Slips of Speech

A helpful book for everyone who aspires to correct the everyday errors of
speaking and writing.

by John H. Bechtel

Author of “Practical Synonyms,” “Pronunciation,”
etc.

Philadelphia
The Penn Publishing Company
1901

COPYRIGHT 1895 BY THE PENN PUBLISHING COMPANY


Contents

 INTRODUCTION
 I. TASTE
 II. CHOICE OF WORDS
 III. CONTRACTIONS
 IV. POSSESSIVE CASE
 V. PRONOUNS
 VI. NUMBER
 VII. ADVERBS
 VIII. CONJUNCTIONS
 IX. CORRELATIVES
 X. THE INFINITIVE
 XI. PARTICIPLES
 XII. PREPOSITIONS
 XIII. THE ARTICLE
 XIV. REDUNDANCY
 XV. TWO NEGATIVES
 XVI. ACCORDANCE OF VERB WITH SUBJECT
 INDEX




INTRODUCTION


Homer, in all probability, knew no rules of rhetoric, and was not
tortured with the consideration of grammatical construction, and yet
his verse will endure through time. If everybody possessed the genius
of Homer, rules and cautions in writing would be unnecessary.

To-day all men speak, and most men write, but it is observed that those
who most closely follow Homer’s method of writing without rules are
most unlike Homer in the results. The ancient bard was a law unto
himself; we need rules for our guidance.

Rules of writing are the outgrowth of the study of the characteristics
and qualities of style which distinguish the best writers from those of
inferior skill and ability. Grammarians and rhetoricians, according to
their several lines of investigation, set forth the laws and principles
governing speech, and formulate rules whereby we may follow the true,
and avoid the false.

Grammar and rhetoric, as too often presented in the schools, are such
uninviting studies that when
school-days are ended, the books are laid aside, and are rarely
consulted afterward. The custom of formally burning the text-books
after the final examinations—a custom that prevails in some
institutions—is but an emphatic method of showing how the students
regard the subjects treated in the books.

If all the rules and principles had been thoroughly mastered, the huge
bonfire of text-books in grammar and rhetoric might be regarded a
fitting celebration of the students’ victory over the difficulties of
“English undefiled.” But too often these rules are merely memorized by
the student for the purpose of recitation, and are not engrafted upon
his everyday habit of speech. They are, therefore, soon forgotten, and
the principles involved are subject to daily violation.

Hence arises the need of books like SLIPS OF SPEECH, in which the
common faults of speakers and writers are pointed out, and the correct
use of words shown. Brief and informal in treatment, they will be read
and consulted when the more voluminous text-books will be left
untouched.

The copious index appended to this volume will afford a ready reference
to the many subjects discussed, and will contribute greatly to the
convenience and permanent value of the book.




SLIPS OF SPEECH


“We should be as careful of our words as of our actions.”—CICERO.




CHAPTER I
Taste


Taste is a universal gift. It has been found in some degree in all
nations, races, and ages. It is shown by the savage in his love of
personal decoration; by the civilized man in his love of art.

But while it is thus universal, it is as different among men as their
faces, complexions, characters, or languages. Even among people of the
same nation, it is as different as the degrees of society. The same
individual at different periods of life, shows this variableness of
taste.

These diversities of taste imply a susceptibility to improvement. Good
taste in writing forms no exception to the rule. While it seems to
require some basis in nature, no degree of inborn aptitude will
compensate for the lack of careful training.

To give his natural taste firmness and fineness a writer needs to read
the best literature, not merely so
as to know it, but so as to feel the beauty, the fitness, the charm,
the strength, the delicacy of a well-chosen word.

The study of the proper arrangement and the most effective expression
of our thoughts prompts us to think more accurately. So close is the
connection between the thought and its expression that looseness of
style in speaking and writing may nearly always be traced to
indistinctness and feebleness in the grasp of the subject. No degree of
polish in expression will compensate for inadequacy of knowledge. But
with the fullest information upon any subject, there is still room for
the highest exercise of judgment and good sense in the proper choice
and arrangement of the thoughts, and of the words with which to express
them.

The concurrent testimony of those best qualified to render a decision,
has determined what authors reflect the finest literary taste, and
these writers should be carefully studied by all who aspire to
elegance, accuracy, and strength in literary expression.

Fine Writing


Never hesitate to call a spade a _spade_. One of the most frequent
violations of good taste consists in the effort to dress a common
subject in high-sounding language. The ass in the fable showed his
stupidity
when he put on the lion’s skin and expected the other animals to
declare him to be the king of beasts. The distinction of a subject lies
in its own inherent character, and no pompous parade of words will
serve to exalt a commonplace theme.

Poetic Terms


In the expression of homely ideas and the discussion of affairs of
every-day life, avoid such poetic forms as _o’er_ for over, _ne’er _for
never, _’mid_ for amid, _e’en_ for even, _’gan_ for began, _’twixt_ for
betwixt, _’neath_ for beneath, _list_ for listen, _oft_ for often,
_morn_ for morning, _eve_ for evening, _e’er_ for ever, _ere_ for
before, _’tis_ for it is, _’twas _for it was.

In all prose composition, avoid such poetic forms as _swain, wight,
mead, brake, dingle, dell, zephyr._

Foreign Words


The unrestrained use of foreign words, whether from the ancient or from
the modern languages, savors of pedantry and affectation. The ripest
scholars, in speaking and writing English, make least use of foreign
words or phrases. Persons who indulge in their use incur the risk of
being charged with a desire to exhibit their linguistic attainments.

On the other hand, occasions arise when the use of words from a foreign
tongue by one who is
thoroughly familiar with them, will add both grace and exactness to his
style.

Rarely use a foreign term when your meaning can be as well expressed in
English. Instead of _blasé,_ use surfeited, or wearied; for _cortège
_use procession for _couleur de rose,_ rose-color; for _déjeuner,
_breakfast; for _employe,_ employee; for _en route,_ on the way; for
_entre nous,_ between ourselves; for _fait accompli,_ an accomplished
fact; for _in toto,_ wholly, entirely; for _penchant, _inclination; for
_raison d’être,_ reason for existence; for _recherché,_ choice,
refined; for _rôle,_ part; for _soirée dansante,_ an evening dancing
party; for _sub rosa,_ secretly, etc.

The following incident from the _Detroit Free Press_ is in point:

The gentleman from the West pulled his chair up to the hotel table,
tucked his napkin under his chin, picked up the bill-of-fare and began
to study it intently. Everything was in restaurant French, and he
didn’t like it.

“Here, waiter,” he said, sternly, “there’s nothing on this I want.”

“Ain’t there nothin’ else you would like for dinner, sir?” inquired the
waiter, politely.

“Have you got any _sine qua non?”_

The waiter gasped.

“No, sir,” he replied.


“Got any _bon mots?”_

“N—no, sir.”

“Got any _semper idem?”_

“No, sir, we hain’t.”

“Got any _jeu d’esprits?”_

“No, sir; not a one.”

“Got any _tempus fugit?”_

“I reckon not, sir.”

“Got any _soirée dansante?”_

“No, sir.”

The waiter was edging off.

“Got any _sine die?”_

“We hain’t, sir.”

“Got any _e pluribus unum?”_

The waiter’s face showed some sign of intelligence.

“Seems like I heard ob dat, sir,” and he rushed out to the kitchen,
only to return empty-handed.

“We ain’t got none, sir,” he said, in a tone of disappointment.

“Got any _mal de mer?”_

“N—no, sir.”

The waiter was going to pieces fast.

The gentleman from the West, was as serene as a May morning.

“Got any _vice versa?”_ he inquired again.

The waiter could only shake his head.


“No? Well, maybe you’ve got some bacon and cabbage, and a corn dodger?”

“’Deed we have, sir,” exclaimed the waiter, in a tone of the utmost
relief, and he fairly flew out to the kitchen.

Trite Expressions


Words and phrases which may once have been striking and effective, or
witty and felicitous, but which have become worn out by oft-repeated
use, should be avoided. The following hackneyed phrases will serve to
illustrate: “The staff of life,” “gave up the ship,” “counterfeit
presentment,” “the hymeneal altar,” “bold as a lion,” “throw cold water
upon,” “the rose upon the cheek,” “lords of creation,” “the weaker
sex,” “the better half,” “the rising generation,” “tripping the light
fantastic toe,” “the cup that cheers but does not inebriate,” “in the
arms of Morpheus,” “the debt of nature,” “the bourne whence no traveler
returns,” “to shuffle off this mortal coil,” “the devouring element,”
“a brow of alabaster.”

Pet Words


Avoid pet words, whether individual, provincial, or national in their
use. Few persons are entirely free from the overuse of certain words.
Young people largely employ such words as _delightful, delicious,_
_exquisite,_ and other expressive adjectives, which constitute a kind
of society slang.

Overworked Expressions


Words and phrases are often taken up by writers and speakers, repeated,
and again taken up by others, and thus their use enlarges in
ever-widening circles until the expressions become threadbare. Drop
them before they have reached that state. _Function, environment,
trend, the masses, to be in touch with, to voice the sentiments
of—_these are enough to illustrate the kind of words referred to.

Very Vulgar Vulgarisms


No one who has any regard for purity of diction and the proprieties of
cultivated society will be guilty of the use of such expressions as
_yaller_ for yellow, _feller_ for fellow, _kittle_ for kettle, _kiver_
for cover, _ingons_ for onions, _cowcumbers_ for cucumbers,
_sparrowgrass_ for asparagus, _yarbs_ for herbs, _taters _for potatoes,
_tomats_ for tomatoes, _bile_ for boil, _hain’t _for ain’t or isn’t,
_het_ for heated, _kned_ for kneaded, _sot_ for sat or set, _teeny_ for
tiny, _fooling you_ for deceiving you, _them_ for those, _shut up_ for
be quiet, or be still, or cease speaking, _went back on me_ for
deceived me or took advantage of me, a _power of people_ for a great
many
people, a _power of money_ for great wealth, a _heap of houses_ for
many houses, _lots of books_ for many books, _lots of corn_ for much
corn or large quantities of corn, _gents_ for gentlemen, and many
others of a similar character.




CHAPTER II
Choice of Words


Our American writers evince much variety in their graces of diction,
but in the accurate choice of words James Russell Lowell and William
Cullen Bryant stand out conspicuous above the rest. So careful and
persistent was the latter, that during the time that he was editor of
_The Evening Post,_ of New York City, he required the various writers
upon that paper to avoid the use of a long list of words and
expressions which he had prepared for them, and which were commonly
employed by other papers. This list was not only used, but enlarged by
his successors.

Strive to cultivate the habit of observing words; trace their delicate
shades of meaning as employed by the most polished writers; note their
suggestiveness; mark the accuracy with which they are chosen. In this
way your mind will be kept on the alert to discover the beauties as
well as the blemishes of all the thought pictures that are presented,
and your vocabulary will be greatly enlarged and enriched.


BRYANT’S LIST OF OBJECTIONABLE EXPRESSIONS


_Above,_ and _over,_ use more than. _Artiste,_ use artist. _Aspirant._
_Authoress_ _Beat,_ use defeat. _Bagging,_ use capturing. _Balance,_
use remainder. _Banquet,_ use dinner or supper. _Bogus._
_Casket,_ use coffin. _Claimed,_ use asserted.
_Collided._ _Commence,_ use begin. _Compete._
_Cortege,_ use procession. _Cotemporary,_ use contemporary.
 _Couple,_ use two. _Darkey,_ use negro. _Day before yesterday,_ use
 the day before yesterday. _Débût._
_Decease,_ as a verb. _Democracy,_ applied to a political party.
_Develop,_ use expose. _Devouring element,_ use fire. _Donate._
_Employe._ _Enacted,_ use acted.
 _Endorse,_ use approve. _En route._ _Esq._
_Graduate,_ use is graduated. _Gents,_ use gentlemen.
_Hon._ _House,_ use House of Representatives.
_Humbug._ _Inaugurate,_ use begin. _In our midst._ _Item,_ use
particle, extract, or paragraph. _Is being done,_ and all similar
passive forms. _Jeopardize._
_Jubilant,_ use rejoicing.

_Juvenile,_ use boy. _Lady,_ use wife. _Last,_ use latest. _Lengthy,_
use long. _Leniency,_ use lenity.
 _Loafer._ _Loan,_ or _loaned,_ use lend or lent.
 _Located._ _Majority,_ use most. _Mrs. President._ _Mrs. Governor._
 _Mrs. General._
_Mutual,_ use common. _Official,_ use officer.
_Ovation._ _On yesterday._ _Over his signature._
_Pants,_ use pantaloons. _Parties,_ use persons.
_Partially,_ use partly. _Past two weeks,_ use last two weeks.
 _Poetess._ _Portion,_ use part. _Posted,_ use informed. _Progress,_
 use advance. _Quite,_ when prefixed to good, large, etc. _Raid,_ use
 attack. _Realized,_ use obtained. _Reliable,_ use trustworthy.
 _Rendition,_ use performance. _Repudiate,_ use reject or disown.
 _Retire,_ as an active verb.v _Rev.,_ use the Rev. _Role,_ use part.
 _Roughs._ _Rowdies._ _Secesh._
_Sensation,_ use noteworthy event. _Standpoint,_ use point of view.
_Start,_ in the sense of setting out. _State,_ use say. _Taboo._
_Talent,_ use talents or ability.
_Talented._ _Tapis._ _The deceased._ _War,_ use dispute or
disagreement.


STILTS


Avoid bombastic language. Work for plain expressions rather than for
the unusual. Use the simplest words that the subject will bear.

The following clipping, giving an account of the commencement exercises
of a noted female college, strikingly illustrates what to avoid:

“Like some beacon-light upon a rock-bound coast against which the
surges of the ocean unceasingly roll, and casting its beams far across
the waters warning the mariner from the danger near, the college, like
a Gibraltar, stands upon the high plains of learning, shedding its rays
of knowledge, from the murmurings of the Atlantic to the whirlwinds of
the Pacific, guiding womankind from the dark valley of ignorance, and
wooing her with wisdom’s lore, leads creation’s fairest, purest, best
into flowery dells where she can pluck the richest food of knowledge,
and crowns her brow with a coronet of gems whose brilliancy can never
grow dim: for they glisten with the purest thought, that seems as a
spark struck from the mind of Deity. There is no need for the daughters
of this community to seek colleges of distant climes whereat to be
educated, for right here in their own city, God’s paradise on earth, is
situated a noble college, the bright diadem of that paradise, that has
done more for the higher education of woman than any institution in our
land.”


PURITY


An author’s diction is pure when he uses such words only as belong to
the idiom of the language. The only standard of purity is the practice
of the best writers and speakers. A violation of purity is called a
barbarism.

Unlike the Latin, Greek, or Hebrew, the English is a living language,
and, like all living organisms, manifests its life by taking in new
material and casting off old waste continually. Science, art, and
philosophy give rise to new ideas which, in turn, demand new words for
their expression. Of these, some gain a permanent foothold, while
others float awhile upon the currents of conversation and newspaper
literature and then disappear.

Good usage is the only real authority in the choice of reputable words;
and to determine, in every case, what good usage dictates, is not an
easy matter. Authors, like words, must be tested by time before their
forms of expression may become a law for others. Pope, in his _Essay on
Criticism,_ laid down a rule which, for point and brevity, has never
been excelled:

“In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold;
Alike fantastic, if too new or old;
Be not the first by whom the new are tried,
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside.”


BARBARISMS


Campbell, in his _Philosophy of Rhetoric,_ says that a word to be
legitimate must have these three signs of authority:

1. It must be _reputable,_ or that of educated people, as opposed to
that of the ignorant or vulgar.
2. It must be _national,_ as opposed to what is either local or
technical.
3. It must be _present,_ as opposed to what is obsolete.


Any word that does not have these three qualities may, in general, be
styled a barbarism.

ANGLICIZED WORDS


Many foreign words, in process of time, become so thoroughly
domesticated that their translation, or the use of an awkward
equivalent, would be a greater mark of pedantry than the use of the
foreign words. The proper use of such terms as _fiat, palladium, cabal,
quorum, omnibus, antique, artiste, coquette, ennui, physique, régime,
tableau, amateur,_ cannot be censured on the ground of their foreign
character.

OBSOLETE WORDS


Some writers affect an antiquated style by the introduction of such
words as _peradventure, perchance,_
_anon, behest, quoth, erewhile._ The use of such words gives a strange
sound to the sentence, and generally indicates that the writer is not
thoroughly in earnest. The expression is lowered in tone and is made to
sound fantastic.

NEW WORDS


A word should not be condemned because it is new. If it is really
needed it will be welcomed, and soon find a permanent place.
Shakespeare, Addison, and Johnson introduced many new words, to which
their names afterward gave a sanction. Carlyle, Coleridge, Tennyson,
and Browning have introduced or given currency to new words, and made
strange ones familiar.

New words are objectionable when they are employed without proper
authority. The chief sources of supply of the objectionable kind are
the current slang of the street and the sensational newspaper. They are
often the result of a desire to say things in such a manner as to
reflect smartness upon the speaker, or to present things in a humorous
or picturesque way. That they are frequently very effective cannot be
gainsaid. Sometimes they are coined in the heat of political or social
discussion, and, for a time, express what everybody is talking about;
but it is impossible to tell whether they will live beyond
the occasion that produced them. So long as their usage is doubtful it
is safer not to employ them.

SLANG


Slang is somewhat like chicken-pox or measles, very catching, and just
as inevitable in its run; and very few of us escape it. It is severest,
too, where the sanitary conditions are most favorable to its
development. Where there is least thought and culture to counteract its
influence slang words crowd out those of a more serious character,
until, in time, the young and inexperienced speaker or writer is unable
to distinguish between the counterfeit and the genuine.

While most persons condemn slang, there are very few who are entirely
free from its use. It varies greatly in its degrees of coarseness or
refinement, and adapts itself to all classes and conditions. Many know
no other language, and we are unwillingly compelled to admit that while
their speech is often ungrammatical and unrhetorical, it is generally
clear, concise, and forcible.

Strive to acquire a vocabulary so large and to cultivate a taste so
fine that when a slang expression rises to your mind you can use it if
you think it best fits the occasion, or substitute something better in
its place. Purity of diction is a garden of slow growth even under the
most favorable conditions, and the
unrestrained indulgence in slang is like scattering seeds of the vilest
plants among the choicest flowers.

SOCIETY SLANG


“This is an _elegant_ day,” “that is an _elegant_ view,” “Mary is
_awfully nice,” “_Jennie is _dreadfully sweet,”_ “Gertrude is
_delicious,”_ and “Tom is _perfectly splendid.”_ The use of such
extravagant phrases tends to weaken the significance of the words when
legitimately employed.

COMMERCIAL SLANG


Commercial terms are employed in the common language of everyday life
to such an extent as to constitute a form of commercial slang. The
following will serve for illustration; “The _balance_ of the journey”
for remainder, “he was _well posted.”_ for well informed, “I
_calculate_ he will come to-morrow” for believe or think, “I _reckon_
he is your friend” for I suppose.

COMMON SLANG


To materialize, to burglarize, to enthuse, to suicide, to wire, to jump
upon, to sit upon, to take in, are a few of the many examples of slang
that should be avoided.


PROVINCIALISMS


A word that is used only in a limited part of the country is called a
provincialism. It must be known and recognized for what it is worth,
but not obtruded where it does not belong.

Whatever may be said of the faults of speech of the American people, it
is doubtful if any other nation, whether it covers a large territory or
is limited in area, speaks the language native to the country with the
uniformity that we do. Yet, there are peculiarities that mark the
expression of most of our people, even among the best informed. The
words _calculate, reckon,_ and _guess_ are not the only words that
betray the locality of the speaker. Any person who has been five
hundred miles from home cannot fail to have observed words that were
used differently from the way in which he had been accustomed to use
them, and he probably heard terms of expression that seemed strange to
him. In like manner, his own expressions sounded strange to those who
heard him. That which distinguished his speech from theirs and theirs
from his would, in large part, be covered by the word “provincialism.”

Not only do we have local and sectional peculiarities of speech, but we
may be said to have national mannerisms. Mr. Alexander Melville Bell,
the
eminent elocutionist, relates that some years ago when residing in
Edinburgh, a stranger called to make some inquiries in regard to
professional matters.

“I have called on you, sir, for the purpose of,” etc.

“When did you cross the Atlantic?” I asked.

The stranger looked up with surprise amounting almost to consternation.

“How do you know that I have crossed the Atlantic?”

“Your manner of using the little word ‘sir’ is not heard in England or
Scotland.”

This gentleman, Mr. Bell says, was one of the most eminent teachers of
elocution in America, and his speech was perfectly free from ordinary
local coloring, in all but the one little element which had escaped
observation.

WHICH?


Much diversity of usage exists and some difference of opinion prevails
concerning the proper expression to use when you are addressed, and
fail to understand just what has been said. Such interrogative
rejoinders as _“What?” “How?” “Which?” “Hey?”_ are plainly
objectionable. _“Sir?” _and _“Madam!”_ once common, are no longer
tolerated in society. The English expression _“Beg pardon”_ has found
favor, but it is not wholly acceptable. _“Excuse me”_
is suggested by a writer on the subject. It has no more syllables than
_“Beg pardon,”_ and is nearly equivalent in signification, but it is
also subject to the objection that it is often used to imply a
difference of opinion, as when a person makes a statement to which you
take exception, you begin your reply with the expression, _“Excuse
me.”_

Whatever is adopted will doubtless be a convenient contraction, like
_“Beg pardon,”_ which is a short way of saying, “I beg your pardon for
failing to understand what you said;” or “_Excuse me,”_ which is a
condensation of “Excuse me for not fully grasping your meaning.”

WORDS IMPROPERLY USED

Commodious—Convenient


A word of caution in the use of the smaller dictionaries is necessary.
The most elaborate definition often fails to give an adequate idea of
the signification of a term unless it is accompanied with one or more
quotations illustrating its use. The small dictionaries give only the
briefest definitions, without illustration, and therefore should be
interpreted with caution.

Some years ago a young man of moderate attainments was very desirous of
enlarging his vocabulary
and of using words beyond the ordinary vernacular of his neighborhood.
To this end, he made a small vest-pocket lexicon his constant
companion.

Having consulted it in the course of a conversation with a friend, he
remarked, as he was about to return it to his pocket, “What a
commodious book this is.” His friend suggested that he again consult
the “commodious” volume. With a look of the utmost confidence he turned
to the word, and exclaimed: “There! I knew I was right. _Commodious_
means _convenient,_ and that is just what this little book is.”

It was useless to explain that smallness sometimes renders a thing
inconvenient, and this young man, doubtless, still felicitates himself
upon his intimate acquaintance with that _commodious_ pocket
dictionary.

Ability, Capacity


A fond mother was told by the principal of a boarding-school that her
daughter would not be graduated, as she lacked capacity. “Get her a
capacity. Her father don’t stand on the matter of expense. Get her
anything she wants. He’ll foot the bill.” But for once the indulgent
mother was obliged to learn that there are some things money will not
purchase. The father had the financial _ability,_ but the daughter
lacked the necessary intellectual _capacity._


But we may have literary as well as financial ability. _Ability
_implies the power of doing; _capacity_ the faculty of receiving.

About, Almost


“This work is _about_ done.” Use “_almost_ done.”

Acceptance, Acceptation


These words cannot be used interchangeably. “He wrote signifying his
_acceptance_ of the office.” “According to the common _acceptation_ of
this term, he is a knave.”

Access, Accession


“He gained _access_ to the fort.” “The only _accession,_ which the
Roman empire received was the province of Britain.”

Accident, Injury


Accident is sometimes used incorrectly for _injury._ as “His _accident_
was very painful.”

Mutual, Common


Some men seek to be great by copying great men’s faults. Dickens may
say “Our Mutual Friend,” but Dickens’s strong point was not grammar. If
you have a friend in common with Smith, in speaking of him to Smith,
say our _common _friend. The word _mutual_ should always convey a sense
of reciprocity, as “Happy in our mutual help and mutual love.”


Myself


This word is generally used for emphasis, as “I _myself_ will do it,”
“I wrote it _myself.”_ It should not be used for the unemphatic
pronouns _I_ and _me,_ as in “James and _myself_ are going to town,”
“He gave the books to James and _myself.”_ It is properly used with a
reflexive verb without emphasis, as “I will defend _myself.”_

Negligence, Neglect


_Negligence_ is the habit, _neglect_ the act, of leaving things undone.
The adjectives _negligent_ and _neglectful_ should, in like manner, be
discriminated.

Never, Not


The word _never_ is sometimes colloquially used for _not, _as “I
_never_ remember to have seen Lincoln.” Say “I _do not _remember,” etc.
_Never_ should not be used in reference to events that can take place
but once, as “Warren _never_ died at Lexington.”

Love, Like


We may _love_ our parents, our children, our country, the truth; and we
may _like_ roast turkey and cranberry sauce. “I _love _cherries,” “I
_adore_ strawberries,” are school-girl expressions that should be
avoided. Love is an emotion of the heart, and not of the palate.


Cheap, Low-priced


These words are often used synonymously. A picture purchased for ten
thousand dollars may be cheap; another, for which ten dollars was paid,
although low-priced, may be dear.

Mad, Angry


The frequent use of _mad_ in the sense of angry should be avoided. A
person who is insane is _mad._ A dog that has hydrophobia is _mad._
Figuratively we say _mad,_ with rage, _mad_ with terror, _mad_ with
pain; but to be vexed, or angry, or out of patience, does not justify
the use of so strong a term as _mad._

Most, Almost, Very


Sometimes incorrectly used for _almost,_ as “He writes to me _most_
every week.”

It is often loosely used in the sense of _very,_ as “This is a _most
_interesting book.” Aim to use _most_ only as the superlative of
_much_, or _many._ Do not use the indefinite article before it, as
“This is _a most_ beautiful picture.” We may say “This is _the most
_beautiful picture,” for here comparison is implied.

Portion, Part


“Give me the _portion_ of goods that falleth to me.” “We traveled a
_part_ of the distance on foot.” _Portion_ is applied to that which is
set aside for a special
purpose, often as the share or allotment of an individual, as the
wife’s _portion,_ the _portion_ of the oldest son, etc. _Part_ is a
more general term.

Postal


Bryant would not have said, “I will send you a _postal_ by to-morrow’s
mail.” _Postal card_ or _post card_ would be better.

Practical, Practicable


These words are sometimes confounded. _Practicable_ means “that may be
done or accomplished,” and implies that the means or resources are
available; as, a _practicable_ road, a _practicable_ aim. _Practical_
means “capable of being turned to use or account;” as, “The _practical_
man begins by doing; the theorist often ends by thinking.”

Predicate


This word is sometimes incorrectly used in the sense of _form _or
_base;_ as, “He _predicated_ his statement on the information he had
just received.” Neither should it be used in the sense of _predict;
_as, “The sky is overcast, and I _predicate_ a storm tomorrow.”

Prefer—than


“I _prefer_ to walk _than_ to ride.” Say “I prefer walking to riding;”
or, “I would rather walk than
ride.” “To skate is _preferable than_ to coast.” Say “Skating is
preferable to coasting.”

Amount, Number


_Amount_ applies to what is thought of in the mass or bulk, as money,
wheat, coal. _Number_ is used when we think of the individuals
composing the mass, as men, books, horses, vessels.

Answer, Reply


An _answer_ implies a question. We may _reply_ to a remark or
assertion. A _reply_ is more formal than an _answer._

Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose


The word _antagonize_ should not be used in the sense of _alienate;_
as, “Your proposition will _antagonize_ many supporters of the
measure.” “The Senate _opposed_ the bill which passed the House” is
better than “_antagonized_ the bill.”

Anticipate, Expect


“The arrival of the President was hourly _anticipated”_ is pompous. Use
_expected._

Any, At all


“He was so far from the speaker’s platform that he could not hear
_any.”_ Better “that he could not hear,” or “hear at all,” or “hear
what was said.”


Apparent, Evident


These words are often used interchangeably. That which is _apparent_
may be what it appears to be, or it may be very different; that which
is _evident _admits of no doubt. The same is true of _apparently_ and
_evidently._

Prejudice


“He is not the best person for the position, but his many kindnesses to
me _prejudice_ me in his favor.” We may be prejudiced against a person
or thing, but cannot be prejudiced in favor. Use _predispose._

Presume


This word is often employed when _think, believe,_ or _daresay _would
be better.

Pretend, Profess


“I do not _pretend_ to be an orator.” _Pretend_ means _to feign, to
sham;_ as, “He _pretends_ to be asleep,” and should not be used when
_claim_ or _profess_ would better suit the purpose.

Preventative


The correct form of the word is _preventive,_ not _preventative._

Previous, Previously


The adjective _previous_ is often incorrectly used for the adverb
_previously;_ as, “Previous to his imprisonment he made a confession of
his crime.”


Promise, Assure


“I _promise_ you we had a good time yesterday.” _Promise_ relates to
the future, hence “I _assure_ you,” etc., would be better.

Propose, Purpose


To _propose_ is to set before the mind for consideration; to _purpose_
is to intend. “I _propose_ sending my son to college” should be “I
_purpose,”_ etc. “I _propose_ that you go to college, my son.” “Thank
you, father, I accept the proposal.”

Sparrowgrass, Asparagus


The word _sparrowgrass,_ which is a corruption of the word _asparagus,_
illustrates how readily the uneducated mind associates an unusual term
with another that is familiar, and as the mental impression is received
through the ear, and lacks that definiteness which the printed form
would give, the new idea, when repeated, often assumes a picturesque,
if not a ludicrous, form. Many of Mrs. Partington’s quaint sayings
furnish further illustration.

The following incident, from a Western paper, shows the successive
stages in the farmer’s mental operations from the familiar terms _skin,
hide, oxhide, _up to the unfamiliar chemical term _oxide,_ through
which he was obliged to pass before he succeeded in making known his
wants:


The man was in a brown study when he went into the drug store.

“What can we do for you?” inquired the clerk.

“I want black—something of something,” he said; “have you got any?”

“Probably we have,” replied the clerk, “but you’ll have to be more
definite than that to get it.”

The farmer thought for a moment.

“Got any black sheepskin of something?” he asked.

“No; we don’t keep sheepskins. We have chamois-skins, though.”

“That ain’t it, I know,” said the customer. “Got any other kind of
skins?”

“No.”

“Skins—skins—skins!” slowly repeated the man, struggling with his
slippery memory. “Calfskin seems to be something like it. Got any black
calfskins of anything?”

“No, not one,” and the clerk laughed.

The customer grew red in the face.

“Confound it!” he said, “if it ain’t a skin, what in thunder is it?”

“Possibly it’s a hide?” suggested the clerk.

“That’s it! That’s it!” exclaimed the man.

“Have you got any black hides of something or anything?”


The clerk shook his head sadly as the man tramped up and down the
store.

“Got any black cowhide of anything?” he asked, after a moment’s
thought.

The clerk’s face showed a gleam of intelligence, and then broke into a
smile.

“Possibly it’s black oxide of manganese you want?” he said, quietly.

“Of course, that’s it!” he exclaimed, as he threw his arms around the
clerk’s neck. “I knowed blamed well there was a skin or hide or
something somewhere about the thing,” and he calmed down quietly and
waited for what he wanted.

Accord, Give


“They _accorded_ him due praise.” “They _gave_ him the desired
information.”

Act, Action


“The best portion of a good man’s life is his little, nameless,
unremembered _acts_ of kindness and of love.” “Suit the _action_ to the
word.” _Action_ suggests the operation; _act_, the accomplished result.

Adherence, Adhesion


These words were once interchangeable, but are now distinct. _Adhesion
_relates to physical bodies; _adherence_ to mental states.


Adopt, Take


“What course will you _take?”_ is better than “What course will you
_adopt?”_

Affect, Effect


These words are sometimes confounded. “The climate _affected _their
health.” “They sailed away without _effecting_ their purpose.”

Aggravate, Exasperate


To _aggravate_ means to intensify, to make worse; to _exasperate _means
to provoke, to irritate. “To _aggravate_ the horrors of the scene.”
“His remarks _exasperated_ me.” “His conduct _aggravates_ me” should be
“His conduct _annoys_ (or _displeases,_ or _irritates, _or
_exasperates)_ me.”

Alleviate, Relieve


These words differ chiefly in degree. The latter is the stronger word.

Proposal, Proposition


A _proposition_ implies consideration or discussion; a _proposal
_contemplates acceptance or rejection. “Your _proposition_ to build our
new warehouse has received favorable consideration, and we are ready to
receive your _proposals.”_

Providing, Provided


“You may go to skate, _providing_ you first finish your task.”
Incorrect. You should say _provided._


Proved, Proven


_Proven_ is sometimes incorrectly used for _proved._ “The evidence was
complete and his guilt was fully _proved.” Not proven_ is a legal term
used in England to denote that the guilt of the accused is not made
out, though not disproved.

Quantity, Number


_Quantity_ refers to the _how much; number_ to the _how many. _“He
purchased a large _quantity_ of _wheat, corn, apples, lime, _and
_sand,_ and a _number_ of _houses, stores_, _chairs, _and _books.”_ It
is, therefore, incorrect to say, “There was a large _quantity_ of
bicycles in the yard,” “He sold a large _quantity_ of books at
auction.”

Quite a few


In some parts of the country this expression is in common use in the
sense of _many, a large number,_ etc. “How many people were at church
to-day?” _“Quite a few,”_ meaning a considerable number.

Commence, Begin


Some persons always _commence,_ but never _begin._ The tendency toward
pomp and parade in speech prompts many persons to avoid the use of our
strong, rugged Anglo-Saxon words, and to substitute their high-sounding
Latin equivalents, until, in time, the preferable native forms come to
be regarded as
commonplace and objectionable. American usage is more faulty than
English in this regard. Use _begin_ and _beginning_ more, and _commence
_and, _commencement_ less.

Complete, Finished


There is a distinction in the use of these words that is not always
observed. _Complete_ signifies _nothing lacking,_ every element and
part being supplied. That which is _finished_ has had all done to it
that was intended. A vessel may be _finished_ and yet be _incomplete._

Conclusion, End


The more pretentious word _conclusion_ is often used where the simple
Anglo-Saxon word _end_ would be preferable.

Conscious, Aware


“He was _aware_ of the enemy’s designs.” “_Conscious_ of his fate, he
boldly approached the furious beast.” _Conscious_ relates to what is
within our own mind; _aware_ to what is without.

Continual, Continuous


_Continuous_ implies _uninterrupted, unbroken. Continual _relates to
acts that are frequently repeated. “The _continuous_ ride is often
finished in five hours, but owing to _continual_ delays we were eight
hours on the way.”


Convict, Convince


The Irishman who brandished his club and, exclaimed that he was open to
conviction, but he would like to see the man that could convince him,
used a form of argument that was most convincing, but failed in his
discrimination of language. _Convict_ refers to the outer condition,
and generally applies to something wrong; _convince,_ which may be used
of either right or wrong, refers to the judgment.

Custom, Habit


_Habit_ is a tendency which leads us to do easily; _custom_ grows out
of the habitual doing or frequent repetition of the same act. _Custom
_refers to the usages of society, or of the individual; _habit_ refers
more frequently to the individual acts. “Ill _habits_ gather by unseen
degrees.”

“Man yields to custom as he bows to fate, In all things ruled— mind,
body, and estate.”

Want, Need


These words are often used interchangeably, but should be
discriminated. _Need_ implies the lack; _want_ also implies the lack,
but couples with it the wish to supply the lack. “Some men _need_ help,
but will not ask for it; others _want_ help (that is, they need help,
or think they do, and ask for it) and get it, too.”


Way, Away


“He is _way_ down in Florida,” is incorrect. “He is _away _down in
Florida” is better grammar. “He is in Florida” is still better. _Down_
indicates the direction, and _away_ magnifies the distance. As most
persons know the direction, and as modern railway travel shortens long
distances, the abbreviated sentence is sufficiently full.

Ways, Way


“He is a long _ways_ from home” is a very common, but faulty
expression. Say “Uncle Charles is now a long _way_ on his journey.”
“The boat is a good _way_ off the shore.”

Whole, All


“The _whole_ of the scholars went to the fair to-day.” _“All_ of the
school went to the fair to-day.” The sentences will be improved by
transposing _whole_ and _all. “All_ of the scholars went to the fair
to-day,” not half of them. “The _whole_ school went to the fair
to-day,” not a part of it. _All_ refers to the individual scholars;
_whole_ to the school as a unit.

Without, Unless


“He cannot miss the way _without_ he forgets my instructions.” “I will
not dig the potatoes _without_ Tom comes to help.” Use _unless _instead
of _without._


Worse, More


“He dislikes arithmetic _worse_ than grammar.” Use _more_ instead of
_worse._

Rarely, Rare


“It is _rarely_ that you hear of a prodigal youth growing into an
economical man.” _Rarely_ should be _rare_ to form the adjective
attribute of the verb.

Real, Really


_Real_ is often incorrectly used as an adverb, especially by
schoolgirls; as, “I think he is _real_ mean.” The grammar will be
improved by substituting _really_ for _real,_ but the expression, as a
whole, being applied to all kinds and degrees of offenses, has become
meaningless.

_Real_ is often carelessly used in the sense of _very;_ as _real
_pretty, _real_ bright, _real_ kind.

Recipe, Receipt


A _recipe_ is a formula for making some mixture or preparation of
materials; a _receipt_ is an acknowledgment of that which has been
received.

Region, Neighborhood


_Region_ is a broader and more comprehensive term, and should not be
applied to the narrow limits of a _neighborhood._


Remit, Send


The word _remit_ is often used when _send_ would be better. _Remit_
means to send back, to forgive, to relax. In its commercial sense it
means to transmit or send money in payment of a demand; as, “He
_remitted _the amount by mail.”

Residence, House


This pretentious word is often used when _house_ or _home_ would be in
better taste.

Deface, Disfigure


“The walls of many public buildings are _defaced_ by persons who desire
that their names shall remain when they are gone.” “They _disfigure_
their faces that they may appear unto men to fast.” _Disfigure_ applies
more generally to persons; _deface,_ to things.

Demean, Degrade


The word _demean_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _degrade,
lower._ It should be used in the sense of _behave, conduct, deport,_
and not in the sense of _degrade._

Depot, Station


For many years the word _depôt_ was largely employed in the sense of a
railway station. Its primary meaning is a _warehouse_ or _storehouse_
or _military station._ As applied to a stopping place for railroad
trains the
English word _station_ is greatly to be preferred to the French word
_depôt,_ and is rapidly coming into general use in this country.

Description, Kind


“Flowers of every _description_ were found in his garden.” In the above
sense the word _kind_ or _variety_ would be more appropriate.

Bring, Fetch, Carry


_Bring_ implies motion from the object toward the person who issues the
command or makes the request. _Fetch_ implies two motions, first,
toward the object; second, toward the person who wishes it. The
gardener, who is in the garden, calls to his servant, who is at the
barn, “John, _bring_ me the rake. You will find it in the barn.” And if
John is with him in the garden, he would say, “John, _fetch_ me the
rake from the barn.”

The use of _fetch_ is more common among English writers than with us.
In fact, many speakers and writers in America rarely use the word.

_Carry_ is a more general term, and means _to convey,_ without thought
of the direction.

Character, Reputation


These words are often confounded. “Character,” says Abbott, “is what a
person is; reputation is what he is supposed to be. Character is in
himself,
reputation is in the minds of others. Character is injured by
temptations and by wrong-doing; reputation by slanders and libels.
Character endures throughout defamation in every form, but perishes
where there is a voluntary transgression; reputation may last through
numerous transgressions, but be destroyed by a single, and even an
unfounded, accusation or aspersion.”

Farther, Further


Although these words are often used interchangeably even by good
writers, yet a finer taste and a keener power of discrimination is
shown in the use of _farther_ when referring to literal distance, and
of _further _in reference to quantity or degree; as, “Each day’s
journey removes them _farther_ from home,” “He concluded his speech by
remarking that he had nothing _further_ to say.” _Farther_ is the
comparative of _far; further_ is the comparative of _forth._

Fault, Defect


Speakers and writers often fail to discriminate in the use of these
words. A _defect_ implies a deficiency, a lack, a falling short, while
a _fault_ signifies that there is something wrong.

“Men still had faults, and men will have them still,
He that hath none, and lives as angels do
Must be an angel.”


“It is in general more profitable to reckon up our defects than to
boast of our attainments.”

Few, Little


These words and their comparatives, _fewer, less,_ are often
confounded. _Few_ relates to number, or to what may be counted; _little
_refers to quantity, or to what may be measured. A man may have _few
_books and _little_ money; he may have _fewer_ friends and _less
_influence than his neighbor. But do not say “The man has _less
_friends than his neighbor.”

Each other, One another


While some excellent authorities use these expressions interchangeably,
most grammarians and authors employ _each other_ in referring to two
persons or things, and _one another_ when more than two are considered;
as, “Both contestants speak kindly of _each other.” _“Gentlemen are
always polite to _one another.”_

Those who prefer to have wide latitude in speech will be glad to know
that Murray, in one of the rules in his grammar, says, “Two negatives
in English destroy _one another.”_

Shakespeare says, “It is a good divine that follows his own
instructions. I can easier teach twenty what were good to be done, than
be one of
the twenty to follow mine own teaching.” This is as true of expression
as of morals.

Either, Neither


“Palms and beautiful flowers lined the hall on _either_ side,” is a
common but faulty form of expression. _Either_ refers to one of two
things. In the foregoing sentence the thought is that _both_ sides of
the hall were lined, hence the word _both_ should have been used. If,
however, each side of the hall is thought of separately, then _each,_
would be the proper word to employ.

_“Either_ of the two books will please you.” _“Any_ of the three books
will prove satisfactory.” _“Any one_ of the five men would make a good
candidate.” _“Neither_ of the two men will serve.” _“None_ of the ten
men were present.” “_Not one_ of all the houses was left standing.”
These sentences represent the best usage with regard to _either,
neither,_ and also of _any, none, any one, not one._

These kind


Adjectives implying number must agree with the nouns which they
qualify. _This_ and _that_ qualify nouns in the singular; _these _and
_those_ belong to nouns in the plural.

_“These kind_ of potatoes grow well in this soil.” Use _this. “This
_twenty _years_ have I known him.”
Use _these._ “The beam was _two foot_ above my head,” Use _feet. _“For
_this,_ among other reasons, I abandoned the profession.” Say “For
_this_ reason, among others, I abandoned the profession.” “He rides the
bicycle daily, and by _this means_ he preserves his health.” “The
partners were all honest, courteous, and industrious, and by _these
means _acquired wealth.” The word _means_ being either singular or
plural, the two preceding sentences are both correct.

Some means or another


“By _some means or another_ he always gets the better part of the
bargain.” This sentence may be corrected by saying _“one means or
another,”_ or _“some means or other.”_

Than


After _other, otherwise, else,_ or an adjective in the comparative
degree, _than_ should be used, and not _but_ or _except._

“No other way _but_ this was open to him.” Use _than._

“History and philosophy cannot otherwise affect the mind _but_ for its
enlargement and benefit.” Use _than._

“Flowers are often nothing else _but_ cultivated weeds.” Use _than._

“He no sooner entered the bridge _but_ he met an infuriated bull coming
toward him.” Use _than._


“He offered no other objection _except_ the one already mentioned.” Use
_than._

“He read five other books on ‘Crime and Its Causes’ _in addition to
_those you named.” Use _than._

With equal propriety we may say, “He offered no objection except the
one already mentioned,” or “He read five books on ‘Crime and Its
Causes’ in addition to those you named.” It is the use of the word
_other,_ or _otherwise,_ or _else,_ that makes necessary the
correlative term _than._

Besides


After _else_ and _other_ the preposition _besides_ is sometimes
employed.

“Other boys _besides_ these are mischievous.”

“Other arts _besides_ music are elevating and inspiring.”

“We must have recourse to something else _besides_ punishment.”

It will be observed that the use of _besides_ in this section differs
from the use of _than_ in the preceding discussion. _“Other... than”
_is exclusive of those mentioned; whereas, “_other... besides”
_includes those mentioned.

Other


“Iron is more useful than all the metals.” The faultiness of this
sentence becomes apparent when
we remember that iron itself is a metal and is included in the word
_metals, _which forms one side of the comparison. In short, “Iron is
more useful than iron together with all the other metals.” This
statement is absurd. The sentence should, therefore, read, “Iron is
more useful than all the _other _metals.”

“The Washington monument is higher than any monument in America.” Since
it is in America, and as it cannot be higher than itself, the sentence
is made correct by adding the word _other;_ as, “The Washington
monument is higher than any _other_ monument in America.”

“This book, which I have just finished, is superior to any work on the
subject that I have yet seen.” Say “to any _other_ work.”

“Of all other creatures, man is the most highly endowed.” Say “of all
creatures,” etc.

“No general was ever so beloved by his soldiers.” Say “No _other
_general,” etc.

“Nothing delights him so much as a storm at sea.” “Nothing _else
_delights him,” etc.

One’s, His


Whether we should say “One ought to know _one’s_ own mind,” or “One
ought to know _his_ own mind,” is a question that the critics have
earnestly discussed, but have never settled, except as each settles it
for
himself. The masculine pronoun is often used with an antecedent whose
gender is not known. There can, therefore, be no objection to the use
of _his_ on the question of gender. As a matter of euphony, _his_ is
preferable to _one’s._ Both have the sanction of good usage.

None


Although literally signifying _no one,_ the word _none_ may be used
with a plural verb, having the force of a collective noun.

_“None_ but the brave deserves the fair.”— _Dryden._

_“None_ knew thee but to love thee,
_None_ named thee but to praise.”—_Halleck._

“I look for ghosts; but _none_ will force
Their way to me.”—_Wordsworth._

“Of all the girls that e’er were seen,
There’s _none_ so fine as Nelly.”—_Swift._


All, Whole


The word _all_ is often incorrectly used for _the whole._

“The river rose and spread over all the valley.” This should be “over
the _whole_ valley.”

“The day being stormy, the members of Class A were _all_ the children
at school to-day.” Correct by saying “were the only children at school
to-day.”


Perpetually, Continually


_Perpetually_ is not synonymous with _continually. Perpetually _means
never-ceasing. That which is done _continually_ may be subject to
interruptions.

Persuade, Advise


“Almost thou _persuadest_ me to be a Christian.” Paul had _advised
_many persons to become Christians, some of whom, like Agrippa, were
_almost persuaded._

Wharf, Dock


These words are sometimes confounded. The _wharf_ is the pier, or
landing, upon which the vessel unloads her cargo. The _dock_ is the
artificial waterway, or basin, formed by the wharves. “The vessel came
into the _dock_ and was made fast to the _wharf.”_

Contemptible, Contemptuous


_Contemptible_ is sometimes incorrectly used for _contemptuous._ A
story is told of Richard Parson, an English scholar and critic. A
gentleman being in dispute with him, angrily exclaimed, “My opinion of
you is most _contemptible,_ sir,” upon which Parson quickly retorted,
“I never knew an opinion of yours that was not _contemptible.”_

Healthy, Wholesome


These terms are not synonymous. Toadstools may be _healthy,_ but they
would not be regarded as
_wholesome._ Plants and animals are _healthy_ when the conditions of
their growth are favorable. They are _wholesome_ when, as food, they
promote the health of those persons who eat them.

In a fix


Many persons instead of saying “He is in trouble,” or “He is in an
awkward position,” or “He is perplexed,” or _embarrassed,_ employ the
vulgarism, “He is _in a fix.”_ Although Shakespeare may say, “This was
the _most unkindest_ cut of all,” and De Quincey may write, “Poor Aroar
cannot live and cannot die—so that he is in an _almighty fix,”_ we
lesser mortals are forbidden such expressions.

Fly, Flee


In a general sense _fly_ is applied to winged creatures and _flee_ to
persons. “What exile from himself can _flee?”_ “When the swallows
homeward _fly.”_ The past tense forms are sometimes confused, as, “The
inhabitants _flew_ to the fort for safety,” “The wild geese have all
_fled_ to the South.” The principal parts of the verbs are:

Present.          Past.          Perf. part.
fly,              flew,          flown.
flee,             fled,          fled.


The verbs _flew_ and _fled_ in the foregoing sentences should be
transposed. _Fly_ implies motion either
from or toward. _Flee_ implies motion from. _Fly_ may be used, in a
figurative sense, of persons, to indicate great speed as of wings. “I
_flew _to his rescue.” “He _flew_ to my rescue.” “Resist the devil and
he will _flee_ from you.”

The word _flown_ is sometimes used erroneously as the past tense or
perfect participle of the verb _flow._ The parts of this verb are
_flow, flowed, flowed. “_The river has _overflowed_ (not _overflown)_
its banks.”

Get, Got


Because a horse is willing is no reason why he should be ridden to
death. The verb _get_ and its past-tense form _got_ admit of many
meanings, as the following, from an old English publication, fully
proves: “I _got_ on horseback within ten minutes after I _got_ your
letter. When I _got _to Canterbury I _got_ a chaise for town; but I
_got_ wet through before I _got_ to Canterbury, and I have _got_ such a
cold as I shall not be able to _get_ rid of in a hurry. I _got_ to the
Treasury about noon, but, first of all, I _got_ shaved and dressed. I
soon _got _into the secret of _getting_ a memorial before the Board,
but I could not _get_ an answer then. However, I _got_ intelligence
from the messenger that I should most likely _get_ an answer the next
morning. As soon as I _got_ back to my inn I _got_ my supper and _got_
to bed. It was not long before I _got_ to sleep.
When I _got_ up in the morning I _got_ myself dressed, and then _got_
my breakfast, that I might _get_ out in time to _get_ an answer to my
memorial. As soon as I _got_ it I _got_ into the chaise and _got_ to
Canterbury by three, and about teatime I _got_ home. I have _got_
nothing more to say.”

Those who are disposed to overwork the words _get_ and _got_ will find
it interesting and profitable to read the foregoing exercise,
substituting other words for those in italics.

With _have_ the word _got_ is generally superfluous; as, “I have _got_
a cold,” “I have _got_ to go to Boston this evening,” “Have you _got_
Hires’s root-beer on draught?” For “I _did not get_ to meet your
cousin,” say “I _had no opportunity,”_ or “I _was prevented,” _etc.

Another very faulty use of _got_ is heard in such expressions as “He
_got_ killed,” “They _got_ beaten,” “She _got_ cured,” etc. _Was_ or
_were_ would be more appropriate.

Since _to get_ means _to obtain, to procure, to gain,_ the use of the
word is justified in such expressions as “I have _got_ a larger farm
than you have, because I have worked harder for it.” “I have _got_ a
better knowledge of the Pacific coast than he has, because I traveled
extensively through that region.” And yet, when we have been
overworked, the physician usually prescribes a period of absolute rest;
so, in
view of the multifarious uses to which _get_ has been applied, would it
not be well to permit it to retire for a time, in order that it may the
more quickly be rejuvenated.

Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow


“I _guess_ he is not going to vote to-day.” “I _reckon_ we are going to
have fair weather now.” “I _calculate_ this ground would grow good
potatoes.” “I _allow_ she’s the prettiest girl that ever visited these
parts.” The foregoing sentences may be improved by recasting them. “I
think he is not going to (or will not) vote to-day.” “I believe we
shall now have fair weather.” “I suppose this ground would yield fine
potatoes.” “I regard her as the handsomest lady that has ever visited
this place (or _neighborhood,_ or _locality)._

Gums, Overshoes


“Tom is outside, cleaning his _gums_ on the mat.” While a mat will do
very well for _overshoes,_ a tooth-brush and sozodont would be better
for the _gums._

Funny


“Isn’t it _funny_ that Smith, who resided in Chicago, should have died
the same day that his father died in Boston?” “Isn’t it _funny _that
the murderer who escaped hanging on a mere technicality of the law
should have been killed the next day in a railroad accident?” “How
_funny _that these maples should grow so tall on this mountain top!”
“It is _funny_ to think that James, who now pays his addresses to me,
should once have been in love with my youngest sister.” The foregoing
illustrations are not more incongruous than those we daily hear. _Odd,
strange, peculiar, unusual, _represent some of the ideas intended to be
conveyed by that much-abused word.

Good deal, Great deal


This idiom is defended by some authorities as being in perfectly good
use, and by others it is denounced as being incorrect. Both _good deal
_and _greet deal_ are somewhat colloquial, and should be used sparingly
in writing.

Had better, Would better


Like _a good deal_ and some other idioms, this expression is denounced
by some writers and defended by others. Grammatical construction
supports more strongly the forms _would better, would rather,_ etc. “I
had rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God, than to dwell in the
tents of wickedness.” “I would rather read than drive to-day.” “I would
rather not go.” Omit _rather_ and the superiority of _would_ over _had_
becomes apparent.


If, Whether


“I do not know _if_ he sold his farm or exchanged it for city
property.” Use _whether._

Illy, Ill


Do not use _illy_ for _ill._ The former is becoming obsolete, and the
latter, as an adverb, is taking its place. Say “An ill-ventilated
room,” not “an illy-ventilated room.”

Implicit


This word means _tacitly understood, resting on the word or authority
of another._ It should not be used in the sense of _unbounded,
unlimited._

Individual


This word should not be used broadly in the sense of _a_ _person,_ but
should always convey some thought of _a_ _single _thing or person, as
opposed to many.

Journal


As this word is from the French, _jour,_ day, it should not be applied
to a monthly or quarterly magazine.

Know as


“I do not _know as_ I can see you to-day.” Say _know that._


Last, Latest


“Did you receive my _last_ letter?”

“I hope not. I enjoy your letters very much, and I trust you may live
to write many more.”

Cunning


This word is much used by young ladies in speaking of what is small, or
dainty, or pleasing, as “A _cunning_ little bonnet,” _“A cunning
_little watch,” etc. While the word properly embodies the idea of skill
or dexterity on the part of the workman, and while the appreciation of
such skill, in speaking of the artist or artisan, might be expressed by
_cunning,_ it is better not to use the word in referring to the product
of the workmanship.

Curious


_Curious_ means _inquisitive, rare._ In the sense of _strange _or
_remarkable,_ its use should be guarded.

Cute


This word is often used colloquially in the sense of _clever, sharp,
shrewd, ingenious, cunning._ It is doubtless an abbreviation of
_acute._ It is not found in good literary usage.

Favor, Resemble


The use of the word _favor_ in the sense of _resemble_ is a
provincialism that should be avoided. “The
son _favors_ the father” is correct if the meaning be that the son
shows favor or kindness to the father; but if reference to their
similarity of appearance is intended, the verb _resemble_ should be
employed.

Balance, Remainder


This word, like numerous others, has been borrowed from the commercial
world, and has had such a wide use that its faultiness is not noticed
even by many who regard themselves as careful speakers and writers. “I
cut down part of the timber this year, and expect to cut the _balance_
next spring.” “My cousin will remain with us the _balance_ of this
week.” “James ate half of the melon to-day, and will eat the _balance_
to-morrow.” In these and all similar cases the word _remainder_ should
be used. _Balance_ is a term that applies to accounts, and signifies
the amount necessary to be added to one side of the account in order to
make it equal the other.

Behave


“Now, my children, you must _behave_ while I am gone.” The mother
intended to ask her children to _behave well,_ but as _behave_ is a
neutral word, and may be followed by _well_ or _ill,_ her form of
expression permits the children to supply whichever adverb suits them
the better. _Behave_ requires a qualifying word to make the meaning
clear.


Bound


“He was _determined_ to study medicine,” not “He was _bound,” _etc.
_Bound_ implies that he was under a bond or obligation to another,
rather than impelled by the action of his own mind.

Better, Best


While some good writers violate the rule, yet the best authorities
restrict the use of the comparative degree to two objects.

“Mary is the _better_ scholar of the two.”

“Although both are young, Susan is the _younger.”_

“Of two evils, choose the _lesser,”_ not the _least._

Former, First


_Former_ and _latter_ being adjectives of the comparative degree,
should be used in speaking of two objects. When more than two objects
are named, use _first_ and _last._

“My sons, John and Luther, are both at college. The _first _expects to
study law, and the _last_ to study medicine.” Use _former _and
_latter._

“New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago are the most populous cities in
the United States. The _former_ has long been at the front; the _latter
_has only recently entered the race.” Use _first_ and _last _instead of
_former_ and _latter._


These, Those


When objects near and remote are referred to, _this_ and its plural
_these_ are applied to the objects near at hand, _that_ and its plural
_those_ to objects at a distance.

When reference is made to contrasted antecedent terms, _this_ and
_these_ are applied to the latter; _that_ and _those_ to the former, as

“Farewell my friends! farewell my foes!
 My peace with _these,_ my love with _those!”_


_—Burns._


Fictitious Writer


Do not say a _fictitious writer_ when you mean a _writer of fiction._

Firstly


_First_ is an adverb as well as an adjective. We should, therefore, say
first, secondly, thirdly, and not _firstly, secondly, _etc.

First-rate


An article may be rated in quality as first, or second, or third. If it
rates _first,_ it may be called a _first-rate_ article. The word is
properly used as an adjective, but should not be employed as an adverb,
as in the sentence, “He sings first-rate.”

Fix, Mend, Repair


_Fix_ means _to make fast,_ but its incorrect use in the sense of
_mend, repair, arrange,_ is so common that the
word when properly used sounds strange, if not strained. “To _fix up_
the room,” “to _fix up_ the accounts,” “to _fix up_ matters with my
creditors,” “to _fix_ the rascals who betrayed me,” are examples
illustrating the looseness with which the word is used.

Round, Square


When a thing is _round_ or _square_ it cannot be _rounder _or
_squarer._ These adjectives do not admit of comparative and superlative
forms. But we may say _more nearly round_ or _less nearly square._

States, Says


“He _states_ he is going fishing to-morrow.” _States_ is too formal a
word, and should be used only of some important assertion. “He _says_
he is going,” etc.

Stop, Stay


To _stop_ is to cease moving. “At what hotel do you _stop” _should be
“At what hotel do you _stay.”_ “When you come to the city _stay_ with
me,” not _stop_ with me.

Subtile, Subtle


_Subtile_ means thin, fine, rare, delicate; _subtle_ means sly, artful,
cunning, elusive. “More _subtile_ web Arachne cannot spin.” “He had to
contend with a _subtle_ foe.”


Summons


He was _summonsed_ to appear before the judge” should be “He was
_summoned_ to appear,” etc.

Tasty


Often used in colloquial speech when _tasteful_ would be better.
_Tastily_ for _tastefully_ is still worse.

Team


Properly this word relates only to the horses, and does not include the
carriage.

Those kind, These sort


“It is unpleasant to have to associate with _those kind_ of people.”
“_These sort_ of sheep are the most profitable.” _Kind_ and _sort_ are
nouns of the singular number; _these_ and _those_ are plural, and,
according to the laws of grammar, the adjective and noun must agree in
number. The corrected sentences will read: “It is unpleasant to have to
associate with _this kind_ of people.” _“This sort_ of sheep is the
most profitable.” The fault arises by associating in the mind the
adjectives _these_ and _those_ with the nouns _sheep_ and _people,_
which nouns are more prominent in the mind than the nouns _kind_ and
_sort._ If the ear is not satisfied, the sentences may readily be
recast; as, “It is unpleasant to have to associate with people of _that
kind.”_ “Sheep of _this sort_ are the most profitable.”


Transpire, Happen


This word, from _trans,_ across, through, and _spirare,_ to breathe,
means, physiologically, to pass off in the form of vapor or insensible
perspiration, or, botanically, to evaporate from living cells. Its
general meaning is to become known, to escape from secrecy.

It is frequently employed in the sense of to occur, to come to pass,
but this use is condemned by the best critics in England and America.
“The proceedings of the secret session of the council soon
_transpired.”_ This sentence illustrates the true meaning of the word.

Make, Manufacture


These words may, in some cases, be used interchangeably, but _make_ has
much the wider range of meanings. The following story, related by Eli
Perkins, will illustrate this fact:

I was talking one day with Mr. Depew, President of the New York Central
Railroad, about demand and supply. I said the price of any commodity is
always controlled by the demand and supply.

“Not always, Eli,” said Depew; “demand and supply don’t always govern
prices. Business tact sometimes governs them.”

“When,” I asked, “did an instance ever occur when the price did not
depend on demand and supply?”


“Well,” said Mr. Depew, “the other day I stepped up to a German
butcher, and, out of curiosity, asked:

“‘What’s the price of sausages?’

“‘Dwenty cends a bound,’ he said.

“‘You asked twenty-five this morning,’ I replied.

“‘Yah; dot vas ven I had some. Now I ain’t got none, I sell him for
dwenty cents. Dot makes a repudation for selling cheab, und I don’t
lose noddings.’

“You see,” said Mr. Depew, laughing, “I didn’t want any sausage and the
man didn’t have any; no demand and no supply, and still the price of
sausage went down five cents.”

“Well, there are strange things in this world,” I said. “Now, take the
words _manufacture_ and _make._ I always thought that both words meant
the same thing.”

“Why, they do, Eli,” said Mr. Depew.

“Not always,” I said.

“Now, when could they have a different meaning?”

“Why, this morning I came down from Albany on a Central car
_manufactured _to carry fifty passengers, but it was _made_ to carry
seventy-two people.”

“Yes, I dare say; but we’ll now talk about the Behring Sea question.”


Truth, Veracity


“The _veracity_ of his statement is doubted.” The sentence should be,
“The truth of his statement is doubted,” or “In making that statement
his _veracity_ is doubted.” _Veracity_ is applied to the person; _truth
_to the thing.

Try the experiment


“They are _trying the experiment_ of running railroad trains by
electricity.” This should be, “They are _making the experiment,”_ etc.
The word _experiment_ contains the idea of _trial,_ hence, _to try the
experiment_ is to _try the trial._

Little piece


“I will go with you _a_ _little piece.” A short distance_ or _a_ _part
of the way_ would be more appropriate.

Every confidence


“I have _every confidence_ in his ability to succeed.” _Confidence _is
a unit; _every_ implies several units considered separately. “I have
_the greatest_ confidence in his ability to succeed” is correct.

Ugly


This word properly applies to the appearance of a person or thing,
hence such expressions as “He has an _ugly_ temper,” “This is an _ugly
_customer,” “That was an _ugly_ rumor,” etc., although common in
colloquial discourse, should be avoided in dignified address.


Unbeknown


This is a provincialism that should be avoided. Use _unknown._

Underhanded


Often incorrectly used for _underhand;_ as “That was a contemptible and
_underhanded_ trick.”

Calligraphy


This word means not writing, simply, but beautiful writing; hence, to
say, “His _calligraphy_ is wretched” is equivalent to saying, “His
excellent writing is poor,” which is a contradiction of terms.

Can but, Cannot but


These expressions are sometimes confounded. “If I perish, I _can but
perish,”_ means “I can _only_ perish,” or “I can do _no more than
_perish.” “I _cannot but_ speak of the things I have heard” means that
I am under a moral necessity to speak of these things. The past tense
forms _could but_ and _could not but_ should be, in like manner,
discriminated.

Casualty, Casuality


The latter word is sometimes used in place of the former. The first is
legitimate; the second is without authority. The words _specialty_ and
_speciality_ have a termination similar to the above. They may
generally be used interchangeably and are both legitimate.


Complected.


“The lady is light _complected,_ has blue eyes, and auburn hair.”
_Complected_ is a provincialism without sanction. “The lady is of light
complexion, has blue eyes,” etc.

Disremember


This word is obsolete. Use _forget,_ or “I do not remember.”

Lie, Lay


The verbs _lie_ and _lay_ are often confounded, even by intelligent
persons. _Lie_ does not take an object. We cannot _lie_ a thing. It is
therefore intransitive.

_Lay,_ which means to place in position, requires an object. We _lay _a
book on a table, or bricks on the wall. It is therefore transitive.

The principal parts of the first verb are _lie, lay, lain;_ and of the
second, _lay, laid, laid._ The word _lay_ is found in both, and this
is, in part, accountable for the confusion. The most frequent errors
result from using _laid,_ the past tense form of the transitive verb,
when the word _lay,_ the past tense form of the intransitive verb,
should be used. The ear naturally expects the usual past tense ending
of the _d_ or _t _sound, and as that is absent in the past tense of
_lie,_ the past tense form of the other verb is substituted. For the
same reason the participle form _laid_ is often incorrectly used for
_lain._


“He told me to _lie_ down, and I _lay_ down,” not _laid down. “_I told
him to _lay_ the book down, and he _laid_ it down.” “The ship _lay_ at
anchor.” “They _lay_ by during the storm.” “The book is _lying_ on the
shelf.” “He _lay_ on the ground and took cold.” “They _lay_ in ambush.”
_“Lie_ low or he will discover you.” “The goods are still _lying_ on
his hands.” “Time _lay_ heavily on their hands.” “We must _lie_ over at
the next station.” “A motion was made that the resolution _lie_ on the
table.” “Now I _lie_ down to sleep.” “Now I _lay_ me down to sleep.”

The foregoing sentences illustrate the correct usage of these confusing
verbs.

As, That


“Did your cousin go to town yesterday?” “Not _as_ I know.” Better, “Not
_that_ I know.” Better still, “I do not know.” “I do not know _as_ I
shall go.” Use _that_ for _as_.

Bad toothache


As it is a rare thing to have a good toothache, we scarcely need the
adjective _bad_ to distinguish between the two kinds of toothache. Say
_severe._

Beautifully, Beautiful


After verbs of seeing, feeling, tasting, and smelling, the adverb is
often incorrectly used for the adjective.


“The colonel looked _handsomely_ in his military dress,” “I feel
_splendidly_ to-day,” “This peach tastes _badly,” “_The rose smells
_sweetly,”_ are incorrect. Use _handsome_ for _handsomely, very well_
or _in good spirits_ for _splendidly, tastes bad_ or _has a
disagreeable taste_ for _badly,_ and _sweet_ for _sweetly._

Beg, Beg leave


“I _beg_ to announce the sale of a collection of rare and costly rugs.”
“I _beg_ to acknowledge your kindness in sending me this handsome
present.” In each case say “I _beg leave to,”_ etc.

Due, Owing


His success was _due_ to his honesty and energy.” That is _due _which
should be paid as a debt; that is _owing_ which is referred to as a
cause or source.

“The bill is now _due_ and payable at the gas office.” “His success was
_owing_ to his honesty and energy.”

Each, Every


“I see him at his office _each_ day of the week.” In this sentence the
word _every_ would be better. _Each_ refers to single days
particularized. Here reference is made to what occurs on all days
without exception.

Both words refer to nouns in the singular, hence such expressions as
the following are incorrect:
“Every soldier and sailor stood at _their_ post.” “The prisoners were
discharged and went each _their_ several ways.” Correct by saying, “The
prisoners were discharged and went each _his_ several way,” “Every
soldier and sailor stood at _his_ post.”

Each, Both


_“Both_ parties maintained their original positions.” As the parties
are thought of separately, the sentence should be: “Each party
maintained its original position.” “Both parties strove to place their
best candidates upon the ticket” is correct, because the parties are
thought of collectively.

Both, Both of


_Both_ is used alone before nouns and _both of_ before pronouns.
_“Both_ men have studied the currency question.” _“Both of _them are
well informed in matters relating to the currency.”

Ever, Never


“Let him be _ever_ so rich,” says Emerson. “You spend _ever _so much
money in entertaining your equals and betters,” says Thackeray. “Though
he run _ever_ so fast, he cannot win the race.” Writers and grammarians
differ, some preferring _ever_, others _never._


Every once in a while


This is a cumbersome, awkward expression that should be avoided.
_Occasionally, frequently, at intervals,_ are among the expressions
that may be used in its place.

Exceptionable, Exceptional


“He enjoyed _exceptionable_ opportunities for acquiring the Greek
language.” Say _exceptional opportunities._

Female, Woman


The word _female_ is often employed when _woman_ would be better.
_Female_ applies to all of the feminine gender, including the brute
creation.

Poet, Poetess


The tendency to increase the number of nouns with the feminine ending
_ess_ should be checked. Avoid _poetess, authoress, doctress,_ and
other newly-invented words of this kind.

Fewer, Less


_Fewer_ refers to number, _less_ to quantity. “He had _less_ friends
than I, and yet he was elected.” Say “He had _fewer _friends.” “There
were no _less_ than fifty cows in the field.” Use _fewer._

Right smart


In some portions of the South the expression _right smart_ is employed
in colloquial discourse to convey
the idea of a large quantity or in large measure; as, “We have _right
smart _of peaches this summer,” meaning “We have a large crop of
peaches;” “He knows _right smart_ of Latin” for “He knows considerable
Latin” or “He is well versed in Latin.”

Little bit


“Will you have some of this pudding?”

“If you please. Give me _a little bit.”_

“Did you injure yourself when you fell?”

“No; but I soiled my clothing _a little bit.”_

_A small portion_ or _piece,_ in the first sentence, and _slightly,_ in
the second, would serve as good equivalents for _a_ _little bit._

Sight


“There was a _sight_ of people at the fair to-day.” In the sense of _a
large number,_ this word, like the word _lot,_ should be avoided.

Crowd


A dozen persons may constitute a _crowd_ if they push and jostle one
another by reason of insufficient space. A thousand men will not form a
crowd if all have ample room to sit or stand or move about.

Chuck-full


This word is not authorized. _Chock-full_ and _choke-full_ may be used,
but are not elegant.


Contemplate, Propose


_Contemplate_ is often incorrectly used for _propose;_ as, “I
_contemplate_ going to the country.”

Dispense, Dispense with


These expressions are not synonymous. _To dispense_ is _to give; to
dispense with_ is _to do without._ The pharmacist _dispenses
_medicines; we should be pleased if we could _dispense with_ them.

Dry, Thirsty


_Dry_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _thirsty; _as, “I am
_dry;_ let me have a glass of water.” To say, “I am _dry; _my
waterproof and umbrella kept out the rain,” is correct.

Dutch, German


Do not call a _German_ a Dutchman. A Dutchman comes from Holland, a
German from Germany.

Evacuate, Vacate


_Evacuate_ means _to make empty,_ and should not be used in the sense
of _to go_ _away, to vacate._

Different than, Different to


“The school is conducted in a very _different_ manner _than_ it used to
be.” “This basket of roses is _different to_ yours.” The above and
similar expressions are decided vulgarisms, and should be avoided.


“The school is conducted in a very different manner _from_ what it used
to be.” “This basket of roses is different _from_ yours.”

Drive, Ride


Some confusion exists in the use of the words _drive_ and _ride._ In
England the distinction is made of applying _ride_ to going on
horseback and _drive_ to going in a carriage, whether you ride or
drive. That usage is not closely followed in this country. He who
guides the horse _drives;_ the rest of the company _ride._ The noun and
participial forms are more excusable than the verb. “Jones asked me to
_drive _with him this afternoon.” But as Jones expects to do the
driving himself, the speaker should have said, “Jones asked me to _take
a ride,”_ or _“go driving,”_ or _“take a drive,”_ etc.

Couple, Several


The word _couple_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _several;_
as, a _couple_ of horses, mules, birds, trees, houses, etc. The use of
the word _couple_ is not only limited to two, but to two that may be
coupled or yoked together. A man and wife are spoken of as a _couple._
We speak of a _span_ of horses, a _yoke_ of oxen, a _brace_ of ducks, a
_pair_ of gloves.


Directly, Immediately, As soon as


A faulty English use of the above words has found some favor in the
United States. _“Directly_ the whistle blew the workmen left the shop.”
Say _“As soon as_ the whistle blew,” etc. _“Immediately_ he closed his
speech his opponent rose to reply.” Say “_When”_ or _“As soon as _he
closed his speech,” etc.

_Directly_ denotes without any delay; _immediately_ implies without any
interposition of other occupation.

Agreeably disappointed


When our hopes are blasted, our plans balked, our expectations
defeated, our intentions thwarted, we are _disappointed._ We prefer the
agreeable to the disagreeable, and plan and labor to secure it. When
our plans fail we are disappointed, but not _agreeably disappointed._
If the new conditions, which are not of our seeking, prove agreeable,
it is only after the sense of disappointment has vanished.

Allude to, Refer to, Mention


The word _allude_ is often incorrectly used. Allusion is the by-play of
language. It means to hint at by remote suggestions, to speak of
figuratively or sportively.

Whatever is directly mentioned, or spoken of, or described, cannot be
said to be _alluded to._ The terms
differ in degree, the first being the weakest. An _allusion_ is an
indirect reference.

Among the rest


“Mary sat on the beach _among the rest.”_ Say _“with the rest.”_

Peruse


This is one of those high-sounding terms too often employed when _read
_would be much better.

Emigrants, Immigrants


These words are sometimes confounded. “Did you see the _emigrants_ on
the ‘Indiana,’ which arrived this morning?” “Did the _immigrants_ go
directly to Italy?” Exchange the italicized words in the two sentences
and they will be correctly used.

Somewheres


The terminal _s_ should be omitted in such words as _anywheres,
somewheres, nowheres, anyways, hereabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts._
In such cases as “Whereabouts did you find him?” and “We knew his
whereabouts,” the _s_ is properly retained.

Apart, Aside


“May I see you _apart_ from the others?” It should be, “May I see you
_privately”_ or “_aside”?_

Fire, Throw


We _fire_ a gun, but _throw_ a stone. To _fire a stone, fire him out of
the house, fire him out of our employ,_ may
be graphic ways of presenting the thought, but good writers never use
them and good speakers should avoid them.

The First, Single


“I have not found _the first_ objection to his candidacy.” Say _“a
single objection,”_ or _“no objection.”_

First two


Such has been the strong desire to continue to use forms of expression
that we have long used that not a little time and effort have been
expended in the endeavor to make the wrong appear right. It is an
accepted fact, however, that a large majority of the best speakers and
writers now say _the first two, the last five,_ etc., rather than _the
two first, the five last._

Future, Subsequent


The word _future_ is sometimes used instead of _subsequent; _as, “Until
he was eighteen years old his conduct was marked by cruelty and malice,
but his _future_ life was characterized by kindness and generosity.”
_Future_ looks forward from the present, and not from some point of
time in the past.

Gent’s pants


“_Gent’s pants_ scoured and pressed.” Business signs and business
advertisements are responsible for many vulgarisms. Never say _gent’s_
nor _pants._ Even _pantaloons_ is not so good a word as _trousers._


Sit, Set


Few words afford a more fertile field for grammatical blundering than
the verbs _sit_ and _set._ The important fact to remember in the use of
the words is that _sit,_ in modern usage, is an intransitive verb, and
does not take an object, while _set,_ which means _to place in
position, _is transitive, and requires an object to complete its
meaning. You cannot _sit_ a thing, but you do _set_ or place a thing.

The verb _sit_ undergoes a slight change with the change of tense or
time. “I _sit_ at the window today.” “I _sat_ at the window yesterday.”
“I have _sat_ at the window daily for many years.” _“Sitting _at the
window, I saw the storm arise.” “Having _sat_ at his table, I can
testify to his hospitality.”

The transitive verb _set_ undergoes no tense changes. “See me _set_
this vase on the table.” “He _set_ his seal to the paper yesterday.”
“Jones will not _set_ the world on fire with his writings.” “Having
_set _my affairs in order, I returned home.” “I _sit_ down.” “I _sat
_down.” “I _set_ him down.”

There are many intransitive uses of the verb _set;_ as, “The sun
_sets,”_ “The tide _sets_ toward the south,” “The fruit has _set,” “_He
_set_ out for Boston.”

There is a difference of opinion as to whether we should say “The coat
_sets _well” or “The coat _sits_ well,” with the greater weight in
favor of _sits._ “The
hen _sits_ on her eggs.” “She is a _sitting_ hen.” When the verb is
used reflexively use _set_ and not _sat;_ as, “I _set_ me down beside
her,” not “I _sat_ me down beside her.”

Anyhow


This word can scarcely be regarded as elegant, and should not be used
except in colloquial style.

Awful


Few words among the many that go to make up the vocabulary of American
slang have been in longer use and have a wider range than the word
_awful._ From the loftiest and most awe-inspiring themes to the
commonest trifle, this much-abused word has been employed. A correct
speaker or writer almost fears to use the word lest he should suggest
the idea of slang, and thus detract from the subject to which the word
might most fitly be applied.

Even the grammatical form of the word is often violated in such
expressions as “Isn’t he _awful_ nice?” “That hat of hers is _awful_
pretty.” To say _awfully nice_ and _awfully pretty_ would improve the
grammar, but the gross vulgarism remains.

The word, when properly used, means “inspiring with awe or dread” often
accompanied with reverence, as when Milton says:


“The trumpet spake not to the armed throng;
And kings sat still with awful eye,
As if they surely knew their sovran Lord was by.”


Back up


In the sense of _support,_ this, and the shorter expression _back_, are
doubtless borrowed from the commercial world. While they may be
tolerated in conversation, they must be regarded as slang.

Bulk


This word is often incorrectly used for _most_ or _the greater part;
_as, “The _bulk_ of the people opposed the measure.” _Bulk_ refers to
size, not to numbers.

Burglarize


This word is often used by the more sensational reporters in their
reports of crime. It should be avoided.

But what, But that


“I don’t know _but what_ I shall have to punish him.” The sentence
should read, “I don’t know _but that_ I shall have to punish him.” It
is equivalent to, “I think that I shall have to punish him.” The
omission of _but_ will convey the opposite meaning. “I don’t know that
I shall have to punish him” is equivalent to “I think that I shall not
have to punish him.”


Calculate


A provincialism often used in the sense of _think, deem, suppose,
believe; _as, “I calculate the train will be here in ten minutes.”

Calculated, Liable


This word is often incorrectly used in the sense of _likely, liable,
apt;_ as, “His utterances are _calculated_ to injure his cause.” In the
proper use of the word there is present the idea of purpose or intent.

Leave, Quit


_Leave_ is often incorrectly used for _quit;_ as, “That eminent actor
expects soon to _leave_ the stage.” It would be a misfortune if he
should take the stage with him. Say _“quit_ the stage.”

“Henry has _quit_ smoking.” Here _left off_ or _stopped_ would be
better.

“The President gave me _lief_ to speak with him.” Say “gave me
_leave.”_

_Let it alone_ and _let me be_ are preferable to _leave it alone _and
_leave me be._

A 1


“I have just read an A 1 article on the currency, question in the last
issue of the _North American Review!”_ This is an expression from the
vocabulary of business converted into the slang of the street.


Luck


_Luck,_ like _behavior,_ may be either good or bad. “The carpenter has
met with luck; he fell and broke his leg.” “The manager has met with
luck; his salary has been doubled.” The adjective _lucky_ and the
adverb _luckily_ are used only in a favorable sense.

Make way with


This expression is often incorrectly used for _make away with;_ as,
“The Judge gave the boot-blacks a Christmas dinner, and the begrimed
urchins quickly _made way_ with the turkey and cranberry sauce.” Say
_“made away with,” _etc.

To _make way_ is _to make room, to provide a way, to dispatch._

In our midst


“The doctor settled _in our midst.”_ Say “_among us,”_ or “_in our
neighborhood.”_

Indorse, Endorse


From the Latin _dorsum,_ the back, these words have come to mean the
writing of one’s name across the back of a check or draft or other
commercial paper to signify its transfer to another or to secure its
payment. To _indorse_ a man’s arguments or opinions is an incorrect use
of the word.

While both forms of spelling the word are in good usage, _indorse_
seems to be coming into more general favor.


In, Into


_In_ is often incorrectly used for _into;_ as, “He hurried up the
street and rushed _in_ the store.” We walk _in_ a room when the walking
is wholly within the apartment; we walk _into_ a room when we enter it
from some other room or from the outside.

Just going to


“I was _just going to_ write you a letter.” Say “I was _just about to_
write you a letter.”

Kind of


“James swallowed the dose, and now feels _kind of_ sick.” Use
_slightly_ or _somewhat,_ or some other modifier, instead of _kind of._

Knowing


Do not use _knowing_ for _skilful_ or _intelligent._ “He is a _knowing_
artist.” “See him prick up his ears; he is a _knowing _cur.”

Clever, Smart


In England the word _clever_ is applied to one who is bright,
intelligent, ready, apt; in the United States it is often misapplied to
one who is good-natured, kind, or accommodating.

“Do you believe in corporal punishment for stupid school-children?”

“Yes; a spanking always makes them _smart.”_


To express cleverness, brightness, intelligence, aptness, the
adjectives _clever, bright, intelligent, apt,_ are better than the word
_smart._

Posted, Informed


“He is well _posted_ on all matters relating to cattle-breeding.” Say
_informed._

Perspire, Sweat


While all mankind belongs to the animal kingdom, and no person can feel
offended at being called an animal, yet society observes certain
distinctions in speaking of men and of beasts. _To sweat_ and _to feed
_are expressions that apply to the latter; _to perspire_ and _to eat
_to the former.

Empty


The Mississippi river _flows,_ or _discharges its water_ into the Gulf
of Mexico, but it can not _empty_ so long as any water remains in the
river.

Enjoyed poor health


“Gold that buys health can never be ill spent, Nor hours laid out in
harmless merriment.”

The negative form of expression, “I have not _enjoyed_ good health,” is
not only correct, but is, at the same time, a polite way of modestly
stating a fact. To say “I have _enjoyed_ poor health for the past year”
is to express a kind of enjoyment not generally appreciated. It is like
being _agreeably disappointed._


Aberration of intellect


“He is afflicted with a slight aberration of intellect.” Simplicity
would suggest, “He is slightly insane.”

Above, Foregoing


“Let me call your attention to the _above_ passage.” The highest
authority does not sanction the use of _above_ as an adjective. Say
“the _foregoing_ passage.”

Allowed, Said


“He _allowed_ this was the best speech he had heard.” This is a
provincialism that should be avoided. Use _said,_ or _declared,_ or
_admitted,_ according to the meaning.

Alternation


This word is sometimes used in the sense of an unbroken series. It
properly signifies a reciprocal succession, as “The alternation of
summer and winter produces an ever-changing scene.”

Alternative


Etymologically and by general use, this word refers to a choice between
two; as, “If this demand is refused the _alternative_ is war.” But
Gladstone is quoted as saying, “My decided preference is for the fourth
and last of these _alternatives.”_

Anniversary


From _annus,_ a year, means recurring every year. _Centennial_ means
once in a hundred years. What then does _centennial anniversary_ mean?
Use _centenary._


Learn, Teach


“I taught him grammar,” not “I learned him grammar.” “He taught us
history.”

Lease, Let, Rent, Hire


We may _lease_ to or from. “I _leased_ the farm to my neighbor.” “I
_leased_ this house from Brown.” We _let_ to another; as, “I _let _my
house to my cousin.” We may _rent_ to or from another. We may _hire_
from another,” as, “I hired a servant;” “he hired a boat.” With _out_
and reflexively we may hire to another; as,” I hired out my horses;”
“he hired himself to the miller.”

Like, As


Avoid the use of _like_ in the sense of _as_. “He thinks just _as _(not
_like)_ his father does.” That Anthony Trollope, Hugh Conway and other
writers are chargeable with this offence does not justify the use of
_like_ for _as_, but rather proves the need of constant vigilance in
order to avoid such errors.

Lit, Lighted, Alighted


“He _lighted_ the candle.” “The crow _alighted_ on the top of the
tree.” Avoid the use of _lit_ in such cases, and also that slang form,
as, “I _lit on_ a beautiful passage in Browning,” in the sense of _met
with._

Lend, Loan


“Will you _lend_ me your book,” is better than “Will you _loan_ me your
book.”


Near, Nearly


“James is not _near_ so good a scholar as his brother is.” Use
_nearly._

Nasty, Nice


_Nasty_ is a strong adjective, and should be used only in reference to
what is offensively filthy, foul, or defiled. Such expressions as a
_nasty _day, a _nasty_ rain, mark a loose and careless use of the word.

The word _nice_ once meant _foolish, ignorant, weak, effeminate._ It
has now come to mean _exact, fine, finished, exciting admiration on
account of skill or exactness;_ as _nice_ proportions, _nice_
workmanship, a _nice_ distinction in philosophy. It is loosely and
colloquially used in application to what is pleasing, agreeable,
delightful, good.

A bright young lady was once asked, “Don’t you think _nice_ is a _nasty
_word?” She replied, “And do you think _nasty_ is _a nice_ word.” The
subject was abruptly changed.

Nicely


“How do you feel this morning?” _“Nicely,_ thank you.” The foregoing
use of the word is as incorrect as it is common. Use _very well_
instead.

No good, No use


“How does that new machine work?” “It’s _no good.” “_Shall I try
again?” “No; it’s _no_ _use.”_ The answers should have been, _“It is of
no good, it is of no use.”_


O, Oh


While good usage is far from uniform, many excellent authors employ _O_
only in cases of direct address and _oh_ when strong and sudden emotion
is to be expressed. _O_ is always written with a capital letter, and
should be followed by the name of the person or thing addressed, and
the exclamation or interrogation point placed at the end of the
sentence; as, “O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy
victory?” “O the cold and cruel winter!”

_Oh_ in the body of a sentence may begin with a small letter, and is
immediately followed by the exclamation point; as, “Oh! how terrible
was his fate!” “The sad intelligence was gently given, but oh! the
shock was almost unbearable.”

Observe, Say


“He _observed_ that the orphan pines while the oppressor feeds.” To
_observe_ is to notice carefully, to attend closely to what one sees.
In the above sentence _said_ or _remarked_ should be used instead of
_observed._

Of any, Of all


“This is the largest tree _of any_ I have seen.” The meaning clearly
is, that of all the trees I have seen this is the largest. Hence, _of
any_ should be changed to _of all._


Older, Elder


_Elder_ and _eldest_ are terms applied chiefly to persons, generally in
speaking of members of the same family, while _older_ and _oldest _are
applied to persons of different families, and also to things.

“His _elder_ brother died yesterday.” “His _eldest_ sister has gone to
Italy on her wedding trip.” “Our _oldest_ neighbor was born in 1825.”
“This oak is _older_ than that pine.” The foregoing sentences
illustrate the best usage as applied to the comparatives _older_ and
_elder_ and the superlatives _oldest_ and _eldest._

When the direct comparison is made the word _older_ is used, followed
by the conjunction _than;_ as, “My father is _older than_ my mother.”
But when the comparison is assumed the word _elder_ should be employed;
as, “My father is the _elder_ of my parents.”

Only


Perhaps no other word in the language is so often misplaced as the word
_only._ The only general rule is to place it as near as possible to the
word which it modifies. “He _only_ lent me a dollar” means that he did
not make me a present of the dollar, but expects me to return it. “He
lent me _only_ a dollar” means that the sum lent was neither greater
nor less than one dollar. The former expression is often used when the
latter should be.


_“Only_ the man walked to the post-office to-day.” The woman did not
walk with him.

“The man _only_ walked to the post-office to-day.” He did not ride or
drive.

“The man walked _only_ to the post-office to-day.” He did not go so far
as the store.

“The man walked to the post-once _only_ to-day.” Yesterday he rode and
the day before he drove. Today is the only day that he walked.

George Eliot, in _Middlemarch,_ says: “I _only_ know two gentlemen who
sing at all well,” and in another place, “I have _only_ seen her once
before.” The word _only_ should be placed before two in the first
sentence, and before _once_ in the second.

Onto


There is a growing tendency to write the words _on_ and _to_ as one
word. “Although nearly drowned he yet had strength enough to climb
_onto _the rock.” The use of _upon_ or _on_ is generally better. When
neither of these can be used write _on_ and _to_ as separate words.

Outstart


This word is sometimes used when _outset_ should be employed.

Over and Above


“He earned twenty dollars _over and above_ his expenses.” Use _more
than_ or _above._


Party, Person


“Is she the _party_ of whom you spoke?” “No; she is the _person.”_

One man may be a party to a contract or agreement. Several men may form
a party. When no contract is implied, one man or woman must be spoken
of as a _person,_ not as a _party._

Patron, Customer


Unless there is a sense of obligation or condescension, use the term
_customer_ and not _patron._ In like manner, use _custom _instead of
_patronage._

Per


_Per_ is a Latin preposition and should be used only with Latin nouns.
We should say _per annum,_ but not _per year; per diem,_ and not _per
day; per capita,_ and not _per head._ “He received a thousand dollars
_a_ _year_ is shorter and better than “he received a thousand dollars
_per year.”_

Perchance, Peradventure


These are poetic and archaic forms that should be avoided in ordinary
prose.

Performers


“The entertainment consisted of reading, recitations, and singing, and
the _performers_ acquitted themselves well.” Readers, reciters, and
singers are not
_performers._ The term is applied to the stage, and to those who play
on musical instruments. Even in the latter application, “he _plays_
well on the piano,” is better than “he _performs_ well on the piano.”

Period, Point


Do not use _period_ for _a point_ of time. _Period _implies extended
time.

Nothing like


“James is _nothing like_ so successful as his brother” illustrates a
colloquialism that should be avoided. Use _not nearly so,_ etc.

Notorious, Noted


“He was elected to Congress, then Governor, and we now think of sending
him to the United States Senate. He is becoming quite _notorious.” _The
word _notorious_ implies some bad or doubtful quality or
characteristic, and must not be used in the sense of _noted_ or
_famous._

Nowhere near so


“He trapped _nowhere near_ so many rabbits as his cousin.” This
vulgarism should be avoided. Use _not nearly._

Plead


The past tense of _read_ is _read,_ but the past tense of _plead_ is
_pleaded,_ not _plead. “_The prisoner _pleaded _for mercy.”


Plenty, Plentiful


“Money is _plenty_ this summer.” _Plenty_ is a noun and should not be
used as an adjective. Therefore “money is _plentiful_ this summer.”
Shakespeare says, “If reasons were as _plenty_ as blackberries,” etc.,
but words have settled into more definite grooves since Shakespeare’s
time. “This house is _plenty_ large enough.” Neither is _plenty_ an
adverb. Say, “This house is quite large enough,” or, simply, _large
enough._

About, around


“She was pleased with the conversation _about_ her.” Use “_around_
her.”

“She was pained by the conversation _about_ her.” Use “_concerning
_her.”

Overlook, Oversee


This word means to look down upon from a place that is over or above;
as, “From the top of the Washington monument you can readily _overlook_
the city.” But it also means to look over and beyond an object in order
to see a second object, thus missing the view of the first object;
hence, to refrain from bestowing notice upon, to neglect. The
confounding of these two ideas begets ambiguity, as “Brown’s business
was _to overlook_ the workmen in the shop.” His business was _to
oversee_ or _superintend_ them, and not to _neglect_ or _overlook_
them.


Revolting


To _revolt_ is to _rebel,_ to _renounce allegiance,_ but the
participial form _revolting_ also means _repugnant, loathsome._ In the
sentence, “A band of _revolting_ Huns has just passed down the street,”
we should be in doubt whether the speaker referred to their acts
against the government or to their appearance. The use of the word
_rebellious_ in the former sense, and of _disagreeable_ or
_disgusting,_ or the stronger adjectives given above, for the latter
meaning, would make the sentence clear.

Unexampled


Such adjectives as _unexampled, unparalleled, unprecedented,_ do not
admit of comparison, hence such expressions as _the most unexampled
_bravery, _the most unparalleled heroism,_ etc., should be avoided.

Utter


This verb should be distinguished from _express_ or _say. Utter
_carries with it the idea of articulate expression, except in the sense
of _uttering_ false coins or forged notes.

As an adjective it is defined by _complete, perfect, absolute,_ etc.,
but it can be applied only to what is unpleasant or unfavorable. “I
enjoyed _utter_ happiness” would be an absurd expression, but “I was
doomed to _utter_ misery” illustrates a proper use of the word.


Valuable, Valued


These words are not synonymous; _valuable_ means precious, costly,
having value; _valued_ refers to our estimation of the worth. “He is
one of our most _valued_ contributors,” not _valuable,_ unless you are
thinking of the value of his contributions and the smallness of the
compensation.

Very pleased


A few participles used as adjectives may be directly modified by _too_
or _very;_ as, “I was _very tired,” “_He was _too fatigued_ to go
farther.”

We sometimes hear the expression, “I was _very pleased,”_ but the
critics insist upon “I was _very much_ pleased,” or “greatly pleased,”
or “very greatly pleased.”

Vicinity


Often too high-sounding a word for the thought; _neighborhood_ is less
pretentious.

The old man


The use of such words as _dad, daddy, mam, mammy, the old man, the old
woman,_ when applied to parents, not only indicates a lack of
refinement, but shows positive disrespect. The words _pap, pappy,
governor, _etc., are also objectionable. After the first lispings of
childhood the words _papa_ and _mamma_, properly accented, should be
insisted upon by parents, and at
the age of twelve or fifteen the words _father_ and _mother_ should be
substituted and ever after used, as showing a proper respect on the
part of children.

Great big


“He gave me a _great big_ apple.” This is a colloquialism that should
be avoided. Use _large._

Argue, Augur


“The hollow whistling of the wind among the trees _argues_ an
approaching storm.” Use _augurs._

Barbaric, Barbarous


_Barbaric_ refers to a people; _barbarous_ to their low state of life
and their habits of cruelty.

Cut in half


A colloquialism in very frequent use. “I will _cut_ this melon _in
half_ and share it with you.” Say, _cut in two,_ or _cut in halves,_ or
_cut in two parts._

Hearty meal


“He ate a hearty meal before starting on his journey.” _Hearty_ applies
to the eater rather than to the meal. “He ate heartily,” etc.

Some better


“John has been _right sick,_ but is now _some_ better.” _Somewhat,
rather,_ or _slightly_ may take the place of _some._ The sentence may
be otherwise improved. “John has been _quite ill,_ but is now
_somewhat_ better.”


Through, Finished


Unless you have fallen through a trap door and finished your career, do
not say, “I am through,” when you mean “I have finished.” The
school-boy says, “I _am through with,_ that lesson,” when he should
say, “I _have finished_ that lesson.” The farmer asks the man in his
employ, _“Are _you _through with_ that field?” when he should have
asked, _“Have _you _finished_ ploughing that field?” You ask your
friend, _“Are _you _through, with Trilby?”_ when you should ask,
_“Have_ you _finished_ reading _Trilby.”_

Winterish


Do not say _summerish_ and _winterish,_ but _summery,_ or _summerlike,_
and _wintry._

Wish


The word _hope_ should be employed instead of _wish_ in such cases as,
“I _wish_ you may succeed in your undertaking.”

Right


This little word has many meanings and is put to many uses. In the
following senses it should be avoided:

“Stand _right_ here.” In most instances the briefer expression, “Stand
here,” is sufficient. If it is necessary to locate the place more
definitely or to emphasize the position, “Stand just here,” or “Stand
on this very spot,” may be better.


“The train came to a standstill _right_ here.” Better, “The train
stopped _just_ here.”

“Do it _right away.”_ This is a colloquialism that should be avoided.
_Immediately, instantly, at once, without delay,_ are expressions that
may safely be substituted for _right away._

“I heard of your misfortune, and came to you _right away.”_ “John, post
this letter for me _right off.” Directly_ or _immediately,_ in the
place of _right away_ and _right off,_ is better English.

“James is _right_ sick, and the doctor comes to see him _right _often.”
The use of _right_ as an intensive with adjectives and adverbs is very
common in many quarters. _Quite ill_ or _very ill_ is better than
_right sick,_ and _often_ or _frequently_ is better than _right often._

“We have a _right_ good crop of wheat this year.” Use _very _instead of
_right._

“You have as good a _right_ to be punished as I have.” The person
addressed would gladly relinquish his _right._ “You _merit _punishment
as well as I,” or “You _deserve_ to be punished,” etc.

Shall, Will, Should, Would


Few persons can claim to be entirely free from slips of speech in the
use of these auxiliaries. Simply to express a future action or event,
_shall _is used with the first person and _will_ with the second and
third; as,


I shall read,                    We shall read,
You will read,                 You will read,
He will read,                    They will read.


But when I desire to show determination on my part to do a certain
thing, or when I exercise my authority over another, or express
promise, command, or threat, _will_ is used in the first person and
_shall_ in the second and third; as,

I will read,                      We will read,
You shall read,                 You shall read,
He shall read,                    They shall read.


_Shall_ primarily implies obligation; _will_ implies intention or
purpose. _Will_ and _would_ should be used whenever the subject names
the one whose will controls the action; _shall_ and _should_ must be
employed whenever the one named by the subject is under the control of
another.

The difference between _should_ and _would_ is, in general, about the
same as that between _shall_ and _will._

The foregoing suggestions cover the ordinary uses of these auxiliaries,
but there are some special cases deserving attention.

_Will,_ in the first person, expresses assent or promise, as well as
determination; as,

“I will read this poem for you since you have requested it.”


“I will meet you to-morrow at the time appointed.”

_Will,_ in the second person, may express a command; as,

“You will take the places assigned you.”

“You will report immediately at my office.”

_Will_ is sometimes employed to express a general fact, without
conveying the idea of futurity; as, “Accidents will happen.”
“Differences will arise.”

_Will_ is sometimes incorrectly used instead of _shall;_ as, _“Will_ I
go?” for _“Shall_ I go?” This fault is common in Scotland, and prevails
to some extent in this country.

_Will_ is also used where _may_ would be more appropriate; as, “Be that
as it _will.”_

Shall you? Will you?


The distinction between _shall_ and _will_ in the interrogative forms
of the second person are not very clearly defined. Many writers and
speakers use them interchangeably. The answer should have the same
auxiliary as the question.

“Shall you go to town to-morrow?” “I _shall.”_

“Will you attend to this matter promptly?” “I _will.”_

Should, Would, Ought


_Should_ is often used in the sense of _ought;_ as, “Mary should remain
at home to-day and wait upon her sick mother.”


_Should_ and _would_ are employed to express a conditional assertion;
as, “I _should_ go to college, if I could secure the necessary means.”
“He _would_ have gone fishing, if his father had been willing.”

_Would_ is often used to express a custom, a determination, or a wish;
as, “He _would_ sit all day and moan.” _“Would_ to God we had died in
the land of Egypt.” “He _would_ go, and his parents could not prevent
him.”

Talented


Certain authors and critics, including Coleridge, have objected
strongly to the use of _talented._ One writer argues that since there
is no such verb as _to talent,_ the formation of such a participle as
_talented_ cannot be defended, and he further declares that no good
writer is known to use it, Webster _(The International Dictionary)_
states that, as a formative, _talented_ is just as analogical and
legitimate as _gifted, bigoted, moneyed, lauded, lilied, honeyed,_ and
numerous other adjectives having a participial form, but derived
directly from nouns and not from verbs.

We must therefore conclude that the use of _talented_ as an adjective
is entirely legitimate.

Climb down


The critics generally oppose the use of the expression _climb down.
_When the verb is employed
without its adverbial modifier, the upward direction is always
understood. In figurative language, as “Black vapors climb aloft, and
cloud the day,” “The general climbed the heights of fame,” the upward
direction is also understood.

But in a specific sense _climb_ is defined “to mount laboriously,
especially by the use of hands and feet.” Here the manner seems to be
as important as the direction. When the same manner must be employed in
descending, as a tree, a mast, or a steep, rocky cliff, the general
term _descend_ fails to convey the meaning, and to use _slip, slide,
drop, tumble, fall,_ would be incorrect. We are then left to choose
between the short and clear, but objectionable, expression _climb down_
and some long and cumbersome equivalent.

Mighty


Never use _mighty_ in the sense of _very,_ or _exceedingly._ It is not
only inappropriate but inelegant.

Of, From


“She had consumption and died _from_ the disease.” Say, “died _of _the
disease.”

On, Over, Upon


“Mary called _upon_ her friend.” Say, “called _on_ her friend.” “The
Senator prevailed _over_ his friends to support his bill.” Say,
“prevailed _upon_ his
friends.” “The candidate prevailed _over_ his enemies.”

Partake


This word means _to take a part of, to share with_ another. It is often
incorrectly used for _ate,_ as “He _partook_ sparingly of the food.”

Powerful sight


This is a Westernism to be avoided. It is used indiscriminately for a
_large number,_ a _great quantity,_ a _vast amount,_ etc.

Apprehend, Comprehend


To _apprehend_ is to take into the mind; to _comprehend_ is to
understand fully what is already there. We may _apprehend_ many truths
which we do not _comprehend._

Introduce, Present


_Present_ implies more formality than _introduce._ We introduce one
friend to another. An envoy is _presented_ to the King. Foreign
ministers are _presented_ to the President of the United States.

Same as


“This is the _same_ story _as_ I read last week.” Use _same that._


Section


“We raise finer horses in our _section.”_ This is an Americanism that
should be avoided. Neighborhood, vicinity, region, part of the country
or State, may be substituted for _section._

Seldom or ever


This incorrect expression is sometimes used instead of _seldom or never
_or _seldom if ever._ “I have _seldom if ever_ heard so eloquent an
oration.” “I have _seldom or never_ seen the man.”

Sewage, Sewerage


These words have distinct meanings. _Sewage_ refers to the contents of
the sewer; _sewerage_ to the system of sewers.

Sociable, Social


“He is one of the most _sociable_ men I have met. He is fond of
society, and is very ready in conversation.” _Sociable_ means
companionable; _social_ applies to the relations of men in society; as
_social _duties, _social_ pleasures, _social_ interests.

Specialty, Speciality


These words are interchangeable, but the former is the better word.

Requirement, Requisition, Requisite


While these words have something in common, each has a meaning peculiar
to itself. _Requirement_
means that which is required as an essential condition, or as something
necessary; _requisition,_ that which is required as of right, a demand
or application made as by authority; _requisite,_ that which is
required by the nature of things, or by circumstances, that which
cannot be dispensed with. “She understood the nature of the child and
of its _requirements.”_ “The officer made a _requisition_ for more
troops.” “This is as much a _requisite_ as food and clothing.”

Sick, Ill


There is a growing tendency to discriminate between _sickness _and
_illness,_ limiting the words _sick_ and _sickness_ to some slight
disturbance of the physical system, as nausea, and applying the words
_ill_ and _illness_ to protracted disease and disordered health.

Scholar, Pupil


Although these words are often used synonymously and with good
authority, it would be better to limit the former to learned persons
and to apply the latter to persons under instruction.

Commenced to write


“I _commenced to write_ at a very early age.” After the verb _commence_
the best writers use the verbal
noun instead of the infinitive with _to;_ as, “I _commenced writing _at
a very early age.”

Beside, Besides


These words were formerly used interchangeably, but the best writers of
to-day make a distinction. _Beside_ means by _the side of. Besides
_means _in addition to. Besides_ is sometimes incorrectly used for
_except;_ as, “No trees will grow here _besides_ the pine.”

Bountiful, Plentiful


_Bountiful_ applies to the giver; _plentiful_ to the things furnished.
“The _bountiful_ Giver of all good furnishes a _plentiful _supply of
all things needful for our comfort and happiness.” Do not say a
_bountiful_ repast, a _bountiful_ harvest.

Attacked, Burst, Drowned


The incorrect past tense forms _attackted, bursted, drownded,_ are
sometimes heard; as, “The cashier was _attackted_ by three of the
ruffians,” “The cannon _bursted_ and killed the gunners,” “The
fishermen were _drownded_ off the bar.” Use _attacked, burst, drowned._

All


This little word is used in a great many ways, some of which are quite
colloquial, and in some cases provincial. When the grocer’s clerk has
taken your order he is prompted to say, “Is that _all?”_ Or if
he should say, “Is there anything else that you wish?” you are likely
to reply, “No; that is _all.”_ Whether used in the question or in the
reply, the word _all_ should be avoided, or else the expression should
be expanded so as to make a clear sentence.

A friend calls to see you, and, finding you alone when he expected to
meet others with you, he says, “Good morning; I see you are _all_
alone.” _All_ is not a good equivalent for _quite_ or _entirely,_
either of which words would be better than _all._ In truth, the
sentence is as clear and as strong and more concise without the use of
a modifier. “I see you are _alone.”_

Inaugurate


_To inaugurate_ means _to induct_ into office or _to set in motion_
with formality and serious ceremony. Pompous writers too often employ
the word in referring to commonplace events. A new business is
_established._ A new hall or library is _opened._ A new pastor is
_installed._ A new order of procedure is _adopted._ In general, the
word _begin_ or _commence_ would be more appropriate than _inaugurate._

Came across, Met with


“I _came across_ the passage quite unexpectedly.” Better, “I _chanced
upon,”_ or “_happened upon,,”_ or “_met with_ the passage quite
unexpectedly.”


Expect


Few words are more frequently incorrectly used than _expect. “_I
_expect_ you went to town yesterday,” “I _expect_ you will hear from me
to-morrow,” “I _expect_ the train has arrived,” represent some of the
uses to which this word is often put. _Expect_ refers wholly to the
future, and should not refer to present or past events; as, “I _expect
_you to write me from Liverpool.” “John _expects_ to see his father
to-morrow.” Among the expressions that can most readily and
appropriately be substituted for _expect_ are _suspect, suppose, think,
believe, presume, daresay._

Over with


“After the supper was _over with_ the guests departed.” Omit _with._

Overflown


“The lowlands along the river are _overflown.”_ Use _overflowed. _The
perfect participle of _overflow_ is _overflowed,_ not _overflown._

Good piece


“I have come a _good piece_ to see you.” Say “I have come a _long
distance_ to see you.”

Stand a chance


“He does not stand any chance of an election.” Say, “It is not probable
that he will be elected.”


No more than I could help


“As I was not in sympathy with the cause, I gave _no more than I could
help.”_ So accustomed are we to hearing this awkward, blundering
expression that we readily understand the meaning it is intended to
convey, and should be sorely puzzled to interpret the correct form. Let
us analyze it. I gave five dollars. That much I could not help
(giving). I gave no more. Hence, “I gave no more than I could not
help.” This last form appears to be correct. By changing the
phraseology the sentence can be greatly improved. “I gave no more than
I felt compelled to give.” “I made my contribution as small as
possible.” “My gift was limited to the measure of my sense of
obligation.”

Above, More than, Preceding


“It is _above_ a week since I heard from my brother.” We may say
_“above_ the earth,” _“above_ the housetops,” but in the preceding
sentence it is better to say, “It is _more than_ a week since I heard
from my brother.”

“In the _above_ paragraph he quotes from Horace.” Say, “In the
_preceding_ or _foregoing_ paragraph,” etc. The awkwardness of the use
of the word _above_ becomes very apparent when the line in which it
occurs is found at the top of a page, and the passage
to which reference is made appears at the bottom of the previous page.

Climax


The Greek word _climax_ means literally _a_ _ladder, _and implies
_ascent, upward movement._ The best authors use it only in this sense,
and not to denote the highest point.

Factor


This word, from the Latin _factor,_ a doer, an agent, signifies
_working, doing, effecting._ Its frequent use in the sense of _source
_or _part_ should be avoided.

“All are but _factors_ of one stupendous whole,
Whose body Nature is, and God the soul.”


Pope employs the better word _parts._

Hung, Hanged


Pictures, signs, bells, and other inanimate objects are _hung; _men are
_hanged._ While some writers ignore this distinction, the best
authorities observe it.

Healthy, Healthful


A lady wrote to a paper asking, “Are plants in a sleeping-room
_unhealthy?”_ The answer came, “Not necessarily; we have seen some very
_healthy_ plants growing in sleeping-rooms.”

Persons are _healthy_ or _unhealthy._ A plant or tree is
_healthy_ or _unhealthy_ according as it possesses vigor. Food,
surroundings and conditions are _healthful_ or _unhealthful _according
as they promote or destroy health.

Idea, Opinion


“Many persons think that the interior of the earth is a mass of fire;
what is your _idea?”_ Say, “What is your _opinion?”_

Alone, Only


“An _only_ child” is one that has neither brother nor sister. “A child
_alone”_ is one that is left to itself. “Virtue _alone_ makes us happy”
means that virtue unaccompanied by any other advantages is sufficient
to make us happy. “Virtue _only_ makes us happy” means that nothing
else can do it.

Grow, Raise, Rear


“We _grow_ wheat, corn, oats, and potatoes on our farm.” “We _raise_
wheat,” etc., would be better. With the same propriety we might use
_sleep_ for _lodge,_ and _eat_ for _feed,_ or supply with food; as, “We
can _eat_ and _sleep_ fifty persons at one time.”

The word _raise_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _rear; _as,
“She _raised_ a family of nine children.” It is sometimes employed in
the sense of _increase,_ as, “The landlord _raised_ my_ _rent.”
_Increased_ would be better.


Has went


“He goes to school,” “He went to school yesterday,” “He has gone to the
West.” Avoid such ungrammatical forms as “He _has_ _went,” “_I _have_
saw.”

Badly, Greatly


_Badly_ is often incorrectly used for _greatly_ or _very much,_ as, “I
need it _badly,”_ “He was _badly_ hurt.”

“That fence wants painting _badly,_ I think I’ll do it myself,” said
the economical husband.

“Yes,” said his wife, “you had better do it yourself if you think it
wants to be done _badly.”_

At you


“If you don’t stop teasing me I will do something _at_ you,” meaning “I
will punish you.” That form of expression is very common in some
localities, and it is even more inelegant than common. The use of the
preposition _to_ instead of _at_ would be a slight improvement, but the
sentence should be entirely recast.

Haply, Happily


In the reading of the Scriptures the word _happily_ is sometimes used
where the archaic word _haply_ should be employed. In like manner the
word _thoroughly_ is substituted for the old form _throughly._ Both
words should be pronounced as they are spelled.


Thanks


To say “I thank you” requires but little more effort than to say
_“Thanks,”_ and it will be received as a more sincere token of
thankfulness.

Got to


This inelegant expression is often employed where _must_ would serve
the purpose better. “This work _has got to be_ done.” Say, “Must be
done.”

Hangs on


“The cold weather _hangs on.”_ Better, “The cold weather continues.”

Under the Weather


“Are you well?” “No; I have been quite _under the weather.” _Substitute
_sick_ or _ill,_ for the colloquial expression _under the weather._

Again, Against


_Again_ is often erroneously used for _against;_ as, “He leaned _again_
the tree for support.” Say, “He leaned _against_ the tree for support.”

Could, Can, Will


_Could_ is often incorrectly employed where _can_ or _will_ would be
more appropriate.

_“Could_ you lend me a dollar this morning?” If the thought of the
inquirer is, “Are you willing to lend,” etc., he should have used _will
_instead of _could;_
but if his thought was, “Are you able to lend,” or “Do you have a
dollar to spare this morning,” he should have used _can._

Bravery, Courage


_Bravery_ is inborn; _courage_ is the result of reason and
determination. The _brave_ are often reckless; the _courageous_ are
always cautious.

Hate


Avoid the use of _hate_ for _dislike,_ and all other intensive words
when the thought is more correctly expressed by a milder word.

Pretty, Very


_Pretty_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _very _or
_moderately,_ as “He was _pretty_ badly hurt,” “He is a _pretty_ good
scholar,” “She is _pretty_ wealthy,” “Thomas is _pretty_ ugly.” So
common is this provincialism in some localities that the incongruity of
such an expression as the last would pass undiscovered.

Lot, Number


The use of _lot_ for _number_ or _many_ is a colloquialism that should
be avoided. “He collected a _lot (large number) _of books on the
subject.” “A _lot_ of policemen were gathered there” “I ate _lots of_
oranges while I was in Florida.”


Lead a dance


“He _led_ his companion _a fine dance.”_ This expression, as generally
used, is ironical, and implies that the leader conducts those who are
led through experiences unfamiliar to them and usually to their
disadvantage. To lead astray, to deceive, to corrupt the morals of, may
be substituted for the foregoing inelegant expression.

Try and


“Have you been to the country this summer?” “No; but I will _try and go
_next week.”. The second speaker intends to convey the idea that it is
his purpose to go if nothing occurs to prevent, but his going is still
a matter of uncertainty. His statement, however, when properly
interpreted means that he not only will try, but that he positively
will go.

“Try _and_ finish that work to-day.” Here the purpose is not to command
that the work shall be finished, but that the trial shall be made. As
the sentence stands two distinct commands are given, first, that the
trial shall be made, and, second, that the work must be completed. The
sentence should read, “Try to finish that work to-day.”

Use _to_ instead of _and_ in such expressions as “Try _and _make it
convenient to come,” “Try _and_ do your work properly,” “Try _and_
think of your lessons,” “Try _and_ go _and_ see our sick neighbor.”




CHAPTER III
Contractions


Whatever may be said against employing contractions in dignified
discourse, their use in colloquial speech is too firmly established to
justify our censure. But, in their use, as, indeed, in the use of all
words, proper discrimination must be shown.

Just why _haven’t, hasn’t, doesn’t, isn’t, wasn’t,_ are regarded as
being in good repute, and _ain’t, weren’t, mightn’t, oughtn’t,_ are
regarded with less favor, and why _shalln’t, willn’t_ are absolutely
excluded, it would be difficult to explain.

_Use determines the law of language,_ whether for single words,
grammatical forms, or grammatical constructions. Wherever a people, by
common consent, employ a particular word to mean a certain thing, that
word becomes an inherent part of the language of that people, whether
it has any basis in etymology or not. We must not wrest this law to our
own convenience, however, by assuming that such words and phrases as
are introduced and employed by the illiterate, or even by the educated,
within a circumscribed territory, are, therefore, to be regarded as
reputable words. The sanction of all classes, the educated as well as
the uneducated, throughout the entire country in which the language is
spoken, is necessary and preliminary to the proper introduction of a
new word into the language.

Ain’t


This word is a contraction of _am_ _not_ or _are not, _and can,
therefore, be used only with the singular pronouns _I_ and _you_, and
with the plural pronouns _we, you,_ and _they,_ and with nouns in the
plural.

I _am not_ pleased. I _ain’t_ pleased.

You _are not_ kind. You _ain’t_ kind.

They _are not_ gentlemen. They _ain’t_ gentlemen.

These sentences will serve to illustrate the proper use of _ain’t,_ if
it is ever proper to use such an inelegant word as that. “James _ain’t_
a good student,” “Mary _ain’t_ a skillful musician,” or “This orange
_ain’t_ sweet,” are expressions frequently heard, yet those who use
them would be shocked to hear the same expressions with the proper
equivalent _am not_ or _are not_ substituted for the misleading
_ain’t._

The expression _ain’t_ is compounded of the verb _am_ or _are_ and the
adverb _not,_ and by the contraction the three vocal impulses
_I-am-not,_ or _you-are-not,_ or _they-are-not,_ are reduced to two. By
compounding the pronoun with the verb and preserving the full adverb,
as in “_I’m not,” “You’re not,”_ “_They’re not,”_ we also reduce the
three vocal impulses to two, thus securing as short a contraction in
sound and one that is as fully adapted to colloquial speech, and that
is, at the same time, in much better taste.

The old form for _ain’t_ was _an’t,_ but this has now become obsolete.
It will be a blessing to the English-speaking people when the
descendant shall sleep with his father.

_Are not_ is sometimes contracted into _aren’t,_ but this form has not
found much favor.

Can’t and Couldn’t


As _cannot_ and _could not_ may be used with pronouns of the first,
second, or third person, in either number, and with nouns in both
numbers, no error is likely to follow the use of their contracted
forms.

Why _cannot_ is properly written as one word, and _could not _requires
two, is not founded upon any principle of philosophy. The concurrent
sanction of all classes in all parts of the English-speaking world
establishes it as law.

Observe that the _a_ in the verb _can’t_ is broader in sound than the
_short a_ in the noun _cant._

Don’t and Didn’t


_Don’t_ is a contraction of _do not._ It is in very general use and in
good repute. It may be employed
wherever the expanded expression _do not_ could be applied, and only
there.

“One swallow _don’t_ make a spring” is equivalent to saying, “One
swallow _do not_ make a spring.” We may say “_I don’t,” “You don’t,”
“We don’t,” “They don’t,” “The men_ (or _birds,_ or _trees) don’t,”_
but we must use _doesn’t_ with _he,_ or _she,_ or _it,_ or _the man,
the grove, the cloud,_ etc.

Unlike the verb _do_, its past tense form _did_ undergoes no change in
conjugation, hence the contraction _didn’t_ is also uniform.

Haven’t, Hasn’t, and Hadn’t


The verb _have,_ like the verb _do,_ has a distinct form for the third
person singular. The same change affects the contraction. I _haven’t,_
you _haven’t,_ he _hasn’t._ The construction _hadn’t_ undergoes no
change.

Haint, Taint


_Haint_ is used indiscriminately for _haven’t_ and _hasn’t. Taint_ is
used for _tisn’t._ Their use is indicative of an entire lack of
culture.

Isn’t


No one need hesitate to use this word. It is smooth in utterance and
contributes much to the freedom and ease of social intercourse. Its
equivalent is too stately for colloquial forms of speech, and is often
suggestive of pedantry. Compare _“Isn’t_ he an eloquent speaker?”
“_Isn’t_ this a beautiful flower?” with _“Is not_ he an eloquent
speaker?” “_Is_ this _not_ a beautiful flower?”

Wasn’t


Although not so elegant as the present tense form _isn’t,_ yet the
contraction _wasn’t_ is in excellent repute. It is properly used only
in the first and third persons singular. No one who makes any
pretension to culture would be guilty of saying” You _was_ my neighbor,
but you _wasn’t_ my friend,” “We _was_ engaged in trade, and they
_wasn’t _of any use to us.” Say we _were_ or _were not,_ but never
_wasn’t_ or _wa’nt._

Weren’t


The forms _aren’t,_ and _weren’t_ do not have the sanction of the best
speakers and writers, and should be used sparingly, if at all.

Shouldn’t and Wouldn’t


These are frequently used in speech, but are not so common in writing.

Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t, and Oughtn’t


_Mustn’t_ may be used in light conversation, but not in writing. The
others should be avoided in speech and writing.


I’m, You’re, He’s, She’s, It’s, We’re, They’re


The contractions formed by compounding the pronoun with the verb are
very common, and tend to preserve conversation from becoming stiff and
formal. Nouns in the singular are sometimes compounded in like manner;
as, “John’s going by the early train,” “Mary’s caught a bird.” Not many
verbs beside _is_ and _has_ are thus compounded, and the practice
should be discouraged.

Mayst, Mightst


Although _mayst, canst, mightst, couldst, wouldst,_ and _shouldst_ are
contracted forms, the apostrophe is not employed to indicate the
contraction.

Daren’t, Dursent


_Dare not_ is sometimes contracted to _daren’t_ and _durst not_ to_
dursent,_ but the practice should not be encouraged.

Let’s


While verbs are often contracted when compounded with pronouns, as
_it’s, he’s, I’m, you’re,_ etc., the pronoun must not be contracted to
form a combination with the verb. It may be a poor rule, but it will
not work both ways. _Let’s_ should therefore be _let us._




CHAPTER IV
Possessive Case


Some time ago a shoe merchant called upon the writer to know how to
arrange the points in the wording of a new sign that he was preparing
to place over his door. He made a specialty of shoes for men and boys.
He presented a paper containing the lines:

Men’s and Boy’s Shoes. Mens’ and Boys’ Shoes.


He was politely informed that both were incorrect; that the two words
form their plurals differently, and that the possessive case is,
therefore, formed in a different manner. The plural of _man_ is _men,;_
the plural of _boy_ is _boys_. The possessive of _man_ is _man’s;_ of
_men_ is _men’s._ The possessive of _boy_ is _boy’s;_ of _boys_ is
_boys’._ In the latter case we are obliged to place the apostrophe
after the _s_ in order to distinguish the possessive plural from the
possessive singular. All nouns that form their plurals by adding _s_ to
the singular, form their possessive case as the word _boy _does. The
sign should therefore read:

Men’s and Boys’ Shoes.


Singular Nouns


All nouns in the singular form their possessive case by adding the
apostrophe and the letter _s_; as, child’s, girl’s, woman’s, bird’s,
brother’s, sister’s, judge’s, sailor’s.

When the noun ends in _s, sh, ch, ce, se,_ or _x_, the additional _s_
makes another syllable in pronouncing the word; as, James’s, Charles’s,
witness’s, duchess’s, countess’s, Rush’s, March’s, prince’s, horse’s,
fox’s. In poetry the terminal _s_ is sometimes omitted for the sake of
the meter.

While writers differ, the tendency in modern usage is toward the
additional _s_ in such expressions as _Mrs. Hemans’s Poems, Junius’s
Letters, Knowles’s “Virginius,” Knox’s Sermons, Brooks’s Arithmetics,
Rogers’s Essays._

By long-established usage such expressions as _for conscience’ sake,
for righteousness’ sake, for qoodness’ sake, for Jesus’ sake,_ have
become idioms. Some authorities justify the omission of the possessive
_s_ when the next word begins with _s_, as in _Archimedes’ screw,
Achilles’ sword._

Plural Nouns


Most nouns form their plurals by adding _s_ or _es_ to the singular.
These plurals form their possessive by adding the apostrophe; as,
horses’, countesses’, foxes’, churches’, princes’. Nouns whose plurals
are formed otherwise than by adding _s_ or _es,_ form their possessive
case by adding the apostrophe and _s,_ just as nouns in the singular
do; as, men’s, women’s, children’s, seraphim’s.

Pronouns


Sometimes the mistake is made of using the apostrophe with the
possessive personal pronouns; as, her’s, our’s, it’s. The personal and
relative pronouns do not require the apostrophe, but the indefinite
pronouns _one_ and _other_ form their possessives in the same manner as
nouns; as, “_each other’s eyes,” “a hundred others’ woes.”_

Double Possessives


“John and Mary’s sled,” means one sled belonging jointly to John and
Mary. “John’s and Mary’s sleds” means that one sled belongs to John,
the other to Mary.

“Men, women, and children’s shoes for sale here.” When several
possessives connected by _and_ refer to the same noun, the sign of the
possessive is applied to the last one only.

When a disjunctive word or words are used, the sign must be annexed to
each word; as, “These are Charles’s or James’s books.”

Possessive of Nouns in Apposition


When two nouns are in apposition, or constitute a title, the possessive
sign is affixed to the last, as
“For David my servant’s sake,” “Give me here John the Baptist’s head in
a charger,” “The Prince of Wales’s yacht,” “Frederick the Great’s
kindness.”

After “of”


By a peculiarity of idiom the possessive sign is used with a noun in
the objective; as, “This is a story _of Lincoln’s,”_ “That is a letter
_of the President’s,”_ “A patient _of Dr. Butler’s,”_ “A pupil _of
Professor Ludlam’s.”_

In ordinary prose the custom of the best writers is to limit the use of
the possessive chiefly to persons and personified objects; to time
expressions, as, _an hour’s delay, a moment’s thought;_ and to such
idioms as _for brevity’s sake._

Avoid such expressions as, “America’s champion baseball player,”
“Chicago’s best five-cent cigar,” “Lake Michigan’s swiftest steamer.”

Somebody else’s


The question whether we should say “This is somebody’s else pencil,” or
“This is somebody else’s pencil,” has been warmly argued by the
grammarians, the newspapers, and the schools. If some leading journal
or magazine were to write somebody else as one word, others would,
doubtless, follow, and the question of the possessive would settle
itself. The word _notwithstanding_ is composed of three separate words,
which are no more closely united in thought than are the three words
_some, body,_ and _else._ Two of the latter are already united, and the
close mental union of the third with the first and second would justify
the innovation.

But the words are at present disunited. A majority of the best writers
still conform to the old custom of placing the possessive with _else._

“People were so ridiculous with their illusions, carrying their fool’s
caps unawares, thinking their own lies opaque, while _everybody else’s
_were transparent.”—_George Eliot._

Some make a distinction by placing the possessive with _else_ when the
noun follows, and with _somebody_ when the noun precedes; as, “This is
_somebody else’s_ pencil,” and “This pencil is _somebody’s else.” _This
distinction is not generally followed.




CHAPTER V
Pronouns


The correct use of the pronouns, personal and relative, involves a
degree of skill which many speakers and writers fail to possess. The
choice of the appropriate pronoun, the agreement with its antecedent,
the proper case form, are matters that require careful consideration.

Case Forms


Following _am, are, is, was,_ and other forms of the verb _to be,_ the
pronoun must be in the nominative case.

“Are you the person that called?” “Yes; I am _him.”_ The answer should
have been, “I am _he.”_

“I saw a man trespassing on my grounds, and I think you are _him.”
_Say, “You are _he.”_

“It is only _me;_ don’t be afraid.” “It is only _I”_ is the correct
form.

“It was _him_ that struck you, not _me.”_ Change _him,_ to _he,_ and
_me_ to _I._

“It might have been _him_ that sent you the present.” Use _he, _not
_him._


“It is _him whom_ you said it was.” The sentence should be, “It is _he
who_ you said it was.”

“That was but a picture of him and not _him_ himself.” Say, “and not
_he_ himself.”

After Verbs and Prepositions


When a pronoun depends upon a verb or a preposition the pronoun must be
in the objective case.

“Between you and _I,_ that picture is very faulty.” The pronouns _you
_and _I_ depend upon the preposition _between._ The pronoun _I _should
therefore be in the objective case, and the sentence should be,
“Between _you_ and _me,_ that picture is very faulty.”

“The president of the meeting appointed _you_ and _I_ upon the
committee.” As both pronouns are objects of the transitive verb
_appointed, _both should be in the objective case. _You_ having the
same form in the objective as in the nominative is, therefore, correct,
but _I_ should be changed to _me._

“The teacher selected _he_ and _I_ to represent the class.” The
pronouns are the objects of the verb _selected,_ and should be changed
to _him_ and _me._ The infinitive _to represent,_ like other
infinitives, can have no subject, and, therefore, does not control the
case of the pronouns.

Interrogatives


When a question is asked, the subject is usually placed after the verb,
or between the auxiliary and
the verb; as, “Did you go to town?” “Will he sail to-day?” “Has your
uncle arrived?” “Hearest thou thy mother’s call?”

The object or attribute of the verb, when a pronoun, is often used to
introduce the sentence. “_Who_ should I see coming toward me but my old
friend?” _Who_ should be _whom,_ for it is the object, and not the
subject, of the verb _should see._

_“Whom_ do you think that tall gentleman is?” _Whom_ should be _who,_
as it is the attribute of the verb _is._

“_Who_ do you take me for?” Being the object of the preposition _for,
who_ should be _whom._

After “To be”


“I knew it was _him”_ is incorrect, because the word which forms the
pronoun attribute of the verb _was_ must be in the nominative case. But
the infinitive of the neuter verb requires the objective case.
Therefore we must say, “I knew it to be _him,”_ not “I knew it to be
_he.”_ The latter faulty form is very frequently employed.

“_Who_ did you suppose it to be?” Incorrect. Say, _“whom.”_

_“Whom_ did you suppose it was?” Incorrect. Say, _“who.”_


After the Imperative


The imperative mood requires the objective case after it. “Let you and
_I_ try it.” It should be, “Let you and _me_ try it.”

“Let _he_ who made thee answer that.”—_Byron._ He should have said,
“Let _him_ who made thee answer that.”

“Let _him_ be _whom,_ he may.” _Him_ is the objective after the
imperative _let,_ and is correct. _Whom_ should be _who,_ as pronoun
attribute of the verb _may be._ “_Who_ he may be, I cannot tell,” is
correct. “_Who_ he may be, let him be,” is also correct. By
transposing, and by omitting _be,_ we have “Let him be _who_ he may.”

“Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and _they_ that
dwell therein.” When, as in this case, the verb is widely separated
from its object, we need to give particular care to the case of the
pronoun which constitutes the object. _They_ should be _them._

Silent Predicate


“Who will go with us to the woods? _Me.”_ The complete answer would
be,” Me will go with you to the woods,” the faultiness of which is
evident. The answer should be “_I.”_

After “Than” and “As”


The objective pronoun is often incorrectly used for the nominative
after _than_ or _as_.


“He can swim better _than me.”_ The complete sentence would be, “He can
swim better than _I_ can swim.” The omission of the verb _can swim
_affords no reason for changing _I_ to _me._

“He is no better than _me.”_ Say, “He is no better than _I,” _meaning,
_I am._

“They are common people, such as you and _me_.” Such people “as you and
I are.” The pronoun should be _I,_ not _me._

Parenthetical Expressions


When a parenthetical expression comes between a pronoun in the
nominative case and its verb, the objective is often incorrectly used
instead of the nominative.

“She sang for the benefit of those _whom_ she thought might be
interested.” The explanatory parenthesis _“she thought”_ comes between
the pronominal subject and its verb _might be interested._ Omit the
explanatory clause and the case of the pronoun becomes clear. “She sang
for the benefit of those _who_ might be interested.”

Agreement with Antecedent


A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in _gender, person,_ and
_number._ The gender and person usually take care of themselves, but
the number of pronouns is a serious obstacle to correct speech.


“One tells the quality of _their_ minds when _they_ try to talk
well”—_George Eliot,_ in _Middlemarch._ The pronouns _their _and _they_
should be singular.

“Everybody has something to say which _they think_ is worthy of being
heard.” _Everybody_ refers to persons singly, and not collectively.
_They think_ should be _he thinks, he_ being the proper pronoun to
employ when the gender is not indicated.

“Every nation has laws and customs of _their_ own.” The use of the word
_every_ necessitates a pronoun in the singular, hence _their_ should be
_its._

“Every one is accountable for _their_ own acts.” Use _his._

“She studied his countenance like an inscription, and deciphered _each_
rapt expression that crossed it, and stored _them_ in her memory.”
Change _them_ to _it._

“Each of them, in _their_ turn, received the reward to which _they
were_ entitled.” This should be “Each of them in _his_ turn received
the reward to which _he was_ entitled.”

_No_ and _not,_ like _each_ and _every,_ when they qualify a plural
antecedent, or one consisting of two or more nouns, require a pronoun
in the singular.

“No policeman, no employee, no citizen dared to lift _their_ hand” Say,
_his_ hand.


Or, Nor


When the antecedent consists of two or more nouns separated by _or,
nor, as well as,_ or any other disjunctive, the pronoun must be
singular.

“Neither spelling nor parsing _receive_ the attention _they_ once
received.” Verb and pronoun should be singular, _receives_ and _it._

Collective Noun


When a noun of multitude or collective noun is the antecedent, the
pronoun, like the verb, must be plural or singular according to the
sense intended to be conveyed.

Ambiguity


Never leave the antecedent of your pronoun in doubt.

“John tried to see his father in the crowd, but could not, because _he
_was so short.” If the father was short, repeat the noun and omit the
pronoun, as “John tried to see his father in the crowd but could not
because his father was so short.” If John was short, recast the
sentence: “John, being short of stature, tried in vain to see his
father in the crowd.”

“He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought
he had better go home.” This sentence is susceptible of four
interpretations. We shall omit the first part of the sentence in the
last
three interpretations, as it is the same in all. “He said to his
friend: ‘If I do not feel better soon, I think I had better go home.’”
“If I do not feel better soon, I think you had better go home.” “If you
do not feel better soon, I think I had better go home.” “If you do not
feel better soon, I think you had better go home.”

“The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _him, he_
would die.” To avoid ambiguity substitute _his father_ for the
italicised pronouns. The repetition is not pleasant, but it is the
lesser of two evils.

Needless Pronouns


Avoid all pronouns and other words that are not essential to the
meaning.

“The father _he_ died, the mother _she_ soon followed _after, _and the
children _they_ were _all_ taken _down_ sick.”

“Let every one turn from _his or her_ evil ways.” Unless there is
special reason for emphasizing the feminine pronoun, avoid the awkward
expression _his or her._ The pronoun _his_ includes the other.

Mixed Pronouns


Do not use two styles of the pronoun in the same Sentence. “Enter
_thou_ into the joy of _your_ Lord.” “Love _thyself_ last, and others
will love _you_.”


Them, Those


It should not be necessary to caution the reader against the use of
_them _for _those._

“Fetch me _them_ books.” “Did you see _them,_ fat oxen?” “_Them’s_
good; I’ll take another dish.”

Which, Who


“Those _which_ say so are mistaken.” _Who_ is applied to persons;
_which,_ to the lower animals and to inanimate things.

“He has some friends _which_ I know.” _Whom,_ the objective case form
of the pronoun _who,_ should here be used.

“The dog, _who_ was called Rover, went mad.” Use _which._

What, That


_That_ is applied to persons, animals, and things. _What _is applied to
things. The antecedent of _what_ should not be expressed. _What_ is
both antecedent and relative.

“All _what_ he saw he described.” Say, “What he saw,” or “All _that _he
saw,” etc.

Uniform Relatives


When several relative clauses relate to the same antecedent, they
should have the same relative pronoun.

“It was Joseph _that_ was sold into Egypt, who
became governor of the land, and _which_ saved his father and brothers
from famine.” Change _that_ and _which_ to _who_.

Choice of Relatives


Since _who_ and _that_ are both applied to persons, and _which_ and
_that_ are both applied to animals and things, it often becomes a
serious question which relative we shall employ. Much has been written
upon the subject, but the critics still differ in theory and in
practice. The following is probably as simple a statement of the
general rule as can be found:

If the relative clause is of such a nature that it could be introduced
by _and he, and she, and it, and they,_ etc., the relative _who_ (for
persons) and _which_ (for animals or things) should be used in
preference to the relative _that._

“Man _that_ is born of a woman is of few days, and full of trouble.”
The language of the Bible and of Shakespeare must stand, although the
forms of expression differ greatly from those employed at the present
day. According to modern standards, _that_ should be _who._

“The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air _that_ is a compound of
oxygen and nitrogen!” Change _that_ to _which_.

The relative _that_ should be used in preference to _who_ or _which:_


(1) When the antecedent names both persons and things;
(2) When it would prevent ambiguity;
(3) After the words _same, very, all;_
(4) After the interrogative pronoun _who;_
(5) After adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree.

“The wisest men _who_ ever lived made mistakes.” Use _that._ See (5).

“He lived near a stagnant pool _which_ was a nuisance.” Use _that. _See
(2).

“All _who_ knew him loved him.” Say _that._ See (3).

“Who _who_ saw him did not pity him.” See (4).

“He spake of the men and things _which_ he had seen.” See (1).

“These are my pupils _which_ I have brought to see you.” Use _whom, _as
_which_ is not applied to persons.

“This is the window _whose_ panes were broken by the rude boys.” Use
“the panes of _which.”_ Because of its convenience, perhaps, the faulty
_whose_ is very largely used; as, “The eagle _whose_ wings,” “The house
_whose_ gables,” “The ocean _whose_ waves,” “The vessel _whose_ sails,”
“The play _whose_ chief merit,” “Music _whose _chief attraction,” etc.


Which and Who after “And”


_Which_ and _who_ cannot follow _and_ unless there has been a preceding
_which_ or _who_ in the same sentence and in the same construction.

“The more important rules, definitions and observations, _and which_
are therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, are printed
_with_ a large type.”—_Murray’s Grammar._ In Moore’s _Bad English_ the
sentence is corrected thus: “The rules, definitions, and observations
_which _are the more important, _and which_ are therefore the most
proper to be committed to memory, are printed in larger type.”

Adverbs for Relative Pronouns


Adverbs are often employed where a preposition with a relative pronoun
would better express the sense.

“There is no method known _how_ his safety may be assured.” Use _by
which_ instead of _how._

“He wrote me a letter _where_ he repeated his instructions.” “Letter
_in which_ he repeated,” etc.

“And curse the country _where_ their fathers dwelt.” _“In which _their
fathers dwelt.”

“This is a case _where_ large interests are involved.” The preposition
and relative will better express the meaning; as, “This is a case _in
which _large interests are involved.”


Misplaced Relative


The relative should be so placed as to prevent ambiguity, and as near
as possible to its antecedent.

“Mr. Smith needs a surgeon, _who_ has broken his arm.” Say, “Mr. Smith,
_who_ has broken,” etc.

“The figs were in small wooden boxes, _which_ we ate.” “The figs _which
_we ate,” etc.

“He needs no boots _that_ cannot walk.” “He _that_ cannot walk,” etc.

Omitted Relatives


The relative pronoun is often omitted when it should be expressed.

“The next falsehood he told was the worst of all.” Say, “The next
falsehood _that_ he told,” etc.

“It is little we know of the divine perfections.” Say, “Little _that_
we know.”

“Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language have
arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted
in the sentence and made it regular.”—_Murray’s Grammar._ The sentence
should end with “_and which_ made it regular.”

The one, the other


When _the one_ and _the other_ refer to things previously mentioned,
_the one_ applies to the first mentioned, and _the other_ to the last
mentioned.

“Homer was a genius, Virgil an artist: in _the one_ we most admire the
man; in _the other,_ the work.”




CHAPTER VI
Number


Many persons of moderate education regard nouns that do not end with
_s_ or _es_ as singular. Even the gifted pen of Addison once slipped so
far as to betray him into using the word _seraphim,_ in the singular.

Cherubim, Seraphim


The words _cherub_ and _seraph,_ are singular. _Cherub, _as applied to
a little child, takes the English plural, _cherubs._ As applied to an
order of angels, it takes the Hebrew plural, _cherubim._ The singular,
_seraph,_ has an English plural, _seraphs,_ as well as the Hebrew
plural, _seraphim._ The double plurals, _cherubims_ and _seraphims,_
although found in the King James version of the Bible, are regarded as
faulty in modern writing, and should be avoided.

News


Although plural in form, the word _news_ is singular in meaning; as,
“The _news_ from Europe this morning is quite interesting.”


Acoustics


Names of sciences ending in _ics,_ are generally regarded as singular.
_“Acoustics_ is a very considerable branch of physics.” Do not say,
“The _acoustics_ of this hall _are_ good,” but “The _acoustic_
_properties_ of this hall are good.”

Dialectics, dynamics, economics, mathematics, ethics, politics,
tactics, when used as substantives, require a verb in the singular.

Analysis


Many words like _analysis, crisis, ellipsis, emphasis, hypothesis,
oasis, parenthesis, synopsis,_ form their plurals by changing the
termination _is_ into _es;_ as, _analyses, crises,_ etc. The word _iris
_takes the English plural _irises;_ Latin plural is _irides. Chrysalis_
has only the Latin plural, _chrysalides;_ but _chrysalid, _which means
the same as _chrysalis,_ takes the English plural, _chrysalids._

Terminus


_Terminus, radius, alumnus,_ and some other words ending in _us_, form
their plurals by changing the termination _us_ into _i_; as _termini,
radii,_ etc.

Many words ending in _us_ that formerly were written with only the
Latin plural, are now given an English plural also; as, _focuses, foci;
cactuses, cacti; sarcophaguses, sarcophagi; convolvuluses, convolvuli ;
funguses, fungi; nucleuses, nuclei._


_Isthmus, prospectus, rebus,_ take only the English plural.

_Apparatus_ has no plural. Avoid _apparatuses._

The plural of _genius,_ as applied to a man of unusual vigor of mind,
is _geniuses._ When applied to a good or bad spirit, the plural is
_genii._

Formula


_Formulas, larvas, stigmas,_ are regular English plurals; _formulae,
larvae,_ and _stigmata_ are the classical plurals. _Nebulae_ and
_alumnae_ are the proper plurals, the latter being the feminine noun
corresponding to the masculine plural _alumni._

Datum, Phenomenon


_Datum, erratum, candelabrum,_ and _memorandum_ form their plurals by
changing _um_ to _a_; as, _data, errata,_ etc. The last two also take
the English plurals, _memorandums, candelabrums._

The plural of _phenomenon_ and _criterion_ are _phenomena, criteria,_
although _criterions_ is sometimes employed.

The plural forms, _data, strata,_ and _phenomena,_ are so much more
frequently used than their singular forms, _datum, stratum,_ and
_phenomenon,_ that some writers have slipped into the habit of using
the plurals with a singular meaning; as, “The _aurora borealis_ is a
very strange _phenomena.”_ “Our _data_ is insufficient to establish a
theory.” “The _strata_ is broken and irregular.”


Mussulmans


While most words ending in _man_ become plural by changing this
termination to _men,_ as _gentlemen, noblemen, clergymen, statesmen,
_the following simply add _s_: _dragomans, Mussulmans, Ottomans,
talismans_ “A dozen dragomans offered their services as guides and
interpreters.” “A band of Mussulmans cut off our retreat.” “Those
fierce Ottomans proved to be very revengeful.” “He purchased five
finely upholstered ottomans for his drawing-room.”

Heroes, Cantos


Most nouns ending in _o_ add _es_ to form the plural; as, _heroes,
negroes, potatoes, stuccoes, manifestoes, mosquitoes._ Words ending in
_io_ or _yo_ add _s;_ as, _folios, nuncios, olios, ratios, embryos_.

The following words, being less frequently used, often puzzle us to
know whether to add _s_ or _es_ to form the plural: _armadillos,
cantos, cuckoos, halos, juntos, octavos, provisos, salvos, solos, twos,
tyros, virtuosos._

Alms, Odds, Riches


Many nouns that end in _s_ have a plural appearance, and we are often
perplexed to know whether to use _this_ or _these,_ and whether to
employ a singular or a plural verb when the noun is used as a
substantive.

_Amends_ is singular. _Assets, dregs, eaves, bees, pincers, riches,
scissors, sheers, tongs, vitals,_ are plural. When we
say _a_ _pair of pincers,_ or _scissors_, or _shears,_ or _tongs,_ the
verb should be singular. _Tidings,_ in Shakespeare’s time, was used
indiscriminately with a singular or plural verb, but is now generally
regarded as plural.

_Alms_ and _headquarters_ are usually made plural, but are occasionally
found with a singular verb. _Pains_ is usually singular. _Means, odds,_
and _species_ are singular or plural, according to the meaning.

“By _this means_ he accomplished his purpose.” “What other _means is
_left to us?” “Your _means are_ very slender, and your waste is great.”

Proper Names


These are usually pluralized by adding _s_; as, _the Stuarts, the
Caesars, the Beechers, the Brownings._

Titles with Proper Names


Shall we say _the Miss Browns, the Misses Brown,_ or _the Misses
Browns?_ Great diversity of opinion prevails. Gould Brown says: “The
name and not the title is varied to form the plural; as, _the Miss
Howards, the two Mr. Clarks.”_

Alexander Bain, LL. D., says: “We may say _the Misses Brown,_ or _the
Miss Browns,_ or even _the Misses Browns.”_

The chief objection to the last two forms is found when the proper name
ends with _s_, as when we say, _the Miss Brookses, the Miss Joneses,
the Miss Pottses, the_
_Miss Blisses._ The form _the Misses Brooks_ is objected to by some on
the ground that it sounds affected. On the whole the rule given by
Gould Brown is the best, and is quite generally observed.

Knight Templar


Both words are made plural, _Knights Templars,_ a very unusual way of
forming the plural.

Plural Compounds


The plural sign of a compound word is affixed to the principal part of
the word, to the part that conveys the predominant idea; as,
_fathers-in-law, man-servants, outpourings, ingatherings._ In such
words as _handfuls, cupfuls, mouthfuls,_ the plural ending is added to
the subordinate part because the ideas are so closely associated as to
blend into one.

Beaus, Beaux


Some words ending in _eau_ have only the English plurals, as _bureaus,
portmanteaus;_ others take both the English and the French plurals, as
_beaus, beaux; flambeaus, flambeaux; plateaus, plateaux;_ and still
others take only the foreign plural; as, _bateaux, chateaux, tableaux._

Pair, Couple, Brace


After numerals, the singular form of such words as these is generally
employed; as, five _pair_ of gloves, eight _couple_ of dancers, three
_brace_ of pigeons, five
_dozen_ of eggs, four _score_ years, twenty _sail_ of ships, fifty
_head_ of cattle, six _hundred_ of these men, two _thousand _of these
cattle, etc.

After such indefinite adjectives as _few, many, several,_ some of the
above words take the plural form; as, several _hundreds,_ many
_thousands._

Index, Appendix


_Indexes_ of books; _indices,_ if applied to mathematical signs in
algebra. _Appendixes_ or _appendices._

Fish, Fly


The plural of _fish_ is _fishes_ when considered individually, and
_fish_ when considered collectively. “My three pet _fishes_ feed out of
my hand.” “Six barrels of _fish_ were landed from the schooner.”

Most words ending in _y_ change this termination into _ies,_ as
_duties, cities,_ etc. The plural of _fly,_ the insect, is formed in
the usual manner, but fly, a light carriage, adds _s_; as, “Six _flys
_carried the guests to their homes.”

Animalcule


The plural of this word is _animalcules._ There is no plural
_animalculae._ The plural of the Latin _animalculum_ is _animalcula._

Bandit


This word has two plural forms, _bandits_ and _banditti._


Brother


Plural _brothers,_ when referring to members of the same family;
_brethren,_ when applied to members of the same church or society.

Die


Plural _dies,_ when the stamp with which seals are impressed is meant;
_dice,_ the cubes used in playing backgammon.

Herring


The plural is _herrings,_ but _shad, trout, bass, pike, pickerel,
grayling,_ have no plural form. “I caught three _bass_ and seven fine
_pickerel_ this morning.”

Grouse


The names of game birds, as _grouse, quail, snipe, woodcock,_ usually
take no plural form.

Pea


Considered individually the plural is _peas;_ when referring to the
crop the proper form is _pease._

Penny


“He gave me twelve bright new _pennies,”_ referring to the individual
coins. “I paid him twelve _pence,”_ meaning a _shilling._

Wharf


Plural, generally _wharves_ in America; _wharfs_ in England.




CHAPTER VII
Adverbs


The clearness of the sentence is often dependent upon the proper
placing of the adverb. No absolute rule can be laid down, but it should
generally be placed before the word it qualifies. It is sometimes
necessary to place it after the verb, and occasionally between the
auxiliary and the verb, but it should never come between _to_ and the
_infinitive._

“I have thought of marrying _often.”_ As the adverb relates to the
thinking, and not to the marrying, the sentence should read, “I have
_often _thought of marrying.”

“We have _often_ occasion to speak of health.” This should be, “We
_often_ have occasion,” etc,

“It remains then _undecided_ whether we shall go to Newport or
Saratoga.” Place _undecided_ before _then._

Adjective or Adverb?


There is often a doubt in the mind of the speaker whether to use the
adjective or the adverb, and too frequently he reaches a wrong
decision. When the limiting word expresses a quality or state of the
subject or of the object of a verb, the adjective must be employed; but
if the manner of the action is to be expressed, the adverb must be
used. The verbs _be, seem, look, taste, smell,_ and _feel_ furnish many
stumbling-blocks.

“This rose smells _sweetly.”_ As the property or quality of the rose is
here referred to, and not the manner of smelling, the adjective _sweet
_should be employed, and not the adverb _sweetly._

“Thomas feels quite _badly_ about it.” Here, again, it is the condition
of Thomas’s mind, and not the manner of feeling, that is to be
expressed; hence, _badly_ should be _bad_ or _uncomfortable._

“Didn’t she look _beautifully_ upon the occasion of her wedding?” No;
she looked _beautiful._

“The sun shines brightly.” _Bright_ is the better word.

“The child looks _cold,”_ refers to the condition of the child. “The
lady looked _coldly_ upon her suitor,” refers to the manner of looking.

“The boy feels warm” is correct. “The boy feels _warmly_ the rebuke of
his teacher” is equally correct.

While license is granted to the poets to use the adjective for the
adverb, as in the line

“They fall _successive_ and _successive_ rise,”


in prose the one must never be substituted for the other.


_“Agreeably_ to my promise, I now write,” not _“Agreeable_ to my
promise.”

“An _awful_ solemn funeral,” should be “An _awfully_ solemn funeral.”

“He acts _bolder_ than was expected,” should be “He acts _more
boldly.”_

“Helen has been _awful_ sick, but she is now _considerable _better.”
“Helen has been very ill, but she is now _considerably _better.”

Do not use _coarser_ for more coarsely, _finer_ for more finely,
_harsher_ for more harshly, _conformable_ for conformably, _decided
_for decidedly, _distinct_ for distinctly, _fearful_ for fearfully,
_fluent_ for fluently.

Do not say “This melon is _uncommon_ good,” but “This melon is
_uncommonly_ good.”

The word _ill_ is both an adjective and an adverb. Do not say “He can
illy afford to live in such a house,” but “He can _ill_ afford.”

“That was a _dreadful_ solemn sermon.” To say “That was a _dreadfully
_solemn sermon” would more grammatically express what the speaker
intended, but _very_ or _exceedingly_ would better express the meaning.

Such, So


_Such_ is often improperly used for the adverb _so._

“In _such_ a mild and healthful climate.” This should be, “In _so_ mild
and healthful a climate.”


“With all due deference to _such_ a high authority on _such_ a very
important matter.” Change to, “With all due deference to _so_ high an
authority on _so_ very important a matter.”

Good, Well


Many intelligent persons carelessly use the adjective _good_ in the
sense of the adverb _well;_ as, “I feel _good_ to-day.” “Did you sleep
_good_ last night?” “Does this coat look _good_ enough to wear on the
street?” “I can do it as _good_ as he can.” The frequent indulgence in
such errors dulls the sense of taste and weakens the power of
discrimination.

Very much of


“She is _very much of_ a lady.” Say, “She is very ladylike.” “He is
_very much of_ a gentleman.” Say, “He is very gentlemanly.”

Quite


This adverb is often incorrectly used in the sense of _very_ or
_rather._ It should be employed only in the sense of _wholly_ or
_entirely._ These sentences are therefore incorrect:

“He was wounded _quite_ severely.”

“James was _quite_ tired of doing nothing.”


How


This word is sometimes used when another would be more appropriate.

“He said _how_ he would quit farming.” Use _that._

“Ye see _how_ that not many wise men are called.” We must read the
Bible as we find it, but in modern English the sentence would be
corrected by omitting _how._

“Be careful _how_ you offend him.” If the manner of offending is the
thought to be expressed, the sentence is correct. But the true meaning
is doubtless better expressed by, “Be careful _lest_ you offend him.”

No, Not


“I cannot tell whether he will come or _no.”_ “Whether he be a sinner
or _no_ I know not.” In such cases _not_ should be used instead of
_no._

This much


_“This much_ can be said in his favor.” Change _this much_ to _so_
_much_ or_ thus much._

That far


The expressions _this far_ and _that far,_ although they are very
common, are, nevertheless, incorrect. _Thus_ _far_ or _so far _should
be used instead.


Over, More than


“There were not _over_ thirty persons present.” _Over_ is incorrect;
_above_ has some sanction; but _more than,_ is the best, and should be
used.

Real good


This is one of those good-natured expressions that insinuate themselves
into the speech of even cultured people. _Very good_ is just as short,
and much more correct. _Really good_ scarcely conveys the thought
intended.

So nice


“This basket of flowers is _so_ _nice.” So nice_ does not tell _how_
_nice. So_ requires a correlative to complete its meaning. Use _very
nice_ or _very pretty._

Pell-mell


“He rushes _pell-mell_ down the street.” One bird cannot flock by
itself, nor can one man rush _pell-mell._ It will require at least
several men to produce the intermixing and confusion which the word is
intended to convey.




CHAPTER VIII
Conjunctions


As a general rule, sentences should not begin with conjunctions. _And,
or,_ and _nor_ are often needlessly employed to introduce a sentence.
The disjunctive _but_ may sometimes be used to advantage in this
position, and in animated and easy speech or writing the coordinate
conjunction _and_ may be serviceable, but these and all other
conjunctions, when made to introduce sentences, should be used
sparingly.

Reason, Because


“The _reason_ I ask you to tell the story is _because_ you can do it
better than I.” _Because_ means _“for the reason_.” This makes the
sentence equivalent to “The _reason_ I ask you to tell the story is
_for the reason_ that you can do it better than I.” Use _that _instead
of because.

_“Because_ William studied law is no _reason_ why his brother should
not do so.” The following is better: _“That_ William studied law is no
_reason_ why his brother should not do so.”


Only, Except, But


“The house was as convenient as his, _only_ that it was a trifle
smaller.” Use _except_ for _only._

“The field was as large as his, _only_ the soil was less fertile.” Use
_but_ for _only._

But, Except


“Being the eldest of the brothers _but_ Philip, who was an invalid, he
assumed charge of his father’s estate.” _Except_ is better than _but._

But what, But that


“Think no man so perfect _but what_ he may err.” Say, _“but that_ he
may err.”

“I could not think _but what_ he was insane.” Use _but that._

But, If


“I should not wonder _but_ the assembly would adjourn to-day.” Use _if_
instead of _but._

But, That


“I have no doubt _but_ he will serve you well.” Say, “_that _he will
serve you well.”

That, That


“I wished to show, by your own writings, _that_ so far were you from
being competent to teach others English composition, _that_ you had
need yourself to study its first principles.”—_Moon, Dean’s English._

The second _that_ is superfluous. This fault is very
common with writers who use long sentences. The intervention of details
between the first _that_ and the clause which it is intended to
introduce causes the writer to forget that he has used the introductory
word, and prompts him to repeat it unconsciously.

But


“There is no doubt _but_ that he is the greatest painter of the age.”
The word _but_ is superfluous. “He never doubted _but_ that he was the
best fisherman on the coast.” Omit _but._

That


“He told me he would write as soon as he reached London.” Say, “He told
me _that_ he would write,” etc.

Than


“The Romans loved war better _than_ the Greeks.” Such ambiguous forms
should be avoided. As it is not probable that the speaker intended to
say that the Romans loved war better than they loved the Greeks, he
should have framed his sentence thus: “The Romans loved war better than
the Greeks did.”

But that


“He suffered no inconvenience _but that_ arising from the dust.” _But
that,_ or _except that,_ is correct. Some persons improperly use _than
that_ after _no._

“I don’t know _but_ _that_ I shall go to Europe.” Omit _that. “_I don’t
know _but_ I shall go,” etc.


Other than


“We suffered no _other_ inconvenience _but_ that arising from the
dust.” This is incorrect. After _other_ we should use _than.
_Therefore, “We suffered no _other_ inconvenience _than_ that arising
from the dust.”

After _else, other, rather,_ and all comparatives, the latter term of
comparison should be introduced by the conjunction _than._

Either the


“Passengers are requested not to converse with _either_ conductor or
driver.” This is one of those business notices that are often more
concise than correct. It implies that there are two conductors and two
drivers. The sentence should read, “Passengers are requested not to
converse with _either the _conductor _or the_ driver.”

Lest, That


“I feared _lest_ I should be left behind.” Use the copulative _that,
_and not the disjunctive _lest._ “I feared _that_ I should be left
behind.”

Otherwise than


“He cannot do _otherwise but_ follow your direction.” Use _than, _not
_but,_ after _otherwise._ Hence, “He cannot do _otherwise than_
follow,” etc.

After that


_“After that_ I have attended to the business I will call upon you.”
The word _that_ is superfluous.


But what


“His parents will never believe _but what_ he was enticed away by his
uncle.” Omit _what._ The use of _but that_ would be equally
objectionable. _But_ is sufficient.

A reconstruction of the sentence would improve it. “His parents will
always believe,” or “Will never cease to believe that,” etc.

Doubt not but


“I _doubt not but_ your friend will return.” Say, “I _doubt not that_
your friend will return.”

Not impossible but


“It is _not impossible but_ he may call to-day.” Use _that _instead of
_but._

Whether, Whether


“Ginevra has not decided _whether_ she will study history or _whether_
she will study philosophy.” As there is nothing gained in clearness or
in emphasis by the repetition of _“whether she will,”_ this shorter
sentence would be better: “Ginevra has not decided whether she will
study history or philosophy.”

As though


“He spoke _as_ _though,_ he had a customer for his house.” Say, “_as_
_if_ he had a _purchaser,”_ etc.


Except


“I will not let thee go _except_ thou bless me.” This use of the word
_except_ occurs frequently in the Scriptures, but it is now regarded as
obsolete. The word _unless_ should be used instead.

“Few speakers _except_ Burke could have held their attention.” In this
sentence, _besides_ should take the place of _except._




CHAPTER IX
Correlatives


Certain adverbs and conjunctions, in comparison or antithesis, require
the use of corresponding adverbs and conjunctions. Such corresponding
words are called correlatives. The following are the principal ones in
use:

as, as.
as, so.
both, and.
if, then.
either, or.
neither, nor.
not only, but.
not only, but also.
not only, but even.
not merely, but.
not merely, but also.
not merely, but even.
so, as.
so, that.
such, as.
such, that.
though, yet.
when, then.
where, there.
whether, or.


The improper grouping of these correlatives is the cause of many errors
in speech and writing.

As... as


“She is _as_ wise _as_ she is good.” “Mary is _as_ clever _as _her
brother.” The correlatives _as... as_ are
employed in expressing equality. Their use in any other connection is
considered inelegant. _“As_ far _as_ I am able to judge, he would make
a very worthy officer.” This is a very common error. The sentence
should be, _“So_ far _as_ I am able,” etc.

_As_ is often followed by _so. “As_ thy days, _so_ shall thy strength
be.”

So... as


In such negative assertions as, “This is not _as_ fine a tree _as_
that,” the first _as_ should be changed to _so_. Say, “She is not _so_
handsome _as_ she once was.” “This edition of Tennyson is not _so_ fine
_as_ that.”

Either, Neither


The correlatives _either, or,_ and _neither, nor,_ are employed when
two objects are mentioned; as, _“Either_ you _or_ I must go to town
to-day,” “_Neither_ James _nor_ Henry was proficient in history.”

“He _neither_ bought, sold, _or_ exchanged stocks and bonds.” The
sentence should be, “He _neither_ bought, sold, _nor_ exchanged stocks
and bonds.”

“That is not true, _neither.”_ As we already have one negative in the
word _not,_ the word _neither_ should be changed _to either,_ to avoid
the double negation.

A negative other than _neither_ may take either _or_ or _nor _as its
correlative, “She was _not_ so handsome as her mother, _or _so
brilliant as her father.” “He was _never_ happy _nor _contented
afterward.”


Position of correlatives


The placing of correlatives requires care. “He _not only_ gave me
advice, _but also_ money.” This is a faulty construction because the
first member of the correlative, _not only,_ being placed before the
verb _gave_ leads us to expect that the action of _giving_ is to be
contrasted with some other action. The close of the sentence reveals
the fact that the words _advice_ and _money_ represent the ideas
intended for contrast. The first correlative should, therefore, have
been placed before _advice,_ and the sentence should read, “He gave me
_not only_ advice, _but also _money.”

“I remember that I am not here as a censor _either_ of manners _or
_morals.” This sentence from Richard Grant White will be improved by
changing the position of the first member of the correlative. “I
remember that I am not here as a censor of _either_ manners _or_
morals.”

“I _neither_ estimated myself highly _nor_ lowly.” It should be, “I
estimated myself _neither_ highly _nor_ lowly.”

“He _neither_ attempted to excite anger, _nor_ ridicule, _nor
_admiration.” The sentence should be, “He attempted to excite _neither
_anger, _nor_ ridicule, _nor_ admiration.” But here we have the
correlative _neither, nor,_ used with more than two objects, which is a
violation of a principle previously stated. The
sentence is purposely introduced to call attention to the fact that
many respectable writers not only use _neither, nor,_ with three or
more objects, but also defend it. This usage may be avoided by a
reconstruction of the sentence; as, “He did not attempt to excite
anger, nor ridicule, nor admiration.”




CHAPTER X
The Infinitive


Many errors arise from not knowing how to use the infinitive mood.
Perhaps the most common fault is to interpose an adverb between the
preposition _to_ and the infinitive verb; as, “It is not necessary _to
accurately relate_ all that he said.” “You must not expect _to always
find_ people agreeable.” Whether we shall place the adverb before the
verb or after it must often be determined by considerations of emphasis
and smoothness as well as of clearness and correctness. In the
foregoing sentences it is better to place _accurately_ after the verb,
and _always_ before the preposition _to._

Supply “to”


The preposition _to_ as the sign of the infinitive is often improperly
omitted.

“Please _write_ clearly, so that we may understand,” “Your efforts will
tend to hinder rather than _hasten_ the work,” “Strive so to criticise
as not to embarrass
nor _discourage_ your pupil.” These sentences will be corrected by
inserting _to_ before the italicized words.

In such expressions as “Please _excuse_ my son’s absence,” “Please
_write_ me a letter,” “Please _hand_ me the book,” many authorities
insist upon the use of _to_ before the verb. The sentences may,
however, be regarded as softened forms of the imperative; as, _“Hand_
me the book, if you please.” Transposed, “If you please, hand me the
book.” Contracted, “Please, hand me the book.” From this, the comma may
have slipped out and left the sentence as first written.

Omit “to”


When a series of infinitives relate to the same object, the word _to_
should be used before the first verb and omitted before the others; as,
“He taught me _to read, write,_ and _cipher.”_ “The most accomplished
way of using books at present is to serve them as some do lords—_learn_
their titles and then _brag_ of their acquaintance.”

The active verbs _bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see,_ and
their participles, usually take the infinitive after them, without the
preposition _to._ Such expressions, as “He bade me _to depart,” “_I
dare _to say_ he is a villain,” “I had difficulty in making him _to
see_ his error,” are, therefore, wrong, and are corrected by omitting
_to._


Incomplete Infinitive


Such incomplete expressions as the following are very common: “He has
not gone to Europe, nor is he likely _to.” “_She has not written her
essay, nor does she intend _to.” “_Can a man arrive at excellence who
has no desire _to?”_ The addition of the word _go_ to the first
sentence, and of _write it,_ to the second would make them complete. In
the case of the third sentence it would be awkward to say, “Can a man
arrive at excellence who has no desire _to arrive at excellence.”_ We
therefore substitute the more convenient expression “_to do so.”_




CHAPTER XI
Participles


Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by
prepositions. Those ending in _ing_ should not be made the subjects or
objects of verbs while they retain the government and adjuncts of
participles. They may often be converted into nouns or take the form of
the infinitive.

“Not _attending_ to this rule is the cause of a very common error.”
Better, _“Inattention_ to this rule,” etc. “He abhorred _being_ in
debt.” Better, “He abhorred _debt,” “Cavilling_ and _objecting_ upon
any subject is much easier than _clearing_ up difficulties.” Say, “_To
cavil_ and _object_ upon any subject is much easier than _to clear _up
difficulties.”

Omit “of”


Active participles have the same government as the verbs from which
they are derived. The preposition _of,_ therefore, should not be used
after the participle, when the verb would not require it. Omit _of_ in
such expressions as these: “Keeping _of_ one day
in seven,” “By preaching _of_ repentance,” “They left beating _of
_Paul,” “From calling _of_ names they came to blows,” “They set about
repairing _of_ the walls.”

If the article _the_ occurs before the participle, the preposition _of
_must be retained; as, “They strictly observed _the keeping of_ one day
in seven.”

When a transitive participle is converted into a noun, _of_ must be
inserted to govern the object following. “He was very exact in _forming
_his sentences,” “He was very exact in _the formation of_ his
sentences.”

Omit the possessive


The possessive case should not be prefixed to a participle that is not
taken in all respects as a noun. It should, therefore, be expunged in
the following sentences: “By _our_ offending others, we expose
ourselves.” “She rewarded the boy for _his_ studying so diligently.”
“He errs in _his_ giving the word a double construction.”

The possessives in such cases as the following should be avoided: “I
have some recollection of his _father’s_ being a judge.” “To prevent
_its _being a dry detail of terms.” These sentences may be improved by
recasting them. “I have some recollection that his father was a judge.”
“To prevent it from being a dry detail of terms.”


When the noun or pronoun to which the participle relates is a passive
subject, it should not have the possessive form; as, “The daily
instances of _men’s _dying around us remind us of the brevity of human
life.” “We do not speak of a _monosyllable’s_ having a primary accent.”
Change _men’s_ to _men,_ and _monosyllable’s_ to _monosyllable._

After verbs


Verbs do not govern participles. “I intend _doing_ it,” “I remember
_meeting_ Longfellow,” and similar expressions should be changed by the
substitution of the infinitive for the participle; as, “I intend _to do
it,” _“I remember _to have met_ Longfellow.”

After verbs signifying _to persevere, to desist,_ the participle ending
in _ing_ is permitted; as, “So when they _continued asking_ him, he
lifted up himself, and said unto them.”

Place


In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the leading word in
sense should always be made the leading word, and not the adjunct, in
the construction.

“They did not give notice of the _pupil_ leaving.” Here, the leading
idea is _leaving. Pupil_ should, therefore, be subordinate by changing
its form to the possessive; as, “They did not give notice of the
_pupil’s _leaving.” Better still, “They did not give notice that the
pupil had left.”


Clearness


The word to which the participle relates should stand out clearly. “By
giving way to sin, trouble is encountered.” This implies that trouble
gives way to sin. The relation of the participle is made clear by
saying, “By giving way to sin, we encounter trouble.”

“By yielding to temptation, our peace is sacrificed.” This should be,
“By yielding to temptation we sacrifice our peace.”

“A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent
gentleman, suffering from cold and hunger.” Say, “A poor child,
suffering from cold and hunger, was found,” etc.

Awkward Construction


Such awkward sentences as the following should be avoided. In most
cases they will require to be recast.

“But as soon as the whole body _is attempted to be carved,_ a
disproportion between its various parts results.”

“The offence _attempted to be charged_ should be alleged under another
section of the statute.” The following is a better arrangement:

“But as soon as an attempt is made to carve the whole body,” etc. “The
offence which it is attempted to charge,” etc.


Is building


The active participle in a passive sense is employed by many excellent
writers and is condemned by others.

“Corn _is selling_ for fifty cents a bushel.”

“Corn _is_ _being sold_ for fifty cents a bushel.”

The commercial world evidently prefers the former sentence. There is a
breeziness and an energy in it that is lacking in the latter. It must,
however, be used with caution. In the following examples the passive
form is decidedly better than the active: “The foundation _was_ _being
laid,”_ “They _are being educated,” “_While the speech _was being
delivered,” _etc.




CHAPTER XII
Prepositions


Clearness and elegance of style are, in no small degree, dependent upon
the choice and right use of prepositions. Many rules have been
formulated, some of which are deserving of consideration, while others
are nearly or quite useless. Among the latter may be mentioned, by way
of illustration, the oft-repeated rule that _between_ or _betwixt_ must
invariably be used when only two things are referred to, and that
_among_ must be employed when more than two are named. While it is true
that the order could not be reversed, that _among,_ when used, must be
employed in reference to three or more persons or things, and that
_between_ may always be employed in speaking of two objects, yet the
practice of many of the best writers does not limit the use of
_between_ to two objects. In fact, there are cases in which _among_
will not take the place of _between;_ as, “I set out eighty trees with
ample space _between_ them.” “The stones on his farm were so plentiful
that the grass could not grow up _between_ them.”


Between, Among


“The seven children divided the apples _between_ them.” Two children
may divide apples _between,_ them, but in this case it is better to
say, “The seven children divided the apples _among_ them.”

George Eliot, in _Middlemarch,_ says: “The fight lay entirely _between
_Pinkerton, the old Tory member; Bagster, the new Whig member; and
Brook, the Independent member.” In this case, _between_ or _with_ is
more satisfactory than _among,_ although three persons are referred to.

Choice


Many sentences betoken ignorance and others indicate extreme
carelessness on the part of the writers by the inapt choice of their
prepositions, which often express relations so delicate in their
distinctions that nothing short of an extended study of the best
writers will confer the desired skill. We present some examples.

By, In


“We do not accept the proposition referred to _by_ your letter.” The
writer should have employed the preposition _in._

Differ with, From


We differ _with_ a person in opinion or belief; we differ _from_ him in
appearance, in attainments, in wealth, in rank, etc.


Different from, To, Than


“Your story is very plausible, but Henry’s is different _to _that.” “My
book is quite different _than_ his.” The adjective _different_ must not
be followed by the preposition _to_ or _than. _The sentences will be
correct when _from_ is substituted.

At, To


Never use the vulgar expression, “He is _to_ home.” Say _at home._

Preferred before, To


“He was _preferred before_ me.” Say _preferred to me._

With, Of


“He died _with_ consumption.” _Of_ is the proper preposition to employ.
But we say, He is afflicted _with_ rheumatism, or bronchitis, or other
disease.

In respect of, To


“In respect _of_ this matter, he is at fault.” Better, _“to_ this
matter.”

Of, From


“He was acquitted _from_ the charge of larceny.” Acquitted _of _the
charge.

In, Into


_Into_ implies direction or motion. “They walked _into_ the church,”
means that they entered it from the outside. “They walked _in_ the
church,” means that they walked back and forth within the church.


“The vessel is _in_ port.” “She came _into_ port yesterday.”

Of, In


“There was no use _of_ asking his permission, for he would not grant
it.” _In_ asking.

In, On


“He is a person _in_ whom you can rely.” “That is a man _in_ whose
statements you can depend.” Use _on_ for _in._

To, With


Two persons are reconciled _to_ each other; two doctrines or measures
are reconciled _with_ each other when they are made to agree.

“This noun is in apposition _to_ that.” Use _with._

With, By


These two prepositions are often confounded. They have a similarity of
signification with a difference of use. Both imply a connection between
some instrument or means and the agent by whom it is used. _With_
signifies the closer relation and _by_ the more remote one.

It is said that an ancient king of Scotland once asked his nobles by
what tenure they held their lands. The chiefs drew their swords,
saying, _“By _these we acquired our lands, and _with_ these we will
defend them.”

_By_ often relates to the person; _with_ to the instrument.


“He lay on the ground half concealed _with_ a clump of bushes.” “That
speech was characterized _with_ eloquence.” Use _by_ in the last two
sentences.

With, To


We _correspond with_ a person when we exchange letters. In speaking of
the adaptation of one object to another, the preposition _to _should be
used after the verb correspond; as, “This picture corresponds _to_
that.” _With_ is often incorrectly used in such cases instead of _to._

Position


The old grammarian gave a very good rule when he said, “A preposition
is a very bad word to end a sentence with;” but it is sometimes easier
to follow his example than his precept. In general, the strength of a
sentence is improved by not placing small particles at the end.

“Which house do you live _in?”_ Better, “In which house do you live?”

“Avarice is a vice which most men are guilty _of.”_ Say, “of which most
men are guilty.”

“He is a man that you should be acquainted _with.”_ Say, _“with _whom
you should be acquainted.”

“Is this the man that you spoke _of?”_ Better, _“of_ whom you spoke.”

“These are principles that our forefathers died _for.”_ Rather, _“for
_which our forefathers died.”


Omission


Prepositions are often omitted when their use is necessary to the
correct grammatical construction of the sentence.

“They now live on this side the river.” Say, “on this side _of_ the
river.”

“Esther and Helen sit opposite each other.” It is more correct to say,
“sit opposite _to_ each other.”

“John is worthy our help.” Better, “_of_ our help.”

“What use is this to us?” _Of_ what use, etc.

“This law was passed the same year that I was born.” Say, “In the same
year,” etc.

“Washington was inaugurated President April 30, 1789.” Some critics
insist upon the insertion of _on_ before a date, as _“on_ April 30,”
but general usage justifies its omission. With equal force they might
urge the use of _in_ before 1789. The entire expression of day, month,
and year is elliptical.

If the same preposition be required by several nouns or pronouns, it
must be repeated in every case if it be repeated at all. “He is
interested _in _philosophy, history, and _in_ science.” This sentence
may be corrected by placing _in_ before history or by omitting it
before science. The several subjects are individualized more strongly
by the use of _in _before each noun. This is shown in the greater
obscurity given to _history_ by the omission of the preposition in the
foregoing sentence.


“We may have a feeling of innocence or of guilt, of merit or demerit.”
Insert _of_ before demerit.

Needless Prepositions


Prepositions, like other parts of speech that contribute nothing to the
meaning, should not be suffered to cumber the sentence.

Where am I _at?_ Where is my book _at?_ I went there _at_ about noon.
In what latitude is Chicago _in?_ Where are you going _to? _Take your
hat off _of_ the table. Where has James been _to?_ They offered _to_
Caesar a crown. This is a subject _of_ which I intended to speak
_about_ (omit _of_ or _about,_ but not both). She has a sister _of_ ten
years old. Leap _in_ with me into this angry flood.

The older writers employed the useless _for_ in such expressions as,
What went ye out _for_ to see? The apostles and elders came together
_for _to consider _of_ this matter.

All of


A very common error is the unnecessary use of the preposition _of_
after _all;_ as, “during _all of_ this period,” “in _all of_ these
cases,” “for _all of_ the conditions,” etc.

Up above


In most cases one of these prepositions will be found useless. “The
ladder reached _up above_ the chimney.”

From hence


The adverbs _hence, thence, whence,_ include the idea of _from._ The
preposition should, therefore, be omitted.




CHAPTER XIII
The Article


_A,_ which is a shortened form of _an,_ signifies _one, _or _any. An_
was formerly used before nouns beginning with either a consonant or a
vowel sound, but now _an_ is used before a vowel sound and _a_ before a
consonant sound; as, _a_ book, _a_ hat, _an _apple, _an_ eagle.

It will be observed that _an_ heiress, _an_ herb, _an_ honest man, _an_
honorable career, _an_ hourly visit, _a_ euchre party, _a_ euphemism,
_a_ eulogy, _a_ union, etc., are not exceptions to the foregoing rule,
for the _h_ being silent in _heiress, herb, _etc., the article _an_
precedes a vowel sound, and in _euphemism, eulogy, union,_ the article
_a_ precedes the consonant sound of _y. _Compare _u-nit_ with _you
knit._

In like manner some persons have felt disposed to say _many an one
_instead of _many a one_ because of the presence of the vowel _o_. But
the sound is the consonant sound of _w_ as in _won_, and the article
should be _a_ and not _an._

There is a difference of opinion among writers concerning the use of
_a_ and _an,_ before words
beginning with _h,_ when not silent, especially when the accent falls
on the second syllable; as, _a_ harpoon, _a_ hegira, _a_ herbarium, _a_
herculean effort, _a_ hiatus, _a_ hidalgo, _a_ hydraulic engine, _a_
hyena, _a_ historian. The absence of the accent weakens the _h _sound,
and makes it seem as if the article _a_ was made to precede a vowel.
The use of _an_ is certainly more euphonious and is supported by
_Webster’s Dictionary_ and other high authority.

The Honorable, The Reverend


Such titles as _Honorable_ and _Reverend_ require the article _the;_
as, “The Honorable William R. Gladstone is often styled ‘The Grand Old
Man,’” “The Reverend Henry Ward Beecher was an eloquent orator,” not
_Honorable William, E. Gladstone,_ or _Reverend Henry Ward Beecher._

Article omitted


“A clergyman and philosopher entered the hall together.” _“A _clergyman
and philosopher” means one person who is both clergyman and
philosopher. The article should be repeated. _“A_ clergyman and _a_
philosopher entered the hall together.”

_“A_ red and white flag” means one flag of two colors. _“A_ red and _a_
white flag” means two flags, a red flag and a white flag. _“A _great
and _a_ good man has departed.” The verb _has_ implies that only
one man has departed, hence the sentence should be, “A great and good
man has departed.”

“They sang the first and second verse,” should be, “They sang _the_
first and _the_ second verse.” “The literal and figurative meaning of
words” should be, _“The_ literal and _the_ figurative meaning of
words.”

“In framing of his sentences he was very exact,” should be, “In _the
_framing,” etc., or, “In framing his sentences he was very exact.” “The
masculine and feminine gender,” should be, “_The_ masculine and _the
_feminine gender.”

“After singing a hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address.” If Miss
Willard alone sang the hymn the sentence is correct. If the
congregation sang the hymn the sentence should be, “After _the_ singing
of a hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address.”

“He is but a poor writer at best.” Say, “at _the_ best.” “He received
but a thousand votes at most.” Say, “at _the_ most.”

“John came day before yesterday.” Say, _“the_ day before yesterday.”

Article redundant


“Shakespeare was a greater writer than _an_ actor,” should be,
“Shakespeare was a greater writer than actor.”

“This is the kind of _a_ tree of which he was
speaking,” should be, “This is the kind of tree,” etc. “What kind of
_a_ bird is this?” should be, “What kind of bird.”

“The one styled _the_ Provost is the head of the University,” should
be, “The one styled Provost.”

“The nominative and _the_ objective cases,” should be “The nominative
and objective cases.”

“He made a mistake in _the_ giving out the text.” Say “in giving out
the text,” or, “in _the_ giving out of the text.” In the latter
instance, the participle becomes a noun and may take the article before
it.

Articles interchanged


_“An_ elephant is the emblem of Siam,” should be, “The elephant is the
emblem,” etc. “A digraph is _the_ union of two letters to represent one
sound.” Should be, “A digraph is _a_ union,” etc.




CHAPTER XIV
Redundancy


We are all creatures of habit. Our sayings, as well as our doings, are
largely a series of habits. In some instances we are unconscious of our
peculiarities and find it almost impossible to shake them off.

The following are verbatim expressions as they dropped from the lips of
a young clergyman in the pulpit. They show a deeply-seated habit of
repetition of thought. As he was a graduate of one of the first
colleges in the land, we are the more surprised that the habit was not
checked before he passed through his college and seminary courses. The
expressions are here given as a caution to others to be on their guard:
“Supremest and highest,” “separate and sever us,” “derision, sarcasm,
and contempt,” “disobedient and disloyal and sinful,” “hold aloof from
iniquity, from sin,” “necessity of being reclaimed and brought back,”
“their beautiful and their elegant city,” “so abandoned and given up to
evil and iniquity,” “soaked and stained with human gore and blood,”
“beautiful and resplendent,” “hardened and solidified into stone and
adamant,” “this
arctic splendor and brilliancy,” “were being slaughtered and cut down,”
“in the rapidity and the swiftness of the train,” “with all the
mightiness and the splendor of his genius,” “the force and the pressure
it brings to bear,” “has and possesses the power,” “lights flashed and
gleamed.”

The above were all taken from a single discourse. Another peculiarity
of the same speaker was his use of the preposition _between._ Instead
of saying, “Between him and his father there was a perfect
understanding of the matter,” he would say, “Between him and _between_
his father there was a perfect understanding of the matter.”

Young writers will find it a valuable exercise to go through a letter,
essay, or other composition which they have written, with the view of
ascertaining how many words they can eliminate without diminishing the
force of what has been written. An article or two from the daily paper,
and an occasional page from some recent work of fiction will afford
further opportunity for profitable practice in pruning.

Widow woman


“And Jeroboam the son of Nebat, an Ephrathite of Zereda, Solomon’s
servant, whose mother’s name was Zeruah, a _widow woman,_ even he
lifted up his hand against the king.”—I Kings xi, 26.


The expression is now regarded as an archaism, and not to be used in
modern speech or writing. Omit _woman._

Why


Many persons have a foolish habit of beginning their answer to a
question with the word _why_. In some cases it doubtless has its origin
in the desire to gain time while the mind is preparing the answer, but
in most instances it is merely a habit.

Some persons prefix the word _why_ to the statement of a fact or to the
asking of a question. This is even worse than to employ it to introduce
the answer. Restrict it to its legitimate use.

Look at here


This is one of the numerous expressions designed to call the attention
of the person addressed to the speaker. It is both ungrammatical and
vulgar. The omission of _at_ will render it grammatical. “_See here”_
is still better.

Look and see


_“Look and see_ if the teacher is coming.” The words _“look and” _are
superfluous. “See whether the teacher is coming” is a better
expression.

Recollect of


The word _of_ is superfluous in such expressions; as, “I _recollect of
_crossing Lake Champlain on the ice,” “Do you _recollect of_ his paying
you a compliment?”


Settle up, down


“He has _settled up_ his father’s affairs.” “He has _settled down _upon
the old farm.” _Up_ and _down_ may be omitted.

“He has _settled down_ to business” is a colloquial expression which
may be improved by recasting the sentence.

In so far


“He is not to blame _in so far_ as I understand the circumstances.”
_“In so_ _far_ as I know he is a thoroughly honest man.” _“In so far_
as I have influence it shall be exerted in your favor.” Omit _in._

Pocket-handkerchief


The word _handkerchief_ conveys the full meaning. _Pocket _is therefore
superfluous and should be omitted. If a cloth or tie for the neck is
meant, call it a _neck tie_ or a _neckerchief,_ but not a
_neck-handkerchief._

Have got


“I _have got_ a fine farm.” “He _has got_ four sons and three
daughters.” “James _has_ _got_ a rare collection of butterflies.” In
such expressions _got_ is superfluous. But, if the idea of gaining or
acquiring is to be conveyed, the word _got_ may be retained; as, “I
_have got_ my license,” “I _have got_ my degree,” “I _have got_ my
reward.”


Off of


“Can I borrow a pencil _off_ _of_ you?” “I bought a knife _off_ _of_
him yesterday.” Such faulty expressions are very common among school
children, and should be promptly checked by the teacher. The _off_ is
superfluous.

“He jumped _off_ _of_ the boat.” Say, “He jumped _off_ the boat.”

The young lady appointed to sell articles at a church fair entreated
her friends to “buy something _off of_ me.” She should say, “Please buy
something from me,” or “Make your purchases at my table.”

For to see


“But what went ye out _for_ to see? A man clothed in soft raiment?”
Matt. xi, 8. “I will try _for_ to do what you wish.” This form of
expression, once very common, is now obsolete. Omit _for._

Appreciate highly


To _appreciate_ is to set a full value upon a thing. We may _value
highly,_ or _prize highly,_ or _esteem_ _highly,_ but the word _highly_
when used with _appreciate_ is superfluous.

Ascend up


“With great difficulty they _ascended up_ the hill.” As they could not
_ascend down_ the hill it is evident that the word _up_ is superfluous.


Been to


“Where has he _been to?”_ The sentence is not only more concise, but
more elegant without the terminal _to._

Both


The sentence, “The two children _both_ resembled each other,” will be
greatly improved by omitting the word _both._ So also in “These baskets
are _both_ alike,” “William and I _both_ went to Cuba.”

But that


“I do not doubt _but that_ my uncle will come.” The sentence is shorter
and more clear without the word _but. “_I have no idea _but that_ the
crew was drowned.” Here _but_ is necessary. Without it the opposite
meaning would be conveyed.

Equally as well


“James did it well, but Henry did it _equally as_ _well.” As well_ or
_equally well_ should be used instead of _equally as well. _“This
method will be equally _as_ efficacious.” Omit _as_.

Everywheres


“I have looked _everywheres_ for the book, and I cannot find it.” This
is a vulgarism that should be avoided. Say _everywhere._

Feel like


“I feel _like_ as if I should be sick.” The word _like _is unnecessary.


Few


“There are a few persons who read well.” This sentence will be improved
by saying, “Few persons read well.”

Help but be


This is an awkward expression which is improved by being reduced to the
two words _help being;_ as, “I could not help being moved by his
appeal.”

Kind of a


“He jumped into a _kind of a_ chaise, and hurried off to the station.”
_A_ _kind of chaise_ would be better.

New beginner


“Mary plays on the piano very well for a _new beginner.”_ If she is a
_beginner_ she must of necessity be _new_ to it.

Opens up


“This story _opens up_ beautifully.” The _up_ is superfluous.

Seeming paradox


The word _paradox_ alone implies all that the word _seeming _is
intended to convey, hence _seeming_ is superfluous. “This was once a
paradox but time now gives it proof.”

Different


“There were ten _different_ men ready to accept the offer.” As no
reference to the appearance or characteristics of the men is intended,
the word _different_ is unnecessary.


Rise up


“They _rose up_ early and started on their journey.” _Up_ is
superfluous and should be omitted.

Sink down


“The multitude _sank down_ upon the ground.” As they could not _sink up
_or in any other direction than _down,_ the latter word should be
omitted.

Smell of


“Did you _smell of_ the roses?” “No; but I _smelled_ them and found
them very fragrant.” “The gardener _smelt of_ them for he has been
culling them all morning and his clothing is perfumed with them.” The
_of_ is superfluous in such expressions as _taste of, feel of,_ and
usually in _smell of._

Think for


“He is taller than you _think for.” For_ is unnecessary. “He is taller
than you think” is the contracted form of “He is taller than you think
he is.”

Differ among themselves


“The authorities _differed among_ themselves.” The words _among
themselves_ may be omitted.

End up


“That _ends up_ the business.” Say “that _ends_ (or _closes_) the
business.”

Had have


“Had I _have_ known that he was a lawyer I should have consulted him.”
Omit _have._


Had ought to


“I had ought to have gone to school to-day; I hadn’t ought to have gone
fishing.” Incorrect. Say, “I ought to have gone (or _I should have
gone) _to school to-day; I ought not to have gone fishing.” If the
second clause is not an after-thought the sentence can be still further
improved by condensing it; as, “I should have gone to school to-day,
and not to have gone fishing.”




CHAPTER XV
Two Negatives


The use of two negatives in a sentence is much more common than is
generally supposed. To assume that only those who are grossly ignorant
of grammatical rules and constructions employ them, is an error.
Writers whose names are as bright stars in the constellation of
literature have slipped on this treacherous ground.

A negation, in English, admits of only one negative word. The use of a
single negative carries the meaning halfway around the circle. The
meaning is therefore diametrically opposed to that which would be
expressed without the negative. The use of a second negative would
carry the meaning the remaining distance around the circle, thus
bringing it to the starting point, and making it equivalent to the
affirmative. The second negative destroys the effect of the first. The
two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative.

Double Negatives


While two negatives in the same sentence destroy each other, a double
negative has the effect of a more
exact and guarded affirmative; as, “It is _not im_probable that
Congress will convene in special session before the end of the summer.”
“It is _not un_important that, he attend to the matter at once.” “His
story was _not in_credible.” “The fund was _not in_exhaustible.”

Redundant Negatives


_“No_ one _else_ but the workmen had any business at the meeting.” Omit
_else._

“Let us see whether _or not_ there was _not_ a mistake in the record.”
Omit either _or not_ or the second _not._

“The boat will _not_ stop _only_ when the signal flag is raised.” Omit
_not_ or change _only_ to _except._

“He will _never_ return, I _don’t believe.”_ Say, “He will never
return,” or, if that statement is two emphatic, say, “I don’t believe
he will ever return.”

Don’t want none


“I _don’t want none,” “_I _ain’t got nothing,” “_He _can’t do no
more,”_ are inelegant expressions that convey a meaning opposed to that
intended.

“I don’t want any,” or, “I do not want any,” or, “I want none,” are
correct equivalents for the first sentence; “I haven’t anything,” or,
“I have nothing,” should take the place of the second; and, “He can’t
do any more,” or, “He can do no more,” or “He cannot do more,” will
serve for the third.


Not—Hardly


“I _cannot_ stop to tell you _hardly_ any of the adventures that befell
Theseus.” Change _cannot_ to _can_. “I have _not _had a moment’s time
to read _hardly_ since I left school.” Say, “I have hardly a moment’s
time,” etc.

No—no


“The faculties are called into _no_ exercise by doing a thing merely
because others do it, _no_ more than by believing a thing only because
others believe it,” says George P. Marsh. He should have used _any
_instead of the second _no._

Nothing—nor


“There was _nothing_ at the Columbian Exposition more beautiful, _nor_
more suggestive of the progress of American art, than Tiffany’s
display.” Change _nor_ to _or._

Can’t do nothing


“He says he _can’t do nothing_ for me.” Use “He can do nothing,” or “He
can’t do anything for me.”

Cannot by no means


This double negative should be avoided. “I _cannot by no means _permit
you to go.” Say, “I _cannot possibly,”_ or “I _cannot, under any
consideration,_ permit you to go.”


Nor—no


“Give not me counsel, _nor_ let _no_ comforter delight mine ear,” says
Shakespeare.

“There can be no rules laid down, _nor no_ manner recommended,” says
Sheridan.

“No skill could obviate, _nor no_ remedy dispel the terrible
infection.”

The foregoing sentences may be corrected by changing _nor_ to _and._

Not—no


“I pray you bear with me; I _cannot_ go _no_ further,” says
Shakespeare. “I can go _no_ further,” or “I cannot go _any_ further,”
will make the sentence correct.

Nor—not


“I never did repent for doing good, _nor_ shall _not_ now.”

“We need not, _nor_ do _not,_ confine the purposes of God.”

“Which do not continue, _nor_ are _not_ binding.”

“For my part I love him _not, nor_ hate him _not.”_

In these sentences, change _nor_ to _and._




CHAPTER XVI
Accordance of Verb with Subject


No rule of grammar is more familiar to the schoolboy than that which
relates to the agreement of the verb with its subject, or nominative,
and none that is more frequently violated. It would be a mistake,
however, to assume that the schoolboy is the only transgressor. Ladies
and gentlemen of culture and refinement, writers and speakers of
experience and renown, have alike been caught in the quicksands of verb
constructions.

“This painting is one of the finest masterpieces that ever _was_ given
to the world.” A transposition of the sentence will show that the verb
should be _were,_ and not _was. “_Of the finest masterpieces that ever
_were _given to the world, this painting is one.”

“His essay on ‘Capital and Labor’ is one of the best that _has_ ever
been written on the subject.” The verb should be _have._

“The steamer, with all her passengers and crew, _were_ lost.” The
subject is _steamer,_ and the verb should be _was._


Interrogative sentences


“What _signifies_ his good resolutions, when he does not possess
strength of purpose sufficient to put them into practice?”
_Resolutions_ is the subject, and the verb should be _signify._

“Of what profit is his prayers, while his practices are the abomination
of the neighborhood?” _Prayers_ being plural, the verb should be _are._

“What _avails_ good sentiments with a bad life?” Use _avail._

Subject after the Verb


“In virtue and piety _consist_ the happiness of man.” _Happiness, _the
subject, being singular, the verb should be _consists,_ to agree with
its nominative.

“To these recommendations _were_ appended a copy of the minority
report.” A transposition of the sentence will show that the verb should
be _was_, and not _were._ “A copy of the minority report _was_ appended
to these recommendations.”

Whenever the sentence is introduced by a phrase consisting in part of a
noun in the plural, or several nouns in the singular or plural, and,
especially, where the subject follows the verb; care must be taken to
keep the nominative well in mind, so that the verb may be in strict
accord with it.


Compound Subjects


When a verb has two or more nominatives it must be plural. These
nominatives may or may not be connected by _and_ or other connecting
particle. The nominatives may consist of nouns or pronouns, either
singular or plural, or they may be phrases.

“Washington and Lincoln _were_ chosen instruments of government.”

“Judges and senates _have_ been bought for gold,

Esteem and love _were_ never to be sold.”—_Pope._

“Art, empire, earth itself, to change _are _doomed.”— _Beattie._

“You and he _resemble_ each other.”

“To read and to sing _are_ desirable accomplishments.”

“To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world,
and to be wise in the sight of our Creator, _are_ three things so very
different as rarely to coincide.”—_Blair._

Singular in Meaning


Nominatives are sometimes plural in form but singular in meaning. Such
nominatives require a verb in the singular.

“The philosopher and poet _was_ banished from his country.” _Was_ is
correct, because philosopher and poet are the same person.


“Ambition, and not the safety of the state, _was_ concerned.” _Was_ is
correct, because _ambition_ is the subject. The words, _“and not the
safety of the state,”_ simply emphasize the subject, but do not give it
a plural meaning.

“Truth, and truth only, _is_ worth seeking for its own sake.” Another
case of emphasis.

Each, Every, No, Not


When two or more nominatives are qualified by one of the foregoing
words the verb must be singular.

“Every limb and feature _appears_ with its respective grace.”—_Steele._

“Not a bird, not a beast, not a tree, not a shrub _were_ to be seen.”
Use _was_ instead of _were._

Poetical Construction


When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which
precedes it.

“Forth in the pleasing spring, Thy beauty _walks,_ thy tenderness, and
love.”—_Thomson._ __

Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save


When two or more nominatives in the singular are separated by such
words as the preceding, the verb must be singular.

“Veracity, as well as justice, _is_ to be our rule of life.”—_Butler._


“Not a weed nor a blade of grass _were_ to be seen.” Change _were _to
_was_.

“Nothing but wailings _were_ heard.” Transpose. “Nothing _was_ heard
but wailings.” The verb should be _was_.

“Either one or the other of them _are_ in the wrong.” The verb should
be _is._

If, however, one or more of the nominatives are plural, the verb must
be plural.

“It is not his wealth, or gifts, or culture that _gives_ him this
distinction.” _Gifts_ being plural, the verb should be _give._

Some authorities say that the verb should agree in number with the
subject which is placed next before it, and be understood (or silent)
to the rest; as, “Neither he nor his brothers _were_ there,” “Neither
his brothers nor he was there,” “Neither you nor I _am_ concerned.”

Prof. Genung, author of _Outlines of Rhetoric,_ says: “When a clash of
concord arises, either choose subjects that have the same number, or
choose a verb that has the same form for both numbers.” He gives this
sentence to show the change of verb: “Fame or the emoluments of valor
_were_ (_was_) never to be his.” “Fame or the emoluments of valor could
never be his.” And this sentence to show the change of one of the
subjects: “Neither the halter nor
bayonets _are_ (_is_) sufficient to prevent us from obtaining our
rights.” “Neither the halter nor the bayonet _is_ sufficient to prevent
us from obtaining our rights.”

Collective Nouns


Collective nouns, like _army, committee, class, peasantry, nobility,
_are, grammatically, singular, but they are often so modified by their
surroundings as to convey a plural idea, and when so modified the verb
must be plural. When the collective noun conveys the idea of unity, the
verb must be singular.

“The army _was_ disbanded.”

“The council _were_ divided.”

“A number of men and women _were_ present.”

“The people _rejoice_ in their freedom.”

“The peasantry _go_ barefoot, and the middle sort _make_ use of wooden
shoes.”

“The world _stands_ in awe of your majesty.”

“All the world _are_ spectators of your conduct.”

Weights, Measures, and Values


The names of weights, measures, and values, when considered as wholes,
require singular verbs, and when considered as units require verbs in
the plural.

“There _is_ twenty shillings in my purse,” meaning one pound in value.
“There _are_ twenty shillings in my purse,” meaning twenty separate
coins, each being a shilling. “Sixty-three gallons _equals_ a
hogshead.” “Ten tons of coal _are_ consumed daily.”


Titles of Books


Whether the form be singular or plural, the title is considered a unit,
and requires a verb in the singular; as, “‘The Merry Wives of Windsor’
_was_ written by Shakespeare.” “Dr. Holmes’s _American Annals was_
published in 1805.”

Whereabouts


“The whereabouts of his cousins _were_ not known to him.” The plural
form of this word is misleading. The verb should be _was._

Phenomena, Effluvia


“A strange phenomena,” “A disagreeable effluvia” are incorrect forms
not infrequently met with. Both words are plural, and require plural
verbs and also the omission of the article _a._

You was


This very incorrect form is often employed by those who know better,
and who use it, seemingly, out of courtesy to the uneducated people
with whom they are brought in contact. If it be a courtesy, it is one
that is “more honored in the breach than in the observance.”

Those who use the expression ignorantly are not likely to read this
book, or any other of a similar character, and need scarcely be told
that _was_ should be _were_.




INDEX


A, An, 181.
Aberration of intellect, 87.
A 1,83.
A hundred others’ woes—Pronouns, 126.
Ability, Capacity, 27.
About, Almost, 28.
About, Around, 95.
Above, More than, Preceding, 111.
Above, Foregoing, 87.
Above up, 180.
Acceptance, Acceptation, 28.
Access, Accession, 28.
Accident, Injury, 28.
Accord, Give, 86.
Accordance of Verb with Subject, 198.
Collective Nouns, 203.
Compound Subjects, 200.
Each, Every, No, Not, 201.
Interrogative sentences, 199.
Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201.
Phenomena, Effluvia, 204.
Poetical Construction, 201.
Singular in Meaning, 200.
Subject after the Verb, 199.
Titles of Books, 204.
Weights, Measures, and Values, 203.
Whereabouts, 204.
You was, 204.
Acoustics, Ethics, Politics, 143.
Act, Action, 86.
Adherence, Adhesion, 36.
Adjective or Adverb, 150.
Adopt, Take, 37.
Adverbs, 150.
Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140.
Advise, Persuade, 52.
Affect, Effect, 37.
After _of—_Possessive case, 127.
After _than_ and as—Pronouns, 132.
After that, 159.
After the Imperative—Pronouns, 132.
After verbs— Participles, 171.
After the verb To be—Pronouns, 131.
After verbs and prepositions—Pronouns, 130.
Again, Against, 115.
Aggravate, Exasperate, 37.
Agreeably disappointed, 77.
Agreement with Antecedent—Pronouns, 133.
Ain’t, 119.
Alex. Melville Bell, 24.
Alienate, Antagonize, Oppose, 32.
Alighted, Lit, Lighted, 88.
All, Is that all? 108.
All of, 180.
All, Whole, 41, 51.
Alleviate, Relieve, 37.
Allow, Guess, Reckon, Calculate, 56.
Allowed, Said, 87.
Allude to, Refer to, 77.
Almost, About, 28.
Almost, Most, Very, 30.
Alms, Odds, Riches, 145.
Alone, Only, 113.
Alternative, 87.
Alternation, 87.
Alumna, Formula, 144,
Alumnus, Terminus, Cactus, 143.
Ambiguity—Pronouns, 135.
Among the rest, 78.
Among, Between, 175.
Amount, Number, 32.
Analysis, Crises, 143.
And, To—Try and, 117.
Anglicized Words, 20.
Angry, Mad, 30.
Animalcules, not Animalculae, 148.
Anniversary, 87.
Answer, Reply, 32.
Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose, 32.
Anticipate, Expect, 32.
Any, At all, 32.
Anyhow, 81.
Anyways, Somewheres, Thereabouts, 78.
Apart, Aside, 78.
Apparent, Evident, 33.
Appendix, Index, 148.
Appointed you and _I—_after verbs and prepositions, 130.
Appreciate highly, 189.
Apprehend, Comprehend, 105.
Archimedes’ Screw, 125.
Argue, Augur, 98.
Around, About, 95.
Articles, 181.
A, An, 181.
Interchanged, 184.
Omitted, 182.
Redundant, 183.
Titles—The Reverend, 182.
_As_ after _Equally,_ 190.
As... as, 162.
As, Like, 88.
As... so, 163.
As soon as, Directly, Immediately, 77.
As, That, 70.
As though, As if, 160.
As well as, Or, Nor, But, Save, 201.
Ascend up, 189.
Aside, Apart, 78.
Asparagus, Sparrowgrass, 34.
Assets, Alms, Scissors, 145.
Assure, Promise, 34.
At all, Any, 32.
At, To, 176.
At you, 114.
Attacked, Burst, Drowned, 108.
Aware, Conscious, 39.
Away, Way, 41.
Awful, 81.
Awkward construction—Participles, 172.

Back up, Support, 82.
Badly, Greatly, 114.
Bad toothache, 70.
Balance, Remainder, 60.
Bandits, Banditti, 148.
Barbaric, Barbarous, 98.
Barbarisms, 20.
Beaus, Tableaux, Chateaux, 147.
Beautifully, Beautiful, 70.
Because, Reason, 156.
Been to, 190.
Beg, Beg leave, 71.
Beg pardon, Which? 26.
Begin, Commence, 38.
Behave, 60.
Bell, Alex. Melville, 24.
Besides, 49.
Beside, Besides, 108.
Better, Best, 61.
Between, Among, 175.
Between you and _I—_After verbs and prepositions, 130.
Black Oxide of Manganese, 36.
Bombastic Language, 18.
Both, 190.
Both, Both of, 72.
Both, Each, 72.
Bound, 61.
Bountiful, Plentiful, 108.
Brace, Pair, Couple, 147.
Bravery, Courage, 116.
Bring, Fetch, Carry, 44.
Brooks’s Arithmetics, 125.
Brothers, Brethren, 149.
Bryant’s list, 16.
Bulk, 82.
Burglarize, 82.
Burst, Attacked, Drowned, 108.
But, Except, 157.
But, If, 157.
But, Only, Except, 157.
But, Or, Nor, Save—As well as, 201.
_But_ superfluous, 158.
But that, 158, 190.
But that, But what, 82, 157.
But that, 157.
But that, Than that, 158.
But what, 160.
But what, But that, 82, 157.
By, In, 175.
By, With, 177.

Calculate, 83.
Calculate, Guess, Reckon, Allow, 56.
Calculated, Liable, 83.
Calligraphy, 68.
Came across, Met with, 109.
Campbell’s law, 20.
Can, Could, Will, 115.
Can but, Cannot but, 68.
Cannot by no means, 196.
Can’t and Couldn’t, 120.
Can’t do nothing, 196.
Cantos, Heroes, 145.
Capacity, Ability, 27.
Carry, Bring, Fetch, 44.
Case forms—Pronouns, 129.
Casualty, Casuality, 68.
Character, Reputation, 44.
Chauncey Depew and Eli Perkins, 65.
Cheap, Low-priced, 30.
Cherubim, Seraphim, 142.
Choice of prepositions, 175.
Choice of relatives—Pronouns, 138.
Choice of words, 15.
Chrysalis, Analysis, 143.
Chuck-full, 74.
Clearness—Participles, 172.
Clever, Smart, 85.
Climax, 112.
Climb down, 103.
Collective nouns, 203.
Collective nouns—Pronouns, 135.
Commence, Begin, 38.
Commenced to write, 107.
Commercial slang, 23.
Commodious, Convenient, 26.
Common, Mutual, 28.
Common slang, 23.
Complected, 69.
Complete, Finished, Through, 39, 99.
Compound subject, 200.
Comprehend, Apprehend, 105.
Conclusion, End, 39.
Conjunctions, 156.
Conscious, Aware, 39.
Contemplate, Propose, 75.
Contemptible, Contemptuous, 52.
Continual, Continuous, 39.
Continually, Perpetually, 52.
Contractions, 118.
Convenient, Commodious, 26.
Convict, Convince, 40.
Correlatives, 162.
Could, Can, Will, 115.
Couldn’t, Can’t, 120.
Couple, Pair, Brace, 147.
Couple, Several, 76.
Courage, Bravery, 116.
Criterion, Datum, 144.
Crowd, 74.
Cunning, 59.
Cupfuls— Plural compounds, 147.
Curious, 59.
Custom, Habit, 40.
Customer, Patron, 93.
Cute, 59.
Cut in half, 98.

Daren’t, Dursen’t, 123.
Data, Strata, 144.
Datum, Phenomenon, 144, 204.
Deface, Disfigure, 43.
Defect, Fault, 45.
Degrade, Demean, 43.
Depot, Station, 43.
Description, Kind, 44.
Didn’t, Don’t, 120.
Dies, Dice, 149.
Differ among themselves, 192.
Different, 191.
Differ with, From, 175.
Different from, to, than, 75, 176.
Directly, Immediately, As soon as, 77.
Disfigure, Deface, 43.
Disremember, 69.
Dispense, Dispense with, 75.
Dock, Wharf, 52.
Don’t and Didn’t, 120.
Don’t want none, 195.
Double negatives, 194.
Double possessives, 126.
Doubt not but, 160.
Dreadful solemn— Adjective or adverb? 152.
Drive, Ride, 76.
Drowned, Attacked, Burst, 108.
Dry, Thirsty, 75.
Due, Owing, 71.
Dursent, Daren’t, 123.
Dutch, German, 75.

Each, Both, 72.
Each, Every, 71.
Each, Every, No, Not, 201.
Each other, One another, 46.
Each other’s eyes—Pronouns, 126.
Each... _their—_Agreement with antecedent, 134.
Effect, Affect, 37.
Effluvia, Phenomena, 144, 204.
Either, Neither, 47, 163.
Either the... or the, 159.
Elder, Older, 91.
Eli Perkins and Chauncey Depew, 65.
Ellipsis, Analysis, 143.
Else ...besides, 49.
Else than, Other than, 159.
Emigrants, Immigrants, 78.
Empty, 86.
End, Conclusion, 39.
Endorse, Indorse, 84.
End up, 192.
Enjoy, 86.
Enjoyed poor health, 36.
Equally as well, 190.
Evacuate, Vacate, 75.
Ever, Never, 72.
Every confidence, 67.
Every, Each, 71.
Every, Each, No, Not, 201.
Everybody else’s, 128.
Everybody... _they—_Agreement with antecedent, 134.
Every once in awhile, 73.
Everywheres, 190.
Evident, Apparent, 33.
Exasperate, Aggravate, 37.
Except, But, 157.
Except, But, Only, 157.
Except, Unless, Besides, 161.
Exceptionable, Exceptional, 73.
Excuse me—Which? 26.
Expect, Anticipate, 32.
Expect, Suspect, Suppose, 110.

Factor, 112.
Farther, Further, 45.
Fathers-in-law—Plural compounds, 147.
Fault, Defect, 45.
Favor, Resemble, 59.
Feel like, 190.
Feels badly—Adjective or adverb? 151.
Female, Woman, 73.
Fetch, Bring, Carry, 44.
Few, 191.
Few, Little, 46.
Fewer, Less, 73.
Fictitious writer, 62.
Fine writing, 8.
Finished, Complete, Through, 39, 99.
Fire, Throw, 78.
First, Firstly, 62.
First, Former, 61.
First-rate, 62.
First two, 79.
Fish, Fly, 148.
Fix, In a, 53.
Fix, Mend, Repair, 62.
Fly, Flee, 53.
Flys, Fishes, 148.
Foregoing, Above, 87.
Foreign words, 9.
Former, First, 61.
Formulas, Larvas, Stigmas, 144.
For to see, 189.
Frederick the Great’s Kindness—Nouns in apposition, 127.
From hence, thence, whence, 180.
From, Of, 104, 176.
Funny, 56.
Further, Farther, 45.
Future, Subsequent, 79.

Gent’s pants, 79.
German, Dutch, 75.
Get, Got, 54.
Give, Accord, 36.
Good deal, Great deal, 57.
Good piece, Long distance, 110.
Good usage, 19.
Good, Well, 158.
Got to, Must, 115.
Governor, the old man, 97.
Great big, 98.
Great deal, Good deal, 57.
Greatly, Badly, 114.
Grouse, Quail, Snipe, 149.
Grow, Raise, Rear, 113.
Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow, 56.
Gums, Overshoes, 56.

Habit, Custom, 40.
Had better, Would better, 57.
Had have, 192.
Had ought to, 193.
Hadn’t, Haven’t, Hasn’t, 121.
Haint, Taint, 121.
Hangs on, Continues, 115.
Have got, 188.
Have saw, Has went, 114.
Haven’t, Hasn’t, Hadn’t, 121.
Haply, Happily, 114.
Happen, Transpire, 65.
Has went, Have saw, 114.
Hate, Dislike, 116.
Healthy, Wholesome, 52.
Healthy, Healthful, 112.
Hearty meal, 98.
He is no better than _me— _After _than_ and as, 133.
Help but be, 191.
Heroes, Cantos, Stuccoes, 145.
Herrings, Trout, Pike, 149.
He’s, She’s, It’s, 123.
Hey? Which? 25.
Hire, Lease, Let, Rent, 88.
His, One’s, 50.
His or her—Needless pronouns, 136.
Hope, Wish, 99.
House, Residence, 43.
_How_ for _by which— _Adverbs for relative pronouns, 140
How, That, 154.
Hung, Hanged, 112.

I am _him_-Case forms, 129.
Idea, Opinion, 113.
If, But, 157.
If, Whether, 58.
Ill, Sick, 107.
Illy, Ill, 58.
Immediately, Directly, As soon as, 77.
Immigrants, Emigrants, 78.
Implicit, 58.
I’m, You’re, He’s, She’s, It’s, We’re, They’re, 123.
In a fix, 53.
In, By, 175.
In, Into, 85, 176.
In, Of, 177.
In, On, 177.
In our midst, 84.
In respect of, To, 176.
In so far, 188.
Inaugurate, 109.
Incomplete Infinitive, 168.
Index, Appendix, 148.
Individual, 58.
Indorse, Endorse, 84.
Infinitive, 166.
Infinitive, Incomplete, 168.
Infinitive needed—Supply _To,_ 166.
Infinitive unnecessary—Omit “To,” 167.
Informed, Posted, 86.
Injury, Accident, 28.
Interchanged Articles, 184.
Interrogatives—Pronouns, 130.
Interrogative sentences, 199.
Into, In, 85, 176.
Introduce, Present, 105.
“Is building,” 173.
Isn’t, 121.
It’s, He’s, She’s, 123.
It is _me—_Case forms, 129.

John and Mary’s sled—Double possessives, 126.
Journal, 68.
Junius’s letters, 125.
Juntos, Heroes, Virtuosos, 145.
Just going to, 85.

Kind, Description, 44.
Kind of, 85.
Kind of a, 191.
Knights Templars, 147.
Know as, Know that, 58.
Knowing, 85.

Last, Latest, 59.
Lay, Lie, 69.
Lead a dance, 117.
Learn, Teach, 88.
Lease, Let, Rent, Hire, 88.
Leave, Quit, 83.
Lend, Loan, 88.
Less, Fewer, 73.
Lest, That, 159.
Let it alone, Leave it alone, 83.
Let, Lease, Rent, Hire, 88.
Let you and _I_ try it—After the Imperative, 132.
Let’s, 123.
Liable, Calculated, 83.
Lie, Lay, 69.
Lighted, Lit, Alighted, 88.
Like, As, 88.
Like, Love, 29.
List of Principal Correlatives, 162.
Lit, Lighted, 88.
Little, Few, 46.
Little piece, Short distance, 67.
Little bit, 74.
Loan, Lend, 88.
Look and see, 187.
Look at here, 187.
Lot, Number, 116. Love, Like, 29.
Low-priced, Cheap, 30.
Luck, 84.

Mad, Angry, 30.
Make, Manufacture, 65.
Make way with, 84.
Mayn’t, Mustn’t, Mightn’t, Oughtn’t, 122.
Mayst, Mightest, 123.
Means, Alms, Headquarters, 146.
Measures, Weights, Values, 203.
Memorandum, Datum, 144.
Mend, Fix, Repair, 62.
Mention, Allude to, Refer to, 77.
Men’s and boys’ shoes, 124.
Men, women, and children’s shoes—Double possessives, 126.
Met with, Came across, 109.
Mightn’t, Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Oughtn’t, 122.
Mightst, Mayst, 123.
Mighty, Very, 104.
Misplaced relatives—Pronouns, 141.
Mixed pronouns, 136.
More than, Above, Preceding, 111.
More than, Over, 155.
More, Worse, 42.
Mosquitoes, Heroes, Halos, 145.
Most, Almost, Very, 30.
Musselmans, Dragomans, 145.
Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t, and Oughtn’t, 122.
Mutual, Common, 28.
Myself, 29.

Nasty, Nice, 89.
Near, Nearly, 89.
Need, Want, 40.
Needless Articles, 183.
Needless Prepositions, 180.
Needless Pronouns, 136.
Negatives, 194.
Negligence, Neglect, 29.
Neighborhood, Region, 42.
Neither, Either, 47, 163.
Neither... nor, Either, 163.
Never, Ever, 72.
Never... nor (or or), Either, 163.
Never, Not, 29.
News, 142.
New beginner, 191.
New Words, 21.
Nice, Nasty, 89.
Nicely, 89.
No, Each, Every, Not, 201.
No... no, 154, 196.
No, Not, 154.
No good, No use, 89.
No more than I could help, 111.
No use, No good, 89.
Nor... no, 197.
Nor, Or— Pronouns, 135.
Nor, Or, As well as, But, Save, 201.
Nor... not, 197.
None, Singular or plural, 51.
Not... hardly, 196.
Not impossible but, 160.
Not... neither, Either, 163.
Not, Never, 29.
Not... or (or _nor),_ Either, 163.
Not... no, 197.
Noted, Notorious, 94.
Nothing like, 94.
Nothing... nor, 196.
Notorious, Noted, 94.
Nouns in Apposition—Possessive Case 126.
Nouns, Plural-Possessive Case, 125.
Nouns, Singular—Possessive Case, 125.
Nowhere near so, 94.
Nucleus, Terminus, Fungus, 143.
Number, 142.
Number, Amount, 32.
Number, Lot, 116.
Number, Quantity, 38.

O, Oh, 90.
Observe, Say, 90.
Obsolete Words, 20.
Odds, Alms, Riches, 145.
Of any, Of all, 90.
Of, From, 104,176.
Of, In, 177.
“Of” redundant, 169.
Of, With, 176.
Off of, 189.
Older, Elder, 91.
Omission of Article, 182.
Omit the Possessive, 170.
Omission of Preposition, 179.
Omit “Of,” 169.
Omit “To,” 167.
Omitted Relatives—Pronouns, 141.
On, Over, Upon, 104.
One another, Each other, 46.
One... they—Agreement with Antecedent, 134.
One’s, His, 50.
Only, 91.
Only, Alone, 113.
Only, Except, But, 157.
Onto, Upon, 92.
Opens up, 191.
Opinion, Idea, 113.
Oppose, antagonize, Alienate, 32.
Or. Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201.
Or, Nor— Pronouns, 135.
Other, 49.
Other... besides, 49.
Other than, 159.
Other than, Otherwise than, 48.
Otherwise than, Otherwise but, 159.
Ottomans, Mussulmans, 145.
Ought, Should, Would, 102.
Oughtn’t, Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t, 122.
Outstart, 92.
Over and Above, More than, 92.
Over, More than, 155.
Over, On, Upon, 104.
Over with, 110.
Overflown, Overflowed, 110.
Overlook, Oversee, 95.
Overshoes, Gums, 56.
Overworked Expressions, 13.
Owing, Due, 71.
Oxide of Manganese, Black, 36.

Pair, Couple, Brace, 147.
Pants, Gent’s, 79.
Pappy, the Old Man, 97.
Parenthetical Expressions—Pronouns, 133.
Part, Portion, 30.
Partake, Ate, 105.
Participles, 169,
After Verbs, 171.
Awkward Construction, 172.
Clearness, 172.
“Is building,” 173.
“Of” redundant, 169.
Omit the Possessive, 170.
Place of, 171.
Party, Person, 93.
Patron, Customer, 93.
Peas, Pease, 149.
Pell-mell, 155.
Pennies, Pence, 149.
Per, 93.
Peradventure, Perchance, 93.
Performers, 93.
Period, Point, 94.
Perpetually, Continually, 52.
Person, Party, 93.
Perspire, Sweat, 86.
Persuade, Advise, 52.
Peruse, 78.
Pet Words, 12.
Phenomena, Data, Effluvia, 144, 204.
Place of Participles, 171.
Plead, Pleaded, 94.
Plenty, Plentiful, 95.
Plural Compounds, 147.
Plural Nouns, 125.
Pocket-handkerchief, 188.
Poet, Poetess, 73.
Poetic Terms, 9.
Poetical Construction, 201.
Point, Period, 94.
Politics, Acoustics, Ethics, 143.
Portion, Part, 30.
Position of Correlatives, 164.
Position of Preposition, 178.
Possessive Case, 124.
After of, 127.
Double possessives, 126.
Nouns, Singular, 125.
”    Plural, 125.
”    in apposition, 126.
Pronouns, 126.
Somebody else’s, 127.
Postal, 31.
Posted, Informed, 86.
Powerful sight, 105.
Practical, Practicable, 31.
Preceding, Above, More than, 111.
Predicate, 31.
Prefer than, 31.
Preferred before, to, 176.
Prejudice, 33.
Prepositions, 174.
All of, 180.
At, To, 176.
Between, Among, 175.
By, In, 175.
Choice, 175.
Differ with, from, 175.
Different from, to, than, 176.
From hence, 180.
In, Into, 176.
In, On, 177.
In respect of, to, 176.
Needless prepositions, 180.
Of, In, 177.
Of, From, 176.
Omission of prepositions, 179.
Position, 178.
Preferred before, to, 176.
To, With, 177.
Up above, 180.
With, By, 177.
With, Of, 176.
With, To, 178.
Present, Introduce, 105.
Presume, Think, Believe, 33.
Pretend, Profess, 33.
Pretty, Very, 116.
Preventative, Preventive, 33.
Previous, Previously, 33.
Profess, Pretend, 33.
Promise, Assure, 34.
Pronouns, 129.
Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140.
After _than_ and as, 132.
”  the Imperative, 132.
”  To be, 131.
”  Verbs and Prepositions, 130.
Agreement with Antecedent, 133.
Ambiguity, 135.
Case Forms, 129.
Choice of Relatives, 138.
Collective Nouns, 135.
Interrogatives, 130.
Misplaced Relatives, 141.
Mixed, 136.
Needless, 136.
Omitted Relatives, 141.
Or, Nor, 135.
Parenthetical expressions, 133.
Silent Predicate, 132.
The one, the other, 141.
Uniform Relatives, 137.
_    Which_ and who after and, 140.
Pronouns—Possessive Case, 126.
Pronouns—Personal and Relative, 129.
Proper Names—Plurals, 146.
Propose, Purpose, 34.
Proposal, Proposition, 37.
Propose, Contemplate, 75.
Prospectus, Terminus, Apparatus, 148.
Proved, Proven, 38.
Providing, Provided, 37.
Provincialisms, 24.
Pupil, Scholar, 107.
Purity of Diction, 19.
Purpose, Propose, 34.

Quail, Grouse, Woodcock, 149.
Quantity, Number, 38.
Quite, Very, Rather, 153.
Quite a few, 38.
Quit, Leave, 83.

Raise, Grow, Rear, 113.
Rarely, Rare, 42.
Rather than, Other than, 159.
Real, Really, 42.
Real good, 155.
Rear, Raise, Grow, 113.
Reason, Because, 156.
Receipt, Recipe, 42.
Reckon, Guess, Calculate, Allow, 56.
Recollect of, 187.
Redundancy, 185.
Redundant Article, 183.
Redundant Negatives, 195.
Refer to, Allude to, 77.
Region, Neighborhood, 42.
Relieve, Alleviate, 37.
Remainder, Balance, 60.
Remit, Send, 43.
Rent, Lease, Let, Hire, 88.
Repair, Fix, Mend, 62.
Reply, Answer, 32.
Reputation, Character, 44.
Requisite, Requisition, Requirement, 106.
Resemble, Favor, 59.
Residence, House, 43.
Restaurant French, 10.
Revolting, 96.
Reverend, 182.
Riches, Alms, Odds, 145.
Ride, Drive, 76.
Right, Right here, Just here, 99.
Right smart, 73.
Rise up, 192.
Round, Square, 63.

Said, Allowed, 87.
Same as, Same that, 105.
Save, But, Or, Nor, As well as, 201.
Say, Observe, 90.
Says, States, 63.
Scholar, Pupil, 107.
Section, Region, 106.
Seeming Paradox, 191.
Seldom or ever, 106.
Send, Remit, 43.
Seraphim, Cherubim, 142.
Set, Sit, 80.
Settle up, down, 188.
Several, Couple, 76.
Sewage, Sewerage, 106.
Shall, Will, Should, Would, 100.
Shall you? Will you? 102.
She’s, He’s, It’s, 123.
Should, Would, Ought, 102.
Should, Would, Shall, Will, 100.
Shouldn’t and Wouldn’t, 122.
Sick, Ill, 107.
Sight, Many, 74.
Silent Predicate—Pronouns, 132.
Single, The first, 79.
Singular Nouns, 125.
Singular in Meaning, 201.
Sink down, 192.
Sit, Set, 80.
Slang, 22.
Slang, Commercial, Common, and Society, 23.
Smart, Clever, 85.
Smell of, 192.
Smells sweetly—Adjective or Adverb? 151.
Sociable, Social, 106.
Society Slang, 23.
So... as, 163.
So far, That far, 154.
So nice, 155.
So, Such, 152.
Solos, Heroes, Octavos, 145.
Some better, 98.
Some means or another, 48.
Somebody else’s, 127.
Somewheres, Anyways, Thereabouts, 78.
Sparrowgrass, Asparagus, 34.
Specialty, Speciality, 106.
Square, Round, 63.
Stand a chance, 110.
States, Says, 63.
Station, Depot, 43.
Stay, Stop, 63.
Stilts, 18.
Stop, Stay, 63.
Strata, Data, 144.
Subject after the verb, 199.
Subsequent, Future, 79.
Subtile, Subtle, 63.
Such as you and _me— _After than and as, 133.
Such, So, 152.
Summerish, Winterish, 99.
Summons, 64.
Supply “To,” 166.
Support, Back up, 82.
Sweat, Perspire, 86.

Tableaux, Beaus, Plateaus, 147.
Tactics, Acoustics, 143.
Taint, Haint, 121.
Take, Adopt, 37.
Talented, 103.
Taste, 7.
Tasty, Tasteful, 64.
Team, 64.
Teach, Learn, 88.
Terminus, Radius, Focus, 143.
Than, 48.
_Than_ ambiguous, 158.
Thanks, I thank you, 115.
That, As, 70.
That, But, 157.
That far, Thus far, 154.
That, Lest, 159.
That omitted, 158.
That, that, 157.
The father he died—Needless pronouns, 136.
The first, Single, 79.
The Honorable, the Reverend, 182.
The Infinitive, 166.
The Miss Browns—Titles, 146.
The Old Man, 97.
The one, the other—Pronouns, 141.
Them books, 137.
Thereabouts, Somewheres, Any ways, 78.
These kind, Those kind, 47.
These sort, Those kind, 64.
These, Those, 62.
They’re, We’re, You’re, 123.
Think for, 192.
Thirsty, Dry, 75.
This much, 154.
This twenty years, These kind, 47.
Those kind, These sort, 64.
Through, Finished, Complete, 39, 99.
Throw, Fire, 78.
Titles of Books, 204.
Titles—The Reverend, the Honorable, 182.
Titles with Proper Names, 146.
To always find—The Infinitive, 166.
To, With, 177, 178.
To, At, 176.
Transpire, Happen, 65.
Trite Expressions, 12.
Truth, Veracity, 67.
Try and, Try to, 117.
Try the experiment, 67.
Two foot, These kind, 48.
Two Negatives, 194.

Ugly, 67.
Unbeknown, 68.
Underhanded, 68.
Under the weather, Ill, 115.
Unexampled, 96.
Uniform Relatives—Pronouns, 137.
Unless, Without, 41.
Up above, 180.
Upon, On, Over, 104.
Utter, Express, 96.

Vacate, Evacuate, 75.
Valuable, Valued, 97.
Values, Weights, Measures, 203.
Veracity, Truth, 67.
Very, Most, Almost, 30.
Very much of, 153.
Very pleased, 97.
Very, Pretty, 116.
Very Vulgar Vulgarisms, 13.
Vicinity, Neighborhood, 97.
Vulgarisms, 13.

Want, Need, 40.
Wasn’t, 122.
Way, Away, 41.
Ways, way, 41.
Weights, Measures, and Values, 203.
Well, Good, 153.
Weren’t, 122.
We’re, They’re, You’re, 123.
Wharf, Dock, 52.
Wharf, Wharves, 149.
What for _that,_ 137.
What? Which? Hey? 25.
Whereabouts, 204.
_Where_ for _in which—_Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140.
Whether, If, 58.
Whether... Whether, 160.
Which? 25.
Which? Beg pardon, 25.
Which for _who,_ 137.
Which? What? 25.
Which and _who_ after _and—_Pronouns, 140.
Who should I see—Interrogatives, 131.
Whole, All, 41, 51.
Wholesome, Healthy, 52.
_Whom_ do you think he is—Interrogatives, 131.
Why, 187.
Widow woman, 186.
Will, Could, Can, 115.
Will, Shall, Should, Would, 100.
Will you? Shall you? 102.
Winterish, Summerish, 99.
Wish, Hope, 99.
With, By, 177.
With, Of, 176.
With, To, 177, 178.
Without, Unless, 41.
Woman, Female, 73.
Words, Anglicized, 20.
Words Improperly Used, 26.
Words, New, 21.
Words, Obsolete. 20.
Words to be avoided, 18.
Worse, More, 42.
Would better, Had better, 57.
Would Should, Ought, 102.
Would, Should, Shall, Will, 100.
Wouldn’t, Shouldn’t, 122.

You are _him—_Case Forms, 129.
You’re, We’re, They’re, 123.
You was, 204.




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convenient, condensed, and the information is presented in such an
interesting manner as when once read to be always remembered. A
distinctive feature of the book is the pronunciation of the proper
names, something found in few other works.


SLIPS OF SPEECH


By John H. Bechtel


Who does not make them? The best of us do. Why not avoid them? Any one
inspired with the spirit of self-improvement can readily do so. No
necessity for studying rules of grammar or rhetoric when this book can
be had. It teaches both without the study of either. It is a
counsellor, a critic, a companion, and a guide, and is written in a
most entertaining and chatty style.


HANDBOOK OF PRONUNCIATION


By John H. Bechtel


What is more disagreeable than a faulty pronunciation? No other defect
so clearly shows a lack of culture. This book contains over 5,000 words
on which most of us are apt to trip. They are here pronounced in the
clearest and simplest manner, and according to the best authority. It
is more readily consulted than a dictionary, and is just as reliable.


PRACTICAL SYNONYMS


By John H. Bechtel


Any one with the least desire to add to his vocabulary or to improve
his choice of words should have a copy of this book. It is designed
mainly to meet the wants of busy merchants or lawyers, thoughtful
clergymen or teachers, and wide-awake school-boys or girls who are
ambitious to express the thoughts of the mind in more fitting phrases
than they are at present capable of doing.


TOASTS


By William Pittenger


Most men dread being called upon to respond to a toast or to make an
address. What would you not give for the ability to be rid of this
embarrassment? No need to give much when you can learn the art from
this little book. It will tell you how to do it; not only that, but by
example it will show the way. It is valuable not alone to the novice,
but the experienced speaker will gather from it many suggestions.


THE DEBATER’S TREASURY


By William Pittenger


There is no greater ability than the power of skillful and forcible
debate, and no accomplishment more readily acquired if the person is
properly directed. In this little volume are directions for organizing
and conducting debating societies and practical suggestions for all who
desire to discuss questions in public. There is also a list of over 200
questions for debate, with arguments both affirmative and negative.


PUNCTUATION


By Paul Allardyce


Few persons can punctuate properly; to avoid mistakes, many do not
punctuate at all. A perusal of this book will remove all difficulties
and make all points clear. The rules are clearly stated and freely
illustrated, thus furnishing a most useful volume. The author is
everywhere recognized as the leading authority upon the subject, and
what he has to say is practical, concise, and comprehensive.


ORATORY


By Henry Ward Beecher


It must be conceded that few men ever enjoyed a wider experience or
achieved a higher reputation in the realm of public oratory than Mr.
Beecher. What he had to say on this subject was born of experience, and
his own inimitable style was at once both statement and illustration of
his theme. This volume is a unique and masterly treatise on the
fundamental principles of true oratory.