magnesia                      7 parts
      Distilled water           1,000 parts

Mix the oil with the spirit of wine and rub up with the magnesia in a
mortar; gradually add the water and finally filter.

Foamy Scalp Wash.—Mix 2 parts of soap spirit, 1 part of borax-glycerine
(1+2), 6 parts of barium, and 7 parts of orange-flower water.

Lanolin Hair Wash.—Extract 4 parts quillaia bark with 36 parts water
for several days, mix the percolate with 4 parts alcohol, and filter
after having settled. Agitate 40 parts of the filtrate at a temperature
at which wool grease becomes liquid, with 12 parts anhydrous lanolin,
and fill up with water to which 15 per cent spirit of wine has been
added, to 300 parts. Admixture, such as cinchona extract, Peru balsam,
quinine, tincture of cantharides, bay-oil, ammonium carbonate, menthol,
etc., may be made. The result is a yellowish-white, milky liquid, with
a cream-like fat layer floating on the top, which is finely distributed
by agitating.

Birch Water.—Birch water, which has many cosmetic applications,
especially as a hair wash or an ingredient in hair washes, may be
prepared as follows:

 Alcohol, 96 per cent       3,500 parts
 Water                        700 parts
 Potash soap                  200 parts
 Glycerine                    150 parts
 Oil of birch buds             50 parts
 Essence of spring flowers    100 parts
 Chlorophyll, q. s. to color.

Mix the water with 700 parts of the alcohol, and in the mixture
dissolve the soap. Add the essence of spring flowers and birch oil to
the remainder of the alcohol, mix well, and to the mixture add, little
by little, and with constant agitation, the soap mixture. Finally {390}
add the glycerine, mix thoroughly, and set aside for 8 days, filter and
color the filtrate with chlorophyll, to which add a little tincture of
saffron. To use, add an equal volume of water to produce a lather.

Petroleum Hair Washes.—I.—Deodorized pale petroleum, 10 parts;
citronella oil, 10 parts; castor oil, 5 parts; spirit of wine, 90 per
cent, 50 parts; water, 75 parts.

II.—Quinine sulphate, 10 parts; acetic acid, 4 parts; tincture of
cantharides, 30 parts; tincture of quinine, 3 parts; spirit of
rosemary, 60 parts; balm water, 90 parts; barium, 120 parts; spirit of
wine, 150 parts; water, 1,000 parts.

III.—Very pure petroleum, 1 part; almond oil, 2 parts.

Brilliantine.—I.—Olive oil, 4 parts; glycerine, 3 parts; alcohol, 3
parts; scent as desired. Shake before use.

II.—Castor oil, 1 part; alcohol, 2 parts; saffron to dye yellow. Scent
as desired.

III.—Lard, 7 parts; spermaceti, 7 parts; almond oil, 7 parts; white
wax, 1 part.

A Cheap Hair Oil.—I.—Sesame oil or sunflower oil, 1,000 parts; lavender
oil, 15 parts; bergamot oil, 10 parts; and geranium oil, 5 parts.

II.—Sesame oil or sunflower oil, 1,000 parts; lavender oil, 12 parts;
lemon oil, 20 parts; rosemary oil, 5 parts; and geranium oil, 2 parts.


«HAIR DYES.»

There is no hair dye which produces a durable coloration; the color
becomes gradually weaker in the course of time. Here are some typical
formulas in which a mordant is employed:

 I.—Nitrate of silver    1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Distilled water        3 ounces

Mordant:

 Sulphuret of potassium    1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Distilled water             3 ounces

II.—

 (_a_) Nitrate of silver (crystal)    1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
       Distilled water                   12 ounces
       Ammonia water sufficient to make a clear solution.

Dissolve the nitrate of silver in the water and add the ammonia water
until the precipitate is redissolved.

 (_b_) Pyrogallic acid        2 drachms
       Gallic acid            2 drachms
       Cologne water          2 ounces
       Distilled water        4 ounces

 III.—Nitrate of silver     20 grains
       Sulphate of copper     2 grains
       Ammonia, quantity sufficient.

Dissolve the salts in 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of water and add ammonia until the
precipitate which is formed is redissolved, Then make up to 1 ounce
with water. Apply to the hair with a brush. This solution slowly gives
a brown shade. For darker shades, apply a second solution, composed of:

 IV.—Yellow sulphide ammonium      2 drachms
      Solution of ammonia           1 drachm
      Distilled water               1 ounce

Black Hair Dye without Silver.—

 V.—Pyrogallic acid      3.5 parts
     Citric acid          0.3 parts
     Boro-glycerine      11 parts
     Water              100 parts

If the dye does not impart the desired intensity of color, the amount
of pyrogallic acid may be increased. The wash is applied evenings,
followed in the morning by a weak ammoniacal wash.

One Bottle Preparation.—

 VI.—Nitrate of copper      360 grains
      Nitrate of silver        7 ounces
      Distilled water         60 ounces
      Water of ammonia, a sufficiency.

Dissolve the salts in the water and add the water of ammonia carefully
until the precipitate is all redissolved. This solution, properly
applied, is said to produce a very black color; a lighter shade is
secured by diluting the solution. Copper sulphate may be used instead
of the nitrate.

Brown Hair Dyes.—A large excess of ammonia tends to produce a brownish
dye. Various shades of brown may be produced by increasing the amount
of water in the silver solution. It should be remembered that the hair
must, previously to treatment, be washed with warm water containing
sodium carbonate, well rinsed with clear water, and dried.

 I.—Silver nitrate       480 grains
     Copper nitrate        90 grains
     Distilled water        8 fluidounces
     Ammonia water, sufficient.

Dissolve the two salts in the distilled water and add the ammonia water
until the liquid becomes a clear fluid.

In using apply to the hair carefully {391} with a tooth-brush, after
thoroughly cleansing the hair, and expose the latter to the rays of the
sun.

 II.—Silver nitrate                 30 parts
      Copper sulphate, crystals      20 parts
      Citric acid                    20 parts
      Distilled water               950 parts
      Ammonia water, quantity sufficient to dissolve
                       the precipitate first formed.

Various shades of brown may be produced by properly diluting the
solution before it be applied.

 Bismuth subnitrate                                200 grains
 Water                                               2 fluidounces
 Nitric acid, sufficient to dissolve, or about     420 grains

Use heat to effect solution. Also:

 Tartaric acid           150 grains
 Sodium bicarbonate      168 grains
 Water                    32 fluidounces

When effervescence of the latter has ceased, mix the cold liquids by
pouring the latter into the former with constant stirring. Allow the
precipitate to subside; transfer it to a filter or strainer, and wash
with water until free from the sodium nitrate formed.

Chestnut Hair Dye.—

 Bismuth nitrate    230 grains
 Tartaric acid       75 grains
 Water              100 minims

Dissolve the acid in the water, and to the solution add the bismuth
nitrate and stir until dissolved. Pour the resulting solution into 1
pint of water and collect the magma on a filter. Remove all traces of
acid from the magma by repeated washings with water; then dissolve it
in:

 Ammonia water   2 fluidrachms

And add:

 Glycerine                 20 minims
 Sodium hyposulphite       75 grains
 Water, enough to make      4 fluidounces.


«HAIR RESTORERS AND TONICS:»


«Falling of the Hair.»—After the scalp has been thoroughly cleansed by
the shampoo, the following formula is to be used:

 Salicylic acid                1 part
 Precipitate of sulphur    2 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Rose water                   25 parts

The patient is directed to part the hair, and then to rub in a small
portion of the ointment along the part, working it well into the scalp.
Then another part is made parallel to the first, and more ointment
rubbed in. Thus a series of first, longitudinal, and then transverse
parts are made, until the whole scalp has been well anointed. Done
in this way, it is not necessary to smear up the whole shaft of the
hair, but only to reach the hair roots and the sebaceous glands, where
the trouble is located. This process is thoroughly performed for six
successive nights, and the seventh night another shampoo is taken. The
eighth night the inunctions are commenced again, and this is continued
for six weeks. In almost every case the production of dandruff is
checked completely after six weeks’ treatment, and the hair, which may
have been falling out rapidly before, begins to take firmer root. To
be sure, many hairs which are on the point of falling when treatment
is begun will fall anyway, and it may even seem for a time as if the
treatment were increasing the hair-fall, on account of the mechanical
dislodgment of such hairs, but this need never alarm one.

After six weeks of such treatment the shampoo may be taken less
frequently.

Next to dandruff, perhaps, the most common cause of early loss of
hair is heredity. In some families all of the male members, or all who
resemble one particular ancestor, lose their hair early. Dark-haired
families and races, as a rule, become bald earlier than those with
light hair. At first thought it would seem as though nothing could be
done to prevent premature baldness when heredity is the cause, but this
is a mistake. Careful hygiene of the scalp will often counterbalance
hereditary predisposition for a number of years, and even after the
hair has actually begun to fall proper stimulation will, to a certain
extent, and for a limited time, often restore to the hair its pristine
thickness and strength. Any of the rubefacients may be prescribed for
this purpose for daily use, such as croton oil, 1 1⁠/⁠2 per cent;
tincture of cantharides, 15 per cent; oil of cinnamon, 40 per cent;
tincture of capsicum, 15 per cent; oil of mustard, 1 per cent; or any
one of a dozen others. Tincture of capsicum is one of the best, and for
a routine prescription the following has served well:

 Resorcin               5 parts
 Tincture capsicum     15 parts
 Castor oil            10 parts
 Alcohol              100 parts
 Oil of roses, sufficient.

{392}

It is to be recommended that the stimulant be changed from time
to time, so as not to rely on any one to the exclusion of others.
Jaborandi, oxygen gas, quinine, and other agents have enjoyed a great
reputation as hair-producers for a time, and have then taken their
proper position as aids, but not specifics, in restoring the hair.

It is well known that after many fevers, especially those accompanied
by great depression, such as pneumonia, typhoid, puerperal, or scarlet
fever, the hair is liable to fall out. This is brought about in a
variety of ways: In scarlatina, the hair papilla shares in the general
desquamation; in typhoid and the other fevers the baldness may be the
result either of the excessive seborrhea, which often accompanies
these diseases, or may be caused by the general lowering of nutrition
of the body. Unless the hair-fall be accompanied by considerable
dandruff (in which case the above-mentioned treatment should be
vigorously employed), the ordinary hygiene of the scalp will result
in a restoration of the hair in most cases, but the employment of
moderate local stimulation, with the use of good general tonics, will
hasten this end. It seems unwise to cut the hair of women short in
these cases, because the baldness is practically never complete, and
a certain proportion of the hairs will retain firm root. These may be
augmented by a switch made of the hair which has fallen out, until the
new hair shall have grown long enough to do up well. In this way all of
that oftentimes most annoying short-hair period is avoided.


«For Falling Hair.»—

 I.—Hydrochloric acid      75 parts
     Alcohol             2,250 parts

The lotion is to be applied to the scalp every evening at bedtime.

 II.—Tincture of cinchona     1 part
      Tincture of rosemary     1 part
      Tincture of jaborandi    1 part
      Castor oil               2 parts
      Rum 10 parts

Mix.


«Jaborandi Scalp Waters for Increasing the Growth of Hair.»—First
prepare a jaborandi tincture from jaborandi leaves, 200 parts; spirit,
95 per cent, 700 parts; and water, 300 parts. After digesting for a
week, squeeze out the leaves and filter the liquid. The hair wash is
now prepared as follows:

I.—Jaborandi tincture, 1,000 parts: spirit, 95 per cent, 700 parts;
water, 300 parts; glycerine, 150 parts; scent essence, 100 parts; color
with sugar color.

II.—Jaborandi tincture, 1,000 parts: spirit, 95 per cent, 1,500 parts;
quinine tannate, 4 parts; Peru balsam, 20 parts; essence heliotrope, 50
parts. Dissolve the quinine and the Peru balsam in the spirit and then
add the jaborandi tincture and the heliotrope essence. Filter after a
week. Rub into the scalp twice a week before retiring.


«POMADES:»

I.—Cinchona Pomade.—

 Ox marrow            100 drachms
 Lard                  70 drachms
 Sweet almond oil      17 drachms
 Peru balsam            1 drachm
 Quinine sulphate       1 drachm
 Clover oil             2 drachms
 Rose essence          25 drops

II.—Cantharides Pomade.—

 Ox marrow                        300 drachms
 White wax                         30 drachms
 Mace oil                           1 drachm
 Clove oil                          1 drachm
 Rose essence or geranium oil      25 drops
 Tincture of cantharides            8 drachms

Pinaud Eau de Quinine.—The composition of this nostrum is not known.
Dr. Tsheppe failed to find in it any constituent of cinchona bark. The
absence of quinine from the mixture probably would not hurt it, as the
“tonic” effect of quinine on the hair is generally regarded as a myth.

On the other hand, it has been stated that this preparation contains:

 Quinine sulphate              2 parts
 Tincture of krameria          4 parts
 Tincture of cantharides       2 parts
 Spirit of lavender           10 parts
 Glycerine                    15 parts
 Alcohol                     100 parts


«SHAMPOOS:»

A Hair Shampoo is usually a tincture of odorless soft soap. It is
mostly perfumed with lavender and colored with green aniline. Prepared
the same as tr. sapon. virid. (U. S. P.), using an inexpensive soft
soap, that is a good foam producer. Directions: Wet the hair well in
warm water and rub in a few teaspoonfuls of the following formulas. No.
I is considered the best: {393}

                        I     II    III     IV
                             Parts used
 Cottonseed oil        —      24     26     14
 Linseed oil           20     —      —      —
 Malaga olive oil      20     —      —      —
 Caustic potash      9 1⁠/⁠2     8      6      3
 Alcohol                5   4 1⁠/⁠2     5      2
 Water                 30     26     34   16 1⁠/⁠2

Warm the mixed oils on a large water bath, then the potash and water
in another vessel, heating both to 158° F., and adding the latter hot
solution to the hot oil while stirring briskly. Now add and thoroughly
mix the alcohol. Stop stirring, keeping the heat at 158° F., until the
mass becomes clear and a small quantity dissolves in boiling water
without globules of oil separating. If stirred after the alcohol has
been mixed the soap will be opaque. Set aside for a few days in a warm
place before using to make liquid shampoo.

Liquid Shampoos.—

 I.—Fluid extract of soap-bark    10 parts
     Glycerine                      5 parts
     Cologne water                 10 parts
     Alcohol                       20 parts
     Rose water                    30 parts

 II.—Soft soap                    24 parts
      Potassium carbonate           5 parts
      Alcohol                      48 parts
      Water enough to make        400 parts

Shampoo Pastes.—

 I.—White castile soap, in shavings    2 ounces
     Ammonia water                      2 fluidounces
     Bay rum, or cologne water          1 fluidounce
     Glycerine                          1 fluidounce
     Water                             12 fluidounces

Dissolve the soap in the water by means of heat; when nearly cold stir
in the other ingredients.

 II.—Castile soap, white         4 ounces
      Potassium carbonate         1 ounce
      Water                       6 fluidounces
      Glycerine                   2 fluidounces
      Oil of lavender flowers     5 drops
      Oil of bergamot            10 drops

To the water add the soap, in shavings, and the potassium carbonate,
and heat on a water bath until thoroughly softened; add the glycerine
and oils. If necessary to reduce to proper consistency, more water may
be added.

Egg Shampoo.—

 Whites of             2 eggs
 Water                 5 fluidounces
 Water of ammonia      3 fluidounces
 Cologne water       1⁠/⁠3 fluidounce
 Alcohol               4 fluidounces

Beat the egg whites to a froth, and add the other ingredients in the
order in which they are named, with a thorough mixing after each
addition.

Imitation Egg Shampoos.—Many of the egg shampoos are so called
from their appearance. They usually contain no egg and are merely
preparations of perfumed soft soap. Here are some formulas:

 I.—White castile soap      4 ounces
     Powdered curd soap      2 ounces
     Potassium carbonate     1 ounce
     Honey                   1 ounce

Make a homogeneous paste by heating with water.

II.—Melt 3 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of lard over a salt-water bath and run into it
a lye formed by dissolving 8 ounces of caustic potassa in 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints
of water. Stir well until saponification is effected and perfume as
desired.

HAIR REMOVERS: See Depilatories.

HAMBURG BITTERS: See Wines and Liquors.

HAMMER HARDENING: See Steel.

HAND CREAMS: See Cosmetics.

HANDS, TO REMOVE STAINS FROM THE: See Cleaning Preparations.

HARE-LIP OPERATION, ANTISEPTIC PASTE FOR: See Antiseptics.

HARNESS DRESSINGS AND PREPARATIONS: See Leather Dressings.

HARNESS WAX: See Waxes.

HAT-CLEANING COMPOUNDS: See Cleaning Compounds.

HAT WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. {394}


«HATS:»


«Dyeing Straw Hats.»—The plan generally followed is that of coating the
hats with a solution of varnish in which a suitable aniline dye has
dissolved. The following preparations are in use:

I.—For dark varnishes prepare a basis consisting of orange shellac,
900 parts; sandarac, 225 parts; Manila copal, 225 parts; castor oil,
55 parts; and wood-spirit, 9,000 parts. To color, add to the foregoing
amount alcohol-soluble, coal-tar dyes as follows: Black, 55 parts
of soluble ivory-black (modified by blue or green). Olive-brown, 15
parts of brilliant-green, 55 parts of Bismarck brown R, 8 parts of
spirit blue. Olive-green, 28 parts of brilliant-green, 28 parts of
Bismarck-brown R. Walnut, 55 parts of Bismarck-brown R, 15 parts of
nigrosin. Mahogany, 28 parts of Bismarck-brown R, which may be deepened
by a little nigrosin.

II.—For light colors prepare a varnish as follows: Sandarac, 1,350
parts; elemi, 450 parts; rosin, 450 parts; castor oil, 110 parts;
wood-spirit, 9,000 parts. For this amount use dyes as follows: Gold,
55 parts of chrysoidin, 55 parts of aniline-yellow. Light green, 55
parts of brilliant-green, 7 parts of aniline-yellow. Blue, 55 parts of
spirit blue. Deep blue, 55 parts of spirit blue, 55 parts of indulin.
Violet, 28 parts of methyl-violet, 3 B. Crimson, 55 parts of safranin.
Chestnut, 55 parts of safranin, 15 parts of indulin.

 III.—Shellac           4 ounces
       Sandarac          1 ounce
       Gum thus          1 ounce
       Methyl spirit     1 pint

In this dissolve aniline dyes of the requisite color, and apply. For
white straw, white shellac must be used.


«To Extract Shellac from Fur Hats.»—

Use the common solvents, as carbon bisulphide, benzine, wood alcohol,
turpentine, and so forth, reclaiming the spirit and shellac by a
suitable still.


«HEADACHE REMEDIES:»

See also Pain Killers.


«Headache Cologne.»—As a mitigant of headache, cologne water of the
farina type is refreshing.

 Oil of neroli         6 drachms
 Oil of rosemary       3 drachms
 Oil of bergamot       3 drachms
 Oil of cedrat         7 drachms
 Oil of orange peel    7 drachms
 Deodorized alcohol    1 gallon

To secure a satisfactory product from the foregoing formula it is
necessary to look carefully to the quality of the oils. Oil of
cedrat is prone to change, and oil of orange peel, if exposed to the
atmosphere for a short time, becomes worthless, and will spoil the
other materials.

A delightful combination of the acetic odor with that of cologne water
may be had by adding to a pint of the foregoing, 2 drachms of glacial
acetic acid. The odor so produced may be more grateful to some invalids
than the neroli and lemon bouquet.

Still another striking variation of the cologne odor, suitable for the
use indicated, may be made by adding to a pint of cologne water an
ounce of ammoniated alcohol.


«Liquid Headache Remedies.»—

 Acetanilid                 60 grains
 Alcohol                     4 fluidrachms
 Ammonium carbonate         30 grains
 Water                       2 fluidrachms
 Simple elixir to make       2 fluidounces

Dissolve the acetanilid in the alcohol, the ammonium carbonate in the
water, mix each solution with a portion of the simple elixir, and mix
the whole together.

HEAT-INDICATING PAINT: See Paint.

HEAT INSULATION: See Insulation.

HEAT, PRICKLY: See Household Formulas.

HEAT-RESISTANT LACQUERS: See Lacquers.

HEAVES: See Veterinary Formulas.


«HEDGE MUSTARD.»

Hedge mustard (erysimum) was at one time a popular remedy in France for
hoarseness, and is still used in country districts, but is not often
prescribed.

 Liquid ammonia               10 drops
 Syrup of erysimum         1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Infusion of lime flowers      3 ounces

To be taken at one dose.


«HERBARIUM SPECIMENS, MOUNTING.»

A matter of first importance, after drying the herbarium specimens,
is to poison them, to prevent the attacks of insects. This is done
by brushing them over on both sides, using a camel’s-hair pencil,
with a solution of 2 grains of {395} corrosive sublimate to an ounce
of methylated spirit. In tropical climates the solution is generally
used of twice this strength. There are several methods of mounting
them. Leaves with a waxy surface and coriaceous texture are best
stitched through the middle after they have been fastened on with
an adhesive mixture. Twigs of leguminous trees will often throw off
their leaflets in drying. This may, in some measure, be prevented by
dipping them in boiling water before drying, or if the leaves are not
very rigid, by using strong pressure at first, without the use of
hot water. If the specimens have to be frequently handled, the most
satisfactory preparation is Lepage’s fish glue, but a mixture of glue
and paste, with carbolic acid added, is used in some large herbaria.
The disadvantage of using glue, gum, or paste is that it is necessary
to have some of the leaves turned over so as to show the under surface
of the leaf, and some of the flowers and seeds placed loose in
envelopes on the same sheet for purposes of comparison or microscopic
examination. Another plan is to use narrow slips of gummed stiff
but thin paper, such as very thin parchment paper. These strips are
either gummed over the stems, etc., and pinched in round the stem with
forceps, or passed through slits made in the sheet and fastened at
the back. If the specimens are mounted on cards and protected in glass
frames, stitching in the principal parts with gray thread produces a
very satisfactory appearance.


«Hectograph Pads and Inks»

The hectograph is a gelatin pad used for duplicating letters, etc., by
transfer. The pad should have a tough elastic consistency, similar to
that of a printer’s roller. The letter or sketch to be duplicated is
written or traced on a sheet of heavy paper with an aniline ink (which
has great tinctorial qualities). When dry this is laid, inked side
down, on the pad and subjected to moderate and uniform pressure for a
few minutes. It may then be removed, when a copy of the original will
be found on the pad which has absorbed a large quantity of the ink.
The blank sheets are laid one by one on the pad, subjected to moderate
pressure over the whole surface with a wooden or rubber roller, or with
the hand, and lifted off by taking hold of the corners and stripping
them gently with an even movement. If this is done too quickly the
composition may be torn. Each succeeding copy thus made will be a
little fainter than its predecessor. From 40 to 60 legible copies may
be made. When the operation is finished the surface of the pad should
be gone over gently with a wet sponge and the remaining ink soaked out.
The superfluous moisture is then carefully wiped off, when the pad will
be ready for another operation.

The pad or hectograph is essentially a mixture of glue (gelatin) and
glycerine. This mixture has the property of remaining soft yet firm
for a long time and of absorbing and holding certain coloring matters
in such a way as to give them up slowly or in layers, so to speak, on
pressure.

Such a pad may be made by melting together 1 part of glue, 2 parts of
water and 4 parts of glycerine (all by weight, of course), evaporating
some of the water and tempering the mixture with more glue or glycerine
if the season or climate require. The mass when of proper consistency,
which can be ascertained by cooling a small portion, is poured into a
shallow pan and allowed to set. Clean glue must be used or the mixture
strained; and air bubbles should be removed by skimming the surface
with a piece of card-board or similar appliance.

Variations of this formula have been proposed, some of which are
appended:

 I.—Glycerine             12 ounces
     Gelatin                2 ounces
     Water                  7 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Sugar                  2 ounces

 II.—Water                10 ounces
      Dextrin           1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Sugar                 2 ounces
      Gelatin              15 ounces
      Glycerine            15 ounces
      Zinc oxide        1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

 III.—Gelatin             10 ounces
       Water               40 ounces
       Glycerine          120 ounces
       Barium sulphate      8 ounces

The Tokacs patent composition, besides the usual ingredients, such as
gelatin, glycerine, sugar, and gum, contains soap, and can therefore be
washed off much easier for new use. The smoothness of the surface is
also increased, without showing more sticking capacity with the first
impressions.


«Hectograph Inks» (see also Inks).—The writing to be copied by means of
the hectograph is done on good paper with an aniline ink. Formulas for
suitable ones are appended. It is said that more copies can be obtained
from writing with the purple ink than with other kinds: {396}

Purple.—

 I.—Methyl violet      2 parts
     Alcohol            2 parts
     Sugar              1 part
     Glycerine          4 parts
     Water             24 parts

Dissolve the violet in the alcohol mixed with the glycerine; dissolve
the sugar in the water; mix both solutions.

II.—A good purple hectograph ink is made as follows: Dissolve 1 part
methyl violet in 8 parts of water and add 1 part of glycerine. Gently
warm the solution for an hour, and add, when cool, 1⁠/⁠4 part alcohol.
Or take methyl violet, 1 part; water, 7 parts; and glycerine, 2 parts.

Black.—

 Methyl violet      10 parts
 Nigrosin           20 parts
 Glycerine          30 parts
 Gum arabic          5 parts
 Alcohol            60 parts

Blue.—

 Resorcin blue M        10 parts
 Dilute acetic acid      1 part
 Water                  85 parts
 Glycerine               4 parts
 Alcohol                10 parts

Dissolve by heat.

Red.—

 Fuchsin        10 parts
 Alcohol        10 parts
 Glycerine      10 parts
 Water          50 parts

Green.—

 Aniline green, water soluble      15 parts
 Glycerine                         10 parts
 Water                             50 parts
 Alcohol                           10 parts


«Repairing Hectographs.»—Instead of remelting the hectograph
composition, which is not always successful, it is recommended to pour
alcohol over the surface of the cleaned mass and to light it. After
solidifying, the surface will be again ready for use.

HEMORRHOIDS: See Piles.

HERB VINEGAR: See Vinegar.

HIDES: See Leather.

HIDE BOUND: See Veterinary Formulas.

HIDE-CLEANING PROCESSES: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

HOARHOUND CANDY: See Confectionery.

HOARSENESS, CREAM BON-BONS FOR: See Confectionery.

HOARSENESS, REMEDY FOR: See Cough and Cold Mixtures and Turpentine.


«HONEY:»


«Honey Clarifier.»—For 3,000 parts of fresh honey, take 875 parts of
water, 150 parts of washed, dried, and pulverized charcoal, 70 parts
of powdered chalk, and the whites of 3 eggs beaten in 90 parts of
water. Put the honey and the chalk in a vessel capable of containing
1⁠/⁠3 more than the mixture and boil for 3 minutes; then introduce
the charcoal and stir up the whole. Add the whites of the eggs while
continuing to stir, and boil again for 3 minutes. Take from the fire,
and after allowing the liquid to cool for a quarter of an hour, filter,
and to secure a perfectly clear liquid refilter on flannel.


«Detecting Dyed Honey.»—For the detection of artificial yellow dyestuff
in honey, treat the aqueous yellow solution with hydrochloric acid,
as well as with ammonia; also extract the dyestuff from the acid
or ammoniacal solution by solvents, such as alcohol or ether, or
conduct the Arata wool test in the following manner: Dissolve 10 parts
of honey in 50 parts of water, mix with 10 parts of a 10 per cent
potassium-bisulphate solution and boil the woolen thread in this liquid
for 10 minutes.

HONEY WINE: See Mead.

HONING: See Whetstones.

HOOF SORES: See Veterinary Formulas.

HOP BITTER BEER: See Beverages.

HOP SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts.


«HORN:»


«Artificial Horn.»—To prepare artificial horn from compounds of
nitro-cellulose and casein, by hardening them and removing their odor
of camphor, the compounds are steeped in formaldehyde from several
hours to as many days, {397} according to the thickness of the object
treated. When the formaldehyde has penetrated through the mass and
dissolved the camphor, the object is taken out of the liquid and dried.
Both the camphor extracted and the formaldehyde used can be recovered
by distillation, and used over again, thus cheapening the operation.


«Dehorners or Horn Destroyers.»—The following are recommended by the
Board of Agriculture of Great Britain:

Clip the hair from the top of the horn when the calf is from 2 to 5
days old. Slightly moisten the end of a stick of caustic potash with
water or saliva (or moisten the top of the horn bud) and rub the tip
of each horn firmly with the potash for about a quarter of a minute,
or until a slight impression has been made on the center of the horn.
The horns should be treated in this way from 2 to 4 times at intervals
of 5 minutes. If, during the interval of 5 minutes after one or more
applications, a little blood appears in the center of the horn, it will
then only be necessary to give another very slight rubbing with the
potash.

The following directions should be carefully observed: The operation
is best performed when the calf is under 5 days old, and should not
be attempted after the ninth day. When not in use the caustic potash
should be kept in a stoppered glass bottle in a dry place, as it
rapidly deteriorates when exposed to the air. One man should hold the
calf while an assistant uses the caustic. Roll a piece of tin foil or
brown paper round the end of the stick of caustic potash, which is
held by the fingers, so as not to injure the hand of the operator. Do
not moisten the stick too much, or the caustic may spread to the skin
around the horn and destroy the flesh. For the same reason keep the
calf from getting wet for some days after the operation. Be careful to
rub on the center of the horn and not around the side of it.


«Staining Horns.»—A brown stain is given to horns by covering them
first with an aqueous solution of potassium ferrocyanide, drying them,
and then treating with a hot dilute solution of copper sulphate. A
black stain can be produced in the following manner:

After having finely sandpapered the horns, dissolve 50 to 60 grains of
nitrate of silver in 1 ounce of distilled water. It will be colorless.
Dip a small brush in, and paint the horns where they are to be black.
When dry, put them where the sun can shine on them, and you will find
that they will turn jet black, and may then be polished.


«To Soften Horn.»—Lay the horn for 10 days in a solution of water, 1
part; nitric acid, 3 parts; wood vinegar, 2 parts; tannin, 5 parts;
tartar, 2 parts; and zinc vitriol, 2.5 parts.

HORN BLEACHES: See Bone and Ivory.

HORN, UNITING GLASS WITH: See Adhesives.

HORSES, THE TREATMENT OF THEIR DISEASES: See Veterinary Formulas.


«Household Formulas»


«How to Lay Galvanized Iron Roofing.»—The use of galvanized iron for
general roofing work has increased greatly during the past few years.
It has many features which commend it as a roofing material, but
difficulties have been experienced by beginners as to the proper method
of applying it to the roof. The weight of material used is rather heavy
to permit of double seaming, but a method has been evolved that is
satisfactory. Galvanized iron roofing can be put on at low cost, so as
to be water-tight and free from buckling at the joints. The method
does away with double seaming, and is considered more suitable than the
latter for roofing purposes wherever it can be laid on a roof steeper
than 1 to 12.

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

[Illustration: FIG. 2]

[Illustration: FIG. 3]

[Illustration: FIG. 4]

[Illustration: FIG. 5]

[Illustration: FIG. 6]

Galvanized iron of No. 28 and heavier gauges is used, the sheets being
lap-seamed and soldered together in strips in the shop the proper
length to apply to the roof. After the sheets are fastened together a
1 1⁠/⁠4-inch edge is turned up the entire length of one side of the
sheet, as indicated in Fig. 1. This operation is done with tongs having
gauge pins set at the proper point. The second {398} operation consists
in turning a strip 1⁠/⁠4 inch wide toward the sheet, as shown in Fig.
2. This sheet is then laid on the roof, and a cleat about 8 inches long
and 1 inch wide, made of galvanized iron, is nailed to the roof close
to the sheet and bent over it, as shown in Fig. 3.

A second sheet having 1 1⁠/⁠2 inches turned up is now brought against
the first sheet and bent over both sheet and cleat, as shown in Fig. 4.
The cleat is then bent backward over the second sheet and cut off close
to the roof, as in Fig. 5, after which the seams are drawn together by
double seaming tools, as the occasion demands, and slightly hammered
with a wooden mallet. The finished seam is shown in Fig. 6. It will be
seen that the second sheet of galvanized iron, cut 1⁠/⁠4 inch longer
than the first, laps over the former, making a sort of bead which
prevents water from driving in. Cleats hold both sheets firmly to the
roof and are nailed about 12 inches apart. Roofs of this character,
when laid with No. 28 gauge iron, cost very little more than the
cheaper grades of tin, and do not have to be painted.


«Applications for Prickly Heat.»—Many applications for this extremely
annoying form of urticaria have been suggested and their efficacy
strongly urged by the various correspondents of the medical press
who propose them, but none of them seem to be generally efficacious.
Thus, sodium bicarbonate in strong, aqueous solution, has long been
a domestic remedy in general use, but it fails probably as often as
it succeeds. A weak solution of copper sulphate has also been highly
extolled, only to disappoint a very large proportion of those who
resort to it. And so we might go on citing remedies which may sometimes
give relief, but fail in the large proportion of cases. In this
trouble, as in almost every other, the idiosyncrasies of the patient
play a great part in the effects produced by any remedy. It is caused,
primarily by congestion of the capillary vessels of the skin, and
anything that tends to relieve this congestion will give relief, at
least temporarily. Among the newer suggestions are the following:

 Alcohol         333 parts
 Ether           333 parts
 Chloroform      333 parts
 Menthol           1 part

Mix. Directions: Apply occasionally with a sponge.

Among those things which at least assist one in bearing the affliction
is frequent change of underwear. The undergarments worn during the day
should never be worn at night. Scratching or rubbing should be avoided
where possible. Avoid stimulating food and drinks, especially alcohol,
and by all means keep the bowels in a soluble condition.


«Cleaning and Polishing Linoleum.»—Wash the linoleum with a mixture
of equal parts of milk and water, wipe dry, and rub in the following
mixture by means of a cloth rag: Yellow wax, 5 parts; turpentine oil,
11 parts; varnish, 5 parts. As a glazing agent, a solution of a little
yellow wax in turpentine oil is also recommended. Other polishing
agents are:

I.—Palm oil, 1 part; paraffine, 18; kerosene, 4.

II.—Yellow wax, 1 part; carnauba wax, 2; turpentine oil, 10; benzine, 5.


«Lavatory Deodorant.»—

 Sodium bicarbonate      5 ounces
 Alum                5 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Potassium bromide       4 ounces
 Hydrochloric acid enough
 Water enough to make    4 pints.

To 3 parts of boiling water add the alum and then the bicarbonate.
Introduce enough hydrochloric acid to dissolve the precipitate of
aluminum hydrate which forms and then add the potassium bromide. Add
enough water to bring the measure of the finished product up to 4 pints.


«Removal of Odors from Wooden Boxes, Chests, Drawers, etc.»—This is
done by varnishing them with a solution of shellac, after the following
manner: Make a solution of shellac, 1,000 parts; alcohol, 90 per cent
to 95 per cent, 1,000 parts; boric acid, 50 parts; castor oil, 50
parts. The shellac is first dissolved in the alcohol and the acid and
oil added afterwards. For the first coating use 1 part of the solution
cut with from 1 to 2 parts of alcohol, according to the porosity of
the wood—the more porous the less necessity for cutting. When the
first coat is absorbed and dried in, repeat the application, if the
wood is very porous, with the diluted shellac, but if of hard, dense
wood, the final coating may be now put on, using the solution without
addition of alcohol. If desired, the solution may be colored with any
of the alcohol soluble aniline colors. The shellac solution, by the
way, may be applied to the outside of chests, etc., and finished off
after the fashion of “French polish.” {399} When used this way, a prior
application of 2 coats of linseed oil is advisable.


«Stencil Marking Ink that will Wash Out.»—Triturate together 1 part of
fine soot and 2 parts of Prussian blue, with a little glycerine; then
add 3 parts of gum arabic and enough glycerine to form a thin paste.


«Washing Fluid.»—Take 1 pound sal soda, 1⁠/⁠2 pound good stone lime,
and 5 quarts of water; boil a short time, let it settle, and pour off
the clear fluid into a stone jug, and cork for use; soak the white
clothes overnight in simple water, wring out and soap wristbands,
collars, and dirty or stained places. Have the boiler half filled with
water just beginning to boil, then put in 1 common teacupful of fluid,
stir and put in your clothes, and boil for half an hour, then rub
lightly through one suds only, and all is complete.


«Starch Luster.»—A portion of stearine, the size of an old-fashioned
cent, added to starch, 1⁠/⁠2 pound, and boiled with it for 2 or 3
minutes, will add greatly to the beauty of linen, to which it may be
applied.


«To Make Loose Nails in Walls Rigid.»—As soon as a nail driven in the
wall becomes loose and the plastering begins to break, it can be made
solid and firm by the following process: Saturate a bit of wadding with
thick dextrin or glue; wrap as much of it around the nail as possible
and reinsert the latter in the hole, pressing it home as strongly as
possible. Remove the excess of glue or dextrin, wiping it cleanly off
with a rag dipped in clean water; then let dry. The nail will then be
firmly fastened in place. If the loose plastering be touched with the
glue and replaced, it will adhere and remain firm.


«How to Keep Lamp Burners in Order.»—In the combustion of coal oil a
carbonaceous residue is left, which attaches itself very firmly to the
metal along the edge of the burner next the flame. This is especially
true of round burners, where the heat of the flame is more intense than
in flat ones, and the deposit of carbon, where not frequently removed,
soon gets sufficiently heavy to interfere seriously with the movement
of the wick up or down. The deposit may be scraped off with a knife
blade, but a much more satisfactory process of getting rid of it is as
follows: Dissolve sodium carbonate, 1 part, in 5 or 6 parts of water,
and in this boil the burner for 5 minutes or so. When taken out the
burner will look like a new one, and acts like one, provided that the
apparatus for raising and lowering the wick has not previously been
bent and twisted by attempting to force the wick past rough deposits.


«To Remove the Odor from Pasteboard.»—Draw the pasteboard through
a 3 per cent solution of viscose in water. The pasteboard must be
calendered after drying.


«To Remove Woody Odor.»—To get rid of that frequently disagreeable
smell in old chests, drawers, etc., paint the surface over with the
following mixture:

 Acetic ether                     100 parts
 Formaldehyde                       6 parts
 Acid, carbolic                     4 parts
 Tincture of eucalyptus leaves     60 parts

Mix. After applying the mixture expose the article to the open air in
the sunlight.


«To Keep Flies Out of a House.»—Never allow a speck of food to remain
uncovered in dining room or pantry any length of time after meals.
Never leave remnants of food exposed that you intend for cat or hens.
Feed at once or cover their food up a distance from the house. Let
nothing decay near the house. Keep your dining room and pantry windows
open a few inches most of the time. Darken your room and pantry when
not in use. If there should be any flies they will go to the window
when the room is darkened, where they are easily caught, killed, or
brushed out.


«An Easy Way to Wash a Heavy Comfortable.»—Examine the comfortable, and
if you find soiled spots soap them and scrub with a small brush. Hang
the comfortable on a strong line and turn the hose on. When one side is
washed turn and wash the other. The water forces its way through cotton
and covering, making the comfortable as light and fluffy as when new.
Squeeze the corners and ends as dry as possible.


«Preservation of Carpets.»—Lay sheets of brown paper under the carpet.
This gives a soft feeling to the foot, and by diminishing the wear adds
longer life to the carpet; at the same time it tends to keep away the
air and renders the apartments warm.


«To Do Away with Wiping Dishes.»—Make a rack by putting a shelf over
the kitchen sink, slanting it so that the water {400} will drain off
into the sink. Put a lattice railing about 6 inches high at the front
and ends of the shelf so that dishes can be set against it on their
edges without falling out. Have 2 pans of hot water. Wash the dishes in
one and rinse them in the other. Set them on edge in the rack and leave
until dry.


«A Convenient Table.»—

Ten common-sized eggs weigh 1 pound.

Soft butter, the size of an egg, weighs 1 ounce.

One pint of coffee and of sugar weighs 12 ounces.

One quart of sifted flour (well heaped) weighs 1 pound.

One pint of best brown sugar weighs 12 ounces.


«How to Make a Cellar Waterproof.»—The old wall surface should be
roughened and perfectly cleaned before plastering is commenced. It may
be advisable to put the first coat on not thicker than 1⁠/⁠4 inch, and
after this has set it may be cut and roughened by a pointing trowel.
Then apply a second 1⁠/⁠4-inch coat and finish this to an even and
smooth surface. Proportion of plaster: One-half part slaked lime, 1
part Portland cement, part fine, sharp sand, to be mixed well and
applied instantly.


«Removing Old Wall Paper.»—Some paper hangers remove old paper from
walls by first dampening it with water in which a little baking soda
has been dissolved, the surface being then gone over with a “scraper”
or other tool. However, the principle object of any method is to soften
the old paste. This may be readily accomplished by first wetting a
section of the old paper with cold or tepid water, using a brush,
repeating the wetting until the paper and paste are soaked through,
when the paper may easily be pulled off, or, if too tender, may be
scraped with any instrument of a chisel form shoved between the paper
and the wall. The wall should then be washed with clean water, this
operation being materially assisted by wetting the wall ahead of the
washing.


«Stained Ceilings.»—Take unslaked white lime, dilute with alcohol, and
paint the spots with it. When the spots are dry—which will be soon,
as the alcohol evaporates and the lime forms a sort of insulating
layer—one can proceed painting with size color, and the spots will not
show through again.


«To Overcome Odors in Freshly Papered Rooms.»—After the windows and
doors of such rooms have been closed, bring in red-hot coal and strew
on this several handfuls of juniper berries. About 12 hours later open
all windows and doors, so as to admit fresh air, and it will be found
that the bad smell has entirely disappeared.


«Treatment of Damp Walls.»—I.—A good and simple remedy to obviate
this evil is caoutchouc glue, which is prepared from rubber hose. The
walls to be laid dry are first to be thoroughly cleaned by brushing
and rubbing off; then the caoutchouc size, which has been previously
made liquid by heating, is applied with a broad brush in a uniform
layer—about 8 to 12 inches higher than the wall appears damp—and
finally paper is pasted over the glue when the latter is still sticky.
The paper will at once adhere very firmly. Or else, apply the liquefied
glue in a uniform layer upon paper (wall paper, caoutchouc paper,
etc.). Upon this, size paint may be applied, or it may be covered with
wall paper or plaster.

If the caoutchouc size is put on with the necessary care—i. e., if all
damp spots are covered with it—the wall is laid dry for the future, and
no peeling off of the paint or the wall paper needs to be apprehended.
In cellars, protection from dampness can be had in a like manner, as
the caoutchouc glue adheres equally well to all surfaces, whether
stone, glass, metal, or wood.

II.—The walls must be well cleaned before painting. If the plaster
should be worn and permeated with saltpeter in places it should be
renewed and smoothed. These clean surfaces are coated twice with a
water-glass solution, 1.1, using a brush and allowed to dry well. Then
they are painted 3 times with the following mixture: Dissolve 100
parts, by weight, of mastic in 10 parts of absolute alcohol; pour 1,000
parts of water over 200 parts of isinglass; allow to soak for 6 hours;
heat to solution and add 100 parts of alcohol (50 per cent). Into
this mixture pour a hot solution of 50 parts of ammonia in 250 parts
of alcohol (50 per cent), stir well, and subsequently add the mastic
solution and stand aside warm, stirring diligently. After 5 minutes
take away from the fire and painting may be commenced. Before a fresh
application, however, the solution should be removed.

When this coating has dried completely it is covered with oil or
varnish paint, preferably the latter. In the same manner the exudation
of so-called saltpeter {401} in fresh masonry or on the exterior
of façades, etc., may be prevented, size paint or lime paint being
employed instead of the oil-varnish paint. New walls which are to be
painted will give off no more saltpeter after 2 or 3 applications of
the isinglass solution, so that the colors of the wall paper will not
be injured either. Stains caused by smoke, soot, etc., on ceilings of
rooms, kitchens, or corridors which are difficult to cover up with size
paint, may also be completely isolated by applying the warm isinglass
solution 2 or 3 times. The size paint is, of course, put on only after
complete drying of the ceilings.


«To Protect Papered Walls from Vermin.»—It is not infrequent that when
the wall paper becomes defective or loose in papered rooms, vermin, bed
bugs, ants, etc., will breed behind it. In order to prevent this evil a
little colocynth powder should be added to the paste used for hanging
the paper, in the proportion of 50 or 60 parts for 3,000 parts.


«Care of Refrigerators.»—See that the sides or walls of all
refrigerators are occasionally scoured with soap, or soap and slaked
lime.


«Dust Preventers.»—Against the beneficial effects to be observed in the
use of most preparations we must place the following bad effects: The
great smoothness and slipperiness of the boards during the first few
days after every application of the dressing, which forbids the use of
the latter on steps, floors of gymnasia, dancing floors, etc. The fact
that the oil or grease penetrates the soles of the boots or shoes, the
hems of ladies’ dresses, and things accidentally falling to the floor
are soiled and spotted. Besides these there is, especially during the
first few days after application, the dirty dark coloration which the
boards take on after protracted use of the oils. Finally, there is the
considerable cost of any process, especially for smaller rooms and
apartments. In schoolrooms and railroad waiting rooms and other places
much frequented by children and others wearing shoes set with iron, the
boards soon become smooth from wear, and for such places the process is
not suited.

According to other sources of information, these evil tendencies of
the application vanish altogether, or are reduced to a minimum, if (1)
entirely fresh, or at least, not rancid oils be used; (2) if, after
each oiling, a few days be allowed to elapse before using the chamber
or hall, and finally (3), if resort is not had to costly foreign
special preparations, but German goods, procurable at wholesale in any
quantity, and at very low figures.

The last advice (to use low-priced preparations) seems sensible since
according to recent experiments, none of the oils experimented upon
possess any especial advantages over the others.

An overwhelming majority of the laboratories for examination have given
a verdict in favor of oil as a dust-suppressing application for floors,
and have expressed a desire to see it in universal use. The following
is a suggestion put forth for the use of various preparations:

This dust-absorbing agent has for its object to take up the dust in
sweeping floors, etc., and to prevent its development. The production
is as follows: Mix in an intimate manner 12 parts, by weight, of
mineral sperm oil with 88 parts, by weight, of Roman or Portland
cement, adding a few drops of mirbane oil. Upon stirring a uniform
paste forms at first, which then passes into a greasy, sandy mass. This
mass is sprinkled upon the surface to be swept and cleaned of dust,
next going over it with a broom or similar object in the customary
manner, at which operation the dust will mix with the mass. The
preparation can be used repeatedly.

HUNYADI WATER: See Water.

HYDROCHINON DEVELOPER: See Photography.

HYDROGEN, AMALGAMS AS A SOURCE OF NASCENT: See Amalgams.

HYDROGEN PEROXIDE AS A PRESERVATIVE: See Preserving.


«HYDROMETER AND ITS USE.»

Fill the tall cylinder or test glass with the spirit to be tested
and see that it is of the proper temperature (60° F.). Should the
thermometer indicate a higher temperature wrap the cylinder in cloths
which have been dipped in cold water until the temperature falls to the
required degree. If too low a temperature is indicated, reverse the
process, using warm instead of cold applications. When 60° is reached
note the specific gravity on the floating hydrometer. Have the cylinder
filled to the top and look across the top of the liquid at the mark
on the hydrometer. This is to preclude an {402} incorrect reading by
possible refraction in the glass cylinder.


«HYGROMETERS AND HYGROSCOPES:»


«Paper Hygrometers.»—Paper hygrometers are made by saturating white
blotting paper with the following liquid and then hanging up to dry:

 Cobalt chloride        1 ounce
 Sodium chloride      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Calcium chloride      75 grains
 Acacia               1⁠/⁠4 ounce
 Water                  3 ounces

The amount of moisture in the atmosphere is roughly indicated by the
changing color of the papers, as follows:

 Rose red           rain
 Pale red           very moist
 Bluish red         moist
 Lavender blue      nearly dry
 Blue               very dry


«Colored Hygroscopes.»—These instruments are often composed of a
flower or a figure, of light muslin or paper, immersed in one of the
following solutions:

 I.—Cobalt chloride         1 part
     Gelatin                10 parts
     Water                 100 parts

The normal coloring is pink; this color changes into violet in medium
humid weather and into blue in very dry weather.

 II.—Cupric chloride        1 part
      Gelatin               10 parts
      Water                100 parts

The color is yellow in dry weather.

 III.—Cobalt chloride       1 part
       Gelatin              20 parts
       Nickel oxide         75 parts
       Cupric chloride      25 parts
       Water               200 parts

The color is green in dry weather.

HYOSCYAMUS, ANTIDOTE TO: See Atropine.


«ICE:»

See also Refrigeration.


«Measuring the Weight of Ice.»—A close estimate of the weight of
ice can be reached by multiplying together the length, breadth, and
thickness of the block in inches, and dividing the product by 30.
This will be very closely the weight in pounds. Thus, if a block is
10 x 10 x 9, the product is 900, and this divided by 30 gives 30
pounds as correct weight. A block 10 x 10 x 6 weighs 20 pounds. This
simple method can be easily applied, and it may serve to remove unjust
suspicions, or to detect short weight.


«To Keep Ice in Small Quantities.»—To keep ice from melting, attention
is called to an old preserving method. The ice is cracked with a
hammer between 2 layers of a strong cloth. Tie over a common unglazed
flower-pot, holding about 2 to 4 quarts and placed upon a porcelain
dish, a piece of white flannel in such a manner that it is turned down
funnel-like into the interior of the pot without touching the bottom.
Placed in this flannel funnel the cracked ice keeps for days.


«ICE FLOWERS.»

Make a 2 per cent solution of the best clear gelatin in distilled
water, filter, and flood the filtrate over any surface which it
is desired to ornament. Drain off slightly, and if the weather is
sufficiently cold, put the plate, as nearly level as possible, out
into the cold air to freeze. In freezing, water is abstracted from the
colloidal portion, which latter then assumes an efflorescent form,
little flowers, with exuberant, graceful curves of crystals, showing up
as foliage, from all over the surface. To preserve in permanent form
all that is necessary is to flood them with absolute alcohol. This
treatment removes the ice, thus leaving a lasting framework of gelatin
which may be preserved indefinitely. In order to do this, as soon as
the gelatin has become quite dry it should be either varnished, flowed
with an alcoholic solution of clear shellac, or the gelatin may be
rendered insoluble by contact, for a few moments, with a solution of
potassium bichromate, and subsequent exposure to sunlight.

IMOGEN DEVELOPER: See Photography.

INCENSE: See Fumigants.

INCRUSTATION, PREVENTION OF: See Boiler Compounds.

INDIGO: See Dyes.

INFANT FOODS: See Foods.

INFLUENZA IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas. {403}

INK ERADICATORS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.


«IGNITING COMPOSITION.»

Eight parts of powdered manganese, 10 parts of amorphous phosphorus,
and 5 parts of glue. The glue is soaked in water, dissolved in the
heat, and the manganese and the phosphorus stirred in, so that a thinly
liquid paste results, which is applied by means of a brush. Allow to
dry well. This, being free from sulphur, can be applied on match-boxes.


«Inks»


«BLUEPRINT INKS.»

I.—For red-writing fluids for blueprints, take a piece of common
washing soda the size of an ordinary bean, and dissolve it in 4
tablespoonfuls of ordinary red-writing ink, to make a red fluid. To
keep it from spreading too much, use a fine pen to apply it with, and
write fast so as not to allow too much of the fluid to get on the
paper, for it will continue eating until it is dry.

II.—For red and white solutions for writing on blueprints, dissolve a
crystal of oxalate of potash about the size of a pea in an ink-bottle
full of water. This will give white lines on blueprints; other potash
solutions are yellowish. If this shows a tendency to run, owing to too
great strength, add more water and thicken slightly with mucilage. Mix
this with red or any other colored ink about half and half, and writing
may be done on the blueprints in colors corresponding to the inks used.

III.—Add to a small bottle of water enough washing soda to make a clear
white line, then add enough gum arabic to it to prevent spreading and
making ragged lines. To make red lines dip the pen in red ink and then
add a little of the solution by means of the quill.

IV.—For white ink, grind zinc oxide fine on marble and incorporate with
it a mucilage made with gum tragacanth. Thin a little for use. Add a
little oil of cloves to prevent mold, and shake from time to time.

V.—A fluid which is as good as any for writing white on blueprints is
made of equal parts of sal soda and water.

VI.—Mix equal parts of borax and water.

Both these fluids, V and VI, must be used with a fine-pointed pen; a
pen with a blunt point will not work well.


«DRAWING INKS:»


«Blue Ruling Ink.»—Good vitriol, 4 ounces; indigo, 1 ounce. Pulverize
the indigo, add it to the vitriol, and let it stand exposed to the air
for 6 days, or until dissolved; then fill the pots with chalk, add
fresh gall, 1⁠/⁠2 gill, boiling it before use.


«Black Ruling Ink.»—Take good black ink, and add gall as for blue. Do
not cork it, as this prevents it from turning black.


«Carbon Ink.»—Dissolve real India ink in common black ink, or add a
small quantity of lampblack previously heated to redness, and ground
perfectly smooth, with a small portion of the ink.


«Carmine.»—The ordinary solution of carmine in ammonia water, after a
short time in contact with steel, becomes blackish red, but an ink may
be made that will retain its brilliant carmine color to the last by the
following process, given by Dingler: Triturate 1 part of pure carmine
with 15 parts of acetate of ammonia solution, with an equal quantity
of distilled water in a porcelain mortar, and allow the whole to stand
for some time. In this way, a portion of the alumina, which is combined
with the carmine dye, is taken up by the acetic acid of the ammonia
salt, and separates as a precipitate, while the pure pigment of the
cochineal remains dissolved in the half-saturated ammonia. It is now
filtered and a few drops of pure white sugar syrup added to thicken it.
A solution of gum arabic cannot be used to thicken it, since the ink
still contains some acetic acid, which would coagulate the bassorine,
one of the constituents of the gum.


«Liquid Indelible Drawing Ink.»—Dissolve, by boiling, 2 parts of blond
(golden yellow) shellac in 1.6 parts, by weight, of sal ammoniac, 16°,
with 10 parts, by weight, of distilled water, and filter the solution
through a woolen cloth. Now dissolve or grind 0.5 parts, by weight,
of shellac solution with 0.01 part, by weight, of carbon black. Also
dissolve .03 parts of nigrosin in 0.4 parts of distilled water and pour
both solutions together. The mixture is allowed to settle for 2 days
and the ready ink is drawn off from the sediment.


«GLASS, CELLULOID, AND METAL INKS:»

See also Etching.

Most inks for glass will also write on celluloid and the metals. The
following {404} I and II are the most widely known recipes:

I.—In 500 parts of water dissolve 36 parts of sodium fluoride and 7
parts of sodium sulphate. In another vessel dissolve in the same amount
of water 14 parts of zinc chloride and to the solution add 56 parts
of concentrated hydrochloric acid. To use, mix equal volumes of the
two solutions and add a little India ink; or, in the absence of this,
rub up a little lampblack with it. It is scarcely necessary to say
that the mixture should not be put in glass containers, unless they
are well coated internally with paraffine, wax, gutta-percha, or some
similar material. To avoid the inconvenience of keeping the solutions
in separate bottles, mix them and preserve in a rubber bottle. A quill
pen is best to use in writing with this preparation, but metallic pens
may be used, if quite clean and new.

II.—In 150 parts of alcohol dissolve 20 parts of rosin, and add to
this, drop by drop, stirring continuously, a solution of 35 parts of
borax in 250 parts of water. This being accomplished, dissolve in the
solution sufficient methylene blue to give it the desired tint.


«Ink for Writing on Glazed Cardboard.»—The following are especially
recommended for use on celluloid:

I.—Dissolve 4 drachms of brown shellac in 4 ounces of alcohol. Dissolve
7 drachms of borax in 6 ounces of distilled water. Pour the first
solution slowly into the second and carefully mix them, after which add
12 grains of aniline dye of the desired color. Violet, blue, green,
red, yellow, orange, or black aniline dyes can be used.

Such inks may be used for writing on bottles, and the glass may be
cleaned with water without the inscription being impaired.

 II.—Ferric chloride      10 parts
      Tannin               15 parts
      Acetone             100 parts

Dissolve the ferric chloride in a portion of the acetone and the tannin
in the residue, and mix the solutions.

III.—Dissolve a tar dyestuff of the desired color in anhydrous acetic
acid.


«Indelible Inks for Glass or Metal.»—Schobel recommends the following
inks for marking articles of glass, glass slips for microscopy, reagent
flasks, etc., in black:

 I.—Sodium silicate      1 to 2 parts
     Liquid India ink          1 part

For white:

 II.—Sodium water glass    3 to 4 parts
      Chinese white              1 part

Instead of Chinese white, a sufficient amount of the so-called
permanent white (barium sulphate) may be used. The containers for
these inks should be kept air-tight. The writing in either case is not
attacked by any reagent used in microscopical technique but may be
readily scraped away with a knife. The slips or other articles should
be as near chemically clean as possible, before attempting to write on
them.

According to Schuh, a mixture of a shellac solution and whiting or
precipitated chalk answers very well for marking glass. Any color
may be mixed with the chalk. If the glass is thoroughly cleaned with
alcohol or ether, either a quill pen or a camel’s-hair pencil (or a
fresh, clean steel pen) may be used.


«Ink on Marble.»—Ink marks on marble may be removed with a paste made
by dissolving an ounce of oxalic acid and half an ounce of butter of
antimony in a pint of rain water, and adding sufficient flour to form a
thin paste. Apply this to the stains with a brush; allow it to remain
on 3 or 4 days and then wash it off. Make a second application, if
necessary.


«Perpetual Ink.»—I.—Pitch, 3 pounds; melt over the fire, and add of
lampblack, 3⁠/⁠4 pound; mix well.

II.—Trinidad asphaltum and oil of turpentine, equal parts. Used in
a melted state to fill in the letters on tombstones, marbles, etc.
Without actual violence, it will endure as long as the stone itself.


«Ink for Steel Tools.»—Have a rubber stamp made with white letters on a
black ground. Make up an ink to use with this stamp, as follows:

Ordinary rosin, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; lard oil, 1 tablespoonful; lampblack, 2
tablespoonfuls; turpentine, 2 tablespoonfuls. Melt the rosin, and stir
in the other ingredients in the order given. When the ink is cold it
should look like ordinary printers’ ink. Spread a little of this ink
over the pad and ink the rubber stamp as usual, and press it on the
clean steel—saw blade, for instance. Have a rope of soft putty, and
make a border of putty around the stamped design as close up to the
lettering as possible, so that no portion of the steel inside the ring
of putty is exposed but the lettering. Then pour into the putty ring
the etching mixture, composed of 1 ounce of nitric acid, 1 ounce of
{405} muriatic acid, and 12 ounces of water. Allow it to rest for only
a minute, draw off the acid with a glass or rubber syringe, and soak
up the last trace of acid with a moist sponge. Take off the putty,
and wipe off the design with potash solution first, and then with
turpentine, and the job is done.


«Writing on Ivory, Glass, etc.»—Nitrate of silver, 3 parts; gum arabic,
20 parts; distilled water, 30 parts. Dissolve the gum arabic in
two-thirds of the water, and the nitrate of silver in the other third.
Mix and add the desired color.


«Writing on Zinc» (see also Horticultural Inks).—Take 1 part sulphate
of copper (copper vitriol), 1 part chloride of potassium, both
dissolved in 35 parts water. With this blue liquid, writing or drawing
may be done with a common steel pen upon zinc which has been polished
bright with emery paper. After the writing is done the plates are put
in water and left in it for some time, then taken out and dried. The
writing will remain intact as long as the zinc. If the writing or
drawing should be brown, 1 part sulphate of iron (green vitriol) is
added to the above solution. The chemicals are dissolved in warm water
and the latter must be cold before it can be used.


«GOLD INK.»

I.—The best gold ink is made by rubbing up gold leaf as thoroughly as
possible with a little honey. The honey is then washed away with water,
and the finely powdered gold leaf left is mixed to the consistency of a
writing ink with weak gum water. Everything depends upon the fineness
of the gold powder, i. e., upon the diligence with which it has been
worked with the honey. Precipitated gold is finer than can be got by
any rubbing, but its color is wrong, being dark brown. The above gold
ink should be used with a quill pen.

II.—An imitation gold or bronze ink is composed by grinding 1,000
parts of powdered bronze of handsome color with a varnish prepared by
boiling together 500 parts of nut oil, 200 parts of garlic, 500 parts
of cocoanut oil, 100 parts of Naples yellow, and as much of sienna.


«HORTICULTURAL INK.»

I.—Chlorate of platinum, 1⁠/⁠4 ounce; soft water, 1 pint. Dissolve and
preserve it in glass. Used with a clean quill to write on zinc labels.
It almost immediately turns black, and cannot be removed by washing.
The addition of gum and lampblack, as recommended in certain books, is
unnecessary, and even prejudicial to the quality of the ink.

II.—Verdigris and sal ammoniac, of each 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; levigated
lampblack, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; common vinegar, 1⁠/⁠4 pint; mix thoroughly.
Used as the last, for either zinc, iron, or steel.

III.—Blue vitriol, 1 ounce; sal ammoniac, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce (both in powder);
vinegar, 1⁠/⁠4 pint; dissolve. A little lampblack or vermilion may be
added, but it is not necessary. Use No. I, for iron, tin, or steel
plate.


«INDELIBLE INKS.»

These are also frequently called waterproof, incorrodible, or
indestructible inks. They are employed for writing labels on bottles
containing strong acids and alkaline solutions. They may be employed
with stamps, types or stencil plates, by which greater neatness will be
secured than can be obtained with either a brush or pen.

The following is a superior preparation for laundry use:

 Aniline oil                                           85 parts
 Potassium chlorate                                     5 parts
 Distilled water                                       44 parts
 Hydrochloric acid, pure (specific gravity, 1.124)     68 parts
 Copper chloride, pure                                  6 parts

Mix the aniline oil, potassium chlorate, and 26 parts of the water
and heat in a capacious vessel, on the water bath, at a temperature
of from 175° to 195° F., until the chlorate is entirely dissolved,
then add one-half of the hydrochloric and continue the heat until the
mixture begins to take on a darker color. Dissolve the copper chloride
in the residue of the water, add the remaining hydrochloric acid to
the solution, and add the whole to the liquid on the water bath, and
heat the mixture until it acquires a fine red-violet color. Pour into a
flask with a well-fitting ground-glass stopper, close tightly and set
aside for several days, or until it ceases to throw down a precipitate.
When this is the case, pour off the clear liquid into smaller (one
drachm or a drachm and a half) containers.

This ink must be used with a quill pen, and is especially good for
linen or cotton fabrics, but does not answer so well for silk or woolen
goods. When first used, it appears as a pale red, but on washing with
soap or alkalies, or on exposure to {406} the air, becomes a deep, dead
black. The following is a modification of the foregoing:


«Blue Indelible Ink.»—This ink has the reputation of resisting not only
water and oil, but alcohol, oxalic acid, alkalies, the chlorides, etc.
It is prepared as follows: Dissolve 4 parts of gum lac in 36 parts of
boiling water carrying 2 parts of borax. Filter and set aside. Now
dissolve 2 parts of gum arabic in 4 parts of water and add the solution
to the filtrate. Finally, after the solution is quite cold, add 2 parts
of powdered indigo and dissolve by agitation. Let stand for several
hours, then decant, and put in small bottles.


«Red Indelible Inks.»—By proceeding according to the following formula,
an intense purple-red color may be produced on fabrics, which is
indelible in the customary sense of the word:

 1.—Sodium carbonate       3 drachms
     Gum arabic             3 drachms
     Water                 12 drachms

 2.—Platinic chloride      1 drachm
     Distilled water        2 ounces

 3.—Stannous chloride      1 drachm
     Distilled water        4 drachms

Moisten the place to be written upon with No. 1 and rub a warm iron
over it until dry; then write with No. 2, and, when dry, moisten with
No. 3. An intense and beautiful purple-red color is produced in this
way. A very rich purple color—the purple of Cassius—may be produced by
substituting a solution of gold chloride for the platinic chloride in
the above formula.


«Crimson Indelible Ink.»—

The following formula makes an indelible crimson ink:

 Silver nitrate                                   50 parts
 Sodium carbonate, crystal                        75 parts
 Tartaric acid                                    16 parts
 Carmine                                           1 part
 Ammonia water, strongest                        288 parts
 Sugar, white, crystallized                       36 parts
 Gum arabic, powdered                             60 parts
 Distilled water, quantity sufficient to make    400 parts

Dissolve the silver nitrate and the sodium carbonate separately, each
in a portion of the distilled water, mix the solutions, collect the
precipitate on a filter, wash, and put the washed precipitate, still
moist, into a mortar. To this add the tartaric acid, and rub together
until effervescence ceases. Now, dissolve the carmine in the ammonia
water (which latter should be of specific gravity .882, or contain
34 per cent of ammonia), filter, and add the filtrate to the silver
tartrate magma in the mortar. Add the sugar and gum arabic, rub up
together, and add gradually, with constant agitation, sufficient
distilled water to make 400 parts.


«Gold Indelible Ink.»—Make two solutions as follows:

 1.—Chloride of gold and sodium     1 part
     Water                          10 parts
     Gum                             2 parts

 2.—Oxalic acid                     1 part
     Water                           5 parts
     Gum                             2 parts

The cloth or stuff to be written on should be moistened with liquid No.
2. Let dry, and then write upon the prepared place with liquid No. 1,
using preferably a quill pen. Pass a hot iron over the mark, pressing
heavily.


«INDIA, CHINA, OR JAPAN INK.»

Ink by these names is based on lampblack, and prepared in various ways.
Many makes flow less easily from the pen than other inks, and are less
durable than ink that writes paler and afterwards turns black. The ink
is usually unfitted for steel pens, but applies well with a brush.

I.—Lampblack (finest) is ground to a paste with very weak liquor
of potassa, and this paste is then diffused through water slightly
alkalized with potassa, after which it is collected, washed with clean
water, and dried; the dry powder is next levigated to a smooth, stiff
paste, with a strong filtered decoction of carrageen or Irish moss,
or of quince seed, a few drops of essence of musk, and about half as
much essence of ambergris being added, by way of perfume, toward the
end of the process; the mass is, lastly, molded into cakes, which are
ornamented with Chinese characters and devices, as soon as they are dry
and hard.

II.—A weak solution of fine gelatin is boiled at a high temperature in
a digester for 2 hours, and then in an open vessel for 1 hour more. The
liquid is next filtered and evaporated to a proper consistency, either
in a steam- or {407} salt-water bath. It is, lastly, made into a paste,
as before, with lampblack which has been previously heated to dull
redness in a well-closed crucible. Neither of the above gelatinizes in
cold weather, like the ordinary imitations.


«To Keep India Ink Liquid.»—If one has to work with the ink for some
time, a small piece should be dissolved in warm water and the tenth
part of glycerine added, which mixes intimately with the ink after
shaking for a short time. India ink thus prepared will keep very well
in a corked bottle, and if a black jelly should form in the cold, it is
quickly dissolved by heating. The ink flows well from the pen and does
not wipe.


«INK POWDERS AND LOZENGES.»

Any of these powders may, by the addition of mucilage of gum arabic, be
made into lozenges or buttons—the “ink buttons” or “ink stones” in use
abroad and much affected by travelers.

The following makes a good serviceable black ink, on macerating the
powder in 100 times its weight of rain or distilled water for a few
days:

 I.—Powdered gallnuts       16 parts
     Gum arabic               8 parts
     Cloves                   1 part
     Iron sulphate           10 parts

Put into an earthenware or glass vessel, cover with 100 parts of rain
or distilled water, and set aside for 10 days or 2 weeks, giving an
occasional shake the first 3 or 4 days. Decant and bottle for use.

The following is ready for use instantly on being dissolved in water:

 II.—Aleppo gallnuts     84 parts
      Dutch Madder         6 parts

Powder, mix, moisten, and pack into the percolator. Extract with hot
water, filter, and press out. To the filtrate add 4 parts of iron
acetate (or pyroacetate) and 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts of tincture of indigo. Put
into the water bath and evaporate to dryness and powder the dry residue.


«LITHOGRAPHIC INKS.»

These are for writing on lithographic stones or plates:

I.—Mastic (in tears), 8 ounces; shellac, 12 ounces; Venice turpentine,
1 ounce. Melt together, add wax, 1 pound; tallow, 6 ounces. When
dissolved, add hard tallow soap (in shavings), 6 ounces; and when the
whole is perfectly combined, add lampblack, 4 ounces. Mix well, cool a
little, and then pour it into molds, or upon a slab, and when cold cut
it into square pieces.

II. (Lasteyrie).—Dry tallow soap, mastic (in tears), and common soda
(in fine powder), of each, 30 parts; shellac, 150 parts; lampblack, 12
parts. Mix as indicated in Formula I.


«MARKING OR LABELING INKS:»


«Black Marking Inks.»—

 I.—Borax                 60 parts
     Shellac              180 parts
     Boiling water      1,000 parts
     Lampblack, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the borax in the water, add the shellac to the solution and
stir until dissolved. Rub up a little lampblack with sufficient of the
liquid to form a paste, and add the rest of the solution a little at a
time and with constant rubbing. Test, and if not black enough, repeat
the operation. To get the best effect—a pure jet-black—the lampblack
should be purified and freed from the calcium phosphate always present
in the commercial article to the extent, frequently, of 85 to 87 per
cent, by treating with hydrochloric acid and washing with water.

II.—An ink that nothing will bleach is made by mixing pyrogallic acid
and sulphate of iron in equal parts. Particularly useful for marking
labels on bottles containing acids. Varnish the label after the ink is
dry so that moisture will not affect it.


«COLORED MARKING INKS:»

Eosine Red.—

 Eosine B                           1 drachm
 Solution of mercuric chloride      2 drachms
 Mucilage of acacia                 2 drachms
 Rectified spirit                   4 ounces
 Oil of lavender                    1 drop
 Distilled water                    8 ounces

Dissolve the eosine in the solution and 2 ounces of water, add the
mucilage, and mix, then the oil dissolved in the spirit, and finally
make up.

Orange.—

 Aniline orange          1 drachm
 Sugar                   2 drachms
 Distilled water to      4 ounces

Blue.—

 I.—Resorcin blue        1 drachm
     Distilled water      6 drachms

Mix and agitate occasionally for 2 hours, then add: {408}

 Hot distilled water     24 ounces
 Oxalic acid             10 grains
 Sugar                   1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Shake well. This and other aniline inks can be perfumed by rubbing up
a drop of attar of rose with the sugar before dissolving it in the hot
water.

II.—A solid blue ink, or marking paste, to be used with a brush for
stenciling, is made as follows: Shellac, 2 ounces; borax, 2 ounces;
water, 25 ounces; gum arabic, 2 ounces; and ultramarine, sufficient.
Boil the borax and shellac in some of the water till they are
dissolved, and withdraw from the fire. When the solution has become
cold, add the rest of the 25 ounces of water, and the ultramarine. When
it is to be used with the stencil, it must be made thicker than when it
is to be applied with a marking brush.

III.—In a suitable kettle mix well, stirring constantly, 50 parts of
liquid logwood extract (80 per cent) with 3 parts of spirit previously
mingled with 1 part of hydrochloric acid, maintaining a temperature of
68° F. Dissolve 5 parts of potassium chromate in 15 parts of boiling
water; to this add 10 parts of hydrochloric acid, and pour this
mixture, after raising the temperature to about 86° F., very slowly and
with constant stirring into the kettle. Then heat the whole to 185° F.
This mass, which has now assumed the nature of an extract, is stirred
a little longer, and next 15 parts of dextrin mixed with 10 parts of
fine white earth (white bole) are added. The whole is well stirred
throughout. Transfer the mass from the kettle into a crusher, where it
is thoroughly worked through.


«PRINTING INKS.»

Black printing inks owe their color to finely divided carbon made from
lampblack, pine-wood, rosin oil, etc., according to the quality of
the ink desired. The finest inks are made from flame-lampblack. There
are, however, certain requirements made of all printing inks alike,
and these are as follows: The ink must be a thick and homogeneous
liquid, it must contain no solid matter but finely divided carbon, and
every drop when examined microscopically must appear as a clear liquid
containing black grains uniformly distributed.

The consistency of a printing ink must be such that it passes on to the
printing rollers at the proper rate. It will be obvious that various
consistencies are demanded according to the nature of the machine used
by the printer. For a rotary machine which prints many thousands of
copies an hour a much thinner ink will be necessary than that required
for art printing or for slow presses. As regards color, ordinary
printing ink should be a pure black. For economy’s sake, however,
newspaper printers often use an ink so diluted that it does not look
deep black, but a grayish black, especially in large type.

The question of the time that the ink takes to dry on the paper is a
very important one, especially with ink used for printing newspapers
which are folded and piled at one operation. If then the ink does not
dry very quickly, the whole impression smudges and “sets off” so much
that it becomes illegible in places. Although it is essential to have a
quick drying ink for this purpose, it is dangerous to go too far, for a
too quickly drying ink would make the paper stick to the forms and tear
it. A last condition which must be fulfilled by a good printing ink is
that it must be easy of removal from the type, which has to be used
again.

No one composition will answer every purpose and a number of different
inks are required. Makers of printing inks are obliged, therefore, to
work from definite recipes so as to be able to turn out exactly the
same ink again and again. They make newspaper ink for rotary presses,
book-printing inks, half-tone inks, art inks, etc. As the recipes have
been attained only by long, laborious, and costly experiments, it is
obvious that the makers are not disposed to communicate them, and
the recipes that are offered and published must be looked upon with
caution, as many of them are of little or no value. In the recipes
given below for printing inks, the only intention is to give hints of
the general composition, and the practical man will easily discover
what, if any, alterations have to be made in the recipe for his special
purpose.

Many different materials for this manufacture are given in recipes, so
many, in fact, that it is impossible to discover what use they are in
the ink. The following is a list of the articles commonly in use for
the manufacture of printing ink:

Boiled linseed oil, boiled without driers.

Rosin oil from the dry distillation of rosin.

Rosin itself, especially American pine rosin. {409}

Soap, usually rosin-soap, but occasionally ordinary soap.

Lampblack and various other pigments.

By the most time-honored method, linseed oil was very slowly heated
over an open fire until it ignited. It was allowed to burn for a time
and then extinguished by putting a lid on the pot. In this way a liquid
was obtained of a dark brown or black color with particles of carbon,
and with a consistency varying with the period of heating, being
thicker, the longer the heating was continued. If necessary, the liquid
was then thinned with unboiled, or only very slightly boiled, linseed
oil. Lampblack in the proper quantity was added and the mixture was
finally rubbed up on a stone in small quantities at a time to make it
uniform.


«Boiling the Linseed Oil.»—This process, although it goes by the name
of boiling, is not so in the proper sense of the word, but a heating
having for its object an initial oxidation of the oil, so that it will
dry better. Linseed oil is a type of the drying oils, those which when
exposed in thin coats to the air absorb large quantities of oxygen and
are thereby converted into tough, solid sheets having properties very
similar to those of soft India rubber. The process goes on much faster
with the aid of heat than at the ordinary temperature, and the rate at
which the boiled oil will dry in the ink can be exactly regulated by
heating it for a longer or shorter time. Prolonged heating gives an oil
which will dry very quickly on exposure in thin coats to the air, the
shorter the heating the more slowly will the ink afterwards made with
the oil dry.

Linseed oil must always be boiled in vessels where it has plenty
of room, as the oil soon swells up and it begins to decompose so
energetically at a particular temperature that there is considerable
risk of its boiling over and catching fire. Various contrivances have
been thought out for boiling large quantities of the oil with safety,
such as pans with an outlet pipe in the side, through which the oil
escapes when it rises too high instead of over the edge of the pan, and
fires built on a trolley running on rails, so that they can at once
be moved from under the pan if there is any probability of the latter
boiling over. The best apparatus for preparing thickened linseed oil
is undoubtedly one in which the oil offers a very large surface to the
air, and on that account requires to be moderately heated only. The oil
soon becomes very thick under these conditions and if necessary can be
diluted to any required consistency with unboiled oil.

In boiling linseed oil down to the proper thickness by the old method
there are two points demanding special attention. One is the liability
of the oil to boil over, and the other consists in the development
of large quantities of vapor, mostly of acroleine, which have a most
powerful and disagreeable smell, and an intense action upon the eyes.
The attendant must be protected from these fumes, and the boiling must
therefore be done where there is a strong draught to take the fumes as
fast as they are produced. There are various contrivances to cope with
boiling over.


«Savage’s Printing Ink.»—Pure balsam of copaiba, 9 ounces; lampblack,
3 ounces; indigo and Prussian blue, each 5 drachms; Indian red, 3⁠/⁠4
ounce; yellow soap, 3 ounces. Mix, and grind to the utmost smoothness.


«Toning Black Inks.»—Printers’ inks consisting solely of purified
lampblack and vehicle give, of course, impressions which are pure
black. It is, however, well known that a black which has to a
practiced eye a tinge of blue in it looks much better than a pure
black. To make such an ink many makers mix the lampblack with a blue
pigment, which is added in very fine powder before the first grinding.
Prussian blue is the pigment usually chosen and gives very attractive
results. Prussian blue is, however, not a remarkable stable substance,
and is very apt to turn brown from the formation of ferric oxide. Hence
an ink made with Prussian blue, although it may look very fine at
first, often assumes a dull brown hue in the course of time. Excellent
substitutes for Prussian blue are to be found in the Induline blues.
These are very fast dyes, and inks tinted with them do not change
color. As pure indigo is now made artificially and sold at a reasonable
price, this extremely fast dye can also be used for tinting inks made
with purified lampblack.


«To Give Dark Inks a Bronze or Changeable Hue.»—Dissolve 1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
gum shellac in 1 gallon 65 per cent alcohol or cologne spirits for 24
hours. Then add 14 ounces aniline red. Let it stand a few hours longer,
when it will be ready for use. Add this to good blue, black, or other
dark ink, as needed in quantities to suit, when if carefully done {410}
they will be found to have a rich bronze or changeable hue.


«Quick Dryer for Inks Used on Bookbinders’ Cases.»—Beeswax, 1 ounce;
gum arabic (dissolved in sufficient acetic acid to make a thin
mucilage), 1⁠/⁠4 ounce; brown japan, 1⁠/⁠4 ounce. Incorporate with 1
pound of good cut ink.


«INKS FOR STAMP PADS.»

The ink used on vulcanized rubber stamps should be such that when
applied to a suitable pad it remains sufficiently fluid to adhere to
the stamp. At the same time the fluidity should cease by the time the
stamp is pressed upon an absorbing surface such as paper. Formerly
these inks were made by rubbing up pigments in fat to a paste. Such
inks can hardly be prevented, however, from making impressions
surrounded by a greasy mark caused by the fat spreading in the pores
of the paper. Now, most stamping inks are made without grease and a
properly prepared stamping ink contains nothing but glycerine and
coal-tar dye. As nearly all these dyes dissolve in hot glycerine the
process of manufacture is simple enough. The dye, fuchsine, methyl
violet, water blue, emerald green, etc., is put into a thin porcelain
dish over which concentrated glycerine is poured, and the whole is
heated to nearly 212° F. with constant stirring. It is important to use
no more glycerine than is necessary to keep the dye dissolved when the
ink is cold. If the mass turns gritty on cooling it must be heated up
with more glycerine till solution is perfect.

In dealing with coal-tar dyes insoluble in glycerine, or nearly so,
dissolve them first in the least possible quantity of strong, hot
alcohol. Then add the glycerine and heat till the spirit is evaporated.

To see whether the ink is properly made spread some of it on a strip of
cloth and try it with a rubber stamp. On paper, the separate letters
must be quite sharp and distinct. If they run at the edges there is too
much glycerine in the ink and more dye must be added to it. If, on the
contrary, the impression is indistinct and weak, the ink is too thick
and must be diluted by carefully adding glycerine.

Aniline colors are usually employed as the tinting agents. The
following is a typical formula, the product being a black ink:

 I.—Nigrosin        3 parts
     Water          15 parts
     Alcohol        15 parts
     Glycerine      70 parts

Dissolve the nigrosin in the alcohol, add the glycerine previously
mixed with the water, and rub well together.

Nigrosin is a term applied to several compounds of the same series
which differ in solubility. In the place of these compounds it is
probable that a mixture would answer to produce black as suggested by
Hans Wilder for making writing ink. His formula for the mixture is:

 II.—Methyl violet      3 parts
      Bengal green       5 parts
      Bismarck green     4 parts

A quantity of this mixture should be taken equivalent to the amount of
nigrosin directed. These colors are freely soluble in water, and yield
a deep greenish-black solution.

The aniline compound known as brilliant green answers in place of
Bengal green. As to the permanency of color of this or any aniline
ink, no guarantee is offered. There are comparatively few coloring
substances that can be considered permanent even in a qualified sense.
Among these, charcoal takes a foremost place. Lampblack remains
indefinitely unaltered. This, ground very finely with glycerine, would
yield an ink which would perhaps prove serviceable in stamping; but
it would be liable to rub off to a greater extent than soluble colors
which penetrate the paper more or less. Perhaps castor oil would prove
a better vehicle for insoluble coloring matters. Almost any aniline
color may be substituted for nigrosin in the foregoing formula, and
blue, green, red, purple, and other inks obtained. Insoluble pigments
might also be made to answer as suggested for lampblack.

The following is said to be a cushion that will give color permanently.
It consists of a box filled with an elastic composition, saturated with
a suitable color. The cushion fulfils its purpose for years without
being renewed, always contains sufficient moisture, which is drawn
from the atmosphere, and continues to act as a color stamp cushion so
long as a remnant of the mass or composition remains in the box or
receptacle. This cushion or pad is too soft to be self-supporting, but
should be held in a low, flat pan, and have a permanent cloth cover.

III.—The composition consists preferably of 1 part gelatin, 1 part
water, 6 parts glycerine, and 6 parts coloring matter. A suitable
black color can be {411} made from the following materials: One part
gelatin glue, 3 parts lampblack, aniline black, or a suitable quantity
of logwood extract, 10 parts of glycerine, 1 part absolute alcohol, 2
parts water, 1 part Venetian soap, 1⁠/⁠5 part salicylic acid. For red,
blue, or violet: One part gelatin glue, 2 parts aniline of desired
color, 1 part absolute alcohol, 10 parts glycerine, I part Venetian
soap, and 1⁠/⁠5 part salicylic acid.

The following are additional recipes used for this purpose:

IV.—Mix and dissolve 2 to 4 drachms aniline violet, 15 ounces alcohol,
15 ounces glycerine. The solution is poured on the cushion and rubbed
in with a brush. The general method of preparing the pad is to swell
the gelatin with cold water, then boil and add the glycerine, etc.

V.—Mix well 16 pounds of hot linseed oil, 3 ounces of powdered indigo,
or a like quantity of Berlin blue, and 8 pounds of lampblack. For
ordinary sign-stamping an ink without the indigo might be used. By
substituting ultramarine or Prussian blue for the lampblack, a blue
“ink” or paint would result.


«Inks for Hand Stamps.»—As an excipient for oily inks, a mixture of
castor oil and crude oleic acid, in parts varying according to the
coloring material used, is admirable. The following are examples:

_Black._—Oil soluble nigrosin and crude oleic acid in equal parts. Add
7 to 8 parts of castor oil.

_Red._—Oil soluble aniline red, 2 parts; crude oleic acid, 3 parts;
castor oil, from 30 to 60 parts, according to the intensity of color
desired.

_Red._—Dissolve 1⁠/⁠4 ounce of carmine in 2 ounces strong water of
ammonia, and add 1 drachm of glycerine and 3⁠/⁠4 ounce dextrin.

_Blue._—Rub 1 ounce Prussian blue with enough water to make a perfectly
smooth paste; then add 1 ounce dextrin, incorporate it well, and
finally add sufficient water to bring it to the proper consistency.

_Blue._—Oil soluble aniline blue, 1 part; crude oleic acid, 2 parts;
castor oil, 30 to 32 parts.

_Violet._—Alcohol, 15 ounces; glycerine, 15 ounces; aniline violet, 2
to 4 drachms. Mix, dissolve, pour the solution on the cushion, and dab
on with a brush.


«Color Stamps for Rough Paper.»—It has hitherto been impossible to get
a satisfactory application for printing with rubber stamps on rough
paper. Fatty vehicles are necessary for such paper, and they injure the
India rubber. It is said, however, that if the rubber is first soaked
in a solution of glue, and then in one of tannin, or bichromate of
potash, it becomes impervious to the oils or fats. Gum arabic can be
substituted for the glue.


«Indelible Hand-Stamp Ink.»—

 I.—Copper sulphate       20 parts
     Aniline chlorate      20 parts

Rub up separately to a fine powder, then carefully mix, and add 10
parts of dextrin and incorporate. Add 5 parts of glycerine and rub up,
adding water, a little at a time, until a homogeneous viscid mass is
obtained. An aniline color is produced in the material, which boiling
does not destroy.

 II.—Sodium carbonate          22 parts
      Glycerine                 85 parts
      Gum arabic, in powder     20 parts
      Silver nitrate            11 parts
      Ammonia water             20 parts
      Venetian turpentine       10 parts

Triturate the carbonate of sodium, gum arabic, and glycerine together.
In a separate flask dissolve the silver nitrate in the ammonia water,
mix the solution with the triturate, and heat to boiling, when the
turpentine is to be added, with constant stirring. After stamping,
expose to the sunlight or use a hot iron. The quantity of glycerine may
be varied to suit circumstances.


«White Stamping Ink for Embroidery.»—

 Zinc white           2 drachms
 Mucilage             1 drachm
 Water                6 drachms

Triturate the zinc white with a small quantity of water till quite
smooth, then add the mucilage and the remainder of the water.


«STENCIL INKS.»

I.—Dissolve 1 ounce of gum arabic in 6 ounces water, and strain. This
is the mucilage. For _Black Color_ use drop black, powdered, and ground
with the mucilage to extreme fineness; for _Blue_, ultramarine is used
in the same manner; for _Green_, emerald green; for _White_, flake
white; for _Red_, vermilion, lake, or carmine; for _Yellow_, chrome
yellow. When ground too thick they are thinned {412} with a little
water. Apply with a small brush.

II.—Triturate together 1 pint pine soot and 2 pints Prussian blue
with a little glycerine, then add 3 pints gum arabic and sufficient
glycerine to form a thin paste.


«Blue Stencil Inks.»—The basis of the stencil inks commonly used varies
to some extent, some preferring a mixture of pigments with oils, and
others a watery shellac basis. The basis:

 I.—Shellac        2 ounces
     Borax      1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Water         10 ounces

Boil together until 10 ounces of solution is obtained. The coloring:

 Prussian blue          1 ounce
 China clay           1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Powdered acacia      1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Mix thoroughly and gradually incorporate the shellac solution.

 II.—Prussian blue      2 ounces
      Lampblack          1 ounce
      Gum arabic         3 ounces
      Glycerine, sufficient.

Triturate together the dry powders and then make into a suitable paste
with glycerine.


«Indelible Stencil Inks.»—I.—Varnish such as is used for ordinary
printing ink, 1 pound; black sulphuret of mercury, 1 pound; nitrate
of silver, 1 ounce; sulphate of iron, 1 ounce; lampblack, 2
tablespoonfuls. Grind all well together; thin with spirits turpentine
as desired.

II.—Sulphate of manganese, 2 parts; lampblack, 1 part; sugar, 4 parts;
all in fine powder and triturated to a paste in a little water.

III.—Nitrate of silver, 1⁠/⁠4 ounce; water, 3⁠/⁠4 ounce. Dissolve,
add as much of the strongest liquor of ammonia as will dissolve the
precipitate formed on its first addition. Then add of mucilage, 1 1⁠/⁠2
drachms, and a little sap green, syrup of buckthorn, or finely powdered
indigo, to color. This turns black on being held near the fire, or
touched with a hot iron.


«SYMPATHETIC INKS:»

Table of Substances Used in Making Sympathetic Inks.—

For writing and for bringing out the writing:

Cobalt chloride, heat.

Cobalt acetate and a little saltpeter, heat.

Cobalt chloride and nickel chloride mixed, heat.

Nitric acid, heat.

Sulphuric acid, heat.

Sodium chloride, heat.

Saltpeter, heat.

Copper sulphate and ammonium chloride, heat.

Silver nitrate, sunlight.

Gold trichloride, sunlight.

Ferric sulphate, infusion of gallnuts or ferrocyanide of potassium.

Copper sulphate, ferrocyanide of potassium.

Lead vinegar, hydrogen sulphide.

Mercuric nitrate, hydrogen sulphide.

Starch water, tincture of iodine or iodine vapors.

Cobalt nitrate, oxalic acid.

Fowler’s solution, copper nitrate.

Soda lye or sodium carbonate, phenolphthaleine.

A sympathetic ink is one that is invisible when written, but which can
be made visible by some treatment. Common milk can be used for writing,
and exposure to strong heat will scorch and render the dried milk
characters visible.

The following inks are developed by exposure to the action of reagents:

I.—Upon writing with a very clear solution of starch on paper that
contains but little sizing, and submitting the dry characters to the
vapor of iodine (or passing over them a weak solution of potassium
iodide), the writing becomes blue, and disappears under the action of a
solution of hyposulphite of soda (1 in 1,000).

II.—Characters written with a weak solution of the soluble chloride
of platinum or iridium become black when the paper is submitted to
mercurial vapor. This ink may be used for marking linen, as it is
indelible.

III.—Sulphate of copper in very dilute solution will produce an
invisible writing, which may be turned light blue by vapors of ammonia.

IV.—Soluble compounds of antimony will become red by hydrogen sulphide
vapor.

V.—Soluble compounds of arsenic and of peroxide of tin will become
yellow by the same vapor.

VI.—An acid solution of iron chloride is diluted until the writing is
invisible when dry. This writing has the property of becoming red by
sulphocyanide vapors (arising from the action of sulphuric acid on
potassium sulphocyanide in a long-necked flask), and it disappears
{413} by ammonia, and may alternately be made to appear and disappear
by these two vapors.

VII.—Write with a solution of paraffine in benzol. When the solvent has
evaporated, the paraffine is invisible, but becomes visible on being
dusted with lampblack or powdered graphite or smoking over a candle
flame.

VIII.—Dissolve 1 part of a lead salt, 0.1 part of uranium acetate,
and the same quantity of bismuth citrate in 100 parts of water. Then
add, drop by drop, a solution of sal ammoniac until the whole becomes
transparent. Afterwards, mix with a few drops of gum arabic. To
reveal the characters traced with this ink, expose them to the fumes
of sulphuric acid, which turns them immediately to a dark brown. The
characters fade away in a few minutes, but can be renewed by a slight
washing with very dilute nitric acid.


«TYPEWRITER RIBBON INKS.»

I.—Take vaseline (petrolatum) of high boiling point, melt it on a water
bath or slow fire, and incorporate by constant stirring as much lamp or
powdered drop black as it will take up without becoming granular. If
the vaseline remains in excess, the print is liable to have a greasy
outline; if the color is in excess, the print will not be clear. Remove
the mixture from the fire, and while it is cooling mix equal parts of
petroleum, benzine, and rectified oil of turpentine, in which dissolve
the fatty ink, introduced in small portions, by constant agitation.
The volatile solvents should be in such quantity that the fluid ink is
of the consistence of fresh oil paint. One secret of success lies in
the proper application of the ink to the ribbon. Wind the ribbon on
a piece of cardboard, spread on a table several layers of newspaper,
then unwind the ribbon in such lengths as may be most convenient, and
lay it flat on the paper. Apply the ink, after agitation, by means of
a soft brush, and rub it well into the interstices of the ribbon with
a toothbrush. Hardly any ink should remain visible on the surface. For
colored inks use Prussian blue, red lead, etc., and especially the
aniline colors.

 II.—Aniline black              1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Pure alcohol                15 ounces
      Concentrated glycerine      15 ounces

Dissolve the aniline black in the alcohol, and add the glycerine. Ink
as before. The aniline inks containing glycerine are copying inks.

 III.—Alcohol              2 ounces
       Aniline color      1⁠/⁠4 ounce
       Water                2 ounces
       Glycerine            4 ounces

Dissolve the aniline in the alcohol and add the water and glycerine.

 IV.—Castor oil           2 ounces
      Cassia oil         1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Carbolic acid      1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Warm them together and add 1 ounce of aniline color. Indelible
typewriter inks may be made by using lampblack in place of the aniline,
mixing it with soft petrolatum and dissolving the cooled mass in a
mixture of equal parts of benzine and turpentine.


«COLORING AGENTS:»

Red.—

 I.—Bordeaux red, O. S.      15 parts
     Aniline red, O. S.       15 parts
     Crude oleic acid         45 parts
     Castor oil enough to make 1,000 parts

Rub the colors up with the oleic acid, add the oil, warming the whole
to 100° to 110° F. (not higher), under constant stirring. If the color
is not sufficiently intense for your purposes, rub up a trifle more of
it with oleic acid, and add it to the ink. By a little experimentation
you can get an ink exactly to your desire in the matter.

Blue-Black.—

 II.—Aniline black, O. S.      5 parts
      Oleic acid, crude         5 parts
      Castor oil, quantity sufficient to 100 parts.

Violet.—

 III.—Aniline violet, O. S.      3 parts
       Crude oleic acid           5 parts
       Castor oil, quantity sufficient to 100 parts.

The penetration of the ink may be increased _ad libitum_ by the
addition of a few drops of absolute alcohol, or, better, of benzol.


«Reinking.»—For reinking ribbons use the following recipe for black:
One ounce aniline black; 15 ounces pure grain alcohol; 15 ounces
concentrated glycerine. Dissolve the aniline black in the alcohol and
then add the glycerine. For blue use Prussian blue, and for red use red
lead instead of the aniline black. This ink is also good for rubber
stamp pads. {414}


«WRITING INKS.»

The common writing fluids depend mostly upon galls, logwood, or aniline
for coloring. There are literally thousands of formulas. A few of the
most reliable have been gathered together here:

I.—Aleppo galls (well bruised), 4 ounces; clean soft water, I quart;
macerate in a clean corked bottle for 10 days or a fortnight or
longer, with frequent agitation; then add of gum arabic (dissolved in
a wineglassful of water), 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; lump sugar, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce. Mix
well, and afterwards further add of sulphate of iron (green copperas
crushed small), 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces. Agitate occasionally for 2 or 3 days,
when the ink may be decanted for use, but is better if the whole is
left to digest together for 2 or 3 weeks. When time is an object, the
whole of the ingredients may at once be put into a bottle, and the
latter agitated daily until the ink is made; and boiling water instead
of cold water may be employed. Product, 1 quart of excellent ink,
writing pale at first, but soon turning intensely black.

II.—Aleppo galls (bruised), 12 pounds; soft water, 6 gallons. Boil in a
copper vessel for 1 hour, adding more water to make up for the portion
lost by evaporation; strain, and again boil the galls with water, 4
gallons, for 1⁠/⁠2 hour; strain off the liquor, and boil a third time
with water, 2 1⁠/⁠2 gallons, and strain. Mix the several liquors, and
while still hot add of green copperas (coarsely powdered), 4 1⁠/⁠2
pounds; gum arabic (bruised small), 4 pounds. Agitate until dissolved,
and after defecation strain through a hair sieve, and keep in a bunged
cask for use. Product, 12 gallons.

III.—Aleppo galls (bruised), 14 pounds; gum, 5 pounds. Put them in a
small cask, and add boiling soft water, 15 gallons. Allow the whole to
macerate, with frequent agitation, for a fortnight, then further add of
green copperas, 5 pounds, dissolved in water, 7 pints. Again mix well,
and agitate the whole once daily for 2 or 3 weeks. Product, 15 gallons.


«Brown Ink.»—I.—To make brown ink, use for coloring a strong decoction
of catechu; the shade may be varied by the cautious addition of a
little weak solution of bichromate of potash.

II.—A strong decoction of logwood, with a very little bichromate of
potash.


«Blue Ink.»—To make blue ink, substitute for the black coloring
sulphate of indigo and dilute it with water till it produces the
required color.


«Anticorrosive or Asiatic Ink.»—I.—Galls, 4 pounds; logwood, 2 pounds;
pomegranate peel, 2 pounds; soft water, 5 gallons. Boil as usual; then
add to the strained, decanted cold liquor, 1 pound of gum arabic,
lump sugar or sugar candy, 1⁠/⁠4 pound; dissolved in water, 3 pints.
Product, 4 1⁠/⁠2 gallons. Writes pale, but flows well from the pen, and
soon darkens.

II.—Bruised galls, 14 pounds; gum, 5 pounds. Put them in a small cask,
and add of boiling water, 15 gallons. Allow the whole to macerate,
with frequent agitation, for 2 weeks, then further add green copperas,
5 pounds, dissolved in 7 pints water. Again mix well, and agitate the
whole daily for 2 or 3 weeks.


«Blue-Black Ink.»—Blue Aleppo galls (free from insect perforations),
4 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; bruised cloves, 1 drachm; cold water, 40 ounces;
purified sulphate of iron, 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; pure sulphuric acid (by
measure), 35 minims; sulphate of indigo (in the form of a paste),
which should be neutral, or nearly so, 1 ounce. The weights used are
avoirdupois, and the measures apothecaries’. Place the galls, then
bruised with the cloves, in a 50-ounce bottle, pour upon them the
water, and digest, often daily shaking for a fortnight. Then filter
through paper in another 50-ounce bottle. Get out also the refuse
galls, and wring out of it the remaining liquid through a strong, clean
linen or cotton cloth, into the filter, in order that as little as
possible may be lost. Next put in the iron, dissolve completely, and
filter through paper. Then the acid, and agitate briskly. Lastly, the
indigo, and thoroughly mix by shaking. Pass the whole through paper;
just filter out of one bottle into another until the operation is
finished.

NOTE.—No gum or sugar is proper and on no account must the acid be
omitted. When intended for copying, 5 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of galls is the
quantity. On the large scale this fine ink is made by percolation.


«Colored Inks.»—Inks of various colors may be made from a strong
decoction of the ingredients used in dyeing, mixed with a little alum
or other substance used as a mordant, and gum arabic. Any of the
ordinary water-color cakes employed in drawing diffused through water
may also be used for colored ink. {415}


«COPYING INK.»

This is usually prepared by adding a little sugar to ordinary black
ink, which for this purpose should be very rich in color, and
preferably made galls prepared by heat. Writing executed with this
ink may be copied within the space of 5 or 6 hours, by passing it
through a copying press in contact with thin, unsized paper, slightly
damped, enclosed between 2 sheets of thick oiled or waxed paper, when a
reversed transcript will be obtained, which will read in proper order
when the back of the copy is turned upwards. In the absence of a press
a copy may be taken, when the ink is good and the writing very recent,
by rolling the sheets, duly arranged on a ruler, over the surface of a
flat, smooth table, employing as much force as possible, and avoiding
any slipping or crumbling of the paper. Another method is to pass a
warm flatiron over the paper laid upon the writing. The following
proportions are employed:

I.—Sugar candy or lump sugar, 1 ounce; or molasses or moist sugar,
1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces; rich black ink, 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints; dissolve.

II.—Malt wort, 1 pint; evaporate it to the consistence of a syrup, and
then dissolve it in good black ink, 1 1⁠/⁠4 pints.

III.—Solazza juice, 2 ounces; mild ale, 1⁠/⁠2 pint; dissolve, strain,
and triturate with lampblack (previously heated to dull redness in a
covered vessel), 1⁠/⁠4 ounce; when the mixture is complete, add of
strong black, 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints; mix well, and in 2 or 3 hours decant the
clear.

After making the above mixtures, they must be tried with a common steel
pen, and if they do not flow freely, some more unprepared ink should be
added until they are found to do so.


«Alizarine Blue.»—In 20 parts of fuming sulphuric acid dissolve 5 parts
of indigo, and to the solution add 100 parts of extract of aqueous
myrobalous and 10.5 parts iron filings or turning shavings. Finally add:

 Gum arabic                  1.5 parts
 Sugar                       7.5 parts
 Sulphuric acid, 66° B      10.5 parts
 Aniline blue                1.5 parts
 Carbolic acid               0.5 parts
 Mirobalan extract to make 1,000 parts.

This ink when first used has a bluish tint, afterwards becoming black.


«Alizarine Green.»—In 100 parts of aqueous extract of gall apples
dissolve:

 Iron sulphate                30 parts
 Copper sulphate             0.5 parts
 Sulphuric acid                2 parts
 Sugar                         8 parts
 Wood vinegar, rectified      50 parts
 Indigo carmine               30 parts


«Copying Ink for Copying Without a Press.»—An ordinary thin-paper
copying book may be used, and the copying done by transference. It is
only necessary to place the page of writing in the letter book, just
as one would use a leaf of blotting paper. The superfluous ink that
would go into the blotting paper goes on to the leaf of the letter
book, and showing through the thin paper gives on the other side of
the leaf a perfect transcript of the letter. Any excess of ink on the
page, either of the letter or of the copying paper, is removed by
placing a sheet of blotting paper between them, and running one’s hand
firmly over the whole in the ordinary manner. This ready transcription
is accomplished by using ink which dries slowly. Obviously the ink
must dry sufficiently slowly for the characters at the top of a page
of writing to remain wet when the last line is being written, while it
must dry sufficiently to preclude any chance of the copied page being
smeared while subsequent pages are being covered. The drying must
also be sufficiently rapid to prevent the characters “setting off,”
as printers term it, from one page on to another after folding. The
formula for the requisite ink is very simple:

Reduce by evaporation 10 volumes of any good ink to 6, then add
4 volumes of glycerine. Or manufacture some ink of nearly double
strength, and add to any quantity of it nearly an equal volume of
glycerine.


«Gold Ink.»—Mosaic gold, 2 parts; gum arabic, 1 part; rubbed up to a
proper condition.


«Green Ink.»—A good, bright green, aniline ink may be made as follows:

 Aniline green (soluble)        2 parts
 Glycerine                     16 parts
 Alcohol                      112 parts
 Mucilage of gum arabic         4 parts

Dissolve the aniline in the alcohol, and add the other ingredients.
Most of the gum arabic precipitates, but according to the author of the
formula (Nelson) it has the effect of rendering the ink slow-flowing
enough to write with. Filter. {416}


«Hectograph Inks» (see also Hectograph).—I.—Black.—Methyl violet, 10
parts; nigrosin, 20 parts; glycerine, 30 parts; gum arabic, 5 parts;
alcohol, 60 parts.

II.—Blue.—Resorcin blue M, 10 parts.

Dissolve by means of heat in a mixture of:

 Dilute acetic acid           1 part
 Distilled water             85 parts
 Glycerine                    4 parts
 Alcohol, 90 per cent        10 parts

III.—Green.—Aniline green, water solution, 15 parts; glycerine, 10
parts; Water, 50 parts; alcohol, 10 parts.


«Paste Ink to Write with Water.»—I.—Black.—Take 4 parts of bichromate
of potash, pulverized, and mixed with 25 parts of acetic acid; 50 parts
of liquid extract of logwood; 1⁠/⁠4 part of picric acid; 10 parts of
pulverized sal sorrel; 10 parts of mucilage; and 1⁠/⁠4 part of citrate
of iron, and mix well. The liquid extract of logwood is prepared by
mixing 3 parts of an extract of common commercial quality with 2 parts
of water.

II.—Red.—Take 1 part of red aniline mixed with 10 parts of acetic
acid; 5 parts of citric acid, and 25 parts of mucilage, all well mixed.
For use, mix 1 part of the paste with 16 parts of water.

III.—Blue.—Take 2 parts of aniline blue mixed with 10 parts of acetic
acid; 5 parts of citric acid, and 40 parts of mucilage, all well mixed.
For use, mix 1 part of the paste with 8 parts of water.

IV.—Violet.—Use the same ingredients in the same proportions as blue,
with the difference that violet aniline is used instead of blue aniline.

V.—Green.—Take 1 part of aniline blue; 3 parts of picric acid, mixed
with 10 parts of acetic acid; 3 parts of citric acid, and 80 parts of
mucilage. For use, 1 part of this paste is mixed with 8 parts of water.

VI.—Copying.—Take 6 parts of pulverized bichromate of potash, mixed
with 10 parts of acetic acid and 240 parts of liquid extract of
logwood, and add a pulverized mixture of 35 parts of alum, 20 parts of
sal sorrel, and 20 parts mucilage. Mix well. For use, 1 part of this
paste is mixed with 4 parts of hot water.


«Purple Ink.»—I.—A strong decoction of logwood, to which a little alum
or chloride of tin has been added.

II. (Normandy).—To 12 pounds of Campeachy wood add as many gallons of
boiling water. Pour the solution through a funnel with a strainer made
of coarse flannel, or 1 pound of hydrate, or acetate of deutoxide of
copper finely powdered (having at the bottom of the funnel a piece of
sponge); then add immediately 14 pounds of alum, and for every 340
gallons of liquid add 80 pounds of gum arabic or gum senegal. Let these
remain for 3 or 4 days, and a beautiful purple color will be produced.


«Red Ink.»—Brazil wood, ground, 4 ounces; white wine vinegar, hot,
1 1⁠/⁠4 pints. Digest in a glass or a well-tinned copper or enamel
saucepan, until the next day; then gently simmer for half an hour,
adding toward the end gum arabic and alum, of each, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce.


«Inks for Shading Pen.»—The essential feature in the ink for use with
a shading pen is simply the addition of a sufficient quantity of
acacia or other mucilaginous substance to impart a proper degree of
consistency to the ink. A mixture of 2 parts of mucilage of acacia with
8 of ink gives about the required consistency. The following formulas
will probably be found useful:

 I.—Water-soluble nigrosin      1 part
     Water                       9 parts
     Mucilage acacia             1 part

 II.—Paris violet               2 parts
      Water                      6 parts
      Mucilage acacia            2 parts

 III.—Methyl violet             1 part
       Distilled water           7 parts
       Mucilage acacia           2 parts

 IV.—Bordeaux red               3 parts
      Alcohol                    2 parts
      Water                     20 parts
      Mucilage acacia            2 parts

 V.—Rosaniline acetate          2 parts
     Alcohol                     1 part
     Water                      10 parts
     Mucilage acacia             2 parts


«Silver Ink.»—I.—Triturate in a mortar equal parts of silver foil and
sulphate of potassa, until reduced to a fine powder; then wash the salt
out, and mix the residue with a mucilage of equal parts of gum arabic
water.

II.—Make as gold ink, but use silver leaf or silver bronze powder.

 III.—Oxide of zinc       30 grains
       Mucilage             1 ounce
       Spirit of wine      40 drops
       Silver bronze        3 drachms

Rub together, until perfectly smooth, {417} the zinc and mucilage, then
add the spirit of wine and silver bronze and make up the quantity to 2
ounces with water.


«Violet Ink.»—I.—For 2 gallons, heat 2 gills of alcohol on a water
bath. Add to the alcohol 2 ounces of violet aniline, and stir till
dissolved; then add the mixture to 2 gallons of boiling water; mix
well, and it is ready for use. Smaller quantities in proportion.

II.—Another good violet ink is made by dissolving some violet aniline
in water to which some alcohol has been added. It takes very little
aniline to make a large quantity of the ink.


«White Ink» (for other White Inks see Blueprint Inks).—So-called white
inks are, properly speaking, white paints, as a white solution cannot
be made. A paint suitable for use as an “ink” may be made by grinding
zinc oxide very fine on a slab with a little tragacanth mucilage, and
then thinning to the required consistency to flow from the pen. The
mixture requires shaking or stirring from time to time to keep the
pigment from separating. The “ink” may be preserved by adding a little
oil of cloves or other antiseptic to prevent decomposition of the
mucilage.

White marks may sometimes be made on colored papers by the application
of acids or alkalies. The result, of course, depends on the nature of
the coloring matter in each instance, and any “ink” of this kind would
be efficacious or otherwise, according to the coloring present in the
paper.


«Yellow Ink.»—I.—Gamboge (in coarse powder), 1 ounce; hot water, 5
ounces. Dissolve, and when cold, add of spirit, 3⁠/⁠4 ounce.

II.—Boil French berries, 1⁠/⁠2 pound, and alum, 1 ounce, in rain water,
1 quart, for 1⁠/⁠2 an hour, or longer, then strain and dissolve in the
hot liquor gum arabic, 1 ounce.


«Waterproof Ink» (see also Indelible Inks).—Any ordinary ink may
be made waterproof by mixing with it a little ordinary glue. After
waterproofing ink in this way it is possible to wash drawings with soap
and water, if necessary, without the ink running at all.


«White Stamping Ink.»—

 Zinc white             2 drachms
 White precipitate      5 grains
 Mucilage               1 drachm
 Water                  6 drachms

Triturate the zinc white with a small quantity of water till quite
smooth, then add the mucilage and the remainder of the water.

INK FOR THE LAUNDRY: See Laundry Preparations.

INK FOR LEATHER FINISHERS: See Leather.

INKS FOR TYPEWRITERS: See Typewriter Ribbons.

INK FOR WRITING ON GLASS: See Etching and Glass.


«INLAYING BY ELECTROLYSIS.»

See also Electro-etching, under Etching.

The process consists in engraving the design by means of the sand-blast
and stencils on the surface of the article. The design or pattern is
rendered conductive and upon this conductive surface a precipitate of
gold, silver, platinum, etc., is applied, and fills up the hollows.
Subsequently the surface is ground smooth.


«Insect Bites»


«REMEDIES FOR INSECT BITES.»

 I.—Carbolic acid                          15 grains
     Glycerine                               2 drachms
     Rose water                              4 ounces

 II.—Salicylic acid                        15 grains
      Collodion                          2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Spirit of ammonia                  5 1⁠/⁠2 drachms

 III.—Fluid extract rhus toxicodendron      1 drachm
       Water                                 8 ounces

 IV.—Ipecac, in powder                      1 drachm
      Alcohol                                1 ounce
      Ether                                  1 ounce

 V.—Betanaphthol                           30 grains
     Camphor                                30 grains
     Lanolin cold cream                      1 ounce

VI.—Spirit of sal ammoniac, whose favorable action upon fresh insect
bites is universally known, is often unavailable. A simple means to
alleviate the pain and swelling due to such bites, when still fresh,
is cigar ashes. Place a little ashes upon the part stung, add a drop
of water—in case of need beer, wine, or coffee may be used instead—and
rub the resulting paste thoroughly into the skin. It is preferable to
use fresh ashes of tobacco, because the recent heat offers sufficient
guarantee for absolute freedom from impurities. The action of the
tobacco ashes is due to the presence of {418} potassium carbonate,
which, like spirit of sal ammoniac, deadens the effect of the small
quantities of acid (formic acid, etc.) which have been introduced into
the small wound by the biting insect.


«Insecticides»

(See also Petroleum.)


«The Use of Hydrocyanic Acid Gas for Exterminating Household
Insects.»—Recent successful applications of hydrocyanic acid gas
for the extermination of insects infecting greenhouse plants have
suggested the use of the same remedy for household pests. It is now
an established fact that 1 1⁠/⁠2 grains of 98 per cent pure cyanide
of potassium volatilized in a cubic foot of space, will, if allowed
to remain for a period of not less than 3 hours, kill all roaches and
similar insects.

It may be stated that a dwelling, office, warehouse, or any building
may be economically cleared of all pests, provided that the local
conditions will permit the use of this gas. It probably would be
dangerous to fumigate a building where groceries, dried fruits, meats,
or prepared food materials of any kind are stored. Air containing more
than 25 per cent of the gas is inflammable; therefore it would be well
to put out all fire in an inclosure before fumigating. Hydrocyanic
acid, in all its forms, is one of the most violent poisons known, and
no neglect should attend its use. There is probably no sure remedy for
its effects after it has once entered the blood of any of the higher
animals. When cyanide of potassium is being used it should never be
allowed to come in contact with the skin, and even a slight odor of
the gas should be avoided. Should the operator have any cut or break
in the skin of the hands or face it should be carefully covered with
court-plaster to prevent the gas coming in contact with the flesh, or a
small particle of the solid compound getting into the cut might cause
death by poisoning in a few minutes’ time.

Hydrocyanic acid gas should not be used in closely built apartments
with single walls between, as more or less of the gas will penetrate
a brick wall. An inexperienced person should never use cyanide of
potassium for any purpose, and if it be found practicable to treat
buildings in general for the extermination of insects, the work should
be done only under the direction of competent officials. Experiments
have shown that a smaller dose and a shorter period of exposure are
required to kill mice than for roaches and household insects generally,
and it readily follows that the larger animals and human beings would
be more quickly overcome than mice, since a smaller supply of pure air
would be required to sustain life in mice, and small openings are more
numerous than large ones.

The materials employed and the method of procedure are as follows:
After ascertaining the cubic content of the inclosure, provide a
glass or stoneware (not metal) vessel of 2 to 4 gallons capacity for
each 5,000 cubic feet of space to be fumigated. Distribute the jars
according to the space, and run a smooth cord from each jar to a common
point near an outside door where they may all be fastened; support the
cord above the jar by means of the back of a chair or other convenient
object in such a position that when the load of cyanide of potassium is
attached it will hang directly over the center of the jar. Next weigh
out upon a piece of soft paper about 17 ounces of 98 per cent pure
cyanide of potassium, using a large pair of forceps for handling the
lumps; wrap up and place in a paper bag and tie to the end of the cord
over the jar. After the load for each jar has been similarly provided,
it is well to test the working of the cords to see that they do not
catch or bind. Then remove the jar a short distance from under the
load of cyanide and place in it a little more than a quart of water, to
which slowly add 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints of commercial sulphuric acid, stirring
freely. The action of the acid will bring the temperature of the
combination almost to the boiling point. Replace the jars beneath the
bags of cyanide, spreading a large sheet of heavy paper on the floor to
catch any acid that may possibly fly over the edge of the jar when the
cyanide is dropped, or as a result of the violent chemical action which
follows. Close all outside openings and open up the interior of the
apartment as much as possible, in order that the full strength of the
gas may reach the hiding places of the insects. See that all entrances
are locked or guarded on the outside to prevent persons entering; then
leave the building, releasing the cords as you go. The gas will all be
given off in a few minutes, and should remain in the building at least
3 hours.

When the sulphuric acid comes in contact with the cyanide of potassium
the result is the formation of sulphate of potash, which remains in the
jar, and the hydrocyanic acid is liberated and {419} escapes into the
air. The chemical action is so violent as to cause a sputtering, and
frequently particles of the acid are thrown over the sides of the jar;
this may be prevented by supporting a sheet of stiff paper over the jar
by means of a hole in the center, through which the cord supporting the
cyanide of potassium is passed, so that when the cord is released the
paper will descend with the cyanide and remain at rest on the top of
the jar, but will not prevent the easy descent of the cyanide into the
acid. The weight of this paper will in no way interfere with the escape
of the gas.

At the end of the time required for fumigation, the windows and doors
should be opened from the outside and the gas allowed to escape before
anyone enters the building. A general cleaning should follow, as the
insects leave their hiding places and, dying on the floors, are easily
swept up and burned. The sulphate of potash remaining in the jars is
poisonous and should be immediately buried and the jars themselves
filled with earth or ashes. No food that has remained during fumigation
should be used, and thorough ventilation should be maintained for
several hours. After one of these experiments it was noted that ice
water which had remained in a closed cooler had taken up the gas, and
had both the odor and taste of cyanide.

For dwellings one fumigation each year would be sufficient, but for
storage houses it may be necessary to make an application every 3 or
4 months to keep them entirely free from insect pests. The cost of
materials for one application is about 50 cents for each 5,000 cubic
feet of space to be treated. The cyanide of potassium can be purchased
at about 35 cents per pound, and the commercial sulphuric acid at about
4 cents per pound. The strength of the dose may be increased and the
time of exposure somewhat shortened, but this increases the cost and
does not do the work so thoroughly. In no case, however, should the
dose remain less than 1 hour.

The application of this method of controlling household insects and
pests generally is to be found in checking the advance of great
numbers of some particular insect, or in eradicating them where they
have become thoroughly established. This method will be found very
advantageous in clearing old buildings and ships of cockroaches.


«APPLICATIONS FOR CATTLE, POULTRY, ETC.:»

See also Veterinary Formulas.


«Fly Protectives for Animals.»—

 I.—Oil of cloves              3 parts
     Bay oil                    5 parts
     Eucalyptus tincture        5 parts
     Alcohol                  150 parts
     Water                    200 parts

II.—Tar well diluted with grease of any kind is as effective an agent
as any for keeping flies from cattle. The mixture indicated has the
advantage of being cheap. Applying to the legs, neck, and ears will
usually be sufficient.


«Cattle Dip for Ticks.»—Dr. Noorgard of the Bureau of Animal Industry
finds the following dip useful, immersion lasting one minute:

 Sulphur                 86 pounds
 Extra dynamo oil     1,000 gallons


«Insecticides for Animals.»—

 I.—Bay oil                500 parts by weight
     Naphthalene            100 parts by weight
     Camphor                 60 parts by weight
     Animal oil              25 parts by weight

 II.—Bay oil, pressed      400 parts by weight
      Naphthalene           100 parts by weight
      Crude carbolic acid    10 parts by weight


«For Dogs, Cats, etc.»—The following is an excellent powder for the
removal of fleas from cats or dogs:

 Naphthalene        4 av. ounces
 Starch            12 av. ounces

Reduce to fine powder. A few grains of lampblack added will impart a
light gray color, and if desirable a few drops of oil of pennyroyal or
eucalyptus will disguise the naphthalene odor.

Rub into the skin of the animal and let the powder remain for a day
or two, when the same can be removed by combing or giving a bath, to
which some infusion of quassia or quassia chips has been added. This
treatment is equally efficient for lice and ticks.


«Poultry Lice Destroyer.»—I.—Twenty pounds sublimed sulphur; 8 pounds
fuller’s earth; 2 pounds powdered naphthalene; 1⁠/⁠2 ounce liquid
carbolic acid. Mix thoroughly and put up in half-pound tins or boxes.
Sprinkle about the nest for use.

II.—Oil of eucalyptus smeared about the coop will cause the parasites
to leave. To drive them out of the nests of sitting hens, place in the
nest an egg that has been emptied, and into which has been inserted a
bit of sponge imbibed in essence of eucalyptus. There may be used also
a concentrated solution of extract of tobacco, to which phenol has been
added. {420}

III.—Cover the floor or soil of the house with ground or powdered
plaster, taken from old walls, etc.


«ANT DESTROYERS:»

A most efficacious means of getting rid of ants is spraying their
resorts with petroleum. The common oil is worth more for this purpose
than the refined. Two thorough sprayings usually suffice.

In armoires, dressing cases, etc., oil of turpentine should be
employed. Pour it in a large plate, and let it evaporate freely.
Tobacco juice is another effective agent, but both substances have the
drawback of a very penetrating and disagreeable odor.

Boiling water is deadly to ants wherever it can be used (as in the
garden, or yard around the house). So is carbon disulphide injected
into the nests by aid of a good, big syringe. An emulsion of petroleum
and water (oil, 1 part; water, 3 parts) poured on the earth has proven
very efficacious, when plentifully used (say from 1 ounce to 3 ounces
to the square yard). A similar mixture of calcium sulphide and water
(calcium sulphide, 100 parts; water, 1,000 parts; and the white of 1
egg to every quart of water) poured into their holes is also effective.

A weak solution of corrosive sublimate is very deadly to ants. Not only
does it kill them eventually, but it seems to craze them before death,
so that ants of the same nest, after coming into contact with the
poison, will attack each other with the greatest ferocity.

Where ants select a particular point for their incursions it is a good
plan to surround it with a “fortification” of obnoxious substance.
Sulphur has been used successfully in this way, and so has coal oil.
The latter, however, is not a desirable agent, leaving a persistent
stain and odor.

The use of carbon disulphide is recommended to destroy ants’ nests on
lawns. A little of the disulphide is poured into the openings of the
hills, stepping on each as it is treated to close it up. The volatile
vapors of the disulphide will penetrate the chambers of the nest in
every direction, and if sufficient has been used will kill not only the
adult insects but the larvæ as well. A single treatment is generally
sufficient.


«Formulas to Drive Ants Away.»—

 I.—Water           1 quart
     Cape aloes      4 ounces

Boil together and add:

 Camphor in small pieces      1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

 II.—Powdered cloves      1 ounce
      Insect powder        1 ounce

Scatter around where ants infest.

 III.—Cape aloes      1⁠/⁠2 pound
       Water             4 pints

Boil together and add camphor gum, 3 ounces. Sprinkle around where the
ants infest.


«BEDBUG DESTROYERS.»

A good bug killer is benzine, pure and simple, or mixed with a little
oil of mirbane. It evaporates quickly and leaves no stain. The only
trouble is the inflammability of its vapor.

The following is a popular preparation: To half a gallon of kerosene
oil add a quart of spirit of turpentine and an ounce of oil of
pennyroyal. This mixture is far less dangerous than benzine. The
pennyroyal as well as the turpentine are not only poisonous but
exceedingly distasteful to insects of all kinds. The kerosene while
less quickly fatal to bugs than benzine is cheaper and safer, and when
combined with the other ingredients becomes as efficient.

Where the wall paper and wood work of a room have become invaded, the
usual remedy is burning sulphur. To be efficient the room must have
every door, window, crevice, and crack closed. The floor should be wet
in advance so as to moisten the air. A rubber tube should lead from the
burning sulphur to a key-hole or auger-hole and through it, and by aid
of a pair of bellows air should be blown to facilitate the combustion
of the sulphur.


«Pastes.»—Some housewives are partial to corrosive sublimate for
bedbugs; but it is effective only if the bug eats the poison. The
corrosive sublimate cannot penetrate the waxy coat of the insect. But
inasmuch as people insist on having this a few formulas are given.

 I.—Common soap              1 av. ounce
     Ammonium chloride        3 av. ounces
     Corrosive sublimate      3 av. ounces
     Water enough to make 32 fluidounces.

Dissolve the salts in the water and add the soap.

This will make a paste that can be painted with a brush around in the
cracks and crevices. Besides, it will make an excellent filling to keep
the cracks of the wall and wainscoting free from bugs of all kinds.
The formula could be modified so as to permit the use {421} of Paris
green or London purple, if desired. A decoction of quassia could be
used to dissolve the soap. The latter paste would, of course, not be
poisonous, and in many instances it would be preferred. It is possible
to make a cold infusion of white hellebore of 25 per cent strength, and
in 1 quart of infusion dissolve 1 ounce of common soap. The advantage
of the soap paste is simply to keep the poisonous substance thoroughly
distributed throughout the mass at all times. The density of the paste
can be varied to suit. Kerosene oil or turpentine could replace 6
ounces or 8 ounces of the water in making the paste, and either of
these would make a valuable addition.

Another paste preparation which will meet with hearty recommendation
is blue ointment. This ointment, mixed with turpentine or kerosene
oil, can be used to good advantage; especially so as the turpentine is
so penetrating that both it and the mercury have a chance to act more
effectually. It can be said that turpentine will kill the bedbug if the
two come in contact; and kerosene is not far behindhand in its deadly
work.

 II.—Blue ointment      1 ounce
      Turpentine         3 ounces

Stir well together.


«Liquid Bedbug Preparations.»—There is no doubt that the liquid form
is the best to use; unlike a powder, or even a paste, it will follow
down a crack into remote places where bugs hide, and will prevent
their escape, and it will also kill the eggs and nits. The following
substances are the most employed, and are probably the best: Kerosene,
turpentine, benzine, carbolic acid, corrosive sublimate solution, oil
pennyroyal, and strong solution of soap. Here are several good formulas
that can be depended upon:

 I.—Oil of pennyroyal      1 drachm
     Turpentine             8 ounces
     Kerosene oil, enough to make 1 gallon.

Put up in 8-ounce bottles as a bedbug exterminator.

 II.—Oil of eucalyptus      1 drachm
      Eucalyptus leaves      1 ounce
      Benzine                2 ounces
      Turpentine             2 ounces
      Kerosene enough to make 16 ounces.

Mix the turpentine, benzine, and kerosene oil, and macerate the
eucalyptus leaves in it for 24 hours; then strain and make up the
measure to 1 pint, having first added the oil of eucalyptus.


«FLY-KILLERS.»

A fly poison that is harmless to man may be made from quassia wood as
follows:

 Quassia      1,000 parts
 Molasses       150 parts
 Alcohol         50 parts
 Water        5,750 parts

Macerate the quassia in 500 parts of water for 24 hours, boil for half
an hour, set aside for 24 hours, then press out the liquid. Mix this
with the molasses and evaporate to 200 parts. Add the alcohol and the
remaining 750 parts of water, and without filtering, saturate absorbent
paper with it.

This being set out on a plate with a little water attracts the flies,
which are killed by partaking of the liquid.


«Sticky Preparations.»—

 I.—Rosin           150 parts
     Linseed oil      50 parts
     Honey            18 parts

Melt the rosin and oil together and stir in the honey.

 II.—Rapeseed oil      70 parts
      Rosin             30 parts

Mix and melt together.

 III.—Rosin            60 parts
       Linseed oil      38 parts
       Yellow wax        2 parts

 IV.—Rosin             10 parts
      Turpentine         5 parts
      Rapeseed oil       5 parts
      Honey              1 part


«Sprinkling Powders for Flies.»—

 I.—Long peppers, powdered      5 parts
     Quassia wood, powdered      5 parts
     Sugar, powdered            10 parts

Mix, moisten the mixture with 4 parts of alcohol, dry, and again
powder. Keep the powder in closely stoppered jars, taking out a
sufficient quantity as desired.

 II.—Orris root, powdered      4 parts
      Starch, powdered         15 parts
      Eucalyptol                1 part

Mix. Keep in a closely stoppered jar or box. Strew in places affected
by flies.


«Fly Essences.»—

 I.—Eucalyptol                 10 parts
     Bergamot oil                3 parts
     Acetic ether               10 parts
     Cologne water              50 parts
     Alcohol, 90 per cent      100 parts

Mix. One part of this “essence” is {422} to be added to 10 parts of
water and sprayed around the rooms frequently.

 II.—Eucalyptol                           10 parts
      Acetic ether                          5 parts
      Cologne water                        40 parts
      Tincture of insect powder (1:5)      50 parts


«REMEDIES AGAINST HUMAN PARASITES:»

                             By weight

 I.—Yellow wax              85 parts
     Spermaceti              60 parts
     Sweet oil              500 parts

Melt and add:

 Boiling distilled water    150 parts

After cooling add:

 Clove oil                    2 parts
 Thyme oil                    3 parts
 Eucalyptus oil               4 parts

 II.—Bay oil, pressed      100 parts
      Acetic ether           12 parts
      Clove oil               4 parts
      Eucalyptus oil          3 parts


«For Head Lice in Children.»—One of the best remedies is a vinegar
of sabadilla. This is prepared as follows: Sabadilla seed, 5 parts;
alcohol, 5 parts; acetic acid, 9 parts; and water, 36 parts. Macerate
for 3 days, express and filter. The directions are: Moisten the scalp
and hair thoroughly at bedtime, binding a cloth around the head, and
let remain overnight. If there are any sore spots on the scalp, these
should be well greased before applying the vinegar.


«To Exterminate Mites.»—Mix together 10 parts of naphthalene, 10 parts
of phenic acid, 5 parts of camphor, 5 parts of lemon oil, 2 parts
of thyme oil, 2 parts of oil of lavender, and 2 parts of the oil of
juniper, in 500 parts of pure alcohol.


«Vermin Killer.»—

 Sabadilla, powder      2 av. ounces
 Acetic acid          1⁠/⁠2 fluidounce
 Wood alcohol           2 fluidounces
 Water sufficient to make 16 fluid ounces.

Mix the acetic acid with 14 fluidounces of water and boil the sabadilla
in this mixture for 5 to 10 minutes, and when nearly cold add the
alcohol, let stand, and decant the clear solution and bottle.

Directions: Shake the bottle and apply to the affected parts night and
morning.


«INSECTICIDES FOR PLANTS.»

Two formulas for insecticides with especial reference to vermin which
attack plants:

 I.—Kerosene           2 gallons
     Common soap      1⁠/⁠2 pound
     Water              1 gallon

Heat the solution of soap, add it boiling hot to the kerosene and churn
until it forms a perfect emulsion. For use upon scale insects it is
diluted with 9 parts of water; upon other ordinary insects with 15
parts of water, and upon soft insects, like plant lice, with from 20 to
25 parts of water.

For lice, etc., which attack the roots of vines and trees the following
is recommended:

 II.—Caustic soda      5 pounds
      Rosin            40 pounds
      Water, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the soda in 4 gallons of water, by the aid of heat, add the
rosin and after it is dissolved and while boiling add, slowly, enough
water to make 50 gallons. For use, 1 part of this mixture is diluted
with 10 parts of water and about 5 gallons of the product poured into a
depression near the root of the vine or tree.


«For Cochineal Insects.»—An emulsion for fumagine (malady of orange
trees caused by the cochineal insect) and other diseases caused by
insects is as follows:

Dissolve, hot, 4 parts of black soap in 15 parts of hot water. Let
cool to 104° F., and pour in 10 parts of ordinary petroleum, shaking
vigorously. Thus an emulsion of _café au lait_ color is obtained,
which may be preserved indefinitely. For employment, each part of the
emulsion is diluted, according to circumstances, with from 10 to 20
parts of water.


«For Locusts.»—Much trouble is experienced in the Transvaal and Natal
with locust pests, the remedies used being either a soap spray,
containing 1 pound ordinary household soap in 5 gallons of water, or
arsenite of soda, the latter being issued by the government for the
purpose, and also used for the destruction of prickly pear, and as a
basis of tick dips. A solution of 1 pound in 10 gallons of water is
employed for full-grown insects, and of 1 pound in 20 gallons of water
for newly hatched ones, 1 pound of sugar being added to each pound of
arsenite dissolved. The solution sometimes causes sores on the skin,
and the natives employed in its use are given grease to rub over
themselves as a measure of protection. An advantage of the arsenite
solution over soap is that much less liquid need be used.

A composition for the destruction of pear blight, which has been
patented in {423} the United States, is as follows: Peppermint oil, 16
parts; ammonia water, 60 parts; calomel, 30 parts; and linseed oil,
1,000 parts.


«For Moths and Caterpillars.»—

 I.—Venice turpentine      200 parts
     Rosin                1,000 parts
     Turpentine             140 parts
     Tar                     80 parts
     Lard                   500 parts
     Rape oil               240 parts
     Tallow                 200 parts

 II.—Rosin                  50 parts
      Lard                   40 parts
      Stearine oil           40 parts


«For Non-Masticating Insects.»—For protection against all
non-masticating and many mandibulate insects, kerosene oil is much
used. It is exhibited in the form of emulsion, which may be made as
follows:

 Kerosene         2 gallons
 Common soap      8 ounces
 Water            1 gallon

Dissolve the soap in the water by the aid of heat, bring to the boiling
point, and add the kerosene in portions, agitating well after each
addition. This is conveniently done by means of the pump to be used for
spraying the mixture.


«For Scale Insects.»—For destroying scale insects dilute the cochineal
emulsion (see above) with 9 times its volume of water; in the case of
most others, except lice, dilute with 14 volumes, and for the latter
with 20 to 25 volumes.

For the extermination of scale insects, resinous preparations are also
employed, which kill by covering them with an impervious coating. Such
a wash may be made as follows:

 Rosin         3 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Caustic soda      1 pound
 Fish oil          8 ounces
 Water            20 gallons

Boil the rosin, soda, and oil with a small portion of the water, adding
the remainder as solution is effected.

For the San José scale a stronger preparation is required, the
proportion of water being decreased by half, but such a solution is
applied only when the tree is dormant.


«Scale Insects on Orange Trees.»—Scale insect enemies of orange trees
are directly controlled in two ways: (1) By spraying the infested trees
with some liquid insecticide, and (2) by subjecting them to the fumes
of hydrocyanic acid gas, commonly designated as “gassing.” The latter
method is claimed to be the most effective means known of destroying
scale insects. In practice the method consists in closing a tree at
night with a tent and filling the latter with the poisonous fumes
generated by treating refined potassium cyanide (98 per cent) with
commercial sulphuric acid (66 per cent) and water. The treatment should
continue from 30 to 40 minutes, the longer time being preferable.
The work is done at night to avoid the scalding which follows day
applications, at least in bright sunshine.

The oily washes are said to be the best for the use by the spraying
method. “Kerosene emulsion” is a type of these washes. A formula
published by the United States Department of Agriculture follows:
Kerosene, 2 gallons; whale-oil soap, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; water, 1 gallon.
The soap is dissolved in hot water, the kerosene added, and the whole
thoroughly emulsified by means of a power pump until a rather heavy,
creamy emulsion is produced. The quantity of soap may be increased if
desired. The insecticide is applied by spraying the infected tree with
an ordinary force pump with spraying nozzle.


«Coating Against the Plant Louse.»—(_a_)—Mix 75 parts of green soap, 50
parts of linseed oil, and 25 parts of carbolic acid. Afterwards mix
the mass with 15,000 parts of water.

(_b_) Mix 4 parts of carbolic acid with 100 parts water glass.


«Louse Washes.»—

 Unslaked lime      18 parts
 Sulphur             9 parts
 Salt             6.75 parts

Mix as follows: A fourth part of the lime is slaked and boiled for
2⁠/⁠3 of an hour with the sulphur in 22.6 parts of water. The remainder
of the lime is then slaked and added with the salt to the hot mixture.
The whole is burned for another half hour or an hour, and then diluted
to 353 parts. The fluid is applied lukewarm when the plants are not in
active growth.


«For Slugs on Roses.»—

 Powdered pyrethrum       8 ounces
 Powdered colocynth       4 ounces
 Powdered hellebore      16 ounces


«Flea Powder.»—

 Naphthalene       4 ounces
 Talcum           10 ounces
 Tobacco dust      2 ounces

{424}


«To Keep Flaxseed Free from Bugs.»—As a container use a tin can with
a close-fitting top. At the bottom of the can place a small vial of
chloroform with a loose-fitting cork stopper. Then pour the flaxseed,
whole or ground, into the can, covering the vial. Enough of the
chloroform will escape from the vial to kill such insects as infest the
flaxseed.


«INSECT POWDERS.»

Pyrethrum, whale oil (in the form of soap), fish oil (in the form of
soap), soft soap, paraffine, Prussic acid, Paris green, white lead,
sulphur, carbon bisulphide, acorus calamus, camphor, Cayenne pepper,
tobacco, snuff, asafetida, white hellebore, eucalyptol, quassia, borax,
acetic ether are most important substances used as insecticides, alone,
or in combination of two or more of them. The Prussic acid and Paris
green are dangerous poisons and require to be used with extreme care:

Insect powder is used for all small insects and as a destroyer of
roaches. The observations of some experimenters seem to show that the
poisonous principle of these flowers is non-volatile, but the most
favorable conditions under which to use them are in a room tightly
closed and well warmed. There may be two poisonous principles, one of
which is volatile. Disappointment sometimes arises in their use from
getting powder either adulterated, or which has been exposed to the air
and consequently lost some of its efficiency.

The dust resulting from the use of insect powder sometimes proves
irritating to the mucous membranes of the one applying the powder. This
is best avoided by the use of a spray atomizer.

Persistence in the use of any means is an important element in the work
of destroying insects. A given poison may be employed and no visible
result follow at first, when in reality many may have been destroyed,
enough being left to deceive the observer as to numbers. They multiply
very rapidly, too, it must be remembered, and vigorous work is required
to combat this increase. Where they can easily migrate from one
householder’s premises to those of another, as in city “flats,” it
requires constant vigilance to keep them down, and entire extermination
is scarcely to be expected.

The ordinary insect powder on the market is made from pyrethrum
carneum, pyrethrum roseum, and pyrethrum cinerariæ-folium. The first
two are generally ground together and are commercially called Persian
insect powder; while the third is commonly called Dalmatian insect
powder. These powders are sold in the stores under many names and in
combination with other powders under proprietary names.

The powder is obtained by crushing the dried flowers of the pellitory
(pyrethrum). The leaves, too, are often used. They are cultivated in
the Caucasus, whence the specific name Caucasicum sometimes used.
Pyrethrum belongs to the natural order compositæ, and is closely allied
to the chrysanthemum. The active principle is not a volatile oil, as
stated by some writers, but a rosin, which can be dissolved out from
the dry flowers by means of ether. The leaves also contain this rosin
but in smaller proportions than the flowers. Tincture of pyrethrum
is made by infusing the dried flowers in five times their weight of
rectified spirit of wine. Diluted with water it is used as a lotion.

Borax powder also makes a very good insectifuge. It appears to be
particularly effective against the common or kitchen cockroach. Camphor
is sometimes used, and the powdered dried root of acorus calamus, the
sweet flag. A mixture of white lead with four times its weight of chalk
is also highly recommended. The fish-oil soaps used in a powdered form
are made from various recipes; of which the following is a typical
example:

 Powdered rosin         2 pounds
 Caustic soda           8 ounces
 Fish or whale oil      4 ounces

Boil together in a gallon of water for at least an hour, replacing some
of the water if required.

The following insect-powder formulas are perfectly safe to use. In each
instance insect powder relates to either one of the pyrethrum plants
powdered, or to a mixture:

 I.—Insect powder           8 ounces av.
     Powdered borax          8 ounces av.
     Oil of pennyroyal       2 fluidrachms

 II.—Insect powder          8 ounces av.
      Borax                  8 ounces av.
      Sulphur                4 ounces av.
      Oil of eucalyptus      2 fluidrachms

This formula is especially good for cockroaches:

 III.—Insect powder                 14 ounces av.
       Quassia in fine powder         6 ounces av.
       White hellebore, powdered      2 ounces av.

{425}


«Beetle Powder.»—

 Cocoa powder      4 ounces
 Starch            8 ounces
 Borax            37 ounces

Mix thoroughly.


«Remedies Against Mosquitoes.»—A remedy to keep off mosquitoes, etc.,
is composed as follows: Cinnamon oil, 1 part; patchouli oil, 1 part;
sandal oil, 4 parts; alcohol, 400 parts. This has a pleasant odor.

Oil of pennyroyal is commonly used to keep mosquitoes away. Some form
of petroleum rubbed on the skin is even more efficient, but unpleasant
to use, and if left on long enough will burn the skin.

A 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde for mosquito bites gives
remarkably quick and good results. It should be applied to the bites as
soon as possible with the cork of the bottle, and allowed to dry on.
Diluted ammonia is also used to rub on the bites.


«Roach Exterminators.»—Borax, starch, and cocoa are said to be the
principal ingredients of some of the roach foods on the market. A
formula for a poison of this class is as follows:

 Borax         37 ounces
 Starch         9 ounces
 Cocoa          4 ounces


«Moth Exterminators.»—Cold storage is the most effective means of
avoiding the ravages of moths. Where this is impracticable, as in
bureau drawers, camphor balls may be scattered about with satisfactory
result. The following is also effective:

 Spanish pepper            100 parts
 Turpentine oil             50 parts
 Camphor                    25 parts
 Clove oil                  10 parts
 Alcohol, 96 per cent      900 parts

Cut the Spanish pepper into little bits, and pour over them the alcohol
and oil of turpentine. Let stand 2 or 3 days, then decant, and press
out. To the liquid thus obtained add the camphor and clove oil, let
stand a few days, then filter and fill into suitable bottles. To use,
imbibe bits of bibulous paper in the liquid and put them in the folds
of clothing to be protected.


«Protecting Stuffed Furniture from Moths.»—The stuffing, no matter
whether consisting of tow, hair, or fiber, as well as the covering,
should be coated with a 10 per cent solution of sulphur in carbon
sulphide. The carbon sulphide dissolves the sulphur so as to cause a
very fine division and to penetrate the fibers completely.


«Powder to Keep Moths Away.»—

 Cloves            2 ounces
 Cinnamon          2 ounces
 Mace              2 ounces
 Black pepper      2 ounces
 Orris root        2 ounces

Powder coarsely and mix well together.


«Book-Worms.»—When these insects infest books they are most difficult
to deal with, as the ordinary destructive agents injuriously affect
the paper of the book. The books should be well beaten and exposed to
the sun, and a rag moistened with formalin passed through the binding
and the covers where possible. In other cases the bottom edge of
the binding should be moistened with formalin before putting on the
shelves, so that formaldehyde vapor can be diffused.

INSECT POWDERS: See Insecticides.


«INSECT TRAP.»

Into a china wash-basin, half filled with water, pour a glass of beer;
cover the basin with a newspaper, in the center of which a small round
hole is cut. Place it so that the edges of the paper lie on the floor
and the hole is over the center of the basin. At night beetles and
other insects, attracted by the smell of beer, climb the paper and fall
through the hole into the liquid.

INSTRUMENT ALLOYS: See Alloys.

INSTRUMENT CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

INSTRUMENT LACQUER: See Lacquers.


«Insulation»


«ELECTRIC INSULATION:»


«Insulating Varnishes.»—For earth cables and exposed strong current
wires:

I.—Melt 2 parts of asphalt together with 0.4 parts of sulphur, add 5
parts of linseed-oil varnish, linseed oil or cottonseed oil, keep at
320° F. for 6 hours; next pour in oil of turpentine as required.

II.—Maintain 3 parts of elaterite with 2 parts of linseed-oil varnish
at 392° F. for 5 to 6 hours; next melt 3 parts of asphalt, pour both
substances together, and again maintain the temperature of {426}
392° F. for 3 to 4 hours, and then add 1 part of linseed-oil varnish
and oil of turpentine as required.

III.—Insulating Varnish for Dynamos and Conduits with Low
Tension.—Shellac, 4 parts; sandarac, 2 parts; linoleic acid, 2 parts;
alcohol, 15 parts.

IV.—An insulating material which contains no caoutchouc is made by
dissolving natural or coal-tar asphalt in wood oil, adding sulphur
and vulcanizing at 572° F. The mixture of asphalt and wood oil may
also be vulcanized with chloride of sulphur by the ordinary process
used for caoutchouc. Before vulcanizing, a solution of rubber scraps
in naphthalene is sometimes added and the naphthalene expelled by a
current of steam. Substitutes for hard rubber are made of natural
or artificial asphalt combined with heavy oil of tar and talc or
infusorial earth.

Most of the insulating materials advertised under alluring names
consist of asphalt combined with rosin, tar, and an inert powder such
as clay or asbestos. Some contain graphite, which is a good conductor
and therefore a very undesirable ingredient in an insulator.


«INSULATION AGAINST HEAT.»

An asbestos jacket is the usual insulator for boilers, steampipes,
etc. The thicker the covering around the steampipe, the more heat is
retained. A chief requirement for such protective mass is that it
contains air in fine channels, so that there is no connection with the
closed-in air. Most substances suitable for insulating are such that
they can only with difficulty be used for a protective mass. The most
ordinary way is to mix infusorial earth, kieselguhr, slag-wool, hair,
ground cork, etc., with loam or clay, so that this plastic mass may
be applied moist on the pipes. In using such substances care should
be taken carefully to clean and heat the surfaces to be covered. The
mass for the first coating is made into a paste by gradual addition of
water and put on thick with a brush. After drying each time a further
coating is applied. This is repeated until the desired thickness is
reached. The last layer put on is rubbed smooth with the flat hand.
Finally, strips of linen are wound around, which is coated with tar or
oil paint as a protection against outside injuries. Cork stones consist
of crushed cork with a mineral binding agent, and are sold pressed into
various shapes.


«Leather Waste Insulation.»—Portions of leather, such as the fibers of
sole leather of any size and form, are first rendered soft. The surface
is then carded or the surface fibers scratched or raised in such a
manner that when several pieces are pressed together their surface
fibers adhere, and a compact, durable piece of leather is produced.
The carding can be done by an ordinary batting machine, the action of
which is so regulated that not only are the pieces of leather softened,
but the fibers on their surfaces raised. The structure of the separate
pieces of leather remains essentially unaltered. The raised fibers give
the appearance of a furry substance to the leather. The batted pieces
of leather are well mixed with paste or some suitable gum, either in or
outside of the machine, and are then put into specially shaped troughs,
where they are pressed together into layers of the required size
and thickness. The separate pieces of leather adhere and are matted
together. An agglutinant, if accessible, will contribute materially
to the strength and durability of the product. The layers are dried,
rolled, and are then ready for use. The pieces need not be packed
together promiscuously. If larger portions of waste can be secured, the
separate pieces can be arranged one upon another in rows. The larger
pieces can also be used for the top and bottom of a leather pad, the
middle portion of which consists of smaller pieces.


«INSULATION AGAINST MOISTURE, WEATHER, ETC.»

Experiments have shown that with the aid of red lead a very
serviceable, resistive, and weatherproof insulation material may be
produced from inferior fibers, to take the place, in many cases, of
gutta-percha and other substances employed for insulating purposes, and
particularly to effect the permanent insulation of aerial conductors
exposed to the action of the weather. Hackethal used for the purpose
any vegetable fiber which is wrapped around the conductors to be
insulated. The fiber is then saturated with liquid red lead. The
latter is accomplished in the proportion of 4 to 5 parts of red lead,
by weight, to 1 part, by weight, of linseed oil, by the hot or cold
process, by mere immersion or under pressure. All the three substances,
fiber, oil, and red lead, possess in themselves a certain insulating
capacity, but none of them is alone of utility for such purposes.
Even the red lead mixed with linseed oil does not possess in the
liquid state a high degree of insulating power. {427} Only when both
substances, the ingredients of the linseed oil capable of absorbing
oxygen and the lead oxide rich in oxygen, oxidize in the air, a new
gummy product of great insulating capacity results.

INTENSIFIERS: See Photography.


«IODINE SOLVENT.»

Iodine is quickly dissolved in oils by first rubbing up the iodine
with one-fourth of its weight of potassium iodide and a few drops of
glycerine, then adding a little oil and rubbing up again. The addition
of the resultant liquid to the rest of the oil and a sharp agitation
finishes the process.

IODINE SOAP: See Soap.


«IODOFORM DEODORIZER.»

Rub the part with about a teaspoonful of wine vinegar, after a previous
thorough washing with soap.


«Iron»

(See also Metals and Steel.)


«To Color Iron Blue.»—One hundred and forty parts of hyposulphite of
soda are dissolved in 1,000 parts of water; 35 parts of acetate of lead
are dissolved in 1,000 parts of water; the two solutions are mixed,
boiled, and the iron is immersed therein. The metal takes a blue color,
such as is obtained by heating.


«To Distinguish Iron from Steel.»—The piece of metal to be tested is
washed and then plunged into a solution of bichromate of potash, with
the addition of considerable sulphuric acid. In half a minute or a
minute the metal can be taken out, washed, and wiped. Soft steels and
cast iron assume under this treatment an ash-gray tint. Tempered steels
become almost black, without any metallic reflection. Puddled and
refined irons remain nearly white and always have metallic reflections
on the part of their surface previously filed, the remainder of the
surface presenting irregular blackish spots.

Another method is to apply a magnet. Steel responds much more quickly
and actively to the magnetic influence than does iron.


«Powder for Hardening Iron and Steel.»—For wrought iron place in the
charge 20 parts, by weight, of common salt; 2 parts, by weight, of
potassium cyanide; 0.3 parts, by weight, of potassium bichromate;
0.15 parts, by weight, of broken glass; and 0.1 part, by weight, of
potassium nitrate for case-hardening. For cooling and hardening cast
iron: To 60 parts, by weight, of water add 2.5 parts, by weight, of
vinegar; 3 parts, by weight, of common salt; and 0.25 parts, by weight,
of hydrochloric acid.


«Preventing the Peeling of Coatings for Iron.»—To obviate the scaling
of coatings on iron, if exposed to the attacks of the weather, it is
advisable to wash the iron thoroughly and to paint it next with a layer
of boiling linseed oil. If thus treated, the paint never cracks off.
If the iron objects are small and can be heated, it is advantageous
to heat them previously and to dip them into linseed oil. The boiling
oil enters all the pores of the metal and drives out the moisture. The
coating adheres so firmly that frost, rain, nor wind can injure it.


«To Soften Iron Castings.»—To soften hard iron castings, heat the
object to a high temperature, cover it over with fine coal dust or some
similar substance, and allow it to cool gradually. When the articles
are of small size, a number of them are packed in a crucible with
substances yielding carbon to iron at a glowing heat. The crucible is
then tightly closed, and placed in a stove or on an open fire. It is
gradually heated and kept at a red heat for several hours, and then
allowed to cool slowly. Cast-iron turnings, carbonate of soda, and
unrefined sugar are recommended as substances suitable for packing in
the crucible with the castings. If unrefined sugar alone is added,
the quantity must not be too small. By this process the iron may be
rendered extremely soft.


«To Whiten Iron.»—Mix ammoniacal salt in powder with an equal volume
of mercury. This is dissolved in cold water and mixed thoroughly.
Immerse the metal, heated to redness, in this bath and it will come out
possessing the whiteness and beauty of silver. Care should be taken not
to overheat the article and thus burn it.

IRON, BITING OFF RED HOT: See Pyrotechnics.

IRON, CEMENTS FOR: See Adhesives.

IRON, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

IRON TO CLOTH, GLUING: See Adhesives. {428}

IRON, HOW TO ATTACH RUBBER TO: See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements.

IRON OXALATE DEVELOPER: See Photography.

IRON SOLDERS: See Solders.

IRONING WAX: See Laundry Preparations.

IRON VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

ITCH, BARBERS’: See Ointments.


«Ivory»

(See also Bones, Shell, and Horn.)


«TO COLOR IVORY:»

Red.—The article is placed for 24 hours in water, 1,000 parts of which
carry 100 parts of vinegar (acetic acid, 6 per cent), and from 1 to 5
parts of aniline red. As soon as it acquires the desired color pour off
the liquid, let the ivory dry, and polish with Vienna lime.

Black.—Wash the article first in potash or soda lye and then put into a
neutral solution of silver nitrate. Drain off the liquid and lay in the
direct sunshine.

Red-Purple.—Put the article in a weak solution of triple gold chloride
and then into direct sunshine.

Red.—For a different shade of red (from the first given), place the
article for a short time in water weakly acidified with nitric acid and
then in a solution of cochineal in ammonia.

Yellow.—Leave for several hours in a solution of lead acetate, rinse
and dry. When quite dry place in a solution of potassium chromate.

To Color Billiard Balls Red.—

_Fiery Red._—Wash the article first in a solution of carbonate of soda,
then plunge for a few seconds in a bath of equal parts of water and
nitric acid. Remove, rinse in running water; then put in an alcoholic
solution of fuchsine and let it remain until it is the required color.

_Cherry Red._—Clean by washing in the sodium carbonate solution, rinse
and lay in a 2 per cent solution of tin chloride, for a few moments,
then boil in a solution of logwood. Finally lay in a solution of
potassium carbonate until it assumes the desired color.

_Pale Red._—Wash in soda solution, rinse and lay for 25 minutes in a 5
per cent solution of nitric acid, rinse, then lay for several minutes
in a weak solution of tin chloride. Finally boil in the following
solution: Carmine, 2 parts; sodium carbonate, 12 parts; water, 200
parts; acetic acid enough to saturate.

_Brown._—Apply several coats of an ammoniacal solution of potassium
permanganate. Similar results are obtained if the solution is diluted
with vinegar, and the ivory article allowed to remain in the liquid for
some time.


«Etching on Ivory» (see also Etching).—Although decorations on ivory
articles, such as umbrella handles, cuff-buttons, fans, book-covers,
boxes, etc., are generally engraved, the work is frequently done by
etching. The patterns must be very delicate, and are executed in lines
only. The simplest way is to cover the surface with a thin rosin
varnish. Then transfer the pattern and scratch it out accurately with
a pointed needle. Otherwise proceed same as in etching on metal and
stone, making an edge of modeling wax around the surface to be etched
and pouring on the acid, which consists, in this case, of sulphuric
acid, 1 part, to which 5 to 6 parts of water are added. It acts very
quickly. The lines turn a deep black. If brown lines are desired,
dissolve 1 part of silver nitrate in 5 parts of water, etch for a
short time, and expose the article for a few hours to the light, until
the design turns brown. Very often etchings in ivory are gilded. For
this purpose, fill the etched patterns accurately with siccatives,
using a writing pen, dry, and dab on gold leaf. After a few hours
remove the superfluous gold with wadding, and the design will be nicely
gilded. Etched ivory articles present a very handsome appearance if
they are first covered with a silvery gloss, the design being gilded
afterwards. For the former purpose the etched object is laid in the
above described solution of silver nitrate until it has acquired a dark
yellow color. Then rinse it off in clean water and, while still moist,
expose to direct sunlight. After 3 to 4 hours the surface becomes
entirely black, but will take on a fine silvery luster if rubbed with
soft leather.


«Flexible Ivory.»—To soften ivory and render it flexible put pure
phosphoric acid (specific gravity, 1.13) into a wide-mouthed bottle or
jar that can be covered, and steep the ivory in this until it partially
loses its opacity; then wash the ivory in cold, soft water and dry,
when the ivory will be found soft and flexible. {429} It regains its
hardness in course of time when freely exposed to air, although its
flexibility can be restored by immersing the ivory in hot water.

Another softening fluid is prepared by mixing 1 ounce of spirit of
niter with 5 ounces of water and steeping the ivory in the fluid for 4
or 5 days.


«Hardened Ivory.»—To restore the hardness to ivory that has been
softened by the above methods, wrap it in a sheet of white writing
paper, cover it with dry decrepitated salt, and let it remain thus
covered for 24 hours. The decrepitated salt is prepared by strewing
common kitchen salt on a plate or dish and standing same before a
fierce fire, when the salt loses its crystalline appearance and assumes
a dense opaque whiteness.


«IMITATION IVORY:»

See also Casein and Plaster.

Manufacture of Compounds Imitating Ivory, Shell, etc.—Casein, as known,
may act the part of an acid and combine with bases to form caseinates
or caseates; among these compounds, caseinates of potash, of soda, and
of ammonia are the only ones soluble in water; all the others are
insoluble and may be readily prepared by double decomposition. Thus,
for example, to obtain caseinate of alumina, it is sufficient to add to
a solution of casein in caustic soda a solution of sulphate of alumina;
an insoluble precipitate of casein, or caseinate of alumina, is
instantly formed. This precipitate ought to be freed from the sulphate
of soda (formed by double decomposition) by means of prolonged washing.

When pure, ordinary cellulose may be incorporated with it by this
process, producing a new compound, cheaper than pure cellulose,
although possessing the same properties, and capable of replacing
it in all its applications. According to the results desired, in
transparency, color, hardness, etc., the most suitable caseinate should
be selected. Thus, if a translucent compound is to be obtained, the
caseinate of alumina yields the best. If a white compound is desired,
the caseinate of zinc or of magnesia should be chosen; and for colored
products the caseinates of iron, copper, and nickel will give varied
tints.

The process employed for the new products, with a base of celluloid and
caseinate, is as follows: On one hand casein is dissolved in a solution
of caustic soda (100 of water for 10 to 25 of soda), and this liquid is
filtered, to separate the matters not dissolved and the impurities.

On the other hand, a salt (of the base of which the caseinate is
desired) is dissolved, and the solution filtered. It is well not to
operate on too concentrated a solution. The two solutions are mixed in
a reservoir furnished with a mechanical stirrer, in order to obtain
the insoluble caseinate precipitate in as finely divided a state as
possible. This precipitate should be washed thoroughly so as to free it
from the soda salt formed by double decomposition, but on account of
its gummy or pasty state, this washing presents certain difficulties,
and should be done carefully. After the washing it should be freed from
the greater part of water contained by draining, followed by drying,
or energetic pressing; then it is washed in alcohol, dried or pressed
again, and is ready to be incorporated in the mass of the celluloid.

For the latter immersion and washing, it has been found that an
addition of 1 to 5 per cent of borax is advantageous, for it renders
the mass more plastic, and facilitates the operation of mixing. This
may be conducted in a mixing apparatus; but, in practice, it is found
preferable to effect it with a rolling mill, operated as follows:

The nitro-cellulose is introduced in the plastic state, and moistened
with a solution of camphor in alcohol (40 to 50 parts of camphor in
50 to 70 parts of alcohol for 100 parts of nitro-cellulose) as it is
practiced in celluloid factories.

This plastic mass of nitro-cellulose is placed in a rolling mill,
the cylinders of which are slightly heated at the same time as the
caseinate, prepared as above; then the whole mass is worked by the
cylinders until the mixture of the two is perfectly homogeneous, and
the final mass is sufficiently hard to be drawn out in leaves in the
same way as practiced for pure celluloid. These leaves are placed in
hydraulic presses, where they are compressed, first hot, then cold, and
the block thus formed is afterwards cut into leaves of the thickness
desired. These leaves are dried in an apparatus in the same way as
ordinary celluloid. The product resembles celluloid, and has all its
properties. At 195° to 215° F. it becomes quite plastic, and is easily
molded. It may be sawed, filed, turned, and carved without difficulty,
and takes on a superb polish. It burns less readily than celluloid,
and its combustibility diminishes in proportion as the percentage of
caseinate increases; finally, the cost price is less than that of
celluloid, {430} and by using a large proportion of caseinate, products
may be manufactured at an extremely low cost.


«IVORY AND BONE BLEACHES.»

If simply dirty, scrub with soap and tepid water, using an old tooth
or nail brush for the purpose. Grease stains may be sometimes removed
by applying a paste of chalk or whiting and benzol, covering the
article so that the benzol may not dry too rapidly. Carbon disulphide
(the purified article) may be used in place of benzol. When dry, rub
off with a stiff brush. If not removed with the first application,
repeat the process. Delicately carved articles that show a tendency
to brittleness should be soaked for a short time in dilute phosphoric
acid before any attempt to clean them is made. This renders the minuter
portions almost ductile, and prevents their breaking under cleaning.

The large scratched brush should be treated as follows: If the
scratches are deep, the surface may be carefully rubbed down to the
depth of the scratch, using the finest emery cloth, until the depth is
nearly reached, then substituting crocus cloth.

To restore the polish nothing is superior to the genuine German putz
pomade, following by rubbing first with chamois and finishing off with
soft old silk. The more “elbow grease” put into the rubbing the easier
the task, as the heat generated by friction seems to lend a sort of
ductility to the surface. To remove the yellow hue due to age, proceed
as follows: Make a little tripod with wire, to hold the object a few
inches above a little vessel containing lime chloride moistened with
hydrochloric acid; put the object on the stand, cover the whole with a
bell glass, and expose to direct sunlight. When bleached, remove and
wash in a solution of sodium bicarbonate, rinse in clear water and dry.

Like mother-of-pearl, ivory is readily cleaned by dipping in a bath of
oxygenized water or immersing for 15 minutes in spirits of turpentine,
and subsequently exposing to the sun for 3 or 4 days. For a simple
cleaning of smooth articles, wash them in hot water, in which there
has been previously dissolved 100 parts (by weight) of bicarbonate of
soda per 1,000 parts of water. To clean carved ivory make a paste of
very fine, damp sawdust, and put on this the juice of 1 or 2 lemons,
according to the article to be treated. Now apply a layer of this
sawdust on the ivory, and when dry brush it off and rub the object with
a chamois.


«IVORY TESTS.»

Many years ago an article was introduced in the industrial world which
in contradistinction to the genuine animal ivory, has its origin in
the vegetable kingdom, being derived from the nut of a palm-like shrub
called phytelephasmacrocarpa, whose fruit reaches the size of an apple.
This fruit has a very white, exceedingly hard kernel which can be
worked like ivory. A hundred of these fruits only costing about $1,
their use offers great advantages. Worked on the lathe this ivory can
be passed off as the genuine article, it being so much like it that
it is often sold at the same price. It can also be colored just like
genuine ivory.

To distinguish the two varieties of ivory, the following method may be
employed: Concentrated sulphuric acid applied to vegetable ivory will
cause a pink coloring in about 10 or 12 minutes, which can be removed
again by washing with water. Applied on genuine ivory, this acid does
not affect it in any manner.

IVORY BLACK: See Bone Black.

IVORY CEMENT: See Adhesives.

IVORY GILDING: See Plating.

IVORY POLISHES: See Polishes.

JAPAN BLACK: See Paints.

JAPANNING AND JAPAN TINNING: See Varnishes.

JASMINE MILK: See Cosmetics.

JELLY (FRUIT) EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts.

JEWELERS’ CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

JEWELERS’ CLEANING PROCESSES: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.


«Jewelers’ Formulas»

(See also Gems, Gold, and Watchmakers’ Recipes.)


«Coloring Gold Jewelry.»—Following are several recipes for coloring:
Saltpeter, 40 parts; alum, 30 parts; sea salt, 30 parts; or, liquid
ammonia, 100 parts; sea salt, 3 parts; water, 100 parts. Heat without
allowing to boil and plunge {431} the objects into it for 2 or 3
minutes, stirring constantly; rinse in alum water and then in clean
water. Another recipe: Calcium bromide, 100 parts; bromine, 5 parts.
Place the articles in this solution, with stirring, for 2 to 3 minutes;
next wash in a solution of hyposulphite of sodium and rinse in clean
water. Another: Verdigris, 30 parts; sea salt, 30 parts; blood stone,
30 parts; sal ammoniac, 30 parts; alum, 5 parts. Grind all and stir
with strong vinegar; or, verdigris, 100 parts; hydrochlorate of
ammonia, 100 parts; saltpeter, 65 parts; copper filings, 40 parts. Bray
all and mix with strong vinegar.


«To Widen a Jewel Hole.»—Chuck the hole in a lathe with cement. Place a
spirit lamp underneath to prevent the cement from hardening. Hold the
pointed bit against the hole, while the lathe is running, until the
hole is true, when the lamp should be removed. The broach to widen the
hole should be made of copper, of the required size and shape, and the
point, after being oiled, should be rolled in diamond dust until it
is entirely covered. The diamond dust should then be beaten in with a
burnisher, using very light blows so as not to bruise the broach. After
the hole is widened as desired, it requires polishing with a broach
made of ivory and used with oil and the finest diamond dust, loose,
not driven into the broach.


«To Clean Jet Jewelry.»—Reduce bread crumbs into small particles, and
introduce into all the curves and hollows of the jewelry, while rubbing
with a flannel.


«Coloring Common Gold.»—In coloring gold below 18 carat, the following
mixture may be used with success, and if carefully employed, even 12
carat gold may be colored by it: Take nitrate of potassa (saltpeter),
4 parts, by weight; alum, 2 parts; and common salt, 2 parts. Add
sufficient warm water to mix the ingredients into a thin paste; place
the mixture in a small pipkin or crucible and allow to boil. The
article to be colored should be suspended by a wire and dipped into
the mixture, where it should remain from 10 to 20 minutes. The article
should then be removed and well rinsed in hot water, when it must be
scratch brushed, again rinsed and returned to the coloring salts for
a few minutes; it is then to be again rinsed in hot water, scratch
brushed, and finally brushed with soap and hot water, rinsed in hot
water, and placed in boxwood sawdust. The object being merely to remove
the alloy, as soon as the article has acquired the proper color of fine
gold it may be considered sufficiently acted upon by the above mixture.
The coloring salts should not be used for gold of a lower standard than
12 carat, and, even for this quality of gold, some care must be taken
when the articles are of a very slight make.


«Shades of Red, etc., on Matt Gold Bijouterie.»—For the production of
the red and other shades on matt gold articles, the so-called gold
varnishes are employed, which consist of shellac dissolved in alcohol
and are colored with gum rosins. Thus a handsome golden yellow is
obtained from shellac, 35 parts; seed-lac, 35 parts; dragon’s blood, 50
parts; gamboge, 50 parts; dissolved in 400 parts of alcohol; the clear
solution is decanted and mixed with 75 parts of Venice turpentine. By
changing the amounts of the coloring rosins, shades from bright gold
yellow to copper color are obtained. The varnish is applied evenly
and after drying is wiped off from the raised portions of the article
by means of a pad of wadding dipped into alcohol, whereby a handsome
patination effect is produced, since the lacquer remains in the
cavities. Chased articles are simply rubbed with earth colors ground
into a paste with turpentine oil, for which purpose burnt sienna, fine
ochers of a golden color, golden yellow, and various shades of green
are employed.

 I.—Yellow wax                  32 parts
     Red bole                     3 parts
     Crystallized verdigris       2 parts
     Alum                         2 parts

 II.—Yellow wax                  95 parts
      Red bole                    64 parts
      Colcothar                    2 parts
      Crystallized verdigris      32 parts
      Copper ashes                20 parts
      Zinc vitriol                32 parts
      Green vitriol               16 parts
      Borax                        1 part

The wax is melted and the finely powdered chemicals are stirred in,
in rotation. If the gilt bronze goods are to obtain a lustrous orange
shade, apply a mixture of ferric oxide, alum, cooking salt, and vinegar
in the heated articles by means of a brush, heating to about 266° F.
until the shade commences to turn black and water sprinkled on will
evaporate with a hissing sound, then cool in water, dip in a mixture of
1 part of nitric acid with 40 parts of water, rinse {432} thoroughly,
dry, and polish. For the production of a pale-gold shade use a wax
preparation consisting of:

 III.—Yellow wax        19 parts
       Zinc vitriol      10 parts
       Burnt borax        3 parts

Green-gold color is produced by a mixture of:

 IV.—Saltpeter         6 parts
      Green vitriol     2 parts
      Zinc vitriol      1 part
      Alum              1 part


«To Matt Gilt Articles.»—If it is desired to matt gilt articles partly
or entirely, the portions which are to remain burnished are covered
with a mixture of chalk, sugar, and mucilage, heating until this
“stopping-off” covering shows a black color. On the places not covered
apply a matting powder consisting of:

 Saltpeter         40 parts
 Alum              25 parts
 Cooking salt      35 parts

Heat the objects to about 608° F., whereby the powder is melted and
acquires the consistency of a thin paste. In case of too high a
temperature decomposition will set in.


«To Find the Number of Carats.»—To find the number of carats of gold
in an object, first weigh the gold and mix with seven times its weight
in silver. This alloy is beaten into thin leaves, and nitric acid is
added; this dissolves the silver and copper. The remainder (gold) is
then fused and weighed; by comparing the first and last weights the
number of carats of pure gold is found. To check repeat several times.


«Acid Test for Gold.»—The ordinary ready method of ascertaining whether
a piece of jewelry is made of gold consists in touching it with a glass
stopper wetted with nitric acid, which leaves gold untouched, but
colors base alloys blue from the formation of nitrate of copper.


«Imitation Diamonds.»—I.—Minium, 75 parts (by weight); washed white
sand, 50 parts; calcined potash, 18 parts; calcined borax, 6 parts;
bioxide of arsenic, 1 part. The sand must be washed in hydrochloric
acid and then several times in clean water. The specific gravity of
this crystal glass is almost the same as that of the diamond.

II.—Washed white sand, 100 parts (by weight): minium, 35 parts;
calcined potash, 25 parts; calcined borax, 20 parts; nitrate of potash
(crystals), 10 parts; peroxide of manganese, 5 parts. The sand must be
washed as above stated.


«Diamantine.»—This substance consists of crystallized boron, the basis
of borax. By melting 100 parts of boracic acid and 80 parts of aluminum
crystals is obtained the so-called bort, which even attacks diamond.
The diamantine of commerce is not so hard.


«To Refine Board Sweepings.»—The residue resulting from a jobbing
jeweler’s business, such as board sweepings and other residuum, which
is continually accumulating and which invariably consists of all mixed
qualities of standard, may have the precious metals recovered therefrom
in a very simple manner, as follows: Collect the residue and burn it
in an iron ladle or pan, until all grease or other organic matter is
destroyed. When cool mix with 1⁠/⁠5 part soda-ash, and melt in a clay
crucible. When the metal is thoroughly melted it will leave the flux
and sink to the bottom of the crucible; at this stage the flux assumes
the appearance of a thin fluid, and then is the time to withdraw the
pot from the fire. The metal in the crucible—but not the flux—may now
be poured into a vessel of water, stirring the water in a circular
direction while the metal is being poured in, which causes it to form
into small grains, and so prepares it for the next process. Dissolve
the grains in a mixture of nitric acid and water in equal quantities.
It takes about four times the quantity of liquid as metal to dissolve.
The gold remains undissolved in this mixture, and may be recovered by
filtering or decanting the liquid above it in the dissolving vessel;
it is then dried, mixed with a little flux, and melted in the usual
manner, whereupon pure gold will be obtained. To recover the silver,
dilute the solution which has been withdrawn from the gold with six
times its bulk of water, and add by degrees small quantities of finely
powdered common salt, and this will throw down the silver into a
white, curdy powder of chloride of silver. Continue to add salt until
no cloudiness is observed in the solution, when the water above the
sediment may be poured off; the sediment is next well washed with warm
water several times, then dried and melted in the same manner as the
gold, and you will have a lump of pure silver.


«Restoration of the Color of Turquoises.»—After a certain time
turquoises lose a part of their fine color. It is easy to restore the
color by immersing them in a solution of carbonate of soda. But it
seems that the blue cannot be restored anew after this operation, if it
again becomes dull. The above applies to {433} common turquoises, and
not to those of the Orient, of which the color does not change.


«Colorings for Jewelers’ Work.»—I.—Take 40 parts of saltpeter; 30 parts
of alum; 30 parts of sea salt; or 100 grams of liquid ammonia; 3 parts
sea salt; and 100 parts water. This is heated without bringing it to a
boil, and the articles dipped into it for from 2 to 3 minutes, stirring
the liquid constantly; after this bath they are dipped in alum water
and then thoroughly rinsed in clean water.

II.—One hundred parts of calcium bromide and 2 parts of bromium. The
objects are allowed to remain in this solution (which must be also
constantly stirred) for from 2 to 3 minutes, then washed in a solution
of sodium hyposulphite, after which they must be rinsed in clean water.

III.—Thirty parts of verdigris; 30 parts of sea salt; 30 parts of
hematite; 30 parts of sal ammoniac, and 5 parts of alum. This must be
all ground up together and mixed with strong vinegar; or we may also
use 100 parts of verdigris; 100 parts of hydrochlorate of ammonia; 65
parts of saltpeter, and 40 parts of copper filings, all of which are to
be well mixed with strong vinegar.


«22-Carat Solder.»—Soldering is a process which, by means of a more
fusible compound, the connecting surfaces of metals are firmly secured
to each other, but, for many practical purposes, it is advisable to
have the fusing point of the metal and solder as near each other as
possible, which, in the majority of cases, preserves a union more
lasting, and the joint less distinguishable, in consequence of the
similarity of the metal and solder in color, which age does not
destroy, and this is not the case with solders the fusible points of
which are very low. The metal to be soldered together must have an
affinity for the solder, otherwise the union will be imperfect; and
the solder should likewise act upon the metal, partly by this affinity
or chemical attraction, and partly by cohesive force, to unite the
connections soundly and firmly together. Solders should therefore be
prepared suitable to the work in hand, if a good and lasting job is to
be made. It should always be borne in mind that the higher the fusing
point of the gold alloy—and this can be made to vary considerably, even
with any specified quality—the harder solder must be used, for, in the
case of a more fusible mixture of gold, the latter would melt before
the solder and cause the work to be destroyed. A very good formula for
the first, or ordinary, 22-carat alloy is this:

                   dwts.  grs.
 Fine gold           1    0
 Fine silver         0    3
 Fine copper         0    2
                   ────────
                     1    5

This mixture will answer all the many purposes of the jobber; for
soldering high quality gold wares that come for repairs, particularly
wedding rings, it will be found admirably suited. If an easier solder
is wanted, and such is very often the case with jobbing jewelers,
especially where several solderings have to be accomplished, it is
as well to have at hand a solder which will not disturb the previous
soldering places, for if this is not prevented a very simple job is
made very difficult, and a lot of time and patience wholly wasted. To
guard against a thing of this kind the following solder may be employed
on the top of the previous one:

                   dwts.  grs.
 Fine gold           1    0
 Fine silver         0    3
 Yellow brass        0    2
                   ────────
                     1    5

This solder is of the same value as the previous one, but its melting
point is lower, and it will be found useful for many purposes that can
be turned to good account in a jobbing jeweler’s business.


«JEWELERS’ ALLOYS:»

See also Alloys and Solders.


«18-Carat Gold for Rings.»—Gold coin, 19 1⁠/⁠2 grains; pure copper, 3
grains; pure silver, 1 1⁠/⁠2 grains.


«Cheap Gold, 12 Carat.»—Gold coin, 25 grains; pure copper, 13 1⁠/⁠2
grains; pure silver, 7 1⁠/⁠3 grains.


«Very Cheap 4-Carat Gold.»—Copper, 18 parts; gold, 4 parts; silver, 2
parts.


«Imitations of Gold.»—I.—Platina, 4 pennyweights; pure copper,
2 1⁠/⁠4 pennyweights; sheet zinc, 1 pennyweight; block tin, 1 3⁠/⁠4
pennyweights; pure lead, 1 1⁠/⁠2 pennyweight. If this should be found
too hard or brittle for practical use, remelting the composition with a
little sal ammoniac will generally render it malleable as desired.

II.—Platina, 2 parts; silver, 1 part; copper, 3 parts. These
compositions, when properly prepared, so nearly resemble pure gold that
it is very difficult to {434} distinguish them therefrom. A little
powdered charcoal, mixed with metals while melting, will be found of
service.


«Best Oreide of Gold.»—Pure copper, 4 ounces; sheet zinc, 1 3⁠/⁠4
ounces; magnesia, 5⁠/⁠8 ounce; sal ammoniac, 11⁠/⁠32 ounce; quicklime,
9⁠/⁠32 ounce; cream tartar, 7⁠/⁠8 ounce. First melt the copper at as
low a temperature as it will melt; then add the zinc, and afterwards
the other articles in powder, in the order named. Use a charcoal fire
to melt these metals.


«Bushing Alloy for Pivot Holes, etc.»—Gold coin, 3 pennyweights;
silver, 1 pennyweight, 20 grains; copper, 3 pennyweights, 20 grains;
palladium, 1 pennyweight. The best composition known for the purpose
named.


«Gold Solder for 14- to 16-Carat Work.»—Gold coin, 1 pennyweight; pure
silver, 9 grains; pure copper, 6 grains; brass, 3 grains.


«Darker Solder.»—Gold coin, 1 pennyweight; pure copper, 8 grains; pure
silver, 5 grains; brass, 2 grains. Melt together in charcoal fire.


«Solder for Gold.»—Gold, 6 pennyweights; silver, 1 pennyweight; copper,
2 pennyweights.


«Soft Gold Solder.»—Gold, 4 parts; silver, 1 part; copper, 1 part.


«Solders for Silver» (for the use of jewelers).—Fine silver, 19
pennyweights; copper, 1 pennyweight; sheet brass, 10 pennyweights.


«White Solder for Silver.»—Silver, 1 ounce; tin, 1 ounce.


«Silver Solder for Plated Metal.»—Fine silver, 1 ounce; brass, 10
pennyweights.


«Solders for Gold.»—I.—Silver, 7 parts; copper, 1 part; with borax.

II.—Gold, 2 parts; silver, 1 part; copper, 1 part.

III.—Gold, 3 parts; silver, 3 parts; copper, 1 part; zinc, 1⁠/⁠2 part.


«For Silver.»—Silver, 2 parts; brass, 1 part; with borax; or, silver, 4
parts; brass, 3 parts; zinc, 1⁠/⁠18 part; with borax.


«Gold Solders» (see also Solders).—I.—Copper, 24.24 parts; silver,
27.57 parts; gold, 48.19 parts.

II.—Enamel Solder.—Copper, 25 parts; silver, 7.07 parts; gold, 67.93
parts.

III.—Copper, 26.55 parts; zinc, 6.25 parts; silver, 31.25 parts; gold,
36 parts.

IV.—Enamel Solder.—Silver, 19.57 parts; gold, 80.43 parts.


«Solder for 22-Carat Gold.»—Gold of 22 carats, 1 pennyweight; silver, 2
grains; copper, 1 grain.


«For 18-Carat Gold.»—Gold of 18 carats, 1 pennyweight; silver, 2
grains; copper, 1 grain.


«For Cheaper Gold.»—I.—Gold, 1 pennyweight; silver, 10 grains; copper,
8 grains.

II.—Fine gold, 1 pennyweight; silver, 1 pennyweight; copper, 1
pennyweight.


«Silver Solders» (see also Solders).—I. (Hard.)—Copper, 30 parts; zinc,
12.85 parts; silver, 57.15 parts.

II.—Copper, 23.33 parts; zinc, 10 parts; silver, 66.67 parts.

III.—Copper, 26.66 parts; zinc, 10 parts; silver, 63.34 parts.

IV. (Soft.)—Copper, 14.75 parts; zinc, 8.50 parts; silver, 77.05 parts.

V.—Copper, 22.34 parts; zinc, 10.48 parts; silver, 67.18 parts.

VI.—Tin, 63 parts; lead, 37 parts.


«FOR SILVERSMITHS:»

I.—Sterling Silver.—Fine silver, 11 ounces, 2 pennyweights; fine
copper, 18 pennyweights.

II.—Equal to Sterling.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper, 1
pennyweight, 12 grains.

III.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper, 5 pennyweights.

IV.—Common Silver for Chains.—Fine silver, 6 pennyweights; fine copper,
4 pennyweights.

V.—Solder.—Fine silver, 16 pennyweights; fine copper, 12 grains; pin
brass, 3 pennyweights, 12 grains.

VI.—Alloy for Plating.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper, 10
pennyweights.

VII.—Silver Solder.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; pin brass, 10 pennyweights;
pure spelter, 2 pennyweights.

VIII.—Copper Solder for Plating.—Fine silver, 10 pennyweights; fine
copper, 10 pennyweights.

IX.—Common Silver Solder.—Fine silver, 10 ounces; pin brass, 6 ounces,
12 pennyweights; spelter, 12 pennyweights.

X.—Silver Solder for Enameling.—Fine silver, 14 pennyweights; fine
copper, 8 pennyweights.

XI.—For Filling Signet Rings.—Fine silver, 10 ounces; fine copper, 1
ounce, 16 pennyweights; fine pin brass, 6 ounces, 12 pennyweights;
spelter, 12 pennyweights. {435}

XII.—Silver Solder for Gold Plating.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper,
5 pennyweights; pin brass, 5 pennyweights.

XIII.—Mercury Solder.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; pin brass, 10 pennyweights;
bar tin, 2 pennyweights.

XIV.—Imitation Silver.—Fine silver, 1 ounce; nickel, 1 ounce, 11
grains; fine copper, 2 ounces, 9 grains.

XV.—Fine silver, 3 ounces; nickel, 1 ounce, 11 pennyweights; fine
copper, 2 ounces, 9 grains; spelter, 10 pennyweights.

XVI.—Fine Silver Solder for Filigree Work.—Fine silver, 4 pennyweights,
6 grains; pin brass, 1 pennyweight.

Bismuth Solder.—Bismuth, 3 ounces; lead, 3 ounces, 18 pennyweights;
tin, 5 ounces, 6 pennyweights.


«BRASS:»

I.—Yellow Brass for Turning.—(Common article.)—Copper, 20 pounds; zinc,
10 pounds; lead, 4 ounces.

II.—Copper, 32 pounds; zinc, 10 pounds; lead, 1 pound.

III.—Red Brass Free, for Turning.—Copper, 100 pounds; zinc, 50 pounds;
lead, 10 pounds; antimony, 44 ounces.

IV.—Best Red Brass for Fine Castings.—Copper, 24 pounds; zinc, 5
pounds; bismuth, 1 ounce.

V.—Red Tombac.—Copper, 10 pounds; zinc, 1 pound.

VI.—Tombac.—Copper, 16 pounds; tin, 1 pound; zinc, 1 pound.

VII.—Brass for Heavy Castings.—Copper, 6 to 7 parts; tin, 1 part; zinc,
1 part.

VIII.—Malleable Brass.—Copper, 70.10 parts; zinc, 29.90 parts.

IX.—Superior Malleable Brass.—Copper, 60 parts; zinc, 40 parts.

X.—Brass.—Copper, 73 parts; zinc, 27 parts.

XI.—Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 35 parts.

XII.—Copper, 70 parts; zinc, 30 parts.

XIII.—German Brass.—Copper, 1 pound; zinc, 1 pound.

XIV.—Watchmakers’ Brass.—Copper, 1 part; zinc, 2 parts.

XV.—Brass for Wire.—Copper, 34 parts; calamine, 56 parts.

XVI.—Brass for Tubes.—Copper, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part.

XVII.—Brass for Heavy Work.—Copper, 100 parts; tin, 15 parts; zinc, 15
parts.

XVIII.—Copper, 112 parts; tin, 13 parts; zinc, 1 part.

XIX.—Tombac or Red Brass.—Copper, 8 parts; zinc, 1 part.

XX.—Brass.—Copper, 3 parts; melt, then add zinc, 1 part.

XXI.—Buttonmakers’ Fine Brass.—Brass, 8 parts; zinc, 5 parts.

XXII.—Buttonmakers’ Common Brass.—Button brass, 6 parts; tin, 1 part;
lead, 1 part. Mix.

XXIII.—Mallet’s Brass.—Copper, 25.4 parts; zinc, 74.6 parts. Used to
preserve iron from oxidizing.

XXIV.—Best Brass for Clocks.—Rose copper, 85 parts; zinc, 14 parts;
lead, 1 part.


«GOLD ALLOYS:»

See also Gold Alloys, under Alloys.

Gold of 22 carats fine being so little used is intentionally omitted.

I.—Gold of 18 Carats, Yellow Tint.—Gold, 15 pennyweights; silver, 2
pennyweights, 18 grains; copper, 2 pennyweights, 6 grains.

II.—Gold of 18 Carats, Red Tint.—Gold, 15 pennyweights; silver, 1
pennyweight, 18 grains; copper, 3 pennyweights, 6 grains.

III.—Spring Gold of 16 Carats.—Gold, 1 ounce, 16 pennyweights; silver,
6 pennyweights; copper, 12 pennyweights. This when drawn or rolled very
hard makes springs little inferior to steel.

IV.—Jewelers’ Fine Gold, Yellow Tint, 16 Carats Nearly.—Gold, 1 ounce;
silver, 7 pennyweights; copper, 5 pennyweights.

V.—Gold of Red Tint, 16 Carats.—Gold, 1 ounce; silver, 2 pennyweights;
copper, 8 pennyweights.

Sterling Gold Alloys.—I.—Fine gold, 18 pennyweights, 12 grains; fine
silver, 1 pennyweight; fine copper, 12 grains.

II.—Dry Colored Gold Alloys, 17 Carat.—Fine gold, 15 pennyweights;
fine silver, 1 pennyweight, 10 grains; fine copper, 4 pennyweights, 17
grains.

III.—18 Carat.—Fine gold, 1 ounce; fine silver, 4 pennyweights, 10
grains; fine copper, 2 pennyweights, 5 grains.

IV.—18 Carat.—Fine gold, 15 pennyweights; fine silver, 2 pennyweights,
4 grains; fine copper, 2 pennyweights, 19 grains.

V.—18 Carat.—Fine gold, 18 pennyweights; fine silver, 2 pennyweights,
18 {436} grains; fine copper, 3 pennyweights, 18 grains.

VI.—19 Carat.—Fine gold, 1 ounce; fine silver, 2 pennyweights, 6
grains; fine copper, 3 pennyweights, 12 grains.

VII.—20 Carat.—Fine gold, 1 ounce; fine silver, 2 pennyweights; fine
copper, 2 pennyweights, 4 grains.

VIII.—22 Carat.—Fine gold, 18 pennyweights; fine silver, 12 grains;
fine copper, 1 pennyweight, 3 grains.

IX.—Gold Solder for the Foregoing Alloys.—Take of the alloyed gold you
are using, 1 pennyweight; fine silver, 6 grains.

X.—Alloy for Dry Colored Rings.—Fine gold, 1 ounce; fine silver, 4
pennyweights, 6 grains; fine copper, 4 pennyweights, 6 grains.

XI.—Solder.—Scrap gold, 2 ounces; fine silver, 3 pennyweights; fine
copper, 3 pennyweights.

XII.—Dry Colored Scrap Reduced to 35s. Gold.—Colored scrap, 1 ounce, 9
pennyweights, 12 grains; fine silver, 2 pennyweights; fine copper, 17
pennyweights, 12 grains; spelter, 4 pennyweights.


«To Quickly Remove a Ring from a Swollen Finger.»—If the ring is of
gold, pull the folds of the swollen muscles apart, so that it can be
seen, then drop on it a little absolute alcohol and place the finger in
a bowl of metallic mercury. In a very few minutes the ring will snap
apart. If the ring is of brass, scrape the surface slightly, or put on
a few drops of a solution of oxalic acid, or even strong vinegar, let
remain in contact for a moment or two, then put into the mercury, and
the result will be as before.


«Soldering a Jeweled Ring.»—In order to prevent the bursting of the
jewels of a ring while the latter is being soldered, cut a juicy potato
into halves and make a hollow in both portions in which the part of
the ring having jewels may fit exactly. Wrap the jeweled portion in
soft paper, place it in the hollow, and bind up the closed potato with
binding wire. Now solder with easy-flowing gold solder, the potato
being held in the hand. Another method is to fill a small crucible with
wet sand, bury the jeweled portion in the sand, and solder in the usual
way.

JEWELRY, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.


«Kalsomine»

 Sodium carbonate       8 parts
 Linseed oil           32 parts
 Hot water              8 parts
 White glue            12 parts
 Whiting              160 parts

Dissolve the sodium carbonate in the hot water, add the oil and
saponify by heating and agitation. Cover the glue, broken into small
pieces, with cold water and let soak overnight. In the morning pour
the whole on a stout piece of stuff and let the residual water drain
off, getting rid of as much as possible by slightly twisting the cloth.
Throw the swelled glue into a capsule, put on the water bath, and heat
gently until it is melted. Add the saponified oil and mix well; remove
from the bath, and stir in the whiting, a little at a time, adding hot
water as it becomes necessary. When the whiting is all stirred in,
continue adding hot water, until a liquid is obtained that flows freely
from the kalsomining brush.

The addition of a little soluble blue to the mixture increases the
intensity of the white.


«Sizing Walls for Kalsomine.»—A size to coat over “hot walls” for the
reception of the kalsomine is made by using shellac, 1 part; sal soda,
1⁠/⁠2 part. Put these ingredients in 1⁠/⁠2 gallon of water and dissolve
by steady heat. Another size is made of glue size prepared in the usual
way, and alum. To 1⁠/⁠2 pound of white glue add 3⁠/⁠4 pound of alum,
dissolving the alum in hot water before adding it to the glue size.

KARATS, TO FIND NUMBER OF: See Jewelers’ Formulas.

KERAMICS: See Ceramics.

KERIT: See Rubber.

KEROCLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.


«KEROSENE DEODORIZER:»

See also Benzine, Oils, and Petroleum.

Various processes have been recommended for masking the odor of
kerosene such as the addition of various essential {437} oils,
artificial oil of mirbane, etc., but none of them seems entirely
satisfactory. The addition of amyl acetate in the proportion of 10
grams to the liter (1 per cent) has also been suggested, several
experimenters reporting very successful results therefrom. Some years
ago Beringer proposed a process for removing sulphur compounds from
benzine, which would presumably be equally applicable to kerosene. This
process is as follows:

 Potassium permanganate      1 ounce
 Sulphuric acid            1⁠/⁠2 pint
 Water                   3 1⁠/⁠2 pints

Mix the acid and water, and when the mixture has become cold pour it
into a 2-gallon bottle. Add the permanganate and agitate until it is
dissolved. Then add benzine, 1 gallon, and thoroughly agitate. Allow
the liquids to remain in contact for 24 hours, frequently agitating
the mixture. Separate the benzine and wash in a similar bottle with a
mixture of

 Potassium permanganate      1⁠/⁠4 ounce
 Caustic soda                1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Water                         2 pints

Agitate the mixture frequently during several hours; then separate
the benzine and wash it thoroughly with water. On agitating the
benzine with the acid permanganate solution an emulsion-like mixture
is produced, which separates in a few seconds, the permanganate slowly
subsiding and showing considerable reduction. In the above process
it is quite probable that the time specified (24 hours) is greatly
in excess of what is necessary, as the reduction takes place almost
entirely in a very short time. It has also been suggested that if
the process were adopted on a manufacturing scale, with mechanical
agitation, the time could be reduced to an hour or two.

KEROSENE-CLEANING COMPOUNDS: See Cleaning Preparations, under
Miscellaneous Methods.

KEROSENE EMULSIONS: See Petroleum.

KETCHUP (ADULTERATED), TESTS FOR: See Foods.

KHAKI COLORS: See Dyes.

KID: See Leather.

KISSINGEN SALTS: See Salts (Effervescent).

KISSINGEN WATER: See Waters.

KNIFE-SHARPENING PASTES: See Razor Pastes.

KNOCKENPLOMBE: See Adhesives.

KNOTS: See Paint.

KOLA CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.


«KOUMISS SUBSTITUTE:»

See also Beverages.

To prepare a substitute for koumiss from cow’s milk: Dissolve 1⁠/⁠2
ounce grape sugar in 3 fluid ounces water. Mix 18 grains well washed
and pressed beer yeast with 2 fluid ounces of cow’s milk. Mix the two
liquids in a champagne bottle, fill with milk, stopper securely, and
keep for 3 to 4 days at a temperature not exceeding 50° F., shaking
frequently. The preparation does not keep longer than 4 to 5 days.

KÜMMEL: See Wines and Liquors.

KWASS: See Beverages.

LABEL PASTES, GLUES, AND MUCILAGES: See Adhesives.

LABEL VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

LACE LEATHER: See Leather.

LACE, TO CLEAN GOLD AND SILVER: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

LACES, WASHING AND COLORING OF: See Laundry Preparations.


«Lacquers»

(See also Enamels, Glazes, Paints, Varnishes, and Waterproofing.)


«LAC AND THE ART OF LACQUERING.»

The art of lacquering includes various steps, which are divulged as
little as possible. Without them nothing but a varnish of good quality
would be realized. Thus in Tonkin, where the abundant {438} production
is the object of an important trade with the Chinese, it is so used
only for varnishing, while in China the same product from the same
sources contributes to most artistic applications.

When the Annamites propose to lacquer an object, a box, for example,
they first stop up the holes and crevices, covering all the
imperfections with a coating of diluted lac, by means of a flat, close,
short brush. Then they cover the whole with a thick coating of lac and
white clay. This clay, oily to the touch, is found at the bottom of
certain lakes in Tonkin; it is dried, pulverized, and sifted with a
piece of fine silk before being embodied with the lac. This operation
is designed to conceal the inequalities of the wood and produce a
uniform surface which, when completely dry, is rendered smooth with
pumice stone.

If the object has portions cut or sunk the clayey mixture is not
applied, for it would make the details clammy, but in its place a
single, uniform layer of pure lac.

In any case, after the pumicing, a third coating, now pure lac, is
passed over the piece, which at this time has a mouse-gray color. This
layer, known under the name of _sou lot_, colors the piece a brilliant
black. As the lac possesses the remarkable property of not drying
in dry air, the object is left in a damp place. When perfectly dried
the piece is varnished, and the desired color imparted by a single
operation. If the metallic applications are excepted, the lac is
colored only black, brown, or red.

The following formulas are in use:

Black.—One part of turpentine is warmed for 20 minutes beyond the
fusing point; then poured into 3 parts of lac; at the same time _pheu
deu_ (copperas) is added. The mixture is stirred for at least a day,
sometimes more, by means of a large paddle.

Maroon.—This is prepared by a process similar to the preceding,
replacing half of the copperas by an equal quantity of China vermilion.

Red.—The lac, previously stirred for 6 hours, is mixed with hot oil of
_trau_, and the whole is stirred for a day, after which vermilion is
added. The latter should be of good quality, so as to have it brilliant
and unchangeable.

The operation of lacquering is then ended, but there are parts to
be gilded. These are again covered with a mixture of lac and oil of
_trau_. When this layer is dry the metallic leaves are applied, which
are themselves protected by a coating, composed also of lac and oil
of _trau_. All these lac and oil of _trau_ mixtures are carefully
filtered, which the natives effect by pressing the liquid on a double
filtering surface formed of wadding and of a tissue on which it rests.
It can only be applied after several months when the metallic leaf is
of gold. In the case of silver or tin the protecting coat can be laid
on in a few days. It favorably modifies the white tints of these two
metals by communicating a golden color. The hue, at first reddish,
gradually improves and acquires its full brilliancy in a few months.

Little information is procurable concerning the processes employed by
the Chinese. The wood to be lacquered should be absolutely dry. It
receives successive applications, of which the number is not less than
33 for perfect work. When the lac coating attains the thickness of
1⁠/⁠4 of an inch it is ready for the engravers. The Chinese, like the
inhabitants of Tonkin, make use of oil of _trau_ to mix with the lac,
or oil of _aleurites_, and the greatest care is exercised in the drying
of the different layers. The operation is conducted in dim-lighted
rooms specially fitted up for the purpose; the moisture is maintained
to a suitable extent by systematically watering the earth which covers
the walls of this “cold stove.”


«Lacquer for Aluminum.»—Dissolve 100 parts of gum lac in 300 parts of
ammonia, and heat the solution for about 1 hour moderately on the water
bath. After cooling, the mixture is ready for use. The aluminum to be
coated is cleaned in the customary manner. After it has been painted
with the varnish, it is heated in the oven to about 572° F. The coating
and heating may be repeated.


«Lacquer for Brass.»—

 Annatto                      1⁠/⁠4 ounce
 Saffron                      1⁠/⁠4 ounce
 Turmeric                       1 ounce
 Seed lac in coarse powder      3 ounces
 Alcohol                        1 pint

Digest the annatto, saffron, and turmeric in the alcohol for several
days, then strain into a bottle containing the seed lac; cork and shake
until dissolved.


«Lacquer for Bronze.»—I.—The following process yields a protective
varnish for bronze articles and other metallic objects in various
shadings, the lacquer produced excelling in high luster and permanency:
Fill 40 parts of best pale shellac; 12 parts of pulverized Florentine
{439} lake; 30 parts gamboge; and 6 parts of dragon’s blood, likewise
powdered, into a bottle and add 400 parts of spirit. Allow this mixture
to form a solution preferably by heating the flask on the water bath,
to nearly the boiling point of the water, and shaking now and then
until all has dissolved. After the cooling pour off the liquid from
the sediment, if any is present; this liquid constitutes a lacquer of
dark-red color. In a second bottle dissolve in the same manner 24 parts
of gamboge in 400 parts of spirit, which affords a lacquer of golden
yellow color. According to the desired shade, the red lacquer is now
mixed with the yellow one, thus producing any hue required from the
deepest red to a golden tone. If necessary, thin with spirit of wine.
The varnish is applied, as usual, on the somewhat warmed article, a
certain temperature having to be adhered to, which can be ascertained
by trials and is easily regulated by feeling.

II.—The following is equally suitable for boots and leather goods
as for application on iron, stone, glass, paper, cloth, and other
surfaces. The inexperienced should note before making this liquid that
it does not give a yellowish bronze like gold paint, but a darkish
iridescent one, and as it is a pleasing variation in aids to home
decoration, it would doubtless sell well. Some pretty effects are
obtained by using a little phloxine instead of part of the violet
aniline, or phloxine alone will produce a rich reddish bronze, and
a lustrous peacock green is obtained with brilliant aniline green
crystals.

Quantities: Flexile methylated collodion, 1 gallon; pure violet
aniline, 1 pound. Mix, stand away for a few days to allow the aniline
to dissolve and stir frequently, taking care to bung down securely, as
the collodion is a volatile liquid, then strain and bottle off. It is
applied with a brush, dries rapidly, and does not rub off or peal.


«Celluloid Lacquer.»—Dissolve uncolored celluloid in a mixture of
strong alcohol and ether. The celluloid first swells up in the solvent,
and after vigorous shaking, the bottle is allowed to stand quietly for
the undissolved portion to settle, when the clear, supernatant fluid is
poured off. The latter may be immediately used; it yields a colorless
glossy lacquer, or may be colored, as desired, with aniline colors.


«Colored Lacquer.»—Make a strong solution of any coloring matter which
is soluble in methylated spirit, such as cochineal, saffron, the
aniline dyes, etc. Filter through fine cambric, and to this filtered
solution add brown shellac in flakes in the proportion of 4 to 5 ounces
of shellac to each pint of methylated spirit. Shake once a day for
about 8 days. If too thick it may be thinned by adding more colored
spirit or plain spirit as required, and any lighter shade can be
obtained by mixing with plain lacquer mixed in the above proportions.
Lacquer works best in a warm, dry place, and the process is improved
by slightly warming the articles, which must be absolutely free from
grease, dirt, or moisture. The best results are obtained by applying
many coats of thin, light-colored lacquer, each coat to be thoroughly
dry before applying the next.

Apply with a soft camel’s-hair brush; it is better to use too small
a brush than too large. When complete, warm the articles for a few
seconds before a clear fire; the hotter the better; if too hot,
however, the colors will fade. This makes the lacquer adhere firmly,
especially to metallic surfaces. Aniline green works very well.


«Lacquer for Copper.»—A lacquer which to a certain degree resists heat
and acid liquids, but not alkaline ones, is obtained by heating fine,
thickly liquid amber varnish, whereby it is rendered sufficiently
liquid to be applied with the brush. The copper article is coated with
this and left to stand until the lacquer has dried perfectly. Next, the
object is heated until the lacquer commences to smoke and turns brown.
If the operation is repeated twice, a coating is finally obtained,
which, as regards resisting qualities to acid bodies, excels even
enamel, but which is strongly attacked even by weakly alkaline liquids.


«Ebony Lacquer.»—The ebony lacquer recommended by the well-known
English authority, Mr. H. C. Standage, consists of 1⁠/⁠3 ounce aniline
hydrochloride, 1⁠/⁠3 ounce alcohol, 1 part sulphate of copper, 100
parts of water. The aniline dye is dissolved in the alcohol and the
copper sulphate in the water. The wood is first coated with the copper
sulphate solution, and after this coating has been given plenty of
time to dry the aniline salt tincture is applied. Shortly the copper
salt absorbed by the wood will react on the aniline hydrochloride,
developing a deep, rich black which acids or alkalies are powerless to
destroy. Coat with shellac and give a French polish, thus bringing the
ebony finish up to a durable and unsurpassed luster. {440}


«GOLD LACQUERS:»

I.—For Brassware.—A gold lacquer to improve the natural color of
brassware is prepared from 16 parts gum lac, 4 parts dragon’s blood,
and 1 part curcuma powder dissolved in 320 parts spirits of wine in
the warmth and filtered well. The articles must be thoroughly cleaned
by burning, grinding, or turning either dull or burnished, and then
coated with a thin layer of the above mixture, applied with a soft
hair brush or a pad of wadding. If the objects are colored the lacquer
must be laid on by stippling. Should the color be too dark, it may be
lightened by reduction with a little spirit until the correct shade is
produced. The most suitable temperature for the metal during the work
is about the warmth of the hand; if too hot or too cold, the lacquer
may smear, and will then have to be taken off again with spirit or
hot potash lye, the goods being dried in sawdust or recleaned as at
first, before applying the lacquer again. Round articles may be fixed
in the lathe and the lacquer laid on with a pad of wadding. In order to
color brassware, a solution of 30 parts caustic soda; 10 parts cupric
carbonate; 200 parts water (or 200 parts ammonia neutralized by acetic
acid); 100 parts verdigris, and 60 parts sal ammoniac is employed,
into which the warmed articles are dipped. After having dried they are
coated with colorless shellac varnish.

II.—For Tin.—Transparent gold lacquer for tin (all colors) may be made
as follows: Take 1⁠/⁠2 pint of alcohol, add 1 ounce gum shellac; 1⁠/⁠2
ounce turmeric; 1 1⁠/⁠4 ounce red sanders. Set the vessel in a warm
place and shake frequently for half a day. Then strain off the liquor,
rinse the bottle and return it, corking tightly for use. When this is
used, it must be applied to the work freely and flowed on full, or if
the work admits it, it may be dipped. One or more coats may be given
as the color is required light or dark. For rose color substitute
1⁠/⁠4 ounce of finely ground lake in place of the turmeric. For blue,
substitute Prussian blue. For purple, add a little of the blue to the
turmeric.

For Bottle Caps, etc.—

 I.—Gum gutta                            10 parts
     Shellac                             100 parts
     Turpentine                           10 parts
     Alcohol                             450 parts

 II.—Gum gutta                           40 parts
      Dragon’s blood                       5 parts
      Alcoholic extract of sandalwood      5 parts
      Sandarac                            75 parts
      Venice turpentine                   25 parts
      Alcohol, 95 per cent               900 parts

Mix and dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat.


«Liquid Bottle Lac.»—Into a half-gallon bottle put 8 ounces of shellac,
and pour over it 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints of alcohol of 94 per cent, and 2 1⁠/⁠2
ounces of sulphuric ether. Let stand, with occasional shaking, until
the shellac is melted, and then add 4 ounces of thick turpentine and
1⁠/⁠2 ounce of boric acid. Shake until dissolved. To color, use the
aniline colors soluble in alcohol—for red, eosine; blue, phenol blue;
black, negrosin; green, aniline green; violet, methyl violet, etc.
If it is desired to have the lac opaque, add 8 ounces of pulverized
steatite, but remember to keep the lac constantly stirred while using,
as otherwise the steatite falls to the bottom.


«Lithographic Lacquer.»—Dissolve 15 parts, by weight, of red lithol R
or G in paste of 17 per cent, in 150 parts, by weight, of hot water.
Boil for 2 minutes, shaking with 2.5 parts, by weight, of barium
chloride. Dissolve in 25 parts, by weight, of water. Add to the mixture
100 parts, by weight, of aluminum hydrate of about 4 per cent. Cool,
filter, and dry.


«Lacquer for Microscopes, Mathematical Instruments, etc.»—Pulverize 160
parts, by weight, turmeric root, cover it with 1,700 parts alcohol,
digest in a warm place for 24 hours, and then filter. Dissolve 80
parts dragon’s blood, 80 parts sandarac, 80 parts gum elemi, 50 parts
gum gutta, and 70 parts seed lac, put in a retort with 250 parts
powdered glass, pour over them the colored alcohol first made, and
hasten solution by warming in the sand or water bath. When completely
dissolved, filter.


«To Fix Alcoholic Lacquers on Metallic Surfaces.»—Dissolve 0.5 parts
of crystallized boracic acid in 100 parts of the respective spirit
varnish whereby the latter after being applied forms so hard a coating
upon a smooth tin surface that it cannot be scratched off even with the
finger-nails. The aforementioned percentage of boracic acid should not
be exceeded in preparing the solution; otherwise the varnish will lose
in intensity of color.


«Lacquer for Oil Paintings.»—Dilute 100 parts of sulphate of baryta
with 600 parts of water containing in solution 60 parts of red lithol
R or G in paste of 17 {441} per cent. Boil the mixture for several
minutes in a solution of 10 parts of barium chloride in 100 parts of
water. After cooling, filter and dry.


«Lacquers for Papers.»—I.—With base of baryta: Dissolve 30 parts of red
lithol R or G in paste of 17 per cent, in 300 parts of hot water. Add
an emulsion obtained by mixing 10 parts of sulphate of alumina in 100
parts of water and 5 parts of calcined soda dissolved in 50 parts of
water. Precipitate with a solution of 17.5 parts of barium chloride in
125 parts of water. Cool and filter.

II.—With base of lime: Dissolve 30 parts red lithol R or G in paste of
17 per cent, in 300 parts of hot water. Boil for a few minutes with an
emulsion prepared by mixing 10 parts sulphate of alumina with 100 parts
of water and 2.5 parts of slaked lime in 100 parts of water. Filter
after cooling.


«Lacquer for Stoves and other Articles to Withstand Heat.»—This is
not altered by heat, and does not give off disagreeable odors on
heating: Thin 1 part of sodium water glass with 2 parts of water in
order to make the vehicle. This is to be thickened with the following
materials in order to get the desired color: White, barium sulphate or
white lead; yellow, baryta chromate, ocher, or uranium yellow; green,
chromium oxide or ultramarine green; brown, cadmium oxide, manganese
oxide, or sienna brown; red, either iron or chrome red. The coloring
materials must be free from lumps, and well ground in with the vehicle.
Bronze powders may also be used either alone or mixed with other
coloring stuffs, but care must be taken, in either instance, to secure
a sufficient quantity. The colors should be made up as wanted, and no
more than can conveniently be applied at the time should be prepared.
An excellent way to use the bronze powders is to lay on the coloring
matter, and then to dust on the powder before the glass sets. Lines
or ornamentation of any sort may be put on by allowing the coating of
enamel to dry, and then drawing the lines or any desired design with a
fresh solution of the water glass colored to suit the taste, or dusted
over with bronze.


«MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES:»


«Russian Polishing Lac.»—

 I.—Sticklac                   925 parts
     Sandarac                   875 parts
     Larch turpentine           270 parts
     Alcohol, 96 per cent     3,500 parts

The sticklac is broken up and mixed with the sandarac, put into a
suitable container with a wide mouth, the spirit poured over it and set
aside. After standing for a week in a warm place, frequently stirring
in the meantime (best with a glass rod) and fully dissolving, stir
in the turpentine. Let stand 2 or 3 days longer, then filter through
glass wool. The sandarac dissolves completely in the spirit, but the
stick leaves a slight residue which may be added to the next lot of
lac made up and thus be treated to a fresh portion of spirit. The
larch turpentine should be of the best quality. This lac is used by
woodcarvers and turners and is very much prized by them.


«Mastic Lac.»—

 II.—Mastic, select              150 parts
      Sandarac                    400 parts
      Camphor                      15 parts
      Alcohol, 96 per cent      1,000 parts

Prepare as directed in the first recipe.


«Leather Polish Lac.»—

 III.—Shellac                    16 parts
       Venice turpentine           8 parts
       Sandarac                    4 parts
       Lampblack, Swedish          2 parts
       Turpentine oil              4 parts
       Alcohol, 96 per cent      960 parts

The alcohol and turpentine oil are mixed and warmed under constant
stirring in the sand or water bath. The shellac and sandarac are now
stirred in, the stirring being maintained until both are dissolved.
Finally add the turpentine and dissolve. Stir the lampblack with a
little vinegar and then add and stir in. Instead of lampblack 125 to
150 parts of nigrosin may be used. This lac should be well shaken
before application.

LACQUERED WARE, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

LAKES: See Dyes.


«LAMPBLACK:»

Production of Lampblack.—The last oil obtained in the distillation of
coal tar, and freed from naphthalene as far as possible, viz., soot
oil, is burned in a special furnace for the production of various
grades of lampblack. In this furnace is an iron plate, which must
always be kept glowing; upon this plate the soot oil trickles through a
small tube fixed above it. It is decomposed and {442} the smoke (soot)
rises into four chambers through small apertures. When the quantity
of oil destined for decomposition has been used up, the furnace is
allowed to stand undisturbed for a few days, and only after this time
has elapsed are the chambers opened by windows provided for that
purpose. In the fourth chamber is the very finest lampblack, which
the lithographers use, and in the third the fine grade employed by
manufacturers of printers’ ink, while the first and second contain the
coarser soot, which, well sifted, is sold as flame lampblack.

From grade No. 1 the calcined lampblack for paper makers is also
produced. For preparing this black capsules of iron plate with closing
lid are filled, the stuff is stamped firmly into them and the cover
smeared up with fine loam. The capsules are next placed in a well
drawing stove and calcined, whereby the empyreumatic oils evaporate and
the remaining lampblack becomes odorless. Allow the capsules to cool
for a few days before opening them, as the soot dries very slowly, and
easily ignites again as soon as air is admitted if the capsules are
opened before. This is semi-calcined lampblack.

For the purpose of preparing completely calcined lampblack, the
semi-calcined article is again jammed into fresh capsules, closing
them up well and calcining thoroughly once more. After 2 days the
capsules are opened containing the all-calcined lampblack in compact
pieces.

For the manufacture of coal soot another furnace is employed. Asphalt
or pitch is burned in it with exclusion of air as far as practicable.
It is thrown in through the doors, and the smoke escapes through the
chimney to the soot chambers, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, assorting itself there.

When the amount of asphalt pitch destined for combustion has burned up
completely, the furnace is left alone for several days without opening
it. After this time has elapsed the outside doors are slowly opened and
some air is admitted. Later on they can be opened altogether after one
is satisfied that the soot has cooled completely. Chamber 4 contains
the finest soot black, destined for the manufacture of leather cloth
and oil cloth. In the other chambers is fine and ordinary flame black,
which is sifted and packed in suitable barrels. Calcined lampblack may
also be produced from it, the operation being the same as for oil black.

LAMP BURNERS AND THEIR CARE: See Household Formulas.


«LAMPS:»


«Coloring Incandescent Lamps.»—Incandescent light globes are colored by
dipping the bulbs into a thin solution of collodion previously colored
to suit with anilines soluble in collodion. Dip and rotate quickly,
bulb down, till dry.

For office desks, room lights, and in churches, it appears often
desirable to modify the glaring yellowish rays of the incandescent
light. A slight collodion film of a delicate bluish, greenish, or pink
shade will do that.

For advertising purposes the bulbs are often colored in two or more
colors. It is also easy with a little practice to paint words or
pictures, etc., on the bulbs with colored collodion with a brush.

Another use of colored collodion in pharmacy is to color the show
globes on their inside, thus avoiding freezing and the additional
weight of the now used colored liquids. Pour a quantity of colored
collodion into the clean, dry globe, close the mouth and quickly let
the collodion cover all parts of the inside. Remove the balance of the
collodion at once, and keep it to color electric bulbs for your trade.

LANOLINE CREAMS: See Cosmetics.

LANOLINE SOAP: See Soap.

LANTERN SLIDES: See Photography.


«LARD:»


«Detection of Cottonseed Oil in Lard.»—Make a 2 per cent solution of
silver nitrate in distilled water, and acidify it by adding 1 per cent
of nitrate acid, C. P. Into a test tube put a sample of the suspected
lard and heat gently until it liquefies. Now add an equal quantity of
the silver nitrate solution, agitate a little, and bring to a boil.
Continue the boiling vigorously for about 8 minutes. If the lard remain
clear and colorless, it may be accepted as pure. The presence of
cottonseed oil or fat will make itself known by a coloration, varying
from yellow, grayish green to brown, according to the amount present.

LATHE LUBRICANT: See Lubricants. {443}

LAUNDRY INKS: See Household Formulas.


«Laundry Preparations»


«BLUING COMPOUNDS:»


«Laundry Blue.»—The soluble blue of commerce, when properly made,
dissolves freely in water, and solutions so made are put up as liquid
laundry blue. The water employed in making the solution should be free
from mineral substances, especially lime, or precipitation may occur.
If rain water or distilled water and a good article of blue be used,
a staple preparation ought apparently to result; but whether time
alone affects the matter of solubility it is impossible to state. As
it is essential that the solution should be a perfect one, it is best
to filter it through several thicknesses of fine cotton cloth before
bottling; or if made in large quantities this method may be modified by
allowing it to stand some days to settle, when the top portion can be
siphoned off for use, the bottom only requiring filtration.

This soluble blue is said to be potassium ferri-ferrocyanide, and
is prepared by gradually adding to a boiling solution of potassium
ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash) an equivalent quantity of hot
solution of ferrous sulphate, boiling for 2 hours and washing the
precipitate on a filter until the washings assume a dark-blue color;
the moist precipitate can then at once be dissolved by the further
addition of a sufficient quantity of water. About 64 parts of the iron
salt are necessary to convert 100 parts of the potassium salt into the
blue compound.

Leaf bluing for laundry use may be prepared by coating thick sized
paper with soluble blue formed into a paste with a mixture of dextrin
mucilage and glycerine. Dissolve a given quantity of dextrine in
water enough to make a solution about as dense as ordinary syrup, add
about as much glycerine as there was dextrine, rub the blue smooth
with a sufficient quantity of this vehicle and coat the sheets with
the paint. The amount of blue to be used will depend of course on the
intended cost of the product, and the amount of glycerine will require
adjustment so as to give a mixture which will not “smear” after the
water has dried out and yet remain readily soluble.

Ultramarine is now very generally used as a laundry blue where the
insoluble or “bag blue” is desired. It is mixed with glucose, or
glucose and dextrine, and pressed into balls or cakes. When glucose
alone is used, the product has a tendency, it is said, to become soft
on keeping, which tendency may be counteracted by a proper proportion
of dextrin. Bicarbonate of sodium is added as a “filler” to cheapen the
product, the quantity used and the quality of the ultramarine employed
being both regulated by the price at which the product is to sell.

The coal-tar or aniline blues are not offered to the general public as
laundry blues, but laundry proprietors have them frequently brought
under their notice, chiefly in the form of solutions, usually 1 to
1 1⁠/⁠2 per cent strong. These dyes are strong bluing materials, and,
being in the form of solution, are not liable to speck the clothes.
Naturally their properties depend upon the particular dye used; some
are fast to acids and alkalies, others are fast to one but not to
another; some will not stand ironing, while others again are not
affected by the operation; generally they are not fast to light, but
this is only of minor importance. The soluble, or cotton, blues are
those most favored; these are made in a great variety of tints, varying
from a reddish blue to a pure blue in hue, distinguished by such brands
as 3R, 6B, etc. Occasionally the methyl violets are used, especially
the blue tints. Blackley blue is very largely used for this purpose,
being rather faster than the soluble blues. It may be mentioned that a
1 per cent solution of this dye is usually strong enough. Unless care
is taken in dissolving these dyes they are apt to produce specks. The
heat to which the pure blues are exposed in ironing the clothes causes
some kinds to assume a purple tinge.

The cheapest aniline blue costs about three times as much as soluble
blue, yet the tinctorial power of the aniline colors is so great that
possibly they might be cheapened.


«Soluble Blue.»—I.—Dissolve 217 parts of prussiate of potash in 800
parts of hot water and bring the whole to 1,000 parts. Likewise
dissolve 100 parts of ferric chloride in water and bring the solution
also to 1,000 parts. To each of these solutions add 2,000 parts of
cooking salt or Glauber’s salt solution saturated in the cold and mix
well. The solutions thus prepared of prussiate of potash and ferric
chloride are now mixed together with stirring. Allow to settle and
remove by suction the clear liquid containing undecomposed ferrocyanide
of {444} potassium and Glauber’s salt; this is kept and used for
the next manufacture by boiling it down and allowing the salts to
crystallize out. The percentage of ferrocyanide of potassium is
estimated by analysis, and for the next production proportionally less
is used, employing that obtained by concentration.

After siphoning off the solution the precipitate is washed with warm
water, placed on a filter and washed out on the latter by pouring on
cold water until the water running off commences to assume a strong
blue color. The precipitate is then squeezed out and dried at a
moderate heat (104° F.). The Paris blue thus obtained dissolves readily
in water and can be extensively employed in a similar manner as indigo
carmine.

II.—Make ordinary Prussian blue (that which has been purified by acids,
chlorine, or the hypochlorites) into a thick paste with distilled or
rain water, and add a saturated solution of oxalic acid sufficient
to dissolve. If time be of no consequence, by leaving this solution
exposed to the atmosphere, in the course of 60 days the blue will be
entirely precipitated in soluble form. Wash with weak alcohol and dry
at about 100° F. The resultant mass dissolves in pure water and remains
in solution indefinitely. It gives a deep, brilliant blue, and is not
injurious to the clothing or the hands of the washwoman.

The same result may be obtained by precipitating the soluble blue from
its oxide solution by the addition of alcohol of 95 per cent, or with
a concentrated solution of sodium sulphate. Pour off the mother liquid
and wash with very dilute alcohol; or throw on a filter and wash with
water until the latter begins to come off colored a deep blue.


«Liquid Laundry Blue.»—This may be prepared either with liquid Prussian
blue or indigo carmine. Make a solution of gum dragon (gum tragacanth)
by dissolving 1 to 2 ounces of the powdered gum in 1 gallon of cold
water in which 1⁠/⁠2 ounce oxalic acid has been dissolved. The gum will
take several days to dissolve, and will require frequent stirring and
straining before use. To the strained portion add as much Prussian blue
in fine powder as the liquid will dissolve without precipitating, and
the compound is ready for use.

Instead of powdered Prussian blue, soluble Prussian blue may be used.
This is made by dissolving solid Prussian blue in a solution of oxalic
acid, but as the use of oxalic acid is to be deprecated for the use
of laundresses, as it would set up blood poisoning should it get into
any cuts in the flesh, it is best to prepare liquid blue by making a
solution of yellow prussiate of potash (ferrocyanide of potassium) with
water, and then by adding a sufficient quantity of chloride of iron to
produce a blue, but not enough to be precipitated.


«Ball Blue.»—The ball sold for laundry use consists usually, if not
always, of ultramarine. The balls are formed by compression, starch or
some other excipient of like character being added to render the mass
cohesive. Blocks of blue can, of course, be made by the same process.
The manufacturers of ultramarine prepare balls and cubes of the pigment
on a large scale, and it does not seem likely that there would be a
sufficient margin of profit to justify the making of them in a small
way from the powdered pigment. Careful experiments, however, would
be necessary to determine this positively. Ultramarine is of many
qualities, and it may be expected that the balls will vary also in the
amount of “filling” according to the price at which they are to be sold.

Below is a “filled” formula:

 Ultramarine                 6 ounces
 Sodium carbonate            4 ounces
 Glucose                     1 ounce
 Water, a sufficient quantity.

Make a thick paste, roll into sheets, and cut into tablets. The balls
in bulk can be obtained only in large packages of the manufacturers,
say barrels of 200 pounds; but put up in 1-pound boxes they can be
bought in cases as small as 28 pounds.


«Laundry Blue Tablets.»—

 Ultramarine                 6 ounces
 Sodium carbonate            4 ounces
 Glucose                     1 ounce
 Water, a sufficient quantity.

Make a thick paste, roll into sheets, and cut into tablets.


«Polishes or Glazes for Laundry Work.»—I.—To a mixture of 200 parts
each of Japan wax and paraffine, add 100 parts of stearic acid, melt
together, and cast in molds. If the heated smoothing iron be rubbed
with this wax the iron will not merely get over the surface much more
rapidly, but will leave a handsome polish.


«Laundry Gloss Dressing.»—

II.—Dissolve white wax, 5.0 parts, in ether, 20.5 parts, and add
spirit, 75.0 parts. Shake before use.

Heat until melted, in a pot, 1,000 parts {445} of wax and 1,000 parts
of stearine, as well as a few drops of an essential oil. To the hot
liquid add with careful stirring 250 parts of ammonia lye of 10 per
cent, whereby a thick, soft mass results immediately. Upon further
heating same turns thin again, whereupon it is diluted with 20,000
parts of boiling water, mixed with 100 parts of starch and poured into
molds.


«STARCHES.»

Most laundry starches now contain some polishing mixture for giving a
high luster.

I.—Dissolve in a vessel of sufficient capacity, 42 parts of
crystallized magnesium chloride in 30 parts of water. In another vessel
stir 12 parts of starch in 20 parts of water to a smooth paste. Mix the
two and heat under pressure until the starch is fluidified.

II.—Pour 250 parts, by weight, of water, over 5 parts, by weight, of
powdered gum tragacanth until the powder swells uniformly; then add 750
parts, by weight, of boiling water, dissolve 50 parts, by weight, of
borax in it, and stir 50 parts, by weight, of stearine and 50 parts, by
weight, of talcum into the whole. Of this fluid add 250 parts to 1,000
parts of boiled starch, or else the ironing oil is applied by means of
a sponge on the starched wash, which is then ironed.

                               By weight

 III.—Starch       1,044 parts
       Borax            9 parts
       Common salt      1 part
       Gum arabic       8 parts
       Stearine        20 parts


«WASHING FLUIDS, BRICKS AND POWDERS:»


«Washing Fluids.»—Rub up 75 parts of milk of sulphur with 125 parts of
glycerine in a mortar, next add 50 parts of camphorated spirit and 1
part of lavender oil, and finally stir in 250 parts of rose water and
1,000 parts of distilled water. The liquid must be stirred constantly
when filling it into bottles, since the sulphur settles rapidly and
would thus be unevenly distributed.


«Grosser’s Washing Brick.»—

 Water                  54 parts
 Sodium hydrate      38.21 parts
 Sodium biborate      6.61 parts
 Sodium silicate      1.70 parts


«Haenkel’s Bleaching Solution.»—

 Water                36.15 parts
 Sodium hydrate       40.22 parts
 Sodium silicate      23.14 parts


«Luhn’s Washing Extract.»—

 Water               34.50 parts
 Sodium hydrate      25.33 parts
 Soap                39.40 parts


«Washing Powders.»—

 I.—Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced     2 parts
     Soda ash                                 1 part

 II.—Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced    6 parts
      Soda ash                                3 parts
      Yellow soap                             1 part

 III.—Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced   3 parts
       Soap bark                              1 part

 IV.—Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced    1 part
      Borax                                   1 part
      Yellow soap                             1 part

V.—A good powder can be made from 100 parts of crystal soda, 25 parts
of dark-yellow rosin-cured soap, and 5 parts of soft soap. The two
latter are placed in a pan, along with one-half the soda (the curd
soap being cut into small lumps), and slowly heated, with continual
crutching, until they are thoroughly melted—without, however, beginning
to boil. The fire is then drawn and the remaining soda crutched in
until it, too, is melted, this being effected by the residual heat of
the mass and the pan. The mass will be fairly thick by the time the
soda is all absorbed. After leaving a little longer, with occasional
stirring, the contents are spread out on several thin sheets of iron in
a cool room, to be then turned over by the shovel at short intervals,
in order to further cool and break down the mixture. The soap will
then be in a friable condition, and can be rubbed through the sieve,
the best results being obtained by passing through a coarse sieve
first, and one of finer mesh afterwards. With these ingredients a fine
yellow-colored powder will be obtained. White stock soap may also be
used, and, if desired, colored with palm oil and the same colorings
as are used for toilet soaps. The object of adding soft soap is to
increase the solubility and softness of the powder, but the proportion
used should not exceed one-third of the hard soap, or the powder will
be smeary and handle moist. The quality of the foregoing product is
good, the powder being stable and not liable to ball, even after
prolonged storage; neither does it wet the paper in which it is packed,
nor swell up, and therefore the packets retain their appearance. {446}

In making ammonia-turpentine soap powder the ammonia and oil of
turpentine are crutched into the mass shortly before removing it from
the pan, and if the powder is scented—for which purpose oil of mirbane
is mostly used—the perfume is added at the same stage.


«To Whiten Flannels.»—Dissolve, by the aid of heat, 40 parts of white
castile soap, shaved fine, in 1,200 parts of soft water, and to the
solution, when cold, gradually add, under constant stirring, 1 part
of the strongest water of ammonia. Soak the goods in this solution
for 2 hours, then let them be washed as usual for fine flannels. A
better process, in the hands of experts, is to soak the goods for an
hour or so in a dilute solution of sodium hyposulphite, remove, add
to the solution sufficient dilute hydrochloric acid to decompose the
hyposulphite. Replace the goods, cover the tub closely, and let remain
for 15 minutes longer. Then remove the running water, if convenient,
and if not, wring out quickly, and rinse in clear water. One not an
expert at such work must be very careful in the rinsing, as care must
be taken to get out every trace of chemical. This is best done by a
second rinsing.


«Ink for the Laundry.»—The following is said to make a fine, jet-black
laundry ink:

 _a._ Copper chloride, crystals      85 parts
      Sodium chlorate               106 parts
      Ammonium chloride              53 parts
      Water, distilled              600 parts

 _b._ Glycerine                                              100 parts
      Mucilage gum arabic (gum, 1 part; water, 2 parts)      200 parts
      Aniline hydrochlorate                                  200 parts
      Distilled water                                        300 parts

Make solutions _a_ and _b_ and preserve in separate bottles. When
wanted for use, mix 1 part of solution _a_ with 4 parts of solution _b_.


«Laces, Curtains, etc.»—I.—To give lace curtains, etc., a cream color,
take 1 part of chrysoidin and mix with 2 parts of dextrin and dissolve
in 250 parts of water. The articles to be washed clean are plunged
in this solution. About an ounce of chrysoidin is sufficient for 5
curtains.

II.—Washing curtains in coffee will give them an ecru color, but the
simplest way to color curtains is with “Philadelphia yellow” (G. or R.
of the Berlin _Aktiengesellschaft’s_ scale).

LAUNDRY SOAP: See Soap.

LAVATORY DEODORANT: See Household Formulas.

LAXATIVES FOR CATTLE AND HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas.


«LEAD:»

See also Metals.


«Simple Test for Red Lead and Orange Lead.»—Take a little of the sample
in a test tube, add pure, strong nitric acid and heat by a Bunsen
burner until a white, solid residue is obtained. Then add water, when
a clear, colorless solution will be obtained. A white residue would
indicate adulteration with barytes, a red residue or a yellow solution
with oxide of iron. The presence of iron may be ascertained by adding
a few drops of a solution of potassium ferrocyanide (yellow prussiate
of potash) to the solution, when a blue precipitate will be obtained if
there be the least trace of iron present.

LEAD, TO TAKE BOILING, IN THE MOUTH: See Pyrotechnics.

LEAD ALLOYS: See Alloys.

LEAD PAPER: See Paper.

LEAD PLATE, TINNED: See Plating.

LEAKS, IN BOILERS, STOPPING: See Putties.


«LEAKS:»


«To Stop Leakage in Iron Hot-Water Pipes.»—Take some fine iron borings
or filings and mix with them sufficient vinegar to form a sort of
paste, though the mixture is not adhesive. With this mixture fill up
the cracks where the leakage is found, having previously dried the
pipe. It must be kept dry until the paste has become quite hard. If an
iron pipe should burst, or there should be a hole broken into it by
accident, a piece of iron may be securely fastened over it, by bedding
it on in paste made of the borings and vinegar as above, but the pipe
should not be disturbed until it has become perfectly dry.


«To Prevent Wooden Vessels from Leaking.» (See also Casks.)—Wooden
{447} vessels, such as pails, barrels, etc., often become so dry that
the joints do not meet, thus causing leakage. In order to obviate this
evil stir together 60 parts hog’s lard, 40 parts salt, and 33 parts
wax, and allow the mixture to dissolve slowly over a fire. Then add 40
parts charcoal to the liquid mass. The leaks in the vessels are dried
off well and filled up with putty while still warm. When the latter has
become dry, the barrels, etc., will be perfectly tight. If any putty is
left, keep in a dry place and heat it to be used again.


«Leather»

(See also Shoes.)


«Artificial Leather.»—Pure Italian hemp is cut up fine; 1 part of this
and 1⁠/⁠2 part of coarse, cleaned wool are carded together and formed
into wadding. This wadding is packed in linen and felted by treatment
with hot acid vapors. The resulting felt is washed out, dried, and
impregnated with a substance whose composition varies according to
the leather to be produced. Thus, good sole leather, for instance, is
produced according to a Danish patent, in the following manner: Mix
together 50 parts of boiled linseed oil; 20 parts of colophony; 25
parts of French turpentine; 10 parts of glycerine, and 10 parts of
vegetable wax, and heat over a water bath with some ammonia water.
When the mass has become homogeneous, add 25 parts of glue, soaked
in water, as well as a casein solution, which latter is produced by
dissolving 50 parts, by weight, of moist, freshly precipitated casein
in a saturated solution of 16 parts of borax and adding 10 parts of
potassium bichromate, the last two also by weight. Finally, mineral
dyestuffs as well as antiseptic substances may be added to the mass.
The whole mixture is now boiled until it becomes sticky and the felt is
impregnated with it by immersion. The impregnated felt is dried for 24
hours at an ordinary temperature; next laid into a solution of aluminum
acetate and finally dried completely, dyed, and pressed between hot
rollers.


«Black Dye for Tanned Leather.»—This recipe takes the place of the
ill-smelling iron blacking, and is not injurious to the leather.
Gallnuts, pulverized, 150 parts; vitriol, green or black, 10 parts;
rock candy, 60 parts; alum, 15 parts; vinegar, 250 parts; cooking salt,
20 parts. Dissolve with 4,000 parts of distilled water.

Boil this solution slowly and the blacking is done. When it has cooled
and settled, pour through linen, thus obtaining a pure, good leather
blacking.


«Bronze Leather.»—All sorts of skins—sheepskins, goatskins, coltskins,
and light calfskins—are adapted for the preparation of bronze leather.
In this preparation the advantage lies not only in the use of the
faultless skins, but scarified skins and those of inferior quality may
also be employed. The dressing of the previously tanned skin must be
carried out with the greatest care, to prevent the appearance of spots
and other faults. After tanning, the pelts are well washed, scraped,
and dried. Then they are bleached. For coloring, it is customary to
employ methyl violet which has previously been dissolved in hot water,
taking 100 parts, by weight, of the aniline color to 8,000 parts, by
weight, of water. If in the leather-dressing establishment a line of
steam piping be convenient, it is advisable to boil up all the coloring
dyes, rather than simply to dissolve them; for in this way complete
solution is effected. Where steam is used no special appliance is
required for boiling up the dyes, for this may take place without
inconvenience in the separate dye vats. A length of steam hose and a
brass nozzle with a valve is all that is needed. It may be as well to
add here that the violet color for dyeing may be made cheaper than as
above described. To 3,000 parts, by weight, of pretty strong logwood
decoction add 50 parts, by weight, of alum and 100 parts, by weight,
of methyl violet. This compound is almost as strong as the pure violet
solution, and instead of 8,000 parts, by weight, we now have 30,000
parts, by weight, of color.

The color is applied and well worked in with a stiff brush, and the
skins allowed to stand for a short time, sufficient to allow the dye to
penetrate the pores, when it is fulled. As for the shade of the bronze,
it may be made reddish, bluish, or brownish, according to taste.

For a reddish or brownish ground the skins are simply fulled in warm
water, planished, fulled again, and then dyed. According to the color
desired, the skins are treated with cotton blue and methyl violet R,
whereupon the application of the bronze follows.

The bronze is dissolved in alcohol, and it is usual to take 200 parts,
by weight, of bronze to 1,000 of alcohol. By means of this mixture the
peculiar component parts of the bronze are dissolved. For a fundamental
or thorough {448} solution a fortnight is required. All bronze mixtures
are to be well shaken or agitated before using. Skins may be bronzed,
however, without the use of the bronze colors, for it is well known
that all the aniline dyes present a bronze appearance when highly
concentrated, and this is particularly the case with the violet and red
dyes. If, therefore, the violet be applied in very strong solutions,
the effect will be much the same as when the regular bronze color is
employed.

Bronze color on a brown ground is the most beautiful of all, and
is used to the greatest advantage when it is desirable to cover up
defects. Instead of warm clear water in such a case, use a decoction
of logwood to which a small quantity of alum has been added, and thus,
during the fulling, impart to the skins a proper basic tint, which may,
by the application of a little violet or bronze color, be converted
into a most brilliant bronze. By no means is it to be forgotten that
too much coloring matter will never produce the desired results, for
here, as with the other colors, too much will bring out a greenish
tint, nor will the gloss turn out so beautiful and clear. Next rinse
the skins well in clean water, and air them, after which they may be
dried with artificial heat. Ordinary as well as damaged skins which are
not suitable for chevreaux (kid) and which it is desirable to provide
with a very high polish, in order the more readily to conceal the
defects in the grain, and other imperfections, are, after the drying,
coated with a mixture, compounded according to the following simple
formula: Stir well 1 pint of ox blood and 1 pint of unboiled milk in
10 quarts of water, and with a soft sponge apply this to the surface
of the skin. The blood has no damaging effect upon the color. Skins
thus moistened must not be laid one upon another, but must be placed
separately in a thoroughly well-warmed chamber to dry. When dry they
are glossed, and may then be pressed into shagreen or pebbled. The thin
light goatskins are worked into kid or chevreaux. Properly speaking,
they are only imitation chevreaux (kid), for although they are truly
goatskins, under the term chevreaux one understands only such skins as
have been cured in alum and treated with albumen and flour.

After drying, these skins are drawn over the perching stick with the
round knife, then glossed, stretched, glossed again, and finally
vigorously brushed upon the flesh side with a stiff brush. The brushing
should be done preferably by hand, for the brushing machines commonly
pull the skins out of all shape. Brushing is intended only to give the
flesh side more of a flaky appearance.

During the second glossing care must be taken that the pressure is
light, for the object is merely to bring the skin back into its proper
shape, lost in the stretching; the glossing proper should have been
accomplished during the first operation.


«Cracked Leather.»—The badly cracked and fissured carriage surface
greets the painter on every hand. The following is the recipe for
filling up and facing over such a surface: Finest pumice stone, 6
parts; lampblack (in bulk), 1 part; common roughstuff filler, 3 parts.
Mix to stiff paste in good coach japan, 5 parts; hard drying rubbing
varnish, 1 part. Thin to a brushing consistency with turpentine, and
apply 1 coat per day. Put on 2 coats of this filler and then 2 coats
of ordinary roughstuff. Rub with lump pumice stone and water. This
process does not equal burning off in getting permanently rid of the
cracks, but when the price of painting forbids burning off, it serves
as an effective substitute. Upon a job that is well cared for, and not
subjected to too exacting service, this filler will secrete the cracks
and fissures for from 3 to 5 months.


«DRESSINGS FOR LEATHER:»


«For Carriage Tops.»—I.—Here is an inexpensive and quickly prepared
dressing for carriage tops or the like: Take 2 parts of common glue;
soak and liquefy it over a fire. Three parts of castile soap are
then dissolved over a moderate heat. Of water, 120 parts are added
to dissolve the soap and glue, after which an intimate mixture of
the ingredients is effected. Then 4 parts of spirit varnish are
added; next, 2 parts of wheat starch, previously mixed in water, are
thrown in. Lampblack in a sufficient quantity to give the mixture a
good coloring power, without killing the gloss, is now added. This
preparation may be used as above prepared, or it may be placed over
a gentle fire and the liquid ingredients slowly evaporated. The
evaporated mass is then liquefied with beer as shop needs demand.

II.—Shabby dark leather will look like new if rubbed over with either
linseed oil or the well-beaten white of an egg mixed with a little
black ink. Polish with soft dusters until quite dry and glossy.


«Polishes.»—I.—Dissolve sticklac, 25 {449} parts; shellac, 20 parts;
and gum benzoin, 4 parts, all finely powdered, in a rolling cask
containing 100 parts of 96 per cent alcohol; perfume with 1 part of oil
of rosemary. Upon letting stand for several days, filter the solution,
whereupon a good glossy polish for leather, etc., will be obtained.

II.—Dissolve 2 pounds of borax in 4 gallons of water and add 5 pounds
of shellac to the boiling liquid in portions, till all is dissolved.
Then boil half an hour, and finally stir in 5 pounds of sugar, 2 1⁠/⁠2
pounds of glycerine, and 1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of soluble nigrosin. When cold
add 4 pounds of 95 per cent methylated spirit.

 III.—Ox blood, fresh, clean     1,000 parts
       Commercial glycerine         200 parts
       Oil of turpentine            300 parts
       Pine oil (rosin oil)       5,000 parts
       Ox gall                      200 parts
       Formalin                      15 parts

Mix in the order named, stirring in each ingredient. When mixed strain
through linen.


«Kid Leather Dressings.»—Creams for greasing fine varieties of leather,
such as kid, patent leather, etc., are produced as follows, according
to tried recipes:

White Cream.—

 Lard                     75 parts
 Glycerine, technical     25 parts
 Mirbane oil, ad libitum.

Black Cream.—

 Lard                      100 parts
 Yellow vaseline            20 parts
 Glycerine, technical       10 parts
 Castor oil, technical      10 parts

Dye black with lampblack and perfume with oil of mirbane.

Colored Cream.—

 Lard               100 parts
 Castor oil          20 parts
 Yellow wax          25 parts
 White vaseline      30 parts

Dye with any desired dyestuff, e. g., red with anchusine, green with
chlorophyl. In summer it is well to add some wax to the first and
second prescriptions.

These are for either Morocco or kid:

 I.—Shellac            2 parts
     Benzoin            2 parts
     Yellow wax         5 parts
     Soap liniment      7 parts
     Alcohol          600 parts

Digest until solution is effected, then allow the liquid to stand in a
cool place for 12 hours and strain. Apply with a bit of sponge or soft
rag; spread thinly and evenly over the surface, without rubbing much.
If dirty, the leather should first be washed with a little soft soap
and warm water, wiped well, and allowed to dry thoroughly before the
dressing is put on.

 II.—Oil of turpentine      8 ounces
      Suet                   2 pounds
      Soft soap              8 ounces
      Water                 16 ounces
      Lampblack              4 ounces


«Patent Leather Dressings.»—

 I.—Wax                       22 parts
     Olive oil                 60 parts
     Oil turpentine, best      20 parts
     Lavender oil              10 parts

With gentle heat, melt the wax in the oil, and as soon as melted remove
from the fire. Add the turpentine oil, incorporate, and when nearly
cold, add and incorporate the lavender oil.

 II.—Wax                    22 parts
      Olive oil              60 parts
      Oil of turpentine      30 parts

With gentle heat, melt the wax in the olive oil, and as soon as melted
remove from the fire. When nearly cold stir in the turpentine.


«Red Russia Leather Varnish.»—

 Shellac                    1.20 parts
 Dammar rosin, powdered     0.15 parts
 Turpentine, Venice         0.60 parts

Dissolve with frequent shaking in 12 parts of alcohol (95 per cent),
add 1.8 parts of powdered red sanders wood, let stand for 3 days and
filter. The object of this varnish is to restore the original color to
worn Russia leather boots, previously cleaned with benzine.


«Russet Leather Dressing.»—The following formulas are said to yield
efficient preparations that are at once detersive and polishing, thus
rendering the use of an extra cleaning liquid unnecessary.

 I.—Soft soap                         2 parts
     Linseed oil                       3 parts
     Annatto solution (in oil)         8 parts
     Beeswax                           3 parts
     Turpentine                        8 parts
     Water                             8 parts

Dissolve the soap in the water, and add the annatto; melt the wax
in the oil and turpentine, and gradually stir in the soap solution,
stirring until cold. {450}

 II.—Palm oil        16 parts
      Common soap     48 parts
      Oleic acid      32 parts
      Glycerine       10 parts
      Tannic acid      1 part

Melt the soap and palm oil together at a gentle heat, and add the oleic
acid; dissolve the tannic acid in the glycerine, add to the hot soap
and oil mixture, and stir until perfectly cold.


«Shoe Leather Dressing.»—Over a water bath melt 50 parts, by weight, of
oil of turpentine; 100 parts, by weight, of olive oil; 100 parts, by
weight, of train oil; 40 parts, by weight, of carnauba wax; 15 parts,
by weight, of asphaltum; and 2 parts, by weight, of oil of bitter
almonds.


«DYEING LEATHER.»

In dyeing leather, aniline or coal-tar colors are generally used. These
dyes, owing to their extremely rapid action on organic substances,
such as leather, do not readily adapt themselves to the staining
process, because a full brushful of dye liquor would give a much deeper
coloration than a half-exhausted brush would give. Consequently,
to alter and to color leather by the staining process results in a
patchy coloration of the skin. In the dyeing operation a zinc shallow
trough, 4 to 6 inches deep, is used, into which the dye liquor is
put, and to produce the best results the contents of the trough are
kept at a uniform temperature by means of a heating apparatus beneath
the trough, such as a gas jet or two, which readily allows of a heat
being regulated. The skins to be dyed are spread out flat in the dye
trough, one at a time, each skin remaining in the dye liquor the time
prescribed by the recipe. The best coloration of the skin is produced
by using 3 dye troughs of the same dye liquor, each of different
strength, the skin being put in the weakest liquor first, then passed
into the second, and from there into the third dye liquor, where it is
allowed to remain until its full depth of color is obtained. Very great
skill is required in the employment of aniline dyes, as if the heat be
too great, or the skins remain too long in the final bath, “bronzing”
of the color occurs. The only remedy for this (and that not always
effectual) is to sponge the skin with plenty of cold, clean water,
directly it is taken out of the final dye bath. The dyed skins are
dried and finished as before.


«Leather Brown.»—

 Extract of fustic        5 ounces
 Extract of hypernic      1 ounce
 Extract of logwood     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Water                    2 gallons

Boil all these ingredients for 15 minutes, and then dilute with water
to make 10 gallons of dye liquor. Use the dye liquor at a temperature
of 110° F.

Mordant.—Dissolve 3 ounces of white tartar and 4 ounces of alum in 10
gallons of water.


«Fast Brown.»—Prepare a dye liquor by dissolving 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces fast
brown in 1 gallon of water, and make a 10-gallon bulk of this. Use at
a temperature of 110° F., and employ the same mordanting liquor as in
last recipe.


«Bismarck Brown.»—

 Extract of fustic        4 ounces
 Extract of hypernic      1 ounce
 Extract of logwood     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Water                    2 gallons

Preparation.—Boil all together for 15 minutes.

Method of Dyeing.—First mordant the skins with a mordanting fluid
made by dissolving 3 ounces tartar and 1⁠/⁠2 ounce borax in 10 gallons
of water. Then put the skins into the above foundation bath at a
temperature of 100° F. Take them out, and then put in 1 ounce of
Bismarck brown, dissolved in boiling water. Put the skins in again
until colored deep enough, then lift out, drip and dry.


«HARNESS PREPARATIONS:»


«Blacking for Harness.»—I.—In a water bath dissolve 90 parts of
yellow wax in 900 parts of oil of turpentine; aside from this mix
well together, all the ingredients being finely powdered, 10 parts of
Prussian blue, 5 parts of indigo, 50 parts of bone black, and work this
into a portion of the above-mentioned waxy solution. Now throw this
into the original solution, which still remains in the water bath, and
stir it vigorously until the mass becomes homogeneous, after which pour
it into any convenient earthenware receptacle.

II.—Best glue, 4 ounces; good vinegar, 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints; best gum arabic,
2 ounces; good black ink, 1⁠/⁠2 pint; best isinglass, 2 drachms.
Dissolve the gum in the ink, and melt the isinglass in another vessel
in as much hot water as will cover it. Having first steeped the glue
in the vinegar until soft, dissolve it completely by the aid of heat,
stirring to prevent burning. The heat should not exceed 180° F. Add
the gum and ink, and allow the mixture to rise again to the same
temperature. Lastly mix the solution in isinglass, and remove from
fire. When {451} used, a small portion must be heated until fluid, and
then applied with a sponge and allowed to dry on.


«Dressings for Harness.»—

 I.—Ox blood, fresh and well purified     100 parts
     Glycerine, technical                   20 parts
     Turpentine oil                         30 parts
     Pine oil                               50 parts
     Ox gall                                20 parts
     Formalin                            1 1⁠/⁠2 parts

The raw materials are stirred together cold in the order named. Pour
the mixture through thin linen. It imparts a wonderful mild, permanent
gloss.

II.—A French harness dressing of good quality consists of oil of
turpentine, 900 parts; yellow wax, 90 parts; Berlin blue, 10 parts;
indigo, 5 parts; and bone black, 50 parts. Dissolve the yellow wax
in the oil of turpentine with the aid of moderate heat in a water
bath, mix the remaining substances, which should previously be well
pulverized, and work them with a small portion of the wax solution.
Finally, add the rest of the wax solution, and mix the whole well in
the water bath. When a homogeneous liquid has resulted, pour it into
earthen receptacles.


«Harness Oils.»—

 I.—Neatsfoot oil         10 ounces
     Oil of turpentine      2 ounces
     Petrolatum             4 ounces
     Lampblack            1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Mix the lampblack with the turpentine and the neatsfoot oil, melt the
petrolatum and mix by shaking together.

 II.—Black aniline          35 grains
      Muriatic acid          50 minims
      Bone black            175 grains
      Lampblack              18 grains
      Yellow wax          2 1⁠/⁠2 av. ounces
      Oil of turpentine      22 fluidounces

 III.—Oil of turpentine      8 fluidounces
       Yellow wax             2 av. ounces
       Prussian blue        1⁠/⁠2 av. ounce
       Lampblack            1⁠/⁠4 av. ounce

Melt the wax, add the turpentine, a portion first to the finely
powdered Prussian blue and lampblack, and thin with neatsfoot oil.


«Harness Pastes.»—

 I.—Ceresine, natural yellow       1.5 parts
     Yellow beeswax                 1.5 parts
     Japan wax                      1.5 parts

Melt on the water bath, and when half cooled stir in 8 parts of
turpentine oil.


«Harness Grease.»—

                                      By weight
 II.—Ceresine, natural yellow        2.5 parts
 Beeswax, yellow                      0.8 parts
 French colophony, pale               0.4 parts

 III.—French oil turpentine          2.0 parts
 Intimately mixed in the cold
    with American lampblack           1.5 parts

Put mixture I in a kettle and melt over a fire. Remove from the fire
and stir in mixture II in small portions. Then pour through a fine
sieve into a second vessel, and continue pouring from one kettle into
the other until the mass is rather thickish. Next fill in cans.

Should the mixture have become too cold during the filling of the cans,
the vessel containing the grease need only be placed in hot water,
whereby the contents are rendered liquid again, so that pouring out is
practicable. For perfuming, use cinnamon oil as required.

This harness grease is applied by means of a rag and brushed.


«Waterproof Harness Composition.»—

See also Waterproofing.

                       By weight
 Rosin spirit          27 1⁠/⁠4 parts
 Dark mineral oil      13 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Paraffine scales      16.380 parts
 Lampblack              7.940 parts
 Dark rosin             5.450 parts
 Dark syrup             5.450 parts
 Naphthalene black      2.500 parts
 Berlin blue            0.680 parts
 Mirbane oil            0.170 parts

Melt the paraffine and the rosin, add the mineral oil and the rosin
spirit, stir the syrup and the pigments into this, and lastly add the
mirbane oil.


«PATENT AND ENAMELED LEATHER.»

Patent leather for boots and shoes is prepared from sealskins, enameled
leather for harness from heavy bullock’s hides. The process of tanning
is what is called “union tannage” (a mixture of oak and hemlock barks).
These tanned skins are subjected to the process of soaking, unhairing,
liming, etc., and are then subjected to the tanning process. When about
one-third tanned a buffing is taken off (if the hides are heavy), and
the hide is split into three layers. The top or grain side is reserved
for enameling in fancy colors for use on tops of carriages; the middle
layer is finished for splatter {452} boards and carriage trimmings, and
some parts of harness; the underneath layer, or flesh side is used for
shoe uppers and other purposes. The tanning of the splits is completed
by subjecting them to a gambier liquor instead of a bark liquor.

When the splits are fully tanned they are laid on a table and scored,
and then stretched in frames and dried, after which each one is covered
on one side with the following compound, so as to close the pores of
the leather that it may present a suitable surface for receiving the
varnish: Into 14 parts of raw linseed oil put 1 part dry white lead
and 1 part silver litharge, and boil, stirring constantly until the
compound is thick enough to dry in 15 or 20 minutes (when spread on a
sheet of iron or china) into a tough, elastic mass, like caoutchouc.
This compound is laid on one side of the leather while it is still
stretched in the frame. If for enameled leather (i. e., not the best
patent), chalk or yellow ocher may be mixed in the above compound while
boiling, or afterwards, but before spreading it on the leather.

The frames are then put into a rack in a drying closet, and the coated
leather dried by steam heat at 80° to 160° F., the heat being raised
gradually. After removal from the drying closet, the grounding
coat previously laid on is pumiced, to smooth out the surface, and
then given 2 or 3 coats of the enameling varnish, which consists of
Prussian blue and lampblack boiled with linseed oil and diluted with
turpentine, so as to enable it to flow evenly over the surface of the
coated leather. When spread on with a brush, each coating of the enamel
is dried before applying the next, and pumiced or rubbed with tripoli
powder on a piece of flannel (the coat last laid on is not subjected to
this rubbing), when the leather is ready for market.

To prepare the enameling composition, boil 1 part asphaltum with 20
parts raw linseed oil until thoroughly combined; then add 10 parts
thick copal varnish, and when this mixture is homogeneous dilute with
20 parts spirit of turpentine.

Instead of the foregoing enameling varnish the following is used for
superior articles:

 Prussian blue        18 ounces
 Vegetable black       4 ounces
 Raw linseed oil     160 fluidounces

Boil together as previously directed, and dilute with turpentine as
occasion requires. These enameling varnishes should be made and kept
several weeks in the same room as the varnishing is carried on, so that
they are always subjected to the same temperature.


«STAINS FOR PATENT LEATHER:»


«Black Stain.»—

 Vinegar                1 gallon
 Ivory black           14 ounces
 Ground iron scales     6 pounds

Mix well and allow to stand a few days.


«Red Stain.»—Water, 1 quart; spirit of hartshorn, 1 quart; cochineal,
1⁠/⁠4 pound. Heat the water to near the boiling point, and then
dissolve in it the cochineal, afterwards adding the spirit of
hartshorn. Stir well to incorporate.


«Liquid Cochineal Stain.»—

 Good French carmine      2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 Solution of potash         1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Rectified spirit of wine     2 ounces
 Pure glycerine               4 ounces
 Distilled water to make 1 pint.

To the carmine in a 20-ounce bottle add 14 ounces of distilled water.
Then gradually introduce solution of potash, shaking now and again
until dissolved. Add glycerine and spirit of wine, making up to 20
ounces with distilled water, and filter.


«Blue Black.»—Ale droppings, 2 gallons; bruised galls, 1⁠/⁠2 pound;
logwood extract, 1⁠/⁠4 pound; indigo extract, 2 ounces; sulphate of
iron, 3 1⁠/⁠2 ounces. Heat together and strain.


«Finishers’ Ink.»—Soft water, 1 gallon; logwood extract, 1 1⁠/⁠4
ounces; green vitriol, 2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; potassium bichromate, 1⁠/⁠2
ounce; gum arabic, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce.

Grind the gum and potassium bichromate to powder and then add all the
coloring ingredients to the water and boil.


«To Restore Patent Leather Dash.»—Take raw linseed oil, 1 part; cider
vinegar, 4 ounces; alcohol, 2 ounces; butter of antimony, 1 ounce; aqua
ammonia, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; spirits of camphor, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; lavender, 1⁠/⁠2
ounce. Shake well together; apply with a soft brush.


«PRESERVATIVES FOR LEATHER.»

 I.—Mutton suet      50 parts
     Sweet oil        50 parts
     Turpentine        1 part
     Melt together.

The application should be made on the dry leather warmed to the point
where it will liquefy and absorb the fat.

II.—Equal parts of mutton fat and linseed oil, mixed with one-tenth
their {453} weight of Venice turpentine, and melted together in an
earthen pipkin, will produce a “dubbin” which is very efficacious in
preserving leather when exposed to wet or snow, etc. The mixture should
be applied when the leather is quite dry and warm.

III.—A solution of 1 ounce of solid paraffine in 1 pint light naphtha,
to which 6 drops of sweet oil have been added, is put cold on the
soles, until they will absorb no more. One dressing will do for the
uppers. This process is claimed to vastly increase the tensile strength.


«Patent Leather Preserver.»—

 Carnauba wax                        1.0 part
 Turpentine oil                      9.5 parts
 Aniline black, soluble in fat       0.06 parts

Melt the wax, stir in the turpentine oil and the dye and scent with
a little mirbane oil or lavender oil. The paste is rubbed out on the
patent leather by means of a soft rag, and when dry should be polished
with a soft brush.


«REVIVERS AND REGENERATORS.»

                                      By weight.
 I.—Methylic alcohol                 22 1⁠/⁠2 parts
     Ground ruby shellac               2.250 parts
     Dark rosin                        0.910 parts
     Gum rosin                         0.115 parts
     Sandarac                          0.115 parts
     Lampblack                         0.115 parts
     Aniline black, spirit-soluble     0.115 parts

The gums are dissolved in spirit and next the aniline black soluble
in spirit is added; the lampblack is ground with a little liquid to a
paste, which is added to the whole, and filtering follows.

Kid Reviver.—

                                          By weight.
 II.—Clear chloride of lime solution      3.5 parts
 Spirit of sal ammoniac                    0.5 parts
 Scraped Marseilles soap                   4.5 parts
 Water                                     6.0 parts

Mix chloride of lime solution and spirit of sal ammoniac and stir in
the soap dissolved in water. Revive the gloves with the pulpy mass
obtained, by means of a flannel rag.


«TANNING LEATHER.»


«Pickling Process.»—Eitner and Stiazny have made a systematic series of
experiments with mixtures of salt and various acids for pickling skins
preparatory to tanning. Experiments with hydrochloric acid, acetic and
lactic acids showed that these offered no advantages over sulphuric
acid for use in pickling, the pickled pelts and the leather produced
from them being similar in appearance and quality. By varying the
concentration of the pickle liquors, it was found that the amount of
salt absorbed by the pelt from the pickle liquor was controlled by the
concentration of the solution, 23 to 25 per cent of the total amount
used being taken up by the pelt, and that the absorption capacity of
the pelt for acid was limited.

The goods pickled with the largest amount of acid possessed a more
leathery feel and after drying were fuller and stretched much better
than those in which smaller amounts of acids were employed. Dried,
pickled pieces, containing as much as 3 per cent of sulphuric acid,
showed no deterioration or tendering of fiber. The pickled skins after
chrome tanning still retained these characteristics. An analysis of the
leather produced by tanning with sumac showed that no free acid was
retained in the finished leather. An Australian pickled pelt was found
to contain 19.2 per cent of salt and 2.8 per cent of sulphuric acid.

From a very large number of experiments the following conclusions were
drawn: 1. That sulphuric acid is quite equal in efficiency to other
acids for the purpose. 2. To a certain limit increasing softness is
produced by increasing the quantity of acid used. 3. For naturally soft
skins and when a leather not very soft is required the best results are
obtained by using 22 pounds of salt, 2.2 pounds of sulphuric acid, and
25 gallons of water for 110 pounds of pelt in the drum. 4. For material
which is naturally hard and when a soft leather is required, the amount
of acid should be increased to 4.4 pounds, using similar amounts as
those given above of pelt, salt, and water.


«French Hide Tanning Process.»—I.—The prepared pelts are submitted to
a 3 to 4 hours’ immersion in a solution of rosin soap, containing 5 to
10 per cent of caustic soda. The goods are afterwards placed in a 6 to
12 per cent solution of a salt of chromium, iron, copper, or aluminum
(preferably aluminum sulphate) for 3 to 4 hours.

II.—The hides are soaked in a solution of sodium carbonate of 10° Bé.
for 3 to 6 hours. After washing with water they are allowed to remain
for 5 hours in {454} a bath of caustic soda, the strength of which
may vary from 2° to 30° Bé. From this they are transferred to a bath
of hydrochloric acid (1° to 5° Bé.) in which they remain for 2 hours.
Finally the hides are washed and the beam-work finished in the usual
way. The tannage consists of a special bath of sodium or ammonium
sulphoricinoleate (2 to 30 per cent) and sumac extract, or similar
tanning material (2 to 50 per cent). The strength of this bath is
gradually raised from 4° to 30° or 40° Bé.


«Tanning Hides for Robes.»—The hides should be very thoroughly soaked
in order to soften them completely. For dry hides this will require a
longer time than for salted. A heavy hide requires longer soaking than
a skin. Thus it is impossible to fix a certain length of time. After
soaking, the hide is fleshed clean, and is now ready to go into the tan
liquor, which is made up as follows: One part alum; 1 part salt; 1⁠/⁠4
to 1⁠/⁠2 part japonica. These are dissolved in hot water in sufficient
quantity to make a 35° liquor. The hide, according to the thickness, is
left in the tan from 5 to 10 days. Skins are finished in about 2 or 3
days. The hide should be run in a drum for about 2 hours before going
into tan, and again after that process. In tanning hides for robes,
shaving them down is a main requisite for success, as it is impossible
to get soft leather otherwise. After shaving put back into the tan
liquor again for a day or two and hang up to dry. When good and hard,
shave again and lay away in moist sawdust and give a heavy coat of oil.
When dry, apply a solution of soft soap; roll up and lay away in moist
sawdust again. Run the hides on a drum or wheel until thoroughly soft.
The composition of the tan liquor may be changed considerably. If the
brownish tinge of the japonica be objectionable, that article may be
left out entirely. The japonica has the effect of making the robe more
able to resist water, as the alum and salt alone are readily soaked out
by rain.


«Lace Leather.»—Take cow hides averaging from 25 to 30 pounds each; 35
hides will make a convenient soak for a vat containing 1,000 gallons
of water, or 25 hides to a soak of 700 gallons. Soak 2 days or more,
as required. Change water every 24 hours. Split and flesh; resoak if
necessary. When thoroughly soft put in limes. Handle and strengthen
once a day, for 5 or 6 days. Unhair and wash. Bathe in hen manure,
90° F. Work out of drench, wash well, drain 4 of 5 hours. Then process,
using 45 pounds vitriol and 600 pounds of soft water to 700 gallons
of water. In renewing process for second or consecutive packs, use 15
pounds vitriol and 200 pounds salt, always keeping stock constantly in
motion during time of processing. After processing, drain over night,
then put in tan in agitated liquors, keeping the stock in motion during
the whole time of tanning. Pack down overnight. Use 200 pounds dry
leather to each mill in stuffing.

For stuffing, use 3 gallons curriers’ hard grease and 3 gallons
American cod oil. Strike out from mill, on flesh. Set out on grain. Dry
slowly. Trim and board, length and cross. The stock is then ready to
cut. The time for soaking the hides may be reduced one-half by putting
the stock into a rapidly revolving reel pit, with a good inflow of
water, so that the dirty water washes over and runs off. After 10 hours
in the soak, put the stock into a drum, and keep it tumbling 5 hours.
This produces soft stock.

In liming, where the saving of the hair is no object, softer leather is
obtainable by using 35 pounds sulphide of sodium with 60 pounds lime.
Then, when the stock comes from the limes, the hair is dissolved and
immediately washes off, and saves the labor of unhairing and caring
for the hair, which in some cases does not pay.


«MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES:»


«Russian Leather.»—This leather owes its name to the country of its
origin. The skins used for its production are goat, large sheep,
calfskin, and cow or steer hide. The preliminary operations of soaking,
unhairing, and fleshing are done in the usual manner, and then the
hides are permitted to swell in a mixture of rye flour, oat flour,
yeast, and salt. This compound is made into a paste with water, and
is then thinned with sufficient water to steep a hundred hides in the
mixture. The proportions of ingredients used for this mixture are 22
pounds rye flour, 10 pounds oat flour, a little salt, and sufficient
yeast to set up fermentation.

The hides are steeped in this compound for 2 days, until swelled up,
and then put into a solution of willow and poplar barks, in which
they are allowed to remain 8 days, being frequently turned about. The
tanning process is then completed by putting them into a tanning liquor
composed of pine and willow barks, equal parts. They are steeped 8 days
in this liquor, and then a {455} fresh liquor of the same ingredients
and proportions is made up. The hides are hardened and split, and then
steeped in the freshly made liquor for another 8 days, when they are
sufficiently tanned.

The hides are then cut down the middle (from head to tail) into sides,
and scoured, rinsed, and dried by dripping, and then passed on to
the currier, who slightly dampens the dry sides and puts them in a
heap or folds them together for a couple of days to temper, and then
impregnates them with a compound consisting of 2⁠/⁠3 parts birch oil
and 1⁠/⁠3 parts seal oil. This is applied on the flesh side for light
leather, and on the grain side also for heavy leather. The leather is
then “set out,” “whitened,” and well boarded and dried before dyeing.

A decoction of sandalwood, alone or mixed with cochineal, is used for
producing the Russian red color, and this dye liquor is applied several
times, allowing each application to dry before applying the following
one. A brush is used, and the dye liquor is spread on the grain side.
A solution of tin chloride is used in Russia as a mordant for the
leather before laying on the dye. The dye liquor is prepared by boiling
18 ounces of sandalwood in 13 pints of water for 1 hour, and then
filtering the liquid and dissolving in the filtering fluid 1 ounce of
prepared tartar and soda, which is then given an hour’s boiling and set
aside for a few days before use.

After dyeing, the leather is again impregnated with the mixture of
birch and seal oils (applied to the grain side on a piece of flannel)
and when the dyed leather has dried, a thin smear of gum-dragon
mucilage is given to the dyed side to protect the color from fading,
while the flesh side is smeared with bark-tan juice and the dyed
leather then grained for market.


«Toughening Leather.»—Leather is toughened and also rendered impervious
by impregnating with a solution of 1 part of caoutchouc or gutta-percha
in 16 parts of benzene or other solvent, to which is added 10 parts of
linseed oil. Wax and rosin may be added to thicken the solution.


«Painting on Leather.»—When the leather is finished in the tanneries
it is at the same time provided with the necessary greasy particles
to give it the required pliancy and prevent it from cracking. It is
claimed that some tanners strive to obtain a greater weight thereby,
thus increasing their profit, since a pound of fat is only one-eighth
as dear as a pound of leather.

If such leather, so called kips, which are much used for carriage
covers and knee caps, is to be prepared for painting purposes, it is
above all necessary to close up the pores of the leather, so that
the said fat particles cannot strike through. They would combine
with the applied paint and prevent the latter from drying, as the
grease consists mainly of fish oil. For this reason an elastic spirit
leather varnish is employed, which protects the succeeding paint coat
sufficiently from the fat.

For further treatment take a good coach varnish to which 1⁠/⁠4 of stand
oil (linseed oil which has thickened by standing) has been added and
allow the mixture to stand for a few days. With this varnish grind the
desired colors, thinning them only with turpentine oil. Put on 2 coats.
In this manner the most delicate colors may be applied to the leather,
only it is needful to put on pale and delicate shades several times.
In some countries the legs or tops of boots are painted yellow, red,
green, or blue in this manner. Inferior leather, such as sheepskin and
goat leather, which is treated with alum by the tanner, may likewise
be provided with color in the manner stated. Subsequently it can be
painted, gilded, or bronzed.


«Stains for Oak Leather.»—I.—Apply an intimate mixture of 4 ounces of
umber (burnt or raw); 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of lampblack, and 17 fluidounces ox
gall.

II.—The moistened leather is primed with a solution of 1 part, by
weight, of copper acetate in 50 parts of water, slicked out and then
painted with solution of yellow prussiate potash in feebly acid water.

LEATHER AS AN INSULATOR: See Insulation.

LEATHER CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Cements.

LEATHER-CLEANING PROCESSES: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

LEATHER, GLUES FOR: See Adhesives.

LEATHER LAC: See Lacquers.

LEATHER LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants. {456}

LEATHER VARNISH: See Varnish.

LEATHER WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.


«LEMONS:»

See also Essences, Extracts, and Fruits.


«Preservation of Fresh Lemon Juice.»—The fresh juice is cleared by
gently heating it with a little egg albumen, without stirring the
mixture. This causes all solid matter to sink with the coagulated
white, or to make its way to the surface. The juice is then filtered
through a woolen cloth and put into bottles, filled as full as
possible, and closed with a cork stopper, in such a way that the cork
may be directly in contact with the liquid. Seal at once and keep in a
cool place. The bottles should be asepticized with boiling water just
before using.

LEMON EXTRACT (ADULTERATED), TESTS FOR: See Foods.

LEMON SHERBET POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent.

LEMONADES, LEMONADE POWDERS, AND LEMONADE DROPS: See Beverages.

LEMONADE POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent.


«LENSES AND THEIR CARE:»


«Unclean Lenses» (see also Cleaning Preparations and Methods).—If in
either objective or eyepiece the lenses are not clean, the definition
may be seriously impaired or destroyed. Uncleanliness may be due
to finger marks upon the front lens of the objective, or upon the
eyepiece lenses; dust which in time may settle upon the rear lens of
the objective or on the eye lens; a film which forms upon one or the
other lens, due occasionally to the fact that glass is hygroscopic, but
generally to the exhalation from the interior finish of the mountings,
and, in immersion objectives, because the front lens is not properly
cleaned; or oil that has leaked on to its rear surface, or air bubbles
that have formed in the oil between the cover glass and front lens.

Remedy.—Keep all lenses scrupulously clean. For cleaning, use
well-washed linen (an old handkerchief) or Japanese lens paper.

Eyepieces.—To find impurities, revolve the eyepieces during the
observation; breathe upon the lenses, and wipe gently with a circular
motion and blow off any particles which may adhere.

Dry Objectives.—Clean the front lens as described. To examine the rear
and interior lenses use a 2-inch magnifier, looking through the rear.
Remove the dust from the rear lens with a camel’s-hair brush.

Oil Immersion Objectives.—Invariably clean the front lens after use
with moistened linen or paper, and wipe dry.

In applying oil examine the front of the objective with a magnifier,
and if there are any air bubbles, remove them with a pointed quill, or
remove the oil entirely and apply a fresh quantity.

LETTERS, TO REMOVE FROM CHINA: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods,
under Miscellaneous Methods.

LETTER-HEAD SENSITIZERS: See Photography, under Paper-Sensitizing
Processes.


«Lettering»

CEMENTS FOR ATTACHING LETTERS ON GLASS: See Adhesives, under
Sign-Letter Cements.


«Gold Lettering.»—This is usually done by first drawing the lettering,
then covering with an adhesive mixture, such as size, and finally
applying gold bronze powder or real gold leaf. A good method for
amateurs to follow in marking letters on glass is to apply first a coat
of whiting, mixed simply with water, and then to mark out the letters
on this surface, using a pointed stick or the like. After this has been
done the letters may easily be painted or gilded on the reverse side of
the glass. When done, wash off the whiting from the other side, and the
work is complete.


«Bronze Lettering.»—The following is the best method for card work:
Write with asphaltum thinned with turpentine until it flows easily,
and, when nearly dry, dust bronze powder over the letters. When the
letters are perfectly dry tap the card to take off the extra bronze,
and it will leave the letters clean and sharp. The letters should be
made with a camel’s-hair brush and not with the automatic pen, as oil
paints do not work satisfactorily with these pens.

For bronzed letters made with the pen, use black letterine or any water
color. {457} If a water color is used add considerable gum arabic. Each
letter should be bronzed as it is made, as the water color dries much
more quickly than the asphaltum.

Another method is to mix the bronze powder with bronze sizing to about
the consistency of the asphaltum. Make the letter with a camel’s-hair
brush, using the bronze paint as one would any oil paint.

This method requires much skill, as the gold paint spreads quickly and
is apt to flood over the edge of the letter. For use on oilcloth this
is the most practical method.

Bronzes may be purchased at any hardware store. They are made in
copper, red, green, silver, gold, and copper shades.


«Lettering on Glass.»—White lettering on glass and mirrors produces
a rich effect. Dry zinc, chemically pure, should be used. It can be
obtained in any first-class paint store and is inexpensive. To every
teaspoonful of zinc, 10 drops of mucilage should be added. The two
should be worked up into a thick paste, water being gradually added
until the mixture is about the consistency of thick cream. The paint
should then be applied with a camel’s-hair brush.

Another useful paint for this purpose is Chemnitz white. If this
distemper color is obtained in a jar, care should be exercised to keep
water standing above the color to prevent drying. By using mucilage as
a sizing these colors will adhere to the glass until it is washed off.
Both mixtures are equally desirable for lettering on block card-board.

Any distemper color may be employed on glass without in any way
injuring it. An attractive combination is—first to letter the sign with
Turkey red, and then to outline the letters with a very narrow white
stripe. The letter can be rendered still more attractive by shading one
side in black.


«Signs on Show Cases.»—Most show cases have mirrors at the back, either
in the form of sliding panels or spring doors. Lettering in distemper
colors on these mirrors can easily be read through the fronts or tops
of cases. If the mirror is on a sliding panel, it will be necessary to
detach it from the case in order to letter it. When the mirror is on a
spring door the sign can be lettered with less trouble.

By tracing letters in chalk on the outside of the glass, and then
painting them on the inside, attractive signs can be produced on all
show cases; but painting letters on the inside of a show case glass is
more or less difficult, and it is not advisable to attempt it in very
shallow cases.


«“Spatter” Work.»—Some lettering which appears very difficult to the
uninitiated is, in fact, easily produced. The beautiful effect of
lettering and ornamentation in the form of foliage or conventional
scrolls in a speckled ground is simple and can be produced with little
effort. Pressed leaves and letters or designs cut from newspapers or
magazines may be tacked or pasted on cardboard or a mat with flour
paste. As little paste as possible should be used—only enough to hold
the design in place. When all the designs are in the positions desired,
a toothbrush should be dipped in the ink or paint to be employed. A
toothpick or other small piece of wood is drawn to and fro over the
bristles, which are held toward the sign, the entire surface of which
should be spattered or sprinkled with the color. When the color is dry
the designs pasted on should be carefully removed and the paste which
held them in place should be scraped off. This leaves the letters and
other designs clean cut and white against the “spatter” background. The
beginner should experiment first with a few simple designs. After he is
able to produce attractive work with a few figures or letters he may
confidently undertake more elaborate combinations.


«Lettering on Mirrors.»—From a bar of fresh common brown soap cut off
a one-inch-wide strip across its end. Cut this into 2 or 3 strips.
Take one strip and with a table-knife cut from two opposite sides a
wedge-shaped point resembling that of a shading pen, but allow the edge
to be fully 1⁠/⁠8 inch thick. Clean the mirror thoroughly and proceed
to letter in exactly the same manner as with a shading pen.


«To Fill Engraved Letters on Metal Signs.»—Letters engraved on metal
may be filled in with a mixture of asphaltum, brown japan, and
lampblack, the mixture being so made as to be a putty-like mass. It
should be well pressed down with a spatula. Any of the mass adhering to
the plate about the edges of the letters is removed with turpentine,
and when the cement is thoroughly dried the plate may be polished.

If white letters are desired, make a putty of dry white lead, with
equal parts of coach japan and rubbing varnish. Fill the letters nearly
level with the {458} surface, and when hard, apply a stout coat of
flake white in japan thinned with turpentine. This will give a clean
white finish that may be polished.

The white cement may be tinted to any desired shade, using coach colors
ground in japan.


«Tinseled Letters, or Chinese Painting on Glass.»—This is done by
painting the groundwork with any color, leaving the letter or figure
naked. When dry, place tin foil or any of the various colored copper
foils over the letters on the back of the glass, after crumpling them
in the hand, and then partially straightening them out.

LICE KILLERS: See Insecticides.

LICHEN REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under
Miscellaneous Methods and Household Formulas.


«LICORICE:»


«Stable Solutions of Licorice Juice.»—A percolator, with alternate
layers of broken glass, which have been well washed, first with
hydrochloric acid and plentifully rinsed with distilled water, is the
first requisite. This is charged with pieces of crude licorice juice,
from the size of a hazel nut to that of a walnut, which are weighted
down with well-washed pebbles. The percolate is kept for 3 days in
well corked flasks which have been rinsed out with alcohol beforehand.
Decant and filter and evaporate down rapidly, under constant stirring,
or _in vacuo_. The extract should be kept in vessels first washed with
alcohol and closed with parchment paper, in a dry place—never in the
cellar.

To dissolve this extract, use water, first boiled for 15 minutes. The
solution should be kept in small flasks, first rinsed with alcohol
and well corked. If to be kept for a long time, the flasks should be
subjected for 3 consecutive days, a half hour each day, to a stream of
steam, and the corks paraffined.

There is frequently met with in commerce a purified juice that
remains clear in the _mixtura solvens_. It is usually obtained by
supersaturation with pure ammonia, allowing to stand for 3 days,
decanting, filtering the decanted liquor, and quick evaporation. Since
solutions with water alone rapidly spoil, it is well to observe with
them the precautions common for narcotic extracts.


«To Test Extract of Licorice.»—Mere solubility is no test for the
purity of extract of licorice. It is, therefore, proposed to make the
glycyrrhizin content and the nature of the ash the determining test. To
determine the glycyrrhizin quantitatively proceed as follows: Macerate
1⁠/⁠10 ounce of the extract, in coarse powder, in 10 fluidounces
distilled water for several hours, with more or less frequent
agitation. When solution is complete, add 10 fluidounces alcohol of 90
per cent, filter and wash the filter with alcohol of 40 per cent until
the latter comes off colorless. Drive off the alcohol, which was added
merely to facilitate filtration, by evaporation in the water bath; let
the residue cool down and precipitate the glycyrrhizin by addition
of sulphuric acid. Filter the liquid and wash the precipitate on the
filter with distilled water until the wash water comes off neutral.
Dissolve the glycyrrhizin from the filter by the addition of ammonia
water, drop by drop, collecting the filtered solution in a tared
capsule. Evaporate in the water bath, dry the residual glycyrrhizin at
212° F., and weigh. Repeated examinations of known pure extracts have
yielded a range of percentage of glycyrrhizin running from 8.06 per
cent to 11.90 per cent. The ash should be acid in reaction and a total
percentage of from 5.64 to 8.64 of the extract.

LIGHT, INACTINIC: See Photography.

LIGNALOE SOAP: See Soap.

LIMEADE: See Beverages, under Lemonades.

LIME AS A FERTILIZER: See Fertilizers.


«LIME, BIRD.»

Bird lime is a thick, soft, tough, and sticky mass of a greenish color,
has an unpleasant smell and bitter taste, melts easily on heating,
and hardens when exposed in thin layers to the air. It is difficult
to dissolve in alcohol, but easily soluble in hot alcohol, oil of
turpentine, fat oils, and also somewhat in vinegar. The best quality is
prepared from the inner green bark of the holly (_Ilex aquifolium_),
which is boiled, then put in barrels, and submitted for 14 days to
slight fermentation until it becomes sticky. Another process of
preparing it is to mix the boiled bark with juice of mistletoe berries
and burying it in the ground until {459} fermented. The bark is then
pulverized, boiled, and washed. Artificial bird lime is prepared by
boiling and then igniting linseed oil, or boiling printing varnish
until it is very tough and sticky. It is also prepared by dissolving
cabinetmakers’ glue in water and adding a concentrated solution of
chloride of zinc. The mixture is very sticky, does not dry on exposure
to the air, and has the advantage that it can be easily washed off the
feathers of the birds.

LIME JUICE: See Essences and Extracts.

LIME-JUICE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

LIME WAFERS: See Confectionery.

LINEN, TO DISTINGUISH COTTON FROM: See Cotton.

LINEN DRESSING: See Laundry Preparations.


«LINIMENTS:»

See also Ointments.


«For external use only.»—I.—The following penetrating oily liniment
reduces all kinds of inflammatory processes:

 Paraffine oil         4 ounces
 Capsicum powder     1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Digest on a sand bath and filter. To this may be added directly the
following: Oil of wintergreen or peppermint, phenol, thymol, camphor or
eucalyptol, etc.

 II.—Camphor                   2 ounces
      Menthol                   1 ounce
      Oil of thyme              1 ounce
      Oil of sassafras          1 ounce
      Tincture of myrrh         1 ounce
      Tincture of capsicum      1 ounce
      Chloroform                1 ounce
      Alcohol                   2 pints

LINIMENTS FOR HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas.


«LINOLEUM:»

See also Oilcloth.


«Composition for Linoleum, Oilcloth, etc.»—This is composed of whiting,
dried linseed oil, and any ordinary dryer, such as litharge, to which
ingredients a proportion of gum tragacanth is to be added, replacing a
part of the oil and serving to impart flexibility to the fabric, and to
the composition a pasty mass the property of drying more rapidly. In
the production of linoleum, the whiting is replaced in whole or in part
by pulverized cork. The proportions are approximately the following by
weight: Whiting or powdered cork, 13 parts; gum tragacanth, 5 parts;
dried linseed oil, 5 1⁠/⁠2 parts; siccative, 1⁠/⁠2 part.


«Dressings for Linoleum.»—A weak solution of beeswax in spirits of
turpentine has been recommended for brightening the appearance of
linoleum. Here are some other formulas:

 I.—Palm oil         1 ounce
     Paraffine       18 ounces
     Kerosene         4 ounces

Melt the paraffine and oil, remove from the fire and incorporate the
kerosene.

 II.—Yellow wax          5 ounces
      Oil turpentine     11 ounces
      Amber varnish       5 ounces

Melt the wax, add the oil, and then the varnish. Apply with a rag.


«Treatment of Newly Laid Linoleum.»—The proper way to cleanse a
linoleum flooring is first to sweep off the dust and then wipe up with
a damp cloth. Several times a year the surface should be well rubbed
with floor wax. Care must be had that the mass is well pulverized and
free from grit. Granite linoleum and figured coverings are cleansed
without the application of water. A floor covering which has been
treated from the beginning with floor wax need only be wiped off daily
with a dry cloth, either woolen or felt, and afterwards rubbed well
with a cloth filled with the mass. It will improve its appearance, too,
if it be washed several times a year with warm water and a neutral soap.

LINOLEUM, CLEANING AND POLISHING: See Household Formulas.

LINOLEUM ON IRON STAIRS OR CEMENT FLOORS, TO GLUE: See Adhesives, under
Glues.


«LINSEED OIL:»

See also Oils.


«Bleaching of Linseed Oil and Poppyseed Oil.»—In order to bleach
linseed oil and poppyseed oil for painting purposes, thoroughly
shake 2.5 parts of it in a glass vessel with a solution of potassium
permanganate, 50 parts, in 1,250 parts of water; let stand for 24 hours
in a warm temperature, and then mix with 75 parts of pulverized sodium
sulphite. Now shake until the latter has dissolved and add 100 parts of
crude hydrochloric acid, 20°. Agitate frequently and wash, after the
previously brown mass has become light colored, with water, in which
a little {460} chalk has been finely distributed, until the water is
neutral. Finally filter over calcined Glauber’s salt.


«Adulteration of Linseed Oil.»—This is common, and a simple and cheap
method of testing is by nitric acid. Pour equal parts of the linseed
oil and nitric acid into a flask, shake vigorously, and let it stand
for 20 minutes. If the oil is pure, the upper stratum is of straw
yellow color and the lower one colorless. If impure, the former is dark
brown or black, the latter pale orange or dark yellow, according to the
admixtures to the oil.

The addition of rosin oil to linseed oil or other paint oils can be
readily detected by the increase in specific gravity, the low flash
point, and the odor of rosin on heating; while the amount may be
approximately ascertained from the amount of unsaponifiable oil left
after boiling with caustic soda.

LIP SALVES AND LIPOL: See Cosmetics.

LIPOWITZ METAL: See Alloys.

LIQUEURS: See Wines and Liquors.

LIQUOR AMMONII ANISATUS: See Ammonia.

LIQUORS: See Wines and Liquors.

LITHOGRAPHERS’ LACQUER: See Lacquers.

LITHOGRAPHS: See Pictures and Engravings.

LIVER-SPOT REMEDIES: See Cosmetics.

LOCKSMITH’S VARNISH: See Varnishes.

LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.

LOCUST KILLER: See Insecticides.

LOUSE WASH: See Insecticides.


«Lubricants»


«Oil for Firearms.»—Either pure vaseline oil, white, 0.870, or else
pure white-bone oil, proof to cold, is employed for this purpose, since
these two oils are not only free from acid, but do not oxidize or
resinify.


«Leather Lubricants.»—Russian tallow, 1 pound; beeswax, 6 ounces; black
pitch, 4 ounces; common castor oil, 3 pounds; soft paraffine, 1⁠/⁠2
pound; oil of citronella, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce. Melt all together in a saucepan,
except the citronella, which add on cooling. Stir occasionally.


«Machinery Oils.»—I.—The solid fat, called bakourine, a heavy lubricant
which possesses extraordinary lubricating qualities has a neutral
reaction and melts only at about 176° to 188° F. It is prepared as
follows:

A mixture is made of 100 parts of Bienne petroleum or crude naphtha,
with 25 parts of castor oil or some mineral oil, and subjected to
the action of 60 or 70 parts of sulphuric acid of 66° Bé. The acid
is poured in a small stream into the oil, while carefully stirring.
The agitation is continued until a thick and blackish-brown mass is
obtained free from non-incorporated petroleum. Very cold water of 2 or
3 times the weight of the mass is then added, and the whole is stirred
until the mass turns white and becomes homogeneous. It is left at rest
for 24 hours, after which the watery liquid, on the surface of which
the fat is floating, must be poured off. After resting again from 3 to
4 days, the product is drawn off, carefully neutralized with caustic
potash, and placed in barrels ready for shipping.

II.—Melt in a kettle holding 2 to 4 times as much as the volume of the
mass which is to be boiled therein, 10 parts, by weight, of tallow in
20 parts of rape oil on a moderate fire; add 10 parts of freshly and
well burnt lime, slaked in 30 or 40 parts of water; increase the fire
somewhat, and boil with constant stirring until a thick froth forms
and the mass sticks to the bottom of the kettle. Burning should be
prevented by diligent stirring. Then add in portions of 10 parts each,
gradually, 70 parts of rape oil and boil with a moderate fire, until
the little lumps gradually forming have united to a whole uniform mass.
With this operation it is of importance to be able to regulate the fire
quickly. Samples are now continually taken, which are allowed to cool
quickly on glass plates. The boiling down must not be carried so far
that the samples harden on cooling; they must spin long, fine threads,
when touched with the finger. When this point is reached add, with
constant stirring, when the heat has abated sufficiently (which may be
tested by pouring in a few drops of water), 25 to 30 parts of water.
Now raise the fire, without {461} ceasing to stir, until the mass comes
to a feeble, uniform boil. In order to be able to act quickly in case
of a sudden boiling over, the fire must be such that it can be removed
quickly, and a little cold water must always be kept on hand. Next,
gradually add in small portions, so as not to disturb the boiling of
the mass, 500 parts of paraffine oil (if very thick, 800 to 900 parts
may be added), remove from the fire, allow the contents of the kettle
to clarify, and skim off the warm grease from the sediment into a
stirring apparatus. Agitate until the mass begins to thicken and cool;
if the grease should still be too solid, stir in a little paraffine oil
the second time. The odor of the paraffine oil may be disguised by the
admixture of a little mirbane oil.


«For Cutting Tools.»—The proportion of ingredients of a lubricating
mixture for cutting tools is 6 gallons of water, 3 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of soft
soap, and 1⁠/⁠2 gallon of clean refuse oil. Heat the water and mix with
the soap, preferably in a mechanical mixer; afterwards add the oil.
A cast-iron circular tank to hold 12 gallons, fitted with a tap at
the bottom and having three revolving arms fitted to a vertical shaft
driven by bevels and a fast and loose pulley, answers all requirements
for a mixer. This should be kept running all through the working day.


«For Highspeed Bearings.»—To prevent heating and sticking of bearings
on heavy machine tools due to running continuously at high speeds, take
about 1⁠/⁠8 of flake graphite, and the remainder kerosene oil. As soon
as the bearing shows the slightest indication of heating or sticking,
this mixture should be forcibly squirted through the oil hole until it
flows out between the shaft and bearing, when a small quantity of thin
machine oil may be applied.


«For Heavy Bearings.»—An excellent lubricant for heavy bearings can be
made from either of the following recipes:

 I.—Paraffine         6 pounds
     Palm oil         12 pounds
     Oleonaphtha       8 pounds

 II.—Paraffine        8 pounds
      Palm oil        20 pounds
      Oleonaphtha     12 pounds

The oleonaphtha should have a density of 0.9. First dissolve the
paraffine in the oleonaphtha at a temperature of about 158° F. Then
gradually stir in the palm oil a little at a time. The proportions will
show that No. II gives a less liquid product than No. I. Quicklime may
be added if desired.


«For Lathe Centers.»—An excellent lubricant for lathe centers is made
by using 1 part graphite and 4 parts tallow thoroughly mixed.


«Sewing Machine Oil.»—I.—Petroleum oils are better adapted for the
lubrication of sewing machines than any of the animal oils. Sperm oil
has for a long time been considered the standard oil for this purpose,
but it is really not well adapted to the conditions to which a sewing
machine is subjected. If the machine were operated constantly or
regularly every day, probably sperm oil could not be improved on. The
difficulty is, however, that a family sewing machine will frequently
be allowed to stand untouched for weeks at a time and will then be
expected to run as smoothly as though just oiled. Under this kind of
treatment almost any oil other than petroleum oil will become gummy.
What is known in the trade as a “neutral” oil, of high viscosity, would
probably answer better for this purpose than anything else. A mixture
of 1 part of petrolatum and 7 parts of paraffine oil has also been
recommended.

 II.—Pale oil of almonds          9 ounces
      Rectified benzoline          3 ounces
      Foreign oil of lavender      1 ounce


«PETROLEUM JELLIES AND SOLIDIFIED LUBRICANTS.»

Petroleum jelly, vaseline, and petrolatum are different names for the
same thing.

The pure qualities are made from American stock thickened with hot air
until the desired melting point is attained. Three colors are made:
white, yellow, and black of various qualities. Cheaper qualities are
made by using ceresine wax in conjunction with the genuine article and
pale mineral oil. This is the German method and is approved of by their
pharmacopœia. Machinery qualities are made with cylinder oils, pale
mineral oils, and ceresine wax.

 I.—Yellow ceresine wax                11 parts
     White ceresine wax                  6 parts
     American mineral oil, 903⁠/⁠907     151 parts

Melt the waxes and stir in the oil. To make white, use all white
ceresine wax. To color, use aniline dyes soluble in oil to any shade
required.

 II.—Ceresine wax                    1 pound
 Bloomless mineral oil, Sq. 910       1 gallon {462}

Melt the wax and add the oil, varying according to the consistency
required. To color black, add 28 pounds lampblack to 20 gallons oil.
Any wax will do, according to quality of product desired.


«White Petroleum Jelly.»—

 White tasteless oil      4 parts
 White ceresine wax       1 part


«Solidified Lubricants.»—

 I.—Refined cotton oil                 2 parts
     American mineral oil, 903⁠/⁠907      2 parts
     Oleate of alumina                  1 part

Gently heat together.

 II.—Petroleum jelly      120 parts
      Ceresine wax           5 parts
      Slaked lime          1⁠/⁠2 part
      Water              4 1⁠/⁠2 parts

Heat the wax and the petroleum jelly gently until liquid; then
mix together the water and lime. Decant the former into packing
receptacles, and add lime and water, stirring until it sets. For
cheaper qualities use cream cylinder oil instead of petroleum jelly.


«WAGON AND AXLE GREASES:»


«For Axles of Heavy Vehicles.»—I.—Tallow (free from acid), 19 1⁠/⁠2
parts; palm oil, 14 parts; sal soda, 5 1⁠/⁠2 parts; water, 3 parts, by
weight. Dissolve the soda in the water and separately melt the tallow,
then stir in the palm oil. This may be gently warmed before adding,
as it greatly facilitates its incorporation with the tallow, unless
the latter be made boiling hot, when it readily melts the semi-solid
palm oil. When these two greases are thoroughly incorporated, pour the
mixture slowly into the cold lye (or soda solution), and stir well
until the mass is homogeneous. This lubricant can be made less solid by
decreasing the tallow or increasing the palm oil.

II.—Slaked lime (in powder), 8 parts, is slowly sifted into rosin oil,
10 parts. Stir it continuously to incorporate it thoroughly, and gently
heat the mixture until of a syrupy consistency. Color with lampblack,
or a solution of turmeric in a strong solution of sal soda. For blue
grease, 275 parts of rosin oil are heated with 1 part of slaked lime
and then allowed to cool. The supernatant oil is removed from the
precipitated matter, and 5 or 6 parts of the foregoing rosin-oil soap
are stirred in until all is a soft, unctuous mass.


«For Axles of Ordinary Vehicles.»—I.—Mix 80 parts of fat and 20 parts
of very fine black lead; melt the fat in a varnished earthen vessel;
add the black lead while constantly stirring until it is cold, for
otherwise the black lead, on account of its density, would not remain
in suspension in the melted fat. Axles lubricated with this mixture can
make 80 miles without the necessity of renewing the grease.

II.—Mix equal parts of red American rosin, melted tallow, linseed oil,
and caustic soda lye (of 1.5 density).

III.—Melt 20 parts of rosin oil in 50 parts of yellow palm oil,
saponify this with 25 parts of caustic soda lye of 15° Bé., and add 25
parts of mineral oil or paraffine.

IV.—Mix residue of the distillation of petroleum, 60 to 80 parts;
tallow, 10 parts; colophony, 10 parts; and caustic soda solution of 40°
Bé., 15 parts.


«A Grease for Locomotive Axles.»—Saponify a mixture of 50 parts
tallow, 28 parts palm oil, 2 parts sperm oil. Mix in soda lye made by
dissolving 12 parts of soda in 137 parts of water.


«MISCELLANEOUS LUBRICANTS:»


«For Cotton Belts.»—Carefully melt over a slow fire in a closed iron
or self-regulating boiler 250 parts of caoutchouc or gum elastic, cut
up in small pieces; then add 200 parts of colophony; when the whole
is well melted and mixed, incorporate, while carefully stirring, 200
parts of yellow wax. Then heat 850 parts of train oil, mixing with it
250 parts of talc, and unite the two preparations, constantly stirring,
until completely cold.


«Chloriding Mineral Lubricating Oils.»—A process has been introduced
for producing industrial vaselines and mineral oils for lubrication,
based on the treatment of naphthas, petroleums, and similar
hydrocarbides, by means of chlorine or mixtures of chlorides and
hypochlorides, known under the name of decoloring chlorides. Mix and
stir thoroughly 1,000 parts of naphtha of about 908 density; 55 parts
of chloride of lime, and 500 parts of water. Decant and wash.


«Glass Stop Cock Lubricant.»—(See also Stoppers).

 Pure rubber      14 parts
 Spermaceti        5 parts
 Petroleum         1 part

Melt the rubber in a covered vessel and then stir in the other
ingredients. A little more petroleum will be required when the compound
is for winter use. {463}


«Hard Metal Drilling Lubricant.»—For drilling in hard metal it is
recommended to use carbolic acid instead of another fatty substance as
a lubricant, since the latter, by decreasing the friction, diminishes
the “biting” of the drill, whereas the carbolic acid has an etching
action.


«Plaster Model Lubricant.»—Take linseed oil, 1,000 parts; calcined
lead, 50 parts; litharge, 60 parts; umber, 30 parts; talc, 25 parts.
Boil for 2 hours on a moderate fire; skim frequently and keep in
well-closed flasks.


«Graphite Lubricating Compound.»—Graphite mixed with tallow gives a
good lubricating compound that is free from any oxidizing if the tallow
be rendered free from rancidity. The proportions are: Plumbago, 1 part;
tallow, 4 parts. The plumbago being stirred into the melted tallow and
incorporated by passing it through a mixing mill, add a few pounds per
hundredweight of camphor in powder to the hot compound.


«Lubricants for Redrawing Shells.»—Zinc shells should be clean and free
from all grit and should be immersed in boiling hot soap water. They
must be redrawn while _hot_ to get the best results. On some shells hot
oil is used in preference to soap water.

For redrawing aluminum shells use a cheap grade of vaseline. It may
not be amiss to add that the draw part of the redrawing die should not
be made too long, so as to prevent too much friction, which causes the
shells to split and shrivel up.

For redrawing copper shells use good thick soap water as a lubricant.
The soap used should be of a kind that will produce plenty of “slip.”
If none such is to be had, mix a quantity of lard oil with the soap
water on hand and boil the two together. Sprinkling graphite over the
shells just before redrawing sometimes helps out on a mean job.


«Rope Grease.»—For hemp ropes, fuse together 20 pounds of tallow and
30 pounds of linseed oil. Then add 20 pounds of paraffine, 30 pounds
of vaseline, and 60 pounds of rosin. Finally mix with 10 pounds of
graphite, first rubbed up with 50 pounds of boiled oil. For wire ropes
fuse 100 pounds of suint with 20 pounds of dark colophony (rosin). Then
stir in 30 pounds of rosin oil and 10 pounds of dark petroleum.


«Sheet Metal Lubricant.»—Mix 1 quart of whale oil, 1 pound of white
lead, 1 pint of water, and 3 ounces of the finest graphite. This is
applied to the metal with a brush before it enters the dies.


«Steam Cylinder Lubricant.»—To obtain a very viscous oil that does
not decompose in the presence of steam even at a high temperature, it
is necessary to expose neutral wool fats, that have been freed from
wool-fatty acids, such as crude lanolin or wool wax, either quite alone
or in combination with mineral oils, to a high heat. This is best
accomplished in the presence of ordinary steam or superheated steam at
a heat of 572° F., and a pressure of 50 atmospheres, corresponding with
the conditions in the cylinder in which it is to be used. Instead of
separating any slight quantities of acid that may arise, they may be
dissolved out as neutral salts.


«Wooden Gears.»—An excellent lubricating agent for wooden gears
consists of tallow, 30 parts (by weight); palm oil, 20 parts; fish oil,
10 parts; and graphite, 20 parts. The fats are melted at moderate heat,
and the finely powdered and washed graphite mixed with them intimately
by long-continued stirring. The teeth of wooden combs are kept in
a perfectly serviceable condition for a much longer time if to the
ordinary tallow or graphite grease one-tenth part of their weight of
powdered glass is added.


«TESTS FOR LUBRICANTS.»

In testing lubricants in general, a great deal depends upon the class
of work in which they are to be employed. In dealing with lubricating
greases the specific gravity should always be determined. The viscosity
is, of course, also a matter of the utmost importance. If possible
the viscosity should be taken at the temperature at which the grease
is to be subjected when used, but this cannot always be done; 300° F.
will be found to be a very suitable temperature for the determination
of the viscosity of heavy lubricants. Although one of the standard
viscosimeters is the most satisfactory instrument with which to carry
out the test, yet it is not a necessity. Provided the test be always
conducted in exactly the same manner, and at a fixed temperature, using
a standard sample for comparison, the form of apparatus used is not of
great importance. Most dealers in scientific apparatus will provide a
simple and cheap instrument, the results obtained with which will be
found reliable. With the exercise of a little ingenuity any one can fit
up a viscosimeter for himself at a very small outlay.

Acidity is another important point to {464} note in dealing with
lubricating greases. Calculated as sulphuric acid, the free acid should
not exceed .01 per cent, and free fatty acids should not be present
to any extent. Cylinder oil should dissolve completely in petroleum
benzine (specific gravity, .700), giving a clear solution. In dealing
with machine oils the conditions are somewhat different. Fatty oils
in mixture with mineral oils are very useful, as they give better
lubrication and driving power, especially for heavy axles, for which
these mixtures should always be used. The specific gravity should be
from .900 to .915 and the freezing point should not be above 58° F. The
flash point of heavy machine oils is not a matter of great importance.
The viscosity of dynamo oils, taken in Engler’s apparatus, should be
15–16 at 68° F. and 3 1⁠/⁠2–4 at 122° F. In dealing with wagon oils and
greases it should be remembered that the best kinds are those which are
free from rosin and rosin products, and their flash point should be
above 212° F.


«To Test Grease.»—To be assured of the purity of grease, its density is
examined as compared with water; a piece of fat of the size of a pea is
placed in a glass of water. If it remains on the surface or sinks very
slowly the fat is pure; if it sinks rapidly to the bottom the fat is
mixed with heavy matters and coom is the result.

LUBRICANTS FOR WATCHMAKERS: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

LUPULINE BITTERS: See Wines and Liquors.


«LUSTER PASTE.»

This is used for plate glass, picture frames, and metal. Five parts
of very finely washed and pulverized chalk; 5 parts of Vienna lime,
powdered; 5 parts of bolus, powdered; 5 parts of wood ashes, powdered;
5 parts of English red, powdered; 5 parts of soap powder. Work all
together in a kneading machine, to make a smooth, even paste, adding
spirit. The consistency of the paste can be varied, by varying the
amount of spirit, from a solid to a soft mass.

LUTES: See Adhesives.

MACHINE OIL: See Lubricants.

MACHINERY, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

MAGIC: See Pyrotechnics.


«MAGNESIUM CITRATE.»

 Magnesium carbonate        10 ounces
 Citric acid                20 ounces
 Sugar                      21 ounces
 Oil of lemon              1⁠/⁠2 drachm
 Water enough to make      240 ounces

Introduce the magnesium carbonate into a wide-mouthed 2-gallon bottle,
drop the oil of lemon on it, stir with a wooden stick: then add the
citric acid, the sugar, and water enough to come up to a mark on the
bottle indicating 240 ounces. For this purpose use cold water, adding
about half of the quantity first, and the remainder when the substances
are mostly dissolved. By allowing the solution to stand for a half to a
whole day, it will filter better and more quickly than when hot water
is used.

MAGNESIUM ORGEAT POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent.

MAGNESIUM FLASH-LIGHT POWDERS: See Photography.


«MAGNETIC CURVES OF IRON FILINGS, THEIR FIXATION.»

One of the experiments made in every physical laboratory in teaching
the elements of magnetism and electricity is the production of the
magnetic curves by sprinkling iron filings over a glass plate, after
the well-known method.

For fixing these curves so that they may be preserved indefinitely, a
plate of glass is warmed on the smooth upper surface of a shallow iron
chest containing water raised to a suitable temperature by means of a
spirit-lamp. A piece of paraffine is placed on the glass, and in the
course of 3 or 4 minutes spreads itself evenly in a thin layer over the
surface. The glass plate is removed, the surplus paraffine running off.
The image is formed with iron filings on the cooled paraffine, which
does not adhere to the iron, so that if the image is unsatisfactory
the filings may be removed and a new figure taken. To fix the curves,
the plate of glass is again placed on the warming stove. Finally, the
surface of the paraffine is covered with white paint, so that the
curves appear black on a white ground. Very well-defined figures may
thus be obtained. A similar though much simpler process consists in
covering one surface of stiff white paper with a layer of paraffine, by
warming {465} over an iron plate, spreading the filings over the cooled
surface, and fixing them with a hot iron or a gas flame.

MAGNOLIA METAL: See Alloys.

MAHOGANY: See Wood.

MALTED FOOD: See Foods.

MALTED MILK: See Milk.

MALT, HOT: See Beverages.

MANGANESE ALLOYS: See Alloys.

MANGANESE STEEL: See Steel.

MANGE CURES: See Veterinary Formulas.

MANICURE PREPARATIONS: See Cosmetics.


«MANTLES.»

These are prepared after processes differing slightly from one another,
but all based on the original formula of Welsbach—the impregnation of
vegetable fibers with certain mineral oxides in solution, drying out,
and arranging on platinum wire.

 Lanthanum oxide        30 parts
 Yttrium oxide          20 parts
 Burnt magnesia         50 parts
 Acetic acid            50 parts
 Water, distilled      100 parts

The salts are dissolved in the water, and to the solution another
150 parts of distilled water are added and the whole filtered. The
vegetable fiber (in its knitted or woven form) is impregnated with
this solution dried, and arranged on platinum wire. In the formula the
acetic acid may be replaced with dilute nitric acid. The latter seems
to have some advantages over the former, among which is the fact that
the residual ash where acetic acid is used has a tendency to ball up
and make a vitreous residue, while that of the nitric acid remains in
powdery form.


«Self-Igniting Mantles.»—A fabric of platinum wire and cotton thread
is sewed or woven into the tissue of the incandescent body; next it is
impregnated with a solution of thorium salts and dried. The thorium
nitrate in glowing gives a very loose but nevertheless fireproof
residue. A mixture of thorium nitrate with platinic chloride leaves
after incandescence a fire-resisting sponge possessing to a great
extent the property of igniting gas mixtures containing oxygen. Employ
a mixture of 1 part of thorium nitrate to 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts of platinic
chloride.

MANURES: See Fertilizers.

MANUSCRIPT COPYING: See Copying.

MAPLE: See Wood.

MARASCHINO: See Wines and Liquors.

MARBLE CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

MARBLE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

MARBLE COLORS: See Stone.

MARBLE ETCHING: See Etching.

MARBLE, IMITATION: See Plaster.

MARBLE, PAINTING ON: See Painting.

MARBLE POLISHING: See Polishes.

MARBLING CRAYONS: See Crayons.

MARGERINE: See Butter.


«MARKING FLUID:»

See also Inks and Etching.

For laying out work on structural iron or castings a better way than
chalking the surface is to mix whiting with benzine or gasoline to the
consistency of paint, and then apply it with a brush; in a few minutes
the benzine or gasoline will evaporate, leaving a white surface ready
for scribing lines.

MASSAGE APPLICATIONS: See Cosmetics.

MASSAGE SOAPS: See Soaps.


«Matches»

(See also Phosphorus.)


«Manufacture of Matches.»—Each factory uses its own methods and
chemical mixtures, though, in a general way the latter do not vary
greatly. It is {466} impossible here to give a full account of the
different steps of manufacture, and of all the precautions necessary to
turn out good, marketable matches. In the manufacture of the ordinary
safety match, the wood is first comminuted and reduced to the final
shape and then steeped in a solution of ammonium phosphate (2 per cent
of this salt with 1 or 1 1⁠/⁠2 per cent of phosphoric acid), or in a
solution of ammonium sulphate (2 1⁠/⁠2 per cent), then drained and
dried. The object of this application is to prevent the match from
continuing to glow after it has been burned out. Next the matches are
dipped into a paraffine or stearine bath, and after that into the
match bath proper, which is best done by machines constructed for the
purpose. Here are a few formulas:

 I.—Potassium chlorate       2,000 parts
     Lead binoxide            1,150 parts
     Red lead                 2,500 parts
     Antimony trisulphide     1,250 parts
     Gum arabic                 670 parts
     Paraffine                  250 parts
     Potassium bichromate     1,318 parts

Directions: See No. II.

 II.—Potassium chlorate        2,000 parts
      Lead binoxide             2,150 parts
      Red lead                  2,500 parts
      Antimony trisulphide      1,250 parts
      Gum arabic                  670 parts
      Paraffine                   250 parts

Rub the paraffine and antimony trisulphide together, and then add the
other ingredients. Enough water is added to bring the mass to a proper
consistency when heated. Conduct heating operations on a water bath.
The sticks are first dipped in a solution of paraffine in benzine and
then are dried. For striking surfaces, mix red phosphorus, 9 parts;
pulverized iron pyrites, 7 parts; pulverized glass, 3 parts; and gum
arabic or glue, 1 part, with water, quantity sufficient. To make the
matches water or damp proof, employ glue instead of gum arable in the
above formula, and conduct the operations in a darkened room. For
parlor matches dry the splints and immerse the ends in melted stearine.
Then dip in the following mixture and dry:

 Red phosphorus                 3.0 parts
 Gum arabic or tragacanth       0.5 parts
 Water                          3.0 parts
 Sand (finely ground)           2.0 parts
 Lead binoxide                  2.0 parts

Perfume by dipping in a solution of benzoic acid.

III.—M. O. Lindner, of Paris, has patented a match which may be
lighted by friction upon any surface whatever, and which possesses the
advantages of being free from danger and of emitting no unpleasant
odor. The mixture into which the splints are first dipped consists of

 Chlorate of potash        6 parts
 Sulphide of antimony      2 parts
 Gum                   1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Powdered clay         1 1⁠/⁠2 parts

The inflammable compound consists of

 Chlorate of potash       2 to 3 parts
 Amorphous phosphorus          6 parts
 Gum                       1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Aniline                   1 1⁠/⁠2 parts

Red or amorphous is substituted for yellow phosphorus in the match
heads. The composition of the igniting paste is given as follows:

                                     By weight
 Soaked glue (1 to 5 of water)       37.0 parts
 Powdered glass                       7.5 parts
 Whiting                              7.5 parts
 Amorphous phosphorus (pure)         10.0 parts
 Paraffine wax                        4.0 parts
 Chlorate of potash                  27.0 parts
 Sugar or lampblack                   7.0 parts

Silicate of soda may be substituted for the glue, bichromate of potash
added for damp climates, and sulphur for large matches.

The different compositions for tipping the matches in use in different
countries and factories all consist essentially of emulsions of
phosphorus in a solution of glue or gum, with or without other matters
for increasing the combustibility, for coloring, etc.

I.—English.—Fine glue, 2 parts, broken into small pieces, and soaked in
water till quite soft, is added to water, 4 parts, and heated by means
of a water bath until it is quite fluid, and at a temperature of 200°
to 212° F. The vessel is then removed from the fire, and phosphorus,
1 1⁠/⁠2 to 2 parts, is gradually added, the mixture being agitated
briskly and continually with a stirrer having wooden pegs or bristles
projecting at its lower end. When a uniform emulsion is obtained,
chlorate of potassa, 4 to 5 {467} parts; powdered glass, 3 to 4 parts;
and red lead, smalt, or other coloring matter, a sufficient quantity
(all in a state of very fine powder), are added, one at a time, to
prevent accidents, and the stirring continued until the mixture is
comparatively cool. The above proportions are those of the best quality
of English composition. The matches tipped with it deflagrate with a
snapping noise.

II.—German (Böttger).—Dissolve gum arabic, 16 parts, in the least
possible quantity of water; add of phosphorus (in powder), 9 parts, and
mix by trituration. Then add niter, 14 parts; vermilion or binoxide
of manganese, 16 parts, and form the whole into a paste as directed
above. Into this the matches are to be dipped, and then exposed to dry.
As soon as they are quite dry they are to be dipped into very dilute
copal varnish or lac varnish, and again exposed to dry, by which means
they are rendered waterproof, or at least less likely to suffer from
exposure in damp weather.

III. (Böttger.)—Glue, 6 parts, is soaked in a little cold water for 24
hours, after which it is liquefied by trituration in a heated mortar;
phosphorus, 4 parts, is added, and rubbed down at a heat not exceeding
150° F.; niter (in fine powder), 10 parts, is next mixed in, and
afterwards red ocher, 5 parts, and smalt, 2 parts, are further added,
and the whole formed into a uniform paste, into which the matches are
dipped, as before. This is cheaper than the previous one.

IV. (Diesel.)—Phosphorus, 17 parts; glue, 21 parts; red lead, 24 parts;
niter, 38 parts. Proceed as above.

Matches tipped with II, III, or IV, inflame without fulmination when
rubbed against a rough surface, and are hence termed noiseless matches
by the makers.


«Safety Paste for Matches.»—The danger of explosion during the
preparation of match composition may be minimized by addition to the
paste of the following mixture: Finely powdered cork, 3 parts, by
weight; oxide of iron, 15 parts; flour, 23 parts; and water, about 40
parts. In practice, 30 parts of gum arabic are dissolved in water,
40 parts, and to the solution are added powdered potassium chlorate,
57 parts, and when this is well distributed, amorphous phosphorus, 7
parts, and powdered glass, 15 parts, are stirred in. The above mixture
is then immediately introduced, and when mixing is complete, the
composition can be applied to wooden sticks which need not have been
previously dried or paraffined. The head of the match is finally coated
with tallow, which prevents atmospheric action and also spontaneous
ignition.

Most chemists agree that the greatest improvement of note in the
manufacture of matches is that of Landstrom, of Jonkoping, in Sweden.
It consists in dividing the ingredient of the match mixture into two
separate compositions, one being placed on the ends of the splints,
as usual, and the other, which contains the phosphorus, being spread
in a thin layer upon the end or lid of the box. The following are
the compositions used: (_a_) For the splints: Chlorate of potassa, 6
parts; sulphuret of antimony, 2 to 3 parts; glue, 1 part. (_b_) For the
friction surface: Amorphous phosphorus, 10 parts; sulphuret of antimony
or peroxide of manganese, 8 parts; glue, 3 to 6 parts; spread thinly
upon the surface, which has been previously made rough by a coating
of glue and sand. By thus dividing the composition the danger of fire
arising from ignition of the matches by accidental friction is avoided,
as neither the portion on the splint nor that on the box can be ignited
by rubbing against an unprepared surface. Again, by using the innocuous
red or amorphous phosphorus, the danger of poisoning is entirely
prevented.

MATCH MARKS ON PAINT, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.


MATCH PHOSPHORUS, SUBSTITUTE FOR: See Phosphorus Substitute.


«Matrix Masses»


«Matrix for Medals, Coins, etc.»—I.—Sharp impressions of coins, medals,
etc., are obtained, according to Böttger, with the following: Mix
molten, thinly liquid sulphur with an equal quantity of infusorial
earth, adding some graphite. If a sufficient quantity of this mass,
made liquid over a flame, is quickly applied with a spatula or spoon
on the coin, etc., an impression of great sharpness is obtained after
cooling, which usually takes place promptly. Owing to the addition of
graphite the articles do not become dull or unsightly.

II.—Bronze and silver medals should always be coated with a separating
grease layer. The whole coin is greased slightly and then carefully
wiped off again with a little wadding, but in such a manner {468} that
a thin film of grease remains on the surface. Next, a ring of strong
cardboard or thin pasteboard is placed around the edge, and the ends
are sealed together. Now stir up a little gypsum in a small dish and
put a teaspoonful of it on the surface of which the mold is to be
taken, distributing it carefully with a badger’s-hair brush, entering
the finest cavities, which operation will be assisted by blowing on it.
When the object is covered with a thin layer of plaster of Paris, the
plaster, which has meanwhile become somewhat stiffer, is poured on, so
that the thickness of the mold will be about 1⁠/⁠20 of an inch. The
removal of the cast can be effected only after a time, when the plaster
has become warm, has cooled again, and has thoroughly hardened. If it
be attempted to remove the cast from the metal too early and by the use
of force, fine pieces are liable to break off and remain adhering to
the model. In order to obtain a positive mold from the concave one, it
is laid in water for a short time, so that it becomes saturated with
the water it absorbs. The dripping, wet mold is again provided with
an edge, and plaster of Paris is poured on. The latter readily flows
out on the wet surface, and only in rare cases blisters will form.
Naturally this casting method will furnish a surface of pure gypsum,
which is not the case if the plaster is poured into a greased mold.
In this case the surface of the cast contains a soapy layer, for the
liquid plaster forms with oil a subsequently rather hard lime soap. The
freshly cast plaster must likewise be taken off only when a quarter of
an hour has elapsed, after it has become heated and has cooled again.

MATS FOR METALS: See Metals.


«MATZOON.»

Add 2 tablespoonfuls of bakers’ yeast to 1 pint of rich milk, which
has been slightly warmed, stirring well together and setting aside in
a warm room in a pitcher covered with a wet cloth for a time varying
from 6 to 12 hours, according to the season or temperature of the room.
Take from this, when curdled, 6 tablespoonfuls, add to another pint of
milk, and again ferment as before, and continue for five successive
fermentations in all, when the product will have become free from the
taste of the yeast. As soon as the milk thickens, which is finally
to be kept for use, it should be stirred again and then put into a
refrigerator to prevent further fermentation. It should be smooth, of
the consistence of thick cream, and of a slightly acid taste.

The milk should be prepared fresh every day, and the new supply is made
by adding 6 tablespoonfuls of the previous day’s lot to a pint of milk
and proceeding as before.

The curd is to be eaten with a spoon, not drunk, and preferably with
some bread broken into it. It is also sometimes eaten with sugar, which
is said not to impair its digestibility.

MAY WINE: See Wines and Liquors.


«MEAD.»

In its best form Mead is made as follows: 12 gallons of pure, soft
water (clean rain water is, next to distilled water, best) are mixed
with 30 gallons of expressed honey in a big caldron, 4 ounces of hops
added, and the whole brought to a boil. The boiling is continued with
diligent skimming, for at least an hour and a half. The fire is then
drawn, and the liquid allowed to cool down slowly. When cold, it is
drawn off into a clean barrel, which it should fill to the bung,
with a little over. A pint of fresh wine yeast or ferment is added,
and the barrel put in a moderately warm place, with the bung left
out, to ferment for from 8 to 14 days, according to the weather (the
warmer it is the shorter the period occupied in the primary or chief
fermentation). Every day the foam escaping from the bung should be
carefully skimmed off, and every 2 or 3 days there should be added
a little honey and water to keep the barrel quite full, and in the
meantime a pan or cup should be inverted over the hole, to keep out
dust, insects, etc. When fermentation ceases, the procedure varies.
Some merely drive in the bung securely and let the liquor stand for a
few weeks, then bottle; but the best German makers proceed as follows,
this being a far superior process: The liquor is removed from the
barrel in which it fermented to another, clean, barrel, being strained
through a haircloth sieve to prevent the admission of the old yeast.
A second portion of yeast is added, and the liquid allowed to pass
through the secondary fermentation, lasting usually as long as the
first. The bung is driven into the barrel, the liquid allowed to stand
a few days to settle thoroughly and then drawn off into bottles and
stored in the usual way. Some add nutmeg, cinnamon, etc., prior to the
last fermentation. {469}

MEASURES: See Weights and Measures.

MEASURES, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

MEAT EXTRACT CONTAINING ALBUMEN: See Foods.

MEAT PEPTONOIDS: See Peptonoids.

MEAT PRESERVATIVES: See Foods.

MEAT PRODUCTS (ADULTERATED): See Foods.

MEDAL IMPRESSIONS: See Matrix Mass.

MEDALS, CLEANING AND PRESERVING: See Cleaning Compounds.

MEDALLION METAL: See Alloys.

MEDICINE DOSES: See Doses.


«MEERSCHAUM:»


«To Color a Meerschaum Pipe.»—I.—Fill the pipe and smoke down about
one-third, or to the height to which you wish to color. Leave the
remainder of the tobacco in the pipe, and do not empty or disturb it
for several weeks, or until the desired color is obtained. When smoking
put fresh tobacco on the top and smoke to the same level. A new pipe
should never be smoked outdoors in extremely cold weather.

II.—The pipe is boiled in a preparation of wax, 8 parts; olive oil, 2
parts; and nicotine, 1 part, for 10 or 15 minutes. The pipe absorbs
this, and a thin coating of wax is held on the surface of the pipe,
and made to take a high polish. Under the wax is retained the oil of
tobacco, which is absorbed by the pipe; and its hue grows darker in
proportion to the tobacco used. A meerschaum pipe at first should be
smoked very slowly, and before a second bowlful is lighted the pipe
should cool off. This is to keep the wax as far up on the bowl as
possible; rapid smoking will overheat, driving the wax off and leaving
the pipe dry and raw.


«To Repair Meerschaum Pipes.»—To cement meerschaum pipes, make a glue
of finely powdered and sifted chalk and white of egg. Put a little of
this glue on the parts to be repaired and hold them pressed together
for a moment.

See also Adhesives under Cements.


«To Tell Genuine Meerschaum.»—For the purpose of distinguishing
imitation meerschaum from the true article, rub with silver. If the
silver leaves lead pencil-like marks on the mass, it is not genuine but
artificial meerschaum. If no such lines are produced, the article is
genuine.

MENTHOL COUGH DROPS: See Confectionery.

MENTHOL TOOTH POWDER: See Dentifrices.

MERCURY SALVES: See Ointments.

MERCURY STAINS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

METACARBOL DEVELOPER: See Photography.


«Metals and Their Treatment»

METAL CEMENTS: See Adhesives and Lutes.

METAL CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

METAL INLAYING: See Damaskeening.

METAL POLISHES: See Polishes.

METAL PROTECTIVES: See Rust Preventives.

METAL VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

METALS, HOW TO ATTACH TO RUBBER: See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements.

METALS, SECURING WOOD TO: See Adhesives.


«METALS, BRIGHTENING AND DEADENING, BY DIPPING:»


«Brightening Pickle.»—To brighten articles by dipping, the dipping
liquid must not be too hot, otherwise the pickled surface turns dull;
neither must it be prepared too thin, nor must wet articles be entered,
else only tarnished surfaces will be obtained.

For a burnish-dip any aqua fortis over 33° Bé., i. e., possessing a
specific gravity of 1.30, may be employed. It is advisable not to use
highly concentrated aqua fortis, to reduce the danger of obtaining
matt work. It is important that the quantity of oil of vitriol, which
is added, {470} is correct. It is added because the action of the aqua
fortis is very uncertain. Within a short time it becomes so heated in
acting on the metals that it turns out only dull work, and pores or
even holes are apt to be the result of the violent chemical action.
If the aqua fortis is diluted with water the articles do not become
bright, but tarnish. For this reason sulphuric acid should be used.
This does not attack the metals; it only dilutes the aqua fortis and
distributes the heat generated in pickling over a larger space. It
is also much cheaper, and it absorbs water from the aqua fortis and,
therefore, keeps it in a concentrated state and yet distributed over
the space.

In the case of too much oil of vitriol the dilution becomes too great
and the goods are tarnished; if too little is added, the mixture soon
ceases to turn out bright articles, because of overheating. On this
experience are based the formulas given below.

Dip the articles, which must be free from grease, into the pickle,
after they have been either annealed and quenched in diluted sulphuric
acid or washed out with benzine. Leave them in the dipping mixture
until they become covered with a greenish froth. Then quickly immerse
them in a vessel containing plenty of water, and wash them out well
with running water. Before entering the dipped articles in the baths
it is well to remove all traces of acid, by passing them through a weak
soda or potassium cyanide solution and washing them out again. If the
brightly dipped goods are to remain bright they must be coated with a
thin spirit or zapon lacquer.

Following are two formulas for the pickle:

 I.—Aqua fortis, 36° Bé., by weight                         100 parts
     Oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid), 66° Bé., by weight      70 parts
     Cooking salt, by volume                               1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
     Shining soot (lampblack), by volume                   1 1⁠/⁠2 parts

 II.—Aqua fortis, 40° Bé., by weight                        100 parts
      Oil of vitriol, 66° Bé., by weight                     100 parts
      Cooking salt, by volume                                  2 parts
      Shining soot, by volume                                  2 parts


«Matting or Deadening Pickle.»—When, instead of brilliancy, a matted
appearance is desired for metals, the article is corroded either
mechanically or chemically. In the first case it is pierced with fine
holes near together, rubbed with emery powder or pumice stone and
tamponned. In the other case the corrosion is effected in acid baths
thus composed:

Nitric acid of 36° Bé., 200 parts, by volume; sulphuric acid of 56°
Bé., 200 parts, by volume; sea salt, 1 part, by volume; zinc sulphate,
1 to 5 parts, by volume.

With this proportion of acids the articles can remain from 5 to 20
minutes in the mixture cold; the prominence of the matt depends on
the length of time of the immersion. The pieces on being taken from
the bath have an earthy appearance which is lightened by dipping them
quickly in a brightening acid. If left too long the matted appearance
is destroyed.


«Cotton Matt.»—This matt, thus called on account of its soft shade, is
rarely employed except for articles of stamped brass, statuettes, or
small objects. As much zinc is dissolved in the bath as it will take.
The pieces are left in it from 15 to 30 minutes. On coming from the
bath they are dull, and to brighten them somewhat they are generally
dipped into acids as before described.


«Silver Matt.»—Articles of value for which gilding is desired are
matted by covering them with a light coating of silver by the battery.
It is known that this deposit is always matt, unless the bath contains
too large a quantity of potassium cyanide. A brilliant silvering can be
regularly obtained with electric baths only by adding carbon sulphide.
Four drachms are put in an emery flask containing a quart of the bath
fluid and allowed to rest for 24 hours, at the end of which a blackish
precipitate is formed. After decanting, a quart is poured into the
electric bath for each quart before every operation of silvering.


«Dangers of Dipping.»—The operation of dipping should be carried
out only in a place where the escaping fumes of hyponitric acid and
chlorine can pass off without molesting the workmen, e. g., under
a well-drawing chimney, preferably in a vapor chamber. If such an
arrangement is not present the operator should choose a draughty place
and protect himself from the fumes by tying a wet sponge under his
nose. The vapors are liable to produce very violent and dangerous
inflammations of the respiratory organs, coming on in a surprisingly
{471} quick manner after one has felt no previous injurious effect at
all.


«COLORING METALS:»

See also Plating.


«Processes by Oxidation.»—By heat:—Coloration of Steel.—The steel,
heated uniformly, is covered in the air with a pellicle of oxide and
has successively the following colors: Straw yellow, blue (480° to
570° F.), violet, purple, water-green, disappearance of the color;
lastly the steel reddens. For producing the blue readily, plunge
the object into a bath of 25 parts of lead and 1 part of tin; its
temperature is sufficient for bluing small pieces.

Bronzing of Steel.—I.—The piece to be bronzed is wet by the use of a
sponge with a solution formed of iron perchloride, cupric sulphate,
and a nitric acid. It is dried in a stove at 86° F., then kept for 20
minutes over boiling water. It is dried again at 86° F., and rubbed
with a scratch brush.

This operation is repeated several times.

Bronzing of Steel.—II.—Rust and grease are removed from the objects
with a paste of whiting and soda. They are immersed in a bath of dilute
sulphuric acid, and rubbed with very fine pumice-stone powder. They are
then exposed from 2 to 3 minutes to the vapor of a mixture of equal
parts of concentrated chlorhydric and nitric acids.

The object is heated to 570° to 660° F. until the bronze color appears.
When cooled, it is covered with paraffine or vaseline while rubbing,
and heated a second time until the vaseline or paraffine commences
to decompose. The operation is repeated. The shades obtained are
beautiful, and the bronzing is not changeable. By subjecting the object
to the vapors of the mixture of chlorhydric and nitric acids, shades
of a light reddish brown are obtained. By adding to these two acids
acetic acid, beautiful yellow bronze tints are procured. By varying
the proportion of these three acids, all the colors from light reddish
brown to deep brown, or from light yellow bronze to deep yellow bronze,
are produced at will.

Bronzing.—III.—Under the name of Tuker bronze, a colored metal is found
in trade which imitates ornamental bronze perfectly. It is obtained by
deoxidizing or, if preferred, by burnishing cast iron. A thin layer of
linseed oil or of linseed-oil varnish is spread on. It is heated at
a temperature sufficient for producing in the open air the oxidation
of the metal. The temperature is raised more or less, according as a
simple yellow coloration or a deep brown is desired.

Lustrous Black.—In a quantity of oil of turpentine, sulphuric acid is
poured drop by drop, stirring continually until a precipitate is no
longer formed. Then the whole is poured into water, shaken, decanted,
and the washing of the precipitate commenced again until blue litmus
paper immersed in the water is no longer reddened. The precipitate will
thus be completely freed from acid. After having drained it on a cloth,
it is ready for use. It is spread on the iron and burned at the fire.

If the precipitate spreads with difficulty over the metal, a little
turpentine can be added. It is afterwards rubbed with a linen rag,
soaked with linseed oil, until the surface assumes a beautiful lustrous
black. This covering is not liable to be detached.

Bluish Black.—Make a solution composed of nitric acid, 15 parts; cupric
sulphate, 8 parts; alcohol, 20 parts; and water, 125 parts. Spread over
the metal when well cleaned and grease removed. Dry and rub with linen
rag.

Black.—Make a solution composed of cupric sulphate, 80 parts; alcohol,
40 parts; ferric chloride, 30 parts; nitric acid, 20 parts; ether,
20 parts; water, 400 to 500 parts, and pass over the object to be
blackened.

Magnetic Oxide.—I.—A coating of magnetic oxide preserves from rust. To
obtain it, heat the object in a furnace to a temperature sufficient
to decompose steam. Then inject from 4 to 6 hours superheated steam
at 1,100° F. The thickness of the layer of oxide formed varies with
the duration of the operation. This process may replace zincking,
enameling, or tinning.

II.—A deposit of magnetic oxide may be obtained by electrolysis. The
iron object is placed at the anode in a bath of distilled water heated
to 176° F. The cathode is a plate of copper, or the vessel itself if
it is of iron or copper. By electrolysis a layer of magnetic oxide is
formed.

In the same way other peroxides may be deposited. With an alkaline
solution of litharge a brilliant black deposit of lead peroxide, very
adherent, is obtained.

The employment of too strong a current must be avoided. It will produce
a pulverulent deposit. To obtain a good coating, it is necessary after
leaving the objects for a moment at the opposite {472} pole, to place
them at the other pole until the outside is completely reduced, then
bring them back to the first place.


«Processes by Sulphuration.»—Oxidized Brown Color.—The object is
plunged into some melted sulphur mingled with lampblack, or into a
liquid containing the flowers of sulphur mingled with lampblack. It
is drained and dried. The bronzing obtained resists acids, and may
acquire a beautiful polish which has the appearance of oxidized bronze,
due perhaps to the formation of ferric sulphide, a sort of pyrites
remarkable for its beautiful metallic reflections and its resistance to
chemical agents.

Brilliant Black.—Boil 1 part of sulphur and 10 parts turpentine oil. A
sulphurous oil is obtained of disagreeable odor. Spread this oil with
the brush as lightly as possible, and heat the object in the flame of
an alcohol lamp until the patina takes the tint desired. This process
produces on iron and steel a brilliant black patina, which is extremely
solid.

Blue.—Dissolve 500 drachms of hyposulphite of soda in 1 quart of water,
and 35 grains of lead acetate in 1 quart of water. The two solutions
mingled are heated to the boiling point. The iron is immersed, and
assumes a blue coloration similar to that obtained by annealing.


«Deposit of a Metal or of a Non-Oxidizable Compound.»—Bronze Color.—Rub
the iron smartly with chloride of antimony. A single operation is not
sufficient. It is necessary to repeat it, heating the object slightly.

Black.—I.—Make a paste composed of equal parts of chloride of antimony
and linseed oil. Spread on the object, previously heated, with a brush
or rag; then pass over it a coating of wax and brush it. Finally
varnish with gum lac.

II.—Prepare a solution of bismuth chloride, 10 parts; mercury chloride,
20 parts; cupric chloride, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 60 parts;
alcohol, 50 parts; water, 500 parts. Add fuchsine in sufficient
quantity to mask the color.

The mercury chloride is poured into the hydrochloric acid, and the
bismuth chloride and cupric chloride added; then the alcohol. Employ
this mixture with a brush or a rag for smearing the object. The object
may also be immersed in the liquid if it is well cleaned and free from
grease. It is dried and afterwards submitted to boiling water for
half an hour. The operation is repeated until the wished-for tint is
obtained; then the object is passed into the oil bath and taken to the
fire without wiping. The object may also be placed for 10 minutes in
boiling linseed oil.

Brown Tint.—A solution is made of chloride of mercury, 20 parts; cupric
chloride, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 60 parts; alcohol, 50 parts;
water, 500 parts. The object is plunged into this solution after being
well cleaned. The solution may also be applied with a brush, giving
two coats. It is afterwards put into hot water. The surface of the
object is covered with a uniform layer of vegetable oil. It is placed
in a furnace at a high temperature, but not sufficient for carbonizing
the oil. The iron is covered with a thin layer of brown oxide, which
adheres strongly to the metal, and which can be beautifully burnished,
producing the appearance of bronze.

Brilliant Black.—The process begins by depositing on the object,
perfectly clean and free from grease, a layer of metallic copper.
For this purpose the following solutions are prepared: (_a_) Cupric
sulphate, 1 part; water, 16 parts. Add ammonia until complete
dissolution. (_b_) Chloride of tin, 1 part; water, 2 parts; and
chlorhydric acid, 2 parts. The object is immersed in solution _b_, and
afterwards in solution _a_. In this way there is deposited on the iron
a very adherent coating of copper. The object, washed with water, is
afterwards rubbed with sulphur, or immersed in a solution of ammonium
sulphhydrate. A dull black coating of cupric sulphide is produced,
which becomes a brilliant black by burnishing.

Blue Black.—The iron object is first heated according to the previous
recipe, but the copper is converted into cupric sulphide, not by a
sulphhydrate, but by a hyposulphite. It is sufficient to dip the
coppered object into a solution of sodium hyposulphite, acidulated with
chlorhydric acid, and raised to the temperature of 175° to 195° F.

Thus a blue-black coating is obtained, unchangeable in air and in
water. After polishing, it has the color of blue steel. It adheres
strongly enough to resist the action of the scratch brush.

Deposition of Molybdenum.—Iron is preserved from rust by covering it
with a coating of molybdenum, as follows: Water, 1,000 parts; ammonium
molybdate, 1 part; ammonium nitrate, 15 to 20 parts. Suspend the object
at the negative pole of a battery. The current ought to have a strength
of 2 to 5 amperes per cubic decimeter.

Deposit of Manganese Peroxide.—The {473} iron or steel is first covered
with a coating of manganese peroxide by immersing as an anode in a bath
containing about 0.05 per cent of chloride or sulphate of manganese and
from 5 to 25 per cent of ammonium nitrate. The bath is electrolyzed
cold, making use of a cathode of charcoal. Feeble currents (1 or 2
amperes) produce an adherent and unchangeable deposit.

Bronzing of Cannon.—Prepare a solution of ferric chloride of density
1.281, 14 parts; mercury chloride, 3 parts; fuming nitric acid, 3
parts; cupric sulphate, 3 parts; water, 80 parts. Give to the piece of
ordnance 2 or 3 coatings of the solution, taking care always to scratch
the preceding layer with a steel brush before spreading the second.
Afterwards, the object is plunged in a solution of potassium sulphide
in 900 parts of water. It is left in this for 10 days. It is removed
by washing with soap and hot water. The object is rinsed, dried, and
finally brushed with linseed-oil varnish.

Green Bronzing.—Dissolve 1 part of acetate of silver in 20 parts of
essence of lavender; coat the surface of iron with this liquid by means
of a brush and raise the temperature to 292° F. A brilliant green color
is developed on the surface.

Coating on Steel Imitating Gilding.—The object is first covered by
the galvanic method by means of a solution of cyanide of copper and
potassium, then covered electrolytically with a thin deposit of zinc.
It is dried and cleaned with a little washed chalk and finally immersed
in boiling linseed oil. The surface of the piece after a few seconds,
at a temperature of 310° F., appears as if there had been a real
penetration of copper and zinc; that is to say, as though there were a
formation of tombac.

Bronzing of Cast Iron.—The piece, when scraped, is coppered with the
following bath: Cupric chloride, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 80
parts; nitric acid, 10 parts. It is rubbed with a rag and washed with
pure water, and then rubbed with the following solution: Ammonium
chlorhydrate, 4 parts; oxalic acid, 1 part; water, 30 parts.

Gilding of Iron and Steel.—Chloride of gold is dissolved either in
oil of turpentine or in ether, and this solution is applied with the
brush on the metallic surface, after being perfectly scraped. It is
allowed to dry, and then heated more or less strongly for obtaining the
necessary adherence. When it is dry the gilding is burnished.


«Process by Deposit of a Color or Varnish.»—Beautiful colorations,
resistive to light, may be given to metals by the following method:

The metallic objects are immersed in a colorless varnish with
pyroxyline, and dried in a current of hot air at 176° F. When the
varnish is sufficiently dry, the objects are bathed for a few minutes
in a 2 per cent alcoholic solution of alizarine or of a color of the
same group. By washing with water the yellowish color covering the
object on coming from the coloring bath passes to the golden red.


«Coloring Copper.»—To redden copper hang it from a few minutes to an
hour, according to the shade wanted, in a 5 to 10 per cent solution of
ferrocyanide of potassium in water. By adding a little hydrochloric
acid to the solution the color given to the copper may be made to
assume a purple shade. On removing the copper, dry it in the air or in
fine sawdust, rinse, and polish with a brush or chamois leather, after
drying it again.


«Coloring Brass.»—To redden brass, dip in solution of 5 ounces of
sulphate of copper and 6 to 7 ounces of permanganate of potash in 500
ounces of water.

To blue copper or brass any one of the following recipes may be used:

I.—Dip the article in a solution of 2 ounces of liver of sulphur and 2
ounces of chlorate soda in 1,000 ounces of water.

II.—Dip the article in a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium very
strongly acidulated with hydrochloric acid.

III.—Stir the article about constantly in a solution of liver of
sulphur in 50 times its weight of water.


«Fusion Point of Metals.»—The point of fusion of common metals is as
follows: Antimony, 808° F.; aluminum, 1,160° F.; bismuth, 517° F.;
copper, 1,931° F.; gold, 1,913° F.; iron, 2,912° F.; lead, 850° F.;
nickel, 2,642° F.; platinum, 3,225° F.; silver, 1,750° F.; tin,
551° F.; zinc, 812° F. Mercury, which is normally fluid, congeals at
38° below zero, F., this being its point of fusion.


«To Produce Fine Leaves of Metal.»—The metal plate is laid between
parchment leaves and beaten out with hammers. Although films obtained
in this manner reach a high degree of fineness, yet the mechanical
production has its limit. If very fine films are desired the
galvano-plastic precipitation is employed in the following manner:

A thin sheet of polished copper is entered in the bath and connected
with the {474} electric conduit. The current precipitates gold on it.
In order to loosen it, the gilt copper plate is placed in a solution of
ferric chloride, which dissolves the copper and leaves the gold behind.
In this manner gold leaf can be hammered out to almost incredible
thinness.


«METAL FOIL.»

Tin foil is the most common foil used, being a combination of tin,
lead, and copper, sometimes with properties of other metals.

                I          II        III
             Per cent   Per cent   Per cent
 Tin          97.60      98.47      96.21
 Copper        2.11       0.38       0.95
 Lead          0.04       0.84       2.41
 Iron          0.11       0.12       0.09
 Nickel         —          —         0.30

I is a mirror foil; III is a tin foil.

Tin Foils for Capsules.—

                I          II
             Per cent   Per cent
 Tin            20         22
 Lead           80         77
 Copper         —           1

Tin Foils for Wrapping Cheese, etc.—

                I          II        III
             Per cent   Per cent   Per cent
 Tin           97         90          92
 Lead           2.5        7.8         7
 Copper         0.5        0.2         1

Tin Foils, for Fine Wrapping, I and II; for Tea Boxes, III.—

                I          II        III
             Per cent   Per cent   Per cent
 Tin            60         65         40
 Lead           40         35         58.5
 Copper         —          —           1.5

Imitation Gold Foils.—

           Deep gold   Pure gold   Pale gold
           Per cent    Per cent    Per cent
 Copper      84.5         78          76
 Zinc        15.5         22          14

           Deep gold   Deep gold     Gold
           Per cent    Per cent    Per cent
 Copper       91          86          83
 Zinc          9          14          17
                         dark        pale
           reddish      yellow      yellow

Imitation Silver Foil.—Alloy of tin and zinc: harder than tin and
softer than zinc: Zinc, 1 part; tin, 11 parts.

To Attach Gold Leaf Permanently.—Dissolve finely cut isinglass in a
little water, with moderate heat, which must not be increased to a
boil, and add as much nitric acid as has been used of the isinglass.
The adhesive will not penetrate the cardboard or paper.

METH: See Mead.

METHEGLIN: See Mead.

METHYL SALICYLATE, TO DISTINGUISH FROM OIL OF WINTERGREEN: See
Wintergreen.

METOL DEVELOPER: See Photography.

METRIC WEIGHTS: See Weights and Measures.

MICE POISON: See Rat Poison.

MICROPHOTOGRAPHS: See Photography.


«MILK:»

See also Foods.


«Determining Cream.»—An apparatus for determining cream in milk
consists of a glass cylinder having a mark about half its height,
and a second mark a little above the first. The milk is added up to
the lower mark, and water up to the second. The amount of water thus
added is about one-fourth the volume of the milk, and causes the cream
to rise more quickly. The tube is graduated between the two marks in
percentages of cream on the undiluted milk. A vertical blue strip in
the side of the cylinder aids the reading of the meniscus.


«Formaldehyde in Milk, Detection of.»—To 10 parts of milk add 1 part of
fuchsine sulphurous acid. Allow to stand 5 minutes, then add 2 parts of
pure hydrochloric acid and shake. If formaldehyde is not present, the
mixture remains yellowish white, while if present a blue-violet color
is produced. This test will detect 1 grain of anhydrous formaldehyde in
1 quart of milk.


«Malted Milk.»—To malt milk, add the following:

 Powdered malt          1 ounce
 Powdered oat meal      2 ounces
 Sugar of milk          4 ounces
 Roasted flour          1 pound


«Milk Extracts.»—These are made from skimmed milk freed from casein,
sugar and albumen, and resemble meat extracts. The milk is slightly
acidulated with phosphoric or hydrochloric acid, and evaporated
_in vacuo_ to the {475} consistency of thick syrup. During the
crystallization of the sugar, the liquid is sterilized.


«Modification of Milk for Infants.»—For an ill child note the
percentages of milk taken; decide, if indigestion is present, which
ingredient of the milk, fat or proteid, or both, is at fault, and make
formula accordingly.

After allowing the milk to stand 8 hours, remove the top 8 ounces
from a quart jar of 4 per cent fat milk by means of a dipper, and
count this as 12 per cent fat cream. Count the lowest 8 ounces of the
quart fat-free milk. From these the following formula may be obtained,
covering fairly well the different percentages required for the
different periods of life.

 _First Week._

  12 per cent cream.   Fat-free milk.
 Fat         2.00     Cream       3 1⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Sugar       5.00     Milk        1 1⁠/⁠2 oz.
 Proteids    0.75     Milk sugar      2 meas.

 _Second Week._

 Fat         2.50     Cream       4 1⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Sugar       6.00     Milk        1 1⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Proteids    1.00     Milk sugar  2 1⁠/⁠2 meas.

 _Third Week._

 Fat         3.00     Cream           5 oz.
 Sugar       6.00     Milk            1 oz.
 Proteids    1.00     Milk sugar  2 1⁠/⁠2 meas.

 _Four to Six Weeks._

 Fat         3.50     Cream       5 3⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Sugar       6.50     Milk        1 3⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Proteids    1.00     Milk sugar  2 1⁠/⁠2 meas.

 _Six to Eight Weeks._

 Fat        3.50      Cream       5 3⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Sugar      6.50      Milk        3 1⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Proteids   1.50      Milk sugar  2 1⁠/⁠4 meas.

 _Two to Four Months._

 Fat        4.00      Cream       6 3⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Sugar      7.00      Milk        2 1⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Proteids   1.50      Milk sugar  2 1⁠/⁠2 meas.

 _Four to Eight Months._

 Fat        4.00      Cream       6 3⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Sugar      7.00      Milk        4 3⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Proteids   2.00      Milk sugar  2 1⁠/⁠4 meas.

 _Eight to Nine Months._

 Fat        4.00      Cream       6 3⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Sugar      7.00      Milk        7 1⁠/⁠2 oz.
 Proteids   2.50      Milk sugar      2 meas.

 _Nine to Ten Months._

 Fat        4.00      Cream       6 3⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Sugar      7.00      Milk       10 1⁠/⁠2 oz.
 Proteids   3.00      Milk sugar  1 1⁠/⁠2 meas.

 _Ten to Twelve Months._

 Fat        4.00      Cream       6 3⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Sugar      5.00      Milk       11 3⁠/⁠4 oz.
 Proteids   3.50      Milk sugar    1⁠/⁠2 meas.

 _After Twelve Months._
 Unmodified cow’s milk.


«Preservation of Milk» (see also Foods).—I.—Shortly after the milk
is strained add to it from 1 per cent to 2 per cent of a 12-volume
solution of hydrogen peroxide, and set it aside for 10 to 12 hours. It
thus acquires the property of keeping perfectly sweet and fresh for 3
or 4 days, and is far preferable to milk sterilized by heat. Two points
are worthy of notice in the process. The addition of oxygenated water
should be made as soon after it is taken from the cow, strained, etc.,
as possible; the peroxide appears to destroy instantly all anaërobic
microbes (such as the bacillus of green diarrhea of childhood), but
has no effect upon the bacillus of tuberculosis. This process is to be
especially recommended in the heat of summer, and at all times in the
milk of cattle known to be free of tuberculosis.

II.—Fresh milk in bottles has been treated with oxygen and carbonic
acid under pressure of some atmospheres. By this method it is said to
be possible to preserve milk fresh 50 to 60 days. The construction of
the bottle is siphon-like.


«Milk Substitute.»—Diamalt is a thick syrupy mass of pleasant, strong,
somewhat sourish odor and sweetish taste, which is offered as a
substitute for milk. The preparation has been analyzed. Its specific
gravity is 1.4826; the percentage of water fluctuates between 24 and 28
per cent; the amount of ash is 1.3 per cent. There are present: Lactic
acid, 0.718 to 1.51; nitrogenous matter, 4.68 to 5.06 per cent; and
constituents rich in nitrogen, about 68 per cent. The latter consist
principally of maltose. Dissolved in water it forms a greenish-yellow
mixture. Turbidness is caused by starch grains, yeast cells, bacteria,
and a shapeless coagulum.

MILK AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR CELLULOID, BONE, AND IVORY: See Casein.

MILK, CUCUMBER: See Cosmetics.

MILK OF SOAP: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under
Miscellaneous Methods.

MINARGENT: See Alloys. {476}

MINERAL WATERS: See Waters.

MINOFOR METAL: See Alloys.

MINT CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.


«Mirrors»

(See also Glass.)


«Mirror Silvering.»—Mirror silvering is sometimes a misnomer, inasmuch
as the coating applied to glass in the manufacture of mirrors does not
always contain silver. In formula I it is an amalgam of mercury and tin.

I.—A sheet of pure tin foil, slightly larger than the glass plate to be
silvered, is spread evenly on a perfectly plane stone table having a
raised edge, and is well cleaned from all dust and impurity. The foil
must be free from the slightest flaw or crack. The tin is next covered
uniformly to a depth of 1⁠/⁠8 of an inch with mercury, preference
being given by some to that containing a small proportion of tin from
a previous operation. The glass plate, freed from all dust or grease,
and repolished if necessary, is then carefully slid over the mercury.
This part of the work requires skill and experience to exclude all air
bubbles, and even the best workmen are not successful every time. If
there is a single bubble or scratch the operation must be repeated and
the tin foil is lost; not a small expense for large sizes. When this
step has been satisfactorily accomplished the remainder is easy. The
glass plate is loaded with heavy weights to press out the excess of
mercury which is collected and is used again. After 24 hours the mirror
is lifted from the table and placed on edge against a wall, where it is
left to drain well.

II.—Solution No. 1 is composed as follows: To 8 ounces of distilled
water, brought to a boil, add 12 grains of silver nitrate and 12 grains
of Rochelle salts. Let it come to a boil for 6 to 7 minutes; then cool
and filter.

Solution No. 2 is made as follows: Take 8 ounces of distilled water,
and into a small quantity poured into a tumbler put 19 grains of silver
nitrate. Stir well until dissolved. Then add several drops of 26°
ammonia until the solution becomes clear. Add 16 grains more of nitrate
of silver, stirring well until dissolved. Add balance of distilled
water and filter. The filtering must be done through a glass funnel, in
which the filter paper is placed. The solution must be stirred with a
glass rod. Keep the solutions in separate bottles marked No. 1 and No.
2.

Directions for Silvering: Clean the glass with ammonia and wipe with
a wet chamois. Then take half and half of the two solutions in a
graduating glass, stirring well with a glass rod. Pour the contents on
the middle of the glass to be silvered. It will spread over the surface
of itself if the glass is laid flat. Leave it until the solution
precipitates.


«Silvering Globes.»—The insides of globes may be silvered, it is said,
by the following methods:

I.—Take 1⁠/⁠3 ounce of clean lead, and melt it with an equal weight of
pure tin; then immediately add 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of bismuth, and carefully
skim off the dross; remove the alloy from the fire, and before it grows
cold add 5 ounces of mercury, and stir the whole well together; then
put the fluid amalgam into a clean glass, and it is fit for use. When
this amalgam is used for silvering, it should be first strained through
a linen rag; then gently pour some ounces of it into the globe intended
to be silvered; the alloy should be poured into the globe by means of
a paper or glass funnel reaching almost to the bottom of the globe, to
prevent it splashing the sides; the globe should be turned every way
very slowly, to fasten the silvering.

II.—Make an alloy of 3 ounces of lead, 2 ounces of tin, and 5 ounces of
bismuth. Put a portion of this alloy into the globe and expose it to a
gentle heat until the compound is melted; it melts at 197° F.; then by
turning the globe slowly round, an equal coating may be laid on, which,
when cold, hardens and firmly adheres.


«Resilvering Mirrors»—If mirrors coated with amalgam become damaged
they may sometimes be successfully repaired by one of the following
processes:

I.—Place the old mirror in a weak solution of nitric acid—say 5 per
cent—which immediately removes the silver. Rinse it a little, and then
clean very thoroughly with a pledget of cotton-wool and a mixture of
whiting and ammonia. Rouge will answer in place of whiting, or, as
a last extreme, finest levigated pumice, first applied to a waste
glass to crush down any possible grit. This cleaning is of the utmost
importance, as upon its thoroughness depends eventual success. Front,
back, and edges must alike be left in a state above suspicion. The
{477} plate is then again flowed with weak acid, rinsed under the tap,
then flowed back and front with distilled water, and kept immersed in a
glass-covered dish of distilled water until the solutions are ready.

The depositing vessel is the next consideration, and it should be
realized that unless most of the silver in the solution finds its way
on to the face of the mirror it were cheaper that the glass should be
sent to the professional mirror-maker. The best plan is to use a glass
dish allowing a 1⁠/⁠16 inch margin all round the mirror, inside. But
such a glass dish is expensive, having to be made specially, there
being no regular sizes near enough to 4 x 7 or 8 x 5 (usual mirror
sizes). If too large, a dish must perforce be used, the sides or ends
of which should be filled up with sealing wax. Four strips of glass
are temporarily bound together with 2 or 3 turns of string, so as to
form a hollow square. The side pieces are 1⁠/⁠8 inch longer outside,
and the end pieces 1⁠/⁠8 inch wider than the mirror glass. This frame
is placed in about the center of the dish, moistened with glycerine,
and the molten wax flowed outside of it to a depth of about 3⁠/⁠4 of an
inch or more. For economy’s sake, good “parcel wax” may be used, but
best red sealing wax is safer. This wax frame may be used repeatedly,
being cleaned prior to each silvering operation. It is the only special
appliance necessary, and half an hour is a liberal time allowance for
making it.

Use a stock solution of silver nitrate of the strength of 25 grains
to 1 ounce of distilled water: Take 2 drachms of silver nitrate stock
solution and convert it to ammonia nitrate, by adding ammonia drop
by drop until the precipitate is redissolved. Add 3 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of
distilled water.

In another measure take 80 drops (approximately 74 minims) of 40 per
cent formalin. Pour the solution of ammonio nitrate of silver into the
measure containing the formalin, then back into the original measure,
and finally into the dish containing the glass to be silvered. This
should be done rapidly, and the dish containing the mirror well rocked
until the silvering is complete, which may be ascertained by the
precipitation of a black, flocculent deposit, and the clearing of the
solution. The actual process of silvering takes about 2 minutes.

Cleanliness throughout is of the greatest importance. The vessels in
which the solutions are mixed should be well rinsed with a solution of
bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid, then washed out three or four
times under the tap, and finally with distilled water. For cleansing,
dip the glass for a short time in a solution of bichromate of potash,
to which a little sulphuric acid is added. The glass is afterwards well
rinsed for a minute or two under the tap, flooded with distilled water,
and dried with a clean linen cloth. A little absolute alcohol is then
rubbed on with a soft linen handkerchief, which is immediately rolled
into a pad and used for well polishing the surface. The cleaning with
alcohol is repeated to avoid risk of failure.

After the mirror has been silvered, hold it under the tap and allow
water to flow over it for about 3 minutes. Rinse it with distilled
water, and stand it up on edge on blotting paper. When it is quite dry
take a pad of very soft wash-leather, spread a small quantity of finest
opticians’ rouge on a sheet of clean glass, and well coat the pad with
rouge by polishing the sheet of glass. A minute quantity of rouge is
sufficient. Afterwards polish the mirror by gently rubbing the surface
with the pad, using a circular stroke.

It will be seen that with this process it is unnecessary to suspend the
mirror in the silvering solution, as usually recommended. The mirror is
laid in the dish, which is a distinct advantage, as the progress of the
silvering may be watched until complete. The film also is much more
robust than that obtained by the older methods.

II.—Clean the bare portion of the glass by rubbing it gently with
fine cotton, taking care to remove any trace of dust and grease. If
this cleaning be not done very carefully, defects will appear around
the place repaired. With the point of a penknife cut upon the back of
another looking glass around a portion of the silvering of the required
form, but a little larger. Upon it place a small drop of mercury; a
drop the size of a pin’s head will be sufficient for a surface equal to
the size of the nail. The mercury spreads immediately, penetrates the
amalgam to where it was cut off with the knife, and the required piece
may be now lifted and removed to the place to be repaired. This is the
most difficult part of the operation. Then press lightly the renewed
portion with cotton; it hardens almost immediately, and the glass
presents the same appearance.


«Clouding of Mouth Mirrors.»—By means of the finger, slightly
moistened, apply a film of soap of any brand or kind to the mirror;
then rub this off with a clean, dry cloth; the mirror will be as {478}
bright and clear as ever. Breathing on it will not affect its clearness
and the mirror does not suffer from the operation.


«Magic Mirrors.»—Among the many amusing and curious articles which
the amateur mechanic can turn out, metallic mirrors having concealed
designs on them, and which can be brought into view by breathing on the
polished surface, are both funny and easy to produce. To produce steel
mirrors either tough bronze or good cast mottled iron discs should be
used, and the design should be on the bottom of the cast disc, as this
is the soundest and densest part of the metal. The method of working is
different with bronze and iron, and bronze will be dealt with first.

The cast disk of bronze should be turned up level on both sides, and
the edges should be turned or shaped up, the metal being about half
an inch thick. On the side which was at the bottom in casting, a line
should be drawn to allow for working up the border or frame of the
mirror, and on the rest of the smooth surface the design should be
drawn, not having too much detail. It is best to mark the lines with
a sharp scriber, to prevent their effacement during working. When the
disk is marked out, it should be laid on a smoothly planed iron block,
and the lines punched to a depth of about 1⁠/⁠4 inch, a punch with
round edges being used. Then the disk should be turned down to just
below the surface of the punched-in metal, and the border or edge
formed, finishing smoothly, but without burnishing. The back can be
turned down and, with the outer edge, burnished; but the inside of the
edge and the face of the mirror should be polished with fine abrasive
powder, and finished with fine rouge. When dry, the mirror will appear
equally bright all over; but when breathed on the design will show,
again disappearing as the moisture is removed. The metal punched in
will be more dense than the rest of the surface, and will also be very
slightly raised, this being imperceptible unless the polishing has been
too long continued.

With iron mirrors a good mottled iron must be used, selecting hematite
for preference; but in any case it must be chillable metal. Preferably
it should be melted in a crucible, as this causes the least change in
the metallic content, and as the metal can be made hot and fluid, it
works well. The design must be worked out in iron of about 1⁠/⁠8 inch
in thickness, and must be level, as it has to touch the molten metal
in the bottom of the mold. If preferred, the design may be cast and
ground flat, but this depends largely on the design. The chill pattern
should be coated with plumbago, and in molding the disk pattern of
about 1⁠/⁠4 inch in thickness should be laid on a board, and on this
the design—chill—should be placed, and the mold should be rammed up
from the back in the ordinary manner. The casting should be allowed to
get cold in the mold, and should then be removed and dressed in the
usual way. It should then be ground bright all over on emery wheels of
successively finer grades, and the mirror surface should be buffed and
polished until a steely mirror surface is produced. With a good mottled
iron the chilled design will not show until the surface is breathed on
or rubbed with a greasy rag, but will then show clearly.

MIRROR ALLOYS: See Alloys.

MIRRORS, FROSTED: See Glass.

MIRROR-LETTERING: See Lettering.

MIRROR POLISHES: See Polishes.

MIRRORS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

MIRRORS, TO PREVENT DIMMING OF: See Glass.

MIRROR VARNISH: See Varnishes.

MITE KILLER: See Insecticides.

MIXING STICKS FOR PAINT: See Paint.

MODELING WAX: See Wax, Modeling.

MOISTURE: See Insulation.


«MOLDS:»

See also Casting and Matrix.


«Molding Sand.»—A high grade of molding sand should be fat, i. e.,
strongly mixed with clay. Naturally the molds of this sand should
be employed only in a perfectly dry state. The fat molding sand is
prepared artificially from quartz sand (fine sprinkling sand), fat
clay, free {479} from lime and ferric oxide (red ocher). The molding
sand is fixed by breaking up the loose pieces in which it is partly
dug; next it is passed through a fine sieve and mixed up to one-third
of its volume with charcoal dust, or, better still, with lampblack,
which, owing to its looseness and fatness, does not detract so much
from the binding qualities of the sand. The utility of the sand may be
tested by pressing the finger into it, whereupon the fine lines of the
skin should appear sharply defined; its binding power is ascertained by
dropping a lump pressed together with the hand from a height, which is
increased until it breaks.

MOLDS OF PLASTER: See Plaster.


«MOLES:»

See also Warts.

Lunar caustic is frequently used to remove warts and moles. It should
be wrapped in tin foil or placed in a quill so that it will not touch
the bare flesh. Moisten the raised surface and touch with the caustic
night and morning. Successive layers of skin will dry up and peel off.
When on a level with the surrounding flesh apply a healing ointment.
Let the last crust formed drop without touching it. Unless carefully
done this process may leave a white scar.

A simple remedy for warts consists in wetting and rubbing them several
times a day in a strong solution of common washing soda. The electric
treatment, however, is now the most popular.


«MORDANTS:»

See also Dyes.


«Mordant for Cement Surfaces.»—Take green vitriol and dissolve it in
hot water. If the cement is rather fresh add 1 part of vinegar for each
part of green vitriol. Best suited, however, is triple vinegar (vinegar
containing 11⁠/⁠13 per cent of acetic acid), which is alone sufficient
for well-dried places. For such surfaces that have been smoothed with a
steel tool and have hardly any pores, take alcohol, 1 part, and green
vitriol, 10 parts, and apply this twice until the iron has acquired a
yellowish color. This mordant forms a neutral layer between cement and
paint, and causes the latter to dry well.


«Mordant for Gold Size.»—A mordant for gold size gilding that has been
thoroughly tested and found to be often preferable to the shellac-mixed
article, is prepared from yolk of egg and glycerine, The yolk of an
egg is twirled in a cup and up to 30 drops of glycerine are added to
it. The more glycerine added, the longer the mordant will take to dry.
Or else an equal portion of ordinary syrup is mixed with the yolk of
egg. Same must be thinly liquid. If the mass becomes too tough it is
warmed a little or thinned with a few drops of warm water. A single
application is sufficient. Naturally, this style of gilding is only
practicable indoors; it cannot withstand the influence of moisture.


«MORTAR, ASBESTOS.»

Asbestos mortar consists of a mixture of asbestos with 10 per cent of
white lime. Canadian asbestos is generally used, which is composed of
80 per cent of asbestos and 20 per cent of serpentine. The asbestos
is ground and the coarse powder used for the first rough cast, while
the finer material is employed for the second top-plastering. This
mortar is highly fire-resisting and waterproof, is only half as heavy
as cement mortar, and tough enough to admit of nails being driven in
without breaking it.

MOSQUITO REMEDIES: See Insecticides.

MOSS REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under
Miscellaneous Methods.

MOTHS: See Turpentine.

MOTH PAPER: See Paper.

MOTH TRAPS AND MOTH KILLERS: See Household Formulas.

MOTHER-OF-PEARL: See Pearl.

MOTORS, ANTI-FREEZING SOLUTION FOR: See Freezing Preventives.


«MOUNTANTS:»

See also Adhesives and Photography.


«Mounting Drawings, Photos, etc., upon Fine Pasteboard.»—It frequently
happens that the pasteboard will warp toward the face of the picture,
even if left in a press till the gluing medium is perfectly dry. This
fault can be {480} obviated by moistening the back of the pasteboard
moderately with a sponge, and, while this is still wet, pasting the
picture on with good, thin glue. If moistening the pasteboard is
impracticable (with sensitive drawings, paintings, etc.), paste which
has been pressed through a fine cloth is rubbed on, always in the same
direction, and the picture is carefully and evenly pressed on. Then
bend the pasteboard backward in a wide semicircle, and place it between
two heavy objects on the table. After a few hours, when the paste is
completely dry, put the picture down flat and load proportionately.
Papers of large size, which cannot conveniently be placed between two
objects, are wrapped up, and twine is stretched around, thus keeping
them bent.


«Mounting Prints on Glass.»—Take 4 ounces of gelatin; soak 1⁠/⁠2 hour
in cold water; then place in a glass jar, adding 16 ounces of water;
put the jar in a large dish of warm water and dissolve the gelatin.
When dissolved pour in a shallow tray; have the prints rolled on a
roller, albumen side up; take the print by the corners and pass rapidly
through the gelatin, using great care to avoid air bubbles. Squeeze
carefully onto the glass. The better the quality of glass, the finer
the effect.

MOUTH ANTISEPTICS: See Antiseptics.

MOUTH WASHES: See Dentifrices.

MOVING OBJECTS AND HOW TO PHOTOGRAPH THEM: See Photography.

MUCILAGE: See Adhesives.


«MUSIC BOXES.»

Care must be exercised in taking apart, for if the box is wound up and
the fly is removed, the cylinder is ruined. The spring relaxes at a
bound, causing the cylinder to turn with such rapidity that the pins
cannot resist the teeth, whose force is intensified by the velocity of
the cylinder. The pins originally bent forward are broken, or pressed
backwards; as they are hardened, they cannot be bent forward again
without breaking. This accident involves the cost of a new cylinder,
the most expensive part of the apparatus. Besides, the comb almost
always loses some teeth and the wheel-work also suffers in its turn.

To avoid such mishaps the careful operator will take the parts asunder
in the following order:

1. Remove the comb.

2. Take the apparatus from the box and completely disarm the spring.

3. Remove the barrel.

4. Remove the escapement.

5. Remove the cylinder.

The barrel and the wheels are cleaned like those of a watch.

The cylinder should be handled carefully. The holes should be well
cleaned. Oil should be put only on the pivots, especially none on the
part of the arbor to which the cylinder is attached. It is the first
piece to be replaced, care being taken to see that the arbor turns
freely, but without play, between the bridges. When it is in position,
put in the escapement, then the barrel, and finally the comb.

The comb, representing the musical part of a simple box, cannot receive
too much care. Before replacing it examine the springs closely, and
in supplying the ones that are lacking, take for the model of size
and form those resembling them the most. If the parts have been put
together properly, then, as soon as the comb is screwed in its place,
these should be found in good working order: the _levée_ (lift)—that
is, that the pins do not lift the teeth too much or too little; the
_tombée_ (fall)—that is, that the chords, the bass, the medium, and the
treble, fall together; and the _visée_ (pointing)—that the pins catch
at the center of the ends of the teeth.

MUSLIN, PAINTING ON: See Painting.


«MUSTACHE FIXING FLUID.»

 Balsam of Tolu           1 part
 Rectified spirit         3 parts
 Jockey club              1 part

Dissolve the balsam in the liquids. Apply a few drops to the mustache
with a brush, then twist into the desired shape.


«MUSTARD PAPER.»

 I.—India rubber          1 part
     Benzol               49 parts
     Black mustard in powder, a sufficiency.

Dissolve the India rubber in the benzol, then stir in the mustard until
the mixture is of a suitable consistence for spreading. It was further
recommended to remove the fixed oil from the mustard by percolation
with benzol. Mustard paper thus made is of good quality, very active,
and keeps well. {481}

 II.—Black and white mustard, in No. 60 powder,
                           deprived of fixed oil    1 part
      Benzol solution of India rubber (1 in 40)     4 parts

Mix to a smooth mass, and spread the same over one side of a suitable
paper by means of a plaster-spreading machine, or passing the paper
over the mass contained in a suitable shallow vessel. Expose to warm
air for a short time to dry. Preserve the dry paper in well-closed
boxes. It may be useful to know that mustard paper, after spreading,
should not be long exposed to light and air. By so doing not only does
the mustard bleach but the rubber soon perishes. Moreover, mustard
paper is hygroscopic, so that in a moist atmosphere it soon loses its
virtue. It is, therefore, highly important that mustard paper should be
rapidly dried in a warm atmosphere with free ventilation, then at once
stored in well-closed packets. Thus prepared they keep well and remain
active for many years.

MUSTARDS: See Condiments.

MYRRH ASTRINGENT: See Dentifrices.


«NAIL, INGROWING.»

Copious applications of dried powdered alum are sufficient to cure
every case of ingrowing nail in about 5 days. The applications are not
painful in the least, and the destruction of the pathologic tissue
results in the formation of a hard, resistant, and non-sensitive bed
for the nail, a perfect cure for the ingrowing tendency. Apply a
fomentation of soap and water for 24 hours beforehand and then pour
the alum into the space between the nail and its bed, tamponing with
cotton to keep the alum in place, and repeating the application daily.
The suppuration rapidly dries up, and pain and discomfort are relieved
almost at once.

NAIL POLISHES: See Cosmetics.

NAPOLEON CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

NAPHTHOL SOAP: See Soap.


«NEATSFOOT OIL.»

 Crude neatsfoot oil      5,000 parts
 Alcohol, 90 per cent     2,500 parts
 Tannin                       5 parts

Place in a clearing flask, agitate vigorously and allow to stand for
8 days in a warm room with daily repetition of the shaking. Then draw
off the spirit of wine on top, rinse again with 1,000 parts of spirit
of wine (90 per cent) and place the oil in a temperature of about
53 1⁠/⁠2° F. Allow to stand in this temperature for at least 6 weeks,
protected from the light, and then filter.

NEEDLES, ANTI-RUST PAPER FOR: See Rust Preventives.

NEGATIVES, HOW TO USE SPOILED: See Photography.

NERVE PASTE: See also Dental Cements, under Cements.

 Arsenious acid         4 parts
 Morphine sulphate      2 parts
 Clove oil              1 part
 Creosote, quantity sufficient to make a paste.

After the nerve is destroyed the following paste is to be put in the
cavity:

 Alum            1 part
 Thymol          1 part
 Zinc oxide      1 part
 Glycerine       1 part

NERVINE OINTMENT: See Ointments.

NESSELRODE PUDDING: See Ice Creams.

NETS: See Cordage.


«NICKEL-TESTING.»

Pure nickel will remain nearly white, while “patent nickel,” or
nickel-copper will not retain its primitive brilliancy, but soon
becomes slightly oxidized and grayish in color. The magnet furnishes a
good means of testing. The unadulterated nickel is distinctly sensitive
to magnetism, while that much alloyed is destitute of this property.

NICKEL ALLOYS: See Alloys.

NICKEL, TO REMOVE RUST FROM: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

NICKEL-PLATING: See Plating.

NICKEL STEEL: See Steel.

NICKELING, TEST FOR: See Plating. {482}

NIELLO: See Steel.

NITROGLYCERINE: See Explosives.

NOYAUX LIQUEUR: See Wines and Liquors.

NUT CANDY STICKS: See Confectionery.

NUTMEG CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

NUTMEG ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts.

OAK: See Wood.

ODONTER: See Dentifrices.


«Oils»


«Clock Oil.»—Put 2,000 parts, by weight, of virgin oil in a decanting
vessel, add a solution of 40 parts of ether tannin in 400 parts of
water and shake until completely emulsified. Let stand for 8 days, with
frequent shaking; next, add 100 parts of talcum and, when this has also
been well shaken, 1,600 parts of water. Allow to settle for 24 hours,
and then run off the lower water layer, repeating the washing as long
as the wash water still shows a coloration with ferric chloride. Pour
the contents of the decanting vessel into an evaporating dish; then
add 200 parts of thoroughly dried and finely ground cooking salt;
let stand for 24 hours and filter through paper. The clock oil is now
ready, and should be filled in brown glass bottles, holding 20 to 25
parts (about 1 ounce), which must be corked up well and kept at a cool
temperature.


«COD-LIVER OIL:»


«Aromatic Cod-Liver Oil.»—

 Coumarin               0.01 parts
 Saccharine             0.50 parts
 Vanillin               0.10 parts
 Alcohol, absolute      5.40 parts
 Oil of lemon           5.00 parts
 Oil of peppermint      1.00 part
 Oil of neroli          1.00 part
 Cod-liver oil to make 1,000 parts


«Deodorized Cod-Liver Oil.»—Mix 400 parts of cod-liver oil with 20
parts of ground coffee and 10 parts of bone black, warm the mixture in
an open vessel to 140° F., let it stand 5 days, shaking occasionally,
and strain through linen. The oil acquires the taste of coffee.


«Cod-Liver Oil Emulsions.»—

 I.—Calcium hypophosphite         80 grains
     Sodium hypophosphite         120 grains
     Sodium chloride               60 grains
     Gum acacia, in powder          2 ounces
     Elixir of glucoside           20 minims
     Essential oil of almonds      15 minims
     Glycerine                      2 fluidounces
     Cod-liver oil                  8 fluidounces
     Distilled water, a sufficient quantity to produce 16 fluidounces.

II.—Mix 190 parts of powdered sugar with 5 parts of acacia and 500
parts of tragacanth in a mortar. Mix in a large bottle and shake
thoroughly together 500 parts of cod-liver oil and 200 parts of a cold
infusion of coffee. Gradually add a part of this mixture to the powder
in the mortar and triturate until emulsified. To the remaining liquid
mixture add 100 parts of rum, then gradually incorporate with the
contents of the mortar by trituration.


«Extracting Oil from Cottonseed.»—Claim is made for a process of
extraction, in an English patent, in which the seeds are placed in a
rotable vessel mounted on a hollow shaft divided into compartments
by means of a partition. The solvent is introduced at one end of this
shaft and passes into the vessel, which is then made to rotate. After
the extraction the bulk of the solvent and the extracted oil pass
away through an exit pipe, and steam is then introduced through the
same opening as the solvent, in order to cook the seeds and expel the
residual solvent. The steam and the vapors pass through perforations in
a scraper fixed to the shaft and thence through connected pipes into
the other compartment of the shaft, the end of which is attached to a
condenser.


«Silver Nitrate Test for Cottonseed Oil.»—Investigations of Charabout
and March throw some light on the value of this test in presence
of olive oil. The free-fat acids obtained from cottonseed oil by
saponification were treated in accordance with the method of Milliau
on a water bath with a 3 per cent solution of silver nitrate, and the
brown precipitate thus formed subjected to a chemical examination. It
was found to consist chiefly of a brown silver salt composed of a fat
acid melting at 52° F., and {483} congealing at 120° to 122° F., and
of sulphide of silver. Olive oil, which contains a sulphur compound of
an analogous composition, is also capable of forming a more or less
distinct precipitate of a dark colored silver sulphide with nitrate of
silver. It is important to bear this fact in mind when examining olive
oil for cottonseed oil.


«Floral Hair Oil.»—

 White vaseline                 5,000 parts
 Floricin, pure                   800 parts
 Linalool rosé                     60 parts
 Terpineol                         50 parts
 Aubepine (hawthorne), liquid      12 parts


«Floral Hair Pomade.»—

 White ceresine        250 parts
 Floricin, pure      1,600 parts
 Vanillin                3 parts
 Geranium oil            5 parts
 Isoeugenol              4 parts


«Floricin Brilliantine.»—

 Floricin oil              2,100 parts
 White ceresine              250 parts
 Ylang-ylang oil               2 parts
 Kananga oil                   5 parts
 Oil of rose, artificial       1 part
 Cheirantia                    5 parts


«Solid Linseed Oil.»—Cements for the manufacture of linoleum and other
similar substances are composed to a large extent of linseed oil,
oxidized or polymerized until it has become solid. The old process of
preparing this solid oil is tedious, costly, and invites danger from
fire. It consists in running linseed oil over sheets of thin cloth
hung from the top of a high building. The thin layer of oil upon the
cloth dries, and then a second layer is obtained in the same way. This
is continued until a thick skin of solid oil is formed on either side
of the cloth. A new method of solidifying linseed oil is by means of
alkalies. The drying oils, when heated with basic substances such as
the alkalies, polymerize and become solid. Hertkorn makes use of the
oxides of the alkaline earths, or their salts with weak acids, such
as their soaps. When chalk or lime is added to the oil during the
process of oxidation, either during the liquid or the plastic stage,
it forms a calcium soap, and causes polymerization to set in in the
partially oxidized oil. Similarly, if caustic soda or caustic potash
be added, the action is not caused by them in the free state, but by
the soaps which they form. Oxidized oil is more readily saponified
than raw oil, and the greater the oxidation, the more readily does
saponification take place. Lime soaps are not soluble in water, whereas
soda and potash soaps are. Consequently a cement made with the latter,
if exposed to the weather, will be acted upon by rain and moisture,
owing to the soluble soap contained in it, while a cement made with
lime will not be acted upon. It is suggested that the action of the
bases on linseed oil is simply due to their neutralization of the free
acid. The acidity of linseed oil increases as it becomes oxidized. When
the basic matter is added part of the free acid is neutralized, and
polymerization sets in. The presence of a large amount of free acid
must therefore hinder polymerization. From 5 to 10 per cent of chalk
or lime is considered to be the amount which gives the best result in
practice.


«Decolorizing or Bleaching Linseed Oil.»—Linseed oil may be bleached by
the aid of chemical bodies, the process of oxidizing or bleaching being
best performed by means of peroxide of hydrogen. For this purpose,
the linseed oil to be bleached is mixed with 5 per cent peroxide
of hydrogen in a tin or glass bottle, and the mixture is shaken
repeatedly. After a few days have elapsed the linseed oil is entirely
bleached and clarified, so that it can be poured off from the peroxide
of hydrogen, which has been reduced to oxide of hydrogen, i. e., water,
by the process of oxidation. The use of another oxidizing medium, such
as chloride of lime and hydrochloric acid or bichromate of calcium
and sulphuric acid, etc., cannot be recommended to the layman, as the
operation requires more care and is not without danger. If there is
no hurry about the preparation of bleached linseed oil, sun bleaching
seems to be the most recommendable method. For this only a glass bottle
is required, or, better still, a flat glass dish, of any shape, which
can be covered with a protruding piece of glass. For the admission of
air, lay some sticks of wood over the dish and the glass on top. The
thinner the layer of linseed oil, the quicker will be the oxidation
process. It is, of course, necessary to place the vessel in such a
manner that it is exposed to the rays of the sun for many hours daily.


«Linseed Oil for Varnish-Making.»—Heat in a copper vessel 50 gallons
Baltic oil to 280° F., add 2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds calcined white vitriol, and
stir well together. Keep the oil at the above temperature for half an
hour, then draw the fire, and in 24 hours decant the clear oil. It
should stand for at least 4 weeks. {484}


«Refining Linseed Oil.»—Put 236 gallons of oil into a copper boiler,
pour in 6 pounds of oil of vitriol, and stir them together for 3 hours,
then add 6 pounds fuller’s earth well mixed with 14 pounds hot lime,
and stir for 3 hours. The oil must be put in a copper vessel with an
equal quantity of water. Now boil for 3 hours, then extinguish the
fire. When cold draw off the water. Let the mixture settle for a few
weeks.


«MINERAL OIL:»

See also Petroleum.


«Production of Consistent Mineral Oils.»—

                        By weight

 I.—Mineral oil        100 parts
     Linseed oil         25 parts
     Ground nut oil      25 parts
     Lime                10 parts

 II.—Mineral oil       100 parts
      Rosin oil         100 parts
      Rape seed oil      50 parts
      Linseed oil        75 parts
      Lime               25 parts


«Mixing Castor Oil with Mineral Oils.»—Castor oil is heated for 6
hours in an autoclave at a temperature of 500° to 575° F., and under a
pressure of 4 to 6 atmospheres. When cold the resulting product mixes
in all proportions with mineral oils.


«BLEACHING OILS:»


«Linseed Oil or Poppy Oil.»—Agitate in a glass balloon 25,000 parts,
by weight, of oil with a solution of 50 parts, by weight, potassium
permanganate in 1,250 parts, by volume, of water. Let stand for 24
hours at a gentle warmth and add 75 parts, by weight, of powdered
sodium sulphite. Agitate strongly and add 100 parts, by weight, of
hydrochloric acid and again agitate. Let stand until decolorization
takes place, then wash the oil with a sufficiency of water, carrying in
suspension chalk, finely powdered, until the liquid no longer has an
acid reaction. Finally filter off over anhydrous sodium sulphate.


«Boiled Oil.»—The following is especially adapted for zinc painting,
but will also answer for any paint: Mix 1 part binoxide of manganese,
in coarse powder, but not dusty, with 10 parts nut or linseed oil. Keep
it gently heated and frequently stirred for about 30 hours, or until
the oil begins to turn reddish.


«British Oil.»—

 I.—Oil of turpentine          40 parts
     Barbadoes pitch            26 parts
     Oil of rosemary             1 part
     Oil of origanum             1 part

 II.—Oil of turpentine          2 parts
      Rape oil                  20 parts
      Spirit of tar              2 parts
      Alkanet root, quantity sufficient.

Macerate the alkanet root in the rape oil until the latter is colored
deep red; then strain off and add the other ingredients.


«Decolorizing and Deodorizing Oils.»—I.—One may partially or completely
deodorize and decolorize rank fish and other oils by sending a current
of hot air or of steam through them, after having heated them from 175°
to 200° F. To decolorize palm oil pass through it a current of steam
under pressure corresponding to a temperature of 230° F., agitating
the oil constantly. The vapor is then passed through leaden tuyeres of
about 2 inches diameter, 10 hours being sufficient for deodorizing 4
tons of oil.

II.—Another method that may be applied to almost all kinds of fats and
oils with excellent results is the following: Melt say 112 parts, by
weight, of palm oil in a boiler. When the mass is entirely liquefied
add to it a solution of calcium chloride, made by dissolving 7 parts,
by weight, of lime chloride for every 84 parts, by weight, of oil in
water, and mix intimately. After cooling, the mass hardens and is cut
into small bits and exposed to the air for a few weeks. After this
exposure the material is reassembled in a boiler of iron, jacketed on
the inside with lead; a quantity of sulphuric acid diluted to 5 per
cent, equal in amount to the lime chloride previously used, is added,
and heat is applied until the oil melts and separates from the other
substances. It is then left to cool off and solidify.


«Decomposition of Oils, Fats, etc.»—In many of the processes at present
in use, whereby oils and fats are decomposed by steam at a high
pressure, the time during which the oil or fat has to be exposed to
high pressure and temperature has the effect of considerably darkening
the resulting product. Hannig’s process claims to shorten the time
required, by bringing the steam and oil into more intimate contact.
The oil to be treated is projected in fine streams into the chamber
containing steam at 8 to 10 atmospheres pressure. The streams of oil
are projected with sufficient force to cause them to strike against the
walls of the chamber, and they are thus broken up into minute globules
which mix intimately with the steam. In this way the most satisfactory
conditions for the decomposition of the oil are obtained. {485}


«Driffield Oils.»—

 Barbadoes tar       1 ounce
 Linseed oil        16 ounces
 Oil turpentine      3 ounces
 Oil vitriol       1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Add the oil of vitriol to the other ingredients very gradually, with
constant stirring.


«Drying Oils.»—To dry oils for varnishes, paintings, etc., the most
economical means is to boil them with shot, to leave them for some
time in contact with shot, or else to boil them with litharge. Another
method consists in boiling the oils with equal parts of lead, tin, and
sulphate of zinc in the ratio of 1⁠/⁠10 part (weight) of the united
metals to 1 part of oil to be treated. These metals must be granulated,
which is easily accomplished by melting them separately and putting
them in cold water. They will be found at the bottom of the water in
the shape of small balls. It is in this manner, by the way, that shot
is produced.


«Dust-Laying Oil.»—A process has been patented for rendering mineral
oils miscible in all proportions of water. The method consists of
forming an intimate mixture of the oil with a soap which is soluble
in water. The most simple method is as follows: The oil is placed in
a tank provided with an agitator. The latter is set in motion and the
fatty oil or free fatty acid from which the soap is to be formed is
added, and mixed intimately with the mineral oil. When the mixture is
seen to be thoroughly homogeneous, the alkali, in solution in water,
is added little by little and the stirring continued until a thorough
emulsion is obtained, of which the constituents do not separate, even
after prolonged standing at ordinary temperatures. The agitation may be
produced either by a mechanical apparatus or by forcing air in under
pressure. As a rule, the operation can be carried out in the cold, but
in certain cases the solution of the fatty body and its saponification
requires the application of moderate heat. This may be obtained by
using either a steam-jacketed pan, or by having the steam coil within
the pan, or live steam may be blown through the mixture, serving at the
same time both as a heating and stirring agent. Any fatty matter or
fatty acid suitable for soap-making may be used, and the base may be
any one capable of forming a soluble soap, most commonly the alkaline
hydroxides, caustic soda, and caustic potash, as also ammonia. The raw
materials are chosen according to the use to which the finished product
is to be applied. A good formula, suitable for preparing an oily liquid
for watering dusty roads, is as follows:

                           By weight

 Heavy mineral oil        75 parts
 Commercial olein          2 parts
 Commercial ammonia      1.5 parts
 Water                  21.5 parts


«Floor Oils.»—

 I.—Neatsfoot oil            1 part
     Cottonseed oil           1 part
     Petroleum oil            1 part

 II.—Beeswax                 8 parts
      Water                  56 parts
      Potassium carbonate     4 parts

Dissolve the potash in 12 parts of water; heat together the wax and the
remaining water till the wax is liquefied; then mix the two and boil
together until a perfect emulsion is effected. Color, if desired, with
a solution of annatto.


«Ground-Laying Oil for Ceramics.»—Boil together until thoroughly
incorporated 1 pint of linseed oil, 1 pint of dissolved gum mastic,
1⁠/⁠2 ounce of red lead, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of rosin. In using mix with Venice
turpentine.


«Oil Suitable for Use with Gold.»—Heat and incorporate linseed oil, 1
quart; rape oil, 1 pint; Canadian balsam, 3 pints; rectified spirits of
tar, 1 quart.


«Wool Oil.»—These are usually produced by the distillation in retorts
of Yorkshire grease and other greases. The distilled oil is tested
for quality, and is brought down to 70 per cent or 50 per cent grades
by the addition of a suitable quantity of mineral oil. The lower the
quality of the grease used the lower is the grade of the resulting wool
oil.

OIL, CASTOR: See Castor Oil.

OIL FOR FORMING A BEAD ON LIQUORS: See Wines and Liquors.

OILS FOR HARNESS: See Leather.

OILS (EDIBLE), TESTS FOR: See Foods.

OIL, HOW TO POUR OUT: See Castor Oil.

OIL, LUBRICATING: See Lubricants. {486}

OILS, PURIFICATION OF: See Fats.

OILCLOTH: See Linoleum.

OILCLOTH ADHESIVES: See Adhesives.

OILCLOTH VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

OILING FIBERS AND FABRICS: See Waterproofing.

OILSKINS: See Waterproofing.

OIL REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

OIL, SOLIDIFIED: See Lubricants.


«Ointments»


«Arnica Salve.»—

 Solid extract of arnica      2 parts
 Rosin ointment              16 parts
 Petrolatum                   4 parts
 Sultanas                    16 parts
 Fine cut tobacco             1 part

Boil the raisins and the tobacco in 40 ounces of water until exhausted,
express the liquid, and evaporate down to 8 ounces. Soften the arnica
extract in a little hot water and mix in the liquid. Melt the rosin
ointment and petrolatum together, and add the liquid to the melted mass
and incorporate thoroughly.


«Barbers’ Itch.»—

 Ichthyol                          30 grains
 Salicylic acid                    12 grains
 Mercury oleate (10 per cent)       3 drachms
 Lanolin                            1 ounce

Mix. To be kept constantly applied to the affected parts.


«Brown Ointment.»—

 Rosin                   1 ounce
 Lead plaster            4 ounces
 Soap cerate             8 ounces
 Yellow beeswax          1 ounce
 Olive oil           7 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces


«Chilblains.»—The following are for unbroken chilblains:

 I.—Sulphurous acid                3 parts
     Glycerine                      1 part
     Water                          1 part

 II.—Balsam Peru                   1 part
      Alcohol                      24 parts
      Hydrochloric acid             1 part
      Tincture benzoin compound     8 parts

Dissolve the balsam in the alcohol, and add the acid and tincture.
Apply morning and evening.


«Domestic Ointments.»—

 I.—Vaseline                      80 parts
     Diachylon ointment            30 parts
     Carbolic acid                  4 parts
     Camphor                        5 parts

 II.—Butter, fresh (unsalted)    750 parts
      Wax, yellow                 125 parts
      Rosin, white                100 parts
      Nutmeg oil                   15 parts
      Peru balsam                   1 part

 III.—Lead plaster, simple     6,090 parts
       Vaseline, yellow         1,000 parts
       Camphor                     65 parts
       Carbolic acid               50 parts

Mix.


«Green Salve.»—

 White pine turpentine      8 ounces
 Lard, fresh                8 ounces
 Honey                      4 ounces
 Beeswax, yellow            4 ounces

Melt, stir well, and add

 Verdigris, powdered      4 drachms

Apply locally.

This cannot be surpassed when used for deep wounds, as it prevents the
formation of proud flesh and keeps up a healthy discharge.


«Salve for all Wounds.»—

 Lard, fresh         16 ounces
 White lead, dry      3 ounces
 Red lead, dry        1 ounce
 Beeswax, yellow      3 ounces
 Black rosin          2 ounces

Mix, melt, and boil for 45 minutes, then add

 Common turpentine      4 ounces

Boil for 3 minutes and cool.

Apply locally to cuts, burns, sores, ulcers, etc. It first draws, then
heals.


«Irritating Plaster.»—

 Tar, purified             16 ounces
 Burgundy pitch             1 ounce
 White pine turpentine      1 ounce
 Rosin, common              2 ounces

Melt and add

 Mandrake root, powdered            1 drachm
 Bloodroot, powdered                1 ounce
 Poke root, powdered                1 ounce
 Indian turnip root, powdered       1 ounce

Apply to the skin in the form of a {487} plaster (spread on muslin) and
renew it daily.

This salve will raise a sore which is to be wiped with a dry cloth to
remove matter, etc. The sore must not be wetted. This is a powerful
counter-irritant for removing internal pains, and in other cases where
an irritating plaster is necessary.


«Mercury Salves.»—I.—Red Salve.—Red mercury oxide, 1 part; melted lard,
9 parts.

II.—White Salve.—Mercury precipitate, 1 part; melted lard, 9 parts.

Pink salve.

 Ammoniated mercury                      1 ounce
 Mercuric oxide, precipitated        2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Red mercuric sulphide (vermilion)      60 grains
 Perfume                               1⁠/⁠2 fluidounce
 Lard                                1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Prepared suet                         1⁠/⁠2 pound


«Antiseptic Nervine Ointment.»—

 Iodoform        2 parts
 Salol           4 parts
 Boric acid      5 parts
 Antipyrine      5 parts
 Vaseline       80 parts


«Photographers’ Ointment.»—The following protects the hands from
photographic chemicals:

 Best castile soap, in fine shavings      1 ounce
 Water                                    1 ounce
 Wax                                      1 ounce
 Ammonia                                 45 minims
 Lanolin                                  1 ounce

The soap is dissolved in the water heated for that purpose, the wax
mixed in with much stirring, and, when all is in solution, the ammonia
is added. When clear, the lanolin is put in, and then, if the mixture
is very thick, water is added until the whole has the consistency of
honey. Keep in a covered stoneware jar. The hands should be first
washed with ordinary soap, and then, while the lather is still on them,
a bit of the mixture about the size of a hazel nut is rubbed in until
all is absorbed, and the hands are dry. At the close of the work, the
film of wax is washed off in warm water and a little lanolin rubbed
into the hands.


«Pain-Subduing Ointment.»—The following is an excellent formula:

 Tincture of capsicum      5 parts
 Tincture of camphor       1 part
 Ammonia water             2 parts
 Alcohol                   2 parts
 Soap liniment             2 parts


«Skin Ointment.»—I.—Add about 2 per cent of phenol to petrolatum,
perfuming it with oil of bergamot and color a dull green. It has been
suggested that a mixture of Prussian blue and yellow ocher would answer
as the coloring agent.

 II.—Phenol                40 grains
      Boric acid             2 drachms
      Oil of bergamot       90 minims
      Petrolatum             1 pound
      Color with chlorophyll.

OINTMENTS FOR VETERINARY PURPOSES: See Veterinary Formulas.

OLEIN SOAP: See Soap.

OLEOMARGARINE: See Butter.

OLIVE-OIL PASTE: See Butter Substitutes.

ONYX CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

ORANGEADE: See Beverages, under Lemonades.

ORANGE BITTERS AND CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

ORANGE DROPS: See Confectionery.

ORANGE EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts.

ORANGE FRAPPÉ: See Beverages, under Lemonades.

ORANGE PHOSPHATE: See Beverages.

ORGEAT PUNCH: See Beverages, under Lemonades.

ORTOL DEVELOPER: See Photography.

OXIDIZING: See Bronzing, Plating, Painting.

OXIDE, MAGNETIC: See Rust Preventives.

OXOLIN: See Rubber.

OZONATINE: See Air Purifying.

PACKAGE POP: See Beverages, under Ginger Ale.

PACKAGE WAX: See Waxes. {488}


«PACKINGS:»


«Packing for Stuffing Boxes.»—

 Tallow                               10 parts
 Barrel soap, non-filled              30 parts
 Cylinder oil                         10 parts
 Talcum Venetian, finely powdered     20 parts
 Graphite, finely washed               6 parts
 Powdered asbestos                     6 parts

Melt the tallow and barrel soap together, add the other materials in
rotation, mix intimately in a mixing machine, and fill in 4-pound cans.


«Packing for Gasoline Pumps.»—For packing pumps on gasoline engines use
asbestos wick-packing rubbed full of regular laundry soap; it will work
without undue friction and will pack tightly. Common rubber packing is
not as good, as the gasoline cuts it out.

PADS OF PAPER: See Paper Pads.

PAIN-SUBDUING OINTMENT: See Ointments.


«PAINTING PROCESSES:»


«Painting Ornaments or Letters on Cloth and Paper.»—Dissolve gum
shellac in 95 per cent alcohol at the rate of 1 pound of shellac to 3
pints of alcohol, and mix with it any dry color desired. If it becomes
too thick, thin with more alcohol. This works free, does not bleed out,
imparts brilliancy to the color, and wears well. The preparation can be
used also on paper.


«Painting on Marble.»—To paint marble in water colors, it must be
first thoroughly cleaned and all grease completely removed. The slab
is washed well, and then rubbed off with benzine by means of a rag or
sponge. In order to be quite sure, add a little ox gall or aguoline to
the colors. After marble has been painted with water colors it cannot
be polished any more.


«Painting on Muslin.»—To paint on muslin requires considerable skill.
Select a smooth wall or partition, upon which tack the muslin, drawing
the fabric taut and firm. Then make a solution of starch and water,
adding one-fourth starch to three-fourths water, and apply a glaze of
this to the muslin. To guard against the striking in of the paint, and
to hold it more securely in place and texture, mix the pigment with
rubbing varnish to the consistency of a stiff paste, and then thin with
turpentine to a free working condition. A double thick camel’s-hair
brush, of a width to correspond properly with the size of the surface
to be coated, is the best tool with which to coat fine muslin. A
fitch-hair tool is probably best suited to the coarser muslin. Many
painters, when about to letter on muslin, wet the material with water;
but this method is not so reliable as sizing with starch and water.
Wetting canvas or duck operates very successfully in holding the paint
or color in check, but these materials should not be confounded with
muslin, which is of an entirely different texture.

PAINTING ON LEATHER: See Leather.


«PAINTINGS:»


«Protection for Oil Paintings.»—Oil paintings should under no
circumstances be varnished over before the colors are surely and
unmistakably dry, otherwise the fissuring and early decay of the
surface may be anticipated. The contention of some people that oil
paintings need the protection of a coat of varnish is based upon the
claim that the picture, unvarnished, looks dead and lusterless in
parts and glossy in still others, the value and real beauty of the
color being thus unequally manifested. It is not to be inferred,
however, that a heavy coating of varnish is required. When it is
deemed advisable to varnish over an oil painting the varnish should
be mastic, with perhaps 3 or 4 drops of refined linseed oil added to
insure against cracking. A heavy body of varnish used over paintings
must be strictly prohibited, inasmuch as the varnish, as it grows in
age, naturally darkens in color, and in so doing carries with it a
decided clouding and discoloration of the delicate pigments. A thinly
applied coat of mastic varnish affords the required protection from all
sorts and conditions of atmospheric impurities, besides fulfilling its
mission in other directions.

Oil paintings, aquarelles, etc., may be also coated with a thin layer
of Canada balsam, and placed smoothly on a pane of glass likewise
coated with Canada balsam, so that both layers of balsam come together.
Then the pictures are pressed down from the back, to remove all air
bubbles.


«To Renovate Old Oil Paintings.»—When old oil paintings have become
dark and cracked, proceed as follows: Pour alcohol in a dish and put
the picture over it, face downward. The fumes of the alcohol dissolve
the paint of the picture, the fissures close up again, and {489}
the color assumes a freshness which is surprising. Great caution is
absolutely necessary, and one must look at the painting very often,
otherwise it may happen that the colors will run together or even run
off in drops.

PAINTINGS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.


«Paints»

(See also Acid-Proofing, Ceramics, Enamels, Fireproofing, Glazing,
Painting Processes, Pigments, Rust Preventives, Varnishes, and
Waterproofing.)


«PAINT BASES:»


«Dry Bases for Paints.»—The following colors and minerals, mixed in the
proportions given and then ground to fine powder, make excellent dry
paints, and may be thinned with turpentine oil, and a small percentage
of cheap varnish to consistency required.

Buff.—

 Yellow ocher          44 pounds
 Whiting                6 pounds
 Oxide of zinc          5 pounds
 Plaster of Paris     1⁠/⁠2 pound

Brick Brown.—

 Yellow ocher         26 pounds
 Calcined copperas     4 pounds
 Red hematite      1 1⁠/⁠4 pounds
 Best silica           7 pounds
 Whiting              18 pounds

Gray.—

 Oxide of zinc      30 pounds
 White lead          6 pounds
 Whiting            12 pounds
 Bone black        1⁠/⁠4 pound
 Yellow ocher        2 pounds

Crimson.—

 Indian red         25 pounds
 Crocus martis       7 pounds
 Oxide of zinc       6 pounds
 Whiting             6 pounds

Vandyke Brown.—

 Yellow ocher          25 pounds
 Whiting               18 pounds
 Umber                  4 pounds
 Oxide of zinc          7 pounds
 Purple oxide of iron   1 pound

Blood Red.—

 Crocus martis      30 pounds
 Whiting            20 pounds
 Hematite            3 pounds
 Silica              6 pounds
 Venetian red        2 pounds

Drab.—

 Yellow ocher           40 pounds
 Whiting                10 pounds
 Oxide of zinc       8 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Sulphate of barytes     1 pound


«Paint for Blackboards.»—

 Shellac                        1 pound
 Alcohol                        1 gallon
 Lampblack (fine quality)       4 ounces
 Powdered emery                 4 ounces
 Ultramarine blue               4 ounces

Dissolve the shellac in the alcohol. Place the lampblack, emery, and
ultramarine blue on a cheese-cloth strainer, pour on part of the
shellac solution, stirring constantly and gradually adding the solution
until all of the powders have passed through the strainer.


«Dark-Green Paint for Blackboards.»—Mix 1 part Prussian blue and 1 part
chrome green with equal parts of gilders’ size and alcohol to a thin
cream consistency. Apply with a large, stiff brush and after an hour
a second coat is given. After 24 to 48 hours smooth the surface with
a felt cloth. This renders it rich and velvety. The shade must be a
deep black green and the quantities of the colors have to be modified
accordingly if necessary. Old blackboards should be previously
thoroughly cleaned with soda.


«BRONZING SOLUTIONS FOR PAINTS.»

I.—The so-called “banana solution” (the name being derived from its
odor) which is used in applying bronzes of various kinds, is usually
a mixture of equal parts of amyl acetate, acetone, and benzine, with
just enough pyroxyline dissolved therein to give it body. Powdered
bronze is put into a bottle containing this mixture and the paint so
formed applied with a brush. The thin covering of pyroxyline that is
left after the evaporation of the liquid protects the bronze from
the air and keeps it from being wiped off by the cleanly housemaid.
Tarnished picture frames and tarnished chandeliers to which a gold
bronze has been applied from such a solution will look fresh and new
for a long time. Copper bronze as well as gold bronze and the various
colored bronze powders can be used in the “banana solution” for making
very pretty advertising signs for use in the drug store. Lettering and
bordering work upon the signs can be done with it. Several very small,
stiff painters’ brushes are needed for such work and they must {490} be
either kept in the solution when not in use, or, better still, washed
in benzine or acetone immediately after use and put away for future
service. As the “banana solution” is volatile, it must be kept well
corked.

II.—A good bronzing solution for paint tins, applied by dipping, is
made by dissolving Syrian asphaltum in spirits of turpentine, etc., and
thinning it down with these solvents to the proper bronze color and
consistency. A little good boiled oil will increase the adherence.


«Paint Brushes.»—To soften a hard paint brush, stand the brush
overnight in a pot of soft soap and clean in warm water. Afterwards
clean in benzine. If the brush is wrapped with a string do not let the
string touch the soap.

Paint brushes which have dried up as hard as stone can be cleaned in
the following manner: Dissolve 1 part soda in 3 parts water; pour the
solution in a cylinder glass, and suspend in it the brushes to be
cleaned, so that they are about 2 inches from the bottom of the vessel.
Let it remain undisturbed at a temperature of 140° to 158° F., 12 to 24
hours, after which the most indurated brushes will have become soft, so
that they can be readily cleaned with soap. It is essential, however,
to observe the temperature, as bristle brushes will be injured and
spoiled if the heat is greater.


«Black.—A Permanent Black of Rich Luster for Metal Boxes.»—Dissolve
chlorate of potassium and blue vitriol, equal parts, in 36 times as
much water, and allow the solution to cool. The parts to be blacked
may be either dipped in the solution, or the solution may be flowed
on and allowed to remain until the metal becomes black, after which
the fixtures should be rinsed in clean water and allowed to dry. Those
parts of the surface which show imperfections in the black should be
recoated.


«Dead White on Silver Work, etc.»—Bruise charcoal very finely and mix
it with calcined borax in the proportion of 4 parts of charcoal to 1 of
borax. Of this make a paste with water; apply this paste on the parts
to be deadened; next expose the piece to the fire of well-lit coal
until it acquires a cherry-red shade; allow to cool and then place it
in water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid. The bath must not be
more than 5° Bé. Leave the piece in the bath about 2 hours, then rinse
off several times.


«White Coating for Signs, etc.»—A white color for signs and articles
exposed to the air is prepared as follows for the last coat: Thin
so-called Dutch “stand” oil with oil of turpentine to working
consistency, and grind in it equal parts of zinc white and white
lead, not adding much siccative, as the white lead assists the drying
considerably. If the paint is smoothed well with a badger brush, a very
durable white color of great gloss is obtained. Linseed oil, or varnish
which has thickened like “stand” oil by long open storing, will answer
equally well.


«To Prevent Crawling of Paints.»—Probably the best method to pursue
will be to take an ordinary flannel rag and carefully rub it over
the work previous to varnishing, striping, or painting. This simple
operation will obviate the possibility of crawling.

In some instances, however, crawling may be traced to a defective
varnish. The latter, after drying evenly on a well-prepared paint
surface will at times crawl, leaving small pitmarks. For this,
the simple remedy consists in purchasing varnish from a reputable
manufacturer.


«FIREPROOF PAINTS:»

See also Fireproofing.

Fireproofing paints of effective quality are prepared in different
ways. Naturally no oily or greasy substances enter into their
composition, the blending agent being simply water.

I.—One of the standing paints consists of 40 pounds of powdered
asbestos, 10 pounds of aluminate of soda, 10 pounds of lime, and 30
pounds of silicate of soda, with the addition of any non-rosinous
coloring matter desired. The whole is thoroughly mixed with enough
water to produce a perfect blend and render an easy application. Two
or more coats of this is the rule in applying it to any wood surface,
inside or outside of building.

II.—Another formula involves the use of 40 pounds of finely ground
glass, a like amount of ground porcelain, and similarly of China clay
or the same quantity of powdered asbestos, and 20 pounds of quicklime.
These materials are ground very fine and then mixed in 60 pounds of
liquid silicate of soda with water, as in the preceding formula. Two or
more coats, if necessary, are given.

Each of these paints is applied with a brush in the ordinary way, the
drying being accomplished in a few hours, and, if coloring matter is
desired, the above proportions are varied accordingly.

III.—A surface coated with 3 coats of water glass, these 3 coats being
{491} subsequently coated with water glass containing enough whiting
or ground chalk to make it a trifle thicker than ordinary paint, is
practically non-inflammable, only yielding to fierce consuming flames
after a somewhat protracted exposure.

IV.—Zinc white, 70 pounds; air-slaked lime, 39 pounds; white lead,
50 pounds; sulphate of zinc, 10 pounds; silicate of soda, 7 gallons.
The zinc white and lime are mixed together, then ground in elastic
oil, after which the silicate of soda is added, this addition being
followed by the white lead and sulphate of zinc. This white paint can
be colored to meet any desired shade and it may be classed as a good
working paint and probably fireproof to the same extent that most of
the pretentiously sounded pigments on the markets are.


«Fireproof and Waterproof Paints.»—The following recipes are claimed
to resist both fire and water: A preparation for protecting wood
against the action of fire and of moisture, and also for producing on
the surface of wood and metal a coat, insulating with reference to
electricity and preservative from corrosion, has been introduced in
France by Louis Bethisy and Myrthil Rose. The bases or fundamental raw
materials quite distinct from those hitherto employed for the same
purpose, are 100 parts, by weight, of nitro-cellulose and 30 parts, by
weight, of chloride of lime, dissolved in 50 per cent alcohol.

Preparation of the Bases.—The cellulose (of wood, paper, cotton, linen,
ramie, or hemp) is put in contact with two-thirds part of sulphuric
acid of 66° Bé. and one-third part of nitric acid of 42° Bé. for some
20 or 30 minutes, washed with plenty of water, and kept for 24 hours in
a tank of water supplied with an energetic current.

The nitro-cellulose thus obtained is bleached for this purpose; a
double hypochlorite of aluminum and magnesium is employed. This is
obtained by grinding together 100 parts of chloride of lime, 60 parts
of aluminum sulphate, 23 parts of magnesium sulphate, with 200 parts of
water.

When the nitro-cellulose is bleached and rewashed, it is reduced to
powder and dried as thoroughly as possible. It is then placed in a vat
hermetically closed and put in contact with the indicated proportion
of calcium chloride dissolved in alcohol. This solution of calcium
chloride should be prepared at least 24 hours in advance and filtered.

Composition of the Coating.—This has the following constituents: Bases
(nitro-cellulose and solution of calcium chloride), 1 part; amyl
acetate (solvent of the bases), 5 parts, by weight; sulphuric ether
of 65°, 1.650 parts, by weight; alcohol, 0.850 parts, by weight; one
of these powders, alum, talc, asbestos, or mica, 0.100 parts. Other
solvents may be employed instead of amyl acetate; for example, acetone,
acetic acid, ether alcohol, or methylic alcohol. The ether alcohol
furnishes a product drying very quickly. If a very pliant coating is
desired, the amyl acetate is employed preferably, with addition of
vaseline oil, 0.20 parts, and lavender oil, 0.010 parts.

Method of Operating.—The sulphuric acid is mixed with the alcohol, and
left for an hour in contact, shaking from time to time. Afterwards
the amyl acetate is added, and left in contact for another hour under
similar agitation. In case of the employment of vaseline oil and
lavender oil, these two are mingled in ether alcohol. The base is
introduced and left in contact for 24 hours, with frequent agitation.
The fluidity of the product is augmented by increasing the quantity of
the solvent.

Properties.—Wood covered with this coating is fireproof,
non-hygrometric, and refractory to the electric current. It also
resists the action of acids and alkalies. Metals covered with it are
sheltered from oxidation, and effectually insulated on their surface
from the electric current. The coating is liquid in form, and applied
like collodions, either by the brush or by immersion or other suitable
method.


«Paint Deadening.»—In order to obtain an even dullness of large walls,
proceed as follows: After all the dirt has been carefully swept off,
oil with 2 parts linseed oil and 1 part turpentine and rub down the
smooth places in the wet oil with pumice stone. When the oil coating
is dry, mix the ground paint, consisting of whiting, 2 parts; and
white lead, 1 part; both finely ground and diluted as above. Do not
apply the grounding too thin, because the chalk in itself possesses
little covering power. It is not the mission of the chalk, however,
to adulterate the material, but to afford a hard foundation for the
subsequent coats. For the third coating take white lead, 1 part; and
zinc white, 1 part; thin as above and blend with a soft hair pencil.
For the final application use only zinc white, ground stiff in oil with
any desired mixing color and thinned with turpentine and rain water.
Mix the {492} water and the turpentine with the color at the same time,
and this coat may be dabbed instead of blended. By the addition of
water the paint becomes dull more slowly and is a little more difficult
to lay on; but it does not show a trace of gloss after a few days and
never turns yellow, even in places less exposed to the air, and besides
excels by great permanency.

Another way is to add white wax instead of water to the last coating.
This wax paint also gives a handsome dullness but is more difficult of
treatment. A nice matt coating is also obtained by addition of Venetian
soap, dissolved in water instead of the wax. This is very desirable
for church decorations where exceptionally large surfaces are to be
deadened.


«PAINT DRYERS:»

 I.—Ordinary barytes          25 pounds
     Whiting                    4 pounds
     Litharge                   2 pounds
     Sulphate of zinc           2 pounds
     Sugar of lead              2 pounds
     Boiled linseed oil         5 pounds
     Plaster of Paris         1⁠/⁠2 pound

 II.—Whiting                  16 pounds
      Barytes                  16 pounds
      White lead                3 pounds
      Boiled linseed oil      3⁠/⁠4 gallon


«PAINTS FOR GOLD AND GILDING:»


«Gold Paints.»—The formulas of the various gold paints on the market
are carefully guarded trade secrets. Essentially they consist of a
bronze powder mixed with a varnish. The best bronze powder for the
purpose is what is known in the trade as “French flake,” a deep gold
bronze. This bronze, as seen under the microscope, consists of tiny
flakes or spangles of the bronze metal. As each minute flake forms a
facet for the reflection of color, the paint made with it is much more
brilliant than that prepared from finely powdered bronze.

For making gold paint like the so-called “washable gold enamel” that is
sold by the manufacturers at the present time, it is necessary to mix
a celluloid varnish with the French flake bronze powder. This varnish
is made by dissolving transparent celluloid in amyl acetate in the
proportion of about 5 per cent of celluloid.

 Transparent celluloid, finely shredded      1 ounce
 Acetone, sufficient quantity.
 Amyl acetate to make 20 ounces.

Digest the celluloid in the acetone until dissolved and add the amyl
acetate. From 1 to 4 ounces of flake bronze is to be mixed with this
quantity of varnish. For silver paint or “aluminum enamel,” flake
aluminum bronze powder should be used in place of the gold. The
celluloid varnish incloses the bronze particles in an impervious
coating, air-tight and water-tight. As it contains nothing that will
act upon the bronze, the latter retains its luster for a long period,
until the varnished surface becomes worn or abraded and the bronze thus
exposed to atmospheric action.

All of the “gold” or, more properly, gilt furniture that is sold so
cheaply by the furniture and department stores is gilded with a paint
of this kind, and for that reason such furniture can be offered at a
moderate price. The finish is surprisingly durable, and in color and
luster is a very close imitation of real gold-leaf work. This paint
is also used on picture frames of cheap and medium grades, taking
the place of gold leaf or the lacquered silver leaf formerly used
on articles of the better grades; it is also substituted for “Dutch
metal,” or imitation gold leaf, on the cheapest class of work.

A cheaper gold paint is made by using an inexpensive varnish composed
of gutta percha, gum dammar, or some other varnish gum, dissolved in
benzole, or in a mixture of benzole and benzine. The paints made with a
celluloid-amyl-acetate varnish give off a strong banana-like odor when
applied, and may be readily recognized by this characteristic.

The impalpably powdered bronzes are called “lining” bronzes. They are
chiefly used for striping or lining by carriage painters; in bronzing
gas fixtures and metal work; in fresco and other interior decoration,
and in printing; the use of a very fine powder in inks or paints admits
of the drawing or printing of very delicate lines.

Lining bronze is also used on picture frames or other plastic
ornamental work. Mixed with a thin weak glue sizing it is applied over
“burnishing clay,” and when dry is polished with agate burnishers.
The object thus treated, after receiving a finishing coat of a thin
transparent varnish, imitates very closely in appearance a piece of
finely cast antique bronze. To add still more to this effect the
burnishing clay is colored the greenish black that is seen in the deep
parts of real antique bronzes, and the bronze powder, mixed with size,
is applied only to the most prominent parts or “high lights” of the
ornament. {493}

Since the discovery of the celluloid-amyl-acetate varnish, or
bronze liquid, and its preservative properties on bronze powders,
manufacturers have discontinued the use of liquids containing oils,
turpentine, or gums, since their constituents corrode the bronze metal,
causing the paint finally to turn black.


«Gilding in Size.»—The old painters and gilders used to prepare the
gold size themselves, but nowadays it is usually bought ready made,
barring the white of egg additional. The best and most reliable,
and especially suited for fine work, is undoubtedly the red French
gold size. It is cleaned, as far as possible, of all impurities, and
powdered. For 246 grains take 1 white of egg; put it into a glass,
taking care to exclude the yolk entirely—otherwise the burnish will
show black spots. Beat the white of egg to a froth with a long,
well-cleaned bristle brush; add the froth to the size and grind finely
together, which is soon done. When grinding, a little water and red
size, if necessary, may be added (use only water for thinning). After
being ground, the size is forced through a very fine hair sieve into
a perfectly clean vessel, and covered up well, for immediate or
subsequent use.

The raw stuff of the red size is bolus, which is dug in France and
Armenia in excellent quality. Besides the red size there are yellow,
white (pipe clay), blue, and gray (alumina), which are used for certain
purposes, to enumerate which here would lead too far.

For burnish gold, always take yellow size for ground work. Dip a
finely ground bristle brush in the gold size prepared for use; fill
a well-cleaned glass (holding 1 pint) half full of water, and add
the size contained in the brush, also about 4 to 5 spoonfuls of pure
alcohol. It is advisable not to take too much size; the liquid, when
applied, must hardly have a yellow tint. When this is dry soon after,
commence applying the size, for which a hair pencil is used. The
essentials are to paint evenly and not too thickly, so that the tone
remains uniform. Apply three coats of size.

When the size is laid on correctly and has become dry, brush the whole
with a special brush, or rub with a flannel rag, so as to obtain the
highest possible luster. The size must not stand too long; otherwise no
gloss can be developed. After brushing, coat the work with weak glue
water and wrap it up in tissue paper if the gilding is not to be done
at once.

The strictest cleanliness is essential, as the red gold size is very
sensitive. The parts where the size has been applied must not be
touched with the hand, else grease spots will ensue, which will make
a flawless gloss in gilding impossible. The least relaxation of the
necessary attention may spoil the whole job, so that everything has to
be ground off again.

The necessary tools for the application of gold leaf are: Hair pencils
of various sizes, tip, cushion, and gilding knife, as with oil-gilding.
Take pure alcohol or grain brandy, and dilute with two-thirds water.
When ready to apply the gold leaf, dip a hair pencil of suitable size
into the fluid, but do not have it full enough that the alcohol will
run on the size ground. Moisten a portion of the ground surface as
large as the gold leaf, which is laid on immediately after. Proceed in
the same manner, first moistening, then applying the ready-cut gold
leaf. The latter must not be pressed on, but merely laid down lightly,
one leaf a little over the edge of the previous one, without using up
too much gold. Technical practice in gold-leaf gilding is presupposed;
through this alone can any skill be acquired, reading being of no avail.

The leaf of gold being applied, all dust must be swept off by means
of a light, fine hair pencil (but never against the overlapping
edges), and the burnishing is commenced. For this purpose there are
special agate tools of the shape of a horn. Flint stone, blood stone,
and wolf’s teeth are sometimes, but gradually more seldom, employed.
Burnish till a full, fine luster appears; but very carefully avoid
dents and lines, not to speak of scratches, which would be very hard to
mend.


«Gold Enamel Paints.»—

 I.—Pure turps                              6 pints
     Copal varnish                           1 pint
     Good gold bronze                    6 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
     Calcis hydrate (dry-slaked lime)      1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Mix the varnish and turps at a gentle heat, then slake well with the
lime, and settle for a few days, then pour off the clean portion and
mix with the powder.

 II.—White hard varnish        1 gallon
      Methylated spirit       3⁠/⁠4 gallon
      Gold bronze              12 pounds
      Finely powdered mica      3 ounces

Mix the varnish and the spirit, reduce the mica to an impalpable
powder, mix with the gold, then add to the liquid. Many bronze powders
contain a goodly {494} proportion of mica, as it imparts brilliancy.
Powdered mother-of-pearl is used also.


«GRAINING WITH PAINT:»

See also Wood.


«Oak Graining.»—Prepare a paint of two-thirds of white lead and
one-third of golden ocher with the requisite amount of boiled linseed
oil and a little drier, and cover the floor twice with this mixture,
which possesses great covering power. When the last coating is dry,
paint the floor with a thinly liquid paint consisting of varnish and
sienna, applying the same in the longitudinal direction of the boards.
Treat a strip about 20 inches wide at a time, and draw at once a broad
paint brush or, in the absence of such, an ordinary brush or goose
feather along the planks through the wet paint, whereupon the floor
will acquire a nicely grained appearance. The paint requires several
days to dry. A subsequent coating of varnish will cause the graining to
stand out still more prominently.


«Birch.»—Imitations of birch are usefully employed for furniture. The
ground should be a light, clean buff, made from white lead, stained
with either yellow ocher or raw sienna in oil. In graining, brush over
the surface with a thin wash of warm brown, making the panel of 2 or
3 broad color shades. Then take a large mottler and mottle the darker
parts into the light, working slantwise, as for maple, but leaving a
broad and stiff mark. While this is still wet soften the panel and
then slightly mottle across the previous work to break it up. When
thoroughly dry, carefully wet the work over with clean water and clean
mottler, and put in darker overgrain with a thin oak overgrainer or
overgrainer in tubes.


«Maple.»—Sixty pounds white lead; 1 ounce deep vermilion; 1 ounce lemon
chrome.


«Ash.»—Sixty pounds white lead; 1 ounce deep vermilion; 1 ounce lemon
chrome.


«Medium Oak.»—Sixty pounds white lead; 2 pounds French ocher; 1 ounce
burnt umber.


«Light Oak.»—Sixty pounds white lead; 1 ounce lemon chrome; 1⁠/⁠2 pound
French ocher.


«Dark Oak.»—Sixty pounds white lead; 10 pounds burnt umber; 1 1⁠/⁠2
pounds medium Venetian red.


«Satin Wood.»—Sixty pounds white lead; 1 ounce deep vermilion; 1 1⁠/⁠2
pounds lemon chrome.


«Pollard Oak.»—Seventy-five pounds white lead; 20 pounds French ocher;
3 pounds burnt umber; 2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds medium Venetian red.


«Pitch Pine.»—Sixty pounds white lead; 1⁠/⁠4 pound French ocher; 1⁠/⁠2
pound medium Venetian red.


«Knotted Oak.»—Sixty pounds white lead; 9 pounds French ocher; 3 1⁠/⁠2
pounds burnt umber.


«Italian Walnut.»—Sixty pounds white lead; 6 pounds French ocher;
1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds burnt umber; 1 1⁠/⁠4 pounds medium Venetian red.


«Rosewood.»—Nine and one-half pounds burnt umber; 40 pounds medium
Venetian red; 10 pounds orange chrome.


«Dark Mahogany.»—Nine and one-half pounds burnt umber; 40 pounds medium
Venetian red; 10 pounds orange chrome.


«Light Mahogany.»—Sixty pounds white lead; 3 pounds burnt umber; 10
pounds medium Venetian red.


«American Walnut.»—Thirty pounds white lead; 9 pounds French ocher; 4
pounds burnt umber; 1 pound medium Venetian red.


«LUMINOUS PAINTS.»

The illuminating power of the phosphorescent masses obtained by heating
strontium thiosulphate or barium thiosulphate is considerably increased
by the addition, before heating, of small quantities of the nitrates
of uranium, bismuth, or thorium. Added to calcium thiosulphate, these
nitrates do not heighten the luminosity or phosphorescence. The product
from strontium thiosulphate is more luminous than that of the barium
compound. Among the best luminous paints are the following:

I.—Lennord’s.—One hundred parts, by weight, of strontium carbonate;
100 parts, by weight, of sulphur; 0.5 parts, by weight, of potassium
chloride; 0.5 parts, by weight, of sodium chloride; 0.4 parts,
by weight, of manganese chloride. The materials are heated for
three-quarters of an hour to one hour, to about 2,372° F. The product
gives a violet light.

II.—Mourel’s.—One hundred parts, by weight, of strontium carbonate; 30
parts, by weight, of sulphur; 2 parts, by weight, of sodium carbonate;
0.5 parts, by weight, of sodium chloride; 0.2 parts, by weight, of
manganese sulphate. The method of treatment is the same as in the
first, the phosphorescence deep yellow. {495}

III.—Vanino’s.—Sixty parts, by weight, of strontium thiosulphate;
12 parts, by weight, of a 0.5 per cent acidified alcoholic solution
of bismuth nitrate; 6 parts, by weight, of a 0.5 per cent alcoholic
solution of uranium nitrate. The materials are mixed, dried, brought
gradually to a temperature of 2,372° F., and heated for about an hour.
The phosphorescence is emerald green.

IV.—Balmain’s.—Twenty parts, by weight, of calcium oxide (burnt lime),
free from iron; 6 parts, by weight, of sulphur; 2 parts, by weight,
of starch; 1 part, by weight, of a 0.5 per cent solution of bismuth
nitrate; 0.15 parts, by weight, of potassium chloride; 0.15 parts, by
weight, of sodium chloride. The materials are mixed, dried, and heated
to 1,300° C. (2,372° F.). The product gives a violet light.

To make these phosphorescent substances effective, they are exposed
for a time to direct sunlight; or a mercury lamp may be used. Powerful
incandescent gas light also does well, but requires more time.


«PAINTS FOR METAL SURFACES:»


«Blackening Ornaments of Iron.»—I.—To give iron ornaments a black-brown
to black color, proceed in the following manner: The articles are
treated with corrosives, cleaned of all adhering grease, and placed
in a 10 per cent solution of potassium bichromate, dried in the air,
and finally held over an open, well-glowing, non-sooting fire for 2
minutes. The first coloring is usually black brown, but if this process
is repeated several times, a pure black shade is obtained. Special
attention has to be paid to removing all grease, otherwise the greasy
spots will not be touched by the liquid, and the coloring produced will
become irregular. Benzine is employed for that purpose and the articles
must not be touched with the fingers afterwards.

II.—This process protects the iron from rust for a long time. The
treatment consists in coating the objects very uniformly with a thin
layer of linseed-oil varnish, and burning it off over a charcoal fire.
During the deflagration the draught must be stopped. The varnish will
first go up in smoke with a strong formation of soot, and finally burn
up entirely. The process is repeated, i. e., after one coating is
burned off a new one is applied, until the parts exhibit a uniformly
handsome, deep-black color. Next, wipe off the covering with a dry rag
and heat again, but only moderately. Finally, the articles are taken
from the fire and rubbed with a rag well saturated with linseed-oil
varnish. The black turns completely dull, and forms a real durable
covering for the objects.


«Black for Polished Iron Pieces.»—Apply successive layers of a very
concentrated solution of nitrate of manganese dissolved in alcohol over
a gentle fire and the water bath. The surfaces to be blackened should
be previously heated. By repeating the layers all the tints between
brownish black and bluish black may be obtained.


«Glossy Black for Bicycles, etc.»—

 Amber               8 ounces
 Linseed oil         4 ounces
 Asphaltum       1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Rosin           1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Oil turpentine      8 ounces

Heat the linseed oil to boiling point, add the amber, asphaltum, and
rosin, and when all melted remove from the fire and gradually add the
turpentine.


«Japan Black.»—The following is a good japan black for metal surfaces:
Take 12 ounces of amber and 2 ounces of asphaltum. Fuse by heat, and
add 1⁠/⁠2 pint boiled oil and 2 ounces of rosin. When cooling add 16
ounces of oil of turpentine.


«Brass and Bronze Protective Paint.»—As a protective covering,
especially for brass and bronze objects, a colorless celluloid solution
is recommended, such as is found in trade under the name of “Zapon” (q.
v.).


«Paint for Copper.»—Dissolve 1 ounce of alum in 1 quart of warm soft
water. When cold add flour to make it about the consistency of cream,
then add 1⁠/⁠2 thimble of rosin and 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of sugar of lead.


«Priming Iron.»—The following, if carefully carried out, gives the
best satisfaction: The first step consists in thoroughly cleaning
the surface of the iron, removing all adhesions in the way of dirt,
rust, etc., before the question of priming is considered. As paint in
this instance is applied more with a view of protecting the iron from
atmospheric influences, rather than for a decorative effect, careful
attention should be devoted for securing a base or surface which is
calculated to produce a thorough and permanent application. A great
deal depends upon the nature of the metal to be painted. Common cast
iron, for instance, possessing a rough exterior, {496} with ordinary
precautions can be more readily painted with the prospect of a
permanent adhesion of the paint, than a planed steel or wrought-iron
surface. With the latter it has been demonstrated that a hard and
elastic paint is needed, while with regard to cast iron, other paints
containing iron oxides are more suitable. For good drying and covering
properties, as well as elasticity, a good boiled oil to which has
been added an adequate proportion of red lead will be found to form
an excellent paint for smooth metal surfaces. The primary object is
to protect the surface of the iron from moisture for the purpose of
avoiding rust. The priming must therefore be carried out so that it
will stick, after which subsequent coats may be added if desired.

It is advisable that articles made of iron should first be coated with
linseed-oil varnish. It dries slowly, hardens, and enables the operator
afterwards to exercise an effective control over the condition of
his material. Iron must be absolutely dry and free from rust when it
is to be painted. It is best to apply next a coating of hot linseed
oil; when dry this should be followed by a priming of pure red lead
in good linseed oil, and the iron should then be painted as desired,
using ground oil paints and leaving an interval of a week between each
coating. Cementing should be done after the red lead priming, but the
last coat must not be given until the whole is thoroughly dry. Bright
oil paints and an upper coating with plenty of oil resist the effects
of heat better than thin coatings; moreover, rust can be detected in
its early stages with the former. Coatings of tar and asphalt (asphalt
dissolved in turpentine) are practicable for underground pipes, but are
not adapted for pipes exposed to the air, as they are quickly spoiled.
Asphalt varnish, used for coating coal scuttles, fire screens, etc.,
consists of asphalt dissolved in linseed-oil varnish. Iron stoves and
stovepipes are best coated with graphite.


«Galvanized Iron.»—For galvanized iron there has been recommended a
wash consisting simply of dilute hydrochloric acid, which produces
chloride of zinc, that in combination with the oxygen of the air is
said to produce a film upon which oil color takes as good a hold as it
would upon ordinary sheet iron.

Another method which has been tested and found effective is to make a
solution as follows: One ounce of chloride of copper; 1 ounce nitrate
of copper; 1 ounce sal ammoniac, dissolved in 2 quarts of soft water,
to which is added 1 ounce of crude or commercial hydrochloric acid.
This solution should be made in an earthenware dish or pot, or in glass
or stoneware, as tin will precipitate the copper salts and make the
solution imperfect. To large surfaces this solution is applied with
a broad brush, when the surface assumes a deep black color, which in
drying out in from 12 to 24 hours becomes a gray white, upon which
the properly prepared primer will take a permanent grip. On the film
so produced a much thinner paint will cover very much better than
a stouter paint would on the untreated galvanized or ordinary iron
surface. A single trial will convince the craftsman that this treatment
is a method that will give lasting results, provided he tries the same
priming paint on the treated and untreated surface.


«To Paint Wrought Iron with Graphite.»—In order to make wrought iron
look like new mix fine graphite with equal parts of varnish and
turpentine oil, adding a little siccative. Paint the iron parts with
this twice, allowing to dry each time. Especially the second coating
must be perfectly dry before further treatment. The latter consists in
preparing graphite with spirit and applying it very thinly over the
first coat. After the drying or evaporation of the spirit the graphite
last applied is brushed vigorously, whereby a handsome, durable gloss
is produced.


«Paint for Iron Bodies Exposed to Heat.»—Dilute 1 part soda water glass
with 2 parts water and mix intimately with the following pigments:

_White._—White lead or sulphate of barium.

_Yellow._—Chromate of barium, ocher, or uranium yellow.

_Green._—Chromic oxide or ultramarine green.

_Blue._—Ultramarine.

_Brown._—Oxide of cadmium, oxide of manganese or terra di sienna.

_Red._—English red or chrome red.

Bronze powder in a suitable quantity may be added to the mixture, but
not more paint should be prepared than can be used up in a few hours.
The bronze powder may also be strewn on the fresh paint, or applied
with a dry brush, to enhance the gloss. This paint is not affected by
heat, and is inodorous.


«Protective Coating for Bright Iron Articles.»—Zinc white, 30 parts;
{497} lampblack, 2 parts; tallow, 7 parts; vaseline, 1 part; olive oil,
3 parts; varnish, 1 part. Boil together 1⁠/⁠4 hour and add 1⁠/⁠2 part
of benzine and 1⁠/⁠4 part of turpentine, stirring the mass carefully
and boiling for some time. The finished paste-like substance can be
readily removed with a rag without the use of solvents.


«Rust Paints.»—I.—A new rust paint is produced by the following
process: Mix 100 parts dry iron sulphate and 87 parts sodium chlorate
and heat to 1,500° to 1,800° F. The chlorine set free seems to have a
very favorable action on the color of the simultaneously forming iron
oxide. In order to avoid, however, too far-reaching an effect of the
chlorine gas, about 18 pounds of a substance which absorbs the same
mechanically, such as kaolin, ground pumice stone, ocher, etc., are
added to the mixture.

II.—A material known under the names of lardite, steatite,
agalmatolite, pagodite, is excellently adapted as a substitute for
the ordinary metallic protective agent of the pigments and has the
property of protecting iron from rust in an effective manner. In China,
lardite is used for protecting edifices of sandstone, which crumbles
under the action of the atmosphere. Likewise a thin layer of powdered
steatite, applied in the form of paint, has been found valuable there
as a protector against the decay of obelisks, statues, etc. Lardite,
besides, possesses the quality of being exceedingly fine-grained,
which renders this material valuable for use in ship painting. Ground
steatite is one of the finest materials which can be produced, and no
other so quickly and firmly adheres to the fibers of iron and steel.
Furthermore, steatite is lighter than metallic covering agents, and
covers, mixed in paint, a larger surface than zinc white, red lead, or
iron oxide. Steatite as it occurs in Switzerland is used there and in
the Tyrol for stoves, since it is fireproof.


«Steel.»—An excellent coating for steel, imitating the blue color
of natural steel, is composed of white shellac, 5 parts; borax, 1
part; alcohol, 5 parts; water, 4 parts; and a sufficient quantity
of methylene blue. The borax is dissolved in water, the shellac in
alcohol. The aqueous solution of the borax is heated to a boil and the
alcoholic solution of the shellac is added with constant stirring.
Next add the blue color, continuing to stir. Before this coating is
applied to the steel, e. g., the spokes of a bicycle, the latter are
first rubbed off with fine emery paper. The coat is put on with a soft
rag. The quantity of pigment to be added is very small. By varying the
quantity a paler or darker coloring of the steel can be produced.


«PAINTS FOR ROOFS AND ROOF PAPER:»


«Carbolineum.»—This German preparation is made in three colors.

I.—Pale.—Melt together in an iron kettle, over a naked fire, 30 parts
of American rosin F and 150 parts of pale paraffine oil and stir in 10
parts of single rectified rosin oil.

II.—Dark.—Melt 100 parts of anthracene oil and 20 parts of American
rosin F on a slow fire. Next stir in 2 parts of Para rubber solution
(or solution of caoutchouc waste) and keep on boiling until all is
dissolved. When this is done there should be still added 5 parts
of crude concentrated carbolic acid and 5 parts of zinc chloride
lye, 50° Bé., stirring until cool. The last-named admixture is not
absolutely necessary, but highly advisable, owing to its extraordinary
preservative and bactericidal properties.

III.—Colored.—For red, melt 100 parts of coal-tar oil, then stir in
50 parts of pale paraffine oil, and finally 75 parts of bole or iron
minium, and pass through the paint mill. Although the addition of iron
minium is very desirable, it is considerably more expensive. For gray,
proceed as above, with the exception that metallic gray is used in
place of the bole. For green, metallic green is employed. The colors
are identical with those used in the manufacture of roof varnish. To
increase the antiseptic properties of the colored carbolineum, any
desired additions of phenol or zinc chloride solutions may be made,
but the chief requirement in the case of colored carbolineum is good
covering power of the coating.


«Paints for Roofs Covered with Tar Paper, for Roofing Paper, etc.»—

 I.—Distilled coal tar                     70 parts
     Heavy mineral oil (lubricating oil)    10 parts
     American rosin                         20 parts

 II.—Distilled coal tar                    50 parts
      Trinidad asphalt                      15 parts
      Mineral oil, containing paraffine     10 parts
      Dry clay, finely ground               25 parts


«Imitation Oil Paint.»—Schulz’s German patent paint is cheap, and
claimed to be {498} durable, weatherproof, and glossy, like oil paint.
The application consists of a ground coat, upon which the surface coat
proper is applied after the former is dry. For the preparation of the
grounding dissolve 1,000 parts, by weight, of Marseilles soap in 10,000
parts of boiling water and stir. In a separate vessel dissolve 2,000
parts of glue in 10,000 parts of boiling water, adding 17,500 parts
of spirit of sal ammoniac. These two solutions are poured together
and well stirred. Then dissolve 400 parts of chrome alum in 5,000
parts of water, and pour into the above mixture. To this mixture
add 10,000 parts of pipe clay, stirring the whole well and tinting
with earth colors, ocher, Vandyke brown, etc. The solid ingredients
must be dissolved in boiling hot water, and sifted so as to obtain
a finely divided ground color. This priming is applied in a warm
state. The coating proper is put on the ground coat after it is dry,
in about one-half to one hour. For this coat dissolve 2,000 parts of
crystallized alum in 10,000 parts of boiling water and add to this
liquid a solution of 2,000 parts of glue in 10,000 parts of water; in
a special vessel prepare soapsuds of 1,000 parts of Marseilles soap in
12,000 parts of boiling water; dissolve 120 parts of chrome alum in
1,500 parts of boiling water, and mix the three solutions together with
diligent stirring. This paint or liquid should also be put on hot, and
assures a durable exterior paint.


«PAINTS, STAINS, ETC., FOR SHIPS.»


«Anti-Fouling Composition.»—Make an agglutinant by heating together

                             By weight
 White lead, ground in oil    2 parts
 Red lead, dry                1 part
 Raw linseed oil             14 parts

While hot stir in yellow ocher, kaolin, baked clay in powder, or any
inert body, such as silica, barytes, gypsum, etc., to form a stiff
dough, and, without allowing this compound to become cold (the vessel
should not be removed from the source of heat), dilute with more or
less manganese linoleate to the required consistency.


«Marine Paint to Resist Sea Water.»—First prepare the water-resisting
agglutinant by heating together

 Dry white lead, carbonate only    1 part
 Litharge                          1 part
 Linseed oil (fluid measure)      14 parts

Heat these and stir until of the consistency of thick glue, and for
every 36 parts, by weight, of this compound add 3 parts, by weight,
of turpentine, and 1 part, by weight, of mastic varnish (mastic rosin
dissolved in turpentine); reheat the whole, and for every 32 parts, by
weight, stir in and mix the following:

 Baked and powdered clay    4 parts
 Portland cement           16 parts
 Zinc white                 1 part
 Red lead                   1 part

After well mixing, dilute with more or less turpentine (not exceeding
25 per cent of the whole), or linoleate of manganese, the latter being
preferable, as it has greater binding power. For colored paints use red
oxide of iron or green oxide of chrome, but do not use chrome green or
lead, as they will not stand the action of the sea water.


«Compositions for Ships’ Bottoms.»—

 _Green._

 Pale rosin                     25 pounds
 Prepared mineral green          8 pounds
 D. L. zinc                     13 pounds
 Boiled oil                      2 pounds
 Mineral naphtha                 1 gallon
 Petroleum spirit            1 1⁠/⁠2 gallons

 _Prepared Mineral Green._

 Dry levigated mineral green    28 pounds
 Turpentine                      7 pounds
 Turpentine varnish              7 pounds
 Refined linseed oil             7 pounds

 _Copper Color._

 Pale rosin                     25 pounds
 Light Italian ocher            15 pounds
 D. L. zinc                      5 pounds
 Turkey red paint              1⁠/⁠2 pound
 Petroleum spirit            1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Mineral naphtha                 1 pound

 _Pink._

 Pale rosin                     25 pounds
 D. L. zinc                     16 pounds
 Deep vermilion                  7 pounds
 Mineral naphtha                 1 gallon
 Petroleum spirit            1 1⁠/⁠2 gallons


«PAINTS FOR WALLS OF CEMENT, PLASTER, HARD FINISH, ETC.»


«Coating for Bathrooms.»—As a rule cement plastering, as well as oil
paint, suffices for the protection of walls and ceilings in bathrooms,
but attention must be called to the destructive action of medicinal
admixtures. For such rooms as well as for laboratories, an {499}
application of Swedish wood tar, made into a flowing consistency with a
little oil of turpentine and put on hot, has been found very excellent.
It is of advantage previously to warm the wall slightly. To the second
coat add some wax. A very durable coating is obtained, which looks so
pleasing that it is only necessary to draw some stripes with a darker
paint so as to divide the surface into fields.


«Cement, to Paint Over Fresh.»—The wall should be washed with dilute
sulphuric acid several days before painting. This will change the
surplus caustic lime to sulphate of lime or gypsum. The acid should be
about one-half chamber acid and one-half water. This should be repeated
before painting, and a coat of raw linseed oil flowed on freely should
be given for the first coat. While this cannot be always guaranteed
as effectual for making the paint hold, it is the best method our
correspondent has heard of for the purpose, and is worth trying when it
is absolutely necessary to paint over fresh cement.


«Damp Walls, Coating for.»—Thirty parts of tin are dissolved in 40
parts of hydrochloric acid, and 30 parts of sal ammoniac are added. A
powder composed of freestone, 50 parts; zinc oxide, 20 parts; pounded
glass, 15 parts; powdered marble, 10 parts; and calcined magnesia,
5 parts, is prepared, and made into a paste with the liquid above
mentioned. Coloring matter may be added. The composition may be used
as a damp-proof coating for walls, or for repairing stonework, or for
molding statues or ornaments.


«Facade Paint.»—For this zinc oxide is especially adapted, prepared
with size or casein. Any desired earth colors may also be added. The
surfaces are coated 3 times with this mass. After the third application
is dry, put on a single coating of zinc chloride solution of 30° Bé. to
which 3 per cent borax is added.

This coating is very solid, can be washed, and is not injured by
hydrogen sulphide.


«Hard-Finished Walls.»—The treatment for hard-finished walls which are
to be painted in flat colors is to prime with a thin coat of lead and
oil well brushed into the wall. Next put on a thin coat of glue size;
next a coat mixed with 1⁠/⁠3 oil and 2⁠/⁠3 turpentine; next a coat of
flat paint mixed with turpentine. If you use any dry pigment mix it
stiff in oil and thin with turps. If in either case the paint dries too
fast, and is liable to show laps, put a little glycerine in, to retard
the drying.


«PAINTS, WATERPROOF AND WEATHERPROOF:»

See also Fireproof Paint.

The following are claimed to be both waterproof and weatherproof:

I.—In 50 parts, by weight, of spirit of 96 per cent, dissolve 16 parts,
by weight, of shellac, orange, finely powdered; 3 parts, by weight, of
silver lake, finely powdered; and 0.6 parts, by weight, of gamboge,
finely powdered. This paint may be employed without admixture of any
siccative, and is excellently adapted for painting objects which
are exposed to the inclemencies of the weather, as it is perfectly
weatherproof.

II.—Mix glue water with zinc oxide (zinc white) and paint the
respective object with this mixture. When this is dry (after about
2 hours) it is followed up with a coating of glue water and zinc
chloride in a highly diluted state. Zinc oxide enters into a chemical
combination with zinc chloride, which acquires the hardness of glass
and a mirror-like bright surface. Any desired colors can be prepared
with the glue water (size) and are practically imperishable. This zinc
coating is very durable, dries quickly, and is 50 per cent cheaper than
oil paint.


«Water- and Acid-Resisting Paint.»—Caoutchouc is melted with colophony
at a low temperature, after the caoutchouc has been dried in a drying
closet (stove) at 158° to 176° F., until no more considerable increase
in weight is perceptible, while the colophony has completely lost
its moisture by repeated melting. The raw products thus prepared
will readily melt upon slight heating. To the melted colophony and
caoutchouc add in a hot liquid state zinc white or any similar pigment.
Thin with a varnish consisting of 50 parts of perfectly anhydrous
colophony, 40 parts of absolute alcohol, and 40 parts of benzine. The
whole syrupy mass is worked through in a paint mill to obtain a uniform
product, at which operation more or less colophony varnish is added
according to the desired consistency.


«Water- and Air-Proof Paint.»—An air-proof and waterproof paint, the
subject of a recent French patent, is a compound of 30 parts, by
weight, acetone; 100 parts acetic ether; 50 parts sulphuric ether; 100
parts camphor; 50 parts gum lac; 200 parts cotton; 100 parts paper
{500} (dissolved in sulphuric acid); 100 parts mastic in drops. These
proportions may fluctuate according to need. The paper is reduced well
and dissolved without heat with sufficient sulphuric ether; the cotton
is dissolved in the acetone and the whole is mixed together with the
other ingredients and stirred well. The application is performed as
with any other varnish. The coating is said not to crack or shrink and
to be particularly useful as a protection against moisture for all
stuffs.


«PAINTS FOR WOOD:»

See also Wood.


«Floor Coating.»—A new paint for floors, especially those of soft wood:
Mix together 2.2 pounds joiners’ glue; a little over 1 ounce powdered
bichromate of potash; 3 1⁠/⁠2 ounces aniline brown; and 10 1⁠/⁠2 quarts
water in a tin vessel. After 6 hours have elapsed (when the glue is
completely soaked), heat gradually to the boiling point. The coating
becomes perfectly water-tight after 2 or 3 days; it is not opaque,
as the earthy body is lacking. The glue causes the wood fibers to be
firmly united. It becomes insoluble by the addition of bichromate of
potash, under the influence of light. Without this admixture a simple
glue coat has formerly not been found satisfactory, as it dissolves if
cleaned with water.


«Durable House Paint.»—I.—New houses should be primed once with pure
linseed oil, then painted with a thin paint from white lead and chalk,
and thus gradually covered. The last coat is prepared of well-boiled
varnish, white lead, and chalk. The chalk has the mission to moderate
the saponification of the linseed oil by the white lead. Mixing colors
such as ocher and black, which take up plenty of oil, materially assist
in producing a durable covering.

II.—Prime with zinc white and let this be succeeded by a coating with
zinc chloride in glue water (size). The zinc oxide forms with the
zinc chloride an oxy-chloride of great hardness and glossy surface.
By admixture of pigments any desired shade may be produced. The zinc
coating is indestructible, dries quickly, does not peel, is free from
the smell of fresh oil paint, and more than 5 per cent cheaper.


«Ivory Coating for Smooth, Light Wood.»—In order to cover the articles,
which may be flat or round, with this coating, they must first be
polished quite smooth and clean; then they are coated with thin, hot,
white glue. When the coat is thoroughly dry, the glue is rubbed off
again with fine glass paper. The mass is prepared as follows: Take
3 pounds (more or less, according to the number of articles) of the
purest and best collodion; grind upon a clean grinding stone twice
the quantity that can be taken up with the point of a knife of Krems
white, with enough good pale linseed oil as is necessary to grind the
white smooth and fine. Take a clean bottle, into which one-half of the
collodion is poured; to this add the ground white, which can be removed
clean from the stone by means of a good spatula and put in the bottle.
Add about 100 drops of linseed oil, and shake the mass till it looks
like milk.

Now painting with this milky substance may be commenced, using a fine
hair pencil of excellent quality. The pencil is not dipped in the large
bottle; but a glass is kept at hand with an opening of about 1 inch,
so as to be able to immerse the pencil quickly. The substance is not
flowing like the alcohol lacquers, for which reason it may be put on
thick, for the ether, chiefly constituting the mass, evaporates at once
and leaves but a very thin film which becomes noticeable only after
about 10 such applications have been made. Shake the bottle well each
time before filling the small glass, as the heavy Krems white is very
apt to sink to the bottom of the bottle. If it is observed that the
substance becomes too thick, which may easily occur on account of the
evaporation, a part of the remaining ether is added, to which in turn
30 to 40 drops of oil are added, shaking it till the oil appears to be
completely dissolved.

The operator must put on the mass in quick succession and rather thick.
After about 10 coats have been applied the work is allowed to rest
several hours; then 3 or 4 coats of pure collodion, to which likewise
several drops of oil have been added, are given. Another pause of
several hours having been allowed to intervene, application of the mass
is once more begun.

When it is noticed that a layer of the thickness of paper has formed,
the articles, after drying thoroughly, should be softly rubbed off
with very fine glass paper, after which they require to be wiped off
well with a clean linen rag, so that no dust remains. Then coating is
continued till the work seems serviceable.

A few applications of pure collodion should be made, and when this has
become perfectly hard, after a few hours, it can be rubbed down with a
rag, {501} tripoli, and oil, and polished by hand, like horn or ivory.
This work can be done only in a room which is entirely free from dust.
The greatest cleanliness must be observed.


«MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES, PAINTS, ETC.:»


«Bathtub Paint.»—Take white keg lead, tint to any desired color and
then add, say, 1⁠/⁠8 boiled oil (pure linseed) to 7⁠/⁠8 hard drying
durable body varnish. Clean the surface of the tub thoroughly before
applying the paint. Benzine or lime wash are good cleaning agents. Coat
up until a satisfactorily strong, pure color is reached. This will give
good gloss and will also wear durably.


«Coating for Name Plates.»—A durable coating for name plates in
nurseries is produced as follows: Take a woolen rag, saturate it with
joiners’ polish, lay it into a linen one, and rub the wooden surface
with this for some time. Rub down with sandpaper and it can be written
on almost like paper. When all is dry, coat with dammar lacquer for
better protection. If the wood is to receive a color it is placed in
the woolen rag before rubbing down, in this case chrome yellow.


«To Keep Flies from Fresh Paint.»—For the purpose of keeping flies and
other insects away from freshly painted surfaces mix a little bay oil
(laurel oil) with the oil paint, or place a receptacle containing same
in the vicinity of the painted objects. The pungent odor keeps off the
flies.


«Heat-Indicating Paint.»—A heat-indicating paint composed of a double
iodide of copper and mercury was first discovered years ago by a German
physicist. At ordinary temperatures the paint is red, but when heated
to 206° F. it turns black. Paper painted with this composition and
warmed at a stove exhibits the change in a few seconds. A yellow double
iodide of silver and mercury is even more sensitive to heat, changing
from yellow to dark red.


«To Keep Liquid Paint in Workable Condition.»—To prevent liquid paint
which, for convenience sake, is kept in small quantities and flat
receptacles, from evaporating and drying, give the vessels such a
shape that they can be placed one on top of the other without danger
of falling over, and provide the under side with a porous mass—felt or
very porous clay, etc.—which, if moistened, will retain the water for a
long time. Thus, in placing the dishes one on top of the other, a moist
atmosphere is created around them, which will inhibit evaporation and
drying of the paint. A similar idea consists in producing covers with a
tight outside and porous inside, for the purpose of covering up, during
intermission in the work, clay models and like objects which it is
desired to keep soft. In order to avoid the formation of fungous growth
on the constantly wet bottom, it may be saturated with non-volatile
disinfectants, or with volatile ones if their vapors are calculated to
act upon the objects kept underneath the cover. If the cover is used to
cover up oil paints, it is moistened on the inside with volatile oil,
such as oil of turpentine, oil of lavender, or with alcohol.


«Peeling of Paints.»—For the prevention of peeling of new coatings on
old oil paintings or lakes, the latter should be rubbed with roughly
ground pumice stone, wet by means of felt rags, and to the first new
coat there should be added fine spirit in the proportion of about
1⁠/⁠10 of the thinning necessary for stirring (turpentine, oil, etc.).
This paint dries well and has given good results, even in the most
difficult cases. The subsequent coatings are put on with the customary
paint. Fat oil glazes for graining are likewise mixed with spirit,
whereby the cracking of the varnish coating is usually entirely
obviated.


«Polychroming of Figures.»—This paint consists of white wax, 1 part,
and powdered mastic, 1 part, melted together upon the water bath and
mixed with rectified turpentine. The colors to be used are first ground
stiffly in turpentine on the grinding slab, and worked into consistency
with the above solution.


«Priming Coat for Water Spots.»—A very simple way to remove rain spots,
or such caused by water soaking through ceilings, has been employed
with good results. Take unslaked white lime, dilute with alcohol, and
paint the spots with it. When the spots are dry—which ensues quickly,
as the alcohol evaporates and the lime forms a sort of insulating
layer—one can proceed painting with size color, and the spots will not
show through again.

PAINT FOR PROTECTING CEMENT AGAINST ACID: See Acid-Proofing.

PAINT, GREASE: See Cosmetics. {502}

PAINT REMOVERS: See Cleaning Compounds.

PALLADIUM ALLOYS: See Alloys.

PALLADIUMIZING: See Plating.


«PALMS, THEIR CARE.»

Instead of washing the leaves of palms with water, many florists employ
a mixture of milk and water, the object being to prevent the formation
of disfiguring brown stains.


«Paper»


«Paper Pads» (see also Adhesives, under Glue).

 I.—Glue       3 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Glycerine      8 ounces
     Water, a sufficient quantity.

Pour upon the glue more than enough water to cover it and let stand for
several hours, then decant the greater portion of the water; apply heat
until the glue is dissolved, and add the glycerine. If the mixture is
too thick, add more water.

 II.—Glue               6 ounces
      Alum              30 grains
      Acetic acid      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Alcohol        1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Water          6 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

Mix all but the alcohol, digest on a water bath till the glue is
dissolved, allow to cool, and add the alcohol.


«Papier Maché.»—The following are the ingredients necessary to make
a lump of papier maché a little larger than an ordinary baseball and
weighing 17 ounces:

Wet paper pulp, dry paper, 1 ounce; water, 3 ounces; 4 ounces
(avoirdupois); dry plaster Paris, 8 ounces (avoirdupois); hot glue,
1⁠/⁠2 gill, or 4 1⁠/⁠2 tablespoonfuls.

While the paper pulp is being prepared, melt some best Irish glue in
the glue pot and make it of the same thickness and general consistency
as that used by cabinet makers. On taking the paper pulp from the water
squeeze it gently, but do not try to dry it. Put in a bowl, add about
3 tablespoonfuls of the hot glue, and stir the mass up into a soft and
very sticky paste. Add the plaster of Paris and mix thoroughly. By the
time about 3 ounces of the plaster have been used, the mass is so dry
and thick that it can hardly be worked. Add the remainder of the glue,
work it up again until it becomes sticky once more, and then add the
remainder of the plaster. Squeeze it vigorously through the fingers
to thoroughly mix the mass, and work it until free from lumps, finely
kneaded and sticky enough to adhere to the surface of a planed board.
If it is too dry to stick fast add a few drops of either glue or water,
and work it up again. When the paper pulp is poor and the maché is
inclined to be lumpy, lay the mass upon a smooth board, take a hammer
and pound it hard to grind it up fine.

If the papier maché is not sticky enough to adhere firmly to whatever
it is rubbed upon, it is a failure, and requires more glue. In using it
the mass should be kept in a lump and used as soon as possible after
making. Keep the surface of the lump moist by means of a wet cloth laid
over it, for if you do not, the surface will dry rapidly. If it is to
be kept overnight, or longer, wrap it up in several thicknesses of wet
cotton cloth, and put under an inverted bowl. If it is desired to keep
a lump for a week, to use daily, add a few drops of glycerine when
making, so that it will dry more slowly.

The papier maché made according to this formula has the following
qualities: When tested by rubbing between the thumb and finger, it was
sticky and covered the thumb with a fine coating. (Had it left the
thumb clean, it would have been because it contained too much water.)
When rubbed upon a pane of glass it sticks tightly and dries hard in
3 hours without cracking, and can only be removed with a knife. When
spread in a layer as thin as writing paper it dries in half an hour.
A mass actually used dried hard enough to coat with wax in 18 hours,
and, without cracking, became as hard as wood; yet a similar quantity
wrapped in a wet cloth and placed under an inverted bowl kept soft and
fit for use for an entire week.


«Parchment Paper.»—I.—Dip white unsized paper for half a minute in
strong sulphuric acid, specific gravity, 1.842, and afterwards in water
containing a little ammonia.

II.—Plunge unsized paper for a few seconds into sulphuric acid diluted
with half to a quarter its bulk of water (this solution being of the
same temperature as the air), and afterwards wash with weak ammonia.


«Razor Paper.»—I.—Smooth unsized paper, one of the surfaces of which,
while in a slightly damp state, has been rubbed over with a mixture of
calcined peroxide of iron and emery, both in impalpable powder. It is
cut up into {503} pieces (about 5 x 3 inches), and sold in packets.
Used to wipe the razor on, which thus does not require stropping.

II.—From emery and quartz (both in impalpable powder), and paper pulp
(estimated in the dry state), equal parts, made into sheets of the
thickness of drawing paper, by the ordinary process. For use, a piece
is pasted on the strop and moistened with a little oil.


«Safety Paper.»—White paper pulp mixed with an equal quantity of pulp
tinged with any stain easily affected by chlorine, acids, alkalies,
etc., and made into sheets as usual, serves as a safety paper on which
to write checks or the like. Any attempt to wash out the writing
affects the whole surface, showing plainly that it has been tampered
with.


«Tracing Paper.»—Open a quire of smooth, unsized white paper, and
place it flat upon a table. Apply, with a clean sash tool to the upper
surface of the first sheet, a coat of varnish made of equal parts of
Canada balsam and oil of turpentine, and hang the prepared sheet across
the line to dry; repeat the operation on fresh sheets until the proper
quantity is finished. If not sufficiently transparent, a second coat of
varnish may be applied as soon as the first has become quite dry.


«Strengthened Filter Paper.»—When ordinary filter paper is dipped into
nitric acid (specific gravity, 1.42), thoroughly washed and dried, it
becomes a tissue of remarkable properties, and one that deserves to
be better known by chemists and pharmacists. It shrinks somewhat in
size and in weight, and gives, on burning, a diminished ash. It yields
no nitrogen, nor does it in the slightest manner affect liquids. It
remains perfectly pervious to liquids, its filtering properties being
in no wise affected, which, it is needless to say, is very different
from the behavior of the same paper “parchmented” by sulphuric acid. It
is as supple as a rag, yet may be very roughly handled, even when wet,
without tearing or giving way. These qualities make it very valuable
for use in filtration under pressure or exhaust. It fits closely to the
funnel, upon which it may be used direct, without any supports, and
it thus prevents undue access of air. As to strength, it is increased
upward of 10 times. A strip of ordinary white Swedish paper, 1⁠/⁠5 of
an inch wide, will sustain a load of from 1⁠/⁠2 to 3⁠/⁠4 of a pound
avoirdupois, according to the quality of the paper. A similar strip of
the toughened paper broke, in 3 trials, with 5 pounds, 7 ounces, and
3 drachms; 5 pounds, 4 ounces, and 36 grains; and 5 pounds, 10 ounces
respectively. These are facts that deserve to be better known than they
seem to be to the profession at large.


«Blotting Paper.»—A new blotting paper which will completely remove wet
as well as dry ink spots, after moistening the paper with water, is
produced as follows: Dissolve 100 parts of oxalic acid in 400 parts of
alcohol, and immerse porous white paper in this solution until it is
completely saturated. Next hang the sheets up separately to dry over
threads. Such paper affords great advantages, but in its characteristic
application is serviceable for ferric inks only, while aniline ink
spots cannot be removed with it, after drying.


«Carbon Paper.»—Many copying papers act by virtue of a detachable
pigment, which, when the pigmented paper is placed between two sheets
of white paper, and when the uppermost paper is written on, transfers
its pigment to the lower white sheet along lines which correspond to
those traced on the upper paper, and therefore gives an exact copy of
them on the lower paper.

The pigments used are fine soot or ivory black, indigo carmine,
ultramarine, and Paris blue, or mixtures of them. The pigment is
intimately mixed with grain soap, and then rubbed on to thin but strong
paper with a stiff brush. Fatty oils, such as linseed or castor oil,
may be used, but the grain soap is preferable. Graphite is frequently
used for black copying paper. It is rubbed into the paper with a cotton
pad until a uniform light-gray color results. All superfluous graphite
is then carefully brushed off.

It is sometimes desired to make a copying paper which will produce at
the same time a positive copy, which is not required to be reproduced,
and a negative or reversed copy from which a number of direct copies
can be taken. Such paper is covered on one side with a manifolding
composition, and on the other with a simple copying composition, and is
used between 2 sheets of paper with the manifolding side undermost.

The manifolding composition is made by mixing 5 ounces of printers’
ink with 40 of spirits of turpentine, and then mixing it with a fused
mixture of 40 ounces of tallow and 5 ounces of stearine. When the mass
is homogeneous, 30 ounces of the finest powdered protoxide of iron,
first mixed with 15 ounces of pyrogallic {504} acid and 5 ounces of
gallic acid, are stirred in till a perfect mixture is obtained. This
mass will give at least 50 copies on damp paper in the ordinary way.
The copying composition for the other side of the prepared paper
consists of the following ingredients:

 Printers’ ink               5 parts
 Spirits of turpentine      40 parts
 Fused tallow               30 parts
 Fused wax                   3 parts
 Fused rosin                 2 parts
 Soot                       20 parts

It goes without saying that rollers or stones or other hard materials
may be used for the purpose under consideration as well as paper. The
manifolding mass may be made blue with indigotin, red with magenta, or
violet with methyl violet, adding 30 ounces of the chosen dye to the
above quantities of pigment. If, however, they are used, the oxide of
iron and gallic acids must be replaced by 20 ounces of carbonate of
magnesia.


«Celloidin Paper.»—Ordinary polished celluloid and celloidin paper are
difficult to write upon with pen and ink. If, however, the face is
rubbed over with a chalk crayon, and the dust wiped off with a clean
rag, writing becomes easy.


«Cloth Paper.»—This is prepared by covering gauze, calico, canvas,
etc., with a surface of paper pulp in a Foudrinier machine, and then
finishing the compound sheet in a nearly similar manner to that adopted
for ordinary paper.


«Drawing Paper.»—The blue drawing paper of commerce, which is
frequently employed for technical drawings, is not very durable. For
the production of a serviceable and strong drawing paper, the following
process is recommended. Mix a solution of

 Gum arabic                2 parts
 Ammonia iron citrate      3 parts
 Tartaric acid             2 parts
 Distilled water          20 parts

After still adding 4 parts of solution of ammonia with a solution of

 Potassium ferricyanide      2.5 parts
 Distilled water            10.0 parts

allow the mixture to stand in the dark half an hour. Apply the
preparation on the paper by means of a soft brush, in artificial light,
and dry in the dark. Next, expose the paper to light until it appears
dark violet, place in water for 10 seconds, air a short time, wash with
water, and finally dip in a solution of

 Eau de javelle          50 parts
 Distilled water      1,000 parts

until it turns dark blue.


«Filter Paper.»—This process consists in dipping the paper in nitric
acid of 1.433 specific gravity, subsequently washing it well and drying
it. The paper thereby acquires advantageous qualities. It shrinks a
little and loses in weight, while on burning only a small quantity of
ash remains. It possesses no traces of nitrogen and does not in any way
attack the liquid to be filtered. Withal, this paper remains perfectly
pervious for the most varying liquids, and its filtering capacity is
in no wise impaired. It is difficult to tear, and still elastic and
flexible like linen. It clings completely to the funnel. In general
it may be said that the strength of the filtering paper thus treated
increases 100 per cent.


«Fireproof Papers.»—I.—Ammonium sulphate, 8 parts, by weight; boracic
acid, 3 parts; borax, 2 parts; water, 100 parts. The temperature should
be about 122° F.

II.—For paper, either printed or unprinted, bills of exchange, deeds,
books, etc., the following solution is recommended: Ammonium sulphate,
8 parts; boracic acid, 3 parts; sodium borate, 1.7 parts; water, 10,000
parts. The solution is heated to 122° F., and may be used when the
paper is manufactured. As soon as the paper leaves the machine it is
passed through this solution, then rolled over a warm cylinder and
dried. If printed or in sheets, it is simply immersed in the solution,
at a temperature of 122° F., and spread out to dry, finally pressed to
restore the luster.


«Hydrographic Paper.»—This is paper which may be written on with simple
water or with some colorless liquid having the appearance of water.

I.—A mixture of nut galls, 4 parts, and calcined sulphate of iron, 1
part (both perfectly dry and reduced to very fine powder), is rubbed
over the surface of the paper, and is then forced into its pores by
powerful pressure, after which the loose portion is brushed off. The
writing shows black when a pen dipped in water is used.

II.—A mixture of persulphate of iron and ferrocyanide of potassium may
be employed as in formula I. This writes blue.


«Iridescent Paper.»—Sal ammoniac and sulphate of indigo, of each 1
part; sulphate of iron, 5 parts; nut galls, 8 parts; gum arabic, 1⁠/⁠8
part. Boil them in water, and expose the paper washed with the liquid
to (the fumes of) ammonia. {505}


«Lithographic Paper.»—I.—Starch, 6 ounces; gum arabic, 2 ounces; alum,
1 ounce. Make a strong solution of each separately, in hot water, mix,
strain through gauze, and apply it while still warm to one side of
leaves of paper, with a clean painting brush or sponge; a second and a
third coat must be given as the preceding one becomes dry. The paper
must be, lastly, pressed, to make it smooth.

II.—Give the paper 3 coats of thin size, 1 coat of good white starch,
and 1 coat of a solution of gamboge in water, the whole to be applied
cold, with a sponge, and each coat to be allowed to dry before the
other is applied. The solutions should be freshly made.

Lithographic paper is written on with lithographic ink. The writing
is transferred simply by moistening the back of the paper, placing it
evenly on the stone, and then applying pressure. A reversed copy is
obtained, which, when printed from, yields corrected copies resembling
the original writing or drawing. In this way the necessity of executing
the writing or drawing in a reversed direction is obviated.


«MARBLING PAPER FOR BOOKS.»

Provide a wooden trough 2 inches deep and the length and width of any
desired sheet; boil in a brass or copper pan a quantity of linseed and
water until a thick mucilage is formed; strain it into a trough, and
let cool; then grind on a marble slab any of the following colors in
small beer:

For Blue.—Prussian blue or indigo.

Red.—Rose pink, vermilion, or drop lake.

Yellow.—King’s yellow, yellow ocher, etc.

White.—Flake white.

Black.—Burnt ivory or lampblack.

Brown.—Umber, burnt; terra di sienna, burnt.

Black mixed with yellow or red also makes brown.

Green.—Blue and yellow mixed.

Orange.—Red and yellow mixed.

Purple.—Red and blue mixed.

For each color have two cups, one for the color after grinding, the
other to mix it with ox gall, which must be used to thin the colors
at discretion. If too much gall is used, the colors will spread. When
they keep their place on the surface of the trough, when moved with a
quill, they are fit for use. All things in readiness, the colors are
successively sprinkled on the surface of the mucilage in the trough
with a brush, and are waved or drawn about with a quill or a stick,
according to taste. When the design is just formed, the book, tied
tightly between cutting boards of the same size, is lightly pressed
with its edge on the surface of the liquid pattern, and then withdrawn
and dried. The covers may be marbled in the same way, only letting the
liquid colors run over them. In marbling paper the sides of the paper
are gently applied to the colors in the trough. The film of color in
the trough may be as thin as possible, and if any remains after the
marbling it may be taken off by applying paper to it before you prepare
for marbling again. To diversify the effects, colors are often mixed
with a little sweet oil before sprinkling them on, by which means a
light halo or circle appears around each spot.


«WATERPROOF PAPERS.»

I.—Wall papers may be easily rendered washable, either before or after
they are hung, by preparing them in the following manner: Dissolve 2
parts of borax and 2 parts of shellac in 24 parts of water, and strain
through a fine cloth. With a brush or a sponge apply this to the
surface of the paper, and when it is dry, polish it to a nigh gloss
with a soft brush. Thus treated the paper may be washed without fear
of removing the colors or even smearing or blurring them.

II.—This is recommended for drawing paper. Any kind of paper is lightly
primed with glue or a suitable binder, to which a finely powdered
inorganic body, such as zinc white, chalk, lime, or heavy spar, as
well as the desired coloring matter for the paper, are added. Next the
paper thus treated is coated with soluble glass—silicate of potash
or of soda—to which small amounts of magnesia have been admixed, or
else it is dipped into this mixture, and dried for about 10 days in a
temperature of 77° F. Paper thus prepared can be written or drawn upon
with lead pencil, chalk, colored crayons, charcoal, India ink, and
lithographic crayon, and the writing or drawing may be washed off 20 or
more times, entirely or partly, without changing the paper materially.
It offers the convenience that anything may be readily and quickly
removed with a moist sponge and immediately corrected, since the washed
places can be worked on again at once.


«Wax Paper.»—I.—Place cartridge paper or strong writing paper, on a hot
iron {506} plate, and rub it well with a lump of beeswax. Used to form
extemporaneous steam or gas pipes, to cover the joints of vessels, and
to tie over pots, etc.

II.—For the production of waxed or ceresine paper, saturate ordinary
paper with equal parts of stearine and tallow or ceresine. If it is
desired to apply a business stamp on the paper before saturation and
after stamping, it should be dried well for 24 hours, so as to prevent
the aniline color from spreading.


«Wrapping Paper for Silverware.»—Make a solution of 6 parts of sodium
hydrate in sufficient water to make it show about 20° B. (specific
gravity, 1.60). To it add 4 parts zinc oxide, and boil together until
the latter is dissolved. Now add sufficient water to reduce the
specific gravity of the solution to 1.075 (10° B.). The bath is now
ready for use. Dip each sheet separately, and hang on threads stretched
across the room, to dry. Be on your guard against dust, as particles of
sand adhering to the paper will scratch the ware wrapped in it. Ware,
either plated or silver, wrapped in this paper, will not blacken.


«Varnished Paper.»—Before proceeding to varnish paper, card-work,
pasteboard, etc., it is necessary to give it 2 or 3 coats of size,
to prevent the absorption of the varnish, and any injury to the color
or design. The size may be made by dissolving a little isinglass in
boiling water, or by boiling some clean parchment cuttings until they
form a clear solution. This, after being strained through a piece of
clean muslin, or, for very nice purposes, clarified with a little white
of egg, is applied by means of a small clean brush called by painters a
sash tool. A light, delicate touch must be adopted, especially for the
first coat, lest the ink or colors be started or smothered. When the
prepared surface is quite dry it may be varnished.


«Impregnation of Papers with Zapon Varnish.»—For the protection of
important papers against the destructive influences of the atmosphere,
of water fungi, and light, but especially against the consequences of
the process of molding, a process has been introduced under the name of
zapon impregnation.

The zaponizing may be carried out by dipping the papers in zapon or
by coating them with it by means of a brush or pencil. Sometimes the
purpose may also be reached by dripping or sprinkling it on, but in the
majority of cases a painting of the sheets will be the simplest method.

Zapon in a liquid state is highly inflammable, for which reason during
the application until the evaporation of the solvent, open flames
and fires should be kept away from the vicinity. When the drying is
finished, which usually takes a few hours where both sides are coated,
the zaponized paper does not so easily ignite at an open flame any more
or at least not more readily than non-impregnated paper. For coating
with and especially for dipping in zapon, a contrivance which effects a
convenient suspension and dripping off with collection of the excess is
of advantage.

The zapon should be thinned according to the material to be treated.
Feebly sized papers are coated with ordinary, i. e., undiluted zapon.
For dipping purposes, the zapon should be mixed with a diluent, if the
paper is hard and well sized. The weaker the sizing, the more careful
should be the selection of the zapon.

Zapon to be used for coating purposes should be particularly thick, so
that it can be thinned as desired. Unsized papers require an undiluted
coating.

The thick variety also furnishes an excellent adhesive agent as cement
for wood, glass, porcelain, and metals which is insoluble in cold and
hot water, and binds very firmly. Metallic surfaces coated with zapon
do not oxidize or alter their appearance, since the coating is like
glass and only forms a very thin but firmly adhering film, which, if
applied on pliable sheet metal, does not crack on bending.

For the preparation of zapon the following directions are given:
Pour 20 parts of acetone over 2 parts of colorless celluloid
waste—obtainable at the celluloid factories—and let stand several days
in a closed vessel, shaking frequently, until the whole has dissolved
into a clear, thick mass. Next admix 78 parts of amyl acetate and
completely clarify the zapon varnish by allowing to settle forweeks.


«Slate Parchment.»—Soak good paper with linseed-oil varnish (boiled
oil) and apply the following mass, mentioned below, several times in
succession: Copal varnish, 1 part, by weight; turpentine oil, 2 parts;
finest sprinkling sand, 1 part; powdered glass, 1 part; ground slate
as used for slates, 2 parts; and lampblack, 1 part, intimately mixed
together, and repeatedly ground very fine. After drying and hardening,
the plates can be written upon with lead or slate pencils.


«Paper Floor Covering.»—The floor is carefully cleaned, and all holes
and {507} cracks are filled up with a mass which is prepared by
saturating newspapers with a paste that is made by mixing thoroughly
17 5⁠/⁠8 ounces wheat flour, 3.17 quarts water, and 1 spoonful of
pulverized alum. The floor is coated with this paste throughout, and
covered with a layer of manilla paper, or other strong hemp paper. If
something very durable is desired, paint the paper layer with the same
paste and put on another layer of paper, leaving it to dry thoroughly.
Then apply another coat of paste, and upon this place wall paper of any
desired kind. In order to protect the wall paper from wear, give it 2
or more coats of a solution of 8 4⁠/⁠5 ounces white glue in 2.11 quarts
hot water, allow them to dry, and finish the job with a coating of hard
oil varnish.


«METALLIC PAPER.»

This paper, made by transferring, pasting, or painting a coating
of metal on ordinary paper, retains a comparatively dull and dead
appearance even after glazing or polishing with the burnisher or agate.
Galvanized or electroplated metal paper, on the other hand, in which
the metal has penetrated into the most minute pores of the paper,
possesses an extraordinarily brilliant polish, fully equal to that of a
piece of compact polished metal. It is much more extensively used than
the kind first mentioned.

The following solutions are recommended for making “galvanized” metal
paper:

I.—For silver paper: Twenty parts argento-cyanide of potassium; 13
parts cyanide of potassium; 980 parts water.

II.—For gold paper: Four parts auro-cyanide of potassium; 9 parts
cyanide of potassium; 900 parts water.

Moth Paper.—

 Naphthalene      4 ounces
 Paraffine wax    8 ounces

Melt together and while warm paint unsized paper and pack away with the
goods.


«Lead Paper.»—Lay rough drawing paper (such as contains starch) on an
8 per cent potassium iodide solution. After a moment take it out and
dry. Next, in a dark room, float the paper face downward on an 8 per
cent lead nitrate solution. This sensitizes the paper. Dry again. The
paper is now ready for printing. This process should be carried on till
all the detail is out in a grayish color. Then develop in a 10 per cent
ammonium chloride solution. The tones obtained are of a fine blue black.


«Aluminum Paper.»—Aluminum paper is not leaf aluminum, but real paper
glazed with aluminum powder. It is said to keep food materials fresh.
The basic material is artificial parchment, coated with a solution of
rosin in alcohol or ether. After drying, the paper is warmed until the
rosin has again softened to a slight degree. The aluminum powder is
dusted on and the paper then placed under heavy pressure to force the
powder firmly into it. The metallic coating thus formed is not affected
by air or greasy substances.

PAPER (ANTI-RUST) FOR NEEDLES: See Rust Preventives.

PAPER CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

PAPER DISINFECTANT: See Disinfectants.

PAPER, FIREPROOF: See Fireproofing.

PAPER, FROSTED: See Glass (Frosted).

PAPER ON GLASS, TO AFFIX: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Cements.

PAPERS, IGNITING: See Pyrotechnics.

PAPER ON METALLIC SURFACES, PASTING: See Adhesives.

PAPER AS PROTECTION FOR IRON AND STEEL: See Rust Preventives.

PAPERHANGERS’ PASTES: See Adhesives.

PAPER, PHOTOGRAPHIC: See Photography.

PAPER VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

PAPER WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

PAPIER MACHÉ: See Paper.


«PARAFFINE:»


«Rendering Paraffine Transparent.»—A process for rendering paraffine
and its mixtures with other bodies (ceresine, etc.) used in the
manufacture of transparent candles consists essentially in adding a
{508} naphthol, particularly beta-naphthol, to the material which is
used for the manufacture of the candles, tapers, etc. The quantity
added varies according to the material and the desired effect. One
suitable mixture is made by heating 100 parts of paraffine and 2 parts
of beta-naphthol at 175° to 195° F. The material can be colored in the
ordinary way.


«Removal of Dirt from Paraffine.»—Filtration through felt will usually
remove particles of foreign matter from paraffine. It may be necessary
to use a layer of fine sand or of infusorial earth. If discolored by
any soluble matter, try freshly heated animal charcoal. To keep the
paraffine fluid, if a large quantity is to be handled, a jacketed
funnel will be required, either steam or hot water being kept in
circulation in the jacket.


«Paraffine Scented Cakes.»

Paraffine, 1 ounce; white petrolatum, 2 ounces; heliotropin, 10 grains;
oil of bergamot, 5 drops; oil of lavender, 5 drops; oil of cloves, 2
drops. Melt the first two substances, then add the next, the oils last,
and stir all until cool. After settling cut into blocks and wrap in
tin foil. This is a disseminator of perfume. It perfumes where it is
rubbed. It kills moths and perfumes the wardrobe. It is used by rubbing
on cloth, clothes, and the handkerchief.

PARCHMENT AND PARCHMENT PAPER: See Paper.

PARCHMENT CEMENT: See Adhesives.

PARCHMENT PASTE: See Adhesives.

PARFAITS: See Ice Creams.

PARFAIT D’AMOUR CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

PARIS GREEN: See Pigments.

PARIS RED: See Polishes.

PARIS SALTS: See Disinfectants.

PARISIAN CEMENT: See Adhesives.


«PASSE-PARTOUT FRAMING.»

It is hardly correct to call the passe-partout a frame, as it is merely
a binding together of the print, the glass, and the backing with a
narrow edge of paper. This simple arrangement lends to the picture when
complete a much greater finish and a more important appearance than
might be anticipated.

In regard to the making of a passe-partout frame, the first thing is to
decide as to the width of the mount or matt to be used. In some cases,
of course, the print is framed with no mount being visible; but, unless
the picture is of large size, it will usually be found more becoming to
have one, especially should the wall paper be of an obtrusive design.
When the print and mount are both neatly trimmed to the desired size,
procure a piece of clear white picture glass—most amateur framers will
have discovered that there is a variance in the quality of this—and a
piece of stout cardboard, both of exactly the same dimensions as the
picture. Next prepare or buy the paper to be used for binding the edges
together. This may now be bought at most all stationery stores in a
great variety of colors. If it is prepared at home a greater choice
of colors is available, and it is by no means a difficult task with
care and sharp scissors. The tint should be chosen to harmonize with
the print and the mount, taking also into consideration the probable
surroundings—brown for photographs of brown tone, dark gray for black,
pale gray for lighter tones; dark green is also a good color. All
stationers keep colored papers suitable for the purpose, while plain
wall papers or thin brown paper answers equally well.

Cut the paper, ruling it carefully, into even strips an inch wide, and
then into four pieces, two of them the exact length of the top and
bottom of the frame, and the other two half an inch longer than the
two sides. Make sure that the print is evenly sandwiched between the
glass and the back. Cut some tiny strips of thin court-plaster, and
with these bind the corners tightly together. Brush over the two larger
pieces of paper with mountant, and with them bind tightly together the
three thicknesses—print, glass, and cardboard—allowing the paper to
project over about a third of an inch on the face side, and the ends
which were left a little longer must be neatly turned over and stuck
at the back. Then, in the same manner, bind the top and bottom edges
together, mitering the corners neatly.

It should not be forgotten, before binding the edges together, to make
two slits in the cardboard back for the {509} purpose of inserting
little brass hangers, having flat ends like paper fasteners, which
may be bought for the purpose; or, where these are not available, two
narrow loops of tape may be used instead, sticking the ends firmly on
the inside of the cardboard by means of a little strong glue.

These are the few manipulations necessary for the making of a simple
passe-partout frame, but there are numberless variations of the
idea, and a great deal of variety may be obtained by means of using
different mounts. Brown paper answers admirably as a mount for some
subjects, using strips of paper of a darker shade as binding. A not too
obtrusive design in pen and ink is occasionally drawn on the mount,
while a more ambitious scheme is to use paint and brushes in the same
way. An ingenious idea which suits some subjects is to use a piece of
hand-blocked wall paper as a mount.

PARQUET POLISH: See Polishes.


«PASTES:»

See Adhesives for Adhesive Purposes.


«Pastes, Razor.»—I.—From jewelers’ rouge, plumbago, and suet, equal
parts, melted together and stirred until cold.

II.—From prepared putty powder (levigated oxide of tin), 3 parts;
lard, 2 parts; crocus martis, 1 part; triturated together.

III.—Prepared putty powder, 1 ounce; powdered oxalic acid, 1⁠/⁠4 ounce;
powdered gum, 20 grains; make a stiff paste with water, quantity
sufficient, and evenly and thinly spread it over the strop, the other
side of which should be covered with any of the common greasy mixtures.
With very little friction this paste gives a fine edge to the razor,
and its action is still further increased by slightly moistening it,
or even breathing on it. Immediately after its use, the razor should
receive a few turns on the other side of the strop.

PASTE FOR PAPER: See Paper.

PASTES FOR POLISHING METALS: See Soaps.

PASTEBOARD CEMENT: See Adhesives.

PASTEBOARD DEODORIZERS: See Household Formulas.

PASTILLES, FUMIGATING: See Fumigants.

PATINAS: See Bronzing and Plating.

PATENT LEATHER: See Leather.

PEACH EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts.

PEARLS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.


«PEGAMOID.»

Camphor, 100 parts; mastic, 100 parts; bleached shellac, 50 parts; gun
cotton, 200 parts; acetone, 200 parts; acetic ether, 100 parts; ethylic
ether, 50 parts.

PEN METAL: See Alloys.

PENCILS, ANTISEPTIC: See Antiseptics.

PENCILS FOR MARKING GLASS: See Etching, Frosted Glass, and Glass.

PENS, GOLD: See Gold.

PEONY ROOTS, THEIR PRESERVATION: See Roots.


«PERCENTAGE SOLUTION.»

Multiply the percentage by 5; the product is the number of grains
to be added to an ounce of water to make a solution of the desired
percentage. This is correct for anything less than 15 per cent.


«Perfumes»


«DRY PERFUMES:»


«Sachet Powders.»—

 I.—Orris root              6 ounces
     Lavender flowers        2 ounces
     Talcum                  4 drachms
     Musk                   20 grains
     Terpinol               60 grains

 II.—Orange peel            2 ounces
      Orris root             1 ounce
      Sandalwood             4 drachms
      Tonka                  2 drachms
      Musk                   6 grains

{510}


«Lavender Sachets.»—

 I.—Lavender flowers       16 ounces
     Gum benzoin             4 ounces
     Oil lavender            2 drachms

II.—Lavender flowers, 150 parts; orris root, 150 parts; benzoin, 150
parts; Tonka beans, 150 parts; cloves, 100 parts; “Neugenwerz,” 50
parts; sandalwood, 50 parts; cinnamon, 50 parts; vanilla, 50 parts; and
musk, 1⁠/⁠2 part. All is bruised finely and mixed.


«Violet Sachet.»—

 Powdered orris root        500 parts
 Rice flour                 250 parts
 Essence bouquet             10 parts
 Spring flowers extract      10 parts
 Violet extract              20 parts
 Oil of bergamot              4 parts
 Oil of rose                  2 parts


«Borated Talcum.»—

 I.—Purified talcum, N. F.    2 pounds
     Powdered boric acid       1 ounce

To perfume add the following:

 Powdered orris root           1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Extract jasmine               2     drachms
 Extract musk                  1     drachm

II.—A powder sometimes dispensed under this name is the salicylated
powder of talcum of the National Formulary, which contains in every
1,000 parts 30 parts of salicylic acid and 100 parts of boric acid.


«Rose.»—

 I.—Cornstarch               9 pounds
     Powdered talc            1 pound
     Oil of rose             80 drops
     Extract musk             2 drachms
     Extract jasmine          6 drachms

 II.—Potato starch           9 pounds
      Powdered talc           1 pound
      Oil rose               45 drops
      Extract jasmine       1⁠/⁠2 ounce


«Rose Talc.»—

 I.—Powdered talc            5 pounds
     Oil rose                50 drops
     Oil wintergreen          4 drops
     Extract jasmine          2 ounces

 II.—Powdered talc           5 pounds
      Oil rose               32 drops
      Oil jasmine             4 ounces
      Extract musk            1 ounce


«Violet Talc.»—

 I.—Powdered talc           14 ounces
     Powdered orris root      2 ounces
     Extract cassie         1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Extract jasmine        1⁠/⁠4 ounce
     Extract musk             1 drachm

 II.—Starch              5,000 parts
      Orris root          1,000 parts
      Oil of lemon           14 parts
      Oil of bergamot        14 parts
      Oil of clove            4 parts


«Smelling Salts.»—I.—Fill small glasses having ground stopper with
pieces of sponge free from sand and saturate with a mixture of spirit
of sal ammoniac (0.910), 9 parts, and oil of lavender, 1 part. Or else
fill the bottles with small dice of ammonium sesquicarbonate and pour
the above mixture over them.

 II.—Essential oil of lavender    18 parts
      Attar of rose                 2 parts
      Ammonium carbonate          480 parts


«Violet Smelling Salts.»—I.—Moisten coarsely powdered ammonia
carbonate, contained in a suitable bottle, with a mixture of
concentrated tincture of orris root, 2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; aromatic spirit of
ammonia, 1 drachm; violet extract, 3 drachms.

II.—Moisten the carbonate, and add as much of the following solution
as it will absorb: Oil of orris, 5 minims; oil of lavender flowers,
10 minims; violet extract, 30 minims; stronger water of ammonia, 2
fluidounces.


«To Scent Advertising Matter, etc.»—The simplest way of perfuming
printed matter, such as calendars, cards, etc., is to stick them in
strongly odorous sachet powder. Although the effect of a strong perfume
is obtained thereby, there is a large loss of powder, which clings to
the printed matter. Again, there are often little spots which are due
to the essential oils added to the powder.

Another way of perfuming, which is used especially in France for
scenting cards and other articles, is to dip them in very strong
“extraits d’odeur,” leaving them therein for a few days. Then the
cards are taken out and laid between filtering paper, whereupon they
are pressed vigorously, which causes them not only to dry, but also to
remain straight. They remain under strong pressure until completely dry.

Not all cardboard, however, can be subjected to this process, and in
its choice one should consider the perfuming operation to be conducted.
Nor can the cards be glazed, since spirit dissolves the glaze. It is
also preferable to have lithographed text on them, since in the case of
ordinary printing the letters often partly disappear or the colors are
changed. {511}

For pocket calendars, price lists, and voluminous matter containing
more leaves than one, another process is recommended. In a tight
closet, which should be lined with tin, so that little air can enter,
tables composed of laths are placed on which nets stretched on frames
are laid. Cover these nets with tissue paper, and proceed as follows:
On the bottom of the closet sprinkle a strongly odorous and reperfumed
powder; then cover one net with the printed matter to be perfumed and
shove it to the closet on the lath. The next net again receives powder,
the following one printed matter, and so on until the closet is filled.
After tightly closing the doors, the whole arrangement is left to
itself. This process presents another advantage in that all sorts of
residues may be employed for scenting, such as the filters of the odors
and infusions, residues of musk, etc. These are simply laid on the
nets, and will thus impart their perfume to the printed matter.

Such a scenting powder is produced as follows:

                                  By weight

 Iris powder, finely ground      5,000 parts
 Residues of musk                1,000 parts
 Ylang-ylang oil                    10 parts
 Bergamot oil                       50 parts
 Artificial musk                     2 parts
 Ionone                         2 to 5 parts
 Tincture of benzoin               100 parts

The powder may subsequently be employed for filling cheap sachets, etc.


«LIQUID PERFUMES:»


«Coloring Perfumes.»—Chlorophyll is a suitable agent for coloring
liquid perfumes green. Care must be taken to procure an article freely
soluble in the menstruum. As found in the market it is prepared (in
form of solutions) for use in liquids strongly alcoholic; in water or
weak alcohol; and in oils. Aniline greens of various kinds will answer
the same purpose, but in a trial of any one of these it must be noted
that very small quantities should be used, as their tinctorial power is
so great that liquids in which they are incautiously used may stain the
handkerchief.

Color imparted by chlorophyll will be found fairly permanent; this term
is a relative one, and not too much must be expected. Colors which may
suffer but little change by long exposure to diffused light may fade
perceptibly by short exposure to the direct light of the sun.

Chlorophyll may be purchased or it may be prepared as follows: Digest
leaves of grass, nettles, spinach, or other green herb in warm water
until soft; pour off the water and crush the herb to a pulp. Boil
the pulp for a short time with a half per cent solution of caustic
soda, and afterwards precipitate the chlorophyll by means of dilute
hydrochloric acid; wash the precipitate thoroughly with water, press
and dry it, and use as much for the solution as may be necessary. Or a
tincture made from grass as follows may be employed:

 Lawn grass, cut fine        2 ounces
 Alcohol                    16 ounces

Put the grass in a wide-mouthed bottle, and pour the alcohol upon it.
After standing a few days, agitating occasionally, pour off the liquid.
The tincture may be used with both alcoholic and aqueous preparations.

Among the anilines, spirit soluble malachite green has been recommended.

A purple or violet tint may be produced by using tincture of litmus or
ammoniated cochineal coloring. The former is made as follows:

 Litmus          2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Boiling water      16 ounces
 Alcohol             3 ounces

Pour the water upon the litmus, stir well, allow to stand for about
an hour, stirring occasionally, filter, and to the filtrate add the
alcohol.

The aniline colors “Paris violet” or methyl violet B may be similarly
employed. The amount necessary to produce a desired tint must be worked
out by experiment. Yellow tints may best be imparted by the use of
tincture of turmeric or saffron, fustic, quercitron, etc.

If a perfumed spirit, as, for instance, a mouth wash, is poured into a
wineglassful of water, the oils will separate at once and spread over
the surface of the water. This liquid being allowed to stand uncovered,
one oil after another will evaporate, according to the degree of its
volatility, until at last the least volatile remains behind.

This process sometimes requires weeks, and in order to be able to watch
the separate phases of this evaporation correctly, it is necessary to
use several glasses and to conduct the mixtures at certain intervals.
The glasses must be numbered according to the day when set up, so that
they may be readily identified.

If we assume, for example, that a mouth wash is to be examined, we
may probably prepare every day for one week a mixture of about 100
grams of water and 10 drops of the respective liquid. Hence, after a
lapse of 7 days {512} we will have before us 7 bouquets, of different
odor, according to the volatility of the oils contained in them. From
these different bouquets the qualitative composition of the liquid may
be readily recognized, provided that one is familiar enough with the
character of the different oils to be able to tell them by their odors.

The predominance of peppermint oil—to continue with the above
example—will soon be lost and other oils will rise one after the other,
to disappear again after a short time, so that the 7 glasses afford
an entire scale of characteristic odors, until at last only the most
lasting are perceptible. Thus it is possible with some practice to tell
a bouquet pretty accurately in its separate odors.

In this manner interesting results are often reached, and with some
perseverance even complicated mixtures can be analyzed and recognized
in their distinctiveness. Naturally the difficulty in recognizing each
oil is increased in the case of oils whose volatility is approximately
the same. But even in this case changes, though not quite so marked,
can be determined in the bouquet.

In a quantitative respect this method also furnishes a certain result
as far as the comparison of perfumed liquids is concerned.

According to the quantity of the oils present the dim zone on the
water is broader or narrower, and although the size of this layer may
be changed by the admixture of other substances, one gains an idea
regarding the quantity of the oils by mere smelling. It is necessary,
of course, to choose glasses with equally large openings and to count
out the drops of the essence carefully by means of a dropper.

When it is thought that all the odors have been placed, a test is made
by preparing a mixture according to the recipe resulting from the trial.

Not pure oils, always alcoholic dilutions in a certain ratio should be
used, in order not to disturb the task by a surplus of the different
varieties, since it is easy to add more, but impossible to take away.

It is true this method requires patience, perseverance, and a fine
sense of smell. One smelling test should not be considered sufficient,
but the glasses should be carried to the nose as often as possible.


«Fixing Agents in Perfumes.»—The secret of making perfumery lies mainly
in the choice of the fixing agents—i. e., those bodies which intensify
and hold the floral odors. The agents formerly employed were musk,
civet, and ambergris, all having a heavy and dull animal odor, which
is the direct antithesis of a floral fragrance. A free use of these
bodies must inevitably mean a perfume which requires a label to tell
what it is intended for, to say nothing of what it is. To-day there is
no evidence that the last of these (ambergris) is being used at all in
the newer perfumes, and the other two are employed very sparingly, if
at all. The result is that the newer perfumes possess a fragrance and a
fidelity to the flowers that they imitate which is far superior to the
older perfumes. Yet the newer perfume is quite as prominent and lasting
as the old, while it is more pleasing. It contains the synthetic odors,
with balsams or rosinous bodies as fixatives, and employs musk and
civet only in the most sparing manner in some of the more sensitive
odors. As a fixing agent benzoin is to be recommended. Only the best
variety should be used, the Siamese, which costs 5 or 6 times as much
as that from Sumatra. The latter has a coarse pungent odor.

Musk is depressing, and its use in cologne in even the minutest
quantity will spoil the cologne. The musk lingers after the lighter
odors have disappeared, and a sick person is pretty sure to feel its
effects. Persons in vigorous health will not notice the depressing
effects of musk, but when lassitude prevails these are very unpleasant.
Moreover, it is not a necessity in these toilet accessories, either
as a blending or as a fixing agent. Its place is better supplied by
benzoin for both purposes.

As to alcohol, a lot of nonsense has been written about the necessity
of extreme care in selecting it, such as certain kinds requiring
alcohol made from grapes and others demanding extreme purification,
etc. A reasonable attention to a good quality of alcohol, even at a
slight increase in cost, will always pay, but, other things being
equal, a good quality of oils in a poor quality of alcohol will give
far better satisfaction than the opposite combination. The public is
not composed of exacting connoisseurs, and it does not appreciate
extreme care or expense in either particular. A good grade of alcohol,
reasonably free from heavy and lingering foreign odors, will answer
practically all the requirements.


«General Directions for Making Perfumes.»—It is absolutely essential
for obtaining the best results to see that all vessels are perfectly
clean. Always employ alcohol, 90 per cent, deodorized by {513} means of
charcoal. When grain musk is used as an ingredient in liquid perfumes,
first rub down with pumice stone, then digest in a little _hot_ water
for 2 or 3 hours; finally add to alcohol. The addition of 2 or 3 minims
of acetic acid will improve the odor and also prevent accumulation of
NH_〈3〉. Civet and ambergris should also be thoroughly rubbed down with
some coarse powder, and transferred directly to alcohol.

Seeds, pods, bark rhizomes, etc., should be cut up in small pieces or
powdered.

Perfumes improve by storing. It is a good plan to tie over the mouth
of the containing vessel some fairly thick porous material, and to
allow the vessel to stand for a week or two in a cool place, instead of
corking at once.

It is perhaps unnecessary to add that as large a quantity as possible
should be decanted, and then the residue filtered. This obviously
prevents loss by evaporation. Talc or kieselguhr (amorphous SiO_〈2〉)
are perhaps the best substances to add to the filter in order to render
liquid perfumes bright and clear, and more especially necessary in the
case of aromatic vinegars.

The operations involved in making perfumes are simple; the chief thing
to be learned, perhaps, is to judge of the quality of materials.

The term “extract,” when used in most formulas, means an alcoholic
solution of the odorous principles of certain flowers obtained by
enfluerage; that is, the flowers are placed in contact with prepared
grease which absorbs the odorous matter, and this grease is in turn
macerated with alcohol which dissolves out the odor. A small portion of
the grease is taken up also at ordinary temperatures; this is removed
by filtering the “extract” while “chilled” by a freezing mixture. The
extracts can be either purchased or made directly from the pomade (as
the grease is called). To employ the latter method successfully some
experience may be necessary.

The tinctures are made with 95 per cent deodorized alcohol, enough
menstruum being added through the marc when filtering to bring the
finished preparation to the measure of the menstruum originally taken.

The glycerine is intended to act as a “fixing” agent—that is, to lessen
the volatility of the perfumes.


«Tinctures for Perfumes.»—

_a._ Ambergris, 1 part; alcohol, 96 per cent, 15 parts.

_b._ Benzoin, Sumatra, 1 part; alcohol, 96 per cent, 6 parts.

_c._ Musk, 1 part; distilled water, 25 parts; spirit, 96 per cent, 25
parts.

_d._ Musk, 1 part; spirit, 96 per cent, 50 parts; for very oleiferous
compositions.

_e._ Peru balsam, 1 part in spirit, 96 per cent, 7 parts; shake
vigorously.

_f._ Storax, 1 part in spirit, 96 per cent, 15 parts.

_g._ Powdered Tolu balsam, 1 part; spirit, 96 per cent, 6 parts.

_h._ Chopped Tonka beans, 1 part; spirit, 60 per cent, 6 parts; for
compositions containing little oil.

_i._ Chopped Tonka beans, 1 part; spirit, 96 per cent, 6 parts; for
compositions containing much oil.

_j._ Vanilla, 1 part; spirit, 60 per cent, 6 parts; for compositions
containing little oil.

_k._ Vanilla, 1 part; spirit, 96 per cent, 6 parts; for compositions
containing much oil.

_l._ Vanillin, 20 parts; spirit, 96 per cent, 4,500 parts.

_m._ Powdered orris root, 1 part; spirit, 96 per cent, 5 parts.

_n._ Grated civet, 1 part in spirit, 96 per cent, 10 parts.


«Bay Rum.»—Bay rum, or more properly bay spirit, may be made from the
oil with weak alcohol as here directed:

 I.—Oil of bay leaves            3 drachms
     Oil of orange peel         1⁠/⁠2 drachm
     Tincture of orange peel      2 ounces
     Magnesium carbonate        1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Alcohol                      4 pints
     Water                        4 pints

Triturate the oils with the magnesium carbonate, gradually adding the
other ingredients previously mixed, and filter.

The tincture of orange peel is used chiefly as a coloring for the
mixture.

Oil of bay leaves as found in the market varies in quality. The most
costly will presumably be found the best, and its use will not make
the product expensive. It can be made from the best oil and deodorized
alcohol and still sold at a moderate price with a good profit.

Especial care should be taken to use only perfectly fresh oil of orange
peel. As is well known, this oil deteriorates rapidly on exposure to
the air, acquiring an odor similar to that of turpentine. The oil
should be kept in bottles of such size that when opened the contents
can be all used in a short time. {514}

II.—Bay oil, 15 parts; sweet orange oil, 1 part; pimento oil, 1 part;
spirit of wine, 1,000 parts; water, 750 parts; soap spirit or quillaia
bark, ad libitum.

III.—Bay oil, 12.5 parts; sweet orange oil, 0.5 part; pimento oil,
0.5 part; spirit of wine, 200 parts; water, 2,800 parts; Jamaica rum
essence, 75 parts; soap powder, 20 parts; quillaia extract, 5 parts;
borax, 10 parts; use sugar color.


«Colognes.»—In making cologne water, the alcohol used should be that
obtained from the distillation of wine, provided a first-class article
is desired. It is possible, of course, to make a good cologne with very
highly rectified and deodorized corn or potato spirits, but the product
never equals that made from wine spirits. Possibly the reason for this
lies in the fact that the latter always contains a varying amount of
oenanthic ether.

 I.—Oil of bergamot              10 parts
     Oil of neroli                15 parts
     Oil of citron                 5 parts
     Oil of cedrat                 5 parts
     Oil of rosemary               1 part
     Tincture of ambergris         5 parts
     Tincture of benzoin           5 parts
     Alcohol                   1,000 parts

II.—The following is stated to be the “original” formula:

 Oil of bergamot                  96 parts
 Oil of citron                    96 parts
 Oil of cedrat                    96 parts
 Oil of rosemary                  48 parts
 Oil of neroli                    48 parts
 Oil of lavender                  48 parts
 Oil of cavella                   24 parts
 Absolute alcohol              1,000 parts
 Spirit of rosemary           25,000 parts

 III.—Alcohol, 90 per cent    5,000 parts
       Bergamot oil              220 parts
       Lemon oil                  75 parts
       Neroli oil                 20 parts
       Rosemary oil                5 parts
       Lavender oil French         5 parts

The oils are well dissolved in spirit and left alone for a few days
with frequent shaking. Next add about 40 parts of acetic acid and
filter after a while.

 IV.—Alcohol, 90 per cent     5,000 parts
      Lavender oil, French        35 parts
      Lemon oil                   30 parts
      Portugallo oil              30 parts
      Neroli oil                  15 parts
      Bergamot oil                15 parts
      Petit grain oil              4 parts
      Rosemary oil                 4 parts
      Orange water               700 parts


«Cologne Spirits or Deodorized Alcohol.»—This is used in all toilet
preparations and perfumes. It is made thus:

 Alcohol, 95 per cent       1 gallon
 Powdered unslaked lime     4 drachms
 Powdered alum              2 drachms
 Spirit of nitrous ether    1 drachm

Mix the lime and alum, and add them to the alcohol, shaking the mixture
well together; then add the sweet spirit of niter and set aside for 7
days, shaking occasionally; finally filter.


«Florida Waters.»—

 Oil of bergamot          3 fluidounces
 Oil of lavender          1 fluidounce
 Oil of cloves        1 1⁠/⁠4 fluidrachms
 Oil of cinnamon      2 1⁠/⁠2 fluidrachms
 Oil of neroli          1⁠/⁠2 fluidrachm
 Oil of lemon             1 fluidounce
 Essence of jasmine       6 fluidounces
 Essence of musk          2 fluidounces
 Rose water               1 pint
 Alcohol                  8 pints

Mix, and if cloudy, filter through magnesium carbonate.


«Lavender Water.»—This, the most famous of all the perfumed waters, was
originally a distillate from a mixture of spirit and lavender flowers.
This was the perfume. Then came a compound water, or “palsy water,”
which was intended strictly for use as a medicine, but sometimes
containing ambergris and musk, as well as red sanders wood. Only the
odor of the old compound remains to us as a perfume, and this is the
odor which all perfume compounders endeavor to hit. The most important
precaution in making lavender water is to use well-matured oil of
lavender. Some who take pride in this perfume use no oil which is less
than 5 years old, and which has had 1 ounce of rectified spirit added
to each pound of oil before being set aside to mature. After mixing,
the perfume should stand for at least a month before filtering through
gray filtering paper. This may be taken as a general instruction:

 I.—Oil of lavender              1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Oil of bergamot                  4 drachms
     Essence ambergris                4 drachms
     Proof spirit                     3 pints

{515}

 II.—English oil of lavender         1 ounce
      Oil of bergamot             1 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Essence of musk (No. 2)       1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Essence of ambergris          1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Proof spirit                    2 pints

 III.—English oil of lavender      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
       Oil of bergamot                2 drachms
       Essence of ambergris           1 drachm
       Essence of musk (No. 1)        3 drachms
       Oil of angelica                2 minims
       Attar of rose                  6 minims
       Proof spirit                   1 pint

 IV.—Oil of lavender                 4 ounces
      Grain musk                     15 grains
      Oil of bergamot             2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Attar of rose               1 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Oil of neroli                 1⁠/⁠2 drachm
      Spirit of nitrous ether     2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Triple rose water              12 ounces
      Proof spirit                    5 pints

Allow to stand 5 weeks before filtering.


«LIQUID PERFUMES FOR THE HANDKERCHIEF, PERSON, ETC.:»

Acacia Extract.—

 French acacia                     400 parts
 Tincture of amber (1 in 10)         3 parts
 Eucalyptus oil                    0.5 parts
 Lavender oil                        1 part
 Bergamot oil                        1 part
 Tincture of musk                    2 parts
 Tincture of orris root            150 parts
 Spirit of wine, 80 per cent       500 parts

Bishop Essence.—

 Fresh green peel of unripe oranges     60.0 grams
 Curaçao orange peel                   180.0 grams
 Malaga orange peel                     90.0 grams
 Ceylon cinnamon                         2.0 grams
 Cloves                                  7.5 grams
 Vanilla                                11.0 grams
 Orange flower oil                         4 drops
 Spirit of wine                      1,500.0 grams
 Hungarian wine                        720.0 grams

A dark-brown tincture of pleasant taste and smell.

Caroline Bouquet.—

 Oil of lemon            15 minims
 Oil of bergamot          1 drachm
 Essence of rose          4 ounces
 Essence of tuberose      4 ounces
 Essence of violet        4 ounces
 Tincture of orris        2 ounces

Alexandra Bouquet.—

 Oil of bergamot        3 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 Oil of rose geranium     1⁠/⁠2 drachm
 Oil of rose              1⁠/⁠2 drachm
 Oil of cassia             15 minims
 Deodorized alcohol         1 pint

Navy Bouquet.—

 Spirit of sandalwood       10 ounces
 Extract of patchouli       10 ounces
 Spirit of rose             10 ounces
 Spirit of vetivert         10 ounces
 Extract of verbena         12 ounces

Bridal Bouquet.—Sandal oil, 30 minims; rose extract, 4 fluidounces;
jasmine extract, 4 fluidounces; orange flower extract, 16 fluidounces;
essence of vanilla, 1 fluidounce; essence of musk, 2 fluidounces;
tincture of storax, 2 fluidounces. (The tincture of storax is prepared
with liquid storax and alcohol [90 per cent], 1:20, by macerating for 7
days.)

Irish Bouquet.—

 White rose essence      5,000 parts
 Vanilla essence           450 parts
 Rose oil                    5 parts
 Spirit                    100 parts

Essence Bouquet.—

 I.—Spirit                       8,000 parts
     Distilled water              2,000 parts
     Iris tincture                  250 parts
     Vanilla herb tincture          100 parts
     Benzoin tincture                40 parts
     Bergamot oil                    50 parts
     Storax tincture                 50 parts
     Clove oil                       15 parts
     Palmarosa oil                   12 parts
     Lemon-grass oil                 15 parts

 II.—Extract of rose (2d)           64 ounces
      Extract of jasmine (2d)        12 ounces
      Extract of cassie (2d)          8 ounces
      Tincture of orris (1 to 4)     64 ounces
      Oil of bergamot               1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Oil of cloves                   1 drachm
      Oil of ylang-ylang            1⁠/⁠2 drachm
      Tincture of benzoin (1 to 8)    2 ounces
      Glycerine                       4 ounces

Bouquet Canang.—

 Ylang-ylang oil            45 minims
 Grain musk                  3 grains
 Rose oil                   15 minims
 Tonka beans                 3
 Cassie oil                  5 minims
 Tincture orris rhizome      1 fluidounce {516}
 Civet                       1 grain
 Almond oil                1⁠/⁠2 minim
 Storax tincture             3 fluidrachms
 Alcohol, 90 per cent        9 fluidounces

Mix, and digest 1 month. The above is a very delicious perfume.

Cassie oil or otto is derived from the flowers of _Acacia farnesiana
Mimosa farnesiana_, L. (N. O. Leguminosæ, suborder Mimoseæ). It must
not be confounded with cassia otto, the essential oil obtained from
_Cinnamomum cassia_.

Cashmere Nosegay.—

 I.—Essence of violet, from pomade      1 pint
     Essence of rose, from pomade    1 1⁠/⁠2 pints
     Tincture of benzoin, (1 to 4)     1⁠/⁠2 pint
     Tincture of civet (1 to 64)       1⁠/⁠4 pint
     Tincture of Tonka (1 to 4)        1⁠/⁠4 pint
     Benzoic acid                      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Oil of patchouli                  1⁠/⁠4 ounce
     Oil of sandal                     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Rose water                        1⁠/⁠2 pint

 II.—Essence violet                   120 ounces
      Essence rose                     180 ounces
      Tincture benjamin (1 in 4)        60 ounces
      Tincture civet (1 in 62)          30 ounces
      Tincture Tonka (1 in 4)           30 ounces
      Oil patchouli                      3 ounces
      Oil sandalwood                     6 ounces
      Rose water                        60 ounces

Clove Pink.—

 I.—Essence of rose                 2 ounces
     Essence of orange flower        6 ounces
     Tincture of vanilla         3 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Oil of cloves                  20 minims

 II.—Essence of cassie              5 ounces
      Essence of orange flower       5 ounces
      Essence of rose               10 ounces
      Spirit of rose                 7 ounces
      Tincture of vanilla            3 ounces
      Oil of cloves                 12 minims

Frangipanni.—

 I.—Grain musk                      10 grains
     Sandal otto                     25 minims
     Rose otto                       25 minims
     Orange flower otto (neroli)     30 minims
     Vetivert otto                    5 minims
     Powdered orris rhizome         1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Vanilla                         30 grains
     Alcohol (90 per cent)           10 fluidounces

Mix and digest for 1 month. This is a lasting and favorite perfume.

 II.—Oil of rose                             2 drachms
      Oil of neroli                           2 drachms
      Oil of sandalwood                       2 drachms
      Oil of geranium (French)                2 drachms
      Tincture of vetivert (1 1⁠/⁠4 to 8)      96 ounces
      Tincture of Tonka (1 to 8)             16 ounces
      Tincture of orris (1 to 4)             64 ounces
      Glycerine                               6 ounces
      Alcohol                                64 ounces

Handkerchief Perfumes.—

 I.—Lavender oil         10 parts
     Neroli oil           10 parts
     Bitter almond oil     2 parts
     Orris root          200 parts
     Rose oil              5 parts
     Clove oil             5 parts
     Lemon oil             1 part
     Cinnamon oil          2 parts

Mix with 2,500 parts of best alcohol, and after a rest of 3 days heat
moderately on the water bath, and filter.

 II.—Bergamot oil        10 parts
      Orange peel oil     10 parts
      Cinnamon oil         2 parts
      Rose geranium oil    1 part
      Lemon oil            4 parts
      Lavender oil         4 parts
      Rose oil             1 part
      Vanilla essence      5 parts

Mix with 2,000 parts of best spirit, and after leaving undisturbed for
3 days, heat moderately on the water bath, and filter.

Honeysuckle.—

 Oil of neroli           12 minims
 Oil of rose             10 minims
 Oil of bitter almond     8 minims
 Tincture of storax       4 ounces
 Tincture of vanilla      6 ounces
 Essence of cassie       16 ounces
 Essence of rose         16 ounces
 Essence of tuberose     16 ounces
 Essence of violet       16 ounces

Iridia.—

 Coumarin                              10 grains
 Concentrated rose water (1 to 40)      2 ounces
 Neroli oil                             5 minims
 Vanilla bean                           1 drachm
 Bitter almond oil                      5 minims
 Orris root                             1 drachm
 Alcohol                               10 ounces

Macerate for a month. {517}

Javanese Bouquet.—

 Rose oil           15 minims
 Pimento oil        20 minims
 Cassia oil          3 minims
 Neroli oil          3 minims
 Clove oil           2 minims
 Lavender oil       60 minims
 Sandalwood oil     10 minims
 Alcohol            10 ounces
 Water           1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

Macerate for 14 days.

Lily Perfume.—

 Essence of jasmine            1 ounce
 Essence of orange flowers     1 ounce
 Essence of rose               2 ounces
 Essence of cassie             2 ounces
 Essence of tuberose           8 ounces
 Spirit of rose                1 ounce
 Tincture of vanilla           1 ounce
 Oil of bitter almond          2 minims

Lily of the Valley.—

 I.—Acacia essence                     750 parts
     Jasmine essence                    750 parts
     Orange flower essence              800 parts
     Rose flower essence                800 parts
     Vanilla flower essence           1,500 parts
     Bitter almond oil                   15 parts

 II.—Oil of bitter almond               10 minims
      Tincture of vanilla                 2 ounces
      Essence of rose                     2 ounces
      Essence of orange flower            2 ounces
      Essence of jasmine              2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Essence of tuberose             2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Spirit of rose                  2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

 III.—Extract rose                     200 parts
       Extract vanilla                  200 parts
       Extract orange                   800 parts
       Extract jasmine                  600 parts
       Extract musk tincture            150 parts
       Neroli oil                        10 parts
       Rose oil                           6 parts
       Bitter almond oil                  4 parts
       Cassia oil                         5 parts
       Bergamot oil                       6 parts
       Tonka beans essence              150 parts
       Linaloa oil                       12 parts
       Spirit of wine (90 per cent)   3,000 parts

 IV.—Neroli extract                    400 parts
      Orris root extract                600 parts
      Vanilla extract                   400 parts
      Rose extract                      900 parts
      Musk extract                      200 parts
      Orange extract                    500 parts
      Clove oil                           6 parts
      Bergamot oil                        5 parts
      Rose geranium oil                  15 parts

Maréchal Niel Rose.—In the genus of roses, outside of the
hundred-leaved or cabbage rose, the Maréchal Niel rose (Rosa
Noisetteana Red), also called Noisette rose and often, erroneously, tea
rose, is especially conspicuous. Its fine, piquant odor delights all
lovers of precious perfumes. In order to reproduce the fine scent of
this flower artificially at periods when it cannot be had without much
expenditure, the following recipes will be found useful:

 I.—Infusion rose I (from pomades)     1,000 parts
 Genuine rose oil                          10 parts
 Infusion Tolu balsam                     150 parts
 Infusion genuine musk I                   40 parts
 Neroli oil                                30 parts
 Clove oil                                  2 parts
 Infusion tubereuse I (from pomades)    1,000 parts
 Vanillin                                   1 part
 Coumarin                                 0.5 parts

 II.—Triple rose essence                  50 grams
 Simple rose essence                       60 grams
 Neroli essence                            30 grams
 Civet essence                             20 grams
 Iris essence                              30 grams
 Tonka beans essence                       20 grams
 Rose oil                                   5 drops
 Jasmine essence                           60 grams
 Violet essence                            50 grams
 Cassia essence                            50 grams
 Vanilla essence                           45 grams
 Clove oil                                 20 drops
 Bergamot oil                              10 drops
 Rose geranium oil                         20 drops

May Flowers.—

 Essence of rose                 10 ounces
 Essence of jasmine              10 ounces
 Essence of orange flowers       10 ounces
 Essence of cassie               10 ounces
 Tincture of vanilla             20 ounces
 Oil of bitter almond           1⁠/⁠2 drachm

Narcissus.—

 Caryophyllin             10 minims
 Extract of tuberose      16 ounces
 Extract of jasmine        4 ounces
 Oil of neroli            20 minims
 Oil of ylang-ylang       20 minims
 Oil of clove              5 minims
 Glycerine                30 minims

{518}

Almond Blossom.—

 Extract of heliotrope                  30 parts
 Extract of orange flower               10 parts
 Extract of jasmine                     10 parts
 Extract of rose                         3 parts
 Oil of lemon                            1 part
 Spirit of bitter almond, 10 per cent    6 parts
 Deodorized alcohol                     40 parts

Artificial Violet.—Ionone is an artificial perfume which smells
exactly like fresh violets, and is therefore an extremely important
product. Although before it was discovered compositions were known
which gave fair imitations of the violet perfume, they were wanting in
the characteristic tang which distinguishes all violet preparations.
Ionone has even the curious property possessed by violets of losing its
scent occasionally for a short time. It occasionally happens that an
observer, on taking the stopper out of a bottle of ionone, perceives no
special odor, but a few seconds after the stopper has been put back in
the bottle, the whole room begins to smell of fresh violets. It seems
to be a question of dilution. It is impossible, however, to make a
usable extract by mere dilution of a 10 per cent solution of ionone.

It is advisable to make these preparations in somewhat large
quantities, say 30 to 50 pounds at a time. This enables them to be
stocked for some time, whereby they improve greatly. When all the
ingredients are mixed, 10 days or a fortnight, with frequent shakings,
should elapse before filtration. The filtered product must be kept in
well-filled and well-corked bottles in a dry, dark, cool place, such as
a well-ventilated cellar. After 5 or 6 weeks the preparation is ready
for use.

Quadruple Extract.—

                                                By weight
 Jasmine extract, 1st pomade                    100 parts
 Rose extract, 1st pomade                       100 parts
 Cassia extract, 1st pomade                     200 parts
 Violet extract, 1st pomade                     200 parts
 Oil of geranium, Spanish                         2 parts
 Solution of vanillin, 10 per cent               10 parts
 Solution of orris, 10 per cent                 100 parts
 Solution of ionone, 10 per cent                 20 parts
 Infusion of musk                                10 parts
 Infusion of orris from coarsely ground root    260 parts

Triple Extract.—

                                              By weight
 Cassia extract, 2d pomade                    100 parts
 Violet extract, 2d pomade                    300 parts
 Jasmine extract, 2d pomade                   100 parts
 Rose extract, 2d pomade                      100 parts
 Oil of geranium, African                       1 part
 Ionone, 10 per cent                           15 parts
 Solution of vanillin, 10 per cent              5 parts
 Infusion of orris from coarse ground root    270 parts
 Infusion of musk                              10 parts

Double Extract.—

                                              By weight
 Cassia extract, 2d pomade                    100 parts
 Violet extract, 2d pomade                    150 parts
 Jasmine extract, 2d pomade                   100 parts
 Rose extract, 2d pomade                      100 parts
 Oil of geranium, reunion                       2 parts
 Ionone, 10 per cent                           10 parts
 Solution of vanillin, 10 per cent             10 parts
 Infusion of ambrette                          20 parts
 Infusion of orris from coarse ground root    300 parts
 Spirit                                       210 parts

White Rose.—

 Rose oil                    25 minims
 Rose geranium oil           20 minims
 Patchouli oil                5 minims
 Ionone                       3 minims
 Jasmine oil (synthetic)      5 minims
 Alcohol                     10 ounces

Ylang-Ylang Perfume.—

 I.—Ylang-ylang oil     10 minims
     Neroli oil           5 minims
     Rose oil             5 minims
     Bergamot oil         3 minims
     Alcohol             10 ounces

One grain of musk may be added.

 II.—Extract of cassie (2d)      96 ounces
      Extract of jasmine (2d)     24 ounces {519}
      Extract of rose             24 ounces
      Tincture of orris            4 ounces
      Oil of ylang-ylang           6 drachms
      Glycerine                    6 ounces

TOILET WATERS.

Toilet waters proper are perfumed liquids designed more especially
as refreshing applications to the person—accessories to the bath
and to the operations of the barber. They are used sparingly on the
handkerchief also, but should not be of so persistent a character as
the “extracts” commonly used for that purpose, as they would then be
unsuitable as lotions.

Ammonia Water.—Fill a 6-ounce ground glass stoppered bottle with a
rather wide mouth with pieces of ammonium carbonate as large as a
marble, then drop in the following essential oils:

 Oil of lavender    30 drops
 Oil of bergamot    30 drops
 Oil of rose        10 drops
 Oil of cinnamon    10 drops
 Oil of clove       10 drops

Finally fill the bottle with stronger water of ammonia, put in the
stopper and let stand overnight.

Birch-Bud Water.—Alcohol (96 per cent), 350 parts; water, 70 parts;
soft soap, 20 parts; glycerine, 15 parts; essential oil of birch buds,
5 parts; essence of spring flowers, 10 parts; chlorophyll, quantity
sufficient to tint. Mix the water with an equal volume of spirit and
dissolve the soap in the mixture. Mix the oil and other ingredients
with the remainder of the spirit, add the soap solution gradually,
agitate well, allow to stand for 8 days and filter. For use, dilute
with an equal volume of water.

Carmelite Balm Water.—

 Melissa oil               30 minims
 Sweet marjoram oil         3 minims
 Cinnamon oil              10 minims
 Angelica oil               3 minims
 Citron oil                30 minims
 Clove oil                 15 minims
 Coriander oil              5 minims
 Nutmeg oil                 5 minims
 Alcohol (90 per cent)     10 fluidounces

Angelica oil is obtained principally from the aromatic root of
_Angelica archangelica_, L. (N. O. Umbelliferæ), which is commonly
cultivated for the sake of the volatile oil which it yields.

Cypress Water.—

 Essence of ambergris    1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Spirits of wine           1 gallon
 Water                     2 quarts

Distill a gallon.

Eau de Botot.—

 Aniseed            80 parts
 Clover             20 parts
 Cinnamon cassia    20 parts
 Cochineal           5 parts
 Refined spirit    800 parts
 Rose water        200 parts

Digest for 8 days and add

 Tincture of ambergris    1 part
 Peppermint oil          10 parts

Eau de Lais.—

 Eau de cologne       1   part
 Jasmine extract      0.5 parts
 Lemon essence        0.5 parts
 Balm water           0.5 parts
 Vetiver essence      0.5 parts
 Triple rose water    0.5 parts

Eau de Merveilleuse.—

 Alcohol                 3 quarts
 Orange flower water     4 quarts
 Peru balsam             2 ounces
 Clove oil               4 ounces
 Civet               1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces
 Rose geranium oil     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Rose oil                4 drachms
 Neroli oil              4 drachms

Edelweiss.—

 Bergamot oil                      10 grams
 Tincture of ambergris              2 grams
 Tincture of vetiver (1 in 10)     25 grams
 Heliotropin                        5 grams
 Rose oil spirit (1 in 100)        25 grams
 Tincture of musk                   5 drops
 Tincture of angelica              12 drops
 Neroli oil, artificial            10 drops
 Hyacinth, artificial              15 drops
 Jasmine, artificial                1 gram
 Spirit of wine, 80 per cent    1,000 grams

Honey Water.—

 I.—Best honey           1 pound
     Coriander seed       1 pound
     Cloves           1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Nutmegs              1 ounce
     Gum benjamin         1 ounce
     Vanilloes, No. 4     1 drachm
     The yellow rind of 3 large lemons.

{520}

Bruise the cloves, nutmegs, coriander seed, and benjamin, cut the
vanilloes in pieces, and put all into a glass alembic with 1 gallon of
clean rectified spirit, and, after digesting 48 hours, draw off the
spirit by distillation. To 1 gallon of the distilled spirit add

 Damask rose water      1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Orange flower water    1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Musk                       5 grains
 Ambergris                  5 grains

Grind the musk and ambergris in a glass mortar, and afterwards put all
together into a digesting vessel, and let them circulate 3 days and 3
nights in a gentle heat; then let all cool. Filter, and keep the water
in bottles well stoppered.

 II.—Oil of cloves              2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Oil of bergamot               10 drachms
      English oil of lavender    2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Musk                           4 grains
      Yellow sandalwood          2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
      Rectified spirit              32 ounces
      Rose water                     8 ounces
      Orange flower water            8 ounces
      English honey                  2 ounces

Macerate the musk and sandalwood in the spirit 7 days, filter, dissolve
the oils in the filtrate, add the other ingredients, shake well, and
do so occasionally, keeping as long as possible before filtering.

Lilac Water.—

 Terpineol        2 drachms
 Heliotropin      8 grains
 Bergamot oil     1 drachm
 Neroli oil       8 minims
 Alcohol         12 ounces
 Water            4 ounces

Orange Flower Water.—

 Orange flower essence    8 ounces
 Magnesium carbonate      1 ounce
 Water                    8 pints

Triturate the essence with the magnesium carbonate, add the water, and
filter.

To Clarify Turbid Orange Flower Water.—Shake 1 quart of it with 1⁠/⁠4
pound of sand which has previously been boiled out with hydrochloric
acid, washed with water, and dried at red heat. This process doubtless
would prove valuable for many other purposes.

Violet Waters.—

 I.—Spirit of ionone, 10 per cent    1⁠/⁠2 drachm
     Distilled water                    5 ounces
     Orange flower water                1 ounce
     Rose water                         1 ounce
     Cologne spirit                     8 ounces

Add the spirit of ionone to the alcohol and then add the waters. Let
stand and filter.

 II.—Violet extract           2 ounces
      Cassie extract           1 ounce
      Spirit of rose         1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Tincture of orris      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Green coloring, a sufficiency.
      Alcohol to 20 ounces.


«PERFUMED PASTILLES.»

These scent tablets consist of a compressed mixture of rice starch,
magnesium carbonate, and powdered orris root, saturated with
heliotrope, violet, or lilac perfume.

Violet.—

 Ionone                               50 parts
 Ylang-ylang oil                      50 parts
 Tincture of musk, extra strong      200 parts
 Tincture of benzoin                 200 parts

Heliotrope.—

 Heliotropin            200 parts
 Vanillin                50 parts
 Tincture of musk       100 parts
 Tincture of benzoin    200 parts

Lilac.—

 Terpineol              200 parts
 Muguet                 200 parts
 Tincture of musk       200 parts
 Tincture of benzoin    200 parts

 Sandalwood               2 drachms
 Vetivert                 2 drachms
 Lavender flowers         4 drachms
 Oil of thyme           1⁠/⁠2 drachm
 Charcoal                 2 ounces
 Potassium nitrate      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Mucilage of tragacanth, a sufficient quantity.


«Perfumes for Hair Oils.»—

 I.—Heliotropin                  8 grains
     Coumarin                     1 grain
     Oil of orris                 1 drop
     Oil of rose                 15 minims
     Oil of bergamot             30 minims

 II.—Coumarin                    2 grains
      Oil of cloves               4 drops
      Oil of cassia               4 drops
      Oil of lavender flowers    15 minims
      Oil of lemon               45 minims
      Oil of bergamot            75 minims


«Soap Perfumes.»—

See also Soap.

 I.—Oil of lavender     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Oil of cassia        30 minims
     Add 5 pounds of soap stock.

{521}

      1 1⁠/⁠2 drachms of each:
 II.—Oil of caraway
      Oil of clove
      Oil of white thyme
      Oil of cassia
      Oil of orange leaf (neroli petit grain)
      Oil of lavender

Add to 5 pounds of soap stock.

PERFUMES (FUMIGANTS): See Fumigants.

PERSPIRATION REMEDY: See Cosmetics.


«Petroleum»

(See also Oils.)


«The Preparation of Emulsions of Crude Petroleum.»—Kerosene has long
been recognized as a most efficient insecticide, but its irritating
action, as well as the very considerable cost involved, has prevented
the use of the pure oil as a local application in the various parasitic
skin diseases of animals.

In order to overcome these objections various expedients have been
resorted to, all of which have for their object the dilution or
emulsification of the kerosene. Probably the best known and most
generally employed method for accomplishing this result is that which
is based upon the use of soap as an emulsifying agent. The formula
which is used almost universally for making the kerosene soap emulsion
is as follows:

 Kerosene        2 gallons
 Water           1 gallon
 Hard soap     1⁠/⁠2 pound

The soap is dissolved in the water with the aid of heat, and while this
solution is still hot the kerosene is added and the whole agitated
vigorously. The smooth white mixture which is obtained in this way is
diluted before use with sufficient water to make a total volume of 20
gallons, and is usually applied to the skin of animals or to trees or
other plants by means of a spray pump. This method of application is
used because the diluted emulsion separates quite rapidly, and some
mechanical device, such as a self-mixing spray pump, is required to
keep the oil in suspension.

It will be readily understood that this emulsion would not be well
adapted either for use as a dip or for application by hand, for in the
one case the oil, which rapidly rises to the surface, would adhere to
the animals when they emerged from the dipping tank and the irritating
effect would be scarcely less than that produced by the plain oil, and
in the second case the same separation of the kerosene would take place
and necessarily result in an uneven distribution of the oil on the
bodies of the animals which were being treated.

Within recent years it has been found that a certain crude petroleum
from the Beaumont oil fields is quite effective for destroying the
Texas fever cattle ticks. This crude petroleum contains from 40 to 50
per cent of oils boiling below 300° C. (572° F.), and from 1 to 1.5 per
cent of sulphur. After a number of trials of different combinations of
crude oil, soap, and water, the following formula was decided upon as
the one best suited to the uses in view:

 Crude petroleum       2 gallons
 Water               1⁠/⁠2 gallon
 Hard soap           1⁠/⁠2 pound

Dissolve the soap in the water with the aid of heat; to this solution
add the crude petroleum, mix with a spray pump or shake vigorously, and
dilute with the desired amount of water. Soft water should, of course,
be used. Various forms of hard and soft soaps have been tried, but soap
with an amount of free alkali equivalent to 0.9 per cent of sodium
hydroxide gives the best emulsion. All the ordinary laundry soaps are
quite satisfactory, but toilet soaps in the main are not suitable.

An emulsion of crude petroleum made according to this modified formula
remains fluid and can be easily poured; it will stand indefinitely
without any tendency toward a separation of the oil and water and can
be diluted in any proportion with cold soft water. After sufficient
dilution to produce a 10 per cent emulsion, a number of hours are
required for all the oil to rise to the surface, but if the mixture is
agitated occasionally, no separation takes place. After long standing
the oil separates in the form of a creamlike layer which is easily
mixed with the water again by stirring. It is therefore evident that
for producing an emulsion which will hold the oil in suspension after
dilution, the modified formula meets the desired requirements.

In preparing this emulsion for use in the field, a large spray pump
capable of mixing 25 gallons may be used with perfect success.

In using the formula herewith given, it should be borne in mind that
it is recommended especially for the crude {522} petroleum obtained
from the Beaumont oil fields, the composition of which has already been
given. As crude petroleums from different sources vary greatly in their
composition, it is impracticable to give a formula that can be used
with all crude oils. Nevertheless, crude petroleum from other sources
than the Beaumont wells may be emulsified by modifying the formula
given above. In order to determine what modification of this formula is
necessary for the emulsification of a given oil, the following method
may be used:

Dissolve 1⁠/⁠2 pound of soap in 1⁠/⁠2 gallon of hot water; to 1
measure of this soap solution add 4 measures of the crude petroleum to
be tested and shake well in a stoppered bottle or flask for several
minutes.

If, after dilution, there is a separation of a layer of pure oil
within half an hour the emulsion is imperfect, and a modification of
the formula will be required. To accomplish this the proportion of oil
should be varied until a good result is obtained.


«Petroleum for Spinning.»—In order to be able to wash out the petroleum
or render it “saponifiable,” the following process is recommended:
Heat the mineral oil with 5 to 10 per cent of olein, add the proper
amount of alcoholic lye and continue heating until the solvent (water
alcohol) evaporates. A practical way is to introduce an aqueous lye at
230° F. in small portions and to heat until the froth disappears. For
clearness it is necessary merely to evaporate all the water. In the
same manner, more olein may be added as desired if the admixture of
lye is kept down so that not too much soap is formed or the petroleum
becomes too thick. After cooling, a uniform gelatinous mass results.
This is liquefied mechanically, during or after the cooling, by passing
it through fine sieves. Soap is so finely and intimately distributed in
the petroleum that the finest particles of oil are isolated by soap, as
it were. When a quantity of oil is intimately stirred into the water an
emulsion results so that the different parts cannot be distinguished.
The same process takes place in washing, the soap contained in the oil
swelling between the fibers and the oil particles upon mixture with
water, isolating the oil and lifting it from the fiber.


«Deodorized Petroleum.»—Petroleum may be deodorized by shaking it
first with 100 parts of chlorinated lime for every 4,500 parts, adding
a little hydrochloric acid, then transferring the liquid to a vessel
containing lime, and again shaking until all the chlorine is removed.
After standing, the petroleum is decanted.


«Petroleum Briquettes.»—Mix with 1,000 parts of petroleum oil 150 parts
of ground soap, 150 parts of rosin, and 300 parts of caustic soda
lye. Heat this mixture while stirring. When solidification commences,
which will be in about 40 minutes, the operation must be watched. If
the mixture tends to overflow, pour into the receiver a few drops of
soda, and continue to stir until the solidification is complete. When
the operation is ended, flow the matter into molds for making the
briquettes, and place them for 10 or 15 minutes in a stove; then they
may be allowed to cool. The briquettes can be employed a few hours
after they are made.

To the three elements constituting the mixture it is useful to add per
1,000 parts by weight of the briquettes to be obtained, 120 parts of
sawdust and 120 parts of clay or sand, to render the briquettes more
solid.

Experiments in the heating of these briquettes have demonstrated that
they will furnish three times as much heat as briquettes of ordinary
charcoal, without leaving any residue.

PETROLEUM EMULSION: See Insecticides.

PETROLEUM JELLIES: See Lubricants.

PETROLEUM SOAP: See Soap.

PEWTER: See Alloys.

PEWTER, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.


«PEWTER, AGEING:»

If it is desired to impart to modern articles of pewter the appearance
of antique objects, plunge the pieces for several moments into a
solution of alum to which several drops of hydrochloric or sulphuric
acid have been added.


«PICTURES, GLOW.»

These can be easily produced by drawing the outlines of a picture,
writing, etc., on a piece of white paper with a solution of 40 parts of
saltpeter and 20 parts of gum arabic in 40 parts of warm water, using
a writing pen for this purpose. All the lines must connect and one of
them {523} must run to the edge of the paper, where it should be marked
with a fine lead-pencil line. When a burning match is held to this
spot, the line immediately glows on, spreading over the whole design,
and the design formerly invisible finally appears entirely singed. This
little trick is not dangerous.


«PHOSPHATE SUBSTITUTE.»

An artificial phosphate is thus prepared: Melt in an oven a mixture of
100 parts of phosphorite, ground coarsely, 70 parts of acid sulphate of
soda; 20 parts of carbonate of lime; 22 parts of sand, and 607 parts
of charcoal. Run the molten matter into a receiver filled with water;
on cooling it will become granular. Rake out the granular mass from
the water, and after drying, grind to a fine powder. The phosphate
can be kept for a long time without losing its quality, for it is
neither caustic nor hygroscopic. Wagner has, in collaboration with
Dorsch, conducted fertilizing experiments for determining its value,
as compared with superphosphate or with Thomas slag. The phosphate
decomposes more rapidly in the soil than Thomas slag, and so far as the
experiments have gone, it appears that the phosphoric acid of the new
phosphate exercises almost as rapid an action as the phosphoric acid of
the superphosphate soluble in water.


«PHOSPHORESCENT MASS.»

See also Luminous Bodies and Paints.

Mix 2 parts of dehydrated sodium carbonate, 0.5 parts of sodium
chloride, and 0.2 parts of manganic sulphate with 100 parts of
strontium carbonate and 30 parts of sulphur and heat 3 hours to a white
heat with exclusion of air.

PHOSPHOR BRONZE: See Alloys, under Bronzes.


«PHOSPHORUS SUBSTITUTE.»

G. Graveri recommends persulfocyanic acid = H_〈2〉(CN)_〈2〉S_〈3〉 as
meeting all the requirements of phosphorus on matches. It resists
shock and friction, it is readily friable, and will mix with other
substances; moreover, it is non-poisonous and cheaper than phosphorus.


«Photography»


«DEVELOPERS AND DEVELOPING OF PLATES.»

No light is perfectly safe or non-actinic, even that coming through a
combined ruby and orange window or lamp. Therefore use great care in
developing.

A light may be tested this way: Place a dry plate in the plate holder
in total darkness, draw the slide sufficiently to expose one-half of
the plate, and allow the light from the window or lamp, 12 to 18 inches
distant, to fall on this exposed half for 3 or 4 minutes. Then develop
the plate the usual length of time in total darkness. If the light is
safe, there will be no darkening of the exposed part. If not safe, the
remedy is obvious.

The developing room must be a perfectly dark room, save for the light
from a ruby- or orange-colored window (or combination of these two
colors). Have plenty of pure running water and good ventilation.

Plates should always be kept in a dry room. The dark room is seldom a
safe place for storage, because it is apt to be damp.

Various developing agents give different results. Pyrogallic acid in
combination with carbonate of sodium or carbonate of potassium gives
strong, vigorous negatives. Eikonogen and metol yield soft, delicate
negatives. Hydrochinon added to eikonogen or metol produces more
contrast or greater strength.

It is essential to have a bottle of bromide of potassium solution, 10
per cent, in the dark room. (One ounce of bromide of potassium, water
to 10 ounces.) Overtimed plates may be much improved by adding a few
drops of bromide solution to the developer as soon as the overtimed
condition is apparent (a plate is overtimed when the image appears
almost immediately, and then blackens all over).

Undertimed plates should be taken out of the developer and placed in
a tray of water where no light can reach them. If the detail in the
shadows begins to appear after half an hour or so, the plate can be
replaced in the developer and development brought to a finish.

Quick development, with strong solutions, means a lack of gradation or
half-tones.

A developer too warm or containing too much alkali (carbonate of sodium
or potassium) will yield flat, foggy negatives.

A developer too cold is retarded in its action, and causes thin
negatives.

Uniform temperature is necessary for uniform results.

If development is continued too long, the negative will be too dense.

In warm weather, the developer should be diluted; in cold weather, it
should be stronger. {524}

The negative should not be exposed to white light until fixation is
complete.

The negative should be left fully 5 minutes longer in the fixing bath
than is necessary to dissolve out the white bromide of silver.

In hot weather a chrome alum fixing bath should be used to prevent
frilling.

Always use a fresh hypo or fixing bath. Hypo is cheap.

Plates and plate holders must be kept free from dust, or pinholes will
result.

After the negative is fixed, an hour’s washing is none too much.

The plate should be dried quickly in warm weather else the film will
become dense and coarse-grained.

Do not expect clean, faultless negatives to come out of dirty
developing and fixing solutions and trays.


«Pyro and Soda Developer.»—

 I.—Pure water                     30 ounces
     Sulphite soda, crystals         5 ounces
     Carbonate soda, crystals    2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

 II.—Pure water                    24 ounces
      Oxalic acid                   15 grains
      Pyrogallic acid                1 ounce

To develop, take of

 Solution No. I.        1 ounce
 Solution No. II.     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Pure water             3 ounces

More water may be used in warm weather and less in cool weather.

If solution No. I is made by hydrometer test, use equal parts of the
following:

 Sulphite soda testing, 80°.
 Carbonate soda testing, 40°.

One ounce of this mixture will be equivalent to 1 ounce of solution No.
I.


«Pyro and Potassium Developer.»—

 I.—Pure water                  32 ounces
     Sulphite soda, crystals      8 ounces
     Carbonate potassium, dry     1 ounce

 II.—Pure water                 24 ounces
      Oxalic acid                15 ounces
      Pyrogallic acid             1 ounce

To develop, take of

 Solution No. I.         1 ounce
 Solution No. II.      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Pure water              3 ounces

When the plate is fully developed, if the lights are too thin, use less
water in the developer; if too dense, use more water.


«Pyro and Metol Developer.»—Good for short exposures:

 I.—Pure water                      57 ounces
     Sulphite soda, crystals      2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Metol                            1 ounce

 II.—Pure water                     57 ounces
      Sulphite soda, crystals     2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Pyrogallic acid               1⁠/⁠4 ounce

 III.—Pure water                    57 ounces
       Carbonate potassium        2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

To develop, take of

 Pure water           3 ounces
 Solution No. I.      1 ounce
 Solution No. II.     1 ounce
 Solution No. III.    1 ounce

This developer may be used repeatedly by adding a little fresh
developer as required.

Keep the used developer in a separate bottle.


«Rodinal Developer.»—One part rodinal to 30 parts pure water.

Use repeatedly, adding fresh as required.


«Bromo-Hydrochinon Developer.»—For producing great contrast and
intensity, also for developing over-exposed plates.

 I.—Distilled or ice water         25 ounces
     Sulphite of soda, crystals      3 ounces
     Hydrochinon                   1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Bromide of potassium          1⁠/⁠4 ounce

Dissolve by warming, and let cool before use.

 II.—Water                          25 ounces
      Carbonate of soda, crystals     6 ounces

Mix Nos. I and II, equal parts, for use.


«Eikonogen Hydrochinon Developer.»—

 I.—Distilled or pure well water      32 ounces
     Sodium sulphite, crystals          4 ounces
     Eikonogen                        240 grains
     Hydrochinon                       60 grains

 II.—Water                            32 ounces
      Carbonate of potash               4 ounces

To develop, take

 No. I.        2 ounces
 No. II.       1 ounce
 †Water        1 ounce

  ────────────────────────────
 † For double-coated plates use 5 ounces of water.

{525}

By hydrometer:

 I.—Sodium sulphite, solution to test 30     34 ounces
     Eikonogen                               240 grains
     Hydrochinon                              60 grains

II.—Carbonate of potash solution to test 50

To develop, take

 No. I.      2 ounces
 No. II.     1 ounce
 ‡Water      1 ounce

  ────────────────────────────
 ‡ For double-coated plates use 5 ounces of water.


«Hydrochinon Developer.»—

 I.—Hydrochinon                    1 ounce
     Sulphite of soda, crystals     5 ounces
     Bromide of potassium          10 grains
     Water (ice or distilled)      55 ounces

 II.—Caustic potash               180 grains
      Water                         10 ounces

To develop:

Take of I, 4 ounces; II, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce. After use pour into a separate
bottle. This can be used repeatedly, and with uniformity of results, by
the addition of 1 drachm of I and 10 drops of II to every 8 ounces of
old developer.

In using this developer it is important to notice the temperature of
the room, as a slight variation in this respect causes a very marked
difference in the time it takes to develop, much more so than with
pyro. The temperature of room should be from 70° to 75° F.


«Metol Developer.»—

 I.—Water                          8 ounces
     Metol                        100 grains
     Sulphite of soda, crystals     1 ounce

 II.—Water                         10 ounces
      Potassium carbonate            1 ounce

Take equal parts of I and II and 6 parts of water. If more contrast is
needed, take equal parts of I and II and 3 parts of water, with 5 drops
to the ounce of a 1⁠/⁠10 solution of bromide of potassium.


«Metol and Hydrochinon Developer.—»

 I.—Pure hot water                80 ounces
     Metol                          1 ounce
     Hydrochinon                  1⁠/⁠8 ounce
     Sulphite soda, crystals        6 ounces

 II.—Pure water                   80 ounces
      Carbonate soda, crystals      5 ounces

To develop, take of

 Pure water         2 ounces
 Solution No. I     1 ounce
 Solution No. II    1 ounce


«Metol-Bicarbonate Developer.»—Thoroughly dissolve

 Metol        1 ounce
 In water    60 ounces

Then add

 Sulphite of soda, crystals      6 ounces
 Bicarbonate of soda             3 ounces

To prepare with hydrometer, mix

 Sulphite of soda solution, testing 75       30 ounces
 Bicarbonate of soda solution, testing 50    30 ounces
 Metol                                        1 ounce

Dissolved in 12 ounces water.


«Ferrous-Oxalate Developer.»—For transparencies and opals.

 I.—Oxalate of potash              8 ounces
     Water                         30 ounces
     Citric acid                   60 grains
     Citrate of ammonia solution    2 ounces

 II.—Sulphate of iron              4 ounces
      Water                        32 ounces
      Sulphuric acid               16 drops

III.—Citrate of ammonia solution saturated.

Dissolve 1 ounce citric acid in 5 ounces distilled water, add liquor
ammonia until a slip of litmus paper just loses the red color, then add
water to make the whole measure 8 ounces.

Add 1 ounce of II to 2 of I, and 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of water, and 3 to 6 drops
of 10 per cent solution bromide potassium.

To develop, first rinse developing dish with water, lay film or plate
down, and flow with sufficient developer to well cover. Careful
attention must be given to its action, and when detail is just showing
in the face, or half-tone lights in a view, pour off developer, and
well wash the film before placing in the fixing bath.


«Tolidol Developer.»—Standard formula for dry plates and films:

 Water                     16 ounces
 Tolidol                   24 grains
 Sodium sulphite     72 (144) grains
 Sodium carbonate    96 (240) grains

The figures in parenthesis are for crystals. It will be seen that in
every case {526} the weight of sulphite required in crystals is double
that of dry sulphite, while the weight of carbonate crystals is 2 1⁠/⁠2
times as much as dry carbonate.

For tank development Dr. John M. Nicol recommends the standard formula
diluted with 6 times the amount of water, and the addition of 1 drop of
retarder to every ounce after dilution.

To obtain very strong negatives:

 Water                      16 ounces
 Tolidol              50 to 65 grains
 Sodium sulphite      80 (160) grains
 Sodium carbonate    120 (300) grains

On some brands of plates the addition of a little retarder will be
necessary.

If stock solutions are preferred, they may be made as follows:

 _Solution A_

 Water                   32 ounces
 Tolidol                  1 ounce
 Sodium sulphite      1 (2) ounce

 _Solution B_

 Water                   32 ounces
 Sodium sulphite      2 (4) ounces

 _Solution C_

 Water                   32 ounces
 Sodium carbonate    4 (10) ounces

If preferred, stock solutions _B_ and _C_ can be made by hydrometer,
instead of by weight as above. The solutions will then show:

 _Solution B_

 Sodium sulphite      40

 _Solution C_

 Sodium carbonate     75

Or if potassium carbonate is preferred instead of sodium:

 _Solution C_

 Potassium carbonate    60

For standard formula for dry plates and films, mix

 Solution _A_      1 part
 Solution _B_      1 part
 Solution _C_      1 part
 Water             7 parts

For strong negatives (for aristo-platino):

 Solution _A_        1 1⁠/⁠2 to 2 parts
 Solution _B_                 1 part
 Solution _C_                 1 part
 Water               4 to 4 1⁠/⁠2 parts

For tank development:

 Solution _A_           1 part
 Solution _B_           1 part
 Solution _C_           1 part
 Water                 35 parts

For developing paper:

 Solution _A_     2 parts
 Solution _B_     2 parts
 Solution _C_     1 part

The reading of the hydrometer for stock solutions is the same whether
dried chemicals or crystals are used. No water is used.


«Pyrocatechin-Phosphate Developer.»—

 _Solution A_

 Crystallized sulphite of soda           386 grains
 Pyrocatechin                             77 grains
 Water                                     8 ounces

 _Solution B_

 Ordinary crystal phosphate of sodium    725 grains
 Caustic soda (purified in sticks)        77 grains
 Water                                     8 ounces

Mix 1 part of _A_ with 1 part of _B_ and from 1 to 3 parts of water. If
the exposure is not absolutely normal we recommend to add to the above
developer a few drops of a solution of bromide of potassium (1.10).


«Pyrocatechin Developer» (One Solution).—Dissolve in the following
range:

 Sulphite of soda crystallized       25 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 Caustic soda (purified in sticks)    3 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 Distilled water                         14 ounces
 Pyrocatechin                           308 grains

The pyrocatechin must not be added until the sulphite and caustic soda
are entirely dissolved. For use the concentrated developer is to be
diluted with from 10 to 20 times as much water. The normal proportion
is 1 part of developer in 15 parts of water.


«Vogel’s Pyrocatechin Combined Developer and Fixing Solution.»—

 Sulphite of soda crystallized          468 grains
 Water                                2 5⁠/⁠8 ounces
 Caustic potash (purified in sticks)    108 grains
 Pyrocatechin                           108 grains

Mix for a formally fixing plate of 5 x 7 inches.

 Developer                         3 drachms
 Fixing soda solution (1:5)    5 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 Water                             1 ounce

The process of developing and fixing with this solution is accomplished
in a {527} few minutes. The picture first appears usually, strengthens
very quickly, and shortly after the fixing is entirely done.


«Ellon’s Pyrocatechin Developer.»—Pyrocatechin, 2 per cent solution (2
grams pyrocatechin in 100 cubic centimeters of water).

Carbonate of potassium, 10 per cent solution (10 grams carbonate in 100
cubic centimeters of water).

For use take equal parts and add water as desired.


«Imperial Standard Pyro Developer.»—

 I.—Metabisulphite of potassium    120 grains
     Pyrogallic acid                 55 grains
     Bromide of potassium            20 grains
     Metol                           45 grains
     Water                           20 ounces

 II.—Carbonate of soda               4 ounces
      Water                          20 ounces

For use mix equal parts I and II.


«Bardwell’s Pyro-Acetone Developer.»—

 Water                                      4 ounces
 Sulphite of sodium (saturated solution)    4 drachms
 Acetone                                    2 drachms
 Pyro                                      10 grams


«Hauff’s Adurol Developer.»—One solution.

 Water                          10 ounces
 Sulphide of sodium, crystals    4 ounces
 Carbonate of potassium          3 ounces
 Adurol                        1⁠/⁠2 ounce

For studio work and snap shots take 1 part with 3 parts water.

For time exposures out-door take 1 part with 5 parts water.


«Glycin Developer.»—

 I.—Hot water                          10 ounces
     Sulphite of sodium, crystals    1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces
     Carbonate of sodium               1⁠/⁠4 ounce
     Glycin                            1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Add to water in order given

 II.—Water                     10 ounces
      Carbonate of potash    1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces

For normal exposure take I, 1 ounce; II, 2 ounces; water, 1 ounce.


«Imogen Developer.»—

 I.—Hot water                         9 ounces
     Sulphite of sodium, crystals    385 grains
     Imogen                          123 grains

 II.—Hot water                    4 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Carbonate of sodium              2 ounces

For use take 2 ounces of I and 1 ounce of II.


«Diogen Developer.»—

 Water                         9 ounces
 Sulphite of sodium        3 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Diogen                        7 drachms
 Carbonate of potassium    4 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

For normal exposure take 4 drachms of this solution; dilute with 2
ounces, 1 drachm of water, and add 2 drops bromide of potassium, 10 per
cent solution.


«Ortol Developer.»—Formula by Pentlarge.

 I.—Water                          1 ounce
     Metabisulphite of potassium    4 grains
     Ortol                          8 grains

 II.—Water                         1 ounce
      Sulphite of sodium           48 grains
      Carbonate of potassium       16 grains
      Carbonate of sodium          32 grains

For use take equal parts I and II, and an equal bulk of water.


«Metacarbol Developer.»—

 Metacarbol                     25 grains
 Sulphite of soda, crystals    100 grains
 Caustic soda                   50 grains
 Water                          10 ounces

Dissolve the metacarbol in water, then add the sulphite, and when
dissolved add the caustic soda and filter.


«DEVELOPING POWDERS.»

                             By weight
 I.—Pyrogallol              0.3 parts
     Sodium bisulphite       1.2 parts
     Sodium carbonate        1.2 parts

 II.—Eikonogen              1.1 parts
      Sodium sulphite        2.4 parts
      Potassium carbonate    1.5 parts

 III.—Hydroquinone          0.6 parts
       Sodium sulphite       3.4 parts
       Potassium bromide     0.3 parts
       Sodium carbonate      7.0 parts

These three formulas each yield one powder. The powders should be put
up in oiled paper, and carefully inclosed, besides, in a wrapper of
black paper. For use, one powder is dissolved in about 60 parts of
distilled water.


«DEVELOPING PAPERS.»

Light.—The paper can be safely handled 8 feet from the source of light,
{528} which may be Welsbach gas light, covered with post-office paper,
incandescent light, ordinary gas light, kerosene light, or reduced
daylight, the latter produced by covering a window with one or more
thicknesses of orange post-office paper, as necessitated by strength of
light.

Expose by holding the printing frame close to gas, lamp, or
incandescent light, or to subdued daylight. Artificial light is
recommended in preference to daylight because of uniformity, and it
being in consequence easier to judge the proper length of time to
expose.

Exposure.—The amount of exposure required varies with the strength of
the light; it takes about the same time with an ordinary gas burner
and an incandescent light; a Welsbach gas light requires only about
one-half as much time as the ordinary gas burner, and a kerosene
light of ordinary size about three times as much as an ordinary gas
burner. If daylight is to be used the window should be covered with
post-office paper, in which a sub-window about 1 foot square for making
the exposure may be made. Cover this window first with a piece of white
tissue paper, then with a piece of black cloth or post-office paper to
exclude the white light when not wanted. Make exposure according to
strength of light at from 1 to 2 feet away from the tissue paper. Keep
the printing frame when artificial light is used constantly in motion
during exposure.

Timing the Exposure.—The time necessary for exposing is regulated
by density of negative and strength of light. The further away the
negative is from the source of light at the time of exposure the
weaker the light; hence, in order to secure uniformity in exposure it
is desirable always to make the exposure at a given distance from the
light used. With a negative of medium density exposed 1 foot from an
ordinary gas burner, from 1 to 10 minutes’ exposure is required.

A test to ascertain the length of exposure should be made. Once the
proper amount of exposure is ascertained with a given light, the amount
of exposure required can be easily approximated by making subsequent
exposures at the same distance from the same light; the only difference
that it would then be necessary to make would be to allow for variation
in density of different negatives.

Fixing.—Allow the prints to remain in the fixing solution 10 to 20
minutes, when they should be removed to a tray containing clear water.

Washing.—Wash 1 hour in running water, or in 10 or 12 changes of clear
water, allowing prints to soak 2 to 3 minutes in each change.


«Pyrocatechin Formula.»—

 _Solution A_

 Pyrocatechin                     2   parts
 Sulphite of soda, crystals       2.5 parts
 Water                          100   parts

 _Solution B_

 Carbonate of soda                 10 parts
 Water                            100 parts

Before using mix 20 parts of Solution A, and 1⁠/⁠2 part of Solution B.


«Metol Quinol.»—

 Water                                                  10 ounces
 Metol                                                   7 grains
 Sodium sulphite, crystals, pure                       1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Hydroquinone                                           30 grains
 Sodium carbonate, dessicated (or 400 grains of
   crystallized carbonate).                            200 grains
 Ten per cent bromide of potassium solution, about      10 drops


«Amidol Formula.»—

 Water                                                  4 ounces
 Sodium sulphite, crystals, pure                      200 grains
 Amidol, about                                         20 grains
 Ten per cent bromide of potassium solution, about      5 drops

If the blacks are greenish, add more amidol; if whites are grayish, add
more bromide of potassium.


«Hypo-Acid Fixing Bath.»—

 Hypo     16     ounces
 Water    64     ounces

Then add the following hardening solution:

 Water                                                        5 ounces
 Sodium sulphite, crystals                                  1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Commercial acetic acid (containing 25 per cent pure acid)    3 ounces
 Powdered alum                                              1⁠/⁠2 ounce


«Amidol Developer.»—

 Amidol                  2 grains
 Sodium sulphite        30 grains
 Potassium bromide       1 grain
 Water                   1 ounce

{529}

With a fairly correct exposure this will be found to produce prints of
a rich black tone, and of good quality. The whole secret of successful
bromide printing lies in correctness of exposure. It is generally taken
for granted that any poor, flat negative is good enough to yield a
bromide print, but this is not so. A negative of good printing quality
on printing-out paper will also yield a good print on bromide paper,
but considerable care and skill are necessary to obtain a good result
from a poor negative. The above developer will not keep in solution,
and should be freshly prepared as required. The same formula will also
be found useful for the development of lantern plates, but will only
yield black-toned slides.


«PLATINUM PAPERS:»


«General Instructions.»—To secure the most brilliant results the
sensitized paper, before, during, and after its exposure to light, must
be kept as dry as possible.

The paper is exposed to daylight, in the printing frame, for about
one-third of the time necessary for ordinary silver paper.

The print is then immersed in the developer for about 30 seconds, then
cleared in 3 acid baths containing 1 part of muriatic acid C. P. to 60
parts of water, washed for a short time in running water, the whole
operation of printing, clearing, and washing being complete in about
half an hour.

As a general rule all parts of the picture except the highest lights
should be visible when the exposure is complete.

When examining the prints in the printing frames, care should be taken
not to expose them unduly to light; for the degradation of the whites
of the paper due to slight action of light is not visible until after
development.


«Ansco Platinum Paper.»—Print until a trace of the detail _desired_ is
slightly visible in the high lights.

_Development._—Best results are obtained with the temperature of the
developer from 60° to 80° F. Immerse the print in the developer with a
quick sweeping motion to prevent air bells. Develop in artificial or
weak daylight. The development of a print from a normal negative will
require 40 seconds or more.

Formula for Developer.—

 Water                             50 ounces
 Neutral oxalate of potash          8 ounces
 Potassium phosphate (monobasic)    1 ounce

Care must be used to obtain the monobasic potassium phosphate.

Immediately after prints are developed, place them face down in the
first acid bath, composed of

 Muriatic acid, C. P.      1 ounce
 Water                    60 ounces

After remaining in this bath for a period of about 5 minutes, transfer
to the second acid bath of the same strength. The prints should pass
through at least 3 and preferably 4 acid baths, to remove all traces of
iron that may remain in the pores of the paper.

When thoroughly cleared, the print should be washed from 10 to 20
minutes in running water. If running water is not available, several
changes of water in the tray will be necessary.


«“Water Tone” Platinum Paper.»—“Water tone” platinum paper is very
easily affected by moisture; it will, therefore, be noticed when
printing in warm, damp weather that the print will show quite a
tendency to print out black in the deep shadows. This must not be taken
into consideration, as the same amount of exposure is necessary as in
dry days.

Print by direct light (sunlight preferred) until the shadows are
clearly outlined in a deep canary color. At this stage the same detail
will be observed in the half tones that the finished print will show.
For developing, use plain water, heated to 120° F. (which will be as
hot as they can bear).

The development will be practically instantaneous, and care must be
taken to avoid air bubbles forming upon the surface of the prints.
Place prints, after developing, directly into a clearing bath of
muriatic acid, 1 drachm to 12 ounces of water, and let them remain in
this bath about 10 minutes, when they are ready for the final washing
of 15 minutes in running water, or 5 changes of about 3 minutes each.
Lay out between blotters to dry, and mount by attaching the corners.


«Bradley Platinum Paper.»—Developer.

A.—For black tones:

 Neutral oxalate potassium                8 ounces
 Potassium phosphate                      1 ounce
 Water                                   30 ounces

B.—For sepia tones:

 Of above mixed solution                  8 ounces
 Saturated bichloride mercury solution    1 ounce
 Citrate soda                             5 grains

{530}

If deep red tones are desired add to B

 Nitrate uranium         10 grains

Then filter and use as a developer.


«W. & C. Platinotype.»—Development.—The whole contents of the box of
the W. & C. developing salts must be dissolved at one time, as the
salts are mixed; and if this be not done, too large a proportion of one
of the ingredients may be used.

Development should be conducted in a feeble white light, similar to
that used when cutting up the paper, or by gas light.

It may take place immediately after the print is exposed, or at the end
of the day’s printing.

Develop by floating the print, exposed side downwards, on the
developing solution.

Development may take 30 seconds or more.

During the hot summer days it is not advisable to unduly delay the
development of exposed prints. If possible develop within 1 hour after
printing.

Either porcelain or agate—preferably porcelain—dishes are necessary to
hold the developing solution.

To clear the developed prints: These must be washed in a series of
baths (not less than three) of a weak solution of muriatic acid C. P.
This solution is made by mixing 1 part of acid in 60 parts of water.

As soon as the print has been removed from the developing dish it must
be immersed face downwards in the first bath of this acid, contained in
a porcelain dish, in which it should remain about 5 minutes; meanwhile
other prints follow until all are developed. The prints must then be
removed to a second acid bath for about 10 minutes; afterwards to the
third bath for about 15 minutes. While the prints remain in these acid
baths they should be moved so that the solution has free access to
their surfaces, but care should be taken not to abrade them by undue
friction.

Pure muriatic acid must be used.

If commercial muriatic acid be used, the prints will be discolored and
turn yellow.

For each batch of prints fresh acid baths must be used.

After the prints have passed through the acid baths they should be
well washed in three changes of water during about a half hour. It is
advisable to add a pinch of washing soda to the second washing water
to neutralize any acid remaining in the print. Do not use water that
contains iron, as it tends to turn paper yellow. Soft water is the best
for this purpose.


«W. & C. Sepia Paper.»—With a few exceptions the method of carrying
out the operations is the same as for the “black” kinds of platinotype
paper. The following points should be attended to:

The “sepia” paper is more easily affected by faint light, and,
therefore, increased care must be taken when printing.

To develop, add to each ounce of the developing solution 1 1⁠/⁠2
drachms of sepia solution supplied for this purpose, and proceed as
described for black paper.

The solution must be heated to a temperature of 150° to 160° F., to
obtain the greatest amount of brilliance and the warmest color, but
very good results can be obtained by using a cooler developer.


«Variations of the Sepia Developer.»—Primarily the object of the
sepia solution in the developer is to increase the brightness of the
prints, as, for example, when the negative is thin and flat, or dense
and flat, the addition of the sepia solution to the developer clears
up, to some extent, the flatness of the print by taking out traces
of the finer detail in the higher lights, which is often a decided
improvement. If, however, the negative be dense, with clear shadows,
the sepia solution may be discarded altogether. This will prevent the
loss of any of the finer detail and greatly reduce harshness in the
prints. Sometimes a half, or even a quarter, of the quantity of the
sepia solution recommended as an addition to the developer will be
sufficient, depending altogether upon the strength of the negatives.
Prints developed without the solution have less of the sepia quality
but are very agreeable nevertheless. It should be remembered that the
sepia paper is totally different from the black, and will develop sepia
tones on a developer to which no sepia solution has been added. The
sepia solution clears up and brightens the flat, muddy (to some extent,
not totally) effects from the thinner class of negatives.


«The Glycerine Process.»—The “glycerine process,” or the process of
developing platinotype prints by application of the developing agent
with the brush, is perhaps one of the most interesting and fascinating
of photographic processes, owing to its far-reaching possibilities.
{531}

By this method of developing platinotype paper, many negatives which
have been discarded on account of the dim, flat, non-contrasty results
which they yield, in the hands of one possessing a little artistic
skill, produce snappy, animated pictures. On the other hand, from the
sharp and hard negative, soft, sketchy effects may be secured.

There are required for this process: Some glass jars; some soft
brushes, varying from the fine spotter and the Japanese brush to the
1 1⁠/⁠2-inch duster, and several pieces of special blotting paper.

Manipulation.—Print the paper a trifle deeper than for the ordinary
method of developing. Place the print face up on a piece of clean
glass (should the print curl so that it is unmanageable, moisten the
glass with glycerine), and, with the broad camel’s-hair brush, thinly
coat the entire print with pure glycerine, blotting same off in 3
or 4 seconds; then recoat more thickly such portions as are desired
especially restrained, or the details partly or entirely eliminated.
Now brush or paint such portion of the print as is first desired with
solution of 1 part glycerine and 4 parts normal developer, blotting
the portion being developed from time to time to avoid developing too
far. Full strength developer (without glycerine) is employed where a
pronounced or deep shade is wanted.

When any part of the print has reached the full development desired,
blot that portion carefully with the blotter and coat with pure
glycerine.

A brown effect may be obtained by using saturated solution of mercury
in the developer (1 part mercury to 8 parts developer). By the use of
diluted mercury the “flesh tones” are produced in portraits, etc.

When print has reached complete development, place in hydrochloric
(muriatic) acid and wash as usual.


«Eastman’s Sepia Paper.»—This paper is about 3 times as rapid as blue
paper. It should be under rather than over printed, and is developed
by washing in plain water. After 2 or 3 changes of water fix 5 minutes
in a solution of hypo (1 1⁠/⁠2 grains to the ounce of water), and
afterwards wash thoroughly.

Short fixing gives red tones. Longer fixing produces a brown tone.


«Development of Platinum Prints.»—In the development of platinotype
prints by the hot bath process, distinctly warmer tones are obtained
by using a bath which has been several times heated, colder blacks
resulting from the use of a freshly prepared solution, and colder tones
still if the developing solution be faintly acidified. The repeated
heating of the solution of the neutral salt apparently has the effect
of rendering the bath slightly alkaline by the conversion of a minute
proportion of the oxalate into potassium carbonate. If this be the
case, it allows a little latitude in choice of tone which may be
useful. Some photographers recommend the use of potassium phosphate
with the neutral oxalate, stating that the solution should be rendered
acid by the addition of a small proportion of oxalic acid. When the
potassium phosphate was first recommended for this purpose, probably
the acid salt, KH_〈2〉PO_〈4〉, was intended, by the use of which cold
steely black tones were obtained. The use of the oxalic acid with the
ordinary phosphate K_〈2〉HPO_〈4〉, is probably intended to produce the
same result.


«THE CARBON PROCESS.»

The paper used is coated on one surface with a mixture of gelatin and
some pigment (the color of which depends upon the color the required
print is to be), and then allowed to dry. When required for printing it
is sensitized by floating upon a solution of bichromate of potassium,
and then again drying, in the dark this time. The process is based upon
the action of light upon this film of chromatized gelatin; wherever the
light reaches, the gelatin is rendered insoluble, even in hot water.

The paper is exposed in the usual way. But as the appearance of the
paper before and after printing is precisely the same, it is impossible
to tell when it is printed by examining the print. This is usually
accomplished by exposing a piece of gelatino-chloride paper under a
negative of about the same density, and placing it alongside of the
carbon print. When the gelatino-chloride paper is printed, the carbon
will be finished. The paper is then removed from the printing frame and
immersed in cold water, which removes a great deal of the bichromate of
potassium, and also makes the print lie out flat. It is then floated
on to what is known as a support, and pressed firmly upon it, face
downwards, and allowed to remain for 5 or 10 minutes. Then the support,
together with the print, is placed in hot water for a short time,
and when the gelatin commences to ooze out at the edges the print is
removed by stripping from the support, this process leaving the greater
quantity of the gelatin and pigment {532} upon the support. The gelatin
and pigment are then treated with hot water by running the hot water
over the face of the support by means of a sponge. This removes the
soluble gelatin, and leaves the gelatin, together with the pigment it
contains, which was acted upon by light; this then constitutes the
picture.

The reason for transferring the gelatin film is quite apparent, since
the greater portion of the unacted-upon gelatin will be at the back of
the film, and in order to get at it to remove it, it is necessary to
transfer it to a support. In this condition the print can be dried and
mounted, but on consideration it will be seen that the picture is in
a reversed position, that is to say, that the right-hand side of the
original has become the left, and vice versa.

If the picture be finished in this condition, it is said to have been
done by the single transfer method. In some instances this reversal
would be of no consequence, such as some portraits, but with views
which are known this would never do. In order to remedy this state
of affairs, the picture is transferred once more, by pressing, while
wet, upon another support, and allowed to dry upon it; when separated,
the picture remains upon the latter support, and is in its right
position. This is what is known as the double transfer method. When
the double transfer method is used, the first support consists of a
specially prepared support, which has been waxed in order to prevent
the pictures from adhering permanently to it; this is then known as a
temporary support. The paper upon which the print is finally received
is prepared with a coating of gelatin, and is known as the final
support.


«LANTERN SLIDES.»

The making of a good slide begins with the making of the negative, the
operations in both cases being closely allied, and he who has mastered
the first, which is the corner stone to all successful results in any
branch of photography, may well be expected to be able to make a good
lantern slide. A slide is judged not by what it appears to be when held
in the hand, but by its appearance when magnified two to five thousand
times on the screen, where a small defect in the slide will show up
as a gross fault. Patience and cleanliness are absolutely necessary.
The greatest caution should be observed to keep the lantern plates
free from dust, both before and after exposure and development, for
small pinholes and dust spots, hardly noticeable on the slide, assume
huge proportions on the screen and detract materially from the slide’s
beauty.

The high lights in a slide should, in rare cases only, be represented
by clear glass, and the shadows should always be transparent, even
in the deepest part. The balance between these extremes should be a
delicate gradation of tone from one to the other. The contrast between
the strongest high light and the deepest shadow should be enough to
give brilliancy without hardness and delicacy or softness without
being flat. This is controlled also, to some extent, by the subject
summer sunshine requiring a more vigorous rendering than hazy autumn
effects, and herein each individual must decide for himself what is
most necessary to give the correct portrayal of the subject. It is a
good idea to procure a slide, as near technically perfect as possible,
from some slide-making friend, or dealer, to use it as a standard, and
to make slide after slide from the same negative until a satisfactory
result is reached.

A black tone of good quality is usually satisfactory for most slides,
but it is very agreeable to see interspersed a variety of tone, and
beautiful slides can be made, where the subject warrants, in blue,
brown, purple, and even red and green, by varying the exposure and
development and by using gold or uranium toning baths and other
solutions for that purpose, the formulas and materials for which
are easily obtainable from the magazines and from stock dealers,
respectively.

It must be understood, however, that these toning solutions generally
act as intensifiers, and that if toning is contemplated, it should be
borne in mind at the time of developing the slide, so that it may not
finally appear too dense. Toning will improve otherwise weak slides,
but will not help under-exposed ones, as its tendency will be in
such case to increase the contrast, which in such slides is already
too great. Another method of getting a fine quality of slides is to
make rather strong exposures to over-develop, and then to reduce with
persulphate of ammonium.

The popular methods of making the exposure are: First, by contact
in the printing frame, just as prints are made on velox or other
developing paper, provided the subject on the negative is of the right
size for a lantern slide; and the other and better method is the camera
{533} method, by which the subject of any negative, large or small, or
any part thereof, can be reduced or enlarged, and thus brought to the
proper size desired for the slide. This is quite a knack, and should be
considered and studied by the slide maker very carefully.

Hard and inflexible rules cannot be laid down in this relation.
Portrait studies of bust or three-fourths figures or baby figures need
not be made for a larger opening than 1 1⁠/⁠2 by 2 inches, and often
appear to good advantage if made quite a bit smaller. Figure or group
compositions, with considerable background or accessories, may, of
course, have a larger opening to suit the particular circumstances.
Monuments, tall buildings, and the like should have the benefit of
the whole height of mat opening of 2 3⁠/⁠4 inches, and should be made
of a size to fill it out properly, providing, however, for sufficient
foreground and a proper sky line. Landscapes and marine views generally
can be made to fill out the full length of mat opening, which, however,
should not exceed 2 7⁠/⁠8 inches, and may be of any height to suit the
subject, up to 2 3⁠/⁠4 inches.

The subject should be well centered on the plate and the part intended
to be shown as the picture should be well within the size of the mat
opening decided upon, so that with a slight variation of the placing of
the mat no part of the picture will be cut off by the carrier in the
stereopticon. The horizon line in a landscape, and more particularly in
a marine view, should always be in proper position, either below or
above the center line of the slide, as may suit the subject, but should
never divide the picture in the middle and should not appear to be
running either up or down hill. And the vertical lines in the pictures
should not be leaning, but should run parallel with the side lines of
the mat; this refers especially to the vertical lines in architecture,
except, however, the Tower of Pisa and kindred subjects, which should
in every case be shown with their natural inclinations.

As to time of exposure, very little can be said. That varies with the
different makes of plates, with the quality of the light, and the
nature and density of each individual negative. Therefore every one
must be a judge unto himself and make as good a guess as he can for
the first trial from each negative and gauge further exposures from
the results thus obtained; but this much may be said, that a negative
strong in contrast should be given a long exposure, close to the light,
if artificial light is used, or in strong daylight, and developed with
a weak or very much diluted developer to make a soft slide with full
tone values. And a flat, weak negative will yield better results if
exposed farther from the light or to a weaker light, and developed by a
normal or more aggressive developer. Over exposure and under exposure
show the same results in slide plates as in negative plates, and the
treatment should be similar in both kinds of plates except that,
perhaps, in cases of under exposure of slide plates, the better plan
would be to cast them aside and make them over, as very little can be
done with them. For getting bright and clear effects it is now well
understood that better and more satisfactory results are obtained by
backing the slide plates as well as by backing negative plates. This is
accomplished by coating the back or glass side of the plate with the
following mixture:

 Gum arabic     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Caramel          1 ounce
 Burnt sienna     2 ounces
 Alcohol          2 ounces

Mix and apply with small sponge or wad of absorbent cotton.

It should coat thin and smooth and dry hard enough so it will not rub
off when handled. If the plates are put into a light-proof grooved
box as fast as backed, they can be used about half an hour after
being coated. Before developing, this backing should be removed; this
is best done by first wetting the film side of the plate under the
tap, which will prevent staining it, and then letting the water run
on the backing, and, with a little rubbing, it will disappear in a
few moments, when development may proceed. Other preparations for
this purpose, ready for use, may be found at the stock houses. The
mat should be carefully selected or cut of a size and shape to show
up the subject to best advantage, and should cover everything not
wanted in the picture. The opening should not exceed 2 3⁠/⁠4 x 2 7⁠/⁠8
inches in any case, and must not be ragged or fuzzy, but clean cut and
symmetrical. The lines of the opening of square mats should be parallel
with the outside lines of the plate. Oval, or round, or other variously
shaped mats, should be used sparingly, and in special cases only where
the nature of the subject will warrant their use.

Statuary shows up to best advantage when the background is blocked out.
{534} This is easily done with a small camel’s-hair artist’s brush and
opaque or india ink, in a retouching frame, a good eye and a steady
hand being the only additional requirements. This treatment may also be
applied to some flower studies and other botanical subjects.

Binding may be performed with the aid of a stationer’s spring clamp,
such as is used for holding papers together, and can be purchased for
10 cents. Cut the binding strips the length of the sides and ends of
the slide, and gum them on separately, rubbing them firmly in contact
with the glass with a piece of cloth or an old handkerchief, which
might be kept handy for that purpose, so that the binding may not
loosen or peel off after the slides are handled but half a dozen times.
Before storing the slides away for future use they should be properly
labeled and named. The name label should be affixed on the right end
of the face of the slide as you look at it in its proper position, and
should contain the maker’s name and the title of the slide. The thumb
label should be affixed to the lower left-hand corner of the face of
the slide, and may show the number of the slide.


«HOW TO UTILIZE WASTE MATERIAL.»

Undoubtedly spoiled negatives form the greatest waste. The uses to
which a ruined negative may be put are manifold. Cut down to 3 1⁠/⁠4
inches square and the films cleaned off, they make excellent cover
glasses for lantern slides. Another use for them in the same popular
branch of photography is the following: If, during development, you see
that your negative is spoiled through uneven density, over exposure, or
what not, expose it to the light and allow it to blacken all over. Now
with sealing wax fasten a needle to a penholder, and by means of this
little tool one can easily manufacture diagram slides from the darkened
film (white lines on black ground).

Take a spoiled negative, dissolve out all the silver with a solution of
potassium ferricyanide and hypo. Rinse, dry, rub with sandpaper, and
you will have a splendid substitute for ground glass.

Remove the silver in a similar manner from another negative, but
this time wash thoroughly. Squeegee down on this a print, and an
opaline will be your reward. From such an opaline, by cementing on a
few more glasses, a tasteful letter weight may soon be made. Another
way in which very thin negatives may be used is this: Bleach them
in bichloride of mercury, back them with black paper, and positives
will result. Old negatives also make good trimming boards, the film
preventing a rapid blunting of the knife, and they may be successfully
used as mounting tables. Clean off the films, polish with French chalk,
and squeegee your prints thereto. When dry they may be removed and will
have a fine enameled, if hardly artistic, appearance. Many other uses
for them may also be found if the amateur is at all ingenious.

Users of pyro, instead of throwing the old developer away, should keep
some of it and allow it to oxidize. A thin negative, if immersed in
this for a few minutes, will be stained a deep yellow all over, and its
printing quality will be much improved.

Old hypo baths should be saved, and, when a sufficient quantity of
silver is thought to be in solution, reduced to recover the metal.

Printing paper of any sort is another great source of waste, especially
to the inexperienced photographer. Prints are too dark or not dark
enough successfully to undergo the subsequent operations. Spoiled
material of this kind, however, is not without its uses in photography.
Those who swear by the “combined bath,” will find that scraps of
printing-out paper, or any silver paper, are necessary to start the
toning action.

Spoiled mat surface, printing-out paper, bromide paper, or platinotype
should be allowed to blacken all over. Here we have a dead-black
surface useful for many purposes. A leak in the bellows when out in
the field may be repaired temporarily by moistening a piece of mat
printing-out paper and sticking it on the leak; the gelatin will
cause it to adhere. These papers may also be used to back plates,
platinotypes, of course, requiring some adhesive mixture to make them
stick.

In every photographer’s possession there will be found a small
percentage of stained prints. Instead of throwing these away, they may
often be turned to good account in the following manner: Take a large
piece of cardboard, some mountant, and the prints. Now proceed to mount
them tastefully so that the corners of some overlap, arranging in every
case to hide the stain. If you have gone properly to work, you will
have an artistic mosaic. Now wash round with india ink, or paint a
border of leaves, and the whole thing will form a very neat “tit bit.”

Keep the stiff bits of cardboard {535} between which printing paper
is packed. They are useful in many ways—from opaque cards in the dark
slide to partitions between negatives in the storing boxes.

In reclaiming old gold solutions, all liquids containing gold,
with the exception of baths of which cyanide forms a part, must be
strongly acidulated with chlorhydric or sulphuric acid, if they are
not already acid in their nature. They are afterwards diluted with
a large proportion of ordinary water, and a solution of sulphate of
ferroprotoxide (green vitriol) is poured in in excess. It is recognized
that the filtered liquid no longer contains gold when the addition of a
new quantity of ferric sulphate does not occasion any cloudiness. Gold
precipitated in the form of a reddish or blackish powder is collected
on a filter and dried in an oven with weights equal to its own of
borax, saltpeter, and carbonate of potash. The mass is afterwards
introduced gradually into a fireproof crucible and carried to a
white-red heat in a furnace. When all the matter has been introduced, a
stronger blast is given by closing the furnace, so that all the metal
collects at the bottom of the crucible. On cooling, a gold ingot,
chemically pure, will be obtained. This mode of reduction is also
suitable for impure chloride of gold, and for the removal of gilding,
but not for solutions containing cyanides, which never give up all the
gold they contain; the best means of treating the latter consists in
evaporating them to dryness in a cast-iron boiler, and in calcining
the residue in an earthen crucible at the white red. A small quantity
of borax or saltpeter may be added for facilitating the fusion, but it
is not generally necessary. The gold separated collects at the bottom
of the crucible. It is red, if saltpeter is employed; and green, if it
is borax.

To reclaim silver place the old films, plates, paper, etc., in a
porcelain dish, so arranged that they will burn readily. To facilitate
combustion, a little kerosene or denatured alcohol poured over the
contents will be found serviceable.

Before blowing off the burnt paper, place the residue in an agateware
dish, the bottom of which is covered with a solution of saltpeter and
water. Place the whole on the fire, and heat it until the silver is
separated as a nitrate.

The solution being complete, add to the mass a little water and
hydrochloric acid, when in a short time the serviceable silver chloride
will be obtained. If the films should not give up their silver as
freely as the plates, then add a little more hydrochloric acid or work
them up separately. Silver reclaimed in this way is eminently suitable
for silver-plating all sorts of objects.


«FIXING AND CLEARING BATHS:»


«The Acid Fixing and Clearing Bath.»—Add 2 ounces of S. P. C. clarifier
(acid bisulphite of sodium) solution to 1 quart of hypo solution 1 in 5.


«Combined Alum and Hypo Bath.»—Add saturated solution of sulphite of
sodium to saturated solution of alum till the white precipitate formed
remains undissolved, and when the odor of sulphurous acid becomes
perceptible.

Mix this solution with an equal bulk of freshly prepared hypo solution
1 in 5, and filter.

This bath will remain clear.


«Clearing Solution» (Edward’s).—

 Alum                          1 ounce avoirdupois
 Citric acid                   1 ounce avoirdupois
 Sulphate of iron, crystals    3 ounces avoirdupois
 Water                         1 imperial pint

This should be freshly mixed.


«Clearing Solution.»—

 Saturated solution of alum    20 ounces
 Hydrochloric acid              1 ounce

Immerse negative after fixing and washing. Wash well after removal.


«Reducer for Gelatin Dry-Plate Negatives.»—

 I.—Saturated solution of ferricyanide of potassium    1 part
     Hyposulphite of sodium solution (1 in 10)         10 parts

 II.—Perchloride of iron                              30 grains
      Citric acid                                      60 grains
      Water                                             1 pint


«Belitski’s Acid Ferric-Oxalate Reducer for Gelatin Plates.»—

 Water                                             7 ounces
 Potassium ferric oxalate                      2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 Crystallized neutral sulphite of sodium           2 drachms
 Powdered oxalic acid, from                 30 to 45 grains
 Hyposulphite of soda                          1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

The solution must be made in this order, filtered, and be kept in
tightly closed bottles; and as under the influence of light the ferric
salt is reduced to {536} ferrous, the preparation must be kept in
subdued light, in non-actinic glass bottles.


«Orthochromatic Dry Plates—Erythrosine Bath (Mallman and
Scolik).»—Preliminary bath:

 Water              200 cubic centimeters
 Stronger ammonia     2 cubic centimeters

Soak a plate for 2 minutes.

Color bath:

 Erythrosine solution (1 in 1,000)    25 cubic centimeters
 Stronger ammonia (0.900)              4 cubic centimeters
 Water                               175 cubic centimeters

The plate should not remain longer in the bath than 1 1⁠/⁠4 minutes.


«PAPER-SENSITIZING PROCESSES:»


«Blueprint Paper.»—I.—The ordinary blue photographic print in which
white lines appear on a blue ground may be made on paper prepared as
follows:

 A.—Potassium ferricyanide   10 drachms
     Distilled water           4 ounces

 B.—Iron ammonia citrate     15 drachms
     Distilled water           4 ounces

Mix when wanted for use, filter, and apply to the surface of the paper.

With this mixture no developer is required. The paper after exposure is
simply washed in water to remove the unaltered iron salts. The print is
improved by immersion in dilute hydrochloric acid, after which it must
be again well washed in water.

II.—The following process, credited to Captain Abney, yields a
photographic paper giving blue lines on a white ground:

 Common salt            3 ounces
 Ferric chloride        8 ounces
 Tartaric acid      3 1⁠/⁠4 ounces
 Acacia                25 ounces
 Water                100 ounces

Dissolve the acacia in half the water and dissolve the other
ingredients in the other half; then mix.

The liquid is applied with a brush to strongly sized and well rolled
paper in a subdued light. The coating should be as even as possible.
The paper should be dried rapidly to prevent the solution sinking into
its pores. When dry, the paper is ready for exposure.

In sunlight, 1 or 2 minutes is generally sufficient to give an image;
while in a dull light as much as an hour is necessary.

To develop the print, it is floated immediately after leaving the
printing frame upon a saturated solution of potassium ferrocyanide.
None of the developing solution should be allowed to reach the back.
The development is usually complete in less than a minute. The paper
may be lifted off the solution when the face is wetted, the development
proceeding with that which adheres to the print.

When the development is complete, the print is floated on clean water,
and after 2 or 3 minutes is placed in a bath, made as follows:

 Sulphuric acid         3 ounces
 Hydrochloric acid      8 ounces
 Water                100 ounces

In about 10 minutes the acid will have removed all iron salts not
turned into the blue compound. It is next thoroughly washed and dried.
Blue spots may be removed by a 4 per cent solution of caustic potash.

The back of the tracing must be placed in contact with the sensitive
surface.

III.—Dissolve 3 3⁠/⁠4 ounces of ammonia citrate of iron in 18 ounces
of water, and put in a bottle. Then dissolve 2 5⁠/⁠8 ounces of red
prussiate of potash in 18 ounces of water, and put in another bottle.
When ready to prepare the paper, have the sheets piled one on top of
the other, coating but one at a time. Darken the room, and light a ruby
lamp. Now, mix thoroughly equal parts of both solutions and apply the
mixture with a sponge in long parallel sweeps, keeping the application
as even as possible. Hang the paper in the dark room to dry and keep
it dark until used. Any of the mixture left from sensitizing the paper
should be thrown away, as it deteriorates rapidly.

Often, in making blueprints by sunlight, the exposure is too long, and
when the frame is opened the white lines of the print are faint or
obscure. Usually these prints are relegated to the waste basket; but
if, after being washed as usual, they are sponged with a weak solution
of chloride of iron, their reclamation is almost certain. When the
lines reappear, the print should be thoroughly rinsed in clear water.

Often a drawing, from which prints have already been made, requires
changing. The blueprints then on hand are worthless, requiring more
time to correct {537} than it would take to make a new print. An
economical way of using the worthless prints is to cancel the drawing
already thereon, sensitize the reverse side, and use the paper again.


«How to Make Picture Postal Cards and Photographic Letter
Heads.»—I.—Well-sized paper is employed. If the sizing should be
insufficient, resizing can be done with a 10 per cent gelatin solution,
with a 2 per cent arrowroot paste, or with a 50 per cent decoction of
carrageen. This size is applied on the crude paper with a brush and
allowed to dry. The well-sized or resized papers are superior and the
picture becomes stronger on them than on insufficiently sized paper.
Coat this paper uniformly with a solution of 154 grains of ferric
oxalate in 3 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces of distilled water, using a brush, and
allow to dry. Next, apply the solution of 15 1⁠/⁠2 grains of silver
nitrate in 3 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces of water with a second brush, and dry
again. Coating and drying must be conducted with ruby light or in the
dark.

The finished paper keeps several days. Print deep so as to obtain a
strong picture and develop in the following bath:

 Distilled water               3 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces
 Potassium oxalate (neutral)     340 grains
 Oxalic acid                       4 grains

After developing the well-washed prints, fix them preferably in the
following bath:

 Distilled water                   3 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces
 Sodium thiosulphate                  75 grains
 Gold chloride solution (1 in 100)    80 minims

Any other good bath may be employed.

II.—Starch is dissolved in water and the solution is boiled until it
forms a thin paste. Carmine powder is added, and the mixture is rapidly
and assiduously stirred until it is homogeneous throughout. It is now
poured through muslin and spread by means of a suitable pencil on the
paper to be sensitized. Let dry, then float it, prepared side down on
a solution of potassium chromate, 30 parts in 520 parts of distilled
water, being careful to prevent any of the liquid from getting on the
back or reverse side. Dry in the dark room, and preserve in darkness.
When desired for use lay the negative on the face of the paper, and
expose to the full sunlight for 5 or 6 minutes (or about an hour in
diffused light). Washing in plenty of water completes the process.


«A Simple Emulsion for Mat or Printing-Out Paper.»—One of the very best
surfaces to work upon for coloring in water color is the carbon print.
Apart from its absolute permanency as a base, the surface possesses
the right tooth for the adhering of the pigment. It is just such a
surface as this that is required upon other prints than carbon, both
for finished mat surfaces and for the purposes of coloring. The way
to obtain this surface upon almost any kind of paper, and to print
it out so that the correct depth is ascertained on sight, will be
described. Some of the crayon drawing papers can be utilized, as well
as many other plain photographic papers that may meet the desires of
the photographer. If a glossy paper is desired, the emulsion should be
coated on a baryta-coated stock.

There will be required, in the first place, 2 half-gallon stoneware
crocks with lids. The best shape to employ is a crock with the sides
running straight, with no depressed ridge at the top. One of these
crocks is for the preparation of the emulsion, the other to receive the
emulsion when filtered. An enameled iron saucepan of about 2 gallons
capacity will be required in which to stand the crock for preparing the
emulsion, and also to remelt the emulsion after it has become set. The
following is the formula for the emulsion, which must be prepared and
mixed in the order given. Failure will be impossible if these details
are scrupulously attended to.

Having procured 2 half-gallon stoneware crocks with lids, clean them
out well with hot and cold water, and place into one of these the
following:

 Distilled water                10 ounces
 Gelatin (Heinrich’s, hard)      4 ounces

Cut the gelatin into shreds with a clean pair of scissors. Press these
shreds beneath the water with a clean strip of glass and allow to soak
for 1 hour. Now proceed to melt the water-soaked gelatin by placing the
crock into hot water in the enameled saucepan, the water standing about
half way up on the outside of the crock. Bring the water to boiling
point, and keep the gelatin occasionally stirred until it is completely
dissolved. Then remove the crock to allow the contents to cool down to
120° F. Now prepare the following, which can be done while the gelatin
is melting: {538}

 No. 1

 Rochelle salts                      90 grains
 Distilled water                      1 ounce

 No. 2

 Chloride of ammonia                 45 grains
 Distilled water                      1 ounce

 No. 3

 Nitrate of silver, 1 ounce and      75 grains
 Citric acid (crushed crystals)      95 grains
 Distilled water                     10 ounces

 No. 4

 Powdered white alum                 90 grains
 Distilled water (hot)                5 ounces

The latter solution may be made with boiling water. When these
solutions are prepared, pour into the hot gelatin solution No. 1,
stirring all the while with a clean glass rod. Then add No. 2. Rinse
the vessel with a little distilled water, and add to the gelatin.
Now, while stirring gradually, add No. 3, and lastly add No. 4, which
may be very hot. This will cause a decided change in the color of the
emulsion. Lastly add 2 ounces of pure alcohol (photographic). This must
be added very gradually with vigorous stirring, because if added too
quickly it will coagulate the gelatin and form insoluble lumps. The
emulsion must, of course, be mixed under a light not stronger than an
ordinary small gas-jet, or under a yellow light obtained by covering
the windows with yellow paper. The cover may now be placed upon the
crock, and the emulsion put aside for 2 or 3 days to ripen.

At the end of this time the contents of the crock, now formed into a
stiff emulsion, may be remelted in hot water by placing the crock in
the enameled saucepan over a gas stove. The emulsion may be broken
up by cutting it with a clean bone or hard-rubber paper cutter to
facilitate the melting. Stir the mixture occasionally until thoroughly
dissolved, and add the following as soon as the emulsion has reached a
temperature of about 150° F.:

 Distilled water      4 ounces
 Pure alcohol         1 ounce

The emulsion must now be filtered into the second crock. The filtering
is best accomplished in the following manner: Take an ordinary
plain-top kerosene lamp chimney, tie over the small end two thicknesses
of washed cheese cloth. Invert the chimney and insert a tuft of
absorbent cotton about the size of an ordinary egg. Press it carefully
down upon the cheese cloth. Fix the chimney in the ring of a retort
stand (or cut a hole about 3 inches in diameter in a wooden shelf), so
that the crock may stand conveniently beneath. In the chimney place a
strip of glass, resting upon the cotton, to prevent the cotton from
lifting. Now pour in the hot emulsion and allow the whole of it to
filter through the absorbent cotton. This accomplished, we are now
ready for coating the paper, which is best done in the following manner:

Cut the paper into strips or sheets, say 12 inches wide and the full
length of the sheet. This will be, let us suppose, 12 x 26 inches.
Attach, by means of the well-known photographic clips, a strip of wood
at each end of the paper upon the back. Three clips at each end will
be required. Having a number of sheets thus prepared, the emulsion
should be poured into a porcelain pan or tray, kept hot by standing
within another tray containing hot water. The emulsion tray being, say,
11 x 14 size, the paper now is easily coated by holding the clipped
ends in each hand, then holding the left end of the paper up, and the
right-hand end lowered so that the curve of the paper just touches the
emulsion. Then raise the right hand, at the same time lowering the left
hand at the same rate. Then lower the right hand, lifting the left.
Repeat this operation once more; then drain the excess of emulsion at
one corner of the tray, say, the left-hand corner. Just as soon as the
emulsion has drained, the coated sheet of paper may be hung up to
dry, by the hooks attached to the clips, upon a piece of copper wire
stretched from side to side of a spare closet or room that can be kept
darkened until the paper is dry. In this way coat as much paper as may
be required. When it is dry it may be rolled up tight or kept flat
under pressure until needed.

If any emulsion remains it may be kept in a cool place for 2 weeks, and
still be good for coating. Be sure to clean out all the vessels used
before the emulsion sets, otherwise this will present a difficult task,
since the emulsion sets into an almost insoluble condition.

This emulsion is so made that it does not require to be washed. If it
is washed it will become spoiled. It is easy to make and easy to use.
If it is desired that only small sheets of paper are to be coated, they
may be floated on the emulsion, but in this case the paper must be
damp, which is easily accomplished by {539} wetting a sheet of blotting
paper, then covering this with two dry sheets of blotting paper. Place
the sheets to be coated upon these, and place under pressure during the
night. Next day they will be in good condition for floating.

When the coated paper is dry it may be printed and toned just the same
as any other printing-out paper, with any toning bath, and fixed in
hyposulphite of soda as usual. Toning may be carried to a rich blue
black, or if not carried too far will remain a beautiful sepia color.
After well washing and drying, it will be observed that the surface
corresponds with that of a carbon print; if the paper has been of a
somewhat absorbent character, the surface will be entirely mat, and
will give an excellent tooth for coloring or finishing in sepia, black
and white, etc.


«How to Sensitize Photographic Printing Papers.»—I.—The older form of
paper is one in which the chemicals are held by albumen. Silver is said
to combine with this, forming an albuminate. Pictures printed on this
would be too sharp in their contrasts, and consequently “hard”; this is
avoided by introducing silver chloride.

To prepare this form of paper, beat 15 ounces of fresh egg albumen with
5 ounces of distilled water, dissolve in it 300 grains of ammonium
chloride, set aside for a time, and decant or filter. Suitable paper
is coated with this solution by floating, and then dried. The paper
is “sensitized” by floating it on a solution of silver nitrate in
distilled water, about 80 grains to the ounce, with a drop of acetic
acid. The paper is dried as before, and is then ready for printing. The
sensitizing must, of course, be done in the dark room.

The reaction between the ammonium chloride present in the albumen
coating produces a certain quantity of silver chloride, the purpose of
which is shown above. Of course, variations in the proportions of this
ingredient will give different degrees of softness to the picture.

II.—The bromide and chloride papers which are now popular consist of
the ordinary photographic paper sensitized by means of a thin coating
of bromide or chloride emulsion. In “Photographic Printing Methods,” by
the Rev. W. H. Burbank, the following method is given for bromide paper:

 A.—Gelatin (soft)         42 1⁠/⁠2 grains
     Bromide of potassium       26 grains
     Distilled water             1 ounce

 B.—Nitrate of silver      33 1⁠/⁠3 grains
     Distilled water             1 ounce

Dissolve the bromide first, then add the gelatin and dissolve by
gentle heat (95° to 100° F.). Bring the silver solution to the same
temperature, and add in a small stream to the gelatin solution,
stirring vigorously, of course in non-actinic light. Keep the mixed
emulsion at a temperature of 105° F. for half an hour, or according
to the degree of sensitiveness required, previously adding 1 drop of
nitric acid to every 5 ounces of the emulsion. Allow it to set, squeeze
through working canvas, and wash 2 hours in running water. In his own
practice he manages the washing easily enough by breaking the emulsion
up into an earthen jar filled with cold water, and placed in the dark
room sink. A tall lamp chimney standing in the jar immediately under
the tap conducts fresh water to the bottom of the jar, and keeps the
finely divided emulsion in constant motion; a piece of muslin, laid
over the top of the jar to prevent any of the emulsion running out,
completes this simple, inexpensive, but efficient washing apparatus.

Next melt the emulsion and add one-tenth of the whole volume of
glycerine and alcohol; the first to prevent troublesome cockling of the
paper as it dries, the second to prevent air bubbles and hasten drying.
Then filter.

With the emulsion the paper may be coated just as it comes from the
stock dealer, plain, or, better still, given a substratum of insoluble
gelatin, made as follows:

 Gelatin    1 3⁠/⁠5 grains
 Water          1 ounce

Dissolve and filter; then add 11 drops of a 1 in 50 filtered chrome
alum solution. The paper is to be floated for half a minute on this
solution, avoiding air bubbles, and then hung up to dry in a room free
from dust. The purpose of this substratum is to secure additional
brilliancy in the finished prints by keeping the emulsion isolated
from the surface of the paper. The paper should now be cut to the size
desired.

We do not know of these processes having been applied to postal
cards, but unless there is some substance in the sizing of the card
which would interfere, there is no reason why it should not be. Of
course, however, a novice will not get the results by using it that an
experienced hand would.


«Ferro-Prussiate Paper.»—The following aniline process of preparing
sensitive paper is employed by the Prussian and Hessian railway
administrations. The {540} ordinary paper on reels is used for the
purpose, and sensitized as follows:

Two hundred and fifty parts, by weight, of powdered potassium
bichromate are dissolved in water; the solution should be completely
saturated; 10 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid, 10 parts of alcohol
(962), and 30 parts of phosphoric acid, are added successively, and
the whole stirred together. The solution is sponged over the paper. It
is not necessary to have the room absolutely dark, or to work by a red
light, still the light should be obscured. The drying of the paper, in
the same place, takes about 10 minutes, after which the tracing to be
reproduced and the paper are placed in a frame, as usual, and exposed
to daylight. On a sunny day, an exposure of 35 seconds is enough; in
cloudy weather, 60 to 70 seconds; on a very dark day, as much as 5
minutes.

After exposure, the paper is fixed by suspending it for 20 minutes
upon a bar in a closed wooden box, on the bottom of which are laid
some sheets of blotting paper, sprinkled with 40 drops of benzine and
20 of crude aniline oil. The vapors given off will develop the design.
Several impressions may be taken at the same time.

For fixing, crude aniline oil is to be used (anilinum purum), not
refined (purissimum), for the reason that the former alone contains the
substances necessary for the operation. The reproduced design is placed
in water for a few minutes, and hung up to dry.


«Pigment Paper for Immediate Use.»—Pigment paper is usually sensitized
in the bichromate solution on the evening before it is desired for use.
If it is not then used it will spoil. By proceeding as follows the
paper may be used within a quarter of an hour after treating it in the
bichromate bath. Make a solution of

 Ammonium bichromate      75 grains
 Water                 3 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces
 Sodium carbonate         15 grains

Mix 0.35 ounces of this solution with 0.7 ounces alcohol, and with
a broad brush apply to surface of the pigment paper, as evenly as
possible. Dry this paper as quickly as possible in a pasteboard box of
suitable size, 15 minutes being usually long enough for the purpose. It
may then be used at once.


«Photographing on Silk.»—China silk is thoroughly and carefully washed
to free it from dressing, and then immersed in the following solution:

 Sodium chloride      4 parts
 Arrowroot            4 parts
 Acetic acid         15 parts
 Distilled water    100 parts

Dissolve the arrowroot in the water by warming gently, then add the
remaining ingredients. Dissolve 4 parts of tannin in 100 parts of
distilled water and mix the solutions. Let the silk remain in the bath
for 3 minutes, then hang it carefully on a cord stretched across the
room to dry. The sensitizing mixture is as follows:

 Silver nitrate      90 parts
 Distilled water    750 parts
 Nitric acid          1 part

Dissolve. On the surface of this solution the silk is to be floated
for 1 minute, then hung up till superficially dry, then pinned out
carefully on a flat board until completely dry. This must, of course,
be done in the dark room. Print, wash, and tone in the usual manner.


«TONING BATHS FOR PAPER.»

The chief complaints made against separate baths are (1) the
possibility of double tones, and (2) that the prints sometimes
turn yellow and remain so. Such obstacles may easily be removed by
exercising a little care. Double tones may be prevented by soaking the
prints in a 10 per cent solution of common salt before the preliminary
washing, and by not touching the films with the fingers; and the second
objection could not be raised provided fresh solution were used, with
no excess of sulphocyanide, if this be the bath adopted.

A very satisfactory solution may be made as follows:

 Sodium phosphate                20 grains
 Gold chloride                1 1⁠/⁠2 grains
 Distilled (or boiled) water     10 ounces

This tones very quickly and evenly, and the print will be, when fixed,
exactly the color it is when removed from the bath. Good chocolate
tints may be obtained, turning to purple gray on prolonged immersion.

Next to this, as regards ease of manipulation, the tungstate bath may
be placed, the following being a good formula:

 Sodium tungstate    40 grains
 Gold chloride        2 grains
 Water               12 ounces

The prints should be toned a little further than required, as they
change color, though only slightly, in the hypo. {541}

Provided that ordinary care be exercised, the sulphocyanide bath cannot
well be improved upon. The formulas given by the various makers for
their respective papers are all satisfactory, and differ very little.
One that always acts well is

 Ammonium sulphocyanide    28 grains
 Distilled water           16 ounces
 Gold chloride          2 1⁠/⁠2 grains

For those who care to try the various baths, and to compare their
results, here is a table showing the quantities of different agents
that may be used with sufficient water to make up 10 ounces:

 Gold chloride, 1 gr.
   to 1 oz. water     12 dr.   16 dr.   16 dr.   11 dr.   11 dr.   14 dr.
 Borax                60 gr.
 Sod. bicarbonate              10 gr.
 Sod. carbonate                         20 gr.
 Sod. phosphate                                  20 gr.
 Sod. tungstate                                           40 gr.
 Amm. sulphocyanide                                                17.5 gr.

We may take it that any of these substances reduce gold trichloride,
AuCl_〈3〉 to AuCl; this AuCl apparently acts as an electrolyte, from
which gold is deposited on the silver of the image, and at the same
time a small quantity of silver combines with the chlorine of the gold
chloride thus:

 AuCl + Ag = AgCl + Au

When toning has been completed, the prints are washed and placed in the
fixing bath, when the sodium thiosulphate present dissolves any silver
chloride that has not been affected by light.

Besides the well-known, every-day tones we see, which never outstep the
narrow range between chocolate brown and purple, a practically infinite
variety of color, from chalk red to black, may be obtained by a little
careful study of toning baths instead of regarding them as mere
unalterable machines. Most charming tints are produced with platinum
baths, a good formula being

 Strong nitric acid                5 drops
 Water                             4 ounces
 Chloro-platinite of potassium     1 grain

The final tone of a print cannot be judged from its appearance in the
bath, but some idea of it may be got by holding it up to the light
and looking through it. A short immersion gives various reds, while
prolonged toning gives soft grays.

Results very similar to platinotype may be obtained with the following
combined gold and platinum bath:

 _A._—Sodium acetate                   1 drachm
       Water                            4 ounces
       Gold chloride                    1 grain

 _B._—Chloro-platinite of potassium    1 grain
       Water                            4 ounces

Mix _A_ and _B_ and neutralize with nitric acid. (The solution will be
neutral when it just ceases to turn red litmus paper blue.)

Another toning agent is stannous chloride. Two or three grains of tin
foil are dissolved in strong hydrochloric acid with the aid of heat.
The whole is then made up to about 4 ounces with water.


«Toning Baths for Silver Bromide Paper.»—The picture, which has been
exposed at a distance of 1 1⁠/⁠2 feet for about 8 to 10 seconds, is
developed in the customary manner and fixed in an acid fixing bath
composed of

 Distilled water       1,000 cubic centimeters
 Hyposulphite of soda    100 grams
 Sodium sulphite          20 grams
 Sulphuric acid       4 to 5 grams

First dissolve the sodium sulphite, then add the sulphuric acid, and
finally the hyposulphite, and dissolve.

Blue tints are obtained by laying the picture in a bath composed as
follows:

 _A._—Uranium nitrate     2 grams
       Water             200 cubic centimeters

 _B._—Red prussiate
         of potash         2 grams
       Water             200 cubic centimeters

 _C._—Ammonia-iron-alum         10 grams
       Water                    100 cubic centimeters
       Pure hydrochloric acid    15 cubic centimeters

Immediately before the toning, mix

 Solution _A_         200 cubic centimeters
 Glacial acetic acid   20 cubic centimeters
 Solution _B_         200 cubic centimeters
 Solution _C_    30 to 40 cubic centimeters

Brown tints. Use the following solutions: {542}

 _A._—Uranium nitrate      12 grams
       Water             1,000 cubic centimeters

 _B._—Red prussiate of potash      9 grams
       Water                    1,000 cubic centimeters

And mix immediately before use

 Solution _A_            100 cubic centimeters
 Solution _B_            100 cubic centimeters
 Glacial acetic acid      10 cubic centimeters

Pictures toned in this bath are then laid into the following solution:

 Water                    1,500 cubic centimeters
 Pure hydrochloric acid       5 cubic centimeters
 Citric acid                 20 grams


«To Turn Blueprints Brown.»—A piece of caustic soda about the size of
a bean is dissolved in 5 ounces of water and the blueprint immersed in
it, on which it will take on an orange-yellow color. When the blue has
entirely left the print it should be washed thoroughly and immersed
in a bath composed of 8 ounces of water in which has been dissolved a
heaping teaspoonful of tannic acid. The prints in this bath will assume
a brown color that may be carried to almost any tone, after which they
must again be thoroughly washed and allowed to dry.


«COMBINED TONING AND FIXING BATHS.»

The combined toning and fixing bath consists essentially of five
parts—(1) water, the solvent; (2) a soluble salt of gold, such as gold
chloride; (3) the fixing agent, sodium thiosulphate; (4) a compound
which will readily combine with “nascent” sulphur—i. e., sulphur as it
is liberated—this is usually a soluble lead salt, such as the acetate
or nitrate, and (5) an auxiliary, such as a sulphocyanide.

The simplest bath was recommended by Dr. John Nicol, and is as follows:

 Sodium thiosulphate    3 ounces
 Distilled water       16 ounces

When dissolved, add

 Gold chloride      4 grains
 Distilled water    4 fluidrachms

A bath which contains lead is due to Dr. Vogel, whose name alone is
sufficient to warrant confidence in the formula:

 Sodium thiosulphate       7 ounces
 Ammonium sulphocyanide    1 ounce
 Lead acetate             67 grains
 Alum                      1 ounce
 Gold chloride            12 grains
 Distilled water          35 fluidounces

A bath which contains no lead is one which has produced excellent
results and is due to the experimental research of Dr. Liesegang. It is
as follows:

 Ammonium sulphocyanide   1⁠/⁠4 ounce
 Sodium chloride            1 ounce
 Alum                     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Sodium thiosulphate        4 ounces
 Distilled water           24 fluidounces

Allow this solution to stand for 24 hours, during which time the
precipitated sulphur sinks to the bottom of the vessel; decant or
filter, and add

 Gold chloride     8 grains
 Distilled water   1 fluidounce

It is curious that, with the two baths last described, the addition to
them of some old, exhausted solution makes them work all the better.


«ENLARGEMENTS.»

 ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
                     TIMES OF ENLARGEMENT AND REDUCTION
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────
  Focus │        │        │        │        │        │        │        │
   of   │ 1 inch │2 inches│3 inches│4 inches│5 inches│6 inches│7 inches│8 inches
  Lens. │        │        │        │        │        │        │        │
   In.  │        │        │        │        │        │        │        │
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────
   2    │    4   │  6     │  8     │ 10     │ 12     │ 14     │ 16     │ 18
        │    4   │  3     │  2 2⁠/⁠3 │  2 1⁠/⁠2 │  2 2⁠/⁠5 │  2 1⁠/⁠3 │  2 2⁠/⁠7 │  2 1⁠/⁠4
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────
  2 1⁠/⁠2 │    5   │  7 1⁠/⁠2 │ 10     │ 12 1⁠/⁠2 │ 15     │ 17 1⁠/⁠2 │ 20     │ 22 1⁠/⁠2
        │    5   │  3 3⁠/⁠4 │  3 1⁠/⁠3 │  3 1⁠/⁠8 │  3     │  2 9⁠/⁠10│  2 6⁠/⁠7 │  2 3⁠/⁠16
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────
  3     │    6   │  9     │ 12     │ 15     │ 18     │ 21     │ 24     │ 27
        │    6   │  4 1⁠/⁠2 │  4     │  3 3⁠/⁠4 │  3 3⁠/⁠5 │  3 1⁠/⁠2 │  3 3⁠/⁠7 │  3 3⁠/⁠8
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────
  3 1⁠/⁠2 │    7   │ 10 1⁠/⁠2 │ 14     │ 17 1⁠/⁠2 │ 21     │ 24 1⁠/⁠2 │ 28     │ 31 1⁠/⁠2
        │    7   │  5 1⁠/⁠4 │  4 2⁠/⁠3 │  4 3⁠/⁠4 │  4 1⁠/⁠5 │  4 1⁠/⁠12│  4     │  3 9⁠/⁠10
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────
  4     │    8   │ 12     │ 16     │ 20     │ 24     │ 28     │ 32     │ 36
        │    8   │  6     │  5 1⁠/⁠3 │  5     │  4 4⁠/⁠5 │  4 2⁠/⁠3 │  4 4⁠/⁠7 │  4 1⁠/⁠2
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────
  4 1⁠/⁠2 │    9   │ 13 1⁠/⁠2 │ 18     │ 22 1⁠/⁠2 │ 27     │ 31 1⁠/⁠2 │ 36     │ 40 1⁠/⁠2
        │    9   │  6 3⁠/⁠4 │  6     │  5 3⁠/⁠5 │  5 2⁠/⁠5 │  5 1⁠/⁠4 │  5 1⁠/⁠7 │  5 1⁠/⁠16
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────
  5     │   10   │ 15     │ 20     │ 25     │ 30     │ 35     │ 40     │ 45
        │   10   │  7 1⁠/⁠2 │  6 2⁠/⁠3 │  6 1⁠/⁠4 │  6     │  5 5⁠/⁠6 │  5 5⁠/⁠7 │  5 5⁠/⁠8
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────
  5 1⁠/⁠2 │   11   │ 16 1⁠/⁠2 │ 22     │ 27 1⁠/⁠2 │ 33     │ 38 1⁠/⁠2 │ 44     │ 49 1⁠/⁠2
        │   11   │  8 1⁠/⁠4 │  7 1⁠/⁠3 │  6 4⁠/⁠5 │  6 1⁠/⁠2 │  6 5⁠/⁠12│  6 2⁠/⁠7 │  6 3⁠/⁠16
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────
  6     │   12   │ 18     │ 24     │ 30     │ 36     │ 42     │ 48     │ 54
        │   12   │  9     │  8     │  7 1⁠/⁠2 │  7 1⁠/⁠5 │  7     │  6 6⁠/⁠7 │  6 3⁠/⁠4
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────
  7     │   14   │ 21     │ 28     │ 35     │ 42     │ 49     │ 56     │ 63
        │   14   │ 10 1⁠/⁠2 │  9 1⁠/⁠3 │  8 3⁠/⁠4 │  8 2⁠/⁠5 │  8 1⁠/⁠6 │  8     │  7 7⁠/⁠8
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────
  8     │   16   │ 24     │ 32     │ 40     │ 48     │ 56     │ 64     │ 72
        │   16   │ 12     │ 10 2⁠/⁠3 │ 10     │  9 3⁠/⁠5 │  9 1⁠/⁠3 │  9 1⁠/⁠7 │  9
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────
  9     │   18   │ 27     │ 36     │ 45     │ 54     │ 63     │ 72     │ 81
        │   18   │ 13 1⁠/⁠2 │ 12     │ 11 1⁠/⁠4 │ 10 4⁠/⁠5 │ 10 1⁠/⁠2 │ 10 2⁠/⁠7 │ 10 1⁠/⁠8
 ───────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────+────────

{543}

The object of this table is to enable any manipulator who is about
to enlarge (or reduce) a copy any given number of times to do so
without troublesome calculation. It is assumed that the photographer
knows exactly what the focus of his lens is, and that he is able to
measure accurately from its optical center. The use of the table will
be seen from the following illustration: A photographer has a _carte_
to enlarge to four times its size, and the lens he intends employing
is one of 6 inches equivalent focus. He must therefore look for 4 on
the upper horizontal line and for 6 in the first vertical column, and
carry his eye to where these two join, which will be at 30–7 1⁠/⁠2. The
greater of these is the distance the sensitive plate must be from the
center of the lens; and the lesser, the distance of the picture to be
copied. To reduce a picture any given number of times, the same method
must be followed; but in this case the greater number will represent
the distance between the lens and the picture to be copied, the latter
that between the lens and the sensitive plate. This explanation will be
sufficient for every case of enlargement or reduction.

If the focus of the lens be 12 inches, as this number is not in the
column of focal lengths, look out for 6 in this column and multiply by
2, and so on with any other numbers.

To make a good enlargement five points should be kept constantly in
view, viz.:

1. Most careful treatment of the original negative.

2. Making a diapositive complete in all its parts.

3. Scrupulous consideration of the size of the enlargement.

4. Correct exposure during the process of enlargement.

5. The most minute attention to the details of development, including
the chemical treatment of the enlarged negative.

The original negative should not be too dense, nor, on the contrary,
should it be too thin. If necessary, it should be washed off, or
strengthened, as the case may be. Too strong a negative is usually
weakened with ammonium persulphate, or the fixing hypo solution is
quite sufficient. All spots, points, etc., should be retouched with the
pencil and carmine.

The diapositive should be produced by contact in the copying apparatus.
A border of black paper should be used to prevent the entry of light
from the side.

The correct period of exposure depends upon the thickness of the
negative, the source of the light, its distance, etc. Here there is no
rule, experience alone must teach.

For developing one should use not too strong a developer. The
metol-soda developer is well suited to this work, as it gives
especially soft lights and half tones. Avoid too short a development.
When the finger laid behind the thickest spot, and held toward the
light, can no longer be detected, the negative is dense enough.

The denser negatives should be exposed longer, and the development
should be quick, while with thin, light negatives the reverse is true;
the exposure should be briefer and the development long, using a strong
developer, and if necessary with an addition of potassium bromide.

The silver chloro-bromide diapositive plates, found in the shops, are
totally unsuited for enlargements, as they give overdone, hard pictures.

To produce good artistic results in enlarging, the diapositive should
be kept soft, even somewhat too thin. It should undergo, also, a
thorough retouching. All improvements are easily carried out on the
smaller positive or negative pictures. Later on, after the same have
been enlarged, corrections are much more difficult and troublesome.


«VARNISHES:»


«Cold Varnish.»—

 I.—Pyroxylin        10 grains
     Amyl alcohol      1 ounce
     Amyl acetate      1 ounce

Allow to stand, shaking frequently till dissolved. Label: The negative
should be thoroughly dried before this solution is applied, which may
be done either by flowing it over the solution or with a flat brush.
The negative should be placed in a warm place for at least 12 hours to
thoroughly dry.

 II.—Japanese gold size   1 part
      Benzol               1 part

Label: In applying this varnish great care should be taken not to use
it near a light or open fire. It can be flowed over or brushed on the
negative.


«Black Varnish.»—

 Brunswick black    1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Benzol                 1 ounce

Label: The varnish should be applied with a brush, care being taken not
to use it near a light or open fire. {544}


«Dead Black Varnish.»—

 Borax        30 grains
 Shellac      60 grains
 Glycerine    30 minims
 Water         2 ounces

Boil till dissolved, filter, and add aniline black, 120 grains.

Label: Apply the solution with a brush, and repeat when dry if
necessary.


«Ordinary Negative Varnish.»—

 Gum sandarac          1 ounce
 Orange shellac      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Castor oil           90 minims
 Methyl alcohol        1 pint

Allow to stand with occasional agitation till dissolved, and then
filter. Label: The negative should be heated before a fire till it can
be comfortably borne on the back of the hand, and then the varnish
flowed over, any excess being drained off, and the negative should then
be again placed near the fire to dry.


«Water Varnish.»—It is not only in connection with its application to a
wet collodion film that water varnish forms a valuable addition to the
stock of chemicals in all-round photography; it is almost invaluable
in the case of gelatin as with wet collodion films. In the case of
gelatin negatives the water varnish is applied in the shape of a wash
directly after the negatives have been washed to free their films from
all traces of hypo, or in other words, at that stage when the usual
drying operation would begin. After the varnish has been applied the
films are dried in the usual manner, and its application will soon
convince anyone that has experienced the difficulty of retouching by
reason of the want of a tooth in the film to make a lead-pencil bite,
as the saying goes, that were this the only benefit accruing from its
application it is well worthy of being employed.

The use of water varnish, however, does away with the necessity of
employing collodion as an additional protection to a negative, and is,
perhaps, the best known remedy against damage from silver staining
that experienced workers are acquainted with. As a varnish it is not
costly, neither is it difficult to make in reasonably small quantities,
while its application is simplicity itself. The following formula is an
excellent sample of water varnish:

Place in a clean, enameled pan 1 pint of water, into which insert 4
ounces of shellac in thin flakes, and place the vessel on a fire or
gas stove until the water is raised to 212° F. When this temperature
is reached a few drops of hot, saturated solution of borax is dropped
into the boiling pan containing the shellac and water, taking care to
stir vigorously with a long strip of glass until the shellac is all
dissolved. Too much borax should not be added, only just sufficient
to cause the shellac to dissolve, and it is better to stop short, if
anything, before all the flakes dissolve out than to add too much
borax. The solution is then filtered carefully and, when cold, the
water varnish is ready for use.


«FADED PHOTOGRAPHS AND THEIR TREATMENT:»

Restoring Faded Photographs.—I.—As a precaution against a disaster
first copy the old print in the same size. Soak the faded photograph
for several hours in clean water and, after separating print from
mount, immerse the former in nitric acid, highly dilute (1 per cent),
for a few minutes. Then the print is kept in a mercury intensifier
(mercuric chloride, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; common salt, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; hot water,
16 ounces, used cold), until bleached as much as possible. After half
an hour’s rinsing, a very weak ammonia solution will restore the
photograph, with increased vigor, the upper tones being much improved,
though the shadows will show some tendency to clog. The net result
will be a decided improvement in appearance; but, at this stage, any
similarly restored photographs should be recopied if their importance
warrants it, as mercury intensifier results are not permanent. It may
be suggested that merely rephotographing and printing in platinotype
will probably answer.

II.—Carefully remove the picture from its mount, and put it in a
solution of the following composition:

                          By weight
 Hydrochloric acid         2 parts
 Sodium chloride           8 parts
 Potassium bichromate      8 parts
 Distilled water         250 parts

The fluid bleaches the picture, but photographs that have been toned
with gold do not quite vanish. Rinse with plenty of water, and develop
again with very dilute alkaline developer.


«MOUNTANTS:»

See also Adhesives.

I.—If buckling of the mount is to be cured, the prints must be mounted
in a dry state, and the film of mountant borne by the print must
be just sufficient to attach it firmly to the mount and no more.
The great virtue of the method {545} here described consists of the
marvelously thin film of tenacious mountant applied to the print in
its dry condition, shrinkage by this means being entirely obviated. A
drawing board with a perfectly smooth surface and of fair dimensions,
an ivory or bone burnisher attached to a short handle, with some
common glue, are the principal requisites. Take, say, a quarter of a
pound of the glue broken into small pieces and cover it with water in
a clean gallipot, large enough to allow for the subsequent swelling
of the glue. Place on one side until the glue has become thoroughly
permeated by the water, then pour off the excess and dissolve the glue
in the water it has absorbed, by placing the gallipot in a vessel of
hot water. The solution tested with a piece of blue litmus paper will
show a distinctly acid reaction, which must be carefully neutralized by
adding some solution of carbonate of soda. The amount of water absorbed
by the glue will probably be too little to give it the best working
consistency, and, if this is the case, sufficient should be added to
make it about the thickness of ordinary molasses. Careful filtration
through a cambric handkerchief, and the addition of about 10 grains of
thymol, completes the preparation of the mounting solution. As glue
deteriorates by frequent and prolonged heating, it is preferable to
make up a stock solution, from which sufficient for the work in hand
can be taken in the form of jelly, melted, and used up at once.

The finished prints, dried and trimmed to the required size, are placed
on the boards they are to occupy when mounted, and, as it is impossible
to remove a print for readjustment once it is laid down for final
mounting, the wisest course is to indicate by faint pencil marks on the
mount the exact position the print is to occupy; then it may be laid
down accurately and without any indecision. A small gas or oil stove is
required on the mounting table to keep the glue liquid, but maintaining
the solution in a constant state of ebullition throughout the operation
is unnecessary and harmful to the glue; the flame should be regulated
so that the mountant is kept just at the melting point. Place the
drawing board beside the gas stove and with a house-painter’s brush
of good quality and size spread the glue over an area considerably
exceeding the dimensions of the print to be mounted. A thin coating of
glue evenly applied to the board is the end to aim at, to accomplish
which the brush should be worked in horizontal strokes, crossing these
with others at right angles. Have at hand a small pile of paper cut
into pieces somewhat larger than the print to be mounted (old newspaper
answers admirably for these pieces), lay one down on the glued patch
and press it well into contact by passing the closed hand across it in
all directions. Raise one corner of the paper, and slowly but firmly
strip it from the board. Repeat the operations of gluing the board
(in the same place) and stripping the newspaper 2 or 3 times, when a
beautifully even cushion of glue will remain on the board.

Mounting the prints is the next step. The cushion of glue obtained on
the board has to be coated with glue for, say, every second print, but
the amount applied must be as small as possible. After applying the
glue the print is laid down upon it, a square of the waste newspaper
laid over the print, which has then to be rubbed well into contact with
the glue. Raise a corner of the print with the point of a penknife
and strip it from the board, as in the case of the newspaper. Care
must be taken when handling the print in its glued condition to keep
the fingers well beyond the edges of the print, in order that no glue
may be abstracted from the edges. Lay the print quickly down upon
its mount; with a clean, soft linen duster smooth it everywhere into
contact, place upon it a square of photographic drying board, and with
the bone burnisher go over it in all directions, using considerable
pressure. The finished result is a mounted print that shows no signs of
buckling, and which adheres to the mount with perfect tenacity.

 II.—Gelatin    2 parts
      Water      4 parts
      Alcohol    8 parts

The alcohol is added slowly as soon as the gelatin is well dissolved in
the water, and the vessel turned continually to obtain a homogeneous
mixture. The solution must be kept hot during the operation on a water
bath, and should be applied quickly, as it soon dries; the print must
be placed exactly the first time, as it adheres at once. The solution
keeps for a long time in well-corked bottles.


«TRANSPARENT PHOTOGRAPHS:»

I.—The following mixture may be employed at 176° F., to render
photographs transparent. It consists of 4 parts paraffine and 1 part
linseed oil. After immersion the photographs are at once {546} dried
between blotting paper. For fastening these photographs to glass, glue
or gelatin solution alone cannot be employed. This is possible only
when one-fourth of its weight of sugar has been added to the glue
before dissolving. The glasses for applying the photographs must be
perfect, because the slightest defects are visible afterwards.

II.—If on albumen paper, soak the print overnight in a mixture of 8
ounces of castor oil and 1 ounce of Canada balsam. Plain paper requires
a much shorter time. When the print is thoroughly soaked, take it from
the oil, drain well, and lay it on the glass face downward, and squeeze
till all is driven out and the print adheres. If a curved glass is
used, prepare a squeegee with edge parallel with the curvature of the
glass. It will take several hours before the print is dry enough to
apply color to it.


«THE GUM - BICHROMATE PHOTO-PRINTING PROCESS.»

Gum bichromate is not a universal printing method. It is not suited
for all subjects or for all negatives, but where there is simplicity
and breadth in sizes of 8 1⁠/⁠2 x 6 1⁠/⁠2 and upward, direct or
enlarged prints by it have a charm altogether their own, and afford an
opportunity for individuality greater than any other method.

While almost any kind of paper will do, there are certain qualities
that the beginner at least should endeavor to secure. It should be
tough enough to stand the necessary handling, which is considerably
more than in either the printing-out or developing methods. It must
not be so hard or smooth as to make coating difficult, nor so porous as
to absorb or let the coating sink in too much; but a few trials will
show just what surface is best. Till that experience is acquired it may
be said that most of Whatman’s or Michallet’s drawing papers, to be had
at any artist’s materials store, will be found all that can be desired;
or, failing these, the sizing of almost any good paper will make it
almost as suitable.

For sizing, a weak solution of gelatin is generally employed, but
arrowroot is better; half an ounce to a pint of water. It should be
beaten into a cream with a little of the water, the rest added, and
brought to the boil. When cold it may be applied with a sponge or
tuft of cotton, going several times, first in one direction and then
in the other, and it saves a little future trouble to pencil mark the
non-sized side.

The quality of the gum is of less importance than is generally
supposed, so long as it is the genuine gum arabic, and in round, clean
“tears.” To make the solution select an 8-ounce, wide-mouthed bottle,
of the tall rather than the squat variety, and place in it 6 ounces of
water. Two ounces of the gum are then tied loosely in a piece of thin
muslin and suspended in the bottle so as to be about two-thirds covered
by the water. Solution begins at once, as may be seen by the heavier
liquid descending, and if kept at the ordinary temperature of the room
may not be complete for 24 or even 48 hours; but the keeping qualities
of the solution will be greater than if the time had been shortened
by heat. When all that will has been dissolved, there will still be a
quantity of gelatinous matter in the muslin, but on no account must it
be squeezed out, as the semi-soluble matter thus added to the solution
would be injurious. With the addition of a few drops of carbolic acid
and a good cork the gum solution will keep for months.

The selection of the pigments is not such a serious matter as some of
the writers would lead us to believe. Tube water colors are convenient
and save the trouble of grinding, but the cheap colors in powder take
a better grip and give richer images. The best prints are made with
mixtures of common lampblack, red ocher, sienna, umber, and Vandyke
brown, the only objection to their employment being the necessity of
rather carefully grinding. This may be done with a stiffish spatula
and a sheet of finely ground glass, the powder mixed with a little gum
solution and rubbed with the spatula till smooth, but better still
is a glass paper weight in the shape of a cone with a base of about
1 1⁠/⁠2 inches in diameter, bought in the stationer’s for 25 cents.

The sensitizer is a 10 per cent solution of potassium bichromate,
and whatever be the pigment or whatever the method of preparing the
coating, it may be useful to keep in mind that the right strength or
proportion, or at least a strength of coating that answers very well,
is equal parts of that and the gum solution.

In preparing the coating measure the gum solution in a cup from a toy
tea set that holds exactly 1 ounce, it being easier to get it all
out of this than out of a conical graduate. From 20 to 30 grains of
the color or mixture of colors in powder is placed on the slab—the
ground surface of an “opal” answers well—and enough of the gum added
to moisten it, and work the paper weight “muller,” aided by the {547}
spatula, as long as any grittiness remains, or till it is perfectly
smooth, adding more and more gum till it is like a thick cream. It
is then transferred to a squat teacup and 1 ounce of the bichromate
solution gradually added, working it in with one of the brushes to
perfect homogeneity. Of course, it will be understood that this mixture
should be used all at once, or rather only as much as is to be used
at once should be made, as notwithstanding what has been said to the
contrary, it will not keep. After each operation, both or all of the
brushes should be thoroughly cleaned before putting them away.

Not the least important are the brushes; one about 2 inches wide and
soft for laying on the coating, the other, unless for small work, twice
that breadth and of what is known as “badger” or a good imitation
thereof, for softening.

The paper can be bought in sheets of about 17 x 22 inches. Cut these
in two, coating pieces of about 17 x 11. The sheet is fastened to a
drawing board by drawing pins, one at each corner. The coating brush—of
camel’s hair, but it is said that hog’s is better—is filled with
the creamy mixture, which has been transferred to a saucer as more
convenient, and with even strokes, first one way and then the other,
drawn all over the paper. It is easier to do than to describe, but all
three joints, wrist, elbow, and shoulder take part, and unless the
surface of the paper is too smooth, there is really no difficulty to
speak of.

By the time the whole surface has been covered the paper will have
expanded to an extent that makes it necessary to remove three of the
pins and tighten it, and then comes the most important and the only
really difficult part of the work, the softening. The softener is
held exactly as one holds the pen in writing, and the motion confined
altogether to the wrist, bringing only the points of the hair in
contact with the coating, more like stippling than painting.

If much of the coating has been laid on, and too much is less of an
evil than too little, the softener will soon have taken up so much as
to require washing. This is done at the tap, drying on a soft cloth,
and repeat the operation, the strokes or touches gradually becoming
lighter and lighter, till the surface is as smooth and free from
markings as if it had been floated.

Just how thick the coating should be is most easily learned by
experience, but as, unlike ordinary carbon, development begins from the
exposed surface, it must be as deep; that is, as dark on the paper as
the deepest shadow on the intended print, and it should not be deeper.

While it is true that the bichromate colloid is not sensitive while
wet, the coating is best done in subdued light, indeed, generally at
night. Hang the sheets to dry in the dark room.

Exposure should be made with some form of actino-meter.

Development may be conducted in various ways, and is modified according
to the extent of the exposure. Float the exposed sheet on water at
the ordinary temperature from the tap. The exposure should admit of
complete, or nearly complete, development in that position in from 5 to
10 minutes; although it should not generally be allowed to go so far.
By turning up a corner from time to time one may see how it goes, and
at the suitable stage depending on what one really wants to do, the
otherwise plain outcome of the negative is modified, gently withdrawn
from the water, and pinned up to dry.

The modifying operation may be done at once, where the exposure has
been long enough to admit it, but generally, and especially when it
has been such as to admit of the best result, the image is too soft,
too easily washed off to make it safe. But after having been dried and
again moistened by immersion in water, the desired modification may be
made with safety.

The moistened print is now placed on a sheet of glass, the lower end
of which rests on the bottom of the developing tray, and supported
by the left hand at a suitable angle; or, better still, in some other
way so as to leave both hands free. In this position, and with water
at various temperatures, camel’s-hair brushes of various sizes, and a
rubber syringe, it is possible to do practically anything.


«TABLES AND SCALES:»


«Comparative Exposures of Various Subjects.»—

                                                                Seconds
 Open panorama, with fields and trees                              1
 Snow, ice, marine views                                           1
 Panorama, with houses, etc.                                       2
 Banks of rivers                                                   3
 Groups and portraits in open air (diffused light)                 6
 Underneath open trees                                             6
 Groups under cover                                               10
 Beneath dense trees                                              10
 Ravines, excavations                                             10
 Portraits in light interiors                                     10
 Portraits taken 4 feet from a window, indoors, diffused light    30

{548}


«TABLE SHOWING DISPLACEMENT ON GROUND GLASS OF OBJECTS IN MOTION»

By Henry L. Tolman

_From the Photographic Times_

Lens 6-inch Equivalent Focus, Ground Glass at Principal Focus of Lens

 ──────+─────────────+─────────────────+─────────+──────────
 Miles │     Feet    │   Distance on   │  Same   │   Same
  per  │ per Second. │  Ground Glass,  │  with   │   with
 Hour. │             │ in inches, with │ Object  │  Object
       │             │ Object 30 Feet  │ 60 Feet │ 120 Feet
       │             │      away.      │  away.  │  away.
 ──────+─────────────+─────────────────+─────────+──────────
       │             │                 │         │
    1  │    1 1⁠/⁠2    │        .29      │   .15   │    .073
    2  │    3        │        .59      │   .29   │    .147
    3  │    4 1⁠/⁠2    │        .88      │   .41   │    .220
    4  │    6        │       1.17      │   .59   │    .293
    5  │    7 1⁠/⁠2    │       1.47      │   .73   │    .367
    6  │    9        │       1.76      │   .88   │    .440
    7  │   10 1⁠/⁠2    │       2.05      │  1.03   │    .513
    8  │   12        │       2.35      │  1.17   │    .587
    9  │   13        │       2.64      │  1.32   │    .660
   10  │   14 1⁠/⁠2    │       2.93      │  1.47   │    .733
   11  │   16        │       3.23      │  1.61   │    .807
   12  │   17 1⁠/⁠2    │       3.52      │  1.76   │    .880
   13  │   19        │       3.81      │  1.91   │    .953
   14  │   20 1⁠/⁠2    │       4.11      │  2.05   │   1.027
   15  │   22        │       4.40      │  2.20   │   1.100
   20  │   29        │       5.87      │  2.93   │   1.467
   25  │   37        │       7.33      │  3.67   │   1.833
   30  │   44        │       8.80      │  4.40   │   2.200
   35  │   51        │      10.27      │  5.13   │   2.567
   40  │   59        │      11.73      │  5.97   │   2.933
 ──────+─────────────+─────────────────+─────────+──────────

W. D. Kilbey, in the _American Annual of Photography_, gives still
another table for the exposure that should be given to objects in
motion.

According to his method the table is made out for a distance from the
camera 100 times that of the focus of the lens; that is, for a 6-inch
focus lens at 50 feet, a 7-inch at 58 feet, an 8-inch at 67 feet, a
9-inch at 75 feet, or a 12-inch at 100 feet.

                                            Toward        At Right
                                              the         Angles to
                                            Camera.      the Camera.

 Man walking slowly, street scenes         1⁠/⁠15  sec.        1⁠/⁠45  sec.
 Cattle grazing                            1⁠/⁠15  sec.        1⁠/⁠45  sec.
 Boating                                   1⁠/⁠20  sec.        1⁠/⁠60  sec.
 Man walking, children playing, etc.       1⁠/⁠40  sec.        1⁠/⁠120 sec.
 Pony and trap, trotting                   1⁠/⁠100 sec.        1⁠/⁠300 sec.
 Cycling, ordinary                         1⁠/⁠100 sec.        1⁠/⁠300 sec.
 Man running a race and jumping            1⁠/⁠150 sec.        1⁠/⁠450 sec.
 Cycle racing                              1⁠/⁠200 sec.        1⁠/⁠600 sec.
 Horses galloping                          1⁠/⁠200 sec.        1⁠/⁠600 sec.

If the object is twice the distance, the length of allowable exposure
is doubled, and vice versa.


«To Reduce Photographs.»—When one wishes to copy a drawing or
photograph he is usually at a loss to know how high the plate will be
when any particular base is selected. A plan which has the merit of
being simple and reliable has been in use in engravers’ offices for
years.

Here are the details:

[Illustration: Reducing Scale for Copying Photographs.]

Turn the drawing face down and rule a diagonal line from the left
bottom to the right top corner. Then measure from the left, on the
bottom line, the width required. Rule a vertical line from that point
until it meets the diagonal. Rule from that point to the left, and the
resulting figure will have the exact proportions of the reduction.
If the depth wanted is known, and the width is required, the former
should be measured on the left upright line, carried to the diagonal,
and thence to the lower horizon. The accompanying diagram explains the
matter simply.


«COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY:»


«A Three-Color Process.»—Prepare 7 solutions, 4 of which are used for
color screens, the remaining 3 serving as dyes for the plates.

A.—Screen Solutions.—

Blue violet.

                                            By weight
 Methylene blue                               5 parts
 Tetraethyldiamidooxytriphenyl carbinol       2 parts

Or:

                        By weight
 Methyl violet           5 parts
 Alcohol               200 parts
 Water, distilled      300 parts

Green.

                       By weight
 Malachite green        10 parts
 Alcohol               200 parts
 Water, distilled      300 parts

{549}

Yellow.

                        By weight
 Acridin yellow N. O.    10 parts
 Alcohol                200 parts
 Water, distilled       300 parts

Red.

                        By weight
 Congo rubin             10 parts
 Alcohol                200 parts
 Water, distilled       300 parts

B.—Dyes (Stock Solutions).—

                                                By weight
 I.—Acridin yellow or acridin orange, N. O.      1 part
     Alcohol                                    100 parts
     Water, distilled                           400 parts

                                                 By weight
 II.—Congo rubin                                 1 part
      Alcohol                                   100 parts
      Water, distilled                          400 parts

                                                By weight
 III.—Tetraethyldiamidooxytriphenyl carbinol     1 part
       Alcohol                                  100 parts
       Water, distilled                         400 parts

The screen solutions, after being filtered through paper filters into
clean dishes, are utilized to bathe 6 clean glass plates previously
coated with 2 per cent raw collodion; we require 1 plate for blue
violet, 2 plates for red, 2 plates for yellow, and 1 plate for green,
which in order to obtain the screens are combined in the following
way: Yellow and red plate, yellow and green plate. For special purposes
the other red plate may be combined with the blue violet. Another
method of preparing the screens is to add the saturated solutions drop
by drop to a mixture of Canada balsam and 2 per cent castor oil and
cement the glasses together. Those who consider the screens by the
first method too transparent, coat the glass plates with a mixture of
2 to 3 per cent raw collodion and 1 per cent color solution. Others
prefer gelatin screens, using

                            By weight
 Hard gelatin (Nelson’s)      8 parts
 Water                      100 parts
 Absolute alcohol            10 parts
 Pigment                      1 part

This is poured over the carefully leveled and heated plate after having
been filtered through flannel.

The collodion screens are cemented together by moistening the edges
with Canada balsam (containing castor oil) and pressing the plates
together in a printing frame, sometimes also binding the edges with
strips of Japanese paper.

On the evening before the day of work, good dry plates of about 18° to
24° W. are dyed in the following solution:

                                By weight
 Stock solution, No. 1          16 parts
 Distilled water               100 parts
 Alcohol                         5 parts
 Nitrate of silver (1.500)      50 parts
 Ammonia                       1–2 parts

This bath sensitizes almost uninterruptedly to line A. The total
sensitiveness is high, and the plate develops cleanly and fine. Blue
sensitiveness is very much reduced, and the blue screen is used for
exposure. As far as the author’s recollection goes, the plate for the
yellow color has never been color-sensitized, many operators using the
commercial Vogel-Obernetter eosin silver plates made by Perutz, of
Munich; others again only use ordinary dry plates with a blue-violet
screen. This is, however, a decided mistake, necessitating an immense
amount of retouching, as otherwise it produces a green shade on
differently colored objects of the print.

For the red color plate the dry plate is dyed in

                               By weight
 Stock solution, No. 2         10 parts
 Distilled water              100 parts
 Nitrate of silver (1.500)    100 parts
 Ammonia                        2 parts

The resulting absorption band is closed until E, reaching from violet to
red (over C). This red pigment was examined by Eder, who obtained very
good results, using ammonia in the solution.

The corresponding screen is a combination of malachite green with
acridin yellow or acridin orange N. 0.

For the blue color plate the dye is made up as follows:

                                By weight
 Stock solution, No. 3         0.5–1 part
 Distilled water                 100 parts
 Nitrate of silver (1.500)       100 parts
 Ammonia                         1–2 parts

This dye yields a strong band, commencing at B, reaching to C 3⁠/⁠4 D;
since the orange screen used herewith necessitates a long exposure, the
action seems to extend into the infra-red (beyond A).

As a rule, cyanine is used instead of the tetraethyldiamidooxytriphenyl
carbinol {550} (HCl salt), but the former is apt to produce fogged
plates. Methyl violet or crystal violet has also been suggested.

Exposures should be made in direct sunlight or with artificial pure
white light (acetylene); electric light is too variable.

The most suitable methods of reproduction are half-tone, and the
prototype methods; also Turati’s Isotypie. The greatest difficulty
in 3-color printing nowadays is presented by the want of accurate
printing. We must use the proper paper and pure fast colors; the inking
rollers should be smooth, not too soft, and free from pores or weals.
The blocks must be firmly fixed typehigh, otherwise they take color
irregularly. A good printing machine is, of course, most essential.

To supplement the above working directions: After having kept the
plates for 2 or 3 minutes (constantly moving the dish) in the dyes,
they are removed into a dish containing filtered alcohol, which
extracts the superfluous pigment. Plates thus treated dry much more
rapidly, develop cleaner, and show no fogging.

Most of the above dyes may be obtained from the “Berliner
Actiengesellschaft für Anilinfabrikation,” the acridin only from the
“Farbwerk Mühlheim, a/Main, vorm. A. Leonhard & Company.”


«Solution for Preparing Color Sensitive Plates.»—H. Vollenbruch
maintains that plates sensitized with erythrosin silver citrate are not
only more sensitive to color impressions, but also have better keeping
qualities than ordinary erythrosin bathed plates.

For depression of the over-active blue rays he recommends the addition
of picric acid to the coloring solution. The picric acid erythrosin
silver citrate ammonia solution is prepared as follows:

 _Solution I_

 Citrate of potassa      1 gram
 Distilled water        10 cubic centimeters

 _Solution II_

 Silver nitrate          1 gram
 Distilled water        10 cubic centimeters

Both solutions are mixed and a white precipitate is formed which
is allowed to subside. The clear supernatant liquid is poured off
carefully, precipitate washed with water, allowed again to subside, and
the wash water again decanted. This process is repeated two or three
times. Finally a large bulk of water (20 cubic centimeters) is added
to the precipitate and well shaken; 5 cubic centimeters of this is
reserved, the remainder is treated to ammonia, drop by drop, until the
precipitate is redissolved. Now add the 5 cubic centimeters of reserved
solution and shake the whole until every particle is dissolved. Then
make up the solution to 50 cubic centimeters and filter; this forms
Solution III.

 _Solution IV_

 Distilled water      300 cubic centimeters
 Pure erythrosin        1 grain

Under lamplight the 50 cubic centimeters of Solution III are poured
slowly with repeated shaking in Solution IV, by which the originally
beautiful red is converted into a dirty turbid bluish red somewhat
viscid fluid; add—

 _Solution V_

 Picric acid            4 grams
 Absolute alcohol      30 cubic centimeters

Shake well, and add to the whole 33 cubic centimeters ammonia (specific
gravity, 0.91), wherewith the beautiful red color is restored.

After the filtration call this Solution VI. This solution keeps well.
The slight deposit formed is redissolved on shaking.

The plates are sensitized as follows: The plate to be sensitized is
first laid in a tray of distilled water for 2 or 3 minutes, then
bathed in a mixture of 1 cubic centimeter ammonia for 1 minute and
finally for 2 minutes in a bath composed of the following:

 Color Solution VI     10 cubic centimeters
 Distilled water      300 cubic centimeters

The plate is well drained and dried in a perfectly dark room. These
plates keep well for several months.


«MICROPHOTOGRAPHS.»

The instruments used are an objective of very short focus and a small
camera with a movable holder. This camera and the original negative to
be reduced are fastened to the opposite ends of a long, heavy board,
similar to the arrangement in use for the making of lantern slides.
The camera must be movable in the direction of the objective axis, and
the negative must be fastened to a vertically stationary stand. It is
then uniformly lighted from the reversed side by either daylight or
artificial light. Some difficulty is experienced in getting a sharp
focus of the picture. The ordinary ground glass cannot be used, not
{551} being fine enough, and the best medium for this purpose is a
perfectly plain piece of glass, coated with pretty strongly iodized
collodion, and sensitized in the silver bath, the same way as in the
wet process. The focusing is done with a small lens or even with a
microscope. The plate intended for the picture has, of course, to
lie in exactly the same plane as the plate used for focusing. To be
certain on this point, it is best to focus upon the picture plate,
inserting for this purpose a yellow glass between objective and plate.
If satisfactory sharpness has been obtained, the apparatus is once for
all in order for these distances. Bromide of silver gelatin plates, on
account of their comparatively coarse grain, are not suitable for these
small pictures, and the collodion process has to come to the rescue.

Dagron, in Paris, a prominent specialist in this branch, gives the
following directions: A glass plate is well rubbed on both sides
with a mixture of 1,000 parts of water, 50 parts powdered chalk, and
200 parts of alcohol, applied with a cotton tuft, after which it is
gone over with a dry cotton tuft, and thereafter cleaned with a fine
chamois leather. The side used for taking the picture is then finally
cleaned with old collodion. The collodion must be a little thinner than
ordinarily used for wet plates. Dissolve

 Ether                400 parts
 Alcohol              100 parts
 Collodion cotton       3 parts
 Iodide ammonia         4 parts
 Bromide ammonia        1 part

The plate coated herewith is silvered in a silver bath of 7 or 8 per
cent. From 12 to 15 seconds are sufficient for this.

The plate is then washed in a tray or under a faucet with distilled
water, to liberate it from the free nitrate of silver and is afterwards
placed upon blotting paper to drip off. The still moist plate is then
coated with the albumen mixture:

 Albumen              150 cubic centimeters

Add

 Water                 15 cubic centimeters
 Iodide potassium       3 grams
 Ammonia                5 grams
 White sugar            2 grams
 Iodine, a small cake.

With a wooden quirl this is beaten to snow (foam) for about 10 minutes,
after which it must stand for 14 hours to settle. The albumen is
poured on to the plate the same as collodion, and the surplus filtered
back. After drying, the plate is laid for 15 seconds in a silver bath,
consisting of 100 parts of water, 10 parts nitrate of silver, and 10
cubic centimeters of acetic acid. The plate is then carefully washed
and left to dry. If carefully kept, it will retain its properties for
years. To the second silver bath, when it assumes a dirty coloration,
is added 25 parts kaolin to each 100 parts, by shaking the same well,
and the bath is then filtered, after which a little nitrate of silver
and acetic acid is added.

After each exposure the plate holder is moved a certain length, so that
10 or more reproductions are obtained upon one and the same plate. The
time of exposure depends upon the density of the negative and differs
according to light. It varies between a second and a minute.

The developer is composed as follows:

 Water               100 parts
 Gallic acid         0.3 parts
 Pyro                0.1 part
 Alcohol             2.5 parts

The exposed plate is immersed in this bath, and after 10 to 20
seconds, from 1 to 2 drops of a 2 per cent nitrate of silver solution
are added to each 100 cubic centimeters of the solution, whereby the
picture becomes visible. To follow the process exactly, the plate has
to be laid—in yellow light—under a weakly enlarging microscope, and
only a few drops of the developer are put upon the same. As soon as
the picture has reached the desired strength, it is rinsed and fixed
in a fixing soda solution, 1 to 5. Ten to 15 seconds are sufficient
generally. Finally it is washed well.

After the drying of the plate, the several small pictures are cut
with a diamond and fastened to the small enlarging lenses. For this
purpose, the latter are laid upon a metal plate heated from underneath,
a drop of Canada balsam is put to one end of the same, and, after it
has become soft, the small diapositive is taken up with a pair of
fine pincers, and is gradually put in contact with the fastener. Both
glasses are then allowed to lie until the fastener has become hard. If
bubbles appear, the whole method of fastening the picture has to be
repeated.


«Photographs on Brooches.»—These may be produced by means of a paper
(celuidin paper) whose upper layer after exposure by means of ordinary
negative can be detached in lukewarm water. The picture copied on this
paper is first laid in tepid water. After a few minutes it is taken
out and placed on the article in question, naturally with the face
upon it. The enamel surface upon which the {552} picture is laid is
previously coated with gelatin solution to insure a safe adhesion. When
dry, the article is placed in water in which the paper is loosened and
the photographic image now adheres firmly to the object. It may now be
colored further and finally is coated with a good varnish.


«FLASHLIGHT POWDERS AND APPARATUS.»

Flash powders to be ignited by simply applying the flame of a match
or laying on an oiled paper and igniting that, may be made by the
following formulas:

 I.—Magnesium                6 parts
     Potassium chlorate      12 parts

 II.—Aluminum                4 parts
      Potassium chlorate     10 parts
      Sugar                   1 part

The ingredients in each case are to be powdered separately, and then
lightly mixed with a wooden spatula, as the compound may be ignited by
friction and burn with explosive violence.

It is best to make only such quantity as may be needed for use at the
time, which is 10 or 15 grains.


«To Prevent Smoke from Flashlight.»—Support over the point where the
ignition is to take place a large flat pad of damp wool lint. This may
be done by tacking the lint to the underside of a board supported on
legs. When ignition takes place the products of combustion for the most
part will become absorbed by the wool.


«A Flashlight Apparatus with Smoke Trap.»—A light box, not too large
to be conveniently carried out into the open air, is the first
essential, and to the open front of this grooves must be fitted, in
which grooves a lid will slide very easily, a large sheet of millboard
being convenient as a sliding lid. The box being so placed that the
sliding lid can be drawn out upward, a thread is attached to the lower
edge of the lid, after which the thread is passed over a pulley fixed
inside the box near the top, when the end is attached to the bottom
of the box, so that the thread holds the sliding lid up. The lid will
then slide down the grooves quickly, and close the box, if the thread
is severed, the thread being cut at the right instant by placing the
lower part across the spot where the flash is to be produced. So small
is the cloud of smoke at the first instant that practically the whole
of it can be caught in a drop trap of the above-mentioned kind. If
the apparatus is not required again for immediate use, the smoke may
be allowed to settle down in the box; but in other cases the box may
be taken out into the open air, and the smoke buffeted out with a
cloth. In the event of several exposures being required in immediate
succession, the required number of apparatus might be set up, as each
need not cost much to construct.


«INTENSIFIERS AND REDUCERS:»


«Intensifier (Mercuric) with Sodium Sulphite, for Gelatin Dry
Plates.»—Whiten the negative in the saturated solution of mercuric
chloride, wash and blacken with a solution of sulphite of sodium, 1 in
5. Wash well.

The reduction is perfect, with a positive black tone.


«Intensifier with Iodide of Mercury.»—Dissolve 1 drachm of bichloride
of mercury in 7 ounces of water and 3 drachms of iodide of potassium in
3 ounces of water, and pour the iodide solution into the mercury till
the red precipitate formed is completely dissolved.

For use, dilute with water, flow over the negative till the proper
density is reached, and wash, when the deposit will turn yellow. Remove
the yellow color by flowing a 5 per cent solution of hypo over the
plate, and give it the final washing.


«Agfa Intensifier.»—One part of agfa solution in 9 parts water (10 per
cent solution). Immerse negative from 4 to 6 minutes.


«Intensifying Negatives Without Mercury.»—Dissolve 1 part of iodine
and 2 parts of potassium iodide in 10 parts of water. When required
for use, dilute 1 part of this solution with 100 parts of water. Wash
the negative well and place in this bath, allowing it to remain until
it has become entirely yellow, and the image appears purely dark
yellow on a light-yellow ground. The negative should then be washed in
water until the latter runs off clearly, when it is floated with the
following solution until the whole of the image has become uniformly
brown:

 Schlippe’s salt                        60 grains
 Water                                   1 ounce
 Caustic soda solution, 10 per cent      6 drops

Finally the negative is again thoroughly washed and dried. The
addition of the small quantity of caustic soda is to prevent surface
crystallization. It is claimed that with this intensifier the operation
may be carried out to a greater {553} extent than with bichloride
of mercury; that it gives clear shadows, and that it possesses the
special advantage of removing entirely any yellow stain the negative
may have acquired during development and fixing. Furthermore, with this
intensifying method it is not necessary to wash the negative, even
after fixing, as carefully as in the case of the intensifying processes
with mercury, because small traces of hypo which may have been left
in the film will be rendered innocuous by the free iodine. The iodine
solution may be employed repeatedly if its strength is kept up by the
addition of concentrated stock solution.


«Uranium Intensifier.»—

 Potassium ferricyanide (washed)      48 grains
 Uranium nitrate                      48 grains
 Sodium acetate                       48 grains
 Glacial acetic acid                   1 ounce
 Distilled water to                   10 ounces.

Label: Poison. Immerse the well-washed negative till the desired
intensification is reached, rinse for 5 minutes and dry. This
intensifier acts very strongly and should not therefore be allowed to
act too long.


«MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS:»


«Renovating a Camera.»—The following formula should be applied to the
mahogany of the camera by means of a soft rag, rubbing it well in,
finally polishing lightly with a clean soft cloth:

 Raw linseed oil            6 ounces
 White wine vinegar         3 ounces
 Methylated spirit          3 ounces
 Butter of antimony       1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Mix the oil with vinegar by degrees, shaking well to prevent separation
after each addition, then add the spirit and antimony, and mix
thoroughly. Shake before using.


«Exclusion of Air from Solutions.»—Water is free from air only when
it has been maintained for several minutes in bubbling ebullition. In
order to keep out the air from the bottle, when using the contents, the
air-pressure contrivances are very convenient; one glass tube reaching
through the rubber stopper into the bottle to the bottom, while the
second tube, provided with a rubber pressing-ball, only runs into
the flask above. If the long bent tube is fitted with a rubber tube,
a single pressure suffices to draw off the desired quantity of the
developer. It is still more convenient to pour a thin layer of good
sweet oil on top of the developer besides. The developer is not injured
thereby, and the exclusion of air is perfect.


«Bottle Wax.»—Many ready-prepared solutions, such as developers and
other preparations from which light has to be excluded, should be
packed in bottles whose neck, after complete drying of the stopper,
is dipped in a pot with molten sealing wax. A good recipe is the
following, pigments being added if desired: For black take: Colophony,
6 parts; paraffine, 3 parts. Melt together and add 20 parts of black.
For yellow, only 7 parts of chrome yellow. For blue, 7 parts of
ultramarine.


«Bleaching Photographic Prints White.»—To make a salt print, ink over
it with waterproof ink, then bleach out white all but the black lines.
Sensitize Clemon’s mat surface paper on a 40-grain bath of nitrate of
silver. After fuming and printing, the print is thoroughly fixed in
hyposulphite of soda solution, and washed in running water until every
trace of the hypo is out of the print. On this the permanency of the
bleaching operation depends. The bleaching bath is:

 Bichloride of mercury        1 ounce
 Water                        5 ounces
 Alcohol                      1 ounce
 Hydrochloric acid            1 drachm

If the drawing has been made with non-waterproof ink, then alcohol is
substituted for the water in the formula. For safety, use an alcoholic
solution of mercury. The bleaching solution is poured on and off the
drawing, and, when the print is bleached white, the mercury is washed
off the drawing by holding it for a few moments under running water.
Photographs bleached in this way will keep white for years.


«To Render Negatives Permanent.»—A fine negative, one that we would
like to preserve, may be rendered permanent by placing it, after it has
been fixed, in a 10 per cent solution of alum, and letting it remain
a few minutes. This makes the plate wonderfully clear and clean, and
absolutely unalterable. The alum acts upon the gelatin, rendering it
insoluble.


«Stripping Photograph Films.»—This is generally done by immersing
the plate in formaldehyde solution until the film has become almost
insoluble and impermeable. Then it is placed in a solution of sodium
carbonate until the gelatin has absorbed a sufficient quantity of
it. When the negative is immersed in weak hydrochloric acid, carbon
{554} dioxide is liberated, and the little bubbles of gas which lodge
themselves between the film and the glass cause a separation of the
two, so that the film may be stripped off. After having hardened the
film with formaldehyde, it is a lengthy process to get it saturated
with sodium carbonate. It is advisable to use a combined bath of 1
part of carbonate, 3 of 40 per cent formaldehyde, and 20 of water; its
tanning action is enhanced by the alkaline reaction, and two operations
are superseded by one. After 10 minutes’ soaking, the surface of the
film must be wiped and the plate dried. A sharp knife is then used to
cut all around the film a slight distance from the edge, and when this
is done the negative is put into a 5 per cent solution of hydrochloric
acid, when the film will probably float off unaided; but, if necessary,
may be assisted by gently raising one corner.


«Phosphorescent Photographs.»—The necessary chemicals belong to the
class of phosphorescent bodies, among others, calcium sulphite,
strontium sulphite, barium sulphide, calcareous spar, fluorspar. These
placed in the magnesium light or sunlight, acquire the property of
giving forth, for a shorter or longer time, a light of their own. The
best examples of these substances are the well-known “Balmains light
colors,” which yield a very clear and strong light after exposure. They
consist of calcium sulphide, 10,000 parts; bismuth oxide, 13 parts;
sodium hyposulphite, 1,000 parts.

According to Professor Schnauss, plates for phosphorographs are
prepared as follows: Dissolve 10 parts of pure gelatin in 50 parts of
hot water, add and dissolve 30 parts of “light” color (as above), and
1 part of glycerine.

If a plate or a paper, prepared as above detailed, be placed under
a diapositive, in a copying apparatus, and submitted to the action
of sunlight for a few minutes, when taken out in a dark room a
phosphorescent picture of the diapositive will be found. It is also a
known fact that duplicate negatives or positives may be made with this
phosphorograph by simply bringing the latter in contact in a copying
apparatus, with the ordinary silver bromide plate for 30 seconds, in
the dark room, and then developing the same.


«Printing Names on Photographs.»—The name or other matter to be printed
on the photograph is set up in type, and printed on cardboard; from
this make an exposure on a transparency plate, developing it strongly.
After the print has been made from the regular printing negative, it
is placed under the dense transparency of the regular negative, and
the name printed in. The only precaution necessary is to time the
transparency negative properly, and develop strongly, so as to get good
contrast. Photographers will find this a much easier and quicker method
than the old one of printing on tissue paper and fastening the paper to
the negative by means of varnish; moreover, the result is black instead
of white, usually much more pleasing.


«Spots on Photographic Plates.»—Spots on photographic plates may be
caused by dust or by minute bubbles in the emulsion, both of which
are easily preventable, but some spots cannot be ascribed to either
of these causes. On investigating this trouble, Mumford found that it
is due to the presence on the surface of the film of small colonies
of microorganisms which, under conditions favorable to their growth,
are capable of producing large mold colonies, from which the organisms
can easily be separated. Experiments were instituted in order to find
whether these growths can be produced on the plate by artificial
means, by inoculating the surface with a fluid culture of one of these
organisms, with affirmative results, but with one slight difference,
namely, that in the inoculated film, on microscopic examination,
no dust particle was visible in the center of each spot, which had
formerly been the case. As these microorganisms do not exist in the
air as isolated units, but travel upon small or large dust particles
in the case under consideration, the carrying medium most probably is
the fine impalpable dust from which it is practically impossible to
free the air of a building. In order that these organisms may grow
into colonies of sufficient size to cause spots, they must be able to
grow rapidly, there being only about 12 hours before the plate is dry
in which they can grow; and they must also be capable of growing at
the rather high temperature of 70° F. On testing some of the organisms
causing the spots it was found that they grew best under exactly such
conditions. A bacteriological examination of some of the gelatin used
in the manufacture of plates, both in the raw state and in the form of
emulsion, also revealed the fact that there were numerous organisms
present. No means for the prevention of this troublesome defect is
suggested; {555} most dry-plate manufacturers use the precaution to add
a small quantity of a chemical antiseptic to the emulsion, but it is
not possible to employ a sufficient quantity to destroy any organisms
that may be present without damaging the plate for photographic
purposes.


«To Remove Pyro Stains from the Fingers.»—Make a strong solution of
chlorinated lime; dip the fingers which are stained in this, and rub
the stains with a large crystal of citric acid. Apply the lime solution
and acid alternately until the stain is removed; then rinse with water.


«To Remove Pyro Stain from Negatives.»—Immerse in a clearing bath as
follows:

 Protosulphate of iron      3 ounces
 Alum                       1 ounce
 Citric acid                1 ounce
 Water                     20 ounces

Prevention is better than cure, however; therefore immerse the
negatives in the above directly they are taken from the fixing bath.
After clearing the negatives, they should be well washed.

PHOTOGRAPHY WITHOUT LIGHT: See Catatypy.

PIANO POLISHES: See Polishes.

PICKLE FOR BRASS: See Brass and Plating.

PICKLE FOR BRONZE: See Bronze Coloring.

PICKLE FOR COPPER: See Copper and Plating.

PICKLE VINEGAR: See Vinegar.

PICKLING OF GERMAN-SILVER ARTICLES: See Plating.

PICKLING IRON SCRAP BEFORE ENAMELING: See Enameling.

PICRIC ACID STAINS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

PICTURE COPYING: See Copying.

PICTURE FRAMES, REPAIRING: See Adhesives and Lutes.

PICTURE POSTAL CARDS: See Photography.


«Pigments»

(See also Paints.)


«Nature, Source, and Manufacture of Pigments.»—A pigment is a dry
earthy or clayey substance that, when mixed with oil, water, etc.,
forms a paint. Most pigments are of mineral origin, but there are
vegetable pigments, as logwood, and animal pigments, as cochineal.
In modern practice the colors are produced mainly by dyeing certain
clays, which excel in a large percentage of silicic acid, with aniline
dyestuffs. The coloring matters best adapted for this purpose are those
of a basic character. The colors obtained in this manner excel in a
vivid hue, and fastness to light and water.

Following is a general outline of their manufacture: One hundred parts,
by weight, of washed clay in paste form are finely suspended in 6 to 8
times the volume of water and acidulated with about 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts, by
volume, of 5 per cent hydrochloric or acetic acid, and heated by means
of steam almost to the boiling temperature. There is next introduced,
according to the shade desired, 1 to 2 parts, by weight, of the
dyestuff, such as auramin, diamond green, Victoria blue, etc., with
simultaneous stirring and heating, for 1 to 2 hours, or until a sample
filtered off from the liquor shows no dyestuff. Next the clay dyed in
this manner is isolated by filtration and washed with hot water and
dried. The colors thus obtained may be used as substitutes for mineral
colors of all description.

The method of manufacture varies greatly. According to the Bennett and
Mastin English patent the procedure is as follows: Grind together to
a paste in water, substances of a clayey, stony, earthy, or vitreous
nature, and certain metallic oxides, or “prepared oxides,” such as are
commonly used in the pottery trades; dry and powder the paste, and
subject the powder to the heat of a furnace, of such a temperature
that the requisite color is obtained, and for such length of time
that the color strikes through the whole substance. For example, 8
parts of black oxide of cobalt, 12 parts of oxide of zinc, and 36
parts of alumina, when incorporated with 20 times their combined bulk
of clay and treated as described, yield a rich blue pigment in the
case of a white clay, and a rich green in the case of a yellow clay.
Long-continued firing in this case improves the color.

Many minerals included in formulas for pigments have little or no
coloring power in themselves; nevertheless they {556} are required in
producing the most beautiful shades of color when blended one with
another, the color being brought out by calcination.


«Mixing Oil Colors and Tints.»—It must not be expected that the
formulas given will produce the exact effect desired, because the
strength of the various brands of colors vary to a great extent, and
therefore the painter must exercise his own judgment. The table simply
gives an idea of what can be produced by following the formulas given,
when chemically pure material is employed in the mixing. It is also
recommended that the parts mentioned be weighed out in paste form,
and the white or black and each color separately thinned and strained
before mixing them together, because the arriving at the proper hue
of color or depth and tone of tint will be simplified by using that
precaution. By thinning it is not meant that they should be quite
ready for application, but of such consistency that they will pass an
ordinary strainer with the aid of a brush.

Unless otherwise indicated, the materials are understood to be ground
fine in paste form.

NOTE.—The majority of the following are by Joseph Griggs, in the
_Painters’ Magazine_:


«GROUNDS FOR GRAINING COLORS:»

Ash Ground.—Four hundred parts white lead; 4 parts French ocher; 1 part
raw Turkey umber.

Ash.—Raw umber; raw sienna; and a little black or Vandyke brown.

Hungarian Ash.—Raw sienna and raw and burnt umber.

Bun Ash.—Raw sienna; burnt umber; and Vandyke brown.

Cherry Ground.—One hundred parts white lead; 5 parts burnt sienna; 1
part raw sienna.

Natural Cherry.—Raw and burnt sienna and raw umber.

Stained Cherry.—Burnt sienna; burnt umber; and Vandyke brown.

Chestnut.—Raw sienna; burnt umber; Vandyke brown; and a little burnt
sienna.

Maple.—Raw sienna and raw umber.

Silver Maple.—Ivory black over a nearly white ground.

Light Maple Ground.—One hundred parts white lead; 1 part French ocher.

Dark Maple Ground.—One hundred parts white lead; 1 part dark golden
ocher.

Oak.—Raw sienna; burnt umber; a little black.

Pollard Oak.—Raw and burnt sienna, or burnt umber and Vandyke brown.

Light Oak Ground.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part French ocher.

Dark Oak Ground.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part dark golden ocher.

Satinwood.—Add a little ivory black to maple color.

Mahogany.—Burnt sienna; burnt umber; and Vandyke brown.

Mahogany Ground.—Ten parts white lead; 5 parts orange chrome; and 1
part burnt sienna.

Rosewood.—Vandyke brown and a little ivory black.

Rosewood Ground.—Drop black.

Walnut Ground.—Fifty parts white lead; 3 parts dark golden ocher; 1
part dark Venetian red; and 1 part drop black.

Black Walnut.—Burnt umber with a little Vandyke brown for dark parts.

French Burl Walnut.—Same as black walnut.

Hard Pine.—Raw and burnt sienna; add a little burnt umber.

Cypress.—Raw and burnt sienna and burnt umber.

Whitewood.—Ground same as for light ash; graining color, yellow ocher,
adding raw umber and black for dark streaks.


«POSITIVE COLORS:»

Blue.—Twelve parts borate of lime; 6 parts oxide of zinc; 10 parts
litharge; 9 parts feldspar; 4 parts oxide of cobalt.

Blue Black A.—Nine parts lampblack; 1 part Chinese or Prussian blue.

Blue Black B.—Nineteen parts drop black; 1 part Prussian blue.

Bright Mineral.—Nine parts light Venetian red; 1 part red lead.

Brilliant Green.—Nine parts Paris green; 1 part C. C. chrome green,
light.

Bronze Green, Light.—Three parts raw Turkey umber; 1 part medium chrome
yellow.

Bronze Green, Medium.—Five parts medium chrome yellow; 3 parts burnt
Turkey umber; 1 part lampblack.

Bronze Green, Dark.—Twenty parts drop black; 2 parts medium chrome
yellow; and 1 part dark orange chrome. {557}

Bottle Green.—Five parts commercial chrome green, medium, and 1 part
drop black.

Brown.—Ten parts crude antimony; 12 parts litharge; 2 parts manganese;
1 part oxide of iron.

Brown Stone.—Eighteen parts burnt umber; 2 parts dark golden ocher; and
1 part burnt sienna.

Cherry Red.—Equal parts of best imitation vermilion and No. 40 carmine.

Citron A.—Three parts medium chrome yellow and 2 parts raw umber.

Citron B.—Six parts commercial chrome green, light, and 1 part medium
chrome yellow.

Coffee Brown.—Six parts burnt Turkey umber; 2 parts French ocher; and 1
part burnt sienna.

Emerald Green.—Use Paris green.

Green.—Twenty parts litharge; 12 parts flint; 2 parts oxide of copper;
2 1⁠/⁠2 parts ground glass; 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts whiting; 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts oxide
of chrome.

Flesh Color.—Nineteen parts French ocher; 1 part deep English vermilion.

Fern Green.—Five parts lemon chrome yellow and 1 part each of light
chrome green and drop black.

Foliage Green.—Three parts medium chrome yellow and 1 part of ivory or
drop black.

Foliage Brown.—Equal parts of Vandyke brown and orange chrome yellow.

Golden Ocher.—Fourteen parts French yellow ocher and 1 part medium
chrome yellow for the light shade, and 9 parts Oxford ocher and 1 part
orange chrome yellow for the dark shade.

Gold Russet.—Five parts lemon chrome yellow and 1 part light Venetian
red.

Gold Orange.—Equal parts of dry orange mineral and light golden ocher
in oil.

Indian Brown.—Equal parts of light Indian red, French ocher, and lamp
black

Mahogany, Cheap.—Three parts dark golden ocher and 1 part of dark
Venetian red.

Maroon, Light.—Five parts dark Venetian red; 1 part drop black.

Maroon, Dark.—Nine parts dark Indian red; 1 part lampblack.

Olive Green.—Seven parts light golden ocher; 1 part drop black.

Ochrous Olive.—Nine parts French ocher; 1 part raw umber.

Orange-Brown.—Equal parts burnt sienna and orange chrome yellow.

Oriental Red.—Two parts Indian red, light, in oil; 1 part dry red lead.

Purple A.—Eight parts crocus martis; 2 parts red hematite; 1 part oxide
of iron.

Purple B.—Two parts rose pink; 1 part ultramarine blue.

Purple Black.—Three parts lampblack and 1 part rose pink, or 9 parts
drop black and 1 part rose pink.

Purple Brown.—Five parts Indian red, dark, and 1 part each of
ultramarine blue and lampblack.

Roman Ocher.—Twenty-three parts French ocher and 1 part each burnt
sienna and burnt umber.

Royal Blue, Dark.—Eighteen parts ultramarine blue and 2 parts Prussian
blue. To lighten use as much white lead or zinc white as is required.

Royal Purple.—Two parts ultramarine blue; 1 part No. 40 carmine or
carmine lake.

Russet.—Fourteen parts orange chrome yellow and 1 part C. P. chrome
green, medium.

Seal Brown.—Ten parts burnt umber; 2 parts golden ocher, light; 1 part
burnt sienna.

Snuff Brown.—Equal parts burnt umber and golden ocher, light.

Terra Cotta.—Two parts white lead; 1 part burnt sienna; also 2 parts
French ocher to 1 part Venetian red.

Turkey Red.—Strong Venetian red or red oxide.

Tuscan Red. Ordinary.—Nine parts Indian red to 1 part rose pink.

Brilliant.—Four parts Indian red to 1 part red madder lake.

Violet.—Three parts ultramarine blue; 2 parts rose lake; 1 part best
ivory black.

Yellow.—Four and one-half parts tin ashes; 1 part crude antimony; 1
part litharge; and 1 part red ocher.

Yellow, Amber.—Ten parts medium chrome yellow; 7 parts burnt umber; 3
parts burnt sienna.

Yellow, Canary.—Five parts white lead; 2 parts permanent yellow; 1 part
lemon chrome yellow.

Yellow, Golden.—Ten parts lemon chrome yellow; 3 parts orange chrome,
dark; 5 parts white lead.

Yellow, Brimstone.—Three parts white lead; 1 part lemon chrome yellow;
1 part permanent yellow. {558}

Azure Blue.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine blue.

Blue Gray.—One hundred parts white lead; 3 parts Prussian blue; 1 part
lampblack.

Bright Blue.—Twenty parts zinc white; 1 part imitation cobalt blue.

Blue Grass.—Seven parts white lead; 2 parts Paris green; 1 part
Prussian blue.

Deep Blue.—Fifteen parts white lead; 1 part Prussian blue or Antwerp
blue.

French Blue.—Five parts imitation cobalt blue; 2 parts French zinc
white.

Green Blue.—One hundred parts white lead; 5 parts lemon chrome yellow;
3 parts ultramarine blue.

Hazy Blue.—Sixty parts white lead; 16 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part
burnt sienna.

Mineral Blue.—Five parts white lead; 4 parts imitation cobalt blue; 2
parts red madder lake; 1 part best ivory or drop black.

Orient Blue.—Twenty-five parts white lead; 2 parts Prussian blue; 1
part lemon chrome yellow.

Royal Blue.—Thirty-four parts white lead; 19 parts ultramarine blue; 2
parts Prussian blue; 1 part rose madder or rose lake.

Sapphire Blue.—Two parts French zinc white and 1 part best Chinese blue.

Sky Blue.—One hundred parts white lead; 1 part Prussian blue.

Solid Blue.—Five parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine blue.

Turquoise Blue.—Twenty parts white lead; 3 parts ultramarine blue; 1
part lemon chrome yellow.


«RED TINTS:»

Cardinal Red.—Equal parts of white lead and scarlet lake.

Carnation Red.—Fifteen parts white lead; 1 part scarlet lake.

Claret.—Twenty-one parts oxide of zinc; 4 parts crocus martis; 4 parts
oxide of chrome; 3 parts red lead; 3 parts boracic acid.

Coral Pink.—Fifteen parts white lead; 2 parts bright vermilion; 1 part
deep orange chrome.

Deep Rose.—Ten parts white lead; 1 part red lake.

Deep Purple.—Five parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine blue; 1 part
rose pink.

Deep Scarlet.—Fifteen parts bright vermilion; 2 parts red lake; 5 parts
white lead.

Flesh Pink.—One hundred parts white lead; 1 part orange chrome yellow;
1 part red lake.

Indian Pink.—One hundred parts white lead; 1 part light Indian red.

Lavender.—Fifty parts white lead; 2 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part red
lake.

Light Pink.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part bright vermilion.

Lilac.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part best rose pink.

Mauve.—Fifteen parts white lead; 2 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part
carmine lake or red lake.

Orange Pink.—Two parts white lead; 1 part dark orange chrome or
American vermilion.

Purple.—Five parts white lead; 2 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part red
madder lake.

Royal Pink.—Five parts white lead; 1 part carmine lake or red madder
lake.

Royal Rose.—Twenty parts white lead; 1 part rich rose lake.

Red Brick.—Ten parts white lead; 3 parts light Venetian red; 1 part
yellow ocher.

Reddish Terra Cotta.—Two parts white lead; 1 part rich burnt sienna.

Salmon.—Fifty parts white lead; 5 parts deep orange chrome.

Shell Pink.—Fifty parts white lead; 2 parts bright vermilion; 1 part
orange chrome; 1 part burnt sienna.

Violet.—Fifteen parts white lead; 4 parts ultramarine blue; 3 parts
rose lake; 1 part drop black.


«GREEN TINTS:»

Apple Green.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part chrome green, light or
medium shade.

Citrine Green.—One hundred parts white lead; 2 parts medium chrome
yellow; 1 part drop black.

Citron Green.—One hundred parts white lead; 3 parts medium chrome
yellow; 1 part lampblack.

Emerald Green.—Ten parts white lead; 1 part Paris (emerald) green.

Grass Green A.—Five parts white lead; 7 parts Paris green.

Grass Green B.—Ten parts oxide of chrome; 2 parts tin ashes; 5 parts
whiting; 1 part crocus martis; 1 part bichromate potash.

Gray Green.—Five parts white lead; 1 part Verona green. {559}

Marine Green.—Ten parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine green.

Nile Green.—Fifty parts white lead; 6 parts medium chrome green; 1 part
Prussian blue.

Olive Green.—Fifty parts white lead; 2 parts medium chrome yellow; 3
parts raw umber; 1 part drop black.

Olive Drab.—Fifty parts white lead; 8 parts raw umber; 5 parts medium
chrome green; 1 part drop black.

Pea Green.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part light chrome green.

Satin Green.—Three parts white lead; 1 part Milori green.

Sage Green.—One hundred parts white lead; 3 parts medium chrome green;
1 part raw umber.

Sea Green.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part dark chrome green.

Stone Green.—Twenty-five parts white lead; 2 parts dark chrome green; 3
parts raw umber.

Velvet Green.—Twenty parts white lead; 7 parts medium chrome green; 2
parts burnt sienna.

Water Green.—Fifteen parts white lead; 10 parts French ocher; 1 part
dark chrome green.


«BROWN TINTS:»

Chocolate.—Twenty-five parts white lead; 3 parts burnt umber.

Cocoanut.—Equal parts white lead and burnt umber.

Cinnamon.—Ten parts white lead; 2 parts burnt sienna; 1 part French
ocher.

Dark Drab.—Forty parts white lead; 1 part burnt umber.

Dark Stone.—Twenty parts white lead; 1 part raw umber.

Fawn.—Fifty parts white lead; 3 parts burnt umber; 2 parts French ocher.

Golden Brown.—Twenty-five parts white lead; 4 parts French ocher; 1
part burnt sienna.

Hazel Nut Brown.—Twenty parts white lead; 5 parts burnt umber; 1 part
medium chrome yellow.

Mulberry.—Ten parts manganese; 2 parts cobalt blue; 2 parts saltpeter.

Purple Brown.—Fifty parts white lead; 6 parts Indian red; 2 parts
ultramarine blue; 1 part lampblack.

Red Brown.—Twelve parts hematite ore; 3 parts manganese; 7 parts
litharge; 2 parts yellow ocher.

Seal Brown.—Thirty parts white lead; 5 parts burnt umber; 1 part medium
chrome yellow.

Snuff Brown.—Twenty-five parts white lead; 1 part burnt umber; 1 part
Oxford ocher.


«GRAY TINTS:»

Ash Gray.—Thirty parts white lead; 2 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part
burnt sienna.

Cold Gray.—Five hundred parts white lead; 6 parts lampblack; 1 part
Antwerp blue.

Dove Color.—Twelve parts manganese; 5 parts steel filings; 3 parts
whiting; 1 part oxide of cobalt.

Dove Gray.—Two hundred parts white lead; 5 parts ultramarine blue; 2
parts drop black.

French Gray.—One hundred and fifty parts white lead; 2 parts lampblack;
1 part orange chrome yellow; 1 part chrome red (American vermilion).

Lead Color.—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part lampblack (increase
proportion of white lead for light tints).

Lustrous Gray.—Ten parts white lead; 1 part graphite (plumbago).

Olive Gray.—Two hundred parts white lead; 2 parts lampblack; 1 part
medium chrome green.

Pure Gray.—One hundred parts white lead; 1 part drop black.

Pearl Gray.—One hundred parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine blue; 1
part drop black.

Silver Gray.—One hundred and fifty parts white lead; 2 parts lampblack;
3 parts Oxford ocher.

Warm Gray.—One hundred parts white lead; 3 parts drop black; 2 parts
French ocher; 1 part light Venetian red.

NOTE.—For inside work and whenever desirable, the white lead may be
replaced by zinc white or a mixture of the two white pigments may be
used. Be it also remembered that pure colors, as a rule, will produce
the cleanest tints and that fineness of grinding is an important
factor. It will not be amiss to call attention to the fact that the
excessive use of driers, especially of dark japans or liquid driers,
with delicate tints is bad practice, and liable to ruin otherwise good
effects in tints or delicate solid colors.


«COLOR TESTING.»

Expense and trouble deter many a painter from having a color examined,
{560} although such an examination is often very necessary. For the
practical man it is less important to know what percentage of foreign
matter a paint contains, but whether substances are contained therein,
which may act injuriously in some way or other.

If a pigment is to be tested for arsenic, pour purified hydrochloric
acid into a test tube or a U-shaped glass vessel which withstands heat,
add a little of the pigment or the colored fabric, wall paper, etc.
(of pigment take only enough to strongly color the hydrochloric acid
simply in the first moment), and finally a small quantity of stannous
chloride. Now heat the test tube with its contents moderately over
a common spirit lamp. If the liquid or mass has assumed a brown or
brownish color after being heated, arsenic is present in the pigment or
fabric, etc.

An effective but simple test for the durability of a color is to paint
strips of thick paper and nail them on the wall in the strongest light
possible. A strip of paper should then be nailed over one-half of the
samples of color so as to protect them from the light. On removing this
the difference in shade between the exposed and unexposed portions will
be very apparent. Some colors, such as the vermilionettes, will show a
marked difference after even a few weeks.


«Testing Body Colors for Gritty Admixtures.»—The fineness of the
powdered pigment is not a guarantee of the absence of gritty
admixtures. The latter differ from the pigment proper in their specific
gravity. If consisting of metallic oxides or metallic sulphides the
sandy admixtures are lighter than the pigments and rise to the surface
upon a systematic shaking of the sample. In the case of other pigments,
e. g., aluminas and iron varnish colors, they collect at the bottom.
For carrying out the test, a smoothly bored metallic tube about 1⁠/⁠2
to 3⁠/⁠4 inch in diameter and 6 to 7 inches long is used. Both ends are
closed with screw caps and at one side of the tube some holes about
1⁠/⁠6 of an inch in diameter are bored, closed by pieces of a rubber
hose pushed on. The tube is filled with the pigment powder, screwed
up and feebly shaken for some time in a vertical position (the length
of time varying according to the fineness of the powder). Samples may
now be taken from all parts of the tube. Perhaps glass tubes would be
preferable, but lateral apertures cannot be so readily made. After
the necessary samples have been collected in this manner, they must
be prepared with a standard sample, which is accomplished either by
feeling the powder between the fingers or by inspecting it under a
microscope, or else by means of the scratching test, which last named
is the usual way. The requisites for these scratch tests consist of two
soft, well-polished glass plates (2 1⁠/⁠2 x 2 1⁠/⁠4 inches) which are
fixed by means of cement in two stronger plates of hard wood suitably
hollowed out. The surface of the glass must project about 1⁠/⁠2 inch
over the wooden frame. If a sample of the pigment powder is placed on
such a glass plate, another plate is laid on top and both are rubbed
slowly together; this motion will retain a soft, velvety character in
case the pigment is free from gritty admixtures; if otherwise, the
glass is injured and a corresponding sound becomes audible. Next the
powder is removed from the plate, rubbing the latter with a soft rag,
and examining the surface with a microscope. From the nature of the
scratches on the plate the kind of gritty ingredients can be readily
determined. The human finger is sufficiently sensitive to detect the
presence of gritty substances, yet it is not capable of distinguishing
whether they consist of imperfectly reduced or badly sifted grains of
pigment or real gritty admixtures.


«To Determine the Covering Power of Pigments.»—To determine the
covering power of white lead, or any other pigment, take equal
quantities of several varieties of white lead and mix them with
a darker pigment, black, blue, etc., the latter also in equal
proportions. The white lead which retains the lightest color is
naturally the most opaque. In a similar manner, on the other hand, the
mixing power of the dark pigments can be ascertained. If experiments
are made with a variety of white lead or zinc white, by the admixture
of dark pigments, the color which tints the white lead or zinc white
most, also possesses the greatest covering or mixing power.


«To Detect the Presence of Aniline in a Pigment.»—Lay a little of the
color upon letter paper and pour a drop of spirit on it. If it is mixed
with aniline the paper is colored right through thereby, while a pure
pigment does not alter the shade of the paper and will never penetrate
it.


«Vehicle for Oil Colors.»—Petroleum, 20 to 30 pounds; tallow, 3 to 5
pounds; cotton-seed oil, 5 to 7 pounds; colophony, 5 to 7 pounds. The
pigments {561} having been ground up with this mixture, the mixed paint
can be made still better by adding to it about a sixth of its weight of
the following mixture: Vegetable oil, 8 to 20 pounds; saponified rosin,
6 to 16 pounds; turpentine, 4 to 30 ounces.


«Frankfort Black.»—Frankfort black, also known as German black, is a
name applied to a superior grade of lampblack. In some districts of
Germany it is said to be made by calcining wine lees and tartar. The
material is heated in large cylindrical vessels having a vent in the
cover for the escape of smoke and vapors that are evolved during the
process. When no more smoke is observed, the operation is finished. The
residuum in the vessels is then washed several times in boiling water
to extract the salts contained therein and finally is reduced to the
proper degree of fineness by grinding on a porphyry.


«Paris Green.»—Emerald or Paris green is rather permanent to light,
but must not be mixed with pigments containing sulphur, because of the
tendency to blacken when so mixed. It will not resist acids, ammonia,
and caustics.

PIGMENT PAPER: See Photography.


«PILE OINTMENTS.»

 I.—“Extract” witch-hazel       2 fluidounces
     Lanum                       2 ounces
     Petrolatum                  6 ounces
     Glycerine                   4 fluidounces
     Tannic acid                 1 drachm
     Powdered opium              1 drachm

 II.—Tannic acid               20 grains
      Bismuth subnitrate         1 drachm
      Powdered opium            10 grains
      Lanum                      3 drachms
      Petrolatum                 5 drachms

PINE SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts.

PINEAPPLE ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts.

PINEAPPLE LEMONADE: See Beverages.

PING PONG FRAPPÉ: See Beverages, under Lemonades.

PINS OF WATCHES: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

PINION ALLOY: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

PINK SALVE: See Ointments.

PINKEYE: See Veterinary Formulas.

PIPE-JOINT CEMENT: See Cement.

PIPE LEAKS: See Leaks.

PIPES, RUST-PREVENTIVE FOR: See Rust Preventives.

PISTACHIO ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts.


«PLANTS:»


«Temperature of Water for Watering Plants.»—Experiments were made
several years ago at the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station to
determine whether cold water was detrimental to plants. Plants were
grown under glass and in the open field, and in all cases the results
were similar. Thus, coleus planted in lots of equal size and vigor
were watered with water at 35°, 50°, 65°, and 86° F. At the end of 60
days it was impossible to note any difference, and when the experiment
was repeated with water at 32°, 40°, 70°, and 100° F., the result was
the same. Beans watered with water at 32°, 40°, 70°, and 100° F.,
were equally vigorous; in fact, water at 32° and 40° F. gave the best
results. Lettuce watered with water at 32° F. yielded slightly more
than the other lots. From these experiments it was concluded that for
vegetable and flowering plants commonly grown under glass, ordinary
well or spring water may be used freely at any time of the year without
warming.

PLANT PRESERVATIVES: See Flowers.


«Plaster»

(See also Gypsum.)


«Therapeutic Grouping of Medicinal Plasters.»—The vehicle for medicated
plasters requires some other attribute than simply adhesiveness. From
a study of the therapy of plasters they may be put in three groups,
similarly to the ointments with reference to their general therapeutic
uses, which also governs the selection of the respective vehicles.

1.—Epidermatic: Supportive, protective, antiseptic, counter-irritant,
vesicant. Vehicle: Rubber or any suitable {562} adhesive. Official
plasters: Emp. adhesivum, E. capsici.

2.—Endermatic: Anodyne, astringent, alterative, resolvent, sedative,
stimulant. Vehicle: Oleates or lead plaster, sometimes with rosins or
gum rosins. Official plasters: Emp. Belladonnæ, E. opii, E. plumbi, E.
saponis.

3.—Diadermatic: For constitutional or systemic effects. Vehicle:
Lanolin or plaster-mull. Official plasters: Emp. hydrargyri.


«Methods of Preparing Rubber Plasters.—Mechanic Roller Pressure
Method.»—This method of incorporating the rubber with certain
substances to give it the necessary body to serve as a vehicle is
at present the only one employed. But since it requires the use of
the heaviest machinery—some of the apparatus weighing many tons—and
enormous steam power, its application for pharmaceutical purposes is
out of the question.

As is well known, the process consists in: 1. Purification of the
rubber by mascerating and pressing it and removing foreign impurities
by elutriating it with water. 2. Forming a homogeneous mass of the
dried purified rubber by working it on heated revolving rollers and
incorporating sufficient quantities of orris powder and oleoresins. 3.
Incorporating the medicinal agent, i. e., belladonna extract, with the
rubber mass by working it on warmed revolving rollers. 4. Spreading the
prepared piaster.

Solution in Volatile Solvents.—This process has been recommended from
time to time, the principal objection being the use of so relatively
large quantities of inflammable solvents.


«The German Pharmacopœia Method.»—The following is the formula of
“Arzneibuch fur das Deutsche Reich,” 1900: Emplastrum adhesivum: Lead
plaster, waterfree, 40 parts; petrolatum, 2.5 parts; liquid petrolatum,
2.5 parts, are melted together, and to the mixture add rosin, 35 parts;
dammar, 10 parts, previously melted. To the warm mixture is added
caoutchouc, 10 parts; dissolved in benzine, 75 parts, and the mixture
stirred on the water-bath until all the benzine is lost by evaporation.

The Coleplastrum adhesivum of the Austrian Society is still more
complex, the formula containing the following: Rosin oil, empyreumatic,
150 parts; copaiba, 100 parts; rosin, 100 parts; lard, 50 parts; wax,
30 parts; dissolved in ether, 1,200 parts, in which caoutchouc, 250
parts, has been previously dissolved; to this is then added orris
powder, 220 parts; sandarac, 50 parts; ether, 400 parts. The mixture,
when uniform, is spread on cloth.


«Solution of Rubber in Fixed Solvent: Petrolatum and Incorporation
with Lead Acetate.»—India rubber dissolves, though with difficulty, in
petrolatum. The heat required to melt the rubber being comparatively
high, usually considerably more than 212° F., as stated in the U.
S. P., it is necessary to melt the rubber first and then add the
petrolatum, in order to avoid subjecting the latter to the higher
temperature. The mixture of equal parts of rubber and petrolatum
is of a soft jelly consistence, not especially adhesive, but when
incorporated with the lead oleate furnishes a very adhesive plaster.
While at first 5 per cent of each rubber and petrolatum was used, it
has been found that the petrolatum would melt and exude around the
edges of the plaster when applied to the skin, and the quantity was
therefore reduced to 2 per cent of each. This mass affords a plaster
which is readily adhesive to the body, does not run nor become too
soft. Plasters spread on cloth have been kept for months exposed to the
sun in the summer weather without losing their stability or permanency.

The lead oleate made by the interaction of hot solution of soap and
lead acetate, thoroughly washed with hot water, and freed from water
by working the precipitated oleate on a hot tile, is much to be
preferred to the lead plaster made by the present official process. The
time-honored method of boiling litharge, olive oil, and water is for
the requirements of the pharmacists most tedious and unsatisfactory.
Since in the beginning of the process, at least, a temperature higher
than that of 212° F. is required, the water bath cannot be employed,
and in the absence of this limiting device the product is usually
“scorched.” When the steam bath under pressure can be used this
objection does not apply. But the boiling process requires from 3 to
4 hours, with more or less attention, while the precipitation method
does not take over half an hour. Besides, true litharge is difficult to
obtain, and any other kind will produce unsatisfactory results.

The following is the process employed:

Lead oleate (Emplastrum plumbi):

 Soap, granular and dried      100 parts
 Lead acetate                   60 parts
 Distilled water, a sufficient quantity.

{563}

Dissolve the soap in 350 parts hot distilled water and strain the
solution. Dissolve the lead acetate in 250 parts hot distilled water
and filter the solution while hot into the warm soap solution, stirring
constantly. When the precipitate which has formed has separated, decant
the liquid and wash the precipitate thoroughly with hot water. Remove
the precipitate, let it drain, free from water completely by kneading
it on a warm slab, form it into rolls, wrap in paraffine paper, and
preserve in tightly closed containers.

Emplastrum adhesivum:

 Rubber, cut in small pieces       20 parts
 Petrolatum                        20 parts
 Lead plaster                     960 parts

Melt the rubber at a temperature not exceeding 302° F., add the
petrolatum, and continue the heat until the rubber is dissolved. Add
the lead plaster to the hot mixture, continue the heat until it becomes
liquid; then let it cool and stir until it stiffens.


«Court Plaster or Sticking Plaster.»—I.—Brush silk over with a solution
of isinglass, in spirits or warm water, dry and repeat several times.
For the last application apply several coats of balsam of Peru. This is
used to close cuts or wounds, by warming and applying it. It does not
wash off until the skin partially heals.

II.—Isinglass, 1 part; water, 10 parts; dissolve, strain the solution,
and gradually add to it of tincture of benzoin, 2 parts; apply this
mixture gently warmed, by means of a camel’s-hair brush, to the
surface of silk or sarcenet, stretched on a frame, and allow each
coating to dry before applying the next one, the application being
repeated as often as necessary; lastly, give the prepared surface a
coating of tincture of benzoin or tincture of balsam of Peru. Some
manufacturers apply this to the unprepared side of the plaster, and
others add to the tincture a few drops of essence of ambergris or
essence of musk.

III. (Deschamps).—A piece of fine muslin, linen, or silk is fastened
to a flat board, and a thin coating of smooth, strained flour paste is
given to it; over this, when dry, two coats of colorless gelatin, made
into size with water, quantity sufficient, are applied warm. Said to be
superior to the ordinary court plaster.


«Coloring of Modeling Plaster.»—I.—If burnt gypsum is stirred up
with water containing formaldehyde and with a little alkali, and
the quantity of water necessary for the induration of the plaster
containing in solution a reducible metallic salt is added thereto, a
plaster mass of perfectly uniform coloring is obtained. The hardening
of the plaster is not affected thereby. According to the concentration
of the metallic salt solutions and the choice of the salts, the most
varying shades of color, as black, red, brown, violet, pearl gray,
and bronze may be produced. The color effect may be enhanced by the
addition of certain colors. For the production of a gray-colored gypsum
mass, for example, the mode of procedure is as follows: Stir 15 drachms
of plaster with one-fourth its weight of water, containing a few drops
of formaldehyde and a little soda lye and add 10 drops of a one-tenth
normal silver solution, which has previously been mixed with the amount
of water necessary for hardening the gypsum. The mass will immediately
upon mixing assume a pearl-gray shade, uniform throughout. In order to
produce red or copper-like, black or bronze-like shades, gold salts,
copper salts or silver salts, bismuth salts or lead salts, singly or
mixed, are used. Naturally, these colorings admit of a large number of
modifications. In lieu of formaldehyde other reducing agents may be
employed, such as solutions of sulphurous acid or hydrogen peroxide
with a little alkali. Metals in the elementary state may likewise be
made use of, e. g., iron, which, stirred with a little copper solution
and plaster, produces a brown mass excelling in special hardness, etc.
This process of coloring plaster is distinguished from the former
methods in that the coloration is caused by metals in the nascent
state and that a very fine division is obtained. The advantage of the
dyeing method consists in that colorings can be produced with slight
quantities of a salt; besides, the fine contours of the figures are
in no way affected by this manner of coloring, and another notable
advantage lies in the mass being colored throughout, whereby a great
durability of the color against outside actions is assured. Thus a
peeling off of the color or other way of becoming detached, such as by
rubbing off, is entirely excluded.

II.—Frequently, in order to obtain colored plaster objects, ocher or
powdered colors are mixed with the plaster. This method leaves much
to be desired, because the mixture is not always perfect, and instead
of the expected uniform color, blotches appear. Here is a more {564}
certain recipe: Boil brazil wood, logwood, or yellow wood, in water,
according to the desired color, or use extracts of the woods. When the
dye is cold mix it with the plaster. The dye must be passed through a
cloth before use. One may also immerse the plaster articles, medals,
etc., in this dye, but in this case they must be left for some time and
the operation repeated several times.


«Treatment of Fresh Plaster.»—Freshly plastered cement surfaces on
walls may be treated as follows:

The freshly plastered surface first remains without any coating for
about 14 days; then it is coated with a mixture of 50 parts water and
10 parts ammonia carbonate dissolved in hot water; leave this coat
alone for a day, paint it again and wait until the cement has taken on
a uniform gray color, which takes place as a rule in 12 to 14 days.
Then prime the surface thus obtained with pure varnish and finish the
coating, after drying, with ordinary varnish paint or turpentine paint.


«Plaster for Foundry Models.»—Gum lac, 1 part; wood spirit, 2 parts;
lampblack in sufficient quantity to dye.

Plaster from Spent Gas Lime.—Spent lime from gas purifiers, in which
the sulphur has been converted into calcium sulphate, by exposure to
weather, if necessary, is mixed with clay rich in alumina. The mixture
is powdered, formed into balls or blocks with water, and calcined at
a temperature below that at which the setting qualities of calcium
sulphate are destroyed. Slaked lime, clay, and sand are added to the
calcined product, and the whole is finely powdered.


«Plaster Mold.»—Nearly all fine grades of metals can be cast in plaster
molds, provided only a few pieces of the castings are wanted. Dental
plaster should be used, with about one-half of short asbestos. Mix the
two well together, and when the mold is complete let it dry in a warm
place for several days, or until all the moisture is excluded. If the
mold is of considerable thickness it will answer the purpose better.
When ready for casting, the plaster mold should be warmed, and smoked
over a gas light; then the metal should be poured in, in as cool a
state as it will run.


«Cleaning of Statuettes and Other Plaster Objects.»—Nothing takes the
dust more freely than plaster objects, more or less artistic, which
are the modest ornaments of our dwellings. They rapidly contract a
yellow-gray color, of unpleasant appearance. Here is a practical method
for restoring the whiteness: Take finely powdered starch, quite white,
and make a thick paste with hot water. Apply, when still hot, with a
flexible spatula or a brush on the plaster object. The layer should
be quite thick. Let it dry slowly. On drying, the starch will split
and scale off. All the soiled parts of the plaster will adhere, and be
drawn off with the scales. This method of cleaning does not detract
from the fineness of the model.


«Hardening and Toughening Plaster of Paris.»—I.—Plaster of Paris at
times sets too rapidly; therefore the following recipe for toughening
and delaying drying will be useful. To calcined plaster of Paris add 4
per cent of its weight of powdered marshmallow root, which will keep it
from setting for about an hour, and augment its hardness when set, or
double the quantity of marshmallow root powder, and the plaster will
become very firm, and may be worked 2 or 3 hours after mixing, and may
be carved and polished when hard. It is essential that these powders,
which are of different densities and specific gravities, should be
thoroughly mixed, and the plaster of Paris be quite fresh, and it must
be passed through fine hair sieves to ensure its being an impalpable
powder. To ensure thorough mixing, pass the combined powders through
the hair sieve three times. Make up with water sufficient for the
required model or models. Should any of the powder be left over it may
be kept by being put in an air-tight box and placed in a warm room.

The marshmallow root powder may be replaced by dextrin, gum arabic, or
glue. The material treated is suitable while yet in a soft state, for
rolling, glass-tube developing, making plates, etc.

II.—Plaster of Paris may be caused to set more quickly if some alum be
dissolved in the water used for rendering it plastic. If the gypsum
is first moistened with a solution of alum and then again burned, the
resulting compound sets very quickly and becomes as hard as marble.
Borax may be similarly employed. The objects may also be be treated
with a solution of caustic baryta. But it has been found that no
matter how deep this penetrates, the baryta is again drawn toward
the surface when the water evaporates, a portion efflorescing on the
outside, and only a thin layer remaining in the outer shell, where it
is converted into carbonate. This at the same time {565} stops up the
pores, rendering it impossible to repeat the operation. It was later
found that the whole mass of the cast might be hardened by applying
to it with a brush made of glass bristles, a hot solution of baryta.
To prevent separation of the crystallized baryta at the surface, the
object must be raised to a temperature of 140° to 175° F. To produce
good results, however, it is necessary to add to the plaster before
casting certain substances with which the baryta can combine. These are
silicic acid in some form, or the sulphates of zinc, magnesium, copper,
iron, aluminum, etc. With some of these the resulting object may be
colored. As it is, however, difficult to insure the production of
uniform tint, it is better when employing salts producing color, to mix
the plaster with about 5 per cent of quicklime, or, better, to render
it plastic with milk of lime, and then to soak the object in a solution
of metallic sulphate.


«Preservation of Plaster Casts.»—Upon complete drying, small objects
are laid for a short while in celluloid varnish of 4 per cent, while
large articles are painted with it, from the top downward, using a
soft brush. Articles set up outside and exposed to the weather are not
protected by this treatment, while others can be readily washed off and
cleaned with water. To cover 100 square feet of surface, 1 3⁠/⁠4 pints
of celluloid varnish are required.


«To Arrest the Setting of Plaster of Paris.»—Citric acid will delay the
setting of plaster of Paris for several hours. One ounce of acid, at a
cost of about 5 cents, will be sufficient to delay the setting of 100
pounds of plaster of Paris for 2 or 3 hours. Dissolve the acid in the
water before mixing the plaster.


«Weatherproofing Casts.»—I.—Brethauer’s method of preparing plaster
of Paris casts for resisting the action of the weather is as follows:
Slake 1 part of finely pulverized lime to a paste, then mix gypsum with
limewater and intimately mix both. From the compound thus prepared the
figures are cast. When perfectly dry they are painted with hot linseed
oil, repeating the operation several times, then with linseed-oil
varnish, and finally with white oil paint. Statues, etc., prepared in
this way have been constantly exposed to the action of the weather for
4 years without suffering any change.

II.—Jacobsen prepares casts which retain no dust, and can be washed
with lukewarm soap water by immersing them or throwing upon them in a
fine spray a hot solution of a soap prepared from stearic acid and soda
lye in ten times its quantity, by weight, of hot water.


«Reproduction of Plaster Originals.»—This new process consists in
making a plaster mold over the original in the usual manner. After the
solidification of the plaster the mass of the original is removed, as
usual, by cutting out and rinsing out. The casting mold thus obtained
is next filled out with a ceramic mass consisting of gypsum, 1 part;
powdered porcelain, 5 parts; and flux, 1 part. After the mass has
hardened it is baked in the mold. This renders the latter brittle and
it falls apart on moistening with water while the infusion remains as
a firm body, which presents all the details of the original in a true
manner.

PLASTER ARTICLES, REPAIRING OF: See Adhesives and Lutes.

PLASTER GREASE: See Lubricants.

PLASTER, PAINTS FOR: See Paints.

PLASTER OF PARIS, MOLDS FOR CASTING: See Casting.

PLASTIC COMPOSITIONS: See Celluloid and Matrix Mass.

PLASTER, IRRITATING: See Ointments.

PLATES, CARE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC: See Photography.

PLATINA, BIRMINGHAM: See Alloys, under Brass.


«Plating»

The plating of metal surfaces is accomplished in four different ways:
(1) By oxidation, usually involving dipping in an acid bath; (2) by
electrodeposition, involving suspension in a metallic solution, through
which an electric current is passed; (3) by applying a paste that
is fixed, as by burning in; (4) by pouring on molten plating metal
and rolling. For convenience the methods of plating are arbitrarily
classified below under the following headings:

 1. Bronzing.
 2. Coloring of Metals.
 3. Electrodeposition Processes.
 4. Gilding and Gold-Plating. {566}
 5. Oxidizing Processes.
 6. Patina Oxidizing Processes.
 7. Platinizing.
 8. Silvering and Silver-Plating.
 9. Tinned Lead-Plating.
 10. Various Recipes.


«BRONZING:»


«Art Bronzes.»—These are bronzes of different tints, showing a great
variety according to the taste and fancy of the operator.

I.—After imparting to an object a coating of vert antique, it is
brushed to remove the verdigris, and another coat is applied with
the following mixture: Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; powdered
bloodstone, 125 parts, by weight; plumbago, 25 parts, by weight. Finish
with a waxed brush and a coat of white varnish.

II.—Cover the object with a mixture of vinegar, 1,000 parts, by
weight; powdered bloodstone, 125 parts, by weight; plumbago, 25 parts,
by weight; sal ammoniac, 32 parts, by weight; ammonia, 32 parts, by
weight; sea salt, 32 parts, by weight. Finish as above.


«Antique Bronzes.»—In order to give new bronze castings the appearance
and patina of old bronze, various compositions are employed, of which
the following are the principal ones:

I.—Vert Antique: Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; copper sulphate,
16 parts, by weight; sea salt, 32 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 32
parts, by weight; mountain green (Sanders green), 70 parts, by weight;
chrome yellow, 30 parts, by weight; ammonia, 32 parts, by weight.

II.—Vert Antique: Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; copper sulphate,
16 parts, by weight; sea salt, 32 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 32
parts, by weight; mountain green, 70 parts, by weight; ammonia, 32
parts, by weight.

III.—Dark Vert Antique: To obtain darker vert antique, add a little
plumbago to the preceding mixtures.

IV.—Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 8 parts, by weight;
potassium bioxalate, 1 part, by weight.


«Brass Bronzing.»—I.—Immerse the articles, freed from dirt and grease,
into a cold solution of 10 parts of potassium permanganate, 50 parts of
iron sulphate, 5 parts of hydrochloric acid, in 1,000 parts of water.
Let remain 30 seconds; then withdraw, rinse off, and dry in fine, soft
sawdust. If the articles have become too dark, or if a reddish-brown
color be desired, immerse for about 1 minute into a warm (60° C. or
140° F.) solution of chromic acid, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 10
parts; potassium permanganate, 10 parts; iron sulphate, 50 parts;
water, 1,000 parts. Treat as before. If the latter solution alone be
used the product will be a brighter dark yellow or reddish-brown color.
By heating in a drying oven the tone of the colors is improved.

II.—Rouge, with a little chloride of platinum and water, will form
a chocolate brown of considerable depth of tone and is exceedingly
applicable to brass surfaces which are to resemble a copper bronze.


«Copper Bronzing.»—I.—After cleaning the pieces, a mixture made as
follows is passed over them with a brush: Castor oil, 20 parts;
alcohol, 80 parts; soft soap, 40 parts; water, 40 parts. The day
after application, the piece has become bronzed; and if the time is
prolonged, the tint will change. Thus, an affinity of shades agreeable
to the eye can be procured. The piece is dried in hot sawdust, and
colorless varnish with large addition of alcohol is passed over it.
This formula for bronzing galvanic apparatus imparts any shade desired,
from Barbodienne bronze to antique green, provided the liquid remains
for some time in contact with the copper.

II.—Acetate of copper, 6 parts; sal ammoniac, 7 parts; acetic acid, 1
part; distilled water, 100 parts. Dissolve all in water in an earthen
or porcelain vessel. Place on the fire and heat slightly; next, with
a brush give the objects to be bronzed 2 or 3 coats, according to the
shade desired. It is necessary that each coat be thoroughly dry before
applying another.


«Bronzing of Gas Fixtures.»—Gas fixtures which have become dirty or
tarnished from use may be improved in appearance by painting with
bronze paint and then, if a still better finish is required, varnishing
after the paint is thoroughly dry with some light-colored varnish that
will give a hard and brilliant coating.

If the bronze paint is made up with ordinary varnish it is liable to
become discolored from acid which may be present in the varnish. One
method proposed for obviating this is to mix the varnish with about
5 times its volume of spirit of turpentine, add to the mixture dried
slaked lime in the proportion of about 40 grains to the pint, agitate
well, {567} repeating the agitation several times, and finally allowing
the suspended matter to settle and decanting the clear liquid. The
object of this is, of course, to neutralize any acid which may be
present. To determine how effectively this has been done, the varnish
may be chemically tested.


«Iron Bronzing.»—I.—The surface of a casting previously cleaned and
polished is evenly painted with a vegetable oil, e. g., olive oil, and
then well heated, care being taken that the temperature does not rise
to a point at which the oil will burn. The cast iron absorbs oxygen at
the moment when the decomposition of the oil begins, and a brown layer
of oxide is formed which adheres firmly to the surface and which may be
vigorously polished, giving a bronze-like appearance to the surface of
the iron.

II.—To give polished iron the appearance of bronze commence by cleaning
the objects, then subject them for about 5 minutes to the vapor of a
mixture of concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acids; then smear them
with Vaseline and heat them until the vaseline begins to decompose. The
result is a fine bronzing.


«Liquid for Bronze Powder.»—Take 2 ounces gum animi and dissolve in
1⁠/⁠2 pint linseed oil by adding gradually while the oil is being
heated. Boil, strain, and dilute with turpentine.


«Bronzing Metals.»—I.—The following composition is recommended for
bronzing metal objects exposed to the air: Mix about equal parts of
siccative, rectified oil of turpentine, caoutchouc oil, and dammar
varnish, and apply this composition on the objects, using a brush. This
bronze has been found to resist the influences of the weather.

II.—Cover the objects with a light layer of linseed oil, and then
heat over a coal fire, prolonging the heat until the desired shade is
reached.

III.—Expose the objects to be bronzed for about 5 minutes to the
vapors of a bath composed of 50 parts of nitric acid and 50 parts of
concentrated hydrochloric acid. Then rub the articles with vaseline and
heat until the vaseline is decomposed. The objects to be bronzed must
always be perfectly polished.

IV.—To bronze iron articles they should be laid in highly heated coal
dust; the articles must be covered up in the glowing dust, and the heat
must be the same throughout. The iron turns at first yellow, then blue,
and finally rather black. Withdraw the objects when they have attained
the blue shade or the black color; then while they are still hot, rub
them with a wad charged with tallow.

V.—For electrolytic bronzing of metals the baths employed differ from
the brass baths only in that they contain tin in solution instead of
zinc. According to Elsner, dissolve 70 parts, by weight, of cupric
sulphate in 1,000 parts of water and add a solution of 8 parts of
stannic chloride in caustic lye. For a positive pole plate put in a
bronze plate. The bath works at ordinary temperature.

VI.—A good bath consists of 10 parts of potash, 2 parts of cupric
chloride, 1 part of tin salt, 1 part of cyanide of potassium dissolved
in 100 parts of water.

VII.—Mix a solution of 32 parts of copper sulphate in 500 parts of
water with 64 parts of cyanide of potassium. After the solution has
become clear, add 4 to 5 parts of stannic chloride dissolved in potash
lye.

VIII.—Precipitate all soda from a solution of blue vitriol by phosphate
of sodium, wash the precipitate well, and dissolve in a concentrated
solution of pyrophosphate of copper. Also, saturate a solution of
the same salt with tin salt. Of both solutions add enough in such
proportion to a solution of 50 parts, by weight, of pyrophosphate of
sodium in 1,000 parts of water until the solution appears clear and of
the desired color. A cast bronze plate serves as an anode. From time to
time a little soda, or if the precipitate turns out too pale, copper
solution should be added.


«Tin Bronzing.»—The pieces are well washed and all grease removed;
next plunged into a solution of copperas (green vitriol), 1 part;
sulphate, 1 part; water, 20 parts. When dry they are plunged again into
a bath composed of verdigris, 4 parts; dissolved in distilled wine
vinegar, 11 parts. Wash, dry, and polish with English red.


«Zinc Bronzing.»—The zinc article must be first electro-coppered before
proceeding to the bronzing. The process used is always the same; the
different shades are, however, too numerous to cover all of them in
one explanation. The bronzing of zinc clocks is most frequently done
on a brown ground, by mixing graphite, lampblack, and sanguine stirred
in water in which a little Flanders Dutch glue is dissolved. The
application is made by means of a brush. When it is dry a {568} spirit
varnish is applied; next, before the varnish is perfectly dry, a little
powdered bronze or sanguine or powdered bronze mixed with sanguine or
with graphite, according to the desired shades. For green bronze, mix
green sanders with chrome yellow stirred with spirit in which a little
varnish is put. When the bronzing is dry, put on the varnish and the
powdered bronze as above described. After all has dried, pass the brush
over a piece of wax, then over the bronzed article, being careful to
charge the brush frequently with wax.


«COLORING OF METALS:»


«Direct Coloration of Iron and Steel by Cupric Selenite.»—Iron
precipitates copper and selenium from their salts. Immersed in a
solution of cupric selenite, acidulated with a few drops of nitric
acid, it precipitates these two metals on its surface in the form of a
dull black deposit, but slightly adherent. But, if the object is washed
with water, then with alcohol, and rapidly dried over a gas burner, the
deposit becomes adherent. If rubbed with a cloth, this deposit turns a
blue black or a brilliant black, according to the composition of the
bath.

The selenite of copper is a greenish salt insoluble in water, and but
slightly soluble in water acidulated with nitric or sulphuric acid. It
is preferable to mix a solution of cupric sulphate with a solution of
selenious acid, and to acidulate with nitric acid, in order to prevent
the precipitation of the selenite of copper.

This process, originated by Paul Malherbe, is quite convenient for
blackening or bluing small objects of iron or steel, such as metallic
pens or other small pieces. It does not succeed so well for objects of
cast iron; and the selenious acid is costly, which is an obstacle to
its employment on large metallic surfaces.

The baths are quickly impoverished, for insoluble yellow selenite of
iron is deposited.

Brilliant Black Coloration.—Selenious acid, 6 parts; cupric sulphate,
10 parts; water, 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 4 to 6 parts.

Blue-Black Coloration.—Selenious acid, 10 parts; cupric sulphate, 10
parts; water, 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 4 to 6 parts.

By immersing the object for a short time the surface of the metal can
be colored in succession yellow, rose, purple, violet and blue.


«Coloration of Copper and Brass with Cupric Selenite.»—When an object
of copper or brass is immersed in a solution of selenite of copper
acidulated with nitric acid, the following colors are obtained,
according to the time of the immersion: Yellow, orange, rose, purple,
violet, and blue, which is the last color which can be obtained. In
general, the solution should be slightly acid; otherwise the color is
fugacious and punctate.

                         _a._           _b._
 Selenious acid            6.5        2.9 parts
 Sulphate of copper       12.5       20.0 parts
 Nitric acid               2.0        2.5 parts
 Water                 1,000.0    1,000.0 parts


«Production of Rainbow Colors on Metals» (iron, copper, brass, zinc,
etc.)—I.—The following process of irisation is due to Puscher. It
allows of covering the metals with a thick layer of metallic sulphide,
similar to that met with in nature—in galena, for example.

These compounds are quite solid and are not attacked by concentrated
acids and alkalies, while dilute reagents are without action. In 5
minutes thousands of objects of brass can be colored with the brightest
hues. If they have been previously cleaned chemically, the colors
deposited on the surface adhere with such strength that they can be
worked with the burnisher.

Forty-five parts of sodium hyposulphite are dissolved in 500 parts of
water; a solution of 15 parts of neutral acetate of lead in 500 parts
of water is poured in. The clear mixture, which is composed of a double
salt of hyposulphite of lead and of sodium, possesses, when heated to
212° F., the property of decomposing slowly and of depositing brown
flakes of lead sulphide. If an article of gold, silver, copper, brass,
tombac, iron, or zinc is put into this bath while the precipitation
is taking place, the object will be covered with a film of lead
sulphide, which will give varied and brilliant colors, according to its
thickness. For a uniform coloration, it is necessary that the pieces
should be heated quite uniformly. However, iron assumes under this
treatment only a blue color, and zinc a bronze color. On articles of
copper the first gold color which appears is defective. Lead and tin
are not colored.

By substituting for the neutral acetate of lead an equal quantity of
cupric sulphate and proceeding in a similar way, brass or imitation
gold is covered with a very beautiful red, succeeded by an imperfect
green, and finally a magnificent brown, with iridescent points of
greenish red. The latter coating is fairly permanent.

Zinc is not colored in this solution, and {569} precipitates in it a
quantity of flakes of greenish brown (cupric sulphide), but if about
one-third of the preceding solution of lead acetate is added, a solid
black color is developed, which, when covered with a light coating of
wax, gains much in intensity and solidity. It is also useful to apply a
slight coating of wax to the other colors.

II.—Beautiful designs may be obtained, imitating marble, with sheets
of copper plunged into a solution of lead, thickened by the addition
of gum tragacanth, and heated to 212° F. Afterwards they are treated
with the ordinary lead solution. The compounds of antimony, for example
the tartrate of antimony and potash, afford similar colorations, but
require a longer time for their development. The solutions mentioned do
not change, even after a long period, and may be employed several times.

III.—By mixing a solution of cupric sulphate with a solution of sodium
hyposulphite, a double hyposulphite of sodium and of copper is obtained.

If in the solution of this double salt an article of nickel or of
copper, cleaned with nitric acid, then with soda, is immersed, the
following colors will appear in a few seconds: Brilliant red, green,
rose, blue, and violet. To isolate a color, it is sufficient to take
out the object and wash it with water. The colors obtained on nickel
present a moiré appearance, similar to that of silk fabrics.

IV.—Tin sulphate affords with sodium hyposulphite a double salt, which
is reduced by heat, with production of tin sulphide. The action of this
double salt on metallic surfaces is the same as that of the double
salts of copper and lead. Mixed with a solution of cupric sulphate,
all the colors of the spectrum will be readily obtained.

V.—Coloration of Silver.—The objects of copper or brass are first
covered with a layer of silver, when they are dipped in the following
solution at the temperature of 205° to 212° F.: Water, 3,000 parts;
sodium hyposulphite, 300 parts; lead acetate, 100 parts.

VI.—Iron precipitates bismuth from its chlorhydric solution. On heating
this deposit, the colors of the rainbow are obtained.


«Coloration by Electrolysis.»—I.—Colored Rings by Electrolysis (Nobili,
Becquerel).—In order to obtain the Nobili rings it is necessary to
concentrate the current coming from one of the poles of the battery
through a platinum wire, whose point alone is immersed in the liquid
to be decomposed, while the other pole is connected with a plate of
metal in the same liquid. This plate is placed perpendicularly to the
direction of the wire, and at about 0.04 inches from the point.

Solutions of sulphate of copper, sulphate of zinc, sulphate of
manganese, acetate of lead, acetate of copper, acetate of potassium,
tartrate of antimony and potash, phosphoric acid, oxalic acid,
carbonate of soda, chloride of manganese, and manganous acetate, may be
employed.

II.—A process, due to M. O. Mathey, allows of coloring metals by
precipitating on their surface a transparent metallic peroxide. The
phenomenon of electro-chemical coloration on metals is the same as that
which takes place when an object of polished steel is exposed to heat.
It first assumes a yellow color, from a very thin coating of ferric
oxide formed on its surface. By continuing the heating, this coating of
oxide increases in thickness, and appears red, then violet, then blue.
Here, the coloration is due to the increase in the thickness of a thin
coating of a metallic oxide precipitated by an alkaline solution.

The oxides of lead, tin, zinc, chromium, aluminum, molybdenum,
tungsten, etc., dissolved in potash, may be employed; also protoxide of
iron, zinc, cadmium, cobalt, dissolved in ammonia.

Lead Solution.—Potash, 400 parts; litharge or massicot, 125 parts. Boil
10 minutes, filter, dilute until the solution marks 25° Bé.

Iron Solution.—Dissolve ferrous sulphate in boiling water, and preserve
sheltered from air. When desired for use, pour a quantity into a
vessel and add ammonia until the precipitate is redissolved. This
solution, oxidizing rapidly in the air, cannot be used for more than an
hour.

III.—Electro-chemical coloration succeeds very well on metals which are
not oxidizable, such as gold and platinum, but not well on silver. This
process is employed for coloring watch hands and screws. The object is
placed at the positive pole, under a thickness of 1 1⁠/⁠4 inches of the
liquid, and the negative electrode is brought to the surface of the
bath. In a few seconds all the colors possible are obtained. Generally,
a ruby-red tint is sought for.

IV.—Coloration of Nickel.—The nickel piece is placed at the positive
pole in a solution of lead acetate. A netting {570} of copper wires is
arranged at the negative pole according to the contours of the design,
and at a short distance from the object. The coloration obtained is
uniform if the distance of the copper wires from the object is equal at
all points.


«Coloring of Brass.»—I.—(_a_) Brown bronze: Acid solution of nitrate of
silver and bismuth or nitric acid. (_b_) Light bronze: Acid solution
of nitrate of silver and of copper, (_c_) Black: Solution of nitrate
of copper. In all cases, however, the brass is colored black, if
after having been treated with the acid solution, it is placed for
a very short time in a solution of potassium sulphide, of ammonium
sulphydrate, or of hydrogen sulphide.

II.—The brass is immersed in a dilute solution of mercurous
nitrate; the layer of mercury formed on the brass is converted into
black sulphide, if washed several times in potassium sulphide. By
substituting for the potassium sulphide the sulphide of antimony or
that of arsenic, beautiful bronze colors are obtained, varying from
light brown to dark brown.

III.—Clean the brass perfectly. Afterwards rub with sal ammoniac
dissolved in vinegar. Strong vinegar, 1,000 parts; sal ammoniac, 30
parts; alum, 15 parts; arsenious anhydride, 8 parts.

IV.—A solution of chloride of platinum is employed, which leaves a very
light coating of platinum on the metal, and the surface is bronzed. A
steel tint or gray color is obtained, of which the shade depends on the
metal. If this is burnished, it takes a blue or steel gray shade, which
varies with the duration of the chemical action, the concentration,
and the temperature of the bath. A dilute solution of platinum is
prepared thus: Chloride of platinum, 1 part; water, 5,000 parts.

Another solution, more concentrated at the temperature of 104° F., is
kept ready. The objects to be bronzed are attached to a copper wire
and immersed for a few seconds in a hot solution of tartar, 30 parts
to 5,000 parts of water. On coming from this bath they are washed 2 or
3 times with ordinary water, and a last time with distilled water, and
then put in the solution of platinum chloride, stirring them from time
to time. When a suitable change of color has been secured, the objects
are passed to the concentrated solution of platinum chloride (40°).
They are stirred, and taken out when the wished-for color has been
reached. They are then washed 2 or 3 times, and dried in wood sawdust.

V.—To give to brass a dull black color, as that used for optical
instruments, the metal is cleaned carefully at first, and covered with
a very dilute mixture of neutral nitrate of tin, 1 part; chloride of
gold, 2 parts. At the end of 10 minutes this covering is removed with a
moist brush. If an excess of acid has not been employed, the surface of
the metal will be found to be of a fine dull black.

The nitrate of tin is prepared by decomposing the chloride of this
metal with ammonia and afterwards dissolving in nitric acid the oxide
of tin formed.

VI.—For obtaining a deposit of bismuth the brass is immersed in a
boiling bath, prepared by adding 50 to 60 parts of bismuth to nitric
acid diluted with 1,000 parts of water, and containing 32 parts of
tartaric acid.

VII.—The electrolysis of a cold solution of 25 to 30 parts per 1,000
parts of the double chloride of bismuth and ammonium produces on brass
or on copper a brilliant adherent deposit of bismuth, whose appearance
resembles that of old silver.


«Production of Rainbow Hues.»—Various colors.—I.—Dissolve tartrate of
antimony and of potash, 30 parts; tartaric acid, 30 parts; water, 1,000
parts. Add hydrochloric acid, 90 to 120 parts; pulverized antimony,
90 to 120 parts. Immerse the object of brass in this boiling liquid,
and it will be covered with a film, which, as it thickens, reflects
quite a series of beautiful tints, first appearing iridescent, then the
color of gold, copper, or violet, and finally of a grayish blue. These
colors are adherent, and do not change in the air.

II.—The sulphide of tin may be deposited on metallic surfaces,
especially on brass, communicating shades varying with the thickness
of the deposit. For this purpose, Puscher prepares the following
solutions: Dissolve tartaric acid, 20 parts, in water, 1,000 parts; add
a salt of tin, 20 parts; water, 125 parts. Boil the mixture, allow it
to repose, and filter. Afterwards pour the clear portion a little at
a time, shaking continually, into a solution of hyposulphite of soda,
80 parts; water, 250 parts. On boiling, sulphide of tin is formed,
with precipitation of sulphur. On plunging the pieces of brass in the
liquid, they are covered, according to the period of immersion, with
varied shades, passing from gold yellow to red, to crimson, to blue,
and finally to light brown.

III.—The metal is treated with the {571} following composition:
Solution A.—Cotton, well washed, 50 parts; salicylic acid, 2 parts,
dissolved in sulphuric acid, 1,000 parts, and bichromate of potash,
100 parts. Solution B.—Brass, 20 parts; nitric acid, density 1.51, 350
parts; nitrate of soda, 10 parts. Mix the two solutions, and dilute
with 1,500 parts of water. These proportions may be modified according
to the nature of the brass to be treated. This preparation is spread on
the metal, which immediately changes color. When the desired tint is
obtained, the piece is quickly plunged in an alkaline solution; a soda
salt, 50 parts; water, 1,000 parts. The article is afterwards washed,
and dried with a piece of cloth. Beautiful red tints are obtained by
placing the objects between 2 plates, or better yet, 2 pieces of iron
wire-cloth.

IV.—Put in a flask 100 parts of cupric carbonate and 750 parts of
ammonia and shake. This liquid should be kept in well-stoppered
bottles. When it has lost its strength, this may be renewed by pouring
in a little ammonia. The objects to be colored should be well cleaned.
They are suspended in the liquid and moved back and forth. After a few
minutes of immersion, they are washed with water and dried in wood
sawdust. Generally, a deep-blue color is obtained.

V.—Plunge a sheet of perfectly clean brass in a dilute solution of
neutral acetate of copper, and at the ordinary temperature, and in a
short time it will be found covered with a fine gold yellow.

VI.—Immerse the brass several times in a very dilute solution of cupric
chloride, and the color will be deadened and bronzed a greenish gray.

A plate of brass heated to 302° F. is colored violet by rubbing its
surface gently with cotton soaked with cupric chloride.

VII.—On heating brass, perfectly polished, until it can be no longer
held in the hand, and then covering it rapidly and uniformly with a
solution of antimony chloride by means of a wad of cotton, a fine
violet tint is communicated.

VIII.—For greenish shades, a bath may be made use of, composed of
water, 100 parts; cupric sulphate, 8 parts; sal ammoniac, 2 parts.

IX.—For orange-brown and cinnamon-brown shades: Water, 1,000 parts;
potassium chlorate, 10 parts; cupric sulphate, 10 parts.

X.—For obtaining rose-colored hues, then violet, then blue: Water, 400
parts; cupric sulphate, 30 parts; sodium hyposulphite, 20 parts; cream
of tartar, 10 parts.

XI.—For yellow, orange, or rose-colored shades, then blue, immerse the
objects for a longer or shorter time in the following bath: Water, 400
parts, ammoniacal ferrous sulphate, 20 parts; sodium hyposulphite,
40 parts; cupric sulphite, 30 parts; cream of tartar, 10 parts. By
prolonging the boiling, the blue tint gives place to yellow, and
finally to a fine gray.

XII.—A yellowish brown may be obtained with water, 50 parts; potassium
chlorate, 5 parts; nickel carbonate, 2 parts; sal nickel, 5 parts.

XIII.—A dark brown is obtained with water, 50 parts; sal nickel, 10
parts; potassium chlorate, 5 parts.

XIV.—A yellowish brown is obtained with water, 350 parts; a
crystallized sodium salt, 10 parts; orpiment, 5 parts.

XV.—Metallic moire is obtained by mixing two liquids: (_a_) Cream of
tartar, 5 parts; cupric sulphate, 5 parts; water, 250 parts. (_b_)
Water, 125 parts; sodium hyposulphite, 15 parts.

XVI.—A beautiful color is formed with one of the following baths: (_a_)
Water, 140 parts; ammonia, 5 parts; potassium sulphide, 1 part. (_b_)
Water, 100 parts; ammonium sulphydrate, 2 parts.


«Bronzing of Brass.»—The object is boiled with zinc grains and water
saturated with ammoniacal chlorhydrate. A little zinc chloride may be
added to facilitate the operation, which is completed as above.

It may also be terminated by plunging the object in the following
solution: Water, 2,000 parts; vinegar, 100 parts; sal ammoniac, 475
parts; pulverized verdigris, 500 parts.


«ELECTRODEPOSITION PROCESSES.»

The electrodeposition process is that used in electroplating and
electrotyping. It consists in preparing a bath in which a metal salt
is in solution, the articles to be plated being suspended so that they
hang in the solution, but are insulated. The bath being provided with
an anode and cathode for the passing of an electric current, and the
article being connected with the cathode or negative pole, the salts
are deposited on its surface (on the unprotected parts of its surface),
and thus receive a coating or plating of the metal in solution. {572}

When a soft metal is deposited upon a hard metal or the latter upon a
metal softer than itself, the exterior metal should be polished and
not burnished, and for this reason: If silver is deposited upon lead,
for instance, the great pressure which is required in burnishing to
produce the necessary polish would cause the softer metal to expand,
and consequently a separation of the two metals would result. On the
other hand, silver being softer than steel, if the burnisher is applied
to silver-coated steel the exterior metal will expand and separate from
the subjacent metal.

Many articles which are to receive deposits require to have portions
of their surfaces topped off, to prevent the deposit spreading over
those parts; for instance, in taking a copy of one side of a bronze
medallion, the opposite side must be coated with some kind of varnish,
wax, or fat, to prevent deposition; or, in gilding the inside of a
cream jug which has been silvered on the outside, varnish must be
applied all around the outer side of the edge, for the same reason.
For gilding and other hot solutions, copal varnish is generally used;
but for cold liquids and common work, an ordinary varnish, such as
engravers use for similar purposes, will do very well. In the absence
of other substances, a solution of sealing wax, dissolved in naphtha,
may be employed.


«Plating of Aluminum.»—The light metal may be plated with almost any
other metal, but copper is most commonly employed. Two formulas for
coppering aluminum follow:

I.—Make a bath of cupric sulphate, 30 parts; cream of tartar, 30
parts; soda, 25 parts; water, 1,000 parts. After well scouring the
objects to be coppered, immerse in the bath. The coppering may also be
effected by means of the battery with the following mixture: Sodium
phosphate, 50 parts; potassium cyanide, 50 parts; copper cyanide, 50
parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts.

II.—First clean the aluminum in a warm solution of an alkaline
carbonate, thus making its surface rough and porous; next wash it
thoroughly in running water, and dip it into a hot solution of
hydrochloric acid of about 5 per cent strength. Wash it again in clean
water, and then place it in a somewhat concentrated acid solution of
copper sulphate, until a uniform metallic deposit is formed; it is then
again thoroughly washed and returned to the copper sulphate bath, when
an electric current is passed until a coating of copper of the required
thickness is obtained.


«Brassing.»—The following recipe is recommended for the bath: Copper
acetate, 50 parts, by weight; dry zinc chloride, 25 parts, by weight;
crystallized sodium sulphite, 250 parts, by weight; ammonium carbonate,
35 parts, by weight; potassium cyanide, 110 parts, by weight. Dissolve
in 3,000 parts of water.


«Coppering.»—I.—This is the Dessolle process for the galvanic
application of copper. The special advantage claimed is that strong
currents can be used, and a deposit obtained of 0.004 inch in 1 1⁠/⁠2
hours. After having cleaned the object to be coppered, with sand or in
an acid bath, a first coat is deposited in an ordinary electrolytic
bath; then the object is placed in a final bath, in which the
electrolyte is projected on the electrode, so as to remove all bubbles
of gas or other impurities tending to attach themselves to the surface.
The electrolyte employed is simply a solution of cupric sulphate in
very dilute sulphuric acid. For the preliminary bath the double cyanide
of potassium and copper is made use of.

II.—Those baths which contain cyanide work best, and may be used for
all metals. The amount of the latter must not form too large an excess.
The addition of a sulphide is very dangerous. It is of advantage
that the final bath contain an excess of alkali, but only as ammonia
or ammonium carbonate. For a copper salt the acetate is preferable.
According to this, the solution A is prepared in the warm, and solution
B is added with heating. Solution A: Neutral copper acetate, 30 parts,
by weight; crystallized sodium sulphite, 30 parts, by weight; ammonium
carbonate, 5 parts, by weight; water, 500 parts, by weight. Solution B:
Potassium cyanide (98 to 99 per cent), 35 parts, by weight; and water,
500 parts, by weight.


«Coppering Glass.»—I.—Glass vessels may be coated with copper by
electrolytic process, by simply varnishing the outer surface of the
vessel, and when the varnish is nearly dry, brushing plumbago well over
it. A conducting wire is then attached to the varnished surface, which
may be conveniently done by employing a small piece of softened gutta
percha or beeswax, taking care to employ the plumbago to the part which
unites the wire to the plumbagoed surface.

II.—Dissolve gutta percha in essence of turpentine or benzine; apply a
coat of the solution on the glass in the places to {573} be coppered
and allow to dry; next rub it with graphite and place in the electric
bath. The rubber solution is spread with a brush.


«Coppering Plaster Models, etc.»—Busts and similar objects may be
coated by saturating them with linseed oil, or better, with beeswax,
then well blackleading, or treating them with phosphorous, silver and
gold solutions, attaching a number of guiding wires, connected with
all the most hollow and distant parts, and then immersing them in the
sulphate of copper solution and causing just sufficient copper to be
deposited upon them, by the battery process, to protect them, but not
to obliterate the fine lines or features.


«Coppering Zinc Plate.»—The zinc plate should first be cleaned with
highly diluted hydrochloric acid and the acid completely removed with
water. Then prepare an ammoniacal copper solution from 3 parts copper
sulphate, 3 parts spirits of sal ammoniac, and 50 parts water. If
possible the zinc articles are dipped into this solution or else the
surface is coated a few times quickly and uniformly with a flat, soft
brush, leaving to dry between the coats. When sufficient copper has
precipitated on the zinc, brush off the object superficially.


«Cobaltizing of Metals.»—Following are various processes for
cobaltizing on copper or other metals previously coppered: I.—Cobalt,
50 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 25 parts; liquid ammonia, 15 parts;
distilled water, 1,000 parts. Dissolve the cobalt and the sal ammoniac
in the distilled water, and add the liquid ammonia.

II.—Pure potash in alcohol, 50 parts, by weight; cobalt chloride, 10
parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. Dissolve the cobalt in half the
distilled water and the potash in the other half and unite the two.

III.—Potassium sulphocyanide, 13 parts, by weight; cobalt chloride, 10
parts; pure potash in alcohol, 2 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts.
Proceed as described above. All these baths are used hot and require a
strong current.


«Nickel Plating with the Battery.»—The nickel bath is prepared
according to the following formula:

 I.—Nickel and ammonium sulphate            10 parts
     Boracic acid                             4 parts
     Distilled water                        175 parts
     A sheet of nickel is used as an anode.

Perfect cleanliness of the surface to be coated is essential to
success. With nickel especially is this the case, as traces of oxide
will cause it to show dark streaks. Finger marks will in any case
render the deposit liable to peel off.

Cleansing is generally accomplished either by boiling in strong
solution of potassium hydrate, or, when possible, by heating to redness
in a blow-pipe flame to burn off any adhesive grease, and then soaking
in a pickle of dilute sulphuric acid to remove any oxide formed during
the heating. In either case it is necessary to subject the article
to a process of scratch brushing afterwards; that is, long-continued
friction with wire brushes under water, which not only removes any
still adhering oxide, but renders the surface bright.

To certain metals, as iron, nickel, and zinc, metallic deposits do not
readily adhere. This difficulty is overcome by first coating them with
copper in a bath composed as follows:

 II.—Potassium cyanide                  2 parts
      Copper acetate, in crystals        2 parts
      Sodium carbonate, in crystals      2 parts
      Sodium bisulphite                  2 parts
      Water                            100 parts

Moisten the copper acetate with a small quantity of water and add the
sodium carbonate dissolved in 20 parts of water. When reaction is
complete, all the copper acetate being converted into carbonate, add
the sodium bisulphite, dissolved in another 20 parts of water; lastly,
add the potassium cyanide, dissolved in the remainder of the water. The
finished product should be a colorless liquid.

If a dynamo is not available for the production of a current, a
Daniell’s battery is to be recommended, and the “tank” for a small
operation may be a glass jar. The jar is crossed by copper rods in
connection with the battery; the metal to be deposited is suspended
from the rod in connection with the positive pole, and is called the
anode. The articles to be coated are suspended by thin copper wires
from the rod in connection with the negative pole; these form the
cathode. The worker should bear in mind that it is very difficult to
apply a thick coating of nickel without its peeling.


«Replating with Battery.»—It is well known to electro-metallurgists
that metals deposited by electricity do not adhere so firmly to their
kind as to other metals. Thus gold will adhere more tenaciously {574}
to silver, copper, or brass, than it will to gold or to a gilt surface,
and silver will attach itself more closely to copper or brass than to
a silver-plated surface. Consequently, it is the practice to remove,
by stripping or polishing the silver from old plated articles before
electroplating them. If this were not done, the deposited coating would
in all probability “strip,” as it is termed, when the burnisher is
applied to it—that is, the newly deposited metal would peel off the
underlying silver. It must be understood that these remarks apply to
cases in which a good, heavy deposit of silver is required, for, of
course, the mere film would not present any remarkable peculiarity.


«Silver Plating.»—The term silver deposit designates a coating of
silver which is deposited upon glass, porcelain, china, or other
substances. This deposit may be made to take the form of any desired
design, and to the observer it has the appearance (in the case of
glass) of having been melted on.

Practically all of the plated articles are made by painting the design
upon the glass or other surface by means of a mixture of powdered
silver, a flux and a liquid to make the mixture in the form of a paint
so that it may be readily spread over the surface. This design is then
fired in a muffle until the flux melts and causes the silver to become
firmly attached to the glass. A thin silver deposit is thus produced,
which is a conductor of electricity, and upon which any thickness of
silver deposit may be produced by electroplating in the usual cyanide
silver-plating bath.

To be successful in securing a lasting deposit a suitable flux must be
used. This flux must melt at a lower temperature than the glass upon
which it is put, in order to prevent the softening of the articles by
the necessary heat and the accompanying distortion. Second, a suitable
muffle must be had for firing the glass articles upon which the design
has been painted. Not only must a muffle be used in which the heat can
be absolutely controlled, but one which allows the slow cooling of the
articles. If this is not done they are apt to crack while cooling.

The manufacture of the flux is the most critical part of the silver
deposit process. Without a good flux the operation will not be a
success. This flux is frequently called an enamel or frit. After a
series of experiments it was found that the most suitable flux is
a borate of lead. This is easily prepared, fuses before the glass
softens, and adheres tenaciously to the glass surface.

To make it, proceed as follows: Dissolve 1⁠/⁠4 pound of acetate of
lead (sugar of lead) in 1 quart of water and heat to boiling. Dissolve
1⁠/⁠4 pound of borax in 1 quart of hot water and add to the sugar of
lead solution. Borate of lead follows as a white precipitate. This is
filtered out and washed until free from impurities. It is then dried.

The precipitated borate of lead is then melted in a porcelain or clay
crucible. When in the melted condition it should be poured into a
basin of cold water. This serves to granulate and render it easily
pulverized. After it has been poured into water it is removed and
dried. Before using in the paint it is necessary that this fused borate
of lead be ground in a mortar as fine as possible. Unless this is done
the deposit will not be smooth.

The silver to be used should be finely powdered silver, which can be
purchased in the same manner as bronze powders.

The mixture used for painting the design upon the glass is composed of
2 parts of the powdered silver, and 1 part of the fused borate of lead.
Place the parts in a mortar and add just enough oil of lavender to make
the mass of a paint-like consistency. The whole is then ground with the
pestle until it is as fine as possible. The amount of oil of lavender
which is used must not be too great, as it will then be found that a
thick layer cannot be obtained upon the glass.

The glass to be treated must be cleaned by scouring with wet pumice
stone and washing soda. The glass should be rinsed and dried. The
design is then painted on the glass with a brush, painting as thick as
possible and yet leaving a smooth, even surface. The glass should be
allowed to dry for 24 hours, when it is ready for firing.

When placed in the gas muffle, the glass should be subjected to a
temperature of a very low red heat. The borate of lead will melt at
this temperature, and after holding this heat a short time to enable
the borate of lead to melt and attach itself, the muffle is allowed to
cool.

After cooling, the articles are removed and scratch brushed and placed
in a silver bath for an electro deposit of silver of a thickness
desired.

Before the plating the glass article is dipped into a cyanide dip,
or, if found necessary, scoured lightly with pumice {575} stone and
cyanide, and then given a dip in the customary blue dip or mercury
solution, so as to quickly cover all parts of the surface. It next
passes to the regular cyanide silver solution, and is allowed to remain
until the desired deposit is obtained.

A little potassium cyanide and some mono-basic potassium citrate in
powder form is added from time to time to the bath generally used,
which is prepared by dissolving freshly precipitated silver cyanide in
a potassium cyanide solution. After this the glass is rinsed and dried,
and may be finished by buffing.


«Steel Plating.»—The following is a solution for dipping steel articles
before electroplating: Nitrate of silver, 1 part; nitrate of mercury, 1
part; nitric acid (specific gravity, 1.384), 4 parts; water, 120 parts.
The article, free from grease, is dipped in the pickle for a second or
two.

The following electroplating bath is used: Pure crystallized ferrous
sulphate, 40 parts, by weight, and ammonium chloride, 100 parts, by
weight, in 1,000 parts, by weight, of water. It is of advantage to add
to this 100 parts, by weight, of ammonium citrate, in order to prevent
the precipitation of basic iron salts, especially at the anode.


«Tin Plating by Electric Bath.»—Most solutions give a dead-white film
of tin, and this has to be brightened by friction of some sort, either
by scratch brushing, burnishing, polishing, or rubbing with whiting.
The bright tin plates are made bright by rolling with polished steel
rollers. Small articles may be bright-tinned by immersion in melted
tin, after their surfaces have been made chemically clean and bright,
all of which processes entail much time and labor. Benzoic acid,
boric acid, or gelatin may be tried with a well-regulated current
and the solution in good working order, but all will depend upon the
exact working of the solution, the same conditions being set up as
are present in the deposition of other metals. These substances may
be separately tried, in the proportion of 1 ounce to each gallon of
the tin solution, by boiling the latter and adding either one during
the boiling, as they dissolve much easier with the tin salts than in
water separately. Tin articles are usually brightened and polished
with Vienna lime or whiting, the first being used with linen rags and
the latter with chamois leather. Tin baths must be used hot, not below
75° F., with a suitable current according to their composition. Too
strong a current produces a bad color, and the deposit does not adhere
well. A current of from 2 to 6 volts will be sufficient. Small tinned
articles are brightened by being shaken in a leather bag containing a
quantity of bran or by revolving in a barrel with the same substance;
but large objects have to be brightened by other means, such as scratch
brushing and mopping to give an acceptable finish to the deposited
metal.


«GILDING AND GOLD PLATING:»

Genuine gilding readily takes up mercury, while imitation gilding
does not or only very slowly. Any coating of varnish present should,
however, be removed before conducting the test. Mercurous nitrate has
no action on genuine gold, but on spurious gilding a white spot will
form which quickly turns dark. A solution of neutral copper chloride
does not act upon genuine gold, but on alloys containing copper a black
spot will result. Gold fringe, etc., retains its luster in spirit of
wine, if the gilding is genuine; if not, the gilding will burn and
oxidize. Imitation gilding might be termed “snuff gilding,” as in
Germany it consists of dissolved brass, snuff, saltpeter, hydrochloric
acid, etc., and is used for tin toys. An expert will immediately see
the difference, as genuine gilding has a different, more compact pore
formation and a better color. There are also some gold varnishes which
are just as good.

The effect of motion while an article is receiving the deposit is most
clearly seen during the operation of gilding. If a watch dial, for
instance, be placed in the gilding bath and allowed to remain for a few
moments undisturbed and the solution of gold has been much worked, it
is probable that the dial will acquire a dark fox-red color; but if it
be quickly moved about, it instantly changes color and will sometimes
even assume a pale straw color. In fact, the color of a deposit may be
regulated greatly by motion of the article in the bath—a fact which the
operator should study with much attention, when gilding.

The inside of a vessel is gilded by filling the vessel with the
gilding solution, suspending a gold anode in the liquid, and passing
the current. The lips of cream jugs and the upper parts of vessels of
irregular outline are gilded by passing the current from a gold anode
through a rag wetted with the gilding solution and laid upon the part.

Sometimes, when gilding the insides of mugs, tankards, etc., which are
richly {576} chased or embossed, it will be found that the hollow parts
do not receive the deposit at all, or very partially. When this is the
case, the article must be rinsed and well scratch brushed, and a little
more cyanide added to the solution. The anode must be slightly kept in
motion and the battery power increased until the hollow surfaces are
coated. Frequent scratch brushing aids the deposit to a great extent by
imparting a slight film of brass to the surface.

In gilding chains, brooches, pins, rings, and other articles which have
been repaired, i. e., hard soldered, sometimes, it is found that the
gold will not deposit freely upon the soldered parts; when such is the
case, a little extra scratch brushing applied to the part will assist
the operation greatly and it has sometimes been found that dry scratch
brushing for an instant—that is, without the stream of beer usually
employed—renders the surface a better and more uniform conductor and
consequently it will more readily receive the deposit. In fact, dry
scratch brushing is very useful in many cases in which it is desirable
to impart an artificial coating of brass upon an article to which
silver or gold will not readily adhere. In scratch brushing without the
employment of beer or some other liquid, however, great care must be
taken not to continue the operation too long, as the minute particles
of metal given off by the scratch brush would be likely to prove
prejudicial to the health of the operator, were he to inhale them to
any great extent.

The following solutions are for gilding without a battery: I.—In 1,000
parts of distilled water dissolve in the following order:

 Crystalline sodium pyrophosphate                80 parts
 Twelve per cent solution of hydrocyanic acid     8 parts
 Crystalline gold chloride                        2 parts

Heat to a boiling temperature, and dip the article, previously
thoroughly cleaned, therein.

II.—Dissolve in boiling distilled water, 1 part of chloride of gold and
4 parts of cyanide of potassium. Plunge the objects into this solution,
while still hot, and leave them therein for several hours, keeping them
attached to a copper wire or a very clean strip of zinc. They will
become covered with a handsome gold coating.


«Aluminum Gilding.»—I.—Dissolve 6 parts of gold in aqua regia and
dilute the solution with distilled water; on the other hand, put 30
parts of lime in 150 parts of distilled water; at the end of 2 hours
add the gold solution to the lime, shake all and allow to settle for
5 to 6 hours, decant and wash the precipitate, which is lime aurate.
Place this aurate of lime in 1,000 parts of distilled water, with 20
parts of hyposulphite of soda; put all on the fire for 8 to 10 minutes,
without allowing to boil; remove and filter. The filtered liquor serves
for gilding in the cold, by plunging into this bath the aluminum
articles previously pickled by passing through caustic potash and
nitric acid. This gilding is obtained without the aid of the battery.

II.—The gold bath is prepared with gold dissolved in the usual way, and
the addition of salts, as follows: Gold, 20 parts, by weight; sulphate
of soda, 20 parts; phosphate of soda, 660 parts; cyanuret of potassium,
40 parts; water, 1,000 parts. The bath ought to be of the temperature
of 68° to 77° F.


«Amalgam Gold Plating.»—Gold amalgam is chiefly used as a plating for
silver, copper, or brass. The article to be plated is washed over with
diluted nitric acid or potash lye and prepared chalk, to remove any
tarnish or rust that might prevent the amalgam from adhering. After
having been polished perfectly bright, the amalgam is applied as evenly
as possible, usually with a fine scratch brush. It is then set upon
a grate over a charcoal fire, or placed into an oven and heated to
that degree at which mercury exhales. The gold, when the mercury has
evaporated, presents a dull yellow color. Cover it with a coating of
pulverized niter and alum in equal parts, mixed to a paste with water,
and heat again till it is melted, then plunge into water. Burnish up
with a steel or bloodstone burnisher.


«Brass Gilding.»—On brass, which is an electropositive metal, an
electromagnetic metal, such as gold, can be deposited very cheaply from
the dilute solutions of its salts. The deposit is naturally very thin,
but still quite adhesive. In preparing it, the proportions stated below
have to be accurately observed, otherwise no uniform, coherent coating
will result, but one that is uneven and spotted.

I.—In 750 parts, by weight, of water dissolve: Phosphate of soda, 5
parts, and caustic potash, 3 parts, and in 250 parts of water, gold
chloride, 1 part, and potassium cyanide, 16 parts. Mix both {577}
solutions well and cause the mixture to boil, whereupon the brass
articles to be gilded are immersed. The gold in the mixture can be
utilized almost entirely. When the solution does not gild well any more
a little potassium cyanide is added, and it is used for pre-gilding
the articles, which can then be gilded again in a fresh solution. This
solution is very weak. A stronger one can be prepared mechanically by
dissolving 2 to 3 parts of gold chloride in very little water to which
1 part of saltpeter is added. Into this solution dip linen rags, let
them dry in a dark place, and cause them to char into tinder, which is
rubbed up in a porcelain dish. Into the powder so made, dip a soft,
slightly charred cork, moistened with a little vinegar, or else use
only the finger, and rub the gold powder upon the brass articles.

II.—To Give Brass a Golden Color, it is dipped until the desired shade
is obtained into a solution of about 175° F., produced as follows:
Boil 4 parts of caustic soda, 4 parts of milk sugar, and 100 parts of
water for 15 minutes; next add 4 parts of blue vitriol, dissolved in as
little water as possible.


«Copper and Brass Gilding.»—The solutions used to gild copper can
be generally used also for brass articles. Copper gilding acquires
importance because in order to gild iron, steel, tin, and zinc, they
must first be coated with copper, if the boiling method is to be
employed. Following is Langbein’s bath for copper and brass:

Dissolve 1 part, by weight, of chloride of gold and 16 parts, by
weight, of potassium cyanide in 250 parts, by weight, of water;
dissolve also and separately, 5 parts, by weight, of sodium phosphate
and 3 parts, by weight, of caustic potash in 750 parts, by weight, of
cold water. Mix these solutions and bring them to a boil. If the action
subsides, add from 3 to 5 parts, by weight, more potassium cyanide.
The polished iron and steel objects must first be copper-plated by
dipping them into a solution of 5 parts, by weight, of blue vitriol and
2 parts, by weight, of sulphuric acid in 1,000 parts, by weight, of
water. They may now be dipped into a hot solution containing 6 parts,
by weight, of gold chloride and 22 1⁠/⁠2 parts, by weight, of soda
crystals in 75 parts, by weight, of water. This coating of gold may be
polished.


«Cold Chemical Gilding.»—The chemical gilding by the wet process
is accomplished by E. E. Stahl with the aid of three baths: A gold
bath, a neutralization bath, and a reduction bath. The gold bath is
prepared from pure hydrochloric acid, 200 parts; nitric acid, 100
parts; and pure gold. The gold solution evaporated to crystallization
is made to contain 1 1⁠/⁠2 per cent of gold by diluting with water.
The neutralization bath consists of soda lye of 6°, of pure sodium
hydroxide, and distilled water. The reduction bath contains a mixture
of equal parts of 90 per cent alcohol and distilled water, wherein
pure hydrogen has been dissolved. The gilding proper is conducted by
first entering the article in the gold bath, next briskly moving it
about in the neutralization bath, and finally adding the reducing bath
with further strong agitation of the liquid. The residues from the
gilding are melted with 3 parts each of potash, powdered borax, and
potash niter, thus recovering the superfluous gold. The gilding or
silvering respectively produces a deposit of gold or silver of very
slight thickness and of the luster of polishing gold. Besides the
metal solution an “anti-reducer” is needed, consisting of 50 grams of
rectified and rosinified turpentine oil and 10 grams of powdered roll
sulphur. From this is obtained, by boiling, a syrupy balsam, to which
is added, before use, lavender oil, well-ground basic bismuth nitrate,
and the solution for gilding or silvering. The last takes place by a
hydrochloric solution of aluminum with the above balsam.


«Colored Gilding.»—A variety of shades of green and red gold can be
obtained by the electro-chemical process, which method may be employed
for the decoration of various objects of art. In order to produce
red gold in the different shades, a plate of pure copper is hung
into a rather concentrated gold bath (5 to 6 parts, by weight, per
1,000 parts of liquid), which is connected with the battery in such a
manner that gold is deposited on the article immersed in the bath. By
the action of the electric current copper is dissolved as well from
the copper plate and is separated simultaneously with the gold, so
that, after a certain time, a deposit containing a gold copper alloy,
conforming in color to the quantities of gold and copper contained
in it, is obtained by the electric process. When the desired shade
of color of the deposit is reached the copper plate is taken out and
replaced by another consisting of the copper gold alloy, likewise
produced by electrodeposition, and the articles are now gilt in this
liquid. In some large manufactories of gold articles this last coloring
is used even for pure {578} gold articles, to give them a popular
color. To produce green gold (alloy of gold and silver), a silver plate
is first employed, which is dipped into the gold bath and from which
enough silver is dissolved until the separating alloy shows the desired
shade. The silver plate is then exchanged for a gold-silver plate of
the respective color, and the articles are gilt with green gold.


«Gilding German Silver.»—In gilding German silver the solution may be
worked at a low temperature, the solution being weakened and a small
surface of anode exposed. German silver has the power of reducing gold
from its solution in cyanide (especially if the solution be strong)
without the aid of the battery; therefore, the solution should be
weaker, in fact, so weak that the German silver will not deposit the
gold _per se_; otherwise the deposit will take place so rapidly that
the gold will peel off when being burnished or even scratch brushed.


«Gilding of Glass.»—I.—In order to produce a good gilding on glass, the
gold salt employed must be free from acid. Prepare three solutions,
viz.:

_a._ 20 parts acid-free gold chloride in 150 parts of distilled water.

_b._ 5 parts dry sodium hydrate in 80 parts of distilled water.

_c._ 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts of starch sugar in 30 parts distilled water; spirit
of wine, 20 parts; and commercial pure 40 per cent aldehyde, 20 parts.
These liquids are quickly mixed together in the proportion of 200, 50,
and 5 parts, whereupon the mixture is poured on the glass previously
cleaned with soda solution, and the gilding will be effected in a
short time. The gold coating is said to keep intact for years.

II.—Coat the places to be gilded thinly with a saturated borax
solution, lay the gold leaf on this and press down well and uniformly
with cotton-wool. Heat the glass over a spirit flame, until the borax
melts, and allow to cool off. If the glass is to be decorated with gilt
letters or designs, paint the places to be gilded with water-glass
solution of 40° Bé.; lay on the gold leaf, and press down uniformly.
Then heat the object to 86° F., so that it dries a little, sketch the
letters or figures on with a lead pencil, erase the superfluous gold,
and allow the articles to dry completely at a higher temperature.


«Green Gilding.»—This can be obtained conveniently by the galvanic
process, by means of anodes of sheet platinum with the following
composition: Water, 10,000 parts, by weight; sodium phosphate, 200
parts; sodium sulphate, 35 parts; potassium carbonate, 10 parts; 1
ducat gold from gold chloride, potassium cyanide (100 per cent), 20
parts. Dissolve the first three salts in 10,000 parts of cold water and
add, with stirring, the gold chloride and potassium cyanide. Before the
first use boil down the solution thoroughly about one-half, replacing
the evaporating water and filter after cooling, in case a sediment
should appear. To this gold bath very carefully add some silver bath.
The platinum sheets which are to serve as anodes are employed 1 3⁠/⁠4
inches long, 1⁠/⁠3 inch broad, and 1⁠/⁠100 of an inch thick. With these
anodes the gold tone can be somewhat regulated by hanging more or less
deeply into the solution during the gilding. The current should have a
tension of 3 to 4 volts. In the case of batteries three Busen elements
are connected for current tension. It is difficult to produce old gold
on silver, especially if the raised portions are to appear green.
It is most advantageous first to lightly copper the silver goods,
taking the copper off again on the high places by brushing with pumice
stone. After that hang at once in the above gold bath. If the embossed
portions should be too mat, brighten slightly by scratching with a
very fine brass wire brush. In this manner a handsome brown shade is
obtained in the deep places and a green color on the raised portions.
This process requires practice. Since this method will produce only
a very light gilding, a coating of white varnish will protect the
articles from tarnishing.


«Incrusting with Gold.»—The article is first made perfectly bright, and
those places which are to be gilt are covered with a matt consisting
of white lead ground with gum water, made into a paste which can be
applied like a thick paint by means of a pen or brush. Those places
of the metal surface not covered by the paint are coated with asphalt
varnish—a solution of asphaltum in benzine to which oil of turpentine
is added to render it less volatile. After this is done lay the article
in water, so that the white lead paint comes off, and put it into a
gilding bath. By the electric current gold is precipitated on the
bright parts of the metal. When the layer of gold is thick enough lift
the object from the bath, wash, let dry and lay it into a vessel filled
with benzol. The asphalt dissolves in the benzol, and the {579} desired
design appears in gold on the bronze or silver ground. This operation
may also be performed by coating the whole article with asphalt varnish
and executing the design by means of a blunt graver which only takes
away the varnish covering without scratching the metal itself. On the
parts thus bared gold is deposited by the electric current and the
varnish coating is then removed.


«Ivory Gilding.»—I.—The pattern is painted with a fine camel’s-hair
pencil, moistened with gold chloride. Hold the ivory over the mouth
of a bottle in which hydrogen gas is generated (by the action of
dilute sulphuric acid on zinc waste). The hydrogen reduces the auric
chloride in the painted places into metallic gold, and the gold film
precipitated in this manner will quickly obtain a considerable luster.
The gold film is very thin, but durable.

II.—This is especially suitable for monograms. Take gold bronze and
place as much as can be taken up with the point of a knife in a
color-cup, moistening with a few drops of genuine English gold paint.
Coat the raised portions sparingly with gold, using a fine pencil;
next, coat the outer and inner borders of the design. When the work is
done, and if the staining and gilding have been unsuccessful, which
occurs frequently at the outset, lay the work for 5 or 10 minutes in
warmed lead water and brush off with pumice stone. By this process
very fine shades are often obtained which cannot be produced by mere
staining. Since the gold readily wears off on the high places of the
work, it is well to lightly coat these portions with a thin shellac
solution before gilding. This will cause the gilding to be more
permanent.


«Mat Gilding.»—To obtain a handsome mat gilding the article, after
having been neatly polished, is passed through a sand-blast, such as is
found in glass-grinding and etching establishments; next, the object
is carefully cleansed of fine sand (if possible, by annealing and
decocting), whereupon it is gilt and subsequently brushed mat with the
brass brush. Where there is no sand-blast, the article is deadened with
the steel wire brush, which will produce a satisfactory result, after
some practice. After that, treatment is as above. The above-mentioned
applies in general only to silver articles. In case of articles
of gold, brass, or tombac, it is better to previously silver them
strongly, since they are too hard for direct treatment with the steel
wire brush, and a really correct mat cannot be attained. The brushes
referred to are, of course, circular brushes for the lathe.


«Dead-Gilding of an Alloy of Copper and Zinc.»—The parts which are to
be deadened must be isolated from those which are to be polished, and
also from those which are to be concealed, and which therefore are not
to be gilded. For this purpose they are coated with a paste made of
Spanish white mixed with water. The articles prepared in this manner
are then attached by means of iron wire to an iron rod and suspended in
a furnace constructed for this process. The floor of this furnace is
covered on four sides with plates of enameled earthenware for receiving
the portions spattered about of the salt mixture given off later.

In the middle is an oven constructed like a cooking stove, on which is
an iron tripod for carrying the deadening pan; this latter is cemented
into a second pan of cast iron, the intervening space being filled up
with stove cement. In the middle of the pan is the bottom or sill,
provided with a thick cast-iron plate, forming the hearth. On all four
sides of the latter are low brick walls, connecting with the floor of
the furnace, and the whole is covered with thick sheet metal. On the
side of the furnace opposite the side arranged for carrying the pans,
is a boiler in which boiling water is kept. On the same side of the
furnace, but outside it, is a large oval tub of a capacity of about 700
or 800 quarts, which is kept filled with water. The upper portions of
the staves of this tub are covered with linen to absorb all parts that
are spattered about.


«Powder for Gilding Metals.»—I.—In a solution of perchloride of gold
soak small pieces of linen which are dried over the solution so that
the drops falling therefrom are saved. When the rags are dry burn them,
carefully gathering the ashes, which ashes, stirred with a little
water, are used for gilding either with pumice stone or with a cork.
For the hollows, use a small piece of soft wood, linden, or poplar.

II.—Dissolve the pure gold or the leaf in nitro-muriatic acid and then
precipitate it by a piece of copper or by a solution of iron sulphate.
The precipitate, if by copper, must be digested with distilled vinegar
and then washed by pouring water over it repeatedly and dried. This
precipitate will be in the form of very fine powder; it works better
and is {580} more easily burnished than gold leaf ground with honey.


«Gilding Pastes.»—I.—A good gilding paste is prepared as follows:
Slowly melt an ounce of pure lard over the fire, add 1⁠/⁠2 a
teaspoonful of juice of squills, and stir up the mixture well,
subsequently adding 10 drops of spirit of sal ammoniac. If the mixture
is not stiff enough after cooling, the firmness may be enhanced by an
admixture of 1⁠/⁠3 to 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of pure melted beef-tallow. A larger
addition of tallow is necessary if the white of an egg is added. After
each addition the mixture should be stirred up well and the white of
egg should be added, not to the warm, but almost cold, mixture.

II.—Alum, 3 parts, by weight; saltpeter, 6 parts; sulphate of zinc,
3 parts; common salt, 3 parts. Mix all into a thick paste, dip the
articles into it, and heat them, until nearly black, on a piece of
sheet iron over a clear coke or charcoal fire; then plunge them into
cold water.


«Red Gilding.»—This is obtained by the use of a mixture of equal parts
of verdigris and powdered tartar, with which the article is coated;
subsequently burning it off on a moderate coal fire. Cool in water, dip
the article in a pickle of tartar, scratch it, and a handsome red shade
will be the result, which has not attacked the gilding in any way.


«Regilding Mat Articles.»—In order to regenerate dead gold trinkets
without having to color them again—which is, as a rule, impossible,
because the gold is too weak to stand a second coloring—it is
advisable to copper these articles over before gilding them. After the
copper has deposited all over, the object, well cleaned and scratched,
is hung in the gilding. By this manipulation much time and vexation is
saved, such as every jeweler will have experienced in gilding mat gold
articles. The article also acquires a faultless new appearance. Here
are two recipes for the preparation of copper baths:

I.—Distilled boiling water, 2,000 parts, by weight; sodium sulphate, 10
parts; potassium cyanide, 15 parts; cupric acetate, 15 parts; sodium
carbonate, 20 parts; ammonia, 12 parts.

II.—Dissolve crystallized verdigris, 20 parts, by weight, and potassium
cyanide, 42 parts, in 1,000 parts of boiling water.


«Silk Gilding.»—This can only be accomplished by the electric process.
The fiber is first rendered conductive by impregnation with silver
nitrate solution and reduction of same with grape sugar and diluted
alkali, or, best of all, with Raschig’s reduction salt. In place of the
silver nitrate, a solution of lead acetate or copper acetate may be
employed. The silk thus impregnated is treated in the solution of an
alkaline sulphide, e. g., sodium sulphide, ammonium sulphide, or else
with hydrogen sulphide, thus producing a conductive coating of metallic
sulphide. Upon this gold can be precipitated by electrodeposition in
the usual way.


«Spot Gilding.»—Gilding in spots, producing a very fine appearance, is
done by putting a thin coat of oil on those parts of the metal where
the gilding is not to appear; the gold will then be deposited in those
spots only where there is no oil, and the oil is easily removed when
the work is finished.


«Gilding Steel.»—Pure gold is dissolved in aqua regia; the solution is
allowed to evaporate until the acid in excess has gone. The precipitate
is placed in clean water, 3 times the quantity of sulphuric acid is
added and the whole left to stand for 24 hours in a well-closed flask,
until the ethereal gold solution floats on top. By moistening polished
steel with the solution a very handsome gilding is obtained. By the
application of designs with any desired varnish the appearance of a
mixture of gold and steel may be imparted to the article.


«Wood Gilding.»—I.—The moldings, ledges, etc., to be gilded are painted
with a strong solution of joiners’ glue, which is left to harden well,
whereupon 8 to 10 coatings of glue mixed with whitening are given.
Each coat must, of course, be thoroughly dry, before commencing the
next. After this has been done, paint with a strong mixture of glue
and minium, and while this is still wet, put on the gold leaflets and
press them down with cotton. To impart the fine gloss, polish with a
burnishing agate after the superfluous gold has been removed.

II.—Proceed as above, but take silver leaf instead of gold leaf,
and after all is thoroughly dry and the superfluous silver has been
removed, apply a coating of good gold lacquer. The effect will be
equally satisfactory.


«Zinc Gilding.»—I.—Gilding by means of zinc contact may be accomplished
with the following formula: Two parts, by weight, of gold chloride;
5 parts, by weight, of potassium cyanide; 10 parts, {581} by weight,
of sulphite of soda; and 60 parts, by weight, of sodium phosphate are
dissolved in 1,000 parts of water. When used the bath must be hot. A
cold bath without the addition of potassium cyanide may also be used
for gilding, and this consists of 7 parts, by weight, of gold chloride;
30 parts, by weight, of yellow prussiate of potash; 30 parts, by
weight, of potash; 30 parts, by weight, of common salt in 1,000 parts
of water.

II.—To gild zinc articles, dissolve 20 parts of gold chloride in 20
parts of distilled water, and 80 parts of potassium cyanide in 80 parts
of water, mix the solutions, stir a few times, filter, and add tartar,
5 parts, and fine chalk, 100 parts. The resulting paste is applied with
a brush. Objects of copper and brass are previously coated with zinc.
This is done in the following manner: Heat a concentrated sal ammoniac
solution to the boiling point with addition of zinc dust and immerse
the thoroughly cleaned objects until a uniform zinc coating has formed.
Or boil the articles in a concentrated caustic soda solution with zinc
dust.


«OXIDIZING PROCESSES:»


«Aluminum Plating.»—I.—To plate iron and other metals with pure
aluminum, deoxidize the pieces with a solution of borax and place them
in an enameling oven, fitted for receiving metallic vapors. Raise
the temperature to 1,832° to 2,732° F. Introduce the aluminum vapors
generated by heating a quantity of the metal on the sand bath. When
the vapors come in contact with the metallic surfaces, the aluminum is
deposited. The vapors that have not been used or are exhausted may be
conducted into a vessel of water.


«To Copper Aluminum», take

 II.—Sulphate of copper        30 parts
      Cream of tartar           30 parts
      Soda                      25 parts
      Water                  1,000 parts

The articles to be coppered are merely dipped in this bath, but they
must be well cleaned previously.


«Antimony Baths.»—I.—By dissolving 15 parts, by weight, of tartar
emetic and 15 parts of prepared tartar in 500 parts of hot water and
adding 45–60 parts of hydrochloric acid and 45–60 parts of powdered
antimony, brass becomes coated in the boiling liquid with beautiful
antimony colors. In this manner it is possible to impart to brass
golden, copper-red, violet, or bluish-gray shades, according to a
shorter or longer stay of the objects in the liquid. These antimony
colors possess a handsome luster, are permanent, and never change in
the air.

II.—Carbonate of soda, 200 parts, by weight; sulphide of antimony, 50
parts; water, 1,000 parts. Heat the whole in a porcelain capsule for
1 hour, keeping constantly in ebullition; next, filter the solution,
which, on cooling, leaves a precipitate, which boil again with the
liquid for one-half hour, whereupon the bath is ready for use.


«To Coat Brass Articles with Antimony Colors.»—Dissolve 15 parts, by
weight, of tartar emetic and 15 parts, by weight, of powdered tartar
in 500 parts, by weight, of hot water and add 50 parts, by weight,
of hydrochloric acid, and 50 parts, by weight, of powdered antimony.
Into this mixture, heated to a boil, the immersed articles become
covered with luster colors, a golden shade appearing at first, which
is succeeded by one of copper red. If the objects remain longer in the
liquid, the color passes into violet and finally into bluish gray.


«Brassing.»—I.—To brass small articles of iron or steel drop them
into a quart of water and 1⁠/⁠2 ounce each of sulphate of copper and
protochloride of tin. Stir the articles in this solution until desired
color is obtained.

II.—Brassing Zinc, Steel, Cast Iron, etc.—Acetate of copper, 100 parts,
by weight; cyanide of potassium, 250 parts; bisulphite of soda, 200
parts; liquid ammonia, 100 parts; protochloride of zinc, 80 parts;
distilled water, 10,000 parts. Dissolve the cyanide of potassium
and the bisulphite of soda. On the other hand, dissolve the ammonia
in three-fourths of the water and the protochloride of zinc in the
remaining water; next, mix the two solutions. This bath is excellent
for brassing zinc and is used cold.

III.—Acetate of copper, 125 parts, by weight; cyanide of potassium, 400
parts; protochloride of zinc, 100 parts; liquid ammonia, 100 parts;
distilled water, 8,000 to 10,000 parts. Proceed as above described.

IV.—Acetate of copper, 150 parts, by weight; carbonate of soda, 1,000
parts; cyanide of potassium, 550 parts; bisulphite of soda, 200 parts;
protochloride of zinc, 100 parts. Proceed as above. This bath serves
for iron, cast iron, and steel, and is used cold. {582}


«Colored Rings on Metal.»—Dissolve 200 parts, by weight, of caustic
potash in 2,000 parts of water and add 50 parts of litharge. Boil
this solution for half an hour, taking care that a little of the
litharge remains undissolved. When cold, pour off the clear fluid; it
is then ready for use. Move the object to and fro in the solution; a
yellow-brown color appears, becoming in turn white, yellow, red, and
finally a beautiful violet and blue. As soon as the desired color is
obtained, remove the article quickly from the solution, rinse in clean
water, and dry in sawdust.


«Green or Gold Color for Brass.»—French articles of brass, both
cast and made of sheet brass, mostly exhibit a golden color, which
is produced by a copper coating. This color is prepared as follows:
Dissolve 50 parts, by weight, of caustic soda and 40 parts of milk
sugar in 1,000 parts of water and boil a quarter of an hour. The
solution finally acquires a dark-yellow color. Now add to the mixture,
which is removed from the fire, 40 parts of concentrated cold blue
vitriol solution. A red precipitate is obtained from the vitriol,
which falls to the bottom at 167° F. Next a wooden sieve, fitted to
the vessel, is put into the liquid with the polished brass articles.
Toward the end of the second minute the golden color is usually dark
enough. The sieve with the articles is taken out and the latter are
washed and dried in sawdust. If they remain in the copper solution they
soon assume a green color, which in a short time passes into yellow and
bluish green, and finally into the iridescent colors. These shades must
be produced slowly at a temperature of 133° to 135° F.


«To Give a Green Color to Gold Jewelry.»—Take verdigris, 120 parts,
by weight; sal ammoniac, 120 parts; nitrate of potassium, 45 parts;
sulphate of zinc, 16 parts. Grind the whole and mix with strong
vinegar. Place on the fire and boil in it the articles to be colored.


«Nickeling by Oxidation.»—I.—Nickeling may be performed on all metals
cold, by means of nickelene by the Mitressey process, without employing
electrical apparatus, and any desired thickness deposited. It is said
to be more solid than nickel.

First Bath.—Clean the objects and take 5 parts, by weight, of American
potash per 25 parts, by weight, of water. If the pieces are quite
rusted, take 2 parts, by weight, of chlorhydric acid per 1 part, by
weight, of water. The bath is employed cold.

Second Bath.—Put 250 parts, by weight, of sulphate of copper in 25,000
parts, by weight, of water. After dissolution add a few drops of
sulphuric acid, drop by drop, stirring the liquid with a wooden stick
until it becomes as clear as spring water.

Take out the pieces thus cleaned and place them in what is called the
copper bath, attaching to them leaves of zinc; they will assume a red
tint. Then pass them into the nickeling bath, which is thus composed:

                              By weight
 Cream of tartar               20 parts
 Sal ammoniac, in powder       10 parts
 Kitchen salt                   5 parts
 Oxychlorhydrate of tin        20 parts
 Sulphate of nickel, single    30 parts
 Sulphate of nickel, double    50 parts

Remove the pieces from the bath in a few minutes and rub them with fine
sand on a moist rag. Brilliancy will thus be obtained. To improve the
appearance, apply a brass wire brush. The nickeling is said to be more
solid and beautiful than that obtained by the electrical method.

Brilliancy may be also imparted by means of a piece of buff glued on
a wooden wheel and smeared with English red stuff. This will give a
glazed appearance.

II.—Prepare a bath of neutral zinc chloride and a neutral solution
of a nickel salt. The objects are immersed in the bath with small
pieces of zinc and kept boiling for some time. This process has given
satisfactory results. It is easy to prepare the zinc chloride by
dissolving it in hydrochloric acid, as well as a saturated solution
of ammoniacal nickel sulphate in the proportion of two volumes of the
latter to one of the zinc chloride. The objects should be boiled for 15
minutes in the bath. Nickel salt may also be employed, preferably in
the state of chloride.


«Pickling Solutions.»—Oxidized copper, brass, and German silver
articles must be cleansed by acid solutions. In the case of brass
alloys, this process, through which the object acquires a dull yellow
surface, is known as dipping or yellowing. The treatment consists
of {583} several successive operations. The article is first boiled
in a lye composed of 1 part caustic soda and 10 parts water, or in
a solution of potash or soda or in limewater; small objects may be
placed in alcohol or benzine. When all the grease has been removed,
the article is well rinsed with water, and is then ready for the next
pickling. It is first plunged into a mixture of 1 part sulphuric acid
and 10 parts water, and allowed to remain in it till it acquires a
reddish tinge. It is then immersed in 40° Bé. nitric acid, for the
purpose of removing the red tinge, and then for a few seconds into
a bath of 1 part nitric acid, 1.25 parts sulphuric acid of 66° Bé.,
0.01 part common salt, and 0.02 parts lampblack. The article must then
be immediately and carefully washed with water till no trace of acid
remains. It is then ready for galvanizing or drying in bran or beech
sawdust. When articles united with soft solder are pickled in nitric
acid, the solder receives a gray-black color.


«Palladiumizing Watch Movements.»—Palladium is successfully employed
for coating parts of timepieces and other pieces of metals to preserve
them against oxidation. To prepare a palladium bath use the following
ingredients: Chloride of palladium, 10 parts, by weight; phosphate
of ammonia, 100 parts; phosphate of soda, 300 parts; benzoic acid, 8
parts; water, 2,000 parts.


«Metal Browning by Oxidation.»—The article ought first to be cleaned
with either nitric acid or muriatic acid, then immersed in an acid
affecting the metal and dried in a warm place. A light coating is thus
formed. For a second coating acetic or formic acid is used preferably
for aluminum, nickel, and copper; but for iron and steel, muriatic or
nitric acid. After cleaning, the article is placed in a solution of
tannin or gallic acid, and is then dried in a warm place as before.
The second coating is of a yellowish-brown color. On placing it near
the fire, the color can be deepened until it becomes completely black;
care must be taken to withdraw it when the desired shade is produced.
Instead of the acids employed for the first coating, ammonia may be
used.


«Silvering by Oxidation.»—The oxidizing of silver darkens it, and gives
an antique appearance that is highly prized.

I.—The salts of silver are colorless when the acids, the elements of
which enter into their composition, are not colored, but they generally
blacken on exposure to light. It is easy, therefore, to blacken silver
and obtain its oxide; it is sufficient to place it in contact with a
sulphide, vapor of sulphur, sulphohydric acids, such as the sulphides
or polysulphides of potash, soda, dissolved in water and called _eau
de barège_. The chlorides play the same part, and the chloride of
lime in solution or simply Javelle water may be used. It is used hot
in order to accelerate its action. The bath must be prepared new for
each operation for two reasons: (1) It is of little value; (2) the
sulphides precipitate rapidly and give best effects only at the time of
their direct precipitations. The quantity of the reagent in solution,
forming the bath, depends upon the thickness of the deposit of silver.
When this is trifling, the oxidation penetrates the entire deposit
and the silver exfoliates in smaller scales, leaving the copper bare.
It is necessary, therefore, in this case to operate with dilute baths
inclosing only about 45 grains of oxidizant at most per quart. The
operation is simple: Heat the necessary quantity of water, add the
sulphide or chloride and agitate to effect the solution of the mixture,
and then at once plunge in the silver-plated articles, leaving them
immersed only for a few seconds, which exposure is sufficient to cover
it with a pellicle of deep black-blue silver. After withdrawing they
are plunged in clean cold water, rinsed and dried, and either left mat
or else polished, according to the nature of the articles.

Should the result not be satisfactory, the articles are brightened by
immersing them in a lukewarm solution of cyanide of potassium. The
oxide, the true name of which would be the sulphuret or chloruret, can
be raised only on an object either entirely of silver or silver plated.

II.—Rub the article with a mixture of graphite, 6 parts, and powdered
bloodstone, 1 part, moistened with oil of turpentine. Allow to dry and
brush with soft brushes passed over wax. Or else, brush with a soft
brush wet with alcoholic or aqueous platinic chloride solution of 1 in
20.

III.—Sulphurizing is effected with the following methods: Dip in a
solution heated to about 175° F., of potassium sulphide, 5 parts, by
weight; ammonium carbonate, 10 parts; water, 1,000 parts; or, calcium
sulphide, 1 to 2 parts; sal ammoniac, 4 parts; water, 1,000 parts. {584}

IV.—In the following solution articles of silver obtain a warm brown
tone: Copper sulphate, 20 parts, by weight; potassium nitrate, 10
parts; ammonium chloride, 20 parts. By means of bromine, silver
and silver alloys receive a black coloring. On engraved surfaces a
niello-like effect may be produced thereby.


«Oxidized Steel.»—I.—Mix together bismuth chloride, 1 part; mercury
bichloride, 2 parts; copper chloride, 1 part; hydrochloric acid, 6
parts; alcohol, 5 parts; and water, 5 parts. To use this mixture
successfully the articles to be oxidized must be cleaned perfectly and
freed from all grease, which is best accomplished by boiling them in
a soda solution or by washing in spirit of wine. Care should be taken
not to touch the article with the fingers again after this cleaning.
However clean the hand may be, it always has grease on it and leaves
spots after touching, especially on steel. Next the object is dipped
into the liquid, or if this is not possible the solution is applied
thin but evenly with a brush, pencil, or rabbit’s foot. When the liquid
has dried, the article is placed for a half hour in simple boiling
water. If a very dark shade is desired the process is repeated until
the required color is attained.

II.—Apply, by means of a sponge, a solution of crystallized iron
chloride, 2 parts; solid butter of antimony, 2 parts; and gallic acid,
1 part in 5 parts of water. Dry the article in the air and repeat the
treatment until the desired shade is reached. Finally rinse with water,
dry, and rub with linseed-oil varnish.


«Tinning by Oxidation.»—A dipping bath for tinning iron is prepared by
dissolving 300 parts, by weight, ammonia alum (sulphate of alumina and
sulphate of ammonia) and 10 parts of melted stannous chloride (tin
salt) in 20,000 parts of warm water. As soon as the solution boils,
the iron articles, previously pickled and rinsed in fresh water, are
plunged into the fluid; they are immediately covered with a layer
of tin of a beautiful dull-white color, which can be made bright by
treatment in a tub or sack. Small quantities of tin salt are added from
time to time as may be required to replace the tin deposited on the
iron. This bath is also well adapted for tinning zinc, but here also,
as with iron, the deposit is not sufficient to prevent oxidation of
the metal below. Larger articles tinned in this way are polished by
scratch brushing. In tinning zinc by this process, the ammonia alum may
be replaced by any other kind of alum, or aluminum sulphate may be used
alone; experience has shown, however, that this cannot be done with
iron, cast iron, or steel. If it is desired to tin other metals besides
iron and zinc in the solution which we have described, the battery must
be resorted to; if the latter is used, the above solution should be
applied in preference to any other.


«PATINA OXIDIZING PROCESSES:»


«Patina of Art Bronzes.»—For all patinas, whether the ordinary brown of
commerce, the green of the Barye bronzes, or the dark-orange tint of
the Florentine bronzes, a brush is used with pigments varying according
to the shade desired and applied to the metal after it is warmed.
Recipes are to be met with on every hand that have not been patented.
But the details of the operation are the important thing, and often the
effect is produced by a handicraft which it is difficult to penetrate.

I.—A dark tint may be obtained by cleaning the object and applying a
coat of hydrosulphate of ammonia; then, after drying it, by rubbing
with a brush smeared with red chalk and plumbago. The copper may
also be moistened with a dilute solution of chloride of platina
and warmed slightly, or still by plunging it in a warm solution of
the hydrochlorate of antimony. For the verde antique a solution is
recommended composed of 200 grams of acetic acid of 8° strength, the
same quantity of common vinegar, 30 parts, by weight, of carbonate of
ammonia; 10 parts, by weight, of sea salt; with the same quantities
of cream of tartar and acetate of copper and a little water. To obtain
the bronze of medals several processes afford a selection: For example,
the piece may be dipped in a bath consisting of equal parts of the
perchloride and the sesquiazotate of iron, warming to the evaporation
of the liquid, and rubbing with a waxed brush.

II.—Dissolve copper nitrate, 10 parts, by weight, and kitchen salt, 2
parts, in 500 parts of water and add a solution of ammonium acetate
obtained by neutralization of 10 parts of officinal spirit of sal
ammoniac with acetic acid to a faintly acid reaction, and filling up
with water to 500 parts. Immerse the bronze, allow to dry, brush off
superficially and repeat this until the desired shade of color has been
obtained. {585}


«A Permanent Patina for Copper.»—

Green.—

 I.—Sodium chloride              37 parts
     Ammonia water                75 parts
     Ammonium chloride            37 parts
     Strong wine vinegar       5,000 parts

Mix and dissolve. Apply to object to be treated, with a camel’s-hair
pencil. Repeat the operation until the desired shade of green is
reached.

Yellow Green.—

 II.—Oxalic acid                            5 parts
      Ammonium chloride                     10 parts
      Acetic acid, 30 per cent dilution    500 parts

Mix and dissolve. Use as above indicated. The following will produce
the same result:

 III.—Potassium oxalate, acid                             4 parts
       Ammonium chloride                               16–17 parts
       Vinegar containing 6 per cent of acetic acid    1,000 parts

IV.—Bluish Green.—After using the first formula (for green) pencil over
with the following solution:

 Ammonium chloride        40 parts
 Ammonium carbonate      120 parts
 Water                 1,000 parts

Mix and dissolve.

Greenish Brown.—

 V.—Potassium sulphuret      5 parts
     Water                1,000 parts

Mix and dissolve. With this, pencil over object to be treated, let dry,
then pencil over with 10 parts a mixture of a saturated solution of
ammonia water and acetic acid and 5 parts of ammonium chloride thinned
with 1,000 parts of water. Let dry again, then brush off well. Repeat,
if necessary, until the desired hue is attained.

Another Blue Green.—

 VI.—Corrosive sublimate      25 parts
      Potassium nitrate        86 parts
      Borax                    56 parts
      Zinc oxide              113 parts
      Copper acetate      220–225 parts

Mix and heat together on the surface of the object under treatment.

VII.—Brown.—The following is a Parisian method of producing a beautiful
deep brown:

 Potassium oxalate, acid      3 parts
 Ammonium chloride           15 parts
 Water, distilled           280 parts

Mix and dissolve. The object is penciled over with this several times,
each time allowing the solution to dry before putting on any more. The
process is slow, but makes an elegant finish.


«Green Patina Upon Copper.»—To produce a green patina upon copper take
tartaric acid, dilute it half and half with boiling water; coat the
copper with this; allow to dry for one day and rub the applied layer
off again the next day with oakum. The coating must be done in dry
weather, else no success will be obtained. Take hydrochloric acid and
dilute it half and half with boiling water, but the hydrochloric acid
should be poured in the water, not vice-versa, which is dangerous. In
this hydrochloric acid water dissolve as much zinc as it can solve and
allow to settle. The clear liquid is again diluted half with boiling
water and the copper is coated with this a few times.


«Black Patina.»—Black patina is obtained by coating with tallow the
pieces to be oxidized and lighting with a rosin torch. Finally, wipe
the reliefs and let dry.


«Blue-Black Patina.»—Use a dilute solution of chloride of antimony
in water and add a little free hydrochloric acid. Apply with a soft
brush, allow the article to dry and rub with a flannel. If expense is
no object, employ a solution of chloride of palladium, which gives a
magnificent blue black. It is necessary, however, to previously clean
the articles thoroughly in a hot solution of carbonate of soda, in
order to remove the dirt and greasy matter, which would prevent the
patina from becoming fixed.


«Red Patina.»—The following is a new method of making a red patina,
the so-called blood bronze, on copper and copper alloys. The metallic
object is first made red hot, whereby it becomes covered with a coating
consisting of cupric oxide on the surface and cuprous oxide beneath.
After cooling, it is worked upon with a polishing plate until the black
cupric oxide coating is removed and the cuprous oxide appears. The
metal now shows an intense red color, {586} with a considerable degree
of luster, both of which are so permanent that it can be treated with
chemicals, such as blue vitriol, for instance, without being in the
least affected.

If it is desired to produce a marbled surface, instead of an even red
color, borax or some chemical having a similar action is sprinkled
upon the metal during the process of heating. On the places covered
by the borax, oxidation is prevented, and after polishing, spots of
the original metallic color will appear in the red surface. These can
be colored by well-known processes, so as to give the desired marbled
appearance.


«PLATINIZING:»


«Platinizing Aluminum.»—Aluminum vessels coated with a layer of
platinum are recommended in place of platinum vessels, when not exposed
to very high temperatures. The process of platinizing is simple,
consisting in rubbing the aluminum surface, previously polished, with
platinic chloride, rendered slightly alkaline. The layer of platinum
is made thicker by repeated application. Potash lye is carefully
added to a solution of 5 to 10 per cent of platinic chloride in water
till a slightly alkaline reaction is produced on filtering paper or
a porcelain plate by means of phenolphthalein. This solution must
always be freshly prepared, and is the best for the purpose. Neither
galvanizing nor amalgamating will produce the desired result. Special
care must be taken that the aluminum is free from iron, otherwise black
patches will arise which cannot be removed. Vessels platinized in this
way must not be cleaned with substances such as sea-sand, but with a 5
to 10 per cent solution of oxalic acid in water, followed by thorough
rinsing in water. These vessles are said to be specially suitable for
evaporating purposes.


«Platinizing Copper and Brass.»—I.—The articles are coated with a thin
layer of platinum in a boiling solution of platinum sal ammoniac, 1
part; sal ammoniac, 8 parts; and water, 40 parts, and next polished
with chalk. A mixture of equal parts of platinum sal ammoniac and
tartar may also be rubbed on the objects. Steel and iron articles can
be platinized with an ethereal solution of platinic chloride. For small
jewelry the boiling solution of platinic chloride, 10 parts; cooking
salt, 200 parts; and water, 1,000 parts, is employed, which is rendered
alkaline with soda lye. In this, one may also work with zinc contact.

II.—Heat 800 parts of sal ammoniac and 10 parts of platinum sal
ammoniac to the boiling point with 400 parts of water, in a porcelain
dish, and place the articles to be platinized into this, whereby they
soon become covered with a coating of platinum. They are then removed
from the liquid, dried and polished with whiting.


«Platinizing on Glass or Porcelain.»—First dissolve the platinum at a
moderate temperature in aqua regia, and next evaporate the solution to
dryness, observing the following rules: When the solution commences to
turn thick it is necessary to diminish the fire, while carrying the
evaporation so far that the salt becomes dry, but the solution should
not be allowed to acquire a brown color, which occurs if the heat is
too strong. The result of this first operation is chloride of platina.
When the latter has cooled off it should be dissolved in alcohol (95
per cent). The dissolution accomplished, which takes place at the end
of 1 or 2 hours, throw the solution gradually into four times its
weight of essence of lavender, then put into a well-closed flask.

For use, dip a brush into the solution and apply it upon the objects
to be platinized, let dry and place in the muffle, leaving them in the
oven for about one-half hour. In this operation one should be guided
as regards the duration of the baking by the hardness or fusibility
of the objects treated. The platinization accomplished, take a cotton
cloth, dipped into whiting in the state of pulp, and rub the platinated
articles with this, rinsing with water afterwards.


«Platinizing Metals.»—Following are several processes of platinizing on
metals:

It is understood that the metals to be covered with platinum must be
copper or coppered. All these baths require strong batteries.

I.—Take borate of potash, 300 parts, by weight; chloride of platina, 12
parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts.

II.—Carbonate of soda, 250 parts, by weight; chloride of platina, 10
parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts.

III.—Sulphocyanide of potash, 12 parts, by weight; chloride of platina,
12 parts; carbonate of soda, 12 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts.

IV.—Borate of soda, 500 parts, by weight; chloride of platina, 12
parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. {587}


«SILVERING, SILVER-PLATING, AND DESILVERING:»

See also Silvering by Oxidation, under Oxidation Processes, under
Plating.


«Antique Silver.»—There are various processes for producing antique
silver, either fat or oxidized:

To a little copal varnish add some finely powdered ivory black or
graphite. Thin with spirits of turpentine and rub with a brush dipped
into this varnish the objects to be treated. Allow to dry for an hour
and wipe off the top of the articles with some rag, so that the black
remains only in the hollows. If a softer tint is desired, apply again
with a dry brush and wipe as the first time. The coating of black will
be weaker and the shade handsomer.


«Britannia Silver-Plating.»—I.—The article should first be cleaned and
then rubbed by means of a wet cloth with a pinch of powder obtained by
mixing together: Nitrate of silver, 1 part; cyanide of potassium, 2
parts; chalk, 5 parts. Then wipe with a dry cloth, and polish well with
rouge to give brilliancy.

II.—By the electric method the metal is simply plunged into a hot
saturated solution of crude potassium carbonate, and the plating is
then done directly, using a strong electrical current. The potassium
carbonate solution dissolves the surface of the britannia metal and
thus enables the silver to take a strong hold on the article.


«To Silver Brass, Bronze, Copper, etc.»—I.—In order to silver copper,
brass, bronze, or coppered metallic articles, dissolve 10 parts
of lunar caustic in 500 parts of distilled water, and 35 parts of
potassium cyanide (98 per cent) in 500 parts of distilled water; mix
both solutions with stirring, heat to 176° to 194° F. in an enameled
vessel, and enter the articles, well cleansed of fat and impurities,
until a uniform coating has formed.

II.—Zinc, brass, and copper are silvered by applying a paste of the
following composition: Ten parts of silver nitrate dissolved in 50
parts of distilled water, and 25 parts of potassium cyanide dissolved
in distilled water; mix, stir, and filter. Moisten 100 parts of whiting
and 400 parts of powdered tartar with enough of the above solution to
make a paste-like mass, which is applied by means of a brush on the
well-cleaned objects. After the drying of this coating, rinse off, and
dry in sawdust.

III.—To silver brass and copper by friction, rub on the articles,
previously cleaned of grease, a paste of silver chloride, 10 parts;
cooking salt, 20 parts; powdered tartar, 20 parts; and the necessary
water, using a rag.


«Desilvering.»—I.—It often happens in plating that, notwithstanding all
precautions, some pieces have failed and it is necessary to commence
the work again. For removing the silver that has been applied, a rapid
method is to take sulphuric acid, 100 parts, and nitrate of potash, 10
parts. Put the sulphuric acid and the nitrate of potash (saltpeter)
in a vessel of stoneware or porcelain, heated on the water bath. When
the silver has been removed from the copper, rinse the object several
times and recommence the silvering. This bath may be used repeatedly,
taking care each time to put it in a stoppered bottle. When it has been
saturated with silver and has no more strength, decant the deposit,
boil the liquor to dryness, add the residue to the deposit, and melt in
a crucible to regenerate the metal.

II.—To dissolve the silver covering of a metallic object, a bath is
made use of, composed of 66 per cent sulphuric acid, 3 parts, and 40
per cent nitric acid, 1 part. This mixture is heated to about 176° F.,
and the objects to be desilvered are suspended in it by means of a
copper wire. The operation is accomplished in a few seconds. The
objects are washed and then dried in sawdust.


«To Silver Glass Balls and Plate Glass.»—The following is a method for
silvering the glass balls which are used as ornaments in gardens, glass
panes, and concave mirrors: Dissolve 300 parts of nitrate of silver and
200 parts of ammonia in 1,300 parts of distilled water. Add 35 parts
of tartaric acid dissolved in 4 times its weight of water. Dilute the
whole with 15,000 to 17,000 parts of distilled water. Prepare a second
solution containing twice the amount of tartaric acid as the preceding
one. Apply each of these solutions successively for 15 to 20 minutes
on the glass to be silvered, which must previously have been cleaned
and dried. When the silvering is sufficient, wash the object with hot
water, let dry, and cover with a brown varnish.


«Iron Silver-Plating.»—I.—Iron articles are plated with quicksilver
in a solution of nitrate of mercury before being silvered. The
quicksilver is then removed by heating to 572° F. The articles may
also be first tinned to economize the silver. Steel is dipped in
a mixture of {588} nitrate of silver and mercury, each dissolved
separately in the proportion of 5 parts, by weight, to 300 parts, by
weight, of water, then wiped to remove the black film of carbon, and
silvered till a sample dipped in a solution of blue vitriol ceases to
turn red. According to H. Krupp, articles made of an alloy of nickel,
copper, and zinc, such as knives, forks, spoons, etc., should be coated
electrically with nickel, put into a solution of copper like that used
for galvanic coppering, and then electroplated.

II.—A brilliant silver color may be imparted to iron (from which all
grease has been previously removed) by treating it with the following
solution: Forty parts, by weight, chloride of antimony; 10 parts, by
weight, powdered arsenious acid; and 80 parts levigated hematite are
mixed with 1,000 parts of 90 per cent alcohol and gently heated for
half an hour on a water bath. A partial solution takes place, and a
small cotton pad is then dipped in the liquid and applied with a gentle
pressure to the iron. A thin film consisting of arsenic and antimony is
precipitated, as described by Dr. Langbein, in his “Handbuch der galv.
Metallniederschläge.” The brilliancy of the effect depends upon the
care with which the iron has previously been polished.


«To Silver-Plate Metals.»—I.—Nitrate of silver, 30 parts, by weight;
caustic potash, 30 parts; distilled water, 100 parts. Put the nitrate
of silver into the water; one-quarter hour afterwards add the potash,
and, when the solution is done, filter. It is sufficient to dip the
objects to be silvered into this bath, moving them about in it for 1 or
2 minutes at most; then rinsing and drying in sawdust. It is necessary
to pickle the pieces before using the bath. To make the nitrate of
silver one’s self, take 30 parts of pure silver and 60 parts of nitric
acid, and when the metal is dissolved add the caustic potash and the
water.

II.—Kayser’s silvering liquid, which is excellent for all kinds of
metals, is prepared from lunar caustic, 11 parts; sodium hyposulphite,
20 parts; sal ammoniac, 12 parts; whiting, 20 parts; and distilled
water, 200 parts. The articles must be cleaned well.


«Mosaic Silver.»—This compound consists of tin, 3 parts, by weight;
bismuth, 3 parts; and mercury, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts. The alloy of these metals
is powdered finely, thus forming a silvery mass used for imitation
silvering of metals, paper, wood, etc. In order to impart to metals,
especially articles of copper and brass, an appearance similar to
silver, they are made perfectly bright. The powder of the mosaic silver
is mixed with six times the volume of bone ashes, adding enough water
to cause a paste and rubbing this on the metallic surface by means
of a cork of suitable shape. In order to silver paper by means of
this preparation it is ground with white of egg, diluted mucilage, or
varnish, and treated like a paint.


«Pastes for Silvering.»—I.—Carbonate of lime, 65 parts; sea salt, 60
parts; cream of tartar, 35 parts; nitrate of silver, 20 parts. Bray
all in a mortar, not adding the carbonate of lime until the other
substances are reduced to a fine powder. Next, add a little water to
form a homogeneous paste, which is preserved in blue bottles away from
the light. For use, put a little of this paste on a small pad and rub
the article with it.

II.—Articles of zinc, brass, or copper may also be silver-plated by
applying to them a pasty mass of the following composition: First
dissolve 10 parts, by weight, of nitrate of silver in 50 parts, by
weight, of distilled water; also 25 parts, by weight, of potassium
cyanide in sufficient distilled water to dissolve it. Pour the two
together, stir well, and filter. Now 100 parts, by weight, of whiting
or levigated chalk and 400 parts, by weight, of potassium bitartrate,
finely powdered, are moistened with the above solution sufficiently to
form a soft paste, which may be applied to the objects, previously well
cleansed, with a brush. After this coating has dried well, rinse it
off, and dry the object in clean sawdust.


«Resilvering.»—I.—Take 100 parts, by weight, of distilled water and
divide it into two equal portions. In the one dissolve 10 parts of
silver nitrate and in the other 25 parts of potassium cyanide. The two
solutions are reunited in a single vessel as soon as completed. Next
prepare a mixture of 100 parts of Spanish white, passed through a fine
sieve, 10 parts of cream of tartar, pulverized, and 1 part of mercury.
This powder is stirred in a portion of the above liquid so as to form a
rather thick paste. The composition is applied by means of the finger,
covered with a rag, on the object to be silvered. The application must
be as even as possible. Let the object dry and wash in pure water. The
excess of powder is removed with a brush.

II.—The following is a process used when the jeweler has to repair
certain pieces from which silvering has come off {589} in places, and
which he would like to repair without having recourse to the battery,
and specially without having to take out the stones or pearls: Take
nitrate of silver, 25 parts, by weight; cyanide of potassium, 50 parts;
cream of tartar, 20 parts; Paris white, 200 parts; distilled water, 200
parts; mercury, 2 parts. Dissolve the nitrate of silver in half of the
distilled water and the cyanide in the other half; mix the two liquids;
next bray well in a mortar the mercury, Paris white, and cream of
tartar. Preserve the products of these two operations separately, and
when you wish to use them make a rather soft paste of the two, which
apply with a little cotton or a brush on the portion to be silvered.
Let dry and subsequently rub with a soft brush.


«Tin Silver-Plating.»—Prepare a solution of 3 parts, by weight,
of bismuth subnitrate in 10 parts of nitric acid of 1.4 specific
gravity, to which add a solution of 10 parts of tartar and 40 parts
of hydrochloric acid in 1,000 parts of water. In the mixture of these
solutions immerse the tin articles freed from grease and oxide. The
pulverous bismuth precipitated on the surface is rubbed off, whereupon
the objects appear dark steel gray. For silvering prepare a mixture
of 10 parts of silver chloride; 30 parts of cooking salt; 20 parts of
tartar, and 100 parts of powdered chalk, which is rubbed in a slightly
moist state on the bismuth surface of the tin articles, using a flannel
rag. The silver separates only in a very thin layer, and must be
protected against power and light before tarnishing by a coating of
preservative or celluloid varnish.


«Zinc Contact Silver-Plating.»—According to Buchner, 10 parts, by
weight, of silver nitrate is dissolved in water and precipitated by the
addition of hydrochloric acid in the form of silver chloride, which is
washed several times in clean water; now dissolve 70 parts, by weight,
of spirit of sal ammoniac in water, and add to it 40 parts, by weight,
of soda crystals, 40 parts, by weight, of pure potassium cyanide, and
15 parts, by weight, of common salt. Now thin down the compound with
sufficient distilled water to make a total of 1,000 parts.


«Tin Plating of Lead.»—Lead plates are best tinned by plating. For
this purpose a table with a perfectly even iron surface and provided
with vertical raised edges to prevent the melted metal from flowing
away, is employed. The lead is poured on this table, and covered with
grease to prevent oxidation of the surface. As soon as the lead is
congealed, melted tin is poured over it, care being taken that the tin
is sufficiently heated to remelt the surface of the lead and combine
thoroughly with it. When the plate is sufficiently cooled, it is
turned over, and the lower surface treated in the same way. The plate,
thus tinned on both sides, is then placed between rollers, and can be
rolled into very thin sheets without injury to the tin coating. These
sheets, doubly coated with tin by this process, are specially adapted
for lining cases intended for the transport of biscuits, chocolate,
candies, tea, snuff, etc. If lead plates are only to be tinned
superficially, they are heated to a tolerably high temperature, and
sprinkled with powdered rosin; melted tin is then rubbed on the surface
of the plate with a ball of tow. It is advisable to give the lead a
fairly thick coating of tin, as the latter is rendered thinner by the
subsequent rolling.


«VARIOUS RECIPES:»


«To Ascertain whether an Article is Nickeled, Tinned, or
Silvered.»—When necessary to ascertain quickly and accurately the
nature of the white metal covering an object, the following process
will be found to give excellent results:


«Nickeled Surface.»—If the article has a nickel coating, a drop of
hydrochloric acid, deposited on a spot clean and free from grease, will
quickly develop a greenish tint. If the object is kept for 5 or 10
minutes in a solution composed of 60 parts of sea salt and 110 parts of
water, it will receive a very characteristic reddish tint. A drop of
sulphuret of sodium does not change a nickeled surface.


«Tinned Surface.»—A tinned object may be recognized readily by applying
hydrochloric acid, which, even diluted, will remove the tin. The salt
solution, used as previously described, produces a gray tint, faint in
certain cases. The sulphuret of sodium dissolves tin.


«Silvered Surface.»—In the case of a silvered article a drop of nitric
acid will remove the silver, while hydrochloric acid will scarcely
attack it. The salt solution will produce no effect. The sulphuret of
sodium will blacken it rapidly.

PLATINIZING: See Plating.

PLATINOTYPE PAPER: See Photography. {590}

PLATINUM PAPERS AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT: See Photography, under
Developing Papers.

PLATINUM WASTE, TO SEPARATE SILVER FROM: See Silver.

PLUMBAGO: See Lubricants.

PLUMES: See Feathers.


«PLUSH:»


«To Make Plush Adhere to Metal.»—Wash off with ordinary soda water
the bottom of a tin box, wiping it dry with cloth. Coat the tin with
the juice of onion and press on this space a piece of strong paper,
smoothing it out so that there will be no blisters. When this has
dried, the paper will adhere, so that it can be removed only by
scraping with a sharp instrument. Then give a coat of hot glue to the
paper and press the plush down into the glue, and when dry and hard,
the plush can be removed only by placing the tin box in boiling water.

PLUSH, TO REMOVE GREASE SPOTS FROM: See Cleaning Preparations and
Methods.

POISONS, ANTIDOTES FOR: See Antidotes.


«Polishes»


<h4>Polishes for Aluminum.»—I.—M. Mouray recommends the use of an
emulsion of equal parts of rum and olive oil, made by shaking these
liquids together in a bottle. When a burnishing stone is used, the
peculiar black streaks first appearing should not cause vexation, since
they do not injure the metal in the least, and may be removed with a
woolen rag. The object in question may also be brightened in potash
lye, in which case, however, care must be taken not to have the lye too
strong. For cleaning purposes benzol has been found best.

II.—Aluminum is susceptible of taking a beautiful polish, but it is
not white like that of silver or nickel, rather slightly bluish, like
tin. The shade can be improved. First, the grease is to be removed
from the object with pumice stone. Then, for polishing, use is made of
an emery paste mingled with tallow, forming cakes which are rubbed on
the polishing brushes. Finally, rouge powder is employed with oil of
turpentine.


«Polishes for Bars, Counters, etc.»

 I.—Linseed oil             8 ounces
     Stale ale               8 ounces
     Hydrochloric acid       1 ounce
     Alcohol, 95 per cent    1 ounce
     White of 1 egg.

Mix. Shake before using. Clean out the dust, dirt, etc., using an
appropriate brush, or a bit of cloth wrapped around a stick, then apply
the above, with a soft brush, or a bit of cotton wrapped in a bit of
silk—or, in fact, any convenient method of applying it.

 II.—Japan wax                 1 av. ounce
      Oil of turpentine         3 fluidounces
      Linseed oil              16 fluidounces
      Alcohol                   3 fluidounces
      Solution of potash    1 1⁠/⁠2 fluidounces
      Water to make 32 fluidounces.

Dissolve the wax in the turpentine, add the other ingredients,
diluting the potash solution with the water before adding to the other
ingredients, and stir briskly until well mixed.


«POLISHES FOR BRASS, BRONZE, COPPER, ETC.»

Objects of polished copper, bronze, brass, and other alloys of copper
tarnish through water and it is sometimes necessary to give them again
their bright appearance. Pickle the articles in an acid bath; wash them
next in a neutral bath; dry them, and subsequently rub them with a
polishing powder. Such is the general formula; the processes indicated
below are but variants adapted to divers cases and recommended by
disinterested experimenters:


«Sharp Polishes.»—The following three may be used on dirty brasses,
copper articles, etc., where scratching is not objectionable:

 I.—Quartz sand, powdered and levigated    20 parts
     Paris red                              30 parts
     Vaseline                               50 parts

Mix intimately and make a pomade.

 II.—Emery flour, finest levigated    50 parts
      Paris red                        50 parts
      Mutton suet                      40 parts
      Oleic acid                       40 parts

 III.—Levigated emery powder         100 parts
       Anhydrous sodium carbonate       5 parts
       Tallow soap                     20 parts
       Water                          100 parts

{591}


«Copper Articles.»—Make a mixture of powdered charcoal, very fine, 4
parts; spirit of wine, 3 parts; and essence of turpentine, 2 parts.
To this add water in which one-third of its weight of sorrel salt or
oxalic acid has been stirred, and rub the objects with this mixture.


«Bronze Articles.»—Boil the objects in soap lye, wash in plenty of
water, and dry in sawdust.


«Highly Oxidized Bronzes.»—First dip in strong soda lye, then in a bath
containing 1 part of sulphuric acid to 12 parts of water. Rinse in
clean water, and next in water containing a little ammonia. Dry and rub
with a polishing powder or paste.


«POLISHES FOR FLOORS.»

I.—Throw a handful of permanganate potash crystals into a pail of
boiling water, and apply the mixture as hot as possible to the floor
with a large flat brush. If the stain produced is not dark enough,
apply one or two more coats as desired, leaving each wash to dry
thoroughly before applying another. If it is desired to polish the
surface with beeswax, a coat of size should be applied to the boards
before staining, as this gives depth and richness to the color. After 3
or 4 days, polish well with a mixture of turpentine and beeswax. A few
cents will cover the cost of both size and permanganate of potash.

 II.—Potash                 1 part
      Water                  4 parts
      Yellow beeswax         5 parts
      Hot water, a sufficient quantity.

Emulsify the wax by boiling it in the water in which the potash has
been dissolved; stir the whole time. The exact amount of boiling is
determined by the absence of any free water in the mass. Then remove
the vessel from the fire, and gently pour in a little boiling water,
and stir the mixture carefully. If a fat-like mass appears without
traces of watery particles, one may know the mass is in a fit condition
to be liquefied by the addition of more hot water without the water
separating. Then put in the water to the extent of 200 to 225 parts,
and reheat the compound for 5 to 10 minutes, without allowing it to
reach the boiling point. Stir constantly until the mixture is cool, so
as to prevent the separation of the wax, when a cream-like mass results
which gives a quick and brilliant polish on woodwork, if applied in
the usual way, on a piece of flannel rag, and polished by rubbing with
another piece of flannel.


«Colored Floor Polishes.»—Yellow: Caustic soda solution, 7 1⁠/⁠2 parts,
mixed with 1 1⁠/⁠2 to 2 parts of finely powdered ocher, heated with
2 1⁠/⁠2 parts of yellow wax, and stirred until uniformly mixed. A
reddish-brown color may be obtained by adding 2 parts of powdered umber
to the above mixture.

Nut Brown.—I.—Natural umber, 1⁠/⁠2 part; burnt umber, 1 part; and
yellow ocher, 1 part, gives a fine red-brown color when incorporated
with the same wax and soda mixture.

II.—Treat 5 pounds of wax with 15 pounds of caustic soda lye of 3° Bé.
so that a uniform wax milk results; boil with 1⁠/⁠2 pound of annatto, 3
pounds of yellow ocher, and 2 pounds of burnt umber.

Mahogany Brown.—Boil 5 pounds of wax with 15 pounds of caustic soda lye
as above. Then add 7 pounds of burnt umber very finely powdered, making
it into a uniform mass by boiling again.

Yellow Ocher.—The wax milk obtained as above is boiled with 5 pounds of
yellow ocher.

The mass on cooling has the consistency of a salve. If it is to be
used for rubbing the floor it is stirred with sufficient boiling water
so as to form a fluid of the consistency of thin syrup or oil. This
is applied very thin on the floor, using a brush; then it is allowed
to dry only half way, and is rubbed with a stiff floor brush. The
polishing is continued with a woolen rag until a mirror-like gloss
is obtained. It is best not to paint the whole room and then brush,
but the deals should be taken one after the other, otherwise the
coating would become too dry and give too dull a luster. The floors
thus treated with gloss paste are very beautiful. To keep them in
this condition they should be once in a while rubbed with a woolen
rag, and if necessary the color has to be renewed in places. If there
are parquet floors whose patterns are not to be covered up, the ocher
(yellow) paste or, better still, the pure wax milk is used.


«French Polish.»—The wood to be polished must be made perfectly smooth
and all irregularities removed from the surface with glass paper; next
oil the work with linseed oil, taking care to rub off all superfluous
oil. (If the wood is white no oil should be used, as it imparts a
slight color.) Then prepare a wad or rubber of wadding, taking care
there are no hard lumps in it. After the rubber is prepared pour on it
a small quantity of polish. Then cover it with a piece of old cotton
rag (new will {592} not answer). Put a small drop of oil with the
finger on the surface of the rubber, and then proceed to polish, moving
the rubber in lines, making a kind of figure of eight over the work.
Be very careful that the rubber is not allowed to stick or the work
will be spoilt. A little linseed oil facilitates the process. When
the rubber requires more polish, turn back the rag cover, pour on the
polish, replace the cover, oil and work as before. After this rubbing
has proceeded for a little time and the whole surface has been gone
over, the work must be allowed to stand for a few hours to harden,
and then be rubbed down smooth with very fine emery paper. Then give
another coat of polish. If not smooth enough, emery paper again. This
process must continue until the grain is filled up. Finish off with a
clean rubber with only spirit on it (no polish), when a clear bright
surface should be the result. Great care must be taken not to put the
polish on too freely, or you will get a rough surface. After a little
practice all difficulties will vanish. The best French polish will be
found to be one made only from good pale orange shellac and spirit,
using 3 pounds of shellac for each gallon of spirit. The latter should
be of 63 to 64° over-proof. A weak spirit is not suitable and does not
make a good polish. A few drops of pure linseed oil make the polish
work more freely.


«POLISHES FOR FURNITURE.»

First make a paste to fill cracks as follows: Whiting, plaster of
Paris, pumice stone, litharge, equal parts; japan dryer, boiled linseed
oil, turpentine, coloring matter of sufficient quantity. Rub the solids
intimately with a mixture of 1 part of the japan, 2 parts of the
linseed oil, and 3 parts of turpentine, coloring to suit with Vandyke
brown or sienna. Lay the filling on with a brush, let it set for about
20 minutes, and then rub off clean except where it is to remain. In 2
or 3 days it will be hard enough to polish.

After the surface has been thus prepared, the application of a coat
of first-class copal varnish is in order. It is recommended that the
varnish be applied in a moderately warm room, as it is injured by
becoming chilled in drying. To get the best results in varnishing,
some skill and experience are required. The varnish must be kept in an
evenly warm temperature, and put on neither too plentifully nor too
gingerly.

After a satisfactorily smooth and regular surface has been obtained,
the polishing proper may be done. This may be accomplished by manual
labor and dexterity, or consist in the application of a very thin, even
coat of a very fine, transparent varnish.

If the hand-polishing method be preferred, it may be pursued by rubbing
briskly and thoroughly with the following finishing polish:

 I.—Alcohol             8 ounces
     Shellac             2 drachms
     Gum benzoin         2 drachms
     Best poppy oil      2 drachms

Dissolve the shellac and gum in the alcohol in a warm place, with
frequent agitation, and, when cold, add the poppy oil. This may be
applied on the end of a cylindrical rubber made by tightly rolling
a piece of flannel which has been torn, not cut, into strips 4 to 6
inches wide.

A certain “oily sweating” of articles of polished wood occurs which
has been ascribed to the oil used in polishing, but has been found to
be due to a waxy substance present in shellac, which is often used in
polishing. During the operation of polishing, this wax enters into
close combination with the oil, forming a soft, greasy mass, which
prevents the varnish from ever becoming really hard. This greasy
matter exudes in the course of time. The remedy is to use only shellac
from which the vegetable wax has been completely removed. This is
accomplished by making a strong solution of the shellac in alcohol
and then shaking it up with fresh seed lac or filtering it through
seed lac. In this way the readily soluble rosins in the seed lac are
dissolved, and with them traces of coloring matter. At the same time
the vegetable wax, which is only slightly soluble, is deposited. The
shellac solution which has exchanged its vegetable wax for rosin is
not yet suitable for fine furniture polishing. It is not sufficiently
taken up by the wood, and an essential oil must be added to give it the
necessary properties, one of the best oils to employ for this purpose
being that of rosemary. The following recipe is given:

II.—Twenty pounds of shellac and 4 pounds of benzoin are dissolved in
the smallest possible quantity of alcohol, together with 1 pound of
rosemary oil. The solution then obtained is filtered through seed lac
so as to remove whatever vegetable wax may be present.


«Red Furniture Paste.»—

 Soft water       6 pints
 Turpentine       6 pints {593}
 Beeswax          3 pounds
 White wax    1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 White soap      18 ounces
 Red lead        12 ounces

Cut up soap and dissolve in water by aid of heat; then evaporate to 6
pounds. Melt the waxes and add turpentine in which red lead has been
stirred, pour into this the soap solution, and stir until it is nearly
cold. If a darker color is wanted add more red lead, 4 to 6 ounces.


«Beechwood Furniture.»—The wood of the red beech is known to acquire,
by the use of ordinary shellac polish, a dirty yellow color, and by
the use of white polish, prepared from bleached shellac, an unsightly
gray-white color. Therefore, where light colors are desired, only
filtered shellac polish should be employed, and in order to impart some
fire to the naturally dull color of the beechwood the admixture of a
solution of dragon’s blood in alcohol for a red shade, or turmeric
in alcohol for yellow may be used. A compound of the red and yellow
liquids gives a good orange shade. A few trials will soon show how much
coloring matter may be added to the polish.


«Polishes for Glass.»—I.—Mix calcined magnesia with purified benzine
to a semi-liquid paste. Rub the glass with this mixture by means of a
cotton wad, until it is bright.

II.—Crush to powder cologne chalk, 60 parts, by weight; tripoli, 30
parts, by weight; bole, 15 parts, by weight. For use moisten the glass
a little, dip a linen rag into the powder and rub the glass until it
is clean.

III.—Tin ashes may be employed with advantage. The glass is rubbed with
this substance and then washed off with a piece of soft felt. In this
manner a very handsome polish is obtained.


«Polishes for Ivory, Bone, etc.»—I.—First rub with a piece of linen
soaked with a paste made of Armenian bole and oleic acid. Wash with
Marseilles soap, dry, rub with a chamois skin, and finally render it
bright with an old piece of silk. If the ivory is scratched, it may
be smoothed by means of English red stuff on a cloth, or even with a
piece of glass if the scratches are rather deep. In the hollow parts
of ivory objects the paste can be made to penetrate by means of an old
toothbrush.

II.—Tortoise-shell articles have a way of getting dull and dingy
looking. To repolish dip the finger in linseed oil and rub over the
whole surface. Very little oil should be used, and if the article is a
patterned one it may be necessary to use a soft brush to get it into
the crevices. Then rub with the palm of the hand until all oil has
disappeared, and the shell feels hot and looks bright and shiny.


«Marble Polishing.»—Polishing includes five operations. Smoothing the
roughness left on the surface is done by rubbing the marble with a
piece of moist sandstone; for moldings either wooden or iron mullers
are used, crushed, and wet sandstone, or sand, more or less fine,
according to the degree of polish required, being thrown under them.
The second process is continued rubbing with pieces of pottery without
enamel, which have only been baked once, also wet. If a brilliant
polish is required, Gothland stone instead of pottery is used, and
potter’s clay or fuller’s earth is placed beneath the muller. This
operation is performed upon granites and porphyry with emery and a lead
muller, the upper part of which is incrusted with the mixture until
reduced by friction to clay or impalpable powder. As the polish depends
almost entirely upon these two operations, care must be taken that
they are performed with a regular and steady movement. When the marble
has received the first polish, the flaws, cavities, and soft spots are
sought out and filled with mastic of a suitable color.

This mastic is usually composed of a mixture of yellow wax, rosin, and
Burgundy pitch, mixed with a little sulphur and plaster passed through
a fine sieve, which gives it the consistency of a thick paste; to color
this paste to a tone analogous to the ground tints or natural cement
of the material upon which it is placed, lampblack and rouge, with a
little of the prevailing color of the material, are added. For green
and red marbles, this mastic is sometimes made of gum lac, mixed with
Spanish sealing wax of the color of the marble. It is applied with
pincers, and these parts are polished with the rest. Sometimes crushed
fragments of marble are introduced into the cement, but for fine
marbles the same colors are employed which are used in painting, and
which will produce the same tone as the ground; the gum lac is added to
give it body and brilliancy.

The third operation in polishing consists in rubbing it again with
a hard pumice stone, under which water is being constantly poured,
unmixed with sand. For the fourth process, called {594} softening
the ground, lead filings are mixed with the emery mud produced by
the polishing of mirrors or the working of precious stones, and the
marble is rubbed by a compact linen cushion well saturated with this
mixture; rouge is also used for this polish. For some outside works,
and for hearths and paving tiles, marble workers confine themselves
to this polish. When the marbles have holes or grains, a lead muller
is substituted for the linen cushion. In order to give a perfect
brilliancy to the polish, the gloss is applied. Wash well the prepared
surfaces and leave them until perfectly dry, then take a linen cushion,
moistened only with water, and a little powder of calcined tin of the
first quality. After rubbing with this for some time take another
cushion of dry rags, rub with it lightly, brush away any foreign
substance which might scratch the marble, and a perfect polish will be
obtained. A little alum mixed with the water used penetrates the pores
of the marble, and gives it a speedier polish. This polish spots very
easily and is soon tarnished and destroyed by dampness. It is necessary
when purchasing articles of polished marbles to subject them to the
test of water; if there is too much alum, the marble absorbs the water
and a whitish spot is left.


«POLISHING POWDERS.»

Polishing powders are advantageously prepared according to the
following recipes:

I.—Four pounds magnesium carbonate, 4 pounds chalk, and 4 pounds rouge
are intimately mixed.

II.—Four pounds magnesium carbonate are mixed with 1⁠/⁠4 pound fine
rouge.

III.—Five pounds fine levigated whiting and 2 pounds Venetian red are
ground together.

 IV.—Kieselguhr           42 pounds
      Putty powder         14 pounds
      Pipe clay            14 pounds
      Tartaric acid     1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds

Powder the acid, mix well with the others. This is styled “free from
mercury, poisonous mineral acids, alkalies, or grit.” It may be tinted
with 12 ounces of oxide of iron if desired.


«Liquid Polishes.»—

 I.—Malt vinegar            4 gallons
     Lemon juice             1 gallon
     Paraffine oil           1 gallon
     Kieselguhr              7 pounds
     Powdered bath brick     3 pounds
     Oil lemon               2 ounces

 II.—Kieselguhr               56 pounds
      Paraffine oil             3 gallons
      Methylated spirit     1 1⁠/⁠2 gallons
      Camphorated spirit      1⁠/⁠2 gallon
      Turpentine oil          1⁠/⁠2 gallon
      Liquid ammonia fort       3 pints

 III.—Rotten stone            16 av. ounces
       Paraffine                8 av. ounces
       Kerosene (coal oil)     16 fluidounces
       Oil of mirbane enough to perfume.

Melt the paraffine, incorporate the rotten stone, add the kerosene, and
the oil of mirbane when cold.

 IV.—Oxalic acid            1⁠/⁠2 av. ounce
      Rotten stone            10 av. ounces
      Kerosene (coal oil)     30 fluidounces
      Paraffine                2 av. ounces

Pulverize the oxalic acid and mix it with rotten stone; melt the
paraffine, add to it the kerosene, and incorporate the powder; when
cool, add oil of mirbane or lavender to perfume.

Pour the ammonia into the oil, methylated spirits, and turpentine, add
the camphorated spirit and mix with the kieselguhr. To prevent setting,
keep well agitated during filling. The color may be turned red by using
a little sesquioxide of iron and less kieselguhr. Apply with a cloth,
and when dry use another clean cloth or a brush.


«Polishing Soaps.»—

 I.—Powdered pipe clay     112 pounds
     Tallow soap             16 pounds
     Tartaric acid        1 1⁠/⁠4 pounds

Grind until pasty, afterwards press into blocks by the machine.

 II.—Levigated flint     60 pounds
      Whiting             52 pounds
      Tallow              20 pounds
      Caustic soda         5 pounds
      Water                2 gallons

Dissolve the soda in water and add to the tallow; when saponified, stir
in the others, pressing as before.

 III.—Saponified cocoanut oil     56 pounds
       Kieselguhr                  12 pounds
       Alum                     5 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
       Flake white              5 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
       Tartaric acid            1 3⁠/⁠4 pounds

Make as before.

 IV.—Tallow soap               98 pounds
      Liquid glycerine soap     14 pounds
      Whiting                   18 pounds
      Levigated flint           14 pounds
      Powdered pipe clay        14 pounds

{595}


«METAL POLISHES:»


«Polishing Pastes.»—

 I.—White petroleum jelly        90 pounds
     Kieselguhr                   30 pounds
     Refined paraffine wax        10 pounds
     Refined chalk or whiting     10 pounds
     Sodium hyposulphite           8 pounds

Melt wax and jelly, stir in others and grind.

It is an undecided point as to whether a scented paste is better than
one without perfume. The latter is added merely to hide the nasty smell
of some of the greases used, and it is not very nice to have spoons,
etc., smelling, even tasting, of mirbane, so perhaps citronelle is best
for this purpose. It is likely to be more pure. The dose of scent is
usually at the rate of 4 ounces to the hundredweight.

 II.—Dehydrated soda     5 parts
      Curd soap          20 parts
      Emery flour       100 parts

To be stirred together on a water bath with water, 100 parts, until
soft.

 III.—Turpentine      1 part
       Emery flour     1 part
       Paris red       2 parts
       Vaseline        2 parts

Mix well and perfume.

 IV.—Stearine           8 to 9 parts
      Mutton suet      32 to 38 parts
      Stearine oil     2 to 2.5 parts

Melt together and mix with Vienna chalk, in fine powder, 48 to 60
parts; Paris red, 20 parts.

 V.—Rotten stone              1 part
     Iron subcarbonate         3 parts
     Lard oil, a sufficient quantity.

 VI.—Iron oxide              10 parts
      Pumice stone            32 parts
      Oleic acid, a sufficient quantity.

 VII.—Soap, cut fine         16 parts
       Precipitated chalk      2 parts
       Jewelers’ rouge         1 part
       Cream of tartar         1 part
       Magnesium carbonate     1 part
       Water, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the soap in the smallest quantity of water over a water bath.
Add the other ingredients to the solution while still hot, stirring all
the time to make sure of complete homogeneity. Pour the mass into a box
with shallow sides, and afterwards cut into cubes.


«Non-Explosive Liquid Metal Polish.»—Although in a liquid form, it does
not necessarily follow that a liquid polish is less economical than
pastes, because the efficiency of both is dependent upon the amount of
stearic or oleic acid they contain, and a liquid such as that given
below is as rich in this respect as most of the pastes, especially
those containing much mineral jelly and earthy matters which are
practically inert, and can only be considered as filling material. Thus
it is a fact that an ounce of fluid polish may possess more polishing
potency than an equal weight of the paste. Proportions are: Sixteen
pounds crude oleic acid; 4 pounds tasteless mineral oil; 5 pounds
kieselguhr; 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces lemon oil. Make the earthy matter into a
paste with the mixed fluids and gradually thin out, avoiding lumps.
Apply with one rag, and finish with another.


«Miscellaneous Metal Polishes.»—I.—Articles of polished copper, such
as clocks, stove ornaments, etc., become tarnished very quickly. To
restore their brilliancy dip a brush in strong vinegar and brush the
objects to be cleaned. Next pass through water and dry in sawdust. A
soap water, in which some carbonate of soda has been dissolved, will do
the same service.

II.—This is recommended for machinery by the chemical laboratory of the
industrial museum of Batavia:

 Oil of turpentine                       15 parts
 Oil of stearine                         25 parts
 Jewelers’ red                           25 parts
 Animal charcoal, of superior quality    45 parts

Alcohol is added to that mixture in such a quantity as to render it
almost liquid, then by means of a brush it is put on those parts that
are to be polished. When the alcohol has dried, the remaining cover
is rubbed with a mixture of 45 parts of animal charcoal and 25 parts
jewelers’ red. The rubbed parts will become quite clean and bright.

III.—The ugly spots which frequently show themselves on nickel-plated
objects may be easily removed with a mixture of 1 part sulphuric acid
and 50 parts alcohol. Coat the spots with this solution, wipe off after
a few seconds, rinse off thoroughly with clean water, and rub dry with
sawdust.

IV.—Crocus, dried and powdered, when applied with chamois leather to
nickel-plated goods, will restore their brilliancy without injuring
their surface.

V.—Articles of tin should be ground {596} and polished with Vienna lime
or Spanish white. The former may be spread on linen rags, the latter on
wash leather. Good results may be obtained by a mixture of about equal
parts of Vienna lime, chalk, and tripoli. It should be moistened with
alcohol, and applied with a brush. Subsequent rubbing with roe skin
(chamois) will produce a first-rate polish. Tin being a soft metal, the
above polishing substances may be very fine.

VI.—To polish watch cases, take two glasses with large openings,
preferably two preserving jars with ground glass covers. Into one of
the glass vessels pour 1 part of spirit of sal ammoniac and 3 parts
water, adding a little ordinary barrel soap and stirring everything
well. Fill the other glass one half with alcohol. Now lay the case to
be cleaned, with springs and all, into the first-named liquid and allow
to remain therein for about 10 to 20 seconds. After protracted use this
time may be extended to several minutes. Now remove the case, quickly
brush it with water and soap and lay for a moment into the alcohol in
the second vessel. After drying off with a clean cloth heat over a
soldering flame for quick drying and the case will now look almost as
clean and neat as a new one. The only thing that may occur is that a
polished metal dome may become tarnished, but this will only happen if
either the mixture is too strong or the case remains in it too long,
both of which can be easily avoided with a little practice. Shake
before using.

VII.—This is a cleanser as well as polisher:

 Prepared chalk               2 parts
 Water of ammonia             2 parts
 Water sufficient to make     8 parts

The ammonia saponifies the grease usually present.

It must be pointed out that the alkali present makes this preparation
somewhat undesirable to handle, as it will affect the skin if allowed
too free contact.

The density of the liquid might be increased by the addition of soap;
the solid would, of course, then remain longer in suspension.

VIII.—Serviettes Magiques.—These fabrics for polishing articles of
metal consist of pure wool saturated with soap and tripoli, and dyed
with a little coralline. They are produced by dissolving 4 parts of
Marseilles soap in 20 parts of water, adding 2 parts of tripoli and
saturating a piece of cloth 3 inches long and 4 inches wide with it,
allowing to dry.

IX.—In order to easily produce a mat polish on small steel articles use
fine powdered oil stone, ground with turpentine.


«Polishes for Pianos.»—

 I.—Alcohol, 95 per cent    300 parts
     Benzol                  700 parts
     Gum benzoin               8 parts
     Sandarac                 16 parts

Mix and dissolve. Use as French polish.

 II.—Beeswax                      2,500 parts
      Potassium carbonate             25 parts
      Oil of turpentine            4,000 parts
      Water, rain or distilled     4,500 parts

Dissolve the potassium carbonate in 1,500 parts of the water and in
the solution boil the wax, shaved up, until the latter is partially
saponified, replacing the water as it is driven off by evaporation.
When this occurs remove from the fire and stir until cold. Now add the
turpentine little by little, and under constant agitation, stirring
until a smooth, homogeneous emulsion is formed. When this occurs add
the remainder of the water under constant stirring. If a color is
wanted use alkanet root, letting it macerate in the oil of turpentine
before using the latter (about an ounce to the quart is sufficient).
This preparation is said to be one of the best polishes known. The
directions are very simple: First wash the surface to be polished,
rinse, and dry. Apply the paste as evenly and thinly as possible over a
portion of the surface, then rub off well with a soft woolen cloth.


«Polishes for Silverware.»—The best polish for silverware—that is,
the polish that, while it cleans, does not too rapidly abrade the
surface—is levigated chalk, either alone or with some vegetable acid,
like tartaric, or with alum. The usual metal polishes, such as tripoli
(diatomaceous earth), finely ground pumice stone, etc., cut away the
surface so rapidly that a few cleanings wear through ordinary plating.

 I.—White lead             5 parts
     Chalk, levigated      20 parts
     Magnesium carbonate    2 parts
     Aluminum oxide         5 parts
     Silica                 3 parts
     Jewelers’ rouge        2 parts

Each of the ingredients must be reduced to an impalpable powder, mixed
carefully, and sifted through silk several {597} times to secure a
perfect mixture, and to avoid any possibility of leaving in the powder
anything that might scratch the silver or gold surface. This may be
left in the powder form, or incorporated with soap, made into a paste
with glycerine, or other similar material. The objection to mixtures
with vaseline or greasy substances is that after cleaning the object
must be scrubbed with soap and water, while with glycerine simple
rinsing and running water instantly cleans the object. The following is
also a good formula:

 II.—Chalk, levigated                2 parts
      Oil of turpentine               4 parts
      Stronger ammonia water          4 parts
      Water                          10 parts

Mix the ammonia and oil of turpentine by agitation, and rub up the
chalk in the mixture. Finally rub in the water gradually or mix by
agitation. Three parts each of powdered tartaric acid and chalk with 1
part of powdered alum make a cheap and quick silver cleaning powder.

III.—Mix 2 parts of beechwood ashes with 4⁠/⁠100 of a part of Venetian
soap and 2 parts of common salt in 8 parts of rain water. Brush
the silver with this, using a pretty stiff brush. A solution of
crystallized permanganate of potash is often recommended, or even the
spirits of hartshorn, for removing the grayish violet film which forms
upon the surface of the silver. Finally, when there are well-determined
blemishes upon the surface of the silver, they may be soaked 4 hours in
soapmakers’ lye, then cover them with finely powdered gypsum which has
been previously moistened with vinegar, drying well before a fire; now
rub them with something to remove the powder. Finally, they are to be
rubbed again with very dry bran.


«POLISHES FOR STEEL AND IRON.»

The polishing of steel must always be preceded by a thorough smoothing,
either with oilstone dust, fine emery, or coarse rouge. If any lines
are left to be erased by means of fine rouge, the operation becomes
tedious and is rarely successful. The oilstone dust is applied on an
iron or copper polisher. When it is desired to preserve the angles
sharp, at a shoulder, for instance, the polisher should be of steel.
When using diamantine an iron polisher, drawn out and flattened with
a hammer, answers very well. With fine rouge, a bronze or bell-metal
polisher is preferable for shoulders; and for flat surfaces, discs or
large zinc or tin polishers, although glass is preferable to either of
these. After each operation with oilstone dust, coarse rouge, etc., the
polisher, cork, etc., must be changed, and the object should be cleaned
well, preferably by soaping, perfect cleanliness being essential to
success. Fine rouge or diamantine should be made into a thick paste
with oil; a little is then taken on the polisher or glass and worked
until quite dry. As the object is thus not smeared over, a black polish
is more readily obtained, and the process gets on better if the surface
be cleaned from time to time.


«For Fine Steel.»—Take equal parts (by weight) of ferrous
sulphate—green vitriol—and sodium chloride—cooking salt—mix both well
together by grinding in a mortar and subject the mixture to red heat in
a mortar or a dish. Strong fumes will develop, and the mass begin to
flow. When no more fumes arise, the vessel is removed from the fire and
allowed to cool. A brown substance is obtained with shimmering scales,
resembling mica. The mass is now treated with water, partly in order
to remove the soluble salt, partly in order to wash out the lighter
portions of the non-crystallized oxide, which yield an excellent
polishing powder. The fire must be neither too strong nor too long
continued, otherwise the powder turns black and very hard, losing its
good qualities. The more distinct the violet-brown color, the better is
the powder.

For polishing and cleaning fenders, fireirons, horses’ bits, and
similar articles: Fifty-six pounds Bridgewater stone; 28 pounds flour
emery; 20 pounds rotten stone; 8 pounds whiting. Grind and mix well.

To make iron take a bright polish like steel, pulverize and dissolve
in 1 quart of hot water, 1 ounce of blue vitriol; 1 ounce of borax; 1
ounce of prussiate of potash; 1 ounce of charcoal; 1⁠/⁠2 pint of salt,
all of which is to be added to one gallon of linseed oil and thoroughly
mixed. To apply, bring the iron or steel to the proper heat and cool in
the solution.


«Stove Polish.»—The following makes an excellent graphite polish:

 I.—Ceresine               12 parts
     Japan wax              10 parts
     Turpentine oil        100 parts
     Lampblack, best        12 parts
     Graphite, levigated    10 parts

Melt the ceresine and wax together, remove from the fire, and when half
{598} cooled off add and stir in the graphite and lampblack, previously
mixed with the turpentine.

 II.—Ceresine                        23 parts
      Carnauba wax                     5 parts
      Turpentine oil                 220 parts
      Lampblack                      300 parts
      Graphite, finest levigated      25 parts

Mix as above.

III.—Make a mixture of water glass and lampblack of about the
consistency of thin syrup, and another of finely levigated plumbago
and mucilage of Soudan gum (or other cheap substitute for gum arabic),
of a similar consistency. After getting rid of dust, etc., go over the
stove with mixture No. 1 and let it dry on, which it will do in about
24 hours. Now go over the stove with the second mixture, a portion of
the surface at a time, and as this dries, with an old blacking brush
give it a polish. If carefully done the stove will have a polish
resembling closely that of new Russian iron. A variant of this formula
is as follows: Mix the graphite with the water glass to a smooth paste;
add, for each pound of paste, 1 ounce of glycerine and a few grains of
aniline black. Apply to the stove with a stiff brush.


«POLISHES FOR WOOD:»

See also Polishes for Furniture, Floors and Pianos.

In the usual method of French polishing, the pad must be applied
along curved lines, and with very slight pressure, if the result is
to be uniform. To do this requires much practice and the work is
necessarily slow. Another disadvantage is that the oil is apt to sweat
out afterwards, necessitating further treatment. According to a German
patent all difficulty can be avoided by placing between the rubber and
its covering a powder composed of clay or loam, or better, the powder
obtained by grinding fragments of terra cotta or of yellow bricks. The
powder is moistened with oil for use. The rubber will then give a fine
polish, without any special delicacy of manipulation and with mere
backward and forward rubbing in straight lines, and the oil will not
sweat out subsequently. Another advantage is that no priming is wanted,
as the powder fills up the pores. The presence of the powder also makes
the polish adhere more firmly to the wood.


«Oak Wood Polish.»—The wood is first carefully smoothed, then painted
with the following rather thickly liquid mass, using a brush, viz.: Mix
1 1⁠/⁠2 parts, by weight, of finely washed chalk (whiting), 1⁠/⁠2 part
of dryer, and 1 part of boiled linseed oil with benzine and tint (umber
with a little lampblack, burnt sienna). After the applied mixture has
become dry, rub it down, polish with glass powder, and once more coat
with the same mixture. After this filling and after rubbing off with
stickwood chips or fine sea grass, one or two coats of shellac are put
on (white shellac with wood alcohol for oak, brown shellac for cherry
and walnut). This coating is cut down with sandpaper and given a coat
of varnish, either polishing varnish, which is polished off with the
ball of the hand or a soft brush, or with interior varnish, which is
rubbed down with oil and pumice stone. This polish is glass hard,
transparent, of finer luster, and resistive.


«Hard Wood Polish.»—In finishing hard wood with a wax polish the wood
is first coated with a “filler,” which is omitted in the case of soft
wood. The filler is made from some hard substance, very finely ground;
sand is used by some manufactures.

The polish is the same as for soft wood. The simplest method of
applying wax is by a heated iron, scraping off the surplus, and then
rubbing with a cloth. It is evident that this method is especially
laborious; and for that reason solution of the wax is desirable. It
may be dissolved rather freely in turpentine spirit, and is said to be
soluble also in kerosene oil.

The following recipes give varnish-like polishes:

I.—Dissolve 15 parts of shellac and 15 parts of sandarac in 180 parts
of spirit of wine. Of this liquid put some on a ball of cloth waste
and cover with white linen moistened with raw linseed oil. The wood
to be polished is rubbed with this by the well-known circular motion.
When the wood has absorbed sufficient polish, a little spirit of wine
is added to the polish, and the rubbing is continued. The polished
articles are said to sustain no damage by water, nor show spots or
cracks.

II.—Orange shellac, 3 parts; sandarac, 1 part; dissolved in 30 parts of
alcohol. For mahogany add a little dragon’s blood.

III.—Fifteen parts of oil of turpentine, dyed with anchusine, or
undyed, and 4 parts of scraped yellow wax are stirred into a uniform
mass by heating on the water bath. {599}

IV.—Melt 1 part of white wax on the water bath, and add 8 parts of
petroleum. The mixture is applied hot. The petroleum evaporates and
leaves behind a thin layer of wax, which is subsequently rubbed out
lightly with a dry cloth rag.

 V.—Stearine                100 parts
     Yellow wax               25 parts
     Caustic potash           60 parts
     Yellow laundry soap      10 parts
     Water, a sufficient quantity.

Heat together until a homogeneous mixture is formed.

 VI.—Yellow wax              25 parts
      Yellow laundry soap      6 parts
      Glue                    12 parts
      Soda ash                25 parts
      Water, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the soda in 400 parts of water, add the wax, and boil down to
250 parts, then add the soap. Dissolve the glue in 100 parts of hot
water, and mix the whole with the saponified wax.

VII.—This is waterproof. Put into a stoppered bottle 1 pint alcohol;
2 ounces gum benzoin; 1⁠/⁠4 ounce gum sandarac, and 1⁠/⁠4 ounce gum
anime. Put the bottle in a sand bath or in hot water till the solids
are dissolved, then strain the solution, and add 1⁠/⁠4 gill best clear
poppy oil. Shake well and the polish is ready for use.

VIII.—A white polish for wood is made as follows:

 White lac       1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
 Powdered borax      1 ounce
 Alcohol             3 pints

The lac should be thoroughly dried, especially if it has been kept
under water, and, in any case, after being crushed, it should be left
in a warm place for a few hours, in order to remove every trace of
moisture. The crushed lac and borax are then added to the spirit, and
the mixture is stirred frequently until solution is effected, after
which the polish should be strained through muslin.

IX.—To restore the gloss of polished wood which has sweated, prepare a
mixture of 100 parts of linseed oil, 750 parts of ether, 1,000 parts
of rectified oil of turpentine, and 1,000 parts of petroleum benzine,
perfumed, if desired, with a strongly odorous essential oil, and
colored, if required, with cuicuma, orlean, or alkanna. The objects to
be treated are rubbed thoroughly with this mixture, using a woolen rag.


«MISCELLANEOUS POLISHING AGENTS:»


«Polishing Agent which may also be used for Gilding and Silvering.»—The
following mediums hitherto known as possessing the aforenamed
properties, lose these qualities upon having been kept for some time,
as the metal salt is partly reduced. Furthermore, it has not been
possible to admix reducing substances such as zinc to these former
polishing agents, since moisture causes the metal to precipitate. The
present invention obviates these evils. The silver or gold salt is
mixed with chalk, for instance, in a dry form. To this mixture, fine
dry powders of one or more salts (e. g., ammonia compounds) in whose
solutions the metal salt can enter are added; if required, a reducing
body, such as zinc, may be added at the same time. The composition is
pressed firmly together and forms briquettes, in which condition the
mass keeps well. For use, all that is necessary is to scrape off a
little of the substance and to prepare it with water.


«Silver Polishing Balls.»—This polishing agent is a powder made into
balls by means of a binding medium and enjoys much popularity in
Germany. It is prepared by adding 5 parts of levigated chalk to 2
parts of yellow tripoli, mixing the two powders well and making into a
stiff paste with very weak gum water—1 part gum arabic to 12 parts of
water. This dough is finally shaped by hand into balls of the size of a
pigeon’s egg. The balls are put aside to dry on boards in a moderately
warm room, and when completely hard are wrapped in tin-foil paper.


«To Prepare Polishing Cloths.»—The stuff must be pure woolen, colored
with aniline red, and then put in the following:

 Castile soap, white    4 parts
 Jewelers’ red          2 parts
 Water                 20 parts

Mix. One ounce of this mixture will answer for a cloth 12 inches
square, where several of them are saturated at the same time. For the
workshop, a bit of chamois skin of the same size (a foot square), is
preferable to wool, on account of its durability. After impregnation
with the soap solution, it should be dried in the air, being
manipulated while drying to preserve its softness and suppleness.


«To Polish Delicate Objects.»—Rub the objects with a sponge charged
with a mixture of 28 parts of alcohol, 14 parts of water, and 4 parts
of lavender oil. {600}


«Polish for Gilt Frames.»—Mix and beat the whites of 3 eggs with
one-third, by weight, of javelle water, and apply to the gilt work.


«Steel Dust as a Polishing Agent.»—Steel dust is well adapted for
polishing precious stones and can replace emery with advantage. It
is obtained by spraying water on a bar of steel brought to a high
temperature. The metal becomes friable and can be readily reduced to
powder in a mortar. This powder is distinguished from emery by its
mordanting properties and its lower price. Besides, it produces a
finer, and consequently, a more durable polish.


«Polishing Bricks.»—Stir into a thick pulp with water 10 parts of
finely powdered and washed chalk, 1 part of English red, and 2 parts of
powdered gypsum; give it a square shape and dry.


«Polishing Cream.»—

 Denaturized alcohol      400 parts
 Spirit of sal ammoniac    75 parts
 Water                    150 parts
 Petroleum ether           80 parts
 Infusorial earth         100 parts
 Red bole or white bole    50 parts
 Calcium carbonate        100 parts

Add as much of the powders as desired. Mirbane oil may be used for
scenting.


«Polishing Paste.»—

 Infusorial earth (Kieselguhr)    8 ounces
 Paraffine                        2 ounces
 Lubricating oil                  6 fluidounces
 Oleic acid                       1 fluidounce
 Oil mirbane                     30 minims

Melt the paraffine with the lubricating oil, and mix with the
infusorial earth, then add the oleic acid and oil of mirbane.


«To Polish Paintings on Wood.»—According to the statements of able
cabinet makers who frequently had occasion to cover decorations on
wood, especially aquarelle painting, with a polish, a good coating
of fine white varnish is the first necessity, dammar varnish being
employed for this purpose. This coat is primarily necessary as a
protective layer so as to preserve the painted work from destructive
attacks during the rubbing for the production of a smooth surface and
the subsequent polishing. At all events, the purest white polishing
varnish must be used for the polish so as to prevent a perceptible
subsequent darkening of the white painting colors. Naturally the
success here is also dependent upon the skill of the polisher. To
polish painting executed on wood it is necessary to choose a white,
dense, fine grained wood, which must present a well-smoothed surface
before the painting. After the painting the surface is faintly coated
with a fine, quickly drying, limpid varnish. When the coating has dried
well, it is carefully rubbed down with finely pulverized pumice stone,
with tallow or white lard, and now this surface is polished in the
usual manner with a good solution prepared from the best white shellac.


«Polishing Mediums.»—For iron and steel, stannic oxide or Vienna lime
or iron oxide and sometimes steel powder is employed. In using the
burnisher, first oil is taken, then soap water, and next Vienna lime.

For copper, brass, German silver, and tombac, stearine oil and Vienna
lime are used. Articles of brass can be polished, after the pickling,
in the lathe with employment of a polish consisting of shellac,
dissolved in alcohol, 1,000 parts; powdered turmeric, 1,000 parts;
tartar, 2,000 parts; ox gall, 50 parts; water, 3,000 parts.

Gold is polished with ferric oxide (red stuff), which, moistened with
alcohol, is applied to leather.

For polishing silver, the burnisher or bloodstone is employed, using
soap water, thin beer, or a decoction of soap wort. Silver-plated
articles are also polished with Vienna lime.

To produce a dull luster on gold and silver ware, glass brushes, i.
e., scratch brushes of finely spun glass threads, are made use of.

Pewter articles are polished with Vienna lime or whiting; the former on
a linen rag, the latter on leather.

If embossed articles are to be polished, use the burnisher, and for
polish, soap water, soap-wort decoction, ox gall with water.

Antimony-lead alloys are polished with burnt magnesia on soft leather
or with fine jewelers’ red.

Zinc is brightened with Vienna lime or powdered charcoal.

Vienna lime gives a light-colored polish on brass, while ferric oxide
imparts a dark luster.


«Rouge or Paris Red.»—This appears in commerce in many shades, varying
from brick red to chocolate brown. The color, however, is in no wise
indicative of its purity or good quality, but it can be accepted as a
criterion by which to {601} determine the hardness of the powder. The
darker the powder, the greater is its degree of hardness; the red or
reddish is always very soft, wherefore the former is used for polishing
steel and the latter for softer metals.

For the most part, Paris red consists of ferric oxide or ferrous oxide.
In its production advantage is taken of a peculiarity common to most
salts of iron, that when heated to a red heat they separate the iron
oxide from the acid combination. In its manufacture it is usual to take
commercial green vitriol, copperas crystals, and subject them to a
moderate heat to drive off the water of crystallization. When this is
nearly accomplished they will settle down in a white powder, which is
now placed in a crucible and raised to a glowing red heat till no more
vapor arises, when the residue will be found a soft smooth red powder.
As the temperature is raised in the crucible, the darker will become
the color of the powder and the harder the abrasive.

Should an especially pure rouge be desired, it may be made so by
boiling the powder we have just made in a weak solution of soda and
afterwards washing it out repeatedly and thoroughly with clean water.
If treated in this way, all the impurities that may chance to stick to
the iron oxide will be separated from it.

Should a rouge be needed to put a specially brilliant polish upon any
object its manufacture ought to be conducted according to the following
formula: Dissolve commercial green vitriol in water; dissolve also a
like weight of sorrel salt in water; filter both solutions; mix them
well, and warm to 140° F.; a yellow precipitate, which on account
of its weight, will settle immediately; decant the fluid, dry out
the residue, and afterwards heat it as before in an iron dish in a
moderately hot furnace till it glows red.

By this process an exceptionally smooth, deep-red powder is obtained,
which, if proper care has been exercised in the various steps, will
need no elutriation, but can be used for polishing at once. With
powders prepared in this wise our optical glasses and lenses of finest
quality are polished.

POLISHES FOR THE LAUNDRY: See Laundry Preparations.

POMADE, PUTZ: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

POMADES: See Cosmetics.

POMEGRANATE ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts.


«PORCELAIN:»

See also Ceramics.


«Mending Porcelain by Riveting» (see Adhesives for methods of mending
Porcelain by means of cements).—Porcelain and glass can be readily
pierced with steel tools. Best suited are hardened drills of ordinary
shape, moistened with oil of turpentine, if the glazed or vitreous body
is to be pierced. In the case of majolica and glass without enamel the
purpose is best reached if the drilling is done under water. Thus,
the vessel should previously be filled with water, and placed in a
receptacle containing water, so that the drill is used under water,
and, after piercing the clay body, reaches the water again. In the
case of objects glazed on the inside, instead of filling them with
water, the spot where the drill must come through may be underlaid
with cork. The pressure with which the drill is worked is determined
by the hardness of the material, but when the tool is about to reach
the other side it should gradually decrease and finally cease almost
altogether, so as to avoid chipping. In order to enlarge small bore
holes already existing, three-cornered or four-square broaches, ground
and polished, are best adapted. These are likewise employed under water
or, if the material is too hard (glass or enamel), moistened with oil
of turpentine. The simultaneous use of oil of turpentine and water is
most advisable in all cases, even where the nature of the article to be
pierced does not admit the use of oil alone, as in the case of majolica
and non-glazed porcelain, which absorb the oil, without the use of
water.


«Porcelain Decoration.»—A brilliant yellow color, known as “gold
luster,” may be produced on porcelain by the use of paint prepared
as follows: Melt over a sand bath 30 parts of rosin, add 10 parts of
uranic nitrate, and, while constantly stirring, incorporate with the
liquid 35 to 40 parts of oil of lavender. After the mixture has become
entirely homogeneous, remove the source of heat, and add 30 to 40 parts
more of oil of lavender. Intimately mix the mass thus obtained with a
like quantity of bismuth glass prepared by fusing together equal parts
of oxide of bismuth and crystallized boric acid. The paint is to be
burned in in the usual manner.

PORCELAIN, HOW TO TELL POTTERY AND PORCELAIN: See Ceramics. {602}

PORTLAND CEMENT: See Cement.

PORTLAND CEMENT, SIZE OVER: See Adhesives.

POSTAL CARDS, HOW TO MAKE SENSITIZED: See Photography, under
Paper-Sensitizing Processes.

POTASSIUM SILICATE AS A CEMENT: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass
Cements.

POTATO STARCH: See Starch.

POTTERY: See Ceramics.

POULTRY APPLICATIONS: See Insecticides.

POULTRY FOODS AND POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES: See Veterinary
Formulas.

POULTRY WINE: See Wines and Liquors.

POUNCE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under Ink Eradicators.

POWDER FOR COLORED FIRES: See Pyrotechnics.

POWDER, FACE: See Cosmetics.

POWDER, ROUP: See Roup Powder.

POWDERS FOR STAMPING: See Stamping.

POWDERS FOR THE TOILET: See Cosmetics.


«Preservatives»

(See also Foods.)


«Preservative Fluid for Museums.»—

 Formaldehyde solution      6 parts
 Glycerine                 12 parts
 Alcohol                    3 parts
 Water                    100 parts

The addition of glycerine becomes necessary only if it is desired to
keep the pieces in a soft state. Filtering through animal charcoal
renders the liquid perfectly colorless. For dense objects, such as
lungs and liver, it is best to make incisions so as to facilitate the
penetration of the fluid. In the case of very thick pieces, it is best
to take 80 to 100 parts of formaldehyde solution for above quantities.


«Preservative for Stone, etc.»—A new composition, or paint, for
protecting stone, wood, cement, etc., from the effects of damp or other
deleterious influences consists of quicklime, chalk, mineral colors,
turpentine, boiled oil, galipot, rosin, and benzine. The lime, chalk,
colors, and turpentine are first fixed and then made into a paste with
the boiled oil. The paste is finely ground and mixed with the rosins
previously dissolved in the benzine.


«Preservative for Stuffed Animals.»—For the exterior preservation use

 Arsenic      0.7 parts
 Alum        15.0 parts
 Water      100.0 parts

For sprinkling the inside skin as well as filling bones, the following
is employed:

 Camphor               2 parts
 Insect powder         2 parts
 Black pepper          1 part
 Flowers of sulphur    4 parts
 Alum                  3 parts
 Calcined soda         3 parts
 Tobacco powder        3 parts


«Preservatives for Zoological and Anatomical Specimens.»—The
preparations are first placed in a solution or mixture of

 Sodium fluoride                 5 parts
 Formaldehyde (40 per cent)      2 parts
 Water                         100 parts

After leaving this fixing liquid they are put in the following
preservative solution:

 Glycerine (28° Bé.)       5 parts
 Water                    10 parts
 Magnesium chloride        1 part
 Sodium fluoride         0.2 parts

In this liquid zoological preparations, especially reptiles, retain
their natural coloring. Most anatomical preparations likewise remain
unchanged therein.

PRESERVATIVES FOR WOOD: See Wood.


«Preserving»


«Canning.»—There should be no trouble in having canned fruit keep well
if perfect or “chemical cleanliness” is observed in regard to jars,
lids, etc., and if the fruit or vegetables are in good order, not
overripe or beginning to ferment where bruised or crushed. Fruit will
{603} never come out of jars better than it goes in. It is better to
put up a little fruit at a time when it is just ripe than to wait for
a large amount to ripen, when the first may be overripe and fermenting
and likely to spoil the whole lot. Use only the finest flavored fruit.

Have everything ready before beginning canning. Put water in each jar,
fit on rubbers and tops, and invert the jar on the table. If any water
oozes out try another top and rubber until sure the jar is air-tight.
Wash jars and tops, put them in cold water and bring to a boil. When
the fruit is cooked ready take a jar from the boiling water, set it on
a damp cloth laid in a soup plate, dip a rubber in boiling water, and
fit it on firmly. Fill the jar to overflowing, wipe the brim, screw on
the top, and turn it upside down on a table. If any syrup oozes out
empty the jar back into the kettle and fit on a tighter rubber. Let it
stand upside down till cold, wipe clean, wrap in thick paper, and keep
in a cool, dry place.

These general directions are for all fruits and vegetables that are
cooked before putting in the jars. Fruit keeps its shape better if
cooked in the jars, which should be prepared as above, the fruit
carefully looked over and filled into the jars. If a juicy fruit, like
blackberries or raspberries, put the sugar in with it in alternate
layers. For cherries the amount of sugar depends on the acidity of the
fruit and is best made into a syrup with a little water and poured down
through them. Peaches and pears after paring, are packed into the jars
and a syrup of about a quarter of a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit
poured over them. Most fruits need to be cooked from 10 to 15 minutes
after the water around them begins to boil.

Red raspberries ought not to be boiled. Put them into jars as gently
as possible; they are the tenderest of all fruits and will bear the
slightest handling. Drop them in loosely, fold a saucer into a clean
cloth, and lay over the top, set on a perforated board in a boiler,
pour water to two-thirds, cover and set over a slow fire. As the fruit
settles add more until full. When it is cooked soft lift the jar out
and fill to the top with boiling syrup of equal parts of sugar and
water, and seal.

Do not can all the fruit, for jams and jellies are a welcome change and
also easier to keep. Raspberries and currants mixed make delicious jam.
Use the juice of a third as many currants and 3⁠/⁠4 of a pound of sugar
to a pound of fruit. The flavor of all kinds of fruit is injured by
cooking it long with the sugar, so heat the latter in the oven and add
when the fruit is nearly done.

Jelly is best made on a clear day, for small fruits absorb moisture,
and if picked after a rain require longer boiling, and every minute
of unnecessary boiling gives jelly a less delicate color and flavor.
When jelly is syrupy, it has been boiled too long; if it drops from the
spoon with a spring, or wrinkles as you push it with the spoon in a
saucer while cooling, it is done enough. Try it after 5 minutes’ boil.
Cook the fruit only until the skin is broken and pulp softened. Strain
without squeezing for jelly, and use the last juice you squeeze out
for jam. Measure the juice and boil uncovered, skimming off. For sweet
fruits 3⁠/⁠4 of a pound of sugar is enough to a pint of juice. Heat the
sugar in the oven, add to the boiling juice; stir till dissolved. When
it boils up, draw to the back of the stove. Scald the jelly glasses,
fill and let stand in a clean, cool place till next day; then cover.
Blackberries make jelly of a delicious flavor and jelly easily when
a little underripe. Currants should be barely ripe; the ends of the
bunches may be rather green.

A highly prized way of canning cherries: Stone and let them stand
overnight. In the morning pour off the juice, add sugar to taste,
and some water if there is not much juice, and boil and skim till it
is a rich syrup. If the cherries are sweet a pint of juice and 3⁠/⁠4
of a pint of sugar will be right. Heat the jars, put in the uncooked
cherries till they are nearly full; then pour over them the boiling
syrup and fasten on the covers. Set the jars in a washboiler, fill it
with very hot water and let it stand all night. The heat of the syrup
and of the water will cook the fruit, but the flavor and color will be
that of fresh and uncooked cherries.


«Canning without Sugar.»—I.—In order to preserve the juices of fruit
merely by sterilization, put the juice into the bottles in which it
is to be kept, filling them very nearly full; place the bottles,
unstoppered, in a kettle filled with cold water, so arranging them on
a wooden perforated “false bottom,” or other like contrivance, as to
prevent their immediate contact with the metal, thus preventing unequal
heating and possible fracture. Now heat the water, gradually raising
the temperature to the boiling point, and maintain at that until the
juice attains a boiling temperature; then close the bottles with
perfectly fitting corks, which {604} have been kept immersed in boiling
water for a short time before use. The corks should not be fastened
in any way, for if the sterilization is not complete, fermentation
and consequent explosion of the bottle might occur, unless the cork
should be forced out. The addition of sugar is not necessary to secure
the success of the operation; in fact a small proportion would have
no antiseptic effect. If the juice is to be used for syrup as for use
at the soda fountain, the best method is to make a concentrated syrup
at once, using about 2 pounds of refined sugar to 1 pint of juice,
dissolving by a gentle heat. The syrup may be made by simple agitation
without heat and a finer flavor thus results, but its keeping quality
would be uncertain.

II.—Fruit juices may be preserved by gentle heating and after
protection from the air in sterilized containers. The heat required is
much below the boiling point. Professor Müller finds that a temperature
of from 140° to 158° F., maintained for 15 minutes, is sufficient to
render the fermenting agents present inactive. The bottles must also be
heated to destroy any adherent germs. The juices may be placed in them
as expressed and the container then placed in a water bath. As soon
as the heating is finished the bottles must be securely closed. The
heating process will, in consequence of coagulating certain substances,
produce turbidity, and if clear liquid is required, filtration is, of
course, necessary. In this case it is better to heat the juice in bulk
in a kettle, filter through felt, fill the bottles, and then heat again
in the containers as in the first instance. It is said that grape juice
prepared in this manner has been found unaltered after keeping for
many years. Various antiseptics have been proposed as preservatives
for fruit juices and other articles of food, but all such agents are
objectionable both on account of their direct action on the system and
their effect in rendering food less digestible. While small quantities
of such drugs occasionally taken may exert no appreciable effect,
continuous use is liable to be more or less harmful.


«CRUSHED FRUIT PRESERVING:»


«Crushed Pineapples.»—Secure a good brand of canned grated pineapple
and drain off about one-half of the liquor by placing on a strainer.
Add to each pound of pineapple 1 pound of granulated sugar. Place on
the fire and bring to boiling point, stirring constantly. Just before
removing from the fire, add to each gallon of pulp 1 ounce saturated
alcoholic solution salicylic acid. Put into air-tight jars until wanted
for use.


«Crushed Peach.»—Take a good brand of canned yellow peaches, drain off
liquor, and rub through a No. 8 sieve. Add sugar, bring to the boiling
point, and when ready to remove from fire add to each gallon 1 ounce
saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid. Put into jars and seal
hermetically.


«Crushed Apricots.»—Prepared in similar manner to crushed peach, using
canned apricots.


«Crushed Orange.»—Secure oranges with a thin peel and containing plenty
of juice. Remove the outer or yellow peel first, taking care not to
include any of bitter peel. The outer peel may be used in making orange
phosphate or tincture sweet orange peel. After removing the outer
peel, remove the inner, bitter peel, quarter and remove the seeds.
Extract part of the juice and grind the pulp through an ordinary meat
grinder. Add sugar, place on the fire, and bring to the boiling point.
When ready to remove, add to each gallon 1 ounce saturated alcoholic
solution of salicylic acid and 1 ounce glycerine. Put into jars and
seal.


«Crushed Cherries.»—If obtainable, the large, dark California cherry
should be used. Stone the cherries, and grind to a pulp. Add sugar, and
place on the fire, stirring constantly. Before removing, add to each
gallon 1 ounce of the saturated solution of salicylic acid. Put into
jars and seal.


«Dry Sugar Preserving.»—The fruits are embedded in a thick layer of
dry, powdered sugar to which they give up the greater part of the water
contained in them. At the same time, a quantity of sugar passes through
the skins into the interior of the fruits. Afterwards, the fruits are
washed once, wiped, and completely dried.


«Fruit Preserving.»—Express the juice and filter at once, through two
thicknesses of best white Swedish paper, into a container that has been
sterilized immediately before letting the juice run into it, by boiling
water. The better plan is to take out of water in active ebullition at
the moment you desire to use it. Have ready some long-necked, 8-ounce
vials, which should also be kept in boiling water until needed. Pour
the juice into these, leaving room in the upper part of the body of the
vial to {605} receive a teaspoonful of the best olive oil. Pour the
latter in so that it will trickle down the neck and form a layer on top
of the juice, and close the neck with a wad of antiseptic cotton thrust
into it in such manner that it does not touch the oil, and leaves room
for the cork to be put in without touching it. Cork and cap or seal
the vial, and put in a cool, dark place, and keep standing upright. If
carried out faithfully with due attention to cleanliness, this process
will keep the juice in a perfectly natural condition for a very long
time. The two essentials are the careful and rapid filtration, and the
complete asepticization of the containers. Another process, in use in
the French Navy, depends upon the rapid and careful filtering of the
juice, and the addition of from 8 to 10 per cent of alcohol.


«Raspberry Juice.»—A dark juice is obtained by adding to the crushed
raspberries, before the fermentation, slight quantities of sugar in
layers. The ethyl-alcohol forming during the fermentation is said
to cause a better extraction of the raspberry red. Furthermore, the
boiling should not be conducted on a naked fire, but by means of
superheated steam, so as to avoid formation of caramel. Finally, the
sugar used should be perfectly free from ultramarine and lime, since
both impurities detract from the red color of the raspberries.


«Spice for Fruit Compote.»—This is greatly in demand in neighborhoods
where many plums and pears are preserved.

                          Parts    Parts
 Lemon peel                 15  or   —
 Cinnamon, ordinary         15  or   50
 Star aniseed               10  or   15
 Coriander                   3  or  100
 Carob pods                  5  or   —
 Ginger root, peeled         2  or  200
 Pimento                    —   or  100
 Licorice                   —   or  100
 Cloves, without stems      —   or   30
 Spanish peppers            —   or    2
 Oil of lemon               —   or    4
 Oil of cinnamon            —   or    2
 Oil of cloves              —   or    2

All the solid constituents are powdered moderately fine and thoroughly
mixed; the oils dropped in last, and rubbed into the powder.


«Strawberries.»—Carefully remove the stems and calyxes, place the
strawberries on a sieve, and move the latter about in a tub of water
for a few moments, to remove any dirt clinging to them. Drain and
partially dry spontaneously, then remove from the sieve and put into
a porcelain-lined kettle provided with a tight cover. To every pound
of berries take a half pound of sugar and 2 ounces of water and put
the same in a kettle over the fire. Let remain until the sugar has
dissolved or become liquid, and then pour the same, while still hot,
over the berries, cover the kettle tightly and let it stand overnight.
The next morning put the kettle over the fire, removing the cover when
the berries begin to boil, and let boil gently for 6 to 8 minutes
(according to the mass), removing all scum as it arises. Remove from
the fire, and with a perforated spoon or dipper take the fruit from
the syrup, and fill into any suitable vessel. Replace the syrup on the
fire and boil for about the same length of time as before, then pour,
all hot, over the berries. The next day empty out the contents of the
vessel on a sieve, and let the berries drain off; remove the syrup that
drains off, add water, put on the fire, and boil until you obtain a
syrup which flows but slowly from the stirring spoon. At this point add
the berries, and let boil gently for a few moments. Have your preserve
jars as hot as possible, by putting them into a pot of cold water and
bringing the latter to a boil, and into them fill the berries, hot from
the kettle. Cool down, cover with buttered paper, and immediately close
the jars hermetically. If corks are used, they should be protected
below with parchment paper, and afterwards covered with wet bladder
stretched over the top, securely tied and waxed. The process seems very
troublesome and tedious, but all of the care expended is repaid by the
richness and pureness of the flavor of the preserve, which maintains
the odor and taste of the fresh berry in perfection.


«Hydrogen Peroxide as a Preservative.»—Hydrogen peroxide is one of the
best, least harmful, and most convenient agents for preserving syrups,
wine, beer, cider, and vinegar. For this purpose 2 1⁠/⁠2 fluidrachms
of the commercial peroxide of hydrogen may be added to each quart of
the article to be preserved. Hydrogen peroxide also affords an easy
test for bacteria in water. When hydrogen peroxide is added to water
that contains bacteria, these organisms decompose it, and consequently
oxygen gas is given off. If the water be much contaminated the
disengagement of gas may be quite brisk. {606}


«To Preserve Milk» (which should be as fresh as possible) there
should be added enough hydrogen peroxide to cause it to be completely
decomposed by the enzymes of the milk. For this purpose 1.3 per cent,
by volume, of a 3 per cent hydrogen peroxide solution is required.
The milk is well shaken and kept for 5 hours at 122° to 125° F. in
well-closed vessels. Upon cooling, it may keep fresh for about a month
and also to retain its natural fresh taste. With this process, if pure
milk is used, the ordinary disease germs are killed off soon after
milking and the milk sterilized.


«Powdered Cork as a Preservative.»—Tests have shown that powdered cork
is very efficacious for packing and preserving fruits and vegetables.
A bed of cork is placed at the bottom of the case, and the fruits or
vegetables and the cork are then disposed in alternate layers, with
a final one of cork at the top. Care should be taken to fill up the
interstices, in order to prevent friction. Fruit may thus be kept fresh
a year, provided any unsound parts have been removed preliminarily.
When unpacking for sale, it suffices to plunge the fruit into water.
Generally speaking, 50 pounds of cork go with 1,000 or 1,200 pounds
of fruit. The cork serves as a protection against cold, heat, and
humidity. Various fruits, such as grapes, mandarines, tomatoes, and
early vegetables, are successfully packed in this way.

PRESSURE TABLE: See Tables.

PRINT COPYING: See Copying.

PRINTERS’ OIL: See Oil.

PRINTING ON PHOTOGRAPHS: See Photography.

PRINTS, RESTORATION OF: See Engravings.

PRINTS, THEIR PRESERVATION: See Engravings.

PRINTING OILCLOTH AND LEATHER IN GOLD: See Gold.

PRINTING-OUT PAPER, HOW TO SENSITIZE: See Photography, under
Paper-Sensitizing Processes.

PRINTING-ROLLER COMPOSITIONS: See Roller Compositions for Printers.

PRUSSIC ACID: See Poisons.


«PUMICE STONE.»

While emery is used for polishing tools, polishing sand for stones
and glass, ferric oxide for fine glassware, and lime and felt for
metals, pumice stone is more frequently employed for polishing softer
objects. Natural pumice stone presents but little firmness, and the
search has therefore been made to replace the natural product with
an artificial one. An artificial stone has been produced by means of
sandstone and clay, designed to be used for a variety of purposes.
No. 1, hard or soft, with coarse grain, is designed for leather and
waterproof garments, and for the industries of felt and wool; No. 2,
hard and soft, of average grain, is designed for work in stucco and
sculptors’ use, and for rubbing down wood before painting; No. 3, soft,
with fine grain, is used for polishing wood and tin articles; No. 4,
of average hardness, with fine grain, is used for giving to wood a
surface previous to polishing with oil; No. 5, hard, with fine grain,
is employed for metal work and stones, especially lithographic stones.
These artificial products are utilized in the same manner as the
volcanic products. For giving a smooth surface to wood, the operation
is dry; but for finishing, the product is diluted with oil.

PUMICE-STONE SOAP: See Soaps.

PUNCHES: See Ice Creams.

PUNCTURE CEMENT: See Cement.

PURPLE OF CASSIUS: See Gold.


«Putty»

(See also Lutes, under Adhesives and Cements.)

Common putty, as used by carpenters, painters, and glaziers, is whiting
mixed with linseed oil to the consistency of dough. Plasterers use a
fine lime mortar that is called putty. Jewelers use a tin oxide for
polishing, called putty powder or putz powder. (See Putz Powder, under
Jewelers’ Polishes, under Polishes.) {607}


«Acid-Proof Putty.»—I.—Melt 1 part of gum elastic with 2 parts of
linseed oil and mix with the necessary quantity of white bole by
continued kneading to the desired consistency. Hydrochloric acid and
nitric acid do not attack this putty, it softens somewhat in the warm
and does not dry readily on the surface. The drying and hardening is
effected by an admixture of 1⁠/⁠2 part of litharge or red lead.

II.—A putty which will even resist boiling sulphuric acid is prepared
by melting caoutchouc at a moderate heat, then adding 8 per cent of
tallow, stirring constantly, whereupon sufficiently slaked lime is
added until the whole has the consistency of soft dough. Finally about
20 per cent of red lead is still added, which causes the mass to set
immediately and to harden and dry. A solution of caoutchouc in double
its weight of linseed oil, added by means of heat and with the like
quantity (weight) of pipe clay, gives a plastic mass which likewise
resists most acids.


«Black Putty.»—Mix whiting and antimony sulphide, the latter finely
powdered, with soluble glass. This putty, it is claimed, can be
polished, after hardening, by means of a burnishing agate.


«Durable Putty.»—According to the “Gewerbeschau,” mix a handful of
burnt lime with 4 1⁠/⁠4 ounces of linseed oil; allow this mixture to
boil down to the consistency of common putty, and dry the extensible
mass received, in a place not accessible to the rays of the sun. When
the putty, which has become very hard through the drying, is to be
used, it is warmed. Over the flame it will become soft and pliable,
but after having been applied and become cold, it binds the various
materials very firmly.


«Glaziers’ Putty.»—I.—For puttying panes or looking glasses into
picture frames a mixture prepared as follows is well adapted: Make a
solution of gum elastic in benzine, strong enough so that a syrup-like
fluid results. If the solution be too thin, wait until the benzine
evaporates. Then grind white lead in linseed-oil varnish to a stiff
paste and add the gum solution. This putty may be used, besides the
above purposes, for the tight puttying-in of window panes into their
frames. The putty is applied on the glass lap of the frames and the
panes are firmly pressed into it. The glass plates thereby obtain a
good, firm support and stick to the wood, as the putty adheres both to
the glass and to the wood.

II.—A useful putty for mirrors, etc., is prepared by dissolving
gummi elasticum (caoutchouc) in benzol to a syrupy solution, and
incorporating this latter with a mixture of white lead and linseed oil
to make a stiff pulp. The putty adheres strongly to both glass and
wood, and may therefore be applied to the framework of the window,
mirror, etc., to be glazed, the glass being then pressed firmly on the
cementing layer thus formed.


«Hard Putty.»—This is used by carriage painters and jewelers. Boil 4
pounds brown umber and 7 pounds linseed oil for 2 hours; stir in 2
ounces beeswax; take from the fire and mix in 5 1⁠/⁠2 pounds chalk and
11 pounds white lead; the mixing must be done very thoroughly.


«Painters’ Putty and Rough Stuff.»—Gradually knead sifted dry chalk
(whiting) or else rye flour, powdered white lead, zinc white, or
lithopone white with good linseed-oil varnish. The best putty is
produced from varnish with plenty of chalk and some zinc white. This
mixture can be tinted with earth colors. These oil putties must be well
kneaded together and rather compact (like glaziers’ putty).

If flour paste is boiled (this is best produced by scalding with hot
water, pouring in, gradually, the rye flour which has been previously
dissolved in a little cold water and stirring constantly until the
proper consistency is attained) and dry sifted chalk and a little
varnish are added, a good rough stuff for wood or iron is obtained,
which can be rubbed. This may also be produced from glaziers’ oil
putty by gradually kneading into it flour paste and a little more
sifted dry chalk.


«To Soften Glaziers’ Putty.»—I.—Glaziers’ putty which has become hard
can be softened with the following mixture: Mix carefully equal parts
of crude powdered potash and freshly burnt lime and make it into a
paste with a little water. This dough, to which about 1⁠/⁠4 part of
soft soap is still added, is applied on the putty to be softened, but
care has to be taken not to cover other paint, as it would be surely
destroyed thereby. After a few hours the hardest putty will be softened
by this caustic mass and can be removed from glass and wood.

II.—A good way to make the putty soft and plastic enough in a few
hours so that it can be taken off like fresh putty, is by the use of
kerosene, which entirely dissolves the linseed oil of the putty, {608}
transformed into rosin, and quickly penetrates it.


«Substitute for Putty.»—A cheap and effective substitute for putty
to stop cracks in woodwork is made by soaking newspapers in a paste
made by boiling a pound of flour in 3 quarts of water, and adding
a teaspoonful of alum. This mixture should be of about the same
consistency as putty, and should be forced into the cracks with a blunt
knife. It will harden, like papier maché, and when dry may be painted
or stained to match the boards, when it will be almost imperceptible.


«Waterproof Putties.»—I.—Grind powdered white lead or minium (red lead)
with thick linseed-oil varnish to a stiff paste. This putty is used
extensively for tightening wrought-iron gas pipes, for tightening rivet
seams on gas meters, hot-water furnaces, cast-iron flange pipes for
hot-water heating, etc. The putty made with minium dries very slowly,
but becomes tight even before it is quite hard, and holds very firmly
after solidification. Sometimes a little ground gypsum is added to it.

The two following putties are cheaper than the above-mentioned red lead
putty: II.—One part white lead, 1 part manganese, one part white pipe
clay, prepared with linseed-oil varnish.

III.—Two parts red lead, 5 parts white lead, 4 parts clay, ground in or
prepared with linseed-oil varnish.

IV.—Excellent putty, which has been found invaluable where waterproof
closing and permanent adhesion are desired, is made from litharge and
glycerine. The litharge must be finely pulverized and the glycerine
very concentrated, thickly liquid, and clear as water. Both substances
are mixed into a viscid, thickly liquid pulp. The pegs of kerosene
lamps, for instance, can be fixed in so firmly with this putty that
they can only be removed by chiseling it out. For puttying in the glass
panes of aquariums it is equally valuable. As it can withstand higher
temperatures it may be successfully used for fixing tools, curling
irons, forks, etc., in the wooden handles. The thickish putty mass is
rubbed into the hole, and the part to be fixed is inserted. As this
putty hardens very quickly it cannot be prepared in large quantities,
and only enough for immediate use must be compounded in each case.

V.—Five parts of hydraulic lime, 0.3 parts of tar, 0.3 parts of rosin,
1 part of horn water (the decoction resulting from boiling horn in
water and decanting the latter). The materials are to be mixed and
boiled. After cooling, the putty is ready for use. This is an excellent
cement for glass, and may be used also for reservoirs and any vessels
for holding water, to cement the cracks; also for many other purposes.
It will not give way, and is equally good for glass, wood, and metal.

VI.—This is especially recommended for boiler leaks: Mix well together
6 parts of powdered graphite, 3 parts of slaked lime, 8 parts of heavy
spar (barytes), and 8 parts of thick linseed-oil varnish, and apply in
the ordinary way to the spots.

PUTTY FOR ATTACHING SIGN-LETTERS TO GLASS: See Adhesives, under
Sign-Letter Cements.

PUTTY, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

PUTZ POMADE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

PYROGALLIC ACID: See Photography.

PYROGALLIC ACID STAINS, TO REMOVE, FROM THE SKIN: See Cleaning
Preparations and Methods and Photography.

PYROCATECHIN DEVELOPER: See Photography.


«Pyrotechnics»


«FIREWORKS.»

The chief chemical process is, of course, oxidation. Oxidation may
be produced by the atmosphere, but in many cases this is not enough,
and then the pyrotechnist must employ his knowledge of chemistry in
selecting oxidizing agents.

The chief of these oxidizing agents are chlorates and nitrates, the
effect of which is to promote the continuance of combustion when it
is once started. They are specially useful, owing to their solid
non-hygroscopic nature. Then ingredients are needed to prevent the
too speedy action of the oxidizing agents, to regulate the process of
combustion, such as calomel, sand, and sulphate of potash. Thirdly,
there are the active ingredients that produce the desired effect,
prominent among which are substances that in contact with flame impart
some special color to it. Brilliancy and brightness are imparted by
steel, zinc, and copper {609} filings. Other substances employed are
lampblack with gunpowder, and, for theatre purposes, lycopodium.

Fireworks may be classified under four heads, viz.:

1. Single fireworks.

2. Terrestrial fireworks, which are placed upon the ground and the fire
issues direct from the surface.

3. Atmospheric fireworks, which begin their display in the air.

4. Aquatic fireworks, in which oxidation is so intense that they
produce a flame under water.


«Rockets.»—First and foremost among atmospheric fireworks are rockets,
made in different sizes, each requiring a slightly different percentage
composition. A good formula is

 Sulphur           1 part
 Carbon, wood      2 parts
 Niter             4 parts
 Meal powder       1 part

Meal powder is a fine black or brown dust, which acts as a diluent.


«Roman Candles.»—Roman candles are somewhat after the same principle.
An average formula is:

 Sulphur      4 parts
 Carbon       3 parts
 Niter        8 parts


«Pin Wheels.»—These are also similar in composition to the preceding.
The formula for the basis is

 Sulphur           5 parts
 Niter             9 parts
 Meal powder      15 parts
 Color as desired.


«Bengal Lights.»—Bengal lights have the disadvantage of being
poisonous. A typical preparation can be made according to this formula:

 Realgar             1 part
 Black antimony      5 parts
 Red lead            1 part
 Sulphur             3 parts
 Niter              14 parts


«COLORED FIRES.»

The compounds should be ignited in a small pill box resting on a plate.
All the ingredients must be dried and powdered separately, and then
lightly mixed on a sheet of paper. Always bear in mind that sulphur and
chlorate of potassium explode violently if rubbed together.


«Smokeless Vari-Colored Fire.»—First take barytes or strontium, and
bring to a glowing heat in a suitable dish, remove from the fire, and
add the shellac. The latter (unpowdered) will melt at once, and can
then be intimately mixed with the barytes or strontium by means of a
spatula. After cooling, pulverize. One may also add about 2 1⁠/⁠2 per
cent of powdered magnesium to increase the effect. Take for instance 4
parts of barytes or strontium and 1 part of shellac.

The following salts, if finely powdered and burned in an iron ladle
with a little spirits, will communicate to the flame their peculiar
colors.

Potassium nitrate or sodium chlorate, yellow.

Potassium chlorate, violet.

Calcium chloride, orange.

Strontium nitrate, red.

Barium nitrate, apple green.

Copper nitrate, emerald green.

Borax, green.

Lithium chloride, purple.

The colored fires are used largely in the production of various
theatrical effects.


«Blue Fire.»—

 I.—Ter-sulphuret of antimony      1 part
     Sulphur                        2 parts
     Nitrate of potassium           6 parts

 II.—Sulphur                      15 parts
      Potassium sulphate           15 parts
      Ammonio-cupric sulphate      15 parts
      Potassium nitrate            27 parts
      Potassium chlorate           28 parts

 III.—Chlorate of potash           8 parts
       Calomel                      4 parts
       Copper sulphate              5 parts
       Shellac                      3 parts

 IV.—Ore pigment                   2 parts
      Charcoal                      3 parts
      Potassium chloride            5 parts
      Sulphur                      13 parts
      Potassium nitrate            77 parts

 V.—Potassium chlorate            10 parts
     Copper chlorate               20 parts
     Alcohol                       20 parts
     Water                        100 parts

 VI.—Copper chlorate             100 parts
      Copper nitrate               50 parts
      Barium chlorate              25 parts
      Potassium chlorate          100 parts
      Alcohol                     500 parts
      Water                     1,000 parts


«Green.»—

 I.—Barium chlorate               20 parts
     Alcohol                       20 parts
     Water                        100 parts

 II.—Barium nitrate               10 parts
      Potassium chlorate           10 parts
      Alcohol                      20 parts
      Water                       100 parts

{610}

 III.—Shellac                      5 parts
       Barium nitrate           1 1⁠/⁠4 parts

Pound after cooling, and add Barium chlorate, 2 to 5 per cent.


«Red.»—

 I.—Shellac                     5 parts
     Strontium nitrate    1 to 1.2 parts

Preparation as in green fare. In damp weather add 2 to 4 per cent of
potassium chlorate to the red flame; the latter causes a little more
smoke.

 II.—Strontium nitrate       20 parts
      Potassium chlorate      10 parts
      Alcohol                 20 parts
      Water                  100 parts


«Yellow.»—

 I.—Sulphur                    16 parts
     Dried carbonate of soda    23 parts
     Chlorate of potassium      61 parts

 II.—Sodium chlorate           20 parts
      Potassium oxalate         10 parts
      Alcohol                   20 parts
      Water                    100 parts


«Violet.»—

 I.—Strontium chlorate       15 parts
     Copper chlorate          15 parts
     Potassium chlorate       15 parts
     Alcohol                  50 parts
     Water                   100 parts

 II.—Potassium chlorate      20 parts
      Strontium chlorate      20 parts
      Copper chlorate         10 parts
      Alcohol                 50 parts
      Water                  100 parts


«Lilac.»—

 Potassium chlorate      20 parts
 Copper chlorate         10 parts
 Strontium chloride      10 parts
 Alcohol                 50 parts
 Water                  100 parts


«Mauve.»—

 Chlorate of potash      28 parts
 Calomel                 12 parts
 Shellac                  4 parts
 Strontium nitrate        4 parts
 Cupric sulphate          2 parts
 Fat                      1 part


«Purple.»—

 Copper sulphide          8 parts
 Calomel                  7 parts
 Sulphur                  2 parts
 Chlorate of potash      16 parts


«White.»—

 I.—Gunpowder                 15 parts
     Sulphur                   22 parts
     Nitrate of potassium      64 parts

 II.—Potassium nitrate             30 parts
      Sulphur                       10 parts
      Antimony sulphide (black)      5 parts
      Flour                          3 parts
      Powdered camphor               2 parts

 III.—Charcoal                      1 part
       Sulphur                      11 parts
       Potassium sulphide           38 parts

 IV.—Stearine                       1 part
      Barium carbonate               1 part
      Milk sugar                     4 parts
      Potassium nitrate              4 parts
      Potassium chlorate            12 parts

As a general rule, a corresponding quantity of shellac may be taken
instead of the sulphur for inside fireworks.

The directions for using these solutions are simply to imbibe bibulous
papers in them, then carefully dry and roll tightly into rolls of
suitable length, according to the length of time they are to burn.


«Fuses.»—For fuses or igniting papers, the following is used:

 Potassium nitrate      2 parts
 Lead acetate          40 parts
 Water               100 parts

Mix and dissolve, and in the solution place unsized paper; raise to
nearly a boil and keep at this temperature for 20 minutes. If the paper
is to be “slow,” it may now be taken out, dried, cut into strips,
and rolled. If to be “faster,” the heat is to be continued longer,
according to the quickness desired. Care must be taken to avoid
boiling, which might disintegrate the paper.

In preparing these papers, every precaution against fire should be
taken, and their preparation in the shop or house should not be thought
of. In making the solutions, etc., where heat is necessary, the water
bath should invariably be used.


«PYROTECHNIC MAGIC.»

[Caution.—When about to place any lighted material in the mouth be sure
that the mouth is well coated with saliva, and that you are exhaling
_the breath continuously_, with greater or less force, _according to
the amount of heat you can bear_.

If the lighted material shows a tendency to burn the mouth, _do not
attempt to drag it out quickly_, but simply shut the lips tight, and
breathe through the nose, and the fire must go out instantly.

In the Human Gas Trick, where a flame 10 to 15 inches long is blown
from the mouth, be careful after lighting the {611} gas, _to continue
to exhale the breath_. When you desire the gas to go out, simply shut
the lips tight and hold the breath for a few seconds. In this trick,
until the gas is well out, any inhalation is likely to be attended with
the most serious results.

The several cautions above given may be examined with a lighted match,
first removing, after lighting the match, any brimstone or phosphorus
from its end.]


«To Fire Paper, etc., by Breathing on it.»—This secret seems little
known to conjurers. Pay particular attention to the caution concerning
phosphorus at the head of this article, and the caution respecting the
dangerous nature of the prepared fluid given.

Half fill a half-ounce bottle with carbon disulphide, and drop in 1 or
2 fragments of phosphorus, each the size of a pea, which will quickly
dissolve. Shake up the liquid, and pour out a small teaspoonful onto a
piece of blotting paper. The carbon disulphide will quickly evaporate,
leaving a film of phosphorus on the paper, which will quickly emit
fumes and burst into flame. The once-popular term Fenian fire was
derived from the supposed use of this liquid by the Fenians for the
purpose of setting fire to houses by throwing a bottle down a chimney
or through a window, the bottle to break and its contents to speedily
set fire to the place.

For the purpose of experiment this liquid should only be prepared in
small quantities as above, and any left over should be poured away
onto the soil in the open air, so as to obviate the risk of fire. Thin
paper may be fired in a similar manner with the acid bulbs and powder
already mentioned. The powder should be formed into a paste, laid on
the paper, and allowed to dry. Then the acid bulb is pasted over the
powder.


«Burning Brimstone.»—Wrap cotton around two small pieces of brimstone
and wet it with gasoline; take between the fingers, squeezing the
surplus liquid out, light it with a candle, throw back the head well,
and put it on the tongue blazing. Blow fire from mouth, and observe
that a freshly blown-out candle may be lighted from the flame, which
makes it more effective. After lighting candle chew up brimstone and
pretend to swallow.


«Blazing Sponge Trick.»—Take 2 or 3 small sponges, place them in a
ladle; pour just enough oil or gasoline over them to wet them. Be very
careful not to have enough oil on them to cause them to drip. Set
fire to the sponges and take one of them up with the tongs, and throw
the head back and drop the blazing sponge in the mouth, expelling the
breath all the time. Now close your mouth quickly; this cuts off the
air from the flame and it immediately goes out. Be careful not to
drop the sponge on the face or chin. Remove sponge under cover of a
handkerchief before placing the second one in the mouth.


«Burning Sealing Wax.»—Take a stick of common sealing wax in one hand
and a candle in the other, melt the wax over the candle, and put on
your tongue while blazing. The moisture of the mouth cools it almost
instantly. Care should be taken not to get any on the lips, chin, or
hands.


«Demon Bowls of Fire.»—The performer has three 6 1⁠/⁠2-inch brass bowls
on a table, and openly pours ordinary clean water (may be drunk) into
bowls, until each is about half full. Then by simply passing the hand
over bowls they each take fire and produce a flame 12 to 20 inches high.

Each bowl contains about 2 teaspoonfuls of ether, upon which is placed
a small piece of the metal potassium, about the size of a pea. If the
ether be pure the potassium will not be acted upon. When the water
is poured into the bowl the ether and potassium float up, the latter
acting vigorously on the water, evolving hydrogen and setting fire
thereto, and to the ether as well.

The water may be poured into the bowl and lighted at command. In this
case the potassium and ether are kept separated in the bowl, the former
in a little cup on one side, and the latter in the body of the bowl.
The water is poured in, and on rocking the bowl it is caused to wash
into the little cup, the potassium floats up, and the fire is produced.

N. B.—The above tricks are not safe in any but specially made bowls,
i. e., bowls with the wide flange round edge to prevent the accidental
spilling of any portion of the burning ether.


«The Burning Banana.»—Place some alcohol in a ladle and set fire to it.
Dip a banana in the blazing alcohol and eat it while it is blazing. As
soon as it is placed in the mouth the fire goes out.


«Sparks from the Finger Tips.»—Take a small piece of tin about 1⁠/⁠2
inch wide and 1 1⁠/⁠2 inches long. Bend this in the shape of a ring.
To the center of this piece solder another small piece of tin bent
in the shape of a letter U; between the {612} ends of this U place a
small piece of wax tape about 1⁠/⁠2 inch long. Take a piece of small
rubber tubing about 2 feet in length and to one end of this attach
a hollow rubber ball, which you must partly fill with iron filings.
Place the rubber ball containing the iron filings under the arm and
pass the rubber tube down through the sleeve of the coat to the palm of
the hand; now place the tin ring upon the middle finger, with the wax
taper inside of the hand. Light this taper. By pressing the arm down
sharply on the rubber ball, the force of the air will drive some of the
iron filings through the rubber tube and out through the flame of the
burning taper, when they will ignite and cause a beautiful shower of
sparks to appear to rain from the finger tips.


«To Take Boiling Lead in the Mouth.»—The metal used, while not unlike
lead in appearance, is not the ordinary metal, but is really an alloy
composed of the following substances:

 Bismuth      8 parts
 Lead         5 parts
 Tin          2 parts

To prepare it, first melt the lead in a crucible, then add the bismuth
and finally the tin, and stir well together with a piece of tobacco
pipe stem. This “fusible metal” will melt in boiling water, and a
teaspoon cast from the alloy will melt if very hot water be poured into
it, or if boiling water be stirred with it. If the water be not quite
boiling, as is pretty sure to be the case if tea from a teapot is used,
in all probability the heat will be insufficient to melt the spoon. But
by melting the alloy and adding to it a small quantity of quicksilver
a compound will be produced, which, though solid at the ordinary
temperature, will melt in water _very much below the boiling point_.
Another variety of easily fusible alloy is made by melting together

 Bismuth      7 to 8 parts
 Lead              4 parts
 Tin               2 parts
 Cadmium      1 to 2 parts

This mixture melts at 158°, that given above at 208° F.

Either one of the several alloys above given will contain considerably
less heat than lead, and in consequence be the more suitable for the
purposes of a “Fire King.”

When a body is melted it is raised to a certain temperature and then
gets no hotter, not even if the fire be increased—all the extra heat
goes to melt the remainder of the substance.

_Second Method._—This is done with a ladle constructed similarly to
the tin cup in a previous trick. The lead, genuine in this case, is,
apparently, drunk from the ladle, which is then tilted, that it may
be seen to be empty. The lead is concealed in the secret interior of
the ladle, and a solid piece of lead is in conclusion dropped from the
mouth, as congealed metal.


«To Eat Burning Coals.»—In the first place make a good charcoal fire
in the furnace. Just before commencing the act throw in three or
four pieces of soft pine. When burnt to a coal one cannot tell the
difference between this and charcoal, except by sticking a fork into
it. This will not burn in the least, while the genuine charcoal will.
You can stick your fork into these coals without any difficulty, but
the charcoal is brittle and hard; it breaks before the fork goes into
it.


«Chain of Fire.»—Take a piece of candle wick 8 or 10 inches long,
saturated with kerosene oil, squeeze out surplus oil. Take hold of one
end with your fire tongs, light by furnace, throw back your head, and
lower it into your mouth _while exhaling the breath freely_. When all
in, close your lips and remove in handkerchief.

NOTE.—Have a good hold of the end with the tongs, for if it should
fall it would probably inflict a serious burn; for this reason also no
burning oil must drop from the cotton.


«Biting Off Red-Hot Iron.»—Take a piece of hoop iron about 2 feet long,
place it in a vise and bend it backwards and forwards, about an inch
from the end, until it is nearly broken off. Put this in a furnace
until it becomes red hot, then take it in your right hand, grasp the
broken end in your teeth, being careful not to let it touch your lips
or your tongue, make a “face” as though it was terribly hard to bite
off, and let the broken end drop from between your teeth into a pail
of water (which you should always have at hand in case of fire), when
the hissing will induce the belief that the portion bitten off is still
“red hot”—it may be, for that matter, if the iron be nearly broken off
in the first place and if you have good teeth and are not afraid to
injure them.


«Water Stirred Yellow, Scarlet, and Colorless.»—Obtain a glass tube
with one end hermetically sealed and drawn into a fine point that
will break easily. Into an ale glass put a solution of mercury {613}
bichloride (corrosive sublimate, a deadly poison) and into the tube a
strong solution of potassium iodide so adjusted in strength that it
will redissolve the scarlet precipitate formed by the union of the two
liquids. While stirring the solution in the glass the bottom of the
tube (apparently a glass rod) is broken and a small portion of its
contents allowed to escape, which produces a beautiful scarlet. The
balance of the fluid in the tube is retained there by simply keeping
the thumb on the open top end. Continue the stirring, allowing the
balance of the contents of the tube to escape, and the scarlet fluid
again becomes colorless. Before the scarlet appears the liquid is
yellow.

To heighten the effect, another ale glass, containing only clean water
and a solid glass stirring-rod, may be handed to one of the company,
with instructions to do the same as the performer; the result is
amusing.

QUICK-WATER: See Alloys.

QUILTS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

QUINCE EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts.

RAGS FOR CLEANING AND POLISHING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

RASPBERRYADE POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent.

RASPBERRY SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts.


«Rat Poisons»

(See also Turpentine.)

Poisons for rats may be divided into two classes, quick and slow.
Potassium cyanide and strychnine belong to the first, and phosphorus
and arsenic to the second. Both should be kept away from children,
dogs, and cats, and this is best done by putting them in places too
narrow for anything larger than a rat to squeeze into. If the poison is
too quick, the effect of it is visible to the same rats which saw the
cause, and those which have not eaten of the bait will leave it alone.
On the other hand, if it is too slow, the poisoned rat may spread it to
edible things in the pantry, by vomiting. Slow poisons generally cause
the rat to seek water, and when they are used water should not be left
about promiscuously.

The substances most useful as rat poisons, and which are without danger
to the larger domestic animals, are plaster of Paris and fresh squills.
Less dangerous than strychnine and arsenic are the baryta preparations,
of which the most valuable is barium carbonate. Like plaster of Paris,
this substance, when used for the purpose, must be mixed with sugar and
meal, or flour, and as a decoy some strong-smelling cheese should be
added. In closed places there should be left vessels containing water
easily accessible to the creatures.

One advantage over these substances possessed by the squill is that
it is greedily eaten by rats and mice. When it is used, however, the
same precaution as to water, noted above, is necessary, a circumstance
too frequently forgotten. In preparing the squill for this purpose,
by the addition of bacon, or fat meat of any kind, the use of a decoy
like cheese is unnecessary, as the fats are sufficiently appetizing
to the rodents. It is to be noted that only fresh squills should be
used for this purpose, as in keeping the bulb the poisonous principle
is destroyed, or, at least, is so modified as to seriously injure its
value.


«Squill Poisons.»—The preparation of the squill as a rat poison can
be effected in several different ways. Usually, after the removal of
the outer peel, the bulb is cut up into little slices and mixed with
milk and flour; these are stirred into a dough or paste, which, with
bits of bacon rind, is put into the oven and baked. Another plan is
to grate the squill on a grater and mingle the gratings with mashed,
boiled, or roasted potato. This method of preparing them necessitates
the immediate use of the poison. The following is, however, a stable
preparation that keeps well:

 I.—Hog’s lard                                         500 grams
     Acid salicylic                                       5 grams
     Squill                                               1 bulb
     Beef suet                                    50 to 100 grams
     Barium carbonate                                   500 grams
     Solution of ammonium copper acetate, 20 per cent    50 grams

Cut or grate the squill into very small pieces, and fry it in the lard
and suet until it has acquired a dark-brown color and {614} the fats
have taken up the characteristic squill odor; then to the mess add the
other substances, and stir well together.

 II.—Squill, bruised        4 ounces
      Bacon, chopped fine    6 ounces
      Flour or meal, enough.
      Water, enough.

Make into a stiff mass, divide into small cakes, and bake.


«Phosphorus Poisons.»—Next to the squill in value as a poison comes
phosphorus in the shape of an electuary, or in pills. For readily
preparing the electuary, when needed or ordered, it is a good plan to
keep on hand a phosphorated syrup made as follows:

To 200 parts of simple syrup, in a strong flask, add 50 parts of
phosphorus and 10 parts of talc powder; place the container in a
suitable vessel and surround it with water heated to 120° to 130° F.,
and let it stand until the phosphorus is melted. Now, cork the flask
well, tie down the cork, and agitate until the mixture is completely
cold. As a measure of precaution, the flask should be wrapped with a
cloth.

To make the poison take 50 parts of rye flour and mix with it 10 parts
of powdered sugar. To the mixture add about 40 parts of water and from
30 to 40 parts of the phosphorated syrup, and mix the mass thoroughly.

While it is best to make the phosphorated syrup fresh every time that
it is required, a stable syrup can be made as follows:

Heat together very carefully in a water bath 5 parts of phosphorus, 3
parts of sublimed sulphur, and 30 parts of water, until the phosphorus
is completely melted and taken up; then add 30 parts of wheat flour
and 6 parts of ground mustard seed, and work up, with the addition of
warm water from time to time, if necessary, into a stiff paste, finally
adding and working in from 1 to 2 parts of oil of anise.

Borax in powder, it may be noticed, is also useful as a preservative of
phosphorated paste or the electuary.

Mühsam gives the following formula for an electuary of phosphorus for
this purpose:

 I.—Phosphorus, granulated     1 part
     Rye flour                 30 parts
     Simple syrup              10 parts
     Mustard seed, powdered     1 part
     Sublimed sulphur           1 part
     Water                     10 parts

Proceed as indicated above.

Hager’s formula for “Phosphorus globules” is as follows:

 II.—Phosphorus, amorphous    10 parts
      Glycerine                20 parts
      Linseed, powdered       100 parts
      Meat extract             15 parts
      Quark, recently coagulated, quantity sufficient.

Mix, and make a mass, and divide into 200 globules, weighing about 15
grains each. Roll in wheat flour, in which a little powdered sugar has
been mixed.

Phosphorus electuary, made as indicated above, may be smeared upon bits
of fried bacon, which should be tacked firmly to a bit of board or to
the floor. It is essential that either flour or sugar, or both, be
strewn over the surface of the phosphorus.

The most convenient in practice, on the whole, are the phosphorus
globules, either made after Hager’s formula, or, more readily, by
adding rye flour and sugar to the electuary and working up to a pill
mass, or barium carbonate and plaster may be added.


«Arsenical Poisons.»—The following are some of the formulas given by
Hager for preparing globules, or pills, of arsenic:

 I.—Arsenic, white, powdered    100 parts
     Soot from the kitchen         5 parts
     Oil of anise                  1 part
     Lard, sufficient.
     Wheat flour, sufficient.

Make into 400 globules.

 II.—Beef suet                  500 parts
      Rye flour                  500 parts
      Arsenic, white, powdered    50 parts
      Ultramarine                 10 parts
      Oil of anise                 1 part

Melt the suet, and add to the flour, mix in the other ingredients, and
work up while hot, beating the mass with a roller. Make 1,000 globules.


«Strychnine Poisons.»—The strychnine preparations are also valuable
in the destruction of rats and mice. The first of these in point of
usefulness is strychnine-wheat, or strychnine-oats (Strychninweizen
or Strychninhafer), in the proportion of 1 part of strychnine to 100
or 150 parts of wheat or oat flour, prepared by dissolving 1 part of
strychnine in 40 to 50 parts of hot water, mixing well up with the
flour, and drying in the water {615} bath. Strychnine may also be used
on fresh or salted meat, sausage, etc., by insertion of the powder,
or the heads of fried fish are opened and the powder strewn on the
inside. The latter is an especially deadly method, since the odor of
the fish acts as a powerful lure, as also do the bits of bacon or other
fats used in frying fish. Strong cheese is also a good vehicle for
strychnine, acting as a powerful lure for the rodents.

 Strychnine sulph       1 drachm
 Sugar milk             3 drachms
 Prussian blue          5 grains
 Sugar                1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Oat flour            1⁠/⁠2 ounce


«Nux Vomica Poison.»—

 Oatmeal                  1 pound
 Powdered nux vomica      1 ounce
 Oil of anise             5 drops
 Tincture of asafetida    5 drops


«Barium Poison.»—

 Barium carbonate       4 ounces
 Sugar                  6 ounces
 Oatmeal                6 ounces
 Oil of anise           4 drops
 Oil of caraway         4 drops

RAZOR PAPER: See Paper.


«RAZOR PASTES:»

See also Pastes.

The razor pastes, razor creams, etc., on the market, have for their
cutting, or sharpening, agent jewelers’ rouge, or rouge and emery. When
emery is used it should be ground to an impalpable powder and levigated.

I.—The simplest formula is a mixture in equal parts of rouge and
emery powder, rubbed up with spermaceti ointment. Coke is also used
as a cutting agent. Suet, prepared lard, in fact, any greasy or soapy
substance, will answer for the vehicle.

II.—Melt 1,000 parts of beef tallow and pour 250 parts of oil to it.
To this mixture, which is uniformly combined by thorough stirring,
add in the same manner 150 parts of washed emery, 100 parts of tin
ashes, and 50 parts of iron oxide. The stirring of these ingredients
must be continued until the mass is cool, as otherwise they would be
unevenly distributed. The leather of the strop should be rubbed with
this grease, applying only small quantities at a time. This renders it
possible to produce a very uniform coating, since little quantities
penetrate the fibers of the leather more easily.

 III.—Tin putty (tin ashes)                          2 parts
       Colcothar                                      2 parts
       Forged iron scales or filings                  1 part
       Pure levantine honing stone finely powdered    7 parts
       Beef suet                                      3 parts

All the ingredients with the exception of the suet should be finely
powdered. The suet is melted, the ingredients poured in, and the whole
thoroughly mixed to form a doughy mass.

 IV.—Colcothar                  1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
      Pumice stone               1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
      Graphite                   4 1⁠/⁠2 parts
      Bloodstone (red hematite)      2 parts
      Iron filings                   1 part

These ingredients are finely powdered, washed, and mixed with the
following:

 Grafting wax      2 parts
 Soap              2 parts
 Lard              2 parts
 Olive oil         2 parts

Naturally the fatty ingredients are to be heated before the solid
substances are commingled with them.

The side of the blade to be polished should be treated with the
following compositions:

_a._ Tin ashes (tin putty) rubbed down to a fine powder on a honing
stone and mixed with axle grease.

_b._ Washed graphite mingled with olive oil.

REDUCERS: See Photography.

REDUCING PHOTOGRAPHS, SCALE FOR: See Photography.

REFLECTOR METAL: See Alloys.


«REFRIGERANTS.»

 I.—Potassium nitrate             2 pounds
     Ammonium chloride             2 pounds
     Water                         5 pints

 II.—Potassium nitrate        2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
      Ammonium chloride        2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
      Sodium sulphate              4 pounds
      Water                        9 pints

 III.—Ammonia nitrate             4 pounds
       Water                       4 pints

 IV.—Sodium sulphate              8 parts
      Dilute hydrochloric acid     5 parts

{616}

 V.—Snow                          1 part
     Water                         1 part
     Sulphuric acid                4 parts

 VI.—Snow                         3 parts
     Calcium chloride              4 parts


«Refrigeration»

If water to be frozen is placed in a tin bucket or other receptacle
it can be readily congealed by putting it in a pail containing a weak
dilution of sulphuric acid and water. Into this throw a handful of
common Glauber salts, and the resulting cold is so great that water
immersed in the mixture will be frozen solid in a few minutes, and ice
cream or ices may be quickly and easily prepared. The cost is only a
few cents. The same process in an ice-cream freezer will do the trick
for ice cream.


«Home-Made Refrigerators.»—I.—Partly fill with water a shallow
granite-ware pan. Place it in an open, shady window where there is a
good draught of air. In this put bottles of water, milk, and cream
(sealed), wrapped with wet cloths reaching into the water. Put butter
in an earthen dish deep enough to prevent water getting in. Over this
turn an earthen flower-pot wrapped with a wet cloth reaching into the
water. The pan should be fixed every morning and evening. With several
of these pans one can keep house very comfortably without ice.

II.—Procure a wire meat-safe—that is, a box covered by wire netting on
three sides, with a fly-proof door. On top place a deep pan filled
with water. Take a piece of burlap the height of the pan and safe, and
of sufficient length to reach around the entire safe. Tack it fast
where the door opens and closes. Tuck the upper edge in the water.
Place it where there is a draught and where the dripping will do no
damage. This constitutes a well-ventilated refrigerator that costs
nothing but water to maintain.

III.—Take a store box, any convenient size, and place in this a smaller
box, having the bottom and space around the sides packed with sawdust.
Have a galvanized iron pan made, the size of the inside box and half as
deep, to hold the ice. Have the pan made with a spout 6 inches long to
drain off the water as the ice melts. Bore a hole the size of the spout
through the double bottom and sawdust packing to admit the spout. Short
legs may be nailed on the sides of the box and a vessel set underneath
to catch the drippings. Put on a tight board cover. A shelf may be
placed in the box above the ice. This box will keep ice for three days.

IV.—Select a large cracker box with a hinged cover. Knock out the
bottom and cut windows in each side, leaving a 3-inch frame, over which
tack wire gauze. In the coolest part of the cellar dig away the earth
to a level depth of 3 inches and fit the box into the space.

Mix plaster of Paris to a consistency of thick cream and pour into the
box for a 1⁠/⁠2-inch thick bottom. Twenty-four hours will harden it
sufficiently. Put a hook and catch on the lid. A box of this sort can
be cleaned easily, and insects cannot penetrate it.


«To Drain a Refrigerator.»—I.—Have a stout tin funnel made, 7 inches
in diameter at the top. The tube portion should be at least 8 inches
long and of uniform diameter. Bore a hole through the floor directly
under the drain-pipe of the refrigerator; insert the funnel, then
force a piece of rubber tubing (a tight fit) over the funnel from the
cellar side. Pass the tubing through a hole cut in the screen frame
of a cellar window, and drain into any convenient place. This avoids
the necessity of continually emptying the drain-pan, and prevents the
overflow that frequently occurs when it is forgotten.

II.—This simple device saves the inconvenience of having a drip-pan
under the refrigerator: If the refrigerator is placed near the outer
wall get a piece of rubber hose long enough to reach from the waste
pipe to the outside of the wall. Bore a hole through the wall under
the refrigerator, where baseboard and floor meet. Attach the hose to
the waste-pipe and pass through the hole in the wall. A small trough
outside should carry the water away from the house.

REFRIGERATORS, THEIR CARE: See Household Formulas.

REPLATING: See Plating.

RESILVERING OF MIRRORS: See Mirrors.

REVOLVER LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.

RHUBARB AS A REMEDY FOR CHOLERA: See Cholera Remedies. {617}

RIBBONS FOR TYPEWRITERS: See Typewriter Ribbons.

RICE PASTE: See Adhesives.

RICE POWDER: See Cosmetics.

RIFLE LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.

RING, HOW TO SOLDER A JEWELED: See Solders.

RINGS ON METAL, PRODUCING COLORED: See Plating.

ROACH EXTERMINATORS: See Insecticides.

ROBURITE: See Explosives.

RODINAL DEVELOPER: See Photography.


«ROLLER COMPOSITIONS FOR PRINTERS.»

Rollers for transferring ink to types have to possess special
properties, which have reference both to the nature of the ink and that
of the types to which it is to be transferred. They must be as little
liable as possible to changes of temperature. They must be sticky,
but only just sticky enough, and must have elasticity enough to exert
a uniform pressure over the varying surface with which they meet in
the form. Originally, the composition was one of glue and molasses in
varying proportions, and the only practical improvement that has been
made is the addition of glycerine. This being slightly hygroscopic,
helps to keep the roller at the right degree of softness, and being
practically unfreezable, it is a great assistance in keeping the
rollers from hardening in cold weather.

The recipes given in technical works for printing roller compositions
are numerous and very different. All contain glue and molasses, and
it is the practice to put a larger proportion of glue in rollers to be
used in the summer than in those intended for winter use. The following
is a selection of recipes:

I.—Soak 8 pounds of glue in as much water as it will absorb. When there
is no visible water, treat the glue till melted, and add 7 pounds of
hot molasses.

 II.—Glue (summer)              8 pounds
      Glue (winter)              4 pounds
      Molasses                   1 gallon

 III.—Molasses                 12 pounds
       Glue                      4 pounds

 IV.—Molasses                  24 pounds
      Glue                      16 pounds
      Paris white                2 pounds

 V.—Glue or gelatin            64 pounds
     Water                      48 pounds
     Linseed oil                96 pounds
     Molasses or sugar    64 to 96 pounds
     Chloride of calcium         3 pounds
     Powdered rosin              8 pounds

Soak the glue in the water and then liquefy by heat. Then stir in the
oil, first heated to 150° F. Then add the molasses and the chloride
of calcium, and finally the fused rosin. The latter ingredient is
only to be added when very tough rollers are required. This recipe is
interesting from the inclusion in it of the hygroscopic salt, chloride
of calcium, the object of which is obviously to keep the rollers moist.

ROOFS, HOW TO LAY GALVANIZED: See Household Formulas.

ROOFS, PREVENTION OF LEAKAGE: See Household Formulas.

ROOF PAINTS: See Paint.

ROOM DEODORIZER: See Household Formulas.


«ROPES.»

To protect ropes, cordage, and cloths made of flax and hemp against
rot, it has been recommended to leave them for 4 days in a solution
of copper sulphate, 20 parts by weight to a liter, then allow them to
dry, and then, to prevent the copper sulphate being washed away by the
water, place in tar or a solution of soap—1 to 10. In the latter case
an insoluble copper soap is formed. To secure the same result with
twine, the following process has been recommended: Place the string
for an hour in a solution of glue, then allow to dry, and place in a
solution of tannin. After removal from the tannin, again dry, and soak
in oil. The process first described has been shown by experience to be
very effective; but to prevent the washing away of the copper sulphate,
it is advisable to use the solution of soap in preference to the tar,
as articles steeped in the latter substance are apt to become stiff,
and consequently brittle. The {618} treatment with glue and tannin in
the second process has the drawback that it tends to make the string
too stiff and inflexible, and thus impair its usefulness.

ROPE LUBRICANTS: See Lubricant.

ROPES, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

ROSE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

ROSEWOOD: See Wood.

ROSE POWDERS: See Cosmetics.

ROSIN, TESTS FOR, IN EXTRACTS: See Foods.

ROSIN OIL: See Oil.

ROSIN STICKS: See Depilatories.


«ROT:»


«Remedies for Dry Rot.»—A good remedy for dry rot is petroleum. The
sick parts of the wood are painted with it, which causes the fungi to
die, turn black, and finally drop off. The best preventive of dry rot
is plenty of draught. If the portions are already affected so badly
that they must be removed and renewed, the freshly inserted wood is
coated with “carbolineum” to prevent a fresh appearance of dry rot.
Another remedy is ordinary salt, which is known to have a highly
hygroscopic action. It absorbs the moisture of the wood, whereby it
is itself dissolved, thus gradually impregnating the planks, etc. In
order to combat dry rot with salt, proceed as follows: Throw salt
into boiling water until a perfectly saturated solution is obtained.
With this repeatedly wash the wood and masonry afflicted with dry
rot. Wherever practicable the salt may be sprinkled direct upon the
affected place.

ROUGE: See Cosmetics.


«ROUGE FOR BUFF WHEELS.»

The rouge employed by machinists, watchmakers, and jewelers, is
obtained by directly subjecting crystals of sulphate of iron or
copperas to a high heat by which the sulphuric acid is expelled and the
oxide of iron remains. Those portions least calcined, when ground, are
used for polishing gold and silver. These are of bright crimson color.
The darker and more calcined portions are known as “crocus,” and are
used for polishing brass and steel. Others prefer for the production
of rouge the peroxide of iron precipitated by ammonia from a dilute
solution of sulphate of iron, which is washed, compressed until dry,
then exposed to a low red heat and ground to powder. Of course, there
are other substances besides rouge which are employed in polishing, as
powdered emery, kieselguhr, carborundum, rotten stone, etc.

ROUGE POWDER: See Polishes.

ROUGH STUFF: See Wood.

ROUP CURES: See Veterinary Formulas.


«Rubber»


«ARTIFICIAL RUBBER.»

Austin G. Day tried hundreds of experiments and took out many patents
for rubber substitutes. He was in a measure successful, his “Kerite”
compound proving of great value and being a result of his seeking for
something that would wholly supplant rubber. As far back as 1866 he
made public the results of some of his work, giving as formulas for
rubber substitutes the following compounds:

 I.—Linseed oil          2 pounds
     Cottonseed oil       1 pound
     Petroleum            2 pounds
     Raw turpentine       2 pounds
     Sulphur              2 pounds

Boil 2 hours.

 II.—Linseed oil         2 pounds
      Cottonseed oil      1 pound
      Petroleum           1 pound
      Raw turpentine      2 pounds
      Castor oil          1 pound
      Sulphur             2 pounds

Boil 1⁠/⁠2 hour.

 III.—Linseed oil          2 pounds
       Cottonseed oil       1 pound
       Petroleum            1 pound
       Raw turpentine     1⁠/⁠2 pound
       Liquid coal tar      3 pounds
       Peanut oil           1 pound
       Spirits turpentine   1 pound
       Sulphur              4 pounds

Boil 35 minutes.

 IV.—Linseed oil           2 pounds
      Cottonseed oil        1 pound
      Petroleum             2 pounds
      Raw turpentine      1⁠/⁠2 pound
      Liquid coal tar       2 pounds {619}
      Spirits turpentine    1 pound
      Rubber              [ ] pound
      Sulphur               2 pounds

Boil 1 hour.

In 1871 Mr. Day had brought his experimenting down to the following
formula:

 V.—Cottonseed oil      14 pounds
     Linseed oil         14 pounds
     Asphaltum            8 pounds
     Coal tar             8 pounds
     Sulphur             10 pounds
     Camphor            1⁠/⁠2 pound

In this the tar and asphaltum were first mixed with the cottonseed oil,
after which was added the linseed oil and camphor, and, last of all,
the sulphur, when the temperature was about 270° F.

A substitute designed to be used in rubber compounding in place, say,
of reclaimed rubber, was made as follows:

 VI.—Cottonseed oil      27 pounds
      Coal tar            30 pounds
      Earthy matter        5 pounds

To be mixed and heated to 300° F., and then strained and cooled
to 200° F. Then were added 27 pounds linseed oil, the heat raised
to 220° F., and 15 to 18 pounds of sulphur added, the heat being
continually raised until the mass was sulphurized. When the heat
reached 240° F., 1 to 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces of nitric acid were added, and
at 270° to 280° F., from 1 to 3 ounces camphor were added to help the
sulphurization. The resultant compound was used on the following basis:


 VII.—Para rubber             20 pounds
       Litharge                 5 pounds
       Sulphur                  1 pound
       Above compound    20 to 40 pounds

Mr. Day did not insist on the compound quoted, but advised that the
proportions be varied as widely as the exigencies of the case might
demand. Whiting, barytes, infusorial earth, white lead, blacks, in fact
almost any of the oxides, carbonates, or earthy materials commonly
used in compounding, were used in connection with his substitute, as
also were any grades of crude rubber. Among other ingredients that he
found of use in making his substitutes were vegetable and animal waxes,
together with ozokerite and paraffine. These were only used in small
quantities, and always in connection with the linseed and cottonseed
oils, and generally asphaltum or coal tar. One of his compounds also
called for a quantity of golden sulphuret of antimony, presumably to
assist in the sulphurization, and a small amount of tannic acid.

Another line of experimenting that is interesting, and that will yet
produce good results, although so far it has not amounted to much, is
in the use of cellulose. A very simple formula is of French origin
and calls for the treating of cellulose with sulphuric acid, washing,
drying, granulating, treating with resinate of soda—which is afterwards
precipitated by sulphate of alumina—then drying and molding under
pressure. As a matter of fact, the resultant mass would not be mistaken
for rubber. An English formula is more like it. This consists of

 VIII.—Cellulose      15 pounds
        Pitch          25 pounds
        Asphalt        20 pounds
        Silica         20 pounds
        Mastic          5 pounds
        Bitumen         5 pounds
        Rosin          10 pounds
        Coal tar       12 pounds

This makes a thick gummy varnish which is of little use except as for
its waterproof qualities. Allen’s formula for a cellulose substitute
might have a value if it were carried further. It is made up of 100
pounds of rosinous wood pulp treated with animal gelatin, 100 pounds
asphalt, and 10 pounds asphalt oil, all heated and molded.

The Greening process, which is English, is more elaborate than Allen’s,
but seems a bit laborious and costly. This process calls for the
treatment of the cellulose by a mixture of sulphuric acid and nitrate
of potash, and, after drying, a treatment to a bath of liquid carbonic
acid. When dry again, it is mixed in a retort with refined rosin, gum
benzoin, castor oil, and methylated alcohol. The distillate from this
is dried by redistilling over anhydrous lime.

Another curious line of substitutes is that based upon the use of glue
and glycerine. Some of these have uses, while others, that look very
attractive, are of no use at all, for the simple reason that they will
absorb water almost as readily as a dry sponge. The first of these is
more than 30 years old and is said to be of French origin. The formula
is:

 IX.—Glue           4 pounds
      Glycerine      8 ounces
      Nutgall        3 ounces
      Acetic acid, 1 pound in 5 pounds of water.

Ten years later this was approached by an English formula in which
in place of {620} the nutgall and acetic acid, chromic and tannic
acids were substituted, and a modicum of ground cork was added as a
cheapener probably. Some four years later an ingenious Prussian gave
out a formula in which to the glue and glycerine and tannic acid were
added Marseilles soap and linseed oil. None of the above have ever had
a commercial value, the nearest approach being the glue and glycerine
compound used as a cover for gas tubing.

The substitutes that have really come into use generally are made
either from linseed, cottonseed, or maize oil. Scores of these have
been produced and thousands of dollars have been spent by promoters and
owners in trying to make these gums do just what crude rubber will. A
German formula which was partially successful is

X.—Linseed oil, in solution 80 pounds Lime-hardened rosin, in solution
50 pounds

Add to above

 Sulphur         8 pounds
 Linseed oil    42 pounds

Add 20 pounds sulphur and heat to 375° F.


«Rubber and Rubber Articles.»—As regards the action of coal gas on
rubber tubes, it has been observed that it is weakest on ordinary gray
rubber which withstands it the longest, and gives off no odor. Red
rubber is more readily affected, and the black kind still more so.

To prevent rubber tubes from drying up and becoming brittle, they
should be coated with a 3 per cent aqueous solution of carbolic acid,
which preserves them. If they have already turned stiff and brittle,
they can be rendered soft and pliant again by being placed in ammonia
which has been made liquid with double the amount of water.

In France rubber tubes are used as a core for casting pipes from cement
and sand. In order to construct a connected pipe conduit in the ground,
a groove is dug and a layer of cement mortar spread out. Upon this the
rubber tube is laid, which is wrapped up in canvas and inflated. The
remaining portion of the channel is then filled up with cement mortar,
and as soon as it has set, the air is let out of the rubber hose and
the latter is pulled out and used as before.

To cover cloth with rubber, there are chiefly employed for dissolving
the rubber, naphtha, alcohol, and benzol. They are mixed with purified
solid paraffine, and ground together.

Rubber boots and shoes are rendered waterproof by melting 4 parts of
spermaceti and 1 part of rubber on a moderate fire, adding tallow or
fat, 10 parts, and lastly 5 parts of copal varnish or amber varnish.
This mixture is applied on the shoes with a brush. It should be stated
that the rubber used for this purpose must be cut up very small and
allowed 4 to 5 hours to dissolve.

To rid rubber articles of unpleasant odor, cover both sides with a
layer of animal charcoal and heat to about 140° F.

To prevent gas from escaping through rubber hose, cover it with a
mixture prepared as follows: Dissolve 5 parts of gum arabic and 3 parts
of molasses in 15 parts of white wine and add, with constant stirring,
6 parts of alcohol in small quantities. Stirring is necessary to
prevent the alcohol from precipitating the gum arabic.


«Repairing Rubber Goods.»—First, clean off all adherent matter, and dry
thoroughly. Varnish or lacquer, as for instance on rubber shoes, may be
removed with sand or emery paper, or even with a file, in the absence
of one of these. The surface thus produced is then rubbed with benzine.
A solution of Para rubber in benzine is then painted over the surface
around the break or tear, and a strip of natural rubber fitted over it.
Then prepare a vulcanizing solution as follows:

 Sulphur chloride      18 parts
 Benzine              400 parts
 Carbon disulphide    300 parts

This is applied to the edges of the joint by means of a pledget of
cotton wrapped on the end of a little stick, and press the jointed
parts well together.

One may repair rubber bulbs by the following method: Put some pure
gum in three times its bulk of benzine, and cork tightly. Let stand
several days. Get some rubber in sheet form; it will be better if it is
backed with cloth. To make a patch, dampen some little distance around
the hole to be mended with benzine. After a moment, scrape with a
knife; repeat the process several times till the site to be patched is
thoroughly clean. Cut a patch from sheet of rubber a little larger than
the hole to be mended, and apply to its surface several coats of the
benzine solution. Then apply a good coat of the solution to both patch
and about the hole, and press the patch firmly in place. Again apply
the solution to make coating over the patch, and allow to dry till it
will not stick to the finger. Do not use for several days.

Cracked rubber goods may be {621} successfully mended in the following
manner: Before patching, the cracked surfaces to unite well must
be dried, entirely freed from all dirt and dust and greased well,
otherwise the surfaces will not combine. In case of a cover, waterproof
coat, or rubber boots, etc., take a moderately thick piece of india
rubber, suited to size of the object, cut off the edges obliquely with
a sharp knife moistened in water, coat the defective places as well as
the cut pieces of rubber with oil of turpentine, lay the coated parts
together and subject them for 24 hours to a moderate pressure. The
mended portions will be just as waterproof as the whole one. Rubber
cushions or articles containing air are repaired in a very simple
manner, after being cleaned as aforesaid. Then take colophony, dissolve
it in alcohol (90 per cent) so that a thick paste forms, smear up the
holes, allow all to harden well, and the rubber article, pillow, ball,
knee caps, etc., may be used again.


«Softening Rubber.»—The hardening of gum articles is generally
referable to these having been kept for a long time in some warm, dry
place, though keeping them in the cold will produce the same effect.
Hardness and brittleness, under any reasonable care and conditions,
are usually signs of an inferior article of goods. Articles of Para
rubber, of good workmanship, usually maintain their elasticity for a
very long time. Before attempting to soften hollow rubber ware, such
as flasks, water bags, or bottles, etc., they should be well scrubbed
with a wire brush (bottle cleaner) and warm water, so as to remove all
dirt and dust. This scrubbing should be continued until the wash water
comes away clean and bright. For softening, the best agent is dilute
water of ammonia, prepared by mixing pharmacopœial ammonia water, 1
part, and water, 2 parts. There should be enough of this to cover the
articles, inside and out. Let them remain in the mixture until the
ammonia has evaporated. Warm water works better than cold. From 1 to 2
hours will be long enough, as a usual thing. Thick and massive articles
such as large rubber tubing, require more energetic treatment, and
the journal recommends for the treatment of these that they be filled
nearly full with the ammonia mixture, corked at both ends, and coiled
up in a kettle, or other vessel, of sufficient size, warm water poured
in sufficient to cover the coil completely, and lightly boiled for from
1 to 2 hours. The water lost by evaporation should be replaced from
time to time, and the vessel should never be allowed to boil violently.
When the proper time has arrived (and this must be learned, it appears,
by experience, as the article quoted gives no directions save those
translated), remove from the fire, and allow to cool gradually.

Glycerine has been also recommended, and it may be used with advantage
in certain cases. The articles must first be cleaned with the brush and
warm water, as above detailed. Heat them in water and rub them with a
wad of cotton soaked in glycerine, drawing the wad over them, backwards
and forwards. This wad should be wrapped with good stout wire, the
ends of which are prolonged, to serve as a handle. Where possible the
articles should be stricken with the glycerine inside and out, the
article being, naturally, held out of the boiling water, sufficiently,
at least, to make bare the part being rubbed at the time. Let rest for
24 hours, and repeat this process. With goods kept in stock, that show
a tendency to grow brittle, this treatment should be repeated every 6
months or oftener. Never put away tubing, etc., treated in this manner
until every particle of moisture has drained off or evaporated.

Another authority, Zeigler, has the following on this subject: Tubing,
bands, and other articles of vulcanized caoutchouc that have become
brittle and useless, may be restored to usefulness, indeed, to their
pristine elasticity, by treating them as follows: First, put them in a
hot aqueous solution of tannic acid and tartar emetic. Next, transfer
them to a cold aqueous solution of tannic acid and calcium sulphate.
Mix the two solutions and heat to about the boiling point, and transfer
the articles to the hot solution. This treatment should be maintained
from 1 day to 3 or 4, according to the nature and condition of the
articles.

To restore rubber stoppers that have become too hard for usefulness,
digest them in 5 per cent soda lye for about 10 days at 86° to 104° F.,
replacing the lye repeatedly. Next, wash the stoppers in water and
scrape off the softened outer layer with a knife, until no more can be
removed. The stoppers (which have become quite soft and elastic again)
are next rinsed in warm water to remove the caustic soda. If it is
desired to trim them it should be done with a knife moistened with soap
spirit.


«Treatment and Utilization of Rubber Scraps.»—The scraps, assorted
according {622} to their composition, are first cleaned by boiling to
remove the adhering dirt, absorbed and adhering acids, salts, etc.,
as well as to eliminate the free sulphur. Next, the waste is ground
between rollers and reduced to powder in emery grinders with automatic
feeding. In many cases the material obtained may be added at once dry
to the mixture, but generally it first receives a chemical treatment.
This is carried out by boiling in caustic soda solution, or sulphuric
or hydrochloric acid respectively, and steaming for about 20 hours with
4 atmospheres pressure.

According to another method, the ground scraps are steamed with soda
lye under pressure, washed twice thoroughly for the elimination of the
lye, and dried in the vacuum. Subsequently mix between cold rollers
with 5 to 10 per cent of benzol or mineral oil and steam for some hours
under hydraulic pressure at 4 atmospheres. The product thus obtained is
rolled in plates and added to the mixture. The finely ground dry waste
must not be stored for a long time in large quantities, as it hardens
very easily and takes fire.

Old articles of vulcanized rubber are first “devulcanized” by grinding,
boiling with caustic soda, and washing thoroughly. After drying, the
scraps are heated to 302° F. with linseed oil in a kettle provided with
stirring mechanism which is kept in continual motion. When the rubber
has dissolved, a quantity of natural or coal-tar asphalt is added,
and as soon as the contents of the kettle have become well mixed, the
temperature is raised so high that dense fumes begin to rise and air
is forced through the mass until a cooled sample shows the desired
consistence. This composition being very tough and flexible, forms an
excellent covering for electric cables. It finds many other uses, the
proportions of rubber, asphalt, and oil being varied in accordance with
the purpose for which it is designed.


«Vulcanization.»—Besides the Goodyear, Mason, and other patented
processes, the process now usually followed in vulcanizing rubber
stamps and similar small objects of rubber, is as follows:

Sulphur chloride is dissolved in carbon disulphide in various
proportions, according to the degree of hardness the vulcanized object
is to receive; the rubber cast is plunged in the solution and left
there from 60 to 70 seconds. On removing, it is placed in a box or
space warmed to 80° F., and left long enough for the carbon disulphide
to evaporate, or about 90 to 100 seconds. It is then washed in a weakly
alkaline bath of water, and dried.

Another method (recommended by Gerard) depends upon letting the rubber
lie in a solution of potassium _ter_ or _penta_ sulphide, of 25° Bé.,
heated to about 280° F. for 3 hours.


«Testing Rubber Gloves.»—In testing rubber gloves it is best to inflate
them with air, and then put them under water. Thus one may discover
many small holes in new ones which otherwise would have been impossible
to find.


«Dissolving Old Rubber.»—The material is shredded finely and then
heated, under pressure, for several hours, with a strong solution of
caustic soda. All cloth, paint, glue, fillers, etc., in the rubber are
disintegrated, but the rubber is not affected. The mass is then washed
repeatedly with water, to remove all alkali, and the resultant pure
rubber may then be formed into sheets.


«Rubber Stamps.»—Set up the desired name and address in common type,
oil the type and place a guard about 1⁠/⁠2 inch high around the form.
Mix plaster of Paris to the proper consistence, pour in and allow it
to set. Have the vulcanized rubber all ready, as made in long strips
3 inches wide and 1⁠/⁠8 of an inch thick, cut off the size of the
intended stamp, remove the plaster cast from the type, and place both
the cast and the rubber in a screw press, applying sufficient heat to
thoroughly soften the rubber. Then turn down the screw hard and let it
remain until the rubber receives the exact impression of the cast and
becomes cold, when it is removed, neatly trimmed with a sharp knife,
and cemented to the handle ready for use.

RUBBER CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

RUBBER GLOVES, SUBSTITUTE FOR: See Antiseptics.

RUBBER, ITS PROPERTIES AND USES IN WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

RUBBER VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

RUBY SETTINGS: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

RUOLTZ METAL: See Alloys.

RUM, BAY: See Bay Rum. {623}


«Rust Preventives»

(See also Enamels, Glazes, Paints, Varnishes, Waterproofing.)

In spite of the numerous endeavors to protect metal objects from
oxidation, a thoroughly satisfactory process has not yet been found,
and we still have to resort to coatings and embrocations.

By covering the metals with a pale, colorless linseed-oil varnish,
a fat or spirit lacquer, an unfailing protection against oxidation
is obtained. This method, though frequently employed, however, is
too laborious and expensive to admit of general use, and instead
we frequently see employed ordinary or specially composed greases,
especially for scythes, straw-knives, and many other bright iron
goods. These greases are not suited to retard oxidation, for they are
without exception acid-reacting bodies, which absorb oxygen in the
air and under the action of light, thus rather assisting oxidation
than retarding it. A covering of wax dissolved in oil of turpentine
would be more recommendable, because wax is an impervious body, and
a firm and rather hard layer remains after evaporation of the oil of
turpentine, which excludes the air. If the treatment with the wax
salve is carefully attended to no other objection can be urged against
this preserving agent than that it is likewise comparatively expensive
if used in large quantities. As regards the greases, and treatment
with petroleum or vaseline, the easy attrition of these substances is
another drawback, which makes a lasting protection impossible.

According to Shedlok, cast-iron articles are treated with acids, then
exposed to the action of steam, hot or cold water, and dried. The
receptacle is exhausted of air and a solution of pitch, rosin, rubber,
or caoutchouc, applied under pressure. Objects prepared in this manner
are said to be impervious even to weak acids.

The inoxidizing process of Ward is founded on the simultaneous
employment of silicates and heat. The cast iron or wrought iron are
coated with a siliceous mass by means of a brush or by immersion. This
covering dries quickly, becomes liquid when the articles are exposed
to a suitable heat, and soaks into the pores of the metal, forming a
dense and uniform coat of dull black color after cooling, which is
not changed by long-continued influence of the atmosphere, and which
neither scales nor peels from the object. By the admixture of glass
coloring matters to the siliceous mass, decorated surfaces may be
produced.

Another inoxidation process for cast iron is the following: The
cast-iron objects, such as whole gas chandeliers, water pipes,
ornaments, balcony railings, cooking vessels, etc., are laid upon
an iron sliding carriage 3.5 meters long and are exposed in a flame
furnace of special construction first 15 minutes to the influence of
gas generators with oxidizing action, then 20 minutes to such with
reducing action. After being drawn out and cooled off the inoxidized
pieces take on a uniform slate-blue shade of color, but can be enameled
and ornamented in any manner desired. In applying the enamel the
corroding with acid is obviated, for which reason the enamel stands
exceedingly well.

A bronze-colored oxide coating which withstands outward influences
fairly well, is produced as follows: The brightly polished and
degreased objects are exposed from 2 to 5 minutes to the vapors of a
heated mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and nitric acid (1:1)
until the bronze color becomes visible on the articles. After these
have been rubbed well with vaseline, heat once more until the vaseline
commences to decompose. After cooling, the object is smeared well with
vaseline. If vapors of a mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and
nitric acid are allowed to act on the iron object, light reddish-brown
shades are obtained, but if acetic acid is added to the above named
two acids, oxide coatings of a bronze-yellow color can be obtained by
the means of the vapors. By the use of different mixtures of acids any
number of different colorings can be produced.

“Emaille de fer contre-oxide” is the name of an enamel which is said
to protect iron pipes cheaply. The enamel is composed as follows: One
hundred and thirty parts powdered crystal glass, 20.5 parts soda, 12
parts boracic acid. These substances mixed in the most careful manner
are melted together in crucibles, the mass is chilled and transformed
into a fine powder by crushing and grinding. The iron pipes and other
objects of iron are first cleaned in the usual manner by corroding,
dried and then coated with a very dilute gum arabic solution or any
other gluing agent, and the powdered mass is spread over them by means
of a sieve. The objects thus powdered are put in a room which is heated
to 160° C. to drive out all moisture and are heated {624} to dark
redness, at which temperature the oxide coating melts.

Those processes, which produce a black protoxide layer on the iron by
heating iron objects in supersaturated aqueous vapor, have not stood
the test, as the layer formed will drop off or peel off after a short
time, thus opening the way for rust after all.

The anti-rust composition called rubber oil is prepared as follows,
according to the specification of the patent: The crude oil obtained by
the dry distillation of brown oil, peat and other earthy substances is
subjected to a further distillation. Thinly rolled India rubber, cut
in narrow strips, is saturated with four times the bulk of the oil and
left alone for a week or so. The mass thus composed is then subjected
to the action of mineral sperm oil or a similar substance, until an
entirely uniform clear substance has formed. This substance, which is
applied on the metallic surfaces in as thin a layer as possible, forms
a sort of film after slowly drying, which is perfectly proof against
atmospheric influences.

The rust-preventive composition of Jones & Co., Sheffield, is a
composition of wax, fat, turpentine, and small quantities of iron oxide.

According to a process patented by A. Buchner in Germany, the iron
objects are first painted with a mixture of an alkaline glue solution
and rosin soap. The alkaline mass enters all the pores and fissures and
prevents the rust from extending under the coating. After the first
coat is dry a second one is applied of the following composition:
Five parts linseed oil boiled with peroxide of manganese; 2.25 parts
turpentine; 0.25 parts benzol; 20 parts zinc dust, carbonate of
calcium, lead oxide, or peroxide of manganese. The mixing of the
liquid with the powders must be done immediately before use, as the
mass solidifies after 10 hours, and is then no longer of working
consistency. The second coating, which should only be thin, hardens
quickly. The paint is weatherproof, does not peel off or blister, and
adheres so firmly that it can only be removed with mechanical means.

A patented process to prevent rusting of wrought or cast iron consists
in applying with a brush a strong solution of potassium dichromate and
drying in a stove or over an open fire. Drying at ordinary temperature
is not sufficient. To ascertain if the heat is strong enough the iron
is moistened with a little water. So long as this takes up any color
the heat must be increased. When the proper degree of heat is reached
a fine deep black layer results, which is not acted upon by water, and
protects the surface from the action of the atmosphere.

A permanent lustrous rust preventive is secured as follows: The
well-cleaned iron parts are suspended for a few minutes in a blue
vitriol solution, so that a delicate skin of copper forms on the
surface; if the pieces rinsed off with water are then moved about for
a few minutes in a solution of sodium hyposulphite faintly acidulated
with hydrochloric acid, they assume a blue-black coating of copper
sulphide, which is equally permanent in air and in water. The black
surface may be immediately rinsed with water, dried with a rag or
blotting paper, and polished at once. It possesses a steel-blue luster,
adheres well to the iron, will stand treatment with the scratch brush,
and protects against rust in a most satisfactory manner.


«Black Sheet Rust Preventive.»—Before black plate is ready to receive
a rust protective coating, it is necessary to render the surface free
from grease and scales, for which purpose the sheet iron is placed
for some time into a warmed solution of 10 parts of sulphuric acid in
100 parts of water, whereby the impurities become detached, a process
which may be assisted and accelerated by scouring with sand. Then rinse
in clean water and rub dry in sawdust. The sheets thus prepared are
placed for a short while into a feeble solution of blue vitriol, where
they assume a reddish coloring. Next, they are rinsed in water, and
after that moved to and fro, for a short time, in a feeble solution
of hyposulphite of soda acidulated with a little hydrochloric acid.
The result is a dark-blue coating on the sheets, which prevents all
oxidation.


«To Keep Machinery Bright.»—I.—In order to keep machinery from rusting
take 1 ounce of camphor, dissolve it in 1 pound of melted lard; take
off the scum, and mix as much fine black lead as will give it iron
color. Clean the machinery and smear it with this mixture. After 24
hours, rub clean with soft linen cloth. It will keep clean for months
under ordinary circumstances.

 II.—Mastic, transparent grains    10 parts
      Camphor                        5 parts
      Sandarac                       5 parts
      Gum elemi                      5 parts
      Alcohol, wood, quantity sufficient to dissolve.

{625}

Mix and cover the articles with the solution. The latter will take the
lacquer better if warmed slightly, but may be easily covered in the
cold, if necessary.


«Magnetic Oxide.»—A layer of magnetic oxide is a good preservative
from rust. To obtain it the objects are placed in the furnace at a
temperature sufficient for decomposing steam. Steam superheated to
1,040° F. is then injected for from 4 to 6 hours. The thickness of the
layer of oxide formed varies with the duration of the operation. This
process can replace zincing, enameling, and tinning.

The deposit of magnetic oxide may also be obtained by electrolysis.
The iron object is placed at the anode in a bath of distilled water
heated to 176° F. The cathode is a copper plate, or the vessel itself,
if it is of iron or copper. By electrolysis a layer of magnetic oxide
is formed. Other peroxides may be deposited in the same manner. With
an alkaline solution of litharge, a very adherent, brilliant, black
deposit of peroxide of lead is secured. Too energetic a current must
be avoided, as it would cause a pulverulent deposit. To obtain a good
coating it is necessary, after putting the objects for a moment at
the positive pole, to place them at the other pole until the oxide is
completely reduced, and then bring them back to their first position.


«Paper as Protection for Iron and Steel.»—That paraffine paper is
a very good protector of iron and steel has been proven by tests
conducted by Louis H. Barker for the Pennsylvania Railroad. The mode of
applying the paraffine paper is as follows: After the rust is carefully
cleaned off by means of stiff wire brushes, a tacky paint is applied.
The paper is then covered over and tightly pressed upon the painted
surface, the joints of the paper slightly lapping. As soon as the paper
is in place it is ready for the outside coat of paint. Iron and steel
girders and beams subjected to the action of smoke and gases may thus
be admirably protected from decomposition.


«Anti-Rust Paper for Needles.»—This is paper covered with logwood, and
prepared from a material to which fine graphite powder has been added,
and which has been sized with glue and alum. It is used for wrapping
around steel goods, such as sewing needles, etc., and protecting them
against rust. According to Lake, the paper is treated with sulphuric
acid, like vegetable parchment, the graphite being sprinkled on before
the paper is put into the water.


«Rust Paper.»—Rust paper is produced by coating strong packing paper
with linseed-oil varnish, size, or any other binder, and sprinkling
on the powder given in previous formula. For use the paper must be
moistened with petroleum.


«Anti-Rust Pastes.»—I.—This preparation serves for removing rust
already present, as well as for preventing same, by greasing the
article with it: Melt 5 parts of crude vaseline on the water bath,
and mix with 5 parts of finely levigated powdered pumice stone into a
uniform mass. To the half-way cooled mass add 1⁠/⁠2 part of crude acid
oxalate of potassium (sorrel salt) in a finely powdered state and grind
into complete homogeneity.

II.—Dry tallow, 25 parts; white wax, 23 parts; olive oil, 22 parts; oil
of turpentine, 25 parts; mineral oil, 10 parts. Apply with a brush at
the fusing temperature of the mixture.


«Rust Prevention for Iron Pipes.»—The pieces of pipe are coated with
tar and filled with light wood sawdust, which is set afire. This
method will fully protect the iron from rust for an unlimited period,
rendering a subsequent coat altogether superfluous.


«Rust Preventive for Tools, etc.»—I.—To preserve tools, dies, etc.,
from rust, they should be greased well with yellow vaseline. To use oil
is not advisable, since all oils, except the dear ones, which are too
expensive for this purpose, contain a certain percentage of acid that
has an injurious effect upon the steel and iron articles. For greasing
the cavities use a hard brush.

II.—Carefully heat benzine and add half its weight of white wax, which
dissolves completely in this ratio. This solution is applied to the
tools by means of a brush. It is also said to protect against the
action of acidiferous fumes.

III.—Take a pound of vaseline and melt with it 2 ounces of blue
ointment—what druggists call one-third—and add, to give it a pleasant
odor, a few drops of oil of wintergreen, cinnamon, or sassafras. When
thoroughly mixed pour into a tin can—an old baking-powder can will do.
Keep a rag saturated with the preventive to wipe tools that are liable
to rust.


«To Separate Rusty Pieces.»—By boiling the objects in petroleum,
success is {626} certain. It is necessary to treat them with alcohol
or spirit to avoid subsequent oxidation, petroleum being in itself an
oxidant.


«To Protect Zinc Roofing from Rust.»—Zinc sheets for roofing can easily
be protected against rust by the following simple process. Clean the
plates by immersing them in water to which 5 per cent of sulphuric acid
has been added, then wash with pure water, allow to dry and coat with
asphalt varnish. Asphalt varnish is prepared by dissolving 1 to 2 parts
asphalt in 10 parts benzine; the solution should be poured evenly over
the plates, and the latter placed in an upright position to dry.

RUST SPOT REMOVER: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

SACCHARINE IN FOOD: See Food.

SADDLE GALLS: See Veterinary Formulas.

SADDLE SOAP: See Soap.

SALAMANDRINE DESSERT: See Pyrotechnics.

SALICYL (SWEET): See Dentifrices.

SALICYLIC ACID IN FOOD: See Foods.

SALICYLIC SOAP: See Soap.


«Salts, Effervescent»

Granulated effervescent salts are produced by heating mixtures of
powdered citric acid, tartaric acid, sodium bicarbonate, and sugar to
a certain temperature, until they assume the consistency of a paste,
which is then granulated and dried.

If effervescent caffeine citrate, anti-pyrin, lithium citrate, etc.,
are to be prepared, the powder need not be dried before effecting
the mixture, but if sodium phosphate, sodium sulphate, or magnesium
sulphate are to be granulated, the water of crystallization must first
be removed by drying, otherwise a hard, insoluble and absolutely
non-granulable mass will be obtained. Sodium phosphate must lose 60
per cent of its weight in drying, sodium sulphate 56 per cent, and
magnesium sulphate 23 per cent.

Naturally, water and carbonic acid escape on heating, and the loss
will increase with the rise of temperature. For the production of the
granulation mass it must not exceed 158° F., and for drying the grains
a temperature of 122° F. is sufficient.

The fineness of the mesh should vary according to the necessary
admixture of sugar and the size of the grains.

If the ingredients should have a tendency to cling to the warm bottom,
an effort should be made immediately upon the commencement of the
reaction to cause a new portion of the surface to come in contact with
the hot walls.

When the mass is of the consistency of paste it is pressed through a
wire sieve, paper or a fabric being placed underneath. Afterwards dry
at sufficient heat. For wholesale manufacture, surfaces of large size
are employed, which are heated by steam.

In the production of substances containing alkaloids, antipyrin,
etc., care must be taken that they do not become colored. It is
well, therefore, not to use heat, but to allow the mixture to stand
in a moist condition for 12 hours, adding the medicinal substances
afterwards and kneading the whole in a clay receptacle. After another
12 hours the mass will have become sufficiently paste-like, so that it
can be granulated as above.

According to another much employed method, the mass is crushed with
alcohol, then rubbed through a sieve, and dried rapidly. This process
is somewhat dearer, owing to the great loss of alcohol, but presents
the advantage of furnishing a better product than any other recipe.

Effervescent magnesium citrate cannot be very well made; for this
reason the sulphate was used in lieu of the citrate. A part of the
customary admixture of sulphate is replaced by sugar and aromatized
with lemon or similar substances.

An excellent granulation mass is obtained from the following mixture by
addition of alcohol:

                      Parts by
                       weight
 Sodium bicarbonate      30
 Tartaric acid           15
 Citric acid             13
 Sugar                   30

The total loss of this mass through granulation amounts to from 10 to
15 per cent.

To this mass, medicinal substances, such as antipyrin, caffeine
citrate, lithium citrate, lithium salicylate, phenacetin, piperacin,
ferric carbonate, and pepsin may be added, as desired. {627}

In order to produce a quinine preparation, use tincture of quinine
instead of alcohol for moistening; the quinine tincture is prepared
with alcohol of 96 per cent.

Basis for Effervescent Salts.—

 Sodium bicarbonate, dried and powdered    53 parts
 Tartaric acid, dried and powdered         28 parts
 Citric acid, uneffloresced crystals       18 parts

Powder the citric acid and add the tartaric acid and sodium
bicarbonate. This basis may be mixed with many of the medicaments
commonly used in the form of granular effervescent salts, in the
proportion which will properly represent their doses and such
substances as sodium phosphate, magnesium sulphate, citrated caffeine,
potassium bromide, lithium citrate, potassium citrate, and others,
will produce satisfactory products. A typical formula for effervescent
sodium phosphate would be as follows:

 Sodium phosphate, uneffloresced crystals    500 parts
 Sodium bicarbonate, dried and powdered      477 parts
 Tartaric acid, dried and powdered           252 parts
 Citric acid, uneffloresced crystals         162 parts

Dry the sodium phosphate on a water bath until it ceases to lose
weight; after powdering the dried salt, mix it intimately with the
citric acid and tartaric acid, then thoroughly incorporate the sodium
bicarbonate. The mixed powders are now ready for granulation. The
change in manipulation which is suggested to replace that usually
followed, requires either a gas stove or a blue-flame coal-oil stove,
and one of the small tin or sheet-iron ovens which are so largely used
with these stoves. The stove itself will be found in almost every drug
store; the oven costs from $1 to $2.

The oven is heated to about 200° F. (the use of a thermometer is
desirable at first, but one will quickly learn how to regulate the
flame to produce the desired temperature), and the previously mixed
powders are placed on, preferably, a glass plate, which has been heated
with the oven, about 1⁠/⁠2 pound being taken at a time, dependent
upon the size of the oven. The door of the oven is now closed for
about one minute, and, when opened, the whole mass will be found to be
uniformly moist and ready to pass through a suitable sieve, the best
kind and size being a tinned iron, No. 6. This moist, granular powder
may then be placed upon the top of the oven, where the heat is quite
sufficient to thoroughly dry the granules, and the operator may proceed
immediately with the next lot of mixed powder, easily granulating 10 or
more pounds within an hour.

Sugar has often been proposed as an addition to these salts, but
experience has shown that the slight improvement in taste, which is
sometimes questioned, does not offset the likelihood of darkening,
which is apt to occur when the salt is being heated, or the change in
color after it has been made several months. It should be remembered
that in making a granular effervescent salt by the method which depends
upon the liberation of water of crystallization, a loss in weight,
amounting to about 10 per cent, will be experienced. This is due, in
part, to the loss of water which is driven off, and also to a trifling
loss of carbon dioxide when the powder is moistened.


«EFFERVESCENT POWDERS:»


«Magnesian Lemonade Powder.»—

 Fine white sugar       2 pounds
 Magnesium carbonate    6 ounces
 Citric acid            4 ounces
 Essence of lemon       2 drachms

Rub the essence into the dry ingredients, work well together, sift, and
bottle.


«Magnesian Orgeat Powder.»—

 Fine sugar               1 pound
 Carbonate of magnesia    3 ounces
 Citric acid              1 ounce
 Oil of bitter almonds    3 drops
 Vanilla flavoring, quantity sufficient.

Thoroughly amalgamate the dry ingredients. Rub in the oil of almonds
and sufficient essence of vanilla to give a slight flavor. Work all
well together, sift, and bottle.


«Raspberryade Powder.»—

 Fine sugar              2 pounds
 Carbonate of soda       2 ounces
 Tartaric acid           2 ounces
 Essence of raspberry    4 drachms
 Carmine coloring, quantity sufficient.

Rub the essence well into the sugar, and mix this with the soda and
acid. Then work in sufficient liquid carmine to make the powder pale
red, sift through a fine sieve, and pack in air-tight bottles. {628}


«Ambrosia Powder.»—

 Fine sugar              2 pounds
 Carbonate of soda      12 drachms
 Citric acid            10 drachms
 Essence of ambrosia    20 drops

Amalgamate the whole of the above, and afterwards sift and bottle in
the usual manner.


«Noyeau Powder.»—

 Fine sugar            2 pounds
 Carbonate of soda    12 drachms
 Tartaric acid        10 drachms
 Essence of Noyeau     6 drops

After the dry ingredients have been mixed, and the essence rubbed into
them, sift and bottle the powder.


«Lemon Sherbet.»—

 Fine sugar            9 pounds
 Tartaric acid        40 ounces
 Carbonate of soda    36 ounces
 Oil of lemon          2 drachms

Having thoroughly mixed the dry ingredients, add the lemon, rubbing it
well in between the hands; then sift the whole thrice through a fine
sieve, and cork down tight.

As oil of lemon is used in this recipe, the blending must be quite
perfect, otherwise when the powder is put in water the oil of lemon
will float.

Any other flavoring may be substituted for lemon, and the sherbet named
accordingly.


«Cream Soda Powder.»—

 Fine sugar                   30 parts
 Tartaric acid                 7 parts
 Carbonate of soda             6 parts
 Finely powdered gum arabic    1 part
 Vanilla flavoring, quantity sufficient.

Proceed exactly as for lemon sherbet.


«Kissingen Salt.»—

 Potassium chloride          17 parts
 Sodium chloride            367 parts
 Magnesium sulphate (dry)    59 parts
 Sodium bicarbonate         107 parts

For the preparation of Kissingen water, dissolve 1.5 grams in 180 grams
of water.


«Vichy Salt.»—

 Sodium bicarbonate         846 parts
 Potassium carbonate         38 parts
 Magnesium sulphate (dry)    38 parts
 Sodium chloride             77 parts

For making Vichy water dissolve 1 part in 200 parts of water.


«Seidlitz Salt.»—This is one of the many old names for magnesium
sulphate. It has at various times been known as Seidlitz salt, Egra
salt, canal salt, bitter salt, cathartic salt, English salt, and
Epsom salt. Its earliest source was from the salt springs of Epsom in
England and from this fact it took its last two names. For a long time
sea-salt makers supplied the markets of the world. They procured it
as a by-product in the making of salt. The bitter water that remained
after the table salt had been crystallized out was found to contain it.
Now it is chiefly procured from such minerals as dolomite, siliceous
magnesium hydrate, and schistose rock containing the sulphide of
magnesia. Many medical men deem it our best saline cathartic.


«SALTS, SMELLING.»

I.—Moisten coarsely powdered ammonium carbonate with a mixture of

 Strong tincture of orris root    2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
 Extract of violet                    3 drachms
 Spirit of ammonia                    1 drachm

II.—Fill suitable bottles with coarsely powdered ammonium carbonate,
and add to the salt as much of the following solution as it will absorb:

 Oil of orris                 5 minims
 Oil of lavender flowers     10 minims
 Extract of violet           30 minims
 Stronger water of ammonia    2 ounces

SALVES: See Ointments.


«SAND:»


«Colored Sand.»—Sift fine white sand from the coarser particles and
color it as follows:

I.—Blue.—Boil 106 parts of sand and 4 of Berlin blue with a small
quantity of water, stirring constantly, and dry as soon as the sand is
thoroughly colored.

II.—Black Sand.—Heat very fine quartz sand, previously freed from dust
by sifting, and add to every 1⁠/⁠4 pound of it 6 to 8 spoonfuls of
fat. Continue the heating as long as smoke or a flame is observed on
stirring. The sand is finally washed and dried. This black sand will
not rub off.

III.—Dark-Brown Sand.—Boil white sand in a decoction of brazil wood and
dry it over a fire.

IV.—Rose-colored sand is obtained by mixing 100 parts of white sand
with 4 parts of vermilion. {629}


«Lawn Sand.»—Lawn sand may be prepared by mixing crude ammonium
sulphate, 65 parts, with fine sand, 35 parts. This mixture will kill
daisies and plantains, but does not permanently injure the grass of
lawns. A most effective method of killing plantains is to put, during
dry weather, a full teaspoonful of common salt in the head of each.

SAND HOLES IN BRASS: See Castings.

SAND SOAP: See Soap.

SANDSTONE CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

SANDSTONE COATING: See Acid-Proofing.

SANDSTONES, TO REMOVE OIL SPOTS FROM: See Cleaning Preparations and
Methods.

SAND, TO PREVENT ADHESION OF SAND TO CASTINGS: See Castings.


«SARSAPARILLA.»

Each fluidounce of Ayer’s sarsaparilla represents

 Sarsaparilla root    10 parts
 Yellow dock root      8 parts
 Licorice root         8 parts
 Buckthorn bark        4 parts
 Burdock root          3 parts
 Senna leaves          2 parts
 Black cohosh root     2 parts
 Stillingia root       4 parts
 Poke root             1 part
 Cinchona red bark     2 parts
 Potassium iodide      4 parts

Solvent.—Alcohol, 10 1⁠/⁠2 minims to each fluidrachm; glycerin, syrup,
water.

This is the formula as given by Dr. Charles H. Stowell, of the Ayer
Company, to the daily papers, for advertising purposes.

Sarsaparilla Flavoring.—

 Oil wintergreen      6 parts
 Oil sassafras        2 parts
 Oil cassia       1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Oil clove        1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Oil anise        1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Alcohol             60 parts

Sarsaparilla Syrup.—

 Simple syrup             40 ounces
 Sarsaparilla flavoring    1 drachm
 Caramel to color.

SARSAPARILLA EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts.

SAUCES, TABLE: See Condiments.

SATINWOOD: See Wood.

SAUSAGE COLOR: See Foods.

SAWDUST IN BRAN: See Bran.

SAWDUST FOR JEWELERS AND WATCHMAKERS: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

SCALD HEAD, SOAP FOR: See Soap.

SCALD REMEDIES: See Cosmetics.

SCALE FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC REDUCTION: See Photography.

SCALE PAN CLEANER: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

SCALE IN BOILERS: See Boiler Compounds.

SCALE INSECTS, EXTERMINATION OF: See Insecticides.

SCALP WASHES: See Hair Preparations.

SCISSORS HARDENING: See Steel.

SCOURING LIQUIDS: See Laundry Preparations.

SCRATCH BRUSHING: See Plating, under Gilding.


«SCREWS:»


«To Prevent Screws from Rusting and Becoming Fast.»—Screws will
sometimes rust in their seats, even when carefully oiled before driving
them to their seats, but if they are anointed with a mixture of
graphite and soft tallow they will remain unrusted and unaltered for
years.

A screw rusted in may also be removed by placing the flat extremity
of a red-hot rod of iron on it for 2 or 3 minutes. When the screw is
heated, it will be found to turn quite easily.

SCREWS, BLUEING: See Steel.

SCREWS IN WATCHES: See Watchmakers’ Formulas. {630}

SEALING (BURNING) TRICK: See Pyrotechnics.

SEALING WAX: See Waxes.


«SEA SICKNESS.»

I.—To prevent sea sickness, take 2 or 3 grams of potassium bromide
dissolved in plain or carbonated water every evening either with supper
or just before retiring for several weeks before going on the voyage.
During the voyage, breathing should be deep and a tight bandage should
be worn around the abdomen.

 II.—Menthol                  0.1 part
      Cocaine hydrochloride    0.2 parts
      Alcohol                 60.0 parts
      Syrup                   30.0 parts

A dessertspoonful to be taken at intervals of half an hour.

SEASONINGS: See Condiments.

SEED, BIRD: See Bird Foods.

SEEDS, TESTS FOR FOREIGN: See Foods.

SEIDLITZ POWDERS: See Salts (Effervescent).

SELTZER WATER: See Water.


«SERPENTS, PHARAOH’S.»

An old form consisted of pellets of a very poisonous mercurial compound
which gave off dangerous fumes when heated. The “eggs” may be made of
comparatively safe material by the following formula:

 Potassium bichromate    2 parts
 Potassium nitrate       1 part
 White sugar             2 parts

Powder each ingredient separately, mix, and press into small paper
cones. These must be kept from light and moisture.

Of course, neither this nor other chemical toys containing substances
in the slightest degree harmful if swallowed should be placed in the
hands of children not old enough fully to understand the danger of
eating or even tasting unknown things.

SERVIETTES MAGIQUES: See Polishes.

SETTING OF TOOLS: See Tool Setting.

SEWING-MACHINE OIL: See Lubricants.

SHAMPOO LOTIONS AND PASTES: See Hair Restorers and Soaps.

SHARPENING PASTES: See Razor Pastes.

SHARPENING STONES: See Whetstones.


«SHAVING PASTE.»

An emulsion of paraffine wax, melting at 131° F., should be used. This
is prepared with 25 per cent of wax and 2 per cent of tragacanth, the
wax being melted and mixed with the tragacanth previously made into a
mucilage with some of the water. The addition of a little stearine or
lard renders the emulsification of the wax easier, while about 10 per
cent of alcohol makes the preparation more agreeable to use. The fatty
odor of the preparation may be covered by the addition of 1⁠/⁠2 to 1
per cent of lavender oil, and the finished product then appears as a
thick white cream. In use a small quantity is rubbed over the area
to be shaved and the razor immediately applied. As the water in the
emulsion evaporates, the particles of wax previously distributed in the
emulsion become coherent and fill up the depressions in the surface of
the skin from which the hairs arise, thus forming a mechanical support
during the passage of the razor. The quantity required is very small, 1
ounce being sufficient for shaving the face about 6 times.

SHAVING SOAP: See Soap.

SHEEP-DIPS: See Disinfectants.

SHEEP DISEASES: See Veterinary Formulas.


«SHELL CAMEOS.»

If shell cameos and corals have become too hot in cementing and cracks
have appeared in consequence, olive oil is applied and allowed to soak
in by heating. The same process is employed for shell cameos which have
developed white fissures, owing to being filed smaller.

SHELL, IMITATION OF: See Casein Compounds.

SHELLS, LUBRICANTS FOR REDRAWING: See Lubricants. {631}

SHELL POLISHES: See Polishes.

SHELLAC: See Varnishes.


«SHELLAC BLEACHING.»

In bleaching, shellac is brought into contact with an acidified
solution of chloride of lime for some time, then washed, kneaded in hot
water, placed back into the chloride of lime solution, and brushed.
Through this treatment with the chloride of lime solution the bleached
shellac sometimes loses its solubility in alcohol, which, however, can
be restored if the shellac is melted in boiling water, or if it is
moistened with a little ether in a well-closed vessel. A quantity of
ether in the proportion of 1 part to 20 parts shellac is sufficient.
Great caution is recommended in the handling of ether. The ether vapors
easily ignite when in proximity to a burning light and a mixture of
ether vapor and atmospheric air may cause most vehement explosions.
After an action of the ether upon the shellac for several hours, the
alcohol necessary to dissolve it may either be added directly or the
shellac moistened with ether is placed in the open air for half an hour
in a dish, after which time the ether will have evaporated and the
shellac can then be dissolved by the use of alcohol.

Bleached shellac is known to lose its solubility in alcohol, especially
if treated with chlorine in bleaching. This solubility can be readily
restored, however, by first moistening the rosin with 1⁠/⁠20 its weight
of ether, placing it in a closed vessel and allowing it to swell there.
Shellac thus treated becomes perfectly soluble again.


«SHIMS IN ENGINE BRASSES.»

In taking up the wear of engine brasses on wrist pin or crosshead
pin when the key is driven clear down, back out the key and instead
of putting in sheet-iron shims, put in a small piece of pine wood of
just the right thickness to allow the key to come even with the under
side of the strap, then pour in melted babbitt. A hole must be drilled
through the flange of the brasses to allow for pouring the babbitt.

Every engineer knows the trouble it is to put several shims between
the brass box and the end of the strap, especially if the box is a
round-end one, as many are. By using the method described, brasses may
be worn up much closer, even if worn through; the babbitt will form
part of the bearing.


«Shoe Dressings»

(See also Leather.)


«Acid-Free Blacking.»—

 Lampblack     27–36 parts
 Bone black        3 parts
 Syrup         60–70 parts

Put in a kettle and under gentle heat stir together until a smooth,
homogeneous mass has been attained. In another kettle put 3 parts
of finely shredded gutta percha and warm over an open fire until it
begins to run, then add, with constant stirring, 5 parts of olive oil,
continuing the heat until the gum is completely dissolved. When this
occurs dissolve in 1 part of stearine, and add the whole while still
hot in a slow stream, and under diligent and constant stirring, to the
mixture of syrup and blacks. Continue the agitation of the mass until
it is completely homogeneous. Now dissolve 4 parts of Senegal gum in 12
parts of water, and add the solution to the foregoing mass. Stir well
in and finally add sufficient mirbane (about 1⁠/⁠5 part) to perfume.


«Blacking Pastes.»—While shellac is not soluble in water alone, it
is soluble in water carrying borax, the alkaline carbonates, etc. In
paste blacking the object of the sulphuric acid is to remove from the
bone black the residual calcium phosphate. The ordinary bone black of
commerce consists of only about 10 per cent of carbon, the residue
being chiefly calcium phosphate. This is the reason that we cannot
obtain a pure black color from it, but a dirty brown. To make a good
blacking, one that is of a black in color, either use purified bone
black, or a mineral acid (sulphuric or hydrochloric acid) with crude
bone black. The residual acid is entirely neutralized by the sodium
carbonate and has no bad effect on the leather. The following formula
contains no acid and makes a good paste:

 I.—Marseilles soap          122 parts
     Potassium carbonate       61 parts
     Beeswax                  500 parts
     Water                  2,000 parts

Mix and boil together with occasional stirring until a smooth,
homogeneous paste is obtained, then add, a little at a time, and under
constant stirring, the following: {632}

 Rock candy, powdered    153 parts
 Gum arabic, powdered     61 parts
 Ivory black           1,000 parts

Stir until homogeneous, then pour, while still hot, into boxes.

The following makes a very brilliant and durable black polish for shoes:

 II.—Bone black                          40 parts
      Sulphuric acid                      10 parts
      Fish oil                            10 parts
      Sodium carbonate crystal            18 parts
      Sugar, common brown, or molasses    20 parts
      Liquid glue, prepared as below      20 parts
      Water, sufficient.

Soak 10 parts of good white glue in 40 parts of cold water for 4 hours,
then dissolve by the application of gentle heat, and add 1.8 parts
of glycerine (commercial). Set aside. Dissolve the sodium carbonate
in sufficient water to make a cold saturated solution (about 3 parts
of water at 60° F.), and set aside. In an earthenware vessel moisten
the bone black with a very little water, and stirring it about with
a stick, add the sulphuric acid, slowly. Agitate until a thick
dough-like mass is obtained, then add and incorporate the fish oil.
Any sort of animal oil, or even colza will answer, but it is best to
avoid high-smelling oils. Add a little at a time, and under vigorous
stirring, sufficient of the saturated sodium carbonate solution to
cause effervescence. Be careful not to add so freely as to liquefy the
mass. Stir until effervescence ceases, then add the molasses or sugar,
the first, if a soft, damp paste is desired, and the latter if a dryer
one is wanted. Finally, add, a little at a time, and under constant
stirring, sufficient of the solution of glue to make a paste of the
desired consistency. The exact amount of this last ingredient that is
necessary must be learned by experience. It is a very important factor,
as it gives the finished product a depth and brilliancy that it could
not otherwise have, as well as a certain durability, in which most of
the blackings now on the market are deficient.

 III.—Soap                  122 parts
       Potassium carbonate    61 parts
       Beeswax               500 parts
       Water               2,000 parts

Mix and boil together until a smooth, homogeneous paste is obtained,
then add

 Bone black          1,000 parts
 Powdered sugar        153 parts
 Powdered gum arabic    61 parts

Mix thoroughly, remove from the fire, and pour while still hot into
boxes.


«Boot-Top Liquid.»—

 Solution of muriate of tin       3 drachms
 French chalk (in powder)         1 ounce
 Salt of sorrel                 1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Flake white                      1 ounce
 Burnt alum                     1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Cuttle-fish bones (powdered)     1 ounce
 White arsenic                    1 ounce
 Boiling water                    1 quart


«Brown Dressing for Untanned Shoes.»—

 Yellow wax            30 parts
 Soap                  12 parts
 Nankin yellow         15 parts
 Oil of turpentine    100 parts
 Alcohol               12 parts
 Water                100 parts

Dissolve in the water bath the wax in the oil of turpentine; dissolve,
also by the aid of heat, the soap in the water, and the Nankin yellow
(or in place of that any of the yellow coal-tar colors) in the alcohol.
Mix the solutions while hot, and stir constantly until cold. The
preparation is smeared over the shoes in the usual way, rubbed with a
brush until evenly distributed, and finally polished with an old silk
or linen cloth.


«Heel Polish.»—

 I.—Carnauba wax          5 parts
     Japanese wax          5 parts
     Paraffine             5 parts
     Oil of turpentine    50 parts
     Lampblack             1 part
     Wine black            2 parts

Melt the wax and the paraffine, and when this has become lukewarm,
add the turpentine oil, and finally the lampblack and the wine black.
When the black color has become evenly distributed, pour, while still
lukewarm, into tin cans.

II.—Melt together Japanese wax, 100 parts; carnauba wax, 100 parts;
paraffine, 100 parts; and mix with turpentine oil, 500 parts, as
well as a trituration of lampblack, 10 parts; wine black, 20 parts;
turpentine oil, 70 parts. {633}


«LIQUID BLACKINGS.»

The following formulas make a product of excellent quality:

 I.—Ivory black    120 parts
     Brown sugar     90 parts
     Olive oil       15 parts
     Stale beer     500 parts

Mix the black, sugar and olive oil into a smooth paste, adding the
beer, a little at a time, under constant stirring. Let stand for 24
hours, then put into flasks, lightly stoppered.

 II.—Ivory black         200 parts
      Molasses            200 parts
      Gallnuts, bruised    12 parts
      Iron sulphate        12 parts
      Sulphuric acid       40 parts
      Boiling water       700 parts

Mix the molasses and ivory black in an earthen vessel. In an iron
vessel let the gallnuts infuse in 100 parts of boiling water for 1
hour, then strain and set aside. In another vessel dissolve the iron
sulphate; in another, 100 parts of the boiling water. One-half of this
solution is added at once to the molasses mixture. To the remaining
half add the sulphuric acid, and pour the mixture, a little at a
time, under constant stirring, into the earthen vessel containing the
molasses mixture. The mass will swell up and thicken, but as soon as it
commences to subside, add the infusion of gallnuts, also under vigorous
stirring. If a paste blacking is desired the preparation is now
complete. For a liquid black add the remaining portion of the boiling
water (500 parts), stir thoroughly and bottle.


«Patent-Leather Polish.»—

 Yellow wax or ceresine    3 ounces
 Spermaceti                1 ounce
 Oil of turpentine        11 ounces
 Asphaltum varnish         1 ounce
 Borax                    80 grains
 Frankfort black           1 ounce
 Prussian blue           150 grains

Melt the wax, add the borax, and stir until an emulsion has been
formed. In another pan melt the spermaceti; add the varnish, previously
mixed with the turpentine; stir well and add to the wax; lastly add the
colors.


«Preservatives for Shoe Soles.»—I.—This preparation, destined for
impregnating leather shoe soles, is produced as follows: Grind 50 parts
of linseed oil with 1 part of litharge; next heat for 2 hours to the
boiling point with 1⁠/⁠4 part of zinc vitriol, which is previously
calcined (dehydrated). The composition obtained in this manner, when
perfectly cold, is mixed with 8 parts of benzine and filled in bottles
or other receptacles. To render this preservative effective, the soles
must be coated with it until the leather absorbs it.

II.—Dissolve ordinary household soap in water; on the other hand,
dissolve an aluminum salt—the cheapest is the commercial aluminum
sulphate—in water and allow both solutions to cool. Now pour the
aluminum salt solution, with constant stirring, into the soap solution,
thereby obtaining a very fine precipitate of aluminum oleate. The
washed-out residue is dried with moderate heat. By adding 10 to 30
per cent to petroleum with slight heating, a solid petroleum of
vaseline-like consistency is received, which may be still further
solidified by additional admixture. A 10 per cent solution of aluminum
oleate in petroleum is a very excellent agent for preserving the soles,
a single saturation of the soles sufficing forever. The sole will last
about 1 year.

III.—The following mixture is prepared by melting together over the
fire in an enameled iron vessel: Vaseline, 400 parts; ceresine, 100
parts. The melted mass, which is used as a grease, is filled in wooden
boxes or tin cans.

IV.—The oleic acid of the stearine factories is heated with strong
alcohol and sulphuric acid. Take 16 parts of oleic acid, 2 parts of
alcohol (90 per cent), and 1 part of concentrated sulphuric acid.
The oleic-acid ether formed separates as a thin brownish oil. It
is liberated from free sulphuric acid and the alcohol in excess by
agitation with warm water and allowing to settle. This oleic-acid
ether is mixed with the same weight of fish oil, and 4 to 8 parts of
nitro-benzol are added per 1,000 parts to disguise the odor.


«TAN AND RUSSET SHOE POLISHES:»


«To Renovate and Brighten Russet and Yellow Shoes.»—First, clean off
all dirt and dust with a good stiff brush, then with a sponge dipped
in benzine go over the leather, repeating the process as soon as the
benzine evaporates. A few wipings will bring back the original color.
Then use a light-yellow dressing and brush well.

The liquid application consists usually of a solution of yellow
wax and soap in oil of turpentine, and it should be a matter of no
difficulty whatever to compound a mixture of this character at least
equal {634} to the preparations on the market. As a type of the mixture
occasionally recommended we may quote the following:

 I.—Yellow wax              4 ounces
     Pearl ash               4 drachms
     Yellow soap             1 drachm
     Spirit of turpentine    7 ounces
     Phosphine (aniline)     4 grains
     Alcohol                 4 drachms
     Water, a sufficient quantity.

Scrape the wax fine and add it, together with the ash and soap, to
12 ounces of water. Boil all together until a smooth, creamy mass
is obtained; remove the heat and add the turpentine and the aniline
(previously dissolved in the alcohol). Mix thoroughly, and add
sufficient water to bring the finished product up to 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints.

 II.—Water                                      18 parts
      Rosin oil                               4 1⁠/⁠2 parts
      Spirit of sal ammoniac, concentrated    1 1⁠/⁠5 parts
      White grain soap                         1.93 parts
      Russian glue                             1.59 parts
      Brown rock candy                         0.57 parts
      Bismarck brown                           0.07 parts

Boil all the ingredients together, excepting the pigment; after all
has been dissolved, add the Bismarck brown and filter. The dressing is
applied with a sponge.

 III.—Beeswax, yellow    2 ounces
       Linseed oil        3 ounces
       Oil turpentine    10 ounces

Dissolve by heat of a water bath, and add 1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces soap shavings,
hard yellow. Dissolve this in 14 ounces of hot water.

IV.—A simpler form of liquid mixture consists of equal parts of yellow
wax and palm oil dissolved with the aid of heat in 3 parts of oil of
turpentine.

 V.—Soft or green soap           1 ounce
     Linseed oil, raw             2 ounces
     Annatto solution (in oil)    7 ounces
     Yellow wax                   2 ounces
     Gum turpentine               7 ounces
     Water                        7 ounces

Dissolve the soap in the water and add the solution of annatto; melt
the wax in the oil of turpentine, and gradually stir in the soap
solution, stirring until cold.

The paste to accompany the foregoing mixtures is composed of yellow wax
and rosin thinned with petrolatum, say 4 parts of wax, 1 part of rosin,
and 12 parts of petrolatum.


«Paste Dressings for Russet Shoes.»—The paste dressings used on russet
leather consist of mixtures of wax with oil and other vehicles which
give a mixture of proper working quality.

A simple formula is:

 I.—Yellow wax            9 parts
     Oil of turpentine    20 parts
     Soap                  1 part
     Boiling water        20 parts

Dissolve the wax in the turpentine on a water bath and the soap in
the water and stir the two liquids together until the mixture becomes
sufficiently cold to remain homogeneous.

Another formula in which stearine is used is appended:

 II.—Wax                  1 part
      Stearine             2 parts
      Linseed oil          1 part
      Oil of turpentine    6 parts
      Soap                 1 part
      Water               10 parts

Proceed as above.

Carnauba wax is often used by manufacturers of such dressings instead
of beeswax, as it is harder and takes a higher polish. These dressings
are sometimes colored with finely ground yellow ocher or burnt umber.
If the leather be badly worn, however, it is best to apply a stain
first, and afterwards the waxy dressing.

Suitable stains are made by boiling safflower in water, and annatto
is also used in the same way, the two being sometimes mixed together.
Oxalic acid darkens the color of the safflower. Aniline colors would
also doubtless yield good results with less trouble and expense. By
adding finely ground lampblack to the waxy mixture instead of ocher, it
would answer as a dressing for black leather.


«WATERPROOF SHOE DRESSINGS.»

 I.—Caoutchouc           10 parts
     Petroleum            10 parts
     Carbon disulphide    10 parts
     Shellac              40 parts
     Lampblack            20 parts
     Oil lavender          1 part
     Alcohol             200 parts

Upon the caoutchouc in a bottle pour the carbon disulphide, cork
well, and let stand a few days, or until the caoutchouc has become
thoroughly gelatinized or partly dissolved. Then add the petroleum, oil
of lavender, and alcohol, next the shellac in fine powder, and heat it
to about 120° F., taking care that as little as possible is lost by
evaporation. When the substances are all dissolved and the liquid is
tolerably clear, add the {635} lampblack, mix thoroughly, and fill at
once into small bottles.

II.—A waterproof blacking which will give a fine polish without
rubbing, and will not injure the leather:

 Beeswax             18 parts
 Spermaceti           6 parts
 Turpentine oil      66 parts
 Asphalt varnish      5 parts
 Powdered borax       1 part
 Frankfort black      5 parts
 Prussian blue        2 parts
 Nitro-benzol         1 part

Melt the wax, add the powdered borax and stir till a kind of jelly has
formed. In another pan melt the spermaceti, add the asphalt varnish,
previously mixed with the oil of turpentine, stir well, and add to the
wax. Lastly add the color previously rubbed smooth with a little of the
mass. The nitro-benzol gives fragrance.


«Waterproof Varnish for Beach Shoes.»—

Yellow.—

 Water                          150 parts
 Borax                            5 parts
 Glycerine                        3 parts
 Spirit of ammonia                1 part
 White shellac                   25 parts
 Yellow pigment, water soluble    1 part
 Formalin, a few drops.

Orange.—

 Water                  150 parts
 Borax                    5 parts
 Glycerine                2 parts
 Spirit of ammonia        1 part
 Ruby shellac            22 parts
 Orange, water soluble    1 part
 Brown                  0.3 parts
 Formalin               0.1 part

Pale Brown.—

 Water                    150 parts
 Borax                      5 parts
 Glycerine                  2 parts
 Spirit of ammonia       0.25 parts
 White shellac             25 parts
 Yellow, water soluble      8 parts
 Orange                   0.3 parts
 Formalin                 0.1 part

Stir the glycerine and the spirit of ammonia together in a special
vessel before putting both into the kettle. It is also advisable,
before the water boils, to pour a little of the nearly boiling water
into a clean vessel and to dissolve the colors therein with good
stirring, adding this solution to the kettle after the shellac has been
dissolved.

White Shoe Dressing.—

 I.—Cream of tartar    3 ounces
     Oxalic acid        1 ounce
     Alum               1 ounce
     Milk               3 pints

Mix and rub on the shoes. When they are thoroughly dry, rub them with a
mixture of prepared chalk and magnesium carbonate.

 II.—Water                136 parts
      Fine pipe clay       454 parts
      Shellac, bleached    136 parts
      Borax, powdered       68 parts
      Soft soap              8 parts
      Ultramarine blue       5 parts

Boil the shellac in the water, adding the borax, and keeping up the
boiling until a perfect solution is obtained, then stir in the soap (5
or 6 parts of “ivory” soap, shaved up, and melted with 2 or 3 parts of
water, is better than common soft soap), pipe clay, and ultramarine.
Finally strain through a hair-cloth sieve. This preparation, it is
said, leaves absolutely nothing to be desired. A good deal of stiffness
may be imparted to the leather by it. The addition of a little
glycerine would remedy this. The old application should be wiped away
before a new one is put on. This preparation is suitable for military
shoes, gloves, belts, and uniforms requiring a white dressing.

SHOES, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

SHIO LIAO: See Adhesives, under Cements.

SHIP COMPOSITIONS AND PAINTS: See Paints.

SHOW BOTTLES FOR DRUGGISTS: See Bottles.


«SHOW CASES.»

Dents in show cases and counters, and, indeed, almost all forms of
“bruises” on shop and other furniture, may be removed by the exercise
of a little patience, and proceeding as follows: Sponge the place with
water as warm as can be borne by the hand. Take a piece of filtering or
other bibulous paper large enough to fold 6 or 8 times and yet cover
the bruise, wet in warm water and place over the spot. Take a warm
(not hot) smoothing iron and hold it on the paper until the moisture
is evaporated (renewing its heat, if necessary). If the bruise does
not yield to the first trial, repeat the process. A dent as large as
a {636} dollar and 1⁠/⁠4 inch deep in the center, in black walnut of
tolerably close texture, was brought up smooth and level with the
surrounding surface by two applications of the paper and iron as
described. If the bruise be small, a sponge dipped in warm water placed
upon it, renewing the warmth from time to time, will be all-sufficient.
When the dent is removed and the wood dry, the polish can be restored
by any of the usual processes. If the wood was originally finished in
oil, rub with a little boiled linseed cut with acetic acid (oil, 8
parts; acid, 1 part). If it was “French polished,” apply an alcoholic
solution of shellac, and let dry; repeat if necessary, and when
completely dry proceed as follows: Rub the part covered with shellac,
first with crocus cloth and a few drops of olive oil, until the ridges,
where the new and old polish come together, disappear; wipe with a
slightly greased but otherwise clean rag and finish with putz pomade.

SHOW-CASE SIGNS: See Lettering.

SHOW-CASES, TO PREVENT DIMMING OF: See Glass.


«Siccatives»

The oldest drier is probably litharge, a reddish-yellow powder,
consisting of lead and oxygen. Formerly it was ground finely in oil,
either pure or with admixture of white vitriol and added to the dark
oil paints. Litharge and sugar of lead are used to-day only rarely
as drying agents, having been displaced by the liquid manganese
siccatives, which are easy to handle. E. Ebelin, however, is of the
opinion that the neglect of the lead compounds has not been beneficial
to decorative painting. Where these mediums were used in suitable
quantities hard-drying coatings were almost always obtained. Ebelin
believes that formerly there used to be less lamentation on account of
tacky floors, pews, etc., than at the present time.

Doubtless a proposition to grind litharge into the oil again will not
be favorably received, although some old master painters have by no
means discarded this method.

Sugar of lead (lead acetate) is likewise used as a drier for oil paint.
While we may presume in general that a siccative acts by imparting its
oxygen to the linseed oil or else prepares the linseed oil in such
a manner as to render it capable of readily absorbing the oxygen of
the air, it is especially sugar of lead which strengthens us in this
belief. If, according to Leuchs, a piece of charcoal is saturated with
lead acetate, the charcoal can be ignited even with a burning sponge,
and burns entirely to ashes. (Whoever desires to make the experiment
should take 2 to 3 parts, by weight, of sugar of lead per 100 parts of
charcoal.) This demonstrates that the sugar of lead readily parts with
its oxygen, which though not burning itself, supports the combustion.
Hence, it may be assumed that it will also as a siccative freely give
off its oxygen.

Tormin reports on a siccative, of which he says that it has been found
valuable for floor coatings. Its production is as follows: Pour 1 part
of white lead and 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts each of litharge, sugar of lead and
red lead to 12 1⁠/⁠2 parts of linseed oil, and allow this mixture to
boil for 8 to 10 hours. Then remove the kettle from the fire and add
to the mixture 20 parts of oil of turpentine. During the boiling, as
well as during and after the pouring in of the oil turpentine, diligent
stirring is necessary, partly to prevent anything from sticking to the
kettle (which would render the drier impure) and partly to cause the
liquid mass to cool off sooner. After that, it is allowed to stand for
a few days, whereby the whole will clarify. The upper layer is then
poured off and added to the light tints, while the sediment may be used
for the darker shades.

If white vitriol (zinc sulphate or zinc vitriol) has been introduced
among the drying agents, this is done in the endeavor to create a
non-coloring admixture for the white pigments and also not to be
compelled to add lead compounds, which, as experience has shown, cause
a yellowing of white coatings to zinc white. For ordinary purposes,
Dr. Koller recommends to add to the linseed oil 2 per cent (by weight)
of litharge and 1⁠/⁠2 per cent of zinc vitriol, whereupon the mixture
is freely boiled. If the white vitriol is to be added in powder form,
it must be deprived of its constitutional water. This is done in
the simplest manner by calcining. The powder, which feels moist, is
subjected to the action of fire on a sheet-iron plate, whereby the
white vitriol is transformed into a vesicular, crumbly mass. At one
time it was ground in oil for pure zinc white coatings only, while for
the other pigments litharge is added besides, as stated above.

As regards the manganese preparations which are employed for
siccatives, it must be stated that they do not possess {637} certain
disadvantages of the lead preparations as, for instance, that of being
acted upon by hydrogen sulphide gas. The ordinary brown manganese
driers, however, are very liable to render the paint yellowish, which,
of course, is not desirable for pure white coatings. In case of too
large an addition of the said siccative, a strong subsequent yellowing
is perceptible, even if, for instance, zinc white has been considerably
“broken” by blue or black. But there are also manganese siccatives or
drying preparations offered for sale which are colorless or white, and
therefore may unhesitatingly be used in comparatively large quantities
for white coatings. A pulverulent drying material of this kind
consists, for example, of equal parts of calcined (i. e., anhydrous)
manganese vitriol, manganous acetate, and calcined zinc vitriol.

Of this mixture 3 per cent is added to the zinc white. Of the other
manganese compounds, especially that containing most oxygen, viz.,
manganic peroxide, is extensively employed. This body is treated as
follows: It is first coarsely powdered, feebly calcined, and sifted.
Next, the substance is put into wire gauze and suspended in linseed
oil, which should be boiled slightly. The weight of the linseed oil
should be 10 times that of the manganese peroxide.

According to another recipe a pure pulverous preparation may be
produced by treating the manganic peroxide with hydrochloric acid, next
filtering, precipitating with hot borax solution, allowing to deposit,
washing out and finally drying. Further recipes will probably be
unnecessary, since the painter will hardly prepare his own driers.

Unless for special cases driers should be used but sparingly. As a
rule 3 to 5 per cent of siccative suffices; in other words, 3 to 5
pounds of siccative should be added to 100 pounds of ground oil paint
ready for use. As a standard it may be proposed to endeavor to have
the coating dry in 24 hours. For lead colors a slight addition of
drier is advisable; for red lead, it may be omitted altogether. Where
non-tacky coatings are desired, as for floors, chairs, etc., as well as
a priming for wood imitations, lead color should always be employed as
foundation, and as a drier also a lead preparation. On the other hand,
no lead compounds should be used for pure zinc-white coats and white
lacquering.


«Testing Siccatives.»—Since it was discovered that the lead and
manganese compounds of rosin acids had a better and more rapid action
on linseed oil than the older form of driers, such as red lead,
litharge, manganese dioxide, etc., the number of preparations of the
former class has increased enormously. Manufacturers are continually
at work endeavoring to improve the quality of these compounds, and to
obtain a preparation which will be peculiarly their own. Consequently,
with such a large variety of substances to deal with, it becomes
a matter of some difficulty to distinguish the good from the bad.
In addition to the general appearance, color, hardness, and a few
other such physical properties, there is no means of ascertaining
the quality of these substances except practical testing of their
drying properties, that is, one must mix the driers with oil and
prove their value for oneself. Even the discovery of an apparently
satisfactory variety does not end the matter, for experience has shown
that such preparations, even when they appear the same, do not give
similar results. A great deal depends upon their preparation; for
example, manganese resinate obtained from successive consignments,
and containing the same percentage of manganese, does not always give
identical results with oil. In fact, variation is the greatest drawback
to these compounds. With one preparation the oil darkens, with another
it remains pale, or sometimes decomposition of the oil takes place in
part. The addition of a small proportion of drier has been known to
cause the separation of 50 per cent of the oil as a dark viscous mass.
One drier will act well, and the oil will remain thin, while with
another, the same oil will in the course of a few months thicken to the
consistency of stand oil. These various actions may all be obtained
from the same compound of rosin with a metal, the source only of the
drier varying.

The liquid siccatives derived from these compounds by solution in
turpentine or benzine also give widely divergent results. Sometimes
a slight foot will separate, or as much as 50 per cent may go to the
bottom of the pan, and at times the whole contents of the pan will
settle to a thick, jelly-like mass. By increasing the temperature, this
mass will become thin and clear once more, and distillation will drive
over pure unaltered turpentine or benzine, leaving behind the metallic
compound of rosin in its original state.

The compounds of metals with fatty acids which, in solution in
turpentine, have been used for many years by {638} varnish-makers,
show even greater variation. At the same time, a greater drying power
is obtained from them than from rosin acids, quantities being equal.
As these compounds leave the factory, they are often in solution in
linseed oil or turpentine, and undoubtedly many of the products of this
nature on the market are of very inferior quality.

The examination of these bodies may be set about in two ways:

_A._—By dissolving in linseed oil with or without heat.

_B._—By first dissolving the drier in turpentine and mixing the cooled
solution (liquid siccatives) with linseed oil.

Before proceeding to describe the method of carrying out the foregoing
tests, it is necessary to emphasize the important part which the
linseed oil plays in the examination of the driers. As part of the
information to be gained by these tests depends upon the amount of
solid matter which separates out, it is essential that the linseed
oil should be uniform. To attain this end, the oil used must always
be freed from mucilage before being used for the test. If this cannot
readily be obtained, ordinary linseed oil should be heated to a
temperature of from 518° to 572° F., so that it breaks, and should
then be cooled and filtered. With the ordinary market linseed oil,
the amount of solid matter which separates varies within wide limits,
so that if this were not removed, no idea of the separation of foot
caused by the driers would be obtained. It is not to be understood from
this that unbroken linseed oil is never to be used for ordinary paint
or varnish, the warning being only given for the sake of arriving at
reliable values for the quality of the driers to be tested.

_A._—_Solution of Drier in Linseed Oil._—The precipitated metallic
compounds of rosin (lead resinate, manganese resinate and lead
manganese resinate) dissolve readily in linseed oil of ordinary
temperature (60° to 70° F.). The oil is mixed with 1 1⁠/⁠2 per cent
of the drier and subjected to stirring or shaking for 24 hours, the
agitation being applied at intervals of an hour. Fused metallic
resinates are not soluble in linseed oil at ordinary temperatures,
so different treatment is required for them. The oil is heated in
an enameled pan together with the finely powdered drier, until the
latter is completely in solution, care being taken not to allow the
temperature to rise above 390° F. The pan is then removed from the fire
and its contents allowed to settle. The quantity of drier used should
not exceed 1 1⁠/⁠2 to 3 per cent. In the case of metallic linoleates
(lead linoleate, manganese linoleate and lead-manganese linoleate),
the temperature must be raised above 290° F. before they will go into
solution. In their case also the addition should not be greater than
3 per cent. Note, after all the tests have settled, the amount of
undissolved matter which is left at the bottom, as this is one of the
data upon which an idea of the value of the drier must be formed.

_B._—_Solution of Drier in Turpentine or Benzine._—For the preparation
of these liquid siccatives 1 to 1.4 parts of the metallic resinate or
linoleate are added to the benzine or turpentine and dissolved at a
gentle heat, or the drier may first be melted over a fire and added to
the solvent while in the liquid state. The proportion of matter which
does not go into solution must be carefully noted as a factor in the
valuation of the drier. From 5 to 10 per cent of the liquid siccative
is now added to the linseed oil, and the mixture shaken well, at
intervals during 24 hours.

Samples of all the oils prepared as above should be placed in small
clear bottles, which are very narrow inside, so that a thin layer of
the oil may be observed. The bottles are allowed to stand for 3 or
4 days in a temperate room, without being touched. When sufficient
time has been allowed for thorough settling, the color, transparency,
and consistency of the samples are carefully observed, and also the
quantity and nature of any precipitate which may have settled out. A
note should also be made of the date for future reference. Naturally
the drier which has colored the oil least and left it most clean and
thin, and which shows the smallest precipitate, is the most suitable
for general use. The next important test is that of drying power, and
is carried out as follows: A few drops of the sample are placed on a
clear, clean glass plate, 4 x 6 inches, and rubbed evenly over with
the fingers. The plate is then placed, clean side up, in a sloping
position with the upper edge resting against a wall. In this way any
excess of oil is run off and a very thin equal layer is obtained.
It is best to start the test early in the morning as it can then be
watched throughout the day. It should be remarked that the time from
the “tacky” stage to complete dryness is usually very short, so that
the observer must be constantly on the watch. If a good drier has been
used, the time may be from 4 to 5 hours, and should not be more than
12 or at the very highest {639} 15. The bleaching of the layer should
also be noted. Many of the layers, even after they have become as dry
as they seem capable of becoming, show a slight stickiness. These tests
should be set aside in a dust-free place for about 8 days, and then
tested with the finger.


«SIGN LETTERS:»


«To Remove Black Letters from White Enameled Signs».—It frequently
happens that a change has to be made on such signs, one name having to
be taken off and another substituted. Priming with white lead followed
by dull and glossy zinc white paint always looks like a daub and stands
out like a pad. Lye, glass paper or steel chips will not attack the
burned-in metallic enamel. The quickest plan is to grind down carefully
with a good grindstone.

SIGN-LETTER CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Cements.

SIGNS, TO REPAIR ENAMELED: See Enamels.


«SILK:»


«Artificial “Rubbered” Silk.»—A solution of caoutchouc or similar
gum in acetone is added, in any desired proportion, to a solution of
nitro-cellulose in acetone, and the mixture is made into threads by
passing it into water or other suitable liquid. The resulting threads
are stated to be very brilliant in appearance, extremely elastic, and
very resistant to the atmosphere and to water. The product is not more
inflammable than natural silk.


«Artificial Ageing of Silk Fabrics.»—To give silk goods the appearance
of age, exposure to the sun is the simplest way, but as this requires
time it cannot always be employed. A quicker method consists in
preparing a dirty-greenish liquor of weak soap water, with addition of
a little blacking and gamboge solution. Wash the silk fabric in this
liquor and dry as usual, without rinsing in clean water, and calender.


«Bleaching Silk.»—The Lyons process of bleaching skeins of silk is
to draw them rapidly through a sort of aqua regia bath. This bath is
prepared by mixing 5 parts of hydrochloric acid with 1 of nitric,
leaving the mixture for 4 or 5 days at a gentle heat of about 77° F.,
and then diluting with about 15 times its volume of water. This
dilution is effected in large tanks cut from stone. The temperature
of the bath should be from 68° to 85° F., and the skeins should not
be in it over 15 minutes, and frequently not so long as that; they
must be kept in motion during all that time. When taken out, the silk
is immediately immersed successively in 2 troughs of water, to remove
every trace of the acid, after which they are dried.

Hydrogen peroxide is used as a silk bleach, the silk being first
thoroughly washed with an alkaline soap and ammonium carbonate to
free it of its gummy matter. After repeated washings in the peroxide
(preferably rendered alkaline with ammonia and soda), the silk is
“blued” with a solution of blue aniline in alcohol.


«Washing of Light Silk Goods.»—The best soap may change delicate
tints. The following method is therefore preferable: First wash the
silk tissue in warm milk. Prepare a light bran infusion, which is to
be decanted, and after resting for a time, passed over the fabric. It
is then rinsed in this water, almost cold. It is moved about in all
directions, and afterwards dried on a napkin.

SILK SENSITIZERS FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC PURPOSES: See Photography, under
Paper-Sensitizing Processes.


«Silver»


«Antique Silver» (see also Plating).—Coat the polished silver articles
with a thin paste of powdered graphite, 6 parts; powdered bloodstone, 1
part; and oil of turpentine. After the drying take off the superfluous
powder with a soft brush and rub the raised portions bright with a
linen rag dipped in spirit. By treatment with various sulphides an old
appearance is likewise imparted to silver. If, for example, a solution
of 5 parts of liver of sulphur and 10 parts of ammonium carbonate are
heated in 1 quart of distilled water to 180° F., placing the silver
articles therein, the latter first turn pale gray, then dark gray,
and finally assume a deep black-blue. In the case of plated ware, the
silvering must not be too thin; in the case of thick silver plating
or solid silver 1 quart of water is sufficient. The colors will then
appear more quickly. If the coloring is spotted or otherwise imperfect
dip the objects into a warm potassium cyanide solution, whereby the
silver sulphide formed is immediately {640} dissolved. The bath must
be renewed after a while. Silver containing much copper is subjected,
previous to the coloring, to a blanching process, which is accomplished
in a boiling solution of 15 parts of powdered tartar and 30 parts of
cooking salt in 2 pints of water. Objects which are to be mat are
coated with a paste of potash and water after the blanching, then dry,
anneal, cool in water, and boil again.


«Imitation of Antique Silver.»—Plated articles may be colored to
resemble old objects of art made of solid silver. For this purpose the
deep-lying parts, those not exposed to friction, are provided with a
blackish, earthy coating, the prominent parts retaining a leaden but
bright color. The process is simple. A thin paste is made of finely
powdered graphite and oil of turpentine (a little bloodstone or red
ocher may be added, to imitate the copper tinge in articles of old
silver) and spread over the whole of the previously plated article.
It is then allowed to dry, and the particles not adhering to the
surface removed with a soft brush. The black coating should then be
carefully wiped off the exposed parts by means of a linen rag dipped
in alcohol. This process is very effective in making imitations of
objects of antique art, such as goblets, candlesticks, vessels of every
description, statues, etc. If it is desired to restore the original
brightness to the object, this can be done by washing with caustic soda
or a solution of cyanide of potassium. Benzine can also be used for
this purpose.


«Blanching Silver.»—I.—Mix powdered charcoal, 3 parts, and calcined
borax, 1 part, and stir with water so as to make a homogeneous paste.
Apply this paste on the pieces to be blanched. Put the pieces on
a charcoal fire, taking care to cover them up well; when they have
acquired a cherry red, withdraw them from the fire and leave to cool
off. Next place them in a hot bath composed of 9 parts of water and 1
part of sulphuric acid, without causing the bath to boil. Leave the
articles in for about 1 hour. Remove them, rinse in clean water, and
dry.

II.—If the coat of tarnish on the surface of the silver is but light
and superficial, it suffices to rub the piece well with green soap
to wash it thoroughly in hot water; then dry it in hot sawdust and
pass it through alcohol, finally rubbing with a fine cloth or brush.
Should the coat resist this treatment, brush with Spanish white, then
wash, dry, and pass through alcohol. The employment of Spanish white
has the drawback of shining the silver if the application is strong
and prolonged. If the oxidation has withstood these means and if it
is desired to impart to the chain the handsome mat appearance of new
goods, it should be annealed in charcoal dust and passed through
vitriol, but this operation, for those unused to it, is very dangerous
to the soldering and consequently may spoil the piece.


«Coloring Silver.»—A rich gold tint may be imparted to silver articles
by plunging them into dilute sulphuric acid, saturated with iron rust.


«Frosting Polished Silver.»—Articles of polished silver may be frosted
by putting them into a bath of nitric acid diluted with an equal volume
of distilled water and letting them remain a few minutes. A better
effect may be given by dipping the article frequently into the bath
until the requisite degree of frosting has been attained. Then rinse
and place for a few moments in a strong bath of potassium cyanide;
remove and rinse. The fingers must not be allowed to touch the article
during either process. It should be held with wooden forceps or clamps.


«Fulminating Silver.»—Dissolve 1 part of fine silver in 10 parts of
nitric acid of 1.36 specific gravity at a moderate heat; pour the
solution into 20 parts of spirit of wine (85 to 90 per cent) and heat
the liquid. As soon as the mixture begins to boil, it is removed
from the fire and left alone until cooled off. The fulminic silver
crystallizes on cooling in very fine needles of dazzling whiteness,
which are edulcorated with water and dried carefully in the air.


«Hollow Silverware.»—A good process for making hollow figures
consists in covering models of the figures, made of a base or easily
soluble metal, with a thin and uniform coating of a nobler metal, by
means of the electric current in such a way that this coating takes
approximately the shape of the model, the latter being then removed by
dissolving it with acid. The model is cast from zinc in one or more
pieces, a well-chased brass mold being used for this purpose, and
the separate parts are then soldered together with an easily fusible
solder. The figure is then covered with a galvanized coating of silver,
copper, or other metal. Before receiving the coating of silver, the
figure is first covered with a thin deposit of copper, the silver being
added afterwards in the required thickness. But in order {641} that
the deposit of silver may be of the same thickness throughout (this is
essential if the figure is to keep the right shape), silver anodes,
so constructed and arranged as to correspond as closely as possible
to the outlines of the figure, should be suspended in the solution of
silver and cyanide of potassium on both sides of the figure, and at
equal distances from it. As soon as the deposit is sufficiently thick,
the figure is removed from the bath, washed, and put into a bath of
dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, where it is allowed to remain
till the zinc core is dissolved. The decomposition of the zinc can be
accelerated by adding a pin of copper. The figure now requires only
boiling in soda and potassic tartrate to acquire a white color. If the
figure is to be made of copper, the zinc model must be covered first
with a thin layer of silver, then with the copper coating, and then
once more with a thin layer of silver, so that while the zinc is being
dissolved, the copper may be protected on either side by the silver.
Similar precautions must be taken with other metals, regard being paid
to their peculiar properties. Another method is to cast the figures,
entire or in separate parts, out of some easily fusible alloy in chased
metal molds. The separate portions are soldered with the same solder,
and the figure is then provided with a coating of copper, silver, etc.,
by means of the galvanic current. It is then placed in boiling water or
steam, and the inner alloys melted by the introduction of the water or
steam through holes bored for this purpose.


«Lustrous Oxide on Silver» (see also Plating and Silver, under
Polishes).—Some experience is necessary to reproduce a handsome black
luster. Into a cup filled with water throw a little liver of sulphur
and mix well. Scratch the silver article as bright as possible with
the scratch brush and dip into the warm liquid. Remove the object
after 2 minutes and rinse off in water. Then scratch it up again and
return it into the liquid. The process should be repeated 2 or 3 times,
whereby a wonderful glossy black is obtained.


«Ornamental Designs on Silver.»—Select a smooth part of the silver, and
sketch on it a monogram or any other design with a sharp lead pencil.
Place the article in a gold solution, with the battery in good working
order, and in a short time all the parts not sketched with the lead
pencil will be covered with a coat of gold. After cleaning the article
the black lead is easily removed with the finger, whereupon the silver
ornament is disclosed. A gold ornament may be produced by reversing the
process.


«Separating Silver from Platinum Waste.»—Cut the waste into small
pieces, make red hot to destroy grease and organic substances, and
dissolve in aqua regia (hydrochloric acid, 3 parts, and nitric acid,
1 part). Platinum and all other metals combined with it are thus
dissolved, while silver settles on the bottom as chloride in the shape
of a gray, spongy powder. The solution is then drawn off and tested
by oxalic acid for gold, which is precipitated as a fine yellowish
powder. The other metals remain untouched thereby. The platinum still
present in the solution is now obtained by a gradual addition of sal
ammoniac as a yellowish-gray powder. These different precipitates are
washed with warm water, dried, and transformed into the metallic state
by suitable fluxes. Platinum filings, however, have to be previously
refined. They are also first annealed. All steel or iron filings
are removed with a magnet and the rest is dipped into concentrated
sulphuric acid and heated with this to the boiling point. This process
is continued as long as an action of the acid is noticeable. The
remaining powder is pure platinum. Hot sulphuric acid dissolves silver
without touching the platinum. The liquid used for the separation of
the platinum is now diluted with an equal quantity of water and the
silver expelled from it by means of a saturated cooking salt solution.
The latter is added gradually until no more action, i. e., separation,
is perceptible. The liquid is carefully drawn off, the residue washed
in warm water, dried and melted with a little soda ashes as flux, which
yields pure metallic silver.

The old process for separating silver from waste was as follows: The
refuse was mixed with an equal quantity of charcoal, placed in a
crucible, and subjected to a bright-red heat, and in a short time a
silver button formed at the bottom. Carbonate of soda is another good
flux.


«Silvering Glass Globes.»—Take 1⁠/⁠3 ounce of clean lead, and melt it
with an equal weight of pure tin; then immediately add 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of
bismuth, and carefully skim off the dross; remove the alloy from the
fire and before it grows cold add 5 ounces of mercury, and stir the
whole well together; then put the fluid amalgam into a clean glass,
and it is fit for use. When this amalgam is used for silvering {642}
let it be first strained through a linen rag; then gently pour some
ounces thereof into the globe intended to be silvered; the alloy
should be poured into the globe by means of a paper or glass funnel
reaching almost to the bottom of the globe, to prevent it splashing the
sides; the globe should be turned every way very slowly, to fasten the
silvering.


«Silvering Powder for Metals.»—Copper, brass, and some other metals
may be silvered by rubbing well with the following powder: Potassium
cyanide, 12 parts; silver nitrate, 6 parts; calcium carbonate, 30
parts. Mix and keep in a well-closed bottle. It must be applied with
hard rubbing, the bright surface being afterwards rinsed with water,
dried, and polished. Great care must be exercised in the use of the
powder on account of its poisonous nature. It should not be allowed to
come in contact with the hands.


«Silver Testing.»—For this purpose a cold saturated solution of
potassium bichromate in pure nitric acid of 1.2 specific gravity is
employed. After the article to be tested has been treated with spirit
of wine for the removal of any varnish coating which might be present,
a drop of the above test liquor is applied by means of a glass rod and
the resultant spot rubbed off with a little water.

A testing solution of potassium bichromate, 1 ounce, pure nitric acid,
6 ounces, and water, 2 ounces, gives the following results on surfaces
of the metals named:

 ───────────────+──────────────────+────────────────
      Metal.    │   Color in one   │ Color of mark
                │     minute.      │     left.
 ───────────────+──────────────────+────────────────
  Pure silver   │ Bright blood-red │ Grayish white
  .925 silver   │ Dark red         │ Dark brown
  .800 silver   │ Chocolate        │ Dark brown
  .500 silver   │ Green            │ Dark brown
  German silver │ Dark blue        │ Light gray
  Nickel        │ Turquoise blue   │ Scarcely any
  Copper        │ Very dark blue   │ Cleaned copper
  Brass         │ Dark brown       │ Light brown
  Lead          │ Nut brown        │ Leaden
  Tin           │ Reddish brown    │ Dark
  Zinc          │ Light chocolate  │ Steel gray
  Aluminum      │ Yellow           │ No stain
  Platinum      │ Vandyke brown    │ No stain
  Iron          │ Various          │ Black
  9-carat gold  │ Unchanged        │ No stain
 ───────────────+──────────────────+────────────────

The second column in the table shows such change of color as the
liquid—not the metal—undergoes during its action for the period of 1
minute. The test liquid being then washed off with cold water, the
third column shows the nature of the stain that is left.

In the case of faintly silvered goods, such as buttons, this test
fails, since the slight quantity of resulting silver chromate does not
become visible or dissolves in the nitric acid present. But even such
a thin coat of silver can be recognized with the above test liquor,
if the bichromate solution is used, diluted with the equal volume of
water, or if a small drop of water is first put on the article and
afterwards a little drop of the undiluted solution is applied by means
of a capillary tube. In this manner a distinct red spot was obtained in
the case of very slight silvering.

A simpler method is as follows: Rub the piece to be tested on the
touchstone and moisten the mark with nitric acid, whereupon it
disappears. Add a little hydrochloric acid with a glass rod. If a
white turbidness (silver chloride) appears which does not vanish upon
addition of water, or, in case of faint silvering or an alloy poor
in silver, a weak opalescence, the presence of silver is certain.
Even alloys containing very little silver give this reaction quite
distinctly.


«Pink Color on Silver.»—To produce a beautiful pink color upon silver,
dip the clean article for a few seconds into a hot and strong solution
of cupric chloride, swill it in water and then dry it or dip it into
spirit of wine and ignite the spirit.

SILVER, IMITATION: See Alloys.

SILVERING: See Plating.

SILVERING OF MIRRORS: See Mirrors.

SILVERING, TEST FOR: See Plating.

SILVER FOIL SUBSTITUTE: See Metal Foil.

SILVER NITRATE SPOTS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

SILVER-PLATING: See Plating.

SILVER, RECOVERY OF PHOTOGRAPHIC: See Photography.

SILVER SOLDERS: See Solders. {643}

SILVER, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

SILVER, TO RECOVER GOLD FROM: See Gold.

SILVERWARE POLISHES: See Polishes.

SIMILOR: See Alloys.

SINEWS, TREATMENT OF, IN MANUFACTURING GLUE: See Adhesives.

SYRUP (RASPBERRY): See Raspberry.

SYRUPS: See Essences and Extracts.

SIZING: See Adhesives.

SIZING WALLS FOR KALSOMINE: See Kalsomine.

SKIN-CLEANING PREPARATIONS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

SKIN OINTMENTS: See Ointments.

SKIN FOODS: See Cosmetics.

SKIN TROUBLES: See Soap.


«SLATE:»


«Artificial Slate.»—The artificial slate coating on tin consists of a
mixture of finely ground slate, lampblack, and a water-glass solution
of equal parts of potash and soda water glass (1.25 specific gravity).
The process is as follows:

I.—First prepare the water-glass solution by finely crushing equal
parts of solid potash and soda water glass and pouring over this 6 to
8 times the quantity of soft river water, which is kept boiling about
1 1⁠/⁠2 hours, whereby the water glass is completely dissolved. Add
7 parts finely crushed slate finely ground with a little water into
impalpable dust, 1 part lampblack, which is ground with it, and grind
enough of this mass with the previously prepared water-glass solution
as is necessary for a thick or thin coating. With this compound the
roughened tin plates are painted as uniformly as possible. For roofing,
zinc plate may be colored in the same manner. The coating protects the
zinc from oxidation and consequently from destruction. For painting
zinc plate, however, only pure potash water glass must be added to the
mixture, as the paint would loosen or peel off from the zinc if soda
water glass were used.

II.—Good heavy paper or other substance is saturated with linseed-oil
varnish and then painted, several coats, one after another with the
following mixture:

 Copal varnish               1 part
 Oil of turpentine           2 parts
 Fine, dry sand, powdered    1 part
 Powdered glass              1 part
 Ground slate                2 parts
 Lampblack                   1 part

SLIDES FOR LANTERNS: See Photography.

SLUGS ON ROSES: See Insecticides.

SMARAGDINE: See Alcohol (Solid).

SMUT, TREATMENT FOR: See Grain.


«SNAKE BITES.»

About 25 years ago, Dr. S. Weir Mitchell and Dr. Reichert published
results of their investigations of snake venom which indicated that
permanganate of potassium may prove of material value as an antidote to
this lethal substance. Since that time permanganate has been largely
used all over the world as a remedy when men and animals were bitten
by poisonous snakes, and Sir Lauder Brunton devised an instrument by
means of which the permanganate may be readily carried in the pocket,
and immediately injected into, or into the neighborhood of, the wound.
Captain Rodgers, of the Indian Medical Service, recently reported
several cases treated by this method, the wounds being due to the bites
of the cobra. After making free crucial incisions of the bitten part,
the wound was thoroughly flushed with a hot solution of permanganate
of potassium, and then bandaged. Recovery occurred in each instance,
although the cauterant action of the hot solution of permanganate
of potassium delayed healing so long that the part was not well for
about 3 weeks. About 12 or 13 years ago, Dr. Amos Barber, of Cheyenne,
Wyoming, reported cases in which excellent results had followed this
method of treatment. {644}


«Soaps»

(See also Cleaning Compounds and Polishes.)


«ANTISEPTIC SOAP.»

I.—Various attempts have been made to incorporate antiseptics and
cosmetics with soap, but for the most part unsuccessfully, owing to the
unfavorable action of the added components, a good instance of this
kind being sodium peroxide, which, though a powerful antiseptic, soon
decomposes in the soap and loses its properties, while the caustic
character of the oxide renders its use precarious, even when the soap
is fresh, unless great care is taken. However, according to a German
patent, zinc peroxide is free from these defects, since it retains its
stability and has no corrosive action on the skin, while possessing
powerful antiseptic and cosmetic properties, and has a direct curative
influence when applied to cuts or wounds.

II.—The soap is prepared by melting 80 parts of household soap in a
jacketed pan, and gradually adding 20 parts of moist zinc peroxide (50
per cent strength), the whole being kept well stirred all the time. The
finished mixture will be about as stiff as dough, and is easily shaped
into tablets of convenient size.

III.—Take 50 parts, by weight, of caustic soda of 70 per cent, and free
from carbonic acid, if possible; 200 parts, by weight, of sweet almond
oil; 160 parts, by weight, of glycerine of 30° Bé.; and sufficient
distilled water to make up 1,000 parts by weight. First, dissolve the
alkali in double its weight of water, then add the glycerine and oil
and stir together. Afterwards, add the remainder of the water and keep
the whole on the water bath at a temperature of 140° to 158° F., for 24
to 36 hours; remove the oil not saponified, which gives a gelatinous
mass. Mix 900 parts, by weight, of it with 70 parts, by weight, of 90
per cent alcohol and 10 parts, by weight, of lemon oil, and as much
of the oil of bergamot and the oil of vervain. Heat for some hours at
140° F., then allow to cool and filter on wadding to eliminate the
needles of stearate of potash. The liquid after filtering remains clear.


«Carpet Soap.»—

 Fuller’s earth           4 ounces
 Spirits of turpentine    1 ounce
 Pearlash                 8 ounces

Rub smooth and make into a stiff paste with a sufficiency of soft soap.


«To Cut Castile Soap.»—A thin spatula must be used. To cut straight,
a trough with open ends made with 1⁠/⁠2-inch boards should be taken,
the inside dimensions being 2 7⁠/⁠8 inches wide, 3 3⁠/⁠4 inches deep,
and about 14 inches long. Near the end a perpendicular slit is sawed
through the side pieces. Passing the spatula down through this slit
the bar is cut neatly and straight. For trimming off the corners a
carpenter’s small iron plane works well.


«COLORING SOAP.»

The first point to be observed is to select the proper shade of flower
corresponding with the perfume used, for instance, an almond soap is
left white; rose soap is colored pink or red; mignonette, green, etc.

The colors from which the soapmaker may select are numerous; not only
are most of the coal-tar colors adapted for his purpose, but also a
very great number of mineral colors. Until recently, the latter were
almost exclusively employed, but the great advance in the tar-color
industry has brought about a change. A prominent advantage of the
mineral colors is their stability; they are not changed or in any way
affected by exposure to light. This advantage, however, is offset in
many cases by the more difficult method of application, the difficulty
of getting uniform shades. The coal-tar colors give brilliant shades
and tints, are easy to use, and produce uniform tints. The specific
gravity of mineral colors being rather high, in most cases they will
naturally tend to settle toward the bottom of soap, and their use
necessitates crutching of the soap until it is too thick to allow the
color to settle. For mottled soap, however, vermilion, red oxide, and
ultramarine are still largely employed.

For transparent soap mineral colors are not applicable, as they would
detract from their transparency; for milled toilet soap, on the other
hand, they are very well adapted, as also for cold-made soaps which
require crutching anyway until a sufficient consistency is obtained to
keep the coloring material suspended.

A notable disadvantage in the use of aniline colors, besides their
sensitiveness to the action of light, is the fact that many of them
are affected and partly destroyed by the action of alkali. A few of
them are proof against a small excess of lye, and these may be used
with good effect. Certain firms have made a specialty of manufacturing
colors answering the peculiar requirements of soap, being very easy of
{645} application, as they are simply dissolved in boiling water and
the solution stirred into the soap. To some colors a little weak lye is
added; others are mixed with a little oil before they are added to the
soap.

For a soluble red color there were formerly used alkanet and cochineal;
at present these have been displaced to a great extent, on account of
their high cost, by magenta, which is very cheap and of remarkable
beauty. A very small amount suffices for an intense color, nor is a
large proportion desirable, as the soap would then stain. Delicate
tints are also produced by the eosine colors, of which rose bengal,
phloxine, rhodamine, and eosine are most commonly used. These colors,
when dissolved, have a brilliant fluorescence which heightens their
beautiful effect.

The following minerals, after being ground and washed several times in
boiling water, will produce the colors stated:

Hematite produces deep red.

Purple oxide iron produces purple.

Oxide of manganese produces brown.

Yellow ocher produces yellow.

Yellow ocher calcined produces orange.

Umber produces fawn.

Cinnabar produces medium red.

There are also a number of the azo dyes, which are suitable for soaps,
and these, as well as the eosine colors, are used principally for
transparent soaps. For opaque soaps both aniline and mineral reds
are used, among the latter being vermilion, chrome red, and iron
oxide. Chrome red is a basic chromate of lead, which is now much used
in place of vermilion, but, as it becomes black on exposure to an
atmosphere containing even traces only of sulphureted hydrogen, it is
not essentially adapted for soap. Vermilion gives a bright color, but
its price is high. Iron oxide, known in the trade as colcothar, rouge,
etc., is used for cheap soaps only.

Among the natural colors for yellow are saffron, gamboge, turmeric, and
caramel (sugar color); the first named of these is now hardly used,
owing to its high cost. Of the yellow aniline colors special mention
must be made of picric acid (trinitrophenol), martius yellow, naphthol
yellow, acid yellow, and auramine. If an orange tint is wanted, a
trace of magenta or safranine may be added to the yellow colors
named. The use of some unbleached palm oil with the stock answers a
similar purpose, but the color fades on exposure. A mineral yellow is
chrome yellow (chromate of lead), which has the same advantages and
disadvantages as chrome red.

Of the blue aniline colors, there may be used alkali blue, patent blue,
and indigo extract. Alkali or aniline blue is soluble only in alkaline
liquids; while patent blue is soluble in water and in alcohol. Both
blues can be had in different brands, producing from green blues to
violet blues. Indigo extract, which should be classed among the natural
colors rather than among the tar colors, is added to the soap in
aqueous solution.

Of ultramarine there are two modifications, the sulphate and the
soda. Both of these are proof against the action of alkali, but are
decomposed by acids or salts having an acid reaction. The former is
much paler than the latter; the soda ultramarine is best adapted for
coloring soda soaps blue. The ultramarine is added to the soap in the
form of a fine powder. Smalt is unsuitable, although it gives soap a
color of wonderful beauty because a considerable quantity of it is
required to produce a deep color, and, furthermore, it makes the soap
rough, owing to the gritty nature which smalt has even when in the
finest powder. By mixing the blue and yellow colors named, a great
variety of greens are obtained. Both component colors must be entirely
free from any reddish tint, for the latter would cause the mixture to
form a dirty-green color.

Of the colors producing green directly the two tar colors, Victoria and
brilliant green, are to be noted; these give a bright color, but fade
rapidly; thereby the soap acquires an unsightly appearance. For opaque
soap of the better grades, green ultramarine or chrome green are used.
Gray and black are produced by lampblack. For brown, there is Bismarck
brown among the aniline colors and umber among the earthy pigments.


«Garment-Cleaning Soap.»—The following is excellent:

 I.—White soap, rasped or shaved    12 parts
     Ammonia water                    3 parts
     Boiling water                   18 parts

Dissolve the soap in the water and when it cools down somewhat, add
to the solution the ammonia water. Pour the solution into a flask
of sufficient capacity (or holding about three times as much as the
mixture) and add enough water to fill it about three-quarters full.
Shake and add, a little at a time, under active agitation, enough
benzine to make 100 parts. This constitutes the stock {646} bottle. To
make up the mass or paste put a teaspoonful in an 8-ounce bottle and
add, a little at a time, with constant agitation, benzine to about fill
the bottle. This preparation is a rapid cleaner and does not injure the
most delicate colors.

 II.—Good bar soap, shaved up      165 parts
      Ammonia water                  45 parts
      Benzine                       190 parts
      Water sufficient to make    1,000 parts

Dissolve the soap in 600 parts of water by heating on the water bath,
remove, and add the ammonia under constant stirring. Finally add the
benzine, and stir until homogeneous, and quite cold. The directions to
go with this paste are: Rub the soap well into the spot and lay the
garment aside for a half hour. Then using a stiff brush, rub with warm
water and rinse. This is especially useful in spots made by rosins,
oils, grease, etc. Should the spot be only partially removed by the
first application, repeat.


«Glycerine Soaps.»—Dr. Sarg’s liquid glycerine soap consists of 334
parts of potash soda soap, and 666 parts of glycerine free from lime,
the mixture being scented with Turkish rose oil and orange blossom oil
in equal proportions, the actual amount used being varied according to
taste. The soap should be perfectly free from alkali; but as this is a
condition difficult of attainment in the case of ordinary potash soaps,
it is presupposed that the soap used has been salted out with potassium
chloride, this being the only way to obtain a soap free from alkali.

Another variety of liquid glycerine soap is prepared from purified
medicinal soft soap, 300 parts; glycerine free from lime, 300 parts;
white sugar syrup, 300 parts; doubly rectified spirit (96 per cent),
300 parts. The mixture is scented with oil of cinnamon, 1 part; oil of
sassafras, 2 parts; oil of citronella, 1⁠/⁠2 part; oil of wintergreen,
1 part; African geranium oil, 1 part; clove oil, 1⁠/⁠2 part; oil of
bergamot, 3 parts; pure tincture of musk, 1⁠/⁠2 part. These oils are
dissolved in spirit, and shaken up with the other ingredients; then
left for 8 days with frequent shaking, and 3 days in absolute quiet,
after which the whole is filtered, and is then ready for packing.


«Iodine Soaps.»—In British hospitals, preference is given to oleic acid
over alcoholic preparations for iodine soaps, as the former do not
stain and can be washed off with soap and water. The following formula
is given:

 I.—Iodine                       1 av. ounce
     Oleic acid                   1 fluidounce
     Alcohol                      6 fluidrachms
     Stronger water of ammonia    2 fluidrachms

This makes a soapy paste soluble in all liquids, except fixed oils.

 II.—Iodine                                1 av. ounce
      Oleic acid                            2 fluidounces
      Stronger water of ammonia             3 fluidrachms
      Paraffine oil, colorless, to make    20 fluidounces

 III.—Iodine                               1 av. ounce
       Alcohol                              5 fluidounces
       Solution of ammonium oleate          1 fluidounce
       Glycerine to make                   20 fluidounces

The solution of ammonium oleate is made from oleic acid and spirit of
ammonia.


«Liquid Soaps.»—Liquid soaps, or, as they are sometimes called, soap
essences, are made from pure olive-oil soap by dissolving it in alcohol
and adding some potassium carbonate. Tallow or lard soaps cannot be
used, as they will not make a transparent preparation. The soap is
finely shaved and placed with the alcohol and potassium carbonate in a
vessel over a water bath, the temperature slowly and gradually raised,
while the mixture is kept in constant agitation by stirring. The soap
should be of a pure white color and the alcohol gives the best product
when it is about 80 per cent strength. After about three-quarters of an
hour to one hour, solution will be complete and a perfectly transparent
article obtained. This can be scented as desired by adding the proper
essential oil as soon as the mixture is removed from the water bath.

If an antiseptic soap is wanted the addition of a small amount of
benzoic acid, formaldehyde, or corrosive sublimate will give the
desired product. Liquid soaps should contain from 20 to 40 per cent of
genuine white castile soap and about 2 to 2 1⁠/⁠4 per cent of potassium
carbonate.

This is a common formula:

                                  By weight
 I.—Olive or cottonseed oil      60 parts
     Caustic potash, U.S.P.       15 parts
     Alcohol and water, sufficient of each.

{647}

Dissolve the potash in 1 ounce of water, heat the oil on a water
bath, add the solution of potash previously warmed, and stir briskly.
Continue the heat until saponification is complete. If oil globules
separate out and refuse to saponify, the potash is not of proper
strength, and more must be added—1 or 2 parts dissolved in water. If
desired transparent add a little alcohol, and continue the heat without
stirring until a drop placed in cold water first solidifies and then
dissolves.

Commercial potash may be used, but the strength must be ascertained and
adjusted by experiment. The soap thus made will be like jelly; it is
dissolved in alcohol, 4 to 6 ounces of soap to 2 of alcohol, and after
standing a day or two is filtered and perfumed as desired. A rancid oil
would be easier to saponify, but the soap would likely be rancid or not
as good.

II.—Ammonium sulphoichthyolate, 10 parts; distilled water, 15 parts;
hebra’s soap spirit (a solution of potash soap, 120 parts, in 90 per
cent spirit, 60 parts; and spirit of lavender, 5 parts), 75 parts.


«MEDICATED SOAPS.»

First make up a suitable soap body and afterwards add the medicament.
For instance, carbolic soaps may be made as follows:

 I.—Cocoanut oil                20 pounds
     Tallow                       4 pounds
     Soda lye (38° to 40°B.)     12 pounds
     Phenol                       1 pound

Prepare the body soap by stirring the liquefied fat into the lye at
113° F., and when combination has set in, incorporate the phenol and
quickly pour into molds. Cover the latter well. Instead of the phenol 2
pounds of sulphur may be used, and a sulphur soap made.

                            Parts by
                             weight
 II.—Cotton oil              200
      Alcohol, 91 per cent    300
      Water                   325
      Caustic soda             45
      Potassium carbonate      10
      Ether                    15
      Carbolic acid            25

The oil is mixed in a large bottle with water, 100 parts; alcohol,
200 parts; and caustic soda, 45 parts, and after saponification the
remaining alcohol and the potassium carbonate dissolved in the rest of
the water, and finally the carbolic acid and the ether are added and
the whole well shaken. The mixture is filled in tightly closed bottles
and stored at medium temperature. The preparation may be scented as
desired, and the carbolic acid replaced with other antiseptics.


«Liquid Tar Soap.»—Mix 200 parts of tar with 400 parts of oleic acid,
warm lightly and filter. In this way the aqueous content produces
no trouble. Now warm the filtrate on the water bath, neutralize by
stirring in an alcoholic potash solution. To the soap thus produced,
add 100 parts of alcohol, and further a little olive oil, in order to
avoid a separation of any overplus of alkaline matter. Finally, bring
up to 1,000 parts with glycerine. This soap, containing 22 per cent of
tar, answers all possible demands that may be made upon it. Mixed with
2 parts of distilled water it leaves no deposit on the walls of the
container.


«Liquid Styrax Soap.»—The process is identical with the foregoing.
For digestion with oleic acid, the crude balsam will answer, since
filtration deprives the product of all contaminating substances. While
this soap will separate, it is easily again rendered homogeneous with a
vigorous shake. Preparations made with it should be accompanied with a
“shake” label.


«Superfatted Liquid Lanolin-Glycerine Soap.»—Dissolve about 10 per cent
of lanolin in oleic acid, saponify as in the tar soap, and perfume
(for which a solution of coumarin in geranium oil is probably the most
suitable agent). The prepared soap is improved by the addition of a
little tincture of benzoin.


«Massage Soaps.»—I.—An excellent recipe for a massage soap is: Special
cocoanut oil ground soap, 2,500 pounds; lanolin, 50 pounds; pine-needle
oil, 20 pounds; spike oil, 3 pounds. Other massage soaps are made from
olive oil ground soap, to which in special cases, as in the treatment
of certain rheumatic affections, ichthyol is added. Massage soaps are
always wanted white, so that Cochin cocoanut oil should be preferred to
other kinds.

II.—Cocoanut oil, 1,000 pounds; caustic soda lye, 37° B., 500 pounds;
pine-needle oil, 4 pounds; artificial bitter almond oil, 2 pounds.
There is also a “massage cream,” which differs from the ordinary
massage soaps in being made with a soft potash soap as a ground soap.
The oils, etc., incorporated with the ground mass are exactly the same
in the “cream” as in the soap. {648}


«Metallic Soaps.»—Metallic soaps are obtained by means of double
decomposition. First a soap solution is produced which is brought to
a boil. On the other hand, an equally strong solution of the metallic
salt of which the combination is to be made (chlorides and sulphides
are employed with preference) is prepared, the boiling solutions are
mixed together, and the metallic soap obtained is gathered on a linen
cloth. This is then put on enameled plates and dried, first at 104° F.,
later at 140° F.

Aluminum soap is the most important. Dissolved in benzine or oil of
turpentine, it furnishes an excellent varnish. It has been proposed to
use these solutions for the varnishing of leather; they furthermore
serve for the production of waterproof linen and cloths, paper, etc.
Jarry recommended this compound for impregnating railroad ties to
render them weatherproof.

Manganese soap is used as a siccative in the preparation of linseed-oil
varnish, as well as for a drier to be added to paints. Zinc soap is
used in the same manner.

Copper soap enters into the composition of gilding wax, and is also
employed for bronzing plaster of Paris articles. For the same purpose,
a mixture is made use of consisting of copper soap and iron soap melted
in white lead varnish and wax. Iron soap is used with aluminum soap
for waterproofing purposes and for the production of a waterproof
varnish. By using wax instead of a soap, insoluble metallic soaps are
obtained, which, melted in oils or wax, impart brilliant colorings to
them; but colored waterproof and weather-resisting varnishes may also
be produced with them. Metallic rosin soaps may be produced by double
decomposition of potash rosin soaps and a soluble metal salt. From
these, good varnishes are obtained to render paper carriage covers,
etc., waterproof; they may also be employed for floor wax or lacquers.


«Petroleum Soap.»—

 I.—Beeswax, refined                 4 parts
     Alcohol                          5 parts
     Castile soap, finely grated     10 parts
     Petroleum                        5 parts

Put the petroleum into a suitable vessel along with the wax and alcohol
and cautiously heat on the water bath, with an occasional agitation,
until complete solution is effected. Add the soap and continue the heat
until it is dissolved. When this occurs remove from the bath and stir
until the soap begins to set, then pour into molds.

II.—The hydrocarbons (as petroleum, vaseline, etc.) are boiled with
a sufficient quantity of alkali to form a soap, during which process
they absorb oxygen and unite with the alkali to form fatty acid salts.
The resulting soap is dissolved in water containing alkali, and the
solution is heated along with alkali and salt. The mass of soap
separates out in three layers, the central one being the purest; and
from this product the fatty acids may be recovered by treatment with
sulphuric acid.


«Perfumes for Soap.»—From 1 to 2 ounces of the following mixtures are
to be used to 10 pounds of soap:

 I.—Oil of rose geranium       2 ounces
     Oil of patchouli         1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Oil of cloves            1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Oil of lavender flowers    1 ounce
     Oil of bergamot            1 ounce
     Oil of sandalwood          1 ounce

 II.—Oil of bergamot           2 ounces
      Oil of orange flowers     2 ounces
      Oil of sassafras          2 ounces
      Oil of white thyme        3 ounces
      Oil of cassia             3 ounces
      Oil of cloves             3 ounces

 III.—Oil of citronella        1 ounce
       Oil of cloves            1 ounce
       Oil of bitter almonds    2 ounces


«Pumice-Stone Soaps.»—These soaps are always produced by the cold
process, either from cocoanut oil alone or in conjunction with tallow,
cotton oil, bleached palm oil, etc. The oil is melted and the lye
stirred in at about 90° F.; next, the powdered pumice stone is sifted
into the soap and the latter is scented. Following are some recipes:

 I.—Cocoanut oil                   40,000 parts
     Cotton oil                     10,000 parts
     Caustic soda lye, 38° Bé       24,000 parts
     Caustic potash lye, 30° Bé      1,000 parts
     Powdered pumice stone          25,000 parts
     Cassia oil                        150 parts
     Rosemary oil                      100 parts
     Lavender oil                       50 parts
     Safrol                             50 parts
     Clove oil                          10 parts

 II.—Cocoanut oil                  50,000 parts
      Caustic soda lye, 40° Bé      25,000 parts {649}
      Powdered pumice stone         50,000 parts
      Lavender oil                     250 parts
      Caraway oil                       80 parts


«Shaving Soaps.»

 I.—Palm oil soap          5 pounds
     Oil of cinnamon       10 drachms
     Oil of caraway         2 drachms
     Oil of lavender        2 drachms
     Oil of thyme           1 drachm
     Oil of peppermint     45 minims
     Oil of bergamot    2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms

Melt the soap, color if desired, and incorporate the oils.

 II.—Soap                        10 pounds
      Alcohol                      1 ounce
      Oil of bitter almonds    1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces
      Oil of bergamot            3⁠/⁠4 ounce
      Oil of mace                  3 drachms
      Oil of cloves              1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Melt the soap with just enough water to convert it into a soft paste
when cold; dissolve the oils in the alcohol, mix with the paste, and
rub up in a mortar, or pass several times through a kneading machine.

 III.—White castile soap    5 parts
       Alcohol              15 parts
       Rose water           15 parts


«SOAP POWDERS.»

The raw materials of which soap powder is made are soap and soda, to
which ingredients an addition of talcum or water glass can be made,
if desired, these materials proving very useful as a filling. An
excellent soap powder has been made of 20 parts of crystallized soda,
5 parts of dark-yellow soap (rosin curd), and 1 part of ordinary soft
soap. At first the two last mentioned are placed in a pan, then half
the required quantity of soda is added, and the whole is treated. Here
it must be mentioned that the dark-yellow curd soap, which is very
rosinous, has to be cut in small pieces before placing the quantity
into the pan. The heating process must continue very slowly, and
the material has to be crutched continually until the whole of the
substance has been thoroughly melted. Care must be taken that the
heating process does not reach the boiling point. The fire underneath
the pan must now be extinguished, and then the remaining half of the
crystallized soda is added to be crutched with the molten ingredients,
until the whole substance has become liquid. The liquefaction is
assisted by the residual heat of the first heated material and the pan.
The slow cooling facilitates the productive process by thickening the
mass, and when the soda has been absorbed, the whole has become fairly
thick. With occasional stirring of the thickened liquid the mass is
left for a little while longer, and when the proper moment has arrived
the material contained in the pan is spread on sheets of thin iron,
and these are removed to a cool room, where, after the first cooling,
they must be turned over by means of a shovel, and the turning process
has to be repeated at short intervals until the material has quite
cooled down and the mixture is thoroughly broken. The soap is now in
a very friable condition, and the time has now come to make it into
powder, for which purpose it is rubbed through the wire netting or the
perforated sieves. Generally the soap is first rubbed through a coarse
sieve, and then through finer ones, until it has reached the required
conditions of the powder. Some of the best soap powders are coarse, but
other manufacturers making an equally good article prefer the finer
powder, which requires a little more work, since it has to go through
three sieves, whereas the coarse powder can do with one or at most two
treatments. But this is, after all, a matter of local requirements or
personal taste.

The powder obtained from the above-mentioned ingredients is fine and
yellow colored, and it has all the qualities needed for a good sale.
Instead of the dark-yellow soap, white stock soap can also be used, and
this makes only a little difference in the coloring. But again white
stock soap can be used, and the same color obtained by the use of palm
oil, or other coloring ingredients, as these materials are used for
giving the toilet soaps their manifold different hues. Many makers
state that this process is too expensive, and not only swallows up all
the profit, but some of the color materials influence the soap and not
to its advantage.

Soft soap is used only to make the powder softer and easier soluble,
and for this reason the quantity to be used varies a little and
different manufacturers believe to have a secret by adding different
quantities of this material. As a general statement it may be given
that the quantity of soft soap for the making of soap powder should not
overstep the proportion of one to three, compared with the quantity of
hard soap; any excess in this direction would frustrate the desires
of the maker, and land him with a product which has become smeary and
moist, forming into balls and lumping together {650} in bags or cases,
to become discolored and useless. It is best to stick to the proportion
as given, 5 parts of hard and 1 part of soft soap, when the produced
powder will be reliable and stable and not form into balls even if the
material is kept for a long while.

This point is of special importance, since soap powder is sold mostly
in weighed-out packages of one and a half pounds. Most manufacturers
will admit that loose soap powder forms only a small part of the
quantities produced, as only big laundries and institutions purchase
same in bags or cases. The retail trade requires the soap powder
wrapped up in paper, and if this has to be done the powder must not be
too moist, as the paper otherwise will fall to pieces. This spoils the
appearance of the package, and likely a part of the quantity may be
lost. When the powder is too moist or absorbs easily external moisture,
the paper packages swell very easily and burst open.

The best filling material to be employed when it is desired to produce
a cheaper article is talcum, and in most cases this is preferred to
water glass. The superiority of the former over the latter is that
water glass hardens the powder, and this is sometimes done to such an
extent, when a large quantity of filling material is needed, that it
becomes very difficult to rub the soap through the sieves. In case this
difficulty arises, only one thing can be done to lighten the task,
and that is to powderize the soap when the mixed materials are still
warm, and this facilitates the work very much. It is self-evident
that friction under these conditions leaves a quantity of the soap
powder material on the sieves, and this cannot be lost. Generally it
is scraped together and returned to the pan to be included in the
next batch, when it is worked up, and so becomes useful, a need
which does not arise when talcum has been used as a filling material.
Again, the soap powder made with the addition of water glass is not so
soluble, and at the same time much denser than when the preparation
has been made without this material. It is thus that the purchaser
receives by equal weight a smaller-looking quantity, and as the
eye has generally a great influence when the consumer determines a
purchase, the small-sized parcels will impress him unfavorably. This
second quality of soap powder is made of the same ingredients as the
other, except that an addition of about 6 parts of talcum is made,
and this is stirred up with the other material after all the soda has
been dissolved. Some makers cheapen the products also by reducing the
quantity of hard soap from 5 to 3 parts and they avoid the filling;
the same quantity of soda is used in all cases. On the same principle
a better quality is made by altering the proportions of soda and soap
the other way. Experiments will soon show which proportions are most
suitable for the purpose.

So-called ammonia-turpentine soap powder has been made by crutching oil
of turpentine and ammonia with the materials just about the time before
the whole is taken out of the heating pan. Some of the powder is also
scented, and the perfume is added at the same time and not before. In
most of the latter cases mirbane oil is used for the purpose.

These powders are adaptable to hard water, as their excess of alkali
neutralizes the lime that they contain:

 I.—Curd (hard) soap, powdered    4 parts
     Sal soda                      3 parts
     Silicate of soda              2 parts

Make as dry as possible, and mix intimately.


«Borax Soap Powder.»—

 II.—Curd (hard) soap, in powder    5 parts
      Soda ash                       3 parts
      Silicate of soda               2 parts
      Borax (crude)                  1 part

Each ingredient is thoroughly dried, and all mixed together by sieving.


«London Soap Powder.»—

 III.—Yellow soap             6 parts
       Soda crystals           3 parts
       Pearl ash           1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       Sulphate of soda    1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
       Palm oil                1 part


«TOILET SOAPS.»

The question as to the qualities of toilet soaps has a high
therapeutical significance. Impurity of complexion and morbid anomalies
of the skin are produced by the use of poor and unsuitable soaps. The
latter, chemically regarded, are salts of fatty acids, and are prepared
from fats and a lye, the two substances being mixed in a vessel and
brought to a boil, soda lye being used in the preparation of toilet
soaps. In boiling together a fat and a lye, the former is resolved into
its component parts, a fatty acid and glycerine. The {651} acid unites
with the soda lye, forming a salt, which is regarded as soap. By the
addition of sodium chloride, this (the soap) is separated and swims
on the residual liquid as “kern,” or granulated soap. Good soaps were
formerly made only from animal fats, but some of the vegetable oils or
fats have been found to also make excellent soap. Among them the best
is cacao butter.

From a hygienic standpoint it must be accepted as a law that a good
toilet soap must contain no free (uncombined) alkali, every particle
of it must be chemically bound up with fatty acid to the condition of
a salt, and the resultant soap should be neutral in reaction. Many
of the soaps found in commerce to-day contain free alkali, and exert
a harmful effect upon the skin of those who use them. Such soaps may
readily be detected by bringing them into contact with the tongue. If
free alkali be present it will make itself known by causing a burning
sensation—something that a good toilet soap should never do.

The efficiency of soap depends upon the fact that in the presence of an
abundance of water the saponified fat is decomposed into acid and basic
salts, in which the impurities of the skin are dissolved and are washed
away by the further application of water. Good soap exerts its effects
on the outer layer of the skin, the so-called horny (epithelial) layer,
which in soapy water swells up and is, in fact, partially dissolved in
the medium and washed away. This fact, however, is unimportant, since
the superficial skin cells are reproduced with extraordinary rapidity
and ease. When a soap contains or carries free alkali, the caustic
effects of the latter are carried further and deeper, reaching below
the epithelial cells and attacking the true skin, in which it causes
minute rifts and splits and renders it sore and painful. Good soap, on
the contrary, makes the skin smooth and soft.

Since the employment of poor soaps works so injuriously upon the skin,
many persons never, or rarely ever, use soap, but wash the face in
water alone, or with a little almond bran added. Their skins cannot
bear the regular application of poor soap. This, however, applies only
to poor, free-alkali containing soaps. Any skin can bear without injury
any amount of a good toilet soap, free from uncombined alkali and other
impurities. The habit of washing the face with water only, without
the use of soap, must be regarded as one altogether bad, since the
deposits on the skin, mostly dust-particles and dead epithelial cells,
mingling with the oily or greasy matter exuded from the fat glands
of the skin—excellent nutrient media for colonies of bacteria—cannot
be got rid of by water alone. Rubbing only forces the mass into the
openings in the skin (the sweat glands, fat glands, etc.), and stops
them up. In this way are produced the so-called “black heads” and other
spots and blotches on the skin usually referred to by the uneducated,
or partially educated, as “parasites.” The complexion is in this manner
injured quite as much by the failure to use good soap as by the use of
a poor or bad article.

All of the skin troubles referred to may be totally avoided by the
daily use of a neutral, alkali-free soap, and the complexion thus kept
fresh and pure. Completely neutral soaps, however, are more difficult
to manufacture—requiring more skill and care than those in which no
attention is paid to excess of alkali—and consequently cost more than
the general public are accustomed, or, in fact, care to pay for soaps.
While this is true, one must not judge the quality of a soap by the
price demanded for it. Some of the manufacturers of miserable soaps
charge the public some of the most outrageous prices. Neither can a
soap be judged by its odor or its style of package and putting on the
market.

To give a soap an agreeable odor the manufacturers add to it, just when
it commences to cool off, an etheric oil (such as attar of rose, oil
of violets, bergamot oil, etc.), or some balsamic material (such as
tincture of benzoin, for instance). It should be known, however, that
while grateful to the olfactory nerves, these substances do not add
one particle to the value of the soap, either as a detergent or as a
preserver of the skin or complexion.

Especially harmful to the skin are soaps containing foreign substances,
such, for instance, as the starches, gelatin, clay, chalk, gums, or
rosins, potato flour, etc., which are generally added to increase the
weight of soap. Such soaps are designated, very significantly, “filled
soaps,” and, as a class, are to be avoided, if for no other reason, on
account of their lack of true soap content. The use of these fillers
should be regarded as a criminal falsification under the laws regarding
articles of domestic use, since they are sold at a relatively high
price, yet contain foreign matter, harmful to health. {652}


«RECIPES FOR COLD-STIRRED TOILET SOAPS.»

                               Parts by
                                weight
 I.—Cocoanut oil                 30
     Castor oil                    3
     Caustic soda lye (38° Bé)    17 1⁠/⁠2

Pink Soap.—

                      Parts by
                       weight
 II.—Pink No. 114       10
      Lemon oil          60
      Cedar-wood oil     60
      Citronella oil     50
      Wintergreen oil    15

Pale-Yellow Soap.—

                       Parts by
                        weight
 III.—Orange No. 410     10
       Citronella oil     60
       Sassafras oil      60
       Lavender oil       45
       Wintergreen oil    15
       Aniseed oil        25

Toilet Soap Powder.—

 Marseilles soap, powdered    100 parts
 Bran of almonds               50 parts
 Lavender oil                   5 parts
 Thyme oil                      3 parts
 Spike oil                      2 parts
 Citronella oil                 2 parts

Soft Toilet Soaps.—Soft toilet soaps or creams may be prepared from
fresh lard with a small addition of cocoanut oil and caustic potash
solution, by the cold process or by boiling. For the cold process, 23
parts of fresh lard and 2 parts of Cochin cocoanut oil are warmed in a
jacketed pan, and when the temperature reaches 113° F. are treated with
9 parts of caustic potash and 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts of caustic soda solution,
both of 38° Bé. strength, the whole being stirred until saponification
is complete. The soap is transferred to a large marble mortar and
pounded along with the following scenting ingredients: 0.15 parts of
oil of bitter almonds and 0.02 parts of oil of geranium rose, or 0.1
part of the latter, and 0.05 parts of lemon oil. The warm process is
preferable, experience having shown that boiling is essential to the
proper saponification of the fats. In this method, 80 parts of lard and
20 parts of Cochin cocoanut oil are melted together in a large pan,
100 parts of potash lye (20° Bé.) being then crutched in by degrees,
and the mass raised to boiling point. The combined influence of the
heat and crutching vaporizes part of the water in the lye, and the soap
thickens. When the soap has combined, the fire is made up, and another
80 parts of the same potash lye are crutched in gradually. The soap
gets thicker and thicker as the water is expelled and finally throws up
“roses” on the surface, indicating that it is nearly finished. At this
stage it must be crutched vigorously, to prevent scorching against the
bottom of the pan and the resulting more or less dark coloration. The
evaporation period may be shortened by using only 50 to 60 parts of
lye at first, and fitting with lye of 25° to 30° strength. For working
on the large scale iron pans heated by steam are used, a few makers
employing silver-lined vessels, which have the advantage that they are
not attacked by the alkali. Tinned copper pans are also useful. The
process takes from 7 to 8 hours, and when the soap is finished it is
transferred into stoneware vessels for storage. Clear vegetable oils
(castor oil) may be used, but the soaps lack the requisite nacreous
luster required.


«TRANSPARENT SOAPS.»

The mode of production is the same for all. The fats are melted
together, sifted into a double boiler, and the lye is stirred in at
111° F. Cover up for an hour, steam being allowed to enter slowly.
There is now a clear, grain-like soap in the kettle, into which the
sugar solution and the alcohol are crutched, whereupon the kettle
is covered up. If cuttings are to be used, they are now added. When
same are melted, the kettle will contain a thin, clear soap, which is
colored and scented as per directions, and subsequently filled into
little iron molds and cooled.


«Rose-Glycerine Soap.»—

 I.—Cochin cocoanut oil         70,000 parts
     Compressed tallow           40,000 parts
     Castor oil                  30,000 parts
     Caustic soda lye, 38° Bé    79,000 parts
     Sugar                       54,000 parts

Dissolved in

 Water                           60,000 parts
 Alcohol                         40,000 parts
 Geranium oil (African)             250 parts
 Lemon oil                          200 parts
 Palmarosa oil                    1,200 parts
 Bergamot oil                        80 parts


«Benzoin-Glycerine Soap.»—

 II.—Cochin cocoanut oil         66,000 parts
      Compressed tallow           31,000 parts {653}
      Castor oil                  35,000 parts
      Caustic soda lye, 38° Bé    66,000 parts
      Sugar                       35,000 parts

Dissolved in

 Water                            40,000 parts
 Alcohol                          35,000 parts
 Brown, No. 120                      200 parts
 Powdered benzoin (Siam)           4,200 parts
 Styrax liquid                     1,750 parts
 Tincture of benzoin               1,400 parts
 Peru balsam                         700 parts
 Lemon oil                           200 parts
 Clove oil                            70 parts


«Sunflower-Glycerine Soap.»—

 III.—Cochin cocoanut oil         70,000 parts
       Compressed tallow           50,000 parts
       Castor oil                  23,000 parts
       Caustic soda lye, 39° Bé    71,000 parts
       Sugar                       40,000 parts

Dissolved in

 Water                             30,000 parts
 Alcohol                           40,000 parts
 Brown, No. 55                        250 parts
 Geranium oil                         720 parts
 Bergamot oil                         300 parts
 Cedar-wood oil                       120 parts
 Palmarosa oil                        400 parts
 Vanillin                              10 parts
 Tonka tincture                        400 parts


«MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS:»


«Szegedin Soap.»—Tallow, 120 parts; palm kernel oil, 80 parts.
Saponify well with about 200 parts of lye of 24° Bé. and add, with
constant stirring, the following fillings in rotation, viz., potash
solution, 20° Bé., 150 parts, and cooling salt solution 20° Bé., 380
parts.


«Instrument Soap.»—A soap for cleaning surgical instruments, and other
articles of polished steel, which have become specked with rust by
exposure, is made by adding precipitated chalk to a strong solution of
cyanide of potassium in water, until a cream-like paste is obtained.
Add to this white castile soap in fine shavings, and rub the whole
together in a mortar, until thoroughly incorporated. The article to
be cleaned should be first immersed, if possible, in a solution of 1
part of cyanide of potash in 4 parts of water, and kept there until the
surface dirt and rust disappears. It should then be polished with the
soap, made as above directed.


«Stain-Removing Soaps.»—These are prepared in two ways, either by
making a special soap, or by mixing ordinary soap with special
detergents. A good recipe is as follows:

 I.—Ceylon cocoanut or palm seed oil    320 pounds
     Caustic soda lye, 38° Bé            160 pounds
     Carbonate of potash, 20° Bé          56 pounds
     Oil of turpentine                     9 pounds
     Finely powdered kieselguhr          280 pounds
     Brilliant green                       2 pounds

The oil having been fused, the dye is mixed with some of it and stirred
into the contents of the pan. The kieselguhr is then crutched in from
a sieve, then the lye, and then the carbonate of potash. These liquids
are poured in in a thin stream. When the soap begins to thicken, add
the turpentine, mold, and cover up the molds.

 II.—Rosin grain soap                                      1,000 pounds
      Talc (made to a paste with weak carbonate of potash)    100 pounds
      Oil of turpentine                                         4 pounds
      Benzine                                                   3 pounds

Mix the talc and soap by heat, and when cool enough add the turpentine
and benzine, and mold.

 III.—Cocoanut oil               600 pounds
       Tallow                     400 pounds
       Caustic soda lye           500 pounds
       Fresh ox gall              200 pounds
       Oil of turpentine           12 pounds
       Ammonia (sp. gr., 0.91)      6 pounds
       Benzine                      5 pounds

Saponify by heat, cool, add the gall and the volatile liquids, and mold.


«Soap Substitutes.»—

 I.—Linseed oil         28 pounds
     Sulphur              8 pounds
     Aluminum soap       28 pounds
     Oil of turpentine    4 pounds

 II.—Aluminum soap      15 pounds
      Almadina           25 pounds
      Caoutchouc         50 pounds
      Sulphur             6 pounds
      Oleum succini       4 pounds


«Shampoo Soap.»—

 Linseed oil          20 parts
 Malaga olive oil     20 parts
 Caustic potash    9 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Alcohol               1 part
 Water                30 parts

{654}

Warm the mixed oils on a large water bath, then the potash and water
in another vessel, heating both to 158° F., and adding the latter hot
solution to the hot oil while stirring briskly. Now add and thoroughly
mix the alcohol. Stop stirring, keep the heat at 158° F. until the mass
becomes clear and a small quantity dissolves in boiling water without
globules of oil separating. Set aside for a few days before using to
make the liquid soap.

The alcohol may be omitted if a transparent product is immaterial.


«Sapo Durus.»—

 Olive oil                 100 parts
 Soda lye, sp. gr., 1.33    50 parts
 Alcohol (90 per cent)      30 parts

Heat on a steam bath until saponification is complete. The soap thus
formed is dissolved in 300 parts of hot distilled water, and salted
out by adding a filtered solution of 25 parts of sodium chloride and 5
parts of crystallized sodium carbonate in 80 parts of water.


«Sapo Mollis.»—

 Olive oil                   100 parts
 Solid potassium hydroxide    21 parts
 Water                       100 parts
 Alcohol (90 per cent)        20 parts

Boil by means of a steam bath until the oil is saponified, adding, if
necessary, a little more spirit to assist the saponification.


«Sand Soap.»—Cocoa oil, 24 parts; soda lye, 38° Bé., 12 parts; sand,
finely sifted, 28 parts; cassia oil, .0100 parts; sassafras oil, .0100
parts.


«Salicylic Soap.»—When salicylic acid is used in soap it decomposes,
as a rule, and an alkali salicylate is formed which the skin does
not absorb. A German chemist claims to have overcome this defect by
thoroughly eliminating all water from potash or soda soap, then mixing
it with vaseline, heating the mixture, and incorporating free salicylic
acid with the resulting mass. The absence of moisture prevents any
decomposition of the salicylic acid.


«Olein Soap Substitute.»—Fish oil or other animal oil is stirred
up with sulphuric acid, and then treated with water. After another
stirring, the whole is left to settle, and separate into layers,
whereupon the acid and water are drawn off, and caustic soda solution
is stirred in with the oil. The finishing stage consists in stirring in
refined mineral oil, magnesium chloride, borium chloride, and pure seal
or whale oil, in succession.


«Mottled Soap.»—Tallow, 30 parts; palm kernel oil, 270 parts; lye, 20°,
347 1⁠/⁠2 parts; potassium chloride solution, 20°, 37 1⁠/⁠2 parts.
After everything has been boiled into a soap, crutch the following dye
solution into it: Water, 5 1⁠/⁠2 parts; blue, red, or black, .0315
parts; water glass, 38°, 10 parts; and lye, 38°, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts.


«Laundry Soap.»—A good, common hard soap may be made from clean
tallow or lard and caustic soda, without any very special skill in
manipulation. The caustic soda indicated is a crude article which may
now be obtained from wholesale druggists in quantities to suit, at a
very moderate price. A lye of average strength is made by dissolving
it in water in the proportion of about 2 pounds to the gallon. For
the saponification of lard, a given quantity of the grease is melted
at a low heat, and 1⁠/⁠4 its weight of lye is then added in small
portions with constant stirring; when incorporation has been thoroughly
effected, another portion of lye equal to the first is added, as
before, and the mixture kept at a gentle heat until saponification
appears to be complete. If the soap does not readily separate from the
liquid, more lye should be added, the soap being insoluble in strong
lye. When separation has occurred, pour off the lye, add water to the
mass, heat until dissolved, and again separate by the use of more
strong lye or a strong solution of common salt. The latter part of
the process is designed to purify the soap and may be omitted where
only a cruder article is required. The soap is finally remelted on a
water bath, kept at a gentle heat until as much water as possible is
expelled, and then poured into frames or molds to set.


«Dog Soap.»—

 Petroleum              5 parts by weight
 Wax                    4 parts by weight
 Alcohol                5 parts by weight
 Good laundry soap.    15 parts by weight

Heat the petroleum, wax, and alcohol on a water bath until they are
well mixed, and dissolve in the mixture the soap cut in fine shavings.
This may be used on man or beast for driving away vermin.


«Liquid Tar Soap» (Sapo Picis liquidus).—

 Wood tar               25 parts
 Hebra’s soap spirit    75 parts


«Ox-Gall Soap for Cleansing Silk Stuffs.»—To wash fine silk stuffs,
such as {655} piece goods, ribbons, etc., employ a soap containing a
certain amount of ox gall, a product that is not surpassed for the
purpose. In making this soap the following directions will be found
of advantage: Heat 1 pound of cocoanut oil to 100° F. in a copper
kettle. While stirring vigorously add 1⁠/⁠2 pound of caustic soda lye
of 30° Baumé. In a separate vessel heat 1⁠/⁠2 pound of white Venice
turpentine, and stir this in the soap in the copper kettle. Cover the
kettle well, and let it stand, mildly warmed for 4 hours, when the
temperature can be again raised until the mass is quite hot and flows
clear; then add the pound of ox gall to it. Now pulverize some good,
perfectly dry grain soap, and stir in as much of it as will make the
contents of the copper kettle so hard that it will yield slightly to
the pressure of the fingers. From 1 to 2 pounds is all the grain soap
required for the above quantity of gall soap. When cooled, cut out the
soap and shape into bars. This is an indispensable adjunct to the dyer
and cleaner, as it will not injure the most delicate color.


«SOAP-BUBBLE LIQUIDS.»

 I.—White hard soap     25 parts
     Glycerine           15 parts
     Water            1,000 parts

 II.—Dry castile soap    2 parts
      Glycerine          30 parts
      Water              40 parts

SOAP POLISHES: See Polishes.

SOAP, TOOTH: See Dentifrice.

SODA PAINT: See Paint.

SODA WATER: See Beverages.

SODIUM HYPOSULPHITE: See Photography.

SODIUM SILICATE AS A CEMENT: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Cements.

SODIUM SALTS, EFFERVESCENT: See Salts.


«Solders»


«SOLDERING OF METALS AND THE PREPARATION OF SOLDERS.»

The object of soldering is to unite two portions of the same metal
or of different metals by means of a more fusible metal or metallic
alloy, applied when melted, and known by the name of solder. As the
strength of the soldering depends on the nature of the solder used,
the degree of strength required for the joint must be kept in view in
choosing a solder. The parts to be joined must be free from oxide and
thoroughly clean; this can be secured by filing, scouring, scraping,
or pickling with acids. The edges must fit exactly, and be heated to
the melting point of the solder. The latter must have a lower melting
point than either of the portions of metal that require to be joined,
and if possible only those metals should be chosen for solder which
form alloys with them. The solder should also as far as possible have
the same color and approximately the same strength as the article whose
edges are to be united.

To remove the layers of oxide which form during the process of
soldering, various so-called “fluxes” are employed. These fluxes are
melted and applied to the joint, and act partly by keeping off the air,
thus preventing oxidation, and partly by reducing and dissolving the
oxides themselves. The choice of a flux depends on the quantity of heat
required for soldering.

Solders are classed as soft and hard solders. Soft solders, also called
tin solders or white solders, consist of soft, readily fusible metals
or alloys, and do not possess much strength; they are easy to handle on
account of their great fusibility. Tin, lead-tin, and alloys of tin,
lead, and bismuth are used for soft solders, pure tin being employed
only for articles made of the same metal (pure tin).

The addition of some lead makes the solder less fusible but cheaper,
while that of bismuth lowers the melting point. Soft solders are used
for soldering easily fusible metals such as Britannia metal, etc.,
also for soldering tin plate. To prepare solder, the metals are melted
together in a graphite crucible at as low a temperature as possible,
well stirred with an iron rod, and cast into ingots in an iron mold.
To melt the solder when required for soldering, the soldering iron is
used; the latter should be kept as free from oxidation as possible, and
the part applied should be tinned over.

To make so-called “Sicker” solder, equal parts of lead and tin are
melted together, well mixed, and allowed to stand till the mixture
begins to set, the part still in a liquid condition being then poured
off. This mixture can, however, {656} be more easily made by melting
together 37 parts of lead and 63 parts of tin (exactly measured).

Soldering irons are usually made of copper, as copper is easily heated
and easily gives up its heat to the solder. The point of the iron must
be “tinned.” To do this properly, the iron should be heated hot enough
easily to melt the solder; the point should then be quickly dressed
with a smooth flat file to remove the oxide, and rubbed on a piece of
tin through solder and sal ammoniac. The latter causes the solder to
adhere in a thin, even coat to the point of the iron. A gas or gasoline
blow torch or a charcoal furnace is best for heating the iron, but a
good, clean coal fire, well coked, will answer the purpose.

When in use, the iron should be hot enough to melt the solder readily.
A cold iron produces rough work. This is where the beginner usually
fails. If possible, it is well to warm the pieces before applying the
iron. The iron must not be heated too hot, however, or the tin on the
point will be oxidized. The surfaces to be soldered must be clean.
Polish them with sandpaper, emery cloth, a file, or a scraper. Grease
or oil will prevent solder from sticking.

Some good soldering fluid should be used. A very good fluid is made
by dissolving granulated zinc in muriatic acid. Dissolve as much zinc
as possible in the acid. The gas given off will explode if ignited.
To granulate the zinc, melt it in a ladle, and pour it slowly into a
barrel of water. A brush or swab should be used to spread the fluid on
the surfaces to be soldered. If the point of the soldering iron becomes
dirty, it should be wiped on a cloth or piece of waste that has been
dampened with the soldering fluid.


«Soldering of Metallic Articles.»—In a recently invented process the
parts to be united are covered, on the surfaces not to be soldered,
with a protective mass, which prevents an immediate contact of
the solder with the surfaces in question, and must be brushed off
only after the soldered pieces have cooled perfectly, whereby the
possibility of a change of position of these pieces seems precluded.

For the execution of this process the objects to be soldered, after the
surfaces to be united have been provided with a water-glass solution
as the soldering agent and placed together as closely as possible or
united by wires or rivets, are coated in the places where no solder
is desired with a protective mass, consisting essentially of carbon
(graphite, coke, or charcoal), powdered talc or asbestos, ferric
hydrate (with or without ferrous hydrate), and, if desired, a little
aluminum oxide, together with a binding agent of the customary kind
(glue solution, beer).

Following are some examples of the composition of these preparations:

I.—Graphite, 50 parts; powdered coke, 5 parts; powdered charcoal, 5
parts; powdered talc, 10 parts; glue solution, 2.5 parts; drop beer,
2.5 parts; ferric hydrate, 10 parts; aluminum oxide, 5 parts.

II.—Graphite, burnt, 4 parts; graphite, unburnt, 6 parts; powdered
charcoal, 3 parts; powdered asbestos, 1 part; ferric hydrate, 3 parts;
ferrous hydrate, 2 parts; glue solution, 1 part.

The article thus prepared is plunged, after the drying of the
protective layer applied, in the metal bath serving as solder (molten
brass, copper, etc.), and left to remain therein until the part to be
soldered has become red hot, which generally requires about 50 to 60
seconds, according to the size of the object. In order to avoid, in
introducing the article into the metal bath, the scattering of the
molten metal, it is well previously to warm the article and to dip it
warm. After withdrawal from the metal bath the soldered articles are
allowed to cool, and are cleaned with wire brushes, so as to cause the
bright surfaces to reappear.

The process is especially useful for uniting iron or steel parts, such
as machinery, arms, and bicycle parts in a durable manner.


«Soldering Acid.»—A very satisfactory soldering acid may be made by
the use of the ordinary soldering acid for the base and introducing a
certain proportion of chloride of tin and sal ammoniac. This gives an
acid which is superior in every way to the old form. To make 1 gallon
of this soldering fluid take 3 quarts of common muriatic acid and allow
it to dissolve as much zinc as it will take up. This method, of course,
is the usual one followed in the manufacture of ordinary soldering
acid. The acid, as is well known, must be placed in an earthenware or
glass vessel. The zinc may be sheet clippings or common plate spelter
broken into small pieces. Place the acid in the vessel and add the zinc
in small portions so as to prevent the whole from boiling over. When
all the zinc has been added and the action has stopped, it indicates
that enough has been taken up. Care must be taken to see that there is
a little zinc left in the bottom, as {657} otherwise the acid will be
in excess. The idea is to have the acid take up as much zinc as it can.

After this has been done there will remain some residue in the form
of a black precipitate. This is the lead which all zinc contains,
and which is not dissolved by the muriatic acid. This lead may be
removed by filtering through a funnel in the bottom of which there is
a little absorbent cotton, or the solution may be allowed to remain
overnight until the lead has settled and the clear solution can then
be poured off. This lead precipitate is not particularly injurious to
the soldering fluid, but it is better to get rid of it so that a good,
clear solution may be obtained. Next, dissolve 6 ounces of sal ammoniac
in a pint of warm water. In another pint dissolve 4 ounces of chloride
of tin. The chloride of tin solution will usually be cloudy, but this
will not matter. Now mix the 3 solutions together. The solution will
be slightly cloudy when the 3 have been mixed, and the addition of a
few drops of muriatic acid will render it perfectly clear. Do not add
any more acid than is necessary to do this, as the solution would then
contain too much of this ingredient and the results would be injurious.

This soldering acid will not spatter when the iron is applied to it. It
has also been found that a poorer grade of solder may be used with it
than with the usual soldering acid.


«ALUMINUM SOLDERS.»

To solder aluminum it is necessary previously to tin the parts to be
soldered. This tinning is done with the iron, using a composition of
aluminum and tin. Replace the ordinary soldering iron by an iron of
pure aluminum. Preparation of aluminum solder: Commence by fusing the
copper; then add the aluminum in several installments, stir the mixture
well with a piece of iron; next add the zinc and a little tallow or
benzine at the same time. Once the zinc is added do not heat too
strongly, to avoid the volatilization of the zinc.

I.—Take 5 parts of tin and 1 part of aluminum. Solder with the iron or
with the blowpipe, according to the article in question.

II.—The pieces to be soldered are to be tinned, but instead of using
pure tin, alloys of tin with other metals are employed, preferably
those of tin and aluminum. For articles to be worked after soldering,
45 parts of tin and 10 parts of aluminum afford a good alloy, malleable
enough to be hammered, cut, or turned. If they are not to be worked,
the alloy requires less aluminum and may be applied in the usual manner
as in soldering iron.


«Aluminum Bronze.»—I.—Strong solder: Gold, 89 parts; fine silver, 5
parts; copper, 6 parts.

II.—Medium solder: Gold, 54 parts; fine silver, 27 parts; copper, 19
parts.

III.—Weak solder: Gold, 14 parts; silver, 57 parts; copper, 15 parts;
brass, 14 parts.


«BRASS SOLDERS.»

Brass solder consists of brass fusible at a low temperature, and is
made by melting together copper and zinc, the latter being in excess. A
small quantity of tin is often added to render the solder more fusible.
Hard solders are usually sold in the form of granules. Although many
workers in metals make their own solder, it is advisable to use hard
solder made in factories, as complete uniformity of quality is more
easily secured where large quantities are manufactured.

In making hard solder the melted metal is poured through birch twigs in
order to granulate it. The granules are afterwards sorted by passing
them through sieves.

When brass articles are soft-soldered, the white color of the solder
contrasts unpleasantly with the brass. If this is objected to, the
soldered part can be colored yellow in the following manner:

Dissolve 10 parts of copper sulphate in 35 parts of water; apply the
solution to the solder, and stir with a clean iron wire. This gives the
part the appearance of copper. To produce the yellow color, paint the
part with a mixture consisting of 1 part of a solution of equal parts
of zinc and water (1 part each) and 2 parts of a solution of 10 to 35
parts respectively of copper sulphate and water and rub on with a zinc
rod. The resulting yellow color can, if desired, be improved by careful
polishing.

The quality of soft solder is always judged in the trade from the
appearance of the surface of the castings, and it is considered
important that this surface should be radiant and crystalline, showing
the so-called “flowers.” These should be more brilliant than the dull
background, the latter being like mat silver in appearance. If the
casting has a uniform whitish-gray color, this is an indication that
the alloy contains an insufficient quantity of tin. In this case {658}
the alloy should be remelted and tin added, solder too poor in tin
being extremely viscid.

Most of the varieties of brass used in the arts are composed of from
68 to 70 per cent copper and from 32 to 30 per cent zinc. Furthermore,
there are some kinds of brass which contain from 24 to 40 per cent
zinc. The greater the quantity of zinc the greater will be the
resemblance of the alloy to copper. Consequently, the more crystalline
will the structure become. For hard soldering only alloys can be
employed which, as a general rule, contain no more than 34 per cent of
zinc. With an increase in copper there follows a rise in the melting
point of the brass. An alloy containing 90 per cent of copper will melt
at 1,940° F.; 80 per cent copper, at 1,868° F.; 70 per cent copper,
at 1,796° F.; 60 per cent copper, at 1,742° F. Because an increase in
zinc causes a change in color, it is sometimes advisable to use tin for
zinc, at least in part, so that the alloy becomes more bronze-like in
its properties. The durability of the solder is not seriously affected,
but its fusibility is lowered. If more than a certain proportion of tin
be added, thin and very fluid solders are obtained of grayish-white
color, and very brittle—indeed, so brittle that the soldering joints
are apt to open if the object is bent. Because too great an addition
of tin is injurious, the utmost caution must be exercised. If very
refractory metals are to be soldered, brass alone can be used. In some
cases, a solder can be produced merely by melting brass and adding
copper. The following hard solders have been practically tested and
found of value.


«YELLOW HARD SOLDERS:»

Applebaum’s Compositions.—

 I.—Copper             58 parts
     Zinc               42 parts

 II.—Sheet brass    85.42 parts
      Zinc           13.58 parts

Karmarsch’s Composition.—

 III.—Brass     7 parts
       Zinc      1 part

 IV.—Zinc      49 parts
      Copper    44 parts
      Tin        4 parts
      Lead       2 parts

Prechtl’s Composition.—

 V.—Copper    53.3 parts
     Zinc      43.1 parts
     Tin        1.3 parts
     Lead       0.3 parts

All these hard-solder compositions have the fine yellow color of brass,
are very hard, and can be fused only at high temperatures. They are
well adapted for all kinds of iron, steel, copper, and bronze.

Solders which fuse at somewhat lower temperatures and, therefore, well
adapted for the working of brass, are the following:

 VI.—Sheet brass    81.12 parts
      Zinc           18.88 parts

 VII.—Copper        54.08 parts
       Zinc          45.29 parts

 VIII.—Brass       3 to 4 parts
        Zinc             1 part

A solder which is valuable because it can be wrought with the hammer,
rolled out, or drawn into wire, and because it is tough and ductile, is
the following:

 IX.—Brass    78.26 parts
      Zinc     17.41 parts
      Silver    4.33 parts

Fusible White Solder.—

 X.—Copper    57.4 parts
     Zinc      28   parts
     Tin       14.6 parts

Easily Fusible Solders.—

 XI.—Brass     5 parts
      Zinc    2.5 parts

 XII.—Brass    5 parts
       Zinc     5 parts

Semi-White Hard Solders.—

 XIII.—Copper    53.3 parts
        Zinc      46.7 parts

 XIV.—Brass        12 parts
       Zinc     4 to 7 parts
       Tin           1 part

 XV.—Brass         22 parts
      Zinc          10 parts
      Tin            1 part

 XVI.—Copper       44 parts
       Zinc         49 parts
       Tin        3.20 parts
       Lead       1.20 parts

Formulas XIII and XVI are fairly fusible.

White Hard Solders.—

 XVII.—Brass      20 parts
        Zinc        1 part
        Tin         4 parts

 XVIII.—Copper    58 parts
         Zinc      17 parts
         Tin       15 parts

 XIX.—Brass       11 parts
       Zinc         1 part
       Tin          2 parts {659}

 XX.—Brass          6 parts
      Zinc           4 parts
      Tin           10 parts

 XXI.—Copper    57.44 parts
       Zinc      27.98 parts
       Tin       14.58 parts

For Brass Tubes.—I.—Copper, 100 parts; lead, 25 parts.

II.—A very strong solder for soldering brass tubes to be drawn, etc.,
is composed of 18 parts brass, 4 parts zinc, and 1 part fine silver.

For Fastening Brass to Tin.—To 20 parts of fine, reduced copper, add
sufficient sulphuric acid to make a stiff paste. To this add 70 parts
of metallic mercury, and work in, at the same time applying heat until
the mass assumes a wax-like consistency. Warm or heat the plates to be
united, to about the same temperature, apply the mixture, hot, to each,
then press together, and let cool.


«COPPER SOLDERS.»

The copper solders which are used for soldering copper as well as
bronze are mixtures of copper and lead. By increasing the quantity of
lead the fusibility is increased, but the mixture departs from the
color and toughness of copper. The most commonly employed copper solder
is the following:

 I.—Copper      5 parts
     Lead        1 part

 II.—Copper    80 parts
      Lead      15 parts
      Tin        5 parts

For Red Copper.—I.—Copper, 3 parts; zinc, 1 part.

II.—Copper, 7 parts; zinc, 3 parts; tin, 2 parts.


«FATS FOR SOLDERING.»

I.—Soldering fat or grease is commonly a mixture of rosin and
tallow with the addition of a small quantity of sal ammoniac. It is
particularly adapted to the soldering of tinned ware, because it is
easily wiped off the surface after the joint is made, whereas if rosin
were used alone, the scraping away might remove some of the tin and
spoil the object.

II.—The following is a well-tried recipe for a soldering grease: In a
pot of sufficient size and over a slow fire melt together 500 parts of
olive oil and 400 parts of tallow; then stir in slowly 250 parts of
rosin in powder, and let the whole boil up once. Now let it cool down,
and add 125 parts of saturated solution of sal ammoniac, stirring the
while. When cold, this preparation will be ready for use.


«FLUIDS FOR SOLDERING.»

I.—To the ordinary zinc chloride, prepared by digesting chips of
zinc in strong hydrochloric acid to saturation, add 1⁠/⁠3 spirits of
sal ammoniac and 1⁠/⁠3 part rain water, and filter the mixture. This
soldering liquid is especially adapted to the soft soldering of iron
and steel, because it does not make rust spots.

To solder zinc, the zinc chloride may be used without any spirit sal
ammoniac.

II.—Mix phosphoric acid with strong spirits of wine in the following
proportions:

 Phosphoric acid solution             1 quart
 Spirits of wine (80 per cent)    1 1⁠/⁠2 quarts

More or less of the spirits of wine is used depending upon the
concentration of the phosphoric acid solution. When this soldering
liquid is applied to the metal to be soldered, the phosphoric acid
immediately dissolves the oxide. The hot soldering iron vaporizes the
spirits of wine very quickly and causes the oxide released by the
phosphoric acid to form a glazed mass with the surplus phosphoric acid,
which mass can be easily removed.

III.—Dissolve in hydrochloric acid: Zinc, 50 parts (by weight); sal
ammoniac, 50 parts.

IV.—Hydrochloric acid, 600 parts (by weight); sal ammoniac, 100 parts.
Put zinc chips into the acid to saturation, next add the sal ammoniac.
Filter when dissolved and preserve in flasks.

V.—Eight hundred parts of water with 100 parts of lactic acid and 100
parts of glycerine. This dispenses with the use of chloride of zinc.


«Acid-Free Soldering Fluid.»—I.—Five parts of zinc chloride dissolved
in 25 parts of boiling water. Or, 20 parts of zinc chloride, 10 parts
of ammonia chloride, dissolved in 100 parts of boiling water and put
into glass carboys.

 II.—Chloride zinc    1 drachm
      Alcohol          1 ounce


«Substitute for Soldering Fluid.»—As a substitute for the customary
soldering fluid and soldering mediums an ammonia soap is recommended,
which is obtained by the mixture of a finely powdered rosin with strong
ammonia solution. Of this soap only the finely divided {660} rosin
remains on the soldered place after the soldering. This soldering
process is well adapted for soldering together copper wires for
electrical conduits, since the rosin at the same time serves as an
insulator.


«FLUXES FOR SOLDERING.»

The fluxes generally used in the soft-soldering of metals are powdered
rosin or a solution of chloride of zinc, alone or combined with sal
ammoniac. A neutral soldering liquid can be prepared by mixing 27 parts
neutral zinc chloride, 11 parts sal ammoniac, and 62 parts water; or, 1
part sugar of milk, 1 part glycerine, and 8 parts water.

A soldering fat for tin-plate, preferable to ordinary rosin, as it can
be more easily removed after soldering, is prepared as follows: One
hundred and fifty parts beef tallow, 250 parts rosin, and 150 parts
olive oil are melted together in a crucible and well stirred, 50 parts
powdered sal ammoniac dissolved in as little water as possible being
added.

Soldering fat for iron is composed of 50 parts olive oil and 50 parts
powdered sal ammoniac. Soldering fat for aluminum is made by melting
together equal parts of rosin and tallow, half the quantity of zinc
chloride being added to the mixture.

Soldering paste consists of neutral soldering liquid thickened with
starch paste. This paste must be applied more lightly than the
soldering liquid.

Soldering salt is prepared by mixing equal parts of neutral zinc
chloride, free from iron, and powdered sal ammoniac. When required for
use, 1 part of the salt should be dissolved in 3 or 4 parts water.

Borax is the flux most frequently used for hard-soldering; it should
be applied to the soldering seam either dry or stirred to a paste with
water. It is advisable to use calcined borax, i. e., borax from which
the water of crystallization has been driven out by heat, as it does
not become so inflated as ordinary borax. Borax dissolves the metallic
oxides forming on the joint.

Finely powdered cryolite, or a mixture of 2 parts powdered cryolite
and 1 part phosphoric acid, is also used for hard-soldering copper and
copper alloys.

Muller’s hard-soldering liquid consists of equal parts of phosphoric
acid and alcohol (80 per cent).

A mixture of equal parts of cryolite and barium chloride is used as a
flux in hard-soldering aluminum bronze.

A very good dry-soldering preparation consists of two vials, one
of which is filled with zinc chloride, and the other with ammonium
chloride. To use, dissolve a little of each salt in water, apply the
ammonium chloride to the object to be soldered and heat the latter
until it begins to give off vapor of ammonium, then apply the other,
and immediately thereafter the solder, maintaining the heat in the
meantime. This answers for very soft solder. For a harder solder
dissolve the zinc in a very small portion of the ammonium chloride
solution (from 1⁠/⁠4 to 1⁠/⁠2 pint).

When steel is to be soldered on steel, or iron on steel, it is
necessary to remove every trace of oxide of iron between the surfaces
in contact. Melt in an earthen vessel: Borax, 3 parts; colophony, 2
parts; pulverized glass, 3 parts; steel filings, 2 parts; carbonate of
potash, 1 part; hard soap, powdered, 1 part. Flow the melted mass on
a cold plate of sheet iron, and after cooling break up the pieces and
pulverize them. This powder is thrown on the surfaces a few minutes
before the pieces to be soldered are brought together. The borax and
glass contained in the composition dissolve, and consequently liquefy
all of the impurities, which, if they were shut up between the pieces
soldered, might form scales, at times dangerous, or interfering with
the resistance of the piece.

To prepare rosin for soldering bright tin, mix 1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of olive
oil, 1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of tallow, and 12 ounces of pulverized rosin, and
let them boil up. When this mixture has become cool, add 1 3⁠/⁠8 pints
of water saturated with pulverized sal ammoniac, stirring constantly.


«GAS SOLDERING.»

The soldering of small metallic articles where the production is a
wholesale one, is almost exclusively done by the use of gas, a pointed
flame being produced by air pressure. The air pressure is obtained by
the workman who does the soldering setting in motion a treadle with
his foot, which, resting on rubber bellows, drives by pressure on the
same the aspirated air into wind bellows. From here it is sent into
the soldering pipe, where it is connected with the gas and a pointed
flame is produced. In order to obtain a rather uniform heat the workman
has to tread continually, which, however, renders it almost impossible
to hold the article to be soldered steady, although this is necessary
if the work is to proceed quickly. Hence, absolutely skillful and
expensive hands are required, on whom the employer is often entirely
dependent. To improve {661} this method of soldering and obviate
its drawbacks, the soldering may be conducted with good success in
the following manner: For the production of the air current a small
ventilator is set up. The wind is conducted through two main conduits
to the work tables. Four or six tables may, for instance, be placed
together, the wind and the gas pipe ending in the center. The gas is
admitted as formerly, the wind is conducted into wind bellows by means
of joint and hose to obtain a constant pressure and from here into
the soldering pipe. In this manner any desired flame may be produced,
the workman operates quietly and without exertion, which admits of
employing youthful hands and consequently of a saving in wages. The
equipment is considerably cheaper, since the rubber bellows under the
treadle are done away with.


«GERMAN-SILVER SOLDERS.»

Because of its peculiar composition German-silver solder is related
to the ordinary hard solders. Just as hard solders may be regarded
as varieties of brass to which zinc has been added, German-silver
solders may be regarded as German silver to which zinc has been added.
The German-silver solder becomes more easily fused with an increase
in zinc, and vice versa. If the quantity of zinc be increased beyond
a certain proportion, the resultant solder becomes too brittle.
German-silver solders are characterized by remarkable strength, and are
therefore used not only in soldering German silver, but in many cases
where special strength is required. As German silver can be made of the
color of steel, it is frequently used for soldering fine steel articles.

Solder for ordinary German silver can be made of 1,000 parts
German-silver chips, 125 parts sheet brass chips, 142 parts zinc, and
33 parts tin; or, of 8 parts German silver and 2 to 3 parts zinc.


«Soft German-Silver Solder.»—

 I.—Copper           4.5 parts
     Zinc               7 parts
     Nickel             1 part

 II.—Copper           35 parts
      Zinc           56.5 parts
      Nickel          8.5 parts

 III.—German silver    5 parts
       Zinc             5 parts

Compositions I and II have analogous properties. In composition III
“German silver” is to be considered as a mixture of copper, zinc, and
nickel, for which reason it is necessary to know the exact composition
of the German silver to be used. Otherwise it is advisable to
experiment first with small quantities in order to ascertain how much
zinc is to be added. The proper proportion of German silver to zinc
is reached when the mixture reveals a brilliancy and condition which
renders it possible to barely pulverize it while hot. A small quantity
when brought in contact with the soldering iron should just fuse.


«Hard German-Silver or Steel Solder.»—

 I.—Copper     35 parts
     Zinc     56.5 parts
     Nickel    9.5 parts

 II.—Copper    38 parts
      Zinc      50 parts
      Nickel    12 parts

Composition I requires a fairly high temperature in order to be melted.
Composition II requires a blow pipe.


«GOLD SOLDERS:»


«Hard Solder for Gold.»—The hard solder or gold solder which the
jeweler frequently requires for the execution of various works, not
only serves for soldering gold ware, but is also often employed for
soldering fine steel goods, such as spectacles, etc. Fine gold is only
used for soldering articles of platinum. The stronger the alloy of the
gold, the more fusible must be the solder. Generally the gold solder is
a composition of gold, silver, and copper. If it is to be very easily
fusible, a little zinc may be added, but, on the other hand, even the
copper is sometimes left out and a mixture consisting only of gold and
silver (e. g., equal parts of both) is used. The shade of the solder
also requires attention, which must be regulated by varying proportions
of silver and copper, so that it may be as nearly as possible the same
as that of the gold to be soldered.

I.—For 24-carat gold: Twenty-two parts gold (24 carat), 2 parts silver,
and 1 part copper; refractory.

II.—For 18-carat gold: Nine parts gold (18 carat), 2 parts silver, and
1 part copper; refractory.

III.—For 16-carat gold: Twenty-four parts gold (16 carat), 10 parts
silver, and 8 parts copper; refractory.

IV.—For 14-carat gold: Three parts gold (14 carat), 2 parts silver, and
1 part copper; more fusible.

V.—Gold solder for alloys containing smaller quantities of gold is
composed {662} of 8 parts gold, 10.5 parts silver, and 5.5 parts
copper, or,

VI.—Ten parts gold (13.5 carat), 5 parts silver, and 1 part zinc.

VII.—The following easily fusible solder is used for ordinary gold
articles: Two parts gold, 9 parts silver, 1 part copper, and 1 part
zinc. Articles soldered with this solder cannot be subjected to the
usual process of coloring the gold, as the solder would become black.

VIII.—A refractory enamel solder for articles made of 20-carat and
finer gold, which can bear the high temperature required in enameling,
consists of 37 parts gold and 9 parts silver, or 16 parts gold (18
carat), 3 parts silver, and 1 part copper.

Which of these compositions should be employed depends upon the degree
of the fusibility of the enamel to be applied. If it is very difficult
of fusion only the first named can be used; otherwise it may happen
that during the melting on of the enamel the soldering spots are so
strongly heated that the solder itself melts. For ordinary articles,
as a rule, only readily fusible enamels are employed, and consequently
the readily fusible enameling solder may here be made use of. Soldering
with the latter is readily accomplished with the aid of the soldering
pipe. Although the more hardly fusible gold solders may also be melted
by the use of the ordinary soldering pipe, the employment of a special
small blowing apparatus is recommended on account of the resulting ease
and rapidity of the work.


«SOLDERS FOR GLASS.»

I.—Melt tin, and add to the melted mass enough copper, with constant
stirring, until the melted metal consists of 95 per cent of tin and 5
per cent of copper. In order to render the mixture more or less hard,
add 1⁠/⁠2 to 1 per cent of zinc or lead.

II.—A compound of tin (95 parts) and zinc (5 parts) melts at 392° F.,
and can then be firmly united to glass. An alloy of 90 parts of tin and
10 parts of aluminum melts at 734° F., adheres, like the preceding, to
glass, and is equally brilliant. With either of these alloys glass may
be soldered as easily as metal, in two ways. In one, heat the pieces
of glass in a furnace and rub a stick of soldering alloy over their
surfaces. The alloy will melt, and can be easily spread by means of a
roll of paper or a slip of aluminum. Press the pieces firmly together,
and keep so until cool. In the other method a common soldering iron,
or a rod of aluminum, is heated over a coal fire, a gas jet, or a
flame supplied by petroleum. The hot iron is passed over the alloy and
then over the pieces to be soldered, without the use of a dissolvent.
Care should be taken that neither the soldering irons nor the glass be
brought to a temperature above the melting point of the alloy, lest the
latter should be oxidized, and prevented from adhering.


«HARD SOLDERS.»

Hard solders are distinguished as brass, German silver, copper, gold,
silver, etc., according to the alloys used (see Brass Solders, Copper
Solders, etc., for other hard solders).

The designation “hard solder” is used to distinguish it from the easily
running and softer solder used by tinsmiths, and it applies solely to
a composition that will not flow under a red heat. For the purposes of
the jeweler solder may be classified according to its composition and
purpose, into gold or silver solder, which means a solder consisting
of an alloy of gold with silver, copper, tin, or zinc-like metal or an
alloy of silver with copper, tin, or zinc-like metal. According to the
uses, the solder is made hard or soft; thus in gold solders there is
added a greater amount of silver, whereas for silver solders there is
added more tin or zinc-like metal.

In the production of solder for the enameler’s use, that is for
combining gold with gold, gold with silver, or gold with copper, which
must be enameled afterwards, it is necessary always to keep in mind
that no solder can be used effectually that contains any tin, zinc,
zinc alloys, or tin or zinc-like metals in any great quantities,
since it is these very metals that contribute to the cracking of the
enamel. Yet it is not possible to do without such an addition entirely,
otherwise the solder would not flow under the melting point of the
precious metals themselves and we should be unable to effect a union
of the parts. It is therefore absolutely necessary to confine these
additions to the lowest possible percentage, so that only a trace is
apparent. Moreover, care must be taken to use for enameling purposes no
base alloy, because the tenacity or durability of the compound will be
affected thereby; in other words, it must come up to the standard.

In hard soldering with borax, direct, several obstacles are encountered
that make the process somewhat difficult. In {663} the first place the
salt forms great bubbles in contact with the soldering iron, and easily
scales away from the surface of the parts to be soldered. Besides
this, the parts must be carefully cleaned each time prior to applying
the salt. All these difficulties vanish if instead of borax we use
its component parts, boric acid and sodium carbonate. The heat of the
soldering iron acting on these causes them to combine in such a way as
to produce an excellent flux, free from the difficulties mentioned.


«Composition of Various Hard Solders.»—Yellow solders for brass,
bronze, copper, and iron:

I.—Sheet-brass chips, 5 parts, and zinc, 3 to 5 parts, easily fusible.

II.—Sheet brass chips, 3 parts, and zinc, 1 part; refractory.

III.—Sheet-brass chips, 7 parts, and zinc, 1 part; very refractory and
firm.

Semi-white solders, containing tin and consequently harder:

I.—Sheet brass, 12 parts; zinc, 4 to 7 parts, and tin, 1 part.

II.—Copper, 16 parts; zinc, 16 parts, and tin, 1 part.

III.—Yellow solder, 20 to 30 parts, and tin, 1 part.

White solders:

I.—Sheet brass, 20 parts; zinc, 1 part, and tin, 4 parts.

II.—Copper, 3 parts; zinc, 1 part, and tin, 1 part.


«To Hard-Solder Parts Formerly Soldered with Tin Solder.»—To repair
gold or silver articles which have been spoiled with tin solder proceed
as follows: Heating the object carefully by means of a small spirit
lamp, brush the tin off as much as possible with a chalk brush; place
the article in a diluted solution of hydrochloric acid for about 8
to 10 hours, as required. If much tin remains, perhaps 12 hours may
be necessary. Next withdraw it, rinse off and dry; whereupon it is
carefully annealed and finally put in a pickle of dilute sulphuric
acid, to remove the annealing film. When the article has been dipped,
it may be hard soldered again.


«SILVER SOLDERS.»

Silver solder is cast in the form of ingots, which are hammered or
rolled into thin sheets. From these small chips or “links,” as they
are called, are cut off. The melted solder can also be poured, when
slightly cooled, into a dry iron mortar and pulverized while still
warm. The solder can also be filed and the filings used for soldering.

Silver solders are used not only for soldering silver objects, but
also for soldering metals of which great resistance is expected. A
distinction must be drawn between silver solder consisting either of
copper and silver alone, and silver solder to which tin has been added.


«Very Hard Silver Solder for Fine Silverware.»—

 I.—Copper       1 part
     Silver       4 parts
     Hard silver solder.

 II.—Copper      1 part
      Silver     20 parts
      Brass       9 parts

 III.—Copper     2 parts
       Silver    28 parts
       Brass     10 parts
       Soft silver solder.

 IV.—Silver      2 parts
      Brass       1 part

 V.—Silver       3 parts
     Copper       2 parts
     Zinc         1 part

 VI.—Silver     10 parts
      Brass      10 parts
      Tin         1 part

These solders are preferably to be employed for the completion of work
begun with hard silver solders, defective parts alone being treated.
For this purpose it is sometimes advisable to use copper-silver alloys
mixed with zinc, as for example:

 VII.—Silver    12 parts
       Copper     4 parts
       Zinc       1 part

 VIII.—Silver    5 parts
        Brass     6 parts
        Zinc      2 parts

This last formula (VIII) is most commonly used for ordinary silverware.


«Silver Solders for Soldering Iron, Steel, Cast Iron, and Copper.»—

 I.—Silver      10 parts
     Brass       10 parts

 II.—Silver      0 parts
      Copper     30 parts
      Zinc       10 parts

 III.—Silver    30 parts
       Copper    10 parts
       Tin      0.5 parts

 IV.—Silver     60 parts
      Brass      60 parts
      Zinc        5 parts

{664}

In those solders in which brass is used care should be taken that none
of the metals employed contains iron. Even an inappreciable amount of
iron deleteriously affects the solder.

V.—Copper, 30 parts; zinc, 12.85 parts; silver, 57.15 parts.

VI.—Copper, 23.33 parts; zinc, 10 parts; silver, 66.67 parts.

VII.—Copper, 26.66 parts; zinc, 10 parts; silver, 63.34 parts.

VIII.—Silver, 66 parts; copper, 24 parts, and zinc, 10 parts. This very
strong solder is frequently used for soldering silver articles, but can
also be used for soldering other metals, such as brass, copper, iron,
steel band-saw blades, etc.

IX.—Silver, 4 parts, and brass, 3 parts.

X.—A very refractory silver solder, which, unlike the silver solder
containing zinc, is of great ductility and does not break when
hammered, is composed of 3 parts silver and 1 part copper.


«Soft Silver Solders.»—I.—A soft silver solder for resoldering parts
already soldered is made of silver, 3 parts; copper, 2 parts, and zinc,
1 part.

II.—Silver, 1 part, and brass, 1 part; or, silver, 7 parts; copper, 3
parts, and zinc, 2 parts.

III.—A readily fusible silver solder for ordinary work: Silver, 5
parts; copper, 6 parts, and zinc, 2 parts.

IV.—(Soft.) Copper, 14.75 parts; zinc, 8.20 parts; silver, 77.05 parts.


V.—Copper, 22.34 parts; zinc, 10.48 parts; silver, 67.18 parts.

VI.—Tin, 63 parts; lead, 37 parts.


«French Solders for Silver.»—I.—For fine silver work: Fine silver, 87
parts; brass, 13 parts.

II.—For work 792 fine: Fine silver, 83 parts; brass, 17 parts.

III.—For work 712 fine: Fine silver, 75 parts; brass, 25 parts.

IV.—For work 633 fine: Fine silver, 66 parts; brass, 34 parts.

V.—For work 572 fine: Fine silver, 55 parts; brass, 45 parts.


«Solder for Silversmiths, etc.»—Gold, 10 parts; silver, 55 parts;
copper, 29 parts; zinc, 6 parts.


«Hard Solder.»—Silver, 60 parts; bronze, 39 parts; arsenic, 1 part.


«Soft Solder.»—Powdered copper, 30 parts; sulphate of zinc, 10 parts;
mercury, 60 parts; sulphuric acid. Put the copper and the zinc sulphate
in a porcelain mortar, and then the sulphuric acid. Enough acid is
required to cover the composition; next add the mercury while stirring
constantly. When the amalgamation is effected, wash several times
with hot water to remove the acid, then allow to cool. For use, it is
sufficient to heat the amalgam until it takes the consistency of wax.
Apply on the parts to be soldered and let cool.


«Solder for Silver-Plated Work.»—I.—Fine silver, 2 parts; bronze, 1
part.

II.—Silver, 68 parts; copper, 24 parts; zinc, 17 parts.


«Solder for Silver Chains.»—I.—Fine silver, 74 parts; copper, 24 parts;
orpiment, 2 parts.

II.—Fine silver, 40 parts; orpiment, 20 parts; copper, 40 parts.


«SOFT SOLDERS:»

See also Brass Solders, Copper Solders, Gold Solders.

I.—Fifty parts bismuth, 25 parts tin, and 25 parts lead. This mixture
melts at 392° F.

II.—Fifty parts bismuth, 30 parts lead, and 20 parts tin. This will
melt at 374° F.

III.—The solder that is used in soldering Britannia metal and block
tin pipes is composed of 2 parts tin and 1 part lead. This melts in
the blow-pipe flame at many degrees lower temperature than either tin
or Britannia metal, and it is nearly of the same color. Care must be
taken in mixing these solders to keep them well stirred when pouring
into molds. Care should also be taken that the metal which melts at
a higher temperature be melted first and then allowed to cool to the
melting temperature of the next metal to be added, and so on. Articles
to be soldered with these solders should be joined with a blow pipe to
get the best results, but if a copper is used it must be drawn out to a
long, thin point. For a flux use powdered rosin or sweet oil.

Tin solders for soldering lead, zinc, tin, tin-plate, also copper and
brass when special strength is not required, are prepared as follows:

I.—Tin, 10 parts; lead, 4 parts; melting point, 356° F.

II.—Tin, 10 parts; lead, 5 parts; melting point, 365° F.

III.—Tin, 10 parts; lead, 6 parts; melting point, 374° F. {665}

IV.—Tin, 10 parts; lead, 10 parts; melting point, 392° F.

V.—Tin, 10 parts; lead, 15 parts; melting point, 432° F.

VI.—Tin, 10 parts; lead, 20 parts; melting point, 464° F.

The last of the above mixtures is the cheapest, on account of the large
quantity of lead.

Bismuth solder or pewterer’s solder fusible at a low temperature is
prepared by melting together:

I.—Tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; melting point, 266° F.

II.—Tin, 3 parts; lead, 4 parts; bismuth, 2 parts; melting point,
297° F.

III.—Tin, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts; bismuth, 1 part; melting point,
320° F.


«STEEL SOLDERING.»

Dissolve scraps of cast steel in as small a quantity as possible of
nitric acid, add finely pulverized borax and stir vigorously until a
fluid paste is formed, then dilute by means of sal ammoniac and put
in a bottle. When soldering is to be done, apply a thin layer of the
solution to the two parts to be soldered, and when these have been
carried to ordinary redness, and the mass is consequently plastic,
beat lightly on the anvil with a flat hammer. This recipe is useful
for cases when the steel is not to be soldered at an elevation of
temperature to the bright red.


«To Solder a Piece of Hardened Steel.»—To hard-solder a piece of
hardened steel such as index (regulator), stop spring (in the part
which is not elastic), click, etc., take a very flat charcoal if the
piece is difficult to attach; hard-solder and as soon as the soldering
has been done, plunge the piece into oil. All that remains to be done
is to blue it again, and to polish.


«Soldering Powder for Steel.»—Melt in an earthen pot 3 parts of borax,
2 of colophony, 1 of potassium carbonate, as much powdered hard soap,
to which must be added 3 parts of finely powdered glass and 2 parts of
steel filings. The melted mass is run out upon a cold plate of sheet
iron, and when it is completely chilled it is broken into small bits or
finely powdered. To solder, it is necessary to sprinkle the powder on
the surfaces to be joined several minutes before bringing them together.


«Soldering Solution for Steel.»—A soldering solution for steel that
will not rust or blacken the work is made of 6 ounces alcohol, 2 ounces
glycerine, and 1 ounce oxide of zinc.


«PLATINUM SOLDERS.»

There are many platinum solders in existence, but the main principle to
be borne in mind in jewelry work is that the soldering seam should be
as little perceptible as possible; the solder, therefore, should have
the same color as the alloy.

I.—A platinum solder which meets these requirements very satisfactorily
is composed of 9 parts gold and 1 part palladium; or, 8 parts gold and
2 parts palladium.

II.—The following is a readily fusible platinum solder: Fine silver,
1.555 parts, and pure platinum, 0.583 parts. This melts easily in the
ordinary draught furnace, as well as before the soldering pipe on a
piece of charcoal. Of similar action is a solder of the following
composition, which is very useful for places not exposed to the view:

III.—Fine gold, 1.555 parts; fine silver, 0.65 parts; and pure copper,
0.324 parts.


«SOLDER FOR IRON:»

See also under Silver Solders.

Copper, 67 parts; zinc, 33 parts; or, copper, 60 parts; zinc, 40 parts.


«TIN SOLDERS:»

See also Soft Solders.

Gold jewelry which has been rendered unsightly by tin solder may be
freed from tin entirely by dipping the article for a few minutes into
the following solution and then brushing off the tin: Pulverize 2
parts of green vitriol and 1 part of saltpeter and boil in a cast-iron
pot with 10 parts of water until the larger part of the latter has
evaporated. The crystals forming upon cooling are dissolved in
hydrochloric acid (8 parts of hydrochloric acid to 1 part of crystals).
If the articles in question have to be left in the liquid for some
time, it is well to dilute it with 3 or 4 parts of water. The tin
solder is dissolved by this solution without attacking or damaging the
article in the least.


«VARIOUS RECIPES FOR SOLDERING:»


«To Conceal Soldering.»—Visible soldering may be obviated by the
following methods: For copper goods a concentrated solution of blue
vitriol is prepared and applied to the places by means of an iron rod
or iron wire. The thickness of {666} the layer may be increased by a
repetition of the process. In order to give the places thus coppered
the appearance of the others, use a saturated solution of zinc vitriol,
1 part, and blue vitriol, 2 parts, and finish rubbing with a piece of
zinc. By sprinkling on gold powder and subsequently polishing, the
color is rendered deeper. In the case of gold articles the places are
first coppered over, then covered with a thin layer of fish glue,
after which bronze filings are thrown on. When the glue is dry rub off
quickly to produce a fine polish. The places can, of course, also be
electro-gilt, whereby a greater uniformity of the shade is obtained. In
silver objects, the soldering seams, etc., are likewise coppered in the
above-described manner; next they are rubbed with a brush dipped into
silver powder and freshly polished.


«Solder for Articles which will not Bear a High Temperature.»—Take
powdered copper, the precipitate of a solution of the sulphate by means
of zinc, and mix it with concentrated sulphuric acid. According to the
degree of hardness required, take from 20 to 30 or 36 parts of copper.
Add, while constantly shaking, 70 parts of quicksilver, and when the
amalgam is complete, wash with warm water to remove the acid; then
allow it to cool. In 10 or 12 hours the composition will be hard enough
to scratch tin. For use, warm it until it reaches the consistency of
wax, and spread it where needed. When cold it will adhere with great
tenacity.


«Soldering a Ring Containing a Jewel.»—I.—Fill a small crucible with
wet sand and bury the part with the jewel in the sand. Now solder with
soft gold solder, holding the crucible in the hand. The stone will
remain uninjured.

II.—Take tissue paper, tear it into strips about 3 inches in width, and
make them into ropes; wet them thoroughly and wrap the stone in them,
passing around the stone and through the ring until the center of the
latter is slightly more than half filled with paper, closely wound
around. Now fix on charcoal, permitting the stone to protrude over
the edge of the charcoal, and solder rapidly. The paper will not only
protect the stone, but also prevent oxidation of the portion of the
ring which is covered.


«Soldering without Heat.»—For soldering objects without heating, take
a large copper wire filed to a point; dip into soldering water and
rub the parts to be soldered. Then heat the copper wire and apply the
solder, which melts on contact. It may then be applied to the desired
spot without heating the object.


«COLD SOLDERING:»

See also Adhesives and Cements.

For soldering articles which cannot stand a high temperature, the
following process may be employed:

I.—Take powdered copper precipitated from a solution of sulphate by
means of zinc and mix it in a cast-iron or porcelain mortar with
concentrated sulphuric acid. The number of parts of copper varies
according to the degree of hardness which it is wished to obtain. Next
add, stirring constantly, 70 parts of mercury, and when the amalgam is
finished, allow to cool. At the end of 10 to 12 hours the composition
is sufficiently hard. For use, heat until it acquires the consistency
of wax. Apply to the surface. When cool it will adhere with great
tenacity.

II.—Crush and mix 6 parts of sulphur, 6 parts of white lead, and 1 part
of borax. Make a rather thick cement of this powder by triturating it
with sulphuric acid. The paste is spread on the surfaces to be welded,
and the articles pressed firmly together. In 6 or 7 days the soldering
is so strong that the two pieces cannot be separated, even by striking
them with a hammer.


«Cast-Iron Soldering.»—A new process consists in decarbonizing the
surfaces of the cast iron to be soldered, the molten hard solder
being at the same time brought into contact with the red-hot metallic
surfaces. The admission of air, however, should be carefully guarded
against. First pickle the surfaces of the pieces to be soldered, as
usual, with acid and fasten the two pieces together. The place to be
soldered is now covered with a metallic oxygen compound and any one of
the customary fluxes and heated until red hot. The preparation best
suited for this purpose is a paste made by intimately mingling together
cuprous oxide and borax. The latter melts in soldering and protects the
pickled surfaces as well as the cuprous oxide from oxidation through
the action of the air. During the heating the cuprous oxide imparts its
oxygen to the carbon contained in the cast iron and burns it. Metallic
copper separates in fine subdivision. Now apply hard solder to the
place to be united, which in melting forms an alloy with the eliminated
copper, the alloy combining with the decarburized surfaces of the cast
iron. {667}


«Soldering Block.»—This name is given to a very useful support for
hard soldering and can be readily made. The ingredients are: Charcoal,
asbestos, and plaster of Paris. These are powdered in equal parts, made
into a thick paste with water, and poured into a suitable mold. Thus a
sort of thick plate is obtained. When this mass has dried it is removed
from the mold and a very thin cork plate is affixed on one surface by
means of thin glue. The mission of this plate is to receive the points
of the wire clamps with which the articles to be soldered are attached
to the soldering block, the asbestos not affording sufficient hold for
them.

SOLDERS FOR JEWELERS: See Jewelers’ Formulas.

SOLDER FROM GOLD, TO REMOVE: See Gold.


«SOLDERING PASTE.»

The semi-liquid mass termed soldering paste is produced by mixing zinc
chloride solution or that of ammonia-zinc chloride with starch paste.
For preparing this composition, ordinary potato starch is made with
water into a milky liquid, the latter is heated to a boil with constant
stirring, and enough of this mass, which becomes gelatinous after
cooling, is added to the above-mentioned solutions as to cause a liquid
resembling thin syrup to result. The use of all zinc preparations for
soldering presents the drawback that vapors of a strongly acid odor are
generated by the heat of the soldering iron, but this evil is offset
by the extraordinary convenience afforded when working with these
preparations. It is not necessary to subject the places to be soldered
to any special cleaning or preparation. All that is required is to
coat them with the soldering medium, to apply the solder to the seam,
etc., and to wipe the places with a sponge or moistened rag after the
solder has cooled. Since the solder adheres readily with the use of
these substances, a skillful workman can soon reach such perfection
that he has no, or very little, subsequent polishing to do on the
soldering seams.


«Soft Soldering Paste.»—Small articles of any metals that would be very
delicate to solder with a stick of solder, especially where parts fit
into another and only require a little solder to hold them together,
can best be joined with a soldering paste. This paste contains the
solder and flux combined, and is easily applied to seams, or a little
applied before the parts are put together. The soldering flame will
cause the tin in the paste to amalgamate quickly. The paste is made
out of starch paste mixed with a solution of chloride of tin to the
consistency of syrup.

SOLUTIONS, PERCENTAGE: See Tables.

SOOTHING SYRUP: See Pain Killers.

SOUP HERB EXTRACT: See Condiments.

SOZODONT: See Dentifrices.

SPARKS FROM THE FINGER TIPS: See Pyrotechnics.

SPATTER WORK: See Lettering.

SPAVIN CURES: See Veterinary Formulas.

SPECULUM METAL: See Alloys.

SPICES, ADULTERATED: See Foods.

SPICES FOR FLAVORING: See Condiments.


«Spirit

INDUSTRIAL AND POTABLE ALCOHOL: SOURCES AND MANUFACTURE.»

_Abstract of a Farmers’ Bulletin prepared for the United States
Department of Agriculture by Dr. Harvey W. Wiley._

The term “industrial alcohol,” or spirit, is used for brevity, and also
because it differentiates sharply between alcohol used for beverages or
for medicine and alcohol used for technical purposes in the arts.


«Alcohol Defined.»—The term “alcohol” as here used and as generally
used means that particular product which is obtained by the
fermentation of a sugar, or a starch converted into sugar, and which,
from a chemical point of view, is a compound of the hypothetical
substance “ethyl” with water, or with that part of water remaining
after the separation of one of the atoms of hydrogen. This is a rather
technical expression, but it is very difficult, without using technical
language, to give a definition of alcohol from the chemical point of
view. There are three elementary substances represented in alcohol:
Carbon, the chemical symbol of which is C; hydrogen, symbol {668} H;
and oxygen, symbol O. These atoms are put together to form common
alcohol, or, as it is called, ethyl alcohol, in which preparation 2
atoms of carbon and 5 atoms of hydrogen form the hypothetical substance
“ethyl,” and 1 atom of oxygen and 1 atom of hydrogen form the hydroxyl
derived from water. The chemical symbol of alcohol therefore is
C_〈2〉H_〈5〉OH. Absolutely pure ethyl alcohol is made only with great
difficulty, and the purest commercial forms still have associated
with them traces of other volatile products formed at the time of
the distillation, chief among which is that group of alcohols to
which the name “fused oil” is applied. So far as industrial purposes
are concerned, however, ethyl alcohol is the only component of any
consequence, just as in regard to the character of beverages the ethyl
alcohol is the component of least consequence.


«Sources of Potable Alcohol.»—The raw materials from which alcohol
is made consist of those crops which contain sugar, starch, gum,
and cellulose (woody fiber) capable of being easily converted into
a fermentable sugar. Alcohol as such is not used as a beverage. The
alcohol occurring in distilled beverages is principally derived from
Indian corn, rye, barley, and molasses. Alcohol is also produced for
drinking purposes from fermented fruit juices such as the juice of
grapes, apples, peaches, etc. In the production of alcoholic beverages
a careful selection of the materials is required in order that the
desired character of drink may be secured. For instance, in the
production of rum, the molasses derived from the manufacture of sugar
from sugar cane is the principal raw material. In the fermentation of
molasses a particular product is formed which by distillation gives the
alcohol compound possessing the aroma and flavor of rum. In the making
of brandy, only sound wine can be used as the raw material, and this
sound wine, when subjected to distillation, gives a product containing
the same kind of alcohol as that found in rum, but associated with
the products of fermentation which give to the distillate a character
entirely distinct and separate from that of rum. Again, when barley
malt or a mixture of barley malt and rye is properly mashed, fermented,
and subjected to distillation, a product is obtained which, when
properly concentrated and aged, becomes potable malt or rye whisky.
In a similar manner, if Indian corn and barley malt are properly
mashed, with a small portion of rye, the mash fermented and subjected
to distillation, and the distillate properly prepared and aged, the
product is known as Bourbon whisky. Thus, every kind of alcoholic
beverage gets its real character, taste, and aroma, not from the
alcohol which it contains but from the products of fermentation which
are obtained at the same time the alcohol is made and which are carried
over with the alcohol at the time of distillation.


«Agricultural Sources of Industrial Alcohol.»—The chief
alcohol-yielding material produced in farm crops is starch, the second
important material is sugar, and the third and least important raw
material is cellulose, or woody fiber. The quantity of alcohol produced
from cellulose is so small as to be of no importance at the present
time, and therefore this source of alcohol will only be discussed under
the headings “Utilization of Waste Material or By-Products” and “Wood
Pulp and Sawdust.”


«Starch-Producing Plants.»—Starch is a compound which, from the
chemical point of view, belongs to the class known as carbohydrates,
that is, compounds in which the element carbon is associated by a
chemical union with water. Starch is therefore a compound made of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, existing in the proportion of 2 atoms
of hydrogen to 1 atom of oxygen. Each molecule of starch contains at
least 6 atoms of carbon, 10 atoms of hydrogen, and 5 atoms of oxygen.
The simplest expression for starch is therefore C_〈6〉H_〈10〉O_〈5〉.
Inasmuch as this is the simplest expression for what the chemist knows
as a molecule of starch, and it is very probable that very many,
perhaps a hundred or more, of these molecules exist together, the
proper expression for starch from a chemical point of view would be
(C_〈6〉H_〈10〉O_〈5〉)_x_.

The principal starch-producing plants are the cereals, the potato,
and cassava. With the potato may be classed, though not botanically
related thereto, the sweet potato and the yam. Among cereals rice has
the largest percentage of starch and oats the smallest. The potato,
as grown for the table, has an average content of about 15 per cent
of starch. When a potato is grown specifically for the production of
alcohol it contains a larger quantity, or nearly 20 per cent. Cassava
contains a larger percentage of starch than the potato, varying from 20
to 30 per cent.


«Sugar-Producing Plants.»—_Sugar cane, {669} etc._ While sugar is
present in some degree in all vegetable growths, there are some plants
which produce it in larger quantities than are required for immediate
needs, and this sugar is stored in some part of the plant. Two plants
are preëminently known for their richness in sugar, namely, the sugar
cane and the sugar beet. In Louisiana the sugar canes contain from 9 to
14 per cent of sugar, and tropical canes contain a still larger amount.

The juices of the sugar beet contain from 12 to 18 per cent of sugar.
There are other plants which produce large quantities of sugar, but
which are less available for sugar-making purposes than those just
mentioned. Among these, the sorghum must be first mentioned, containing
in the stalk at the time the seed is just mature and the starch
hardened from 9 to 15 per cent of sugar. Sorghum seed will also yield
as much alcohol as equal weights of Indian corn. The juices of the
stalks of Indian corn contain at the time the grain is hardening and
for some time thereafter large quantities of sugar, varying from 8 to
15 per cent.

In the case of the sorghum and the Indian-corn stalk a large part
of the sugar present is not cane sugar or sucrose as it is commonly
known, but the invert sugar derived therefrom. For the purposes of
making alcohol the invert sugar is even more suitable than cane sugar.
Many other plants contain notable quantities of sugar, but, with the
exception of fruits, discussed under the following caption, not in
sufficient quantities to be able to compete with those just mentioned
for making either sugar or alcohol.

Cane sugar is not directly susceptible to fermentation. Chemically
considered, it has the formula expressed by the symbols:
C_〈12〉H_〈22〉O_〈11〉. When cane sugar having the above composition
becomes inverted, it is due to a process known as hydrolysis, which
consists in the molecule of cane sugar taking up 1 molecule of water
and splitting off into 2 molecules of sugar having the same formula
but different physical and chemical properties. Thus the process may
be represented as follows: C_〈12〉H_〈22〉O_〈11〉 (cane sugar) + H_〈2〉O
(water) = C_〈6〉H_〈12〉O_〈6〉 (dextrose) + C_〈6〉H_〈12〉O_〈6〉 (levulose).
These two sugars (dextrose and levulose) taken together are known as
invert sugar and are directly susceptible to fermentation. All cane
sugar assumes the form of invert sugar before it becomes fermented.

_Fruits._—Nearly all fruit juices are rich in sugar, varying in content
from 5 to 30 per cent. The sugar in fruits is composed of both cane
sugar and its invert products (dextrose and levulose), in some fruits
principally the latter. Of the common fruits the grape yields the
largest percentage of sugar. The normal grape used for wine making
contains from 16 to 30 per cent of sugar, the usual amount being about
20 per cent. Fruit juices are not usually employed in any country for
making industrial alcohol, because of their very much greater value for
the production of beverages.


«Composition and Yield of Alcohol-Producing Crops.»—The weight of
alcohol that may be produced from a given crop is estimated at a little
less than one-half of the amount of fermentable substance present,
it being understood that the fermentable substance is expressed in
terms of sugar. Pasteur was the first to point out the fact that when
sugar was fermented it yielded theoretically a little over one-half
of its weight of alcohol. It must be remembered, however, that in
the production of alcohol a process of hydrolysis is taking place
which adds a certain quantity of alcohol to the products which are
formed. For this reason 100 parts of sugar yield more than 100 parts
of fermentable products. The distribution of the weights produced, as
theoretically calculated by Pasteur, is as follows:

One hundred parts of sugar yield the following quantities of the
products of fermentation:

 Alcohol                                         51.10 parts
 Carbonic acid                                   49.20 parts
 Glycerine                                        3.40 parts
 Organic acids, chiefly succinic                   .65 parts
 Ethers, aldehydes, furfural, fat, etc.           1.30 parts
                                                ──────
 Total weight fermentation products produced    105.65 parts

_Artichokes._—The artichoke has been highly recommended for the
manufacture of alcohol. The fermentable material in the artichoke
is neither starch nor sugar, but consists of a mixture of a number
of carbohydrates of which inulin and levulin are the principal
constituents. When these carbohydrate materials are hydrolized into
sugars they produce levulose instead of dextrose. The levulose is
equally as valuable as dextrose for the production of alcohol.
Artichokes may be harvested either in the autumn or in the spring. As
they keep well during the winter, and in a few places {670} may be kept
in hot weather, they form a raw material which can be stored for a long
period and still be valuable for fermentation purposes.

Under the term “inulin” are included all the fermentable carbohydrates.
The above data show, in round numbers, 17 per cent of fermentable
matter. Theoretically, therefore, 100 pounds of artichokes would yield
approximately 8 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of industrial alcohol, or about 1 1⁠/⁠4
gallons.

_Bananas._—The banana is a crop which grows in luxurious abundance
in tropical countries, especially Guatemala and Nicaragua. The fruit
contains large quantities of starch and sugar suitable for alcohol
making. From 20 to 25 per cent of the weight of the banana consists
of fermentable material. It is evident that in the countries where
the banana grows in such luxuriance it would be a cheap source of
industrial alcohol.

_Barley and the Manufacture of Malt._—A very important cereal in
connection with the manufacture of alcohol is barley which is quite
universally employed for making malt, the malt in its turn being used
for the conversion of the starch of other cereals into sugar in their
preparation for fermentation.

Malt is made by the sprouting of barley at a low temperature (from 50°
to 60° F.) until the small roots are formed and the germ has grown to
the length of 1⁠/⁠2 an inch or more. The best malts are made at a low
temperature requiring from 10 to 14 days for the growth of the barley.
The barley is moistened and spread upon a floor, usually of cement, to
the depth of 1 foot or 18 inches. As the barley becomes warm by the
process of germination, it is turned from time to time and the room
is kept well ventilated and cool. It is better at this point in the
manufacture of malt to keep the temperature below 60° F. After the
sprouting has been continued as above noted for the proper length of
time, the barley is transferred to a drier, where it is subjected to
a low temperature at first and finally to a temperature not to exceed
140° or 158° F., until all the water is driven off, except 2 or 3 per
cent. Great care must be exercised in drying the barley not to raise
the temperature too high, lest the diastase which is formed be deprived
of its active qualities. The malt has a sweetish taste, the principal
portion of the starch having been converted into sugar, which is known
chemically as “maltose.” This sugar is, of course, utilized in the
fermentation for the production of alcohol. Malt is chiefly valuable,
however, not because of the amount of alcohol that may be produced
therefrom, but from the fact that in quantities of about 10 per cent
it is capable of converting the starch of the whole of the unmalted
grains, whatever their origin may be, into maltose, thus preparing the
starch for fermentation. Barley is not itself used in this country
as a source of industrial alcohol, but it is employed for producing
the highest grades of whisky, made of pure barley malt, which, after
fermentation, is distilled in a pot still, concentrated in another pot
still to the proper strength, placed in wood, and stored for a number
of years. Barley malt is too expensive a source of alcohol to justify
its use for industrial purposes. It is, however, one of the cheapest
and best methods of converting the starch of other cereals into sugar
preparatory to fermentation.

Barley has, in round numbers, about 68 per cent of fermentable matter.
The weight of a bushel of barley (48 pounds) multiplied by 0.68 gives
32 pounds of fermentable matter in a bushel of barley.

_Cassava._—Cassava is grown over a large area of the South Atlantic
and Gulf States of this country. Of all the substances which have been
mentioned, except the cereals, cassava contains the largest amount
of alcoholic or fermentable substances. The root, deprived of its
outer envelope, contains a little over 30 per cent of starch, while
the undetermined matter in the analyses is principally sugar. If this
be added to the starch, it is seen that approximately 35 per cent
of the fresh root is fermentable. This of course represents a very
high grade of cassava, the ordinary roots containing very much less
fermentable matter. If, however, it is assumed that the fermentable
matter of cassava root will average 25 per cent, this amount is much
greater than the average of the potato, or even of the sweet potato
and the yam. Twenty-five per cent is undoubtedly a low average content
of fermentable matter. In the dry root there is found nearly 72 per
cent of starch and 17 per cent of extract, principally sugar. Assuming
that 15 per cent of this is fermentable, and adding this to the 72 per
cent, it is seen that 87 per cent of the dry matter of the cassava is
fermentable. This appears to be a very high figure, but it doubtless
represents almost exactly the conditions which exist. It would be
perfectly safe to say, discounting any exceptional qualities of the
samples examined, that 80 per cent of the dry matter of the cassava
root is {671} capable of being converted into alcohol. It thus becomes
in a dry state a source of alcohol almost as valuable, pound for pound,
as rice.

Careful examinations, however, of actual conditions show that if 5 tons
per acre of roots are obtained it is an average yield. In very many
cases, where no fertilizer is used and where the roots are grown in the
ordinary manner, the yield is far less than this, while with improved
methods of agriculture it is greater. The bark of the root, has very
little fermentable matter in it. If the whole root be considered, the
percentage of starch is less than it would be for the peeled root. If
cassava yields 4 tons, or 8,000 pounds, per acre and contains 25 per
cent of fermentable matter, the total weight of fermentable matter
is 2,000 pounds, yielding approximately 1,000 pounds of 95 per cent
alcohol, or 143 gallons of 95 per cent alcohol per acre.

_Corn_ (_Indian Corn or Maize_).—The crop which at the present time is
the source of almost all of the alcohol made in the United States is
Indian corn.

The fermentable matter in Indian corn—that is, the part which is
capable of being converted into alcohol—amounts to nearly 70 per cent
of the total weight, since the unfermentable cellulose and pentosans
included in carbohydrates do not exceed 2 per cent. Inasmuch as a
bushel of Indian corn weighs 56 pounds, the total weight of fermentable
matter therein, in round numbers, is 39 pounds. The weight of the
alcohol which is produced under the best conditions is little less
than one-half of the fermentable matter. Therefore the total weight of
alcohol which would be yielded by a bushel of average Indian corn would
be, in round numbers, about 19 pounds. The weight of a gallon of 95 per
cent alcohol is nearly 7 pounds. Hence 1 bushel of corn would produce
2.7 gallons.

If the average price of Indian corn be placed, in round numbers, at 40
cents a bushel, the cost of the raw material—that is, of the Indian
corn—for manufacturing 95 per cent industrial alcohol is about 15 cents
a gallon. To this must be added the cost of manufacture, storage,
etc., which is perhaps as much more, making the estimated actual cost
of industrial alcohol of 95 per cent strength made from Indian corn
about 30 cents per gallon. If to this be added the profits of the
manufacturer and dealer, it appears that under the conditions cited,
industrial alcohol, untaxed, should be sold for about 40 cents per
gallon.

_Potatoes._—The weight of a bushel of potatoes is 60 pounds. As the
average amount of fermentable matter in potatoes grown in the United
States is 20 per cent, the total weight of fermentable matter in a
bushel of potatoes is 12 pounds, which would yield approximately 6
pounds or 3.6 quarts of alcohol.

The quantity of starch in American-grown potatoes varies from 15 to 20
per cent. Probably 18 per cent might be stated as the general average
of the best grades of potatoes.

Under the microscope the granules of potato starch have a distinctive
appearance. They appear as egg-shaped bodies on which, especially the
larger ones, various ring-like lines are seen. With a modified light
under certain conditions of observation a black cross is developed
upon the granule. It is not difficult for an expert microscopist to
distinguish potato from other forms of starch by this appearance.

The potato contains very little material which is capable of
fermentation aside from starch and sugars.

Although the potato is not sweet to the taste in a fresh state, it
contains notable quantities of sugar. This sugar is lost whenever the
potato is used for starch-making purposes, but is utilized when it is
used for the manufacture of industrial alcohol. The percentage of sugar
of all kinds in the potato rarely goes above 1 per cent. The average
quantity is probably not far from 0.35 per cent, including sugar,
reducing sugar, and dextrin, all of which are soluble in water. In the
treatment of potatoes for starch making, therefore, it may be estimated
that 0.35 per cent of fermentable matter is lost in the wash water.

_Average Composition._—The average composition of potatoes is:

 Water               75.00 per cent
 Starch              19.87 per cent
 Sugars and dextrin    .77 per cent
 Fat                   .08 per cent
 Cellulose             .33 per cent
 Ash                  1.00 per cent

According to Maercker, the sugar content, including all forms of sugar,
varies greatly. Perfectly ripe potatoes contain generally no sugar or
only a fractional per cent. When potatoes are stored under unfavorable
conditions, large quantities of sugar may be developed, amounting to as
high as 5 per cent altogether. In general, it may be stated that the
content of sugar of all kinds will vary from 0.4 per cent to 3.4 per
cent, according to conditions. {672}

The liberal application of nitrogenous fertilizers increases the yield
per acre of tubers and of starch to a very marked extent, although the
average percentage of starch present is increased very little.

Of all the common root crops, the potatoes, including the yam and the
sweet potato, are the most valuable for the production of alcohol,
meaning by this term that they contain more fermentable matter per 100
pounds than other root crops.

While sugar beets, carrots, and parsnips contain relatively large
amounts of fermentable matter, these roots could not compete with
potatoes even if they could all be produced at the same price per 100
pounds.

A general review of all the data indicates that under the most
favorable circumstances and with potatoes which have been grown
especially for the purpose an average content of fermentable matter
of about 20 per cent may be reasonably expected. It is thus seen that
approximately 10 pounds of industrial alcohol can be made from 100
pounds of potatoes. If 60 pounds be taken as the average weight of a
bushel of potatoes, there are found therein 12 pounds of fermentable
matter, from which 6 pounds of industrial alcohol can be produced, or
6⁠/⁠7 of a gallon. It has also been shown that the amount of Indian
corn necessary for the production of a gallon of industrial alcohol
costs not less than 15 cents. From this it is evident that the potatoes
for alcohol making will have to be produced at a cost not to exceed
15 cents per bushel, before they can compete with Indian corn for the
manufacture of industrial alcohol.

_Rice._—Rice is not used to any great extent in this country for
making alcohol, but it is extensively used for this purpose in Japan
and some other countries, and has the largest percentage of fermentable
matter of all the cereals. The percentage of fermentable matter in
rice is nearly 78 per cent. A bushel of rice weighs, unhulled, 45
pounds, hulled, 56 pounds, and it therefore has about 34 and 43 pounds,
respectively, of fermentable matter for the unhulled and the hulled
rice. It is not probable that rice will ever be used to any extent in
this country as a source of industrial alcohol, although it is used
to a large extent in the manufacture of beverages, as for instance in
beers, which are often made partly of rice.

_Rye._—Large quantities of alcohol, chiefly in the form of alcoholic
beverages, are manufactured from rye. It is, in connection with Indian
corn, the principal source of the whiskies made in the United States.
Rye, however, is not used to any extent in this or other countries for
making industrial alcohol.

Rye contains almost as much fermentable matter as Indian corn. A
bushel of rye weighs 56 pounds. Wheat and other cereals, not mentioned
above, are not used in this country to any appreciable extent in the
manufacture of alcohol.

_Spelt._—This grain, which is botanically a variety of wheat, more
closely resembles barley. Under favorable conditions as much as 73
bushels per acre have been reported, and analyses show 70 per cent of
fermentable carbohydrates. The weight per bushel is about the same
as that of oats. It would appear that this crop might be worthy of
consideration as a profitable source of industrial alcohol.

_Sugar Beets._—The sugar beet is often used directly as a source of
alcohol. Working on a practical scale in France, it has been found that
from 10,430 tons of beets there were produced 183,624 gallons of crude
alcohol of 100 per cent strength. The beets contain 11.33 per cent of
sugar. From 220 pounds of sugar 15.64 gallons of alcohol were produced.
The weight of pure alcohol obtained is a little less than one-half the
weight of the dry fermentable matter calculated as sugar subjected to
fermentation. About 18 gallons of alcohol are produced for each ton of
sugar beets employed.

_Sweet Potatoes._—Experiments show that as much as 11,000 pounds of
sweet potatoes can be grown per acre. The average yield of sweet
potatoes, of course, is very much less. On plots to which no fertilizer
is added the yield is about 8,000 pounds of sweet potatoes per acre,
yielding in round numbers 1,900 pounds of starch. The quantity of
sugar in the 8,000 pounds is about 350 pounds, which added to the
starch, makes 2,250 pounds of fermentable matter per acre. This will
yield 1,125 pounds of industrial alcohol of 95 per cent strength,
or approximately 160 gallons per acre. The percentage of starch is
markedly greater than in the white or Irish potato. In all cases
over 20 per cent of starch was obtained in the South Carolina sweet
potatoes, and in one instance over 24 per cent. As much as 2,600 pounds
of starch were produced per acre.

In addition to starch, the sweet potato contains notable quantities of
sugar, sometimes as high as 6 per cent being present, so that the total
fermentable matter in the sweet potato may be {673} reckoned at the
minimum at 25 per cent. A bushel of sweet potatoes weighs 55 pounds,
and one-quarter of this is fermentable matter, or nearly 14 pounds.
This would yield, approximately, 7 pounds, or a little over 1 gallon of
95 per cent alcohol. It may be fairly stated, therefore, in a general
way, that a bushel of sweet potatoes will yield 1 gallon of industrial
alcohol.

Experiments have shown that the quantity of starch diminishes and the
quantity of sugar increases on storing. Further, it may be stated that
in the varieties of sweet potatoes which are most esteemed for table
use there is less starch and perhaps more sugar than stated above. The
total quantity of fermentable matter, however, does not greatly change,
although there is probably a slight loss.


«Utilization of Waste Material or By-Products.»—_Molasses._—The
utilization of the waste materials from the sugar factories and sugar
refineries for the purpose of making alcohol is a well-established
industry. The use of these sources of supply depends, of course, upon
the cost of the molasses. When the sugar has been exhausted as fully as
possible from the molasses the latter consists of a saccharine product,
containing a considerable quantity of unfermentable carbohydrate
matter, large quantities of mineral salts, and water. In molasses of
this kind there is probably not more than 50 pounds of fermentable
matter to 100 pounds of the product. Assuming that a gallon of such
molasses weighs 11 pounds, it is seen that it contains 5 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
of fermentable matter, yielding 2 1⁠/⁠4 pounds of industrial alcohol of
95 per cent strength. It requires about 3 gallons of such molasses to
make 1 gallon of industrial alcohol.

When the price of molasses delivered to the refineries falls as low
as 5 or 6 cents a gallon it may be considered a profitable source of
alcohol.

_Wood Pulp and Sawdust._—Many attempts have been made to produce
alcohol for industrial purposes from sawdust, wood pulp, or waste wood
material. The principle of the process rests upon the fact that the
woody substance is composed of cellulose and kindred matters which,
under the action of dilute acid (preferably sulphuric or sulphurous)
and heat, with or without pressure, undergo hydrolysis and are
changed into sugars. A large part of the sugar which is formed is
non-fermentable, consisting of a substance known as xylose. Another
part of the sugar produced is dextrose, made from the true cellulose
which the wood contains.

The yield of alcohol in many of the experiments which have been made
has not been very satisfactory. It is claimed, however, by some
authors that paying quantities of alcohol are secured. In Simmonsen’s
process for the manufacture of alcohol 1⁠/⁠2 per cent sulphuric acid
is employed and from 4 to 5 parts of the liquid heated with 1 part of
the finely comminuted wood for a quarter of an hour under a pressure
of 9 atmospheres. It is claimed by Simmonsen that he obtained a
yield of 6 quarts of alcohol from 110 pounds of air-dried shavings.
Another process which has been tried in this and other countries for
converting comminuted wood into alcohol is known as Classen’s. The
comminuted wood is heated for 15 minutes in a closed apparatus at a
temperature of from 248° to 293° F. in the presence of sulphurous acid
(fumes of burning sulphur) instead of sulphuric acid. It is claimed
by the inventor that he has made as much as 12 quarts of alcohol from
110 pounds of the air-dried shavings. There is reason to doubt the
possibility of securing such high yields in actual practice as are
claimed in the above processes. That alcohol can be made from sawdust
and wood shavings is undoubtedly true, but whether or not it can be
made profitably must be determined by actual manufacturing operations.

_Waste Products of Canneries, etc._—The principal waste materials
which may be considered in this connection are the refuse of wine
making, fruit evaporating, and canning industries, especially the waste
of factories devoted to the canning of tomatoes and Indian corn. In
addition to this, the waste fruit products themselves, which are not
utilized at all, as, for instance, the imperfect and rotten apples,
tomatoes, grapes, etc., may be favorably considered. The quantity of
waste products varies greatly in different materials.

The quantities of waste material in grapes and apples, as shown by
Lazenby, are as follows: About 25 per cent of the total weight in
grapes, with the exception of the wild grape, where it is about 60
per cent; with apples the average percentage of waste was found to be
23.8 per cent from 25 varieties. This included the waste in the core,
skin, and the defective apples caused by insects, fungi, bruises,
etc. In general it may be said that in the preparation of fruits for
{674} preserving purposes about 25 per cent of their weight is waste,
and this, it is evident, could be utilized for the manufacture of
alcohol. If apples be taken as a type of fruits, we may assume that
the waste portions contain 10 per cent of fermentable matters, which,
however, is perhaps rather a high estimate. Five per cent of this
might be recovered as industrial alcohol. Thus, each 100 pounds of
fruit waste in the most favorable circumstances might be expected to
produce 5 pounds of industrial alcohol. The quantity of waste which
could be utilized for this purpose would hardly render it profitable
to engage in the manufacture. A smaller percentage could be expected
from the waste of the tomato, where the quantity of sugar is not so
great. In the waste of the sweet-corn factory the amount of fermentable
matter would depend largely on the care with which the grain was
removed. There is usually a considerable quantity of starchy material
left on the cobs, and this, with the natural sugars which the grown
cobs contain, might yield quite large quantities of fermentable
matter. It would not be profitable to erect distilleries simply for
the utilization of waste of this kind, but if these wastes could be
utilized in distilleries already established it might be profitable to
devote them to this purpose.


«Manufacture of Alcohol.»—The three principal steps in the manufacture
of alcohol are (1) the preparation of the mash or wort, (2) the
fermentation of the mash or wort drawn off from the mash tun, and (3)
the distillation of the dilute alcohol formed in the beer or wash from
the fermentation tanks. The preparation of the mash includes (1) the
treatment of the material used with hot water to form a paste of the
starch or the sugar, and (2) the action of the malt or ferment on the
paste to convert the starch into fermentable sugar.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.—MASH TUN IN AN IRISH DISTILLERY.]

_Mashing._—Figs. 1 and 2 show two views of the mashing tun or tank, the
first figure giving the general appearance, and the second a view of
the interior of the tun, showing the machinery by which the stirring is
effected and the series of pipes for cooling the finished product down
to the proper temperature for the application of the malt.

[Illustration: Fig. 2.—MASHING AND COOLING APPARATUS, CROSS SECTION.]

The object of the mash tun is to reduce the starch in the ground grain
to a pasty, gummy mass, in order that the ferment of the malt may act
upon it vigorously and convert it into sugar. If the mashing be done
before the addition {676} of the malt the temperature may be raised
to that of boiling water. If, however, the malt be added before the
mashing begins, the temperature should not rise much, if any, above
140° F., since the fermenting power is retarded and disturbed at higher
temperatures. The mashing is simply a mechanical process by means of
which the starch is reduced to a form of paste and the temperature
maintained at that point which is best suited to the conversion of the
starch into sugar.

[Illustration: Fig. 3.—FERMENTATION TANKS IN AN IRISH DISTILLERY.]

_Fermentation._—The mash, after the starch has all been converted
into sugar, goes into fermenting tanks, which in Scotland are called
“wash backs,” when the yeast is added. A view of the typical wash
back is shown in Fig. 3. They often have a stirring apparatus, as
indicated in the figure; whereby the contents can be thoroughly mixed
with the yeast and kept in motion. This is not necessary after the
fermentation is once well established, but it is advisable, especially
in the early stages, to keep the yeast well distributed throughout the
mass. In these tanks the fermentations are conducted, the temperature
being varied according to the nature of the product to be made. For
industrial alcohol the sole purpose should be to secure the largest
possible percentage of alcohol without reference to its palatable
properties.

An organism belonging to the vegetable family and to which the name
“yeast” has been given is the active agent in fermentation. The
organism itself does not take a direct part in the process, but it
secretes another ferment of an unorganized character known as an
“enzym” or a “diastase.” This enzym has the property, under proper
conditions of food, temperature, and dilution, of acting upon sugar and
converting it into alcohol and carbonic acid. Anyone who has ever seen
a fermenting vat in full operation and noticed the violent boiling
or ebullition of the liquor, can understand how rapidly the gas “carbon
dioxide” or “carbonic acid,” as it is usually called, may be formed, as
it is the escape of this gas which gives the appearance to the tank of
being in a violent state of ebullition. The yeast which produces the
fermentation belongs to the same general family as the ordinary yeast
which is used in the leavening of bread. The leavening of bread under
the action of yeast is due to the conversion of the sugar in the dough
into alcohol and carbon dioxide or carbonic acid. The gas thus formed
becomes entangled in the particles of the gluten, and these expanding
cause the whole mass to swell or “rise,” as it is commonly expressed.
Starch cannot be directly fermented, but must be first converted into
sugar, either by the action of a chemical like an acid, or a ferment or
enzym, known as diastase, which is one of the abundant constituents of
malt, especially of barley malt. In the preparation of a cereal, for
instance, for fermentation, it is properly softened and ground, and
then usually heated with water to the boiling point or above in order
that the starch may be diffused throughout the water. After cooling, it
is treated with barley malt, the diastase of which acts vigorously upon
the starch, converting it into a form of sugar, namely, maltose, which
lends itself readily to the activities of the yeast fermentation. (Fig.
4.)

[Illustration: Fig. 4.—YEAST FROM BEER SEDIMENT SHOWING BUDDING (×
1270).]

When ordinary sugar (cane sugar, beet sugar, and sucrose) is subjected
to fermentation it is necessary that the yeast, which also exerts an
activity similar to that of malt, should first convert the cane sugar
into invert sugar (equal mixtures of dextrose and levulose) before
the alcoholic fermentation is set up. The cane sugar is also easily
inverted by heating with an acid.

When different kinds of sugars and starches are fermented for the
purpose of making a beverage it is important that the temperature
of fermentation be carefully controlled, since the character of the
product depends largely upon the temperature at which the fermentation
takes place. On the contrary, when industrial alcohol is made, the sole
object is to get as large a yield as possible, and for this reason
that temperature should be employed which produces the most alcohol
and the least by-products, irrespective of the flavor or character of
the product made. Also, in the making of alcoholic beverages, it is
important that the malt be of the very best quality in {677} order that
the resulting product may have the proper flavor. In the production of
alcohol for industrial purposes this is of no consequence, and the sole
purpose here should be to produce the largest possible yield. For this
reason there is no objection to the use of acids for converting the
starch, cane sugar, and cellulose into fermentable sugars. Therefore,
the heating of the raw materials under pressure with dilute acids
in order to procure the largest quantity of sugar is a perfectly
legitimate method of procedure in the manufacture of industrial
alcohols.

Sugars and starches are usually associated in nature with another
variety of carbohydrates known as cellulose, and this cellulose itself,
when acted upon by an acid, is converted very largely into sugars,
which, on fermentation, yield alcohol. For industrial purposes, the
alcohol produced in this manner is just as valuable as that made from
sugar and starch. Whether the diastatic method of converting the
starch and sugar into fermentable sugars be used, or the acid method,
is simply a question of economy and yield. On the other hand, when
alcoholic beverages are to be made, those processes must be employed,
irrespective of the magnitude of the yield, which give the finest and
best flavors to the products.

_Distillation._—The object of distillation is to separate the alcohol
which has been formed from the non-volatile substances with which it
is mixed. A typical form of distilling apparatus for the concentration
of the dilute alcohol which is formed in the beer or wash from the
fermentation tanks, is represented in Fig. 5.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.—CONTINUOUS DISTILLING APPARATUS.]

This apparatus is of the continuous type common to Europe and America.
It consists of a “beer still” provided with a number of chambers
fitted with perforated plates and suitable overflow pipes. It is
operated as follows:

The syrup and alcohol are pumped into the top of the beer still through
a pipe _G_; the tank _G_ may also be placed above the center of the
still and the contents allowed to flow into the still by gravity;
steam is admitted through an open pipe into the kettle _A_ at the
bottom of the column or is produced by heating the spent liquor by
means of a coil. The steam ascends through the perforations in the
plates, becoming richer and richer in alcohol as it passes through
each layer of liquor, while the latter gradually descends by means of
the overflow pipes to the bottom of the column _B_ and finally reaches
the kettle completely exhausted of alcohol, whence it is removed by
means of a pump connected with the pipe line _H_. On reaching the top
of the beer still _B_ the vapors of the alcohol and the steam continue
to rise and pass into the alcohol column _C_. This column is also
divided into chambers, but by solid instead of perforated plates, as
shown at _K_. Each chamber is provided with a return or overflow pipe
and an opening through which the vapors ascend. In the alcohol column
the vapors are so directed as to pass through a layer of {678} liquid
more or less rich in alcohol which is retained by the plate separating
the compartments. An excess of liquids in these compartments overflows
through the down pipes, gradually works its way into the beer still,
and thence to the kettle. On reaching the top of the column the vapors,
which have now become quite rich in alcohol, are passed into a coil
provided with an outlet at the lowest part of each bend. These outlets
lead into the return pipe _P_, which connects with the top chamber of
the alcohol column. This coil is technically termed the “goose” and is
immersed in a tank called the “goose tub.” A suitable arrangement is
provided for controlling the temperature of the water in the tub by
means of outlet and inlet water pipes. When the still is in operation
the temperature of the “goose” is regulated according to the required
density of the alcohol. The object of the “goose” is the return to the
column of all low products which condense at a temperature below the
boiling point of ethyl alcohol of the desired strength. On leaving the
“goose” the vapors enter a condenser _E_, whence the liquid alcohol is
conducted into a separator _F_. This separator consists simply of a
glass box provided with a cylinder through which a current of alcohol
is constantly flowing. An alcohol spindle is inserted in this cylinder
and shows the density of the spirit at all times. A pipe, with a
funnel-shaped opening at its upper extremity, connects with the pipe
leading from the condenser and gives vent to any objectionable fumes.
The separator is connected by means of a pipe with the alcohol storage
tank. The pipe _O_ is for emptying the upper chambers when necessary.
The valves _N_, communicating by means of a small pipe with a condenser
_M_, are for testing the vapors in the lower chambers for alcohol.


«Substances Used for Denaturing Alcohol.»—The process of rendering
alcohol unsuitable for drinking is called “denaturing,” and consists,
essentially, in adding to the alcohol a substance soluble therein of
a bad taste or odor, or both, of an intensity which would render it
impossible or impracticable to use the mixture as a drink. Among the
denaturing substances which have been proposed are the following:

Gum shellac (with or without the addition of camphor, turpentine,
wood spirit, etc.), colophonium, copal rosin, Manila gum, camphor,
turpentine, acetic acid, acetic ether, ethylic ether, methyl alcohol
(wood alcohol), pyridine, acetone, methyl acetate, methyl violet,
methylene blue, aniline blue, eosin, fluorescein, naphthalene, castor
oil, benzine, carbolic acid, caustic soda, musk, animal oils, etc.

Methyl (wood) alcohol and benzine are the denaturing agents authorized
in the United States, in the following proportions: To 100 parts, by
volume, of ethyl alcohol (not less than 90 per cent strength) add 10
parts of approved methyl (wood) alcohol and 1⁠/⁠2 of 1 part of approved
benzine. Such alcohol is classed as completely denatured. Formulas for
special denaturation may be submitted for approval by manufacturers to
the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, who will determine whether they
may be used or not, and only one special denaturant will be authorized
for the same class of industries unless it shall be shown that there
is good reason for additional special denaturants. Not less than 300
wine gallons can be withdrawn from a bonded warehouse at one time for
denaturing purposes.


«Spirit.»—Proof spirit is a term used by the revenue department in
assessing the tax on alcoholic liquors. It means a liquid in which
there is 50 per cent (by volume) of absolute alcohol. As it is the
actual alcohol in the whisky, brandy, dilute alcohol, etc., which is
taxed, and as this varies so widely, it is necessary that the actual
wine gallons be converted into proof gallons before the tax rate can
be fixed. A sample that is half alcohol and half water (let us say for
convenience) is “100 proof.” A sample that is 3⁠/⁠4 alcohol and 1⁠/⁠4
water is 150 proof, and the tax on every gallon of it is 1 1⁠/⁠2 times
the regular government rate per proof gallon. Absolute alcohol is 200
proof and has to pay a double tax.

The legal definition of proof spirit is, “that alcoholic liquor which
contains one-half its volume of alcohol of a specific gravity of 0.7939
at 60° F.”


«SPONGES:»


«Bleaching Sponges.»—I.—Soak in dilute hydrochloric acid to remove the
lime, then wash in water, and place for 10 minutes in a 2 per cent
solution of potassium permanganate. The brown color on removal from
this solution is due to the deposition of manganous oxide, and this may
be removed by steeping for a few minutes in very dilute sulphuric acid.
As soon as the sponges appear white, they are washed out in water to
remove the acid.

II.—A sponge that has been used in {679} surgical operations or for
other purposes, should first be washed in warm water, to every quart of
which 20 drops of liquor of soda have been added; afterwards washed in
pure water, wrung or pressed out and put into a jar of bromine water,
where it is left until bleached. Bleaching is accelerated by exposing
the vessel containing the bromine water to the direct rays of the sun.
When the sponge is bleached it is removed from the bromine water, and
put for a few minutes in the water containing soda lye. Finally it is
rinsed in running water until the odor of bromine disappears. It should
be dried as rapidly as possible by hanging it in the direct sunlight.


«Sterilization of Sponges.»—I.—Allow the sponges to lie for 24 hours
in an 8 per cent hydrochloric acid solution, to eliminate lime and
coarse impurities; wash in clean water, and place the sponges in a
solution of caustic potash, 10 parts; tannin, 10 parts; and water,
1,000 parts. After they have been saturated for 5 to 20 minutes with
this liquid, they are washed out in sterilized water or a solution of
carbolic acid or corrosive sublimate, until they have entirely lost the
brown coloring acquired by the treatment with tannin. The sponges thus
sterilized are kept in a 2 per cent or 15 per cent carbolic solution.


«Sponge Window Display.»—Soak a large piece of coarse sponge in water,
squeeze half dry, then sprinkle in the openings red clover seed,
millet, barley, lawn grass, oats, rice, etc. Hang this in the window,
where the sun shines a portion of the day, and sprinkle lightly with
water daily. It will soon form a mass of living green vegetation very
refreshing to the eyes. While the windows are kept warm this may be
done at any season. The seeds used may be varied, according to fancy.

SPONGES AS FILTERS: See Filters.

SPONGE CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under
Miscellaneous Methods.

SPONGE-TRICK, BURNING: See Pyrotechnics.

SPOT ERADICATORS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods and Soaps.

SPOT GILDING: See Plating.

SPRAY SOLUTION: See Balsams.

SPEARMINT CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

SPRAIN WASHES: See Veterinary Formulas.

SPRING CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

SPRING HARDENING: See Steel.

SPRINGS OF WATCHES: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

SPRUCE BEER: See Beverages.

STAIN REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

STAINS: See Paints, Varnishes and Wood Stains.

STAINS FOR LACQUERS: See Lacquers.


«Stamping»

(See also Dyes.)


«Stamping Colors for Use with Rubber Stamps.»—Blue: 0.3 parts of
water-blue 1 B, 1.5 parts of dextrin, 1.5 parts of distilled water.
Dissolve the aniline dye and the dextrin in the distilled water, over a
water bath, and add 7 parts of refined glycerine, 28° Bé.

Other colors may be made according to the same formula, substituting
the following quantities of dyes for the water-blue: Methyl violet 3
B, 0.02 parts; diamond fuchsine I, 0.02 parts; aniline green D, 0.04
parts; vesuvine B, 0.05 parts; phenol black, 0.03 parts. Oleaginous
colors are mostly used for metallic stamps, but glycerine colors can be
used in case of necessity.


«Oleaginous Stamping Colors.»—Mix 0.8 parts of indigo, ground fine
with 2.5 parts of linseed-oil varnish, and 0.5 parts of olein. Add
2 parts of castor oil and 5 parts of linseed oil. For other colors
according to the same formula, use the following quantities: Cinnabar,
2 1⁠/⁠2 parts; verdigris, 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts; lampblack, 1.2 parts;
oil-soluble aniline blue A, 0.35 parts; oil-soluble aniline scarlet
B, 0.3 parts; aniline yellow (oil-soluble), 0.45 parts; oil-soluble
aniline black L, 0.6 parts.


«Stamping Liquids and Powders.»—Dissolve 1 drachm each of rosin
and copal {680} in 4 fluidounces of benzine and with a little of
this liquid triturate 1⁠/⁠2 drachm of Prussian blue and finally mix
thoroughly with the remainder.

Ultramarine, to which has been added a small proportion of powdered
rosin, is generally used for stamping embroidery patterns on white
goods. The powder is dusted through the perforated pattern, which is
then covered with a paper and a hot iron passed over it to melt the
rosin and cause the powder to adhere to the cloth. The following are
said to be excellent powders:

I.—White.—One part each of rosin, copal, damar, mastic, sandarac,
borax, and bronze powder, and 2 parts white lead.

II.—Black.—Equal parts of rosin, damar, copal, sandarac, Prussian blue,
ivory black, and bronze powder.

III.—Blue.—Equal parts of rosin, damar, copal, sandarac, Prussian blue,
ultramarine, and bronze powder.

In all these powders the gums are first to be thoroughly triturated and
mixed by passing through a sieve, and the other ingredients carefully
added. Other colors may be made by using chrome yellow, burnt or raw
sienna, raw or burnt umber, Vandyke brown, etc. For stamping fabrics
liable to be injured by heat, the stamping is done by moistening a
suitable powder with alcohol and using it like a stencil ink.


«Stamping Powder for Embroideries.»—“Stamping powders” used for
outlining embroidery patterns are made by mixing a little finely
powdered rosin with a suitable pigment. After dusting the powder
through the perforated pattern it is fixed on the fabric by laying
over it a piece of paper and then passing a hot iron carefully over the
paper. By this means the rosin is melted and the mixture adheres. When
white goods are to be “stamped,” ultramarine is commonly used as the
pigment; for dark goods, zinc white may be substituted. Especial care
should be taken to avoid lead compounds and other poisonous pigments,
as they may do mischief by dusting off. On velvets or other materials
likely to be injured by heat, stamping is said to be done by moistening
a suitable powder with alcohol and using it as stencil paint. A small
addition of rosinous matter would seem required here also.


«Starch»


«Black Starch.»—Add to the starch a certain amount of logwood extract
before the starch mixture is boiled. The quantity varies according to
the depth of the black and the amount of starch. A small quantity of
potassium bichromate dissolved in hot water is used to bring out the
proper shade of black. In place of bichromate, black iron liquor may be
used. This comes ready prepared.


«Starch Gloss.»—I.—Melt 2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of the best paraffine wax over
a slow fire. When liquefied remove from the fire to stir in 100 drops
of oil of citronella. Place several new pie tins on a level table, coat
them slightly with sweet oil, and pour about 6 tablespoonfuls of the
melted paraffine wax into each tin. The pan may be floated in water
sufficiently to permit the mixture to be cut or stamped out with a tin
cutter into small cakes about the size of a peppermint lozenge. Two
of these cakes added to each pint of starch will cause the smoothing
iron to impart the finest possible finish to muslin or linen, besides
perfuming the clothes.

 II.—Gum arabic, powdered    3 parts
      Spermaceti wax          6 parts
      Borax, powdered         4 parts
      White cornstarch        8 parts

All these are to be intimately mixed in the powder form by sifting
through a sieve several times. As the wax is in a solid form and does
not readily become reduced to powder by pounding in a mortar, the
best method of reducing it to such a condition is to put the wax into
a bottle with some sulphuric or rectified ether and then allow the
fluid to evaporate. After it has dissolved the wax, as the evaporation
proceeds, the wax will be deposited again in the solid form, but in
fine thin flakes, which will easily break down to a powder form when
rubbed up with the other ingredients in a cold mortar. Pack in paper or
in cardboard boxes. To use, 4 teaspoonfuls per pound of dry starch are
to be added to all dry starch, and then the starch made in the usual
way as boiled starch.


«Refining of Potato Starch.»—A suitable quantity of chloride of lime,
fluctuating according to its quality between 1⁠/⁠2 to 1 part per 100
parts of starch, is made with little water into a thick paste. To this
paste add gradually with constant stirring 10 to 15 times the quantity
of water, and filter.

The filtrate is now added to the starch stirred up with water; 1⁠/⁠2
part of ordinary {681} hydrochloric acid of 20° Bé. previously diluted
with four times the quantity of water is mixed in, for every part of
chloride of lime, the whole is stirred thoroughly, and the starch
allowed to stand.

When the starch has settled, the supernatant water is let off and
the starch is washed with fresh water until all odor of chlorine has
entirely disappeared. The starch now obtained is the resulting final
product.

If the starch thus treated is to be worked up into dextrin, it is
treated in the usual manner with hydrochloric acid or nitric acid and
will then furnish a dextrin perfectly free from taste and smell.

In case the starch is to be turned into “soluble” starch proceed as
usual, in a similar manner as in the production of dextrin, with the
single difference that the starch treated with hydrochloric or nitric
acid remains exposed to a temperature of 212° F., only until a test
with tincture of iodine gives a bluish-violet reaction. The soluble
starch thus produced, which is clearly soluble in boiling water, is
odorless and tasteless.


«Starch Powder.»—Finely powdered starch is a very desirable absorbent,
according to Snively, who says that for toilet preparations it is
usually scented by a little otto or sachet powder. Frangipanin powder,
used in the proportion of 1 part to 30 of the starch, he adds, gives a
satisfactory odor.

STARCHES: See Laundry Preparations.

STARCH IN JELLY, TESTS FOR: See Foods.

STARCH PASTE: See Adhesives.

STATUE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

STATUETTES, CLEANING OF: See Plaster.

STATUETTES OF LIPOWITZ METAL: See Alloys.


«Steel»

(See also Iron and Metals.)


«ANNEALING STEEL:»

See also Hardening Steel and Tempering Steel.

This work requires the use of substances which yield their carbon
readily and quickly to the tools on contact at a high temperature.
Experience has shown that the best results are obtained by the use of
yellow blood-lye salt (yellow prussiate of potash), which, when brought
in contact with the tool at a cherry-red heat, becomes fluid, and in
this condition has a strong cementing effect. The annealing process
is as follows: The tool is heated to a cherry red and the blood-lye
salt sprinkled over the surface which is to be annealed. A fine sieve
should be used, to secure an even distribution of the substance. The
tool is then put back into the fire, heated to the proper temperature
for tempering, and tempered. If it is desired to give a higher or
more thorough tempering to iron or soft steel, the annealing process
is repeated 2 or 3 times. The surface of the tool must, of course, be
entirely free from scale. Small tools to which it is desired to impart
a considerable degree of hardness by annealing with blood-lye salt are
tempered as follows: Blood-lye salt is melted in an iron vessel over
a moderate fire, and the tool, heated to a brown-red heat, placed in
the melted salt, where it is allowed to remain for about 15 minutes.
It is then heated to the hardening temperature and hardened. A similar
but milder effect is produced in small, thin tools by making them
repeatedly red hot, immersing them slowly in oil or grease, reheating
them, and finally tempering them in water. To increase the effect,
soot or powdered charcoal is added to the oil or grease (train oil)
till a thick paste is formed, into which the red-hot tool is plunged.
By this means the tool is covered with a thick, not very combustible,
coating, which produces a powerful cementation at the next heating.
By mixing flour, yellow blood-lye salt, saltpeter, horn shavings, or
ground hoofs, grease, and wax, a paste is formed which serves the same
purpose. A choice may be made of any of the preparations sold as a
“hardening paste”; they are all more or less of the same composition.
This is a sample: Melt 500 grains of wax, 500 grains tallow, 100 grains
rosin, add a mixture of leather-coal, horn shavings, and ground hoofs
in equal parts till a paste is formed, then add 10 grains saltpeter and
50 to 100 grains powdered yellow blood-lye salt, and stir well. The
tools are put into this paste while red hot, allowed to cool in it,
then reheated and tempered.

More steel is injured, and sometimes spoiled, by over-annealing than in
any other way. Steel heated too hot in annealing will shrink badly when
being hardened; besides, it takes the life out of it. It should never
be heated above a {682} low cherry red, and it should be a lower heat
than it is when being hardened. It should be heated slowly and given a
uniform heat all over and through the piece.

This is difficult to do in long bars and in an ordinary furnace. The
best way to heat a piece of steel, either for annealing or hardening,
is in red-hot, pure lead. By this method it is done uniformly, and one
can see the color all the time. Some heating for annealing is done in
this way: Simply cover up the piece in sawdust, and let it cool there,
and good results will be obtained.

Good screw threads cannot be cut in steel that is too soft. Soft
annealing produces a much greater shrinkage and spoils the lead of the
thread.

This mixture protects the appearance of polished or matted steel
objects on heating to redness: Mix 1 part of white soap, 6 parts of
chemically pure boracic acid, and 4 parts of phosphate of soda, after
pulverizing, and make with water into a paste. For use, apply this to
the article before the annealing.


«COLORING STEEL:»


«Black.»—I.—Oil or wax may be employed on hard steel tools; with both
methods the tool loses more or less of its hardness and the blacking
process therefore is suited only for tools which are used for working
wood or at least need not be very hard, at any rate not for tools which
are employed for working steel or cast iron. The handsomest glossy
black color is obtained by first polishing the tool neatly again after
it as been hardened in water, next causing it to assume on a grate or
a hot plate the necessary tempering color, yellow, violet blue, etc.,
then dipping it in molten, not too hot, yellow wax and burning off the
adhering wax, after withdrawal, at a fire, without, however, further
heating the tool. Finally dip the tool again into the wax and repeat
the burning off at the flame until the shade is a nice lustrous black,
whereupon the tool may be cooled off in water. The wax is supposed to
impart greater toughness to the tool. It is advisable for all tools
to have a trough of fat ready, which has been heated to the necessary
tempering degree, and the tools after hardening in water are suspended
in the fat until they have acquired the temperature of the fat bath.
When the parts are taken out and slowly allowed to cool, they will be a
nice, but not lustrous, black.

II.—The following has been suggested for either steel or iron:

 Bismuth chloride      1 part
 Mercury bichloride    2 parts
 Copper chloride       1 part
 Hydrochloric acid     6 parts
 Alcohol               5 parts
 Water sufficient to make 64 parts.

Mix. As in all such processes a great deal depends upon having the
article to be treated absolutely clean and free from grease. Unless
this is the case uniform results are impossible. The liquid may be
applied with a swab, or a brush, but if the object is small enough to
dip into the liquid better results may thus be obtained than in any
other way. The covering thus put on is said to be very lasting, and a
sure protection against oxidation.


«Blue.»—I.—Heat an iron bar to redness and lay it on a receptacle
filled with water. On this bar place the objects to be blued, with the
polished side up. As soon as the article has acquired the desired color
cause it to fall quickly into the water. The pieces to be blued must
always previously be polished with pumice stone or fine emery.

II.—For screws: Take an old watch barrel and drill as many holes into
the head of it as the number of screws to be blued. Fill it about
one-fourth full of brass or iron filings, put in the head, and then fit
a wire long enough to bend over for a handle, into the arbor holes—head
of the barrel upward. Brighten the heads of the screws, set them, point
downward, into the holes already drilled, and expose the bottom of the
barrel to the lamp, until the screws assume the color you wish.

III.—To blue gun-barrels, etc., dissolve 2 parts of crystallized
chloride of iron; 2 parts solid chloride of antimony; 1 part gallic
acid in 4 or 5 parts of water; apply with a small sponge, and let dry
in the air. Repeat this two or three times, then wash with water, and
dry. Rub with boiled linseed oil to deepen the shade. Repeat this until
satisfied with the result.

IV.—The bluing of gun barrels is effected by heating evenly in a muffle
until the desired blue color is raised, the barrel being first made
clean and bright with emery cloth, leaving no marks of grease or dirt
upon the metal when the bluing takes place, and then allow to cool in
the air. It requires considerable experience to obtain an even clear
blue.


«Brown.»—I.—The following recipe for browning is from the United States
Ordnance Manual: Spirits of wine, 1 1⁠/⁠2 {683} ounces; tincture of
iron, 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; corrosive sublimate, 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; sweet
spirits of niter, 1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; blue vitriol, 1 ounce; nitric acid,
3⁠/⁠4 ounce. Mix and dissolve in 1 quart of warm water and keep in a
glass jar. Clean the barrel well with caustic soda water to remove
grease or oil. Then clean the surface of all stains and marks with
emery paper or cloth, so as to produce an even, bright surface for the
acid to act upon, and one without finger marks. Stop the bore and vent
with wooden plugs. Then apply the mixture to every part with a sponge
or rag, and expose to the air for 24 hours, when the loose rust should
be rubbed off with a steel scratch brush. Use the mixture and the
scratch brush twice, and more if necessary, and finally wash in boiling
water, dry quickly, and wipe with linseed oil or varnish with shellac.

II.—Apply four coats of the following solution, allowing each several
hours to dry. Brush after each coat if necessary. After the last coat
is dry, rub down hard.

 Sulphate of copper        1 ounce
 Sweet spirits of niter    1 ounce
 Distilled water           1 pint


«Niello.»—This is a brightly polished metal, which is provided with a
black or blue-black foundation by heating, is covered with a design by
the use of a suitable matrix and then treated with hydrochloric acid
in such a manner that only the black ground is attacked, the metal
underneath remaining untouched. Next, the acid is rinsed off and the
reserve is removed with suitable solvents. The parts of the metal bared
by the acid may also be provided with a galvanic coating of silver or
other metal.

Another method is to plunge the articles for a few minutes into a
solution of oxalic acid and to clean them by passing them through
alcohol. In this way the polish can even be brought back without the
use of rouge or diamantine.


«Whitening or Blanching.»—If dissatisfied with the color acquired
in tempering, dip the article into an acid bath, which whitens it,
after which the bluing operation is repeated. This method is of great
service, but it is important to remember always thoroughly to wash
after the use of acid and then allow the object to remain for a few
minutes in alcohol. Sulphuric acid does not whiten well, often leaving
dark shades on the surface. Hydrochloric acid gives better results.
Small pieces of steel are also whitened with a piece of pith moistened
with dilute sulphuric acid, else the fine steel work, such as a watch
hand, is fixed with lacquer on a plate and whitened by means of pith
and polishing rouge, or a small stiff brush is charged with the same
material. It is then detached by heating and cleaned in hot alcohol.


«TEMPERING STEEL.»

The best temperature at which to quench in the tempering of tool steel
is the one just above the transformation point of the steel, and this
temperature may be accurately determined in the following manner,
without the use of a pyrometer. The pieces of steel are introduced
successively at equal intervals of time into a muffle heated to a
temperature a little above the transformation point of the steel. If,
after a certain time, the pieces be taken out in the reverse order they
will at first show progressively increasing degrees of brightness,
these pieces being at the transformation point. When this point is
passed the pieces again rapidly acquire a brightness superior to that
of their neighbors, and should then be immediately quenched.

I.—Heat red hot and dip in an unguent made of mercury and the fat of
bacon. This produces a remarkable degree of hardness and the steel
preserves its tenacity and an elasticity which cannot be obtained by
other means.

II.—Heat to the red white and thrust quickly into a stick of sealing
wax. Leave it a second, and then change it to another place, and
so continue until the metal is too cool to penetrate the wax. To
pierce with drills hardened in this way, moisten them with essence of
turpentine.


«To Temper Small Coil Springs and Tools.»—To temper small coil springs
in a furnace burning wood the springs are exposed to the heat of the
flame and are quenched in a composition of the following preparation:
To a barrel of fish oil, 10 quarts of rosin and 12 quarts of tallow are
added. If the springs tempered in this mixture break, more tallow is
added, but if the break indicates brittleness of the steel rather than
excessive hardness, a ball of yellow beeswax about 6 inches in diameter
is added. The springs are drawn to a reddish purple by being placed on
a frame having horizontally radiating arms like a star which is mounted
on the end of a vertical rod. The springs are laid on the star and are
lowered into a pot of melted lead, being held there for such time as is
required to draw to the desired color.

It is well known that the addition of {684} certain soluble substances
powerfully affects the action of tempering water. This action is
strengthened if the heat-conducting power of the water is raised by
means of these substances; it is retarded if this power is reduced,
or the boiling point substantially lowered. The substance most
frequently used for the purpose of increasing the heat-conducting
power of tempering water is common salt. This is dissolved in varying
proportions of weight, a saturated solution being generally used as a
quenching mixture. The use of this solution is always advisable when
tools of complicated shape, for which a considerable degree of hardness
is necessary, are to be tempered in large quantities or in frequent
succession. In using these cooling fluids, care must be taken that a
sufficient quantity is added to the water to prevent any great rise of
temperature when the tempering process is protracted. For this reason
the largest possible vessels should be used, wide and shallow, rather
than narrow and deep, vessels being selected. Carbonate of soda and
sal ammoniac do not increase the tempering action to the same extent
as common salt, and are therefore not so frequently employed, though
they form excellent additions to tempering water in certain cases.
Tools of very complicated construction, such as fraises, where the
danger of fracture of superficial parts has always to be kept in view,
can with advantage be tempered in a solution of soda or sal ammoniac.
Acids increase the action of tempering water considerably, and to a far
greater extent than common salt. They are added in quantities up to 2
per cent, and frequently in combination with salts. Organic acids (e.
g., acetic or citric) have a milder action than mineral acids (e. g.,
hydrochloric, nitric, or sulphuric). Acidulous water is employed in
tempering tools for which the utmost degree of hardness is necessary,
such as instruments for cutting exceptionally hard objects, or when
a sufficiently hard surface has to be given to a kind of steel not
capable of much hardening. Alcohol lowers the boiling point of water,
and causes so vigorous an evaporation when the water comes in contact
with the red-hot metal, that the tempering is greatly retarded (in
proportion to the amount of alcohol in the mixture). Water containing
a large quantity of alcohol will not temper. Soap and soap suds will
not temper steel; this property is made use of in the rapid cooling
of steel for which a great degree of hardness is not desirable. When
certain parts of completely tempered steel have to be rendered soft,
these parts are heated to a red heat and then cooled in soap suds.
This is done with the tangs of files, knives, swords, saws, etc.
Soluble organic substances retard the tempering process in proportion
to the quantity used, and thus lessen the effect of pure water. Such
substances (e. g., milk, sour beer, etc.) are employed only to a
limited extent.


«To Caseharden Locally.»—In casehardening certain articles it is
sometimes necessary, or desirable, to leave spots or sections in the
original soft uncarbonized condition while the remainder is carbonized
and hardened. This may be effected by first covering the parts to be
hardened with a protecting coat of japan, and allowing it to dry.
Then put the piece in an electroplating bath and deposit a heavy coat
of nickel over the parts not protected by the japan. The piece thus
prepared may be treated in the usual manner in casehardening. The coat
of nickel prevents the metal beneath being carbonized, so it does not
harden when dipped in the bath.

A plating of copper answers the same purpose as nickel and is often
used. A simpler plan, where the shape of the piece permits, is to
protect it from the action of the carbonizing material with an iron
pipe or plate closely fitted or luted with clay. Another scheme is to
machine the parts wanted soft after carbonizing but before hardening.
By this procedure the carbonized material is removed where the metal is
desired soft, and when heated and dipped these parts do not harden.


«To Harden a Hammer.»—To avoid the danger of “checking” a hammer at
the eye, heat the hammer to a good uniform hardening heat and then dip
the small end almost up to the eye and cool as quickly as possible by
moving about in the hardening bath; then dip the large end. To harden a
hammer successfully by this method one must work quickly and cool the
end dipped first enough to harden before the heat is lost on the other
end. Draw the temper from the heat left about the eye. The result is a
hammer hard only where it should be and free from “checks.”


«Hardening Steel Wire.»—Pass the steel wire through a lead bath heated
to a temperature of 1,200° to 1,500° F. after it has previously been
coated with a paste of chalk, so as to prevent the formation {685} of
oxides. The wire is thus heated in a uniform manner and, according to
whether it is desired hard or elastic, it is cooled in water or in oil.


«Hardening of Springs.»—A variety of steel must be chosen which is
suitable for the production of springs, a very tough quality with about
0.8 per cent of carbon being probably the best. Any steel works of
good reputation would no doubt recommend a certain kind of steel. In
shaping a spring, forging and hammering should be avoided if possible.
In forging, an uneven treatment can scarcely be avoided; one portion
is worked more than the other, causing tensions which, especially in
springs, must be guarded against. It is most advantageous if a material
of the thickness and shape of the spring can be obtained, which, by
bending and pressing through, is shaped into the desired spring. Since
this also entails slight tension, a careful annealing is advisable, so
as to prevent cracking or distorting in hardening. The annealing is
best conducted with exclusion of the air, by placing the springs in a
sheet-iron box provided with a cover, smearing all the joints well up
with loam. The heating may be done in a muffled furnace; the box, with
contents, is, not too slowly, heated to cherry red and then allowed
to cool gradually, together with the stove. The springs must only be
taken out when they have cooled off enough that they will give off no
hissing sound when touched by water. In order to uniformly heat the
springs for hardening, a muffle furnace is likewise employed, wherein
they are heated to cherry-red heat. For cooling liquid, a mixture of
oil, tallow, and petroleum is employed. A mass consisting of fish oil,
tallow, and wax also renders good service, but one should see to it
that there is a sufficient quantity of these cooling liquids, so that
the springs may be moved about, same as when cooled in water, without
causing an appreciable increase in the temperature of the liquid.
In most cases too small a quantity of the liquid is responsible for
the many failures in hardening. When the springs have cooled in the
hardening liquid, they are taken out, dried off superficially, and the
oil still adhering is burned off over a charcoal fire. This enables one
to moderate the temper according to the duration of the burning off
and to produce the desired elasticity. An even heating being of great
importance in hardening springs, the electric current has of late been
successfully employed for this purpose.


«To Temper a Tap.»—After the tap has been cut and finished heat it in
a pair of tongs to a blood-red heat over a charcoal fire or the blue
flame of a Bunsen burner or blow pipe, turning it around so that one
point does not get heated before another. Have ready a pail of clean,
cold water, into which a handful of common salt has been put. Stir the
water in the pail so that a whirlpool is set up. Then plunge the tap,
point first and vertically, into the vortex to cool. The turning of
the tap during heating, as well as the swirl of the quenching water,
prevents distortion. In tempering, the temper of the tap requires to
be drawn to a light straw color, and this may be done as follows: Get
a piece of cast-iron tube about 3 inches in diameter and heat it to a
dull-red heat for about 4 inches of its length. Then hold the tap, with
the tongs, up the center of the tube, meanwhile turning the tap around
until the straw color appears all over it. Then dip the tap in the
water, when it will be found perfectly hard. The depth of the color,
whether light or dark straw, must be determined by the nature of the
cast steel being used, which can be gained only from experience of the
steel.


«Scissors Hardening.»—The united legs of the scissors are uniformly
heated to a dark cherry red, extending from the point to the screw or
rivet hole. This may be done in the naked fire, a feeble current of
air being admitted until the steel commences to glow. Then the fire is
left to itself and the scissor parts are drawn to and fro in the fire,
until all the parts to be hardened show a uniform dark cherry red. The
two legs are hardened together in water and then tempered purple red to
violet.

The simultaneous heating, hardening, and tempering of the parts
belonging together is necessary, so that the degree of heat is the same
and the harder part does not cut the softer one.

In accordance with well-known rules, the immersion in the hardening
bath should be done with the point first, slowly and vertically up to
above the riveting hole.


«Hardening without Scaling.»—Articles made of tool steel and polished
may be hardened without raising a scale, thereby destroying the polish,
by the following method: Prepare equal parts in bulk of common salt
and (fine) corn meal, well mixed. Dip the article to be hardened first
into water, then into the mixture and place it carefully into the fire.
When hot enough to melt the mixture, take from {686} the fire and dip
or roll in the salt and meal, replace in the fire and bring to the
required heat for hardening. Watch the piece closely and if any part
of it shows signs of getting dry, sprinkle some of the mixture on it.
The mixture, when exposed to heat, forms a flux over the surface of the
steel which excludes the air and prevents oxidation, and when cooled in
water or oil comes off easily, leaving the surface as smooth as before
heating. Borax would possibly give the same result, but is sometimes
difficult to remove when cold.


«Hardening with Glycerine.»—I.—The glycerine employed must be of the
density of 1.08 to 1.26 taken at the temperature of 302° F. Its weight
must be equal to about 6 times the weight of the pieces to be tempered.
For hard temper add to the glycerine 1⁠/⁠4 to 4 per cent of sulphate
of potash or of manganese, and for soft temper 1 to 10 per cent of
chloride of manganese, or 1 to 4 per cent of chloride of potassium. The
temperature of the tempering bath is varied according to the results
desired.

II.—Glycerine, 8,000 parts, by weight; cooking salt, 500 parts, by
weight; sal ammoniac, 100 parts, by weight; concentrated hydrochloric
acid, 50 parts; and water, 10,000 parts, by weight. Into this liquid
the steel, heated, for example, to a cherry red, is dipped. A reheating
of the steel is not necessary.


«To Remove Burnt Oil from Hardened Steel.»—To remove excess oil
from parts that have been hardened in oil, place the articles in a
small tank of gasoline, which, when exposed to the air, will dry off
immediately, allowing the part to be polished and tempered without the
confusing and unsightly marks of burnt oil.


«VARIOUS RECIPES:»


«To Put an Edge on Steel Tools.»—Aluminum will put an edge on fine
cutting instruments such as surgical knives, razors, etc. It acts
exactly like a razor-hone of the finest quality. When steel is rubbed
on the aluminum, as, for instance, in honing a knife blade, the metal
disintegrates, forming an infinitely minute powder of a greasy unctuous
quality that clings to steel with great tenacity and thus assists in
cutting away the surface of the harder metal. So fine is the edge
produced that it can in no wise be made finer by the strop, which used
in the ordinary way merely tends to round the edge.


«To Restore Burnt Steel.»—To restore burnt cast steel heat the piece to
a red heat and sprinkle over it a mixture of 8 parts red chromate of
potassium; 4 parts saltpeter; 1⁠/⁠8 part aloes; 1⁠/⁠8 part gum arabic;
and 1⁠/⁠4 part rosin.


«To Remove Strains in Metal by Heating.»—In making springs of piano
wire, or, in fact, any wire, if the metal is heated to a moderate
degree the spring will be improved. Piano or any steel wire should be
heated to a blue, brass wire to a degree sufficient to cause tallow to
smoke. Heating makes the metal homogeneous; before heating, it is full
of strains.

If a piece of metal of any kind is straightened cold and then put
into a lathe and a chip turned off, it will be far from true. Before
turning, it was held true by the strain of the particles on the
outside, they having changed position, while the particles near the
axis are only sprung. The outside particles being removed by the lathe
tool, the sprung particles at the center return to their old positions.
If, after straightening, the metal is heated to a temperature of
400° F., the particles settle together and the strains are removed.

This is the case in the manufacture of saws. The saw is first hardened
and tempered and then straightened on an anvil by means of a hammer.
After it is hammered true, it is ground and polished a little, then
blued to stiffen it and then is subjected to the grinding process.
Before bluing, the metal is full of strains; these are entirely removed
by the heat required to produce the blue color. Often a piano-wire
spring will not stand long wear if used without heating, while if
heated it will last for years.


«To Render Fine Cracks in Tools Visible.»—It is often of importance to
recognize small cracks which appear in the metal of the tools. For
this purpose it is recommended to moisten the fissured surface with
petroleum; next rub and dry with a rag and rub again, but this time
with chalk. The petroleum which has entered the cracks soon comes out
again and the trace is plainly shown by the chalk.


«To Utilize Drill Chips.»—There is one modern machining process that
produces a shaving that has more value than that of mere scrap, and
that is drilling rifle barrels with the oil-tube drill. The cutting
edge of this drill is broken up into steps and the chips produced
are literally shavings, being long hair-like threads of steel. These
shavings are considerably used in woodworking factories for smoothing
purposes. {687}


«To Remove Fragments of Steel from Other Metals.»—The removal of broken
spiral drills and taps is an operation which even the most skillful
machinist has to perform at times. A practical process for removing
such broken steel pieces consists in preparing in a suitable kettle
(not iron) a solution of 1 part, by weight, of commercial alum in 4 to
5 parts, by weight, of water and boiling the object in this solution
until the piece which is stuck works itself out. Care must be taken to
place the piece in such a position that the evolving gas bubbles may
rise and not adhere to the steel to protect it from the action of the
alum solution.


«Testing Steel.»—A bar of the steel to be tested is provided with
about nine notches running around it in distances of about 5⁠/⁠8 of an
inch. Next, the foremost notched piece is heated in a forge in such a
manner that the remaining portion of the bar is heated less by the fire
proper than by the transmitted heat. When the foremost piece is heated
to burning, i. e., to combustion, and the color of the succeeding
pieces gradually passes to dark-brownish redness, the whole rod is
hardened. A test with the file will now show that the foremost burned
piece possesses the greatest hardness, that several softer pieces will
follow, and that again a piece ordinarily situated in the second third,
whose temperature was the right one for hardening, is almost as hard as
the first one. If the different pieces are knocked off, the fracture
of the piece hardened at the correct temperature exhibits the finest
grain. This will give one an idea of the temperature to be employed for
hardening the steel in question and its behavior in general. Very hard
steel will readily crack in this process.


«Welding Compound.»—Boracic acid, 41 1⁠/⁠2 parts; common salt 35 parts;
ferrocyanide of potassium, 20 parts; rosin, 7 1⁠/⁠2 parts; carbonate of
sodium, 4 parts. Heat the pieces to be welded to a light-red heat and
apply the compound; then heat to a strong yellow heat and the welding
may be accomplished in the usual manner.

The precaution should be observed, the same as with any of the
cyanides, to avoid breathing the poisonous fumes.


«Softening Steel.»—Heat the steel to a brown red and plunge into soft
water, river water being the best. Care should be taken, however, not
to heat over brown red, otherwise it will be hard when immersed. The
steel will be soft enough to be cut with ease if it is plunged in the
water as soon as it turns red.


«Draw-Tempering Cast Steel.»—First heat the steel lightly by means of
charcoal until of a cherry-red shade, whereupon it is withdrawn to be
put quickly into ashes or dry charcoal dust until completely cooled.
The steel may also be heated in the forge to a red cherry color, then
hammered until it turns blue and then plunged into water.


«Drilling Hard Steel.»—To accomplish the object quickly, a drill of
cast steel should be made, the point gradually heated to the red, the
scales taken off, and the extremity of the point immersed at once in
quicksilver; then the whole quenched in cold water. Thus prepared,
the drill is equal to any emergency; it will bore through the hardest
pieces. The quantity of quicksilver needed is trifling.


«Engraving or Etching on Steel.»—Dissolve in 150 parts of vinegar,
sulphate of copper, 30 parts; alum, 8 parts; kitchen salt, 11 parts.
Add a few drops of nitric acid. According to whether this liquid is
allowed to act a longer or shorter time, the steel may be engraved
upon deeply or the surface may be given a very ornamental, frosted
appearance.


«To Distinguish Steel from Iron.»—Take a very clean file and file over
the flame of an alcohol lamp. If the filed piece is made of steel,
little burning and crackling sparks will be seen. If it consists of
iron, the sparks will not crackle.

STEEL, BROWNING OF: See Plating.

STEEL, DISTINGUISHING IRON FROM: See Iron.

STEEL ETCHING: See Etching.

STEEL-HARDENING POWDER: See Iron.

STEEL, OXIDIZED: See Plating.

STEEL PLATING: See Plating.

STEEL POLISHES: See Polishes.

STEEL, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods. {688}

STENCILS FOR PLOTTING LETTERS OF SIGN PLATES: See Enameling.

STENCIL INKS: See Inks.


«STEREOCHROMY.»

Stereochromatic colors can be bought ground in a thickly liquid
water-glass solution. They are only diluted with water-glass solution
before application on the walls. The two solutions are generally
slightly dissimilar in their composition, the former containing less
silicic acid, but more alkali, than the latter, which is necessary
for the better preservation of the paint. Suitable pigments are zinc
white, ocher with its different shades of light yellow, red, and dark
brown, black consisting of a mixture of manganese and lampblack,
etc., etc. White lead cannot be used, as it coagulates with the water
glass, nor vermilion, because it fades greatly under the action of
the light. The plastering to be coated must be porous, not fresh, but
somewhat hardened. Otherwise the caustic lime of the plaster will
quickly decompose the water glass. This circumstance may account for
the unsatisfactory results which have frequently been obtained with
water-glass coatings. Before applying the paint the wall should first
be impregnated with a water-glass solution. The colors may be kept
on hand ground, but must be protected from contact with the air. If
air is admitted a partial separation of silica in the form of a jelly
takes place. Only pure potash water glass, or, at least, such as only
contains little soda, should be used, as soda will cause efflorescence.

STEREOPTICON SLIDES: See Photography.

STEREOTYPE METAL: See Alloys.


«STONE, ARTIFICIAL.»

The following is a process of manufacture in which the alkaline
silicates prepared industrially are employed.

The function of the alkaline silicates, or soluble glass, as
constituents of artificial stone, is to act as a cement, forming with
the alkaline earths, alumina, and oxide of lead, insoluble silicates,
which weld together the materials (quartz sand, pebbles, granite,
fluorspar, and the waste of clay bricks). The mass may be colored black
by the addition of a quantity of charcoal or graphite to the extent of
10 per cent at the maximum, binoxide of manganese, or ocher; red, by
6 per cent of colcothar; brick red, by 4 to 7 per cent of cinnabar;
orange, by 6 to 8 per cent of red lead; yellow, by 6 per cent of yellow
ocher, or 5 per cent of chrome yellow; green, by 8 per cent of chrome
green; blue, by 6 to 10 per cent of Neuwied blue, Bremen blue, Cassel
blue, or Napoleon blue; and white, by 20 per cent, at the maximum, of
zinc white.

Chrome green and zinc oxide produce an imitation of malachite. An
imitation of lapis lazuli is obtained by the simultaneous employment
of Cassel blue and pyrites in grains. The metallic oxides yield the
corresponding silicates, and zinc oxide, mixed with cleansed chalk,
yields a brilliant marble. The ingredients are mixed in a kind of
mechanical kneading trough, furnished with stirrers, in variable
proportions, according to the percentage of the solution of alkaline
silicate. The whole is afterwards molded or compressed by the ordinary
processes.

The imitation of granite is obtained by mixing lime, 100 parts; sodium
silicate (42° Bé.), 35 parts; fine quartz sand, 120 to 180 parts; and
coarse sand, 180 to 250 parts.

Artificial basalt may be prepared by adding potassium sulphite and lead
acetate, or equal parts of antimony ore and iron filings.

To obtain artificial marble, 100 pounds of marble dust or levigated
chalk are mixed with 20 parts of ground glass and 8 parts of fine
lime and sodium silicate. The coloring matter is mixed in proportion
depending on the effect to be produced.

A fine product for molding is obtained by mixing alkaline silicate, 100
parts; washed chalk, 100 parts; slaked lime, 40 parts; quick lime, 40
parts, fine quartz sand, 200 parts; pounded glass, 80 parts; infusorial
earths, 80 parts; fluorspar, 150 parts. On hardening, there is much
contraction.

Other kinds of artificial stone are prepared by mixing hydraulic lime
or cement, 50 parts; sand, 200 parts; sodium silicate, in dry powder,
50 parts; the whole is moistened with 10 per cent of water and molded.

A hydraulic cement may be employed, to which an alkaline silicate is
added. The stone or object molded ought to be covered with a layer of
fluosilicate. {689}

A weather-proof water-resisting stone is manufactured from sea mud, to
which 5 per cent of calcic hydrate is added. The mass is then dried,
lixiviated, and dried once more at 212° F., whereupon the stones are
burned. By an admixture of crystallized iron sulphate the firmness of
these stones is still increased.


«Sand-Lime Brick.»—In a French patent for making bricks from pitch and
coal tar, powdered coke and sea sand are gently heated in a suitable
vessel, and 20 per cent of pitch and 10 per cent of coal tar added,
with stirring. The pasty mass obtained is then molded under pressure.
The product obtained may be employed alone, or together with a
framework of iron, or with hydraulic lime or cement.

According to a French patent for veining marble, etc., in one or more
colors, coloring matters of all kinds are mixed with a sticky liquid,
which is then spread in a very thin layer on the surface of another
immiscible and heavier liquid. By agitating the surface, colored
veins, etc., are obtained, which are then transferred to the object
to be decorated (which may be of most varied kind) by applying it to
the surface of the heavy liquid. A suitable composition with which
the colors may be mixed consists of: Oil of turpentine, 100 parts;
colophony, 10 parts; linseed oil, 10 parts; _siccatif soleil_, 5 parts.
The heavy liquid may be water, mercury, etc.; and any colors, organic
or mineral, may be used.


«CONCRETE.»

Concrete is the name applied to an artificial combination of various
mineral substances which under chemical action become incorporated
into a solid mass. There are one or two compositions of comparatively
trifling importance which receive the same name, though differing
fundamentally from true concrete, their solidification being
independent of chemical influence. These compositions only call for
passing mention; they are: _Tar concrete_, made of broken stones
(macadam) and tar; _iron concrete_, composed of iron turnings, asphalt,
bitumen, and pitch; and _lead concrete_, consisting of broken bricks
set in molten lead. The last two varieties, with rare exceptions,
are only used in connection with military engineering, such as for
fortifications.

Concrete proper consists essentially of two groups or classes of
ingredients. The first, termed the _aggregate_, is a heterogeneous
mass, in itself inactive, of mineral material, such as shingle, broken
stone, broken brick, gravel, and sand. These are the substances most
commonly in evidence, but other ingredients are also occasionally
employed, such as slag from iron furnaces. Burnt clay, in any form,
and earthenware, make admirable material for incorporation. The second
class constitutes the active agency which produces adhesion and
solidification. It is termed the matrix, and consists of hydraulic lime
or cement, combined with water.

One of the essential features in good concrete is cleanliness and an
entire absence of dirt, dust, greasy matter, and impurities of any
description. The material will preferably be sharp and angular, with
a rough, porous surface, to which the matrix will more readily adhere
than to smooth, vitreous substances. The specific gravity of the
aggregate will depend upon the purpose for which the concrete is to be
used. For beams and lintels, a light aggregate, such as coke breeze
from gasworks, is permissible, especially when the work is designed to
receive nails. On the other hand, for retaining walls, the heaviest
possible aggregate is desirable on the ground of stability.

The aggregate by no means should be uniform in size. Fragments of
different dimensions are most essential, so that the smaller material
may fill up the interstices of the larger. It is not infrequently
stipulated by engineers that no individual fragment shall be more than
4 inches across, and the material is often specified to pass through a
ring 1 1⁠/⁠2 to 2 inches in diameter. The absolute limits to size for
the aggregate, however, are determinable by a number of considerations,
not the least important of which is the magnitude and bulk of the work
in which it is to be employed. The particles of sand should also be of
varying degrees of coarseness. A fine, dust-like sand is objectionable;
its minute subdivision prevents complete contact with the cement on all
its faces. Another desideratum is that the particles should not be too
spherical, a condition brought about by continued attrition. Hence, pit
sand is better in many cases than river sand or shore sand.

The matrix is almost universally Portland cement. It should not be used
in too hot a condition, to which end it is usually spread over a wooden
floor to a depth of a few inches, for a few days prior to use. By
this means, the aluminate of lime becomes partially hydrated, and its
activity is thereby modified. {690} Roman cement and hydraulic lime may
also be used as matrices.

Portland cement will take a larger proportion of sand than either Roman
cement or hydraulic lime; but with the larger ratios of sand, its
tenacity is, of course, correspondingly reduced. One part of cement to
4 parts of sand should therefore be looked upon as the upper limit,
while for the strongest mortar the proportion need hardly exceed 1 part
of cement to 1 1⁠/⁠2 or 2 parts of sand. In the ensuing calculations
there is assumed a ratio of 1 to 3. For impermeability, the proportion
of 1 to 2 should be observed, and for Roman cement this proportion
should never be exceeded. The ratio will even advantageously be limited
to 2 to 3. For hydraulic lime equal parts of sand and cement are
suitable, though 2 parts of sand to 1 part of cement may be used.

The quantity of mortar required in reference to the aggregate is based
on the vacuities in the latter. For any particular aggregate the amount
of empty space may be determined by filling a tank of known volume
with the minerals and then adding sufficient water to bring to a level
surface. The volume of water added (provided, of course, the aggregate
be impervious or previously saturated) gives the net volume of mortar
required. To this it is necessary to make some addition (say 10 per
cent of the whole), in order to insure the thorough flushing of every
part of the work.

Assuming that the proportion of interstices is 30 per cent and adding
10 for the reason just stated, we derive 40 parts as the quantity of
mortar to 100 − 10 = 90 parts of the aggregate. An allowance of 1⁠/⁠4
volume for shrinkage brings the volume of the dry materials (sand and
cement) of the mortar to 40 + 40⁠/⁠3 = 53 1⁠/⁠3 parts, which, divided
in the ratio of 1 to 3, yields:


 Cement (53 1⁠/⁠3)⁠/⁠4 =    13 1⁠/⁠3 parts
 Sand, 3⁠/⁠4 x 53 1⁠/⁠3 =       40 parts
 Aggregate                  90 parts
                       ───────
 Total                 143 1⁠/⁠3 parts

As the resultant concrete is 100 parts, the total shrinkage is 30 per
cent. Expressed in terms of the cement, the concrete would have a
composition of 1 part cement, 3 parts sand, 7 parts gravel and broken
stone, and it would form, approximately, what is commonly known as 7 to
1 concrete.

There are other ratios depending on the proportion of sand. Thus we
have:

 Cement   Sand    Aggregate
   1      1 1⁠/⁠2    4 1⁠/⁠3
   1      2        5
   1      2 1⁠/⁠2    6
   1      3        7
   1      3 1⁠/⁠2    7 1⁠/⁠2
   1      4        8 1⁠/⁠4

The cost of concrete may be materially reduced without affecting
the strength or efficacy of the work, by a plentiful use of stone
“plums” or “burrs.” These are bedded in the fluid concrete during its
deposition _in situ_, but care must be taken to see that they are
thoroughly surrounded by mortar and not in contact with each other.
Furthermore, if they are of a porous nature, they should be well wetted
before use.

The mixing of concrete is important. If done by hand, the materials
forming the aggregate will be laid out on a platform and covered by the
cement in a thin layer. The whole should be turned over thrice in the
dry state, and as many times wet, before depositing, in order to bring
about thorough and complete amalgamation. Once mixed, the concrete is
to be deposited immediately and allowed to remain undisturbed until the
action of setting is finished. Deposition should be effected, wherever
possible, without tipping from a height of more than about 6 feet,
as in greater falls there is a likelihood of the heavier portions of
the aggregate separating from the lighter. In extensive undertakings,
concrete is more economically mixed by mechanical appliances.

The water used for mixing may be either salt or fresh, so far as the
strength of the concrete is concerned. For surface work above the
ground level, salinity in any of the ingredients is objectionable,
since it tends to produce efflorescence—an unsightly, floury deposit,
difficult to get rid of. The quantity of water required cannot be
stated with exactitude; it will depend upon the proportion of the
aggregate and its porosity. It is best determined by experiment in each
particular case. Without being profuse enough to “drown” the concrete,
it should be plentiful enough to act as an efficient intermediary
between every particle of the aggregate and every particle of the
matrix. Insufficient moisture is, in fact, as deleterious as an excess.


«Voids.»—The strength of concrete depends greatly upon its density, and
this is secured by using coarse material which contains the smallest
amount of voids or empty spaces. Different kinds of sand, {691}
gravel, and stone vary greatly in the amount of voids they contain,
and by judiciously mixing coarse and fine material the voids may be
much reduced and the density increased. The density and percentage of
voids in concrete material may be determined by filling a box of 1
cubic foot capacity and weighing it. One cubic foot of solid quartz or
limestone, entirely free from voids, would weigh 165 pounds, and the
amount by which a cubic foot of any loose material falls short of this
weight represents the proportion of voids contained in it. For example,
if a cubic foot of sand weighs 115 1⁠/⁠2 pounds, the voids would be
49 1⁠/⁠2-165ths of the total volume, or 30 per cent.

The following table gives the per cent of voids and weight per cubic
foot of some common concrete materials:

                                           Per
                                           Cent      Wt. per
                                           Voids     Cu. Ft.
 Sandusky Bay sand                         32.3    111.7 pounds
 Same through 20-mesh screen               38.5    101.5 pounds
 Gravel, 1⁠/⁠8 to 1⁠/⁠4 inch                   42.4     95.0 pounds
 Broken limestone, egg-size                47.0     87.4 pounds
 Limestone screenings, dust to 1⁠/⁠2 inch    26.0    122.2 pounds

It will be noted that screening the sand through a 20-mesh sieve, and
thus taking out the coarse grains, considerably increased the voids
and reduced the weight; thus decidedly injuring the sand for making
concrete.

The following figures show how weight can be increased and voids
reduced by mixing fine and coarse material:

                                             Per
                                             Cent       Wt. per
                                            Voids       Cu. Ft.
 Pebbles, about 1 inch                       38.7    101.2 pounds
 Sand, 30 to 40 mesh                         35.9    105.8 pounds
 Pebbles plus 38.7 per cent sand, by vol.    19.2    133.5 pounds

Experiments have shown that the strength of concrete increases greatly
with its density; in fact, a slight increase in weight per cubic foot
adds very decidedly to the strength.

The gain in strength obtained by adding coarse material to mixtures
of cement and sand is shown in the following table of results of
experiments made in Germany by R. Dykerhoff. The blocks tested were
2 1⁠/⁠2-inch cubes, 1 day in air and 27 days in water.

 ──────────────────────────+─────────+────────────
  Proportions by Measure.  │  Per    │ Compression
                           │  Cent.  │  Strength.
                           │ Cement. │
 ────────+───────+─────────+─────────+────────────
 Cement. │ Sand. │ Gravel. │   By    │  Lbs. per
         │       │         │ Volume. │   Sq. In.
 ────────+───────+─────────+─────────+────────────
    1    │   2   │   —     │   33.0  │    2,125
    1    │   2   │   5     │   12.5  │    2,387
    1    │   3   │   —     │   25.0  │    1,383
    1    │   3   │   6 1⁠/⁠2 │    9.5  │    1,515
    1    │   4   │   —     │   20.0  │    1,053
    1    │   4   │   8 1⁠/⁠2 │    7.4  │    1,204
 ────────+───────+─────────+─────────+────────────

These figures show how greatly the strength is improved by adding
coarse material, even though the proportion of cement is thereby
reduced. A mixture of 1 to 12 1⁠/⁠2 of properly proportioned sand and
gravel is, in fact, stronger than 1 to 4, and nearly as strong as 1 to
3, of cement and sand only.

In selecting materials for concrete, those should be chosen which give
the greatest density. If it is practicable to mix two materials, as
sand and gravel, the proportion which gives the greatest density should
be determined by experiment, and rigidly adhered to in making concrete,
whatever proportion of cement it is decided to use. Well-proportioned
dry sand and gravel or sand and broken stone, well shaken down, should
weigh at least 125 pounds per cubic foot. Limestone screenings, owing
to minute pores in the stone itself, are somewhat lighter, though
giving equally strong concrete. They should weigh at least 120 pounds
per cubic foot. If the weight is less, there is probably too much fine
dust in the mixture.

The density and strength of concrete are also greatly improved by use
of a liberal amount of water. Enough water must be used to make the
concrete thoroughly soft and plastic, so as to quake strongly when
rammed. If mixed too dry it will never harden properly, and will be
light, porous, and crumbling.

Thorough mixing of concrete materials is essential, to increase the
density and give the cement used a chance to produce its full strength.
The cement, sand, and gravel should be intimately mixed dry, then the
water added and the mixing continued. If stone or coarse gravel is
added, this should be well wetted and thoroughly mixed with the mortar.


«Materials for Concrete Building Blocks.»—In the making of building
blocks the spaces to be filled with concrete are generally too narrow
to permit the use of very coarse material, and the {692} blockmaker is
limited to gravel or stone not exceeding 1⁠/⁠2 or 3⁠/⁠4 inch in size.
A considerable proportion of coarse material is, however, just as
necessary as in other kinds of concrete work, and gravel or screenings
should be chosen which will give the greatest possible density. For
good results, at least one-third of the material, by weight, should be
coarser than 1⁠/⁠8 inch. Blocks made from such gravel or screenings, 1
to 5, will be found as good as 1 to 3 with sand only. It is a mistake
to suppose that the coarse fragments will show on the surface; if the
mixing is thorough this will not be the case. A moderate degree of
roughness or variety in the surface of blocks is, in fact, desirable,
and would go far to overcome the prejudice which many architects hold
against the smooth, lifeless surface of cement work. Sand and gravel
are, in most cases, the cheapest material to use for block work. The
presence of a few per cent of clay or loam is not harmful provided the
mixing is thorough. Stone screenings, if of good quality, give fully
as strong concrete as sand and gravel, and usually yield blocks of
somewhat lighter color. Screenings from soft stone should be avoided,
also such as contain too much dust. This can be determined from the
weight per cubic foot, and by a sifting test. If more than two-thirds
pass 1⁠/⁠8 inch, and the weight (well jarred down) is less than 120
pounds, the material is not the best.

Cinders are sometimes used for block work; they vary greatly in
quality, but if clean and of medium coarseness will give fair results.
Cinder concrete never develops great strength, owing to the porous
character and crushability of the cinders themselves. Cinder blocks
may, however, be strong enough for many purposes, and suitable for work
in which great strength is not required.


«Lime.»—It is well known that slaked lime is a valuable addition to
cement mortar, especially for use in air. In sand mixtures, 1 to 4 or 1
to 5, at least one-third of the cement may be replaced by slaked lime
without loss of strength. The most convenient form of lime for use in
block-making is the dry-slaked or hydrate lime, now a common article of
commerce. This is, however, about as expensive as Portland cement, and
there is no great saving in its use. Added to block concrete, in the
proportion of 1⁠/⁠4 to 1⁠/⁠2 the cement used, it will be found to make
the blocks lighter in color, denser, and decidedly less permeable by
water.


«Cement.»—Portland cement is the only hydraulic material to be
seriously considered by the blockmaker. Natural and slag cements and
hydraulic lime are useful for work which remains constantly wet, but
greatly inferior in strength and durability when exposed to dry air.
A further advantage of Portland cement is the promptness with which
it hardens and develops its full strength; this quality alone is
sufficient to put all other cements out of consideration for block work.


«Proportions.»—There are three important considerations to be
kept in view in adjusting the proportions of materials for block
concrete—strength, permeability, and cost. So far as strength goes, it
may easily be shown that concretes very poor in cement, as 1 to 8 or 1
to 10, will have a crushing resistance far beyond any load that they
may be called upon to sustain. Such concretes are, however, extremely
porous, and absorb water like a sponge. The blocks must bear a certain
amount of rough handling at the factory and while being carted to
work and set up in the wall. Safety in this respect calls for a much
greater degree of hardness than would be needed to bear the weight of
the building. Again, strength and hardness, with a given proportion of
cement, depend greatly on the character of the other materials used;
blocks made of cement and sand, 1 to 3, will not be so strong or so
impermeable to water as those made from a good mixed sand and gravel,
1 to 5. On the whole, it is doubtful whether blocks of satisfactory
quality can be made, by hand mixing and tamping, under ordinary factory
conditions, from a poorer mixture than 1 to 5. Even this proportion
requires for good results the use of properly graded sand and gravel or
screenings, a liberal amount of water, and thorough mixing and tamping.
When suitable gravel is not obtainable, and coarse mixed sand only is
used, the proportion should not be less than 1 to 4. Fine sand alone is
a very bad material, and good blocks cannot be made from it except by
the use of an amount of cement which would make the cost very high.

The mixtures above recommended, 1 to 4 and 1 to 5, will necessarily be
somewhat porous, and may be decidedly so if the gravel or screenings
used is not properly graded. The water-resisting qualities may be
greatly improved, without loss of strength, by replacing a part of the
cement by hydrate lime. This is a light, extremely fine material, and
a given weight of it goes much further than the {693} same amount of
cement in filling the pores of the concrete. It has also the effect
of making the wet mixture more plastic and more easily compacted by
ramming, and gives the finished blocks a lighter color.

The following mixtures, then, are to be recommended for concrete
blocks. By “gravel” is meant a suitable mixture of sand and gravel, or
stone screenings, containing grains of all sizes, from fine to 1⁠/⁠2
inch.

1 to 4 Mixtures, by Weight.

 Cement, 150 parts; gravel, 600 parts.

 Cement, 125 parts; hydrated lime, 25 parts; gravel, 600 parts.

 Cement, 100 parts; hydrated lime, 50 parts; gravel, 600 parts.

1 to 5 Mixtures, by Weight.

 Cement, 120 parts; gravel, 600 parts.

 Cement, 100 parts; hydrated lime, 20 parts; gravel, 600 parts.


«Proportion of Water.»—This is a matter of the utmost consequence, and
has more effect on the quality of the work than is generally supposed.
Blocks made from too dry concrete will always remain soft and weak,
no matter how thoroughly sprinkled afterwards. On the other hand, if
blocks are to be removed from the machine as soon as made, too much
water will cause them to stick to the plates and sag out of shape. It
is perfectly possible, however, to give the concrete enough water for
maximum density and first-class hardening properties, and still to
remove the blocks at once from the mold. A good proportion of coarse
material allows the mixture to be made wetter without sticking or
sagging. Use of plenty of water vastly improves the strength, hardness,
and waterproof qualities of blocks, and makes them decidedly lighter in
color. The rule should be:

Use as much water as possible without causing the blocks to stick to
the plates or to sag out of shape on removing from the machine.

The amount of water required to produce this result varies with the
materials used, but is generally from 8 to 9 per cent of the weight
of the dry mixture. A practiced blockmaker can judge closely when
the right amount of water has been added, by squeezing some of the
mixture in the hand. Very slight variations in proportion of water make
such a marked difference in the quality and color of the blocks that
the water, when the proper quantity for the materials used has been
determined, should always be accurately measured out for each batch. In
this way much time is saved and uncertainty avoided.


«Facing.»—Some blockmakers put on a facing of richer and finer mixture,
making the body of the block of poorer and coarser material. As will
be explained later, the advantage of the practice is, in most cases,
questionable, but facings may serve a good purpose in case a colored or
specially waterproof surface is required. Facings are generally made
of cement and sand, or fine screenings, passing a 1⁠/⁠8-inch sieve.
To get the same hardness and strength as a 1 to 5 gravel mixture, at
least as rich a facing as 1 to 3 will be found necessary. Probably 1
to 2 will be found better, and if one-third the cement be replaced by
hydrate lime the waterproof qualities and appearance of the blocks will
be improved. A richer facing than 1 to 2 is liable to show greater
shrinkage than the body of the block, and to adhere imperfectly or
develop hair-cracks in consequence.


«Poured Work.»—The above suggestions on the question of proportions of
cement, sand, and gravel for tamped blocks apply equally to concrete
made very wet, poured into the mold, and allowed to harden a day or
longer before removing. Castings in a sand mold are made by the use of
very liquid concrete; sand and gravel settle out too rapidly from such
thin mixtures, and rather fine limestone screenings are generally used.


«Mixing.»—To get the full benefit of the cement used it is necessary
that all the materials shall be very thoroughly mixed together. The
strength of the block as a whole will be only as great as that of its
weakest part, and it is the height of folly, after putting a liberal
measure of cement, to so slight the mixing as to get no better result
than half as much cement, properly mixed, would have given. The poor,
shoddy, and crumbly blocks turned out by many small-scale makers owe
their faults chiefly to careless mixing and use of too little water,
rather than to too small proportion of cement.

The materials should be mixed dry, until the cement is uniformly
distributed and perfectly mingled with the sand and gravel or
screenings; then the water is to be added and the mixing continued
until all parts of the mass are equally moist and every particle is
coated with the cement paste.


«Concrete Mixers.»—Hand mixing is always imperfect, laborious, and
slow, {694} and it is impossible by this method to secure the thorough
stirring and kneading action which a good mixing machine gives. If a
machine taking 5 or 10 horse-power requires 5 minutes to mix one-third
of a yard of concrete, it is of course absurd to expect that two men
will do the same work by hand in the same time. And the machine never
gets tired or shirks if not constantly urged, as it is the nature of
men to do. It is hard to see how the manufacture of concrete blocks
can be successfully carried on without a concrete mixer. Even for a
small business it will pay well in economy of labor and excellence of
work to install such a machine, which may be driven by a small electric
motor or gasoline engine. In work necessarily so exact as this,
requiring perfectly uniform mixtures and use of a constant percentage
of water, batch mixers, which take a measured quantity of material,
mix it, and discharge it, at each operation, are the only satisfactory
type, and continuous mixers are unsuitable. Those of the pug-mill
type, consisting of an open trough with revolving paddles and bottom
discharge, are positive and thorough in their action, and permit the
whole operation to be watched and controlled. They should be provided
with extensible arms of chilled iron, which can be lengthened as the
ends become worn.


«Concrete Block Systems.»—For smaller and less costly buildings,
_separate blocks_, made at the factory and built up into the walls
in the same manner as brick or blocks of stone, are simpler, less
expensive, and much more rapid in construction than monolithic work.
They also avoid some of the faults to which solid concrete work, unless
skillfully done, is subject, such as the formation of shrinkage cracks.

There are two systems of block making, differing in the consistency of
the concrete used:

1. Blocks tamped or pressed from semi-wet concrete, and removed at once
from the mold.

2. Blocks poured or tamped from wet concrete, and allowed to remain in
the mold until hardened.


«Tamped Blocks from Semi-Wet Mixture.»—These are practically always
made on a block machine, so arranged that as soon as a block is formed
the cores and side plates are removed and the block lifted from the
machine. By far the larger part of the blocks on the market are made in
this way. Usually these are of the one-piece type, in which a single
block, provided with hollow cores, makes the whole thickness of the
wall. Another plan is the _two-piece_ system, in which the face and
back of the wall are made up of different blocks, so lapping over each
other as to give a bond and hold the wall together. Blocks of the
two-piece type are generally formed in a hand or hydraulic press.

Various shapes and sizes of blocks are commonly made; the builders of
the most popular machines have, however, adopted the standard length
of 32 inches and height of 9 inches for the full-sized block, with
thickness of 8, 10, and 12 inches. Lengths of 24, 16, and 8 inches are
also obtained on the same machines by the use of parting plates and
suitably divided face plates; any intermediate lengths and any desired
heights may be produced by simple adjustments or blocking off.

Blocks are commonly made plain, rock-faced, tool-faced, paneled, and of
various ornamental patterns. New designs of face plates are constantly
being added by the most progressive machine makers.


«Block Machines.»—There are many good machines on the market, most
of which are of the same general type, and differ only in mechanical
details. They may be divided into two classes: those with vertical
and those with horizontal face. In the former the face plate stands
vertically, and the block is simply lifted from the machine on its
base plate as soon as tamped. In the other type the face plate forms
the bottom of the mold; the cores are withdrawn horizontally, and by
the motion of a lever the block with its face plate is tipped up into
a vertical position for removal. In case it is desired to put a facing
on the blocks, machines of the horizontal-face type are considered
the more convenient, though a facing may easily be put on with the
vertical-face machine by the use of a parting plate.


«Blocks Poured from Wet Concrete.»—As already stated, concrete made
too dry is practically worthless, and an excess of water is better
than a deficiency. The above-described machine process, in which
blocks are tamped from damp concrete and at once removed, gives blocks
of admirable hardness and quality if the maximum of water is used. A
method of making blocks from very wet concrete, by the use of a large
number of separable molds of sheet steel, into which the wet concrete
is poured and in which the blocks are left to harden for 24 {695} hours
or longer, has come into considerable use. By this method blocks of
excellent hardening and resistance to water are certainly obtained.
Whether the process is the equal of the ordinary machine method in
respect of economy and beauty of product must be left to the decision
of those who have had actual experience with it.

The well-known cast-stone process consists in pouring liquid concrete
mixture into a sand mold made from a pattern in a manner similar to
that in which molds for iron castings are produced. The sand absorbs
the surplus water from the liquid mixture, and the casting is left in
the mold for 24 hours or longer until thoroughly set. This process
necessitates the making of a new sand mold for every casting, and
is necessarily much less rapid than the machine method. It is less
extensively used for building blocks than for special ornamental
architectural work, sills, lintels, columns, capitals, etc., and for
purposes of this kind it turns out products of the highest quality and
beauty.


«Tamping of Concrete Blocks.»—This is generally done by means of hand
rammers. Pneumatic tampers, operated by an air compressor, are in use
at a few plants, apparently with considerable saving in time and labor
and improvements in quality of work. Hand tamping must be conscientious
and thorough, or poor work will result. It is important that the mold
should be filled a little at a time, tamping after each addition; at
least four fillings and tampings should be given to each block. If
the mixture is wet enough no noticeable layers will be formed by this
process.


«Hardening and Storage.»—Triple-decked cars to receive the blocks from
the machines will be found a great saving of labor, and are essential
in factories of considerable size. Blocks will generally require to
be left on the plates for at least 24 hours, and must then be kept
under roof, in a well-warmed room, with frequent sprinkling, for not
less than 5 days more. They may then be piled up out of doors, and
in dry weather should be wetted daily with a hose. Alternate wetting
and drying is especially favorable for the hardening of cement,
and concrete so treated gains much greater strength than if kept
continuously in water or dry air.

Blocks should not be used in building until at least 4 weeks from the
time they are made. During this period of seasoning, blocks will be
found to shrink at least 1⁠/⁠16 inch in length, and if built up in a
wall when freshly made, shrinkage cracks in the joints or across the
blocks will surely appear.

Efflorescence, or the appearance of a white coating on the surfaces,
sometimes takes place when blocks are repeatedly saturated with water
and then dried out; blocks laid on the ground are more liable to show
this defect. It results from diffusion of soluble sulphates of lime and
alkalies to the surface. It tends to disappear in time, and rarely is
sufficient in amount to cause any complaint.


«Properties of Concrete Blocks»—Strength.—In the use of concrete blocks
for the walls of buildings, the stress to which they are subjected is
almost entirely one of compression. In compressive strength well-made
concrete does not differ greatly from ordinary building stone. It
is difficult to find reliable records of tests of sand and gravel
concrete, 1 to 4 and 1 to 5, such as is used in making blocks; the
following figures show strength of concrete of approximately this
richness, also the average of several samples each of well-known
building stones, as stated by the authorities named:

 Limestone, Bedford, Ind. (Indiana Geographical Survey)    7,792 pounds
 Limestone, Marblehead, Ohio (Q. A. Gillmore)              7,393 pounds
 Sandstone, N. Amherst, Ohio (Q. A. Gillmore)              5,831 pounds
 Gravel concrete, 1:1.6:2.8, at 1 year (Candlot)           5,500 pounds
 Gravel concrete, 1:1.6:3.7, at 1 year (Candlot)           5,050 pounds
 Stone concrete, 1:2:4 at 1 year (Boston El. R. R.)        3,904 pounds

Actual tests of compression strength of hollow concrete blocks are
difficult to make, because it is almost impossible to apply the load
uniformly over the whole surface, and also because a block 16 inches
long and 8 inches wide will bear a load of 150,000 to 200,000 pounds,
or more than the capacity of any but the largest testing machines.
Three one-quarter blocks, 8 inches long, 8 inches wide, and 9 inches
high, with hollow space equal to one-third of the surface, tested at
the Case School of Science, showed strengths of 1,805, 2,000, and {696}
1,530 pounds per square inch, respectively, when 10 weeks old.

Two blocks 6 x 8 x 9 inches, 22 months old, showed crushing strength
of 2,530 and 2,610 pounds per square inch. These blocks were made of
cement 1 1⁠/⁠4 parts, lime 1⁠/⁠2 part, sand and gravel 6 parts, and
were tamped from damp mixture. It is probably safe to assume that the
minimum crushing strength of well-made blocks, 1 to 5, is 1,000 pounds
per square inch at 1 month and 2,000 pounds at 1 year.

A block 12 inches wide and 24 inches long has a total surface of 288
square inches, or, deducting 1⁠/⁠3 for openings, a net area of 192
inches. Such a block, 9 inches high, weighs 130 pounds. Assuming a
strength of 1,000 pounds and a factor of safety of 5, the safe load
would be 200 pounds per square inch, or 200 × 192 = 38,400 pounds for
the whole surface of the block. Dividing this by the weight of the
block, 130 pounds, we find that 295 such blocks could be placed one
upon another, making a total height of wall of 222 feet, and still the
pressure on the lowest block would be less than one-fifth of what it
would actually bear. This shows how greatly the strength of concrete
blocks exceeds any demands that are ever made upon it in ordinary
building construction.

The safe load above assumed, 200 pounds, seems low enough to guard
against any possible failure. In Taylor and Thompson’s work on
concrete, a safe load of 450 pounds for concrete 1 to 2 to 4 is
recommended; this allows a factor of safety of 5 1⁠/⁠2. On the other
hand, the Building Code of the city of Cleveland permits concrete to
be loaded only to 150 pounds per square inch, and limits the height of
walls of 12-inch blocks to 44 feet. The pressure of such a wall would
be only 40 pounds per square inch; adding the weight of two floors at
25 pounds per square foot each, and roof with snow and wind pressure,
40 pounds per square foot, we find that with a span of 25 feet the
total weight on the lowest blocks would be only 52 pounds per square
inch, or about one-twentieth of their minimum compression strength.

Blocks with openings equal to only one-third the surface, as required
in many city regulations, are heavy to handle, especially for walls
12 inches and more in thickness, and, as the above figures show, are
enormously stronger than there is any need of. Blocks with openings of
50 per cent would be far more acceptable to the building trade, and if
used in walls not over 44 feet high, with floors and roof calculated as
above for 25 feet span, would be loaded only to 56 pounds per square
inch of actual surface. This would give a factor of safety of 18,
assuming a minimum compression strength of 1,000 pounds.

There is no doubt that blocks with one-third opening are inconveniently
and unnecessarily heavy. Such a block, 32 inches long, 12 inches wide,
and 9 inches high, has walls about 3 1⁠/⁠2 inches thick, and weighs
180 pounds. A block with 50 per cent open space would have walls and
partitions 2 inches in thickness, and would weigh about 130 pounds.
With proper care in manufacture, especially by using as much water as
possible, blocks with this thickness of walls may be made thoroughly
strong, sound, and durable. It is certainly better for strength and
water-resisting qualities to make thin-walled blocks of rich mixture,
rather than heavy blocks of poor and porous material.

Filling the voids with cement is a rather expensive method of securing
waterproof qualities, and gives stronger concretes than are needed.
The same may be accomplished more cheaply by replacing part of the
cement by slaked lime, which is an extremely fine-grained material, and
therefore very effective in closing pores. Hydrate lime is the most
convenient material to use, but nearly as costly as Portland cement
at present prices. A 1 to 4 mixture in which one-third the cement
is replaced by hydrate lime will be found equal to a 1 to 3 mixture
without the lime. A 1 to 4 concrete made from cement, 1; hydrate
lime, 1⁠/⁠2; sand and gravel, 6 (by weight), will be found fairly
water-tight, and much superior in this respect to one of the same
richness consisting of cement, 1 1⁠/⁠2; sand and gravel, 6.

The cost of lime may be greatly reduced by using ordinary lump lime
slaked to a paste. The lime must, however, be very thoroughly hydrated,
so that no unslaked fragments may remain to make trouble by subsequent
expansion. Lime paste is also very difficult to mix, and can be used
successfully only in a concrete mixer of the pug-mill type. Ordinary
stiff lime paste contains about 50 per cent water; twice as much of it,
by weight, should therefore be used as of dry hydrate lime.


«Waterproof Qualities.»—The chief fault of concrete building blocks,
as ordinarily made, is their tendency to absorb water. In this respect
they are generally no {697} worse than sandstone or common brick; it
is well known that stone or brick walls are too permeable to allow
plastering directly on the inside surface, and must be furred and
lathed before plastering, to avoid dampness. This practice is generally
followed with concrete blocks, but their use and popularity would be
greatly increased if they were made sufficiently waterproof to allow
plastering directly on the inside surface.

For this purpose it is not necessary that blocks should be perfectly
waterproof, but only that the absorption of water shall be _slow_,
so that it may penetrate only part way through the wall during a
long-continued rain. Walls made entirely water-tight are, in fact,
objectionable, owing to their tendency to “sweat” from condensation
of moisture on the inside surface. For health and comfort, walls must
be slightly porous, so that any moisture formed on the inside may be
gradually absorbed and carried away.

Excessive water absorption may be avoided in the following ways:

1. Use of Properly Graded Materials.—It has been shown by Feret and
others that porosity and permeability are two different things;
porosity is the total proportion of voids or open spaces in the mass,
while permeability is the rate at which water, under a given pressure,
will pass through it. Permeability depends on the _size_ of the
openings as well as on their total amount. In two masses of the same
porosity or percentage of voids, one consisting of coarse and the other
of fine particles, the permeability will be greater in the case of the
coarse material. The least permeability, and also the least porosity,
are, however, obtained by use of a suitable mixture of coarse and fine
particles. Properly graded gravel or screenings, containing plenty of
coarse fragments and also enough fine material to fill up the pores,
will be found to give a much less permeable concrete than fine or
coarse sand used alone.

2. Use of Rich Mixtures.—All concretes are somewhat permeable by water
under sufficient pressure. Mixtures rich in cement are of course much
less permeable than poorer mixtures. If the amount of cement used is
more than sufficient to fill the voids in the sand and gravel, a very
dense concrete is obtained, into which the penetration of water is
extremely slow. The permeability also decreases considerably with age,
owing to the gradual crystallization of the cement in the pores, so
that concrete which is at first quite absorbent may become practically
impermeable after exposure to weather for a few weeks or months. There
appears to be a very decided increase in permeability when the cement
is reduced below the amount necessary to fill the voids. For example,
a well-mixed sand and gravel weighing 123 pounds per cubic foot, and
therefore containing 25 per cent voids, will give a fairly impermeable
concrete in mixtures up to 1 to 4, but with less cement will be found
quite absorbent. A gravel with only 20 per cent voids would give about
equally good results with a 1 to 5 mixture; such gravel is, however,
rarely met with in practice. On the other hand, the best sand, mixed
fine and coarse, seldom contains less than 33 per cent voids, and
concrete made from such material will prove permeable if poorer than 1
to 3.

3. Use of a Facing.—Penetration of water may be effectively prevented
by giving the blocks a facing of richer mixture than the body. For
the sake of smooth appearance, facings are generally made of cement
and fine sand, and it is often noticed that these do not harden well.
It should be remembered that a 1 to 3 sand mixture is no stronger and
little if any better in water absorption than a 1 to 5 mixture of
well-graded sand and gravel. To secure good hardness and resistance to
moisture a facing as rich as 1 to 2 should be used.

4. Use of an Impervious Partition.—When blocks are made on a
horizontal-face machine, it is a simple matter, after the face is
tamped and cores pushed into place, to throw into each opening a small
amount of rich and rather wet mortar, spread this fairly evenly, and
then go on tamping in the ordinary mixture until the mold is filled.
A dense layer across each of the cross walls is thus obtained, which
effectually prevents moisture from passing beyond it. A method of
accomplishing the same result with vertical-face machines, by inserting
tapered wooden blocks in the middle of the cross walls, withdrawing
these blocks after tamping, and filling the spaces with rich mortar,
has been patented. In the two-piece system the penetration of moisture
through the wall is prevented by leaving an empty space between the web
of the block and the inside face, or by filling this space with rich
mortar.

5. Use of Waterproof Compounds.—There are compounds on the market, of
a fatty or waxy nature, which, when mixed with cement to the amount of
{698} only 1 or 2 per cent of its weight, increase its water-resisting
qualities in a remarkable degree. By thoroughly mixing 1 to 2 pounds
of suitable compound with each sack of cement used, blocks which are
practically waterproof may be made, at very small additional cost,
from 1 to 4 or 1 to 5 mixtures. In purchasing waterproof compound,
however, care should be taken to select such as has been proved to be
_permanent_ in its effect, and some of the materials used for this
purpose lose their effect after a few days’ exposure to weather, and
are entirely worthless.

6. Application to Surface after Erecting.—Various washes, to make
concrete and stone impervious to water, have been used with some
success. Among these the best known is the Sylvester wash of alum and
soap solution. It is stated that this requires frequent renewal, and it
is hardly likely to prove of any value in the concrete industry. The
writer’s experience has been that the most effective remedy, in case
a concrete building proves damp, is to give the outside walls a very
thin wash of cement suspended in water. One or two coats will be found
sufficient. If too thick a coating is formed it will show hair cracks.
The effect of the cement wash is to make the walls appear lighter in
color, and if the coating is thin the appearance is in no way injured.


«General Hints on Waterproof Qualities.»—To obtain good water-resisting
properties the first precaution is to make the concrete sufficiently
wet. Dry-tamped backs, even from rich mixture, will always be porous
and absorbent, while the same mixture in plastic condition will give
blocks which are dense, strong, and water-tight. The difference in this
respect is shown by the following tests of small concrete blocks, made
by the writer. The concrete used was made of 1 part cement and 5 parts
mixed fine and coarse sand, by weight.

No. 1. With 8 per cent water, rather dryer than ordinary block
concrete, tamped in mold.

No. 2. With 10 per cent water, tamped in the mold, and the mold removed
at once.

No. 3. With 25 per cent water, poured into a mold resting on a flat
surface of dry sand; after 1 hour the surface was troweled smooth; mold
not removed until set.

These blocks were allowed to harden a week in moist air, then dried.
The weights, voids, and water absorption were as follows:

                                             1         2         3
                                            Damp-     Wet-     Poured
                                           tamped    tamped
 Weight, per cubic foot, pounds            122.2      123.9     110.0
 Voids, calculated, per cent of volume      25.9       24.9      33.3
 Water required to fill voids, per cent
    of weight                                9.8        9.4      12.5
 Water absorbed, after 2 hours, per cent
    of weight                                8.8        6.4      10.5

The rate at which these blocks absorbed water was then determined by
drying them thoroughly, then placing them in a tray containing water
1⁠/⁠4 inch in depth, and weighing them at intervals.

                1         2        3
              Damp-     Wet-     Poured
             tamped    tamped
 1⁠/⁠2 hour     2.0        0.9      1.8
 1 hour       3.2        1.1      2.5
 2 hours      4.1        1.6      3.2
 4 hours      5.2        2.0      3.8
 24 hours     6.1        3.4      7.0
 48 hours     6.4        4.3      7.5

These figures show that concrete which is sufficiently wet to be
thoroughly plastic absorbs water much more slowly than dryer concrete,
and prove the importance of using as much water as possible in the
damp-tamping process.


«Cost.»—Concrete blocks can be sold and laid up at a good profit at 25
cents per cubic foot of wall. Common red brick costs (at this writing)
generally about $12 per thousand, laid. At 24 to the cubic foot, a
thousand brick are equal to 41.7 cubic foot of wall; or, $12, 29 cents
per cubic foot. Brick walls with pressed brick facing cost from 40
cents to 50 cents per cubic foot, and dressed stone from $1 to $1.50
per foot.

The factory cost of concrete blocks varies according to the cost of
materials. Let us assume cement to be $1.50 per barrel of 380 pounds,
and sand and gravel 25 cents per ton. With a 1 to 4 mixture, 1 barrel
cement will make 1,900 pounds of solid concrete, or at 130 pounds per
cubic foot, 14.6 cubic feet. The cost of materials will then be:

 Cement, 380 pounds              $1.50
 Sand and gravel, 1,500 pounds    0.19
                                ──────
      Total                      $1.69

or 11.5 cents per cubic foot solid concrete. Now, blocks 9 inches high
and 32 inches long make 2 square feet of face of wall, each. Blocks of
this height {699} and length, 8 inches thick, make 1 1⁠/⁠3 cubic feet
of wall; and blocks 12 inches thick make 2 cubic feet of wall. From
these figures we may calculate the cost of materials for these blocks,
with cores or openings equal to 1⁠/⁠3 or 1⁠/⁠2 the total volume, as
follows:

 Per cubic foot of block, 1⁠/⁠3 opening      7.7 cts.
 Per cubic foot of block, 1⁠/⁠2 opening      5.8 cts.
 Block 8 x 9 x 32 inches, 1⁠/⁠3 opening     10.3 cts.
 Block 8 x 9 x 32 inches, 1⁠/⁠2 opening      7.7 cts.
 Block 12 x 9 x 32 inches, 1⁠/⁠3 opening    15.4 cts.
 Block 12 x 9 x 32 inches, 1⁠/⁠2 opening    11.6 cts.

If one-third of the cement is replaced by hydrate lime the quality of
the blocks will be improved, and the cost of material reduced about
10 per cent. The cost of labor required in manufacturing, handling,
and delivering blocks will vary with the locality and the size and
equipment of factory. With hand mixing, 3 men at an average of $1.75
each will easily make 75 8-inch or 50 12-inch blocks, with 1⁠/⁠3
openings, per day. The labor cost for these sizes of blocks will
therefore be 7 cents and 10 1⁠/⁠2 cents respectively. At a factory
equipped with power concrete mixer and cars for transporting blocks,
in which a number of machines are kept busy, the labor cost will be
considerably less. An extensive industry located in a large city is,
however, subject to many expenses which are avoided in a small country
plant, such as high wages, management, office rent, advertising, etc.,
so that the total cost of production is likely to be about the same in
both cases. A fair estimate of total factory cost is as follows:

                          Material  Labor    Total
 8 x 32 inch, 1⁠/⁠3 space     10.3      7    17.3 cts.
 8 x 32 inch, 1⁠/⁠2 space      7.7      6    13.7 cts.
 12 x 32 inch, 1⁠/⁠3 space    15.4     10.5  25.9 cts.
 12 x 32 inch, 1⁠/⁠2 space    11.6      9    20.6 cts.

With fair allowance for outside expenses and profit, 8-inch blocks may
be sold at 30 cents and 12-inch at 40 cents each. For laying 12-inch
blocks in the wall, contractors generally figure about 10 cents each.
Adding 5 cents for teaming, the blocks will cost 55 cents each,
erected, or 27 1⁠/⁠2 cents per cubic foot of wall. This is less than
the cost of common brick, and the above figures show that this price
could be shaded somewhat, if necessary, to meet competition.—_S. B.
Newberry in a monograph issued by the American Association of Portland
Cement Manufacturers._


«Artificial Marbles.»—I.—The mass used by Beaumel consists of alum and
heavy spar (barium sulphate) with addition of water and the requisite
pigments. The following proportions have been found to be serviceable:
Alum, 1,000 parts; heavy spar, 10 to 100 parts; water, 100 parts; the
amount of heavy spar being governed by the degree of translucence
desired. The alum is dissolved in water with the use of heat. As soon
as the solution boils the heavy spar is mixed in, stirred with water
and the pigment; this is then boiled down until the mixture has lost
about 3 per cent of its weight, at which moment the mass exhibits a
density of 34° Bé. at a temperature of 212° F. The mixture is allowed
to cool with constant stirring until the substance is semi-liquid. The
resultant mass is poured into a mold covered on the inside with several
layers of collodion and the cast permitted to cool completely in the
mold, whereupon it is taken out and dried entirely in an airy room.
Subsequently the object may be polished, patinized, or finished in some
other way.

II.—Imitation Black Marble.—A black marble of similar character to
that exported from Belgium—the latter product being simply prepared
slate—may be produced in the following manner: The slate suitable for
the purpose is first smoothly polished with a sandstone, so that no
visible impression is made on it with a chisel—this being rough—after
which it is polished finely with artificial pumice stone, and lastly
finished with extremely light natural pumice stone, the surface
then presenting a soft, velvet-like appearance. After drying and
thoroughly heating the finely polished surface is impregnated with a
heated mixture of oil and fine lampblack. This is allowed to remain 12
hours; and, according to whether the slate used is more or less gray,
the process is repeated until the gray appearance is lost. Polishing
thoroughly with emery on a linen rag follows, and the finishing polish
is done with tin ashes, to which is added some lampblack. A finish
being made thus, wax dissolved in turpentine, with some lampblack, is
spread on the polished plate and warmed again, which after a while is
rubbed off vigorously with a {700} clean linen rag. Treated thus, the
slate has the appearance of black marble.

STONE CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

STONE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

STONES FOR SHARPENING: See Tool Setting and Whetstones.

STONES (PRECIOUS), IMITATION OF: See Gems, Artificial.

STONEWARE: See Ceramics.

STONEWARE CEMENTS: See Adhesives and Lutes.


«STOPPERS.»

I.—To make an anti-leak and lubricating mixture for plug-cocks use
2 parts of tried suet and 1 part of beeswax melted together; stir
thoroughly, strain, and cool.

II.—A mixture for making glass stoppers tight is made by melting
together equal parts of glycerine and paraffine.

To Loosen a Glass Stopper.—I.—Make a mixture of

 Alcohol            2 drachms
 Glycerine          1 drachm
 Sodium chloride    1 drachm

Let a portion of this stand in the space above the stopper for a few
hours, when a slight tap will loosen the stopper.

II.—A circular adjustable clamp, to which is attached a strip of
asbestos in which coils of platinum wire are imbedded, is obtained.
By placing this on the neck of the bottle, and passing a current
of electricity through the coils of wire, sufficient heat will be
generated to expand the neck and liberate the stopper. Heat may also
be generated by passing a yard of cord once around the bottle neck and,
by taking one end of the cord in each hand, drawing it rapidly back and
forth. Care should be taken that the contents of the bottle are not
spilled on the hand or thrown into the face when the stopper does come
out—or when the bottle breaks.

STOPPER LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants.


«STOVE POLISH:»

See also Polishes.

The following formula gives a liquid stove blacking:

 Graphite, in fine powder    1 pound
 Lampblack                   1 ounce
 Rosin                       4 ounces
 Turpentine                  1 gallon

The mixture must be well shaken when used, and must not be applied when
there is a fire or light near on account of the inflammability of the
vapor.

This form may be esteemed a convenience by some, but the rosin and
turpentine will, of course, give rise to some disagreeable odor on
first heating the stove, after the liquid is applied.

Graphite is the foundation ingredient in many stove polishes;
lampblack, which is sometimes added, as in the foregoing formula,
deepens the color, but the latter form of carbon is of course much more
readily burned off than the former. Graphite may be applied by merely
mixing with water, and then no odor follows the heating of the iron.
The coating must be well rubbed with a brush to obtain a good luster.

The solid cakes of stove polish found in the market are made by
subjecting the powdered graphite, mixed with spirit of turpentine, to
great pressure. They have to be reduced to powder and mixed with water
before being applied.

Any of them must be well rubbed with a brush after application to give
a handsome finish.

STOVE CEMENT: See Cement.

STOVE CLEANERS: See Cleaning Compounds.

STOVE LACQUER: See Lacquers.

STOVE VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

STRAMONIUM, ANTIDOTE FOR: See Atropine.

STRAP LUBRICANT: See Lubricant.

STRAW FIREPROOFING: See Fireproofing.

STRAWBERRIES, FROZEN: See Ice Creams.

STRAWBERRY JUICE: See Essences and Extracts.

STRAW-HAT CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

STRAW-HAT DYES: See Hats. {701}

STROPPING PASTES: See Razor Pastes.


«STYPTICS.»

Styptics are substances which arrest local bleeding. Creosote, tannic
acid, alcohol, alum, and most of the astringent salts belong to this
class.


«Brocchieri’s Styptic.»—A nostrum consisting of the water distilled
from pine tops.


«Helvetius’s Styptic.»—Iron filings (fine) and cream of tartar mixed to
a proper consistence with French brandy.


«Eaton’s Styptic.»—A solution of sulphate disguised by the addition of
some unimportant substances. Helvetius’s styptic was for a long time
employed under this title.


«Styptic Paste of Gutta Percha.»—Gutta percha, 1 ounce; Stockholm tar,
1 1⁠/⁠2 or 2 ounces; creosote, 1 drachm; shellac, 1 ounce; or quantity
sufficient to render it sufficiently hard. To be boiled together with
constant stirring, till it forms a homogeneous mass. For alveolar
hemorrhage, and as a styptic in toothache. To be softened by molding
with the fingers.

SULPHATE STAINS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

SULTANA ROLL: See Ice Creams.

SUNBURN REMEDIES: See Cosmetics.

SUTURES OF CATGUT, THEIR PREPARATION: See Catgut.

SYNDETICON: See Adhesives.


«Syrups»

(See also Essences and Extracts.)

The syrups should either be made from the best granulated sugar,
free from ultramarine, or else rock-candy syrup. If the former, pure
distilled water should be used in making the syrup, as only in this
manner can a syrup be obtained that will be free from impurities and
odor. There are two methods by which syrup can be made, namely, by
the cold process, or by boiling. The advantage of the former is its
convenience; of the latter, that it has better keeping qualities. In
the cold process, the sugar is either stirred up in the water until it
is dissolved, or water is percolated or filtered through the sugar,
thus forming a solution. In the hot process, the sugar is simply
dissolved in the water by the aid of heat, stirring until solution is
effected. The strength of the syrup for fountain use should be about 6
pounds in the gallon of finished syrup; it is best, however, to make
the stock syrup heavier, as it will keep much better, using 15 pounds
of granulated sugar, and 1 gallon of water. When wanted for use it
can be diluted to the proper density with water. The syrups of the
market are of this concentrated variety. Unless the apartments of the
dispenser are larger than is usual, it is often best to buy the syrup,
the difference in cost being so small that when the time is taken
into consideration the profit is entirely lost. Foamed syrups should,
however, never be purchased; they are either contaminated with foreign
flavor, or are more prone to fermentation than plain syrup.


«Fruit Syrups.»—These may be prepared from fruit juices, and the
desired quantity of syrup, then adding soda foam, color, and generally
a small amount of fruit-acid solution. They may also be made by
reducing the concentrated fruit syrups of the market with syrup,
otherwise proceeding as above. As the fruit juices and concentrated
syrups always have a tried formula attached, it is needless to use
space for this purpose.

When a flavor is weak it may be fortified by adding a small amount
of flavoring extract, but under no condition should a syrup flavored
entirely with an essence be handed out to the consumer as a fruit
syrup, for there is really no great resemblance between the two. Fruit
syrups may be dispensed solid by adding the syrup to the soda water and
stirring with a spoon. Use nothing but the best ingredients in making
syrups.


«Preservation of Syrups.»—The preservation of syrups is purely a
pharmaceutical question. They must be made right in order to keep
right. Syrups, particularly fruit syrups, must be kept aseptic,
especially when made without heat. The containers should be made of
glass, porcelain, or pure block tin, so that they may be sterilized,
and should be easily and quickly removed, so that the operation may be
effected with promptness and facility. As is well known, the operation
of sterilization is {702} very simple, consisting in scalding the
article with boiling water. No syrup should ever be filled into a
container without first sterilizing the container. The fruit acids, in
the presence of sugar, serve as a media for the growth and development
of germ life upon exposure to the air. Hence the employment of heat as
pasteurization and sterilization in the preserving of fruits, etc.

A pure fruit syrup, filled into a glass bottle, porcelain jar, or
block-tin can, which has been rendered sterile with boiling water,
maintained at a cool temperature, will keep for any reasonable length
of time. All danger of fracturing the glass, by pouring water into it,
may be obviated by first wetting the interior of the bottle with cold
water.

The fruits for syrups must not only be fully ripe, but they must be
used immediately after gathering. The fruit must be freed from stems,
seeds, etc., filled into lightly tied linen sacks, and thus subjected
to pressure, to obtain their juices. Immediately after pressure the
juice should be heated quickly to 167° F., and filtered through a
felt bag. The filtrate should fall directly upon the sugar necessary
to make it a syrup. The heating serves the purpose of coagulating the
albuminous bodies present in the juices, and thus to purify the latter.

Syrups thus prepared have not only a most agreeable, fresh taste, but
are very stable, remaining in a good condition for years.


«Hints on Preparation of Syrups.»—Keep the extracts in a cool, dark
place. Never add flavoring extracts to hot syrup. It will cause them
to evaporate, and weaken the flavor. Keep all the mixing utensils
scrupulously clean. Never mix fruit syrups, nor let them stand in the
same vessels in which sarsaparilla, ginger, and similar extract flavors
are mixed and kept. If possible, always use distilled water in making
syrup. Never allow a syrup containing acid to come in contact with any
metal except pure block tin. Clean the syrup jars each time before
refilling. Keep all packages of concentrated syrups and crushed fruits
tightly corked. Mix only a small quantity of crushed fruit in the bowl
at a time, so as to have it always fresh.


«How to Make Simple Syrups—Hot Process.»—Put 25 pounds granulated sugar
in a large pail, or kettle, and pour on and stir hot water enough
to make 4 gallons, more or less depending on how thick the syrup is
desired. Then strain while hot through fine cheese cloth.


«Cold Process.»—By agitation. Sugar, 25 pounds; water, 2 gallons. Put
the sugar in a container, add the water, and agitate with a wooden
paddle until the sugar is dissolved. An earthenware jar with a cover
and a faucet at the bottom makes a very convenient container.


«Cold Process.»—By percolation. A good, easy way to keep syrup on hand
all the time: Have made a galvanized iron percolator, 2 feet long, 8
inches across top, and 4 inches at base, with a 4-inch wire sieve in
bottom. Finish the bottom in shape of a funnel. Put a syrup faucet in a
barrel, and set on a box, so that the syrup can be drawn into a gallon
measure. Bore a hole in the barrel head, and insert the percolator.
Fill three-fourths full of sugar, and fill with water. As fast as the
syrup runs into the barrel fill the percolator, always putting in
plenty of sugar. By this method 20 to 25 gallons heavy syrup can be
made in a day.


«Rock-Candy Syrup.»—Sugar, 32 pounds; water, 2 gallons. Put the sugar
and water in a suitable container, set on stove, and keep stirring
until the mixture boils up once. Strain and allow to cool. When cool
there will be on top a crust, or film, of crystallized sugar. Strain
again to remove this film, and the product will be what is commonly
known as rock-candy syrup. This may be reduced with one-fifth of its
bulk of water when wanted for use.


«COLORS FOR SYRUPS:»


«Caramel.»—Place 3 pounds of crushed sugar in a kettle with 1 pint of
water, and heat. The sugar will at first dissolve, but as the water
evaporates a solid mass will be formed. This must be broken up.

Continue to heat, with constant stirring, until the mass has again
become liquefied. Keep on a slow fire until the mass becomes very
dark; then remove the kettle from the fire and pour in slowly 3 pints
of boiling water. Set the kettle back on the fire and permit contents
to boil for a short time, then remove, and cool. Add simple syrup to
produce any required consistency.


«Blue.»—

 I.—Indigo carmine    1 part
     Water            20 parts

Indigo carmine may usually be obtained commercially;

II.—Tincture of indigo also makes a harmless blue. {703}


«Sap Blue.»—

 Dark blue      3 parts
 Grape sugar    1 part
 Water          6 parts


«Green.»—The addition of indigo-carmine solution to any yellow solution
will give various shades of green. Indigo carmine added to a mixture
of tincture of crocus and glycerine will give a fine green color. A
solution of commercial chlorophyll yields grass-green shades.


«Pink.»—

 I.—Carmine                1 part
     Liquor potassæ         6 parts
     Rose water to make    48 parts

Mix. If the color is too high, dilute with distilled water until the
required tint is obtained.

II.—Soak red-apple parings in California brandy. The addition of rose
leaves makes a fine flavoring as well as coloring agent.


«Red.»—

 Carmine, No. 40             1 part
 Strong ammonia water        4 parts
 Distilled water to make    24 parts

Rub up the carmine and ammonia water and to the solution add the
water under trituration. If, in standing, this shows a tendency to
separate, a drop or two of water of ammonia will correct the trouble.
This statement should be put on the label of the bottle as the volatile
ammonia soon escapes even in glass-stoppered vials. Various shades
of red may be obtained by using fruit juices, such as black cherry,
raspberry, etc., and also the tinctures of sudbear, alkanet, red
saunders, erythroxylon, etc.


«Orange.»—

 Tincture of red sandalwood           1 part
 Ethereal tincture of Orlean, q. s.

Add the orlean tincture to the sandalwood gradually until the desired
tint is obtained. A red color added to a yellow one gives an orange
color.


«Purple.»—A mixture of tincture of indigo, or a solution of indigo
carmine, added to cochineal red gives a fine purple.


«Yellow.»—Various shades of yellow may be obtained by the maceration
of saffron or turmeric in alcohol until a strong tincture is obtained.
Dilute with water until the desired tint is reached.

SYRUP, TABLE: See Tables.


«Tables»


«ALCOHOL DILUTION.»

The following table gives the percentage, by weight, of alcohol of 95
per cent and of distilled water to make 1 liter (about 1 quart), or 1
kilogram (2.2 pounds), of alcohol of various dilutions.

TABLE FOR THE DILUTION OF ALCOHOL.

 ──────────+─────────────────────+───────────+─────────────────────+───────────
           │        1 Liter      │           │       1 Kilogram    │
           │        contains     │ Specific  │        contains     │ Percentage
 Percentage+─────────+───────────+  Gravity  +─────────+───────────+ by Weight.
 by Volume.│Alcohol  │ Distilled │ at 60° F. │ Alcohol │ Distilled │
           │  95%.   │    Water. │           │   95%.  │   Water.  │
 ──────────+─────────+───────────+───────────+─────────+───────────+───────────
           │   Gms.  │    Gms.   │           │   Gms.  │    Gms.   │
           │         │           │           │         │           │
      5    │   42.87 │   950.13  │   0.993   │   43.17 │   956.83  │    3.99
     10    │   85.89 │   900.11  │   0.986   │   87.11 │   912.89  │    8.05
     15    │  128.87 │   852.13  │   0.981   │  131.37 │   868.63  │   12.14
     20    │  171.83 │   804.17  │   0.976   │  176.06 │   823.94  │   16.27
     25    │  214.77 │   756.23  │   0.971   │  221.18 │   778.82  │   20.44
     30    │  257.93 │   707.07  │   0.965   │  267.28 │   732.72  │   24.70
     35    │  300.74 │   658.26  │   0.959   │  313.60 │   686.40  │   28.98
     40    │  343.77 │   608.23  │   0.952   │  361.10 │   638.90  │   33.37
     45    │  386.75 │   557.25  │   0.944   │  409.69 │   590.31  │   37.86
     50    │  429.65 │   504.35  │   0.934   │  460.01 │   539.99  │   42.51
     55    │  472.64 │   451.36  │   0.924   │  511.52 │   488.48  │   47.27
     60    │  515.60 │   398.40  │   0.914   │  564.11 │   435.89  │   52.13
     65    │  558.61 │   343.39  │   0.902   │  619.30 │   380.70  │   57.23
     70    │  601.55 │   288.45  │   0.890   │  675.90 │   324.10  │   62.46
     75    │  644.58 │   232.42  │   0.877   │  734.98 │   265.02  │   67.92
     80    │  687.57 │   176.43  │   0.864   │  795.80 │   204.20  │   73.54
     85    │  730.51 │    19.49  │   0.850   │  859.43 │   140.57  │   79.42
     90    │  773.53 │     0.47  │   0.834   │  927.49 │    72.51  │   85.71
 ──────────+─────────+───────────+───────────+─────────+───────────+───────────


«Capacities of Common Utensils.»—For ordinary measuring purposes a
wineglass may be said to hold 2 ounces.

A tablespoon, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce.

A dessertspoon, 1⁠/⁠4 ounce.

A teaspoon, 1⁠/⁠8 ounce, or 1 drachm.

A teacupful of sugar weighs 1⁠/⁠2 pound.

Three tablespoonfuls weigh 1⁠/⁠4 pound.


«Cook’s Table.»—Two teacupfuls (well heaped) of coffee and of sugar
weigh 1 pound.

Two teacupfuls (level) of granulated sugar weigh 1 pound.

Two teacupfuls soft butter (well packed) weigh 1 pound.

One and one-third pints of powdered sugar weigh 1 pound.

Two tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar or flour weigh 1 pound.

Four teaspoonfuls are equal to 1 tablespoon.

Two and one-half teacupfuls (level) of the best brown sugar weigh 1
pound.

Two and three-fourths teacupfuls (level) of powdered sugar weigh 1
pound.

One tablespoonful (well heaped) of granulated or best brown sugar
equals 1 ounce. {704}

One generous pint of liquid, or 1 pint finely chopped meat, packed
solidly, weighs 1 pound.


«Table of Drops.»—Used in estimating the amount of a flavoring extract
necessary to flavor a gallon of syrup. Based on the assumption of 450
drops being equal to 1 ounce.

One drop of extract to an ounce of syrup is equal to 2 drachms to a
gallon.

Two drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 4 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
to a gallon.

Three drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 6 1⁠/⁠2
drachms to a gallon.

Four drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 1 ounce and 1
drachm to a gallon.

Five drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 1 ounce and
3 1⁠/⁠8 drachms to a gallon.

Six drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 1 ounce and
5 1⁠/⁠2 drachms to a gallon.

Seven drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces to
the gallon.

Eight drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces and
2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms to a gallon.

Nine drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces and
4 1⁠/⁠2 drachms to a gallon.

Ten drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces and
6 3⁠/⁠4 drachms to a gallon.

Twelve drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 3 ounces and
3 1⁠/⁠4 drachms to a gallon.

Fourteen drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 4 ounces to
a gallon.

Sixteen drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 4 ounces and
4 1⁠/⁠8 drachms to a gallon.

Eighteen drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 5 ounces
and 1 drachm to a gallon.

NOTE.—The estimate 450 drops to the ounce, while accurate and reliable
enough in this particular relation, must not be relied upon for very
exact purposes, in which, as has frequently been demonstrated, the drop
varies within a very wide range, according to the nature of the liquid,
its consistency, specific gravity, temperature; the size and shape of
the aperture from which it is allowed to escape, etc.


«Fluid Measure.—U. S. Standard, or Wine Measure.»—Sixty minims are
equal to 1 fluidrachm.

Eight fluidrachms are equal to 1 fluidounce.

Sixteen fluidounces are equal to 1 pint.

Two pints are equal to 1 quart.

Four quarts are equal to 1 gallon.

One pint of distilled water weighs about 1 pound.


«Percentage Solutions.»—To prepare the following approximately correct
solutions, dissolve the amount of medicament indicated in sufficient
water to make one imperial pint.

For 1⁠/⁠50 per cent, or 1 in 5,000 solution, use 1 3⁠/⁠4 grains of the
medicament.

For 1⁠/⁠20 per cent, or 1 in 2,000 solution, use 4 3⁠/⁠8 grains of the
medicament.

For 1⁠/⁠10 per cent, or 1 in 1,000 solution, use 8 3⁠/⁠4 grains of the
medicament.

For 1⁠/⁠4 per cent, or 1 in 400 solution, use 21 7⁠/⁠8 grains of the
medicament.

For 1⁠/⁠2 per cent, or 1 in 200 solution, use 43 3⁠/⁠4 grains of the
medicament.

For 1 per cent, or 1 in 100 solution, use 87 1⁠/⁠2 grains of the
medicament.

For 2 per cent, or 1 in 50 solution, use 175 grains of the medicament.

For 4 per cent, or 1 in 25 solution, use 350 grains of the medicament.

For 5 per cent, or 1 in 20 solution, use 437 1⁠/⁠2 grains of the
medicament.

For 10 per cent, or 1 in 10 solution, use 875 grains of the medicament.

To make smaller quantities of any solution, use less water and reduce
the medicament in proportion to the amount of water employed; thus
1⁠/⁠2 imperial pint of a 1 per cent solution will require 43 3⁠/⁠4
grains of the medicament.


«Pressure Table.»—This table shows the amount of commercial sulphuric
acid (H_〈2〉SO_〈4〉) and sodium bicarbonate necessary to produce a given
pressure:

120 Pounds Pressure.

  Water,     Soda Bicar.,      Acid Sulph.,
 gallons     Av. ounces        Av. ounces
    10             86               50
    20            123               71
    30            161               93
    40            198              118
    50            236              138

135 Pounds Pressure.

  Water,     Soda Bicar.,      Acid Sulph.,
 gallons     Av. ounces        Av. ounces.
    10             96               56
    20            134               73
    30            171              100
    40            209              122
    50            246              144

If marble dust be used, reckon at the rate of 18 ounces hot water for
use.


«Syrup Table.»—The following table shows the amount of syrup obtained
from

1. The addition of pounds of sugar to 1 gallon of water; and the {705}

2. Amount of sugar in each gallon of syrup resulting therefrom:

 ───────────+───────────────────────────────────+───────────
   Pounds   │ Quantity of syrup actually        │  Pounds
  of sugar  │           obtained.               │ of sugar
  added to  +──────────+─────────+──────────────+  in one
 one gallon │          │         │              │ gallon of
   of cold  │ Gallons. │  Pints. │ Fluidounces. │  syrup.
   water.   │          │         │              │
 ───────────+──────────+─────────+──────────────+───────────
      1     │     1    │    —    │      10      │    .93
      2     │     1    │    1    │       4      │   1.73
      3     │     1    │    1    │      14      │   2.43
      4     │     1    │    2    │       3      │   3.05
      5     │     1    │    3    │       2      │   3.6
      6     │     1    │    3    │      12      │   4.09
      7     │     1    │    4    │       6      │   4.52
      8     │     1    │    5    │       —      │   4.92
      9     │     1    │    5    │      10      │   5.28
     10     │     1    │    6    │       4      │   5.62
     11     │     1    │    6    │      14      │   5.92
     12     │     1    │    7    │       8      │   6.18
     13     │     2    │    —    │       2      │   6.38
     14     │     2    │    —    │      12      │   6.7
     15     │     2    │    1    │       6      │   6.91
 ───────────+──────────+─────────+──────────────+───────────

TABLE-TOPS, ACID-PROOF: See Acid-Proofing.

TABLES FOR PHOTOGRAPHERS: See Photography.

TAFFY: See Confectionery.

TALCUM POWDER: See Cosmetics.

TALLOW: See Fats.

TALMI GOLD: See Alloys.

TAMPRING: See Tampring, under Steel.

TAN REMEDY: See Cosmetics.


«TANK:»


«To Estimate Contents of a Circular Tank.»—The capacity of a circular
tank may be determined by multiplying the diameter in inches by itself
and by .7854 and by the length (or depth) in inches, which gives the
capacity of the tank in inches, and then dividing by 231, the number of
cubic inches in a United States gallon.

TANNING: See Leather.


«TAPS, TO REMOVE BROKEN.»

First clean the hole by means of a small squirt gun filled with
kerosene. All broken pieces of the tap can be removed with a pair
of tweezers, which should be as large as possible. Then insert the
tweezers between the hole and flutes of the tap. By slowly working back
and forth and occasionally blowing out with kerosene, the broken piece
is easily released.

TAR PAINTS: See Wood.

TAR-SPOTS ON WOODWORK: See Paint.

TAR-SULPHUR SOAP: See Soap.

TAR SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts.


«TATTOO MARKS, REMOVAL OF.»

Apply a highly concentrated tannin solution on the tattooed places
and treat them with the tattooing needle as the tattooer does. Next
vigorously rub the places with a lunar caustic stick and allow the
silver nitrate to act for some time, until the tattooed portions have
turned entirely black. Then take off by dabbing. At first a silver
tannate forms on the upper layers of the skin, which dyes the tattooing
black; with slight symptoms of inflammation a scurf ensues which comes
off after 14 to 16 days, leaving behind a reddish scar. The latter
assumes the natural color of the skin after some time. The process is
said to have given good results.

TAWING: See Leather.

TEA EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts.


«TEETH, TO WHITEN DISCOLORED.»

Moisten the corner of a linen handkerchief with hydrogen peroxide, and
with it rub the teeth, repeating the rubbing occasionally. Use some
exceedingly finely pulverized infusorial earth, or pumice ground to an
impalpable powder, in connection with the hydrogen peroxide, and the
job will be quicker than with the peroxide alone.

TEMPERING OF STEEL: See Steel.


«TERRA COTTA SUBSTITUTE.»

A substance, under this name, designed to take the place of terra cotta
and plaster of Paris in the manufacture of small ornamental objects,
consists of {706}

 Albumen                         10 parts
 Magnesium sulphate               4 parts
 Alum                             9 parts
 Calcium sulphate, calcined      45 parts
 Borax                            2 parts
 Water                           30 parts

The albumen and alum are dissolved in the water and with the solution
so obtained the other ingredients are made into a paste. This paste is
molded at once in the usual way and when set the articles are exposed
in an oven to a heat of 140° F.

TERRA COTTA CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

TEXTILE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods and Household
Formulas.


«Thermometers»

Table Showing the Comparison of the Readings of Thermometers.

CELSIUS, OR CENTIGRADE (C). RÉAUMUR (R). FAHRENHEIT (F).

 ──────+─────────+────────
   C.  │    R.   │   F.
 ──────+─────────+────────
  −30  │  −24.0  │ −22.0
  −25  │  −20.0  │ −13.0
  −20  │  −16.0  │ − 4.0
  −15  │  −12.0  │ + 5.0
  −10  │  − 8.0  │  14.0
  − 5  │  − 4.0  │  23.0
  − 4  │  − 3.2  │  24.8
  − 3  │  − 2.4  │  26.6
  − 2  │  − 1.6  │  28.4
  − 1  │  − 0.8  │  30.2
    0  │    0.0  │  32.0 Freezing point of water.
    1  │    0.8  │  33.8
    2  │    1.6  │  35.6
    3  │    2.4  │  37.4
    4  │    3.2  │  39.2
    5  │    4.0  │  41.0
    6  │    4.8  │  42.8
    7  │    5.6  │  44.6
    8  │    6.4  │  46.4
    9  │    7.2  │  48.2
   10  │    8.0  │  50.0
   11  │    8.8  │  51.8
   12  │    9.6  │  53.6
   13  │   10.4  │  55.4
   14  │   11.2  │  57.2
   15  │   12.0  │  59.0
   16  │   12.8  │  60.8
   17  │   13.6  │  62.6
   18  │   14.4  │  64.4
   19  │   15.2  │  66.2
   20  │   16.0  │  68.0
   21  │   16.8  │  69.8
   22  │   17.6  │  71.6
   23  │   18.4  │  73.4
   24  │   19.2  │  75.2
   25  │   20.0  │  77.0
   26  │   20.8  │  78.8
   27  │   21.6  │  80.6
   28  │   22.4  │  82.4
   29  │   23.2  │  84.2
   30  │   24.0  │  86.0
   31  │   24.8  │  87.8
   32  │   25.6  │  89.6
   33  │   26.4  │  91.4
   34  │   27.2  │  93.2
   35  │   28.0  │  95.0
   36  │   28.8  │  96.8
   37  │   29.6  │  98.6
   38  │   30.4  │ 100.4
   39  │   31.2  │ 102.2
   40  │   32.0  │ 104.0
   41  │   32.8  │ 105.8
   42  │   33.6  │ 107.6
   43  │   34.4  │ 109.4
   44  │   35.2  │ 111.2
   45  │   36.0  │ 113.0
   50  │   40.0  │ 122.0
   55  │   44.0  │ 131.0
   60  │   48.0  │ 140.0
   65  │   52.0  │ 149.0
   70  │   56.0  │ 158.0
   75  │   60.0  │ 167.0
   80  │   64.0  │ 176.0
   85  │   68.0  │ 185.0
   90  │   72.0  │ 194.0
   95  │   76.0  │ 203.0
  100  │   80.0  │ 212.0  Boiling point of water.
 ──────+─────────+────────

Readings on one scale can be changed into another by the following
formulas, in which _t_° indicates degrees of temperature:

 Réau. to Fahr.
 9⁠/⁠4_t_° R + 32° = _t_° F

 Réau. to Cent.
 5⁠/⁠4_t_° R = _t_° C

 Cent. to Fahr.
 9⁠/⁠5_t_° C + 32° = _t_° F

 Cent. to Réau.
 4⁠/⁠5_t_° C = _t_° R

 Fahr. to Cent.
 5⁠/⁠9(_t_° F − 32°) = _t_° C

 Fahr. to Réau.
 4⁠/⁠9(_t_° F − 32°) = _t_° R


«THREAD:»

See also Cordage.


«Dressing for Sewing Thread.»—For colored thread: Irish moss, 3 pounds;
gum arabic, 2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds; Japan wax, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; stearine, 185
grams; borax, 95 grams; boil together for 1⁠/⁠4 hour.

For white thread: Irish moss, 2 pounds; tapioca, 1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds;
spermaceti, 3⁠/⁠4 pound; stearine, 110 grams; borax, 95 grams; boil
together for 20 minutes.

For black thread: Irish moss, 3 pounds; gum Senegal, 2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds;
ceresin, 1 pound; borax, 95 grams; logwood extract, 95 grams; blue
vitriol, 30 grams; boil together for 20 minutes. Soak the Irish moss
in each case overnight in 45 liters of water, then boil for 1 hour,
strain and add the other ingredients to the resulting solution. It is
of advantage to add the borax to the Irish moss before the boiling.

THROAT LOZENGES: See Confectionery.

THYMOL: See Antiseptics.

TICKS, CATTLE DIP FOR: See Insecticides.

TIERCES: See Disinfectants.

TILEMAKERS’ NOTES: See Ceramics.


«Tin»


«Etching Bath for Tin.»—The design is either freely drawn upon the
metal with a needle or a lead pencil, or pricked into the metal
through tracing paper with a needle. The outlines are filled with a
varnish (wax, colophony, asphalt). The varnish is rendered fluid with
turpentine and applied with a brush. The article after having dried is
laid in a 1⁠/⁠2 solution of nitric acid for 1 1⁠/⁠2 to 2 hours. It is
then washed and dried with blotting {707} paper. The protective coating
of asphalt is removed by heating. The zinc oxide in the deeper portions
is cleaned away with a silver soap and brush.


«Recovery of Tin and Iron in Tinned-Plate Clippings.»—The process of
utilizing tinned-plate scrap consists essentially in the removal of the
tin. This must be very completely carried out if the remaining iron is
to be available for casting. The removal of the outer layer of pure
tin from the tinned plate is an easy matter. Beneath this, however, is
another crystalline layer consisting of an alloy of tin and iron, which
is more difficult of treatment. It renders the iron unavailable for
casting, as even 0.2 per cent of tin causes brittleness. Its removal is
best accomplished by electrolysis. If dilute sulphuric acid is used as
an electrolyte, the deposit is spongy at first, and afterwards, when
the acid has been partly neutralized, crystalline. After 6 hours the
clippings are taken out and the iron completely dissolved in dilute
sulphuric acid; the residue of tin is then combined with the tin
obtained by the electrolysis. Green vitriol is therefore a by-product
in this process.

Gutensohn’s process has two objects: To obtain tin and to render the
iron fit for use. The tin is obtained by treating the tinned plate
repeatedly with hydrochloric acid. The tin is then removed from the
solution by means of the electric current. The tinned plate as the
positive pole is placed in a tank made of some insulating material
impervious to the action of acids, such as slate. A copper plate forms
the cathode. The bichloride of tin solution, freed from acid, is put
round the carbon cylinder in the Bunsen element. Another innovation
in this process is that the tank with the tinned-plate clippings is
itself turned into an electric battery with the aid of the tin. A
still better source of electricity is, however, obtained during the
treatment of the untinned iron which will be described presently.
The final elimination of the tin takes place in the clay cup of the
Bunsen elements. Besides the chloride of tin solution (free from acid),
another tin solution, preferably chromate of tin, nitrate of tin, or
sulphate of tin, according to the strength of the current desired,
may be used. To render the iron of the tinned plate serviceable the
acid is drawn off as long as the iron is covered with a thin layer of
an alloy of iron and tin. The latter makes the iron unfit for use in
rolling mills or for the precipitation of copper. Fresh hydrochloric
acid or sulphuric acid is therefore poured over the plate to remove
the alloy, after the treatment with the bichloride of tin solution.
This acid is also systematically used in different vats to the point
of approximate saturation. This solution forms the most suitable
source of electricity, a zinc-iron element being formed by means of a
clay cell and a zinc cylinder. The electrical force developed serves
to accelerate the solution in the next tank, which contains tinned
plate, either fresh or treated with hydrochloric acid. Ferrous oxide,
or spongy metallic iron if the current is very strong, is liberated in
the iron battery. Both substances are easily oxidized, and form red
oxide of iron when heated. The remaining solution can be crystallized
by evaporation, so that ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) or ferric
chloride can be obtained, or it can be treated to form red oxide of
iron.


«Tin in Powder Form.»—To obtain tin in powder form the metal is first
melted; next pour it into a box whose sides, etc., are coated with
powdered chalk. Agitate the box vigorously and without discontinuing,
until the metal is entirely cold. Now pass this powder through a sieve
and keep in a closed flask. This tin powder is eligible for various
uses and makes a handsome effect, especially in bronzing. It can be
browned.


«TINFOIL:»

See also Metal Foil.

By pouring tin from a funnel with a very long and narrow mouth upon
a linen surface, the latter being tightly stretched, covered with a
mixture of chalk and white of egg, and placed in a sloping position,
very thin sheets can be produced, and capable of being easily
transformed into thin foil. Pure tin should never be used in the
preparation of foil intended for packing tobacco, chocolate, etc.,
but an alloy containing 5 to 40 per cent of lead. Lead has also been
recently plated on both sides with tin by the following method: A lead
sheet from 0.64 to .80 inches thick is poured on a casting table as
long as it is hot, a layer of tin from 0.16 to 0.20 inches in thickness
added, the sheet then turned over and coated on the other side with
tin in the same manner. The sheet is then stretched between rollers.
Very thin sheet tin can also be made in the same way as sheet lead,
by cutting up a tin cylinder into spiral sections. Colored tinfoil is
prepared by making the foil thoroughly bright by rubbing with purified
chalk {708} and cotton, then adding a coat of gelatin, colored as
required, and covering the whole finally with a transparent spirit
varnish. In place of this somewhat troublesome process, the following
much simpler method has lately been introduced: Aniline dyes dissolved
in alcohol are applied on the purified foil, and the coat, when dry,
covered with a very thin layer of a colorless varnish. This is done by
pouring the varnish on the surface and then inclining the latter so
that the varnish may reach every part and flow off.

TIN, SILVER-PLATING: See Plating.

TIN VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

TINNING: See Plating.


«TIRE:»


«Anti-Leak Rubber Tire.»—Pneumatic tires can be made quite safe from
punctures by using a liberal amount of the following cheap mixture:
One pound of sheet glue dissolved in hot water in the usual manner,
and 3 pints of molasses. This mixture injected into the tire through
the valve stem, semi-hardens into an elastic jelly, being, in fact,
about the same as the well-known ink roller composition used for the
rollers of printing presses. This treatment will usually be found to
effectually stop leaks in punctured or porous tires.

TIRE CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements.

TISSIER’S METAL: See Alloys.

TITANIUM STEEL: See Steel.

TODDY, HOT SODA: See Beverages.

TOILET CREAMS, MILKS, POWDERS, ETC.: See Cosmetics.

TOLIDOL DEVELOPER: See Photography.

TOMATO BOUILLON EXTRACT: See Condiments.

TOMBACK: See Jewelers’ Formulas.

TONING BATHS: See Photography.

TONKA EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts.

TONKA, ITS DETECTION IN VANILLA EXTRACTS: See Vanilla.


«TOOL SETTING.»

The term “setting” (grinding) is applied to the operation of giving an
edge to the tools designed for cutting, scraping, or sawing. Cutting
tools are rubbed either on flat sandstones or on rapidly turned
grindstones. The wear on the faces of the tools diminishes their
thickness and renders the cutting angle sharper. Good edges cannot
be obtained except with the aid of the grindstone; it is therefore
important to select this instrument with care. It should be soft,
rather than hard, of fine, smooth grain, perfectly free from seams or
flaws. The last condition is essential, for it often happens that,
under the influence of the revolving motion, a defective stone suddenly
yields to the centrifugal force, bursts and scatters its pieces with
such violence as to wound the operator. This accident may also happen
with perfectly formed stones. On this account artificial stones have
been substituted, more homogeneous and coherent than the natural ones.

Whatever may be the stone selected, it ought to be kept constantly
moist during the operation. If not, the tools will soon get heated
and their temper will be impaired. When a tool has for a certain time
undergone the erosive action of the stone, the cutting angle becomes
too acute, too thin, and bends over on itself, constituting what
is called “the feather edge.” This condition renders a new setting
necessary, which is usually effected by bending back the feather edge,
if it is long, and whetting the blade on a stone called a “setter.”
There are several varieties of stones used for this purpose, though
they are mostly composed of calcareous or argilaceous matter, mixed
with a certain proportion of silica.

The scythestone, of very fine grain, serves for grinding off the
feather edge of scythes, knives, and other large tools. The Lorraine
stone, of chocolate color and fine grain, is employed with oil for
carpenters’ tools. American carborundum is very erosive. It is used
with water and with oil to obtain a fine edge. The lancet stone is not
inferior to any of the preceding. As its name indicates, it is used for
sharpening surgical instruments, and only with oil. The Levant stone
(Turkish sandstone) is the best of all for whetting. It is gray and
semitransparent; when of inferior quality, it {709} is somewhat spotted
with red. It is usually quite soft.

To restore stones and efface the inequalities and hollows caused by the
friction of the tools, they are laid flat on a marble or level stone,
spread over with fine, well-pulverized sandstone, and rubbed briskly.
When tools have a curved edge, they are subjected to a composition
formed of pulverized stone, molded into a form convenient for the
concavity or convexity. Tools are also whetted with slabs of walnut or
aspen wood coated with emery of different numbers, which produces an
excellent setting.

TOOL LUBRICANT: See Lubricant.


«Toothache»


«TOOTHACHE GUMS:»

See also Pain Killers.

 I.—Paraffine            94 grains
     Burgundy pitch      800 grains
     Oil of cloves       1⁠/⁠2 fluidrachm
     Creosote            1⁠/⁠2 fluidrachm

Melt the first two ingredients, and, when nearly cool, add the rest,
stirring well. May be made into small pills or turned out in form of
small cones or cylinders.

II.—Melt white wax or spermaceti, 2 parts, and when melted add
carbolic-acid crystals, 1 part, and chloral-hydrate crystals, 2 parts;
stir well until dissolved. While still liquid, immerse thin layers of
carbolized absorbent cotton wool and allow them to dry. When required
for use a small piece may be snipped off and slightly warmed, when it
can be inserted into the hollow tooth, where it will solidify.


«Toothache Remedy.»—

 Camphor                    4 drachms
 Chloral hydrate            4 drachms
 Oil of cloves              2 drachms
 Oil of cajeput             2 drachms
 Chloroform                12 drachms
 Tincture of capsicum      24 drachms

TOOTH CEMENTS: See Cements.

TOOTH PASTES, POWDERS, SOAPS, AND WASHES: See Dentifrices.

TORTOISE-SHELL POLISHES: See Polishes.

TOOTH STRAIGHTENING: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

TOUCHSTONE, AQUAFORTIS FOR THE: See Aquafortis.

TOY PAINT: See Paint.

TRACING-CLOTH CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

TRAGACANTH, MUCILAGE OF: See Adhesives, under Mucilages.


«TRANSPARENCIES:»

See also Photography.

A good method of preparing handsome London transparencies is as follows:

White paper is coated with a liquid whose chief constituent is Iceland
moss strongly boiled down in water to which a slight quantity of
previously dissolved gelatin is added. In applying the mass, which
should always be kept in a hot condition, the paper should be covered
uniformly throughout. After it has been dried well it is smoothed on
the coated side and used for a proof. The transparent colors to be used
must be ground in stronger varnish than the opaque ones. In order to
produce a handsome red, yellow lake and red sienna are used; the tone
of the latter is considerably warmer than that of the yellow lake.
Where the cost is no consideration, aurosolin may also be employed.
For pale red, madder lakes should be employed, but for darker shades,
crimson lakes and scarlet cochineal lakes. The vivid geranium lake
gives a magnificent shade, which, however, is not at all fast in
sunlight. The most translucent blue will always be Berlin blue. For
purple, madder purple is the most reliable color, but possesses little
gloss. Luminous effects can be obtained with the assistance of aniline
colors, but these are only of little permanence in transparencies.
Light, transparent green is hardly available. Recourse has to be taken
to mixing Berlin blue with yellow lake, or red sienna. Green chromic
oxide may be used if its sober, cool tone has no disturbing influence.
Almost all brown coloring bodies give transparent colors, but the most
useful are madder lakes and burnt umber. Gray is produced by mixing
purple tone colors with suitable brown, but a gray color hardly ever
{710} occurs in transparent prints. Liquid siccative must always be
added to the colors, otherwise the drying will occupy too much time.
After the drying, the prints are varnished on both sides. For this
purpose, a well-covering, quickly drying, colorless, not too thick
varnish must be used, which is elastic enough not to crack nor to break
in bending.

Frequently the varnishing of the placards is done with gelatin. This
imparts to the picture an especially handsome, luminous luster. After
an equal quantity of alcohol has been added to a readily flowing
solution of gelatin, kept for use in a zinc vessel, the gelatin
solution is poured on the glass plates destined for the transparencies.
After a quarter of an hour, take the placard, moisten its back
uniformly, and lay it upon a gelatin film which has meanwhile formed on
the glass plate, where it remains 2 to 3 days. When it is to be removed
from the plate, the edge of the gelatin film protruding over the edge
of the placard is lifted up with a dull knife, and it is thus drawn
off. A fine, transparent gloss remains on the placard proper. In order
to render the covering waterproof and pliable, it is given a coating
of collodion, which does not detract from the transparence. The glass
plates and their frames must be cleaned of adhering gelatin particles
before renewed use.


«TRANSFER PROCESSES:»


«To Transfer Designs.»—Designs can be transferred on painted surfaces,
cloth, leather, velvet, oil cloth, and linen sharply and in all the
details with little trouble. Take the original design, lay it on a
layer of paper, and trace the lines of design accurately with a packing
needle, the eye of which is held by a piece of wood for a handle. It is
necessary to press down well. The design becomes visible on the back
by an elevation. When everything has been accurately pressed through,
take, e. g., for dark objects, whiting (formed in pieces), lay the
design face downward on the knee and pass mildly with the whiting over
the elevations; on every elevation a chalk line will appear. Then dust
off the superfluous whiting with the fingers, lay the whiting side on
the cloth to hold it so that it cannot slide, and pass over it with
a soft brush. For light articles take powdered lead pencil, which is
rubbed on with the finger, or limewood charcoal. For tracing use oil
paint on cloth and India ink on linen.


«To Copy Engravings.»—To make a facsimile of an engraving expose it
in a warm, closed box to the vapor of iodine, then place it, inkside
downward, on a smooth, dry sheet of clean white paper, which has
been brushed with starch water. After the two prepared surfaces have
been in contact for a short time a facsimile of the engraving will
be reproduced more or less accurately, according to the skill of the
operator.


«To Transfer Engravings.»—The best way to transfer engraving from one
piece to another is to rub transfer wax into the engraved letters. This
wax is made of beeswax, 3 parts; tallow, 3 parts; Canada balsam, 1
part; olive oil, 1 part. If the wax becomes too hard, add a few drops
of olive oil, and if too soft, a little more beeswax. Care should be
taken that the wax does not remain on the surface about the engraving,
otherwise the impression would be blurred. Then moisten a piece of
paper by drawing it over the tongue and lay it on the engraving. Upon
this is laid another piece of dry paper, and securing both with the
thumb and forefinger of the left hand, so they will not be moved, go
over the entire surface with a burnisher made of steel or bone, with
a pointed end. This will press the lower paper into the engraving and
cause the wax to adhere to it. Then the top paper is removed and the
corner of the lower one gently raised. The whole is then carefully
peeled off, and underneath will be found a reversed, sharp impression
of the engraving. The edges of the paper are then cut so it can be
fitted in a position on the other articles similar to that on the
original one. When this is done lay the paper in the proper position
and rub the index finger lightly over it, which will transfer a clear
likeness of the original engraving. If due care is taken two dozen or
more transfers can be made from a single impression.

TRICKS WITH FIRE: See Pyrotechnics.

TUBERS, THEIR PRESERVATION: See Roots.

TUBS: TO RENDER SHRUNKEN TUBS WATER-TIGHT: See Casks.

TUNGSTEN STEEL: See Steel.

TURMERIC IN FOOD: See Foods.

TURPENTINE STAINS: See Wood. {711}

TURTLE (MOCK) EXTRACT: See Condiments.


«TWINE:»

See also Thread and Cordage.

Tough twine may be greatly strengthened by dissolving plenty of alum in
water and laying the twine in this solution. After drying, the twine
will have much increased tensile strength.


«Typewriter Ribbons»

(See also Inks.)

The constituents of an ink for typewriter ribbons may be broadly
divided into four elements: 1, the pigment; 2, the vehicle; 3, the
corrigent; 4, the solvent. The elements will differ with the kind of
ink desired, whether permanent or copying.


«Permanent (Record) Ink.»—Any finely divided, non-fading color may be
used as the pigment; vaseline is the best vehicle and wax the best
corrigent. In order to make the ribbon last a long time with one
inking, as much pigment as feasible should be used. To make black
record ink: Take some vaseline, melt it on a slow fire or water bath,
and incorporate by constant stirring as much lampblack as it will take
up without becoming granular. Take from the fire and allow it to cool.
The ink is now practically finished, except, if not entirely suitable
on trial, it may be improved by adding the corrigent wax in small
quantity. The ribbon should be charged with a very thin, evenly divided
amount of ink. Hence the necessity of a solvent—in this instance a
mixture of equal parts of petroleum benzine and rectified spirit of
turpentine. In this mixture dissolve a sufficient amount of the solid
ink by vigorous agitation to make a thin paint. Try the ink on one
extremity of the ribbon; if too soft, add a little wax to make it
harder; if too pale, add more coloring matter; if too hard, add more
vaseline. If carefully applied to the ribbon, and the excess brushed
off, the result will be satisfactory.

On the same principle, other colors may be made into ink; but for
delicate colors, albolene and bleached wax should be the vehicle and
corrigent, respectively.

The various printing inks may be used if properly corrected. They
require the addition of vaseline to make them non-drying on the ribbon,
and of some wax if found too soft. Where printing inks are available,
they will be found to give excellent results if thus modified, as the
pigment is well milled and finely divided. Even black cosmetic may be
made to answer, by the addition of some lampblack to the solution in
the mixture of benzine and turpentine.

After thus having explained the principles underlying the manufacture
of permanent inks, we can pass more rapidly over the subject of copying
inks, which is governed by the same general rules.

For copying inks, aniline colors form the pigment; a mixture of about 3
parts of water and 1 part of glycerine, the vehicle; transparent soap
(about 1⁠/⁠4 part), the corrigent; stronger alcohol (about 6 parts),
the solvent. The desired aniline color will easily dissolve in the hot
vehicle, soap will give the ink the necessary body and counteract the
hygroscopic tendency of the glycerine, and in the stronger alcohol
the ink will readily dissolve, so that it can be applied in a finely
divided state to the ribbon, where the evaporation of the alcohol will
leave it in a thin film. There is little more to add. After the ink
is made and tried—if too soft, add a little more soap; if too hard, a
little more glycerine; if too pale, a little more pigment. Printer’s
copying ink can be utilized here likewise.

Users of the typewriter should so set a fresh ribbon as to start at the
edge nearest the operator, allowing it to run back and forth with the
same adjustment until exhausted along that strip; then shift the ribbon
forward the width of one letter, running until exhausted, and so on.
Finally, when the whole ribbon is exhausted, the color will have been
equably used up, and on reinking, the work will appear even in color,
while it will look patchy if some of the old ink has been left here and
there and fresh ink applied over it.

UDDER INFLAMMATION: See Veterinary Formulas.


«VALVES.»

The manufacturers of valves test each valve under hydraulic pressure
before it is sent out from the factory, yet they frequently leak when
erected in the pipe lines. This is due to the misuse of the erector in
most cases. The following are the most noteworthy bad practices to be
avoided when fitting in valves:

I.—Screwing a valve on a pipe very tightly, without first closing the
valve. Closing the valve makes the body much {712} more rigid and
able to withstand greater strains and also keeps the iron chips from
lodging under the seats, or in the working parts of the valves. This,
of course, does not apply to check valves.

II.—Screwing a long mill thread into a valve. The threads on commercial
pipes are very long and should never be screwed into a valve. An elbow
or tee will stand the length of thread very well, but a suitable length
thread should be cut in every case on the pipe, when used to screw into
a valve. If not, the end of pipe will shoulder against the seat of
valve and so distort it that the valve will leak very badly.

III.—The application of a pipe wrench on the opposite end of the valve
from the end which is being screwed on the pipe. This should never be
done, as it invariably springs or forces the valve seats from their
true original bearing with the disks.

IV.—Never place the body of a valve in the vise to remove the bonnet
or centerpiece from a valve, as it will squeeze together the soft
brass body and throw all parts out of alignment. Properly to remove
the bonnet or centerpiece from a valve, either screw into each end of
the valve a short piece of pipe and place one piece of the pipe in
the vise, using a wrench on the square of bonnet; or if the vise is
properly constructed, place the square of the bonnet in same and use
the short piece of pipe screwed in each end as a lever. When using a
wrench on square of bonnet or centerpiece, use a Stillson or Trimo
wrench with a piece of tin between the teeth of the jaws and the
finished brass. It may mark the brass slightly, but this is preferable
to rounding off all the corners with an old monkey wrench which is
worn out and sprung. As the threads on all bonnets or centerpieces
are doped with litharge or cement, a sharp jerk or jar on the wrench
will start the bonnet much more quickly than a steady pull. Under no
circumstances try to replace or remove the bonnet or centerpiece of
a valve without first opening it wide. This will prevent the bending
of the stem, forcing the disk down through the seat or stripping the
threads on bonnet where it screws into body. If it is impossible to
remove bonnet or centerpiece by ordinary methods, heat the body of the
valve just outside the thread. Then tap lightly all around the thread
with a soft hammer. This method never fails, as the heat expands the
body ring and breaks the joint made by the litharge or cement.

V.—The application of a large monkey wrench to the stuffing box of
valve. Many valves are returned with the stuffing boxes split, or the
threads in same stripped. This is due to the fact that the fitter or
engineer has used a large-sized monkey wrench on this small part.

VI.—The screwing into a valve of a long length of unsupported pipe. For
example, if the fitter is doing some repair work and starts out with
a run of 2-inch horizontal pipe from a 2-inch valve connected to main
steam header, the pipe being about 18 feet long, after he has screwed
the pipe tightly into the valve, he leaves the helper to support the
pipe at the other end, while he gets the hanger ready. The helper in
the meantime has become tired and drops his shoulder on which the pipe
rests about 3 inches and in consequence the full weight of this 18-foot
length of pipe bears on the valve. The valve is badly sprung and when
the engineer raises steam the next morning the valve leaks. When a
valve is placed in the center of a long run of pipe, the pipe on each
side, and close to the valve, should be well supported.

VII.—The use of pipe cement in valves. When it is necessary to use pipe
cement in joints, this mixture should always be placed on the pipe
thread which screws into the valve, and never in the valve itself. If
the cement is placed in the valve, as the pipe is screwed into the
valve it forces the cement between the seats and disks, where it will
soon harden and thus prevent the valve from seating properly.

VIII.—Thread chips and scale in pipe. Before a pipe is screwed into
a valve it should be stood in a vertical position and struck sharply
with a hammer. This will release the chips from the thread cutting, and
loosen the scale inside of pipe. When a pipe line containing valves
is connected up, the valves should all be opened wide and the pipe
well blown out before they are again closed. This will remove foreign
substances which are liable to cut and scratch the seats and disks.

IX.—Expansion and contraction. Ample allowance must be provided for
expansion and contraction in all steam lines, especially when brass
valves are included. The pipe and fittings are much more rigid and
stiff than the brass valves and in consequence the expansion strains
will relieve themselves at the weakest point, unless otherwise provided
for. {713}

X.—The use of wrenches or bars on valve wheels to close the valves
tightly. This should never be done, as it springs the entire valve and
throws all parts out of alignment, thus making the valve leak. The
manufacturer furnishes a wheel sufficiently large properly to close
against any pressure for which it is suitable. If the valves cannot be
closed tightly by this means, there is something between the disks and
seats or they have been cut or scratched by foreign substances.


«Vanilla»

(See also Essences and Extracts.)

The best Mexican vanilla yields only in the neighborhood of 1.7 per
cent of vanillin; that from Reunion and Guadeloupe about 2.5 per
cent; and that from Java 2.75 per cent. There seems to be but little
connection between the quantity of vanillin contained in vanilla pods
and their quality as a flavor producer. Mexican beans are esteemed the
best and yet they contain far less than the Java. Those from Brazil
and Peru contain much less than those from Mexico, and yet they are
considered inferior in quality to most others. The vanillin of the
market is chiefly, if not entirely, artificial and is made from the
coniferin of such pines and firs as abies excelsa, a. pectinata, pinus
cembra, and p. strobus, as well as from the eugenol of cloves and
allspice. Vanillin also exists in asparagus, lupine seeds, the seeds of
the common wild rose, asafetida, and gum benzoin.

A good formula for a vanilla extract is the following:

 Vanilla                 1 ounce
 Tonka                   2 ounces
 Alcohol, deodorized    32 fluidounces
 Syrup                   8 fluidounces

Cut and bruise the vanilla, afterwards adding and bruising the Tonka;
macerate for 14 days in 16 fluidounces of the alcohol, with occasional
agitation; pour off the clear liquid and set aside; pour the remaining
alcohol on the magma, and heat by means of a water bath to about
168° F., in a closely covered vessel. Keep it at that temperature for
2 or 3 hours, then strain through flannel with slight pressure; mix
the two portions of liquid and filter through felt. Lastly, add the
syrup. To render this tincture perfectly clear it may be treated with
pulverized magnesium carbonate, using from 1⁠/⁠2 to 1 drachm to each
pint.


«To Detect Artificial Vanillin in Vanilla Extracts» (see also
Foods).-There is no well-defined test for vanillin, but one can get
at it in a negative way. The artificial vanillin contains vanillin
identical with the vanillin contained in the vanilla bean; but
the vanilla bean, as the vanilla extract, contains among its many
“extractive matters” which enter into the food and fragrant value of
vanilla extract, certain rosins which can be identified with certainty
in analysis by a number of determining reactions. Extract made without
true vanilla can be detected by negative results in all these reactions.

Vanilla beans contain 4 to 11 per cent of this rosin. It is of a dark
red to brown color and furnishes about one-half the color of the
extract of vanilla. This rosin is soluble in 50 per cent alcohol, so
that in extracts of high grade, where sufficient alcohol is used, all
rosin is kept in solution. In cheap extracts, where as little as 20
per cent of alcohol by volume is sometimes used, an alkali—usually
potassium bicarbonate—is added to aid in getting rosin, gums, etc., in
solution, and to prevent subsequent turpidity. This treatment deepens
the color very materially.

Place some of the extract to be examined in a glass evaporating dish
and evaporate the alcohol on the water bath. When alcohol is removed,
make up about the original volume with hot water. If alkali has not
been used in the manufacture of the extract, the rosin will appear as
a flocculent red to brown residue. Acidify with acetic acid to free
rosin from bases, separating the whole of the rosin and leaving a
partly decolorized, clear supernatant liquid after standing a short
time. Collect the rosin on a filter, wash with water, and reserve the
filtrate for further tests.

Place a portion of the filter with the attached rosin in a few cubic
centimeters of dilute caustic potash. The rosin is dissolved to a
deep-red solution. Acidify. The rosin is thereby precipitated. Dissolve
a portion of the rosin in alcohol; to one fraction add a few drops
of ferric chloride; no striking coloration is produced. To another
portion add hydrochloric acid; again there is little change in color.
In alcoholic solution most rosins give color reactions with ferric
chloride or hydrochloric acid. To a portion of the filtrate obtained
above add a few drops of basic lead acetate. The precipitate is so
bulky as to almost {714} solidify, due to the excessive amount of
organic acids, gums, and other extractive matter. The filtrate from
this precipitate is nearly, but not quite, colorless. Test another
portion of the filtrate from the rosin for tannin with a solution of
gelatin. Tannin is present in varying but small quantities. It should
not be present in great excess.


«To Detect Tonka in Vanilla Extract.»—The following test depends on
the chemical difference between coumarin and vanillin, the odorous
principles of the two beans. Coumarin is the anhydride of coumaric
acid, and on fusion with a caustic alkali yields acetic and salicylic
acids, while vanillin is methyl protocatechin aldehyde, and when
treated similarly yields protocatechuic acid. The test is performed by
evaporating a small quantity of the extract to dryness, and melting
the residue with caustic potash. Transfer the fused mass to a test
tube, neutralize with hydrochloric acid, and add a few drops of ferric
chloride solution. If Tonka be present in the extract, the beautiful
violet coloration characteristic of salicylic acid will at once become
evident.


«Vanilla Substitute.»—A substitute for vanilla extract is made from
synthetic vanillin. The vanillin is simply dissolved in diluted alcohol
and the solution colored with a little caramel and sweetened perhaps
with syrup. The following is a typical formula:

 Vanillin      1 ounce
 Alcohol       6 quarts
 Water         5 quarts
 Syrup         1 quart
 Caramel sufficient to color.

An extract so made does not wholly represent the flavor of the bean;
while vanillin is the chief flavoring constituent of the bean, there
are present other substances which contribute to the flavor; and
connoisseurs prefer this combination, the remaining members of which
have not yet been made artificially.

VANILLIN: See Vanilla.


«Varnishes»

(See also Enamels, Glazes, Oils, Paints, Rust Preventives, Stains, and
Waterproofing.)

Varnish is a solution of resinous matter forming a clear, limpid fluid
capable of hardening without losing its transparency. It is used to
give a shining, transparent, hard, and preservative covering to the
finished surface of woodwork, capable of resisting in a greater or
less degree the influence of the air and moisture. This coating, when
applied to metal or mineral surfaces, takes the name of lacquer, and
must be prepared from rosins at once more adhesive and tenacious than
those entering into varnish.

The rosins, commonly called gums, suitable for varnish are of two
kinds—the hard and the soft. The hard varieties are copal, amber, and
the lac rosins. The dry soft rosins are juniper gum (commonly called
sandarac), mastic, and dammar. The elastic soft rosins are benzoin,
elemi, anime, and turpentine. The science of preparing varnish consists
in combining these classes of rosins in a suitable solvent, so that
each conveys its good qualities and counteracts the bad ones of the
others, and in giving the desired color to this solution without
affecting the suspension of the rosins, or detracting from the drying
and hardening properties of the varnish.

In spirit varnish (that made with alcohol) the hard and the elastic
gums must be mixed to insure tenderness and solidity, as the alcohol
evaporates at once after applying, leaving the varnish wholly dependent
on the gums for the tenacious and adhesive properties; and if the
soft rosins predominate, the varnish will remain, “tacky” for a long
time. Spirit varnish, however good and convenient to work with, must
always be inferior to oil varnish, as the latter is at the same time
more tender and more solid, for the oil in oxidizing and evaporating
thickens and forms rosin which continues its softening and binding
presence, whereas in a spirit varnish the alcohol is promptly
dissipated, and leaves the gums on the surface of the work in a more or
less granular and brittle precipitate which chips readily and peels off.

Varnish must be tender and in a manner soft. It must yield to the
movements of the wood in expanding or contracting with the heat or
cold, and must not inclose the wood like a sheet of glass. This is why
oil varnish is superior to spirit varnish. To obtain this suppleness
the gums must be dissolved in some liquid not highly volatile like
spirit, but one which mixes with them in substance permanently to
counteract their extreme friability. Such solvents are the oils of
lavender, spike, rosemary, and turpentine, combined with linseed oil.
The vehicle in which the rosins are dissolved must be soft and remain
so in order to {715} keep the rosins soft which are of themselves
naturally hard. Any varnish from which the solvent has completely dried
out must of necessity become hard and glassy and chip off. But, on the
other hand, if the varnish remains too soft and “tacky,” it will “cake”
in time and destroy the effect desired.

Aside from this, close observers if not chemists will agree that for
this work it is much more desirable to dissolve these rosins in a
liquid closely related to them in chemical composition, rather than in
a liquid of no chemical relation and which no doubt changes certain
properties of the rosins, and cuts them into solution more sharply
than does turpentine or linseed oil. It is a well-known fact that each
time glue is liquefied it loses some of its adhesive properties. On
this same principle it is not desirable to dissolve varnish rosins
in a liquid very unlike them, nor in one in which they are quickly
and highly soluble. Modern effort has been bent on inventing a cheap
varnish, easily prepared, that will take the place of oil varnish, and
the market is flooded with benzine, carbon bisulphide, and various
ether products which are next to worthless where wearing and durable
properties are desired.

Alcohol will hold in solution only about one-third of its weight
in rosins. Turpentine must be added always last to spirit varnish.
Turpentine in its clear recently distilled state will not mix with
alcohol, but must first be oxidized by exposing it to the air in an
uncorked bottle until a small quantity taken therefrom mixes perfectly
with alcohol. This usually takes from a month to six weeks. Mastic must
be added last of all to the ingredients of spirit varnish, as it is
not wholly soluble in alcohol but entirely so in a solution of rosins
in alcohol. Spirit varnishes that prove too hard and brittle may be
improved by the addition of either of the oils of turpentine, castor
seed, lavender, rosemary, or spike, in the proportion required to
bring the varnish to the proper temper.


«Coloring “Spirit” Varnishes.»—In modern works the following coloring
substances are used, separately and in blends: Saffron (brilliant
golden yellow), dragon’s blood (deep reddish brown), gamboge (bright
yellow), Socotrine or Bombay aloes (liver brown), asphalt, ivory, and
bone black (black), sandalwood, pterocarpus santalinus, the heartwood
(dark red), Indian sandalwood, pterocarpus indica, the heartwood
(orange red), brazil wood (dark yellow), myrrh (yellowish to reddish
brown; darkens on exposure), madder (reddish brown), logwood (brown),
red scammony rosin (light red), turmeric (orange yellow), and many
others according to the various shades desired.


«Manufacturing Hints.»—Glass, coarsely powdered, is often added to
varnish when mixed in large quantities for the purpose of cutting
the rosins and preventing them from adhering to the bottom and sides
of the container. When possible, varnish should always be compounded
without the use of heat, as this carbonizes and otherwise changes
the constituents, and, besides, danger always ensues from the highly
inflammable nature of the material employed. However, when heat is
necessary, a water bath should always be used; the varnish should never
fill the vessel over a half to three-fourths of its capacity.


«The Gums Used in Making Varnish.»—Juniper gum or true sandarac comes
in long, yellowish, dusty tears, and requires a high temperature
for its manipulation in oil. The oil must be so hot as to scorch a
feather dipped into it, before this gum is added; otherwise the gum
is burned. Because of this, juniper gum is usually displaced in oil
varnish by gum dammar. Both of these gums, by their dryness, counteract
the elasticity of oil as well as of other gums. The usual sandarac of
commerce is a brittle, yellow, transparent rosin from Africa, more
soluble in turpentine than in alcohol. Its excess renders varnish hard
and brittle. Commercial sandarac is also often a mixture of the African
rosin with dammar or hard Indian copal, the place of the African rosin
being sometimes taken by true juniper gum. This mixture is the pounce
of the shops, and is almost insoluble in alcohol or turpentine. Dammar
also largely takes the place of tender copal, gum anime, white amber,
white incense, and white rosin. The latter three names are also often
applied to a mixture of oil and Grecian wax, sometimes used in varnish.
When gum dammar is used as the main rosin in a varnish, it should
be first fused and brought to a boiling point, but not thawed. This
eliminates the property that renders dammar varnish soft and “tacky” if
not treated as above.

Venetian turpentine has a tendency to render varnish “tacky” and must
be skillfully counteracted if this effect is to be avoided. Benzoin
in varnish exposed to any degree of dampness has a {716} tendency to
swell, and must in such cases be avoided. Elemi, a fragrant rosin from
Egypt, in time grows hard and brittle, and is not so soluble in alcohol
as anime, which is highly esteemed for its more tender qualities. Copal
is a name given rather indiscriminately to various gums and rosins.
The East Indian or African is the tender copal, and is softer and more
transparent than the other varieties; when pure it is freely soluble
in oil of turpentine or rosemary. Hard copal comes in its best form
from Mexico, and is not readily soluble in oil unless first fused.
The brilliant, deep-red color of old varnish is said to be based on
dragon’s blood, but not the kind that comes in sticks, cones, etc.
(which is always adulterated), but the clear, pure tear, deeper in
color than a carbuncle, and as crystal as a ruby. This is seldom seen
in the market, as is also the tear of gamboge, which, mixed with the
tear of dragon’s blood, is said to be the basis of the brilliant orange
and gold varnish of the ancients.

Of all applications used to adorn and protect the surface of objects,
oil varnishes or lacquers containing hard rosins are the best, as they
furnish a hard, glossy coating which does not crack and is very durable
even when exposed to wind and rain.

To obtain a varnish of these desirable qualities the best old linseed
oil, or varnish made from it, must be combined with the residue left
by the dry distillation of amber or very hard copal. This distillation
removes a quantity of volatile oil amounting to one-fourth or one-fifth
of the original weight. The residue is pulverized and dissolved in hot
linseed-oil varnish, forming a thick, viscous, yellow-brown liquid,
which, as a rule, must be thinned with oil of turpentine before being
applied.

Hard rosin oil varnish of this sort may conveniently be mixed with
the solution of asphalt in the oil of turpentine with the aid of the
simple apparatus described below, as the stiffness of the two liquids
makes hand stirring slow and laborious. A cask is mounted on an axle
which projects through both heads, but is inclined to the axis of the
cask, so that when the ends of the axle are set in bearings and the
cask is revolved, each end of the cask will rise and fall alternately,
and any liquid which only partly fills the cask will be thoroughly
mixed and churned in a short time. The cask is two-thirds filled with
the two thick varnishes (hard rosin in linseed oil and asphalt in the
oil of turpentine) in the desired proportion, and after these have
been intimately mixed by turning the cask, a sufficient quantity of
rectified oil of turpentine to give proper consistence is added and the
rotation is continued until the mixture is perfectly uniform.

To obtain the best and most durable result with this mixed oil, rosin,
and asphalt varnish it is advisable to dilute it freely with oil of
turpentine and to apply 2 or 3 coats, allowing each coat to dry before
the next is put on. In this way a deep black and very glossy surface is
obtained which cannot be distinguished from genuine Japanese lacquer.

Many formulas for making these mixed asphalt varnishes contain
rosin—usually American rosin. The result is the production of a cheaper
but inferior varnish. The addition of such soft rosins as elemi and
copaiba, however, is made for another reason, and it improves the
quality of the varnish for certain purposes. Though these rosins
soften the lacquer, they also make it more elastic, and therefore more
suitable for coating leather and textile fabrics, as it does not crack
in consequence of repeated bending, rolling, and folding.

In coloring spirit varnish the alcohol should always be colored first
to the desired shade before mixing with the rosin, except where ivory
or bone black is used. If the color is taken from a gum, due allowance
for the same must be made in the rosins of the varnish. For instance,
in a varnish based on mastic, 10 parts, and tender copal, 5 parts, in
100 parts, if this is to be colored with, say, 8 parts of dragon’s
blood (or any other color gum), the rosins must be reduced to mastic,
8 parts, and tender copal, 4 parts. Eight parts of color gum are here
equivalent to 3 parts of varnish rosin. This holds true with gamboge,
aloes, myrrh, and the other gum rosins used for their color. This
seeming disproportion is due to the inert matter and gum insoluble in
alcohol, always present in these gum rosins.


«Shellac Varnish.»—This is made in the general proportion of 3 pounds
of shellac to a gallon of alcohol, the color, temper, etc., to be
determined by the requirements of the purchaser, and the nature of
the wood to which the varnish is to be applied. Shellac varnish is
usually tempered with sandarac, elemi, dammar, and the oil of linseed,
turpentine, spike, or rosemary.

Various impurities held in suspension in shellac varnish may be
entirely precipitated by the gradual addition of some {717} crystals
of oxalic acid, stirring the varnish to aid their solution, and then
setting it aside overnight to permit the impurities to settle. No more
acid should be used than is really necessary.


«Rules for Varnishing.»—1. Avoid as far as possible all manipulations
with the varnishes; do not dilute them with oil of turpentine, and
least of all with siccative, to expedite the drying. If the varnish has
become too thick in consequence of faulty storing, it should be heated
and receive an addition of hot, well-boiled linseed-oil varnish and oil
of turpentine. Linseed-oil varnish or oil of turpentine added to the
varnish at a common temperature renders it streaky (flacculent) and dim
and has an unfavorable influence on the drying; oil of turpentine takes
away the gloss of varnish.

2. Varnishing must be done only on smooth, clean surfaces, if a fine,
mirror-like gloss is desired.

3. Varnish must be poured only into clean vessels, and from these never
back into the stationary vessels, if it has been in contact with the
brush. Use only dry brushes for varnishing, which are not moist with
oil of turpentine or linseed oil or varnish.

4. Apply varnishes of all kinds as uniformly as possible; spread them
out evenly on the surfaces so that they form neither too thick nor too
thin a layer. If the varnish is put on too thin the coating shows no
gloss; if applied too thick it does not get even and does not form a
smooth surface, but a wavy one.

5. Like all oil-paint coatings, every coat of varnish must be perfectly
dry before a new one is put on; otherwise it is likely that the whole
work will show cracks. The consumer of varnish is only too apt to blame
the varnish for all defects which appear in his work or develop after
some time, although this can only be proven in rare cases. As a rule,
the ground was not prepared right and the different layers of paint
were not sufficiently dry, if the surfaces crack after a comparatively
short time and have the appearance of maps. The cracking of paint must
not be confounded with the cracking of the varnish, for the cracking
of the paint will cause the varnish to crack prematurely. The varnish
has to stand more than the paint; it protects the latter, and as it is
transparent, the defects of the paint are visible through the varnish,
which frequently causes one to form the erroneous conclusion that the
varnish has cracked.

6. All varnish coatings must dry slowly, and during the drying must be
absolutely protected from dust, flies, etc., until they have reached
that stage when we can pass the back of the hand or a finger over them
without sticking to it.

The production of faultless varnishing in most cases depends on the
accuracy of the varnisher, on the treatment of his brush, his varnish
pot, and all the other accessories. A brush which still holds the split
points of the bristles never varnishes clear; they are rubbed off
easily and spoil the varnished work. A brush which has never been used
does not produce clean work; it should be tried several times, and when
it is found that the varnishing accomplished by its use is neat and
satisfactory it should be kept very carefully.

The preservation of the brush is thus accomplished: First of all do not
place it in oil or varnish, for this would form a skin, parts of which
would adhere to it, rendering the varnished surface unclean and grainy;
besides these skins there are other particles which accumulate in the
corners and cannot be removed by dusting off; these will also injure
the work. In order to preserve the brush properly, insert it in a glass
of suitable size through a cork in the middle of which a hole has been
bored exactly fitting the handle. Into the glass pour a mixture of
equal parts of alcohol and oil of turpentine, and allow only the point
of the brush to touch the mixture, if at all. If the cork is air-tight
the brush cannot dry in the vapor of oil of turpentine and spirit. From
time to time the liquids in the glass should be replenished.

If the varnish remains in the varnish receptacle, a little alcohol
may be poured on, which can do the varnish no harm. At all events the
varnish will be prevented from drying on the walls of the vessel and
from becoming covered by a skin which is produced by the linseed oil,
and which indicates that the varnish is both fat and permanent. No
skin forms on a meager varnish, even when it drys thick.

After complete drying of the coat of varnish it sometimes happens
that the varnish becomes white, blue, dim, or blind. If varnish turns
white on exposure to the air the quality is at fault. The varnish is
either not fat enough or it contains a rosin unsuitable for exterior
work (copal). The whitening occurs a few days after the drying of the
varnish and can be removed only by rubbing off the varnish.


«Preventing Varnish from Crawling.»—Rub down the surface to be
varnished {718} with sharp vinegar. Coating with strongly diluted ox
gall is also of advantage.


«Amber Varnish.»—This varnish is capable of giving a very superior
polish or surface, and is especially valuable for coach and other
high-class work. The amber is first bleached by placing a quantity—say
about 7 pounds—of yellow amber in a suitable receptacle, such as an
earthenware crucible, of sufficient strength, adding 14 pounds of sal
gemmæ (rock or fossil salt), and then pouring in as much spring water
as will dissolve the sal gemmæ. When the latter is dissolved more water
is added, and the crucible is placed over a fire until the color of the
amber is changed to a perfect white. The bleached amber is then placed
in an iron pot and heated over a common fire until it is completely
dissolved, after which the melting pot is removed from the fire, and
when sufficiently cool the amber is taken from the pot and immersed in
spring water to eliminate the sal gemmæ, after which the amber is put
back into the pot and is again heated over the fire till the amber is
dissolved. When the operation is finished the amber is removed from the
pot and spread out upon a clean marble slab to dry until all the water
has evaporated, and is afterwards exposed to a gentle heat to entirely
deprive it of humidity.


«Asphalt Varnishes.»—Natural asphalt is not entirely soluble in any
liquid. Alcohol dissolves only a small percentage of it, ether a much
larger proportion. The best solvents are benzol, benzine, rectified
petroleum, the essential oils, and chloroform, which leave only a
small residue undissolved. The employment of ether as a solvent is
impracticable because of its low boiling point, 97° F., and great
volatility. The varnish would dry almost under the brush. Chloroform
is not open to this objection, but it is too expensive for ordinary
use. Rectified petroleum is a good solvent of asphalt, but it is not a
desirable ingredient of varnish because, though the greater part of it
soon evaporates, a small quantity of less volatile substances, which is
usually present in even the most thoroughly rectified petroleum, causes
the varnish to remain “tacky” for a considerable time and to retain a
disagreeable odor much longer. Common coal-tar benzine is also a good
solvent and has the merit of cheapness, but its great volatility makes
the varnish dry too quickly for convenient use, especially in summer.
The best solvent, probably, is oil of turpentine, which dissolves
asphalt almost completely, producing a varnish which dries quickly and
forms a perfect coating if the turpentine has been well rectified. The
turpentine should be a “water white,” or entirely colorless, liquid of
strong optical refractive power and agreeable odor, without a trace
of smokiness. A layer 1⁠/⁠5 of an inch in depth should evaporate in a
short time so completely as to leave no stain on a glass dish.

But even solutions of the best Syrian asphalt in the purest oil of
turpentine, if they are allowed to stand undisturbed for a long time in
large vessels, deposit a thick, semi-fluid precipitate which a large
addition of oil of turpentine fails to convert into a uniform thin
liquid. It may be assumed that this deposit consists of an insoluble or
nearly insoluble part of the asphalt which, perhaps, has been deprived
of solubility by the action of light. Hence, in order to obtain a
uniform solution, this thick part must be removed. This can be done,
though imperfectly, by carefully decanting the solution after it has
stood for a long time in large vessels. This tedious and troublesome
process may be avoided by filtering the solution as it is made, by
the following simple and quite satisfactory method: The solution is
made in a large cask, lying on its side, with a round hole about 8
inches in diameter in its upper bilge. This opening is provided with
a well-fitting cover, to the bottom of which a hook is attached. The
asphalt is placed in a bag of closely woven canvas, which is inclosed
in a second bag of the same material. The diameter of the double bag,
when filled, should be such as to allow it to pass easily through the
opening in the cask, and its length such that, when it is hung on the
hook, its lower end is about 8 inches above the bottom of the cask.
The cask is then filled with rectified oil of turpentine, closed, and
left undisturbed for several days. The oil of turpentine penetrates
into the bag and dissolves the asphalt, and the solution, which is
heavier than pure oil of turpentine, exudes through the canvas and
sinks to the bottom of the cask. Those parts of the asphalt which are
quite insoluble, or merely swell in the oil of turpentine, cannot pass
through the canvas, and are removed with the bag, leaving a perfect
solution. When all soluble portions have been dissolved, the bag, with
the cover, is raised and hung over the opening to drain. If pulverized
asphalt has {719} been used the bag is found to contain only a small
quantity of semi-fluid residue. This, thinned with oil of turpentine
and applied with a stiff brush and considerable force, forms a thick,
weather-resisting, and very durable coating for planks, etc.

The proportion of asphalt to oil of turpentine is so chosen as to
produce, in the cask, a pretty thick varnish, which may be thinned to
any desired degree by adding more turpentine. For use, it should be
just thick enough to cover bright tin and entirely conceal the metal
with a single coat. When dry, this coat is very thin, but it adheres
very firmly, and continually increases in hardness, probably because of
the effect of light. This supposition is supported by the difficulty
of removing an old coat of asphalt varnish, which will not dissolve in
turpentine even after long immersion, and usually must be removed by
mechanical means.

For a perfect, quick-drying asphalt varnish the purest asphalt must be
used, such as Syrian, or the best Trinidad. Trinidad seconds, though
better than some other asphalts, yield an inferior varnish, owing to
the presence of impurities.

Of artificial asphalt, the best for this purpose is the sort known as
“mineral caoutchouc,” which is especially suitable for the manufacture
of elastic dressings for leather and other flexible substances. For
wood and metal it is less desirable, as it never becomes as hard as
natural asphalt.


«FORMULAS:»

I.—A solution of 1 part of caoutchouc in 16 parts of oil of turpentine
or kerosene is mixed with a solution of 16 parts of copal in 8 parts of
linseed-oil varnish. To the mixture is added a solution of 2 parts of
asphalt in 3 or 4 parts of linseed-oil varnish diluted with 8 or 10
parts of oil of turpentine, and the whole is filtered. This is a fine
elastic varnish.

II.—Coal-tar asphalt, American asphalt, rosin, benzine, each 20 parts;
linseed-oil varnish, oil of turpentine, coal-tar oil, each 10 parts;
binoxide of manganese, roasted lampblack, each 2 parts. The solid
ingredients are melted together and mixed with the linseed-oil varnish,
into which the lampblack has been stirred, and, finally, the other
liquids are added. The varnish is strained through tow.


«Bicycle Varnish.»—This is a spirit varnish, preferably made by a cold
process, and requires less technical knowledge than the preparation of
fatty varnishes. The chief dependence is upon the choice of the raw
materials. These raw materials, copal, shellac, etc., are first broken
up small and placed in a barrel adapted for turning upon an axis, with
a hand crank, or with a belt and pulley from a power shaft. The barrel
is of course simply mounted in a frame of wood or iron, whichever is
the most convenient. After the barrel has received its raw material, it
may be started and kept revolving for 24 hours. Long interruptions in
the turning must be carefully avoided, particularly in summer, for the
material in the barrel, when at rest, will, at this season, soon form
a large lump, to dissolve which will consume much time and labor. To
prevent the formation of a semi-solid mass, as well as to facilitate
the dissolving of the gum, it would be well to put some hard, smooth
stones into the barrel with the varnish ingredients.


«Bicycle Dipping Varnish» (Baking Varnish).—Take 50 parts, by weight,
of Syrian asphalt; 50 parts, by weight, of copal oil; 50 parts, by
weight, of thick varnish oil, and 105 parts, by weight, turpentine oil,
to which add 7 parts, by weight, of drier. When the asphalt is melted
through and through, add the copal oil and heat it until the water is
driven off, as copal oil is seldom free from water. Now take it off the
fire and allow it to cool; add first the siccative, then the turpentine
and linseed oil, which have been previously thoroughly mixed together.
This bicycle varnish does not get completely black until it is baked.


«Black Varnishes.»—Black spirit lacquers are employed in the wood and
metal industries. Different kinds are produced according to their use.
They are called black Japanese varnishes, or black brilliant varnishes.


«Black Japanese Varnish.»—I.—Sculpture varnish, 5 parts; red acaroid
varnish, 2 parts; aniline black, 1⁠/⁠4 part; Lyons blue, .0015 parts.
If a sculpture varnish prepared with heated copal is employed, a black
lacquer of especially good quality is obtained. Usually 1 per cent of
oil of lavender is added.

 II.—Shellac             4 parts
      Borax               2 parts
      Glycerine           2 parts
      Aniline black       5 parts
      Water              50 parts

Dissolve the borax in the water, add {720} the shellac, and heat
until solution is effected; then add the other ingredients. This is a
mat-black varnish.


«For Blackboards.»—For blackening these boards mix 1⁠/⁠2 liter (1.05
pints) good alcohol, 70 grams (1,080 grains) shellac, 6 grams (92
grains) fine lampblack, 3 grams (46 grains) fine chalk free from sand.
If red lines are to be drawn, mix the necessary quantity of red lead in
alcohol and shellac.


«Bookbinders’ Varnishes.»—

             I      II    III     IV     V
            Per    Per    Per    Per    Per
            Cent   Cent   Cent   Cent   Cent
 Shellac    14.5    6.5   13.5    6.3    8.3
 Mastic      6.0    2.0     —      —     1.1
 Sandarac    6.0   13.0     —     1.3    1.1
 Camphor     1.0     —     0.5    1.5     —
 Benzoin      —      —      —      —    13.7
 Alcohol    72.5   78.5   86.0   79.2   75.8

Scent with oil of benzoin, of lavender, or of rosemary. Other authors
give the following recipes:

                    VI    VII    VIII    IX
                   Per    Per    Per    Per
                   Cent   Cent   Cent   Cent
 Blond shellac     11.5   13.0    9.0     —
 White shellac     11.5     —      —      —
 Camphor             —     0.7     —      —
 Powdered sugar      —     0.7     —      —
 Sandarac            —      —    18.0    6.6
 Mastic              —      —      —    13.0
 Venice turpentine   —      —     2.0    6.6
 Alcohol           77.0   85.6   71.0   73.8

All solutions may be prepared in the cold, but the fact that mastic
does not dissolve entirely, must not be lost sight of.


«Bottle Varnish.»—Bottles may be made to exclude light pretty well by
coating them with asphaltum lacquer or varnish. A formula recommended
for this purpose is as follows: Dissolve asphaltum, 1 part, in light
coal-tar oil, 2 parts, and add to the solution about 1 per cent of
castor oil. This lacquer dries somewhat slowly, but adheres very firmly
to the glass. Asphaltum lacquer may also be rendered less brittle by
the addition of elemi. Melt together asphaltum, 10 parts, and elemi, 1
part, and dissolve the cold fused mass in light coal-tar oil, 12 parts.

Amber-colored bottles for substances acted upon by the actinic rays of
light may be obtained from almost any manufacturer of bottles.


«Can Varnish.»—Dissolve shellac, 15 parts, by weight; Venice
turpentine, 2 parts, by weight; and sandarac, 8 parts, by weight, in
spirit, 75 parts, by weight.


«Copal Varnish.»—Very fine copal varnish for those parts of carriages
which require the highest polish, is prepared as follows:

I.—Melt 8 pounds best copal and mix with 20 pounds very clear matured
oil. Then boil 4 to 5 hours at moderate heat until it draws threads;
now mix with 35 pounds oil of turpentine, strain and keep for use.
This varnish dries rather slowly, therefore varnishers generally mix
it one-half with another varnish, which is prepared by boiling for 4
hours, 20 pounds clear linseed oil and 8 pounds very pure, white anime
rosin, to which is subsequently added 35 pounds oil of turpentine.

II.—Mix the following two varnishes:

(_a_) Eight pounds copal, 10 pounds linseed oil, 1⁠/⁠2 pound dried
sugar of lead, 35 pounds oil of turpentine.

(_b_) Eight pounds good anime rosin, 10 pounds linseed oil, 1⁠/⁠4 pound
zinc vitriol, 35 pounds oil of turpentine. Each of these two sets is
boiled separately into varnish and strained, and then both are mixed.
This varnish dries in 6 hours in winter, and in 4 hours in summer. For
old articles which are to be re-varnished black, it is very suitable.


«Elastic Limpid Gum Varnishes.»—I.—In order to obtain a limpid rubber
varnish, it is essential to have the rubber entirely free from water.
This can be obtained by cutting the rubber into thin strips, or better,
into shreds as fine as possible, and drying them, at a temperature of
from 104° to 122° F., for several days or until they are water free,
then proceed as follows:

II.—Dissolve 1 part of the desiccated rubber in 8 parts of petroleum
ether (benzine) and add 2 parts of fat copal varnish and stir in. Or,
cover 2 parts of dried rubber with 1 part of ether; let stand for
several days, or until the rubber has taken up as much of the ether as
it will, then liquefy by standing in a vessel of moderately warm water.
While still warm, stir in 2 parts of linseed oil, cut with 2 parts of
turpentine oil.


«ENAMEL VARNISHES:»


«Antiseptic Enamel.»—This consists of a solution of spirituous gum lac,
rosin, and copal, with addition of salicylic acid, etc. Its purpose
is mainly the prevention or removal of mold or fungous formation. The
salicylic acid contained in the mass acts as an antiseptic during the
painting, and destroys all fungi present. {721}


«Bath-Tub Enamel Unaffected by Hot Water.»—I.—In order to make paint
hold on the zinc or tinned copper lining of a bath tub, a wash must be
used to produce a film to which oil paint will adhere. First remove all
grease, etc., with a solution of soda or ammonia and dry the surface
thoroughly; then apply with a wide, soft brush equal parts, by weight,
of chloride of copper, nitrate of copper, and sal ammoniac, dissolved
in 64 parts, by weight, of water. When dissolved add 1 part, by weight,
of commercial muriatic acid. This solution must be kept in glass or
earthenware. It will dry in about 12 hours, giving a grayish-black
coating to which paint will firmly adhere.

The priming coat should be white lead thinned with turpentine, with
only just sufficient linseed oil to bind it. After this is thoroughly
dry, apply one or more coats of special bath-tub enamel, or a gloss
paint made by mixing coach colors ground in Japan with hard-drying
varnish of the best quality. Most first-class manufacturers have
special grades that will stand hot water.

II.—The following preparation produces a brilliant surface on metals
and is very durable, resisting the effect of blows without scaling or
chipping off, and being therefore highly suitable for cycles and any
other articles exposed to shock:

For the manufacture of 44 gallons, 11 pounds of red copper, 8.8 pounds
of yellow copper, 4.4 pounds of hard steel, and 4.4 pounds of soft
steel, all in a comminuted condition, are well washed in petroleum or
mineral spirit, and are then treated with concentrated sulphuric acid
in a lead-lined vessel, with continued stirring for 2 hours. After 12
hours’ rest the sulphuric acid is neutralized with Javel extract, and
the fine powder left in the vessel is passed through a silk sieve to
remove any fragments of metal, then ground along with linseed oil,
ivory black, and petroleum, the finely divided mass being afterwards
filtered through flannel and incorporated with a mixture of Bombay gum,
22 pounds; Damascus gum, 11 pounds; Judea bitumen, 22 pounds; Norwegian
tar rosin, 11 pounds; and 11 pounds of ivory black ground very fine
in refined petroleum. When perfectly homogeneous the mass is again
filtered, and is then ready for use. It is laid on with a brush, and
then fixed by exposure to a temperature of between 400° and 800° F. The
ivory black may be replaced by other coloring matters, according to
requirements.


«A Color Enamel.»—On the piece to be enameled apply oil varnish or
white lead, and add a powder giving brilliant reflections, such as
diamantine, brilliantine, or argentine. Dry in a stove. Apply a new
coat of varnish. Apply the powder again, and finally heat in the oven.
Afterwards, apply several layers of varnish; dry each layer in the
oven. Apply pumice stone in powder or tripoli, and finally apply a
layer of Swedish varnish, drying in the oven. This enamel does not
crack. It adheres perfectly, and is advantageous for the pieces of
cycles and other mobiles.


«Cold Enameling.»—This style of enameling is generally employed for
repairing purposes. The various colors are either prepared with copal
varnish and a little oil of turpentine, or else they are melted
together with mastic and a trifle of oil of spike. In using the former,
the surface usually settles down on drying, and ordinarily the latter
is preferred, which is run on the cracked-off spot by warming the
article. After the cooling, file the cold enamel off uniformly, and
restore the gloss by quickly drawing it through the flame. For black
cold enamel melt mastic together with lampblack, which is easily
obtained by causing the flame of a wick dipped into linseed oil to
touch a piece of tin.

White.—White lead or flake white.

Red.—Carmine or cinnabar (vermilion).

Blue.—Ultramarine or Prussian blue.

Green.—Scheele’s green or Schweinfurt green.

Brown.—Umber.

Yellow.—Ocher or chrome yellow.

The different shades are produced by mixing the colors.


«Enamel for Vats, etc.»—Two different enamels are usually employed,
viz., one for the ground and one for the top, the latter being somewhat
harder than the former. Ground enamel is prepared by melting in an
enameled iron kettle 625 parts brown shellac, 125 parts French oil of
turpentine, with 80 parts colophony, and warming in another vessel
4,500 parts of spirit (90 per cent). As soon as the rosins are melted,
remove the pot from the fire and add the spirit in portions of 250
parts at a time, seeing to it that the spirit added is completely
combined with the rosins by stirring before adding any more. When all
the spirit is added, warm the whole again for several minutes on the
water bath (free fire should {722} be avoided, on account of danger of
fire), and allow to settle. If a yellow color is desired, add yellow
ocher, in which case the mixture may also be used as floor varnish.

The top enamel (hard) consists of 500 parts shellac, 125 parts French
oil of turpentine, and 3,500 parts spirit (90 per cent). Boiling
in the water bath until the solution appears clear can only be of
advantage. According to the thickness desired, one may still dilute in
the cold with high-strength spirit. Tinting may be done, as desired,
with earth colors, viz., coffee brown with umber, red with English
red, yellow with ocher, silver gray with earthy cerussite, and some
lampblack. Before painting, dry out the vats and putty up the joints
with a strip of dough which is prepared from ground enamel and finely
sifted charcoal or brown coal ashes, and apply the enamel after the
putty is dry. The varnish dries quickly, is odorless and tasteless,
and extraordinarily durable. If a little annealed soot black is added
to this vat enamel, a fine iron varnish is obtained which adheres very
firmly. Leather (spattering leather on carriages) can also be nicely
varnished with it.


«Finishing Enamel for White Furniture.»—Various methods are practiced
in finishing furniture in white enamel, and while numerous preparations
intended for the purpose named are generally purchasable of local
dealers in paint supplies, it is often really difficult, and frequently
impossible, to obtain a first-class ready-made enamel. To prepare such
an article take 1⁠/⁠2 pint of white lead and add to it 1⁠/⁠4 pint of
pure turpentine, 1⁠/⁠4 gill of pale coach Japan, and 1⁠/⁠2 gill of
white dammar varnish. Mix all the ingredients together thoroughly.
Apply with a camel’s-hair brush, and for large surfaces use a 2-inch
double thick brush. There should be at least three coats for good
work, applied after an interval of 24 hours between coats; and for
strictly high-class work four coats will be necessary. Each coat
should be put on thin and entirely free from brush marks, sandpapering
being carefully done upon each coat of pigment. Work that has been
already painted or varnished needs to be cut down with, say, No. 1⁠/⁠2
sandpaper, and then smoothed fine with No. 1⁠/⁠2 paper. Then thin
white lead to a free working consistency with turpentine, retaining
only a weak binder of oil in the pigment, and apply two coats of it to
the surface. Give each coat plenty of time to harden (36 hours should
suffice), after which sandpapering with No. 1 1⁠/⁠2 paper had best be
done. Ordinarily, upon two coats of white lead, the enamel finish, as
above detailed, may be successfully produced. For the fine, rich enamel
finish adapted to rare specimens of furniture and developed in the
mansions of the multimillionaires, a more elaborate and complex process
becomes necessary.


«Quick-Drying Enamel Colors.»—Enamel colors which dry quickly, but
remain elastic so that applied on tin they will stand stamping without
cracking off, can be produced as follows:

In a closed stirrer or rolling cask place 21.5 parts, by weight, of
finely powdered pale French rosin, 24 1⁠/⁠2 parts, by weight, of Manila
copal, as well as 35 parts, by weight, of denaturized spirit (95 per
cent), causing the cask or the stirrer to rotate until all the gum
has completely dissolved, which, according to the temperature of the
room in which the stirrer is and the hardness of the gums, requires 24
to 48 hours. When the gums are entirely dissolved add to the mixture
a solution of 21 1⁠/⁠2 parts, by weight, of Venice oil turpentine in
0.025 parts, by weight, of denaturized spirit of 95 per cent, allowing
the stirrer to run another 2 to 3 hours. For the purpose of removing
any impurities present or any undissolved rosin from the varnish, it
is poured through a hair sieve or through a threefold layer of fine
muslin (organdie) into suitable tin vessels or zinc-lined barrels for
further clarification. After 10 to 14 days the varnish is ready for
use. By grinding this varnish with the corresponding dry pigments the
desired shades of color may be obtained; but it is well to remark that
chemically pure zinc white cannot be used with advantage because it
thickens and loses its covering power. The grinding is best carried out
twice on an ordinary funnel mill. Following are some recipes:

I.—Enamel White.—Lithopone, 2 parts, by weight; white lead, purest,
1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight; varnish, 20 parts, by weight.

II.—Enamel Black.—Ivory black, 2 parts, by weight; Paris blue, 0.01
part, by weight; varnish, 23 parts, by weight.

III.—Pale Gray.—Graphite, 2 parts, by weight; ultramarine, 0.01 part,
by weight; lithopone, 40 parts, by weight; varnish, 100 parts, by
weight.

IV.—Dark Gray.—Graphite, 3 parts, by weight; ivory black, 2 parts, by
weight; lithopone, 40 parts, by weight; varnish, 110 parts, by weight.
{723}

V.—Chrome Yellow, Pale.—Chrome yellow, 2 parts, by weight; lithopone, 2
parts, by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts,
by weight.

VI.—Chrome Yellow, Dark.—Chrome yellow, dark, 2 parts, by weight;
chrome orange, 1⁠/⁠8 part, by weight; lithopone, 1 part, by weight;
varnish, 35 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 part, by weight.

VII.—Pink, Pale.—Carmine, 1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight; lithopone, 15 parts,
by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts, by
weight.

VIII.—Pink, Dark.—Carmine, 1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight; Turkey red, 1 part,
by weight; lithopone, 15 parts, by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight.

IX.—Turkey Red.—Turkey red, pale, 2 parts, by weight; lithopone, 1
part, by weight; Turkey red, dark, 1 part, by weight; white lead, pure,
1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight; varnish, 18 parts, by weight; benzine, 1⁠/⁠2
part, by weight.

X.—Flesh Tint.—Chrome yellow, pale, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts, by weight; graphite,
1⁠/⁠8 part, by weight; lithopone, 15 parts, by weight; Turkey red,
pale, 2 parts, by weight; varnish, 42 parts, by weight; benzine, 1⁠/⁠2
part, by weight.

XI.—Carmine Red.—Lead sulphate, 5 parts, by weight; Turkey red, pale, 6
parts, by weight; carmine, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts, by weight; orange minium, 3
parts, by weight; vermilion, 2 parts, by weight; varnish, 50 parts, by
weight; benzine, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts, by weight.

XII.—Sky Blue.—Ultramarine, 5 parts, by weight; lithopone, 5 parts, by
weight; ultramarine green, 0.05 parts, by weight; varnish, 30 parts, by
weight; benzine, 1 part, by weight.

XIII.—Ultramarine.—Ultra blue, 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 12 parts,
by weight; benzine, 1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight.

XIV.—Violet.—Ultramarine, with red tinge, 10 parts, by weight; carmine,
0.5 parts, by weight; varnish, 25 parts, by weight.

XV.—Azure.—Paris blue, 10 parts, by weight; lithopone, 100 parts, by
weight; varnish, 300 parts, by weight.

XVI.—Leaf Green.—Chrome green, pale, 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 25
parts, by weight; benzine, 1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight.

XVII.—Silk Green.—Silk green, 10 parts, by weight; chrome yellow, pale,
1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight; lead sulphate, 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 30
parts, by weight; benzine, 1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight.

XVIII.—Brown.—English red, 10 parts, by weight; ocher, light, 3 parts,
by weight; varnish, 30 parts, by weight; benzine, 1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight.

XIX.—Ocher.—French ocher, 10 parts, by weight; chrome yellow, dark,
1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight; varnish, 30 parts, by weight; benzine, 1⁠/⁠2
part, by weight.

XX.—Chocolate.—Umber, 10 parts, by weight; Florentine lake, 1⁠/⁠8 part,
by weight; varnish, 25 parts, by weight; benzine, 1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight.

XXI.—Terra Cotta.—Chrome yellow, pale, 10 parts, by weight; Turkey red,
dark, 3 parts, by weight; varnish, 35 parts, by weight.

XXII.—Olive, Greenish.—French ocher, 5 parts, by weight; Paris blue,
1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight; graphite, 1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight; varnish, 25
parts, by weight; lithopone, 5 parts, by weight.

XXIII.—Olive, Brownish.—Chrome orange, 5 parts, by weight; Paris blue,
2 parts, by weight; lead sulphate, 10 parts, by weight; English red, 1
part, by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts,
by weight.

XXIV.—Olive, Reddish.—Turkey red, dark, 75 parts, by weight; sap green,
75 parts, by weight; ocher, pale, 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 300
parts, by weight; benzine, 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts, by weight.


«ENGRAVERS’ VARNISHES.»

In copper-plate engraving the plate must be covered with a dark-colored
coating which, though entirely unaffected by the etching fluid, must be
soft enough to allow the finest lines to be drawn with the needle and
must also be susceptible of complete and easy removal when the etching
is finished. Varnishes which possess these properties are called
“etching grounds.” They are made according to various formulas, but
in all cases the principal ingredient is asphalt, of which only the
best natural varieties are suitable for this purpose. Another common
ingredient is beeswax, or tallow.

Etching grounds are usually made in small quantities, at a single
operation, by melting and stirring the solid ingredients together and
allowing the mass to cool in thin sheets, which are then dissolved in
oil of turpentine. The plate is coated uniformly with this varnish
through which the engraver’s tool readily penetrates, laying bare the
metal beneath. After the lines thus drawn have been etched by immersing
the plate in acid, the varnish is washed off with oil of turpentine.

The following formulas for etching grounds have been extensively used
by engravers: {724}

                   I   II  III   IV
 Yellow wax       50   30  110   40 parts
 Syrian asphalt   20   20   25   40 parts
 Rosin            —    —    —    20 parts
 Amber            —    —    20   —  parts
 Mastic           25   25   25   —  parts
 Tallow           —    —    —     2 parts
 Bergundy pitch   —    —    —    10 parts


«FLOOR VARNISHES.»

 I.—Manila copal, spirit-soluble    12 parts
     Ruby shellac, powdered          62 parts
     Venice, turpentine              12 parts
     Spirit, 96 per cent            250 parts

The materials are dissolved cold in a covered vat with constant
stirring, or better still, in a stirring machine, and filtered. For the
pale shades take light ocher; for dark ones, Amberg earth, which are
well ground with the varnish in a paint mill.

II.—Shellac, A C leaf, 1.2 parts; sandarac, 8 parts; Manila copal, 2
parts; rosin, 5 parts; castor or linoleic acid or wood oil acid, 1.50
parts; spirit (96 per cent), 65 parts.


«French Varnish.»—So-called French varnish is made by dissolving I part
of bleached or orange shellac in 5 parts of alcohol, the solution being
allowed to stand and the clear portion then being decanted. The varnish
may be colored by materials which are soluble in alcohol.

For red, use 1 part of eosin to 49 parts of the bleached shellac
solution. For blue, use 1 part of aniline blue to 24 parts of the
bleached shellac solution, as the orange shellac solution would impart
a greenish cast. For green, use 1 part of aniline green (brilliant
green) to 49 parts of the orange shellac solution. For yellow, use
either 2 parts of extract of turmeric or 1 part of gamboge to 24
parts of the solution, or 1 part of aniline yellow to 49 parts of the
solution. For golden yellow, use 2 parts of gamboge and 1 part of
dragon’s blood to 47 parts of the orange shellac solution. The gamboge
and dragon’s blood should be dissolved first in a little alcohol.


«Golden Varnishes.»—

 I.—Powdered benzoin     1 part
     Alcohol enough to make 10 parts.
     Pure saffron, roughly broken up, about 6 threads to the ounce.

Macerate 3 days and filter. Vary the quantity of saffron according to
the shade desired. Mastic and juniper gum may be added to this varnish
if a heavier body is desired.

II.—Benzoin, juniper gum, gum mastic, equal parts.

Dissolve the gums in 9 times their weight of alcohol (varied more or
less according to the consistency wanted), and color to the desired
shade with threads of pure saffron. This varnish is very brilliant and
dries at once.


«India-Rubber Varnishes.»—I.—Dissolve 10 pounds of India rubber in
a mixture of 10 pounds of turpentine and 20 pounds of petroleum by
treating same on a water bath. When the solution is completed add 45
pounds of drying oil and 5 pounds of lampblack and mix thoroughly.

II.—Dissolve 7 pounds of India rubber in 25 pounds of oil of
turpentine. By continued heating dissolve 14 pounds of rosin in the
mixture. Color while hot with 3 pounds of lampblack.


«Inlay Varnish.»—

 Ozokerite           17 parts
 Carnauba wax         3 parts
 Turpentine oil      15 parts

Melt the ozokerite and Carnauba wax, then stir in the turpentine oil.
This varnish is applied like a polish and imparts to the wood a dark
natural color and a dull luster.


«Japanning Tin.»—The first thing to be done when a vessel is to be
japanned, is to free it from all grease and oil, by rubbing it with
turpentine. Should the oil, however, be linseed, it may be allowed to
remain on the vessel, which must in that case be put in an oven and
heated till the oil becomes quite hard.

After these preliminaries, a paint of the shade desired, ground in
linseed oil, is applied. For brown, umber may be used.

When the paint has been satisfactorily applied it should be hardened
by heating, and then smoothed down by rubbing with ground pumice stone
applied gently by means of a piece of felt moistened with water. To be
done well, this requires care and patience, and, it might be added,
some experience.

The vessel is next coated with a varnish, made by the following formula:

 Turpentine spirit      8 ounces
 Oil of lavender        6 ounces
 Camphor                1 drachm
 Bruised copal          2 ounces

Perhaps some other good varnish would give equally satisfactory results.

After this the vessel is put in an oven and heated to as high a
temperature as it will bear without causing the varnish to {725}
blister or run. When the varnish has become hard, the vessel is taken
out and another coat is put on, which is submitted to heat as before.
This process may be repeated till the judgment of the operator tells
him that it is no longer advisable.

Some operators mix the coloring matter directly with the varnish; when
this is done, care should be taken that the pigment is first reduced to
an impalpable powder, and then thoroughly mixed with the liquid.


«LABEL VARNISHES.»

 I.—Sandarac                3 ounces av.
     Mastic                3⁠/⁠4 ounce av.
     Venice turpentine     150 grains
     Alcohol                16 fluidounces

Macerate with repeated stirring until solution is effected, and then
filter.

The paper labels are first sized with diluted mucilage, then dried, and
then coated with this varnish. If the labels have been written with
water-soluble inks or color, they are first coated with 2 coats of
collodion, and then varnished.

II.—The varnished labels of stock vessels often suffer damage from the
spilling of the contents and the dripping after much pouring.

Formalin gelatin is capable of withstanding the baneful influence of
ether, benzine, water, spirit of wine, oil, and most substances. The
following method of applying the preservative is recommended: Having
thoroughly cleaned the surface of the vessel, paste the label on and
allow it to dry well. Give it a coat of thin collodion to protect
the letters from being dissolved out or caused to run, then after a
few minutes paint over it a coat of gelatin warmed to fluidity—5 to
25—being careful to cover in all the edges. Just before it solidifies
go over it with a tuft of cotton dipped into a 40 per cent formalin
solution. It soon dries and becomes as glossy as varnish, and may be
coated again and again without danger of impairing the clear white of
the label or decreasing its transparency.


«Leather Varnishes.»—I.—An excellent varnish for leather can be made
from the following recipe: Heat 400 pounds of boiled oil to 212° F.,
and add little by little 2 pounds of bichromate of potash, keeping the
same temperature. The addition of the bichromate should take about 15
minutes. Raise to 310° F., and add gradually during 1 hour at that
temperature, 40 pounds Prussian blue. Heat for 3 hours more, gradually
raising to 482° to 572° F., with constant stirring. In the meantime,
heat together at 392° F., for 1⁠/⁠2 an hour, 25 pounds linseed oil, 35
pounds copal, 75 pounds turpentine, and 7 pounds ceresine. Mix the two
varnishes, and dilute, if necessary, when cold with turpentine. The
varnish should require to be warmed for easy application with the brush.

II.—Caoutchouc, 1 part; petroleum, 1 part; carbon bisulphide, 1 part;
shellac, 4 parts; bone black, 2 parts; alcohol, 20 parts. First the
caoutchouc is brought together with carbon bisulphide in a well-closed
bottle and stood aside for a few days. As soon as the caoutchouc is
soaked add the petroleum and the alcohol, then the finely powdered
shellac, and heat to about 125° F. When the liquid appears pretty
clear, which indicates the solution of all substances, the bone black
is added by shaking thoroughly and the varnish is at once filled in
bottles which are well closed. This pouch composition excels in drying
quickly and produces upon the leather a smooth, deep black coating,
which possesses a certain elasticity.


«METAL VARNISHES.»

The purpose of these varnishes is to protect the metals from oxidation
and to render them glossy.


«Aluminum Varnish.»—The following is a process giving a special varnish
for aluminum, but it may also be employed for other metals, giving
a coating unalterable and indestructible by water or atmospheric
influences: Dissolve, preferably in an enameled vessel, 10 parts, by
weight, of gum lac in 30 parts of liquid ammonia. Heat on the water
bath for about 1 hour and cool. The aluminum to be covered with this
varnish is carefully cleaned in potash, and, having applied the
varnish, the article is placed in a stove, where it is heated, during
a certain time, at a suitable temperature (about 1062° F.).


«Brass Varnishes Imitating Gold.»—I.—An excellent gold varnish for
brass objects, surgical or optical instruments, etc., is prepared as
follows: Gum lac, in grains, pulverized, 30 parts; dragon’s blood,
1 part; red sanders wood, 1 part; pounded glass, 10 parts; strong
alcohol, 600 parts; after sufficient maceration, filter. The powdered
glass simply serves for accelerating the dissolving, by interposing
between the particles of gum lac and opal.

II.—Reduce to powder, 160 parts, by weight, of turmeric of best
quality, and pour over it 2 parts, by weight, of saffron, {726} and
1.700 parts, by weight, of spirit; digest in a warm place 24 hours, and
filter. Next dissolve 80 parts, by weight, of dragon’s blood; 80 parts,
by weight, of sandarac; 80 parts, by weight, of elemi gum; 50 parts,
by weight, of gamboge; 70 parts, by weight, of seedlac. Mix these
substances with 250 parts, by weight, of crushed glass, place them
in a flask, and pour over this mixture the alcohol colored as above
described. Assist the solution by means of a sand or water bath, and
filter at the close of the operation. This is a fine varnish for brass
scientific instruments.


«Bronze Varnishes.»—I.—The following process yields a top varnish for
bronze goods and other metallic ware in the most varying shades, the
varnish excelling, besides, in high gloss and durability. Fill in a
bottle, pale shellac, best quality, 40 parts, by weight; powdered
Florentine lake, 12 parts, by weight; gamboge, 30 parts, by weight;
dragon’s blood, also powdered, 6 parts, by weight; and add 400 parts,
by weight, of spirit of wine. This mixture is allowed to dissolve, the
best way being to heat the bottle on the water bath until the boiling
point of water is almost reached, shaking from time to time until all
is dissolved. Upon cooling, decant the liquid, which constitutes a
varnish of dark-red color, from any sediment that may be present. In
a second bottle dissolve in the same manner 24 parts, by weight, of
gamboge in 400 parts, by weight, of spirit of wine, from which will
result a varnish of golden-yellow tint. According to the hue desired,
mix the red varnish with the yellow variety, producing in this way
any shade from the deepest red to the color of gold. If required,
dilute with spirit of wine. The application of the varnish should be
conducted as usual, that is, the article should be slightly warm, it
being necessary to adhere strictly to a certain temperature, which can
be easily determined by trials and maintained by experience. In order
to give this varnish a pale-yellow to greenish-yellow tone, mix 10
drops of picric acid with about 3 parts, by weight, of spirit of wine,
and add to a small quantity of the varnish some of this mixture until
the desired shade has been reached. Picric acid is poisonous, and the
keeping of varnish mixed with this acid in a closed bottle is not
advisable, because there is danger of an explosion. Therefore, it is
best to prepare only so much varnish at one time as is necessary for
the immediate purpose.


«Brown Varnish.»—An excellent and quickly drying brown varnish for
metals is made by dissolving 20 ounces of gum kino and 5 ounces of gum
benjamin in 60 ounces of the best cold alcohol; 20 ounces of common
shellac and 2 ounces of thick turpentine in 36 ounces of alcohol also
give a very good varnish. If the brown is to have a reddish tint,
dissolve 50 ounces of ruby shellac, 5 ounces balsam of copaiba, and
2 to 5 ounces of aniline brown, with or without 1⁠/⁠2 to 1 ounce of
aniline violet, in 150 ounces of alcohol.


«Copper Varnishes.»—These two are for polished objects:

I.—One hundred and ten parts of sandarac and 30 parts of rosin,
dissolved in sufficient quantity of alcohol; 5 parts of glycerine are
to be added.

 II.—Sandarac        10 parts
      Rosin            3 parts
      Glycerine      1⁠/⁠2 part
      Alcohol, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the two rosins in sufficient alcohol and add the glycerine.


«Decorative Metal Varnishes.»—

                       I     II     III    IV
                      Per    Per    Per    Per
                     Cent   Cent   Cent   Cent

 Seed lac            11.5     —      —     —
 Amber                7.6     —      —    13.5
 Gamboge              7.6     —      —     —
 Dragon’s blood       0.18    —      —     —
 Saffron              0.16    —      —     —
 Sandarac              —    11.2   15.9   16.6
 Mastic                —     6.5   14.0    3.4
 Elemi                 —     3.3     —     —
 Venice turpentine     —      —     1.0    3.4
 Camphor               —     1.5     —     —
 Aloe                  —      —     7.0    —
 Alcohol             72.96  77.5   66.1   63.2

As will be seen, only natural colors are used. The so-called “gold
lacquer” is composed as follows: Sandarac, 6.25 parts; mastic, 3 parts;
shellac, 12.5 parts; Venice turpentine, 2.5 parts; aloe, 0.75 parts;
gamboge, 3 parts; alcohol, 72 parts. The solution is filtered. Applied
in a thin coating this varnish shows a handsome golden shade. Other
metal varnishes have the following composition:

                         V     VI     VII

                        Per    Per    Per
                       Cent   Cent   Cent

 Shellac               17.5     —    18.0
 Yellow acaroid gum    13.1   25.0    —
 Manila                 —      8.0    9.0
 Alcohol               69.4   67.0   63.0

{727}


«Gold Varnish.»—I.—A good gold varnish for coating moldings which
produces great brilliancy is prepared as follows: Dissolve 3 pounds
of shellac in 30 quarts of alcohol, 5 pounds of mastic in 5 quarts
of alcohol, 3 pounds of sandarac in 5 quarts of alcohol, 5 pounds of
gamboge in 5 quarts of alcohol, 1 pound of dragon’s blood in 1 quart
of alcohol, 3 pounds of saunders in 5 quarts of alcohol, 3 pounds of
turpentine in 3 quarts of alcohol. After all the ingredients have been
dissolved separately in the given quantity of absolute alcohol and
filtered, the solutions are mixed at a moderate heat.

II.—A varnish which will give a splendid luster, and any gold color
from deep red to golden yellow, is prepared by taking 50 ounces pale
shellac, 15 pounds Florentine lake (precipitated from cochineal or
redwood decoction by alum onto strach, kaolin, or gypsum), 25 ounces of
sandalwood, and 8 ounces of dragon’s blood. These in fine powder are
dissolved on the water bath, in 500 ounces rectified spirit. The spirit
must boil and remain, with occasional shaking, for 2 to 3 hours on the
bath. Then cool and decant. In the meantime heat in another flask on
the bath 30 ounces of gamboge in 500 ounces of the same spirit. The
two liquids are mixed until the right color needed for the particular
purpose in hand is obtained. Dilute with spirit if too thick. The
addition of a little picric acid gives a greenish-yellow bronze but
makes the varnish very liable to explode. These varnishes are applied
to gently warmed surfaces with a soft bristle brush.


«Gold Varnish for Tin.»—This is obtained in the following manner:
Spread out 5 parts, by weight, of finely powdered crystallized copper
acetate in a warm spot, allowing it to lie for some time; then grind
the powder, which will have acquired a light-brown shade, with oil
of turpentine and add, with stirring, 15 parts, by weight, of fat
copal varnish heated to 140° F. When the copper acetate has dissolved
(in about 1⁠/⁠4 hour), the mass is filled in a bottle and allowed to
stand warm, for several days, shaking frequently. The gold varnish is
then ready for use. Coat the articles uniformly with it, and heat in
a drying chamber, whereupon, according to the degree of temperature,
varying colorations are obtained, changing from green to yellow, then
golden yellow, and finally orange to brown. When good copal varnish is
employed, the varnish will adhere very firmly, so that the article can
be pressed without damage.


«Iron Varnishes.»—I.—A varnish obtained by dissolving wax in turpentine
is useful. It gives a fairly hard coat, but has the drawback of filling
up fine grooves, and so injuring the appearance of many metal ornaments.

II.—Shellac, 15 pounds; Siam benjamin, 13 pounds; alcohol, 80 pounds;
formylchloride, 20 pounds.

III.—Sierra Leone copal, 6 pounds; dammar, 18 pounds; oleic acid,
3 pounds; alcohol, 40 pounds; oil of turpentine, 20 pounds;
formylchloride, 15 pounds. The formylchloride not only effects the
rapid drying necessary to prevent the varnish gravitating into hollows,
but enables the alcohol to make a perfect solution of the rosin. The
varnishes are excessively volatile, and must be stored accordingly.


«Stove Varnishes.»—

 Shellac                          12 parts
 Manila copal                     14 parts
 Rosin                            12 parts
 Gallipot                          2 parts
 Benzoin                           1 part
 Lampblack                         5 parts
 Nigrosin, spirit-soluble      1 1⁠/⁠2 parts
 Alcohol                         250 parts


«Tin Varnishes.»—I.—For Tin Boxes.—

In 75 parts of alcohol dissolve 15 parts of shellac, 2 parts of Venice
turpentine, and 8 parts of sandarac.

II.—For Trays and Other Tinware.—The ground is prepared by adding
to the white lead the tinting colors ground in good rubbing varnish
and half oil of turpentine. For drier an admixture of “terebine”
is recommended. With this lean and dull paint, coat the tins 2 or 3
times and blend. Next, grain with water or vinegar glaze, and varnish
with pure Zanzibar copal varnish, or finest amber table-top varnish.
There are other tried methods for varnishing tin, which are applicable
for new goods, manufactured in large quantities, while they are less
advantageous for the restoration of old, repeatedly used articles.


«VARNISH SUBSTITUTES.»

A substitute for varnish is produced by adding to 100 parts of casein
10 to 25 parts of a 1 to 10 per cent soap solution and then 20 to
25 parts of slaked lime. The mixture is carefully kneaded until a
perfectly homogeneous mass results. Then gradually add 25 to 40 parts
of turpentine oil and sufficient {728} water for the mass to assume the
consistency of varnish. If it is desired to preserve it for some time
a little ammonia is added so that the casein lime does not separate.
The surrogate is considerably cheaper than varnish and dries so quickly
that paint ground with it may be applied twice in quick succession.


«Zapon Varnishes.»—In the case of many articles which have been colored
mechanically or by the battery, particularly with large pieces, an
opaque varnish is used as a protection against atmospheric influences.
The so-called brassoline, of a brown color, negroline, black, and
zapon which is colorless, are employed, according to the color of the
article. The last-named varnish is most commonly used, and gives a
fine and durable coating, insoluble in almost all liquids which would
come into consideration here, except that it will wash off in soap and
water. Zapon varnish is a solution of collodion cotton and camphor in
amyl acetate and amyl alcohol, and was formerly used to preserve old
manuscripts and legal documents. In the process of zaponizing, the
article is slightly warmed and immersed in the varnish, or the latter
is applied with a brush. The solution is very durable, and has the
advantage that after drying it will not show edges, rings, or spots.
Zapon varnish which has become too thick must be diluted, and the
brushes must be kept from becoming dry. If it is desired to give an
especially warm tone, the article is treated with brushes which have
been drawn over beeswax or mineral wax.

For the production of zapon or celluloid varnish, pour 20 parts of
acetone over 2 parts of colorless celluloid waste, allowing it to stand
for several days in a closed vessel, stirring frequently until the
whole has dissolved into a clear, thick mass. Admix 78 parts of amyl
acetate and clarify the zapon varnish by allowing it to settle for
weeks.

VARNISH, HOW TO POUR OUT: See Castor Oil.

VARNISHES, INSULATING: See Insulation.

VARNISHES, PHOTOGRAPHIC RETOUCHING: See Photography.

VARNISH REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

VASELINE STAINS, TO REMOVE FROM CLOTHING: See Cleaning Preparations and
Methods.


«VASOLIMENTUM.»

This unguent is of two kinds, liquid and semi-solid. The former is
prepared by mixing 500 parts of olein, 250 parts of alcoholic ammonia,
and 1,000 parts of liquid paraffine, the whole being warmed until
completely dissolved, and any loss in weight made up by addition of
spirit. The semi-solid preparation is made of the same ingredients,
except the paraffine salve is substituted for the liquid. The product
is used as a basis for ointments in place of vasogene, and can be
incorporated with a number of medicaments, such as 10 per cent of
naphthol, 20 per cent of guaiacol, 25 per cent of juniper tar, 5 per
cent of thiol, 6 per cent of iodine, 5 per cent of creosote, 10 per
cent of ichthyol, 5 per cent of creolin, 2 per cent of menthol, etc.

VAT ENAMELS AND VARNISHES: See Varnishes.

VEGETABLES, TESTS FOR CANNED: See Foods.

VEGETABLE PARCHMENT: See Parchment.

VICHY: See Waters.

VICHY SALT: See Salts (Effervescent).


«Veterinary Formulas»


«FOR BIRDS:»


«Asthma in Canaries.»—

 Tincture capsicum           5 drachms
 Spirits chloroform         90 minims
 Iron citrate, soluble      45 grains
 Fennel water            3 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

Give a few drops on lump of sugar in the cage once daily.


«Colas.»—

 Tincture ferri perchloride      1 drachm
 Acid hydrochloric, dil.       1⁠/⁠2 drachm
 Glycerine                   1 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 Aqua camphor, q. s.             1 ounce

Use 3 to 6 drops in drinking water.


«Ointment for Healing.»—

 Peru balsam      60 grains
 Cola cream        1 ounce

Apply. {729}


«Constipation in Birds.»—

 F. E. senna              2 drachms
 Syrup manna              1 ounce
 Fennel water, q. s.      4 ounces

Give a few drops on sugar in cage once daily.


«Diarrhœa.»—

 Tincture iron chloride      2 drachms
 Paregoric                   2 drachms
 Caraway water           3 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

Give few drops on lump of sugar once daily.


«Mocking-Bird Food.»—

 Crackers       8 ounces
 Corn           9 ounces
 Rice           2 ounces
 Hemp seed      1 ounce
 Capsicum      10 grains

Mix and reduce to a coarse powder.


«Foods for Red Birds.»—

 Sunflower seed      8 ounces
 Hemp seed          16 ounces
 Canary seed        10 ounces
 Cracked wheat       8 ounces
 Unshelled rice      6 ounces

Mix and grind to a coarse powder.


«Canary-Bird Food.»—

Yolk of egg (dry) 2 ounces Poppy heads (powdered) 1 ounce Cuttlefish
bone (powdered) 1 ounce Sugar 2 ounces Powdered crackers 8 ounces


«Bird Tonic.»—

 Powdered capsicum      20 grains
 Powdered gentian        1 drachm
 Ferri peroxide        1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Powdered sugar        1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Syrup, q. s.

Put a piece size of pea in cage daily.


«Tonic.»—

 I.—Tincture cinchona      1⁠/⁠2 drachm
     Tincture iron            2 drops
     Glycerine                1 drachm
     Caraway water            1 ounce

Put a few drops on lump of sugar in cage daily.

 II.—Compound tincture cinchona      2 drachms
      Compound tincture gentian       2 drachms
      Syrup orange                    1 ounce
      Simple elixir               2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

Put a few drops on lump of sugar in the cage daily.


«Antiseptic Wash for Cage Birds.»—

 Chinosol, F.        2 drachms
 Sugar (burnt)      20 minims
 Aqua cinnamon       4 ounces
 Aqua               20 ounces

Add 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls to the bath water and allow the birds to
use it, when it will quickly destroy all parasites or germs in the
feathers. To wash out the cages, use a mixture of 1 tablespoonful in a
pint of hot water.


«Mixed Bird Seed.»—

 Sicily canary      10 ounces
 German rape         2 ounces
 Russian hemp        1 ounce
 German millet       3 ounces


«FOR HORSES AND CATTLE:»


«Blistering.»—Tincture cantharides, 1 ounce; camphorated oil, 1⁠/⁠2
ounce. Apply a portion with friction 3 times a day until a blister
shows. As it subsides apply again.


«Horse-Colic Remedy.»—I.—In making a horse-colic remedy containing
tincture of opium, ether and chloroform, to be given in tablespoonful
doses, apportion the ingredients about equally, and mix the dose with a
pint of water.

Other formulas are:

 II.—Chloroform anodyne           1 ounce
      Spirit of nitrous ether      2 ounces
      Linseed oil                 13 ounces

Give in one dose and repeat in an hour if necessary.


«Condition Powders.»—I.—Sulphur, 2 pounds; Glauber salts, 1 pound;
black antimony, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; powdered bloodroot, 4 ounces; copperas,
1⁠/⁠2 pound; rosin, 1⁠/⁠2 pound; asafetida, 2 ounces; saltpeter 1⁠/⁠2
pound. Powder and mix well.

II.—Gentian, 4 ounces; potassium nitrate, 1 ounce; sulphur, 4 ounces;
ginger (African), 4 ounces; antimony, 4 ounces; rosin, 2 ounces;
Fœnugreek, 2 ounces; capsicum, 2 ounces; serpentaria, 2 ounces; sodium
sulphate, 9 ounces; flaxseed meal, 16 ounces. All ingredients in fine
powder. Dose: 1 tablespoonful in feed twice a day.


«Veterinary Dose Table.»—For a colt 1 month old give 1⁠/⁠24 of the full
dose; 3 months old, 1⁠/⁠12; 6 months old,1⁠/⁠6; 1 year old, 1⁠/⁠3; 2
years old, 1⁠/⁠2; 3 years old, 3⁠/⁠4. Fluids for cattle usually the
same dose as for the horse. Solids for cattle usually 1 1⁠/⁠2 times the
dose for the horse. {730}

 ──────────────────────────+────────────────────+────────────────────+
            Drug.          │       Horses.      │      Cattle.       │
 ──────────────────────────+────────────────────+────────────────────+
 Aloes                     │   1 to      8 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 oz.  │
 Alum                      │   1 to      3 dr.  │   1 to      3 dr.  │
 Aqua ammonia              │   3 to      5 dr.  │   3 to      5 dr.  │
 Ammonia bromide           │ 1⁠/⁠4 to      2 oz.  │ 1⁠/⁠4 to      2 oz.  │
 Ammonia carbonate         │   1 to      3 dr.  │   2 to      5 dr.  │
 Ammonia iodide            │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      3 dr.  │   1 to      5 dr.  │
 Antimony black            │  15 to     50 gr.  │    ——        ——    │
 Areca nut                 │   3 to      5 dr.  │    ——        ——    │
 Arsenic                   │   5 to     12 gr.  │   5 to     12 gr.  │
 Asafetida                 │   1 to      4 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 oz.  │
 Belladonna leaves         │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 oz.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 oz.  │
 Buchu leaves              │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      3 oz.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      4 oz.  │
 Calaber bean              │   4 to     12 gr.  │   4 to     12 gr.  │
 Camphor                   │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 dr.  │   2 to      3 dr.  │
 Cantharides               │   5 to     25 gr.  │  12 to     30 gr.  │
 Capsicum                  │   1 to      2 dr.  │   1 to      3 dr.  │
 Catechu                   │   1 to      2 dr.  │   2 to      4 dr.  │
 Chalk preparation         │   2 to      3 oz.  │   2 to      4 oz.  │
 Chloral hydrate           │ 1⁠/⁠2 to  1 1⁠/⁠2 oz.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to  1 1⁠/⁠2 oz.  │
 Chloroform                │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 dr.  │
 Cinchona                  │   1 to      3 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 oz.  │
 Copper sulphate           │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      3 dr.  │
 Creolin                   │   1 to      5 dr.  │   2 to      5 dr.  │
 Creosote                  │  15 to     30 min. │   1 to      2 dr.  │
 Digitalis leaves          │  10 to     20 gr.  │  20 to     50 gr.  │
 Dover powder              │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 dr.  │
 Ergot                     │ 1⁠/⁠4 to      1 oz.  │ 1⁠/⁠4 to      1 oz.  │
 Ether                     │ 1⁠/⁠2 to  2 1⁠/⁠2 oz.  │   1 to      3 oz.  │
 Ex. belladonna fluid      │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 dr.  │   2 to      4 dr.  │
 Extract buchu fluid       │   1 to      5 dr.  │    ——        ——    │
 Extract cannabis indica   │ 1⁠/⁠4 to    1⁠/⁠2 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠4 to      1 dr.  │
 Fœnugreek                 │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      3 oz.  │   1 to      3 oz.  │
 Gallnuts                  │   2 to      4 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 oz.  │
 Gentian                   │   2 to      6 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 oz.  │
 Ginger                    │   3 to      5 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 oz.  │
 Ipecac                    │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      3 dr.  │
 Iron carbonate            │   1 to      2 dr.  │    ——        ——    │
 Iron sulphate             │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 dr.  │   1 to      3 dr.  │
 Juniper berries           │   1 to      2 oz.  │   1 to      3 oz.  │
 Limewater                 │   3 to      6 oz.  │   3 to      6 oz.  │
 Magnesia sulphate         │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      3 lb.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      3 lb.  │
 Mustard                   │   2 to      4 dr.  │   2 to      6 dr.  │
 Nux vomica                │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 dr.  │   2 to      3 dr.  │
 Oil castor                │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 pt.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 pt.  │
 Oil Croton                │  10 to     20 min. │   1 to      2 dr.  │
 Oil juniper               │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 dr.  │
 Oil linseed               │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 pt.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 pt.  │
 Oil olive                 │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 pt.  │   1 to      2 pt.  │
 Oil savin                 │   1 to      3 dr.  │   1 to      3 dr.  │
 Oil turpentine            │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 oz.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 oz.  │
 Opium                     │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 dr.  │
 Potassium iodide          │   2 to      4 dr.  │   2 to      6 dr.  │
 Potassium nitrate         │   1 to      2 oz.  │   1 to      2 oz.  │
 Potassium sulphide        │   1 to      2 dr.  │   1 to      2 dr.  │
 Quinine                   │  10 to     30 gr.  │  20 to     40 gr.  │
 Rhubarb                   │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 oz.  │   1 to      2 oz.  │
 Santonine                 │  15 to     40 gr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 dr.  │
 Sodium hyposulphite       │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 oz.  │   1 to      3 oz.  │
 Sodium sulphate           │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 lb.  │   1 to      2 lb.  │
 Sodium sulphite           │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 oz.  │   1 to      3 oz.  │
 Spirits ammonia, aromatic │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 oz.  │   1 to      3 oz.  │
 Spirits chloroform        │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 oz.  │   1 to      2 oz.  │
 Spirits nitrous ether     │   1 to      3 oz.  │   1 to      3 oz.  │
 Spirits peppermint        │   1 to      2 oz.  │   1 to      2 oz.  │
 Strychnine sulphite       │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 gr.  │   1 to      3 gr.  │
 Sulphur                   │   2 to      4 oz.  │   2 to      4 oz.  │
 Tincture aconite          │   5 to     30 min. │   5 to     20 min. │
 Tincture asafetida        │   1 to      4 dr.  │    ——        ——    │
 Tincture belladonna       │   1 to      3 dr.  │   2 to      4 dr.  │
 Tincture cantharides      │   1 to      2 oz.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 oz.  │
 Tincture columbo          │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 oz.  │   1 to      2 oz.  │
 Tincture digitalis        │   1 to      3 dr.  │   2 to      4 dr.  │
 Tincture iron             │   1 to      2 oz.  │   1 to      2 oz.  │
 Tincture ginger           │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      2 oz.  │   1 to      2 oz.  │
 Tincture nux vomica       │   2 to      4 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 oz.  │
 Tincture opium            │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      3 oz.  │   1 to      3 oz.  │
 Tobacco                   │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 dr.  │ 1⁠/⁠2 to      1 dr.  │
 Vinegar                   │   1 to      3 oz.  │   2 to      6 oz.  │
 Whisky                    │   2 to     10 oz.  │    ——        ——    │
 White vitriol             │   5 to     15 gr.  │   5 to     15 gr.  │
 ──────────────────────────+────────────────────+────────────────────+


«Astringent.»—

 I.—Opium           12 grains
     Camphor        1⁠/⁠2 drachm
     Catechu          1 drachm
     One dose.

 II.—Opium          12 grains
      Camphor         1 drachm
      Ginger          2 drachms
      Castile soap    2 drachms
      Anise           3 drachms
      Licorice        2 drachms


«Contracted Hoof or Sore Feet.»—

 I.—Lard                 1 part
     Yellow wax           1 part
     Linseed oil          1 part
     Venice turpentine    1 part
     Tar                  1 part

Apply to the edge of the hair once a day.

 II.—Rosin                                           4 ounces
      Lard                                            8 ounces
      Melt and add Powdered vertigris                 1 ounce
      Stir well; when partly cool add Turpentine      2 ounces

Apply to hoof about 1 inch down from the hair.


«Cough.»—

 I.—Sodii bromide     180 grains
     Creosote water      2 ounces
     Fennel water        4 ounces

Half tablespoonful 4 times daily.

 II.—Ammonia bromide      180 grains
      Fennel water           4 ounces
      Syrup licorice         4 ounces

Teaspoonful 4 times daily.


«Cow Powder.»—

 Powdered catechu      60 grains
 Powdered ginger      240 grains
 Powdered gentian     240 grains
 Powdered opium        30 grains


«CUTS, WOUNDS, SORES.»

I.—Tincture opium, 2 ounces; tannin, 1⁠/⁠4 ounce.

II.—Tincture aloes, 1 ounce; tincture of myrrh, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; tincture
of opium, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; water, 4 ounces. Apply night and morning.

III.—Lard, 4 ounces; beeswax, 4 ounces; rosin, 2 ounces; carbolic acid,
1⁠/⁠4 ounce.


«Diarrhœa.»—

 I.—Opium            15 grains
     Peppermint      1⁠/⁠4 ounce
     Linseed meal      1 ounce

Give half in morning and remainder in evening in a pint of warm water.
{731}

 II.—Prepared chalk      6 ounces
      Catechu             3 ounces
      Opium           1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Ginger              3 ounces
      Gentian             3 ounces

One powder 3 times a day in half a pint of warm water. One-sixth of
dose for calves.


«Diuretic Ball.»—

 I.—Oil juniper           1⁠/⁠2 drachm
     Rosin                   2 drachms
     Saltpeter               2 drachms
     Camphor               1⁠/⁠2 drachm
     Castile soap            1 ounce
     Flaxseed meal           1 ounce
     Make 1 pill.

 II.—Rosin                 90 grains
      Potassium nitrate     90 grains
      Po buchu leaves       45 grains
      Dose: 1 twice a day.


«Drying Drink.»—

 Powdered alum                 6 ounces
 Armenian bole                 2 ounces
 Powdered juniper berries    1⁠/⁠2 ounce

Once daily in 1 quart of warm gruel.


«Epizooty or Pinkeye.»—

 Sublimed sulphur      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Epsom salt              1 ounce
 Charcoal              1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Extract licorice        1 ounce


«Fever.»—

 I.—Salicylic acid          3⁠/⁠4 ounce
     Sodium bicarbonate      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Magnesium sulphate       10 ounces

Give half in quart of warm bran water at night.

 II.—Spirits niter                   3 ounces
      Tincture aconite                2 drachms
      Fluid extract belladonna      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Nitrate potash                  2 ounces
      Muriate ammonia                 2 ounces
      Water, q.s                      1 quart

Dose: Teaspoonful every 2 or 3 hours till better.


«Heaves.»—I.—Balsam copaiba, 1 ounce; spirits of turpentine, 2 ounces;
balsam fir, 1 ounce; cider vinegar, 16 ounces.

Tablespoonful once a day.

II.—Saltpeter, 1 ounce; indigo, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; rain or distilled water, 4
pints.

Dose: 1 pint twice a day.


«Hide Bound.»—

 Elecampane          2 ounces
 Licorice root       2 ounces
 Fœnugreek        2 ounces
 Rosin               2 ounces
 Copperas          1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Ginger              2 drachms
 Gentian             1 drachm
 Saltpeter           1 drachm
 Valerian            1 drachm
 Linseed meal        3 ounces
 Sublimed sulphur    1 ounce
 Black antimony      4 drachms

Tablespoonful twice a day.


«HORSE EMBROCATIONS AND LINIMENTS.»

 I.—Camphor                   1 ounce
     Acetic acid              15 ounces
     Alcohol                  18 ounces
     Oil turpentine           51 ounces
     Eggs                      6
     Distilled witch hazel    45 ounces

 II.—Iodine                  50 grains
      Pot iodide             125 grains
      Soap liniment            6 ounces


«INFLUENZA.»

 I.—Ammonia muriate            1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Gum camphor                  1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Pot chloride                   1 ounce
     Extract licorice, powdered     2 ounces
     Molasses, q.s.

Make a mass. Dose: Tablespoonful in form of pill night and morning.

 II.—Ammonium chloride                         30 parts
      Potassium nitrate                         30 parts
      Potassium sulphate in little crystals    100 parts
      Licorice powder                           65 parts

Mix. Dose: A tablespoonful, in a warm mash, 3 times daily.


«INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER.»

 I.—Salicylic acid            40 grains
     Mercurial ointment         1 ounce
     Liniment of camphor    3 1⁠/⁠4 ounces

Apply and rub the udder carefully twice a day.

 II.—Belladonna root              1 drachm
      Oil turpentine               1 ounce
      Camphor                      1 drachm
      Solution green soap, q.s.    6 ounces

Mix and make a liniment. Bathe the udder several times with hot water.
Dry and apply above liniment.


«MANGE.»

Sulphur is a specific for mange; the trouble consists in its
application. The {732} old-fashioned lotion of train oil and black
sulphur serves well enough, but for stabled animals something is
wanted which will effectually destroy the parasites in harness and
saddlery without injury to those expensive materials. The creosote
emulsions and coal-tar derivatives generally are fatal to the sarcopts
if brought into actual contact, but a harness pad with ridges of
accumulated grease is a sufficient retreat for a few pregnant females
during a perfunctory disinfection, and but a few days will be needed to
reproduce a new and vigorous stock. A cheap and efficient application
can be made by boiling together flowers of sulphur and calcis hydras
in the proportion of 4 parts of the former to 1 of the latter, and 100
of water, for half an hour. It should be applied warm, or immediately
after washing with soft soap.


«Milk Powder for Cows.»—For increasing the flow of milk, in cows, Hager
recommends the following mixture:

 Potassium nitrate      1 part
 Alum                   1 part
 Sublimed sulphur       1 part
 Prepared chalk         1 part
 White bole             2 parts
 Red clover             5 parts
 Anise                 10 parts
 Fennel                10 parts
 Salt                  10 parts

All should be in tolerably fine powder and should be well mixed. The
directions are to give 1 or 2 handfuls with the morning feed.


«LAXATIVES.»

 I.—Aloes                 1 drachm
     Soap                 12 drachms
     Caraway               4 drachms
     Ginger                4 drachms
     Treacle, q.s.

Make 4 balls. Dose: 1 daily.

 II.—Rochelle salts       2 ounces
      Aloes, powdered    150 grains
      Linseed meal       150 grains

One dose, given in warm water.


«Lice.»—

 Crude oil           1 ounce
 Oil tar             1 ounce
 Oil cedar           1 drachm
 Cottonseed oil      5 ounces

Apply to parts.


«DOMESTIC PETS.»

The sarcoptic itch of the dog, as well as that of the cat, is
transmissible to man.

The _Tinea tonsurans_, the so-called barbers’ itch, due to a
trychophyton, and affecting both the dog and cat, is highly contagious
to man. Favus, _Tinea favos_, caused by _achorion schoenleini_, of both
animals, is readily transmissible to human beings. The dog carries in
his intestines many kinds of _tœnia_ (tapeworm), among them _Tœnia
echinococcus_, the eggs of which cause hydatic cysts. Hydatic cysts
occur in persons who are always surrounded with dogs, or in constant
contact with them.

Aviar diphtheria (i.e., the diphtheria of birds), caused by at least
two microbes (bacillus of Klebs-Loeffler and bacillus coli), may easily
be transmitted to man and cause in him symptoms analogous to those of
true diphtheritic angina.

Parrots are subject to an infectious enteritis which may be
communicated to human beings, giving rise to the so-called psittacosis
(from the Greek, _psitta_, a parrot), of which there have been a number
of epidemics in France. It is determined by the bacillus of Nocard.

Human tuberculosis is certainly transmitted to dogs, cats, and birds.
Cadiot, Gibert, Roger, Benjamin, Petit, and Basset, as well as other
observers, cite cases where dogs, cats, and parrots, presenting all
the lesions of tuberculosis, were shown to have contracted it from
contact with human beings; while there are no recorded cases, there can
scarcely be a natural doubt that man may, in a similar manner, become
attainted through them, and that their tuberculosis constitutes an
actual danger to man.

Need we recall here the extraordinary facility with which hydrophobia
is communicated to man through the dog, cat, etc.?

We may, therefore, conclude that we should not permit these animals to
take up so much space in our apartments, nor should they be petted and
caressed either by adults or children in the reckless manner common in
many households. The disgusting habit of teaching animals to take bits
of food, lumps of sugar, etc., from between the lips of members of the
family is also to be shunned.

Finally, any or all of them should be banished from the house the
moment that they display certain morbid symptoms. Besides, in certain
cases, there should be a rigid prophylaxis against certain diseases—as
echinococcus, for instance.


«Worms.»—In cats and dogs, round worms, of which ascaris mystax is the
{733} most common in cats, are found chiefly in young animals. This
worm has hirsute appendages somewhat resembling a mustache. To treat
an animal infected with such “guests,” the patient should be made to
fast for 24 hours. For a small kitten 1⁠/⁠2 grain of santonin, up to a
grain or two for large cats, followed in an hour by a dose of castor
oil, is recommended. To avoid spilling the oil on the animal’s coat the
“doctor” should have it heated and whipped with warm milk. Another way
to get cats to take it is to smear it on the bottoms of their front
feet, when they will lick it off.

Areca nut, freshly ground by the druggist himself and administered in
liberal doses, say 30 to 60 grains, will usually drive out any worms in
the alimentary canal.

It is important that animals successfully treated for worms once should
undergo the treatment a second or third time, as all the parasites may
not have been killed or removed the first time, or their progeny may
have developed in the field vacated by the parents.

The following is an effective formula:

 German wormseed, powdered    1 drachm
 Fluid extract of spigelia    3 drachms
 Fluid extract of senna       1 drachm
 Fluid extract of valerian    1 drachm
 Syrup of buckthorn           2 ounces

Dose: From 1⁠/⁠2 to 1 teaspoonful night and morning.


«Foot Itch.»—The itch that affects the feet of poultry is contagious in
a most insidious way. The various birds of a poultry yard in which the
disease is prevalent, rarely contract it until after a comparatively
long period of exposure, but sooner or later every bird will contract
it. One infected bird is enough to infect a whole yard full, and once
infected, it is exceedingly difficult to get rid of. The disease,
however, affects birds only.

The treatment is simple. Having softened the feet by keeping them for
some minutes in tepid water, the scabs that cover them are carefully
detached, avoiding, as far as possible, causing them to bleed, and
taking the precaution of throwing every scab into the fire. The feet
are then carefully dried, with a bit of soft cotton material, which
should afterwards be burned; then the entire surface is covered with
ointment (_Unguentum sulphuris kalinum_). An alcoholic solution of
Canada balsam is preferred by some. Protect the ointment by a proper
appliance, and allow it to remain in contact 2 or 3 days. At the
end of this time remove the applications and wash off with tepid
suds. The bird will generally be found cured, but if not, repeat the
treatment—removing the remaining scabs, which will be found soft enough
without resorting to soaking in tepid water, and apply the ointment
directly.

There is another method of treatment that has been found successful,
which not only cures the infected birds but prevents the infection
of others. It is simply providing a sand bath for the birds, under
a little shed, where they can indulge themselves in rolling and
scratching, the bath being composed of equal parts fine sand, charcoal
in fine powder, ashes, and flowers of sulphur, sifted together. The
bath should be renewed every week. In the course of a few weeks the
cure is complete.


«Foods.»—

 I.—Powdered egg shell or phosphate of lime       4 ounces
     Iron sulphate                                 4 ounces
     Powdered capsicum                             4 ounces
     Powdered Fœnugreek                         2 ounces
     Powdered black pepper                         1 ounce
     Silver sand                                   2 ounces
     Powdered lentils                              6 ounces

A tablespoonful to be mixed with sufficient feed for 20 hens.

 II.—Oyster shell, ground      5 ounces
      Magnesia                  1 ounce
      Calcium carbonate         3 ounces
      Bone, ground          1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Mustard bran          1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Capsicum                  1 ounce


«Powders.»—

 I.—Cayenne pepper      2 parts
     Allspice            4 parts
     Ginger              6 parts

Powder and mix well together. A teaspoonful to be mixed with every
pound of food, and fed 2 or 3 times a week. Also feed fresh meat,
finely chopped.

 II.—Powdered egg shells      4 parts
      Powdered capsicum        4 parts
      Sulphate of iron         4 parts
      Powdered Fœnugreek    2 parts
      Powdered black pepper    1 part
      Sand                     2 parts
      Powdered dog biscuit     6 parts

A tablespoonful to be mixed with sufficient meal or porridge to feed 20
hens. {734}


«Lice Powders.»—

 I.—Sulphur                 4 ounces
     Tobacco dust            6 ounces
     Cedar oil             1⁠/⁠4 ounce
     White hellebore         4 ounces
     Crude naphthol          1 ounce
     Powdered chalk, q.s.    2 pounds

 II.—Sulphur                1 ounce
      Carbolic acid        1⁠/⁠4 ounce
      Crude naphthol         1 ounce
      Powdered chalk         1 pound


«Roup or Gapes.»—Roup in poultry is caused by the presence of parasites
or entozoa in the windpipe. Young birds are most commonly affected. The
best method of treatment is to expose the affected bird to the fumes of
heated carbolic acid until on the point of suffocation. The bird may
be placed in a box with a hot brick, and carbolic acid placed thereon.
The fowls soon recover from the incipient suffocation, and are almost
always freed from the disease. Care must be taken to burn the parasites
coughed out, and the bodies of any birds which may die of the disease.
The following powders for the treatment of “roup” in poultry have been
recommended:

 I.—Potassium chlorate       1 ounce
     Powdered cubebs          1 ounce
     Powdered anise         1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Powdered licorice    1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces

Mix a teaspoonful with the food for 20 hens.

 II.—Ammonium chloride      1 ounce
      Black antimony       1⁠/⁠4 ounce
      Powdered anise       1⁠/⁠2 ounce
      Powdered squill      1⁠/⁠4 ounce
      Powdered licorice      2 ounces

Mix and use in the foregoing.


«FOR SHEEP:»


«Dips.»—For the prevention of “scab” in sheep, which results from the
burrowing of an acarus or the destruction of the parasite when present,
various preparations of a somewhat similar character are used. The
following formulas for sheep dips are recommended by the United States
Department of Agriculture:

 I.—Soap                   1 pound
     Crude carbolic acid    1 pint
     Water                 50 gallons

Dissolve the soap in a gallon or more of boiling water, add the acid,
and stir thoroughly.

 II.—Fresh skimmed milk    1 gallon
      Kerosene              2 gallons

Churn together until emulsified, or mix and put into the mixture a
force pump and direct the stream from the pump back into the mixture.
The emulsification will take place more rapidly if the milk be added
while boiling hot.

Use 1 gallon of this emulsion to each 10 gallons of water required.


«Constipation.»—

 I.—Green soap       150 grains
     Linseed oil    1 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
     Water             15 ounces

Give 1⁠/⁠5 every 1⁠/⁠2 hour till action takes place.

 II.—Calomel    1 1⁠/⁠2 grains
      Sugar         15 grains

One dose.


«Loss of Appetite.»—

 Sodium sulphate, dried    90 grains
 Sodium bicarbonate        30 grains
 Rhubarb                   30 grains
 Calamus                   90 grains

Form the mass into 6 pills. Give one twice daily.


«Inflammation of the Eyes.»—

 Zinc sulphate          20 grains
 Mucilage quince seed    4 ounces
 Distilled water         4 ounces

Bathe eyes twice daily.


«Vinegar»

I.—Into a hogshead with a large bunghole put 1,500 parts, by weight, of
honey, 125 parts of carob-pods, cut into pieces, 50 parts of powdered
red or white potassium bitartrate, 125 parts of powdered tartaric acid,
2,000 parts of raisin stems, 400 parts of the best brewers’ yeast, or
500 of leaven rubbed up in water; add 16,000 parts of triple vinegar
and 34,000 parts of 40 per cent spirit, containing no fusel oil. Stir
all vigorously together; fill up the hogshead with hot water (100° F.),
close the bunghole with gauze to keep out insects, and let the contents
of the cask stand for from 4 to 6 weeks or until they have turned to
vinegar. The temperature of the room should be from 77° to 88° F.

Draw off half the vinegar, and fill the hogshead up again with 15 parts
of soft water and 1 part of spirit (40 per cent). Do this 4 times, then
draw off all the vinegar and begin the first process over again. This
method of making vinegar is suitable for households and small dealers,
but would not suffice for {735} wholesale manufacturers, since it would
take too long to produce any large amount.

II.—Put into an upright wine cask open at the top, 14,000 parts, by
weight, of lukewarm water, 2,333 parts of 60 per cent alcohol, 500
parts of brown sugar, 125 parts of powdered red or white potassium
bitartrate, 250 parts of good brewers’ yeast, or 125 parts of leaven,
1,125 parts of triple vinegar, and stir until the substances are
dissolved. Lay a cloth and a perforated cover over the cask and let
it stand in a temperature of 72° to 77° F. from 4 to 6 weeks; then
draw off the vinegar. The thick deposit at the bottom, the “mother of
vinegar,” so called, can be used in making more vinegar. Pour over it
the same quantities of water and alcohol used at first; but after the
vinegar has been drawn off twice, half the first quantity of sugar and
potassium bitartrate, and the whole quantity of yeast, must be added.
This makes excellent vinegar.

III.—A good strong vinegar for household use may be made from apple or
pear peelings. Put the peelings in a stone jar (not glazed with lead)
or in a cask, and pour over them water and a little vinegar, fermented
beer, soured wine, or beet juice. Stir well, cover with a linen cloth
and leave in a warm room. The vinegar will be ready in 2 or 3 weeks.

IV.—Two wooden casks of any desired size, with light covers, are
provided. They may be called A and B. A is filled with vinegar, a tenth
part of this is poured off into B, and an equal amount of fermented
beer, wine, or any other sweet or vinous liquid, or a mixture of 1,125
parts, by weight, of alcohol, 11,500 to 14,000 parts of water, and
1,125 parts of beet juice, put into A.

When vinegar is needed, it is drawn out of B, an equal quantity is
poured from A into B and the same quantity of vinegar-making liquids
put into A. In this way vinegar is constantly being made and the
process may go on for years, provided that the casks are large enough
so that not more than a tenth of the contents of A is used in a week.
If too much is used, so that the vinegar in the first cask becomes
weak, the course of the vinegar making is disturbed for a long time,
and this fact, whose importance has not been understood, prevents this
method—in its essential principles the best—from being employed on a
large scale. The surplus in A acts as a fermentative.


«Aromatic Vinegar.»—I.—Sixteen ounces glacial acetic acid, 40 drops oil
of cloves, 40 drops oil of rosemary, 40 drops oil of bergamot, 16 drops
oil of neroli, 30 drops oil of lavender, 1 drachm benzoic acid, 1⁠/⁠2
ounce camphor, 30 to 40 drops compound tincture of lavender, 3 ounces
spirit of wine. Dissolve the oils, the benzoic acid, and the camphor in
the spirit of wine, mix with acetic acid and shake until bright, lastly
adding the tincture of lavender to color.

II.—Dried leaves of rosemary, rue, wormwood, sage, mint, and lavender
flowers, each 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; bruised nutmegs, cloves, angelica root,
and camphor, each 1⁠/⁠4 of an ounce; rectified alcohol, 4 ounces;
concentrated acetic acid, 16 ounces. Macerate the materials for a day
in the alcohol; then add the acid and digest for 1 week longer at a
temperature of 490° F. Finally press out the now aromatised acid and
filter it.


«Cider Vinegar.»—By “artificial vinegar” is meant vinegar made by the
quick method with beechwood shavings. This cannot be carried out with
any economy on a small scale, and requires a plant. A modification
of the regular plan is as follows: Remove the head from a good tight
whisky barrel, and put in a wooden faucet near the bottom. Fill the
barrel with corn cobs and lay an empty coffee sack over them. Moisten
the cobs by sprinkling them with some good, strong, natural vinegar,
and let them soak for a few hours. After the lapse of 2 or 3 hours
draw off the vinegar and again moisten the cobs, repeating this until
they are rendered sour throughout, adding each time 1 quart of high
wines to the vinegar before throwing it back on the cobs. This prevents
the vinegar from becoming flat, by the absorption of its acetic acid
by the cobs. Mix a gallon of molasses with a gallon of high wine
and 14 gallons of water and pour it on the cobs. Soak for 8 hours,
then draw off and pour on the cobs again. Repeat this twice daily,
until the vinegar becomes sour enough to suit. By having a battery of
barrels, say 4 barrels prepared as above, the manufacture may be made
remunerative, especially if the residue of sugar casks in place of
molasses, and the remnants of ale, etc., from the bar-rooms around town
are used. All sugar-containing fruit may be utilized for vinegar making.

VINEGAR, TESTS FOR: See Foods.

VINEGAR, TOILET: See Cosmetics. {736}

VIOLET AMMONIA: See Cosmetics.

VIOLET WATER: See Perfumes.

VIOLIN ROSIN: See Rosin.

VIOLIN VARNISH: See Varnishes.

VISCOSE: See Celluloid.

VOICE LOZENGES: See Confectionery.

VULCANIZATION OF RUBBER: See Rubber.

WAGON GREASE: See Lubricants.

WALLS, DAMP: See Household Formulas.

WALL AND WALL-PAPER CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods,
also Household Formulas.

WALL-PAPER DYES: See Dyes.

WALL-PAPER PASTE: See Adhesives.

WALL PAPER, REMOVAL OF: See Household Formulas.

WALL WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing and Household Formulas.

WALL PRIMING: See Paints.

WALNUT: See Wood.

WARMING BOTTLE: See Bottles.

WARPING, PREVENTION OF: See Wood.


«Warts»

Wart Cure.—The following is especially useful in cases where the warts
are very numerous:

 I.—Chloral hydrate      1 part
     Acetic acid          1 part
     Salicylic acid       4 parts
     Sulphuric ether      4 parts
     Collodion            5 parts

Mix. Directions: Every morning apply the foregoing to the warts,
painting one coat on another. Should the mass fall off without taking
the warts with it, repeat the operation. Take, internally 10 grains of
burnt magnesia daily.

 II.—Sulphur         10 parts
      Acetic acid      5 parts
      Glycerine       25 parts

Keep the warts covered with this mixture.

WASHING FLUIDS AND POWDERS: See Laundry Preparations.

WASTE, PHOTOGRAPHIC, ITS DISPOSITION: See Photography.

WATCH—DIAL CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Jewelers’ Cements.

WATCH GILDING: See Plating.


«Watchmakers’ Formulas»


«WATCH MANUFACTURERS’ ALLOYS.»

Some very tenacious and hard alloys, for making the parts of watches
which are not sensitive to magnetism, are as follows:

               I        II      III       IV      V      VI     VII

 Platinum    62.75    62.75    62.75    54.32    0.5     0.5     —
 Copper      18       16.20    16.20    16      18.5    18.5     25
 Nickel      18       18       16.50    24.70    —       2        1
 Cadmium      1.25     1.25     1.25     1.25    —       —       —
 Cobalt       —        —        1.50     1.96    —       —       —
 Tungsten     —        1.80     1.80     1.77    —       —       —
 Palladium    —        —        —        —      72      72       70
 Silver       —        —        —        —       6.5     7        4
 Rhodium      —        —        —        —       1       —       —
 Gold         —        —        —        —       1.5     —       —

A non-magnetic alloy for watch-springs, wheels, etc.: Gold, 30 to 40
parts; palladium, 30 to 40 parts; copper, 10 to 20 parts; silver, 0.1
to 5 per cent; cobalt, 0.1 to 2.5 per cent; tungsten, 0.1 to 5 per
cent; rhodium, 0.1 to 5 per cent; platinum, 0.1 to 5 per cent.


«An Alloy for Watch Pinion Sockets.»—Gold, 31 parts; silver, 19 parts;
copper, 39 parts; palladium, 1 part.


«Replacing Rubies whose Settings have Deteriorated.»—Enlarge, with
the squarer (steel brooch for enlarging holes), the hole of the old
setting, and adjust it, with hard rubbing, to the extremity of a stem
of pierced brass wire. Take the stem in an American nippers, and set
the ruby at the extremity (the setting may be driven back by using
a flat burnishing tool, very gently). Then take off with a cleaving
file the part of the stem where the ruby is set, and diminish it to
the thickness desired, by filing on the finger, or on cork. These
operations finished, {737} a set stopper is obtained which now needs
only to be solidly fixed at the suitable height, in the hole prepared.


«To Straighten Bent Teeth.»—Bent teeth are straightened by means of the
screwdriver used as a lever against the root of the adjacent teeth, and
bent pivots may be held in the jaws of the pliers and the pinion bent
with the fingers in the direction and to the extent required. For such
a purpose, pliers having the jaws lined with brass are used so that the
pivot is not bruised, and the bending has to be done with great care.


«To Renew a Broken Barrel Tooth.»—Frequently, in consequence of the
breaking of a spring, a tooth of a barrel is broken. Sometimes it may
only be bent, in which case the blade of a penknife may be used with
care. If 2 or 3 successive teeth are lacking, the best way is to change
the barrel, but a single tooth may be easily renewed in this way: Drill
a hole through the thickness of the tooth, taking care not to penetrate
the drum; then fit in a piece of metal tightly and give it, as well as
possible, the correct form of the tooth. To assure solidity, solder
it; then clean and round the edges. Properly executed the repair will
scarcely be noticed.


«Heated Sawdust.»—Sawdust is known to have been employed from time
immemorial by watchmakers and goldsmiths for the purpose of drying
rinsed articles. The process of drying can be accelerated four-fold
if the sawdust is heated before use. This must, however, be done with
great caution and constant stirring.


«To Repair a Dial, etc., with Enamel Applied Cold.»—There are two kinds
of false enamel for application, when cold, to damaged dials. The
first, a mixture of white rosin and white lead, melts like sealing
wax, which it closely resembles. It is advisable when about to apply
it to gently heat the dial and the blade of a knife, and with the
knife cut the piece of enamel of the requisite size and lay it on the
dial. The new enamel must project somewhat above the old. When cold
the surface is leveled by scraping, and a shining surface is at once
produced by holding at a little distance from the flame of a spirit
lamp. It is necessary to be very careful in conducting this operation,
as the least excess of heat will burn the enamel and turn it yellow.
It is, however, preferable to the following although more difficult to
apply, as it is harder and does not become dirty so soon. The second
false enamel contains white lead mixed with melted white wax. It is
applied like cement, neatly filling up the space and afterwards rubbing
with tissue paper to produce a shining surface. If rubbed with a knife
blade or other steel implement its surface will be discolored.


«Lettering a Clock Dial.»—Painting Roman characters on a clock dial is
not such a difficult task as might at first be imagined. If one has a
set of drawing instruments and properly proportions the letters, it
is really simple. The letters should be proportioned as follows: The
breadth of an “I” and a space should equal 1⁠/⁠2 the breadth of an
“X,” that is, if the “X” is 1⁠/⁠2 inch broad, the “I” will be 3⁠/⁠16
inch broad and the space between letters inch, thus making the “I”
plus one space equal to 1⁠/⁠4 inch or half the breadth of an “X.” The
“V’s” should be the same breadth as the “X’s.” After the letters have
been laid off in pencil, outline them with a ruling pen and fill in
with a small camel’s-hair brush, using gloss black paint thinned to the
proper consistency to work well in the ruling pen. Using the ruling
pen to outline the letters gives sharp straight edges, which it would
be impossible to obtain with a brush in the hands of an inexperienced
person.


«Verification of the Depthings.»—In the verge watches, the English
watches, and those of analogous caliber, it is often difficult to
verify the depthings, except by the touch. For this reason we often
find the upper plate pierced over each depth. In the jeweled places,
instead of perforating the upper plate, it suffices to deposit a drop
of very limpid oil on the ruby, taking care that it does not scatter.
In this manner a lens is formed and one may readily distinguish the
depthing.


«To Make or Enlarge a Dial Hole.»—By wetting the graver or the file
with spirit of turpentine, cracks may be avoided and the work will be
accomplished much quicker.


«To Repair a Repeating Clock-Bell.»—When the bell is broken, whether
short off or at a distance, file it away and pierce it, and after
having sharpened a little the stem of the spring which remains, push
by force, in the hole just made, a thin piece of solder (pewter). The
sound will not have changed in any appreciable manner.

A seconds pendulum of a regulator, which has no compensation for
temperature will cause the clock to lose about {738} 1 second per day
for each 3 degrees of increase in heat. A watch without a compensation
balance will lose 6.11 seconds in 24 hours for each increase of 1° F.
in heat.


«To Remedy Worn Pinions.»—Turn the leaves or rollers so that the worn
places upon them will be toward the arbor or shaft and fasten them
in that position. If they are “rolling pinions,” and they cannot be
secured otherwise, a little soft solder should be used.


«Watchmakers’ Oil.»—I.—Put some lead shavings into neat’s foot oil,
and allow to stand for some time, the longer the better. The lead
neutralizes the acid, and the result is an oil that never corrodes or
thickens.

II.—Stir up for some time best olive oil with water kept at the boiling
point; then after the two fluids have separated, decant the oil and
shake up with a little freshly burned lime. Let the mixture stand for
some weeks in a bottle exposed to the sunlight and air, but protected
from wet and dirt. When filtered, the oil will be nearly colorless,
perfectly limpid, and will never thicken or become rancid.


«To Weaken a Balance Spring.»—A balance spring may need weakening; this
is effected by grinding the spring thinner. Remove the spring from the
collet and place it upon a piece of pegwood cut to fit the center cod.
A piece of soft iron wire, flattened so as to pass freely between the
coils and charged with a little powdered oilstone, will serve as a
grinder, and with it the strength of the spring may soon be reduced.
Operations will be confined to the center coil, for no other part of
the spring will rest sufficiently against the wood to enable it to be
ground, but this will generally suffice. The effect will be rather
rapid; therefore care should be taken or the spring may be made too
weak.


«To Make a Clock Strike Correctly.»—Pry the plates apart on the
striking side, slip the pivots of the upper wheels out, and having
disconnected them from the train, turn them partly around and put them
back. If still incorrect, repeat the experiment. A few efforts at most
will get them to work properly. The sound in cuckoo clocks is caused
by a wire acting on a small bellows which is connected with two small
pipes like organ pipes.


«To Reblack Clock Hands.»—One coat of asphaltum varnish will make old
rusty hands look as good as new, and will dry in a few minutes.


«To Tighten a Ruby Pin.»—Set the ruby pin in asphaltum varnish. It will
become hard in a few minutes and be much firmer and better than the gum
shellac, generally used.


«To Loosen a Rusty Screw in a Watch Movement.»—Put a little oil around
the screw; heat the head lightly by means of a red-hot iron rod,
applying the same for 2 or 3 minutes. The rusty screw may then be
removed as easily as though it had just been put in.


«Gilding Watch Movements.» (See also Gilding.)—In gilding watch
movements, the greatest care must be observed with regard to
cleanliness. The work is first to be placed into a weak solution of
caustic potash for a few minutes, and then rinsed in cold water. The
movements are now to be dipped into pickling acid (nitrous acid) for
an instant, and then plunged immediately into cold water. After being
finally rinsed in hot water, they may be placed in the gilding bath
and allowed to remain therein until they have received the required
coating. A few seconds will generally be sufficient, as this class
of work does not require to be very strongly gilt. When gilt, the
movements are to be rinsed in warm water, and scratch-brushed; they
may then be returned to the bath, for an instant, to give them a good
color. Lastly, rinse in hot water and place the movements in clean box
sawdust. An economical mode of gilding watch movements is to employ a
copper anode—working from the solution, add 10 parts of cream of tartar
and a corresponding quantity of elutriated chalk to obtain a pulp
that can be put on with the brush. The gilding or silvering obtained
in this manner is pretty, but of slight durability. At the present
time this method is only seldom employed, since the electroplating
affords a means of producing gilding and silvering in a handsome and
comparatively cheap manner, the metallic coating having to be but very
thin. Gold and silver for this kind of work are used in the form of
potassium cyanide of gold or potassium cyanide of silver solutions, it
being a custom to copper the zinc articles previously by the aid of a
battery, since the appearance will then be much handsomer than on zinc
alone. Gilding or silvering with leaf metal is done by polishing the
surface of the zinc bright and coating it with a very tough linseed-oil
varnish diluted with 10 times the quantity of benzol. The metallic leaf
is then laid on and polished with an agate. {739}

WATCHMAKERS’ CLEANING PREPARATIONS: See Cleaning Preparations and
Methods.

WATCH MOVEMENTS, PALLADIUM PLATING OF: See Plating.


«Water, Natural and Artificial»

In making an artificial mineral water it must be remembered that it is
seldom possible to reproduce the water by merely combining its chemical
components. In other words, the analysis of the water cannot serve
as a basis from which to prepare it, because even though all of the
components were put together, many would be found insoluble, and others
would form new chemical combinations, so that the result would differ
widely from the mineral water imitated.

For example, carbonate of magnesia and carbonate of lime, which
are important ingredients in most mineral waters, will not make
a clear solution unless freshly precipitated. Hence, when these
are to be reproduced in a mineral water it is customary to employ
other substances, which will dissolve at once, and which will, upon
combining, produce these salts. The order in which the salts are added
is also a very important matter, for by dissolving the salts separately
and then carefully combining them, solutions may be effected which
would be impossible were all the salts added together to the water in
the portable fountain.

In this connection the following table will be found useful:

Group I

 Ammonium carbonate.
 Ammonium chloride.
 Sodium borate (borax).
 Potassium carbonate.
 Potassium chloride.
 Potassium nitrate.
 Potassium sulphate.
 Sodium bromide.
 Sodium carbonate.
 Sodium chloride.
 Sodium fluoride.
 Sodium iodide.
 Sodium nitrate.
 Sodium phosphate.
 Sodium pyrophosphate.
 Sodium silicate.
 Sodium sulphate.

Group 2

Lithium carbonate.

Group 3

 Aluminum chloride.
 Barium chloride.
 Calcium bromide.
 Calcium chloride.
 Calcium nitrate.
 Magnesium nitrate.
 Strontium chloride.
 Lithium chloride.

Group 4

 Magnesium sulphate.
 Alum (potassa or soda alum).

Group 5

 Lime carbonate.
 Magnesium carbonate hydrate.
 Lime sulphate precipitate.

Group 6

 Lithium carbonate.
 Acid hydrochloric.
 Acid sulphuric.
 Iron chloride.
 Iron pyrophosphate.
 Iron sulphate.
 Manganese chloride.
 Manganese sulphate.

Group 7

Sodium arseniate, or sodium sulphide, or acid hydrosulphuric.

Explanation of Groups.—The explanation of the use of these groups
is simple. When about to prepare an artificial mineral water, first
ascertain from the formula which of the ingredients belong to group
1. These should be dissolved in water, and then be filtered and added
to distilled water, and thoroughly agitated. Next the substance or
substances belonging to group 2 should be dissolved in water, then
filtered and added to the water, which should again be agitated. And so
the operation should proceed; whatever ingredients are required from
each group should be taken in turn, a solution made, and this solution,
after being filtered, should be separately added to the fountain, and
the latter be well agitated before the following solution is added.

For groups 1, 3, and 4, the salts should be dissolved in 5 times their
weight of boiling, or 10 times their weight of cold, water. For group
2 (lithium carbonate) the proportions should be 1 part of lithium
carbonate to about 130 parts of cold or boiling water. The substances
mentioned in group 5 are added to the portable fountain in their solid
state, and dissolve best when freshly precipitated. As carbonic acid
gas aids their solution, it is best to charge the fountain after they
are added, and agitate thoroughly, blowing off the charge afterwards if
necessary.

In group 5 the lithium carbonate is dissolved in the acids (see also
group 2), the iron and manganese salts are dissolved in 5 parts of
boiling, or 10 parts of cold, water, the solution quickly filtered, the
acids added to it, and the whole mixture added to the fountain already
charged with gas, the cap being quickly taken off, and the solution
poured in. The iron and manganese salts easily oxidize and produce
turbidity, therefore the atmospheric air should be carefully {740}
blown off under high pressure several times while charging fountains.
The substances mentioned in group 7 are never put into the fountain,
except the arseniate of sodium in the case of Vichy water, which
contains but a trifling amount of this compound.

Most of the solutions may be prepared beforehand and be used when
required, thus saving considerable time.

Formulas for various waters will be given at the end of this article.

A question which arises in preparing mineral waters is: What is the
best charging pressure? As a general rule, they are charged to a lower
pressure than plain soda; good authorities even recommend charging
certain mineral waters as low as 30 pounds pressure to the square inch,
but this seems much too low a pressure for the dispensing counter.
From 50 to 120 pounds pressure would be a good limit, while plain soda
may be served out as high as 180 pounds. There must be enough pressure
completely to empty the fountain, while enabling sufficient gas to
be retained by the water to give it a thorough pungency. Moreover, a
high pressure to the mineral water enables a druggist at a pinch, when
he runs out of plain soda, to use his Vichy water, instead, with the
syruped drinks. The taste of the Vichy is not very perceptible when
covered by the syrup, and most customers will not notice it.


«Apollinaris Water.»—

 Sodium carbonate             2,835 grains
 Sodium sulphate                335 grains
 Sodium silicate                 10 grains
 Magnesium chloride             198 grains
 Calcium chloride                40 grains
 Potassa alum                    57 grains
 Magnesium carbonate hydrate    158 grains
 Iron sulphate                   21 grains


«Hunyadi Water.»—

 Magnesium sulphate     400 parts
 Sodium sulphate        400 parts
 Potassium sulphate       2 parts
 Sodium chloride         31 parts
 Sodium bicarbonate      12 parts
 Water                    1 quart


«Lithia Water.»—

 Lithium carbonate       120 grains
 Sodium bicarbonate    1,100 grains
 Carbonated water         10 gallons

For “still” lithia water, substitute lithium citrate for the carbonate
in the above formula.


«Seltzer Water.»—Hydrochloric acid (chemically pure), 2,520 grains;
pure water, 40 ounces. Mix and add marble dust, 240 grains; carbonate
of magnesium, 420 grains. Dissolve, and after 1 hour add bicarbonate of
sodium, 2,540 grains. Dissolve, then add sufficient pure water to make
10 gallons. Filter and charge to 100 pounds pressure.


«Vichy Water.»—The following formula, based on the analysis of
Bauer-Struve, yields an imitation of

_Vichy_ (_Grande Grille_).

 Sodium iodide         0.016 parts
 Sodium bromide         0.08 parts
 Sodium phosphate          2 parts
 Sodium silicate          80 parts
 Potassium sulphate      125 parts
 Sodium chloride         139 parts
 Sodium carbonate      6,792 parts
 Aluminum chloride         1 part
 Strontium chloride        1 part
 Ammonium chloride         3 parts
 Magnesium chloride       24 parts
 Calcium chloride        170 parts
 Manganese sulphate     0.46 parts
 Iron sulphate             1 part
 Sulphuric acid           40 parts
 Water to make            10 gallons

Mix the first 7 ingredients with about 10 times their weight of water
and filter. In the same manner, mix the next 5 ingredients with water
and filter; and then the last 3 ingredients. Pour these solutions into
sufficient water contained in a fountain to make 10 gallons, and charge
at once with carbon dioxide gas.

Waters like the above are more correctly named “imitation” than
“artificial,” as the acidic and basic radicals may bear different
relations to one another in the natural and the other.


«PURIFYING WATER.»

See also Filters.

If an emulsion of clay is poured into a soap solution, the clay
gradually separates out without clarifying the liquid. When a few drops
of hydrochloric acid, however, are added to a soap solution and a small
quantity—about 1.5 per cent—of a clay emulsion poured in, the liquid
clarifies at once, with formation of a plentiful sediment. Exactly
the same process takes place when the waste waters from the combing
process in spinning are treated with clay. The waters which remain
turbid for several days contain 500 to 800 grams of fatty substances
per cubic meter. If to 1 liter of this liquid 1 gram of clay is added,
with 15 to 20 per cent of water, the liquid clarifies with separation
of a sediment and assumes a golden-brown {741} color. Besides the
fatty substances, this deposit also contains a certain quantity of
nitrogenous bodies. Dried at (100° C.) 212° F., it weighs about 1.6
grams and contains 30 per cent of fat. The grease obtained from it is
clear, of good quality, and deliquesces at 95° F. After removal of this
fat, the mass still contains 1.19 per cent of nitrogen.


«Sterilization of Water with Lime Chloride.»—In order to disinfect and
sterilize 1,000 parts of drinking water, 0.15 parts of dry chloride
of lime are sufficient. The lime is stirred with a little water into
a thin paste and introduced, with stirring, into the water to be
disinfected and a few drops of officinal hydrochloric acid are added.
After 1⁠/⁠2 hour the clarification and disinfection is accomplished,
whereupon 0.3 parts of calcium sulphite are added, in order to kill the
unpleasant smell and taste of the chlorine.


«Clarifying Muddy Water.»—The water supply from rivers is so muddy at
times that it will not go through the filter. When this happens agitate
each barrel of water with 2 pounds of phosphate of lime and allow it
to settle. This will take but a few minutes, and it will be found that
most of the impurities have been carried down to the bottom. The water
can then be drawn off carefully and filtered.


«Removal of Iron from Drinking Water.»—The simplest method for removing
the taste of iron in spring water is to pass the water through a filter
containing a layer of tricalcic phosphate either in connection with
other filtering materials or alone. The phosphate is first recovered in
a gelatinous form, then dried and powdered.


«For Hardness.»—A solution perfectly adapted to this purpose, and one
which may be kept a long time, is prepared as follows:

Thirty-five parts of almond oil are mixed with 50 parts of glycerine of
1.26 specific gravity and 8.5 parts of 50 per cent soda lye, and boiled
to saponification. To this mixture, when it has cooled to from 85° to
90° C. (185° to 194° F.), are added 100 to 125 parts of boiling water.
After cooling again, 500 parts of water are added, and the solution is
poured into a quart flask, with 94 per cent alcohol to make up a quart.
After standing 2 months it is filtered. Twenty hydrolimeter degrees of
this solution make, with 40 parts of a solution of 0.55 grams of barium
chloride in 1 quart of water, a dense lather 1 centimeter high.

WATER (COPPER): See Copper.

WATER ICES: See Ice Creams.

WATER, TO FREEZE: See Refrigeration.

WATER JACKETS, ANTI-FREEZING SOLUTIONS FOR: See Freezing Preventives.

WATER SPOTS, PRIMING FOR: See Paint.

WATER STAINS: See Wood.

WATER-LILY ROOTS: See Pyrotechnics.

WATER, STIRRED YELLOW, SCARLET AND COLORLESS: See Pyrotechnics.

WATERS (TOILET): See Cosmetics.

WATER-GLASS CEMENTS: See Adhesives.

WATER GLASS IN STEREOCHROMATIC PAINTING: See Stereochromy.


«Waterproofing»

(See also Enamels, Glazes, Paints, Preservatives, Varnishes.)


«Waterproofing Brick Arches.»—Waterproofing of brick arches is done
in the following manner: The masonry is first smoothed over with
cement mortar. This is then covered with a special compound on which
a layer of Hydrex felt is laid so as to lap at least 12 inches on the
transverse seams. Five layers of compound and 5 of felt are used, and
special attention is paid to securing tightness around the drain pipes
and at the spandrel walls. In fact the belt is carried up the back of
the latter and turned into the joint under the coping about 2 inches,
where it is held with cement mortar. The waterproofing on the arches
is protected with 1 inch of cement mortar and that on the walls with a
single course of brickwork.


«Waterproofing Blue Prints.»—Use refined paraffine, and apply by
immersing the print in the melted wax, or more conveniently as
follows: Immerse in melted paraffine until saturated, a number of
pieces of an absorbent cloth a foot or more square. When withdrawn and
cooled they are ready for use at any time. {742} To apply to a blue
print, spread one of the saturated cloths on a smooth surface, place
the dry print on it with a second waxed cloth on top, and iron with a
moderately hot flatiron. The paper immediately absorbs paraffine until
saturated, and becomes translucent and highly waterproofed. The lines
of the print are intensified by the process, and there is no shrinking
or distortion. As the wax is withdrawn from the cloths, more can be
added by melting small pieces directly under the iron.

By immersing the print in a bath of melted paraffine the process is
hastened, but the ironing is necessary to remove the surplus wax from
the surface, unless the paper is to be directly exposed to the weather
and not to be handled. The irons can be heated in most offices by gas
or over a lamp, and a supply of saturated cloths obviates the necessity
of the bath. This process, which was originally applied to blue prints
to be carried by the engineer corps in wet mines, is equally applicable
to any kind of paper, and is convenient for waterproofing typewritten
or other notices to be posted up and exposed to the weather.


«Waterproof Coatings.»—I.—Rosin oil, 50 parts; rosin, 30 parts; white
soap, 9 parts. Apply hot on the surfaces to be protected.

II.—It has been observed that when gluten dried at an ordinary
temperature, hence capable of absorbing water, is mixed with glycerine
and heated, it becomes water-repelling and suitable for a waterproof
paint. One part of gluten is mixed with parts of glycerine, whereby
a slimy mass is obtained which is applied on fabrics subsequently
subjected to a heat of 248° F. The heating should not last until all
glycerine has evaporated, otherwise the coating becomes brittle and
peels off.


«Waterproofing Canvas.»—I.—The canvas is coated with a mixture of the
three solutions named below:

1. Gelatin, 50 parts; by weight, boiled in 3,000 parts of water free
from lime. 2. Alum, 100 parts, dissolved in 3,000 parts of water. 3.
Soda soap dissolved in 2,000 parts of water.

II.—Prepare a zinc soap by entirely dissolving 56 parts of soft soap
in 125 to 150 parts of water. To the boiling liquid add, with constant
stirring, 28 to 33 parts of zinc vitriol (white vitriol). The zinc soap
floats on top and forms, after cooling, a hard white mass, which is
taken out. In order to clean it of admixed carbonic alkali, it must be
remelted in boiling fresh water. Next place 232.5 parts of raw linseed
oil (free from mucus) in a kettle with 2.5 parts of best potash, and
5 parts of water. This mass is boiled until it has become white and
opaque and forms a liquid, soap-like compound. Now, add sugar of lead,
1.25 parts; litharge, 1 part; red lead, 2 parts; and brown rosin, 10.5
parts. The whole is boiled together about 1 hour, the temperature not
being allowed to exceed 212° F., and stirring well from time to time.
After this add 15 parts of zinc soap and stir the whole until the metal
soap has combined with the oil, the temperature not exceeding 212° F.
When the mixture is complete, add a solution of caoutchouc, 1.2 parts,
and oil of turpentine, 8.56 parts, which must be well incorporated
by stirring. The material is first coated on one side by means of a
brush with this composition, which must have a temperature of 158° F.
Thereupon hang it up to dry, then apply a second layer of composition
possessing the same temperature, which is likewise allowed to dry. The
fiber is now filled out, so that the canvas is waterproof.


«Waterproofing Corks.»—For the purpose of making corks as impervious as
possible, while at the same time keeping them elastic, saturate them
with caoutchouc solution. Dissolve caoutchouc in benzine in the ratio
of 1 part of caoutchouc to 19 parts of benzine. Into this liquid lay
the corks to be impregnated and subject them to a pressure of 150 to
180 pounds by means of a force pump, so that the liquid can thoroughly
enter. The corks thus treated must next be exposed to a strong draught
of air until all trace of benzine has entirely evaporated and no more
smell is noticeable.


«WATERPROOFING FABRICS.»

It will be convenient to divide waterproof fabrics into two classes,
viz., those which are _impervious_ to water, and those which are
_water-repellent_. It is important to make this distinction, for,
although all waterproof material is made for the purpose of resisting
water, there is a vast difference between the two classes. The
physical difference between them can be briefly summed up as follows:
Fabrics which are completely impervious to water comprise oil-skins,
mackintoshes, and all materials having a water-resisting film on one or
both sides, or in the interior of the fabric. Those coming under the
second heading of water-repellent materials do not possess {743} this
film, but have their fibers so treated as to offer less attraction to
the water than the water molecules have for themselves.

The principal members of the first group are the rubber-proofed goods;
in these the agent employed is rubber in greater or less quantity,
together with other bodies of varying properties. Before enlarging on
this class, it will be necessary to give a short description of the
chemical and physical properties of rubber.

Rubber, or caoutchouc, is a natural gum exuding from a large number
of plants, those of the _Euphorbiaceæ_ being the chief source for the
commercial variety. The raw material appears on the market in the shape
of blocks, cakes, or bottle-shaped masses, according to the manner
in which it has been collected. It possesses a dark-brown—sometimes
nearly black-exterior; the interior of the mass is of a lighter shade,
and varies from a dingy brown to a dirty white, the color depending
on the different brands and sources. In the raw state its properties
are very different from what they are after going through the various
manufacturing processes, and it has only a few of the characteristics
which are generally associated with India rubber. Chemically it is
a complex hydrocarbon with the formula C_〈45〉H_〈36〉, and appears to
consist of a highly porous network of cells having several different
rosins in their interstices. It is perfectly soluble in no single
solvent, but will yield some of its constituents to many different
solvents. At a temperature of 10° C. (50° F.) raw caoutchouc is a solid
body and possesses very little elasticity. At 36° C. (97° F.) it is
soft and elastic to a high degree, and is capable of being stretched
16 times its length. Further increase of temperature lessens its
elastic properties, and at 120° C. (248° F.) it melts. While in the
raw condition it has several peculiar properties, one of which is:
After stretching, and cooling suddenly while stretched, it retains its
new form, and only regains its former shape on being warmed. Another
striking feature is its strong adhesive capacity; this property is so
powerful that the rubber cannot be cut with a knife unless the blade
is wet; and freshly cut portions, if pressed together, will adhere
and form a homogeneous mass. From these facts it will be seen how it
differs from rubber in the shape of a cycle tire or other manufactured
form.

The most valuable property possessed by raw caoutchouc is that of
entering into chemical combination with sulphur, after which its
elasticity is much increased; it will then bear far greater gradations
of heat and cold. This chemical treatment of caoutchouc with sulphur
is known as “vulcanizing,” and, if properly carried out, will yield
either soft vulcanized rubber or the hard variety known as vulcanite.
On the other hand, caoutchouc, after vulcanizing, has lost its plastic
nature, and can no longer be molded into various shapes, so that in the
production of stamped or molded objects, the customary method is to
form them in unvulcanized rubber and then to vulcanize them.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.]

[Illustration: Fig. 2.]

Raw caoutchouc contains a number of natural impurities, such as sand,
twigs, soil, etc.; these require removing before the manufacturing
processes can be carried out. The first operation, after rough washing,
is to shred the raw material into small strips, so as to enable the
impurities to be washed out. This process is carried out by pressing
the rubber against the surface of a revolving drum (_A_, Fig. 1),
carrying a number of diagonally arranged knives, _B_, on its surface. A
lever, _C_, presses the rubber against the knives; _D_ is the fulcrum
on which _C_ works, _E_ being a weight which throws back the lever on
the pressure being removed. During {744} this operation a jet of water
is kept playing onto the knives to cool and enable them to cut.

Following this comes the passage between a pair of corrugated steel
rollers (as shown in Fig. 2). These rollers have each a different
speed, so that the rubber gets stretched and squeezed at the same time.
Immediately over the rollers a water pipe is fixed, so that a steady
stream of water washes out all the sand and other extraneous matter.
In Fig. 2, _AA_ are the steel rollers, while _B_ is a screw working
springs which regulate the pressure between the rollers. The power is
transmitted from below from the pulley, _C_, and thence to the gearing.

[Illustration: Fig. 3.]

The next operation, after well drying, is to thoroughly masticate the
shredded rubber between hot steel rollers, which resemble those already
described, but usually have a screw-thread cut on their surfaces. Fig.
3 shows the front view of this masticating machine, _A_ being the
rollers, while the steam pipe for heating is shown at _B_. Fig. 3_a_
gives a top view of the same machine, showing the two rollers.

[Illustration: Fig. 3A.]

After passing several times through these, the rubber will be in the
form of homogeneous strips, and is then ready either for molding or
dissolving. As we are dealing solely with waterproofed textiles, the
next process which concerns us is the dissolving of the rubber in a
suitable solvent. Benzol, carbon bisulphide, oil of turpentine, ether,
and absolute alcohol, will each dissolve a certain amount of rubber,
but no one of them used alone gives a thorough solution. The agent
commonly employed is carbon bisulphide, together with 10 per cent of
absolute alcohol. Whatever solvent is used, after being steeped in it
for some hours the caoutchouc swells out enormously, and then requires
the addition of some other solvent to effect a complete solution.
A general method is to place the finely shredded rubber in a closed
vessel, to cover it with carbon bisulphide, and allow to stand for some
hours. Toward the end of the time the vessel is warmed by means of a
steam coil or jacket, and 10 parts absolute alcohol are added for every
100 parts of carbon bisulphide. The whole is then kept gently stirred
for a few hours. Fig. 4 shows a common type of the vessel used for
dissolving rubber. In this diagram _A_ is the interior of the vessel,
and _B_ a revolving mixer in the same. The whole vessel is surrounded
by a steam jacket, _C_, with a steam inlet at _D_ and a tap for
condensed water at _E_. _F_ is the cock by which the solution is drawn
off.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.]

After the rubber is dissolved, about 12 to 24 per cent of sulphur is
added, and thoroughly incorporated with the solution. The sulphur may
be in the form of chloride of sulphur, or as sulphur pure and simple.
A very small quantity of sulphur is required to give the necessary
result, 2 to 3 per cent being sufficient to effect vulcanization; but a
large quantity is always added to hasten the operation.

Even after prolonged treatment with the two solvents, a solution of
uniform consistency is never obtained: clots of a thicker nature will
be found floating in the solution, and the next operation is to knead
it up so as to obtain equal {745} density throughout. Fig. 5 will give
an idea of how this mixing is done.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.]

At the top of a closed wooden chamber is a covered reservoir, _A_,
containing the solution of rubber. A long slit at the base of this
reservoir allows the solution to fall between sets of metal rollers,
_BBB_ below. Neighboring rollers are revolving in opposite directions,
and at different speeds, so that, after passing all three sets of
rollers, and emerging at the bottom, the solution should be of uniform
consistency. _CCC_ are the guiding funnels, and _EE_ are scrapers to
clear the solution from the rollers. _D_ is a wedge-shaped plug worked
by a rack and pinion, and regulates the flow of the solution.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.]

It now remains to apply the rubber to the fabric and vulcanize it.
Up to this stage the sulphur has only been mechanically mixed with
the rubber; the aid of heat is now required to bring about chemical
combination between the two. This process, which is known as “burning,”
consists in subjecting the rubber-covered fabric to a temperature of
about 248° F. Sulphur itself melts at 239° F., and the temperature at
which combination takes place must be above this. Fig. 6 shows one
of the methods of spreading the rubber on the cloth. _A_ is the tank
containing the solution with an outlet at the bottom arranged so as
to regulate the flow of solution. The fabric passes slowly underneath
this, receiving as it travels a thin coating of the waterproofing. The
two rollers at _B_ press the solution into the fabric and distribute
the proofing evenly over the entire surface.

After leaving the two squeezing rollers, the cloth travels slowly
through a covered chamber, _C_, having a series of steam pipes, _EE_,
underneath, to evaporate the solvent; this condenses on the upper
portion of the chamber, which is kept cooled, and flows down the sides
into suitable receptacles. After this the proofed cloth is vulcanized
by passing round metal cylinders heated to the necessary temperature,
or by passing through a heated chamber. Fig. 7 shows the spreading of
rubber between two fabrics. The two cloths are wound evenly on the
rollers, _BB_; from this they are drawn conjointly through the rollers,
_D_, the stream of proofing solution flowing down between the rollers,
which then press the two fabrics together with the rubber inside. The
lower rollers marked _CC_ are heated to the necessary degree, and cause
the rubber and sulphur to combine in chemical union.

[Illustration: Fig. 7.]

So far the operation of proofing has been described as though pure
rubber only was used; in practice the rubber forms only a small
percentage of the proofing material, its place being taken by cheaper
bodies. One of the common ingredients of proofing mixtures is boiled
linseed oil, together with a small quantity of litharge; this dries
very quickly, and forms a glassy flexible film. Coal tar, shellac,
colophony, etc., are all used, together with India-rubber varnish, to
make {746} different waterproof compositions. Oil of turpentine and
benzol form good solvents for rubber, but it is absolutely essential
that both rubber and solvent be perfectly anhydrous before mixing. Oil
of turpentine, alcohol, etc., can be best deprived of water by mixing
with either sulphuric acid or dehydrated copper sulphate, and allowing
to stand. The acid or the copper salt will absorb the water and sink
to the bottom, leaving a supernatant layer of dehydrated turpentine or
whatever solvent is used. All the sulphur in a rubber-proofed cloth
is not in combination with the rubber; it is frequently found that,
after a lapse of time, rubber-proofed material shows an efflorescence
of sulphur on the surface, due to excess of sulphur, and occasionally
the fabric becomes stiff and the proofing scales off. Whenever a large
proportion of sulphur is present, there is always the danger of the
rubbers forming slowly into the hard vulcanite state, as the substance
commonly called vulcanite consists only of ordinary vulcanized rubber
carried a stage further by more sulphur being used and extra heat
applied. If after vulcanizing, rubber is treated with caustic soda, all
this superfluous sulphur can be extracted; if it is then well washed
the rubber will retain its elasticity for a long period. With the old
methods of proofing, a sheet of vulcanized rubber was cemented to a
fabric with rubber varnish, and frequently this desulphurizing was
performed before cementing together. The result was a flexible and
durable cloth, but of great weight and thickness, and expensive to
produce.

The chemistry of rubber is very little understood; as mentioned
previously, rubber is a highly complex body, liable to go through many
changes. These changes are likely to be greater in rubber varnish,
consisting of half a dozen or more ingredients, than in the case of
rubber alone. The action of sunlight has a powerful effect on rubber,
much to its detriment, and appears to increase its tendency to oxidize.
Vulcanized rubber keeps its properties better under water than
when exposed to the air, and changes more slowly if kept away from
the light. It appears as though a slight decomposition always takes
place even with pure rubber; but the presence of so many differently
constituted substances as sometimes occur in rubber solutions no
doubt makes things worse. Whenever a number of different bodies with
varying properties are consolidated together by heat, as in the case
of rubber compositions, it is only reasonable to expect there will be
some molecular rearrangement going on in the mass; and this can be
assigned as the reason why some proofings last as long again as others.
Some metallic salts have a very injurious action on rubber, one of the
worst being copper sulphate. Dyers are frequently warned that goods
for rubber-proofing must be free from this metal, as its action on
rubber is very powerful, though but little understood. As is generally
known, grease in any form is exceedingly destructive to rubber, and it
should never be allowed in contact in the smallest proportion. Some
compositions are made up by dissolving rubber in turpentine and coal
tar; but in this case some of the rubber’s most valuable properties
are destroyed, and it is doubtful if it can be properly vulcanized.
Owing to rubber being a bad conductor of heat, it requires considerable
care to vulcanize it in any thickness. A high degree of heat applied
during a short period would tend to form a layer of hard vulcanite on
the surface, while that immediately below would be softer and would
gradually merge into raw rubber in the center.

The different brands of rubber vary so much, especially with regard
to solubility, that it is always advisable to treat each brand by
itself, and not to make a solution of two or more kinds. Oilskins and
tarpaulins, etc., are mostly proofed by boiled linseed oil, with or
without thickening bodies added. They are not of sufficient interest
to enlarge upon in this article, so the second, or “water-repellent,”
class has now to be dealt with.

All the shower-proof fabrics come under this heading, as well as
every cloth which is pervious to air and repulsive to water. The most
time-honored recipe for proofing woollen goods is a mixture of sugar of
lead and alum, and dates back hundreds of years. The system of using
this is as follows: The two ingredients are dissolved separately, and
the solutions mixed together. A mutual decomposition results, the
base of the lead salt uniting with the sulphuric acid out of the alum
to form lead sulphate, which precipitates to the bottom. The clear
solution contains alumina in the form of acetate, and this supplies
the proofing quality to the fabric. It is applied in a form of machine
shown in Fig. 8, which will be seen to consist of a trough containing
the proofing solution, _C_, with a pair of squeezing rollers, _A_, over
the top. The fabric is drawn down through the solution and up through
the squeezers in the direction of the arrows. At the {747} back of the
machine the cloth automatically winds itself onto a roll, _B_, and then
only requires drying to develop the water-resisting power. _D_ is a
weight acting on a lever which presses the two rollers, _A_, together.
The water-repelling property is gained as follows:

[Illustration: Fig. 8.]

Drying the fabric, which is impregnated with acetate of alumina, drives
off some of the volatile acetic acid, leaving a film of basic acetate
of alumina on each wool fiber. This basic salt is very difficult to
wet, and has so little attraction for moisture that in a shower of
rain the drops remain in a spheroidal state, and fall off. In a strong
wind, or under pressure, water eventually penetrates through fabrics
proofed in this manner; but they will effectually resist a sharp
shower. Unfortunately, shower-proofed goods, with wear, gradually lose
this property of repelling water. The equation representing the change
between alum and sugar of lead is given below. In the case of common
alum there would, of course, be potassium acetate in solution besides
the alumina.

         Alum.                  Sugar of lead.
 Al_〈2〉K_〈2〉(So_〈4〉)_〈4〉 + 4 Pb(C_〈2〉H_〈3〉O_〈2〉)_〈2〉

     Lead          Potassium                Aluminum
   sulphate.        acetate.                acetate.
 = 4 PbSo_〈4〉 + 2 KC_〈2〉H_〈3〉O_〈2〉 + Al_〈2〉(C_〈2〉H_〈3〉O_〈2〉)_〈6〉

Now that sulphate of alumina is in common use, alum need not be used,
as the potash in it serves no purpose in proofing.

There are many compositions conferring water resisting powers upon
textiles, but unfortunately they either affect the general handle of
the material and make it stiff, or they stain and discolor it, which
is equally bad. A large range of waterproof compositions can be got
by using stearates of the metals; these, in nearly every case, are
insoluble bodies, and when deposited in the interior of a fabric form
a water-resisting “filling” which is very effective. As a rule these
stearates are deposited on the material by means of double baths;
for example, by passing the fabric through (say) a bath of aluminum
acetate, and then, after squeezing out the excess of liquid, passing
it through a bath of soap. The aluminum salt on the fabric decomposes
the soap, resulting in a deposit of insoluble stearate of alumina. This
system of proofing in two baths is cleaner and more economical than
adding all the ingredients together, as the stearate formed is just
where it is required “on the fibers,” and not at the bottom of the bath.

One of the most important patents now worked for waterproofing purposes
is on the lines of the old alumina process. In this case the factor
used is rosin, dissolved in a very large bulk of petroleum spirit. The
fabrics to be proofed (usually dress materials) are passed through a
bath of this solution, and carefully dried to drive off the solvent.
Following this, the goods are treated by pressing with hot polished
metal rollers. This last process melts the small quantity of rosin,
which is deposited on the cloth, and leaves each single fiber with an
exceedingly thin film of rosin on it. It will be understood that only
a very attenuated solution of rosin is permissible, so that the fibers
of the threads and not the threads themselves are coated with it. If
the solution contains too much rosin the fabric is stiffened, and the
threads cemented together; whereas if used at the correct strength
(or, rather, weakness) neither fabric nor dye suffers, and there is no
evidence of stickiness of any description.

[Illustration: Fig. 9.]

Fig. 9 shows a machine used for spreading a coat of either proofing or
any other fluid on one side of the fabric. {748} This is done by means
of a roller, _A_, running in the proofing solution, the material to
be coated traveling slowly over the top and just in contact with the
roller, _A_, which transfers the proofing to it. Should the solution
used be of a thick nature, then a smooth metal roller will transfer
sufficient to the fabric. If the reverse is the case, and the liquid
used is very thin, then the roller is covered with felt, which very
materially adds to its carrying power. As shown in Fig. 9, after
leaving the two squeezing rollers, _BB_, the fabric passes slowly round
a large steam-heated cylinder, _C_, with the coated side uppermost.
This dries the proofing and fastens it, and the cloth is taken off at
_D_.

Besides stearates of the metals, glues and gelatins have been used for
proofing purposes, but owing to their stiffening effect, they are only
of use in some few isolated cases. With glue and gelatin the fixing
agent is either tannic acid or some metallic salt. Tannic acid converts
gelatin into an insoluble leather-like body; this can be deposited in
the interstices of the fabric by passing the latter through a gelatin
bath first, and then squeezing and passing through the tannic acid.
Bichromate of potash also possesses the property of fixing the proteid
bodies and rendering them insoluble.

The following are special processes used to advantage in the
manufacture of waterproof fabrics:

I.—Ordinary Fabrics, Dressing Apparel, etc.—Immerse in a vat of acetate
of alumina (5° Bé.) for 12 hours, lift, dry, and let evaporate at a
temperature of from 140° to 149° F.

II.—Sailcloth, Awnings, Thick Blankets, etc.—Soak in a 7 per cent
solution of gelatin at 104° F., dry, pass through a 4 per cent solution
of alum, dry again, rinse in water, and dry.

III.—Fabrics of Cotton, Linen, Jute, and Hemp.—Put into a bath of
ammoniacal cupric sulphate of 10° Bé. at a temperature of 87° F.; let
steep thoroughly, then put in a bath of caustic soda (20° Bé.) and dry.
To increase the impermeability, a bath of sulphate of alumina may be
substituted for the caustic-soda bath.

IV.—Saturate the fabrics with the following odorless compound,
subjecting them several times to a brushing machine having several
rollers, where the warp threads will be well smoothed, and a waterproof
product of fine sheen and scarcely fading will be the result. The
compound is made with 30 parts, by weight, of Japan wax, 22 1⁠/⁠2
parts, by weight, of paraffine, 12 parts, by weight, of rosin soap, 35
parts, by weight, of starch, and 5 parts, by weight, of a 5 per cent
solution of alum. Fabrics thus prepared are particularly adapted to the
manufacture of haversacks, shoes, etc.

V.—White or Light Fabrics.—Pass first through a bath of acetate of
alumina of 4° to 5° Bé. at a temperature of 104° F., then through the
rollers to rid of all liquid; put into a warm solution of soap (5
parts, by weight, of olive-oil soap to 100 parts, by weight, of fresh
water) and finally pass through a 2 per cent solution of alum, dry for
2 or 3 days on the dropping horse, and brush off all particles of soap.

VI.—Dissolve 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts, by weight, of gelatin in 50 parts, by
weight, of boiling water, add 1 1⁠/⁠2 parts, by weight, of scraped
tallow soap and 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts, by weight, of alum, the latter being put
in gradually; lower the temperature of the bath to 122° F., lift out
the fabric, dry, and calender.

VII.—Tent Cloth.—Soak in a warm solution of 1 part, by weight, of
gelatin, 1 part, by weight, of glycerine, and 1 part, by weight, of
tannin in 12 parts, by weight, of wood vinegar (pyroligneous acid) of
12° Bé. The whole is melted in a kettle and carefully mixed. The mass
is poured into the receiver of the brushing machine, care being taken
to keep it liquid. For a piece of 500 feet in length and 20 inches in
width, 50 to 80 parts, by weight, of this compound are needed.

VIII.—To freshen worn waterproof material, cover with the following:
Fifty-five thousand parts, by weight, of gelatin; 100 parts, by weight,
of bichromate of potash; 100 parts, by weight, of acetic acid (to keep
glue from congealing), and from 3,000 to 5,000 parts, by weight, of
water; to this add 500 parts, by weight, of peroxide of ammoniacal
copper, 100° Bé. This compound is put on the fabric with a brush and
then exposed to air and light.

IX.—Soft Hats.—The hats are stiffened as usual, then put through the
following three baths: Dissolve 1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight, of tallow soap
in from 40 to 50 parts, by weight, of warm water (140° F.). Put 3 to
4 dozen hats into this solution, leave them in it for half an hour,
then take out and put them as they are into another bath prepared
with 40 to 50 parts, by weight, of water and 1⁠/⁠2 part, by weight,
of alum and heated to 86° to 104° F. After {749} having been left in
the second bath for 1⁠/⁠4 or 1⁠/⁠2 hour, take out as before, put into
the third bath of 40 to 50 parts, by weight, of water, 1⁠/⁠2 part, by
weight, of alum, and about 13 parts, by weight, of fish glue. In this
cold bath the hats are left for another 1⁠/⁠2 hour or more until they
are completely saturated with the liquid, then dried and the other
operations continued.

X.—Woolen cloth may be soaked in a vat filled with aluminum acetate,
of 5° Bé., for 12 hours, then removed, dried, and dried again at a
temperature of 140° F.

XI.—Wagon covers, awnings, and sails are saturated with a 7 per cent
gelatin solution, at a temperature of 104° F., dried in the air, put
through a 4 per cent solution of alum, dried again in the air, carried
through water, and dried a third time.

XII.—Cotton, linen, jute, and hemp fabrics are first thoroughly
saturated in a bath of ammonio-cupric sulphate, of 10° Bé., at a
temperature of 77° F., then put into a solution of caustic soda, 2°
Bé., and dried. They may be made still more impervious to water by
substituting a solution of aluminum sulphate for the caustic soda.

XIII.—White and light-colored fabrics are first put into a bath of
aluminum acetate, 4° to 5° Bé., at a temperature of 102° F., the
superfluous liquid being removed from the fabric by press rollers. The
fabric is put into a soap solution (5 parts of good Marseilles soap
in 100 parts of soft water). Finally it is put through a 2 per cent
alum solution, and left to dry for 2 or 3 days on racks. The adhering
particles of soap are removed by brushing with machinery.

XIV.—Dissolve 1.5 parts of gelatin in 50 parts of boiling water, add
1.5 parts of shavings of tallow grain soap, and gradually, 2.5 parts
of alum. Let this cool to 122° F., draw the fabric through it, dry and
calender.

XV.—Cellular tissues are made waterproof by impregnating them with a
warm solution of 1 part, by weight, of gelatin, 1 part, by weight, of
glycerine, and 1 part, by weight, of tannin, in 12 parts, by weight, of
wood vinegar, 12° Bé.

XVI.—Linen, hemp, jute, cotton, and other fabrics can be given a
good odorless waterproof finish by impregnating them, and afterwards
subjecting them to the action of several mechanical brush rollers. By
this process the fabric is brushed dry, the fibers are laid smooth,
the threads of the warp brought out, and a glossy, odorless, unfading
waterproof stuff results. Fabrics manufactured in the usual way from
rough and colored yarns are put through a bath of this waterproof
finish, whose composition is as follows: Thirty parts, by weight, of
Japanese wax; 22.5 parts, by weight, of paraffine; 15 parts, by weight,
of rosin soap; 35 parts, by weight, of starch, and 5 parts, by weight,
of a 5 per cent alum solution. The first three components are melted in
a kettle, the starch and, lastly, the alum added, and the whole stirred
vigorously.

XVII.—One hundred parts, by weight, of castor oil are heated to nearly
204° F., with 50 parts, by weight, of caustic potash, of 50° Bé., to
which 50 parts, by weight, of water have previously been added. Forty
parts, by weight, of cooler water are then added slowly, care being
taken to keep the temperature of the mixture constant. As soon as
the liquor begins to rise, 40 parts, by weight, of cooler water are
again added, with the same precaution to keep the temperature from
falling below 204° F. At the same time care must be taken to prevent
the liquor boiling, as this would produce too great saponification. By
the prolonged action of heat below the boiling point, the oil absorbs
water and caustic potash without being changed, and the whole finally
forms a perfectly limpid, nearly black liquid. This is diluted with
5 times its weight of hot or cold water, and is then ready for use
without any further preparation. Other vegetable oils may be employed
besides castor oil, and the quantity of unsaponified oil present may
be increased by stirring the prepared liquid with a fresh quantity of
castor or other vegetable oil. The product is slightly alkaline, but
wool fiber is not injured, as the oiling may be done in the cold. The
solution is clear and limpid, and will not separate out on standing
like an emulsion. This product in spinning gives a 10 per cent better
utilization of the raw material owing to the greater evenness and
regularity with which the fibers are oiled; in weaving less oiling is
required.

The product can be completely removed by water, preferably by cold
water, and scouring of the goods subsequently with soap, soda, or
fuller’s earth can thus be dispensed with.

XVIII.—Cloth may be rendered waterproof by rubbing the under side with
a lump of beeswax until the surface presents a uniform white or grayish
appearance. This method it is said renders the cloth {750} practically
waterproof, although still leaving it porous to air.

XIX.—Coating the under side of the cloth with a solution of isinglass
and then applying an infusion of galls is another method, a compound
being thus formed which is a variety of leather.

XX.—An easy method is the formation of aluminum stearate in the fiber
of the cloth, which may readily be done by immersing it in a solution
of aluminum sulphate in water (1 in 10) and without allowing it to dry
passing through a solution of soap made from soda and tallow or similar
fat, in hot water. Reaction between the aluminum sulphate and the soap
produces aluminum stearate and sodium sulphate. The former is insoluble
and remains in the fiber; the latter is removed by subsequently rinsing
the fabric in water.

XXI.—A favorite method for cloth is as follows: Dissolve in a
receptacle, preferably of copper, over a bright coal fire, 1 liter
(1.76 pints) of pure linseed oil, 1 liter (1.76 pints) of petroleum,
1⁠/⁠2 liter (0.88 pints) of oil turpentine, and 125 grams (4.37 ounces)
of yellow wax, the last named in small bits. As there is danger of
fire, boiling of this mass should be avoided. With this hot solution
removed from the fire, of course the felt material is impregnated; next
it is hung up in a warm, dry room or spread out, but in such a manner
that the uniform temperature can act upon all parts.


«Waterproofing Leather.»—I.—Tenning’s process is as follows: Melt
together equal parts of zinc and linseed oil, at a temperature not
above 225° F. Put the leather in the molten mixture and let it remain
until saturated. The “zinc soap” is made by dissolving 6 parts of white
soap in 16 parts of water, and stirring into the solution 6 parts of
zinc sulphate. To make sure of a homogeneous mixture remelt the whole
and stir until it begins to cool. The process, including the saturation
of the leather, requires about 48 hours. Instead of zinc sulphate,
copper or iron sulphate may be used. The philosophy of the process is
that the moisture and air contained in the pores of the leather are
driven out by the heat of the soap mixture, and their place is taken,
on cooling, by the mixture. The surface of the leather is scraped after
cooling, and the article is dried, either by heating over an open fire
or by hanging in a drying room, strongly heated.

II.—Prideaux’ process consists in submitting the leather to treatment
with a solution of caoutchouc until it is thoroughly saturated with
the liquid. The latter consists of 30 parts of caoutchouc in 500 parts
of oil of turpentine. Complete impregnation of the leather requires
several days, during which the solution must be frequently applied to
the surface of the leather and rubbed in.

III.—Villon’s process consists in applying a soap solution to the
leather, about as follows: The leather is first treated to a solution
of 62 parts of soap, 124 parts of glue, and 2,000 parts of water. When
it has become saturated with the solution, it is treated to rubbing
with a mixture of 460 parts of common salt and 400 parts of alum,
in sufficient water to dissolve the same. After this it is washed
with tepid water and dried. This process is much the quickest. The
application of the soap requires about 2 hours, and the subsequent
treatment about as much more, or 4 or 5 hours in all.


«Oilskins.»—The art of painting over textile fabrics with oily
preparations to make them waterproof is probably nearly as old as
textile manufacture itself, an industry of prehistoric, nay, geologic,
origin. It is certainly more ancient than the craft of the artistic
painter in oils, whose canvases are nothing more nor less than art
oilskins, and when out of their frames, have served the usual purpose
of those things in protecting goods or the human body before now. The
art of waterproofing has been extended beyond the domain of the oilskin
by chemical processes, especially those in which alum or lead salts,
or tannin, are used, as well as by the discovery of India rubber and
gutta percha. These two have revolutionized the waterproofing industry
in quite a special manner, and the oilskin manufacture, although it
still exists and is in a fairly flourishing condition, has found its
products to a very large extent replaced by rubber goods. The natural
result has been that the processes used in the former industry have
remained now unchanged for a good many years. They had already been
brought to a very perfect state when the rubber-waterproofing business
sprang up, so that improvements were even then difficult to hit upon
in oilskin making, and the check put upon the trade by India rubber
made people less willing to spend time and money in experimenting with
a view to improving what many years had already made it difficult to
better. Hence the three cardinal defects of the oilskin: its weight,
its stiffness, and the liability of {751} its folds to stick together
when it is wrapped up, or in the other extreme to crack, still remains.
The weight, of course, is inevitable. An oilskin must be heavy,
comparatively, from the very essence of the process by which it is
made, but there seems no reason why it should not in time be made much
more pliable (an old-time oilskin coat could often stand up on end when
empty) and free from the danger of cracking or being compacted into a
solid block when it has been stored folded on a shelf.

Probably the best oilskins ever made are those prepared by combining
Dr. Stenhouse’s process (patented in 1864) with the ordinary method,
which consists in the main of painting over the fabric with two or
more coats of boiled linseed oil, allowing each coat to dry before the
next is applied. This, with a few variations in detail, is the whole
method of making oilskins. Dr. Stenhouse’s waterproofing method is to
impregnate the fabric with a mixture of hard paraffine and boiled oil
in proportions varying according to circumstances from 95 per cent
of paraffine and 5 of oil to 70 per cent of the former and 30 of the
latter. The most usual percentages are 80 and 20. The mixture is made
with the aid of heat, and is then cast into blocks for storage. It is
applied to the cloth stretched on a hot plate by rubbing the fabric
thoroughly all over with a block of the composition, which may be
applied on one or both sides as may be wished. The saturation is then
made complete, and excess of composition is removed by passing the
cloth between hot rollers. When the cloth is quite cold the process is
complete. The paraffine and the drying oil combine their waterproofing
powers, and the paraffine prevents the oil from exerting any injurious
action upon the material. Drying oil, partly on account of the metallic
compounds in it, and partly on account of its absorbing oxygen from the
atmosphere, has a decided slow weakening effect upon textile fibers.
Dr. Stenhouse points out that the inflammability of oilskins may be
much lessened by the use of the ordinary fireproofing salts, such as
tungstate of soda, or alum, either before or after the waterproofing
process is carried out.

The following are some of the best recommended recipes for making
oilskins:

I.—Dissolve 1 ounce of yellow soap in 1 1⁠/⁠2 pints of boiling water.
Then stir in 1 quart of boiled oil. When cold, add 1⁠/⁠4 pint of gold
size.

II.—Take fine twilled calico. Soak it in bullock’s blood and dry it.
Then give it 2 or 3 coats of boiled oil, mixed with a little litharge,
or with an ounce of gold size to every pint of the oil.

III.—Make ordinary paint ready to be applied thin with a strong
solution of soap.

IV.—Make 96 pounds of ocher to a thin paste with boiled oil, and then
add 16 pounds of ordinary black paint mixed ready for use. Apply the
first coat of this with soap, the subsequent coats without soap.

V.—Dissolve rosin in hot boiled oil till it begins to thicken.

VI.—Mix chalk or pipe clay in the finest powder, and in the purest
state obtainable to a thin paste with boiled oil.

VII.—Melt together boiled oil, 1 pint; beeswax and rosin, each, 2
ounces.

VIII.—Dissolve soft soap in hot water and add solution of protosulphate
of iron till no further precipitate is produced. Filter off, wash, and
dry, and form the mass into a thin paste with boiled oil.

All these compositions are painted on with an ordinary painter’s brush.
The fabric should be slightly stretched, both to avoid folds and to
facilitate the penetration of the waterproofing mixture. To aid the
penetration still further, the mixture should be applied hot. It is of
the greatest importance that the fabric should not be damp when the
composition is applied to it. It is best to have it warm as well as the
composition. If more than one coat is applied, which is practically
always the case, three being the usual number, it is essential that
the last coat should be perfectly dry before the next is applied.
Neglect of this precaution is the chief cause of stickiness, which
frequently results in serious damage to the oilskins when they have to
be unfolded. In fact, it is advisable to avoid folding an oilskin when
it can be avoided. They should be hung up when not in use, whenever
practicable, and be allowed plenty of room. It goes without saying that
no attempt should be made to sell or use the oilskin, whether garment
or tarpaulin, until the final coat of composition is perfectly dry and
set. It is unadvisable to use artificial heat in the drying at any
stage in the manufacture.


«Waterproofing Paper.»—Any convenient and appropriate machinery or
apparatus may be employed; but the best method for waterproofing paper
is as follows: The treatment may be applied {752} while the pulp is
being formed into paper, or the finished paper may be treated. If the
material is to be treated while being formed into paper, then the
better method is to begin the treatment when the web of pulpy material
leaves the Foudrinier wire or the cylinders, it then being in a damp
condition, but with the larger percentage of moisture removed. From
this point the treatment of the paper is the same whether it be pulp in
a sheet, as above stated, or finished paper.

The treatment consists, first, in saturating the paper with glutinous
material, preferably animal glue, and by preference the bath of
glutinous material should be hot, to effect the more rapid absorption
and more perfect permeation, impregnation, and deposit of the glutinous
material within all the microscopic interstices throughout the body
of the paper being treated. By preference a suitable tank is provided
in which the glutinous material is deposited, and in which it may
be kept heated to a constant temperature, the paper being passed
through the tank and saturated during its passage. The material being
treated should pass in a continuous sheet—that is, be fed from a roll
and the finished product be wound in a roll after final treatment.
This saves time and the patentee finds that the requisite permeation
or incorporation of glutinous matter in the fiber will with some
papers—for instance, lightly sized manila hemp—require but a few
seconds. As the paper passes from the glutin tank the surplus of the
glutinous matter is removed from the surface by mechanical means, as
contradistinguished from simply allowing it to pass off by gravity, and
in most instances it is preferred to pass the paper between suitable
pressure rolls to remove such surplus. The strength and consistency of
the glutinous bath may be varied, depending upon the material being
treated and the uses for which such material is designed. It may,
however, be stated that, in a majority of cases, a hot solution of
about 1 part of animal glue to about 10 parts of water, by weight,
gives the best results. After leaving the bath of glutinous material
and having the surplus adhering to the surfaces removed, the paper
before drying is passed into or through a solution of formaldehyde and
water to “set” the glutinous material. The strength of this solution
may also be variable, depending, as heretofore stated, upon the paper
and uses for which it is designed. In the majority of cases, however, a
solution of 1 part of formaldehyde (35 per cent solution) to 5 parts of
water, by weight, gives good results, and the best result is attained
if this bath is cold instead of hot, though any particular temperature
is not essentially necessary. The effect of the formaldehyde solution
upon the glutin-saturated paper is to precipitate the glutinous matter
and render it insoluble.

As the material comes from the formaldehyde bath, the surplus adhering
to the surfaces is removed by mechanical means, pressure rolls being
probably most convenient. The paper is then dried in any convenient
manner. The best result in drying is attained by the air-blast, i.
e., projecting blasts of air against both surfaces of the paper. This
drying removes all the watery constituents and leaves the paper in
a toughened or greatly strengthened condition, but not in practical
condition for commercial uses, as it is brittle, horny, and stiff,
and has an objectionable odor and taste on account of the presence
of the aldehydes, paraldehydes, formic acid, and other products, the
result of oxidation. Hence it needs to be “tempered.” Now while the
glutinous material is rendered insoluble—that is, it is so acted upon
by formaldehyde and the chemical action which takes place while the
united solutions are giving off their watery constituents that it
will not fully dissolve—it is, however, in a condition to be acted on
by moisture, as it will swell and absorb, or take up permanently by
either chemical or mechanical action a percentage of water, and will
also become improved in many respects, so that to temper and render
the paper soft and pliable and adapt it for most commercial uses it is
subjected to moisture, which penetrates the paper, causing a welling
in all directions, filling the interstices perfectly and resulting in
“hydration” throughout the entire cellular structure. Two actions,
mechanical and chemical, appear to take place, the mechanical action
being the temporary absorption of water analogous to the absorption
of water by a dry sponge, the chemical action being the permanent
union of water with the treated paper, analogous to the union of water
and tapioca, causing swelling, or like the chemical combination of
water with lime or cement. For this purpose it is preferred to pass
the paper into a bath of hot water, saturated steam or equivalent
heat-and-moisture medium, thus causing the fibers and the non-soluble
glutinous material filling the interstices to expand in all directions
and forcing {753} the glutinous material into all the microscopic
pores or openings and into the masses of fiber, causing a commingling
or thorough incorporation of the fibers and the glutinous compound.
At the same time, as heretofore indicated, a change (hydration) takes
place, whereby the hardened mass of fiber, glutinous material, and
formaldehyde become tempered and softened and the strength imparted
by the previous treatment increased. To heighten the tempering and
softening effect, glycerine may, in some instances, be introduced in
the tempering bath, and in most cases one two-hundredths in volume of
glycerine gives the best results.

The paper may be dried in any convenient manner and is in condition for
most commercial uses, it being greatly strengthened, more flexible,
more impervious to moisture, acids, grease, or alkalies, and is
suitable for the manufacture of binding-twine, carpets, and many
novelties, for dry wrappings and lining packing cases, etc., but is
liable to have a disagreeable taste and may carry traces of acids,
rendering it impracticable for some uses—for instance, wrapping butter,
meats, cheese, etc., after receiving the alkali treatment. The paper is
also valuable as a packing for joints in steam, water, and other pipes
or connections. For the purpose, therefore, of rendering the material
absolutely free from all traces of acidity and all taste and odors
and, in fact, to render it absolutely hygienic, it is passed through a
bath of water and a volatile alkali (ammonium hydrate), the proportion
by preference in a majority of cases being one-hundredth of ammonium
hydrate to ninety-nine one-hundredths of water by volume. A small
percentage of wood alcohol may be added. This bath is preferably cool,
but a variation in its temperature will not interfere to a serious
extent with the results. The effect of this bath followed by drying
is to complete the chemical reaction and destroy all taste or odor,
removing all traces of acids and rendering the paper hygienic in all
respects. The material may be calendered or cut and used for any of the
purposes desired. If the material is to be subjected to the volatile
alkali bath, it is not necessary to dry it between the tempering and
volatile alkali baths.

The paper made in accordance with the foregoing will, it is claimed,
be found to be greatly strengthened, some materials being increased in
strength from 100 to 700 per cent. It will be nonabsorbent to acids,
greases, and alkalies, and substantially waterproof, and owing to its
component integrate structure will be practically non-conductive to
electricity, adapting it as a superior insulating material. It may
with perfect safety be employed for wrapping butter, meats, spices,
groceries, and all materials, whether unctuous or otherwise.

The term “hydration” means the subjecting of the material (after
treatment with glutinous material and formaldehyde and drying) to
moisture, whereby the action described takes place.

A sheet or web of paper can be treated by the process as rapidly as
it is manufactured, as the time for exposure to the action of the
glutinous material need not be longer than the time required for it to
become saturated, this, of course, varying with different thicknesses
and densities, and the length of time of exposure may be fixed without
checking the speed by making the tank of such length that the requisite
time will elapse while the sheet is passing through it and the guides
so arranged as to maintain the sheet in position to be acted on by such
solution the requisite length of time. Four seconds’ exposure to the
action of formaldehyde is found sufficient in most cases.


«Waterproof Ropes.»—For making ropes and lines impervious to weather,
the process of tarring is recommended, which can be done either in the
separate strands or after the rope is twisted. An addition of tallow
gives greater pliability.


«Waterproof Wood.»—I.—Soak in a mixture of boracic acid, 6 parts;
ammonium chloride, 5 parts; sodium borate, 3 parts, and water, 100
parts.

II.—Saturate in a solution of zinc chloride.


«Wax»


«Adulteration of Wax.»—Wax is adulterated with the following among
other substances: Rosins, pitch, flowers of sulphur, starch, fecula,
stearine, paraffine, tallow, palm oil, calcined bones, yellow ocher,
water, and wood sawdust.

Rosins are detected by cold alcohol, which dissolves all rosinous
substances and exercises no action on the wax. The rosins having
been extracted from the alcoholic solution by the evaporation of the
alcohol, the various kinds may be distinguished by the odors disengaged
by burning the mass several times on a plate of heated iron.

All earthy substances may be readily {754} separated from wax by means
of oil of turpentine, which dissolves the wax, while the earthy matters
form a residue.

Oil of turpentine also completely separates wax from starchy
substances, which, like earthy matters, do not dissolve, but form a
residue. A simpler method consists in heating the wax with boiling
water; the gelatinous consistency assumed by the water, and the blue
coloration in presence of iodine, indicate that the wax contains
starchy substances. Adulteration by means of starch and fecula is
quite frequent. These substances are sometimes added to the wax in a
proportion of nearly 60 per cent. To separate either, the suspected
product is treated hot with very dilute sulphuric acid (2 parts of
acid per 100 parts of water). All amylaceous substances, converted
into dextrin, remain dissolved in the liquid, while the wax, in
cooling, forms a crust on the surface. It is taken off and weighed; the
difference between its weight and that of the product analyzed will
give the quantity of the amylaceous substances.

Flowers of sulphur are recognized readily from the odor of sulphurous
acid during combustion on red-hot iron.

Tallow may be detected by the taste and odor. Pure wax has an
aromatic, agreeable taste, while that mixed with tallow is repulsive
both in taste and smell. Pure wax, worked between the fingers, grows
soft, preserving a certain cohesion in all parts. It divides into
lumps, which adhere to the fingers, if it is mixed with tallow. The
adulteration may also be detected by the thick and nauseating fumes
produced when it is burned on heated iron.

Stearic acid may be recognized by means of boiling alcohol, which
dissolves it in nearly all proportions and causes it to deposit
crystals on cooling, while it is without action on the wax. Blue litmus
paper, immersed in alcohol solution, reddens on drying in air, and thus
serves for detecting the presence of stearic acid.

Ocher is found by treating the wax with boiling water. A lemon-yellow
deposit results, which, taken up with chlorhydric acid, yields with
ammonia a lemon-yellow precipitate of ferric oxide.

The powder of burnt bones separates and forms a residue, when the wax
is heated with oil of turpentine.


«Artificial Beeswax.»—This is obtained by mixing the following
substances, in approximately the proportions stated: Paraffine, 45
parts, by weight; white Japan vegetable wax, 30 parts, by weight;
rosins, or colophonies, 10 parts, by weight; white pitch, 10 parts,
by weight; tallow, 5 parts, by weight; ceresine, colorant, 0.030
parts, by weight; wax perfume, 0.100 parts, by weight. If desired, the
paraffine may be replaced with ozokerite, or by a mixture of vaseline
and ozokerite, for the purpose of varying the fusing temperature, or
rendering it more advantageous for the various applications designed.
The following is the method of preparation: Melt on the boiling water
bath, shaking constantly, the paraffine, the Japan wax, the rosins, the
pitch, and the tallow. When the fusion is complete, add the colorant
and the perfume. When these products are perfectly mingled, remove from
the fire, allow the mixture to cool, and run it into suitable molds.
The wax thus obtained may be employed specially for encaustics for
furniture and floors, or for purposes where varnish is employed.


«Waxes for Floors, Furniture, etc.»—

 I.—White beeswax         16 parts
     Colophony              4 parts
     Venice turpentine      1 part

Melt the articles together over a gentle fire, and when completely
melted and homogeneous, pour into a sizable earthenware vessel, and
stir in, while still warm, 6 parts of the best French turpentine. Cool
for 24 hours, by which time the mass has acquired the consistence of
soft butter, and is ready for use. Its method of use is very simple. It
is smeared, in small quantities, on woolen cloths, and with these is
rubbed into the wood.

This is the best preparation, but one in which the beeswax is merely
dissolved in the turpentine in such a way as to have the consistence of
a not too thin oil color, will answer. The wood is treated with this,
taking care that the surface is evenly covered with the mixture, and
that it does not sink too deeply in the ornaments, corners, etc., of
the woodwork. This is best achieved by taking care to scrape off from
the cloths all excess of the wax.

If, in the course of 24 hours, the surface is hard, then with a stiff
brush go over it, much after the way of polishing a boot. For the
corners and angles smaller brushes are used; when necessary, stiff
pencils may be employed. Finally, the whole is polished with plush,
or velvet rags, in order not to injure the original polish. Give the
article a good coat of linseed oil or a washing with petroleum before
beginning work.

II.—Articles that are always exposed to the water, floors, doors,
especially of oak, should, from time to time, be {755} saturated with
oil or wax. A house door, plentifully decorated with wood carving,
will not shrink or warp, even where the sun shines hottest on it, when
it is frequently treated to saturation with wax and oil. Here a plain
dosage with linseed oil is sufficient. Varnish, without the addition of
turpentine, should never be used, or if used it should be followed by a
coat of wax.

III.—A good floor wax is composed of 2 parts of wax and 3 parts of
Venice turpentine, melted on the water bath, and the mixture applied
while still hot, using a pencil, or brush, for the application, and
when it has become solid and dry, diligently rubbed, or polished down
with a woolen cloth, or with a floor brush, especially made for the
purpose.

IV.—An emulsion of 5 parts of yellow wax, 2 parts of crude potassium
carbonate, and 12 parts of water, boiled together until they assume a
milky color and the solids are dissolved, used cold, makes an excellent
composition for floors. Any desired color may be given this dressing by
stirring in the powdered coloring matter. Use it exactly as described
for the first mass.


«Gilders’ Wax.»—For the production of various colorings of gold in fire
gilding, the respective places are frequently covered with so-called
gilders’ wax. These consist of mixtures of various chemicals which
have an etching action in the red heat upon the bronze mass, thus
causing roughness of unequal depth, as well as through the fact that
the composition of the bronze is changed somewhat on the surface, a
relief of the gold color being effected in consequence of these two
circumstances. The gilding wax is prepared by melting together the
finely powdered chemicals with wax according to the following recipes:

                    I    II   III    IV    V

 Yellow wax        32    32    32    96    36
 Red chalk          3    24    18    48    18
 Verdigris          2     4    18    32    18
 Burnt alum         2     4    —     —     —
 Burnt borax       —     —      2     1     3
 Copper ash        —      4     6    20     8
 Zinc vitriol      —     —     —     32    18
 Green vitriol     —     —     —      1     6


«Grafting Wax.»—

 I.—Beeswax                  7 parts
     Purified rosin          12 parts
     Turpentine               3 parts
     Rape oil                 1 part
     Venice turpentine      2.5 parts
     Zinc white             2.5 parts

Color yellow with turmeric.

 II.—Japan wax              1 part
      Yellow wax             3 parts
      Rosin                  8 parts
      Turpentine             4 parts
      Hard paraffine         1 part
      Suet                   3 parts
      Venice turpentine      6 parts


«Harness Wax.»—

 Oil of turpentine      90 parts
 Wax, yellow             9 parts
 Prussian blue           1 part
 Indigo                0.5 parts
 Bone black              5 parts

Dissolve the wax in the oil by aid of a low heat, on a water bath. Mix
the remaining ingredients, which must be well powdered, and work up
with a portion of the solution of wax. Finally, add the mixture to the
solution, and mix thoroughly on the bath. When a homogeneous liquid is
obtained, pour into earthen boxes.


«Modeling Wax.»—I.—Yellow wax, 1,000 parts; Venice turpentine, 130
parts; lard, 65 parts; bole, 725 parts. The mixture when still liquid
is poured into tepid water and kneaded until a plastic mass is obtained.

II.—Summer Modeling Wax.—White wax, 20 parts; ordinary turpentine, 4
parts; sesame oil, 1 part; vermilion, 2 parts.

III.—Winter Modeling Wax.—White wax, 20 parts; ordinary turpentine, 6
parts; sesame oil, 2 parts; vermilion, 2 parts. Preparation same as for
Formula I.


«Sealing Waxes.»—The following formulas may be followed for making
sealing wax: Take 4 pounds of shellac, 1 pound of Venice turpentine,
and 3 pounds of vermilion. Melt the lac in a copper pan suspended over
a clear charcoal fire, then add the turpentine slowly to it, and soon
afterwards add the vermilion, stirring briskly all the time with a rod
in either hand. In forming the round sticks of sealing wax, a certain
portion of the mass should be weighed while it is ductile, divided into
the desired number of pieces, and then rolled out upon a warm marble
slab by means of a smooth wooden block like that used by apothecaries
for rolling a mass of pills.

The oval and square sticks of sealing wax are cast in molds, with
the above compound, in a state of fusion. The marks of the lines of
junction of the mold box may be afterwards removed by holding the
sticks over a clear fire, or passing them over a blue gas flame.
Marbled sealing wax is made by mixing {756} two, three, or more colored
kinds together while they are in a semi-fluid state. From the viscidity
of the several portions their incorporation is left incomplete, so as
to produce the appearance of marbling. Gold sealing wax is made simply
by adding gold chrome instead of vermilion into the melted rosins. Wax
may be scented by introducing a little essential oil, essence of musk,
or other perfume. If 1 part of balsam of Peru be melted along with 99
parts of the sealing-wax composition, an agreeable fragrance will be
exhaled in the act of sealing with it. Either lampblack or ivory black
serves for the coloring matter of black wax. Sealing wax is often
adulterated with rosin, in which case it runs into thin drops at the
flame of a candle.

The following mistakes are sometimes made in the manufacture of sealing
wax:

I.—Use of filling agents which are too coarsely ground.

II.—Excessive use of filling agents.

III.—Insufficient binding of the pigments and fillings with a suitable
adhesive agent, which causes these bodies to absorb the adhesive power
of the gums.

IV.—Excessive heating of the mass, caused by improper melting or faulty
admixture of the gummy bodies. Turpentine and rosin must be heated
before entering the shellac. If this rule is inverted, as is often the
case, the shellac sticks to the bottom and burns partly.

Great care must be taken to mix the coloring matter to a paste with
spirit or oil of turpentine before adding to the other ingredients.
Unless this is done the wax will not be of a regular tint.


«Dark Blue Wax.»—Three ounces Venetian turpentine, 4 ounces shellac, 1
ounce rosin, 1 ounce Prussian blue, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce magnesia.


«Green Wax.»—Two ounces Venetian turpentine, 4 ounces shellac, 1 1⁠/⁠4
ounces rosin, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce chrome yellow, 1⁠/⁠4 ounce Prussian blue, 1
ounce magnesia.


«Carmine Red Wax.»—One ounce Venetian turpentine, 4 ounces shellac, 1
ounce rosin, colophony, 1 1⁠/⁠4 ounces Chinese red, 1 drachm magnesia,
with oil of turpentine.


«Gold Wax.»—Four ounces Venetian turpentine, 8 ounces shellac, 14
sheets of genuine leaf gold, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce bronze, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce magnesia,
with oil of turpentine.


«White Wax.»—I.—The wax is bleached by exposing to moist air and to
the sun, but it must first be prepared in thin sheets or ribbons or in
grains. For this purpose it is first washed, to free it from the honey
which may adhere, melted, and poured into a tin vessel, whose bottom
is perforated with narrow slits. The melted wax falls in a thin stream
on a wooden cylinder arranged below and half immersed in cold water.
This cylinder is turned, and the wax, rolling round in thin leaves,
afterwards falls into the water. To melt it in grains, a vessel is made
use of, perforated with small openings, which can be rotated. The wax
is projected in grains into the cold water. It is spread on frames of
muslin, moistened with water several times a day, and exposed to the
sun until the wax assumes a fine white. This whiteness, however, is not
perfect. The operation of melting and separating into ribbons or grains
must be renewed. Finally, it is melted and flowed into molds. The
duration of the bleaching may be abridged by adding to the wax, treated
as above, from 1.25 to 1.75 per cent of rectified oil of turpentine,
free from rosin. In 6 or 8 days a result will be secured which would
otherwise require 5 or 6 weeks.

 II.—Bleached shellac         28 parts
      Venetian turpentine      13 parts
      Plaster of Paris         30 parts

WAX FOR BOTTLES: See Photography.

WAX, BURNING, TRICK: See Pyrotechnics.

WAXES, DECOMPOSITION OF: See Oil.

WAX FOR IRONING: See Laundry Preparations.

WAX FOR LINOLEUM: See Linoleum.


«Weather Forecasters»

(See also Hygrometers and Hygroscopes.)

I.—It is known that a leaf of blotting paper or a strip of fabric made
to change color according to the hygrometric state of the atmosphere
has been employed for weather indications in place of a barometer. The
following compound is recommended for this purpose: One part of cobalt
chloride, 75 parts of nickel oxide, 20 parts of gelatin, and 200 parts
of water. A strip of calico, soaked in this solution, will appear green
in fine weather, but when moisture intervenes the color disappears.
{757}

 II.—Copper chloride      1 part
      Gelatin             10 parts
      Water              100 parts

III.—This is a method of making old-fashioned weather glasses
containing a liquid that clouds or solidifies under certain atmospheric
conditions:

 Camphor        2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
 Alcohol           11 drachms
 Water              9 drachms
 Saltpeter         38 grains
 Sal ammoniac      38 grains

Dissolve the camphor in the alcohol and the salts in the water and
mix the solutions together. Pour in test tubes, cover with wax after
corking and make a hole through the cork with a red-hot needle, or draw
out the tube until only a pin hole remains. When the camphor, etc.,
appear soft and powdery, and almost filling the tube, rain with south
or southwest winds may be expected; when crystalline, north, northeast,
or northwest winds, with fine weather, may be expected; when a portion
crystallizes on one side of the tube, wind may be expected from that
direction. Fine weather: The substance remains entirely at bottom of
tube and the liquid perfectly clear. Coming rain: Substance will rise
gradually, liquid will be very clear, with a small star in motion. A
coming storm or very high wind: Substance partly at top of tube, and
of a leaflike form, liquid very heavy and in a fermenting state. These
effects are noticeable 24 hours before the change sets in. In winter:
Generally the substance lies higher in the tube. Snow or white frost:
Substance very white and small stars in motion. Summer weather: The
substance will lie quite low. The substance will lie closer to the tube
on the opposite side to the quarter from which the storm is coming. The
instrument is nothing more than a scientific toy.

WEATHERPROOFING: See Paints.

WEED KILLERS: See Disinfectants.


«Weights and Measures»


«INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC WEIGHTS.»

The International Committee on Atomic Weights have presented this table
as corrected:

                      O=16     H=1
 Aluminum      Al     27.1     26.9
 Antimony      Sb    120.2    119.3
 Argon         A      39.9     39.6
 Arsenic       As    75       74.4
 Barium        Ba   137.4    136.4
 Bismuth       Bi   208.5    206.9
 Boron         B     11       10.9
 Bromine       Br    79.96    79.36
 Cadmium       Cd   112.4    111.6
 Cæsium        Cs   132.9    131.9
 Calcium       Ca    40.1     39.7
 Carbon        C     12       11.91
 Cerium        Ce   140.25   139.2
 Chlorine      Cl    35.45    35.18
 Chromium      Cr    52.1     51.7
 Cobalt        Co    59       58.55
 Columbium     Cb    94       93.3
 Copper        Cu    63.6     63.1
 Erbium        Er   166      164.8
 Fluorine      F     19       18.9
 Gadolinium    Gd   156      154.8
 Gallium       Ga    70       69.5
 Germanium     Ge    72.5     72
 Glucinum      Gl     9.1      9.03
 Gold          Au   197.2    195.7
 Helium        He     4        4
 Hydrogen      H      1.008    1
 Indium        In   115      114.1
 Iodine        I    126.97   126.01
 Iridium       Ir   193      191.5
 Iron          Fe    55.9     55.5
 Krypton       Kr    81.8     81.2
 Lanthanum     La   138.9    137.9
 Lead          Pb   206.9    205.35
 Lithium       Li     7.03     6.98
 Magnesium     Mg    24.36    24.18
 Manganese     Mn    55       54.6
 Mercury       Hg   200      198.5
 Molybdenum    Mo    96       95.3
 Neodymium     Nd   143.6    142.5
 Neon          Ne    20       19.9
 Nickel        Ni    58.7     58.3
 Nitrogen      N     14.04    13.93
 Osmium        Os   191      189.6
 Oxygen        O     16       15.88
 Palladium     Pd   106.5    105.7
 Phosphorus    P     31       30.77
 Platinum      Pt   194.8    193.3
 Potassium     K     39.15    38.85
 Praseodymium  Pr   140.5    139.4
 Radium        Ra   225      223.3
 Rhodium       Rh   103      102.2
 Rubidium      Rb    85.5     84.9
 Ruthenium     Ru   101.7    100.9
 Samarium      Sm   150.3    149.2
 Scandium      Sc    44.1     43.8
 Selenium      Se    79.2     78.6
 Silicon       Si    28.4     28.2
 Silver        Ag   107.93   107.11
 Sodium        Na    23.05    22.88
 Strontium     Sr    87.6     86.94
 Sulphur       S     32.06    31.82
 Tantalum      Ta   183      181.6
 Tellurium     Te   127.6    126.6
 Terbium       Th   160      158.8
 Thallium      Tl   204.1    202.6 {758}
 Thorium       Th   232.5    230.8
 Thulium       Tm   171      169.7
 Tin           Sn   119      118.1
 Titanium      Ti    48.1     47.7
 Tungsten      W    184      182.6
 Uranium       U    238.5    236.7
 Vanadium      V     51.2     50.8
 Xenon         Xe   128      127
 Ytterbium     Yb   173      171.7
 Yttrium       Yt    89       88.3
 Zinc          Zn    65.4     64.9
 Zirconium     Zr   90.6      89.9


«UNITED STATES WEIGHTS AND MEASURES»

(According to existing standards)


«LINEAL»

                        │  Inches.  Feet.    Yards.   Rods. Fur’s. Mile.
                        │
  12 inches = 1 foot.   │     12 =     1
   3 feet = 1 yard.     │     36 =     3   =     1
 5.5 yards = 1 rod.     │    198 =    16.5 =     5.5 =   1
  40 rods = 1 furlong.  │  7,920 =   660   =   220   =  40 =  1
   8 furlongs = 1 mile. │ 63,360 = 5,280   = 1,760   = 320 =  8  =  1


«SURFACE—LAND»

 144 sq. inches = 1 square foot.   │  Feet.       Yards.    Rods.   Roods. Acres.
 9 square feet = 1 square yard.    │    9     =       1
 30.25 square yards = 1 square rod.│    272.25=     30.25=       1
 40 square rods = 1 square rood.   │    10,890=     1,210=      40=     1
 4 square roods = 1 acre.          │    43,560=     4,840=     160=     4=   1
 640 acres = 1 square mile.        │27,878,400= 3,097,600= 102,400= 2,560= 640


«VOLUME—LIQUID»

 4 gills  = 1 pint.   │ Gills.  Pints.  Gallon.  Cub. In.
 2 pints  = 1 quart.  │   32   =  8    =   1    =   231
 4 quarts = 1 gallon. │


«FLUID MEASURE»

 Gallon.  Pints.  Ounces.  Drachms.  Minims.  Cubic Centimeters.

   1     =  8   =   128   =  1,024  = 61,440 =     3,785.435
            1   =    16   =    128  =  7,680 =       473.179
                      1   =      8  =    480 =        29.574
                                 1  =     60 =         3.697

16 ounces, or a pint, is sometimes called a fluidpound.


«TROY WEIGHT»

 Pound.  Ounces.  Pennyweights.  Grains.   Grams.

   1    =  12    =     240      = 5,760  = 373.24
            1    =      20      =   480  =  31.10
                         1      =    24  =   1.56


«APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT»

   ℔         ℥           ʒ           ℈          gr.
 Pound.    Ounces.    Drachms.    Scruples.    Grains.    Grams.

   1     =   12     =    96     =    288     =  5,760   = 373.24
              1     =     8     =     24     =    480   =  31.10
                          1     =      3     =     60   =   3.89
                                       1     =     20   =   1.30
                                                    1   =    .06

The pound, ounce, and grain are the same as in Troy weight.


«AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT»

 Pound.   Ounces.   Drachms.   Grains (Troy)   Grams.

   1    =   16    =   256    =    7,000      = 453.60
             1    =    16    =      437.5    =  28.35
                        1    =       27.34   =   1.77


«ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES»


«APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT»

 20 grains   = 1 scruple =    20 grains
  3 scruples = 1 drachm  =    60 grains
  8 drachms  = 1 ounce   =   480 grains
 12 ounces   = 1 pound   = 5,760 grains


«FLUID MEASURE»

 60 minims  = 1 fluidrachm
  8 drachms = 1 fluidounce
 20 ounces  = 1 pint
  8 pints   = 1 gallon

The above weights are usually adopted in formulas.

All chemicals are usually sold by


«AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT»

 27 11⁠/⁠32 grains  = 1 drachm =    27 11⁠/⁠32 grains
 16       drachms = 1 ounce  =   437 1⁠/⁠2   grains
 16       ounces  = 1 pound  = 7,000       grains

Precious metals are usually sold by


«TROY WEIGHT»

 24 grains       = 1 pennyweight =    24 grains
 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce       =   480 grains
 12 ounces       = 1 pound       = 5,760 grains

NOTE.—An ounce of metallic silver contains 480 grains, but an ounce of
nitrate of silver contains only 437 1⁠/⁠2 grains. {759}


«METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES»


«MEASURES OF LENGTH»

 ───────────────────────────────────+──────────────────────────────────────────
      DENOMINATIONS AND VALUES.     │           EQUIVALENTS IN USE.
 ───────────+───────────────────────+──────────────────────────────────────────
 Myriameter │         10,000 meters │   6.2137  miles
 Kilometer  │          1,000 meters │    .62137 miles, or 3,280 feet, 10 inches
 Hectometer │            100 meters │ 328       feet and 1 inch
 Dekameter  │             10 meters │ 393.7     inches
 Meter      │              1 meter  │  39.37    inches
 Decimeter  │    1-10th of a meter  │   3.937   inches
 Centimeter │   1-100th of a meter  │    .3937  inches
 Millimeter │ 1-1,000th of a meter  │    .0394  inches
 ───────────+───────────────────────+──────────────────────────────────────────


«MEASURES OF SURFACE»

 ───────────────────────────────+────────────────────────
   DENOMINATIONS AND VALUES.    │  EQUIVALENTS IN USE.
 ────────+──────────────────────+────────────────────────
 Hectare │ 10,000 square meters │     2.471 acres
 Are     │    100 square meters │   119.6   square yards
 Centare │      1 square meter  │ 1,550     square inches
 ────────+──────────────────────+────────────────────────


«MEASURES OF VOLUME»

 ───────────────────────────────────────────────────+────────────────────────────────────
             DENOMINATIONS AND VALUES.              │         EQUIVALENTS IN USE.
 ──────────────────+───────+────────────────────────+───────────────────+────────────────
       NAMES.      │NO. OF │    CUBIC MEASURES.     │   DRY MEASURE.    │  WINE MEASURE.
                   │LITERS.│                        │                   │
 ──────────────────+───────+────────────────────────+───────────────────+────────────────
 Kiloliter or stere│  1,000│     1 cubic meter      │1.308  cubic yards │264.17   gallons
 Hectoliter        │    100│1-10th cubic meter      │2      bushels and │ 26.417  gallons
                   │       │                        │         3.35 pecks│
 Dekaliter         │     10│    10 cubic decimeters │9.08   quarts      │  2.6417 gallons
 Liter             │      1│     1 cubic decimeter  │ .908  quarts      │  1.0567 quarts
 Deciliter         │   1-10│1-10th cubic decimeter  │6.1023 cubic inches│   .845  gills
 Centiliter        │  1-100│    10 cubic centimeters│ .6102 cubic inches│   .338  fluidounces
 Milliliter        │1-1,000│     1 cubic centimeter │ .061  cubic inches│   .27   fluidrachms
 ──────────────────+───────+────────────────────────+───────────────────+────────────────


«WEIGHTS»

 ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────+───────────────────
                 DENOMINATIONS AND VALUES.                    │    EQUIVALENTS
                                                              │      IN USE.
 ───────────────────+───────────+─────────────────────────────+───────────────────
        NAMES.      │  NUMBER   │  WEIGHT OF VOLUME OF WATER  │    AVOIRDUPOIS
                    │ OF GRAMS. │   AT ITS MAXIMUM DENSITY.   │      WEIGHT.
 ───────────────────+───────────+─────────────────────────────+───────────────────
 Millier or Tonneau │ 1,000,000 │      1 cubic meter          │ 2,204.6    pounds
 Quintal            │   100,000 │      1 hectoliter           │   220.46   pounds
 Myriagram          │    10,000 │     10 liters               │    22.046  pounds
 Kilogram or Kilo   │     1,000 │      1 liter                │     2.2046 pounds
 Hectogram          │       100 │      1 deciliter            │     3.5274 ounces
 Dekagram           │        10 │     10 cubic centimeters    │      .3527 ounces
 Gram               │         1 │      1 cubic centimeter     │    15.432  grains
 Decigram           │      1-10 │ 1-10th of a cubic centimeter│     1.5432 grains
 Centigram          │     1-100 │     10 cubic millimeters    │      .1543 grains
 Milligram          │   1-1,000 │      1 cubic millimeter     │      .0154 grains
 ───────────────────+───────────+─────────────────────────────+───────────────────

_For measuring surfaces_, the square dekameter is used under the term
of ARE; the hectare, or 100 ares, is equal to about 2 1⁠/⁠2 acres.
_The unit of capacity_ is the cubic decimeter or LITER, and the series
of measures is formed in the same way as in the case of the table of
lengths. The cubic meter is the unit of measure for solid bodies,
and is termed STERE. _The unit of weight_ is the GRAM, which is the
weight of one cubic centimeter of pure water weighed in a vacuum at the
temperature of 4° C. or 39.2° F., which is about its temperature of
maximum density. In practice, the term cubic centimeter, abbreviated
c.c., is generally used instead of milliliter, and cubic meter instead
of kiloliter. {760}


«THE CONVERSION OF METRIC INTO ENGLISH WEIGHT»

The following table, which contains no error greater than one-tenth of
a grain, will suffice for most practical purposes:

     1 gram  =    15 2⁠/⁠5 grains
     2 grams =    30 4⁠/⁠5 grains
     3 grams =    46 1⁠/⁠5 grains
     4 grams =    61 4⁠/⁠5 grains, or  1 drachm,   1 4⁠/⁠5 grains
     5 grams =    77 1⁠/⁠5 grains, or  1 drachm,  17 1⁠/⁠5 grains
     6 grams =    92 3⁠/⁠5 grains, or  1 drachm,  32 3⁠/⁠5 grains
     7 grams =   108     grains, or  1 drachm,  48     grains
     8 grams =   123 2⁠/⁠5 grains, or  2 drachms,  3 2⁠/⁠5 grains
     9 grams =   138 4⁠/⁠5 grains, or  2 drachms, 18 4⁠/⁠5 grains
    10 grams =   154 2⁠/⁠5 grains, or  2 drachms, 34 2⁠/⁠5 grains
    11 grams =   169 4⁠/⁠5 grains, or  2 drachms, 49 4⁠/⁠5 grains
    12 grams =   185 1⁠/⁠5 grains, or  3 drachms, 20 1⁠/⁠5 grains
    13 grams =   200 3⁠/⁠5 grains, or  3 drachms, 20 3⁠/⁠5 grains
    14 grams =   216     grains, or  3 drachms, 36     grains
    15 grams =   231 2⁠/⁠5 grains, or  3 drachms, 51 2⁠/⁠5 grains
    16 grams =   247     grains, or  4 drachms,  7     grains
    17 grams =   262 2⁠/⁠5 grains, or  4 drachms, 22 2⁠/⁠5 grains
    18 grams =   277 4⁠/⁠5 grains, or  4 drachms, 37 4⁠/⁠5 grains
    19 grams =   293 1⁠/⁠5 grains, or  4 drachms, 53 1⁠/⁠5 grains
    20 grams =   308 3⁠/⁠5 grains, or  5 drachms,  8 3⁠/⁠5 grains
    30 grams =   463     grains, or  7 drachms, 43     grains
    40 grams =   617 1⁠/⁠5 grains, or 10 drachms, 17 1⁠/⁠5 grains
    50 grams =   771 3⁠/⁠5 grains, or 12 drachms, 51 3⁠/⁠5 grains
    60 grams =   926     grains, or 15 drachms, 26     grains
    70 grams = 1,080 1⁠/⁠5 grains, or 18 drachms,  0 1⁠/⁠5 grains
    80 grams = 1,234 3⁠/⁠5 grains, or 20 drachms, 34 3⁠/⁠5 grains
    90 grams = 1,389     grains, or 23 drachms,  9     grains
   100 grams = 1,543 1⁠/⁠5 grains, or 25 drachms, 43 1⁠/⁠5 grains
 1,000 grams = 1 kilogram = 32 ounces, 1 drachm, 12 2⁠/⁠5 grains


«THE CONVERSION OF METRIC INTO ENGLISH MEASURE»

     1 cubic centimeter  =    17 minims
     2 cubic centimeters =    34 minims
     3 cubic centimeters =    51 minims
     4 cubic centimeters =    68 minims, or 1 drachm,   8 minims
     5 cubic centimeters =    85 minims, or 1 drachm,  25 minims
     6 cubic centimeters =   101 minims, or 1 drachm,  41 minims
     7 cubic centimeters =   118 minims, or 1 drachm,  58 minims
     8 cubic centimeters =   135 minims, or 1 drachms, 15 minims
     9 cubic centimeters =   152 minims, or 2 drachms, 32 minims
    10 cubic centimeters =   169 minims, or 2 drachms, 49 minims
    20 cubic centimeters =   338 minims, or 5 drachms, 38 minims
    30 cubic centimeters =   507 minims, or 1 ounce,  0 drachm,  27 minims
    40 cubic centimeters =   676 minims, or 1 ounce,  3 drachms, 16 minims
    50 cubic centimeters =   845 minims, or 1 ounce,  6 drachms,  5 minims
    60 cubic centimeters = 1,014 minims, or 2 ounces, 0 drachms, 54 minims
    70 cubic centimeters = 1,183 minims, or 2 ounces, 3 drachms, 43 minims
    80 cubic centimeters = 1,352 minims, or 2 ounces, 6 drachms, 32 minims
    90 cubic centimeters = 1,521 minims, or 3 ounces, 1 drachm,  21 minims
   100 cubic centimeters = 1,690 minims, or 3 ounces, 4 drachms, 10 minims
 1,000 cubic centimeters = 1 liter = 34 fluidounces nearly, or 2 1⁠/⁠8 pints.

{761}


«WELDING POWDERS.»

See also Steel.


«Powder to Weld Wrought Iron at Pale-red Heat with Wrought
Iron.»—I.—Borax, 1 part (by weight); sal ammoniac, 1⁠/⁠2 part; water,
1⁠/⁠2 part. These ingredients are boiled with constant stirring until
the mass is stiff; then it is allowed to harden over the fire. Upon
cooling, the mass is rubbed up into a powder and mixed with one-third
wrought-iron filings free from rust. When the iron has reached red
heat, this powder is sprinkled on the parts to be welded, and after it
has liquefied, a few blows are sufficient to unite the pieces.

II.—Borax, 2 parts; wrought-iron filings, free from rust, 2 parts; sal
ammoniac, 1 part. These pulverized parts are moistened with copaiba
balsam and made into a paste, then slowly dried over a fire and again
powdered. The application is the same as for Formula I.


«Welding Powder to Weld Steel on Wrought Iron at Pale-red Heat.»—Borax,
3 parts; potassium cyanide, 2 parts; Berlin blue, 1–100 part. These
substances are powdered well, moistened with water; next they are
boiled with constant stirring until stiff; then dry over a fire.
Upon cooling, the mass is finely pulverized and mixed with 1 part
of wrought-iron filings, free from rust. This powder is sprinkled
repeatedly upon the hot pieces, and after it has burned in the welding
is taken in hand.

WHEEL GREASE: See Lubricants.


«WHETSTONES.»

To make artificial whetstones, take gelatin of good quality, dissolve
it in equal weight of water, operating in almost complete darkness,
and add 1 1⁠/⁠2 per cent of bichromate of potash, previously dissolved.
Next take about 9 times the weight of the gelatin employed of very
fine emery or fine powdered gun stone, which is mixed intimately with
the gelatinized solution. The paste thus obtained is molded into the
desired shape, taking care to exercise an energetic pressure in order
to consolidate the mass. Finally dry by exposure to the sun.


«WHITING:»


«To Form Masses of Whiting.»—Mix the whiting into a stiff paste with
water, and the mass will retain its coherence when dry.


«Whitewash»

(See also Paint.)

Wash the ceiling by wetting it twice with water, laying on as much
as can well be floated on, then rub the old color up with a stumpy
brush and wipe off with a large sponge. Stop all cracks with whiting
and plaster of Paris. When dry, claricole with size and a little of
the whitewash when this is dry. If very much stained, paint those
parts with turps, color, and, if necessary, claricole again. To make
the whitewash, take a dozen pounds of whiting (in large balls), break
them up in a pail, and cover with water to soak. During this time melt
over a slow fire 4 pounds common size, and at the same time, with a
palette knife or small trowel, rub up fine about a dessertspoonful of
blue-black with water to a fine paste; then pour the water off the top
of the whiting and with a stick stir in the black; when well mixed,
stir in the melted size and strain. When cold, it is fit for use. If
the jelly is too stiff for use, beat it up well and add a little cold
water. Commence whitewashing over the window and so work from the
light. Distemper color of any tint may be made by using any other color
instead of the blue-black—as ocher, chrome, Dutch pink, raw sienna for
yellows and buff; Venetian red, burnt sienna, Indian red or purple
brown for reds; celestial blue, ultramarine, indigo for blues; red and
blue for purple, gray or lavender; red lead and chrome for orange;
Brunswick green for greens.

Ox blood in lime paint is an excellent binding agent for the lime,
as it is chiefly composed of albumin, which, like casein or milk, is
capable of transforming the lime into casein paint. But the ox blood
must be mixed in the lime paint; to use it separately is useless, if
not harmful. Whitewashing rough mortar-plastering to saturation is very
practical, as it closes all the pores and small holes.

A formula used by the United States Government in making whitewash for
light-houses and other public buildings is as follows:

 Unslaked lime               2 pecks
 Common salt                 1 peck
 Rice flour                  3 pounds
 Spanish whiting           1⁠/⁠2 pound
 Glue (clean and white)      1 pound
 Water, a sufficient quantity.

Slake the lime in a vessel of about 10 gallons capacity; cover it,
strain, and add {762} the salt previously dissolved in warm water.
Boil the rice flour in water; soak the glue in water and dissolve on a
water bath, and add both, together with the whiting and 5 gallons of
hot water to the mixture, stirring all well together. Cover to protect
from dirt, and let it stand for a few days, when it will be ready for
use. It is to be applied hot, and for that reason should be used from a
kettle over a portable furnace.


«To Soften Old Whitewash.»—Wet the whitewash thoroughly with a wash
made of 1 pound of potash dissolved in 10 quarts of water.

WHITEWASH, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

WHITE METAL: See Alloys.

WINDOW-CLEANING COMPOUND: See Cleaning Compounds.


«WINDOW DISPLAY:»

See also Sponges.

An attractive window display for stores can be prepared as follows:

In a wide-mouth jar put some sand, say, about 6 inches in depth. Make
a mixture of equal parts of aluminum sulphate, copper sulphate, and
iron sulphate, coarsely powdered, and strew it over the surface of
the sand. Over this layer gently pour a solution of sodium silicate,
dissolved in 3 parts of hot water, taking care not to disturb the layer
of sulphates. In about a week or 10 days the surface will be covered
with crystals of different colors, being silicates of different metals
employed. Now take some pure water and let it run into the vessel by a
small tube, using a little more of it than you used of the water-glass
solution. This will displace the water-glass solution, and a fresh crop
of crystals will come in the silicates, and makes, when properly done,
a pretty scene. Take care in pouring in the water to let the point of
the tube be so arranged as not to disturb the crop of silicates.


«WINDOW PERFUME.»

In Paris an apparatus has been introduced consisting of a small tube
which is attached lengthwise on the exterior of the shop windows.
Through numerous little holes a warm, lightly perfumed current of
air is passed, which pleasantly tickles the olfactory nerves of the
looker-on and at the same time keeps the panes clear and clean, so that
the goods exhibited present the best possible appearance.

WINDOW POLISHES: See Polishes.

WINDOWS, FROSTED: See Glass.

WINDOWS, TO PREVENT DIMMING OF: See Glass.


«Wines and Liquors»


«BITTERS.»

Bitters, as the name indicates, are merely tinctures of bitter roots
and barks, with the addition of spices to flavor, and depend for their
effect upon their tonic action on the stomach. Taken too frequently,
however, they may do harm, by overstimulating the digestive organs.

The recipes for some of these preparations run to great lengths, one
for Angostura bitters containing no fewer than 28 ingredients. A very
good article, however, may be made without all this elaboration. The
following, for instance, make a very good preparation:

 Gentian root (sliced)    12 ounces
 Cinnamon bark            10 ounces
 Caraway seeds            10 ounces
 Juniper berries           2 ounces
 Cloves                    1 ounce
 Alcohol, 90 per cent      7 pints

Macerate for a week; strain, press out, and filter, then add

 Capillaire           1 1⁠/⁠4 pints
 Water to make up     2 1⁠/⁠2 gallons

Strength about 45 u. p.

Still another formula calls for Angostura bark, 2 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; gentian
root, 1 ounce; cardamom seeds, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; Turkey rhubarb, 1⁠/⁠2
ounce; orange peel, 4 ounces; caraways, 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; cinnamon bark,
1⁠/⁠2 ounce; cloves, 1⁠/⁠4 ounce.


«Brandy Bitters.»—

 Sliced gentian root    3 pounds
 Dried orange peel      2 pounds
 Cardamom seed          1 pound
 Bruised cinnamon     1⁠/⁠2 pound
 Cochineal              2 ounces
 Brandy                10 pints

Macerate for 14 days and strain.


«Hostetter’s Bitters.»—

 Calamus root         1 pound
 Orange peel          1 pound
 Peruvian bark        1 pound
 Gentian root         1 pound {763}
 Calumba root         1 pound
 Rhubarb root         4 ounces
 Cinnamon bark        2 ounces
 Cloves               1 ounce
 Diluted alcohol      2 gallons
 Water                1 gallon
 Sugar                1 pound

Macerate together for 2 weeks.


«CORDIALS.»

Cordials, according to the _Spatula_, are flavored liquors containing
from 40 to 50 per cent of alcohol (from 52 to 64 fluidounces to each
gallon) and from 20 to 25 per cent of sugar (from 25 to 32 ounces
avoirdupois to each gallon).

Cordials, while used in this country to some degree, have their
greatest consumption in foreign lands, especially in France and Germany.

Usually such mixtures as these are clarified or “fined” only with
considerable difficulty, as the finally divided particles of oil pass
easily through the pores of the filter paper. Purified talcum will
be found to be an excellent clarifying medium; it should be agitated
with the liquid and the liquid then passed through a thoroughly wetted
filter. The filtrate should be returned again and again to the filter
until it filters perfectly bright. Purified talcum being chemically
inert is superior to magnesium carbonate and other substances which are
recommended for this purpose.

When the filtering process is completed the liquids should at once be
put into suitable bottles which should be filled and tightly corked and
sealed. Wrap the bottles in paper and store away, laying the bottles on
their sides in a moderately warm place. A shelf near the ceiling is a
good place. Warmth and age improve the beverages, as it appears to more
perfectly blend the flavors, so that the older the liquor becomes the
better it is. These liquids must never be kept in a cold place, as the
cold might cause the volatile oils to separate.

The following formulas are for the production of cordials of the best
quality, and therefore only the very best of materials should be used;
the essential oils should be of unquestionable quality and strictly
fresh, while the alcohol must be free from fusel oil, the water
distilled, and the sugar white, free from bluing, and if liquors of any
kind should be called for in any formula only the very best should be
used. The oils and other flavoring substances should be dissolved in
the alcohol and the sugar in the water. Then mix the two solutions and
filter clear.


«Alkermes Cordial.»—

 Mace                    1 1⁠/⁠2 avoirdupois ounces
 Ceylon cinnamon         1 1⁠/⁠8 avoirdupois ounces
 Cloves                    3⁠/⁠4 avoirdupois ounce
 Rose water (best)           6 fluidounces
 Sugar                      28 avoirdupois ounces
 Deodorized alcohol         52 fluidounces
 Distilled water, q. s.      1 gallon

Reduce the mace, cinnamon, and cloves to a coarse powder macerate with
the alcohol for several days, agitating occasionally, then add the
remaining ingredients, and filter clear.


«Anise Cordial.»—

 Anethol                     7 fluidrachms
 Oil of fennel seed         80 minims
 Oil of bitter almonds      16 drops
 Deodorized alcohol          8 pints
 Simple syrup                5 pints
 Distilled water, q. s.     16 pints

Mix the oils and anethol with the alcohol and the syrup with the water;
mix the two and filter clear, as directed.


«Blackberry Cordial.»—This beverage is usually misnamed “blackberry
brandy” or “blackberry wine.” This latter belongs only to wines
obtained by the fermentation of the blackberry juice. When this is
distilled then a true blackberry brandy is obtained, just as ordinary
brandy is obtained by distilling ordinary wines.

The name is frequently applied to a preparation containing blackberry
root often combined with other astringents, but the true blackberry
cordial is made according to the formulas given herewith. Most of these
mention brandy, and this article should be good and fusel free, or it
may be replaced by good whisky, or even by diluted alcohol, depending
on whether a high-priced or cheap cordial is desired.

I.—Fresh blackberry juice, 3 pints; sugar, 7 1⁠/⁠2 ounces; water, 30
fluidounces; brandy, 7 1⁠/⁠2 pints; oil of cloves, 3 drops; oil of
cinnamon, 3 drops; alcohol, 6 fluidrachms. Dissolve the sugar in the
water and juice, then add the liquor. Dissolve the oils in the alcohol
and add 1⁠/⁠2 to the first solution, and if not sufficiently flavored
add more of the second solution. Then filter.

II.—Fresh blackberry juice, 4 pints; powdered nutmeg (fresh), 1 ounce;
powdered cinnamon (fresh), 1 ounce; powdered pimento (fresh), 1⁠/⁠2
ounce; powdered cloves {764} (fresh), 1⁠/⁠2 ounce; brandy, 2 1⁠/⁠2
pints; sugar, 2 1⁠/⁠2 pounds. Macerate the spices in the brandy for
several days. Dissolve the sugar in the juice and mix and filter clear.


«Cherry Cordials.»—

 I.—Oil of bitter almonds       8 drops
     Oil of cinnamon             1 drop
     Oil of cloves               1 drop
     Acetic ether               12 drops
     Ceuanthic ether             1 drop
     Vanilla extract             1 drachm
     Alcohol                     3 pints
     Sugar                       3 pounds
     Cherry juice               20 ounces
     Distilled water, q. s.      1 gallon

The oils, ethers, and extracts must be dissolved in the alcohol, the
sugar in part of the water, then mix, add the juice and filter clear.
When the juice is not sufficiently sour, add a small amount of solution
of citric acid. To color, use caramel.

 II.—Vanilla extract           10 drops
      Oil of cinnamon           10 drops
      Oil of bitter almonds     10 drops
      Oil of cloves              3 drops
      Oil of nutmeg              3 drops
      Alcohol                2 1⁠/⁠2 pints
      Cherry juice           2 1⁠/⁠2 pints
      Simple syrup               3 pints

Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, then add the other ingredients and
filter clear. It is better to make this cordial during the cherry
season so as to obtain the fresh expressed juice of the cherry.


«Curacoa Cordials.»—

 I.—Curacoa orange peel      6 ounces
     Cinnamon               3⁠/⁠4 ounce
     Mace                 2 1⁠/⁠2 drachms
     Alcohol              3 1⁠/⁠2 pints
     Water                4 1⁠/⁠2 pints
     Sugar                   12 ounces

Mix the first three ingredients and reduce them to a coarse powder,
then mix with the alcohol and 4 pints of water and macerate for 8 days
with an occasional agitation, express, add the sugar and enough water
to make a gallon of finished product. Filter clear.

 II.—Curacoa or bitter orange peel    2 ounces
      Cloves                          80 grains
      Cinnamon                        80 grains
      Cochineal                       60 grains
      Oil of orange (best)             1 drachm
      Orange-flower water            1⁠/⁠2 pint
      Holland gin                      1 pint
      Alcohol                          2 pints
      Sugar                            3 pints
      Water, q. s.                     1 gallon

Reduce the solids to a coarse powder, add the alcohol and macerate 3
days. Then add the oil, gin, and 3 pints of water and continue the
maceration for 8 days more, agitating once a day, strain and add sugar
dissolved in balance of the water. Then add the orange-flower water and
filter.


«Kola Cordial.»—

 Kola nuts, roasted and powdered      7 ounces
 Cochineal powder                    30 grains
 Extract of vanilla                   3 drachms
 Arrac                                3 ounces
 Sugar                                7 pounds
 Alcohol                              6 pints
 Water, distilled                     6 pints

Macerate kola and cochineal with alcohol for 10 days, agitate daily,
add arrac, vanilla, and sugar dissolved in water. Filter.


«Kümmel Cordials.»—

 I.—Oil of caraway               30 drops
     Oil of peppermint             3 drops
     Oil of lemon                  3 drops
     Acetic ether                 30 drops
     Spirit of nitrous ether      30 drops
     Sugar                        72 ounces
     Alcohol                      96 ounces
     Water                        96 ounces

Dissolve the oils and ethers in the alcohol, and the sugar in the
water. Mix and filter.

 II.—Oil of caraway          20 drops
      Oil of sweet fennel      2 drops
      Oil of cinnamon          1 drop
      Sugar                   14 ounces
      Alcohol                  2 pints
      Water                    4 pints

Prepare as in Formula I.


«Orange Cordials.»—Many of the preparations sold under this name are
not really orange cordials, but are varying mixtures of uncertain
composition, possibly flavored with orange. The following are made by
the use of oranges:

 I.—Sugar         8 avoirdupois pounds
     Water     2 3⁠/⁠4 gallons
     Oranges      15

Dissolve the sugar in the water by the aid of a gentle heat, express
the oranges, add the juice and rinds to the syrup, put the mixture
into a cask, keep the whole in a warm place for 3 or 4 days, stirring
frequently, then close the cask, set aside in a cool cellar and draw
off the clear liquid.

II.—Express the juice from sweet oranges, add water equal to the volume
{765} of juice obtained, and macerate the expressed oranges with the
juice and water for about 12 hours. For each gallon of juice, add 1
pound of granulated sugar, grape sugar, or glucose, put the whole
into a suitable vessel, covering to exclude the dust, place in a warm
location until fermentation is completed, draw off the clear liquid,
and preserve in well-stoppered stout bottles in a cool place.

III.—Orange wine suitable for “soda” purposes may be prepared by mixing
3 fluidounces of orange essence with 13 fluidounces of sweet Catawba or
other mild wine. Some syrup may be added to this if desired.


«Rose Cordial.»—

 Oil of rose, very best      3 drops
 Palmarosa oil               3 drops
 Sugar                      28 ounces
 Alcohol                    52 ounces
 Distilled water, q. s.      8 pints

Dissolve the sugar in the water and the oils in the alcohol; mix the
solutions, color a rose tint, and filter clear.


«Spearmint Cordial.»—

 Oil of spearmint           30 drops
 Sugar                      28 ounces
 Alcohol                    52 ounces
 Distilled water, q. s.      8 pints

Dissolve the sugar in the water and the oil in the alcohol; mix the two
solutions, color green, and filter clear.


«Absinthe.»—

 I.—Oil of wormwood           96 drops
     Oil of star anise         72 drops
     Oil of aniseed            48 drops
     Oil of coriander          48 drops
     Oil of fennel, pure       48 drops
     Oil of angelica root      24 drops
     Oil of thyme              24 drops
     Alcohol (pure)           162 fluidounces
     Distilled water           30 fluidounces

Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, add the water, color green, and
filter clear.

 II.—Oil of wormwood          36 drops
      Oil of orange peel       30 drops
      Oil of star anise        12 drops
      Oil of neroli petate      5 drops
      Fresh oil of lemon        9 drops
      Acetic ether             24 drops
      Sugar                    30 avoirdupois ounces
      Alcohol, deodorized      90 fluidounces
      Distilled water          78 fluidounces

Dissolve the oils and ether in the alcohol and the sugar in the water;
then mix thoroughly, color green, and filter clear.


«DETANNATING WINE.»

According to Caspari, the presence of appreciable quantities of
tannin in wine is decidedly objectionable if the wine is to be used
in connection with iron and other metallic salts; moreover, tannin is
incompatible with alkaloids, and hence wine not deprived of its tannin
should never be used as a menstruum for alkaloidal drugs. The process
of freeing wines from tannin is termed detannation, and is a very
simple operation. The easiest plan is to add 1⁠/⁠2 ounce of gelatin
in number 40 or number 60 powder to 1 gallon of the wine, to agitate
occasionally during 24 or 48 hours, and then to filter. The operation
is preferably carried out during cold weather or in a cold apartment,
as heat will cause the gelatin to dissolve, and the maceration must
be continued until a small portion of the wine mixed with a few drops
of ferric chloride solution shows no darkening of color. Gelatin in
large pieces is not suitable, especially with wines containing much
tannin, since the newly formed tannate of gelatin will be deposited on
the surface and prevent further intimate contact of the gelatin with
the wine. Formerly freshly prepared ferric hydroxide was much employed
for detannating wine, but the chief objection to its use was due to
the fact that some iron invariably was taken up by the acid present in
the wine; moreover, the process was more tedious than in the case of
gelatin. As the removal of tannin from wine in no way interferes with
its quality—alcoholic strength and aroma remaining the same, and only
coloring matter being lost—a supply of detannated wine should be kept
on hand, for it requires very little more labor to detannate a gallon
than a pint.

If ferric hydroxide is to be used, it must be freshly prepared, and a
convenient quantity then be added to the wine—about 8 ounces of the
expressed, but moist, precipitate to a gallon.


«PREVENTION OF FERMENTATION.»

Fermentation may be prevented in either of two ways:

(1) By chemical methods, which consist in the addition of germ poisons
or antiseptics, which either kill the germs or prevent their growth. Of
these the principal ones used are salicylic, sulphurous, boracic, and
benzoic acids, formalin, fluorides, and saccharine. As these substances
are generally regarded as adulterants and injurious, their use is not
recommended.

(2) The germs are either removed by {766} some mechanical means such as
a filtering or a centrifugal apparatus, or they are destroyed by heat
or electricity. Heat has so far been found the most practical.

When a liquid is heated to a sufficiently high temperature all
organisms in it are killed. The degree of heat required, however,
differs not only with the particular kind of organism, but also with
the liquid in which it is held. Time is also a factor. An organism may
not be killed if heated to a high temperature and quickly cooled. If,
however, the temperature is kept at the same high degree for some time,
it will be killed. It must also be borne in mind that fungi, including
yeasts, exist in the growing and the resting states, the latter being
much more resistant than the former. One characteristic of the fungi
and their spores is their great resistance to heat when dry. In this
state they can be heated to 212° F. without being killed. The spores of
the common mold are even more resistant. This should be well considered
in sterilizing bottles and corks, which should be steamed to 240° F.
for at least 15 minutes.

Practical tests so far made indicate that grape juice can be safely
sterilized at from 165° to 176° F. At this temperature the flavor is
hardly changed, while at a temperature much above 200° F. it is. This
is an important point, as the flavor and quality of the product depend
on it.

Use only clean, sound, well-ripened, but not over-ripe grapes. If
an ordinary cider mill is at hand, it may be used for crushing and
pressing, or the grapes may be crushed and pressed with the hands. If
a light-colored juice is desired, put the crushed grapes in a cleanly
washed cloth sack and tie up. Then either hang up securely and twist
it or let two persons take hold, one on each end of the sack and twist
until the greater part of the juice is expressed. Next gradually heat
the juice in a double boiler or a large stone jar in a pan of hot
water, so that the juice does not come in direct contact with the fire
at a temperature of 180° to 200° F., never above 200° F. It is best to
use a thermometer, but if there be none at hand heat the juice until
it steams, but do not allow it to boil. Put it in a glass or enameled
vessel to settle for 24 hours; carefully drain the juice from the
sediment, and run it through several thicknesses of clean flannel, or
a conic filter made from woolen cloth or felt may be used. This filter
is fixed to a hoop of iron, which can be suspended wherever necessary.
After this fill into clean bottles. Do not fill entirely, but leave
room for the liquid to expand when again heated. Fit a thin board over
the bottom of an ordinary wash boiler, set the filled bottles (ordinary
glass fruit jars are just as good) in it, fill in with water around
the bottles to within about an inch of the tops, and gradually heat
until it is about to simmer. Then take the bottles out and cork or
seal immediately. It is a good idea to take the further precaution of
sealing the corks over with sealing wax or paraffine to prevent mold
germs from entering through the corks. Should it be desired to make red
juice, heat the crushed grapes to not above 200° F., strain through a
clean cloth or drip bag (no pressure should be used), set away to cool
and settle, and proceed the same as with light-colored juice. Many
people do not even go to the trouble of letting the juice settle after
straining it, but reheat and seal it up immediately, simply setting
the vessel away in a cool place in an upright position where they will
be undisturbed. The juice is thus allowed to settle, and when wanted
for use the clear juice is simply taken off the sediment. Any person
familiar with the process of canning fruit can also preserve grape
juice, for the principles involved are identical.

One of the leading defects so far found in unfermented juice is that
much of it is not clear, a condition which very much detracts from its
otherwise attractive appearance, and due to two causes already alluded
to. Either the final sterilization in bottles has been at a higher
temperature than the preceding one, or the juice has not been properly
filtered or has not been filtered at all. In other cases the juice has
been sterilized at such a high temperature that it has a disagreeable
scorched taste. It should be remembered that attempts to sterilize at
a temperature above 195° F. are dangerous so far as the flavor of the
finished product is concerned.

Another serious mistake is sometimes made by putting the juice into
bottles so large that much of it becomes spoiled before it is used
after the bottles are opened. Unfermented grape juice properly made and
bottled will keep indefinitely, if it is not exposed to the atmosphere
or mold germs; but when a bottle is once opened it should, like canned
goods, be used as soon as possible to keep from spoiling.

Another method of making unfermented grape juice, which is often {767}
resorted to where a sufficiently large quantity is made at one time,
consists in this:

Take a clean keg or barrel (one that has previously been made sweet).
Lay this upon a skid consisting of two scantlings or pieces of timber
of perhaps 20 feet long, in such a manner as to make a runway. Then
take a sulphur match, made by dipping strips of clean muslin about 1
inch wide and 10 inches long into melted brimstone, cool it and attach
it to a piece of wire fastened in the lower end of a bung and bent over
at the end, so as to form a hook. Light the match and by means of the
wire suspend it in the barrel, bung the barrel up tight, and allow it
to burn as long as it will. Repeat this until fresh sulphur matches
will no longer burn in the barrel.

Then take enough fresh grape juice to fill the barrel one-third full,
bung up tight, roll and agitate violently on the skid for a few
minutes. Next burn more sulphur matches in it until no more will burn,
fill in more juice until the barrel is about two-thirds full; agitate
and roll again. Repeat the burning process as before, after which fill
the barrel completely with grape juice and roll. The barrel should then
be bunged tightly and stored in a cool place with the bung up, and so
secured that the package cannot be shaken. In the course of a few weeks
the juice will have become clear and can then be racked off and filled
into bottles or jars direct, sterilized, and corked or sealed up ready
for use. By this method, however, unless skillfully handled, the juice
is apt to have a slight taste of the sulphur.

The following are the component parts of a California and a Concord
unfermented grape juice:

                              Concord  California
                                Per       Per
                                Cent      Cent

 Solid contents                20.37     20.60
 Total acids (as tartaric)       .663      .53
 Volatile acids                  .023      .03
 Grape sugar                   18.54     19.15
 Free tartaric acids             .025      .07
 Ash                             .255      .19
 Phosphoric acids                .027      .04
 Cream of tartar                 .55       .59

This table is interesting in so far that the California unfermented
grape juice was made from Viniferas or foreign varieties, whereas the
Concord was a Labruska or one of the American sorts. The difference
in taste and smell is even more pronounced than the analysis would
indicate.

Small quantities of grape juice may be preserved in bottles. Fruit is
likely to be dusty and to be soiled in other ways, and grapes, like
other fruits, should be well washed before using. Leaves or other
extraneous matter should also be removed. The juice is obtained by
moderate pressure in an ordinary screw press, and strained through
felt. By gently heating, the albuminous matter is coagulated and may
be skimmed off, and further clarification may be effected by filtering
through paper, but such filtration must be done as rapidly as possible,
using a number of filters and excluding the air as much as possible.

The juice so obtained may be preserved by sterilization, in the
following manner: Put the juice in the bottles in which it is to be
kept, filling them very nearly full; place the bottles, unstoppered,
in a kettle filled with cold water, so arranging them on a wooden
perforated “false bottom” or other like contrivance as to prevent their
immediate contact with the metal, this preventing unequal heating
and possible fracture. Now heat the water, gradually raising the
temperature to the boiling point, and maintain at that until the juice
attains a boiling temperature; then close the bottles with perfectly
fitting corks, which have been kept immersed in boiling water for a
short time before use.

The corks should not be fastened in any way, for, if the sterilization
is not complete, fermentation and consequent explosion of the bottle
may occur unless the cork should be forced out.

If the juice is to be used for syrup, as for use at the soda fountain,
the best method is to make a concentrated syrup at once, using about
2 pounds of refined sugar to 1 pint of juice, dissolving by a gentle
heat. This syrup may be made by simple agitation without heat; and a
finer flavor thus results, but its keeping quality would be uncertain.

The juices found in the market are frequently preserved by means of
antiseptics, but so far none have been proposed for this purpose which
can be considered entirely wholesome. Physiological experiments have
shown that while bodies suited for this purpose may be apparently
without bad effect at first, their repeated ingestion is likely to
cause gastric disturbance.


«SPARKLING WINES.»

An apparatus for converting still into foaming wines, and doing this
efficiently, simply, and rapidly, consists of a vertical steel tube,
which turns on an axis, and {768} bears several adjustable glass globes
that are in connection with each other by means of distributing valves,
the latter being of silver-plated bronze. The glass globes serve as
containers for carbonic acid, and are kept supplied with this gas from
a cylinder connected therewith.

The wine to be impregnated with the acid is taken from a cask, through
a special tube, which also produces a light pressure of carbonic
acid on the cask, the object of which is to prevent the access of
atmospheric air to the wine within, and, besides, to cause the liquid
to pass into the bottle without jar or stroke. The bottles stand under
the distributing valves, or levers, placed above and below them. Now,
if the cock, by means of which the glass bulbs and the bottles are
brought into connection, is slightly opened, and the desired lever is
put in action, the carbonic acid at once forces the air out of the
bottles, and sterilizes them. The upper bottles are now gradually
filled. The whole apparatus, including the filled bottles, is now
tilted over, and the wine, of its own weight, flows through collectors
filled with carbonic acid, and passes, impregnated with the gas, into
other bottles placed below. Each bottle is filled in course, the time
required for each being some 45 seconds. The saturation of the liquid
with carbonic acid is so complete and plentiful that there is no need
of hurry in corking.

By means of this apparatus any desired still wine is at once converted
into a sparkling one, preserving at the same time its own peculiarities
of taste, bouquet, etc. The apparatus may be used equally well upon
fruit juices, milk, and, in fact, any kind of liquid, its extreme
simplicity permitting of easy and rapid cleansing.


«ARTIFICIAL FRENCH BRANDY.»

I.—The following is Eugene Dieterich’s formula for _Spiritus vini
Gallici artificialis_:

 Tincture of gallapples       10 parts
 Aromatic tincture             5 parts
 Purified wood vinegar         5 parts
 Spirit of nitrous ether      10 parts
 Acetic ether                  1 part
 Alcohol, 68 per cent        570 parts
 Distilled water             400 parts

Mix, adding the water last, let stand for several days, then filter.

II.—The _Münchener Apotheker Verein_ has adopted the following formula
for the same thing:

 Acetic acid, dilute, 90 per cent      4 parts
 Acetic ether                          4 parts
 Tincture aromatic                    40 parts
 Cognac essence                       40 parts
 Spirit of nitrous ether              20 parts
 Alcohol, 90 per cent              5,000 parts
 Water, distilled                  2,500 parts

Add the acids, ethers, etc., to the alcohol, and finally add the water.
Let stand several days, and, if necessary, filter.

III.—The Berlin Apothecaries have adopted the following as a magistral
formula:

 Aromatic tincture                                   4 parts
 Spirit of nitrous ether                             5 parts
 Alcohol, 90 per cent                            1,000 parts
 Distilled water, quantity sufficient to make    2,000 parts

Mix the tincture and ether with the alcohol, add the water and for
every ounce add one drop of tincture of rhatany.

Of these formulas the first is to be preferred as a close imitation of
the taste of the genuine article. To imitate the color use burnt sugar.


«LIQUEURS.»

Many are familiar with the properties of liqueurs but believe them to
be very complex and even mysterious compounds. This is, of course, due
to the fact that the formulas are of foreign origin and many of them
have been kept more or less secret for some time. Owing to the peculiar
combination of the bouquet oils and flavors, it is impossible to make
accurate analyses of them. But by the use of formulas now given, these
products seem to be very nearly duplicated.

It is necessary to use the best sugar and oils obtainable in the
preparation of the liqueurs. As there are so many grades of essential
oils on the market, it is difficult to obtain the best indirectly. The
value of the cordials is enhanced by the richness and odor and flavor
of the oils, so only the best qualities should be used.

For filtering, flannel or felt is valuable. Flannel is cheaper and more
easily washed. It is necessary to return filtrate several times with
any of the filtering media.

As a clarifying agent talcum allowed to stand several days acts well.
These rules are common to all. {769}

The operations are all simple:

First: Heat all mixtures. Second: Keep the product in the dark. Third:
Keep in warm place.

The liqueurs are heated to ripen the bouquet flavor, it having effect
similar to age. To protect the ethereal oils, air and light are
excluded; hence it is recommended that the bottles be filled to the
stopper. The liqueurs taste best at a temperature not exceeding 55° F.
They are all improved with age, especially many of the bouquet oils.


«Bénédictine.»—

 I.—Bitter almonds               40 grams
     Powdered nutmeg           4.500 grams
     Extract vanilla             120 grams
     Powdered cloves               2 grams
     Lemons, sliced                2 grams
     True saffron               .600 grams
     Sugar                     2,000 grams
     Boiling milk              1,000 c.c.
     Alcohol, 95 per cent      2,000 c.c.
     Distilled water           2,500 c.c.

Mix. Let stand 9 days with occasional agitation. Filter sufficiently.

 II.—Essence Bénédictine          75 c.c
      Alcohol, 95 per cent      1,700 c.c.

Mix.

 Sugar                 1,750 grams
 Water, distilled      1,600 c.c.

Mix together, when clear solution of sugar is obtained. Color with
caramel. Filter sufficiently.

NOTE.—This liqueur should be at least 1 year old before used.

Essence Bénédictine for Bénédictine No. II.—

 I.—Myrrh                      1 part
     Decorticated cardamom      1 part
     Mace                       1 part
     Ginger                    10 parts
     Galanga root              10 parts
     Orange peel (cut)         10 parts
     Extract aloe               4 parts
     Alcohol                  160 parts
     Water                     80 parts

Mix, macerate 10 days and filter.

 II.—Extract licorice          20 parts
      Sweet spirits niter      200 parts
      Acetic ether              30 parts
      Spirits ammonia            1 part
      Coumarin                 .12 parts
      Vanillin                   1 part

 III.—Oil lemon               3 drops
       Oil orange peel         3 drops
       Oil wormwood          2.5 drops
       Oil galanga             2 drops
       Oil ginger              1 drop
       Oil anise              15 drops
       Oil cascarilla         15 drops
       Oil bitter almond      12 drops
       Oil milfoil            10 drops
       Oil sassafras           7 drops
       Oil angelica            6 drops
       Oil hyssop              4 drops
       Oil cardamom            2 drops
       Oil hops                2 drops
       Oil juniper             1 drop
       Oil rosemary            1 drop

Mix A, B, and C.

NOTE.—This essence should stand 2 years before being used for liqueurs.


«Chartreuse.»—I.—Elixir végétal de la Grande Chartreuse.

 Fresh balm mint herbs                         64 parts
 Fresh hyssop herbs                            64 parts
 Angelica herbs and root, fresh, together      32 parts
 Cinnamon                                      16 parts
 Saffron                                        4 parts
 Mace                                           4 parts

Subject the above ingredients to maceration for a week with alcohol
(96 per cent), 1,000 parts, then squeeze off and distill the liquid
obtained over a certain quantity of fresh herbs of balm and hyssop.
After 125 parts of sugar have been added to the resultant liqueur,
filter.

The genuine Chartreuse comes in three different colors, viz., green,
white, and yellow. The coloration, however, is not artificial, but is
determined by the addition of varying quantities of fresh herbs in the
distillation. But since it would require long and tedious trials to
produce the right color in a small manufacture, the yellow shade is
best imparted by a little tincture of saffron, and the green one by the
addition of a few drops of indigo solution.

 II.—Eau des Carmes       3 1⁠/⁠2 ounces
      Alcohol                  1 quart
      Distilled water          1 quart
      Sugar                1 1⁠/⁠2 pounds
      Tincture of saffron      1 ounce

Mix. Dissolve sugar in warm water, cool, strain, add remainder of
ingredients, and filter. This is known as yellow Chartreuse. {770}


«Curaçao Liqueur.»—

 A.—Oil lemon, q. s.             10 drops
     Oil bitter almond, q. s.      5 drops
     Oil curaçoa orange           15 parts
     Oil sweet orange              1 part
     Oil bitter orange             1 part
     Cochineal                     1 part
     French brandy                50 parts

 B.—Alcohol                   4,500 parts

 C.—Sugar                     3,500 parts
     Water (distilled)         4,000 parts

Mix A, B, and C. Filter. Color with caramel.


«May Bowl or May Wine.»—The principal ingredient of May bowl, or that
which gives it its flavor and bouquet, is fresh _Waldmeisterkraut_
(_Asperula odorata_), the “woodruff” or “sweet grass,” “star grass,”
and a dozen other aliases, of a plant growing wild all over Europe,
both continental and insular, and cultivated by some gardeners in
this country. It is accredited with being a diuretic, deobstruent and
hepatic stimulant, of no mean order, though it has long been banished
from the pharmacopœia.

In Baden and in Bavaria in preparing _Maitrank_ the practice was
formerly to first make an essence—_Maitrankessenz_, for the preparation
of which every housewife had a formula of her own. The following was
that generally used in the south of Germany:

 I.—Fresh, budding woodruff, cut fine      500 parts
     Alcohol, commercial (90 per cent)    1,000 parts

Digest together for 14 days, then filter and press off. Many add to
this some flavoring oil. As coumarin has been found to be the principle
to which the Waldmeister owes its odor, many add to the above Tonka
bean, chopped fine, 1 part to the thousand. From about 12 to 15 drachms
of this essence is added to make a gallon of the wine, which has about
the following formula:

 French brandy, say          4 drachms
 Oil of unripe oranges      80 drops
 Sugar                  4 to 8 ounces
 Essence                    12 drachms
 Wine to make                1 gallon

II.—Take enough good woodruff (_Waldmeister_) of fine aroma and flavor.
Remove all parts that will not add to the excellence of the product,
such as wilted, dead, or imperfect leaves, stems, etc., and wash the
residue thoroughly in cold water, and with as little pressure as
possible. Now choose a flask with a neck sufficiently wide to receive
the stems without pressing or bruising them, and let the pieces fall
into it. Pour in sufficient strong alcohol (96 per cent) to cover the
herbs completely. In from 30 to 40 minutes the entire aroma is taken
up by the alcohol, which takes on a beautiful green color, which,
unfortunately, does not last, disappearing in a few days, but without
affecting the aroma in the least. The alcohol should now be poured off,
for if left to macerate longer, while it would gain in aroma, it will
also take up a certain bitter principle that detracts from the delicacy
of flavor and aroma. The extract is now poured on a fresh quantity of
the herb, and continue proceeding in this manner until a sufficiently
concentrated extract is obtained to give aroma to 100 times its weight
of wine or cider.

III.—Fresh woodruff, in bloom or flower, is freed from the lower part
of its stem and leaves, and also of all foreign or inert matter. The
herb is then lightly stuck into a wide-mouth bottle, and covered with
strong alcohol. After 30 minutes pour off the liquor on fresh woodruff.
In another half hour the essence is ready, though it should not be used
immediately. It should be kept at cellar heat (about 60° F.) for a few
days, or until the green color vanishes. Any addition to the essence of
aromatics, such as orange peel, lemons, spices, etc., is to be avoided.
To prepare the Maitrank, add the essence to any good white wine,
tasting and testing, until the flavor suits.

The following are other formulas for the drink:

 IV.—Good white wine or cider    65 parts
      Alcohol, dilute             20 parts
      Sugar                       10 parts
      Maitrankessenz               1 part

Mix.


«Maraschino Liqueur.»—

 Oil bitter almonds          15 minims
 Essence vanilla              1 drachm
 Jasmine extract              2 drops
 Raspberry essence           10 drops
 Oil neroli                  10 drops
 Oil lemon                   15 minims
 Spirits nitrous ether        2 drachms
 Alcohol                      6 pints
 Sugar                        8 pounds
 Rose water                  10 ounces
 Water sufficient to make     2 gallons

Make a liquor in the usual manner.


«To Clarify Liqueurs.»—For the clarification of turbid liqueurs, burnt
{771} powdered alum is frequently employed. Make a trial with 200 parts
of the dim liqueur, to which 1.5 parts of burnt powdered alum is added;
shake well and let stand until the liquid is clear. Then decant and
filter the last portion. If the trial is successful, the whole stock
may be clarified in this manner.


«MEDICINAL WINES:»


«Beef and Iron.»—The following formula is recommended by the American
Pharmaceutical Association:

 I.—Extract of beef                         35 grams
     Tincture of citro-chloride of iron      35 c.c.
     Compound spirit of orange                1 c.c.
     Hot water                               60 c.c.
     Alcohol                                125 c.c.
     Syrup                                  125 c.c.
     Sherry wine sufficient to make       1,000 c.c.

Rub the extract of beef with the hot water, and add, while stirring,
the alcohol. Allow to stand 3 days or more, then filter and distill off
the alcohol. Add to the residue 750 cubic centimeters of the wine, to
which the compound spirit of orange has been previously added. Finally
add the tincture of citro-chloride of iron, syrup, and enough wine to
make 1,000 cubic centimeters. Filter if necessary.

II.—For Poultry and Stock.—A good formula for wine of beef and iron is
as follows:

 Beef extract                         256 grains
 Tincture of iron citro-chloride      256 minims
 Hot water                              1 fluidounce
 Sherry wine enough to make             1 pint

Pour the hot water in the beef extract and triturate until a smooth
mixture is made. To this add, gradually and under constant stirring, 12
ounces of the wine. Add now, under same conditions, the iron, stir in
well, and finally add the remainder of the wine.


«Cinchona.»—I.—Macerate 100 parts of cinchona succirubra in coarse
powder for 30 minutes in 100 parts of boiling water. Strain off
the liquor and set aside. Macerate the residuum in 1,000 parts of
California Malaga for 24 hours, strain off the liquid and set aside.
Finally macerate the magma in 500 parts of alcohol, of 50 per cent,
for 1 hour, strain off and set aside. Wash the residue with a little
water to recover all the alcoholic tincture; then unite all the
liquids, let stand for 24 hours, and filter. To the filtrate add 800
parts loaf sugar and dissolve by the aid of gentle heat and again
filter. The product is all that could be asked of a wine of cinchona.
To make a ferrated wine of this, dissolve 1 part of citro-ammoniacal
pyrophosphate of iron to every 1,000 parts of wine.

II.—Yvon recommends the following formula:

 Red cinchona, coarse powder      5 parts
 Alcohol, 60 per cent            10 parts
 Diluted hydrochloric acid        1 part
 Bordeaux wine                  100 parts

Macerate the bark with the acid and alcohol for 6 days, shaking
from time to time, add the wine, macerate for 24 hours, agitating
frequently, then filter.


«Removal of Musty Taste and Smell from Wine.»—For the removal of this
unpleasant quality, Kulisch recommends the use of a piece of charcoal
of about the size of a hazel nut—5 to 10 parts per 1,000 parts of wine.
After this has remained in the cask for 6 to 8 weeks, and during this
time has been treated once a week with a chain or with a stirring rod,
the wine can be racked off. Obstinate turbidness, as well as stalk
taste and pot flavor, can also be obviated by the use of the remedy.


«WINTERGREEN, TO DISTINGUISH METHYL SALICYLATE FROM OIL OF.»

A quantity of the sample is mixed in a test tube with an equal volume
of pure concentrated sulphuric acid. Under these conditions the
artificial compound shows no rise in temperature and acquires only a
slight yellowish tint, while with the natural oil there is a marked
rise in temperature and the mixture assumes a rose-red color, gradually
passing into darker shades.


«WIRE ROPE.»

See also Steel.

A valuable anti-friction and preservative compound for mine cables
is as follows: Seven parts soft tallow and 3 parts plumbago, mixed
thoroughly; make a long, hollow box or trough, gouge out a 4 by 6 piece
of scantling about 2 feet long, sawing it down lengthwise and hollowing
out the box or trough enough to hold several pounds of the compound,
making also a hole lengthwise of the {772} trough for the cable to
run through; then affix to rope and clamp securely, having the box or
trough so fixed that it cannot play, and letting the cable pass through
it while going up or down, so that it will get a thorough coating.
This, it is found, will preserve a round cable very well, and can be
used at least once a week. For a flat steel cable raw linseed oil can
be used instead of the tallow, in about the proportion of 6 parts oil
and 3 plumbago. If tar is used, linseed oil is to be added to keep the
tar from adhering, both ingredients to be mixed while warm.

To preserve wire rope laid under ground, or under water, coat it with
a mixture of mineral tar and fresh slaked lime in the proportion of 1
bushel of lime to 1 barrel of tar. The mixture is to be boiled, and the
rope saturated with it while hot; sawdust is sometimes added to give
the mixture body. Wire rope exposed to the weather is coated with raw
linseed oil, or with a paint composed of equal parts of Spanish brown
or lampblack with linseed oil.

WIRE HARDENING: See Steel.

WITCH-HAZEL JELLY: See Cosmetics.


«Wood»


«DECORATIVE WOOD-FINISH.»

Paint or stencil wood with white-lime paint. When it has dried slowly
in the shade, brush it off and a handsome dark-brown tone will be
imparted to the oakwood. Some portions which may be desired darker and
redder are stained again with lime, whereby these places become deeper.
It is essential that the lime be applied in even thickness and dried
slowly, for only then the staining will be red and uniform.

After the staining saturate the wood with a mixture of varnish, 2
parts; oil of turpentine, 1 part; turpentine, 1⁠/⁠2 part. When the oil
ground is dry apply 2 coatings of pale amber varnish.

Colored decorations on pinewood can be produced as follows:

The most difficult part of the work is to remove the rosin
accumulations without causing a spot to appear. Burn out the places
carefully with a red-hot iron. Great care is necessary to prevent the
iron from setting the rosin on fire, thus causing black smoke clouds.

The resulting holes are filled up with plaster to which a little
light ocher is added to imitate the shade of the wood as perfectly as
possible. Plaster up no more than is necessary.

Rub the wood down with very fine sandpaper, taking especial care to rub
only with the grain of the wood, since all cross scratches will remain
permanently visible.

After this preliminary work cover the wood with a solution of white
shellac, in order not to injure the handsome golden portions of the
wood and to preserve the pure light tone of the wood in general.

On this shellac ground paint and stencil with glazing colors, ground
with isinglass solution. The smaller, more delicate portions, such
as flowers and figures, are simply worked out in wash style with
water colors, using the tone of the wood to remain as high lights,
surrounding the whole with a black contour.

After this treatment the panels and decorated parts are twice varnished
with dammar varnish. The friezes and pilaster strips are glazed darker
and set off with stripes; to varnish them use amber varnish.

The style just mentioned does not exclude any other. Thus, for
instance, a very good effect is produced by decorating the panels only
with a black covering color or with black and transparent red (burnt
sienna and a little carmine) after the fashion of boule work in rich
ornaments, in such a way that the natural wood forms the main part and
yet quite a considerable portion of the ornament.

Intarsia imitation is likewise well adapted, since the use of
variegated covering colors is in perfect keeping with the decoration
of natural wood. How it should be applied, and how much of it, depends
upon one’s taste, as well as the purpose and kind of the object.

It is a well-known fact that the large pores of oak always look rather
smeary, according to whether the workshop is more or less dusty. If
this is to be avoided, which is essential for neat work, take good
wheat starch, pound it fine with a hammer and stir by means of a wooden
spatula good strong polish with the wheat starch to a paste and work
the paste into the pores by passing it cross-wise over the wood. After
about 1⁠/⁠2 hour, rub down the wood thus treated in such a manner that
the pores are filled. In case any open pores remain, repeat the process
as before. After that, rub down, polish or deaden. If this operation is
not performed, the pores will always look somewhat dirty, despite all
{773} care. Every cabinetmaker will readily perceive that this filling
of the pores will save both time and polish in the subsequent finishing.


«WOOD FILLERS.»

The novice in coach painting is quite as likely to get bewildered as
to be aided by much of the information given about roughstuff, the
more so as the methods differ so widely. One authority tells us to use
a large proportion of lead ground in oil with the coarser pigment,
while another says use dry lead and but a small percentage, and still
another insists that lead must be tabooed altogether. There are withal
a good many moss-grown superstitions associated with the subject. Not
the least of these is the remarkably absorbent nature which the surface
that has been roughstuffed and “scoured” is supposed to possess. By
many this power of absorption is believed to be equal to swallowing up,
not only all the color applied, but at least 3 coats of varnish, and
none of these would think of applying a coat of color to a roughstuffed
surface without first giving it a coat of liquid filler as a sort of
sacrificial oblation in recognition of this absorbing propensity.
Another authority on the subject has laid down the rule that in the
process of scouring, the block of pumice stone must always be moved in
one direction, presumably for the reason that some trace of the stone
is likely to be visible after the surface is finished.

If the block of stone is scratching, perhaps the appearance of the
finished panel may be less objectionable with the furrows in parallel
lines than in what engravers call “cross-hatching,” but if the rubbing
is properly done it is not easy to discover what difference it could
make whether the stone is moved in a straight line or a circle. As to
absorption, it cannot be distinguished in the finished panel between
the surface that was coated with liquid filler and that to which the
color was applied directly, except that cracking always occurs much
sooner in the former, and this will be found to be the case with
surfaces that have been coated with liquid filler and finished without
roughstuff. Among the pigments that may be used for roughstuff, and
there are half a dozen or more, any of which may be used with success,
there is no doubt but that known as “English filler” is best, but it is
not always to be had without delay and inconveniences.

Yellow ocher, Reno umber and Keystone filler are all suitable for
roughstuff, the ocher having been used many years for the purpose,
but, as already remarked, the English filler is best. This is the
rule for mixing given by Nobles and Hoare: Four pounds filler, 1
pound ground white lead, 1 pint gold size, 1 pint varnish and 1 1⁠/⁠4
pints turpentine, or 3⁠/⁠4 pint good size and 1⁠/⁠2 pint boiled oil
in lieu of the varnish. In regard to the use of white lead ground in
oil, it makes the rubbing more laborious, increases the liability
to scratching, and requires a much longer time to harden before the
scouring can be done, without in any appreciable manner improving the
quality of the surface when finished.

It may be remarked here that the addition of white lead, whether
ground in oil or added dry to the coarser pigment, increases the labor
of scouring just in proportion as it is used until sufficient may be
used to render the scouring process impossible; hence, it follows that
the mixing should be governed by the character of the job in hand. If
the job is of a cheap class the use of very little or no lead at all
is advisable, and the proportion of Japan and turpentine may also be
increased, with the result that a fairly good surface may be obtained
with much less labor than in the formula given.

The number of coats of filler required to effect the purpose in any
given case must depend upon how well the builder has done his part
of the work. If he has left the surface very uneven it follows, as a
matter of course, that more coats will be required to make it level,
and more of the roughstuff will remain after the leveling process than
if the woodwork had been more perfectly done. While the merits of a
system or method are not to be judged by its antiquity, there should be
a good reason to justify the substitution of a new method for one that
has given perfect satisfaction for generations and been used by the
best coach painters who ever handled a brush.

A well-known writer on paints says that the effect of a varnish is
usually attributed to the manner of its application and the quantity
of thinners used for diluting the melted gums, with the prepared oils
and the oxidizing agents used in its manufacture. While this has
undoubtedly much to do with the successful application of varnish,
there are other facts in this connection that should not be overlooked.
For example, varnish is sometimes acted on by the breaking up, or the
disintegration of the filling coats; which in turn is evidently acted
on by the wood itself, according to its nature. {774}

With the aid of the microscope in examining the component parts of
wood a cellular tissue is observed which varies in form according to
the species and the parts which are inspected. This cellular tissue is
made up of small cavities called pores or cells, which are filled with
a widely diversified matter and are covered with a hard and usually
brittle substance called _lignin_.

This diversified matter consists of mineral salts and various
organic substances, gelatinous in their nature and held in solution
by a viscous liquid and containing nitrogenous matter in different
combinations, the whole being designated by the general name of
albuminous substances. The older the wood the more viscous is the
matter; while wood of recent growth (sapwood) contains less viscous
matter holding these substances in solution. This albumen in wood acts
on substances like filler and varnish in one way or the other, good
or bad. The seasoning of wood does not dispose of these substances.
The water evaporates, leaving them adhering to the sides of the cells.
The drier these substances are the less action they exert on the
filler or whatever substance is coated on the surface. If the filler
disintegrates, it affects the varnish.

All albuminous substances, be they dry or in liquid form, are subject,
more or less, according to the protein they contain—which seems, or
rather is, the essential principle of all albuminous matter—to the
influence of caustic potash and soda. Thus, the albumen of an egg is
exactly like that contained in the composition of wood. As albumen in
wood becomes solid by drying, it is easily dissolved again, and will
then be acted on chemically by any extraneous substance with which it
comes in contact.

Some of the shellacs, substitutes for shellacs, and some of the liquid
fillers are manufactured from some of the following substances: Old
linseed oil, old varnish, old and hard driers, turpentine, benzine,
often gasoline, rosin, whiting, cornstarch flour, nulls, paint
skins, silica, and so on. The list is long. To these must be added a
large volume of potash, to bring it to and hold it in solution. There
must be an excess of potash which is not combined into a chemical
compound, which if it did, might mitigate its influence on the albumen
of the wood. But as there is potash in its pure state remaining in
the solution it necessarily attacks the albumen of the wood, causing
disintegration, which releases it from the wood, causing white, grayish
flakes, and the formation of a powder. This is not a conclusion drawn
from an inference but an established scientific fact resulting from
experiments with fillers the various compositions of which were known.
All alkalies act on albumen. No one would knowingly varnish over a
surface such as it would be were the white of an egg applied to it and
then washed with an alkali solution; but that is just what is done when
varnish is put over a wood surface filled with a filler which contains
an alkali.

Most of the combinations of material used in the painting trade are
mixtures; that is, each part remains the same—exerting the same
chemical action on another substance, or any other substance coming in
contact with a paint mixture will exert the same chemical action on any
part, or on any ingredient it contains, the same as if that part was by
itself.

We can now account for some of the numerous peculiarities of varnish.
We know that any alkali when coming in contact with albumen forms
a compound, which on drying is a white, brittle substance easily
disintegrated. This is why potash, sal soda, and kindred substances
will remove paint. The alkali attacks the albumen in the oil, softening
it, causing easy removal, whereas if it were allowed to dry, the
albumen in the oil would take on a grayish color quite brittle. Potash
or other alkalies in filler not only attack the albumen in the wood,
but also attack the albumen in the oil by forming a compound with it.
Probably this compound is very slight, only forming a compound in
part, enough, nevertheless, to start a destroying influence, which is
demonstrated by the following results of experiments. The reader has,
perhaps, some time in his career applied a rosin varnish over a potash
filler and has been surprised by the good results, a more permanent
effect being obtained than in other instances where the best of varnish
was used. This is accounted for by the rosin of the potash. Again, the
reader may have had occasion to remove varnish with potash and found
that potash would not touch it. This is because of its being a rosin
varnish. Potash in filler may be rendered somewhat inert, by reason
of its compounding with other parts of the filler, but owing to the
quantity used in some of the commercial fillers it is not possible that
all the alkali is rendered inert. Hence it will attack the albumen
wherever found, as all albumen is identical in its chemical composition.

Alkalies have but little effect on the {775} higher classes of gums,
because of their effect on the albumen in the wood and oil. All
alcohol varnishes or varnishes made by the aid of heat stand well over
an alkali filler. Varnishes which contain little oil seem to stand
well. This is accounted for by the fact that alcohol renders albumen
insoluble. Alkalies of all kinds readily attack shellac and several
other of the cheap gums, forming unstable compounds on which oil has
but little effect.

Close-grained wood contains less albumen and more lignin than
open-grained varieties, and consequently does not take so much filler,
which accounts for the finish invariably lasting longer than the same
kind used on an open-grained wood. Open-grained wood contains more sap
than close grained; consequently there is more albumen to adhere to the
sides of the cells. The more albumen, the more readily it is attacked
by the potash, and the more readily decomposed, or rather destroyed.

Alcohol renders albumen insoluble immediately on application. It
prevents it from compounding with any other substance, or any
other substance compounding with it. Hence, we must conclude that
an application of alcohol to wood before the filler is applied is
valuable, which is proven to be a fact by experiment. Wash one half of
a board with alcohol, then apply the potash filler over all. Again,
wash the portion of the board on which is the filler and apply a
heavy-bodied oil varnish. Expose to sunlight and air the same as a
finished door or the like, and wait for the result. At the end of a few
months a vast difference will be found in the two parts of the surface.
The one on which there is no alcohol will show the ravages of time and
the elements much sooner than the one on which it is.

Wood finishers demand a difference in the composition of fillers,
paste and liquid, for open- and close-grained wood, respectively; but
unfortunately they do not demand a difference between either kind
in themselves, according to the kind of wood. Paste fillers are used
indiscriminately for open-grained wood and liquid for close-grained
wood.

To find the fillers best adapted for a certain wood, and to classify
them in this respect will require a large amount of chemical work and
practical experiments; but that it should be done is evidenced by the
fact that both success and failure result from the use of the same
filler on different varieties of wood. After once being classified
(owing to the large number now on the market), they will not number
nearly so many in the aggregate as might be supposed; as it will be
found in many instances that two entirely different varieties of wood
resemble each other more closely in their vascular formation and cell
characteristics than do two other specimens of the same variety. It is
a recognized fact that paste fillers whose base is starch or the like
work better and give better results in certain instances, while those
whose base is mineral matter seem to do better in other cases.

It is noticed that rosewood as a finishing veneer is obsolete.
This is not because of its scarcity, but because it is so hard to
finish without having been seasoned for a long time. In these days,
manufacturers cannot wait. It takes longer for the sap of rosewood
to become inactive, or in trade parlance to “die,” than any other
wood. This is because it takes so long for the albumen in the sap
to coagulate. Rosewood has always been a source of trouble to piano
makers, on account of the action of the sap on the varnish. However,
if this wood, previously to filling, was washed with a weak solution
of phosphoric acid, and then with wood spirit, it might be more easily
finished. The phosphoric acid would coagulate the albumen on the
surface of the wood immediately, while alcohol would reduce it to an
insoluble state. The idea here is to destroy the activity of the sap,
on the same principle as sappy places and knot sap are destroyed by
alcohol-shellac before being painted.

Oak is another wood which gives the painter trouble to finish. This may
be accounted for as follows: Oak contains a sour acid principle called
tannic acid. It is a very active property. Wood during the growing
season contains more albumen; thus in the circulation of the sap a
large quantity of soft matter is deposited on the lignin which lines
the cells, which lignin, if it contains any acid matter, acts on the
material of the filler. Tannic acid has a deleterious effect on some
of the material of which a number of fillers are made. Starch and many
gums are susceptible to its influence, making some of them quite soft.
Oak, like most other timber cut at the season when the least sap is in
circulation, is the more easily finished.

The vascular formation may, and no doubt has, something to do with
wood finishing. Different species of wood differ materially in their
vascular and cellular formation. Wood finishers recognize a difference
in treatment of French burl walnut and the common American {776}
variety. Circassian and Italian walnut, although of the same species,
demand widely different treatment in finishing to get the best results.

The only way to find the best materials to use in certain cases is to
study and experiment with that end in view. If, by aid of a microscope,
a certain piece of wood shows the same cellular formation that another
piece did which was successfully finished by a certain process, it may
be regarded as safe to treat both alike. If observation on this line is
indulged in, it will not take the finisher very long to learn just what
treatment is best for the work in hand. How often it has been noticed
in something of two parts, like a door, that the panels when finished
will pit, run, or sag, while the sides will present a surface in every
way desirable and _vice versa_. This is due to the difference in the
cellular construction of the wood and to the cellulose, and cannot be
otherwise for the parts have been seasoned the same time and treated
exactly alike. The physiology of wood is imperfectly understood,
but enough is known to warrant us in saying with a certainty that
the chemicals in fillers do act upon the principles embodied in its
formation.

       *       *       *       *       *

Some tried formulas follow:

I.—Make a paste to fill the cracks as follows: Old furniture polish:
Whiting, plaster of Paris, pumice stone, litharge, equal parts, Japan
drier, boiled linseed oil, turpentine, coloring matter, of each a
sufficient quantity.

Rub the solids intimately with a mixture of 1 part of the Japan, 2
parts of the linseed oil, and 3 parts of turpentine, coloring to suit
with vandyke brown or sienna. Lay the filling on with a brush, let it
set for about 20 minutes, and then rub off clean except where it is to
remain. In 2 days it will be hard enough to polish. After the surface
has been thus prepared, the application of a coat of first-class copal
varnish is in order. It is recommended that the varnish be applied in a
moderately warm room, as it is injured by becoming chilled in drying.
To get the best results in varnishing, some skill and experience are
required. The varnish must be kept in an evenly warm temperature, and
put on neither too plentifully nor too gingerly. After a satisfactorily
smooth and regular surface has been obtained, the polishing proper may
be done. This may be accomplished by manual labor and dexterity, or by
the application of a very thin, even coat of a very fine, transparent
varnish.

If the hand-polishing method be preferred, it may be pursued by rubbing
briskly and thoroughly with the following finishing polish:

 Alcohol            8 ounces
 Shellac            2 drachms
 Gum benzoin        2 drachms
 Best poppy oil     2 drachms

Dissolve the shellac and gum in the alcohol in a warm place, with
frequent agitation, and, when cold, add the poppy oil. This may be
applied on the end of a cylindrical rubber made by tightly rolling a
piece of flannel, which has been torn, not cut, into strips 4 to 6
inches wide. It should be borne in mind that the surface of the cabinet
work of a piano is generally veneered, and this being so, necessitates
the exercise of much skill and caution in polishing.

II.—Prepare a paste from fine starch flour and a thick solution of
brown shellac, with the spatula upon a grinding stone, and rub the
wooden object with this. After the drying, rub off with sandpaper and
polish lightly with a rag moistened with a thin shellac solution and a
few drops of oil. The ground thus prepared varnish once or twice and a
fine luster will be obtained. This method is well adapted for any wood
with large pores, such as oak.


«Removal of Heat Stains from Polished Wood.»—Fold a sheet of blotting
paper a couple of times (making 4 thicknesses of the paper), cover the
place with it, and put a hot smoothing iron thereon. Have ready at hand
some bits of flannel, also folded and made quite hot. As soon as the
iron has made the surface of the wood quite warm, remove the paper,
etc., and go over the spot with a piece of paraffine, rubbing it hard
enough to leave a coating of the substance. Now with one of the hot
pieces of flannel rub the injured surface. Continue the rubbing, using
freshly warmed cloths until the whiteness leaves the varnish or polish.
The operation may have to be repeated.


«PRESERVATION OF WOOD.»

I.—An excellent way of preserving wood is to cut it between August
and October. The branches are removed, leaving only the leaves at the
top. The trunks, carefully cut or sawn (so that their pores remain
open), are immediately placed upright, with the lower part immersed in
tanks three-quarters filled with water, into which 3 or 4 kilograms of
powdered cupric sulphate per hectoliter have been introduced. The mass
of {777} leaves left at the extremity of each trunk is sufficient to
cause the ascent of the liquid by means of the capillary force and a
reserve of energy in the sap.

II.—Wood which can be well preserved may be obtained by making a
circular incision in the bark of the trees a certain time before
cutting them down. The woodcutters employed in the immense teak forests
of Siam have adopted in an empirical way a similar process, which has
been productive of good results. The tree is bled, making around the
trunk, at the height of 4 feet above ground, a circular incision 8
inches wide and 4 inches deep, at the time when it is in bloom and the
sap rising. Sometimes the tree is left standing for 3 years after this
operation. Frequently, also, a deep incision reaching the heart is made
on two opposite sides, and then it takes sometimes only 6 months to
extract the sap.

It is probable that it is partly in consequence of this method that the
teakwood acquires its exceptional resistance to various destructive
agents.

III.—A good preservation of piles, stakes, and palisades is obtained
by leaving the wood in a bath of cupric sulphate of 4° of the ordinary
acidimeter for a time which may vary from 8 to 15 days, according to
greater or less dryness of the wood and its size. After they are half
dried they are immersed in a bath of lime water; this forms with the
sulphate an insoluble compound, preventing the rain from dissolving the
sulphate which has penetrated the wood. This process is particularly
useful for vine props and the wood of white poplars.

A good way to prevent the decay of stakes would be to plant them upside
down; that is, to bury the upper extremity of the branch in the ground.
In this way, the capillary tubes do not so easily absorb the moisture
which is the cause of decay. It frequently happens that for one or
another reason, the impregnation of woods designed to be planted in
the ground, such as masts, posts, and supports has been neglected. It
would be impracticable, after they are placed, to take up these pieces
in order to coat them with carbolineum or tar, especially if they are
fixed in a wall, masonry, or other structure. Recourse must be had to
other means. Near the point where the piece rises from the ground,
a hole about one centimeter in width is made in a downward slanting
direction, filled with carbolineum, and closed with a wooden plug.

It depends upon the consistency of the wood whether the liquid will
be absorbed in 1 or 2 days. The hole is filled again for a week. The
carbolineum replaces by degrees the water contained in the wood. When
it is well impregnated, the hole is definitely closed with a plug
of wood, which is sawn level with the opening. The wood will thus
be preserved quite as well as if it had been previously coated with
carbolineum.

IV.—Wooden objects remaining in the open air may be effectually
protected against the inclemency of the weather by means of the
following coating: Finely powdered zinc oxide is worked into a paste
with water and serves for whitewashing walls, garden fences, benches,
and other wooden objects. After drying, probably at the end of 2 or
3 hours, the objects must be whitewashed again with a very dilute
solution of zinc chloride in glue or water. Zinc oxide and zinc
chloride form a brilliant, solid compound, which resists the inclemency
of the weather.

As a paint for boards, planks for covering greenhouses, garden-frames,
etc., Inspector Lucas, of Reutlingen (Würtemberg), has recommended the
following coating: Take fresh cement of the best quality, which has
been kept in a cool place, work it up with milk on a stone until it is
of the consistency of oil paint. The wood designed to receive it must
not be smooth, but left rough after sawing. Two or 3 coats are also a
protection from fire. Wood to be thus treated must be very dry.

V.—Wood treated with creosote resists the attacks of marine animals,
such as the teredo. Elm, beech, and fir absorb creosote very readily,
provided the wood is sound and dry. Beechwood absorbs it the best. In
fir the penetration is complete, when the wood is of a species of rapid
growth, and of rather compact grain. Besides, with the aid of pressure
it is always possible to force the creosote into the wood. Pieces of
wood treated with creosote have resisted for 10 or 11 years under
conditions in which oak wood not treated in this way would have been
completely destroyed.

The prepared wood must remain in store at least 6 months before use.
The creosote becomes denser during this time and causes a greater
cohesion in the fibers. In certain woods, as pitch pine, the injection
is impossible, even under pressure, on account of the presence of rosin
in the capillary vessels.

VI.—M. Zironi advises heating the wood {778} _in vacuo_. The sap
is eliminated in this way. Then the receiver is filled with rosin
in solution with a hydrocarbide. The saturation takes place in two
hours, when the liquid is allowed to run off, and a jet of vapor is
introduced, which carries off the solvent, whole the rosin remains in
the pores of the wood, increasing its weight considerably.

VII.—Wood can be well preserved by impregnating it with a solution of
tannate of ferric protoxide. This method is due to Hazfeld.

VIII.—The Hasselmann process (xylolized wood), which consists in
immersing the wood in a saline solution kept boiling under moderate
pressure, the liquid containing copper and iron sulphates (20 per cent
of the first and 80 per cent of the second), as well as aluminum and
kainit, a substance until recently used only as a fertilizer, is now
much employed on the railways in Germany.

IX.—Recently the discovery has been made that wood may be preserved
with dissolved betuline, a vegetable product of the consistency of
paste, called also birchwood rosin. Betuline must first be dissolved.
It is procurable in the crude state at a low price. The wood is
immersed for about 12 hours in the solution, at a temperature of from
57° to 60° F.

After the first bath the wood is plunged into a second, formed of
a solution of pectic acid of 40° to 45° Bé., and with a certain
percentage of an alkaline carbonate—for instance, potassium carbonate
of commerce—in the proportion of 1 part of carbonate to about 4 parts
of the solution. The wood remains immersed in this composition for
12 hours; then it is taken out and drained from 8 to 15 hours, the
time varying according to the nature of the wood and the temperature.
In consequence of this second bath, the betulin which was introduced
through the first immersion, is fixed in the interior of the mass. If
it is desirable to make the wood more durable and to give it special
qualities of density, hardness, and elasticity, it must be submitted
to strong pressure. In thus supplementing the chemical with mechanical
treatment, the best results are obtained.

X.—A receiver of any form or dimensions is filled with a fluid
whose boiling point is above 212° F., such as heavy tar oil, saline
solutions, etc. This is kept at an intermediate temperature varying
between 212° F. and the boiling point; the latter will not be reached,
but if into this liquid a piece of wood is plunged, an agitation
analogous to boiling is manifested, produced by the water and sap
contained in the pores of the wood. These, under the action of a
temperature above 212° F., are dissolved into vapor and traverse the
bath.

If the wood is left immersed and a constant temperature maintained
until every trace of agitation has disappeared, the water in the
pores of the wood will be expelled, with the exception of a slight
quantity, which, being in the form of vapor, represents only the
seventeen-hundredth part of the original weight of the water contained;
the air which was present in the pores having been likewise expelled.

If the liquid is left to cool, this vapor is condensed, forming a
vacuum, which is immediately filled under the action of the atmospheric
pressure. In this way the wood is completely saturated by the contents
of the bath, whatever may be its form, proportions or condensation.

To attain the desired effect it is not necessary to employ heavy oils.
The latter have, however, the advantage of leaving on the surface of
the prepared pieces a kind of varnish, which contributes to protect
them against mold, worms, moisture, and dry rot. The same phenomenon
of penetration is produced when, without letting the wood grow cold in
the bath, it is taken out and plunged immediately into a cold bath of
the same or of a different fluid. This point is important, because it
is possible to employ as fluids to be absorbed matters having a boiling
point below 212° F., and differing in this respect from the first bath,
which must be composed of a liquid having a boiling point above 212° F.

If, instead of a cold bath of a homogeneous nature, two liquids of
different density separated in two layers, are employed, the wood can,
with necessary precautions, be immersed successively in them, so
that it can be penetrated with given quantities of each. Such liquids
are heavy tar oil and a solution of zinc chloride of 2° to 4° Bé. The
first, which is denser, remains at the bottom of the vessel, and the
second above. If the wood is first immersed in a saline solution, it
penetrates deep into the pores, and when finally the heavy oil is
absorbed, the latter forms a superficial layer, which prevents the
washing out of the saline solution in the interior, as well as the
penetration of moisture from the outside. {779}

XI.—Numerous experiments have been made with all kinds of wood, even
with hard oak. In the preparation of oak railway ties it was discovered
that pieces subjected to a temperature of 212° F. in a bath of heavy
tar oil for 4 hours lost from 6 to 7 per cent of their weight,
represented by water and albuminous substances, and that they absorbed
in heavy oil and zinc chloride enough to represent an increase of from
2 to 3 per cent on their natural original weight. The oak wood in
question had been cut for more than a year and was of a density of 1.04
to 1.07.

This system offers the advantage of allowing the absorption of
antiseptic liquids without any deformation of the constituent elements
of the wood, the more as the operation is performed altogether in open
vessels. Another advantage is the greater resistance of the wood to
warping and bending, and to the extraction of metallic pieces, such as
nails, cramp irons, etc.

XII.—In the Kyanizing process seasoned timber is soaked in a solution
of bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) which coagulates the
albumen. The solution is very poisonous and corrodes iron and steel,
hence is unsuited for structural purposes in which metallic fastenings
are used. The process is effective, but dangerous to the health of the
workers employed.

XIII.—The Wellhouse process also uses zinc chloride, but adds a
small percentage of glue. After the timber has been treated under
pressure the zinc chloride solution is drawn off and one of tannin is
substituted. The tannin combines with the glue and forms an insoluble
substance that effectually seals the pores.

XIV.—The Allardyce process makes use of zinc chloride and dead oil of
tar, the latter being applied last, and the manner of application being
essentially the same for both as explained in the other processes.

XV.—The timber is boiled in a solution of copper, iron, and aluminum
sulphate, to which a small quantity of kainit is added.

XVI.—In the creo-rosinate process the timber is first subjected to a
steaming process at 200° F. to evaporate the moisture in the cells;
the temperature is then gradually increased to 320° F. and a pressure
of 80 pounds per square inch. The pressure is slowly reduced to 26
inches vacuum, and then a solution of dead oil of tar, melted rosin,
and formaldehyde is injected. After this process the timber is placed
in another cylinder where a solution of milk of lime is applied at a
temperature of 150° F. and a pressure of 200 pounds per square inch.

XVII.—The vulcanizing process of treating timber consists essentially
in subjecting it to a baking process in hot air which is heated to a
temperature of about 500° F. by passing over steam coils. The heat
coagulates the albumen, expels the water from the cells, kills the
organisms therein, and seals the cells by transforming the sap into a
preservative compound. This method is used with success by the elevated
railway systems of several cities.

XVIII.—A durable coating for wood is obtained by extracting petroleum
asphalt, with light petroleum, benzine, or gasoline. For this purpose
the asphalt, coarsely powdered, is digested for 1 to 2 days with
benzine in well-closed vessels, at a moderately warm spot. Petroleum
asphalt results when the distillation of petroleum continued until a
glossy, firm, pulverizable mass of conchoidal fracture and resembling
colophony in consistency remains. The benzine dissolves from this
asphalt only a yellowish-brown dyestuff, which deeply enters the wood
and protects it from the action of the weather, worms, dry rot, etc.
The paint is not opaque, hence the wood retains its natural fiber. It
is very pleasant to look at, because the wood treated with it keeps
its natural appearance. The wood can be washed off with soap, and is
especially suited for country and summer houses.

XIX.—A liquid to preserve wood from mold and dry rot which destroys the
albuminous matter of the wood and the organisms which feed on it, so
there are neither germs nor food for them if there were any, is sold
under the name of carbolineum. The specific gravity of a carbolineum
should exceed 1.105, and should give the wood a fine brown color. It
should, too, be perfectly waterproof. The three following recipes can
be absolutely relied on: _a._ Heat together and mix thoroughly 95
pounds of coal-tar oil and 5 pounds of asphalt from coal tar. _b._
Amalgamate together 30 pounds of heavy coal-tar oil, 60 pounds of crude
wood-tar oil, and 25 pounds of heavy rosin oil. _c._ Mix thoroughly 3
pounds of asphalt, 25 pounds of heavy coal-tar oil, and 40 pounds of
heavy rosin oil.

XX.—Often the wooden portions of machines are so damaged by dampness
prevailing in the shops that the {780} following compound will be found
useful for their protection: Melt 375 parts of colophony in an iron
vessel, and add 10,000 parts of tar, and 500 parts of sulphur. Color
with brown ocher or any other coloring matter diluted with linseed oil.
Make a first light application of this mixture while warm, and after
drying apply a second coat.

XXI.—For enameling vats, etc., 1,000 parts of brown shellac and 125
parts of colophony are melted in a spacious kettle. After the mass has
cooled somewhat, but is still thinly liquid, 6.1 parts of alcohol (90
per cent) is gradually added. In order to prevent the ignition of the
spirit vapor, the admixture of spirit is made at a distance from the
stove. By this addition the shellac swells up into a semi-liquid mass,
and a larger amount of enamel is obtained than by dissolving it cold.
The enamel may be used for wood or iron.

The wood must be well dried; only then will the enamel penetrate into
the pores. Two or three coats suffice to close up the pores of the wood
thoroughly and to render the surface smooth and glossy. Each coating
will harden perfectly in several hours. The covering endures a heat
of 140° to 150° F. without injury. This glaze can also be mixed with
earth colors. Drying quickly and being tasteless, its applications
are manifold. Mixed with ocher, for instance, it gives an elegant and
durable floor varnish, which may safely be washed off with weak soda
solution. If it is not essential that the objects be provided with
a smooth and glossy coating, only a preservation being aimed at the
following coat is recommended by the same source: Thin, soluble glass
(water glass) as it is found in commerce, with about 24 per cent of
water, and paint the dry vessel rather hot with this solution. When
this has been absorbed, repeat the application, allow to dry, and coat
with a solution of about 1 part of sodium bicarbonate in 8 parts of
water. In this coating silicic acid is separated by the carbonic acid
of the bicarbonate; from the water glass (sodium silicate) absorbed
by the pores of the wood, which, as it were, silicifies the wooden
surfaces, rendering them resistive against the penetration of liquids.
The advantages claimed for both processes are increased durability and
facilitated cleaning.

XXII.—Tar paints, called also mineral or metallic paints, are sold in
barrels or boxes, at varying prices. Some dealers color them—yellow
ocher, red ocher, brown, gray, etc. They are prepared by mixing equal
parts of coal tar and oil of turpentine or mineral essence (gasoline).
The product, if it is not colored artificially, is of a brilliant
black, even when cold. It dries in a few hours, especially when
prepared with oil of turpentine. The paints with mineral essence are,
however, generally preferred, on account of their lower cost. Either
should be spread on with a hard brush, in coats as thin as possible.
They penetrate soft woods, and even semi-hard woods sufficiently deep,
and preserve them completely. They adhere perfectly to metals. Their
employment can, therefore, be confidently advised, so far as concerns
the preservation directly of iron cables, reservoirs, the interior
surface of generators, etc. However, it has been shown that atmospheric
influence or variations of temperature cause the formation of
ammoniacal solutions, which corrode the metals. Several companies for
the care and insurance of steam engines have for some time recommended
the abandonment of tar products for applications of this kind and the
substitution of hot linseed oil.

XXIII.—Coal-tar paints are prepared according to various formulas. One
in current use has coal tar for a base, with the addition of gum rosin.
It is very black. Two thin coats give a fine brilliancy. It is employed
on metals, iron, sheet iron, etc., as well as on wood. It dries much
quicker than the tars used separately. Its preserving influence against
rust is very strong.

The following Tissandier formula has afforded excellent results. Its
facility of preparation and its low cost are among its advantages. Mix
10 parts of coal tar, 1 to 1.6 parts of slaked lime, 4,000 parts of oil
of turpentine, and 400 parts of strong vinegar, in which 1⁠/⁠5 part
of cupric sulphate has been previously boiled. The addition of 2 or 3
cloves of garlic in the solution of cupric sulphate aids in producing
a varnish, brilliant as well as permanent. The compound can be colored
like ordinary paints.

XXIV.—Rectified rosinous oil for painting must not be confounded with
oils used in the preparation of lubricants for metallic surfaces
exposed to friction. It contains a certain quantity of rosin in
solution, which, on drying, fills the pores of the wood completely, and
prevents decomposition from the action of various saprophytic fungi.
It is well adapted to the preservation of pieces to be buried in the
ground or exposed to the inclemency {781} of the weather. Paints can
also be prepared with it by the addition of coloring powders, yellow,
brown, red, green, blue, etc., in the proportion of 1 kilo to 5 liters
of oil. The addition ought to take place slowly, while shaking, in
order to obtain quite a homogeneous mixture. Paints of this kind are
economical, in consequence of the low price of rosin, but they cannot
be used in the interior of dwellings by reason of the strong and
disagreeable odor disengaged, even a long time after their application.
As an offset, they can be used like tar and carbonyl, for stalls,
stables, etc.


«To Prevent Warping.»—Immerse the wood to be worked upon in a
concentrated solution of sea salt for a week or so. The wood thus
prepared, after having been worked upon, will resist all changes of
temperature.


«STAINS FOR WOOD.»

In the staining of wood it is not enough to know merely how to prepare
and how to apply the various staining solutions; a rational exercise of
the art of wood staining demands rather a certain acquaintance with the
varieties of wood to be operated upon, a knowledge of their separate
relations to the individual stains themselves; for with one and the
same stain very different effects are obtained when applied to the
varying species of wood.

Such a diversity of effects arises from the varying chemical
composition of wood. No unimportant rôle is played by the presence in
greater or lesser quantities of tannin, which acts chemically upon
many of the stains and forms with them various colored varnishes in
the fibers. Two examples will suffice to make this clear. (1) Let us
take pine or fir, in which but little of the tanning principle is
found, and stain it with a solution of 50 parts of potassium chromate
in 1,000 parts of pure water; the result will be a plain pale yellow
color, corresponding with the potassium chromate, which is not fast
and as a consequence is of no value. If, with the same solution, on
the contrary, we stain oak, in which the tanning principle is very
abundant, we obtain a beautiful yellowish-brown color which is capable
of withstanding the effects of both light and air for some time; for
the tannin of the oak combines with the penetrating potassium chromate
to form a brown dyestuff which deposits in the woody cells. A similar
procedure occurs in the staining of mahogany and walnut with the
chromate because these varieties of wood are very rich in tannin.

(2) Take some of the same pine or fir and stain it with a solution of
20 parts of sulphate of iron in 1,000 parts of water and there will be
no perceptible color. Apply this stain, however, to the oak and we get
a beautiful light gray, and if the stain be painted with a brush on the
smoother oaken board, in a short time a strong bluish-gray tint will
appear. This effect of the stain is the result of the combination of
the green vitriol with the tannin; the more tannin present, the darker
the stain becomes. The hardness or density of the wood, too, exerts
a marked influence upon the resulting stain. In a soft wood, having
large pores, the stain not only sinks further in, but much more of
it is required than in a hard dense wood; hence in the first place a
stronger, greasier stain will be obtained with the same solution than
in the latter.

From this we learn that in soft woods it is more advisable to use a
thinner stain to arrive at a certain tone; while the solution may be
made thicker or stronger for hard woods.

The same formula or the same staining solution cannot be relied upon
to give the same results at all times even when applied to the same
kinds of wood. A greater or lesser amount of rosin or sap in the wood
at the time the tree is felled, will offer more or less resistance to
the permeating tendencies of the stain, so that the color may be at one
time much lighter, at another darker. Much after the same manner we
find that the amount of the tanning principle is not always equal in
the same species of wood.

Here much depends upon the age of the tree as well as upon the
climatic conditions surrounding the place where it grew. Moreover,
the fundamental color of the wood itself may vary greatly in examples
of the same species and thus, particularly in light, delicate shades,
cause an important delay in the realization of the final color tone.
Because of this diversification, not only in the different species
of wood, but even in separate specimens of the same species, it is
almost impossible always, and at the first attempt, to match a certain
predetermined color.

It is desirable that trials at staining should first be made upon
pieces of board from the same wood as the object to be stained; the
results of such experiments furnishing exact data concerning the
strength and composition of the stain to be employed for the exact
reproduction of a prescribed color. {782} Many cases occur in which the
color tone obtained by staining cannot always be judged directly after
applying the stain. Especially is this the case when stain is employed
which slowly develops under the action of the air or when the dyestuff
penetrates only slowly into the pores of the wood. In such cases the
effect of the staining may only be fully and completely appreciated
after the lapse of 24 or 48 hours.

Wood that has been stained should always be allowed 24 or 48 hours to
dry in ordinary temperatures, before a coat of varnish, polish, or wax
is applied. If any dampness be left in the wood this will make itself
apparent upon the varnish or polish. It will become dull, lose its
glossy appearance, and exhibit white spots which can only be removed
with difficulty. If a certain effect demand the application of two or
more stains one upon the other, this may only be done by affording each
distinct coat time to dry, which requires at least 24 hours.

Not all the dyes, which are applicable to wood staining, can be
profitably used together, either when separately applied or mixed. This
injunction is to be carefully noted in the application of coal tar or
aniline colors.

Among the aniline dyes suitable for staining woods are two groups—the
so-called acid dyes and the basic dyes. If a solution of an acid dye be
mixed with a basic dye the effect of their antagonistic dispositions is
shown in the clouding up of the stain, a fine precipitate is visible
and often a rosin-like separation is noticeable.

It is needless to say that such a staining solution is useless for
any practical purpose. It cannot penetrate the wood fibers and would
present but an unseemly and for the most part a flaky appearance.
In preparing the stains it is therefore of the greatest importance
that they remain lastingly clear. It would be considerably of
advantage, before mixing aniline solutions of which the acid or basic
characteristics are unknown, to make a test on a small scale in a
champagne glass and after standing a short time carefully examine the
solution. If it has become cloudy or wanting in transparency it is a
sign that a separation of the coloring matter has taken place.

The mixing of acid or basic dyestuffs even in dry powdered form is
attended with the same disadvantages as in the state of solubility, for
just as soon as they are dissolved in water the reactions commence and
the natural process of precipitation takes place with all its attending
disagreeable consequences.


«COLOR STAINS:»


«Bronze.»—I.—Prepare first a thin glue size by soaking good animal glue
over night in cold water and melting it next morning in the usual water
bath. Strain it, before using, through old linen or cheese cloth into a
clean vessel. Sandpaper smooth and dust the articles, then apply with a
soft bristle brush 2 or 3 coats of the size, allowing sufficient time
for each coat to harden before applying the next. Now, a ground coat
made by thoroughly mixing finely bolted gilders’ whiting and glue size
is applied, and when this has become hard it is rubbed to a smooth,
even surface with selected fine pumice, and then given 1 coat of thin
copal varnish. When this is nearly but not quite dry, the bronze powder
is applied with a suitable brush or wad of cotton, and when dry the
surplus bronze is removed with the same tool. If collected on clean
paper, the dusted-off bronze powder may be used again.

II.—Diluted water-glass solution makes a good ground for bronze. Bronze
powder is sprinkled on from a wide-necked glass tied up with gauze, and
the excess removed by gently knocking. The bronze powder adheres so
firmly after drying that a polish may be put on by means of an agate.
The process is especially useful for repairing worn-off picture frames,
book ornamentations, etc. The following bronze ground also yields good
results: Boil 11,000 parts of linseed oil with 25 parts of impure zinc
carbonate, 100 parts of red lead, 25 parts of litharge, and 0.3 parts
of mercuric chloride, until a drop taken out will stand like a pea upon
a glass surface. Before complete cooling, the mass is diluted with oil
of turpentine to a thick syrup.


«Ebony Stains.»—I.—To 1 pint of boiling water add 3⁠/⁠4 ounce of
copperas and 1 ounce logwood chips. Apply this to the wood hot. When
the surface has dried thoroughly wet it with a solution composed of 7
ounces steel filings dissolved in 1⁠/⁠4 pint of vinegar.

II.—Give the wood several applications of a stout decoction of logwood
chips, finishing off with a free smear of vinegar in which rusty nails
have been for some time submerged.

III.—In 1 quart of water boil 1⁠/⁠4 pound of logwood chips,
subsequently adding 1⁠/⁠2 ounce pearl ash, applying the mixture {783}
hot. Then again boil the same quantity of logwood in the same quantity
of water, adding 1⁠/⁠4 ounce of verdigris and 1⁠/⁠4 ounce of copperas,
after which strain and put in 1⁠/⁠4 pound of rusty steel filings.
With this latter mixture coat the work, and, should the wood not be
sufficiently black, repeat the application.


«Metallic Luster.»—A valuable process to impart the luster of metal to
ordinary wood, without injuring its natural qualities, is as follows:
The wood is laid, according to its weight, for 3 or 4 days in a caustic
alkaline solution, such as, for instance, of calcined soda, at a
temperature of 170° F. Then it is at once placed in a bath of calcium
hydrosulphite, to which, after 24 to 36 hours, a saturated solution
of sulphur in caustic potash is added. In this mixture the wood is
left for 48 hours at 100° to 120° F. The wood thus prepared, after
having been dried at a moderate temperature, is polished by means of
a smoothing iron, and the surface assumes a very handsome metallic
luster. The effect of this metallic gloss is still more pleasing
if the wood is rubbed with a piece of lead, zinc, or tin. If it is
subsequently polished with a burnisher of glass or porcelain, the wood
gains the brilliancy of a metallic mirror.


«Nutwood.»—One part permanganate of potassium is dissolved in 30 parts
clear water; with this the wood to be stained is coated twice. After an
action of 5 minutes, rinse off with water, dry, oil, and polish. It is
best to prepare a fresh solution each time.


«Oak.»—I.—Water-color stains do not penetrate deep enough into wood
to make the effect strong enough, hence solutions of other material
than color are being employed for the purpose. Aqua ammonia alone,
applied with a rag or brush repeatedly, will darken the color of oak
to a weathered effect, but it is not very desirable, because of its
tendency to raise the grain. Bichromate of potash, dissolved in cold
water, applied in a like manner, until the desired depth is obtained,
will serve the purpose. These washes or solutions, however, do not give
the dark, almost black, effect that is at the present time expected for
weathered oak, and in order to produce this, 4 ounces of logwood chips
and 3 ounces of green copperas should be boiled together in 2 quarts of
water for 40 minutes and the solution applied hot. When this has dried
it should be gone over with a wash made from 4 ounces steel filings and
1 pint of strong vinegar. The steel filings are previously put into
the vinegar and allowed to stand for several days. This will penetrate
into the wood deeply, and the stain will be permanent. Picture-frame
manufacturers use a quick-drying stain, made from aniline blacks.

II.—Dissolve 1⁠/⁠4 part of permanganate of potassium in 1,000 parts
of cold water and paint the wood with the violet solution obtained.
As soon as the solution comes in contact with the wood it decomposes
in consequence of chemical action, and a handsome light-brown
precipitate is produced in the wood. The brushes used must be washed
out immediately, as the permanganate of potassium destroys animal
bristles, but it is preferable to use sponges or brushes of glass
threads for staining. Boil 2 parts of cutch in 6 parts of water for 1
hour, stir while boiling, so that the rosiniferous catechu cannot burn
on the bottom of the vessel; strain the liquid as soon as the cutch
is dissolved, through linen, and bring again to a boil. Now dissolve
therein 1⁠/⁠5 part of alum, free from iron; apply the stain while hot,
and cover after the drying, with a solution of 1 part of bichromate of
potassium in 25 parts of water.


«Rosewood.»—First procure 1⁠/⁠2 pound logwood, boiling it in 3 pints
water. Continue the boiling until the liquid assumes a very dark color,
at which point add 1 ounce salt of tartar. When at the boiling point
stain your wood with 2 or 3 coats, but not in quick succession, as the
latest coat must be nearly dry before the succeeding one is applied.
The use of a fiat graining brush, deftly handled, will produce a very
excellent imitation of dark rosewood.


«Silver Gray.»—This stain is prepared by dissolving 1 part of
pyrogallic acid in 25 parts of warm water and the wood is coated with
this. Allow this coating to dry and prepare, meanwhile, a solution of
2 parts of green vitriol in 50 parts of boiling water, with which the
first coating is covered again to obtain the silver-gray shade.


«Walnut.»—I.—Prepare a solution of 6 ounces of a solution of
permanganate of potassium, and 6 ounces of sulphate of magnesia in
2 quarts of hot water. The solution is applied on the wood with a
brush and the application should be repeated once. In contact with
the wood the permanganate decomposes, and a handsome, lasting walnut
color results. If small pieces of wood are to be thus stained, a very
dilute bath is prepared {784} according to the above description, then
the wooden pieces are immersed and left therein from 1 to 5 minutes,
according to whether a lighter or darker coloring is desired.

II.—One hundredweight Vandyke brown, ground fine in water, and 28
pounds of soda, dissolved in hot water, are mixed while the solutions
are hot in a revolving mixer. The mixture is then dried in sheet-iron
trays.


«Yellow.»—The wood is coated with a hot concentrated solution of picric
acid, dried, and polished. (Picric acid is poisonous.)


«IMITATION STAINS.»

Yellow, green, blue, or gray staining on wood can be easily imitated
with a little glazing color in oil or vinegar, which will prove better
and more permanent than the staining. If the pores of the wood are
opened by a lye or a salt, almost any diluted color can be worked into
it. With most stains the surface is thus prepared previously.


«Light-Fast Stains.»—Stains fast to light are obtained by saturating
wood in a vacuum chamber, first with dilute sulphuric acid, then with
dilute alkali to neutralize the acid, and finally with a solution
with or without the addition of a mordant. The action of the acid is
to increase the affinity of the wood for dye very materially. As wood
consists largely of cellulose, mercerization, which always increases
the affinity of that substance for dyes, may be caused to some extent
by the acid.


«SPIRIT STAINS:»


«Black.»—

 I.—White shellac          12 ounces
     Vegetable black         6 ounces
     Methylated spirit       3 pints

 II.—Lampblack              1 pound
      Ground iron scale      5 pounds
      Vinegar                1 gallon


«Mahogany Brown.»—Put into a vessel, say 4 pounds of bichromate of
potash, and as many ounces of burnt umber, let it stand a day or two,
then strain or lawn for use.


«Vandyke Brown.»—

 Spirit of wine           2 pints
 Burnt umber              3 ounces
 Vandyke brown color      1 ounce
 Carbonate of soda        1 ounce
 Potash                 1⁠/⁠2 ounce


«Mahogany.»—Rub the wood with a solution of nitrous acid, and then
apply with a brush the following:

 I.—Dragon’s blood        1 ounce
     Sodium carbonate      6 drachms
     Alcohol              20 ounces

Filter just before use.

II.—Rub the wood with a solution of potassium carbonate, 1 drachm to a
pint of water, and then apply a dye made by boiling together:

 Madder               2 ounces
 Logwood chips      1⁠/⁠2 ounce
 Water                1 quart


«Maple.»—

 I.—Pale button lac        3 pounds
     Bismarck brown       1⁠/⁠8 ounce
     Vandyke brown        1⁠/⁠2 ounce
     Gamboge                4 ounces
     Methylated spirit      1 gallon

II.—Use 1 gallon of methylated spirit, 4 ounces gamboge (powdered),
1⁠/⁠2 ounce Vandyke brown, 1 drachm Bismarck brown, 3 pounds shellac.


«Maroon.»—To produce a rich maroon or ruby, steep red Janders wood in
rectified naphtha and stir into the solution a little cochineal; strain
or lawn for use.


«Turpentine Stains.»—Turpentine stains are chiefly solutions of
oil-soluble coal-tar dyes in turpentine oil, with small quantities of
wax also in solution. They do not roughen the wood, making a final
polishing unnecessary. They enter the wood slowly, so that an even
stain, especially on large surfaces, is secured. The disadvantages of
turpentine stains are the lack of permanence of the coloring, when
exposed to light and air, and their high price.


«Varnish Stains.»—Shellac is the chief article forming the basis of
varnish stains the coloring matter being usually coal tar or aniline
dyes, as they give better results than dye wood tincture. To prevent
the varnish stain being too brittle, the addition of elemi rosin is a
much better one than common rosin, as the latter retards the drying
quality, and if too much be used, renders the stain sticky.


«Water Stains.»—Water stains are solutions of chemicals, dye extracts,
astringent substances, and coal-tar dyes in water. They roughen the
wood, a disadvantage, however, which can be remedied to a large extent
by previous treatment, as follows: The wood is moistened with a wet
sponge, allowed to dry, {785} and then rubbed with sandpaper, or made
smooth by other agencies. This almost entirely prevents roughening of
the surface by the stain. Another disadvantage of these stains is that
they are rapidly absorbed by the wood, which makes an even staining of
large surfaces difficult. For this too there is a remedy. The surface
of the wood is rubbed all over evenly with raw linseed oil, applied
with a woolen cloth, allowed to dry, and then thoroughly smoothed with
sandpaper. The water stain, applied with a sponge, now spreads evenly,
and is but slightly absorbed by the wood.

Among good water stains are the long-known Cassel brown and nut brown,
in granules. Catechine is recommended for brown shades, with tannin or
pyrogallic acid and green vitriol for gray. For bright-colored stains
the tar-dyes azine green, croceine scarlet, Parisian red, tartrazine,
water-soluble nigrosin, walnut, and oak brown are very suitable. With
proper mixing of these dyes, all colors except blue and violet can
be produced, and prove very fast to light and air, and superior to
turpentine stains. Only the blue and violet dyes, methyl blue, naphthol
blue, and pure violet, do not come up to the standard, and require a
second staining with tannin.

A very simple method of preparing water stains is as follows: Solutions
are made of the dyes most used, by dissolving 500 parts of the dye in
10,000 parts of hot water, and these are kept in bottles or casks.
Any desired stain can be prepared by mixing proper quantities of the
solutions, which can be diluted with water to make lighter stains.


«Stains for Wood Attacked by Alkalies or Acids.»—

 _Solution A_

 Copper sulphate         125 grams
 Potassium chlorate      125 grams
 Water                 1,000 cu. cm.

Boil until all is dissolved.

 _Solution B_

 Aniline hydrochloride       150 grams
 Water                     1,000 cu. cm

Apply Solution A twice by means of a brush, allowing time to dry after
each coat; next, put on Solution B and let dry again. On the day
following, rub on a little oil with a cloth and repeat this once a
month.


«SUBSTITUTES FOR WOOD.»

I.—Acetic paraldehyde or acetic aldehyde respectively, or polymerized
formaldehyde is mixed with methylic alcohol and carbolic acid, as well
as fusel oil saturated with hydrochloric acid gas or sulphuric acid gas
or methylic alcohol, respectively, are added to the mixture. The mass
thus obtained is treated with paraffine. The final product is useful as
a substitute for ebonite and wood as well as for insulating purposes.

II.—“Carton Pierre” is the name of a mass which is used as a substitute
for carved wood. It is prepared in the following manner: Glue is
dissolved and boiled; to this, tissue paper in suitable quantity is
added, which will readily go to pieces. Then linseed oil is added, and
finally chalk is stirred in. The hot mass forms a thick dough which
crumbles in the cold, but softens between the fingers and becomes
kneadable, so that it can be pressed into molds (of glue, gypsum, and
sulphur). After a few days the mass will become dry and almost as hard
as stone. The paper imparts to it a high degree of firmness, and it is
less apt to be injured than wood. It binds well and readily adheres to
wood.

III.—Wood Pulp.—The boards for painters’ utensils are manufactured in
the following manner: The ordinary wood fiber (not the chemical wood
cellulose) is well mixed with soluble glass of 33° Bé., then spread
like cake upon an even surface, and beaten or rolled until smooth.
Before completely dry, the cake is removed, faintly satined (for
various other purposes it is embossed) and finally dried thoroughly
at a temperature of about 133° F., whereupon the mass may be sawed,
carved, polished, etc., like wood.

Any desired wood color can be obtained by the admixture of the
corresponding pulverized pigment to the mass. The wood veining is
produced by placing a board of the species of timber to be imitated, in
vinegar, which causes the soft parts of the wood to deepen, and making
an impression with the original board thus treated upon the wood pulp
when the latter is not quite hard. By means of one of these original
boards (with the veins embossed), impressions can be made upon a large
number of artificial wood plates. The veins will show to a greater
advantage if the artificial wood is subsequently saturated and treated
with colored oil, colored stain and colored polish, as is done with
palettes.

WOOD, ACID-PROOF: See Acid-Proofing.

WOOD CEMENTS: See Adhesives. {786}

WOOD, CHLORINE-PROOFING: See Acid-Proofing.

WOOD, FIREPROOFING: See Fireproofing.

WOOD GILDING: See Plating.

WOOD, IMITATION: See Plaster.

WOOD POLISHES: See Polishes.

WOOD RENOVATORS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods under Paint,
Varnish, and Enamel Removers.

WOOD, SECURING METALS TO: See Adhesives.

WOOD, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

WOOD’S METAL: See Alloys.

WOOL FAT: See Fats.

WORM POWDER FOR STOCK: See Veterinary Formulas.


«WRITING, RESTORING FADED:»

Writing on old manuscripts, parchments, and old letters that has faded
into nearly or complete invisibility can be restored by rubbing over
it a solution of ammonium sulphide, hydrogen sulphide or of “liver
of sulphur.” On parchment the restored color is fairly permanent but
on paper it does not last long. The letters however could be easily
retraced, after such treatment, by the use of India ink and thus made
permanent. This treatment will not restore faded aniline ink. It only
works with ink containing a metal-like iron that forms a black sulphide.

WRINKLES, REMOVAL OF: See Cosmetics.


«Yeast»


«DRY YEAST.»

Boil together for 1⁠/⁠2 hour, 95 parts of the finest, grated hops and
4,000 parts of water. Strain. Add to the warm liquor 1,750 parts of
rye meal or flour. When the temperature has fallen to that of the room
add 167 parts of good yeast. On the following day the mass will be in
a state of fermentation. While it is in this condition add 4,000 parts
of barley flour, so as to form a dough. This dough is cut up into thin
disks, which are dried as rapidly as possible in the open air or sun.
For use, the disks are broken into small pieces and soaked overnight in
warm water. The yeast can be used on the following day as if it were
ordinary brewers’ yeast.


«PRESERVATION OF YEAST.»

I.—The yeast is laid in a vessel of cold water which is thereupon
placed in a well-ventilated, cool spot. In this manner the yeast can be
preserved for several weeks. In order to preserve the yeast for several
months a different process must be followed. The yeast, after having
been pressed, is thoroughly dried. For this purpose the yeast is cut up
into small pieces which are rolled out, placed on blotting paper, and
allowed to dry in a place which is not reached by the sun. These rolls
are then grated, again dried, and finally placed in glass bottles.
For use, the yeast is dissolved, whereupon it immediately regains its
freshness. This process is particularly to be recommended because it
preserves the yeast for a long period.

II.—For liquid yeast add one-eighth of its volume in glycerine. In the
case of compressed yeast, the cakes are to be covered with glycerine
and kept in closed vessels. Another method of preserving compressed
yeast is to mix it intimately with animal charcoal to a dough, which
is to be dried by exposure to sunlight. When it is to be used, it is
treated with water, which will take up the ferment matter, while the
charcoal will be deposited. Liquid and compressed yeast have been kept
for a considerable time, without alteration, by saturating the former
with chloroform and keeping the latter under chloroform water.


«YEAST TESTS.»

I.—Pour a few drops of yeast into boiling water. If the yeast sinks, it
is spoiled; if it floats, it is good.

II.—To 1 pound yeast add 1⁠/⁠2 tablespoonful of corn whisky or brandy,
a pinch of sugar, and 2 tablespoonfuls of wheat flour. Mix thoroughly
and allow the resultant compound to stand in a warm place. If the yeast
is good it will rise in about an hour.

YEAST AND FERTILIZERS: See Fertilizers.

YELLOW (CHROME), TEST FOR: See Pigments. {787}




«INDEX»

 A

 Absinthe, 765

 Absolute Alcohol, 45

 Abrasion Remedy, 225, 486

 Acacia, Mucilage of, 43

 Acid-free Soldering Fluid, 659

 Acid-proof Alloy, 62
   Cement, 26
   Corks, 10
   Glass, 374

 Acid-proofing, 9

 Acid-proof Pastes, 38
   Putty, 607
   Table Top, 9

 Acid Receptacles, Lining for, 10

 Acid-resisting Paint, 499

 Acids, Soldering, 656

 Acid Stains Removed, 184
   Test for Gold, 432
     for Vinegar, 358

 Aconite-Monkshood Poison, 93

 Adhesion, 105
   Belt Pastes for Increasing, 105

 Adhesive Paste, 37, 39

 Adhesives, 10

 Advertising Matter, to Scent, 510

 Adulterants in Foods, 348

 Adulteration of Linseed Oil, 460
   of Wax, 753

 Adurol Developer, 527

 Affixing Labels to Glass, 42

 Agar Agar Paste, 37

 Agate, Buttons of Artificial, 44

 Agate (Imitation), 370

 Age of Eggs, 283

 Aging of Silk, 639

 Agricultural Sources of Industrial Alcohol, 668

 Air Bath, 44
   Bubbles in Gelatine, 370
   Exclusion of, 553

 Air-purifying, 44

 Albata Metal, 63

 Albumen, 34
   in Urine, Detection of, 44
   Paste, 37

 Alcohol, 44
   Absolute, 45
   Defined, 667
   Deodorized, 45, 514
   Dilution of, 45, 703
   in Beer, 45
   Manufacture, 667, 674
   Solid, 45
   Tests for Absolute, 45

 Ale, 46
   Ginger, 107

 Alfenide Metal, 63

 Alkali Blue and Nicholson’s Blue Dye, 267

 Alkalis and Their Salts Poison, 93

 Alkaline Glycerine of Thymol, 100

 Alkaloids, Antidotes to, 102

 Alkermes Cordial, 763

 Alloy, Acid-proof, 62
   for Caliper and Gage-rod Castings, 80
   for Watch Pinion Sockets, 736
   Lipowitz’s, 61
   Moussets’, 76

 Alloys, 47
   Copper, Silver, Cadmium, 76
   for Casting Coins, etc., 62
   for Cementing Glass, 52
   for Drawing Colors on Steel, 80
   for Metal Foil, 474
   for Small Casting Molds, 80
   having a Density, 48
   Silver, Nickel, Zinc, 76
   Tin, 77
   Unclassified, 80

 Almond Blossom Perfumery, 518
   Cold Cream, 235
   Extracts, 312
   Powders for the Toilet, 242

 Altars, to Clean, 185

 Alum, 80
   Baking Powder, 102
   Bath, 535
   Process of Water Purification, 340

 Aluminum Alloys, 48
   Electrical Conductivity of, 50

 Aluminum-brass, 50

 Aluminum Bronze, 56, 657
   Castings, 150

 Aluminum-Copper, 50

 Aluminum Gilding, 576
   Gold, 68
   Etching Fluid for, 324
   How to Color, 80
   Lacquer for, 438
   Paper, 507
   Plating, 572, 581
   Polishes, 590

 Aluminum-Silver, 50, 75

 Aluminum Solders, 657

 Aluminum-Tin, 50

 Aluminum, to Clean, 204
   Toughness, Density and Tenacity, 83

 Aluminum-Tungsten, 50

 Aluminum Varnish, 725
   Working of Sheet, 83

 Aluminum-Zinc, 50

 Amalgam for Cementing Glass, etc., 90
   for Plaster, 65
   for Silvering Glass Balls, 90
   for the Rubber of Electric Machines, 90
   Gold Plating, 576

 Amalgams, 64, 85
   for Mirrors, 72

 Amber, 90
   Cements, 26
   Varnish, 718

 Ambrosia Powder, 628

 American Champagne, 118
   Factory Cheese, 176
   Lemonade, 110
   Soda Fountain Company’s Whipped Cream, 248

 Amethyst (Imitation), 370

 Amidol Developer, 528

 Ammon-carbonite, 331

 Ammonia, 91
   for Fixing Prints, 536
   Household, 91
   Poison, 93
   Violet Color for, 91
   Water, 245, 519
     Perfumed, 91

 Anchovies, Essence of, 98

 Anchovy Paste, 98
   Preparations, 98
   Sauce, Extemporaneous, 98

 Angostura Bitters, 762

 Anise Cordial, 763

 Aniline, 266
   Black Dye, 266, 279
     Substitutes, 279
   Black Lake Dye, 278
   Blue Dye, 268
   Green Dye for Wool, 269
     for Silk, 269
   in Pigments, Tests for, 560
   Scarlet Dye, 271
   Stains, to Remove, 185
   Yellow Dye, 271

 Animals, Fly Protection for, 419

 Ankara, 142

 Annealing Bronze, 56
   Copper, 219

 Annealing of Steel, Wire, etc., 681

 Anodynes, 486

 Ansco Platinum Paper, 529

 Ant Destroyers, 420

 Anti-corrosive or Asiatic Ink, 414

 Antidotes for Belladonna, 93
   for Poisons, 92

 Anti-ferments, 97

 Anti-fouling Compositions, 498

 Anti-freezing Solution, 362, 363
   for Automobilists, 363

 Anti-friction Bearing or Babbitt Metals, 50
   Metal, 58

 Anti-frost Solution, 363

 Anti-leak Rubber Tire, 708

 Antimony Poison, 93
   Baths, 581

 Antique Bronzes, 566
   Silver, 587, 639
     Imitation of, 640

 Antiques, to Preserve, 98

 Anti-rust Compositions, 625
   Paper for Needles, 625
   Pastes, 625

 Antiseptic Bromine Solution, 100
   Enamel, 720
   Nervine Ointment, 487
   Oil of Cinnamon, 100
   Paste (Poison), 99
   Pencils, 99
   Powders, 98
   Soap, 644
   Solution, Coloring for, 100
   Tooth Powder, 253

 Antiseptics, 98
   for Caged Birds, 729
   Mouth, 99

 Aphtite, 70

 Apollinaris Lemonade, 110
   Water, 740

 Apple Extract, 312
   Syrup, 312

 Applications for Prickly Heat, 398
   of Barium Amalgams, 86
   of Bismuth Amalgams, 88
   of Cadmium Amalgams, 87
   of Copper Amalgams, 87
   of Gold Amalgams, 89
   of Lead Amalgams, 88
   of Manganese Amalgams, 87

 Applications of Potassium Amalgams, 86
   of Silver Amalgams, 88
   of Sodium Amalgams, 86
   of Strontium Amalgams, 86
   of Tin Amalgams, 87
   of Zinc Amalgams, 87

 Applying Decalcomania Pictures, 250

 Apricot Extract, 312

 Aquarium Putty, 608

 Argentan, 69

 Arguzoid, 70

 Armenian Cement, 20

 Arms, Oil for, 460

 Arnica Salve, 486

 Aromatic Cod-Liver Oil, 482
   Cotton, 246
   Rhubarb Remedy, 180
   Vinegar, 735

 Arsenic Alloys, 63, 75

 Arsenic Poison, 93, 614

 Art Bronzes, 57, 556
   of Lacquering, 437

 Artificial Aging of Fabrics, 639
   Beeswax, 754
   Butter, 142
   Ciders, 181
   Coloring of Flowers, 346
   Egg Oil, 284
   Fertilizers for Pot Plants, 336
   Flowers, Dyes for, 272
   Flower Fertilizer, 337
   Horn, 396
   Leather, 447
   Marbles, 699
   Rubber, 618
   “Rubbered” Silk, 639
   Slate, 643
   Violet Perfumery, 518
   Water, 739

 Asbestos Cement, 30
   Fabric, 342

 Asphalt and Pitch, 33
   as Ingredient of Rubber, 619
   in Painting, 718
   Varnishes, 718

 Assaying of Gold, 381

 Asthma Cures, 101
   Fumigating Powders, 101
   in Canaries, 728
   Papers, 101

 Astringent for Horses, 730
   Wash for Flabby Skin, 234

 Atomic Weights, 758

 Atomizer Liquid for Sick Rooms, 264

 Attaching Enamel Letters to Glass, 19
   by Cement, 17

 Atropine, Antidote to, 102

 Aqua Aromatica, 102
   Fortis for the Touchstone, 383
     Poison, 92
   Regia, 102

 Aquarium Cements, 31

 Automobile Engines, Cooling, 363

 Automobiles, Anti-freezing Solution, 363

 Axle Grease, 462

 B

 Babbitt-Metals, 50

 Baking Powders, 102

 Balance Spring, 738

 Baldness, 392

 Balkan Paste, 38

 Ball Blue, 281, 444

 Ball-Room Floor Powder, 345

 Balsam, Birch, 103
   of Sulphur, 380
   Spray Solution, 103

 Balsam, Stains, to Remove, 194
   Wild-cherry, 103

 Balsams, 102

 Balsamic Cough Syrup, 211

 Banana Bronzing Solution, 489
   Cream, 115
   Trick, the Burning, 611
   Syrup, 312

 Banjo Sour, 110

 Barbers’ Itch, 486
   Powder, 243

 Barium Amalgams, 86
   Poison, 615

 Barometers (Paper), 402

 Bath, Air, 44
   Metal, 63
   Powder, 242
   Tablets, Effervescent, 103

 Bath-tub Enamel, 721
   Paint, 501

 Batteries, Solution for, 104

 Basis for Effervescent Salts, 627

 Baudoin Metal, 63

 Bavaroise au Cognac, 118

 Bay Rum, 104, 513

 Bear Fat, 333

 Bearing Lubricant, 461
   Metal, 50

 Beauty Cream, 231
   Water, 244

 Bedbug Destroyers, 420

 Beechwood Furniture Polish, 593

 Beef and Iron, 771
   Iron, and Wine, 104

 Beef-marrow Pomade, 227

 Beef Peptonoids, 509
   Preservatives, 360
   Tea, 112

 Beer, 118
   Ginger, 108
   Lemon, 108
   Restoration of Spoiled, 105
   Spruce, 119
   Treacle, 119
   Weiss, 119

 Beers, Alcohol in, 45

 Beetle Powder, 425

 Bees, Foul Brood in, 105

 Beeswax, Artificial, 754

 Belladonna, Antidotes to, 93

 Bell Metal, 51

 Belt Cement, 31
   Glue, 15
   Lubricant, 462
   Pastes for Increasing Adhesion, 105

 Bénédictine, 769

 Bengal Lights, 609

 Bent Glass, 371

 Benzine, 106
   Cleaning with, 209
   Purification of, 106
   to Color Green, 106

 Benzoic Acid, Detection of, 350
   in Food, 350

 Benzoic-acid Pastilles, 211

 Benzoin-Glycerine Soap, 652

 Benzoparal, 107

 Berge’s Blasting Powder, 330

 Beverages, 107
   Yellow Coloring for, 119

 Bibra Alloy, 71

 Bicycle Dipping Varnish, 719

 Bicycle-tire Cement, 23

 Bicycle Varnishes, 719

 Bicycles, Black Paint for, 495

 Bidery Metal, 80

 Billiard Balls, 148, 428

 Birch Balsam, 103

 Birch-Bud Water, 519

 Birch Water, 244, 389

 Bird Diseases, Remedies, 728
   Foods, 120, 729

 Bird Lime, 458
   Paste, 145
   Tonic, 729

 Birds, Antiseptic Wash for, 729
   Constipation in, 729
   Diarrhœa in, 729

 Biscuit, Dog, 265

 Bismarck Brown Dye, 267

 Bismuth, 49
   Alloys, 52
   Amalgams, Applications of, 88
   Bronze, 70
   Purification of, 380
   to Purify, 380

 Biting Off Red-hot Iron, 612

 Bitter Almond Oil Poison, 93

 Bitters, 762

 Blackberry Cholera Mixture, 180
   Cordial, 763

 Blackboard Paint and Varnish, 489
   Varnish, 720

 Black Color on Brass, 129
   Dye for Tanned Leather, 447
     on Cotton, 266
     on Wool, for Mixtures, 267

 Blackening Iron, 495

 “Black Eye” Lotion, 333

 Black Finish for Brass, 129
   Grease Paints, 229
   Hair Dye without Silver, 390

 Blackhead Remedies, 232

 Blacking Copper, 221
   for Harness, 450
   for Shoes, 631
   Stove, 700

 Black Japanese Varnish, 719
   Lake Dyes for Wall-paper, 278
   Marble, Imitation, 699
   Marking Inks, 407
   Paint for Polished Iron, 495
   Patina, 585
   Putty, 607
   Ruling Ink, 403
   Sheet Rust Preventive, 624
   Starch, 680
   Straw Hat Varnish, 266
   Varnish, 543, 544, 719
   Wash for Casting Molds, 150

 Blanching Silver, 640

 Blanket Washing, 399

 Blasting Powder, 330

 Blazing Sponge Trick, 611

 Bleach for Hands, 233

 Bleaches, Bone, 430

 Bleaching, 120
   and Coloring Feathers, 335
   Bone Fat, 333
   Cotton by Steaming, 245
   Cotton, 245
   Feathers, 121, 335
   Linen, 120
   of Linseed Oil, 459
   of Vegetable Fibers with Hydrogen Peroxide, 245
   Oils, 484
   Photographic Prints White, 553
   Silk, 120, 639
   Skin Salves, 234
   Solution, 121
     for Photographs, 553
   Solutions for the Laundry, 446
   Sponges, 678
   Straw, 120
   Tallows and Fats, 334
   Wool, 120

 Bleeding, Local, 701

 Blight Remedies, 121

 Blisters, for Horses, 729

 Block for Soldering, 667
   Hollow Concrete Building, 691
   Machines, 694

 Blocks Poured from Wet Concrete, 694

 Blood-red Brick Stain, 166

 Blotting Paper, 503

 Blue, Ball, 281

 Blue-black Ink, 414
   Patina, 585

 Blue Bronze, 138
   Dye for Hosiery, 268
   from Green at Night, 121
   Indelible Ink, 406
   Paving Bricks, 166

 Blueprint Inks, 403
   Paper Making, 536

 Blueprints, to Change, 121
   to Turn Brown, 542
   Waterproofing, 741

 Blue Ruling Ink, 403
   Sanitary Powder, 263
   Vitriol Poison, 94

 Bluing, 443
   Compounds, 443
   of Steel, 682

 Bluish-black Lake Dye, 278

 Blush Pink Dye on Cotton Textile, 279

 Board-sizing, 38

 Boiled Oil, 484

 Boiler Compounds, 121
   Plates, Protecting from Scales, 122
   Pressure, 123
   Scales, Prevention of, 122

 Boiling the Linseed Oil, 409

 Boil Remedy, 121

 Bone Black, 123
   Bleaches, 430
   Fat, 333
   Fertilizers, 338
   or Ivory Black, 123
   Polishes, 395
   Uniting Glass With, 17

 Bones, A Test for Broken, 124
   Treatment of, in Manufacturing Glue, 10

 Bookbinders’ Varnish, 720

 Book Disinfectant, 263
   How to Open, 125

 Bookworms, 425

 Books, their Preservation, 124
   to Remove Marks from, 186

 Boot Dressings, 631
   Lubricant, 460

 Boot-top Liquid, 632

 Boots, Waterproofing, 750

 Borated Apple Blossom Powder, 243
   Talcum, 510

 Borax in Food, 350
   for Sprinkling, 125
   Soap Powder, 650

 Boric Acid, Detection of, 350

 Borotonic, 258

 Bottling Sweet Cider, 181

 Bottle-cap Lacquer, 440

 Bottle-Capping Mixtures, 126

 Bottle Cleaners, 210
   Deodorizer, 127
   Stoppers, 700
   Varnish, 720
   Wax, 553

 Bottles, 126
   White Glass for, 373

 Bouillon, 113
   Chicken, 112
   Clam, 113
   Hot Egg, 112
   Tomato Extract, 212

 Bowls of Fire Trick, 611

 Box Glue, 15

 Bradley Platinum Paper, 529

 “Braga,” 117

 Bran, Sawdust in, 126

 Brandy, Artificial French, 768
   and Brandy Bitters, 762

 Brass, 127, 435
   A Bronze for, 136

 Brass and Bronze Protective Paint, 495
   Articles, Restoration of, 132
   Black Color on, 129
   Black Finish for, 129
   Bronzing, 566
   Brown Color to, 130
   Cleaners, 202, 203
   Coloring, 129, 473
   Colors for Polished, 127
   Etching Bath for, 324
     Fluid for, 323
   Fastening Porcelain to, 17
   Gilding, 576
   Graining of, 130

 Brass-Iron (Aich’s Metal), 53

 Brass Parts, Improved, 132
   Pickle for, 132
   Platinizing, 566
   Polishes, 590
   Sand Holes in, 150
   Solders, 657
   to Cast Yellow, 54
   Tombac Color on, 130
   Unpolished Coloring, 128
   Varnishes Imitating Gold, 725

 Brassing, 572, 581
   Zinc, Steel, Cast Iron, 581

 Brassware, Gold Lacquers for, 440

 Bread, Dog, 265

 Breath, Fetid, Remedies for, 133
   Perfumes, 258

 Brewers’ Yeast, 339

 Brick and Tilemakers’ Glazed Bricks, 164
   Arches, Waterproofing, 741

 Brickbat, Cheese, 176

 Brick, Blood-red Stain, 166
   Colors, 165

 Brickmakers’ Notes, 167

 Brick Polishes, 600
   Stain, 133, 166
   Walls, to Clean, 197
     to Renovate, 190
   Waterproofing, 134

 Bricks, 164
   Glaze for, 377
   of Sand-lime, 689
   Polish for, 600

 Brie, Cheese, 176

 Brightening Pickle, 469

 Bright Red Rouge, 229

 Brilliantine, 390
   Florician, 483

 Brimstone (Burning), 611

 Bristol Brass (Prince’s Metal), 53

 Britannia Metal, 55
     to Clean, 201
   Silver-plating, 587

 British Champagne, 118
   Oil, 484

 Brocchieri’s Styptic, 701

 Brocq’s Pomade for Itching, 228

 Broken Bones, A Test for, 124

 Bromine, Antiseptic, 100

 Bromoform, 134
   Rum, 134

 Bronze, Aluminum, 56
   Annealing, 56
   Articles, Polish for, 591
   Casting, 150
   Cleaning, 202, 205
   Coloring, 138
   Dye, 272
   for Brass, 136
   Gilding, 137
   Leather, 447
   Lettering, 456
   Machine, 58
   Phosphor, 58
   Polishes, 591
   Powder, Liquid for, 567

 Bronze Powders, 134, 139
   Preparations, 135

 Bronze, Renovation of, 205
   Silicon, 61
   Steel, 61
   Substitutes, 137
   Tincture, 135, 137
   to Renovate, 201
   Varnishes, 726

 Bronzes, 55
   Art, 57
   Pickle for, 138
   Statuary, 57

 Bronzing, 566
   and Patinizing of Articles, 136
   Engraved Ornaments, 137
   General Directions for, 135
   Liquid, 136
   Metals, 567
   of Brass, 571
   of Gas Fixtures, 566
   of Wood, 782
   of Zinc, 137
   Solutions for Paints, 489
   with Soluble Glass, 139

 Brooches, Photographing on, 551

 Brown Dye for Cotton, 267
   for Silk, 267
   for Wool, 267
     and Silk, 267
   Hair Dye, 390

 Browning of Steel, 583

 Brown Ink, 414
   Ointment, 486
   Oxidation on Bronze, 139
   Shoe Dressing, 632

 Brownstone, Imitation, 133

 Brown Tints, 559
   Varnish, 726

 Brunette or Rachelle Powder, 242

 Brushes, 140

 Bubble (Soap), Liquid, 655

 Bubbles, 141
   in Gelatine, 370

 Buff Terra-Cotta Slip, 166
   Wheels, Rouge for, 618

 Bug Killers, 420

 Building Blocks, Concrete, 691

 Bunions, 224

 Burning Banana Trick, 103
   Brimstone, 611
   Sealing Wax, 611

 Burns, 486
   Carbolic Acid, 147
   Mixture for, 142

 Burnt Alum, 80
   Steel, to Restore, 686

 Butter, 142, 354
   Artificial, Tests for, 354
   Color, 142, 359

 Buttermilk, Artificial, 143

 Buttons of Artificial Agate, 44
   Platine for, 80

 C

 Cadmium Alloy, about the Hardness of Zinc, 77
   Alloys, 61, 64
     with Gold, Silver, and Copper, 62
   Amalgams, Applications of, 87

 Calcium Carbide, 144
   Sulphide (Luminous), 494

 Camera, Renovating a, 553

 Campchello, 117

 Camphor for Cholera, 180

 Camphorated and Carbolated Powders, 252
   Cold Cream, 226
   Ice, 145
   Pomade, 145
   Preparations, 144

 Camphorated Substitutes in the Preparation of Celluloid, 157

 Canary-Bird Food, 729
   Paste, 145

 Canary Birds, Their Diseases, 729

 Concrete, 689

 Candles, 145
   Coloring, 145, 146
   Fumigating, 365
   Transparent, 145

 Candy, 216
   Colors and Flavors, 218
   Orange Drops, 216

 Canned Vegetables, 352

 Canning, 602
   without Sugar, 603

 Cantharides and Modern Potato Bug Poison, 94
   Pomade, 392

 Can Varnish, 720

 Canvas Waterproofing, 742

 Caoutchouc, 618
   Solution for Paints, 719

 Capacities of Utensils, 703

 Capsule Varnish, 720

 Capping Mixtures for Bottles, 126

 Caramels, 146, 216

 Caramel in Food, 352

 12-Carat, 433

 4-Carat Gold, 433

 18-Carat Gold for Rings, 433

 22-Carat Solder, 433

 Carats, to Find the Number of, 432

 Carbolic Acid, 147

 Carbolic-acid Burns, 147
   Decolorization of, 147
   Disguising Odor of, 147

 Carbolic Powder, 263
   Soap, 647

 Carbolineum, 497

 Carbonated Pineapple Champagne, 118

 Carbon Ink, 403
   Paper, 503
   Printing, 531
   Process in Photography, 531

 Carbuncle Remedies, 121

 Cardboard or Leather Glue, 15
   Waterproofing, 751

 Cards (Playing), to Clean, 209

 Care of Refrigerators, 401

 Carmelite Balm Water, 519

 Carmine, 403
   Lake Dye for Wall Paper, 278

 Carnation Lake Dye, 277

 Carpet Preservation, 399
   Soap, 644

 Carpets, How to Preserve, 399

 Carriage-top Dressing, 448

 Carron Oil, 242

 Case Hardening, 648

 Casein, 34, 148
   Albumen, and Glue, 34
   Cements, 20
   Massage Cream, 233
   Paste, 38
   Varnish, 34

 Cashmere Perfumery, 516

 Casket Trimmings, 150

 Casks, 149
   Watertight, 149

 Cassius, Purple of, 383

 Cast Brass, 53

 Cast-brass Work, Sand Holes in, 150

 Castile Soap, to Cut, 644

 Casting, 149
   Copper, 63
   in Wax, 755
   Molds, Alloys for, 80
   of Soft Metal Castings, 151

 Castings, Making in Aluminum, 81

 Castings Out of Various Metals, 149
   to Soften Iron, 427

 Cast-iron Soldering, 666

 Castor Oil, 153

 Castor-oil Chocolate Lozenges, 154

 Castor Oil, How to Take, 154
   Tasteless, 153

 Casts from Wax Models, 755
   (Plaster), Preservation of, 565
   Repairing of Broken, 26
   Waterproofing, 565

 Catatypy, 154

 Cat Diseases and Remedies, 732

 Caterpillar Destroyers, 423

 Catgut, 155
   Sutures, Preparation of, 155

 Catsup, Adulterated, 353

 Cattle Dips and Applications, 264

 Caustic Potash Poison, 93, 94

 Ceiling Cleaners, 400

 Celery Clam Punch, 112
   Compound, 155

 Cellars, Waterproof, 400

 Celloidin Paper, 504

 Cells, Solutions and Fillers for Battery, 104

 Celluloid, 155
   Cements and Glues, 17
   Glue for, 12
   Lacquer, 439
   of Reduced Inflammability, 159
   Putty, 161

 Cement, 692
   Armenian, 20
   Asbestos, 30
   Cheap and Excellent, 30
   Colors, 688
   Diamond Glass, 29
   for Belts, 31
   for Chemical Apparatus, 31
   for Cracks in Stoves, 162
   for Enameled Dials, 20
   for General Use, 31
   for Glass, 21, 25, 28
   for Iron and Marble, 17
   for Ivory, 31
   for Leather and Iron, 25
   for Metals, 21, 25
   for Metal on Hard Rubber, 22
   for Pallet Stones, 162
   for Pasteboard and Paper, 21
   for Patching Boots, 23
   for Pipe Joints, 162
   for Porcelain Letters, 19
   for Sandstones, 17
   for Steam and Water Pipes, 161
   for Watch-lid, 20
   for Waterpipe, 162
   Hydraulic, 33

 Cementing Celluloid and Hard-rubber Articles, 18

 Cement, Jewelers, 20
   Mordant for, 479
   on Marble Slabs, 16
   Paints for, 499
   Parisian, 30
   Protection of, Against Acid, 9
   Rubber for Cloth, 24
   to Paint Over Fresh, 499
   Transparent for Glass, 29
   Strong, 30, 32
   Universal, 31
   Work, Protection for, 162

 Cements, 16, 161
   Amber, 26
   Aquarium, 31
   Casein, 20
   Celluloid, 17
   for Attaching Letters on Glass, 19
   for Fastening Porcelain to Metal, 25

 Cements, for Iron, 24
   for Leather, 22, 23
   for Metals, 24
   for Rubber, 22
   for Stone, 16
   for Tires, 23
   for Water-glass, 19
   Meerschaum, 30
   Sign-letters, 18
   Silicate of Oxychloride, 35

 Ceramics, 164

 Chain of Fire, 612

 Chains (Watch), to Clean, 206

 Chalk for Tailors, 164

 Chamois Skin, to Clean, 186

 Champagne, 118
   Cider, 181

 Chapped Skin, 232

 Chappine Cream, 237

 Charta Sinapis, 480

 Chartreuse, 769

 Cheddar Cheese, 176

 Cheese, 174
   Color, 359
   Wrapping, Tin Foil for, 474

 Chemical Apparatus, Cement for, 31
   Gardens, 368
   Reagents, 349

 Cherry Balsam, 103
   Cordial, 764
   Phosphate, 112
   Tooth Paste, 257

 Chewing Candy, 217
   Gums, 178

 Cheshire Cheese, 176

 Chestnut Brown Dye for Straw Bonnets, 267
   Hair Dye, 391

 Chicken Bouillon, 112

 Chicken-coop Application, 419

 Chicken Diseases, 734

 Chicory, Tests for, 353

 Chilblains, 486

 Children, Doses for, 265

 Children’s Tooth Powder, 255

 China, 173
   Pomade, 227
   Repairing, 601
   Riveting, 179
   Silver Alloy, 75
   to Toughen, 173

 Chinese Tooth Paste, 257

 Chlorides, Platt’s, 264

 Chloriding Mineral Lubricating Oils, 462

 Chlorine-proofing, 9

 Chocolate, 179
   and Milk, 114
   Castor-oil Lozenges, 154
   Extracts, 312
   Frappé, 114
   Hot, 111
   Soda Water, 111

 Cholera Remedies, 179

 Chowchow, 212

 Chrome Black Dye for Wool, 267

 Chromium Glue, 15

 Chromo Making, 180

 Cider, 180
   Preservative, 181
   Vinegar, 735

 Cigarettes, Asthma, 101

 Cigar Flavoring, 183
   Sizes and Colors, 182
   Spots, 183

 Cigars, 182

 Cinnamon Essence, 312
   Oil as an Antiseptic, 100
   or Brown Dye for Cotton and Silk, 267

 Cinchona, 771
   Pomade, 392

 Citrate of Magnesium, 464

 Clam Bouillon, 113

 Claret Lemonade, 110
   Punch, 110, 112

 Clarification of Gelatin and Glue, 370

 Clarifying, 184
   Muddy Water, 741

 Clay, 33, 184

 Claying Mixture for Forges, 184

 Clean Bronze, 202

 Cleaner, Universal, 209

 Cleaning Linoleum, 398
   Marble, 196
   Polished Woodwork, 194
   Brass on Clock, 206
   Bronze Objects, 205
   Clocks, 207
   Copper, 200
   Copper Sinks, 202
   Electro-plate Goods, 205
   Funnels and Measures, 204
   Gilded Work on Altars, 185
   Gilded Articles, 185
   Gilded Bronzes, 205
   Gilt Bronze Ware, 201
   Glass, Paste for, 208
   Inferior Gold Articles, 207
   Lamp Globes, 209
   Marble, Furniture, etc., 197
   Methods and Processes, 209
   of Copperplate Engravings, 309
   of Statuettes and Plaster Objects, 564
   of Walls, Ceilings, and Paper, 190, 397
   Oil Stains on Wall Paper, 190
   Optical Lenses, 208
   Paint Brushes, 140
   Painted and Varnished Surfaces, 194
   Painted Doors, Walls, etc., 190
   Pearls, 208
   Preparations, 184, 397, 590, 644
   Preparation for Glass with Metal Decorations, 208
   Pewter Articles, 205
   Powder, 194
   Skins and Leather, 186
   Silver-plated Ware, 200
   Terra Cotta, 197
   Tracings, 194
   Varnish Brushes, 141
   Wall Paper, 191
   Whitewashed Walls, 190
   Window Panes, 208

 Cleansing Fluids, 185

 Clearing Baths, 535

 Cleary’s Asthma Fumigating Powder, 101

 Cliché Metal, 52

 Clock-bell Repairing, 737

 Clock Cleaning, 207

 Clock-dial Lettering, 737

 Clock Hands, to Reblack, 738

 Clockmakers’ Cleaning Processes, 206

 Clock Oil, 482
   Repairing, 738

 Clothes and Fabric Cleaners, 191
   Cleaners, 191

 Clothes-Cleaning Fluids, 192

 Cloth Paper, 504
   Strips Attached to Iron, 14
   to Iron, Gluing, 37
   Waterproofing, 748

 Cloths for Polishing, 599

 Clouding of Mouth Mirrors, 477

 Cloudless Caramel Coloring, 146

 Clove Pink Perfumery, 516

 Coal Oil, 484

 Coals, to Eat Burning, 612

 Coating for Bathrooms, 498
   for Damp Walls, 499
   for Name Plates, 501
   Metallic Surfaces with Glass, 377
   Tablets with Chocolate, 179

 Cobaltizing of Metals, 573

 Cobalt, or Fly Powder Poison, 94

 Cochineal Insect Remedy, 422

 Cocoa Mint, 115
   Syrup, 112

 Cocoas, 112

 Cod Liver Oil and Its Emulsion, 482

 Coffee, 353
   Cocktail, 114
   Cordial, 763
   Cream Soda, 113
   Essence, 314
   Extracts, 313
   for the Soda Fountain, 111
   Frappé, 114
   Hot, 111
   Iced, 114
   Nogg, 114, 115
   Substitutes for, 210
   Syrups, 313

 Coil Spring, 683
   Springs, to Temper, 683

 Coin Cleaning, 200
   Metal, 62

 Coins, Impressions of, 467
   Matrix for, 467

 Colas, 728

 Cold and Cough Mixtures, 211
   Chemical Gilding, 577
   Cream, 225
   Enameling, 721
   Soldering, 666
   Varnish, 543

 Colic in Cattle, 729

 Collapsible Tubes, Skin Cream, 239
   Tooth Paste for, 257

 Collodion, 212

 Cologne, 514
   for Headaches, 394
   Spirits or Deodorized Alcohol, 514

 Coloration of Copper and Brass with Cupric Selenite, 568

 Colored Alloys for Aluminum, 50
   Celluloid, 161
   Fireproofing, 344
   Fires, 609
   Floor Polishes, 591
   Gilding, 577
   Glass, 165, 371
   Gold Alloys, 66
   Hygroscopes, 402
   Inks, 414
   Lacquer, 439
   Marking Inks, 407
   Rings on Metal, 582
   Sand, 628

 Coloring Benedine Green, 106
   Brass, 473
   Ceresine Candles for the Christmas Tree, 145
   Common Gold, 431
   Copper, 473
   Electric-light Bulbs and Globes, 371
   Fluid for Brass, 129
   Gold Jewelry, 430
   Incandescent Lamps, 442
   Matter in Fats, 334
   Metals, 471, 568
   of Brass, 128, 570
   of Modeling Plaster, 563
   Perfumes, 511
   Silver, 640
   Soap, 644
   “Spirit” Varnishes, 715
   Steel, 682
   Unpolished Brass, 128

 Colorings for Jewelers’ Work, 433

 Color Enamel, 721
   Photography, 548
   Stains, for Wood, 782

 Color Stamps for Rough Paper, 411
   Testing, 559

 Colors, 266
   and Sizes of Cigars, 182
   for Confectionery, 218
   for Paints, 555
   for Polished Brass, 127
   for Pomade, 228
   for Syrups, 702
   Fusible Enamel, 306

 Combined Alum and Hypo Bath, 535
   Toning and Fixing Baths, 542

 Comfortable, Washing, 399

 Commercial Enameling, 290
   Formaldehyde, 362
   Mucilage, 43

 Common Silver for Chains, 434
   Silver Solder, 434

 Composition Files, 339
   for Cleaning Copper, Nickel, and other Metals, 203
   for Linoleum, Oilcloth, etc., 459
   for Writing on Glass, 376
   of Various Hard Solders, 663

 Compositions for Ships’ Bottoms, 498

 Compost for Indoor Plants, 337

 Compound for Cleaning Brass, 203
   Salicylated Collodion Corn Cure, 224
   Solution of Thymol, 100

 Concentrated Lye Poison, 93

 Concrete, 689
   Blocks, Properties of, 695
   Tamping of, 695

 Concrete Block Systems, 694
   Building Block, 691
   Mixers, 693

 Condimental Sauces, 353

 Condiments, 212
   Tests for Adulterated, 349

 Condition Powders, 729
   for Cattle, 729

 Conductivity of Aluminum Alloys, 48

 Confectionery, 216
   Colors, 218

 Constipation in Birds, 729

 Contracted Hoof or Sore Feet in Cattle, 730

 Conversion of Metric into English Measure, 760

 Cooling Screen, 616

 Cooking Vessels, Glazes for, 377

 Cook’s Table, 703

 Cooper’s Pen Metal, 74

 Copal Varnish, 720

 Copper, 219
   Alloys, 51, 76
   Amalgam, 90
   Amalgams, Applications of, 87
   and Brass Gilding, 577
     Platinizing, 586
   A Permanent Patina for, 585
   Arsenic, 63
   Articles, Polish for, 591
   Bronzing, 566
   Cleaning, 200
   Coloring, 221, 473
   Enameling, 294
   Etching, 324
   in Food, 351
   Iron, 63
   Lacquers, 439
   Nickel, 63
   Paint for, 495
   Paper, 507
   Patinizing and Plating, 586
   Polishes, 590
   Separation of Gold from, 382

 Copper-Silver Alloy, 75

 Copper, Silver, and Cadmium Alloys, 76
   Solder for Plating, 434
   Solders, 659
   to Bronze, 136
   Varnishes, 726

 Coppering, 572
   Glass, 572
   Plaster Models, etc., 573
   Zinc Plate, 573

 Copying Ink, 415
   Printed Pictures, 222
   Process on Wood, 222

 Cordage, 223
   Lubricant, 463
   Waterproofing, 753

 Cordials, 763

 Cork as a Preservative, 606
   Cleaner, 210
   to Metal, Fastening, 36

 Corks, 223
   Impermeable and Acid-proof, 10
   to Clean, 210
   Waterproofing, 742

 Corn Plaster, 224
   Cures, 224

 Corrosive Sublimate Poison, 94

 Cosmetic Jelly, 232

 Cosmetics, 225

 Cottenham Cheese, 176

 Cotton, 245
   Belts, Lubrication, 462
   Degreasing, 246

 Cottonseed, Extracting Oil, 482
   Hulls as Stock Food, 246
   Oil, 482

 Compress Cough Balsam with Iceland Moss, 211
   Drops, 217
   Mixtures and Remedies, 211
     for Cattle, 730
   Syrup, 211

 Counter Polishes, 590

 Court Plasters, 247, 563

 Cow Diseases—Remedies, 730
   Powder, 730

 Cow’s Milk, Powder for, 732

 Cracked Leather, 448

 Cracks in Tools, to Render Visible, 686

 Crayons, 374
   for Graining and Marbling, 247
   for Writing on Glass, 374

 Cream, 247
   Beef Tea, 112
   Bonbons for Hoarseness, 216
   Cheese, 176
   How to Determine, 474
   Soda Powder, 628

 Creams for the Face and Skin, 225

 Creosote-carbolic Acid Poison, 94

 Cresol Emulsion, 248

 Crimson Dye for Silk, 271
   Indelible Ink, 406

 Crystal Cements, 248

 Crystalline Coatings or Frostwork on Glass or Paper, 376
   Honey Pomade, 227

 Crystallization, Ornamental, 368

 Crockery, 167
   Plaster and Meerschaum Repairing, 27

 Crocus, 248

 Crude Petroleum, Emulsion of, 521

 Crushed Apricot, 365, 604
   Cherries, 365, 604
   Fruit Preserving, 604
   Orange, 365, 604
   Peach, 365, 604
   Pineapples, 364, 604
   Raspberry, 364
   Strawberry, 364

 Cucumber Creams, 237

 Cucumber Essence, 314
   Jelly, Juice, and Milk, 228
   Juice, 239
   Milk, 239
   Pomade, 228

 Cummins’s Whipped Cream, 248

 Curaçoa Cordial, 764
   Liqueur, 770

 Cure for Barber’s Itch, 486
   for Snake Bites, 96
   for Tan, 242
   for Warts, 736

 Currant Cream, 115

 Curry Powder, 213

 Curtains, Coloring of, 446

 Cutlers’ Cements for Fixing Knife Blades into Handles, 16

 Cutlery Cements, 16

 Cutting, Drilling, Grinding, and Shaping Glass, 371

 Cuspidor Powder, 263

 Custard Powder, 249

 Cyanide of Potassium Poison, 93

 Cylinder Oil, 464

 Cymbal Metal, 64

 Cypress Water, 519

 D

 Dairy Products, 354

 Damaskeening, 249
   by Electrolysis, 249
   on Enamel Dials, 250

 Damp Walls, Coating for, 400, 499

 Damson Cheese, 176

 Dandruff Cures, 388

 Darcet Alloy, 64

 Dark-blue Dye, 268

 Dark Gold Purple, 383

 Dark-Green Blackboard Paint, 489

 Dark Red Grease Paint, 229
   Snuff-Brown Dye for Wool, 267
   Steel Dye, 269

 Deadening Paint, 491

 Dead-gilding of an Alloy of Copper and Zinc, 579

 Dead, or Matt, Dip for Brass, 131

 Deadly Nightshade Poison, 94

 Decalcomania Processes, 250

 Decolorization of Carbolic Acid, 147

 Decolorizing and Deodorizing Oils, 484
   or Bleaching Linseed Oil, 483

 Decomposition of Oils, Fats, 484

 Decorating Aluminum, 81

 Decorative Metal Varnishes, 726
   Wood-finish, 772

 Deep Red Grease Paint, 229
   Red Raspberry Syrup, 318

 Dehorners or Horn Destroyers, 397

 Delta Metal, 63

 Demon Bowls of Fire, 611

 Denaturized Alcohol, 45, 678

 Dental Cements, 163
   Platinum, 74

 Dentrifices, 251

 Deodorants for Water-closets, 263

 Deodorization of Calcium Carbide, 144

 Deodorized Alcohol, 514
   Cod Liver Oil, 482
   Petroleum, 522

 Deodorizing Benzine, 106

 Depilatory Cream, 259

 Depthings, Verification of, 737

 Derbyshire Cheese, 176

 Desilvering, 587

 Detannating Wine, 765

 Detecting Dyed Honey, 396

 Detection of Albumen in Urine, 44
   of Formaldehyde in Food, 351
   in Milk, 474
   of Copper in Food, 351
   of Cottonseed Oil in Lard, 442
   of Glucose in Food, 357
   of Saccharine in Food, 351
   of Salicylic Acid in Food, 349
   of Starch in Food, 357

 Detergent for Skin Stains, 235

 Detergents, 186

 Determination of Artificial Colors in Food, 351
   of Preservatives, 349

 Determining Cream, 474

 Developers for Photographic Purposes, 523

 Development of Platinum Prints, 531

 Dextrine Pastes, 35

 Diabetics, Lemonade for, 109

 Dial Cements, 20
   Cleaners, 207
   Repairing, 737

 Diamalt, 475

 Diamantine, 432

 Diamond Cement, 20
   Glass Cement, 29
   Tests, 260

 Diarrhœa in Birds, 729
   Remedies, 179

 Die Venting, 261

 Digestive Powders, 261
   Relish, 213

 Diogen Developer, 527

 Dip for Brass, 131

 Dipping Metals, Danger of, 470

 Dips, 469
   for Cattle, 264

 Direct Coloration of Iron and Steel by Cupric Selenite, 568

 Directions for Bronzing, 135
   for Making Perfumes, 512
   Disinfectants, 264

 Disguising Odor of Carbolic Acid, 147

 Dish Washing, 399

 Disinfectant for Books, 125

 Disinfectants, 262
   for Sick Room, 264

 Disinfecting Coating, 265
   Fluids, 262
     or Weed-killers, 262
   Powders, 262

 Dissolving Old Rubber, 622

 Distemper in Cattle, 729

 Distinguishing Blue from Green, 121

 Diuretic Ball, 731

 Dog Applications, 419
   Biscuit, 265
   Soap, 654

 Domestic Ointments, 486
   Pets, 732

 Donarite, 330

 Doors, to Clean, 190

 Doses for Adults and Children, 265

 Dose Table for Veterinary Purposes, 729

 Double Extract Perfumery, 518

 Drawing Inks, 403
   Paper, 504
   Temper from Brass, 133

 Drawings, Preservation of, 266
   to Clean, 206

 Draw-tempering Cast Steel, 687

 Dressing for Carriage Tops, 448
   for Sewing Thread, 706

 Dressings for Harness, 451
   for Leather, 448
   for Linoleum, 459
   for the Hair, 389

 Dried Casein, its Mfg., 148
   Yolk of Egg, 284

 Driers, 636

 Driffield Oils, 485

 Drill Chips, to Utilize, 686

 Drilling Hard Steel, 687
   Lubricant for, 463
   Shaping, and Filing Glass, 372

 Drinking Water, Removal of Iron from, 741

 Drinks for Summer and Winter, 107
   Soda Water, 111

 Drops of Lime in the Eye, 333
   Table of, 704

 Drosses, 151

 Dry Bases for Paints, 489
   Perfumes, 509
   Powder Fire Extinguishers, 341
   Rot, Remedies for, 618
   Sugar Preserving, 604
   Yeast, 786

 Drying Oils, 485

 Druggists’ Label Paste, 41

 Dubbing for Leather, 460

 Duesseldorff Mustard, 215

 Dunlop Cheese, 176

 Durable Bronze on Banners, 137
   Putty, 607

 Dust-laying, 485

 Dust Preventers and Cloths, 401

 Dutch (Holland) Cheese, 176
   Pink Dye, 278

 Dyeing Feathers, 335
   Leather, 450
   Silk or Cotton Fabrics, 280
   Straw Hats, 394

 Dyes, 266
   and Dyestuffs, 274
   Colors, etc., for Textile Goods, 279
   for Artificial Flowers, 272
   for Feathers, 272
   for Food, 359
   for Furs, 272
   for Hats, 273
   for Leather, 450

 Dye Stains, Removal from Skin, 184

 Dynamite, 329

 E

 Earthenware, 168

 Easily Fusible Alloys, 64

 Eastman’s Sepia Paper, 531

 Eaton’s Styptic, 701

 Eau de Botot Water, 519
   de Lais Water, 519
   de Merveilleuse Water, 519
   de Quinine, 392

 Eberle’s Whipped Cream, 248

 Ebony, 783
   Lacquer, 439
   Stains, 782

 Eczema Dusting Powder, 282

 Edible Oils, 355

 Effervescent Bath Tablets, 103
   Powders, 627

 Eggs, 282, 355

 Egg Chocolate, 114
   Claret, 115
   Coffee, 115
   Crême de Menthe, 115
   Dyes, 275
   Lemonade, 111, 115
   Malted Milk Coffee, 114
   Oil, 284
   Orgeat, 115
   Phosphate, 113
   Powder, 284
   Shampoo, 393
   Sherbet, 115
   Sour, 115
   Wine, 118

 Egg-stain Remover, 201

 Eikonogen Developer, 524

 Ektogan, 98

 Elaine Substitute, 286

 Elastic Glue, 14
   Limpid Gum Varnishes, 720
   or Pliable Paste, 39
   Substitute for Celluloid, 158

 Electrical Conductivity of Aluminum Alloys, 50

 Electric Installations, Fusible Alloys for, 64
   Insulation, 425
   Light Bulbs, Coloring, 371

 Electrodeposition Processes, 571

 Electro-etching, 324

 Electrolysis in Boilers, 123

 Electroplating and Electrotyping, 286

 Elm Tea, 288

 Embalming Fluids, 288

 Embroideries, Stamping Powder for, 680

 Embroidery, Ink for, 411

 Emerald, Imitation, 370

 Emery, 289
   Grinder, 289
   Substitute, 289

 Emmenthaler Cheese, 176

 Emollient Skin Balm, 234

 Emulgen, 290

 Emulsifiers, 289

 Emulsion, Cresol, 248
   of Bromoform, 134

 Emulsions of Petroleum, 521

 Enamel Colors, 727
   for Copper Cooking Vessels, 305
   for Vats, 721
   How to Remove, 189
   Letters Attaching to Glass, 19
   Mixing, 302
   Removers, 187
   Solder, 434
   Varnishes, 720

 Enameled Dials, Cement for, 20
   Iron Recipes, 305

 Enameling, 290
   Alloys, 67

 Enamels, Metallic Glazes on, 173
   Unaffected by Hot Water, 721

 Engines (Gasoline), Anti-freezing Solution for, 363

 English Margarine, 143
   Pink Dye, 278
   Weights and Measures, 758

 Engravers’ Varnishes, 723

 Engraving, Matting, and Frosting Glass, 375
   on Steel, 687
   or Etching on Steel, 687
   Spoon Handles, 309

 Engravings, their Preservation, 309
   to Reduce, 310
   to Transfer, 710

 Enlargements, 542

 Envelope Gum, 43

 Epicure’s Sauce, 213

 Epizooty, 731

 Eradicators, 205

 Erasing Powder or Pounce, 189

 Essence Bénédictine, 769
   of Anchovies, 98
   of Cinnamon, 312
   of Extract of Soup Herbs, 212
   of Savory Spices, 214

 Essences and Extracts of Fruits, 310, 312

 Etching, 322
   Bath for Brass, 324
     for Tin, 706
   Copper, Brass, and Tombac, 323
   Fluids, 322
   Fluid for Aluminum, 324

 Etching, Fluid, for Brass, 323
       to Make Stencils, 323
     for Copper, Zinc, and Steel, 324
     for Gold, 324
     for Lead, Antimony, and Britannica Metal, 324
     for Tin or Pewter, 324
     for Zinc, 323
   Fluids for Copper, 325
     for Iron and Steel, 322
     for Silver, 324
   Glass by Means of Glue, 326
   -ground for Copper Engraving, 322
   on Copper, 324
   on Glass, 325
   on Ivory, 327, 428
   on Marble, 327
   on Steel, 687
   Powder for Iron and Steel, 323
     for Metals, 324
   Steel, Liquids for, 327
   with Wax, 326

 Eucalyptus Bonbons, 212
   Paste, 257

 Examination of Foods, 352

 Expectorant Mixtures, 212

 Explosives, 328, 330

 Exposures in Photographing, 528

 Extemporaneous Anchovy Sauce, 98

 Extract, Ginger-ale, 107
   of Meat Containing Albumen, 361
   of Milk, 474

 Extracting Oil from Cottonseed, 482

 Extracts, 312
   Coffee, 313

 Eye, Foreign Matter in, 333

 Eyeglasses, 376

 Eye Lotions, 333

 F

 Fabric Cleaners, 191

 Fabrics, Waterproofing of, 742

 Façade Paint, 499

 Face Black and Face Powder, 230
   Bleach or Beautifier, 231
   Cream without Grease, 239
   Powder, Fatty, 230

 Faded Photographs, 544

 Fairthorne’s Dental Cement, 163

 Falling Hair, 392

 Fancy Soda Drinks, 113

 Fastening Cork to Metal, 36

 Fats, 333, 334, 335
   Decomposition of, 484
   for Soldering, 659

 Fatty Acid Fermentation Process, 334
   Face Powders, 230

 Feather Bleaching and Coloring, 121, 335
   Dyes, 272, 335

 Felt Waterproofing, 749

 Fermentation, Prevention of, 765
   Process, Fatty Acid, 334

 Ferro-argentan, 71

 Ferro-prussiate Paper, 539

 Ferrous-oxalate Developer, 525

 Fertilizer with Organic Matter, for Pot Flowers, 337

 Fertilizers, 336
   Bone, 338

 Fever in Cattle, 731

 Fig Squares, 216

 File Alloys, 64
   Metal, 64

 Files, 339
   Geneva Composition, 64
   to Clean, 205, 339
   Yogel’s Composition, 64

 Filigree Gilding, 576

 Fillers for Letters, 457
   for Wood, 773

 Film-stripping, 553

 Filter Paper, 504

 Filters for Water, 339

 Finger-marks, to Remove, 125

 Fingers, Pyrogallic-acid Stains on, 185

 Finger-tips, Sparks from, 611

 Finishing Enamel for White Furniture, 722

 Firearm Lubricants, 460

 Firearms, Oil for, 460

 Fire, Chain of, 612
   Colored, 609
   Grenades, Substitutes for, 341
   Trick, 611
   Extinguishers, 340

 Fireproof and Waterproof Paints, 491
   Coating, 344
   Compositions, 344
   Glue, 16
   Paints, 490
   Papers, 344, 504

 Fireproofing, 341, 344
   Celluloid, 159
   Clothing, 342
   for Wood, Straw, Textiles, 343
   Light Woven Fabrics, 342
   Mosquito Netting, 342
   Rope and Straw Matting, 342
   Stage Decorations, 342
   Tents, 342

 Fireworks, 608

 Fish Bait, 344

 Fishing Net, Preservation of, 223

 Fixing and Clearing Baths, 535
   Agents in Perfumes, 512
   Baths for Paper, 542

 Fixatives for Crayon Drawings, etc., 344

 Flabby Skin, Wash for, 234

 Flashlight Apparatus, 552
   Apparatus with Smoke Trap, 552

 Flannels, Whitening of, 446

 Flavoring Cigars, 183
   Extracts, 355
   Peppermint as a, 252
   Sarsaparilla, 629

 Flavorings, 213
   for Dentifrice, 255
   Spices, 213

 Flea Destroyers, 423

 Flesh Face Powder, 243

 Flexible Ivory, 428

 Flies and Paint, 501
   in the House, 399

 Floor Coating, 500
   Dressings, 344
   Oils, 485
   Paper, 506
   Polish, 591
   Varnishes, 724
   Waterproofing, 753
   Wax, 754

 Floral Hair Oil, 483
   Hair Pomade, 483

 Florentine Bronzes, 136

 Floricin Brilliantine, 483
   Oil, 483

 Florida Waters, 514

 Flower Preservatives, 345

 Flowers, Coloring for, 346

 Flour and Starch Compositions, 35
   Paste, 39

 Fluid Measure, U. S. Standard, 704

 Fluid Measures, 758

 Fluids, Clothes-cleaning, 192
   Disinfecting, 262
   for Embalming, 288
   for Soldering, 659

 Fluorescent Liquids, 347

 Fluxes for Soldering, 660
   Used in Enameling, 305

 Flux for Enameled Iron, 305

 Fly Essences, 421

 Fly-papers and Fly-poisons, 347

 Fly-killers, 421

 Fly Protectives for Animals, 419

 Foam Preparations, 348

 Foamy Scalp Wash, 389

 Foreign Matter in the Eye, 333

 Food Adulterants, Tests for, 348
   Benzoic Acid in, 107
   Colorants, 358
   Cooked in Copper Vessels, 94

 Foods, Bird, 120, 729
   for Pets, 733
   for Red Birds, 729

 Foot Itch, 733

 Foot-powders and Solutions, 361

 Footsores on Cattle, 730

 Formaldehyde, 362
   for Disinfecting Books, 263
   in Milk, Detection of, 474

 Formalin for Grain Smut, 384
   Treatment of Seed Grain for Smut, 384

 Formol Albumen for Preparation of Celluloid, 156

 Formulas for Bronzing Preparations, 135
   for Cements for Repairing Porcelain, Glassware, Crockery, Plaster,
     and Meerschaum, 27
   to Drive Ants Away, 420

 Foul Brood in Bees, 105

 Fowler’s Solution Poison, 93

 Foxglove, or Digitalis Poison, 94

 Foy’s Whipped Cream, 248

 Fragrant Naphthalene Camphor, 14

 Frames, Protection from Flies, 363

 Frame Cleaning, 185
   Polishes, 600

 Framing, Passe-partout, 508

 Frangipanni Perfumery, 516

 Frankfort Black, 561

 Freckle Lotions, 240

 Freckles and Liver Spots, 241

 Freezing Mixtures, 615, 616
   Preventives, 363

 French Brandy, 768
   Bronze, Preparation of, 136
   Dentrifice, 256
   Floor Polish, 591
   Gelatin, 369
   Hide Tanning Process, 453
   Solders for Silver, 664
   Varnish, 724

 Fresh Crushed Fruits, 365

 Frost Bite, 363
   Preventive, 363
   Removers, 376

 Frosted Glass, 374
   Mirrors, 375

 Frosting Polished Silver, 640

 Fruit Essences and Extracts, 310
   Frappé, 116
   Jelly Extract, 314
   Preserving, 364, 604
   Products, 357
   Syrups, 701
   Vinegar, 735

 Fuel, 152

 Fuller’s Purifier for Cloths, 274

 Fulminates, 332

 Fulminating Antimony, 332
   Bismuth, 332
   Copper, 332
   Mercury, 333
   Powder, 333
   Silver, 640

 Fumigants, 365

 Fumigating Candles, 365

 Funnels, to Clean, 204

 Furnace Jacket, 368

 Furniture Cleaners, 206
   Enamel, 722
   Its Decoration, 772
   Polishes, 592
   Wax, 754

 Fuses, 610
   for Electrical Circuits, 64

 Fusible Alloys for Electric Installations, 64
   Enamel Colors, 306
   Safety Alloys for Steam Boilers, 65

 Fusion Point of Metals, 473

 G

 Galvanized Iron, 496
     Roofing, 397
   Paper, 507

 Gamboge Stain, 439

 Gapes in Poultry, 734

 Garancine Process, 277

 Gardens, Chemical, 368

 Garment-cleaning Soap, 645

 Gas Fixtures, 130
   Bronzing of, 566

 Gasoline Pumps, Packing for, 488

 Gas Soldering, 660
   Stove, to Clean, 202
   Trick, 610

 Gear Lubricant, 463

 Gelatin, 369
   Air Bubbles in, 370

 Gems, Artificial, 370

 Gem Cements, 20

 Geneva Composition Files, 64

 Genuine Silver Bronze, 140

 German Matches, 467
   Method of Preserving Meat, 361
   Silver or Argentan, 69

 German-silver Solders, 661

 German Table Mustard, 215

 Gilders’ Sheet Brass, 55
   Wax, 755

 Gilding, 493
   and Gold Plating, 575
   German Silver, 578
   Glass, 373, 578
   in Size, 493
   Metals, Powder for, 579
   Pastes, 580
   Plating and Electrotyping, 288
   Renovation of, 185
   Steel, 580
   Substitute, 575
   to Clean, 185
   Watch Movements, 738

 Gilt Frames, Polish for, 600
   Test for, 383
   Work, to Burnish, 384

 Ginger, 112

 Ginger-Ale Extract, 107

 Ginger Ale, Flavoring for, 108
     Soluble Extract, 108
   Beer, 107, 108
   Extracts, 314

 Gold-leaf Alloys, 67
   Striping, 383

 Gold Varnish for Tin, 727

 Glass, 371
   Acid-proof, 374

 Glass and Porcelain Cement, 28
   and Glassware Cement, 25
   Balls, Amalgam for, 90
     Silvering, 587
   Celluloid, and Metal Inks, 403
   Cement for, 21
   Cleaning, 208
   Coppering, Gilding, and Plating, 572
   Etching, 325
   Fastening Metals on, 25
   Gilding, 373, 578
   Globe, Silvering, 641
   How to Affix Sign-letters on, 18
   Lettering, 457
   Lubricants, 372
   Manufacturing, 373
   Polishes for, 593
   Porcelain Repairing, 26
   Refractory to Heat, 373
   Stop Cock Lubricant, 462
   Stopper, to Loosen, 700
   Silvering of, 476
   Solders for, 662
   Soluble, as a Cement, 28
   to Affix Paper on, 19
   to Cut, 371
   to Fasten Brass Upon, 17
   to Fix Gold Letters to, 18
   to Remove Glue from, 208
   to Silver, 641
   Waterproof Cements for, 21

 Globes, How to Color, 371
   Silvering, 476

 Glossy Paint for Bicycles, 495

 Gloucester Cheese, 176

 Glove Cleaners, 195

 Gloves, Substitute for Rubber, 100
   Testing, 622

 Glaziers’ Putty, 607

 Glazing on Size Colors, 377

 Glaze for Bricks, 377

 Glazes, 377
   and Pottery Bodies, 167
   for Cooking Vessels, 377
   for Laundry, 444

 Glucose in Jelly, 357

 Glue, Box, 15
   Chromium for Wood, Paper and Cloth, 15
   Clarifier, 370
   Elastic, 14
   Fireproof, 16
   for Articles of a Metallic or Mineral Character, 15
   for Attaching Cloth Strips to Iron, 14
   for Attaching Gloss to Precious Metals, 14
   for Belts, 15
   for Cardboard, 15
   for Celluloid, 12
   for Glass, 15
   for Leather or Cardboard, 15
   for Paper and Metal, 14
   for Tablets, 13
   for Uniting Metals with Fabrics, 15
   for Wood, 15
   Manufacture, 10
   Marine, 13
   or Paste for Making Paper Boxes, 15
   Prevented from Cracking, 10
   Test, 10
   to Fasten Linoleum on Iron Stairs, 14
   to Form Paper Pads, 12

 Glues, 10, 34, 378
   Liquid, 11
   Waterproof, 13

 Glycerine, 378
   and Cucumber Jelly, 228
   Applications, 228, 236, 237, 239
   as a Detergent, 186
   Creams, 237
   Developer, 530
   Lotion, 379
   Milk, 239
   Process, 531
   Soap, 646, 652

 Goats’ Milk Cheese, 178

 Gold, 379
   Acid Test for, 432
   Alloys, 66, 435
   Amalgams, 89
   and Silver Bronze Powders, 139
   Assaying of, 381
   Enameling Alloys, 67
   Enamel Paints, 493
   Etching Fluid for, 324
   Extraction of, by Amalgamation, 89
   Foil Substitutes and Gold Leaf, 747
   from Acid Coloring Baths, 381
   Imitations of, 433
   Indelible Ink, 406
   Ink, 405, 415
   Jewelry, to Give a Green Color to, 582
   Lacquers, 440
   Leaf and its Applications, 492

 Gold-leaf Alloys, 67

 Gold-leaf Waste, to Recover, 381

 Gold Lettering, 456
   Letters on Glass, Cements for Affixing, 18
   Oil Suitable for Use, 485
   Paints, 492

 Gold-plate Alloys, 67

 Gold Plating, 575
   Printing on Oilcloth, 379
   Purple, 383
   Recovery of Waste, 381
   Reduction of Old Photographic, 535
   Renovator, 199
   Solders, 434, 661
   Testing, 432
   Varnish, 726, 727
   Ware Cleaner, 200
   Welding, 381

 Goldenade, 114

 Golden Fizz, 115
   Varnishes, 724

 “Golf Goblet,” 114

 Gong Metal, 64

 Grafting Wax, 755

 Grain, 384

 Graining and Marbling, 247
   Colors, 556
   Crayons, 247
   of Brass, 130
   with Paint, 494

 Granola, 110

 Grape Glacé, 114
   Juice, Preservation of, 767

 Graphite Lubricating Compound, 463

 Gravel Walks, 385

 Gravers, 385

 Gray Dyes, 269
   Tints, 559

 Grease Eradicators, 205
   for Locomotive Axles, 462

 Greaseless Face Cream, 239

 Grease Paints, 228

 Greases, 462
   Wagon and Axle, 462

 Green Bronze on Iron, 138
   Coloring for Antiseptic Solutions, 100
   Dyes, 269

 Green Dye for Cotton, 269
     for Silk, 269
     for Wool and Silk, 269
   Fustic Dye, 269
   Gilding, 578
   Ginger Extract, 315
   Ink, 415
   or Gold Color for Brass, 582
   or Sage Cheese, 176
   Patina Upon Copper, 585
   Salve, 486
   to Distinguish Blue from, 121

 Grenades, 341

 Grinder Disk Cement, Substitute for, 31

 Grinding, 708
   Glass, 372

 Grindstone Oil, 386

 Grindstones, 386

 Ground Ceramics, Laying Oil for, 485
   for Relief Etching, 322

 Grounds for Graining Colors, 556

 Grosser’s Washing Brick, 445

 Gruyère Cheese, 176

 Gum Arabic, Substitute, 43, 386
   Bichromate Process, 546
   Drops, 216
   for Envelopes, 43

 Gums, 386
   their Solubility in Alcohol, 386
   Used in Making Varnish, 715

 Gun Barrels, to Blue, 682
   Bronze, 59
   Cotton, 331
   Lubricants, 460

 Gunpowder, 328
   Stains, 387

 Gutta-percha, 387

 Gutter Cement, 162

 Gypsum, 387
   Flowers, 346
   Paint for, 293

 H

 Haenkel’s Bleaching Solution, 445

 Hair-curling Liquids, 389

 Hair Dressings and Washes, 389
   Dyes, 390
   Embrocation, 389
   for Mounting, 388
   Oil, 390
   Oils, Perfumes for, 520
   Preparations, 388
   Removers, 259
   Restorers and Tonics, 389, 391
   Shampoo, 392

 Hammer, to Harden, 684

 Hand Bleach, 233
   Creams and Lotions, 232

 Hand-cleaning Paste, 232

 Handkerchief Perfumes, 516

 Hand Stamps, Ink for, 411

 Hands, Remove Stains from, 184, 185
   Perspiring, 233

 Hard-finished Walls, 499

 Hard German-silver or Steel Solder, 661
   Glaze Bricks, 164
   Lead, 71
   Metal Drilling Lubricant, 463
   Putty, 607
   Solders, 662, 664
   Solder for Gold, 661
   Wood Polish, 598

 Hardened Ivory, 429
   Steel, to Solder, 665

 Hardening Plaster of Paris, 564
   of Springs, 685
   Steel without Scaling, 685
   Steel Wire, 684

 Hare-lip Operation, 99

 Harmless Butter Color, 143
   Colors for Use in Syrups, 321

 Harness Dressings, 450
   Grease, 451
   Oils, 451
   Preparations, 450
   Pastes, 451
   Wax, 755

 Hartshorn Poison, 93

 Hat-cleaning Compounds, 187

 Hat Waterproofing, 748

 Hats, 394
   to Dye, 273

 Headache Cologne, 394
   Remedies, 394

 Head Lice in Children, 422

 Heat-indicating Paint, 501

 Heat Insulation, 426
   Prickly, 398

 Heat-resistant Lacquers, 441

 Heaves, 731

 Hectograph Pads and Inks, 395, 416

 Hedge Mustard, 394

 Heel Polish, 632

 Hellebore Poison, 94

 Helvetius’s Styptic, 701

 Hemlock Poison, 94

 Hemorrhoids, 561

 Henbane Poison, 94

 Herbarium Specimens, Mounting, 394
   Pomade, 227

 Herb Vinegar, 735

 Hide Bound, 731

 Hide-cleaning Processes, 186

 Hides, 454

 Hoarfrost Glass, 375

 Hoarseness, Bonbons for, 216
   Remedy for, 211

 Holland Cheese, 176

 Hollow Concrete Blocks, 691
   Silverware, 640

 Home-made Outfit for Grinding Glass, 372
   Refrigerators, 616

 Honey, 396
   Clarifier, 396
   Water, 519
   Wine, 468

 Honeysuckle Perfumery, 516

 Honing, 761

 Hoof Sores, 730

 Hop Beer, 108
   Bitter Beer, 118
   Syrup, 315

 Horehound Candy, 217

 Horn, 396
   Bleaches, 430
   Uniting Glass with, 17

 Horns, Staining, 397

 Horse Blistering, 729

 Horse-colic Remedy, 729

 Horse Embrocations and Liniments, 731

 Horses and Cattle, 729
   Treatment of Diseases, 729

 Horticultural Ink, 405

 Hosiery, Dye for, 268

 Hostetter’s Bitters, 762

 Hot Beef Tea, 112
   Bouillon, 113
   Celery Punch, 112
   Chocolate and Milk, 111
   Egg Bouillon, 112
     Chocolate, 111, 113
     Coffee, 113
     Drinks, 113
     Lemonade, 113
     Milk, 113
     Nogg, 113
     Orangeade, 111
     Phosphate, 113
   Lemonades, 110, 111
   Malt, 112

 Hot Malted Milk Coffee (or Chocolate), 112
   Orange Phosphate, 112
   Soda Toddy, 112
   Soda-water Drinks, 111
   Tea, 113

 Household Ammonia, 91
   Formulas, 397

 House Paint, 500

 How to Bronze Metals, 136
   to Clean a Panama Hat, 187
     Brass and Steel, 202
     Tarnished Silver, 204
   to Color Aluminum, 80
   to Keep Cigars, 187
     Fruit, 364
     Lamp Burners in Order, 399
   to Lay Galvanized Roofing, 397
   to Make Castings of Insects, 151
     a Cellar Waterproof, 400
     a Plaster Cast of a Coin or Medal, 150
     Picture Postal Cards and Photographic Letter Head, 537
     Simple Syrups; Hot Process, 702
   to Open a Book, 125
   to Paste Labels on Tin, 40
   to Pour Out Castor Oil, 153
   to Renovate Bronzes, 201
   to Reproduce Old Prints, 223
   to Sensitize Photographic Printing Papers, 539
   to Take Care of Paint Brushes, 140
     Castor Oil, 154
   to Tell Pottery, 173
   to Unite Rubber and Leather, 22
   to Tell the Character of Enamel, 304

 Huebner’s Dental Cement, 163

 Hunyadi Water, 740

 Huyler’s Lemonade, 110

 Hydraulic Cement, 33

 Hydrochinon Developer, 525

 Hydrocyanic Acid Gas for Exterminating Household Insects, 418

 Hydrofluoric Formulas, 326

 Hydrographic Paper, 504

 Hydrogen Peroxide as a Preservative, 605

 Hygrometer and Its Use, 401

 Hydrometers and Hygroscopes, 402

 Hyoscyamus, Antidote to, 102

 I

 Ice, 402
   Flowers, 402

 Iced Coffee, 114

 Iceland Moss, Cough Mixture, 211

 Ideal Cosmetic Powder, 243

 Igniting Composition, 403

 Imitation Black Marble, 699
   Cider, 182
   Diamonds, 432
   Egg Shampoos, 393
   Gold, 67, 433
     Foils, 474
   Japanese Bronze, 138
   of Antique Silver, 640
   Ivory, 429
   Platinum, 74
   Silver Alloys, 77
     Bronze, 140
     Foil, 474
   Stains for Wood, 784

 Imogen Developer, 527

 Impervious Corks, 223

 Impregnation of Papers with Zapon Varnish, 506

 Improved Celluloid, 156

 Incandescent Lamps, 442

 Incense, 366

 Incombustible Bronze Tincture, 135, 137

 Increasing the Toughness, Density and Tenacity of Aluminum, 83

 Incrustation, Prevention of, 122

 Indelible Hand-stamp Ink, 411
   Inks, 405
     for Glass or Metal, 404
   Labels on Bottles, 327
   Stencil Inks, 412

 India, China or Japan Ink, 406

 India-rubber Varnishes, 724

 Indigo, 268, 281

 Indoor Plants, Compost for, 337

 Industrial and Potable Alcohol: Sources and Mfg., 667

 Infant Foods, 359

 Infants, Milk for, 475

 Inflammable Explosive with Chlorate of Potash, 331

 Inflammability of Celluloid Reduced, 159

 Inflammation of the Udder, 731

 Influenza in Cattle, 731
   in Horses, 731

 Ink Eradicators, 189
   Erasers, 189
   for Laundry, 446
   for Leather Finishers, 453
   for Steel Tools, 404
   for Writing on Glass, 325, 376
     on Glazed Cardboard, 404
   on Marble, 404
   Powders and Lozenges, 407
   Stains, Removing, 189

 Inks, 403
   for Hand Stamps, 411
   for Shading Pen, 416
   for Stamp Pads, 410
   for Typewriters, 711
   Hectograph, 395

 Inlay Varnish, 724

 Inlaying by Electrolysis, 324

 Insect Bites, 417
   Casting, 151
   Powders, 419, 424
   Trap, 425

 Insecticides, 418
   for Animals, 419
   for Plants, 422

 Instructions for Etching, 322

 Instrument Alloys, 71
   Cleaning, 199
   Lacquer, 440
   Soap, 653

 Instruments, to Remove Rust, 199

 Insulating Varnishes, 425

 Insulation, 425
   Against Heat, 426
     Moisture, Weather, etc., 426

 Intensifiers and Reducers, 552

 International Atomic Weights, 757

 Iodine Poison, 94
   Soap, 646
   Solvent, 427

 Iodoform Deodorizer, 427

 Iridescent Paper, 504

 Iridia Perfumery, 516

 Iron, 427
   and Marble, Cement for, 17
   and Steel, Etching Fluids for, 322
       Polishes, 597
       Powder for Hardening, 427
   Biting Off Red Hot, 612
   Black Paint for, 495

 Iron, Bronzing, 567
   Castings, to Soften, 427
   Cements for, 17, 25
   How to Attach Rubber to, 22
   Pipes, Rust Prevention for, 625
   Silver-plating, 587
   Solders, 665
   to Cement Glass to, 17
   to Clean, 204
   to Cloth, Gluing, 14
   to Color Blue, 427
   to Whiten, 427
   Varnishes, 727

 Ironing Wax, 444

 Irritating Plaster, 486

 Itch, Barbers’, 486

 Ivory, 428
   and Bone Bleaches, 430
   Black, 123
   Cement, 31
   Coating for Wood, 500
   Etching on, 428
   Gilding, 579
   Polishes, 593
   Tests, 430

 J

 Jaborandi Scalp Waters, 392

 Jackson’s Mouth Wash, 259

 Jandrier’s Test for Cotton, 246

 Japan Black, 495
     Paint, 495

 Japanese Alloys, 69
   Bronze, 138
   (Gray), Silver, 76

 Japanning and Japan Tinning, 724

 Jasmine Milk, 240

 Jelly (Fruit) Extract, 314

 Jet Jewelry, to Clean, 431

 Jewelers’ Alloys, 433
   Cements, 20
   Cleaning Processes, 206
   Enamels, 308
   Formulas, 430
   Glue Cement, 20

 Jewelry, to Clean, 206

 K

 Kalsomine, 436

 Karats, to Find Number of, 432

 Keeping Flies Out of a House, 399

 Keramics, 164

 Kerit, 619

 Kerosene-cleaning Compounds, 193

 Kerosene Deodorizer, 484
   Emulsions, 521

 Ketchup (Adulterated), 353

 Khaki Color Dyeing, 276

 Kid, 449
   Leather Dressings, 449
   Reviver, 453

 Kirschner Wine Mustard, 214

 Kissingen Salts, 628

 Knife-blade Cement, 16

 Knife-sharpening Pastes, 615

 Knockenplombe, 31

 Kola Cordial, 764
   Tincture, 321

 Koumiss, 116
   Substitute, 437

 Krems Mustard, Sour, 215

 Krems Mustard, Sweet, 215

 Kümmel, 764

 Kwass, 117

 L

 Label Pastes, 39
   Varnishes, 725

 Labels on Tin, How to Paste, 40

 Lac and the Art of Lacquering, 437

 Lace Leather, 454
   to Clean Gold and Silver, 193

 Laces, Washing and Coloring of, 446

 Lacquer for Aluminum, 438
   for Brass, 438
   for Bronze, 438
   for Copper, 439
   for Oil Paintings, 440
   for Microscopes, etc., 440
   for Stoves and other Articles, 441

 Lacquered Ware, to Clean, 195

 Lacquers, 437
   for Papers, 441

 Lakes, 277

 Lampblack, 441

 Lamp Burners, to Clean, 200, 399

 Lamps, 442

 Lanoline Creams, 238
   Hair Wash, 389
   Soap, 647
   Toilet Milk, 239

 Lantern Slides, 532

 Lard, 442

 Lathe Lubricant, 461

 Laudanum Poison, 95

 Laundry Blue, 443
     Tablets, 444
   Gloss Dressing, 444
   Inks, 399
   Preparations, 443
   Soap, 654

 Laundrying Laces, 446

 Laurel Water, Poison, 93

 Lavatory Deodorant, 398

 Lavender Sachets, 510
   Water, 514

 Lawn Sand, 629

 Laxatives for Cattle, etc., 732

 Lead, 48, 446
   Alloys, 48, 71
   Amalgams, Application of, 88
   Paper, 507
   Plate, Tinned, 589
   Poison, 95
   to Take Boiling, in the Mouth, 612

 Leaf Brass, 54

 Leaks, 446
   in Boilers, Stopping, 608

 Leather, 447
   and Rubber Cements, 22
   as an Insulator, 426
   Cements for, 23

 Leather-cleaning Processes, 186

 Leather Dyeing, 450
   Lac, 441
   Lubricants, 460
   or Cardboard Glue, 15
   Painting on, 455
   Polish Lac, 441
   Removing Spots from, 206
   Russian, 454
   Varnish, 725
   Waste Insulation, 426
   Waterproofing, 750

 Leguminous Cheese, 176

 Lemon Beer, 108
   Essences, 315
   Extract (Adulterated), 356
   Juice, Plain, 112
   Sherbet, 628
   Sour, 116

 Lemons, 456

 Lemonade, 109, 112
   for Diabetics, 109
   Powder, 627
   Preparations for the Sick, 109

 Lemonades and Sour Drinks, 110

 Lenses and their Care, 456

 Letter-head Sensitizers, 537

 Lettering, 456
   a Clock Dial, 737
   on Glass, 457
   on Mirrors, 457

 Ley Pewter, 75

 Lice Killers, 422
   Powders, 734

 Lichen Removers, 4

 Licorice, 458
   Syrup, 321

 Liebermann’s Bleaching Test, 246

 Light, Inactinic, 154

 Lilac Dye for Silk, 270
   Water Perfumery, 520

 Limburger Cheese, 176

 Lime, 33, 692

 Limeade, 110

 Lime as a Fertilizer, 339
   Bird, 458
   Juice, 112, 316

 Lime-juice Cordial, 118

 Limewater for Dyers’ Use, 274

 Lincoln Cheese, 176

 Lincolnshire Relish, 213

 Linen Bleaching, 120
   Dressing, 444
   to Distinguish Cotton from, 246

 Linoleum, 459
   Cleaning and Polishing, 206, 398
   Glue to Fasten, 14

 Liniments, 459
   for Horses, 731

 Lining for Acid Receptacles, 10

 Linseed Oil, 34, 459
   Adulteration of, 460
   Bleaching of, 459
   for Varnish Making, 483
   or Poppy Oil, 484
   Refining, 484
   Solid, 483

 Lipol, 226

 Lipowitz Metal, 61, 65

 Lip, Pomades, 226
   Salves and Lipol, 226

 Liqueurs, 768
   to Clarify, 770

 Liquid Bedbug Preparations, 421
   Bottle Lac, 440
   Bronzes, 135
   Cloth and Glove Cleaner, 195
   Court Plaster, 247
   Dentifrices, 256
   Dye Colors, 273
   for Bronze Powder, 567
   for Cooling Automobile Engines, 363

 Liquids for Etching Steel, 327

 Liquid Gold, 380
   Glues, 11
   Headache Remedies, 394
   Indelible Drawing Ink, 403
   Laundry Blue, 444
   Metal Polish, Non-explosive, 595
   Perfumes, 511, 515
   Polishes, 594
   Porcelain Cement, 28
   Rouge, 230
   Shampoos, 393
   Shoe Blackings, 633
   Soaps, 646
   Styrax Soap, 647
   Tar Soap, 647, 654

 Liquor Ammonii Anisatus, 91

 Liquors, 762

 Lithia Water, 740

 Lithographic Inks, 407
   Lacquer, 440
   Paper, 505

 Liver-spot Remedies, 241, 242

 Lobelia-Indian Poke Poison, 95

 Locomotive Axles, Grease for, 462
   Lubricants, 462

 Locust Killer, 422

 Logwood and Indigo Blue Dye, 268

 London Soap Powder, 650

 Lotion for the Hands, 232

 Louse Wash, 423

 Lozenges, Voice and Throat, 219

 Lubricants, 460, 462
   for Cutting Tools, 461
   for Heavy Bearings, 461
   for Highspeed Bearings, 461
   for Lathe Centers, 461
   for Redrawing Shells, 463
   for Watchmakers, 738

 Luhn’s Washing Extract, 445

 Luminous Paints, 494

 Lunar Blend, 114

 Lustrous Oxide on Silver, 641

 Luster Paste, 464

 Lutes, 32

 M

 Machine Bronze, 58
   Oil, 460

 Machinery, to Clean, 200, 201, 203
   to Keep it Bright, 624

 Macht’s Yellow Metal, 63

 Madder Lake Dye, 277

 Magic, 610
   Bottles, 126
   Mirrors, 478

 Magnesian Lemonade Powder, 627
   Orgeat Powder, 627

 Magnesium, 49
   Citrate, 464
   Flash-light Powders, 552

 Magnetic Alloys, 71
   Curves of Iron Filings, their Fixation, 464
   Oxide, 625

 Magnolia Metal, 51

 Mahogany, 784

 Make Extract of Indigo Blue Dye, 268

 Making Castings in Aluminum, 81

 Malleable Brass, 54

 Malt, Hot, 112

 Malted Food, 359
   Milk, 112, 474

 Manganese Alloys, 72
   Amalgams, Applications of, 87
   Argentan, 70
   Copper, 72

 Manganin, 72

 Mange Cures, 731

 Manicure Preparations, 226

 Mannheim Gold or Similor, 68

 Mantles, 465

 Manufacture of Alcohol, 674
   of Cheese, 174
   of Chewing Gum, 178
   of Compounds Imitating Ivory, Shell, etc., 429
   of Composite Paraffine Candles, 145
   of Glue, 10
   of Matches, 465
   of Pigments, 555

 Manufacturing Varnish Hints, 715

 Manures, 337

 Manuscript Copying, 223

 Maple, 784

 Maraschino Liqueur, 770

 Marble, Artificial, 699
   Cements, 16
   Cleaning, 196
   Colors, 699
   Etching, 327
   Painting on, 488

 Marble, Polishing, 593
   Slabs, Cement for, 16

 Marbling Crayons, 247
   Paper for Books, 505

 Margerine, 143

 Marine Glue, 13
   Paint to Resist Sea Water, 498

 Marking Fluid, 465
   or Labeling Inks, 407

 Maroon Dye for Woolens, 280
   Lake Dye, 277

 Massage Application, 233
   Balls, 233
   Creams, 233
   Skin Foods, 233
   Soaps, 647

 Mastic Lac, 441

 Mat Aluminum, 81
   Gilding, 579

 Mats for Metals, 470

 Matches, 465

 Match Marks on Paint, 195
   Phosphorus, Substitute for, 523

 Materials, 172
   for Concrete Building Blocks, 691

 Matrix for Medals, Coins, etc., 467

 Matt Etching of Copper, 323

 Matzoon, 468

 May Bowl or May Wine, 770

 Mead, 468

 Meadow Saffron Poison, 95

 Measures, 760
   to Clean, 204

 Measuring the Weight of Ice, 402

 Meat Extract Containing Albumen, 361
   Preservatives, 359, 360
   Products (Adulterated), 357

 Medallion Metal, 62

 Medal Impressions, 467

 Medals, to Clean, 199

 Medical Paste, 37

 Medicated Cough Drops, 217
   Massage Balls, 233
   Soaps, 647

 Medicinal Wines, 771

 Medicine Doses, 265

 Meerschaum, 469
   Cements, 30
   Repairing, 27

 Mending Celluloid, 161
   Porcelain by Riveting, 601

 Menthol Cough Drops, 217
   Tooth Powder, 253

 Mercury, Poison, 95
   Salves, 487
   Stains, to Remove, 186

 Metacarbol Developer, 527

 Metal and Paper Glue, 14
   Browning by Oxidation, 583
   Cements, 25
   Cleaning, 199
   Foil, 474
   Glass and Porcelain Cement, 25
   Inlaying, 249
   Lipowitz, 65
   Polishes, 595
   Protectives, 624
   Temperature of, 152
   Type, 78
   Varnishes, 725, 727
   Waterproof Cements for, 21

 Metallic Articles, Soldering of, 656
   Cement, 163
   Coffins, 71
   Glazes on Enamels, 173
   Luster on Pottery, 173
     Stain, 783
   Paper, 507
   Soaps, 648

 Metals and Their Treatment, 469
   Brightening and Deadening, by Dipping, 469
   Bronzing, 567
   Cements for, 21, 24
   Coloring, 471
   Etching Powder for, 324
   Fusion Point of, 473
   How to Attach to Rubber, 22
   How to Bronze, 136
   Securing Wood to, 37
   Solution for Cleaning, 200
   to Silver-plate, 588

 Metric System of Weights and Measures, 759
   Weights, 759

 Meth, 468

 Metheglin, 468

 Method of Hardening Gypsum and Rendering it Weatherproof, 387
   of Purifying Glue, 378

 Methods of Preparing Rubber Plasters, 562

 Methyl Salicylate, to Distinguish from Oil of Wintergreen, 771

 Metol and Hydrochinon Developer, 525

 Metol-bicarbonate Developer, 525

 Metol Developer, 524, 525

 Mice Poison, 613

 Microphotographs, 550

 Milk, 354, 474

 Milk as a Substitute for Celluloid, Bone, and Ivory, 148
   Cucumber, 239
   Extracts, 474
   Powder for Cows, 732
   Substitute, 475
   to Preserve, 475, 606

 Minargent, 64

 Mineral Acids, Poison, 92
   Oil, 484
   Waters, 739

 Minofor Metal, 64

 Mint Cordial, 765
   Julep, 114

 Mirror Alloys, 72

 Mirror-lettering, 457

 Mirror Polishes, 593
   Silvering, 476

 Mirrors, 476
   Frosted, 375
   to Clean, 209
   to Prevent Dimming of, 374

 Miscellaneous Tin Alloys, 78

 Mite Killer, 422

 Mixed Birdseed, 120, 729

 Mixers, Concrete, 693

 Mixing Castor Oil with Mineral Oils, 484

 Mixture for Burns, 142

 Mocking-bird Food, 120, 729

 Mock Turtle Extract, 212

 Modeling Wax, 755

 Modification of Milk for Infants, 473

 Moisture, 426

 Molding Sand, 478

 Molds, 152
   of Plaster, 564

 Moles, 479

 Montpelier Cough Drops, 217

 Mordant for Cement Surfaces, 479
   for Gold Size, 479

 Morphine Poison, 95

 Mortar, Asbestos, 479

 Mosaic Gold, 68, 140
   Silver, 140, 588

 Mosquitoes, Remedies, 425

 Moss Removers, 209

 Moth Exterminators, 425
   Paper, 507

 Moths and Caterpillars, 423

 Motors, Anti-freezing Solution for, 363

 Mottled Soap, 654

 Mountants, 479, 544

 Mounting Drawings, etc., 479
   Prints on Glass, 480

 Mousset’s Alloy, 76

 Moutarde aux Epices, 215
   des Jesuittes, 214

 Mouth Antiseptics, 99
   Washes, 258
   Wash-tablets, 259

 Moving Objects, How to Photograph Them, 548

 Mucilage, 42
   Commercial, 43
   Creams, 238
   of Acacia, 43
   to Make Wood and Pasteboard Adhere to Metals, 43

 Mulberry Dye for Silk, 272

 Muriatic Acid Poison, 92

 Mushroom Poison, 96

 Music Boxes, 480

 Muslin, Painting on, 488

 Mustache Fixing Fluid, 480

 Mustard, 214
   Cakes, 214
   Paper, 480
   Vinegar, 215

 Myrrh Mouth Wash, 258
   Tooth Paste, 257

 N

 Nadjy, 115

 Nail-cleaning Washes, 227

 Nail, Ingrowing, 481
   Polishes, 226
   Varnish, 227

 Name Plates, Coating for, 501

 Natural Glue for Cementing Porcelain, Crystal Glass, etc., 15
   Lemon Juice, 316
   Water, 739

 Nature, Source and Manufacture of Pigments, 555

 Neatsfoot Oil, 481

 Needles, Anti-rust Paper for, 625

 Negatives, How to Use Spoiled, 534

 Nervine Ointment, 487

 Nerve Paste, 481

 Nets, 223

 Neufchâtel Cheese, 177

 Neutral Tooth Powder, 255

 New Celluloid, 155
   Mordant for Aniline Colors, 273
   Production of Indigo, 281

 Nickel Alloys, 76
   Bronze, 70

 Nickel-plating, 573
   with the Battery, 573

 Nickel-testing, 481

 Nickel, to Clean, 200
   to Remove Rust from, 199

 Nickeled Surface, 589

 Nickeling by Oxidation, 587
   Test for, 589

 Niello, 683

 Nitrate of Silver Poison, 95
     Spots, 198

 Nitric Acid Poison, 92
   Stains to Remove, 185

 Nitroglycerine, 329

 Non-explosive Liquid Metal Polish, 595

 Non-masticating Insects, 423

 Non-Poisonous Textile and Egg Dyes for Household Use, 275
   Fly-papers, 347

 Non-porous Corks, 224

 Norfolk Cheese, 177

 Normona, 115

 Nose Putty, 230

 Notes for Potters, Glass-, and Brick-makers, 164

 Noyeau Powder, 628

 Nut Candy Sticks, 216

 Nutmeg Essence, 316

 Nutwood Stain, 783

 Nux Vomica Poison, 615

 O

 Oak, 775, 783
   Graining, 494
   Leather, Stains for, 455
   Stain, 783
   Wood Polish, 598

 Odorless Disinfectants, 264

 Odonter, 259

 Œnanthic Ether as a Flavoring for Ginger Ale, 108

 Oil, Carron, 242
   Castor, 153
   Clock, 482

 Oilcloth, 459
   Adhesives, 36

 Oil Extinguisher, 341
   for Firearms, 460
   Grease-, Paint-spot Eradicators, 205
   How to Pour Out, 153
   Lubricating, 460
   Neatsfoot, 481
   of Cinnamon as an Antiseptic, 100
   of Vitriol Poison, 92
   Paintings, Lacquer for, 440
     Protection for, 488
   Prints, Reproduced, 223
   Removers, 205
   Solidified, 461
   Stains for Hard Floors, 344
   Suitable for Use with Gold, 485

 Oils, 482
   (Edible), Tests for, 355
   for Harness, 451
   Purification of, 335

 Oilskins, 750

 Oily Bottles, to Clean, 210

 Ointments, 486
   for Veterinary Purposes, 731

 Oleaginous Stamping Colors, 679

 Olein Soap, 654

 Oleomargarine, 142

 Old-fashioned Ginger Beer, 107
   Lemonade, 110

 Olive-oil Paste, 143

 Onyx Cements, 16

 Opium and All Its Compounds, Poison, 95

 Optical Lenses, Cleaning, 208

 Orangeade, 110

 Orange Bitters and Cordial, 762, 764
   Drops, 216
   Dye, 271
   Extract, 316
   Flower Water, 520
   Frappé, 110
   Peel, Soluble Extract, 316
   Phosphate, 112

 Ordinary Drab Dye, 281
   Green Glass for Dispensing Bottles, 373
   Negative Varnish, 544

 Oreïde (French Gold), 68

 Orgeat Punch, 110

 Ornamental Designs on Silver, 641

 Ornaments of Iron, Blackening, 495

 Orris and Rose Mouth Wash, 258

 Ortol Developer, 527

 Ox-gall Soap for Cleansing Silk, 654

 Oxide, Magnetic, 625
   of Chrome, 172
   of Tin, 172
   of Zinc Poison, 97

 Oxidized Steel, 584

 Oxidizing, 139
   Processes, 581

 Ozonatine, 44

 P

 Package Pop, 107
   Wax, 755

 Packing for Gasoline Pumps, 488
   for Stuffing Boxes, 488

 Packings, 488

 Pads of Paper, 488, 502

 Pain-subduing Ointment, 487

 Paint, Acid-resisting, 10
   Bases, 489
   Brushes, 490
     at Rest, 141
     Cleaning, 140
   Deadening, 491
   Dryers, 492
   for Bathtubs, 501
   for Blackboards, 489
   for Copper, 495
   for Iron, 496
   for Protecting Cement Against Acid, 9
   Grease, 229
   Peeling of, 501
   Removed from Clothes, 192
   Removers, 187
   to Prevent Crawling of, 490
   Varnish, and Enamel Removers, 187

 Painters’ Putty, 607

 Painting on Leather, 455
   on Marble, 488
   on Muslin, 488
   Ornaments or Letters on Cloth and Paper, 488
   Over Fresh Cement, 499
   Processes, 488

 Paintings, 488
   to Clean, 195

 Paints, 489
   Dry Base for, 489
   for Gold and Gilding, 492
   for Metal Surfaces, 495
   for Roofs and Roof Paper, 497
   for Walls of Cement, Plaster, Hard Finish, etc., 498
   for Wood, 500
   Stains, etc., for Ships, 498
   Waterproof and Weatherproof, 499

 Pale Purple Gold, 383

 Pale-yellow Soap, 652

 Palladium Alloys, 73
   Bearing Metal, 73
   Gold, 69
   Silver Alloy, 73

 Palladiumizing, 583

 Palms, their Care, 502

 Panama Hat, How to Clean, 187

 Paper, 502
   and Metal Glue, 14
   (Anti-rust) for Needles, 625
   as Protection for Iron, 625
   Blotting, 503
   Box Glue, 15
   Celloidin, 504
   Cements, 21
   Disinfectant, 263
   Fireproof, 344
   Floor Covering, 506
   Frosted, 374

 Paperhangers’ Pastes, 39

 Paper Hygrometers, 402
   Making, Blue Print, 536
   on Glass, to Affix, 19
   Pads, 502

 Paper Pads, Glue for, 12
   Photographic, 527
   -sensitizing Processes, 536
   Tickets Fastening to Glass, 19
   Varnishes, 725
   Waterproofing, 505, 751

 Papers, Igniting, 611

 Papier-mâché, 502

 Paraffine, 507
   Scented Cakes, 508

 Paraffining of Floors, 345

 Parchment and Paper, 502
   Cement, 21
   Paste, 37

 Paris Green, 561
   Red, 600
   Salts, 264

 Parisian Cement, 30

 Parmesan Cheese, 177

 Parquet Floors, Renovating, 345
   Polishes, 591

 Passe-partout Framing, 508

 Paste, Agar-agar, 37
   Albumen, 37
   Antiseptic, 99
   Balkan, 38

 Pasteboard Cement, 21
   Deodorizers, 399

 Paste, Elastic or Pliable, 39
   for Affixing Cloth to Metal, 37
   for Cleaning Glass, 208
   for Fastening Leather to Desk Tops, etc., 36
   for Making Paper Boxes, 15
   for Paper, 37
   for Parchment Paper, 37
   for Removing Old Paint or Varnish Coats, 188
   for Tissue Paper, 37
   for Wall Paper, 39
   Flour, 39
   Ink to Write with Water, 416
   Permanent, 38
   that will not Mold, 37
   Venetian, 39

 Pastes, 35
   for Paperhangers, 39
   for Polishing Metals, 595
   for Silvering, 588
   to Affix Labels to Tin, 39

 Pastilles, Fumigating, 367

 Pasting Celluloid on Wood, 36
   Paper Signs on Metal, 36
   Wood and Cardboard on Metal, 37

 Pattern Letters and Figures, Alloys for, 80

 Paving Brick, Stain for, 166

 Patent Leather, 451
   Leather Dressings, 449
     Polish, 633
     Preserver, 453
     Stains for, 452

 Patina of Art Bronzes, 584
   Oxidizing Processes, 584

 Patinas, 584

 Peach Extract, 317
   Tint Rouge, 231

 Pearls, to Clean, 208

 Peeling of Paints, 501

 Pegamoid, 509

 Pencils, Antiseptic, 99
   for Marking Glass, 374

 Pen Metal, 74

 Pens, Gold, 383

 Peppermint as a Flavor, 252

 Pepsin Phosphate, 112

 Percentage Solution, 509, 704

 Perfumed Ammonia Water, 91
   Fumigating Pastilles, 367
   Pastilles, 520

 Perfumes, 366, 509
   Coloring, 511
   Directions for Making, 512
   Fumigating, 366
   for Hair Oils, 520
   for Soap, 648

 Permanent Patina for Copper, 585
   Paste, 38

 Perpetual Ink, 404

 Perspiration Remedy, 233

 Perspiring Hands, 233

 Petrolatum Cold Cream, 226

 Petroleum, 521
   Briquettes, 522
   Emulsion, 423
   for Spinning, 522
   Hair Washes, 390
   Jellies and Solidified Lubricants, 461
   Soap, 648

 Pewter, 75
   Aging, 522
   to Clean, 205

 Phosphate Dental Cement, 163
   of Casein and its Production, 149

 Phosphor Bronze, 58

 Phosphorescent Mass, 523

 Photographers’ Ointment, 487
   Photographs, 554

 Phosphorus Poison, 96, 614
   Substitute, 523

 Photographic Developing Papers, 527
   Mountants, 41

 Photographing on Silk, 540

 Photographs Enlarged, 542
   on Brooches, 551
   Transparent, 545

 Photography, 523
   without Light, 154

 Piano Polishes, 598

 Piccalilli Sauce, 213

 Pickle for Brass, 132
   for Bronze, 138
   for Copper, 221
   for Dipping Brass, 132

 Pickling Brass like Gold, 132
   Iron Scrap before Enameling, 305
   of German-silver Articles, 582
   Process, 453
   Spice, 214

 Picric Acid Stains, 186

 Picture Copying, 222
   Postal Cards, 537
   Transferrer, 251

 Pictures, Glow, 522

 Pigment Paper, 540

 Pigments, 555

 Pile Ointments, 561

 Pinaud Eau de Quinine, 392

 Pinchbeck Gold, 69

 Pineapple Essence, 317
   Lemonade, 110

 Pine Syrup, 320

 Pine-tar Dandruff Shampoo, 389

 Ping-pong Frappé, 110

 Pinion Alloy, 737

 Pink Carbolized Sanitary Powder, 263
   Color on Silver, 642
   Dye for Cotton, 271
     for Wool, 271

 Pinkeye, 731

 Pink Grease Paint, 229
   Purple Gold, 383
   Salve, 487
   Soap, 652

 Pins of Watches, 738

 Pin Wheels, 609

 Pipe-joint Cement, 162

 Pipe Leaks, 446
   to Color a Meerschaum, 469

 Pipes, Rust-preventive for, 625

 Pistachio Essence, 317

 Plain Rubber Cement, 34

 Plant Fertilizers, 336
   Preservatives, 345

 Plants, 561

 Plaster, 561
   Articles, Repairing of, 27
   Cast of Coins, 150
   Casts, Preservation of, 565
   for Foundry Models, 564
   from Spent Gas Lime, 564
   Grease, 463
   Irritating, 486
   Model Lubricant, 463
   Mold, 152, 564
   Objects, Cleaning of, 564
   of Paris, Hardening, 32, 150, 564
   Repairing, 27

 Plastic Alloys, 64
   and Elastic Composition, 158
   Metal Composition, 65
   Modeling Clay, 184
   Substances of Nitro-cellulose Base, 156

 Polishing Paste, 600

 Platina, Birmingham, 55

 Plate Glass, Removing Putty, 206
   Pewter, 75

 Plates, Care of Photographic, 523
   for Engraving, 71

 Platine for Dress Buttons, 80

 Plating, 565
   Gilding and Electrotyping, 288
   of Aluminum, 572

 Platinizing, 586
   Aluminum, 586
   Copper and Brass, 586
   Metals, 586
   on Glass or Porcelain, 586

 Platinotype Paper, 530

 Platinum Alloys, 73
   -gold Alloys for Dental Purposes, 74
   Papers and Their Development, 529
   Silver, 74
   Solders, 665
   Waste, to Separate Silver from, 641

 Platt’s Chlorides, 264

 Playing Cards, to Clean, 209

 Plumbago, 460

 Plumbers’ Cement, 161

 Plumes, 335

 Plush, 590
   to Remove Grease Spots from, 193

 Poison Ivy, 96

 Poisonous Fly-papers, 347
   Mushrooms, 96

 Poisons, Antidotes for, 92

 Polish for Beechwood Furniture, 593
   for Bronze Articles, 591
   for Copper Articles, 591
   for Fine Steel, 597
   for Gilt Frames, 600
   for Varnished Work, 195

 Polishes, 590
   Bone, 395
   for Aluminum, 590
   for Bars, Counters, etc., 590
   for Brass, Bronze, Copper, etc., 590
   for Floors, 591
   for Furniture, 592
   for Glass, 593
   for Ivory, Bone, etc., 593
   for Pianos, 596
   for Silverware, 596

 Polishes, for Steel and Iron, 597
   for the Laundry, 444
   for Wood, 598
   or Glazes for Laundry Work, 444

 Polishing Agent, 599
   Bricks, 600
   Cloths, to Prepare, 599
   Cream, 600
   Mediums, 600
   Pastes, 595
     for the Nails, 227
   Powders, 594
   Soaps, 594

 Polychroming of Figures, 501

 Pomade, Putz, 203

 Pomades, 277, 392
   Colors for, 228
   for the Lips, 226

 Pomegranate Essence, 317

 Poppy Oil, 484
   -seed Oil, Bleaching of, 459

 Porcelain, 601
   How to Tell Pottery, 173
   Letters, Cement for, 19
   Production of Luster Colors, 172

 Portland Cement, 162
   Size Over, 30

 Positive Colors, 556

 Postal Cards, How to Make, 537
     How to Make Sensitized, 539

 Potassium Amalgams, Applications of, 86
   Silicate as a Cement, 19

 Potato Starch, 680

 Pottery, 173
   and Porcelain, How to Tell, 173
   Bodies and Glazes, 167
   Metallic Luster on, 173
   to Cut, 164

 Poultry Applications, 419
   Foods and Poultry Diseases and Their Remedies, 733
   Lice Destroyer, 419
   Wine, 771

 Pounce, 189

 Powdered Camphor in Permanent Form, 144
   Cork as a Preservative, 606
   Nail Polishes, 226

 Powder, Blasting, 330
   Face, 243
   for Cleaning Gloves, 195
   for Colored Fires, 609
   for Gilding Metals, 579
   for Hardening Iron, 427
   Roup, 734
   to Keep Moths Away, 425
   to Weld Wrought Iron at Pale-red Heat with Wrought Iron, 761

 Powders for Stamping, 679
   for the Toilet, 242

 Preservation and Use of Calcium Carbide, 144
   of Belts, 105
   of Carpets, 399
   of Drawings, 266
   of Eggs, 284
   of Fats, 335
   of Fishing Nets, 223
   of Fresh Lemon Juice, 456
   of Fruit Juices, 310
   of Gum Solution, 44
   of Meats, 359
   of Milk, 475
   of Plaster Casts, 565
   of Syrups, 701
   of Wood, 776
   of Yeast, 786

 Preservative Fluid for Museums, 602
   for Stuffed Animals, 602

 Preservatives, 602

 Preservatives, for Leather, 452

 Prairie Oyster, 116

 Preparation of Amalgams, 85
   of Brick Colors, 165
   of Carbolineum, 147
   of Catgut Sutures, 155
   of Celluloid, 156
   of Emulsions of Crude Petroleum, 521
   of Enamels, 308
   of French Bronze, 136
   of Syrups, 702
   of Uninflammable Celluloid, 157

 Preparations of Copper Water, 221

 Prepared Mustards of Commerce, 214

 Preparing Bone for Fertilizer, 338

 Preparing Emery for Lapping, 289

 Preservative for Stone, 602

 Preservatives for Paste, 38
   for Shoe Soles, 633
   for Zoological and Anatomical Specimens, 602

 Preserved Strawberries, 605

 Preserving Antiques, 98
   Eggs with Lime, 285
   Meat, a German Method, 361

 Pressure Table, 704

 Preventing the Peeling of Coatings for Iron, 427
   the Putrefaction of Strong Glues, 11
   Varnish from Crawling, 717

 Prevention of Boiler Scale, 122
   of Electrolysis, 123
   of Fermentation, 765
   of Foaming and Partial Caramelization of Fruit Juices, 311
   of Fogging, Dimming and Clouding, 374

 Prickly Heat, Applications for, 398

 Priming Coat for Water Spots, 501
   Iron, 495

 Print Copying, 222

 Printing Ink, Savages, 409
   Inks, 408
   Oilcloth and Leather in Gold, 379
   on Celluloid, 161
   on Photographs, 554

 Printing-out Paper, How to Sensitize, 539

 Printing-roller Compositions, 617

 Prints, their Preservation, 309

 Process for Colored Glazes, 165
   for Dyeing in Khaki Colors, 276
   of Electroplating, 286
   of Impregnating Fabrics with Celluloid, 161

 Production of Consistent Mineral Oils, 484
   of Lampblack, 441
   of Luster Colors on Porcelain and Glazed Pottery, 172
   of Minargent, 64
   of Rainbow Colors on Metals, 568
   of Substances Resembling Celluloid, 158

 Properties of Amalgams, 85
   of Concrete Blocks, Strength, 695

 Protecting Boiler Plates from Scale, 122
   Cement Against Acid, 9
   Stuffed Furniture from Moths, 425

 Protection for Cement Work, 162
   for Oil Paintings, 488

 Protection of Acetylene Apparatus from Frost, 363

 Protective Coating for Bright Iron Articles, 496

 Prussic Acid, 93

 Pumice Stone, 606

 Pumice-stone Soap, 648

 Pumillo Toilet Vinegar, 244

 Punch, Claret, 112

 Puncture Cement, 162

 Purification of Benzine, 106

 Purifying-air, 44

 Purifying Oils and Fats, 335
   Rancid Castor Oil, 153
   Water, 740

 Purple and Violet Dyes, 269
   Dye, 269
     for Cotton, 270
     for Silk, 270
   Ink, 416
   of Cassius, 383

 Putty, 606
   Acid-proof, 607
   for Attaching Sign-letters to Glass, 19
   for Celluloid, 161
   Nose, 230
   Substitute for, 608
   to Remove, 206

 Putz Pomade, 203

 Pyrocatechin Developer, 526

 Pyrogallic Acid Stains, 185

 Pyrotechnics, 608, 610

 Q

 Quadruple Extract Perfumery, 518

 Quince Extract, 317
   Flip, 115

 Quick Dryer for Inks Used on Bookbinders’ Cases, 410

 Quick-drying Enamel Colors, 722

 Quick-water, 66

 Quilts, to Clean, 194

 R

 Rags for Cleaning, 194

 Raspberryade Powder, 627

 Raspberry Essences, 318
   Lemonade, 110
   Sour, 116
   Syrup, 317, 318

 Rat Poisons, 96, 613

 Ratsbane Poison, 93

 Ravigotte Mustard, 215

 Razor Paper, 503
   Pastes, 509, 615

 Recipes for Cold-stirred Toilet Soaps, 652
   for Pottery and Brick Work, 167
   for Soldering, 665

 Recovering Glycerine from Soap Boiler’s Lye, 378

 Recovery of Tin and Iron in Tinned-plate Clippings, 707

 Recutting Old Files, 339

 Red Birds, Food for, 729
   Coloring of Copper, 221
   Crimson and Pink Dyes, 270
   Dye for Wool, 271
   Furniture Paste, 592
   Gilding, 580
   Gold Enamel, 67
   Grease Paint, 229
   Indelible Inks, 406
   Ink, 416
   Patina, 585
   Russia Leather Varnish, 449

 Reducer for Gelatin Dry-plate Negatives, 535

 Reducers, 552

 Reducing Photographs, 542

 Refining Linseed Oil, 484
   of Potato Starch, 680

 Refinishing Gas Fixtures, 130

 Reflector Metal, 72

 Refrigerants, 615

 Refrigeration, 616

 Refrigerators, Home-made, 616
   their Care, 401

 Regilding Mat Articles, 580

 Reinking Typewriter Ribbons, 413

 Relief Etching of Copper, Steel, and Brass, 323
     Ground for, 322
     of Zinc, 323

 Relishes, 213

 Remedies Against Human Parasites, 422
     Mosquitoes, 425
   for Dry Rot, 618
   for Fetid Breath, 133
   for Insect Bites, 417

 Removable Binding, 141

 Removal of Aniline-dye Stains from the Skin, 184
   of Corns, 224
   of Dirt from Paraffine, 508
   of Heat Stains from Polished Wood, 776
   of Iron from Drinking Water, 741
   of Musty Taste and Smell from Wine, 771
   of Odors from Wooden Boxes, Chests, Drawers, etc., 398
   of Paint from Clothing, 192
   of Peruvian-balsam Stains, 194
   of Picric-acid Stains, 186
   of Rust, 199

 Removing Acid Stains, 184
   and Preventing Match Marks, 195
   Egg Stains, 201
   Glaze from Emery Wheels, 289
   Grease Spots from Plush, 193
   Inground Dirt, 235
   Ink Stains, 189
   Iron Rust from Muslin, 193
   Odor from Pasteboard, 399
   Oil Spots from Leather, 206
   Oil Stains from Marble, 197
   Old Wall Paper, 400
   Paint from Wood, 188
   Silver Stains, 209
   Spots from Furniture, 206
   the Gum of Sticky Fly-paper, 348
   Varnish, etc., 188
   Window Frost, 376
   Woody Odor, 399

 Rendering Paraffine Transparent, 507

 Renovating a Camera, 553
   Old Parquet Floors, 345

 Renovation of Polished Surfaces of Wood, etc., 197

 Repairing Broken Glass, 26
   Hectographs, 396
   Rubber Goods, 620

 Replacing Rubies whose Settings have Deteriorated, 736

 Replating, 588
   with Battery, 573

 Reproduction of Plaster Originals, 565

 Resilvering, 588
   of Mirrors, 476

 Restoring Photographs, 544
   Tarnished Gold, 199

 Restoration of Brass Articles, 132
   of Old Prints, 309

 Restoration of Spoiled Beer, 105
   of the Color of Turquoises, 432

 Retz Alloy, 64

 Revolver Lubricants, 460

 Rhubarb for Cholera, 180

 Ribbon, Fumigating, 366

 Ribbons for Typewriters, 711

 Rice Paste, 38

 Rifle Lubricants, 460

 Ring, How to Solder, 666

 Rings on Metal, Producing Colored, 582

 Riveting China, 179

 Roach Exterminators, 425

 Rock-candy Syrup, 702

 Rockets, 609

 Rockingham Glazes, 171

 Rodinal Developer, 524

 Roller Compositions for Printers, 617

 Roman Candles, 609

 Roof Paints, 497

 Roofs, How to Lay, 397
   Prevention of Leakage, 397

 Room Deodorizer, 400

 Rope Lubricants, 463

 Ropes, 617
   Waterproofing, 753

 Roquefort Cheese, 177

 Rose’s Alloy, 64

 Rose Cordial, 765
   Cream, 115

 Rose-Glycerine Soap, 652

 Rosemary Water for the Hair, 389

 Rose Mint, 115
   Pink Dye, 278
   Pomade, 227
   Poudre de Riz Powder, 243
   Powders, 230
   Talc, 510

 Rose-tint Glass, 371

 Rosewood, 783
   Stain, 783

 Rosin, Shellac, and Wax Cement, 34
   Soap as an Emulsifier, 289
   Sticks, 260
   Tests for, in Extracts, 356

 Rottmanner’s Beauty Water, 244

 Rouge, 228, 229, 230
   for Buff Wheels, 618
   or Paris Red, 600
   Palettes, 230
   Powder, 600
   Tablets, 230
   Theater, 231

 Roup Cures, 734

 Royal Frappé, 114
   Mist, 115

 Rubber, 618
   and Rubber Articles, 620
     Wood Fastened, 22
   Boots and Shoe Cement, 23
   Cement for Cloth, 24
   Cements, 22, 34
   Gloves, Substitute for, 100
     Testing, 622
   Goods, Repairing, 620
   Its Properties and Uses in Waterproofing, 743
   Scraps, Treatment of, 621
   Softening, 621
   Stamps, 622
   Varnishes, 724

 Ruby Settings, 737

 Rules for Varnishing, 717

 Rum, Bay, 104

 Ruoltz Metal, 64

 Russet Leather Dressing, 449

 Russian Leather, 454
   Polishing Lac, 411

 Rust Paints, 497
   Paper, 625

 Rust, Prevention for Iron Pipes, 625
   Preventive for Tools, etc., 625
   Removers, 193, 198
   Preventives, 623

 Rusty Pieces, to Separate, 625

 S

 Saccharine in Food, 351

 Sachet Powders, 509

 Safety in Explosives, 330
   Paper, 503
   Paste for Matches, 467

 Sage Cheese, 176

 Salicyl, Sweet, 258

 Salicylic Acid in Food, 349
   Soap, 654

 Saltpeter (Nitrate of Potash), 96

 Salts, Effervescent, 626
   Smelling, 628

 Salve, 486

 Sand, 628
   Holes in Brass, 150
     in Cast-brass Work, 150

 Sand-lime Brick, 689

 Sand Soap, 654
   to Prevent Adhesion of Sand to Castings, 150

 Sandstone Cements, 17
   Coating, 10
   to Remove Oil Spots from, 198

 Sapo Durus, 654

 Saponaceous Tooth Pastes, 257

 Sarsaparilla, 629
   Beer, 118
   Extract, 318
   Soluble Extract, 318

 Sauces, Table, 213

 Sausage Color, 358

 Savage’s Printing Ink, 409

 Savine Poison, 96

 Sawdust for Jewelers, 737
   in Bran, 126

 Saxon Blue Dye, 268

 Scald Head, Soap for, 653

 Scale for Photographic Reduction, 542
   in Boilers, 122
   Insects, Extermination of, 423
     on Orange Trees, 423
   Pan Cleaner, 205

 Scales and Tables, 547

 Scalp Wash, 389

 Scarlet Lake Dyes, 277
   with Lac Dye, 271

 Schiffmann’s Asthma Powder, 101

 Scissors Hardening, 685

 Scotch Beer, 118

 Scratch Brushing, 576

 Screws, 629
   Bluing, 682
   in Watches, 738

 Sealing (Burning) Trick, 611
   Waxes, 755

 Sea Sickness, 630

 Seasonings, 213

 Seed, Bird, 120

 Seidlitz Salt, 628

 Self-igniting Mantles, 465

 Seltzer and Lemon, 110
   Lemonade, 110
   Water, 740

 Separating Silver from Platinum Waste, 641

 Serpents, Pharaoh’s, 630

 Serviettes Magiques, 596

 Setting of Tools, 708
   the Paint-brush Bristles, 141

 Sewing-machine Oil, 461

 Sewing Thread, Dressing for, 706

 Shades of Red, etc., on Matt Gold Bijouterie, 431

 Shading Pen, Ink for, 416

 Shampoo Lotions and Pastes, 392
   Soap, 653

 Sharpening Pastes, 509
   Stones, 761

 Shaving Paste, 630
   Soaps, 649

 Sheep, 734

 Sheet Brass, 54

 Sheet-dips, 264

 Sheet Metal Alloy, 71
     Lubricant, 463

 Shellac, 716
   Bleaching, 631

 Shell Cameos, 630
   Imitation of, 429
   Polishes, 593

 Shells, Lubricants for Redrawing, 463

 Sherbet, Egg, 115

 Shims in Engine Brasses, 631

 “Shio Liao,” 32

 Ship Compositions and Paints, 498

 Shoe Dressings, 631
   Leather Dressing, 450

 Shoes, Blacking for, 631
   Waterproofing, 750

 Show Bottles, 127

 Show-case Signs, 457

 Show Cases, 635
   to Prevent Dimming of, 374

 Siberian Flip, 115

 Siccatives, 636

 Sign Letters, 639

 Sign-letter Cements, 18

 Signs on Show Cases, 457
   to Repair Enameled, 304

 Silicate of Oxychloride Cements, 35

 Silicon Bronze, 61

 Silk, 639
   Gilding, 580
   Sensitizers for Photographic Purposes, 540

 Silver, 639
   Alloys, 75
   Amalgam, 88, 90
   Bromide Paper, Toning Baths for, 541
   Bronze, 71

 Silver-coin Cleaner, 200

 Silver, Copper, Nickel, and Zinc Alloys, 76
   Etching Fluid for, 324
   Fizz, 115
   Foil Substitute, 474
   Gray Dye for Straw, 269
     Stain, 783
   Imitation, 77
   Ink, 416
   Nitrate Spots, to Remove, 194
     Test for Cottonseed Oil, 482
   Ornamental Designs on, 641

 Silver-plating, 574, 587

 Silver Polishing Balls, 599
   Solder for Enameling, 434
     for Plated Metal, 434
   Solders, 663
     for Soldering Iron, Steel, Cast Iron, and Copper, 663
   Testing, 642
   to Clean, 204
   to Color Pink, 642
   to Recover Gold from, 382

 Silvering by Oxidation, 583
   Bronze, 587
   Copper, 587
   Glass Balls, Amalgam for, 90
     Globes, 641
   Globes, 476
   of Mirrors, 476
   Powder for Metals, 642
   Silver-plating, and Desilvering, 587
   Test for, 642

 Silverware Cleaner, 200
   Polishes, 596
   Wrapping Paper for, 506

 Silver-zinc, 76

 Similor, 68

 Simple Coloring of Bronze Powder, 134
   Test for Red Lead and Orange Lead, 446
   Way to Clean a Clock, 207

 Sinews, Treatment of, 11

 Sinks, to Clean, 202

 Size Over Portland Cement, 31

 Sizing, 38
   Walls for Kalsomine, 436

 Skin Bleaches, Balms, etc., 234
   Chapped, 232

 Skin-cleaning Preparations, 184

 Skin Cream, 239
   Discoloration, 235
   Foods, 231, 234
   Lotion, 234
   Ointments, 487
   Troubles, 644

 Slate, 643
   Dye for Silk, 269
     for Straw Hats, 269
   Parchment, 506

 Slides for Lanterns, 532

 Slipcoat or Soft Cheese, 177

 Slugs on Roses, 423

 Smaragdine, 45

 Smelling Salts, 510, 628

 Smokeless Powder, 329
   Vari-colored Fire, 609

 Smut, Treatment for, 384

 Snake Bites, 96, 643

 Soap, Benzoin, 652

 Soap-bubble Liquids, 655

 Soap, Coloring, 644
   for Surgical Instruments, 653
   for Garment Cleaning, 645
   Perfumes, 520
   Polishes, 594
   Powder, Borax, 649, 650
   Substitutes, 653
   Tooth, 257

 Soaps, 644
   and Pastes for Gloves, 195
   for Clothing and Fabrics, 191

 Soda, Coffee Cream, 113
   Water, 111

 Soda-water Fountain Drinks, 110

 Sodium Amalgams, Applications of, 86
   Salts, Effervescent, 627
   Silicate as a Cement, 19

 Soft Enamels for Iron, White, 305
   German-silver Solder, 661
   Glaze Brick, 165
   Gold Solder, 434
   Metal Castings, 151
   Silver Solders, 664
   Soldering Paste, 667
   Solder, 664
   Toilet Soaps, 652

 Softening Celluloid, 160
   Rubber, 621
   Steel, 687

 Solder, Copper, 659
   for Articles which will not Bear a High Temperature, 666
   for Brass Tubes, 659
   for Fastening Brass to Tin, 659
   for Gold, 434
   for Iron, 665
   for Silver Chains, 664
   for Silver-plated Work, 664
   for Silversmiths, 664
   from Gold, to Remove, 383

 Soldering, Acids, 656
   a Ring Containing a Jewel, 436, 666
   Block, 667

 Soldering, Concealed, 665
   of Metallic Articles, 656
   of Metals, 655
   Fluxes for, 660
   Paste, 667
   Powder for Steel, 665
   Recipes, 665
   Solution for Steel, 665
   without Heat, 666

 Solders, 655
   for Glass, 662
   for Gold, 434
   for Jewelers, 436
   for Silver, 434

 Solid Alcohol, 45
   Cleansing Compound, 209
   Linseed Oil, 483

 Solidified Lubricants, 462

 Soluble Blue, 443
   Essence of Ginger, 314
   Extract of Ginger Ale, 108
   Glass, Bronzing with, 139
   Gun Cotton, 332

 Solution for Removing Nitrate of Silver Spots, 194

 Solutions for Batteries, 104
   for Cleaning Metals, 200
   Percentage, 704

 Solvent for Iron Rust, 201

 Solvents for Celluloid, 160

 Sorel’s Dental Cement, 163

 Soup Herb Extract, 212

 Sources of Potable Alcohol, 668

 Sozodont, 256

 Sparkling Wines, 767

 Sparks from the Finger Tips, 611

 Spatter Work, 457

 Spavin Cures, 730

 Spearmint Cordial, 765

 Special Glazes for Bricks, 167

 Specific Gravity Test, 382

 Speculum Metal, 73

 Spice for Fruit Compote, 605
   Pickling, 214

 Spices, Adulterated, 358
   for Flavoring, 213

 Spirit, 667, 678
   Stains for Wood, 784

 Spirits of Salts Poison, 92

 Sponge Trick, Blazing, 611
   Window Display, 679

 Sponges, 678
   as Filters, 339
   Sterilization of, 679
   to Clean, 210

 Spot and Stain Removers, 185
   Gilding, 580

 Spots on Photographic Plates, 554

 Sprain Washes, 730

 Spray Solution, 103

 Spring Cleaning, 207
   Hardening, 685

 Springs of Watches, 737
   to Clean, 207

 Sprinkling Powders for Flies, 421

 Spruce Beer, 118, 119

 Squibb’s Diarrhœa Mixture, 179

 Squill Poisons, 613

 Stage Decorations, Fireproofing, 342

 Stain, Brick, 133
   for Blue Paving Bricks, 166

 Stain-removing Soaps, 653

 Stained Ceilings, 400

 Staining Horns, 397

 Stains, 781
   for Lacquers, 438
   for Oak Leather, 455
   for Patent Leather, 452
   for Wood, 781
     Attacked by Alkalies or Acids, 785

 Stamping, 679
   Colors for Use with Rubber Stamps, 679

 Stamping Liquids and Powders, 679
   Powder for Embroideries, 680

 Starch, 445, 680
   in Jelly, Tests for, 357
   Luster, 399
   Paste, 35
   Powder, 681

 Starch-producing Plants, 668

 Statuary Bronze, 57

 Statue Cleaning, 197

 Statuettes, Cleaning of, 564
   of Lipowitz Metal, 64

 Steam Cylinder Lubricant, 463

 Steel, 681
   Alloys, 77
     for Drawing Colors on, 80
     for Locomotive Cylinders, 77
   and Iron Polishes, 597
   Blue and Old Silver on Brass, 130
   Bluing, 682
   Bronze, 61
   Browning of, 682
   Cleaner, 199
   Coloring, 682
   Distinguishing Iron from, 427
   Dust as a Polishing Agent, 600
   Etching, 323
     on, 687
   Fragments, 687

 Steel-hardening Powder, 427

 Steel, Oxidized, 584
   Paint for, 497
   Plating, 575
   Polishes, 597
   Soldering, 665
   Testing, 687
   to Clean, 199
   Tools, to Put an Edge on, 686
   Wire Hardening, 684

 Stencil Inks, 411
   Marking Ink that will Wash Out, 399

 Stencils for Plotting Letters of Sign Plates, 296

 Stereochromy, 688

 Stereopticon Slides, 532

 Stereotype Metal, 77

 Sterilization of Sponges, 679
   of Water with Lime Chloride, 741

 Sterling Silver, 434

 Stick Pomade, 228

 Sticky Fly-papers, 347
   Fly Preparations, 421

 Stilton Cheese, 177

 Stone, Artificial, 688
   Cements, 16
   Cleaning, 196
   Preservative for, 602

 Stones for Sharpening, 708, 761
   (Precious), Imitation of, 370

 Stoneware, 167
   and Glass Cements, 26
   Waterproof Cements for, 21

 Stopper Lubricants, 462, 700

 Store Windows, to Clean, 209

 Stove, Blacking, 700
   Cement, 162
   Cleaners, 202
   Lacquer, 441
   Polish, 597, 700
   Varnishes, 727

 Stramonium, Antidote for, 102

 Strap Lubricant, 460

 Strawberries, Preserved, 605

 Strawberry Essence, 318
   Juice, 318
   Pomade, 227

 Straw, Bleaching, 120
   Fireproofing, 343

 Straw-hat Cleaners, 187
   Dyes, 394

 Strengthened Filter Paper, 503

 Stripping Gilt Articles, 205
   Photograph Films, 553

 Strong Adhesive Paste, 37, 39
   Cement, 32
   Twine, 223

 Strontium Amalgams, 86

 Stropping Pastes, 615

 Strychnine or Nux Vomica, 96
   Poisons, 614

 Stuffed Animals, Preserved, 602

 Styptic Paste of Gutta Percha, 701

 Styptics, 701

 Substances Used for Denaturing Alcohol, 678

 Substitute for Benzine, 106
   for Camphor in the Preparation of Celluloid and Applicable to Other
     Purposes, 157
   for Cement on Grinder Disks, 31
   for Cork, 224
   for Fire Grenades, 341
   for Gum Arabic, 386
   for Putty, 608
   for Rubber Gloves, 100
   for Soldering Fluid, 659

 Substitutes for Coffee, 210
   for German Silver, 70
   for Wood, 785

 Suffolk Cheese, 177

 Sugar-producing Plants, 668

 Sulphate of Zinc Poison, 97
   Stains, to Remove, 186

 Sulphuric Acid Poison, 92

 Summer Drink, 118
   Taffy, 217

 Sun Bronze, 61
   Cholera Mixture, 179

 Sunburn Remedies, 240, 241

 Sunflower-glycerine Soap, 653

 Superfatted Liquid Lanolin-glycerine Soap, 647

 Sutures of Catgut, 155

 Swiss Cheese, 177

 Sympathetic Inks, 412

 Syndeticon, 32

 Syrup of Bromoform, 134
   (Raspberry), 317
   Table, 704

 Syrups, 321, 701

 Szegedin Soap, 653

 T

 Table of Drops, 704
   Sauces, 213
   Showing Displacement on Ground Glass of Objects in Motion, 548
   Top, Acid-proof, 9

 Tables, 703
   and Scales, 547
   for Photographers, 547

 Tablet Enameling, 293

 Tablets, Chocolate Coated, 179
   for Mouth Wash, 259
   Glue for, 13

 Taffy, 217

 Tailor’s Chalk, 164

 Talc Powder, 243

 Talcum Powder, 243

 Tallow, 334

 Talmi Gold, 69

 Tamping of Concrete Blocks, 695

 Tan and Freckle Lotion, 241
   and Russet Shoe Polishes, 633

 Tank, 705

 Tanned Leather, Dye for, 447

 Tanning, 453
   Hides, 454

 Taps, to Remove Broken, 705

 Tar Paints, 780

 Tarragon Mustard, 215

 Tar Syrup, 320

 Tasteless Castor Oil, 153

 Tattoo Marks, Removal of, 705

 Tawing, 448

 Tea Extract, 319
   Hot, 113

 Tea-rose Talc Powder, 243

 Teeth, to Whiten Discolored, 705

 Telescope Metal, 71

 Temperature for Brushes, 140
   of Metal, 152
   of Water for Plants, 561

 Tempered Copper, 221

 Tempering Brass, 132
   Steel, 683

 Terra Cotta Cleaning, 197
   Substitute, 705

 Test for Glue, 10

 Testing Nickel, 481
   Rubber Gloves, 622
   Siccatives, 637
   Silver, 642
   Steel, 687

 Tests for Absolute Alcohol, 45
   for Aniline in Pigments, 560
   for Cotton, 245
   for Lubricants, 463
   for Yeast, 786

 Textile Cleaning, 191

 Theater Rouge, 231

 The Burning Banana, 611
   Gum-bichromate Photoprinting Process, 546
   Preservation of Books, 124
   Prevention of the Inflammability of Benzine, 106

 Therapeutic Grouping of Medicinal Plasters, 561

 Thermometers, 706

 Thread, 706

 Three-color Process, 548

 Throat Lozenges, 218

 Thymol, 100

 Ticks, Cattle Dip for, 419

 Tiers-Argent Alloy, 75

 Tilemakers’ Notes, 164

 Tin, 49, 706
   Alloys, 77
   Amalgams, Applications of, 87
   Ash, 172
   Bismuth, and Magnesium, 49
   Bronzing, 567
   Chloride of Tin, Poison, 97

 Tinctures for Perfumes, 513

 Tin, Etching Fluid for, 324

 Tinfoil, 707

 Tin Foils for Capsules, 474
     for Wrapping Cheese, 474

 Tin in Powder Form, 707

 Tin-lead, 77
     Alloys, 78

 Tinned Surface, 589

 Tinning, 584
   by Oxidation, 584
   Tin Plating by Electric Bath, 575
   of Lead, 589

 Tinseled Letters, or Chinese Painting on Glass, 458

 Tin Silver-Plating, 589
   Solders, 665
   Statuettes, Buttons, etc., 78
   Varnishes, 727

 Tipping Gold Pens, 383

 Tire, 708
   Cements, 23

 Tissier’s Metal, 64

 Tissue Paper, Paste for, 37

 To Ascertain whether an Article is Nickeled, Tinned, or Silvered, 589
   Attach Glass Labels to Bottles, 41
     Gold Leaf Permanently, 474

 Tobin Bronze, 61

 To Blacken Aluminum, 81
   Bleach Glue, 378

 Tobacco Poison, 97

 To Bronze Copper, 136
   Burnish Gilt Work, 384
   Caseharden Locally, 684
   Cast Yellow Brass, 54
   Cement Glass to Iron, 17
   Clarify Liqueurs, 770
     Solutions of Gelatin, Glues, etc., 370
     Turbid Orange Flower Water, 512
   Clean a Gas Stove, 202
     Aluminum, 204
     Articles of Nickel, 201
     Brushes of Dry Paint, 188
     Colored Leather, 186
     Dull Gold, 204
     Files, 205
     Fire-gilt Articles, 185
     Furs, 368
     Gilt Frames, etc., 185
     Gilt Objects, 203
     Gold and Silver Lace, 193
     Gummed Parts of Machinery, 203
     Gummed-up Springs, 207
     Jet Jewelry, 431
     Lacquered Goods, 195
     Linoleum, 206
     Milk Glass, 209
     Mirrors, 209
     Oily Bottles, 210
     Old Medals, 199
     Painted Walls, 190
     Paintings, 195
     Petroleum Lamp Burners, 200
     Playing Cards, 209
     Polished Parts of Machines, 201
     Quilts, 194
     Silver Ornaments, 201
     Skins Used for Polishing Purposes, 186
     Soldered Watch Cases, 207
     Sponges, 210
     Store Windows, 209
     Tarnished Zinc, 205
     the Tops of Clocks in Repairing, 20
     Very Soiled Hands, 185
     Watch Chains, 206
     Wool, 273
     Zinc Articles, 203
   Coat Brass Articles with Antimony Colors, 581
   Color a Meerschaum Pipe, 469
     Billiard Balls Red, 428
     Bronze, 138
     Butter, 359
     Cheese, 359
     Gold, 383
     Iron Blue, 427
     Ivory, 428
   Conceal Soldering, 665
   Copper Aluminum, 581
   Copy Old Letters, etc., 223
   Cut Castile Soap, 644
     Glass, 371

 To Cut Glass under Water, 372
     Pottery, 164

 Toddy, Hot Soda, 112

 To Detect Artificial Vanillin in Vanilla Extracts, 713
     the Presence of Aniline in a Pigment, 560
     Tonka in Vanilla Extract, 714
   Determine the Covering Power of Pigments, 560
   Dissolve Copper from Gold Articles, 382

 To Distinguish Cotton from Linen, 246
     Genuine Diamonds, 260
     Glue and Other Adhesives, 378
     Iron from Steel, 427
     Steel from Iron, 687
   Do Away with Wiping Dishes, 399
   Drain a Refrigerator, 616
   Drill Optical Glass, 372
   Dye Copper Parts Violet and Orange, 221
     Cotton Dark Brown, 280
     Feathers, 282
     Felt Goods, 281
     Silk a Delicate Greenish Yellow, 280
     Silk Peacock Blue, 281
     Stiffen, and Bleach Felt Hats, 273
     Woolen Yarns, etc., Various Shades of Magenta, 280
     Woolens with Blue de Lyons, 280
   Eat Burning Coals, 612
   Estimate Contents of a Circular Tank, 705
   Extract Oil Spots from Finished Goods, 273
     Shellac from Fur Hats, 394
   Fasten Brass upon Glass, 17
     Paper Tickets to Glass, 19
     Rubber to Wood, 22
   Fill Engraved Letters on Metal Signs, 457
   Find the Number of Carats, 432
   Fire Paper, etc., by Breathing on it, 611
   Fix Alcoholic Lacquers on Metallic Surfaces, 440
     Dyes, 274
     Gold Letters, etc., upon Glass, 18
     Paper upon Polished Metal, 37
     Iron in Stone, 162
   Fuse Gold Dust, 384
   Give a Brown Color to Brass, 130
     a Green Color to Gold Jewelry, 582
     Brass a Golden Color, 577
     Dark Inks a Bronze or Changeable Hue, 409
   Grind Glass, 372
   Harden a Hammer, 684
   Hard-solder Parts Formerly Soldered with Tin Solder, 663
   Impart the Aroma and Taste of Natural Butter to Margarine, 143
   Improve Deadened Brass Parts 132
   Increase the Toughness, Density, and Tenacity of Aluminum, 83

 Toilet Creams, 235
   Milks, 239
   Powders, 242
   Soap Powder, 652

 Toilet Soaps, 650
   Vinegars, 244
   Waters, 244, 519

 To Keep Files Clean, 339
     Flaxseed Free from Bugs, 424
     Flies from Fresh Paint, 501
     Ice in Small Quantities, 402
     India Ink Liquid, 407
     Liquid Paint in Workable Condition, 501
   Keep Machinery Bright, 624

 Tolidol Developer, 52

 To Loosen a Glass Stopper, 700
   a Rusty Screw in a Watch Movement, 738

 Tomato Bouillon Extract, 212

 Tombac Volor on Brass, 130

 To Make a Belt Pull, 106
     a Clock Strike Correctly, 738
     a Transparent Cement for Glass, 29
     Cider, 180
     Corks Impermeable and Acid-proof, 10
     Fat Oil Gold Size, 382
     Holes in Thin Glass, 372
     Loose Nails in Walls Rigid, 399
     or Enlarge a Dial Hole, 737
     Plush Adhere to Metal, 590
   Matt Gilt Articles, 432
   Mend Grindstones, 386
     Wedgwood Mortars, 29

 Toning Baths, 540
     for Silver Bromide Paper, 541
   Black Inks, 409

 Tonka Extract, 319
   Its Detection in Vanilla Extracts, 714

 Tool Lubricant, 461
   Setting, 708

 Tools, Rust Prevention, 625

 Toothache, 709

 Tooth Cements, 163
   Paste to be put in Collapsible Tubes, 257
   Pastes, Powders, and Washes, 251
   Powder for Children, 255
   Powders and Pastes, 253
   Soaps and Pastes, 257
   Straightening, 737

 To Overcome Odors in Freshly Prepared Rooms, 400
   Paint Wrought Iron with Graphite, 496
   Paste Paper on Smooth Iron, 37
   Pickle Black Iron-plate Scrap Before Enameling, 305
   Polish Delicate Objects, 599
     Paintings on Wood, 600
   Prepare Polishing Cloths, 599
   Preserve Beef, 360
     Furs, 368
     Milk, 606
     Steel from Rust, 199
   Prevent Crawling of Paints, 490
     Dimming of Eyeglasses, etc., 376
     Glue from Cracking, 10
     Screws from Rusting and Becoming Fast, 629
     Smoke from Flashlight, 552
     the Adhesion of Modeling Sand to Castings, 150
     the Trickling of Burning Candles, 145
     Wood Warping, 781
     Wooden Vessels from Leaking, 446
   Produce Fine Leaves of Metal, 473
   Protect Papered Walls from Vermin, 401
     Zinc Roofing from Rust, 626
   Purify Bismuth, 380
   Put an Edge on Steel Tools, 686
   Quickly Remove a Ring from a Swollen Finger, 431
   Reblack Clock Hands, 738
   Recognize Whether an Article is Gilt, 383
   Recover Gold-leaf Waste, 381
   Reduce Engravings, 310

 To Reduce Photographs, 548
   Refine Board Sweepings, 432
   Remedy Worn Pinions from Watches, 738
   Remove a Name from a Dial, 207
     Aniline Stains, 185
     from Ceilings, etc., 190
     Balsam Stains, 194
     Black Letters from White Enameled Signs, 639
     Burnt Oil from Hardened Steel, 686
     Enamel and Tin Solder, 188
     Fragments of Steel from Other Metals, 687
     Finger Marks from Books, etc., 186
     Glue from Glass, 208
     Gold from Silver, 382
     Grease Spots from Marble, 197
     Hard Grease, Paint, etc., from Machinery, 200
     Ink Stains on Silver, 201
     Nitric-acid Stains, 185
     Oil-paint Spots from Glass, 209
     Oil-paint Spots from Sandstones, 198
     Old Enamel, 189
     Old Oil, Paint, or Varnish Coats, 187
     Paint, Varnish, etc., from Wood, 188
     Putty, Grease, etc., from Plate Glass, 206
     Pyro Stains from the Fingers, 555
     Red (Aniline) Ink, 190
     Rust from Instruments, 199
     Rust from Iron Utensils, 198
     Rust from Nickel, 199, 203
     Silver Plating, 203
     Silver Stains from White Fabrics, 193
     Soft Solder from Gold, 383
     Spots from Drawings, 206
     Spots from Tracing Cloth, 192
     Stains from the Hands, 184
     Stains of Sulphate, 186
     Strains in Metal by Heating, 686
     Varnish from Metal, 188
     Vegetable Growth from Buildings, 209
     Water Stains from Varnished Furniture, 188
     Vaseline Stains from Clothing, 192
   Render Aniline Colors Soluble in Water, 274
     Fine Cracks in Tools Visible, 686
     Gum Arabic More Adhesive, 43
     Negatives Permanent, 553
     Pale Gold Darker, 383
     Shrunken Wooden Casks Watertight, 149
     Window Panes Opaque, 375
   Renew Old Silks, 274
   Renovate and Brighten Russet and Yellow Shoes, 633
     Brick Walls, 190
     Old Oil Paintings, 488
     Straw Hats, 187
   Repair a Dial, etc., with Enamel Applied Cold, 737
     a Repeating Clock-bell, 737
     Enameled Signs, 304
     Meerschaum Pipes, 469
   Restore Brushes, 141
     Patent Leather Dash, 452

 To Restore Reddened Carbolic Acid, 147
     the Color of a Gold or Gilt Dial, 207
     Burnt Steel, 686

 Tortoise-shell Polishes, 593

 To Scale Cast Iron, 204
   Scent Advertising Matter, 510
   Separate Rusty Pieces, 625
   Silver Brass, Bronze, Copper, 587
     Glass Balls and Plate Glass, 587
   Silver-plate Metals, 588
   Soften Glaziers’ Putty, 607
     Horn, 397
     Iron Castings, 427
     Old Whitewash, 762
   Solder a Piece of Hardened Steel, 665
   Stop Leakage in Iron Hot-Water Pipes, 446
   Sweeten Rancid Butter, 143
   Take Boiling Lead in the Mouth, 612
   Tell Genuine Meerschaum, 469
   Temper Small Coil Springs and Tools, 683
   Test Extract of Licorice, 458
     Fruit Juices and Syrups for Aniline Colors, 321
     Fruit Juices for Salicylic Acid, 321
     the Color to See if it is Precipitating, 277
   Tighten a Ruby Pin, 738
   Toughen China, 173
   Transfer Designs, 710
     Engravings, 710
   Turn Blueprints Brown, 542
   Utilize Drill Chips, 686

 Touchstone, Aquafortis for the, 383

 Toughening Leather, 455

 To Weaken a Balance Spring, 733
   Whiten Flannels, 446
     Iron, 427
   Widen a Jewel Hole, 431

 Tracing-cloth Cleaners, 194

 Tracing Cloth, Removing Spots from, 192

 Tracing, How to Clean, 194
   Paper, 503

 Tragacanth, Mucilage of, 42

 Transfer Processes, 710

 Transparencies, 709

 Transparent Candles, 145
   Brick Glaze, 167
   Ground Glass, 373
   Photographs, 545
   Soaps, 652

 Trays, Varnish for, 727

 Treacle Beer, 119

 Treatment and Utilization of Rubber Scraps, 621
   of Bunions, 224
   of Carbolic-acid Burns, 147
   of Cast-iron Grave Crosses, 202
   of Corns, 225
   of Damp Walls, 400
   of Fresh Plaster, 564
   of Newly Laid Linoleum, 459
   of the Grindstone, 386

 Tricks with Fire, 608

 Triple Extract Perfumery, 518
   Pewter, 75

 Tubs: to Render Shrunken Tubs Water-tight, 149

 Turmeric in Food, 352

 Turpentine Stains, 784

 Turquoises, Restoration of the Color of, 432

 Turtle (Mock) Extract, 212

 Twine, 711
   Strong, 223

 Two-solution Ink Remover, 189

 Type Metal, 78

 Typewriter Ribbon Inks, 413
   Ribbons, 711

 U

 Udder Inflammation, 731

 Unclassified Alloys, 80
   Dyers’ Recipes, 273

 Unclean Lenses, 456

 Uninflammable Celluloid, 157

 United States Weights and Measures, 758

 Uniting Glass with Horn, 17
   Rubber and Leather, 22

 Universal Cement, 31
   Cleaner, 209

 Urine, Detection of Albumen, 44

 Utensils, Capacities of, 703
   to Remove Rust, 198

 Utilization of Waste Material or By-products, 673

 V

 Valves, 711

 Vanilla, 713
   Extract, 319, 355
   Substitute, 714

 Vanillin, 713

 Vaseline Pomade, 228
   Stains, to Remove, 192

 Vasolimentum, 728

 Varnish and Paint Remover, 188
   Bookbinders’, 720
   Brushes at Rest, 141
   for Bicycles, 719
   for Blackboards, 720
   for Floors, 724
   for Trays and Tinware, 727
   Gums Used in Making, 715
   How to Pour Out, 153
   Making, Linseed Oil for, 483
   Manufacturing Hints, 715
   Removers, 187
   Substitutes, 727

 Varnished Paper, 506

 Varnishes, 543, 714
   Engravers’, 723
   Insulating, 426
   Photographic Retouching, 543

 Varnishing, Rules for, 717

 Vat Enamels and Varnishes, 721

 Vegetable Acids, Poison, 92

 Vegetables, Canned, 352

 Vehicle for Oil Colors, 560

 Venetian Paste, 39

 Vermilion Grease Paint, 229

 Vermin Killer, 422

 Very Hard Silver Solder, 663

 Veterinary Dose Table, 729
   Formulas, 728

 Vichy, 740
   Salt, 628

 Violet Ammonia, 244, 245
   Color for Ammonia, 91
   Cream, 115
   Dye for Silk or Wool, 270
     for Straw Bonnets, 270
   Flavor for Candy, 217
   Ink, 417
   Poudre de Riz Powder, 242
   Sachet, 510
   Smelling Salts, 510
   Talc, 510
     Powder, 243
   Tooth Powder, 252
   Water, 520
   Witch Hazel, 245

 Vinaigre Rouge, 244

 Vinegar, 358, 734
   Toilet, 244

 Viscose, 159

 Vogel’s Composition Files, 64

 Voice Lozenges, 219

 Vulcanization of Rubber, 622

 W

 Wagon and Axle Greases, 462

 Wall Cleaners, 190

 Wall-paper Dyes, 278
     Removal of, 400

 Wall-paper Paste, 39

 Wall Priming, 501
   Waterproofing, 741

 Walls, Damp, 400
   Hard-finished, 499

 Walnut, 783

 Warming Bottle, 127

 Warping, Prevention of, 781

 Warts, 736

 Washes, Nail-cleaning, 227

 Washing Blankets, 399
   Brushes, 141
   Fluids and Powders, 445
   of Light Silk Goods, 639

 Waste, Photographic, Its Disposition, 534

 Watch Chains, to Clean, 206

 Watch-dial Cements, 20

 Watch Gilding, 738

 Watch-lid Cement, 20

 Watchmakers’ Alloys, 736
   and Jewelers’ Cleaning Preparations, 206
   Formulas, 736
   Oil, 738

 Watch Manufacturers’ Alloys, 736
   Movements, Palladium Plating of, 583

 Waterproof and Acid-proof Pastes, 38
   Cements for Glass, Stoneware, and Metal, 21
   Coatings, 742
   Glues, 13
   Harness Composition, 451
   Ink, 417
   Paints, 491
   Papers, 505
   Putties, 608
   Ropes, 753
   Shoe Dressings, 634
   Stiffening for Straw Hats, 187
   Varnish for Beach Shoes, 635
   Wood, 753

 Waterproofing, 741
   Blue Prints, 741
   Brick Arches, 741
   Canvas, 742
   Cellars, 400
   Corks, 742
   Fabrics, 742
   Leather, 750
   Paper, 751

 Water- and Acid-resisting Paint, 499

 Water-closets, Deodorants for, 263

 Water, Copper, 221
   Filters for, 339

 Water-glass Cements, 19

 Water Glass in Stereochromatic Painting, 688
   Jackets, Anti-freezing Solutions for, 363
   Natural and Artificial, 739
   Purification, Alum Process of, 340
   Spots, Priming for, 501
   Stains, 784

 Water Stirred Yellow, Scarlet and Colorless, 612

 Water-tight Casks, 149
   Glass, 373
     Roofs, 373

 “Water Tone” Platinum Paper, 529
   to Freeze, 616
   Varnish, 544

 Waters, Toilet, 244

 Wax, 753
   Burning, Trick, 611
   for Bottles, 553
   for Ironing, 444
   for Linoleum, 459
   Paper, 505

 Waxes for Floors, Furniture, etc., 754

 Weather Forecasters, 756

 Weatherproofing, 499
   Casts, 565

 Weed Killers, 262

 Weights and Measures, 757
   of Eggs, 284

 Weiss Beer, 119

 Welding Compound, 687
   Powder to Weld Steel on Wrought Iron at Pale-red Heat, 761
   Powders, 761

 Westphalian Cheese, 177

 Wheel Grease, 462

 Whetstones, 761

 Whipped Cream, 247, 248

 White Brass, 55
   Bricks, 164
   Coating for Signs, etc., 490
   Cosmetique, 228
   Face Powder, 243
   Flint Glass Containing Lead, 373
   Furniture, Enamel for, 722
   Glass for Ordinary Molded Bottles, 373
   Glazes, 167

 White-gold Plates Without Solder, 384

 White Grease Paints, 229
   Ink, 417
   Metals, 78

 White-metal Alloys, 79

 White Metals Based on Copper, 79
     Based on Platinum, 79
   Pine and Tar Syrup, 320
   Petroleum Jelly, 462
   Portland Cement, 162
   Rose Perfumery, 518
   Shoe Dressing, 635
   Solder for Silver, 434
   Stamping Ink, 417
       for Embroidery, 411
   Vitriol, Poison, 97

 Whitewash, 761
   to Remove, 190

 Whiting, 761

 Whooping-cough Remedies, 211

 Wild-cherry Balsam, 103
   Extract, 321

 Wiltshire Cheese, 177

 Window-cleaning Compound, 208

 Window Display, 762
   Panes, Cleaning, 208
     Opaque, to Render, 375
   Perfume, 762
   Polishes, 593

 Windows, Frosted, 376
   to Prevent Dimming of, 376

 Wine Color Dye, 270

 Wines and Liquors, 762
   Medicinal, 771
   Removal of Musty Taste, 771

 Winter Beverages, 117

 Wintergreen, to Distinguish Methyl Salicylate from Oil of, 771

 Wire Hardening, 684
   Rope, 771

 Witch-hazel Creams, 238
   Jelly, 228
   Violet, 245

 Wood, 772
   Acid-proof, 9
   Cements, 26
   Chlorine-proofing, 9
   Fillers, 773
   Fireproofing, 342

 Wooden Gears, 463

 Wood Gilding, 580
   Polishes, 598
   Pulp, Fireproofing, 343
   Renovators, 194, 197
   Securing Metals to, 37
     Stain for, 781
   Substitutes for, 785
   Warping, to Prevent, 781
   Waterproofing, 753

 Wood’s Metal, 64

 Woodwork, Cleaning, 194

 Wool Oil, 485
   Silk, or Straw Bleaching, 120
   to Clean, 273

 Woorara Poison, 97

 Worcestershire Sauce, 213

 Working of Sheet Aluminum, 83

 Worm Powder for Stock, 732

 Wrapping Paper for Silverware, 506

 Wrinkles, Removal of, 231, 233

 Writing Inks, 414
   on Glass, 376, 405
   on Ivory, Glass, etc., 405
   on Zinc, 405
   Restoring Faded, 786

 Y

 Yama, 116

 Yeast, 786
   and Fertilizers, 339

 Yellow Coloring for Beverages, 119
   Dye for Cotton, 271
     for Silk, 271
   Hard Solders, 658
   Ink, 417
   Orange and Bronze Dyes, 271
   Stain for Wood, 784

 Ylang-Ylang Perfume, 518

 Yolk of Egg as an Emulsifier, 290

 York Cheese, 177

 Z

 Zapon, 728
   for Impregnating Paper, 506
   Varnishes, 728

 Zinc, 49
   Alloys, 80
   Amalgam for Electric Batteries, 89
     for Dentists’ Zinc, 163
   Amalgams, Applications of, 87
   Articles, Bronzing, 136
     to Clean, 203
   Bronzing, 137, 567
   Contact Silver-plating, 589
   Etching, 323
   Gilding, 580

 Zinc-Nickel, 80

 Zinc Plates, Coppering, 573
   Poison, 97
   to Clean, 205



«TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE»

Original spelling and grammar are generally retained, with some
exceptions noted below. Original page numbers look like this:
{36}. Original italics _look like this_. Scanned page images of
the original book are available from archive.org, search for
_henleystwentieth00hiscrich_. Illustrations have been moved from within
paragraphs to nearby locations between paragraphs. The transcriber
produced the cover image, and hereby places it in the public domain.
Large curly brackets “{}” intended to combine information over more
than one line of text have been removed, replaced by appropriate text
to retain the original meaning. Subscripts are in this simple text
edition indicated by the form “_〈..〉”, as in “C_〈12〉H_〈22〉O_〈11〉”.
Original small caps have been converted to uppercase.

Page 25. The phrase “add the flower” was changed to “add the flour”.

Page 27. Changed _egg_, in “Have the broken egg very clean” to _edge_.

Page 47. There’re probably a word or two missing from the phrase “Thus,
in melting lead and tin together for solder, rosin or tallow is thrown
upon the surface is rubbed with sal ammoniac”, which has been retained
as printed.

Page 48. There may be an error in the phrase “alloys containing
aluminum, magnetism, chromium”, retained as printed.

Page 81. Changed “finally elutriated graphite” to “finely elutriated
graphite”.

Page 167. “Chain clay” is retained, though it may be wrong.

Page 349. A paragraph of Caution about hydrochloric acid was originally
printed as an ordinary paragraph in the middle of a list of Reagents.
Herein, this paragraph has been converted to a footnote, and moved
below the list.

Page 409. Removed the extra _drachms;_ from “and Prussian blue, each 5
drachms; drachms;”.

Page 470. Changed _acquer_ to _lacquer_, in “with a thin spirit or
zapon acquer”.

Page 502. There are evidently a word or two missing from the phrase
“water, 3 ounces; 4 ounces (avoirdupois);”.

Page 506. The meaning of “allowing to settle forweeks.” is not clear.

Page 529. The scanned image of the first paragraph of page 529 was
unclear in a small area. Guesswork was required.

Page 530. The phrase “pense and flat” was changed to “dense and flat”.

Page 619. In the first table on the page, the amount printed for
“Rubber” was blank. In this edition, “[ ]” indicates this.

Page 624. “The crude oil [. . .] are”, changed to “The crude oil
[. . .] is”.

Page 658. In the phrase "of copper will meet at 1,940°", _meet_ was
changed to _melt_.

Page 700. The phrase “2 parts of tried suet” is retained.

Page 703. The sentence "Three tablespoonfuls weigh 1⁠/⁠4 pound." is
retained. Other similar errors are retained.

Page 748. The phrase “conferring water: resisting powers” was changed
to “conferring water resisting powers”

Pages 787–807. The Index as originally printed uses white space indents
to combine information on multiple lines. It is sometimes obscure, and
possibly inconsistent. Many of the entries indent about 7% of column
width per word meant to be repeated. The entry starting with “Wood
Gilding” on page 807 is an example of inconsistency: the 14% indent for
the sixth line “Stain for” evidently refers back to the first line, so
that “Wood Gilding,” is to be understood as repeated, but more often,
it seems, the indents refer back to the line immediately preceeding.

Page 797. The link for "Lichen Removers" is changed from
page 4 to page 209.