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                           REPORT FOR 1864.


The Council have great pleasure in being able to report to the Members
of the Hakluyt Society that, during the last year, a considerable
increase has been made to their numbers. At the same time the list of
subscribers has been carefully revised, and has been cleared of a great
many names of members who disregard the applications made to them for
the payment of their arrears. The number of Members is now 224, and the
balance in the Banker’s hands is £431:17:3. The arrears due to the
Society amount to £290:17:0, while there are no outstanding debts of any
kind.

Thus the funds of the Society are in a prosperous condition, and several
Editors have, since the issue of the last annual Report, undertaken
works of great value and rarity. The Council, therefore, congratulate
the Members on the satisfactory state of the Society’s affairs; but they
would also remind them that a large addition to the number of the
subscribers is very desirable, and that the power of doing full justice
to the authors whose works are reproduced in the Society’s volumes,
depends upon the support which is received from those who are interested
in this very important branch of literature.

Since the last General Meeting, the two following volumes have been
delivered to members:--

     1. “Mirabilia Descripta.” “Or the wonders of the East, by Friar
     Jordanus (circa 1330).” Translated from the Latin original, with
     the addition of a commentary by Colonel Henry Yule, C.B., late of
     the Royal Engineers (Bengal).

     2. “The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia
     Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India, and Ethiopia (A.D. 1503
     to 1508).” Translated from the original Italian edition of 1510,
     with a preface, by John Winter Jones, Esq., F.S.A.; and edited with
     Notes and an Introduction by the Rev. George Percy Badger.

The following work is in the hands of the printer, and will be delivered
to Members in the course of the autumn:--

     “The Travels of Pedro de Cieza de Leon, from the gulf of Darien to
     the city of La Plata, contained in the first part of the Chronicle
     of Peru, which treats of the boundaries and description of
     provinces, founding of new cities, rites and customs of the
     Indians, and other strange things worthy to be known (Antwerp
     1554).” Translated and edited, with Notes and an Introduction, by
     Clements R. Markham, Esq.

And the following works have been undertaken by Editors, one of which
will be issued as the second volume for the present year:--

     1. “The Travels of Josafa Barbaro and Ambrogio Contarini in Tana
     and Persia.” Translated from Ramusio by E. A. Roy, Esq., and edited
     by Viscount Strangford.

     2. “The Narrative of Pascual de Andagoya, containing the earliest
     notice of Peru.” Translated and edited, with Notes, by Clements R.
     Markham, Esq.

     3. “The Discovery and Conquest of the Canary Islands by Bethencourt
     in 1402-25.” Translated and edited by Captain J. G. Goodenough,
     R.N.

     4. “The Voyage of Vasco de Gama round the Cape of Good Hope in
     1497,” now first translated from a contemporaneous manuscript,
     accompanied by other documents, forming a monograph on the life of
     De Gama. To be translated and edited by Richard Garnett, Esq., of
     the British Museum.

     5. “The Three Voyages of Sir Martin Frobisher,” with a selection of
     his letters now in the State Paper Office. Edited by Rear-Admiral
     R. Collinson, R.N., C.B.

     6. “Cathay, and the road thither.” A collection of all minor
     notices of China, previous to the sixteenth century; to be
     translated and edited, with Notes and an Introduction, by Colonel
     Henry Yule, C.B.

     7. “The Fifth Letter of Hernan Cortes, describing his Voyage to
     Honduras in 1525-26,” to be translated and edited by William
     Stirling, Esq., M.P.

     8. “The Voyage and Travailes of John Hughen van Linschoten into the
     East or Portugales Indies from A.D. 1576-92,” to be reprinted from
     the English translation of 1598, and edited by the Rev. G. P.
     Badger.

     9. “Description of Africa and of the notable things in it, by John
     Leo Africanus.” To be translated from Ramusio, and edited, with
     Notes and an Introduction, by Dr. Henry Barth, C.B., Hon. Corr.
     Mem. F.R.G.S.

The following Six Members retire from the Council:--

  COMMODORE CRACROFT, R.N., C.B.
  JOHN FORSTER, ESQ.
  DR. HODGKIN.
  SIR ERSKINE PERRY.
  MAJOR GENERAL SIR HENRY RAWLINSON, K.C.B.
  LORD BROUGHTON.

Of this number, the three following are proposed for re-election, viz:

  SIR ERSKINE PERRY.
  MAJOR GENERAL SIR HENRY RAWLINSON, K.C.B.
  THE RIGHT HON. LORD BROUGHTON.

And the names of the following gentlemen are proposed for election:--

  VISCOUNT STRANGFORD.
  GENERAL C. FOX.
  REAR-ADMIRAL R. COLLINSON, C.B.
  CAPTAIN SHERARD OSBORN, R.N., C.B.
  REV. G. P. BADGER.
  JOHN W. KAYE, ESQ.


STATEMENT OF THE ACCOUNTS OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1863-64.

  Balance at Banker’s at last           |Mr. J. E. Richard, for Paper  £35  2  0
      Audit                    £357 10 0|Mr. Richards, for Printing    175 11  0
  Received by Banker during             |Transcriptions                 21 17  0
      the year                  341  5 3|Mr. Stanford, for a Map        29  7  6
  Petty Cash in hand at last            |Charge at Hull, on £2:2
      Audit                       1 16 0|     (Bank of England)          0  0  6
  Petty Cash received in July           |Gratuity to Agent’s Foreman     5  0  0
      1864                       10  0 0|Expended in Petty Cash          5  0  7
                                        |                              ---------
                                        |                             £271 18  7
                                        |Present Balance at Banker’s   431 17  3
                                        |Present Balance in Petty Cash   6 15  5
                               ---------|                              ---------
                               £710 11 3|                             £710 11  3
                               ---------|                              ---------

                Examined and approved July 15th, 1864.

                       CHARLES BAGOT PHILLIMORE.
                        WILLIAM NEVILLE STURT.




                                  THE

                           HAKLUYT SOCIETY.


President.

SIR RODERICK IMPEY MURCHISON, K.C.B., G.C.St.S., F.R.S., F.R.G.S, D.C.L.
Mem. Imp. Acad. Sc. St. Petersburg, Corr. Mem. Inst. Fr., &c. &c.


Vice-Presidents.

  REAR-ADMIRAL C. R. DRINKWATER BETHUNE, C.B.
  THE RIGHT HON. SIR DAVID DUNDAS, M.P.


Council.

  REV. G. P. BADGER, F.R.G.S.
  J. BARROW, ESQ., F.R.S.
  RT. HON. LORD BROUGHTON.
  REAR-ADMIRAL R. COLLINSON, C.B.
  SIR HENRY ELLIS, K.H., F.R.S.
  GENERAL C. FOX.
  R. W. GREY, ESQ.
  JOHN WINTER JONES, ESQ., F.S.A.
  JOHN W. KAYE, ESQ.
  HIS EXCELLENCY THE COUNT DE LAVRADIO.
  R. H. MAJOR, ESQ., F.S.A.
  SIR CHARLES NICHOLSON, BART.
  CAPTAIN SHERARD OSBORN, R.N., C.B.
  SIR ERSKINE PERRY.
  MAJOR-GENERAL SIR HENRY C. RAWLINSON, K.C.B.
  WILLIAM STIRLING, ESQ., M.P.
  VISCOUNT STRANGFORD.


=Honorary Secretary=--C. R. MARKHAM, ESQ.


=Bankers=--MESSRS. RANSOM, BOUVERIE, AND CO., 1, PALL MALL EAST.


The Hakluyt Society, which is established for the purpose of printing
rare or unpublished Voyages and Travels, aims at opening by this means,
an easier access to the sources of a branch of knowledge, which yields
to none in importance, and is superior to most in agreeable variety. The
narratives of travellers and navigators make us acquainted with the
earth, its inhabitants and productions; they exhibit the growth of
intercourse among mankind, with its effects on civilization, and, while
instructing, they at the same time awaken attention, by recounting the
toils and adventures of those who first explored unknown and distant
regions.

The advantage of an Association of this kind, consists not merely in its
system of literary co-operation, but also in its economy. The
acquirements, taste, and discrimination of a number of individuals, who
feel an interest in the same pursuit, are thus brought to act in
voluntary combination, and the ordinary charges of publication are also
avoided, so that the volumes produced are distributed among the Members
(who can alone obtain them) at little more than the cost of printing and
paper. The Society expends the whole of its funds in the preparation of
works for the Members; and since the cost of each copy varies inversely
as the whole number of copies printed, it is obvious that the members
are gainers individually by the prosperity of the Society, and the
consequent vigour of its operations.

_New Members have_, at present, _the privilege of purchasing the
complete set of the publications of the Society for previous years for
thirteen guineas, but have not the power of selecting any particular
volume_.

The Members are requested to bear in mind that the power of the Council
to make advantageous arrangements, will depend, in a great measure, on
the prompt payment of the subscriptions, which are payable in advance on
the 1st of January, and are received by MR. RICHARDS, 37, Great Queen
Street, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, who is the Society’s agent for the
delivery of its volumes. Post Office Orders should be made payable to
MR. THOMAS RICHARDS, at the _West Central Office, High Holborn_.




                         WORKS ALREADY ISSUED.

=1--The Observations of Sir Richard Hawkins, Knt.=

In his Voyage into the South Sea in 1593. Reprinted from the edition of
1622, and edited by Capt. C. R. DRINKWATER BETHUNE, R.N., C.B.


=2--Select Letters of Columbus.=

With Original Documents relating to the Discovery of the New World. Translated
and Edited by R. H. MAJOR, Esq., of the British Museum.


=3--The Discoverie of the Empire of Guiana=,

By Sir Walter Ralegh, Knt. Edited, with copious Explanatory Notes, and a
Biographical Memoir, by SIR ROBERT H. SCHOMBURGK, Phil. D., etc.


=4--Sir Francis Drake his Voyage, 1595=,

By Thomas Maynarde, together with the Spanish Account of Drake’s attack
on Puerto Rico, Edited from the Original MSS., by W. D. COOLEY, Esq.

=5--Narratives of Early Voyages=

Undertaken for the Discovery of a Passage to Cathaia and India, by the North-west,
with Selections from the Records of the worshipful Fellowship of the
Merchants of London, trading into the East Indies; and from MSS. in the
Library of the British Museum, now first published by THOMAS RUNDALL, Esq.


=6--The Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannia=,

Expressing the Cosmographie and Commodities of the Country, together with
the manners and Customs of the people, gathered and observed as well by
those who went first thither as collected by William Strachey, Gent., the first
Secretary of the Colony; now first Edited from the original manuscript in the
British Museum, by R. H. MAJOR, Esq., of the British Museum.


=7--Divers Voyages touching the Discovery of America=

And the Islands adjacent, collected and published by Richard Hakluyt,
Prebendary of Bristol in the year 1582. Edited, with Notes and an introduction,
by JOHN WINTER JONES, Esq., of the British Museum.


=8--A Collection of Documents on Japan.=

With a Commentary by THOMAS RUNDALL, ESQ.


=9--The Discovery and Conquest of Florida=,

By Don Ferdinando de Soto. Translated out of Portuguese by Richard
Hakluyt; and Edited, with notes and an introduction, by W. B. RYE, Esq.,
of the British Museum.


=10--Notes upon Russia=,

Being a Translation from the Earliest Account of that Country, entitled Rerum
Muscoviticarum Commentarii, by the Baron Sigismund von Herberstein,
Ambassador from the Court of Germany to the Grand Prince Vasiley Ivanovich,
in the years 1517 and 1526. Two Volumes. Translated and Edited, with
Notes and an Introduction, by R. H. MAJOR, Esq., of the British Museum.
Vol. I.


=11--The Geography of Hudson’s Bay.=

Being the Remarks of Captain W. Coats, in many Voyages to that locality,
between the years 1727 and 1751. With an Appendix, containing Extracts
from the Log of Captain Middleton on his Voyage for the Discovery of the
North-west Passage, in H.M.S. “Furnace,” in 1741-2. Edited by JOHN
BARROW, Esq., F.R.S., F.S.A.


=12--Notes upon Russia.= Vol. 2.


=13--Three Voyages by the North-east=,

Towards Cathay and China, undertaken by the Dutch in the years 1594, 1595,
and 1596, with their Discovery of Spitzbergen, their residence of ten months in
Novaya Zemlya, and their safe return in two open boats. By Gerrit de Veer.
Edited by C. T. BEKE, Esq., Ph.D., F.S.A.


=14-15--The History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China and
the Situation Thereof.=

Compiled by the Padre Juan Gonzalez de Mendoza. And now Reprinted
from the Early Translation of R. Parke. Edited by SIR GEORGE T.
STAUNTON, Bart. With an Introduction by R. H. MAJOR, Esq. 2 vols.


=16--The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake.=

Being his next Voyage to that to Nombre de Dios. Collated, with an
unpublished Manuscript of Francis Fletcher, Chaplain to the Expedition.
With Appendices illustrative of the same Voyage, and Introduction by W. S.
W. VAUX, Esq., M.A.


=17--The History of the Tartar Conquerors who Subdued China.=

From the French of the Père D’Orleans, 1688. Translated and Edited by the
EARL OF ELLESMERE. With an Introduction by R. H. MAJOR, Esq.


=18--A Collection of Early Documents on Spitzbergen and Greenland=,

Consisting of: a Translation from the German of F. Martin’s important work
on Spitzbergen, now very rare; a Translation from Isaac de la Peyrère’s
Relation de Groenland; and a rare piece entitled “God’s Power and Providence
showed in the miraculous preservation and deliverance of eight
Englishmen left by mischance in Greenland, anno 1630, nine moneths and
twelve days, faithfully reported by Edward Pelham.” Edited, with Notes, by
ADAM WHITE, Esq., of the British Museum.


=19--The Voyage of Sir Henry Middleton to Bantam and the Maluco Islands.=

From the rare Edition of 1606. Edited by BOLTON CORNEY, Esq.


=20--Russia at the Close of the Sixteenth Century.=

Comprising “The Russe Commonwealth” by Dr. Giles Fletcher, and Sir
Jerome Horsey’s Travels, now first printed entire from his manuscript in the
British Museum. Edited by E. A. BOND, Esq., of the British Museum.


=21--The Travels of Girolamo Benzoni in America, in 1542-56.=

Translated and Edited by ADMIRAL W. H. SMITH, F.R.S., F.S.A.


=22--India in the Fifteenth Century.=

Being a Collection of Narratives of Voyages to India in the century preceding
the Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope; from Latin, Persian,
Russian, and Italian Sources, now first translated into English. Edited, with
an Introduction by R. H. Major Esq., F.S.A.


=23--Narrative of a Voyage to the West Indies and Mexico=,

In the years 1599-1602, with Maps and Illustrations. By Samuel Champlain.
Translated from the original and unpublished Manuscript, with a Biographical
Notice and Notes by Alice Wilmere. Edited by NORTON SHAW.


=24--Expeditions into the Valley of the Amazons=

During the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries: containing the Journey of
Gonzalo Pizarro, from the Royal Commentaries of Garcilasso Inca de la Vega;
the Voyage of Francisco de Orellana, from the General History of Herrera;
and the Voyage of Cristoval de Acuna, from an exceedingly scarce narrative
written by himself in 1641. Edited and Translated by CLEMENTS R.
MARKHAM, Esq.


=25--Early Indications of Australia.=

A Collection of Documents shewing the Early Discoveries of Australia to the
time of Captain Cook. Edited by R. H. MAJOR, Esq., of the British
Museum, F.S.A.


=26--The Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo to the Court of Timour, 1403-6.=

Translated, for the first time, with Notes, a Preface, and an Introductory Life
of Timour Beg. By CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, Esq.


=27--Henry Hudson the Navigator.=

The Original Documents in which his career is recorded. Collected, partly
Translated, and Annotated, with an Introduction by GEORGE ASHER, LL.D.


=28--The Expedition of Ursua and Aguirre=,

In search of El Dorado and Omagua, A.D. 1560-61, Translated from the
“Sexta Noticia Historial” of Fray Pedro Simon, by W. BOLLAERT, Esq.;
with an Introduction by CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, Esq.


=29--The Life and Acts of Don Alonzo Enriquez de Guzman.=

Translated from a Manuscript in the National Library at Madrid, and edited,
with Notes and an Introduction, by CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, Esq.


=30--Discoveries of the World by Galvano.=

From their first original unto the year of our Lord 1555. Reprinted, with the
original Portuguese text, and edited by VICE-ADMIRAL BETHUNE, C.B.


=31--Marvels described by Friar Jordanus=,

Of the Order of Preachers, native of Severac, and Bishop of Columbum; from
a parchment manuscript of the Fourteenth Century, in Latin, the text of which
has recently been Translated and Edited by COLONEL H. YULE, C.B.,
F.R.G.S., late of H.M. Bengal Engineers.


=32--The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema.=

In Syria, Arabia, Persia, India, etc., during the Sixteenth Century. Translated
by J. WINTER JONES, Esq., F.S.A., and edited, with Notes and an Introduction,
by the REV. GEORGE PERCY BADGER.


=33--The Travels of Cieza de Leon in 1532-50=

From the Gulf of Darien to the City of La Plata, contained in the first part of
his Chronicle of Peru (Antwerp 1554). Translated and edited, with Notes
and an Introduction, by CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, Esq.




                  OTHER WORKS UNDERTAKEN BY EDITORS.


     The Travels of Josafa Barbaro and Ambrogio Contarini in Tana and
     Persia. Translated from Ramusio by E. A. ROY, Esq., and edited,
     with an Introduction, by VISCOUNT STRANGFORD.

     The Narrative of Pascual de Andagoya, containing the earliest
     notice of Peru. Translated and edited, with Notes, by CLEMENTS R.
     MARKHAM, Esq.

     The Discovery and Conquest of the Canary Islands, by Bethencourt in
     1402-25. Translated and edited by Captain J. G. GOODENOUGH, R.N.,
     F.R.G.S.

     The Voyage of Vasco de Gama round the Cape of Good Hope in 1497,
     now first Translated from a cotemporaneous manuscript, accompanied
     by other documents, forming a monograph on the life of De Gama. To
     be translated and edited by RICHARD GARNETT, Esq., of the British
     Museum.

     The Three Voyages of Sir Martin Frobisher, with a selection from
     his Letters now in the State Paper Office. Edited by REAR-ADMIRAL
     R. COLLINSON, R.N., C.B.

     Cathay and the Road Thither. A collection of all minor notices of
     China, previous to the Sixteenth Century. Translated and edited by
     COLONEL H. YULE, C.B.

     The Fifth Letter of Hernan Cortes, describing his Voyage to
     Honduras in 1525-26. Translated and edited by WILLIAM STIRLING,
     Esq., M.P.

     John Huigen van Linschoten. Discourse of a Voyage unto the East
     Indies; to be reprinted from the English translation of 1598, and
     edited by the Rev. G. P. BADGER, F.R.G.S.

     Description of Africa and of the Notable Things in it, by John Leo
     Africanus. To be translated from Ramusio, and edited, with Notes
     and an Introduction, by Dr. H. BARTH, C.B., Hon. Corr. Mem.
     F.R.G.S.




WORKS SUGGESTED TO THE COUNCIL FOR PUBLICATION.


     Voyages of Alvaro de Mandana and Pedro Fernandez de Quiros in the
     South Seas, to be translated from Suarez de Figueroa’s “Hechos del
     Marques de Cañete,” and Torquemada’s “Monarquia Indiana.”

     Inedited Letters, etc., of Sir Thomas Roe during his Embassy to
     India.

     The Travels of Duarte Barbosa in the East, to be translated from
     the Portuguese.

     The Voyage of John Saris to India and Japan in 1611-13, from a
     manuscript copy of his Journal, dated 1617.

     Pigasetta’s Narrative of the Voyage of Magalhaens, to be translated
     from the Italian text, edited by Amoretti.

     The Topografia Christiana of Cosmas Indicopleustes.

     Bernhard de Breydenbach, 1483-84, A.D. Travels in the Holy Land.

     Felix Fabri, 1483. Wanderings in the Holy Land, Egypt, etc.

     Voyage of Du Quesne to the East Indies in 1692, from a manuscript
     Journal by M. C. * * * *

     El Edrisi’s Geography.

     Narrative of Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine, concerning the
     land called New France, discovered by him in the name of his
     Majesty: written at Dieppe, 1524 A.D.

     Voyage made by Captain Jaques Cartier in 1535 and 1536 to the isles
     of Canada, Hochlega, and Saguenay.

     Nicolo and Antonio Zeno. Their Voyages to Frisland, Estotiland,
     Vinland, Engroenland, etc.

     De Morga. Sucesos en las Islas Filipinas.

     Ca da Mosto. Voyages along the Western Coast of Africa in 1454:
     translated from the Italian text of 1507.

     J. dos Santos. The History of Eastern Ethiopia. 1607.

     Joam de Castro. Account of a Voyage made by the Portuguese in 1541,
     from the city of Goa to Suez.

     Caterino Zeno. A Journey to the empire of Persia, in the time of
     Uzun Hassan.

     John and Sebastian Cabot. Their Voyages to America.

     Willoughby and Chancellor. Their Voyages to the North-east.

     Icelandic Sagas narrating the Discovery of America.




LAWS OF THE HAKLUYT SOCIETY.


I. The object of this Society shall be to print, for distribution among
its members, rare and valuable Voyages, Travels, Naval Expeditions, and
other geographical records, from an early period to the beginning of the
eighteenth century.

II. The Annual Subscription shall be One Guinea, payable in advance on
the 1st January.

III. Each member of the Society, having paid his Subscription, shall be
entitled to a copy of every work produced by the Society, and to vote at
the general meetings within the period subscribed for; and if he do not
signify, before the close of the year, his wish to resign, he shall be
considered as a member for the succeeding year.

IV. The management of the Society’s affairs shall be vested in a Council
consisting of twenty-one members, viz., a President, two
Vice-Presidents, a Secretary, and seventeen ordinary members, to be
elected annually; but vacancies occurring between the general meetings
shall be filled up by the Council.

V. A General Meeting of the Subscribers shall be held annually. The
Secretary’s Report on the condition and proceedings of the Society shall
be then read, and the Meeting shall proceed to elect the Council for the
ensuing year.

VI. At each Annual Election, fix of the old Council shall retire, of
whom three shall be eligible for re-election.

VII. The Council shall meet every month, excepting August, September,
October, and November, for the dispatch of business, three forming a
quorum, including the Secretary, and the Chairman having a casting vote.

VIII. Gentlemen preparing and editing works for the Society, shall
receive twenty-five copies of such works respectively, and an additional
twenty-five copies if the work is also translated.




RULES FOR THE DELIVERY OF THE SOCIETY’S VOLUMES.


I. The Society’s productions will be delivered without any charge,
within three miles of the General Post Office.

II. They will be forwarded to any place beyond that limit, the Society
paying the cost of booking, but not of carriage; nor will it be
answerable in this case for any loss or damage.

III. They will be delivered by the Society’s agent, MR. THOS. RICHARDS,
37, Great Queen Street, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, to persons having written
authority of subscribers to receive them.

IV. They will be sent to the Society’s correspondents or agents in the
principal towns throughout the kingdom; and care shall be taken that the
charge for carriage be as moderate as possible.




LIST OF MEMBERS

OF

THE HAKLUYT SOCIETY.


  Admiralty (The), _2 copies_.
  All Souls College, Oxford.
  Allport, Franklin, Esq., 156, Leadenhall-street.
  Alston, Commander A. H.
  Antiquaries, the Society of.
  Army and Navy Club, 13, St. James’s-square.
  Arrowsmith, John, Esq. 35, Hereford-square, South Kensington.
  Asher, A., Berlin.
  Asiatic Society of Calcutta.
  Astor Library, New York.
  Athenæum Club, The, Pall Mall.
  Athenæum Library, Boston, U.S.
  Badger, Rev. George Percy, F.R.G.S., 7, Dawson-place, Bayswater.
  Baikie, Dr., Glasgow.
  Bank of England Library and Literary Association.
  Baring, Thomas George, Esq., M.P., 21, Lowndes-square.
  Barlersque, C., Esq., Bordeaux.
  Barrow, J., Esq., F.R.S., F.S.A., 17, Hanover-terrace, Regent’s Park.
  Batho, J. A., Esq., 49, Upper Charlotte-street, Fitzroy-square.
  Beke, Charles T., Esq., Phil. D., F.S.A., Bekesbourne, Canterbury.
  Bell, Reverend Thomas, Berbice.
  Benzon, E. L. S., Esq., Sheffield.
  Berlin, The Royal Library of.
  Bethune, Rear-Admiral C. R. Drinkwater, C.B., 4, Cromwell-road.
  Bibliothèque Impériale, Paris.
  Birmingham Library (The)
  Blackie, Dr. Walter G., Villafield, Glasgow.
  Boston Public Library, U.S.
  Bowring, Sir John, LL.D., Athenæum Club.
  Brevoort, J. C., Esq., New York.
  British Museum (_copies presented_)
  Brockhaus, F. A., Esq., Leipzig.
  Brodhead, J. R., Esq., New York.
  Broome, Major A.
  Broughton, Lord, 42, Berkeley-square.
  Brown, J. A., Esq., Newcastle-place, Clerkenwell.
  Brown, John Carter, Esq., Providence, Rhode Island.
  Brown, R., Esq., Sydney Mines, Cape Breton.
  Brown, W. H., Esq., Chester.
  Bruce, John, Esq., F.S.A., 5, Upper Gloucester-street, Dorset-square.
  Bunbury, E. H., Esq., 35, St. James’s-street.
  Cambridge University Library.
  Campkin, Henry, Esq., F.S.A., Reform Club, Pall Mall.
  Canada, The Parliament Library.
  Cannon, Charles, Esq., British Museum.
  Carlisle, The Right Hon. the Earl of, the Castle, Dublin.
  Carlton Club, Pall Mall.
  Cartwright, Henry, Esq., Her Majesty’s Gaol, Gloucester.
  Cautley, Sir Proby, K.C.B., India Office.
  Chatfield, Frederick, Esq., 12, Pall Mall.
  Chauncey, Henry C., Esq., New York.
  Christie, Jonathan Henry, Esq., 9, Stanhope-street, Hyde-park-gardens.
  Churchill, Lord Alfred S., M.P., F.R.G.S., 16, Rutland Gate.
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  Hardinge, Captain E., R.N., F.R.G.S., 32, Hyde Park Square.
  Harker, Turner James, Esq., 10, Northampton Park, Islington.
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  Liverpool Free Public Library.
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  London Institution, Finsbury Circus.
  London Library, 12, St. James’s-square.
  Lott, Capt. E. G., 159, Parliament-street, Liverpool.
  Lowe, Right Hon. Robert, M.P., 34, Lowndes-square.
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  Madras Literary Society.
  Maguire, Captain Rochfort, R.N., _H.M.S. Galatea_.
  Major, R. H., Esq., F.S.A., British Museum.
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                            WORKS ISSUED BY

                         The Hakluyt Society.




                            THE TRAVELS OF
                        PEDRO DE CIEZA DE LEON.

                             M.DCCC.LXIV.
                                  */

[Illustration: MAP OF PERU, QUITO & NEW GRANADA]




                                  THE

                                TRAVELS

                                  OF

                        PEDRO DE CIEZA DE LEON,

                     A.D. 1532-50,

                           CONTAINED IN THE

                 First Part of his Chronicle of Peru.

                        TRANSLATED AND EDITED,

                    WITH NOTES AND AN INTRODUCTION,

                                  BY

                CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, F.S.A., F.R.G.S.,

    AUTHOR OF “CUZCO AND LIMA,” “TRAVELS IN PERU AND INDIA,” AND A
                   “QUICHUA GRAMMAR AND DICTIONARY.”

                                LONDON:
                   PRINTED FOR THE HAKLUYT SOCIETY.

                             M.DCCC.LXIV.

             LONDON: T. RICHARDS, 37, GREAT QUEEN STREET.




                                COUNCIL

                                  OF

                         THE HAKLUYT SOCIETY.


     SIR RODERICK IMPEY MURCHISON, K.C.B., G.C.St.S., F.R.S., D.C.L.,
     Corr. Mem. Inst. F., Hon. Mem. Imp. Acad. Sc. St. Petersburg, etc.,
     etc., PRESIDENT.

     REAR-ADMIRAL C. R. DRINKWATER BETHUNE, C.B.}   VICE-PRESIDENTS.
     THE RT. HON. SIR DAVID DUNDAS, M.P.        }

     REV. G. P. BADGER, F.R.G.S.

     J. BARROW, ESQ., F.R.S.

     RT. HON. LORD BROUGHTON.

     REAR-ADMIRAL R. COLLINSON, C.B.

     SIR HENRY ELLIS, K.H., F.R.S.

     GENERAL C. FOX.

     R. W. GREY, ESQ.

     JOHN WINTER JONES, ESQ., F.S.A.

     JOHN W. KAYE, ESQ.

     HIS EXCELLENCY THE COUNT DE LAVRADIO.

     R. H. MAJOR, ESQ., F.S.A.

     SIR CHARLES NICHOLSON, BART.

     CAPTAIN SHERARD OSBORN, R.N., C. B.

     SIR ERSKINE PERRY.

     MAJOR-GENERAL SIR HENRY C. RAWLINSON, K.C.B.

     WILLIAM STIRLING, ESQ., M.P.

     VISCOUNT STRANGFORD.


     CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, _Esq._, F.S.A., HONORARY SECRETARY.




                          TABLE OF CONTENTS.


                                                                    PAGE

INTRODUCTION                                                           i

Dedication                                                             l

Prologue                                                               4


                THE TRAVELS OF PEDRO DE CIEZA DE LEON.

CHAP. I.--Which treats of the discovery of the Indies, of some other
things which were done when they were first discovered, and of
the present state of affairs                                          11

CHAP. II.--Of the city of Panama, and of its founding, and why it is
treated of first, before other matters                                14

CHAP. III.--Of the ports between Panama and the land of Peru, of the
distances between them, and of their latitudes                        19

CHAP. IV.--Describes the navigation as far as the Callao of Lima,
which is the port of the City of the Kings                            22

CHAP. V.--Of the ports and rivers on the coast, from the City of the
Kings to the province of Chile, and their latitudes, with other matters
connected with the navigation of these seas                           27

CHAP. VI.--How the city of San Sebastian was founded in the bay of
Uraba; and of the native Indians in that neighbourhood                32

CHAP. VII.--How the barb is made so poisonous, with which the Indians
of Carthagena and Santa Martha have killed so many Spaniards          38

CHAP. VIII.--In which other customs of the Indians subject to the city
of Uraba are described                                                39

CHAP. IX.--Of the road between the city of San Sebastian and the city
of Antioquia, and of the wild beasts, forests, rivers, and other things
in the way; and how and in what season it can be passed               40

CHAP. X.--Of the grandeur of the mountains of Abibe, and of the
admirable and useful timber which grows there                         43

CHAP. XI.--Of the cacique Nutibara, and of his territory: and of
other caciques subject to the city of Antioquia                       46

CHAP. XII.--Of the customs of these Indians, of their arms, and of
the ceremonies they perform; and who the founder of the city of
Antioquia was                                                         49

CHAP. XIII.--Of the description of the province of Popayan, and the
reason why the natives of it are so wild, and those of Peru so gentle  54

CHAP. XIV.--Containing an account of the road between the city of
Antioquia and the town of Anzerma, and of the region which lies
on either side of it                                                  56

CHAP. XV.--Of the customs of the Indians of this land, and of the forests
that must be traversed in order to reach the town of Anzerma          59

CHAP. XVI.--Of the customs of the Caciques and Indians in the
neighbourhood of the town of Anzerma, of the founding of that town,
and who its founder was                                               62

CHAP. XVII.--Concerning the provinces and towns between the city of
Antioquia and the town of Arma; and of the customs of the natives     66

CHAP. XVIII.--Of the province of Arma, of the customs of the natives,
and of other notable things                                           69

CHAP. XIX.--The sacrifices offered up by these Indians, and what
great butchers they are in the matter of eating human flesh           71

CHAP. XX.--Of the province of Paucura, and of the manners and
customs of the natives                                                74

CHAP. XXI.--Of the Indians of Pozo, and how valiant they are, and
how dreaded by the neighbouring tribes                                76

CHAP. XXII.--Of the province of Picara, and of the chiefs of it       80

CHAP. XXIII.--Of the province of Carrapa, and of what there is to be
said concerning it                                                    82

CHAP. XXIV.--Of the province of Quinbaya, and of the customs of
the chiefs. Also concerning the foundation of the city of Cartago,
and who was its founder                                               85

CHAP. XXV.--In which the subject of the preceding chapter is continued;
respecting what relates to the city of Cartago, and its foundation,
and respecting the animal called _chucha_                             90

CHAP. XXVI.--Which touches upon the provinces in this great and
beautiful valley, up to the city of Cali                              93

CHAP. XXVII.--Of the situation of the city of Cali, of the Indians in
its vicinity, and concerning the founder                              99

CHAP. XXVIII.--Of the villages and chiefs of Indians who are within
the jurisdiction of this city of Cali                                100

CHAP. XXIX.--In which the matter relating to the city of Cali is concluded;
and concerning other Indians inhabiting the mountains near
the port which they call Buenaventura                                104

CHAP. XXX.--In which the road is described from the city of Cali to
that of Popayan, and concerning the villages of Indians that lie
between them                                                         107

CHAP. XXXI.--Concerning the river of Santa Martha, and of the
things which are met with on its banks                               111

CHAP. XXXII.--In which the account of the villages and chiefs subject
to the city of Popayan is concluded; and what there is to be said
until the boundary of Popayan is passed                              114

CHAP. XXXIII.--In which an account is given of what there is between
Popayan and the city of Pasto; and what there is to be said concerning
the natives of the neighbouring districts                            118

CHAP. XXXIV.--In which the account of what there is in this country
is concluded, as far as the boundary of Pasto                        122

CHAP. XXXV.--Of the notable fountains and rivers in these provinces,
and how they make salt of good quality by a very curious
artifice                                                             124

CHAP. XXXVI.--Which contains the description and appearance of
the kingdom of Peru from the city of Quito to the town of La Plata,
a distance of more than seven hundred leagues                        128

CHAP. XXXVII.--Of the villages and provinces between the town
of Pasto and the city of Quito                                       131

CHAP. XXXVIII.--In which it is stated who were the Kings Yncas,
and how they ruled over Peru                                         135

CHAP. XXXIX.--Of other villages and buildings between Carangue
and the city of Quito: and of the robbery which the people of Otabalo
are said to have committed on those of Carangue                      137

CHAP. XL.--Of the situation of the city of San Francisco del Quito, of
its foundation, and who it was who founded it                        140

CHAP. XLI.--Concerning the villages beyond Quito as far as the royal
palaces of Tumebamba, and of some customs of the natives             145

CHAP. XLII.--Of the other villages between Llacta-cunga and Riobamba;
and of what passed between the Adelantado Don Pedro de Alvarado and
the Marshal Don Diego de Almagro                                     153

CHAP. XLIII.--Which treats of what there is to be said concerning the
other Indian villages as far as the buildings of Tumebamba           160

CHAP. XLIV.--Concerning the grandeur of the rich palaces of Tumebamba,
and of the province of the Cañaris                                   164

CHAP. XLV.--Concerning the road which leads from the province of
Quito to the coast of the South Sea, and the bounds of the city of
Puerto Viejo                                                         170

CHAP. XLVI.--In which an account is given of certain things relating
to the province of Puerto Viejo; and also concerning the equinoctial
line                                                                 172

CHAP. XLVII.--Treating of the question whether the Indians of this
province were conquered by the Yncas or not; and concerning the death
which they inflicted on certain captains of Tupac Ynca Yupanqui      177

CHAP. XLVIII.--How these Indians were conquered by Huayna
Ceapac, and how they conversed with the devil, sacrificed to him, and
buried women alive with the bodies of their chiefs                   179

CHAP. XLIX.--                                                        181

CHAP. L.--How in ancient tunes the Indians of Manta worshipped an
emerald as their God; and of other things concerning these Indians   182

CHAP. LI.--In which the account of the Indians of Puerto Viejo is
finished; and concerning the founding of that city, and who was its
founder                                                              186

CHAP. LII.--Of the wells which there are at the point of Santa Elena;
of the story they tell respecting the arrival of giants in those parts;
and of the tar which is found there                                  188

CHAP. LIV.[1]--Concerning the foundation of the city of Guayaquil; and
how certain of the natives put the captains of Huayna Ceapac to
death                                                                192

CHAP. LIV.--Of the island of Puna, and of that of La Plata; and
concerning the admirable root called sarsaparilla, which is so useful for
all diseases                                                         198

CHAP. LVI.--How the city of Santiago de Guayaquil was founded and
settled, of some Indian villages which are subject to it, and concerning
other things until its boundary is passed                            201

CHAP. LVII.--Of the Indian villages between the buildings of Tumebamba
and the city of Loxa, and concerning the founding of that
city                                                                 204

CHAP. LVIII.--Concerning the provinces between Tamboblanco and
the city of San Miguel, the first city founded by the Christian
Spaniards in Peru; and what there is to be said of the natives       209

CHAP. LIX.--In which the narrative is continued down to the foundation
of the city of San Miguel, and who was the founder. Also of the
difference of the seasons in this kingdom of Peru, which is a notable
thing; and how it does not rain along the whole length of these plains,
which are on the coast of the South Sea                              212

CHAP. LX.--Concerning the road which the Yncas ordered to be made
along these coast valleys, with buildings and depôts like those in the
mountains; and why these Indians are called Yuncas                   210

CHAP. LXI.--How these Yuncas were very superstitious, and how they
were divided into nations and lineages                               219

CHAP. LXII.--How the Indians of these valleys and of other parts of
the country believe that souls leave the bodies, and do not die; and
why they desired their wives to be buried with them                  221

CHAP. LXIII.--How they buried their dead, and how they mourned
for them, at the performance of their obsequies                      225

CHAP. LXIV.--                                                        230

CHAP. LXV.--How they have a custom of naming children, in most of
these provinces, and how they sought after sorceries and charms      230

CHAP. LXVI.--Of the fertility of the land in these coast valleys, and
of the many fruits and roots they contain. Also concerning their
excellent system of irrigating the fields                            233

CHAP. LXVII.--Of the road from San Miguel to Truxillo, and of the
valleys between those cities                                         238

CHAP. LXVIII.--In which the same road is followed as has been treated
of in the former chapter, until the city of Truxillo is reached      240

CHAP. LXIX.--Of the founding of the city of Truxillo, and who was
the founder                                                          244

CHAP. LXX.--Of the other valleys and villages along the coast road,
as far as the City of the Kings                                      245

CHAP. LXXI.--Of the situation of the City of Kings, of its founding,
and who was the founder                                              248

CHAP. LXXII.--Of the valley of Pachacamac, and of the very ancient
temple in it, and how it was reverenced by the Yncas                 251

CHAP. LXXIII.--Of the valleys between Pachacamac and the fortress
of Huarco, and of a notable thing which is done in the valley of
Huarco                                                               255

CHAP. LXXIV.--Of the great province of Chincha, and how much it
was valued in ancient times                                          260

CHAP. LXXV.--Of the other valleys, as far as the province of Tarapaca  263

CHAP. LXXVI.--Of the founding of the city of Arequipa, how it was
founded, and who was its founder                                     267

CHAP. LXXVII.--In which it is declared how that, beyond the province
of Huancabamba, there is that of Caxamarca, and other large
and very populous provinces                                          269

CHAP. LXXVIII.--Of the foundation of the city of the frontier, who was
its founder, and of some customs of the Indians in the province      277

CHAP. LXXIX.--Which treats of the foundation of the city of Leon de
Huanuco, and who was its founder                                     282

CHAP. LXXX.--Of the situation of this city, of the fertility of its
fields, and of the customs of its inhabitants; also concerning a beautiful
edifice or palace of the Yncas at Huanuco                            283

CHAP. LXXXI.--Of what there is to be said concerning the country
from Caxamarca to the valley of Xauxa; and of the district of Guamachuco,
which borders on Caxamarca                                           287

CHAP. LXXXII.--In which it is told how the Yncas ordered that the
storehouses should be well provided, and how these were kept in
readiness for the troops                                             290

CHAP. LXXXIII.--Of the lake of Bombon, and how it is supposed to
be the source of the great river of La Plata                         294

CHAP. LXXXIV.--Which treats of the valley of Xauxa, and of its
inhabitants, and relates how great a place it was in times past      297

CHAP. LXXXV.--In which the road is described from Xauxa to the
city of Guamanga, and what there is worthy of note on the road       301

CHAP. LXXXVI.--Which treats of the reason why the city of Guamanga
was founded, its provinces having been at first partly under the
jurisdiction of Cuzco, and partly under that of the City of the
Kings                                                                304

CHAP. LXXXVII.--Of the founding of the city of Guamanga, and
who was its founder                                                  307

CHAP. LXXXVIII.--In which some things are related concerning the
natives of the districts near this city                              310

CHAP. LXXXIX.--Of the great buildings in the province of Vilcas,
which are beyond the city of Guamanga                                312

CHAP. XC.--Of the province of Andahuaylas, and what is to be seen as
far as the valley of Xaquixaguana                                    319

CHAP. XCI.--Of the river of Apurimac, of the valley of Xaquixaguana,
of the causeway which passes over it, and of what else there is to
relate until the city of Cuzco is reached                            319

CHAP. XCII.--Of the manner in which the city of Cuzco is built, of
the four royal roads which lead from it, of the grand edifices it contained,
and who was its founder                                              322

CHAP. XCIII.--In which the things of this city of Cuzco are described
more in detail                                                       330

CHAP. XCIV.--Which treats of the valley of Yucay and of the strong
fortress at Tambo, and of part of the province of Cunti-suyu         331

CHAP. XCV.--Of the forests of the Andes, of their great thickness, of
the huge snakes which are bred in them, and of the evil customs of the
Indians who live in the interior of these forests                    336

NOTE TO CHAP. XCV.--On the river Purús, a tributary of the Amazon.
By Mr. Richard Spruce                                                339

CHAP. XCVI.--How the Indians carry herbs or roots in their mouths,
and concerning the herb called coca, which they raise in many parts
of this kingdom                                                      352

CHAP. XCVII.--Of the road from Cuzco to the city of La Paz; and of
the villages, until the Indians called Canches are passed            353

CHAP. XCVIII.--Of the provinces of Canas, and of Ayavire             356

CHAP. XCIX.--Of the great district which is inhabited by the
_Collas_, of the appearance of the land where their villages are built,
and how the _Mitimaes_ were stationed to supply them with provisions  359

CHAP. C.--Of what is said concerning the origin of these Collas, of
their appearance, and how they buried their dead                     362

CHAP. CI.--How these Indians perform their annual ceremonies, and of
the temples they had in ancient times                                366

CHAP. CII.--Of the ancient ruins at Pucara, of the former greatness of
Hatun-colla, of the village called Azangaro, and of other things which
are here related                                                     368

CHAP. CII.--Of the great lake which is within the province of the
Collao, of its depth, and of the temple of Titicaca                  370

CHAP. CIV.--In which the narrative continues, and the villages are
described as far as Tiahuanaco                                       372

CHAP. CV.--Of the village of Tiahuanaco, and the great and ancient
edifices which are to be seen there                                  374

CHAP. CVI.--Of the founding of the city called of Our Lady of Peace,
who was its founder, and of the road thence to the town of Plata     380

CHAP. CVII.--Of the founding of the town of Plata, which is situated
in the province of Charcas                                           382

CHAP. CVIII.--Of the riches in Porco, and how there are large veins
of silver near that town                                             385

CHAP. CIX.--How they discovered the mines of Potosi, whence they
have taken riches such as have never been seen or heard of in other
times; and how, as the metal does not run, the Indians get it by the
invention of the _huayras_                                           386

CHAP. CX.--There was the richest market in the world at this hill of
Potosi, at the time when these mines were prosperous                 390

CHAP. CXI.--Of the sheep, _huanacus_, and _vicuñas_, which they have
in most parts of the mountains of Peru                               392

CHAP. CXII.--Of a tree called _molle_, and of other herbs and roots in
this kingdom of Peru                                                 395

CHAP. CXIII.--How there are large salt lakes and baths in this
kingdom; and how the land is suited for the growth of olives
and other fruits of Spain, and for some animals and birds of that
country                                                              399

CHAP. CXIV.--How the native Indians of this kingdom were great
masters of the arts of working in silver and of building: and how
they had excellent dyes for their fine cloths                        403

CHAP. CXV.--How there are great mines in most parts of this kingdom  406

CHAP. CXVI.--How many nations of these Indians make war one upon
the other, and how the lords and chiefs oppress the poorer people    407

CHAP. CXVII.--In which certain things are declared concerning the
Indians; and what fell out between a clergyman and one of them, in
a village of this kingdom                                            411

CHAP. CXVIII.--How, when a chief near the town of Anzerma wished
to become a Christian, he saw the devils visibly, who wished to deter
him from his good intention by their terrors                         415

CHAP. CXIX.--How mighty wonders have been clearly seen in the
discovery of these Indies, how our Sovereign Lord God desires to watch
over the Spaniards, and how He chastises those who are cruel to the
Indians                                                              418

CHAP. CXX.--Of the dioceses in this kingdom of Peru, who are the
bishops of them, and of the Royal Chancellery in the City of the
Kings                                                                424

CHAP. CXXI.--Of the monasteries which have been founded in Peru,
from the date of its discovery down to the present year 1550         426

Index                                                                429




INTRODUCTION.


The work of Pedro de Cieza de Leon is, in many respects, one of the most
remarkable literary productions of the age of Spanish conquest in
America. Written by a man who had passed his life in the camp from early
boyhood, it is conceived on a plan which would have done credit to the
most thoughtful scholar, and is executed with care, judgment, and
fidelity. But before examining the work itself, I will give some account
of its author--of whom, however, little is known, beyond what can be
gathered from his own incidental statements in the course of his
narrative.

Cieza de Leon is believed to have been born in the year 1519 in the city
of Seville, where he passed the first fourteen years of his life. It has
been conjectured that his father was a native of Leon,[2] in the north
of Spain, but absolutely nothing is known of his parentage.

In 1532, at the extraordinarily early age of fourteen, young Pedro
embarked at Seville, and set out to seek his fortunes in the New World.
At that time scarcely a year elapsed without seeing an expedition fitted
out, to undertake some new discovery or conquest. Seville and Cadiz
were crowded with adventurers, all eagerly seeking for a passage to that
marvellous land beyond the setting sun. It was, indeed, a time of wild
excitement. Every ship that returned from the Indies might, and not a
few did, bring tidings of the discovery of new and powerful empires
before undreamt of. People of all ages and of every grade in society
flocked to the sea ports, and took ship for the Indies; excited beyond
control by the accounts of those inexhaustible riches and fabulous
glories, which penetrated to every village in Spain. Among the leaders
of these expeditions there were some honourable knights, with courteous
manners and cultivated minds, such as Diego de Alvarado, Garcilasso de
la Vega, and Lorenzo de Aldana.[3] But the majority were either coarse
and avaricious adventurers, or disappointed courtiers, like that young
scamp Alonzo Enriquez de Guzman, whom I introduced to the notice of the
HAKLUYT SOCIETY in 1862. Cieza de Leon, at the time of his embarkation,
was a mere boy, too young to be classed under any of these heads. His
character was destined to be formed in a rough and savage school, and it
is most remarkable that so fine a fellow as our author really was,
should have been produced amidst the horrors of the Spanish American
conquest. Humane, generous, full of noble sympathies, observant, and
methodical; he was bred amidst scenes of cruelty, pillage, and wanton
destruction, which were calculated to produce a far different character.
Considering the circumstances in which he was placed from early
boyhood, his book is certainly a most extraordinary, as well as an
inestimable result of his labours and military services.

It does not appear in what fleet our boy soldier set out from Spain; but
judging from the date, and from the company in which we find him
immediately on landing in America, I consider it more than probable that
he sailed from his native land in one of the ships which formed the
expeditionary fleet of Don Pedro de Heredia.

Heredia, who had already served with distinction on the coast of Tierra
Firme, had obtained a grant of the government of all the country,
between the river Magdalena and the gulf of Darien, from Charles V. He
was a native of Madrid, where, having had his nostrils slit in a street
brawl, he had killed three of the men who had treated him with this
indignity. Forced to leave his native country, he took refuge in San
Domingo, and a relation had interest enough to get him appointed as
lieutenant to Garcia de Lerma, in an expedition to Santa Martha; whence
he returned to Spain. He was a man of considerable ability, judgment,
and determination, was respected by his own followers, and had already
had some experience in Indian warfare. His lieutenant was Francisco de
Cesar, one of the most dashing officers of the time.[4]

Heredia’s expedition, which consisted of one galleon and two caravels,
carrying in all about a hundred men, sailed from Cadiz in the end of
1532. They first touched at San Domingo, where Heredia took on board
more recruits, forty-seven horses, and some leathern cuirasses, which
had been prepared as a protection against the poisoned arrows of the
Indians. On the 14th of January 1533 the expedition entered the bay of
Carthagena,[5] on the main land of South America, where the
disembarkation of the Spaniards was bravely contested by the natives. In
no part of Spanish America did the Indians more resolutely defend their
homes, than along the coast of the Tierra Firme, as it was called; and
young Cieza de Leon saw some very rough service on his first landing in
the new world. Eventually Heredia succeeded in founding the city of
Carthagena, of which he was the first governor, and in establishing a
firm footing in the surrounding country: and for some three or four
years the future author continued to serve under him. In 1535 Cieza de
Leon accompanied Heredia’s brother Alonzo to the gulf of Darien or
Uraba, where a settlement was formed called San Sebastian de Buena
Vista.

Meanwhile, a judge, named Pedro Vadillo, was sent to Carthagena to
examine into the proceedings of Heredia, with full powers from the
_Audiencia_ of San Domingo; and he threw the governor into prison. His
violent proceedings were disapproved in Spain, and another lawyer was
sent out to sit in judgment on the judge. The licentiate Vadillo, who
seems to have been better fitted for a soldier than for a judge,
resolved to perform some service, or make some discovery in the
interval, the importance of which, in a military point of view, should
secure oblivion for his misconduct as a lawyer. He, therefore, organised
a force of four hundred Spaniards at San Sebastian de Uraba, and,
setting out early in 1538, crossed the mountains of Abibe, and advanced
up the valley of the Cauca.

Cieza de Leon, then in his nineteenth year, accompanied Vadillo in this
bold adventure as a private soldier. It was now upwards of five years
since he first landed in the new world, the whole of which time had been
spent by him in severe and dangerous service in the province of
Carthagena. At an age when most boys are at school, this lad had been
sharing in all the hardships and perils of seasoned veterans; and even
then he was gifted with powers of observation far beyond his years, as
is proved by his very interesting account of the Indians of Uraba.[6]
Amongst other things he tells us that the women of Uraba are the
prettiest and most loveable of any that he had seen in the Indies.

The expedition of Vadillo was one of those desperate undertakings which,
common as they were in the history of those times, still fill us with
astonishment. Young Cieza de Leon took his share in the dangers and
privations which were encountered, and which none but men endowed with
extraordinary bravery and fortitude could have overcome.

After marching over a low forest covered plain, the explorers had to
cross the mountains of Abibe, “where the roads were assuredly most
difficult and wearisome, while the roots were such that they entangled
the feet of both men and horses. At the highest part of the mountains
there was a very laborious ascent, and a still more dangerous descent on
the other side.” At this point many of the horses fell over the
precipices and were dashed to pieces, and even some of the men were
killed, while others were so much injured that they were left behind in
the forests, awaiting their deaths in great misery. On one occasion our
young soldier was posted as a sentry on the banks of a stream whence
some kind of centipede dropped from a branch, and bit him in the neck.
He adds that he passed the most painful and wearisome night he ever
experienced in his life. At length Vadillo’s gallant little band
completed their march over the terrible mountains of Abibe, and entered
the pleasant valleys ruled by the cacique Nutibara. Thence the bold
licentiate marched up the valley of the Cauca.

In this march the Spaniards suffered terribly from want of proper food,
the difficulties of the road, and the constant attacks of the Indians.
They clamoured for a retreat to the coast, but this did not suit the
views of Vadillo, who knew that imprisonment probably awaited him at
Carthagena; and, when the discontent of his men became formidable, he
drew his sword and rushed alone into the woods, crying out that, let who
would go back, he should press on till he met with better fortune. The
troops were ashamed to desert him, and eventually they reached Cali, in
the upper part of the Cauca valley. Here at length he was abandoned by
all his followers, and went on almost alone to Popayan, whence he
returned to Spain.[7]

The followers of Vadillo joined those of Lorenzo de Aldana,[8] who was
then governing Popayan for Pizarro, and many of them returned down the
valley of the Cauca again with an officer named Jorge de Robledo, who
was commissioned to conquer and settle the country discovered by
Vadillo. Among this number was our author, who witnessed the subjugation
of the cannibal tribes of the Cauca, the foundation of several so-called
cities, and the perpetration of much cruelty. He received a
_repartimiento_ of Indians in the province of Arma, for his services.
Robledo returned to Spain, and came back with the title of marshal, and
the grant of the government of a country with ill-defined limits, in
1546. The fierce and unscrupulous Sebastian de Belalcazar was then
governor of Popayan. He claimed the territory which Robledo had
occupied, and when that officer refused to retire, he surprised him at a
place called Picara on the 1st of October, 1546, took him prisoner, and
hung him, in spite of the entreaties of the unfortunate knight to be
beheaded like a gentleman.[9] The cannibal Indians are said to have
eaten the body. Cieza de Leon, who had served under Robledo for several
years, makes the following remark on his death, in recapitulating the
fate which overtook all the conquerors who were cruel to the natives:
“The marshal Don Jorge Robledo consented to allow great harm to be done
to the Indians in the province of Pozo, and caused many to be killed
with cross-bows and dogs. And God permitted that he should be sentenced
to death in the same place, and have for his tomb the bellies of
Indians.”[10] Our young author joined the service of Belalcazar, on the
death of Robledo.

Cieza de Leon began to write a journal of some kind, which formed the
material for his future work, in the year 1541 at Cartago, in the Cauca
valley, when serving under Robledo. He tells us that “as he noted the
many great and strange things that are to be seen in this new world of
the Indies, there came upon him a strong desire to write an account of
some of them, as well those which he had seen with his own eyes, as
those he had heard of from persons of good repute.”[11] He was then
twenty-two years of age, and from that time he seems to have persevered,
in spite of many difficulties, in keeping a careful record of all he saw
and heard. “Oftentimes,” he says, “when the other soldiers were
reposing, I was tiring myself by writing. Neither fatigue, nor the
ruggedness of the country, nor the mountains and rivers, nor intolerable
hunger and suffering, have ever been sufficient to obstruct my two
duties, namely writing and following my flag and my captain without
fault.”[12]

In 1547 the President Gasca landed in Peru, and marched against Gonzalo
Pizarro, who was in open rebellion at Cuzco. All loyal officers were
called upon to join the royal standard, and troops at Popayan were
hurried south with this object. Cieza de Leon, now a stout young man at
arms, was among them.[13] By this time he was a veteran of sixteen years
service, with his intellect matured and sharpened in a rough and trying
school, and every faculty on the alert. His habit of careful observation
with a fixed object, and the practical life he was leading, render his
remarks, on all he saw during this march, of the greatest value. Mr.
Prescott says of him that “his testimony, always good, becomes for these
events of more than usual value.”[14] The reinforcements from Popayan
marched by Pasto and Quito to Tumebamba, then down to the sea-shore, and
along the coast to Lima, then across the Andes again, by Xauxa and
Guamanga, until they joined the army of the president Gasca in the
valley of Andahuaylas.

Thus Cieza de Leon had the opportunity of seeing a very extensive and
varied tract of country. Nothing escaped his observation. The ruins of
palaces and store-houses, the great Ynca roads, the nature of the
country, the products, the natural phenomena, the method of irrigation,
the traditions,--all were carefully noted down by this indefatigable and
intelligent young observer. He was present at the final rout of Gonzalo
Pizarro, and at the subsequent trial and execution of that chief, and of
his fierce old lieutenant Carbajal.[15] He afterwards went to Cuzco, and
to the valleys to the eastward, and, in the year 1549, he undertook a
journey to the silver-yielding province of Charcas, with the sole object
“of learning all that was worthy of notice,”[16] under the special
auspices of the President Gasca himself, who supplied him with letters
of introduction. In travelling over the Collao, and along the shores of
lake Titicaca, he tells us that “he stopped to write all that deserved
mention concerning the Indians;”[17] and at Tiahuanaco “he wandered over
all the ruins, writing down what he saw.”[18] He then visited the silver
mines of Porco and Potosi, and returned to Lima, by way of Arequipa and
the coast. At Lima our author finished writing his notes on the 8th of
September, 1550, and sailed for Spain, after having passed seventeen
years of his life in the Indies.

The first part of his intended work was published at Seville in 1553;
and the author died in about 1560. We may gather from his writings that
he was humane and generous in his dealings with the Indians, indignant
at the acts of cruelty and oppression which he was forced to witness,
that he was in the habit of weighing the value of conflicting evidence
in collecting his information,[19] and that fuller reliance may be
placed on his statements, than upon those of almost any other writer of
the period. It is very much to be regretted that so little is known of
the life of this remarkable man, beyond what he incidentally tells us
himself.[20]

The young author commences his first part with a dedication to Philip
II, in which, while dwelling on the grandeur and importance of his
subject, he modestly says that he, an unlearned soldier, has undertaken
it, because others of more learning were too much occupied in the wars
to write. He began to take notes because no one else was writing
anything concerning what had occurred, and he reflected that “time
destroys the memory of events, in such sort that soon there is no
knowledge of what has passed.” In his prologue he gives a full and
detailed account of the four parts of his Chronicle, only the first of
which has reached us. They were to contain respectively the geography,
the early history, the conquest, and the civil wars of Peru. “The first
part,” he says, “treats of the division of the provinces of Peru, as
well towards the sea as inland, with the longitudes and latitudes. It
contains a description of the provinces; an account of the new cities
founded by the Spaniards, with the names of the founders, and the time
when they were founded; an account of the ancient rites and customs of
the native Indians, and other strange things very different from those
of our country, which are worthy of note.” It is this part, the only one
that was ever printed, which is now placed, for the first time in a
translated form, in the hands of Members of the HAKLUYT SOCIETY.

The work opens with a description of Panama; which is followed by a very
accurate notice of all the anchorages and headlands along the west coast
of South America, from that port to the southern part of Chile. Cieza de
Leon seems to have taken much pains in collecting accurate information
for the use of future navigators. “I have myself,” he says, “been in
most of the ports and rivers which I have now described, and I have
taken much trouble to ascertain the correctness of what is here written,
having communicated with the dexterous and expert pilots who know the
navigation of these ports, and who took the altitudes in my presence. I
have taken no little trouble to ascertain the truth, and I have examined
the new charts made by the pilots who discovered this sea.” He appears
also to have collected reports from mariners who had sailed through the
straits of Magellan, but they were lost, together with other papers and
journals, which were stolen in the confusion consequent on the battle of
Xaquixaguana.[21] The sailing directions of Cieza de Leon for the west
coast of South America are among the earliest attempts of the kind.
Information of the same sort is given in Dampier’s voyages; and these
were the rude forerunners of the complete works of Admiral Fitz Roy, and
other modern surveyors.

Having given the reader a clear idea of the coast of the great newly
discovered empire of the Yncas, Cieza de Leon lands him in the gulf of
Darien, and conducts him up the valley of the Cauca to Popayan.[22] This
portion of his narrative is the more important, because no other writer
has since given so complete an account of the Cauca valley. Cieza de
Leon is still the best authority concerning this region, notwithstanding
that more than three hundred years have elapsed since he wrote. It is
true that Restrepo, in the beginning of this century, published a
valuable memoir on Antioquia; and that such travellers as Cochrane,
Mollien, and Holton have written accounts of Cali and Cartago, in the
upper part of the valley of Cauca; but our author still stands alone in
having given a full description of the whole length of this little-known
valley. He not only describes the manners and customs of the aboriginal
tribes, which all appear to have been addicted to cannibalism, but adds
many very interesting pieces of information, such as a notice of the
different kinds of bees, of the various methods of obtaining salt, and
of the prevailing forms of animal and vegetable life.

From Popayan the reader is conveyed by this very pleasant companion
along the great plateau of the Andes, by Pasto, Quito, and Riobamba, to
Tumebamba, and Loxa.[23] Here, again, as indeed throughout the work, the
nature of the country, the distances, the manners and customs of the
natives, the climate, the staple products, and the animals to be met
with, are all carefully noted. There are also descriptions of several
ruined edifices, and a glowing account of the great road of the
Yncas.[24] In this section, too, there is an excellent general sketch of
the principal geographical features of Peru,[25] and some information
respecting the origin and rise of the Ynca dynasty.[26]

The chapters relating to the emeralds of Manta, the giants on point
Santa Elena, the island of Puna, and the city of Guayaquil, are derived
from hearsay, as our author does not appear to have visited that part of
the country; but he was careful to sift his authorities, and to weigh
their value,[27] and in this, as in many other respects, he is far
superior to most of the writers of his time. His chapter on the
equator[28] shows that questions of geographical science attracted the
attention of the young soldier; while his careful notes in connection
with the absence of rain on the Peruvian coast,[29] are evidence that he
was not unmindful of the natural phenomena of the strange land which he
was exploring.

After traversing the valley of the Cauca, and the Cordillera of the
Andes from Popayan to Loxa, Cieza de Leon descends to the Peruvian
coast, and describes the sandy deserts, and every intervening fertile
valley from Tumbez to Tarapaca.[30] Here again we have interesting
accounts of the manners and customs of the natives, especially of the
method of burying their dead; descriptions of ruins, of works of
irrigation, and of the great coast road of the Yncas; and notices of the
fruits, trees, and animals.

Having completed a survey of the coast valleys, Cieza de Leon returns to
the Cordillera of the Andes, and describes the country from Caxamarca,
by way of Huanuco, Xauxa, Guamanga, Andahuaylas, and Abancay, to
Cuzco,[31] the capital of the empire of the Yncas. After devoting two
chapters to the city of Cuzco,[32] he then gives an account of the
lovely valleys and interminable tropical forests to the eastward;[33]
and completes his extensive travels by a description of the cold region
of the Collao, the shores of lake Titicaca, the imposing ruins of
Tiahuanaco, and the silver-yielding provinces of Plata and Potosi. The
interest of the latter part of this remarkable work is enhanced by the
discussion of such points in physical geography as the drainage of lake
Titicaca, and by information respecting the silver mines, the animals of
the llama tribe found in Peru, the vegetable products of the country,
and the progress of the Indians in the arts of building, weaving, dying,
and working in silver, stone, and clay.

Such is a brief sketch of the contents of Cieza de Leon’s chronicle.
Bearing evident marks of honesty of purpose, and skill in the selection
of materials, on the part of its author, it is at the same time written
by one who examined almost every part of the empire of the Yncas, within
a few years of the conquest. It is, therefore, a work of the greatest
possible value to the student of early South American history, and has
always stood very high as an authority, in the estimation of modern
historians. Among these, Mr. Prescott bears strong testimony to the
merits of Cieza de Leon.[34]

The first part of the Chronicle of Peru, by Pedro de Cieza de Leon, was
published at Seville (folio) by Martin Clement in 1553. A second
edition, in duodecimo, was printed at Antwerp by the famous publisher
Jean Steeltz, in 1554; and a third edition, translated into Italian by
Augustino di Gravalis, appeared at Rome, from the press of Valerius
Dorigius (octavo) in 1555. A copy of the first Seville edition, which
is in black letter, fetched £10 at Lord Stuart de Rothesay’s sale a few
years ago.

It would appear that the author completed the second and third parts of
his Chronicle before his death, if not the fourth, and Mr. Rich found
them at Madrid in manuscript;[35] but they have never been printed. The
disappearance of the second part is by far the greatest loss that has
been sustained by South American literature, since the burning of Blas
Valera’s manuscript, when Lord Essex sacked Cadiz. It contained an
account of the government of the Yncas, described their customs, laws,
temples, and roads, and related the traditions connected with their
origin and history. There can be no doubt that it was written, because
Cieza de Leon, in his first part, frequently refers to special passages
in it for further information. Our author had peculiar advantages for
writing the history of ancient Peruvian civilisation. He was in Peru so
soon after the conquest, that he had opportunities of conversing with
many of the advisers and generals of the greatest of the Yncas; while
his habits of careful observation, his caution, and his sound judgment
on points unconnected with his religion, rendered him more fit to record
the history of the Yncas, than even Garcilasso de la Vega, or any
subsequent chronicler. For these reasons the loss of his second part can
never be sufficiently deplored.

Before leaving my author to the reader’s judgment, it will be well to
give some general idea of the great empire of the Yncas, as it appeared
in the days when Cieza de Leon first gazed upon its snowy mountains, and
at the same time to offer some account of what is known concerning the
people who inhabited it. Such a sketch will form a fitting introduction
to the agreeable chapters of the young Spaniard; and will, I trust,
stimulate, in some degree, the interest with which they will be read.

There is scarcely any country in the world which presents so great a
variety of aspects as that region, stretching from the Ancasmayu to the
Maule, which once formed the empire of the Yncas. Within these wide
limits there are snowy mountain peaks second only to the Himalayas in
height; cold plains and bleak hills where a tough grass is the only
vegetation; temperate valleys covered with corn fields and willow
groves; others filled with richest sub-tropical vegetation; vast plains
forming one interminable primeval forest traversed by navigable rivers;
trackless sandy deserts; and fertile stretches of field and fruit garden
on the Pacific coast. Cieza de Leon properly divides this region into
four great divisions:--the uninhabitable frozen plains and mountain
peaks, the temperate valleys and plains which intersect the Andes, the
great primeval forests, and the deserts and valleys of the coast. It is
a land of surpassing grandeur, and exceeding beauty. The snowy peaks of
the Andes, upwards of twenty thousand feet above the sea, may be seen
from the deserts of sand which fringe the coast, rising in their majesty
from the plains, and towering up into a cloudless sky. In the northern
and central part of this Peruvian cordillera, the mountain ranges are
broken up into profound ravines and abysses, producing scenery of
unequalled splendour. At one glance of the eye a series of landscapes
may here be taken in, representing every climate on the globe. On the
steep sides of one mountain are the snowy wilds and bleak ridges of the
Arctic regions, the cold pastures of northern Scotland, the corn fields
and groves of central Europe, the orange trees and vineyards of Italy,
and the palms and sugar canes of the tropics. But it is in the lovely
ravines which lead from the eastern slopes of the Andes to the virgin
forests of the interior that nature has been most profusely decked with
all the charms that can please the eye, and enriched with overflowing
vegetable and mineral wealth. The forests here abound in those beautiful
chinchona trees, the fragrance and beauty of whose flowers are almost
forgotten because of the inestimable value of their bark. Slender and
delicate palms and tree ferns of many kinds, matted creepers, and giant
buttressed trees clothe the steep hill sides; and cascades and torrents
unite to form rivers, whose sands sparkle with gold. Whether it be in
these forest-covered valleys, in the stupendous ravines of the
Cordillera, on the frozen heights, or amidst the sandy wildernesses of
the coast, the scenery is ever on a scale either of sublime grandeur or
of exquisite beauty. Rich, indeed, was the prize which the hardy
comrades of Cieza de Leon won for the Castilian crown.

In contemplating this glorious region, one of the first thoughts that
naturally suggests itself is that the early inhabitants must have been,
to a great extent, isolated and shut out from all intercourse with their
neighbours, by the almost insuperable obstacles which the nature of the
country presents to locomotion; and this remark is equally applicable to
every part of a country which is unequalled in the variety of its
climates and of its general features. The spread of the empire of the
Yncas is, considering all the circumstances, the most remarkable
occurrence in the history of the American race; and one of its results
was the destruction of all former land marks of tribe or creed, and the
reduction of the numerous ancient nations of the Cordillera and the
coast to one great family under one head, by a process not unlike that
which takes place on the acquisition of every new province by modern
France. Hence the great difficulty of obtaining any clear idea of the
condition of the various tribes which inhabited Peru, at a date anterior
to the Ynca conquests and annexations. A careful study of the subject,
however, enables us at least to distinguish a few leading facts--namely
that the region, which afterwards formed the empire of the Yncas, was
originally peopled by a number of distinct nations, speaking different
languages, and slowly advancing on independent paths of very gradual
progress, though all bearing a strong family likeness to each other. I
will briefly state what I have been able to gather respecting these
aboriginal tribes, commencing with the Quichuas, that imperial race
which eventually, under its renowned Yncas, swallowed up all the
others.

In the central part of the Peruvian Cordillera, round the city of Cuzco,
the country consists of cool but temperate plains and warm genial
valleys. On the plains there were clumps of _molle_ trees,[36] and crops
of _quinoa_,[37] _ocas_,[38] and potatoes, while large flocks of llamas
browsed on the coarse tufts of _ychu_ grass. In the valleys the rich and
abundant fields of maize were fringed by rows of delicious fruit
trees--the chirimoya,[39] the paccay, the palta,[40] the lucuma, and the
granadilla. This region was called in the native language--Quichua, and
the inhabitants were Quichuas.[41]

The eventual predominance of these Quichuas may probably be accounted
for by the superiority of the climate and natural conformation of their
native country. While their neighbours, on the one hand, had to struggle
painfully with the encroaching vigour of tropical forests, and, on the
other, with the hardships of a sterile and half frozen alpine plateau,
or with the isolation of small villages surrounded by trackless sandy
deserts, the Quichuas were enjoying a warm though healthy climate, and
reaping abundance from a fertile soil. They were placed in a position
which was most advantageous for the complete development of all the
civilisation of which that great family of mankind, to which they
belong, are capable.

And they attained to that degree of civilisation by very slow and
gradual advances. Many things, and especially the character of the
people, lead to the belief that cycles of ages must have elapsed before
these Quichuas were in a position to establish a superiority over their
neighbours, and assume the position of an imperial people.

The Quichuas were a fine, well-developed race, of short stature. They
were square shouldered, and broad chested, with small hands and feet,
and a comparatively large head. The hair is black and long, and usually
plaited into numerous minute plaits, and they have little or no beard.
The eyes are horizontal with arched brows, the forehead high but
somewhat receding, the nose aquiline and large, the lips thick, cheek
bones rather high, and chin small. These people were gentle, hospitable,
and obedient. They were good fathers and husbands, patient, industrious,
intelligent, and sociable, and loved to live together in villages,
rather than in scattered huts.[42] The women, when young, were
exceedingly pretty and well shaped, and they held an honourable and
respected place in society. The mass of the people were either farmers
or shepherds. Each family had a piece of land apportioned to it by the
State, often in well-built terraces up the sides of the mountains, on
which the members either hoed and ploughed the soil, and raised crops of
gourds, maize, potatoes, _ocas_, or _quinoa_; or they cultivated fruit
trees; or, again, they tended flocks of llamas on the pasture lands,
according to the situation of their little patrimonies. Their
habitations were of stone or mud, covered with admirable thatched
roofs,[43] they wove warm cloth from llama wool, made earthenware and
stone vessels, manufactured tasteful ornaments of gold and silver, and
used hoes, rakes, rude ploughs, and other simple agricultural
implements.

One important test of the capacity of a people for civilisation is their
ability to domesticate animals. The inferiority of the African, as
compared with the Hindu, is demonstrated by the latter having
domesticated the elephant and made it the useful and hard-working
companion of man; while the former, during the thousands of years that
he has inhabited the African continent, has never achieved any such
result, and has merely destroyed the elephant for the sake of his ivory
tusks. Now, in the case of the Quichuas, although their domesticated
animals were few, they comprised all that were capable of domestication
within the limits of their country. During the three centuries that
Europeans have since been masters of Peru, not a single indigenous
quadruped or bird has been added to the list. The domesticated animals
of the Quichuas were the llama, the alpaca, a dog, the _ccoy_ or guinea
pig, and a duck. Besides these they tamed, as pets, the monkey, the
parrot, the toucan,[44] a kind of gull frequenting the lakes of the
Andes, a hawk, and several finches. The llama and alpaca do not exist in
a wild state at all, and the variety in the colours of their fleeces
seems to be a sign of long domestication. The huanacu and vicuña, the
wild species of their family, have fleeces of a uniform and unalterable
colour, and it probably took an incalculable period[45] to change the
wild into the domesticated form. The llama served the Quichuas as a
beast of burden, its flesh supplied them with food, its fleece with
clothing, and its hide with thongs and sandals. The finer fleece of the
alpaca was reserved for the use of the sovereign and his nobles.[46]
Guinea pigs ran in hundreds about the huts, they were used as food, and
the variety of their colours points out the length of time during which
they had been in a domesticated state. The _alco_ or dog was the
companion of the Quichua shepherds; and the duck was bred in their
homesteads for food, and for the sake of the feathers, which often
formed a fringe for the women’s _llicllas_ or mantles.

These simple Quichua farmers and shepherds seem to have kept many
festivals, and other observances handed down to them by their fathers. A
half philosophic sun worship was enjoined by their superiors, but the
people retained an ancient habit of deifying and making household gods
of their llamas, their corn, and their fruit. Their seasons of sowing
and of harvest were celebrated by dancing and singing, and their songs,
some of which have been preserved, were lively and graceful: but the
_chicha_ bowl flowed far too freely. A barbarous rite of burial was
practised by these people in common with nearly all South American
tribes, and is described in many places by Cieza de Leon; and they held
the _malquis_ or mummies of their dead in superstitious veneration.

The productiveness of the soil and the increasing prosperity of the
people had, in the course of time, given rise to a governing class of
_Curacas_ and nobles, to a caste of _Umus_ and _Huaca-camayocs_, or
priests and diviners, and eventually to a despotic sovereign or _Ynca_,
with a privileged royal family. This upper class had leisure, was
exempted from ordinary toil, acquired numerous artificial wants, and
therefore gradually developed that higher civilisation in the Quichua
nation which eventually enabled it to spread its conquests over an
immense region, and to consolidate a great and well organised empire.

The advances in civilisation of this upper class were by no means
contemptible. The ruins at Cuzco, and in the neighbourhood, bear witness
to their marvellous skill in masonry. Their buildings were massive,
indeed Cyclopean, but the huge stones were cut and put in their places
with extraordinary accuracy; and, although the general effect is plain
and sombre, there was frequently some attempt at ornamentation. Such
were the rows of recesses with sides sloping inwards, the cornices, and
the occasional serpents and other figures carved in relief on the
stones. The roofs, though merely of thatch, were thick and durable, and
so artistically finished as to give a very pleasing effect to the
buildings.[47]

In the furniture of their dwellings and the clothing of their persons
the Ynca nobles had reached a high degree of refinement. Their pottery
is especially remarkable, and the Peruvian potter gratified the taste of
his employers by moulding vessels into every form in nature, from which
he could take a model. Professor Wilson, who has carefully examined
several collections of ancient Peruvian pottery, says--“Some of the
specimens are purposely grotesque, and by no means devoid of true comic
fancy; while, in the greater number, the endless variety of combinations
of animate and inanimate forms, ingeniously rendered subservient to the
requirements of utility, exhibit fertility of thought in the designer,
and a lively perceptive faculty in those for whom he wrought.”[48] Many
of these vessels, moulded into forms to represent animals and fruits,
were used as _conopas_ or household gods; others were for the service of
the temple; others for interment with the _malquis_ or mummies, and
others for the use of the Yncas and their nobles. The common people used
vessels of simple form. The Yncas also had drinking cups of gold and
silver, beaten out very fine, and representing llamas, or human heads.
Vessels of copper also, and plates and vases of stone with serpents
carved round them in relief, are of frequent occurrence, as well as
golden bracelets and breast-plates, and mirrors of silver or polished
stone. Their knives and other cutting instruments were of copper,
hardened with tin or silica.[49] Their clothing consisted of cloth woven
from the wool of the llama, alpaca, and vicuña; the latter as fine as
silk and undyed, for its own rich chestnut colour was sufficiently
becoming. They had attained to great proficiency in the art of weaving
and dyeing. Tasteful designs were woven in the cloth, which was dyed
flesh colour, yellow, gray, blue, green, and black; for they knew the
art of fixing dyes extracted from vegetable substances, so that the
cloth will never fade.[50] They ornamented their robes, tunics, rugs,
and blankets with fringes, borders of feathers, and also by sowing on
them rows of thin gold and silver plates, sometimes square, at others
cut into the shape of leaves and flowers. They also adorned wooden seats
and couches, by covering them with these thin plates of gold and silver.
The interior of a hall in the palace of an Ynca was thus filled with
articles of luxury. The great doors, with the sides gradually
approaching, were often ornamented with a cornice, and finished above
with a huge stone lintel. The walls of solid masonry, beautifully cut
and polished, had small square windows,[51] and deep recesses of the
same size, at intervals. The walls were hung with rich vicuña cloth
fringed with bezants of gold and silver, or with llama cloth dyed with
bright colours, and woven into tasteful patterns. The niches were filled
with gold and silver statues, and with vases moulded into the shape of
llamas, birds, and fruit. The floors were soft with rich carpets and
rugs, and the seats and couches were plated with gold. Numerous small
chambers opened on the great halls, and the baths were fitted up with
metal spouts in the form of serpents, from which the water flowed into
stone basins.[52]

The intellectual advancement of the Quichua people had kept pace with
the increase in their material comforts; and their religious belief,
their literary culture, their discoveries in the sciences of astronomy
and mechanics, and their administrative talent, if not of a very high
order, at least prove very clearly that they were not incapable of
attaining a respectable rank amongst civilised nations. During the last
two centuries of their existence as an independent people, their
progress was very rapid.

The religion of the Yncas and their nobles was, as is well known, a
worship of the celestial bodies, and especially of the sun; that of the
cultivators and shepherds a reverence for every object in nature--for
their llamas, for their corn, for their fruits, for hills and streams,
and above all for the _malquis_ or mummies of their dead. To all these,
sacrifices of the fruits of the earth were made. The more spiritual
worship of the men of leisure was combined with complicated ceremonial
observances, gorgeous temples, and an influential caste of priests, wise
men, and virgins. The worship of the sun, and the great importance
attached to its apparent course, as connected with the seasons of sowing
and reaping, led to the acquirement of some astronomical knowledge, but
there is no evidence that any great progress was made in this direction.
The Chibchas of Bogota and the Aztecs of Mexico were in advance of the
Quichuas in astronomical science. The Yncas knew the difference between
the solar and lunar year, they had introduced intercalary days to
reconcile that difference, and they observed the periods of the
solstices and equinoxes. They also watched and recorded the courses of
some of the stars, and of comets. They had a complete system of
numerals, perfectly balanced pairs of scales have been found in Peruvian
tombs, and their administrators must have been in the habit of making
and recording very complicated revenue accounts. Their year was divided
into twelve months, and great periodical festivals celebrated the
periods of the solstices and equinoxes.[53] The proficiency of the
Quichuas in mechanical science was of a high order, as is attested by
their magnificent roads and aqueducts, and by the conveyance of
Cyclopean blocks of stone for their buildings.

The language of the Quichuas was carefully cultivated during many
centuries by the _Haravecs_ or bards in their love ditties and songs of
triumph, and by the _Amautas_ or wise men, whose duty it was to preserve
the traditions of the people, and to prepare the rituals for the worship
of the Deity; and their literary productions in prose and verse were
preserved by means of the _quipus_. The Quichua was a highly polished
language, and the student who may turn his attention to the history of
the South American races, will find in this rich and copious tongue many
ancient fragments of prose and poetry which will convince him of the
civilisation of the ancient Peruvians.[54] It is true that they had not
discovered the use of letters, but it must be remembered that they were
completely isolated and precluded from exchanging ideas with the other
races of mankind. If no communication, direct or indirect, had existed
between Phœnicia and the other countries of the old world, how many
of them would, by their own unassisted genius, have discovered the use
of letters. Would the Tamils and Canarese of India? Would the Malays of
the islands? It may well be doubted; and, after all, the _quipus_,
though a clumsy, were not altogether an inefficient substitute.[55]

But it is in their administrative arrangements that the intellectual
progress of the Yncas is most strikingly displayed. Theirs was the most
enlightened despotism that ever existed. The Ynca claimed to be
_Yntip-churi_ or “child of sun,” but his not less glorious title was
_Huaccha-cuyac_ or “friend of the poor.” His duty was to superintend the
comfort and happiness of the people, and to take care that no family was
without a _topu_ or plot of ground sufficient for his maintenance. The
net produce of the land was divided into three equal parts, one for the
cultivators, the second for religious and charitable purposes, and the
third for the Ynca and his government; including the clothing and
maintenance of the nobles, and of soldiers, miners, potters, weavers,
and other artizans. _Curacas_ or chiefs were placed over the different
districts, with subordinate officers under them, and a minute
supervision was exercised over all matters connected with revenue and
judicial administration. Crime was almost unknown.[56]

Such were the QUICHUAS, the representative people of the Peruvian Andes.
To the eastward of their original territory, in the virgin forests which
are traversed by the tributaries of the Amazon, dwelt the ANTIS and
CHUNCHOS, who wandered about in search of food, through the interminable
wilderness of matted vegetation. They never seem to have made any
progress; what they are now, such they were centuries ago: the nature of
the country renders advancement impossible. Moreover they probably
belong to the great Tupi-Guarani race of Brazil, and are distinct from
the Peruvian tribes. To the south of the Quichuas, on either side of the
upper valley of the Vilcamayu, were the wild shepherd tribes called
ASANCATUS, ASILLUS, CAVINAS, CANAS, and CANCHES.[57] But still further
south, beyond the Vilcañota range of mountains, there was a great
people, almost rivalling the Quichuas, who seem to have made some
progress in civilisation, in the face of formidable natural
difficulties. These were the COLLAS or AYMARAS.

In the southern part of Peru the Cordillera of the Andes is divided into
two chains. That to the eastward, containing the peaks of Illimani and
Yllampu, consists of rocks of Silurian formation mixed with granite, and
the peaks themselves are said to be fossiliferous to their summits. The
other range to the westward is chiefly volcanic, and contains the famous
volcano of Misti, and the glorious peaks of Chuquibamba and Chacani.
Between these two chains of mountains there are lofty plateaux, never
less than twelve thousand feet above the sea, the drainage of which
flows into the great lake of Titicaca. Here there are no deep temperate
valleys and ravines, nothing but bleak plains covered with coarse tufts
of grass, with occasional patches of potatoe, quinoa, and oca. The
climate is very severe, and the only trees, which are few and far
between, are the stunted crooked _queñua_ (_Polylepis villosa_) and the
dark leaved _ccolli_ (_Buddleia coriacea_). In some places a low shrubby
_Baccharis_ is met with, which serves as fuel. This region, known as the
Collao, was inhabited by the Aymara nation.

These Aymaras had to contend against a rigorous climate and an
unproductive soil; they had none of the advantages enjoyed by their
Quichua neighbours, and had consequently made slower advances in
civilisation, but they were apparently an offshoot from the same common
stock. The descendants of the Aymaras are shorter and more thick-set
than those of the Quichuas, and their features are coarser and less
regular. Cieza de Leon says that they flattened their skulls in infancy.
They wore woollen cloths and square caps, and the women had hoods like
those of a friar.[58] The land was too cold for maize, and the people
lived on potatoes and ocas, which they preserved by drying them in the
sun and then freezing them, for winter use. In this state they were
called _chuñus_. There were large flocks of llamas and alpacas, and wild
vicuñas on the unfrequented heights. The Aymaras lived in stone huts
roofed with straw, which were built close together in villages, with the
potatoe, oca, and quinoa fields around them.[59] Cieza de Leon states
that the Collao was once very populous, and the numerous vestiges of
former cultivation up the terraced sides of the mountains, bear witness
to the truth of his assertion. The people were ruled by chiefs who were
treated with great respect, and carried about in litters.

There is a mystery about the civilisation of the ancient Aymaras, which
cannot now be solved. The origin and history of the extensive unfinished
ruins at Tiahuanaco, near the southern shore of lake Titicaca, will for
ever remain a secret; but there can be no doubt that a people who could
form so magnificent a design, convey such huge blocks of stone from
great distances, hew out the enormous monolithic doorways, and carve
them with such minuteness of ornamental detail, must have been numerous,
and civilised.[60] There are also remains of Aymara burial places in
various parts of the Collao, especially on the peninsula of Sillustani,
which consist of towers of hewn masonry.[61] We learn from Cieza de Leon
that the Aymaras observed the movements of the sun and moon, and divided
their year into ten months. He considered them to be a very intelligent
people. He gives an account of their funeral ceremonies,[62] and a very
interesting description of a harvest home among the Aymaras,[63] and
states that they were often engaged in civil wars.[64] The Aymara
language, which is still in common use on the banks of lake Titicaca,
though identical with Quichua in grammatical construction, has a
distinct vocabulary.[65] It is worthy of remark, however, that though
the first few numerals in Aymara are indigenous, all the higher numbers
are borrowed from the Quichua.[66] Next to the Quichuas, the Aymaras
were by far the most important and civilised people in the Peruvian
Andes; and though their climate and soil was against them, there is some
ground for the opinion that their civilisation, such as it was, boasts
of an origin more ancient than that of the Quichuas. But all such
speculations are mere conjecture.

In the rich valleys and on the grassy mountain sides of the Central
Peruvian Andes, to the westward of the Quichuas, dwelt three nations
which were called by their future conquerors--the CHANCAS, POCRAS, and
HUANCAS.[67] They inhabited the districts now known as Abancay,
Andahuaylas, Guamanga, and Xauxa. Little or nothing is known of their
history anterior to their absorption into the empire of the Yncas, and
if they had a distinct language, it must have been either very barbarous
or very closely allied to Quichua, for no vestige of it has
survived.[68] All the ruins which might have enabled us to form an idea
of their skill in building, such as the temple of Huarivilca in the
valley of Xauxa,[69] have entirely disappeared. It appears, however,
that they were very fierce and warlike, that each village had a
fortress, and that they made a desperate struggle for independence
before they were finally subjugated by the Quichuas.[70]

North of Xauxa, the valleys and plateaux of the Cordillera were
inhabited by the CONCHUCOS, and by the Indians of Huamachuco, Caxamarca,
Chachapoyas, and Bracamoras. This brings us to the frontier of Quito.
The tribes of northern Peru are also said to have been warlike, and to
have been incessantly engaged in feuds with each other.[71] They are
described as intelligent industrious agriculturists, with some knowledge
of the courses of the heavenly bodies, and the same customs of burying
their dead and worshipping _huacas_ in the form of stones or other
natural objects, as prevailed among the masses of the Quichua
people.[72]

We now come to the inhabitants of the numerous isolated fertile tracts
on the Pacific coast, who were all known by the Yncas, as YUNCAS or
“dwellers in the warm valleys.”[73]

The Peruvian coast has been, geologically speaking, recently upheaved
from the sea. It is a narrow strip of land, averaging a breadth of from
ten to forty miles, confined on one side by the ocean, on the other by
the magnificent Andes, which rise abruptly from the plains. The whole of
this region consists of sandy desert, intersected by ranges of rocky
hills, except where a stream flows down from the mountains to the sea,
and forms an oasis of verdure and fertility. These pleasant valleys are
in some parts of the coast of frequent occurrence, and are only
separated by narrow strips of sand; while in others the trackless
deserts extend for nearly a hundred miles without a break. It scarcely
ever rains on the Peruvian coast, but a heavy dew, during part of the
year, falls on the valleys.

The most ancient traces of the American race have been found on the
Pacific coast, in the shape of _middings_ or refuse heaps, similar to
those in Denmark. These _middings_, which have been examined by Mr.
Spruce at Chanduy and Amotape, consist of fragments of pottery, sea
shells, and crystal quartz cutting instruments.[74] They are the
remains of a very ancient people of what is called, in European
archæology, the stone age; and they suggest the possible existence of
man in South America, contemporaneously with the post-pleistocene fossil
vicuña of Corocoro. Be this how it may, there can be no doubt that the
coast valleys of Peru had been inhabited for many centuries by Indian
communities, which had made gradual progress in the improvement of their
condition. Every part of these valleys, which could be reached by
irrigation, was very fertile. Where irrigation ceased the desert
commenced. The irrigated parts contained fields of cotton, of yucas, of
maize, of aji pepper, of sweet potatoes, and of gourds; which were
shaded by fruit trees festooned with passion flowers,[75] and by groves
of algoroba (_Prosopis horrida_), of a sort of willow, and of the
beautiful _suchi_ (_Plumieria_). The most important traces of ancient
civilisation are met with in the most extensive valleys, where the
population was denser than in the smaller and more isolated oases.

The ancient works of irrigation in these valleys, now in ruins, excite
the admiration of civil engineers who come to Peru to draw up schemes
for imitating them.[76] Every square foot of land was under cultivation,
none was wasted even for the sites of villages and temples, which were
always built on the verge of the desert, or on the rocky spurs of the
maritime cordillera, overlooking the algoroba woods, the groves of
fruit trees, and the rising crops.[77] The fields were carefully
manured, as well as watered by means of irrigating channels. In the
valley of the Chilca they raised crops of Indian corn by putting two
sardine heads into each hole with the grain, and thus the fish served
for manuring the crops as well as for food.[78] The guano on the islands
off the coast was also utilised as manure.[79] The houses were built of
huge _adobes_, or bricks baked in the sun, with flat roofs of reed,
plastered with mud; and the people were clothed in cotton dresses, which
were very skilfully woven.[80] Their pottery was quite equal to that of
the Quichuas, but at the same time clearly original in design; the
vessels being made to imitate shells, fruit, fish, and other objects,
which were familiar to the natives of the coast.

The great ruins at Caxamarquilla, at Pachacamac,[81] and of the Gran
Chimu near Truxillo,[82] still afford evidence of the civilisation of
the Yunca Indians, and of the wealth and power of their chiefs. The
people were warlike, and the tribe inhabiting the Chincha valley is even
said to have made incursions far into the heart of the Andes.[83] In the
valley of the Rimac there are mounds or artificial hills of immense
size, which appear to have been intended to afford protection against
their enemies to the feudal lords; and to serve as a place of retreat
for their retainers. A collection of ruins is almost always found at
their feet, which formed the village of the tribe. Cieza de Leon gives a
detailed account of the manners and customs of these Yunca chiefs, and
of their subjects.[84] Nearly every valley had its independent chief and
separate tribe; although some of the more powerful chiefs, such as the
Grand Chimu, the Chuqui-mancu of the Rimac, and the Lord of Chincha, had
extended their dominion over several valleys. The language of the coast
was quite distinct from Quichua.[85]

In many parts of the coast the aboriginal Indians have been exterminated
by Spanish cruelty, in others they have disappeared through frequent
crosses with negroes, in others they have entirely lost, with their
native language, all traces of the distinctive character which once
marked their ancestors. It is exceedingly important, therefore, to
obtain authentic information concerning any of the coast tribes which
have retained their language and national characteristics; and the
memoranda collected by Mr. Spruce at Piura, on this subject, which will
be found in the accompanying note, contain some particulars of great
interest.[86]

It will be natural to inquire whether a race, which had for centuries
inhabited the valleys on the Pacific coast, had habitually navigated the
ocean which was always in sight; and we find that they occasionally did
venture to sea for fish, and that they undertook coasting voyages. The
crooked algorobas, the willows, and fruit trees, afforded no suitable
timber for boat-building; but the Yuncas supplied the place of timber by
going afloat on inflated sealskins.[87] In this way they passed to and
fro from the shore to the Guano islands, and, according to Acosta, they
even went on long voyages to the westward.[88]

The kingdom of Quito, which eventually formed the most northern province
of the empire of the Yncas, consists of a series of lofty plateaux from
which rise the towering peaks of Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, and Chanduy;
while both to the east and west a rich tropical vegetation fills the
ravines which gradually subside on one side into the valley of the
Amazon, and on the other into the Pacific coast. This region was
inhabited by several aboriginal tribes, the most important of which were
the CAÑARIS, the PURUAES, and the CARAS. Velasco relates that the Caras,
after having been settled for about two hundred years on the coast of
Esmeraldas, marched up the Andes and established themselves at Quito,
where they were ruled by a succession of sovereigns called _Scyris_,
until the country was conquered by the Yncas. These Caras are said to
have been little advanced in architecture, but to have been dexterous in
weaving fabrics of cotton and llama wool, and to have excelled as
lapidaries. A great emerald in the head-dress was the distinguishing
mark of the reigning Scyri.

But all this information respecting the early inhabitants of Quito, and
more of the same sort, is derived from Velasco, who wrote only in the
end of the last century. In truth, there are scarcely any reliable facts
in the history of the people of Quito, previous to their subjugation by
the Yncas, and all the remains of roads and buildings confessedly date
from the times of Ynca domination.[89] Cieza de Leon gives some account
of the inhabitants of the Quitenian Andes.[90]

The principal aboriginal nations which inhabited the great empire of the
Yncas have now been passed in review. In the temperate valleys of
central Peru were the QUICHUAS, the most powerful and civilised of all.
To the eastward of them were the savage ANTIS and CHUNCHOS in the great
tropical forests. To the south were the wild shepherd tribes of CANAS,
CANCHES, and others; and still further south were the more civilised
AYMARAS, struggling against the difficulties of a rigorous climate. To
the westward of Cuzco were the warlike CHANCAS, POCRAS, HUANCAS, and
other tribes; and on the coast were numerous tribes known to the Yncas
by the collective name of YUNCAS. Finally, in the kingdom of Quito,
among others of less note, were the nations of CARAS, PURUAES, and
CAÑARIS.

About three centuries before the arrival of Pizarro in Peru, the
civilised and populous nation of Quichuas, feeling their superiority,
began to make permanent and rapid conquests over the surrounding tribes
in every direction. The date of the first commencement of these
conquests cannot now be ascertained. Many centuries must have elapsed,
and a long succession of Yncas must have reigned at Cuzco before an
aggressive policy became the leading feature of their government; and
there can be little doubt that their civilisation was indigenous, and
not derived from any foreign source. The traditional Manco Ccapac may or
may not have been the first Ynca, but there is no good reason for
supposing that he was a foreigner; and I am decidedly of opinion that
the Quichua civilisation is more likely to have required a period
represented by the hundred Yncas of Montesinos, than by the dozen of
Garcilasso de la Vega, for its full development.[91] But all the early
traditions are probably fictitious, and the first really historical
personage we meet with is the great conqueror Huiraccocha Ynca. This
prince is frequently mentioned by Cieza de Leon,[92] and from his time
the narrative of Ynca rule is clear and I think trustworthy. It was
gathered, by our author and others, from the mouths of the old Ynca
statesmen and generals, who told what they had themselves seen, and what
they had heard from their sires and grandsires. It would appear,
however, that, even before the time of Huiraccocha, the Quichuas had
already extended their sway into some of the tropical valleys inhabited
by the Antis and Chunchos, had subjugated the Canas and Canches, and,
taking advantage of the civil wars of the Aymaras, had annexed the wide
plains of the Collao and of Charcas, and the campiña of Arequipa.

The reigns of the last five Yncas were very long, and when the mummy of
Huira-ccocha was discovered by the Corregidor Ondegardo,[93] it was
found to be that of a very old man. We are justified, therefore, in
placing his reign in the end of the thirteenth and beginning of the
fourteenth century, contemporary with Edward I. of England.

Huira-ccocha organised an army, and, after having defeated the united
forces of the Chancas, Pocras and Huancas, in the great battle of
Yahuar-pampa, annexed the whole of the central part of the Peruvian
Andes to his dominions.[94] The generals of his son and successor
Pachacutec conquered the rich valleys of Xauxa and Caxamarca,[95] and
the coast districts inhabited by the Yuncas.[96] Pachacutec’s son, the
Ynca Yupanqui, made extensive conquests in the rich forest-covered
tropical plains to the eastward of Cuzco, which were completed by his
son Tupac Ynca Yupanqui.[97] The latter monarch extended his dominions
as far as Tucuman and Chile on the south, and to the extreme limit of
the kingdom of Quito on the north. Lastly, the famous Huayna Ccapac,
during a long reign, consolidated and brought into subjection this vast
empire.[98]

These conquests, extending over a period of about two centuries and a
half or more, were not achieved without much hard fighting and stubborn
resistance on the part of the invaded nations. This was especially the
case with the Yuncas of the Pacific coast. The Yncas, however, succeeded
in permanently establishing their power more by conciliation than by
force of arms; and though their disciplined troops, wielding
battle-axes, clubs and spears,[99] did good execution on the day of
battle; yet the liberal treatment of the vanquished, and their
experience of the benefits of Ynca rule, were far more efficacious
agents in giving security to the new government.[100] At the same time,
in cases of treachery or revolt, the Yncas were capable of terrible
severity, as in the case of the slaughter at Yahuar-ccocha, described by
Cieza de Leon, which was perpetrated under orders from Huayna
Ccapac.[101]

During this period of conquest the Quichuas probably made more rapid
progress in civilisation than they had done during many previous
centuries. By becoming the dominant race over a vast region, their views
became enlarged, their wants increased, and they learnt many things
from communication with their conquered neighbours. Instead of being
confined to the products of their native valleys, the Quichuas now
obtained gold[102] and their beloved coca leaf[103] from the eastern
forests; increased supplies of silver and copper from the country of the
Aymaras; emeralds from Quito; fish from the Pacific Ocean; aji pepper,
cotton fabrics, and an improved system of irrigation from the coast
valleys. They also learnt from the vanquished the use of many medicinal
herbs and vegetable dyes.

They had become an imperial race, and Cuzco was henceforward an imperial
city,[104] to which the chiefs and retainers of a hundred tribes, all
distinguished by peculiar head-dresses,[105] flocked to do homage to
their common sovereign. Then it was that great palaces were erected.
Then the famous fortress, with its Cyclopean stones, rose on the
Sacsahuaman hill.[106] Then the Ccuri-cancha blazed forth in its almost
fabulous splendour.[107] In short, all the works of the Yncas of
imperial magnificence or importance date from this period of busy
conquest, and some of them, such as the fortress of Ollantay-tambo, were
in course of construction when the Spaniards arrived, and they remain
unfinished. At this time, too, those wonderful lines of road were
constructed, running from Cuzco east, west, north, and south, overcoming
every natural obstacle, and affording the means of rapid communication
from the capital to the extreme frontiers of the empire.[108] There were
_tampus_ or lodgings at short intervals, and public buildings for
officials, for storing tribute, and for collecting necessaries for an
army, were erected in almost every valley along the line of the roads.

The organisation of every branch of the government of this great empire
displays extraordinary administrative ability on the part of the Yncas.
Perhaps their most remarkable institution was the system of _mitimaes_
or colonists, which is fully explained by Cieza de Leon.[109] Combined
with their policy of superseding all local idioms by the rich and
cultivated Quichua,[110] this system of _mitimaes_ would soon have
cemented the numerous conquered nations and tribes into one people,
speaking one language.

If good government consists in promoting the happiness and comfort of a
people, and in securing them from oppression; if a civilising government
is one which brings the means of communication and of irrigating land to
the highest possible state of efficiency, and makes steady advances in
all the arts,--then the government of the Yncas may fairly lay claim to
those titles. The roads, irrigating channels, and other public works of
the Yncas were superior to anything of the kind that then existed in
Europe. Their architecture is grand and imposing. Their pottery and
ornamental work is little inferior to that of Greeks and Etruscans. They
were skilled workers in gold, silver, copper, bronze, and stone. Their
language was rich, polished, and elegant. Their laws showed an earnest
solicitude for the welfare of those who were to live under them. Above
all, their enlightened toleration, for the existence of which there are
the clearest proofs, is a feature in their rule which, in one point of
view at least, and that a most important one, raises them above their
contemporaries in every part of the world.[111]

Cieza de Leon bears testimony to the excellence of the government of the
Yncas. The intelligent young soldier seems to have been astonished at
the order and regularity, the beneficence and forethought which
prevailed in the government of that empire which had just been shattered
by his cruel countrymen. He says that the Yncas ruled with such wisdom
that few in the world ever excelled them;[112] and, in another place, he
comes to the conclusion that “if the ancient polity had been preserved,
it would not have failed to bring the Indians nearer to the way of good
living and conversation; for few nations in the world have had a better
government than the Yncas.”[113]

But our author came to Peru fifteen years after the seizure of Atahualpa
by Pizarro, and, short as the interval was, a terrible devastation had
spread over the length and breadth of the land. Over and over again
Cieza de Leon mentions the destruction of the people. In every valley he
entered, they had been killed by the Spaniards by thousands, and their
buildings reduced to ruins.[114] In many districts the whole population
had been exterminated. In one place he says--“Nearly all these valleys
are now almost deserted, having once been so densely peopled, as is well
known to many persons.” He heard of misery and cruelty in every part of
the land. He saw the palaces and store houses of the Yncas in ruins, the
flocks slaughtered, the grand roads destroyed, and the posts for
pointing the way in the deserts used for fire wood.[115] His barbarian
countrymen pulled down the great works of irrigation,[116] and turned
thousands of acres of fertile land into desert.

These sights excited the indignation of the humane and observant man at
arms, who in this, as in many other respects, proved his superiority of
head and heart over his brutal companions. Cieza de Leon felt warmly for
the wrongs of the Indians, and devotes a chapter to show how God
chastises those who are cruel to them.[117] But he was so steeped in the
superstition of his age and country that all the simple rites of the
Indians appeared to him to be the work of the devil, and in every
harmless ceremony he saw the cloven feet. He tells us that the old men
of every tribe in the Indies conversed with the enemy of mankind, and he
mocks at their burying food with their dead for the journey to the other
world, “as if hell was so very far off.”[118] The whole population of
America was destined, according to our author, to eternal torments in
the next world; yet it is unjust to blame him for asserting a belief
which is held at the present day, and by the most tolerant church in
Christendom.[119]

When uninfluenced by religious prejudices, he writes with an
impartiality which does him the highest credit. He laments over the
condition of the Indians, deplores the wanton destruction of their
public works, and condemns the barbarity of the Spaniards. His
superstitious folly is the result of his education, his merits are all
his own. In arrangement, in trustworthiness, in accuracy, and in the
value of his observations, the work of Cieza de Leon stands higher than
that of any contemporary chronicler: and these qualities in his book are
enhanced by the romantic life and noble disposition of its author. Cieza
de Leon will, I think, be found an agreeable companion over a country of
no common interest, at a most important period of its history; and so I
consign him to the favourable attention of the members of the HAKLUYT
SOCIETY.




                              FIRST PART

                               _OF THE_

                          CHRONICLE OF PERU:

         _Which treats of the boundaries of provinces, their_
    description, the founding of new cities, the rites and customs
          of the Indians, and other strange things worthy to
                               be known.

                             _Written by_

                        PEDRO DE CIEZA DE LEON.

                         A NATIVE OF SEVILLE.

                       [Illustration: colophon]

                              IN ANTWERP,
                    IN THE HOUSE OF _JEAN STEELTZ_.

                              M.D.LIIII.

                           _Con privilegio._




   TO THE MOST HIGH AND MOST PUISSANT LORD DON PHILIP, PRINCE OF THE
                           SPAINS, OUR LORD.


_Most high and most puissant Lord_,--

_As not only the notable deeds of many very brave men, but also numerous
events worthy of perpetual memory in different provinces, have remained
in the shades of oblivion for want of writers who will record them, and
of historians who will narrate them; I, therefore, having crossed over
to the New World, where I have passed the greater part of my time
serving your Majesty in wars and discoveries, in which service I have
always taken much delight, have determined to undertake the history of
the events in the great and memorable kingdom of Peru. I went to it by
land from the province of Carthagena, where, and in the province of
Popayan, I was for many years. After I had been in your Majesty’s
service in that last war, which ended in the overthrow of the rebels and
tyrants, I thought over the great wealth of Peru, the wonderful things
in its provinces, the stirring events of its early history and of more
recent times, and how much there was both in the one and the other
period which was worthy of note. Then it was that I resolved to take up
my pen and accomplish the desire I had conceived to perform a signal
service for your Highness, holding it to be certain that your Highness
would receive it without noticing the weakness of my powers, but rather
judging my intention, and, in your royal clemency, receiving the will
with which I offer this book to your Highness. It treats of that great
kingdom of Peru of which God has made you Lord. I do not fail to
consider, O most serene and gracious Lord, that to describe the
wonderful things of this great kingdom of Peru would require one who
could write like Titus Livius, or Valerius, or some other of the great
writers that have appeared in the world, and that even they would find
some difficulty in the task. For who can enumerate the mighty things of
Peru? the lofty mountains and profound valleys over which we went
conquering and discovering? the numerous rivers of such size and depth?
the variety of provinces, with so many different things in each? the
tribes, with all their strange customs, rites, and ceremonies? so many
birds, animals, trees, fishes, all unknown? Besides all these things,
who can worthily describe the unheard-of labours which a handful of
Spaniards passed through in this vast country? Who can imagine the
events of those wars and discoveries, extending over sixteen hundred
leagues of country? the hunger, thirst, death, terrors, and fatigue
which were suffered? Concerning all these things there is so much to
relate, that any writer would be tired out in writing it. For this
cause, most puissant Lord, I have collected the most important events
which I myself saw or heard, into this history. I have not the audacity
to place it before the judgment of an unkind world, but I entertain the
hope that your Highness will protect and defend it as a thing belonging
to yourself, so that I may freely dare to walk under your protection.
For many writers, fearing the same thing, have sought for Princes of
great note to whom they might dedicate their works, and some of these
works have never been read by any one, being so fantastic and absurd.
But what I have written here is concerning true and important things,
both pleasant and useful, which have happened in our time; and I
dedicate my work to the greatest and most powerful Prince in the world,
who is your Highness. The attempt savours of temerity in so unlearned a
man, but others of more learning are too much occupied in the wars to
write. Oftentimes, when the other soldiers were reposing, I was tiring
myself by writing. Neither fatigue nor the ruggedness of the country,
nor the mountains and rivers, nor intolerable hunger and suffering, have
ever been sufficient to obstruct my two duties, namely, writing and
following my flag and my captain without fault. Having written this work
under such difficulties, and it being dedicated to your Highness, it
seems to me that my readers ought to pardon any faults which, in their
judgments, they may find in it. If they refuse to pardon these faults,
it must suffice for me that I have written the truth, for this is what I
have most carefully sought after. Much that I have written I saw with my
own eyes, and I travelled over many countries in order to learn more
concerning them. Those things which I did not see, I took great pains to
                   inform myself of, from persons of
      good repute, both Christians and Indians. I pray to Almighty
         God that, as He was served by giving to your Highness
             so great and rich a kingdom as Peru, He will
                 leave you to live and reign for many
                     happy years, with increase of
                          many other kingdoms
                            and lordships._




                               PROLOGUE

                                BY THE

                                AUTHOR,

  IN WHICH HE ANNOUNCES THE INTENTION OF THE WORK, AND ITS DIVISIONS.


I set out from Spain, where I was born and bred, at such a tender age
that I was scarcely thirteen complete years old when I sailed; and I
spent more than seventeen years in the Indies, many of them in the
discovery and conquest of new provinces, others in new settlements, and
in travelling over different countries. As I noted the many great and
strange things that are to be seen in this new world of the Indies,
there came upon me a strong desire to write an account of some of them,
as well those which I had seen with my own eyes as those which I had
heard of from persons of good repute. But when I considered my small
stock of learning I put aside my desire, holding it to be a vain thing;
for I remembered that it was for learned doctors to write histories,
throwing light upon them by their learning and judgment, while those who
are not learned would be presumptuous even if they thought of writing.
I, therefore, passed some time without giving heed to my former
intentions. At last the Almighty God, who can do anything, favoured me
with His divine grace, and awoke in me the memory of what I had before
forgotten. Taking heart, I then determined to spend some part of my life
in writing history, to which resolution I was moved by the following
considerations.

The first was, that in all parts where I had been, no one was engaged
in writing anything concerning what had occurred; and time destroys the
memory of events in such sort that soon there is no knowledge of what
has passed.

The next was, that both ourselves and these Indians draw our origin from
our ancestors Adam and Eve, and that the Son of God descended from the
heaven to the earth for all men, and, clothed in our humanity, received
a cruel death on the cross to redeem us and free us from the power of
the devil, which devil had, for so long a time, held these people
captive by God’s permission; and that it was right that the world should
know in what manner so great a multitude of tribes, as there is in these
Indies, was brought into the bosom of the holy mother church by the
exertions of Spaniards. These exertions were such that no other nation
in the world could have endured them. Thus God chose us for so great a
work, before any other nation.

Another consideration was, that in future times it ought to be known how
greatly the royal crown of Castille was enlarged, and how, when the
invincible Emperor was our King and Lord, the rich and abundant kingdoms
of New Spain and Peru were settled, and other islands and vast provinces
were discovered.

I beseech all learned and benevolent men to look upon my work with
justice, for they know that the malice and murmuring of the ignorant and
stupid are such that they never fail to find fault. Thus it is that
many, fearing the rabid envy of these scorpions, consider it better to
be called cowards than to allow their works to see the light.

But I will not desist from my intention, valuing more the favour of the
few and learned, than caring for the evil which the many foolish readers
may bring upon me.

I also wrote this work that those, who learn from it the great services
which many noble knights and youths have done for the royal crown of
Spain, may be led to emulate their examples; and, at the same time, by
noting how others committed treasons, robberies, and other evil deeds,
and suffered famous punishments for them, that they may profit by these
examples, and loyally serve their natural king and lord.

For the reasons which I have now set forth, I undertook the present
work, for the better understanding of which I have divided it into four
parts, in the following manner.

The first part treats of the division of the provinces of Peru, as well
towards the sea as inland, with the longitudes and latitudes. It
contains a description of all these provinces, an account of the new
cities founded by the Spaniards, with the names of the founders, and the
time when they were founded; an account of the ancient rites and customs
of the native Indians, and other strange things very different from
those of our country, which are worthy of note.[120]

In the second part, I shall treat of the government of the Yucas
Yupanquis, who were the ancient kings of Peru, and of their great deeds
and policy, how many of them there were, and their names. I shall
describe the superb and magnificent temples which they built, the roads
of wonderful size which they made, and other great things that were
found in this kingdom. I shall also give an account in this book of what
the Indians say concerning the deluge, and how the Yncas magnify the
grandeur of their origin.

In the third part I shall relate the discovery and conquest of this
great kingdom of Peru, and the constancy of the Marquis Don Francisco
Pizarro; the hardships suffered by the Christians when thirteen of them
with the same Marquis (God permitting) discovered the country; how the
said Don Francisco Pizarro was nominated governor by his Majesty, and
entered Peru; and how, with one hundred and sixty Spaniards, he captured
Atahualpa. In this third part I shall also treat of the arrival of the
Adelantado Don Pedro de Alvarado, and of the agreement made between him
and the governor Don Francisco Pizarro. I shall, in like manner, give an
account of the notable things which happened in various parts of this
kingdom, of the rebellion of the Indians, and of the causes which led to
it; of the cruel and perfidious war that the same Indians waged against
the Spaniards who were in the great city of Cuzco, and of the death of
some Spanish and Indian captains. This third part will end with the
return of the Adelantado Don Diego de Almagro from Chile, and his entry
into the city of Cuzco by force of arms, the captain Hernando Pizarro,
Knight of the order of Santiago, being there as chief justice.

The fourth part is more important than the three which precede it. It
will be divided into five books, and will be entitled “The Civil Wars of
Peru:” in which will be related stranger things than ever passed before
in any other part of the world, among so small a number of people of the
same nation.

The first book of these civil wars treats of the war of Las Salinas, and
gives an account of the imprisonment of the captain Don Hernando Pizarro
by the Adelantado Don Diego de Almagro; it relates how the city of Cuzco
was made to receive Almagro as governor, and the causes of the war
between the governors Pizarro and Almagro. It describes the treaties and
interviews between them until the dispute was placed in the hands of an
umpire, the oaths they each took, and the commissions and letters they
each had received from his Majesty; the sentence that was given, the
return of the Adelantado to Cuzco, and how, with great fury and enmity,
he fought the battle of Las Salinas, which is half a league from Cuzco.
It relates also the march of the captain Lorenzo de Aldana to the
provinces of Quito and Popayan, and the discoveries of the captains
Gonzalo Pizarro, Pedro de Candia, Alonzo de Alvarado, and others. I
conclude with the return of Hernando Pizarro to Spain.

The second book is called “The War of Chupas.” It will treat of several
discoveries and conquests; of the conspiracy of the men of Chile in the
City of the Kings to kill the Marquis Don Francisco Pizarro, and of his
death. It will then relate how Don Diego de Almagro, son of the
Adelantado, was received as governor by the greater part of the kingdom;
how the captain Alonzo de Alvarado, who was captain and chief justice of
his Majesty for the Marquis Pizarro in Chachapoyas, rose against him,
and how Pero Alvarez, Holguin, Gomez de Tordoya, and others, did the
same in Cuzco; how the licentiate Christoval Vaca de Castro arrived
from Spain as governor, and how there was discord among the men of
Chile. I shall relate how, after some of the captains had killed each
other, the cruel battle of Chupas was fought near Guamanga, and how the
governor Vaca de Castro went to Cuzco and cut off the head of the youth
Don Diego. This will conclude the second book.

The third book will be entitled “The Civil War of Quito.” The writing of
it will be very difficult, and it will treat of various important
events. There will be an account of how the new laws were promulgated in
Spain, and of the consequent meetings and consultations in Peru, until
Gonzalo Pizarro was received in the city of Cuzco as procurator and
captain general. It will relate what occurred in the City of the Kings
until the viceroy was seized by the judges and sent to sea; the entry of
Gonzalo Pizarro into the city, where he was received as governor; his
chase of the viceroy; and how the viceroy was conquered and killed on
the plain of Añaquito. I shall also give an account, in this book, of
the events which took place in Cuzco, in Charcas, and in other parts; of
the rising of Diego Centeno on the part of the king and of Alonzo de
Toro and Francisco de Carbajal on the part of Gonzalo Pizarro, until
that constant worthy, Diego Centeno, was constrained to hide in secret
places, and his master of the camp, Lope de Mendoza, was killed; also of
what passed between the captains Pedro de Hinojosa, Juan de Yllanes,
Melchior Verdugo, and the others who were in Tierra Firme; and of how
the Adelantado Belalcazar put the marshal Don Jorge Robledo to death in
the village of Pozo. I shall then recount how the Emperor our Lord, in
his great clemency and kindness, sent out a pardon to all who should
submit and enter his royal service; how the licentiate Pedro de la Gasca
was appointed president, and how he arrived in Tierra Firme; the policy
by which he drew the captains, who were there, into the service of the
king; the return of Gonzalo Pizarro to the City of the Kings; the
cruelties which were committed there by him and his captains; how a
general assembly was convoked to determine who should go as procurators
general to Spain; and the delivery of the fleet to the president. Here I
shall conclude this book.

The fourth book will be entitled “The War of Huarina.” It will treat of
the enterprise of the captain Diego Centeno; how he entered the city of
Cuzco with the few men whom he had been able to induce to join him; how
Lorenzo de Aldana sailed from Panama and arrived at the City of the
Kings; and how many captains left Gonzalo Pizarro, and passed over to
the service of the king. I shall also treat of what passed between Diego
Centeno and Alonzo de Mendoza, until they gave battle to Gonzalo Pizarro
on the plain of Huarina. I shall relate how the captain Diego Centeno
was defeated, how many of his captains and followers were killed or
taken prisoners, and how Gonzalo Pizarro entered the city of Cuzco.

The fifth book, containing the war of Xaquixaguana, treats of the
arrival of the president Pedro de la Gasca in the valley of Xauxa; of
the preparations made by him when he heard that Diego Centeno was
defeated; of his march to Xaquixaguana, where Gonzalo Pizarro gave him
battle; it relates how the president and the troops of the king were
victorious; and how Gonzalo Pizarro was defeated and put to death in the
same valley; how the president arrived at Cuzco and proclaimed the
tyrants to be traitors; how he retired to a village called Huaynarima,
where he divided the greater part of the provinces of this kingdom among
persons selected by himself; and how he went thence to Lima, and
established the Royal Audience.

Having completed these books, which form the fourth part of my work, I
shall add two Commentaries. The first will treat of the events in Peru,
from the founding of the Audience to the departure of the president. The
second, will give an account of the president’s arrival in Tierra Firme;
of the murder of the Bishop of Nicaragua by the Contreras; of how the
Contreras, with tyrannical intentions, entered the city of Panama and
stole great quantities of gold and silver, of how the citizens gave them
battle outside the town, defeated and put them to death, and recovered
the treasure. I shall conclude with an account of the insurrection at
Cuzco, relating how the marshal Alonzo de Alvarado was sent by the
judges to punish the rebels, and how the illustrious and politic worthy,
Don Antonio de Mendoza, entered this kingdom as viceroy.

And if this history is not written with the elegance and learning that
science gives to letters, it will at least be truthful, and each event
will be duly noted with brevity, while evil deeds will be commented upon
with moderation.

I truly believe that others would have performed this work with more
satisfaction to the reader, being more learned than I am. But, if my
good intentions and my endeavours to do my best are considered, it is
just, at all events, that I should be favourably received. The ancient
Diodorus Siculus says in his prologue, that mankind owes a great deal to
authors, for, through their labours, the deeds of men live for many
ages; and he, therefore, calls Cicero the witness of time, the master of
life, the light of truth. What I ask, in return for my labour, is that,
        although these writings may be devoid of elegance, they
             may be received with favour, because they are
               accompanied with truth. I submit my work
                  to the judgment of the learned and
                       virtuous; and I beg that
                          others will content
                              themselves
                                 with
                 merely reading it, without attempting
                          to judge what they
                          do not understand.




                            THE TRAVELS OF

                        PEDRO DE CIEZA DE LEON.




CHAPTER I.

Which treats of the discovery of the Indies, of some other things which
were done when they were first discovered, and of the present state of
affairs.


Fourteen hundred and ninety-two years had passed away since the Princess
of life, the glorious virgin Mary our Lady, begot the only-begotten Son
of God, and the Catholic kings Don Fernando and Dona Isabel of glorious
memory were reigning in Spain, when the illustrious Christoval Colon set
forth with three caravels and ninety Spaniards, whom the said kings
ordered to serve under him. After sailing twelve hundred leagues to the
westward over the wide ocean, he discovered the island of Española,
where now stands the city of Santo Domingo. Then also were discovered
the islands of Cuba, and of San Juan de Puerto Rico, Yucatan, Tierra
Firme, New Spain, the provinces of Guatemala and Nicaragua, and many
other islands and kingdoms as far as Florida; and afterwards the great
kingdom of Peru, Rio de la Plata, and the strait of Magellanes. Yet so
many years had elapsed during which this vast expanse of land was
unknown in Spain, nor was there any rumour concerning it!

The judicious reader will reflect through what amount of labour, hunger,
thirst, terror, danger, and death the Spaniards must have passed in
these navigations and discoveries, and what waste of blood and lives
they must have entailed. And all was held as good service by the
Catholic kings, as well as by his royal Majesty the invincible Cæsar Don
Carlos the fifth Emperor of that name, our king and lord; because the
doctrine of Jesus Christ and the preaching of His holy gospel has thus
been extended, and our holy faith exalted. The will both of the said
Catholic kings and of his Majesty has been, and is, that great care
should be taken in the conversion of the natives of all these provinces
and kingdoms, for this was their principal aim; and that the governors,
captains, and discoverers should display their Christian zeal by such
treatment of the Indians as their religion enjoins. But notwithstanding
that this is and was the desire of his Majesty, some of the governors
and captains have basely committed many cruelties and outrages on the
Indians. In their turn the Indians, to defend themselves, rose in arms
and killed many Christians and some of the captains, which was the
reason that they suffered torments, were burnt, and put to other cruel
deaths. I hold that, as the dealings of God are always just, it must be
that his divine justice permitted that these people, so far distant from
Spain, should suffer so many evils from the Spaniards, for their sins
and for those of their ancestors, which must have been many, as they
were without faith. Nor do I affirm that all the Christians ill-treated
the Indians; for I have seen many temperate and God fearing men treat
them well, curing and bleeding them when they were ill, and performing
other charitable acts. And the goodness and mercy of God (which permits
no evil without extracting some good from it) have also secured great
blessings out of these ills, by bringing so many people to the knowledge
of our holy Catholic faith, and placing them in the road to salvation.
When his Majesty was informed of the ills which the Indians suffered, he
thought it good to appoint viceroys and audiences, with presidents and
judges for their better government; and thus the sufferings of the
Indians have ceased, and no Spaniards, of what rank soever, can oppress
them now. Besides the bishops, monks, seculars, and friars who went with
the Spaniards, there were a sufficient number provided to teach the
doctrine of the holy faith to the Indians and to administer the
sacraments to them. In the audiences there are learned men of great
piety, who punish those Spaniards that oppress the Indians in any way;
so that now there is no one who can ill-treat them, and, in the greater
part of these kingdoms, they are as much masters of their own estates
and persons as are the Spaniards themselves. Each village is moderately
assessed with the amount to be paid as tribute. I remember that, when I
was in the province of Xauxa a few years ago, the Indians said to me
with much satisfaction: “This is a happy time, like the days of Tupac
Ynca Yupanqui;” a king of ancient times, whose memory they hold in great
veneration. Certain of this, we Christians ought to rejoice and give
thanks to our Lord God that, in so great a country, so distant from our
Spain and from all Europe, there is such justice and such good
government, with churches and houses for prayer in all parts, where
Almighty God is praised and worshipped; and the devil abused and defied,
while the places which had been set apart for his glorification, are
pulled down, and crosses, the signs of our salvation, raised in their
stead. The idols and images were broken, and the devils fled away with
fear and trembling. The holy gospel is preached, and spreads powerfully
from east to west, and from north to south, that all nations may know
and worship our Lord God.




CHAPTER II.

Of the city of Panama, and of its founding, and why it is treated of
first, before other matters.


Before I begin to treat of the affairs of the kingdom of Peru, I desire
to give some account of what is known of the origin of these races of
the Indies or New World, especially of the natives of Peru, according to
what they say that they heard from their old men, although this is a
secret which God alone can certainly know. But as my principal intention
is, in this first part, to describe the land of Peru, and to relate the
events connected with the foundation of its cities, I will leave the
account of the origin of the people (that is, what they themselves say
respecting their origin, and what we may conjecture) until I come to the
second part, where this portion of the subject will be fully treated of.

In the present part, as I have said, I shall treat of the foundation of
many cities; and I consider that if, in times past, Dido, in founding
Carthage, perpetuated her name, and Romulus gave his name to Rome, and
Alexander to Alexandria, with how much more reason should the fame and
glory of his Majesty be perpetuated in future ages; for in this great
kingdom of Peru many great and rich cities have been founded in his
royal name, to which his Majesty has given laws, and he has enabled the
people to live quietly and peacefully. But, without counting these
cities in Peru, the city of Panama was founded in the province of Tierra
Firme, called Castilla del Oro, and I shall commence with it, although
there are others in this kingdom of more importance. My reason for
beginning with Panama is, that the captains who set forth to discover
Peru started from that city. Thence I shall go to the port of Uraba,
which is in the province of Carthagena, not very far from the great
river of Darien; and I shall then give an account of the Indian
villages, and of the Spanish settlements from this place to the town of
Plata, and establishment of Potosi on the southern boundary of Peru, a
distance of, I should say, more than twelve hundred leagues of road,
which I travelled over by land, and saw, examined, and knew the things
which I describe in this history. And I noted everything with much care
and diligence, in order that I might be able to write with that truth
which is due from me, and without any mixture of inaccuracies.

I say, then, that the city of Panama is built near the South Sea, and
eighteen leagues from Nombre de Dios, which is near the North Sea.[121]
It is of small extent, by reason of a lake which confines it on one
side, and the city is considered unhealthy on account of the evil
vapours which rise from this lake. It is built with the streets running
due east and west; so that when the sun rises no one can walk in any of
the streets, because there is no shade whatever; and this is felt very
much as the heat is intense; and the sun is so prejudicial to health,
that if a man is exposed to its rays even for a few hours he will be
attacked with a fatal illness, and this has happened to many. Half a
league from the sea there are good and healthy sites, where the city
might have been built at first; but as the houses have a high price, on
account of the great expense of building them, the site has not been
changed, although the inhabitants are aware of the notorious harm which
all must receive from living in so unhealthy a place. The first
conquerors are now all dead; and the present inhabitants do not expect
to remain long, only think of becoming rich, and care little for the
public good. A river flows near this city, which rises in certain hills;
and there are many others, on the banks of which the Spaniards have
their farms, where they have planted many trees from Spain, as oranges,
citrons, and figs. Besides these there are other fruits belonging to the
country, such as fragrant pines and plantains, many excellent
_guavas_,[122] _caymitos_,[123] _aguacates_,[124] and other fruits. In
the plains there are large herds of cattle, for the country is well
adapted for breeding them. The rivers contain much gold, and at the time
that the city was founded they obtained a great quantity.

Panama is well supplied with provisions, being situated between two
seas,--that is to say, the North Sea, by which the ships of Spain come
to Nombre de Dios; and the South Sea, by which ships sail from Panama to
all the ports of Peru. The country round this city yields neither wheat
nor barley; but the owners of farms raise much maize, and they bring
plenty of flour from Spain and Peru. There is much fish in all the
rivers and also in the sea, though different from those on the coast of
Spain.[125] On the sea-shore, close to the houses of the city, they find
great quantities of very small mussels (_almejas_), which they call
_chucha_; and I believe that, at the time of the first settlement, the
city remained on this site because the Spaniards felt themselves safe
from hunger on account of these mussels. In the rivers there are great
quantities of alligators, which are so large and fierce that it is
wonderful to see them. In the river of Cenu I have seen many very large
ones, and have eaten the eggs which they deposit on the shore. We found
one of these large alligators in the river which they call San Jorge,
when we went with Captain Alonzo de Caceres to discover the province of
Urute. It was so monstrously large as to measure more than twenty-five
feet in length; and when we killed it with our lances, it was a grand
thing to witness its bravery. Being very hungry we ate some of the
flesh; but it is bad, and has a disagreeable smell. These alligators
have eaten many Spaniards, horses, and Indians, when passing over the
land from one river to another.

There are few natives in the neighbourhood of Panama, for nearly all
have been destroyed by the evil treatment they received from the
Spaniards and by sickness. The city is inhabited by many merchants from
all parts, who trade here and in Nombre de Dios; for there is much
traffic, and the place might almost be compared with the city of Venice.
Very often ships come to Panama from the South Sea to discharge cargoes
of gold and silver; and the number of vessels is very great that arrive
at Nombre de Dios, bringing much merchandise, which is transported to
Panama by canoes up the river Chagres, and thence over five leagues of
road. Near the city the sea forms a large bay, and the vessels come into
the port with the tide. The anchorage is very good for small vessels.
Panama was founded by Pedrarias de Avila, who was governor of Tierra
Firme, in the name of the invincible Cæsar Don Carlos, the august King
of Spain, our lord, in the year 1520. It is in about 8° north of the
equinoctial line.[126] It has a good port, into which the vessels enter
with the ebb tide until they are high and dry. The ebb and flow of this
sea is great, so that the shore remains uncovered at low water for a
distance of half a league; and vessels anchored in three fathoms at low
water, are in seven fathoms when the tide comes up.[127]

In this chapter I have treated of the city of Panama. In the following I
shall describe the harbours and rivers along the coast as far as Chile,
for this plan will give much precision to the work.




CHAPTER III.

Of the ports between Panama and the land of Peru, of the distances
between them, and of their latitudes.


It is known to all the world how the Spaniards, aided by God, have
prosperously gained and made themselves masters of this new world, which
is called the Indies. These Indies include so many and such great
kingdoms and provinces, that it causes wonder even to think of them; and
their discovery and conquest have been successful, as all who live in
this age well know. I have sometimes thought that, when one people and
nation succeeds another, as time rolls on the first is forgotten; and
that the same fate may overtake us as has befallen others, which may God
forefend: but these kingdoms and provinces were discovered in the time
of the most Christian and illustrious Charles, the ever august Emperor
of the Romans, and our lord and king, who has taken and still takes so
much care for the conversion of the Indians. For this reason I believe
that Spain will ever retain these possessions, and that all who live in
them will ever acknowledge the kings of Spain as their masters.

In this chapter I desire to explain to those who may read my work the
manner of navigating by points and degrees from Panama to Peru. The time
for navigating is during the months of January, February, and March,
because in this season there are always fresh breezes from the north,
and the vessels make short passages; while during the rest of the year
the south winds prevail along the coast of Peru.[128] Thus the vessels
finish their voyages before the south winds set in. Ships can also sail
in August and September, but not with the same ease as in the season
before mentioned; for if some few vessels sail in these months, they
make very long and difficult passages. The south wind is prevalent for
a long time along this coast from Chile to near Tumbez, which is
favourable for a voyage from Peru to Tierra Firme, Nicaragua, and other
ports; but very difficult for vessels going to Peru. Sailing from
Panama, vessels first sight the islands called “of the Pearls,” which
are barely in 8°.[129] These islands consist of twenty-five or thirty,
clustering round one which is the largest of all. They were formerly
inhabited by Indian natives, but now there are none. The owners of these
islands have Negroes and Indians of Nicaragua and Cubagua, who watch the
flocks and sow the seeds, for the land is fertile. They have also
obtained a great quantity of rich pearls, whence the islands take their
name. From these islands vessels work for the point of Carachine, which
is ten leagues to the E.S.E.; and when they sight it, the land is high
and woody. It is in 8⅓°.[130] From this point the coast runs S.E.¼S. to
Puerto de Piñas for eight leagues, which is in 6¼°.[131] Here the land
is high, forest covered, and rugged. Thence the coast trends S.¼E. to
Cape Corrientes; and following the same course vessels arrive at the
island of Palms, so called from the quantities of those trees which grow
on it. It is little more than a league and a half round, it has rivers
of fresh water, and used to be inhabited. This island is twenty-five
leagues from Cape Corrientes, in 4⅓°. From this point the coast runs in
the same direction to the port of Buenaventura, which is a little more
than three leagues from the island. The entrance to the bay is in
3⅔°,[132] and close to it there is a high peaked island. The country is
covered with forests, and many great rivers, rising in the mountains,
fall into the sea, by one of which vessels approach the town and port of
Buenaventura. The pilot who may take a vessel in, should know the river
well, or he will have much trouble, as was the case with me and many
others who employed new pilots. Thence the coast runs W. ¼ S. to the
island called Gorgona, which is twenty-five leagues from this bay. This
part of the coast is low, and overrun with mangroves and other dense
bushes. Many large rivers flow into the sea, the principal one being the
river of San Juan, the banks of which are inhabited by wild people, who
build their houses on great stages raised on forked poles. These Indians
are very rich in gold, and their country, which is fertile, is traversed
by rivers washing down abundance of this metal. But it is so swampy and
full of lagoons, that it is impossible to conquer it without an
expenditure of many lives and much trouble.

The island of Gorgona is high, and it never ceases to rain and thunder
there, so that it seems as if the elements were fighting. It is two
leagues round, covered with forest, and has streams of very good water.
There are many turkeys, pheasants, cats, and great serpents, besides
night birds, on the island. It seems that it has never been inhabited.
The Marquis Don Francisco Pizarro, with thirteen Spanish Christians, his
companions, was many days on this island, and suffered much from hunger
and exposure, until at last God was well served by the discovery of the
provinces of Peru. This island of Gorgona is in 3°,[133] and thence the
coast trends W.S.W. to the island of Gallo. All this coast is low and
woody, and many rivers here fall into the sea. The island of Gallo is
small, scarcely a league round, and is in 2°[134]of the equator. Thence
the coast turns S.W. to the point of Mangroves,[135] which is a little
under eight leagues from Gallo. Thence the coast runs S.W. to the bay of
Santiago, where it forms a creek, and an anchorage called Sardinas. Here
is the mouth of the great and rapid river of Santiago, where the
government of the Marquis Don Francisco Pizarro commenced. This
roadstead is twenty-five leagues from the point of Mangroves. Here
vessels have their bows in eighty fathoms and their stems nearly
aground, and sometimes they are in ninety fathoms at one moment, and in
two at another; but these inequalities, which are caused by the fury of
the river, are not dangers, nor do they prevent vessels from going in
and out at pleasure. The coast then runs west towards the Cape of San
Francisco, which is ten leagues from the roadstead. This cape is high
land, and near it there are some brown and white ravines. It is 1° N. of
the equator.[136] Thence the coast runs S.W. to the point of Passaos,
which is on the equinoctial line.[137] Between these two points four
rivers fall into the sea, called the Quiximies,[138] which are very
large. They form a tolerable port, where vessels can take in fresh water
and firewood.




CHAPTER IV.

     Describes the navigation as far as the Callao of Lima, which is the
     port of the City of the Kings.


I have now described, though briefly, the way by which this South Sea is
navigated as far as the Quiximies, which is in the land of Peru. It will
now be well to continue the route until we arrive at the City of the
Kings. Leaving then the cape of Passaos, the coast trends to the S. ¼ W.
as far as Puerto Viejo, and before reaching it there is the bay of
Caraquez, which vessels enter without any danger. Its conveniences are
such that ships of even one thousand tons may be careened here, and it
is easy to enter and sail out, except that there are some rocky islands
at its mouth, but there are no obstructions beyond those which meet the
eye. Near Puerto Viejo, and two leagues inland, is the city of Santiago,
and two leagues to the south of the port there is a round hill called
Monte Cristo. This Puerto Viejo is 1° S.[139] of the equator. Five
leagues further on in the same direction is the cape of San Lorenzo, and
three leagues beyond this cape, to the south-west, is the island which
is called La Plata, a league and a half long. Here, in ancient times,
the natives of the main land held their sacrificial festivals, and
killed many lambs and sheep, and some children, whose blood was offered
to their devils and idols, figures carved in stone which were objects of
worship. The Marquis Don Francisco Pizarro, with his thirteen
companions, during their voyage of discovery, landed on this island and
found some silver and jewels, and many robes and dresses of cloth richly
embroidered. From that time to this the island has remained with the
name which it now bears. Following the coast line to the S. ¼ E. we come
next to the point of Santa Elena. Before reaching this point there are
two places, the one called Callo and the other Calango,[140] where ships
touch, and take in wood and water. The distance from the point of San
Lorenzo to that of Santa Elena is fifteen leagues. There is a creek on
the north side of the latter point, where there is good anchorage.[141]
At the distance of a cross-bow shot from the point there is a fountain
of bitumen, which appears to be natural tar. Of this, and of the wells
made by the giants on this point, I shall give an account further on,
which will be well worth hearing.[142]

From this point of Santa Elena vessels go to the river of Tumbez, a
distance of twenty-eight leagues. The river bears from the point S. ¼
E., and between them there is another great inlet. To the N.E. of the
river of Tumbez there is an island which is more than ten leagues
round, and it has been very rich and populous, so that the natives
rivalled those of Tumbez and of other parts of the main land. There were
great wars and many battles between them, so that time and the arrival
of the Spaniards have greatly diminished the number of the islanders.
The island is very fertile and well wooded. It is the property of his
Majesty. There is a rumour that a great sum of gold and silver was
buried there in ancient times. The Indians say that these islanders were
given to idolatry, and were very vicious, many of them committing the
abominable offence, and being guilty of other great sins. Near this
island of Puna there is another further out, called Santa Clara. This
island has neither inhabitants, wood, nor water; but the ancient people
of Puna had their cemeteries on it, and performed sacrifices. They have
placed on the heights, where they built their altars, great quantities
of gold, and silver, and fine ornaments dedicated to their gods. When
the Spaniards arrived, these treasures were concealed (so the Indians
say) in places where they could not be found.[143]

The river of Tumbez flows through a country which is thickly inhabited.
Near the sea there is a fortress, a very strong and handsome structure,
built by the Yncas, kings of Cuzco and lords of all Peru, in which they
had great store of treasure. There was also a temple of the Sun, and a
house of Mamacunas,[144] which means principal women of the virgins
dedicated to the service of the temple. These women lived according to
rules almost the same as those of the vestal virgins of Rome. The
edifices are now in a ruinous state, though their remains show how great
they once were. The mouth of the river of Tumbez is in 4° S.[145] Thence
the coast trends S.W. to Cape Blanco,[146] distant fifteen leagues,[147]
and then towards the island of Lobos.[148] Between Cape Blanco and the
island of Lobos there is a point called Pariña, which runs out into the
sea almost as far as the former point.[149] From point Pariña the coast
runs S.W. to Payta. From Tumbez towards the south, the coast is without
trees, and if there are any hills they are naked, and rocky. The rest of
the coast is a sandy desert, and few rivers fall into the sea. Payta is
a little more than eight leagues[150] from Cape Pariña; it is a good
port, where ships refit, in 5° S.[151] From the island of Lobos (just
mentioned) the distance to Payta will be about five leagues. Following
the coast we come to Punta del Aguja,[152] and between it and the island
there is a large inlet. This point is in 6° S. To the south of it there
are two islands called Lobos, from the great number of seals, and all
vessels can pass between them and the main land.[153] From Punta de
Aguja the coast trends S.W. to a port called Casma. The coast runs S.W.
to Malabrigo,[154] where vessels can only lie in fair weather, and ten
leagues further south is the reef of Truxillo, a bad port, with no other
shelter than the buoys of the anchors. Vessels sometimes touch here for
provisions. Two leagues inland is the city of Truxillo. From this port,
which is in 7⅔°, vessels go to the port of Guañape,[155] seven leagues
from Truxillo, in 8⅓°. More to the south is the port of Santa, where
vessels touch, and near which there is a great river with very good
water.[156] All the coast is without trees (as I said a little way
back), sandy, and broken with craggy rocks. Santa is in 9°. Five leagues
further on is Ferrol,[157] a secure port, but without fuel or water.
Another six leagues brings us to Casma, where there is a river and
plenty of wood, so that vessels can put in for supplies. It is in
10°.[158] From Casma the coast runs south to the islets of Huara, and
further on is Guarmay, where there is a river.[159] Another six leagues
takes us to Huara, where vessels can take in all the salt they require,
for there is enough to supply Italy and all Spain, and even then it
would not be exhausted.[160] Thence the coast trends south to the island
of Lima. Half way, a little nearer Lima than the islets of Huara,[161]
there is an island called Salmerina, nine or ten leagues from the land.
The island of Lima forms the shelter to Callao, which is the port of
Lima.[162] The port is very safe. Callao, which (as I have said) is the
port of the City of Kings, is in 12⅓°.[163]




CHAPTER V.

Of the ports and rivers on the coast, from the City of the Kings to the
province of Chile, and of their latitudes, with other matters connected
with the navigation of these seas.


I have myself been in most of the ports and rivers which I have now
described, and I have taken much trouble to ascertain the correctness of
what is here written, having communicated with the dexterous and expert
pilots who know the navigation of these ports, and who took the
altitudes in my presence. In this chapter I shall continue my
description of the coast, with its ports and rivers from Lima until we
arrive at the province of Chile. But I am unable to describe the coast
down to the straits of Magellan, having lost a copious narrative which I
had from a pilot who came in one of the ships sent by the Bishop of
Plazencia.

When ships sail from the port of the City of the Kings, they shape their
course south, until they reach the port of Sangalla, which is very good,
and at first it was considered certain that the City of the Kings would
have been founded near it. Sangalla is thirty-five leagues from Lima, in
barely 14° S. of the equinoctial.[164] Near this port there is an island
called Seal Island. All the coast, from this point, is low, though in
some parts there are naked chains of rocky hills, and the whole is a
sandy desert, on which it has never rained, nor does anything fall
except a thin mist; but I shall treat of this admirable secret of nature
further on.[165] Near this Seal Island there are seven or eight other
small islets, some high and others low, uninhabited, and without wood or
water, tree, shrub, or anything else, except seals and sand hills. The
Indians, according to their own account, used to go to these islands to
make sacrifices, and it is presumed that great treasure is buried on
them. They are a little more than four leagues from the coast. Further
on there is another island, also called Seal Island, from the quantity
of those animals that frequent it, which is 14⅓°.[166]

From this island vessels continue the voyage, the coast trending S.W. ¼
S., and after twelve leagues more they come to a promontory called
Nasca, which is in 15° less one quarter.[167] There is here shelter for
ships, but not for boats, as they cannot land. Further on there is
another point called San Nicolas, in 15⅓°.[168] From this point of San
Nicolas the coast turns S.W., and after twelve leagues the port of Acari
is reached, where vessels take in provisions and water, brought from a
valley which is a little more than five leagues from the port. This port
of Acari is in 16°.[169] Continuing the voyage vessels next arrive off
the river of Ocona, and further on are the rivers of Camana and Quilca.
Near the latter river there is a cove, which affords good and secure
anchorage. It is also called Quilca, and forms the port of the city of
Arequipa, which is seventeen leagues distant. This port is in 17½°.[170]
Sailing from Quilca, vessels pass some islets, where the Indians go from
the main land to fish. Three leagues further on there is another island,
very close to the shore, and the ships anchor to leeward of it, for from
this place also goods are sent to the city of Arequipa. It is twelve
leagues beyond Quilca, in 17½° or more, and is called Chuti.[171]
Further on there is a great river called Tamboballa, and ten leagues
more bring us to a point which runs out for a league into the sea, and
there are three pointed rocks near it.[172] There is a good port,
sheltered by this point, called Ylo, where a river of very good water,
having the same name as the port, falls into the sea. Ylo is in
18⅓°.[173] Thence the coast trends S.¼E., and seven leagues farther on
there is a promontory, which the mariners called the Hill of the
Devils.[174] All this coast is dangerous. Further on, about five leagues
from this point, there is a small river of good water, and ten leagues
more bring us to another high point and some ravines. Off this point
there is an islet, and near it is the port of Arica, in 29⅓°.[175] From
Arica the coast runs S.E. for nine leagues, where there is a river
called Pisagua. From this river to the port of Tarapaca the coast trends
in the same direction a distance of twenty-five leagues. Near Tarapaca
there is an island a little more than a league round and one and a half
from the shore, which forms a bay in 21°. This is the port of
Tarapaca.[176] Thence the coast trends in the same direction, and five
leagues further on there is a point called Tacama. Passing this point
vessels come to the port of Mexillones, sixteen leagues further on,
which is in 22½°.[177] The coast then trends S.S.W. for ninety leagues.
It is a straight coast, with some points and bays, and in 26° there is a
good port called Copayapo,[178] with an islet about half a league from
the shore, and here the inhabited part of the province of Chile
commences. Further on there is a point of land forming a bay, with two
rocks in it, and here a river of very good water falls into the sea,
called Huasco. The point is in 28¼°.[179] Ten leagues further on there
is another point which affords shelter for ships, but here there is
neither wood nor water. Near this point is the port of Coquimbo, and
between it and the point there are seven islands. This port is in
29½°.[180] Ten leagues further on another point runs out, forming a
large bay called Atongayo,[181] and five leagues beyond is the river of
Limara. From this river vessels reach a bay after sailing nine leagues,
where there is a pointed rock, and no fresh water. It is in 30°, and is
called Choape.[182] Further on, continuing the same course for
twenty-one leagues, there is a good port called Quintero, in 32°,[183]
and ten leagues more bring us to the port of Valparaiso, and the city of
Santiago, which is what we call Chile, in 32⅔°.[184] Continuing the
voyage we next come to another port called Topocalma, in 34°,[185] and
twelve leagues further on is the river of Maule. Fourteen leagues
further on there is another river called Ytata, and twenty-four leagues
more bring us to a river called Biobio, in 38° nearly.[186] In the same
direction, after sailing fifteen leagues more, we come to a large island
five leagues from the shore, which is said to be inhabited. It is called
Luchengo.[187] Beyond this island there is a bay called Valdivia, where
there is a great river, the name of which is Ayniledos. The bay of
Valdivia is in 39⅔°.[188] To the S.S.W. of the port is the Cape of Santa
Maria in 42⅓° S. This is as far as the coast has been examined and
described. The pilots say that it then turns S.E. to the straits of
Magellan. One of the ships which sailed from Spain, belonging to the
expedition of the Bishop of Palencia, passed through the straits of
Magellan, and reached the port of Quilca, which is near Arequipa, whence
she went on to Lima and Panama. She brought a good account of the
latitude of the strait, and of what happened during the very difficult
voyage; but I do not insert that narrative here, because, at the time
when we gave battle to Gonzalo Pizarro in the valley of Xaquixaguana,
five leagues from the city of Cuzco, I had several of my papers and
journals stolen, and this among the number, which I regret very much. I
should have wished to conclude my account of the coast with this
narrative. Receive, therefore, my desire to give this further
information; for I have taken no little trouble to ascertain the truth,
and I have examined the new charts made by the pilots who discovered
this sea.[189]

Here I must conclude the portion of my work which treats of the
navigation of this South Sea. I shall now proceed to give an account of
the provinces and nations from the port of Uraba to the city of Plata,
which is a distance of more than 1200 leagues, and I shall describe the
government of Popayan and the kingdom of Peru.

I shall commence, then, with the port of Uraba, and pass thence to the
city of Antiochia and to other parts, as will appear presently.




CHAPTER VI.

How the city of San Sebastian was founded in the bay of Uraba;[190] and
of the native Indians in that neighbourhood.


In the year 1509, when Alonzo de Ojeda and Nicuesa were governors of
Tierra Firme, a town was founded in the province of Darien, and was
named Nuestra Señora del Antigua. Some of the Spaniards, who were among
the early discoverers, declare that they found the flower of the chiefs
of the Indians in these parts. At that time, although the province of
Carthagena was discovered, it was not settled, nor had the Christians
done more than trade with the Indians, obtaining a quantity of fine gold
by exchanges. The Governor Ojeda marched to the great town of Turbaco,
four leagues from Carthagena (which was formerly called Calamar), where
he fought a great battle with the Indians. Many Christians were killed,
and among them the captain Juan de la Cosa, a valiant and resolute man.
In order that his body might not fall into the hands of the Indians, the
Spaniards retreated to their ships. After this event the Governor Ojeda
founded a town of Christians in the country called Uraba, and appointed
as his captain and lieutenant there, Francisco Pizarro, who was
afterwards governor and marquis. In this city or town of Uraba, this
captain Francisco Pizarro, suffered from hunger and sickness, and from
the attacks of the Indians of Uraba. These Indians (as it is said) were
not natives of this province, their ancient home having been in the
country which borders on the great river of Darien.[191] Desiring to
escape from subjection to the yoke of the Spaniards who treated them so
ill, they left their homes with their arms, taking their women and
children with them. Having arrived at Uraba, they attacked the natives
with great cruelty, killed them all, and made themselves masters of
their land.

When the governor Ojeda heard of this he entertained hopes of finding
great riches in that country, and sent his lieutenant Francisco Pizarro
to form a settlement there, who was the first Christian to enter this
land. Afterwards these governors Ojeda and Nicuesa came to a disastrous
end, as is well known among those of that time who still survive, and
Pedrarias came as governor of Tierra Firme, but though there were 2000
Spaniards in the city of Antigua, none of them settled in Uraba.[192]
Time passed on, the governor Pedrarias cut off the head of his
son-in-law Yasco Nuñez de Balboa,[193] and of Captain Francisco
Hernandez in Nicaragua, and the Indians of the river Cenu killed the
captain Bezerra and the Christians who were with him. At last, Don Pedro
de Heredia came out as governor of Carthagena, and sent his brother the
captain Alonzo de Heredia with a party of Spaniards to settle in Uraba
for a second time, calling the city San Sebastian de Buena Vista.[194]
This city is situated on some small hills clear of trees, and there is
no thicket near them, except in the marshy ground and on the banks of
the rivers. But the province is covered with dense forest in many parts,
and the plains are full of very large palm trees with thick bark, and
bearing large _palmitos_, which are white and very sweet. When the
Spaniards explored this country, in the time when Alonzo Lopez de Ayala
was lieutenant to the governor of this city, they ate nothing for many
days except these _palmitos_. The wood is so hard and difficult to cut,
that it took a man half a day before he could cut a tree down and get
the _palmitos_, which they ate without bread, and drank much water, so
that many Spaniards died. Near the town, and on the banks of the river,
there are many gardens of orange-trees, plaintains, and guavas. There
are many rivers in the province, which rise in the mountains. In the
interior there are some Indians and caciques, who used to be very rich
by reason of their trade with those who lived in the plains beyond the
mountains, and in the country of Dobaybe. These Indians, who were
masters of this region, originally came, as I have before said, from the
other side of the great river of Darien. The lords or caciques are
obeyed and feared by the Indians, and their women are the prettiest and
most loveable of any that I have seen in the Indies. They are clean in
their eating, and have none of the dirty habits of other nations. These
Indians have small villages, and their houses are like long sheds. They
sleep in hammocks and use no other sort of bed. Their land is fertile
and abundantly supplied with provisions, such as well tasted roots.
There are also herds of small pigs which are good eating, and many great
tapirs, said by some to be of the shape and form of zebras; abundance of
turkeys and other birds, plenty of fish in the rivers, and tigers, which
kill the Indians and commit havoc amongst their beasts. There are also
very large serpents and other creatures in the dense forests, the names
of which we know not. Among them are the creatures which we call
_Pericos ligeros_,[195] and it is a marvel to see their fierce looks,
and the torpid lazy way in which they move along.

When the Spaniards occupied the villages of these Indians, they found a
great quantity of gold in some small baskets, in the form of rich
ornaments. There were also many other ornaments and chains of fine gold,
and much cotton cloth. The women wore mantles, which covered them from
the waist to the feet, and other mantles over their bosoms. They are
very pretty, and always go about decently dressed and combed. The men go
naked and barefooted, without other covering than what nature has given
them; but they have shells or other ornaments, either of bone or of very
fine gold, suspended by a thread in front of their privates. Some of
these that I saw, weighed forty to fifty _pesos_ each, some more and
some less. These Indians are engaged in trade, and take pigs, which are
native, and different from those in Spain, to sell to other tribes more
inland.[196] These pigs are smaller than Spanish pigs, and they have a
navel on their backs,[197] which must be something which has grown
there. The Indians also trade with salt and fish, getting in exchange
their gold, cloth and other articles. Their arms are bows, made of the
wood of a black palm, a _braza_ long, with very long and sharp arrows,
anointed with a juice which is so evil and pestilential, that no man who
is wounded with it so as to draw blood, can live, although it should not
be as much as would flow from the prick of a pin. Thus few if any who
have been wounded with this juice, fail to die.




CHAPTER VII.

How the herb is made so poisonous, with which the Indians of Carthagena
and Santa Martha have killed so many Spaniards.


As this poisonous juice of the Indians of Carthagena and Santa Martha is
so famous, it seems well to give an account here of the way it is made,
which is as follows. This juice is composed of many things. I
investigated and became acquainted with the principal ingredients in the
province of Carthagena, in a village called Bahayre, from a cacique or
lord, whose name was Macavin. He showed me some short roots, of a yellow
colour and disagreeable smell, and told me that they were dug up on the
sea shore, near the trees which we call _mansanillos_,[198] and pieces
were cut from the roots of that pestiferous tree. They then burnt these
pieces in earthen pots, and made them into a paste. After this was done,
they sought for certain ants, as big as the beetles of Spain, which are
very black and evil, and which, by merely biting a man, cause terrible
pain. This happened when we were journeying on the expedition with the
licentiate Juan de Vadillo; for one of the soldiers was bitten by an
ant, and suffered so much pain that at last he lost all feeling, and
even had three or four bad attacks of fever, until the poison had run
its course. They also seek for certain very large spiders, and for
certain hairy worms, creatures which I shall not soon forget; for one
day, when I was guarding a river in the forests called Abibe, under the
branch of a tree, one of these worms bit me in the neck, and I passed
the most painful and wearisome night I have ever experienced in my life.
They also make the poison of the wings of a bat, and the head and tail
of a fish which is very poisonous, adding toads and the tails of
serpents, together with certain small apples, which appear in colour
and smell to be the same as those of Spain. Some of those recently
arrived in these parts, on landing, eat these apples without knowing
that they are poisonous. I knew one Juan Agraz (whom I have lately seen
in the city of San Francisco de Quito), who, when he came from Spain,
and landed on the coast of Santa Martha, ate ten or a dozen of these
apples, and I heard him swear that in colour and smell they could not be
better, except that they have a milk which becomes poison. Other roots
and herbs form ingredients of this juice, and when they want to make it,
they prepare a great fire in a place far from their houses, and take
some slave girl whom they do not value, and make her watch the pots, and
attend to the brewing of the poison; but the smell kills the person who
thus makes the juice, at least so I have heard.




CHAPTER VIII.

In which other customs of the Indians subject to the city of Uraba are
described.


With this evil juice the Indians anoint the points of their arrows, and
they are so dexterous in the use of these arrows, and draw their bows
with such force, that it has often happened that they have transfixed a
horse, or the knight who is riding, the arrow entering on one side and
coming out on the other. They wear cotton for defensive armour, the
moisture of that country not being suitable for cuirasses. However, with
all these difficulties, and in spite of the country being so forbidding,
foot soldiers have overrun it with nothing but swords and shields, and
ten or twelve Spaniards are as good as 100 or 200 Indians. These Indians
have no temples nor any form of worship, and nothing has been discovered
concerning their religion as yet, except that they certainly talk with
the devil, and do him all the honour they can, for they hold him in
great veneration. He appears to them (as I have been told by one of
themselves) in frightful and terrible visions, which cause them much
alarm. The sons inherit their fathers’ property, if they are born of the
principal wife, and they marry the daughters of their sisters. Their
chiefs have many wives. When a chief dies, all his servants and friends
assemble in his house in the night, without any light; but they have a
great quantity of their wine made from maize, which they continue
drinking while they mourn for the dead. After they have completed their
ceremonies and sorceries, they inter the body with its arms and
treasures, plenty of food, and jugs of _chicha_, together with a few
live women. The devil gives them to understand that, in the place to
which they go, they will come to life in another kingdom which he has
prepared for them, and that it is necessary to take food with them for
the journey. As if hell was so very far off!

This city of San Sebastian was founded by Alonzo de Heredia, brother of
the Adelantado Don Pedro de Heredia, governor for his majesty of the
province of Carthagena, as I have said before.




CHAPTER IX.

Of the road between the city of San Sebastian and the city of Antioquia,
and of the wild beasts, forests, rivers, and other things in the way;
and how and in what season it can be passed.


I found myself in this city of San Sebastian de Buena Vista in the year
1536, and in 1537 the licentiate Juan de Vadillo, Juez de
Residencia,[199] and at that time governor of Carthagena, set out from
it with one of the finest armies that had been seen in Tierra Firme. We
were the first Spaniards who opened a road from the North to the South
Sea. I journeyed from this town of Uraba as far as the town of Plata, at
the furthest extremity of Peru, and made a point of seeing all the
provinces on my road, that I might be better able to note down what was
worthy of remark. I will, therefore, relate from this place forward all
that I saw, without desiring to exaggerate or depreciate anything, and
of this my readers may receive my assurance.

I say, then, that on leaving San Sebastian de Buena Vista, which is the
port of Uraba, to go to the city of Antioquia, the road runs by the
coast for five leagues as far as the banks of a small river called Rio
Verde, whence the distance to the city of Antioquia is forty-eight
leagues. The whole country, from this river to certain mountains called
Abibe, of which I shall speak presently, is flat, but covered with very
dense forests, and traversed by many rivers. The district near the road
is uninhabited, as the natives have retired to a distance from it. After
reaching Rio Verde, the road keeps close to the banks of the river, the
rest of the country being very densely covered with forest; and to pass
safely, it is necessary to travel in January, February, March, or April.
After April the rains set in, and the rivers are swollen and rapid, so
that even if it is possible to pass at all, it is at the cost of much
danger and difficulty. At all times those who travel by this road must
take good guides, and must understand how to cross the rivers. In all
these forests there are great herds of pigs, sometimes more than a
thousand together, counting their young ones, and they make a great
noise, so that those who travel with good dogs will not be in want of
food. There are also great tapirs, lions, bears, and tigers. In the
trees are to be seen the most beautifully marked wild cats that can be
found in the world, and large monkeys, that make such a noise that,
from a distance, those who are new to the country would think they were
pigs. When the Spaniards pass under the trees where the monkeys are,
these creatures break off branches, and throw them down, making faces
all the time. The rivers are so full of fish that with any net a great
haul may be drawn. When we were going with the Captain Jorge Robledo
from Antioquia to Carthagena, we saw so many fish that we could kill
them with sticks. On the trees near the rivers, there is a creature
called _yguana_, which looks like a serpent, or like one of the large
lizards of Spain, except that it has a larger head and longer tail, but
in colour and shape it is exactly like. When skinned and roasted these
creatures are as good to eat as rabbits; to my mind they are even
better, especially the females, which have many eggs. But those who are
not accustomed to them would be so frightened at the sight of them, that
they would have no desire to eat them. No one can say for certain
whether they are fish or flesh, for we see them run down the trees into
the water, where they are quite at home; and they are also found in the
interior, where there are no rivers. There are other creatures called
_Hicoteas_,[200] like turtles, which are also good eating. There are
many turkeys, pheasants, and parrots of all kinds, as well as
_Guacamayas_,[201] with very bright plumage; some small eagles, pigeons,
partridges, doves, besides night-birds and other birds of prey. In these
forests there are very large snakes. I must here relate a circumstance
which I hold to be certainly true, for it is attested by many men who
are worthy of belief. It is that when the Lieutenant Juan Greciano was
travelling by this road, by order of the licentiate Santa Cruz, in
search of the licentiate Juan de Vadillo, in company with certain
Spaniards, among whom were Manuel de Peralta, Pedro de Barros, and Pedro
Ximon, they met with a snake or serpent, which was so large that it
measured more than twenty feet in length, and of great girth. Its head
was a clear red, its eyes green and protruding, and, when they saw it,
it levelled its head to strike at them, and, indeed, gave Pedro Ximon
such a blow that he died. They found an entire deer in its belly; and I
heard it said that some of the Spaniards, owing to the hunger they felt,
ate the deer and even a part of the snake. There are other snakes, not
so large as this one, which make a noise when they walk like the sound
of bells. If these snakes bite a man they kill him. The Indians say that
there are many other kinds of serpents and wild animals in these
forests, which I do not describe as I have not seen them. There are
abundance of the palm-trees of Uraba, and many wild fruits.




CHAPTER X.

Of the grandeur of the mountains of Abibe, and of the admirable and
useful timber which grows there.


Having crossed these low forest covered plains, the way leads up a broad
chain of mountains called Abibe.[202] This mountain-chain extends to the
west, over many provinces and uninhabited tracts. Its length is
uncertain, but its breadth is in some places twenty leagues: in others
much more, and in others a little less. The roads by which the Indians
crossed this wild chain of mountains (for many parts of it are
inhabited) were so bad and difficult, that horses neither can nor ever
will be able to pass over them. The Captain Francisco Cesar, was the
first Spaniard who crossed this range of mountains, and with much
trouble he came to the valley of Guaco, which is on the other side. The
roads are assuredly most difficult and wearisome, for they are full of
evil places and thickets, while the roots are such that they entangle
the feet of both men and horses. At the highest part of the mountains
there is a very laborious ascent, and a still more dangerous descent on
the other side. When we descended with the licentiate Juan de Vadillo,
there being several very steep declivities, we made a sort of wall with
ropes and stakes filled in with earth, so that the horses might be able
to pass without danger, and although this contrivance was of some use,
yet many horses fell over and were dashed to pieces. Even among the
Spaniards some were killed, and others were so much injured that they
were unable longer to proceed, and remained in the forests, awaiting
their deaths in great misery concealed by the brushwood, so that those
who remained whole might not see them and carry them forward. Some of
the horses, too, were so much exhausted that they could not go on, and
many Negroes either fled or died. Certainly, we who passed over these
mountains were in very evil case, seeing that we suffered the hardships
that I have just described. There are no inhabitants whatever in the
higher parts of the mountains, or if there are, they live at a distance
from the road by which we traversed them; but in the valleys which run
up into these mountains there are many Indians, who possess much gold.
The rivers which descend from this range towards the west, bring down
great store of gold. Nearly all the year round it rains, and the trees
are always dropping water from their leaves. There is no fodder for the
horses, except some small long prickly leaves, inside which grow small
_palmitos_, which are very bitter; and I have been myself in such
straits with weariness and hunger, that I have eaten them. As it is
always raining, and the Spanish travellers are constantly wet, the whole
of them would certainly die if they had no fire. But the giver of
blessings, who is Christ our God and Lord, displays his power
everywhere, and thinks it good to be merciful and to afford us a remedy
for all our ills. Although there is no want of fire-wood in these
mountains, yet it is so wet that if the fire was lighted it would go
out. To provide for this want there are certain tall trees, something
like an ash, the wood of which is white and very dry: when this wood is
cut up and set fire to, it burns like candlewood, and does not go out
until it is consumed by the flames. We owe our lives entirely to the
discovery of this wood. Where the Indians are settled there are plenty
of supplies of fruit and fish, besides great store of brightly dyed
cotton mantles. Here the evil root of Uraba is not found, and the
Indians have no other arms than palm lances, clubs, and darts. They make
bridges over the numerous rivers with stout creepers, which are like
roots growing on the trees, and are as strong as hempen ropes. They make
a great rope by twisting several of these together and throw it across
the river, fastening each end securely to the trees, of which there are
many near the banks. Several more are secured in the same way, and thus
a bridge is formed. The Indians and their wives pass across; but they
are so dangerous that I should very much prefer walking over the bridge
of Alcantara. Notwithstanding this, and in spite of the danger, the
Indians, as I have said, go over laden, with their women and children,
with as little fear as if they were on firm land. All these Indians of
the mountains are subject to a great and powerful cacique, called
Nutibara. Having passed these mountains, there is a very pretty valley
where there is no forest, but naked hills: and the Indians have their
roads on the plain and sides of the hills.




CHAPTER XI.

Of the cacique Nutibara, and of his territory: and of other caciques
subject to the city of Antioquia.


When we entered this valley with the Licentiate Juan de Vadillo, it was
scattered over with very large houses of wood thatched with straw, and
the fields were full of all kinds of food. In the hills several
delightful rivers rise, whose banks were covered with many kinds of
fruit trees, with very tall slender palm trees, thorny, with a bunch of
fruit called _Pixibaes_ growing at the top. They make both bread and
wine from this fruit, and when the tree is cut down, they take from it a
good-sized _palmito_, which is both sweet and wholesome. There are also
many trees which we call _aguacates_, _guavas_, _guayavas_, and very
fragrant pines.

The lord or king of this country was one named Nutibara, son of
Anunaybe. He had a brother called Quinuchu, who was then his lieutenant
over the Indians that lived in the mountains of Abibe (which we had just
crossed) and in other parts. This lieutenant supplied his lord with many
pigs, fish, birds, and other things from that land, and sent him gold
and apparel as tribute. When the lord went to war, he was followed by
many people with their arms. When he travelled through the country, he
sat on a litter inlaid with gold, which was borne on the shoulders of
his principal men. He had many wives. Near the door of his house, and
the same thing was done at the houses of his captains, there were many
heads of his enemies whom he had eaten, which were kept there as
trophies. All the natives of this country eat human flesh. There are
many large burial places which must needs be very rich. They had, in the
first place, a great house or temple dedicated to the Devil. At the time
that the Captain Francisco Cesar entered the valley, the natives rose in
arms near that house or temple, thinking that, as his followers were
such bad christians they might easily kill them. Thus, more than 20,000
Indians came out to war with much noise; but, although the Spanish party
numbered no more than twenty-nine or thirty horse, they showed so bold a
front that the Indians fled after the battle had lasted a long time,
leaving the field in possession of the christians, and on this occasion
Cesar certainly showed himself to be worthy of so great a name. Those
who may write respecting Carthagena will have plenty to say of this
captain; but it will not behove me to write more concerning him than is
necessary for the clearness of my narrative.[203] If the Spaniards who
entered this valley with Cesar were not numerous, they certainly all
became rich, and got plenty of gold; but, afterwards, when we came, the
Indians concealed their gold by the advice of the devil, as they
themselves affirm. Before these Indians gave battle to Captain Cesar,
they took their gold to the temple which they had built (according to
their own account) in honour of the devil; and, when the Spaniards came
there, digging in a certain part, they found a vault with the entrance
towards the setting sun, in which there were many vases full of very
fine ornaments of gold, altogether more than 21 quintals,[204] worth
upwards of 40,000 ducats. They related that further on there was another
house that contained more treasure, and they also stated that they found
others still more rich in the valley. Afterwards, when we arrived with
Vadillo, we found the burial places opened, and the house or temple
burnt. An Indian woman, who belonged to one Baptista Zimbron, said to me
that after Cesar returned to Carthagena, all the lords of these valleys
assembled and performed sacrifices, when the devil appeared in the form
of a very fierce tiger, (which in their language is called _guaca_), and
said that those christians had come from the other side of the sea, and
that soon many more would arrive to occupy and take possession of the
land, and that they must prepare for war. He then disappeared, and the
Indians began to prepare, first taking a great quantity of treasure out
of the burial places.




CHAPTER XII.

Of the customs of these Indians, of their arms, and of the ceremonies
they perform; and who the founder of the city of Antioquia was.


The inhabitants of these valleys are brave amongst themselves, and much
feared by their neighbours. The men go naked and barefooted, and merely
wear a narrow band fastened to a girdle round the waist. Their hair is
worn very long. Their arms are darts, long lances of black palm, slings,
and two-handed clubs, called _Macanas_.[205] The women wear a mantle
from the waist downwards of bright coloured cotton cloth. The lords,
when they marry, make a sort of sacrifice to their gods. They assemble
in a house to the number of about twelve, where the prettiest girls have
already been assembled, and choose those they desire most. The son of
the chosen woman inherits the lordship, and if there is no son, the son
of the lord’s sister inherits. These people border on a province called
Tatabe, which is thickly inhabited by rich and warlike Indians, whose
customs are the same as those of their neighbours. Their houses are
built over very large trees, and are made of many stout poles, each
house having more than two hundred of them, and the coverings of these
great houses consist of palm leaves. Many Indians live in one house,
with their wives and children. These nations extend to the westward as
far as the South Sea, and to the east they border on the great river of
Darien. All their country is mountainous, very rugged, and fearful to
pass through. Near this country they say there is that grandeur and
wealth of the Dabaybe which is so celebrated in Terra Firme.[206] In
another part of the country, over which Nutibara is lord, there are some
Indians living in a certain valley called Nore, which is very fertile.
Near this valley is now built the city of Antioquia. In ancient times
there was a large population in these valleys, as we judged from the
edifices and burial places, of which there are many well worth seeing,
being so large as to appear like small hills.

These Indians, though they speak the same language as those of Guaca,
were always engaged in wars with them, so that the number of both
nations has greatly diminished, for they eat all those that are
captured, and place their heads before the doors of their houses. They
go naked like the others, except that the chiefs sometimes cover
themselves with a long mantle of coloured cotton. The women are covered
with small mantles of the same material. Before passing on, I wish to
relate a truly strange and wondrous thing. The second time that we
returned through these valleys, when the city of Antioquia was founded
near the hills which overhang them, I heard it said that the lords or
caciques of the valley of Nore collected all the women they could find
from the land of their enemies, took them home, and used them as if they
had been their own. If any children were born, they were reared with
much care until they reached the age of twelve or thirteen, and, being
then plump and healthy, these caciques ate them with much appetite, not
considering that they were of their own flesh and blood. In this way
they had many women solely to bring forth children, which were
afterwards to be eaten: and this is the greatest of all the sins that
these people commit. I saw myself what occurred between one of these
chiefs and the licentiate Juan de Vadillo, who is now in Spain, and if
he is asked respecting what I now write, he will say that it is true. It
is that, when I and my comrades entered these valleys, a chief named
Nabonuco came to us peaceably, and brought with him three women. When
night came on, two of them laid down on a mat, and the other across it
to serve as a pillow. The Indian then made his bed on the bodies of
these women, and took another pretty woman by the hand. When the
licentiate Juan de Vadillo saw this proceeding, he asked the Indian
chief why he had brought that other woman whom he held by the hand. The
chief replied, in a gentle voice, looking him in the face, that he was
going to eat her. On hearing this, Vadillo was astonished, and said,
“What! are you going to eat your own wife?” The chief, raising his
voice, replied, “Yes, truly; and I will also eat the child she bears
me.” This happened in the valley of Nore. I have heard this licentiate
Juan de Vadillo sometimes say, that he had heard from some old Indians,
that when the natives of Nore go to war, they make slaves of their
prisoners, and marry them to their own relations and neighbours, and
that the children thus born are eaten; and that afterwards, when these
slaves are too old to have any more children, they eat them also. In
truth, as these Indians have no faith, I am not astonished at this.

Owing to these wars, when we discovered the valleys, we found so many
human heads at the doors of the chiefs’ houses, that it seemed as if
each one had been a butcher’s shop. When one of the chiefs dies, the
people mourn for many days, cut off the hair of his wives, kill those
who were most beloved, and raise a tomb the size of a small hill, with
an opening towards the rising sun. Within this great tomb they make a
large vault, and here they put the body, wrapped in cloths, and the gold
and arms the dead man had used when alive. They then take the most
beautiful of his wives and some servant lads, make them drunk with wine
made with maize, and bury them alive in that vault, in order that the
chief may go down to hell with companions.

This city of Antioquia is situated in a valley between the famous,
notable, and rich rivers of Darien and of Santa Martha, for these
valleys are between the two Cordilleras.[207] The position of the city
is very good, with wide plains, near a small river. Many other rivers
flow near it, which rise in the Cordilleras, and many springs of sweet
and limpid water. All the rivers are full of very fine gold, and their
banks are shaded by many kinds of fruit-trees. Antioquia is surrounded
by extensive provinces, inhabited by Indians, very rich in gold, who use
small scales to weigh it; but they are all great eaters of human flesh,
and when they take each other prisoners, they show no mercy. One day I
saw in Antioquia, when we founded it in some hills where Captain Jorge
Robledo first fixed the site (which was afterwards changed by Captain
Juan Cabrera to the site where the city now stands), while walking in a
field of maize, four Indians close to me, who met another, and killed
him with their clubs. They then drank his blood and eat his entrails by
mouthfuls. They have no arrows, nor do they use any other arms than the
above. I have never seen any temple or house of worship, except that
which was burnt in the valley of Guaca. They all talk with the devil;
and in each village there are two or three old men who are adepts in the
evil art of conversing with him, and they announce what he desires to be
done. They do not entirely attain to a belief in the immortality of the
soul. The water and all that the earth produces is referred to nature,
although they well know there is a Creator, but their belief is false,
as I shall relate presently.

The city of Antioquia was founded and settled by the Captain Jorge
Robledo, in the name of his Majesty the Emperor Charles, King of Spain
and of the Indies, our lord, and by order of the Adelantado Don
Sebastian de Belalcazar, his governor and captain-general of the
province of Popayan, in the year of the nativity of our Lord 1541. This
city is in 7° of the equinoctial,[208] on the north side.[209]




CHAPTER XIII.

Of the description of the province of Popayan, and the reason why the
natives of it are so wild, and those of Peru so gentle.


As the captains from Peru discovered and settled in this province of
Popayan, they speak of it as a part of, and one with, that land of Peru;
but I cannot consider it in that light, because the people, the land,
and all other things in it are different.

This province was called Popayan from the city of Popayan, which is in
it. It is 200 leagues long, little more or less, and thirty or forty
broad, in some parts more, and in others, less. On one side it has the
coast of the South Sea, and some very high rugged mountains to the
westward. On the other side are the main Cordilleras of the Andes; and
between these mountains rise many rivers, some of them, being very
large, forming broad valleys. One of these, which is the largest in all
this land, is the great river of Santa Martha. The towns of Pasto,
Popayan, and Timana are included in this government, and the city of
Cali, near the port of Buenaventura; besides the towns of Anzerma,
Cartago, Arma, Antioquia, and others which were founded after I left the
country. In this province some parts are cold and others hot, some
healthy and others pestilential. In some parts it rains much, in others
little. In some parts the Indians are cannibals, in others not. On one
side it borders on the new kingdom of New Granada, on the other, on the
kingdom of Peru. To the west, it is bounded by the government of the
river of San Juan; to the north, by that of Carthagena.

Many have wondered how it is that these Indians, having their dwellings
in positions exposed to invasion, and, except in Pasto, the country
being neither too hot nor too cold, but in all things convenient for
conquest, should be so untameable and obstinate; while those in Peru,
with their forest-covered valleys, snowy mountains, and greater numbers,
are so gentle and submissive. To this I would answer that the Indians of
the government of Popayan are, and always have been, in a state of
confusion, and they have never been ruled by a chief whom they feared.
They are lazy and idle, and, above all, they detest being under
subjection to any one, which is a sufficient cause for resisting the
yoke of strangers. Another reason is to be found in the fertility of the
soil, while in some parts there are dense forests, cane brakes, and
other fastnesses; so that when the Spaniards press on these Indians,
they burn their houses, which are of wood and straw, and retreat for a
league or two, making other dwellings within three or four days, and
sowing as much maize as they require, which they reap within four
months. If they are still pursued, they once more abandon their homes,
and retreat; for wherever they go they find a fertile land ready to
supply them with its fruits, so that war or peace are in their own
hands; and they never want for food. The Peruvians, on the contrary, are
docile because they have more understanding, and because they were
subject to the Kings Yncas, to whom they paid tribute, and whom they
always served. In this condition they were born; and if any did not wish
to obey, they were constrained to do so, for the land of Peru is full of
mountainous tracts and snowy plains. If, therefore, they were to fly
from their homes to these wilds, they could not live, for the land does
not yield fruit, so that they must serve in order to live, which is
quite sufficient reason to resolve the doubt.

I now propose to pass on, giving a particular account of the provinces
of this government, and of the Spanish cities which have been founded in
it, and stating who were the founders. From the city of Antioquia there
are two roads, one to go to the town of Anzerma, and the other to go to
the city of Cartago; and before I relate what is worthy of notice on the
road to Cartago and Arma, I will give an account of the town of Anzerma,
and then return to do the same by the other route.




CHAPTER XIV.

Containing an account of the road between the city of Antioquia and the
town of Anzerma, and of the region which lies on either side of it.


Starting from the city of Antioquia and travelling towards the town of
Anzerma, one sees the rich and famous hill of Buritica, whence such a
vast quantity of gold has been taken in times past. The distance from
Antioquia to Anzerma is seventy leagues, and the road is very rough,
with naked hills and few trees. The greater part is inhabited by
Indians, but their houses are a long way from the road. After leaving
Antioquia one comes to a small hill called Corome, which is in a little
valley where there used to be a populous village of Indians; but since
the Spaniards came as conquerors, the Indians have greatly diminished in
numbers. This village had many rich gold mines, and also streams whence
they could obtain gold. There are few fruit trees, and the maize yields
small crops. The Indians are the same as those we had already met with,
in language and customs. Further on there is a settlement on the top of
a great hill, where there used to be a village of large houses inhabited
by miners, who became very rich by collecting gold. The neighbouring
caciques had their houses here also, and their servants obtained a great
quantity of gold. From this hill came the greater part of the riches
which were found at Cenu in the burial places, and I saw very fine gold
in abundance taken from them, before we went to the discovery of Urute
with the Captain Alonzo de Caceres.

When we discovered this village, with the Licentiate Juan de Vadillo, I
remember that a priest who accompanied the expedition, named Francisco
de Frias, found a _Totuma_, which is a sort of large glazed earthen jug,
full of earth, and he sorted very large grains of gold out of it. We
also saw here the sources whence they extract the gold, and the tools
with which they work. When the Captain Jorge de Robledo founded the city
of Antioquia, he went to see these gold washings, and they washed a lump
of earth, extracting a quantity of very fine grains which one of the
miners affirmed to be gold, but another said it was not gold, but what
we call marcasite. As we were on a journey we could not stop to examine
further. When the Spaniards entered this village the Indians burnt it,
and they have shown no desire to settle there again. I recollect that a
soldier named Toribio, going to seek for food, found a stone in a river
as big as a man’s head, covered with veins of gold which penetrated from
one side of the stone to the other: and when he saw it, he put it on his
shoulders to carry it to the camp. As he was going up a hill, he met a
small Indian dog, and when he saw it he turned to kill it for food,
dropping the stone which rolled back again into the river. Toribio
killed the dog, thinking it worth more than gold, such was his hunger,
and thus the stone remained in the river where it was before. In another
river I saw a negro, belonging to the Captain Jorge Robledo, wash large
grains of gold out of a lump of earth. In fine, if the people were more
docile and better conditioned, and not such eaters of human food: and if
our governors and captains were more pious and had not ill-treated them,
this province would be very rich.

Near this village, which is on the top of a hill called Buritica, a
small river rises and flows through a valley where there is a mining
establishment formed by the same captain, Jorge Robledo, and called
Santa Fé, which is subject to the city of Antioquia. The mines have been
found to be very rich near the great river of Santa Martha, which flows
close by the establishment, and during the summer the Indians and
Negroes get much wealth from the banks, and hereafter, when there are
more Negroes, they will procure more gold. There is also another
settlement near the beforementioned village, called Xundabe, inhabited
by Indians with the same language and customs. Further on there is
another village called Caramanta, the name of the cacique or lord of
which is Cauroma.[210]




CHAPTER XV.

Of the customs of the Indians of this land, and of the forests that must
be traversed in order to reach the town of Anzerma.


The people of this province are warlike, and their language is different
from the others we had met with. The country is covered in all parts by
dense forests, and a broad river flows through it, swelled by many
streams and fountains where they make salt--a truly wonderful and
prodigious fact: and of it, as well as of many other things in this
province, I will speak presently, when the narrative affords a suitable
place. There is a small lake in the valley where they make very white
salt. The Lords or Caciques and their Captains have very large houses,
and near the doors there are stout canes that grow in these parts, on
the tops of which are placed many heads of their enemies. When they go
to war, they take sharp knives made of reeds or flint, or of the bark of
canes, which they can also make very sharp, and with these they cut off
the heads of their captives. To others they give most terrible deaths,
cutting off their limbs, eating them, and placing their heads on the
tops of canes. Amongst these canes they place certain boards on which
they carve the figure of a devil, very fierce, and in human form, with
other idols and figures of cats which they worship. When they require
water or sunshine for their crops, they seek aid from these idols. Those
who are set apart for that purpose talk with the devil, and are great
sorcerers and magicians. They believe in and watch for signs and
prodigies, and preserve those superstitions which the devil suggests:
such is the power he has over these Indians--God our Lord permitting it
for their sins, or for some other reason known to himself. They said,
when we first discovered the country with the Licentiate Juan de
Vadillo, that their chief, named Cauroma, had many idols of very fine
gold: and they say that there is such abundance of that metal, that the
chief can get as much as he likes from a certain river.

These Indians are great butchers in the matter of eating human flesh.
Near the doors of their houses there are small open spaces where they
have their places of sepulture, according to the custom of their
country, consisting of very deep vaults, with their openings facing the
east. When a chief dies, they place him in one of these vaults with much
mourning, putting his arms and clothes, the gold he possessed, and some
food, with the body. From this circumstance we conjecture that the
Indians certainly gave some credit to the thought that the soul leaves
the body.

The country is well supplied with provisions, and fertile, yielding
crops of maize and edible roots. There are scarcely any fruit trees.

To the eastward of this province there is another called Cartama, which
is the limit of the discoveries of Sebastian de Belalcazar. The Indians
are rich in gold, have small houses, and all go naked and barefooted,
without anything more than a small band, with which they cover their
shame. The women wear small mantles of cotton from the waist downwards,
but are otherwise uncovered.

Beyond the province of Cartama there is a forest, extending more than
seven leagues, and very dense; and here we suffered much from hunger and
cold when we went with Vadillo; and I may truly affirm that in all my
life I never suffered such hunger as during that journey, although I
have served in some expeditions of discovery in which we underwent great
hardships. We found ourselves in so sad a plight in these dense forests,
where the sun could not penetrate, without roads, or guides, nor any one
to tell us whether we were far from or near any inhabited part, that we
were inclined to return to Carthagena. It was a great thing for us to
find that wood which I described as growing in the mountains of Abibe,
for with it we could make a fire, as it will always burn whenever it is
required to do so. By the help of God, and with the aid of our own arms,
with which we forced a way, we got through these forests, in which we
left several Spaniards dead from hunger, and many horses. Beyond, there
is a small valley clear of trees, and a little farther on we came to a
large and beautiful valley, very populous, with the houses all new, and
close to each other. Some of them were very large, and the fields were
full of maize crops and edible roots. Afterwards, the inhabitants of
this valley left their old home, fleeing from the cruelties of the
Spaniards, and took refuge in some wild and lofty mountains, which
overhang the valley called Cima. Two leagues and a half beyond this
valley, there is another small one, formed by a spur which runs out from
the Cordillera; and here the town of Anzerma is founded, which was first
called the city of Santa Ana de los Cavalleros. It is built between two
small rivers, on a rising ground, which is covered with beautiful trees,
and fruit trees both of Europe and of the country, and excellent crops
of beans. The city overlooks all the district, being the highest part of
the rising ground, and no people can approach without being first seen
from the town. On all sides it is surrounded by great villages, ruled
over by many caciques or lords, who are all friendly to each other. The
villages are close together, and the houses are divided from each other
by short spaces.




CHAPTER XVI.

Of the customs of the Caciques and Indians in the neighbourhood of the
town of Anzerma, of the founding of that town, and who its founder was.


The place on which the town of Anzerma is built is called by the natives
Umbra, and when the Adelantado Sebastian de Belalcazar entered this
province, as he had no interpreter, he could understand none of its
secrets. He heard the Indians, when they saw salt, call it _Anzer_, and
this is true, for among them it has no other name; and this is the
reason that from that time, in speaking of the place, they have called
it Anzerma, and have given this name to the town. Four leagues to the
westward, there is a village which, though not very large, is inhabited
by many Indians, as it has large houses and broad lands. In the road to
it there is a small river, and it is a league from the great and rich
river of Santa Martha. These Indians had for their captain and chief a
well-disposed man named Ciricha. He has, or had when I saw the place, a
very large house at the entrance of the village, and many others in
different parts. Near the large house there is a small court surrounded
by the canes I have already described as having seen in Caramanta, and
on the top of each was the head of an Indian who had been eaten. The
chief had many wives. These Indians have the same language and customs
as those of Caramanta, but are even greater butchers and eaters of human
flesh.

That the difficulties of the discovery of this country may be known, I
desire to relate what happened in this village, at the time when we
entered it with the licentiate Juan de Vadillo. As the stores of maize
had been carried off, we neither found that nor anything else to eat,
and it was more than a year since we had eaten meat, except that of the
horses that had died, and of a few dogs. We even had no salt, such was
the misery we endured. At this time twenty-five or thirty soldiers set
out to procure, or, to speak more plainly, to rob whatever they could
find, and, near the great river they came upon some people who fled, for
fear of being seen and taken prisoners by us. Here the soldiers found a
great pot full of cooked flesh, and they were so hungry that they
thought of nothing but eating it, supposing it was the flesh of
creatures called _cuis_,[211] because some came out of the pot. As soon
as they had well eaten, one of them took out of the pot a hand with its
fingers and nails, and they also found pieces of the feet and other
parts of a man. When the Spaniards saw these things, they were troubled
at having eaten of such meat, and the sight of the fingers and hands
caused them much sorrow; but they returned to the camp, from which they
had set out half dead with hunger.

Many small rivers rise in the mountains near this village, where much
very rich gold has been taken by these Indians and by Negroes. These
Indians are friends and allies of those of Caramanta, but they were
always at war with their other neighbours. There is a strong position in
the village, which they garrison in time of war. They go naked and
barefooted, and the women wear small mantles, and are good looking--some
of them beautiful. Further on is the district of Sopia, and between
these two places there flows a river rich in gold, where the Spaniards
have established some farms. The people of the last named district also
go naked. The houses are like those of other Indians, and within them
there are great sepulchres where they bury their dead. They have no
idols nor house of worship that we saw. They talk with the devil. They
marry their nieces, and sometimes their sisters, and the son of the
principal wife inherits the lordship; for all these Indians, if they are
chiefs, have many wives. If a chief has no son, the son of his sister
succeeds. This district borders on the province of Cartama, in going to
which the great river is crossed. On the other side is the province of
Pozo, of which we shall have to treat further on. To the east of Anzerma
there are other large villages, full of fruit gardens and cultivated
fields, whose chiefs are friendly. They are all allies, although at
times there is enmity and war amongst them. They are not such butchers
and eaters of human flesh as the others whom I have described. The
caciques are very rich, and before the Spaniards came, they went about
in hammocks and litters. They have many wives, who, considering that
they are Indians, are beautiful. They wear handsome coloured mantles of
cotton.

The men go naked, but the principal chiefs cover themselves with a large
mantle. The women are dressed as I have before said, they comb out their
hair, and wear very beautiful necklaces made of pieces of fine gold, and
ear-rings. They also slit their nostrils and insert pieces of gold in
the opening, some large and others small. The chiefs had many drinking
cups of gold, and mantles, both for themselves and their wives,
garnished with pieces of gold, some round and others in the shape of
stars. They call the devil Xixarama, and the Spaniards Tamaraca. Some of
them are great sorcerers and herb doctors. Their daughters are married
after they have ceased to be virgins, and they do not hold virginity to
be a thing of any estimation. When they marry they use no kind of
ceremony. When their chiefs die in a part of this province called Tauya,
they place their bodies in hammocks and light fires all round. Holes are
dug beneath, into which the melted fat drops, and when the body is half
burnt, the relations come and make great lamentations, drinking their
wine, and reciting their songs of praise to their gods according to
their custom, and as they have been taught by their elders. This being
done, they wrap the bodies in shrouds, and keep them for several years
uninterred. When they are thoroughly dried up, they put them into
sepulchres which they make in their houses. In the other provinces, when
a chief dies, they make a very deep sepulchre in the lofty parts of the
mountains, and, after much lamentation, they put the body in it, wrapped
in many rich cloths, with arms on one side and plenty of food on the
other, great jars of wine, plumes, and gold ornaments. At his feet they
bury some of his most beloved and beautiful women alive; holding it for
certain that he will come to life, and make use of what they have placed
round him.

These Indians use darts, lances, and clubs, some of black palm wood, and
others of a white wood which grows in those parts. We did not see any
house of worship in their country. When they talk with the devil, they
say that it becomes dark, and that one who is chosen from the rest
speaks for the others. The country, where these people have their
villages, consists of very lofty mountains without any trees. To the
westward there is a vast forest called Cima, and further on, towards the
South Sea, there are many Indians and large villages; and it seems
certain that the great river of Darien[212] rises there.

This town of Anzerma was founded by the captain Jorge Robledo in the
name of his Majesty, the Adelantado Don Francisco Pizarro being governor
and captain-general of all these provinces: although it is true that
Lorenzo de Aldana, the lieutenant-general for Don Francisco Pizarro in
the city of Cali, named the municipality, and appointed as alcaldes Suer
de Nava and Martin de Amoroto, and as alguazil-mayor Ruy Venegas, and
sent Robledo to people this city, now called a town, ordering him to
call it Santa Anna de los Caballeros. Thus some credit for the
foundation of Anzerma may, for these reasons, be given to Lorenzo de
Aldana.




CHAPTER XVII.

Concerning the provinces and towns between the city of Antiochia and the
town of Arma; and of the customs of the natives.


Here I will cease from following the road which I had commenced, and,
returning to the city of Antiochia, I will give an account of the road
which leads thence to the town of Arma, and even as far as the city of
Cartago. After setting out from the city of Antiochia to go to the town
of Arma, the great river of Santa Martha is reached, a journey of twelve
leagues.[213] To cross the river there is a boat, or at least there is
no want of materials for making one. There are few Indians on the banks
of the river, and the villages are small, for the inhabitants have
retired to a distance from the road. After travelling for some leagues a
village is reached, which used to be very large. It was called the
“_Pueblo llano_,” but when the Spaniards entered the country, the
natives fled to certain mountains which were little more than two
leagues distant. The Indians are small, and they use arrows, which must
have been brought from the other side of the Andes, for the natives of
those parts have them. They are great traders, and their principal
article of trade is salt. They go naked, the women wearing very small
cloths from the belly to the thighs. They are rich in gold, and their
rivers contain abundance of that metal. Their habits and customs are
like those of the neighbouring tribes. Beyond this village there is
another called Mugia, where there is a great quantity of salt, and many
traders carry it over the mountains and obtain in exchange great sums of
gold, cotton cloths, and other things which they require. Further on I
shall treat of this salt, how it is obtained, and how they carry it.

Beyond Mugia, towards the east, is the valley of Aburra, to go to which
it is necessary to cross the Andes, which is done very easily as there
is little forest, and the journey only takes one day. We discovered this
valley with captain Jorge Robledo, but we only saw a few small villages,
different from those we had already passed, and not so rich. When we
entered this valley of Aburra, the detestation we conceived for the
natives was such that we hung them and their women to the boughs of
trees by their hair, and, amidst grievous moans, we left their bodies
there, while their souls went down to hell. The land is very fertile in
this valley of Aburra, and several rivers flow through it. Further on
there is a very large ancient road, and others by which the people
communicate with those to the eastward, which are numerous and great,
but we heard of them by common report, and did not know them from
personal inspection. We next arrived at a village called Cenasura, which
is rich, and it is believed that there are here some very rich burial
places. The Indians are fine men; they go naked like the others, and
resemble them in their habits. At the village of Blanco, some distance
beyond Cenasura, we left the great river on the right hand, in order to
go to the town of Arma.

There are many other rivers on this route, which I do not enumerate,
because they have not all got names. Near Cenasura there is a river
flowing over a very stony bed, and nearly a day’s journey along its
banks, on the left hand, there is a large and very populous district
concerning which I shall presently write. These districts were at first
placed under the city of Cartago (the great river forming the boundary)
by Captain Jorge Robledo, who discovered them; but as the Indians were
so untameable, and opposed to service at Cartago, the adelantado
Belalcazar, governor for his Majesty, ordered that these villages should
be separated from Cartago, and that a town of Spaniards should be
founded in the midst of them. This was done, and the town was formed by
Miguel Muñoz, in the name of his Majesty, the adelantado Don Sebastian
de Belalcazar being governor of the province, in the year 1542. It was
first founded on a hill at the entrance of the province of Arma, but the
war which the natives carried on against the Spaniards was so fierce
that, for this reason, and because there was little room to sow crops
and establish farms, it was removed a little more than two leagues
nearer the great river. The site is twenty-three leagues from the city
of Cartago, twelve from the town of Anzerma, and one from the great
river, on a plain between two small rivers, and is surrounded by great
palm trees, which are different from those I have already described,
though more useful, for very savoury _palmitos_ are taken from them, and
their fruit is also savoury, for when it is broken with stones, milk
flows out, and they even make a kind of cream and butter from it, which
they use for lighting lamps.[214] I have seen that which I now relate,
and it all comes within my own experience. The site of this town is
considered rather unhealthy, but the land is very fertile. A _fanega_ of
maize yields a hundredfold and more, and they sow the maize twice a
year, and other produce yields in the same proportion. Up to the present
time no wheat has been sown, so that I cannot affirm whether it will
yield a harvest or not. The mines are richer on the great river, which
is a league from this town, than in other parts, for if Negroes are set
to work, a day will not pass without each man giving two or three ducats
to his master. As time wears on, this will come to be among the richest
districts of the Indies.

The _repartimiento_[215] of Indians which I received for my services
was in the neighbourhood of this city. I could wish to use my pen at
more length on this subject (but the state of affairs will not permit
it), principally because many of my companions, the discoverers and
conquerors who set out with me from Carthagena, are without Indians, or
only possess those which they have had to pay for, which is certainly no
small grievance.




CHAPTER XVIII.

Of the province of Arma, of the customs of the natives, and of other
notable things.


This province of Arma, whence the town took its name, is very large and
populous, and the richest in this part of the country; it contains
twenty thousand Indians capable of bearing arms, not counting women and
children, or did so when I wrote this, which was at the time when
Christian Spaniards first entered the country. Their houses are large
and round, made of long poles and beams, which curve upwards from the
ground, and the roof is of straw. In these houses there are several
divisions, partitioned off by reeds, and many people live in them. The
province is about ten leagues long, by six or seven broad, a little more
or less, broken up into rugged mountain ranges without forest. The
valleys are like orchards, being full of all kinds of fruit trees, such
as are found in this country, besides a very delicious fruit of a brown
colour, called _pitahaya_.[216] This fruit has the peculiarity of making
the urine of those who eat it, even though it be only one, of the colour
of blood. In the hills there is another fruit which I take to be very
curious, called _vuillas_.[217] It is small, and has a pleasant smell.

Some rivers rise in the mountains, and one of them, called the river of
Arma, is troublesome to cross in the winter. The others are not large,
but, from their appearance I certainly think that in time they will get
as much gold from them as they do iron out of Biscay. Those who may read
this, and have, like me, visited the country, will not consider this
statement fabulous. The Indians have their workshops on the banks of the
rivers, and they are continually waging cruel wars against each other.
The languages of the Indians differ in many parts, and almost in every
hamlet there is a distinct language. They were, and are, marvellously
rich in gold, and if these natives of the province of Arma were as
intelligent and docile as those of Peru, I will be bound to say that
their mines would not fail to yield more than 500,000 _pesos de oro_.
They have, or once had, many rich ornaments of this metal, which is so
fine as to reach to at least nineteen _quilates_.[218] When they go to
war they wear crowns with beautiful plumes, with plates on their
breasts, armlets, and many other ornaments.

When we discovered them, the first time we entered the province with the
captain Jorge Robledo, I remember we saw armed Indians covered with gold
from head to foot, and the place where we first saw them is called to
this day “_Loma de los Armados_.” Their houses are built on the level
places at the foot of the hills, which are very rugged. They have large
fortresses built of stout canes pulled up by the roots, which are placed
in rows by twenties, like a street, and in the centre they have, or had,
when I saw the place, a high platform, well built of the same canes,
with steps up to it, where they offered sacrifices.




CHAPTER XIX.

The sacrifices offered up by these Indians, and what great butchers they
are in the matter of eating human flesh.


The arms used by these Indians are darts, lances, slings, and
blow-pipes. They are great lovers of noise, and when they go to war they
take drums, flutes, and other instruments. They are deceitful and word
breakers, nor will they keep the peace they have promised. Of the war
they waged with the Spaniards I will treat in its proper place. Very
great is the dominion that the devil, enemy of the human race, is
allowed by God to have over this people, by reason of their sins, and
often is he visibly amongst them. On the above-mentioned platform they
have many cords fastened in the manner of a net, each forty _brazas_
long, and we made use of these ropes for sandals. On the top of the
platform they fastened the Indians whom they took in war by the
shoulders, and cut out their hearts, which they offered to their gods or
to the devil, in whose honour they made these sacrifices. Presently,
without any long delay, they eat those whom they had thus killed. I saw
no house of worship, but in the houses of the chiefs there were chambers
well covered with mats and much ornamented. I saw one of these chapels
in Paucora, as will be mentioned further on. In the furthest end of it
there was a recess containing many clay vessels for incense, in which
they burnt certain small herbs instead of incense. I saw these plants in
the land of a lord of this province named Yayo, and they were so small
as hardly to rise above the ground; some had a very black, and others a
white flower; their smell resembled that of verbena. These, with other
resins, they burnt before their idols. After they have performed these
and other superstitious rites, the devil comes. They relate that he
appears in the form of an Indian, with very bright eyes, and gives
replies to the priests or ministers, to questions they ask him,
concerning what they wish to know. Up to this time there are no
clergymen or friars in any of these provinces, for the Indians are so
evil disposed, and such butchers, that many of them have eaten the
knights who possessed _encomiendas_[219] amongst them; yet, when they go
to the Spanish settlements, they put aside their Gentile customs and
vanities, and conform to our religion, receiving the water of baptism.
And, God permitting, some chiefs of the provinces of this government
have turned Christians, and abhor the devil, eschewing their former evil
works.

The people of this province of Arma are of middle height, and all dark
coloured, insomuch that in colour all the Indian men and women of these
parts (where there is such a multitude of people as scarcely to be
numbered, and so wide an extent of country) appear as if they were all
children of one father and mother. The women of these Indians are the
ugliest and dirtiest that I have seen in all these parts. Both men and
women go naked, except that, to conceal their shame, they put a bit of
cloth in front, a _palmo_ broad, and a _palmo_ and a half long, with
which they cover themselves in front; for the rest they go quite naked.
Some of the women go shorn, as do their husbands.

The fruits and other provisions they have are maize and _yucas_,[220]
besides many other nourishing roots, some _guayavas_,[221]
_paltas_,[222] and palms of the _Pixiuares_. The chiefs marry those
women they most fancy, keeping one of them as the principal wife. The
other Indians marry daughters and sisters of their neighbours without
any order, and few find their wives to be virgins. The chiefs may have
many wives, other men have one, two, or three, according to their means.
When they die, the chiefs are buried in their houses, or on the heights
of the mountains with the usual ceremonies and mourning. The sons
succeed their fathers in the chieftainship, and in their houses and
lands. Failing a son, the heir is the son of the sister, and not of the
brother. Further on I will relate the reason of this custom of the
nephew who is son of the sister, and not he who is son of the brother,
inheriting, in the greater part of these provinces, according to what I
have heard from many of the natives. The Indians are so fond of eating
human flesh, that they have been seen to take women on the point of
bringing forth, quickly open their bellies with knives of stone or cane,
and take out the child; then, having made a great fire, they toast and
eat it, together with the mother, and all is done with such rapidity
that it is a thing to marvel at. For these sins, and for others that
these Indians commit, Divine Providence has ordained that, though they
are so widely separated from our region of Spain as to make it appear
almost impossible to go from the one place to the other, yet that roads
and ways over the mighty ocean should be opened to these lands, where
only ten or fifteen Christians together conquer and subdue one thousand
to ten thousand of these Indians. I do not believe, however, that this
arises from our merits, for we are indeed great sinners; but because God
chooses to punish these people by our means, and therefore permits these
events to happen as they do.

But to return to our narrative: these Indians have no belief, so far as
I can make out, nor do they understand more of God’s will than the devil
tells them. The command which the chiefs have over their people extends
no further than that the Indians build the houses for the chiefs, till
their fields, give them as many of their women as they want, and wash
gold out of the rivers for them, with which they trade with their
neighbours. The chiefs select their captains in the wars, and accompany
them in battle. In all things these Indians show little constancy. They
are ashamed of nothing, nor do they know what virtue is, while in malice
they are very cunning one against the other.

Beyond this province, to the eastward, are the mountains which are
called Andes, broken up into rugged peaks. On the other side the Indians
say there is a beautiful valley through which a river flows, and where
(according to the stories of these natives of Arma) there are great
riches and many Indians. In all these parts the women bring forth
without the assistance of midwives, and after bringing forth they go to
wash in a river, doing the same to their offspring, nor do they suffer
any evil consequence from so doing; and fifty of these women suffer less
pain in bringing forth than one of our nation.




CHAPTER XX.

Of the province of Paucura, and of the manners and customs of the
natives.


Beyond the great province of Arma there is another, called Paucura,
which contained five or six thousand Indians when we first entered it
with the Captain Jorge Robledo. The language of the Indians in this
province differs from that of Arma. The customs of the people are the
same, except that these are a better disposed race, and that the women
wear a small mantle to cover a certain part of their bodies, and the men
do the same. This province is very fertile for the growth of maize and
other products. They are not so rich in gold as those in their rear, nor
are their houses so large, nor is the country so rough. A river flows
through the province, but it has few tributary streams. Close to the
house of the principal chief, whose name was Pimana, there was a wooden
idol, the size of a tall man. Its face was turned towards the rising
sun, and its arms were spread out. Every Tuesday the Indians sacrificed
to the devil in this province of Paucura, and the same was done in that
of Arma, according to what the Indians told us; but I was unable to
learn whether the victims were their own countrymen, or prisoners taken
in war. Among the houses of the chiefs they have stout canes planted in
a circle so as to form a cage, from which those who are put in cannot
possibly escape. The captives taken in war are put into this cage and
very well fed, and when they are fat, they are taken out on days of
festivity, killed with great cruelty, and eaten. I saw several of these
cages, or prisons, in the province of Arma. It is worthy of note, that
when they wish to kill any of these unfortunates, with the intention of
eating them, they make them kneel down and bow their heads, and then
give them a blow on the back of the neck with such effect that they
never speak again. I have seen what I describe, and the victim never
speaks, even to ask for mercy; nay, some even laugh when they are
killed, which is a very marvellous thing, but it proceeds more from
bestiality than from courage. The heads of those who are eaten are stuck
on the points of the canes. Passing this province, we reached a lofty
plain, which is well peopled and covered with large houses. This
district is called Pozo, and the people speak the same language, and
have the same customs as those of Arma.




CHAPTER XXI.

Of the Indians of Pozo, and how valiant they are, and how dreaded by the
neighbouring tribes.


There were three chiefs in this province when we entered it with the
Captain Jorge Robledo. These, with their followers, were and are the
most valiant and bold Indians in all these provinces. Their territory is
bounded on one side by the great river, on another by the provinces of
Carapa and Picara, concerning which I will speak presently, and on a
third by Paucura, of which I have already treated. These Indians of Pozo
are not on friendly terms with any of their neighbours. Their origin is
derived, according to their own account, from certain Indians who in
ancient times came from the province of Arma, and, seeing how fertile
the soil of this country of Pozo was, settled there. Their language and
customs are the same as those of Arma. The chiefs have very large and
lofty circular houses, and ten or fifteen persons live in them,
according to the number of the family. At the doors of the houses there
are great pallisades and other defences, made of stout canes, between
which there are large boards covered with reeds, so that none of the
mounted Spaniards could pass them. From the summit of the table land
these Indians watched all the roads to see who was coming. The men are
better disposed than those of Arma, and the women are large and ugly,
although there are some who are pretty. But in truth I saw very few
such. Within the houses of the chiefs, near the entrances, there was a
row of idols, about fifteen or twenty in number, and each the size of a
man. Their faces were made of wax, and moulded into the form and shape
of that of the devil. They say that sometimes, when they called him, the
devil entered into the bodies of these wooden idols, and answered them
from within. The heads are like the skulls of corpses. When the chiefs
die they bury them within the houses, in great sepulchres, and place by
the bodies great vases of wine made from maize, with their arms and
gold, and the ornaments they valued most. They also bury many women
alive with them, according to the manner of those tribes whose countries
we had already passed through. I remember that, in the province of Arma,
the second time that Captain Jorge Robledo passed through it, we went,
by his order--one Antonio Pimentel and myself--to examine a burial place
in the village of a chief named Yayo, in which we found more than two
hundred small pieces of gold, which in that country they call
_chagnaletas_, but as a horrible smell came from the bodies, we went
away without getting all that was there.

If all the gold that is buried in Peru, and in these countries, was
collected, it would be impossible to count it, so great would be the
quantity, and the Spaniards have yet got little compared with what
remains. When I was in Cuzco, receiving an account of the Yncas from the
principal natives, I heard it said by Paullu Ynca and others, that if
all the treasure in the _huacas_, which are their burial places, was
collected together, that which the Spaniards had already taken would
look very small, and they compared it to a drop taken out of a great
vase of water. In order to make the comparison more striking, they took
a large measure of maize, and, dropping one grain out of it, they said,
“The Christians have found that; the rest is so concealed, that we
ourselves do not know the place of it.” So vast are the treasures that
are lost in these parts. If the Spaniards had not come, all the gold in
the country would certainly have been offered to the devil, or buried
with the dead, for the Indians neither want it, nor seek it for any
other purpose. They do not pay any wages with it to their men of war,
nor do they want it except as ornaments when alive, and to be placed by
their sides when dead. Therefore, it seems to me that we are bound to
bring them to a knowledge of our holy Catholic faith, without showing
them that our only wish is to fill our pockets.[223]

These Indians and their women go naked like all the rest. They are very
laborious, and when they sow or dig the land, they hold the club for
hoeing in one hand, and the lance for fighting in the other. The chiefs
are more respected by the Indians than in other parts. The sons inherit
the chieftainship, and in their default the nephews.

The province of Picara is distant two leagues, that of Paucura a league
and a half, and that of Carrapa about the same. All these provinces had
three times as many Indians, yet the Indians of Pozo waged cruel war
upon them one after the other, and all feared them and desired their
friendship. A large body went forth from their villages, leaving
sufficient for their defence, and carried many musical instruments, such
as drums and flutes. Thus they marched against their enemies, taking
cords with them to bind their prisoners. Arriving at the place where the
enemy awaited them, they set up loud shouts, and closed upon them,
killing, taking prisoners, and burning houses. In all these wars the
Indians of Pozo were always the most valiant, and so their neighbours
confess. But they are as great butchers in eating human food as those of
Arma, for one day I saw them eat more than a hundred men and women whom
they had taken in war. They marched with us, when the adelantado Don
Sebastian de Belalcazar was subduing the provinces of Picara and
Paucura, which had rebelled, and at that time the name of the chief of
this town of Pozo was Perequito. In the inroads which we made, these
Indians of Pozo killed the other Indians as if they were rabbits, and
hunted out those who were concealed near the banks of the river, without
letting one escape.

One Rodrigo Alonzo, I, and two other Christians, being in the province
of Paucura, went in chase of certain Indians, and on entering a village
there came out the freshest and prettiest Indian girl I have ever seen
in all these provinces. When we saw her we called her, but as soon as
she heard us, she shrieked as if she had seen the devil, and ran towards
the Indians of Pozo, thinking it better to be killed and eaten by them
than to fall into our hands. And so it was that one of those Indians,
who were our allies, before we could prevent him, gave her a cruel blow
on her head, while another came up and beheaded her with a stone knife.
The girl, when they approached her, knelt down and awaited her doom,
which they gave her. They then drank her blood, and ate her heart and
entrails raw, carrying off the head and limbs to eat on the following
night.

I saw two other Indians, who killed those of Paucura, and the victims
laughed pleasantly, just as if they had not been the men who were to
die. In fine, all the Indians of these parts have the custom of eating
human flesh. The Indians of Pozo are very rich in gold, and near their
village there are mines on the banks of the great river which passes
near.

In this place the adelantado Don Sebastian de Belalcazar and his captain
and lieutenant-general Francisco Hernandez Giron[224] captured the
marshal Don Jorge Robledo, and cut off his head, besides putting others
to death. And that they might not have to carry the bodies of the
marshal and the others to Arma, the Indians ate them. Nevertheless they
burnt a house over the remains of the bodies.[225]




CHAPTER XXII.

Of the province of Picara, and of the chiefs of it.


Leaving Pozo, and travelling to the eastward, the great and very
populous province of Picara is reached. The names of the principal
chiefs of this province, when we discovered it, were Picara,
Chusquruqua, Sanguitama, Chambiriqua, Ancora, Aupirimi, and others.
Their language and customs resemble those of Paucura. This province
extends to certain mountains which give rise to rivers of very limpid
and sweet water. The rivers are said to be rich in gold. The country is
broken up into rugged mountains, like that which we had already passed;
but it is so populous that all the hills and valleys are under
cultivation, in so much that the sight of so many crops causes pleasure
and contentment. In all parts there are plantations of fruit trees. The
people have few houses, because they have been burnt in their wars. The
province contained more than ten or twelve thousand Indians capable of
bearing arms when we first entered it; and they go naked, for neither
they nor their women wear more than a small cloth between the legs; and
in all other matters, whether of eating, drinking, or marrying, they
have the same customs as those whom we had already seen.

Thus, when the chiefs die, their bodies are placed in large and deep
tombs, accompanied by many live women, and adorned by all they possessed
of most value when living, according to the general custom of the other
Indians of these parts. At the entrances of the houses of the caciques
there are small platforms surrounded by stout canes, on the tops of
which are stuck the heads of their enemies; and this is a horrid thing
to see, as there are many of them, looking fierce with long hair, and
their faces painted in such sort as to appear like those of devils. In
the lower part of the canes there are holes through which the wind can
pass, and when it blows, there is a noise which sounds like the music of
devils. Nor is human flesh distasteful to these Indians, any more than
to those of Pozo, for when we first entered their country with the
captain Don Jorge Robledo, more than four thousand of these natives of
Picara marched with us, and killed and ate as many as three hundred
hostile Indians. They affirm that, on the other side of the mountains to
the eastward of this province, which are the Cordilleras of the Andes,
there is a great, rich, and populous valley called Arbi. I do not know
whether it has been discovered, nor did I hear more than this rumour
concerning it. The Indians of Picara have great stakes, as sharp as if
they were of iron, made of a black palm wood, which they fix in holes
along the roads, and subtilely cover with straw and grass. When they are
at war with the Spaniards they fix so many of these stakes that it is
very troublesome to get through the country, and many soldiers have been
staked in the legs and feet. Some of these Indians have bows and arrows,
but they are not dexterous in their use, and do little harm with them.
They have slings with which they throw stones with great force. The men
are of middle height, the women the same, and some of them good looking.
Leaving this province, in the direction of the city of Cartago, we next
came to the province of Carrapa, which is not very distant, and is rich
and populous.




CHAPTER XXIII.

Of the province of Carrapa, and of what there is to be said concerning
it.


The province of Carrapa is twelve leagues from the city of Cartago,
situated in a very rugged mountainous country, and the Cordillera of the
Andes rises above it. The houses of the natives are small and very low,
made of canes, and thatched with other small and delicate canes, of
which there are many in these parts. Some of the houses of the chiefs
are large, but others not. When the Christian Spaniards first entered
the country there were five of these chiefs. The principal amongst them
was called Yrrua, who, in former years, had entered the country by
force, and ruled over all men like a powerful tyrant. Among the
mountains there are some little valleys and open spaces well watered by
numerous rivers and springs, but the water is not so wholesome as that
of the rivers we had passed. The men are very large, with long visages,
and the women are robust. These people are very rich in gold, for they
had very large pieces, and beautiful vases, out of which they drank
their wine made of maize. Those who drink this liquor soon lose their
senses, yet the Indians are so vicious that they will sometimes drink an
_arroba_ at one sitting, not at one draught, but by taking many pulls.
Their bellies being full of this beverage, it provokes vomiting, and
they throw up as much as they like. Many of them hold the cup out of
which to drink in one hand, and[226].... They are not great eaters, but
all the Indians we met with are generally addicted to excessive
drinking.

When a chief dies without children, his principal wife succeeds, and
when she dies the nephew of the deceased chief inherits; if he is the
son of a sister.[227] They have no temples nor houses of worship; but
the devil talks to some of them occasionally, as he does with Indians of
other tribes.

They bury their dead within their houses, in great vaults, accompanied
by living women, food, and many valuables possessed by the deceased, as
is the custom with their neighbours.

When any of these Indians feel ill, they make great sacrifices for their
health in the manner which they have learnt from their ancestors, all in
honour of the accursed devil. He, God permitting it, lets them know that
all things are in his hands, and that he is superior to all others. Not
but that they are aware of a God, sole creator of the whole world, for
the Almighty does not permit the devil to assume this dignity, from
which he is so widely separated. Yet they believe many evil things,
although I learned from themselves that they are sometimes at issue with
the devil, when they hate him, and see through his lies and falseness.
For their sins, however, they are so subject to his will that they are
unable to escape from the prisons of deceitfulness. They are blind, like
other gentile people of more knowledge and understanding, until the
light of the sacred Evangelist’s words enters into their hearts. The
Christians who settle in these Indies should never fail to instruct the
natives in true doctrine, otherwise I know not how they will fare when
they and the Indians appear before the Divine throne, on the day of
judgment.

The principal chiefs marry their nieces, and sometimes their sisters,
and they have many wives. They eat the Indians whom they capture, like
all the other tribes. When they go to war, they wear very rich pieces of
gold, with great crowns, and large bracelets of gold on their wrists.
Great and valuable banners are carried before them. I saw one which was
given as a present to the captain Don Jorge Robledo, the first time we
entered this province, which weighed upwards of three thousand _pesos_,
and a golden vase worth two hundred and ninety _pesos_, besides two
other loads of this metal, consisting of ornaments of many shapes. The
banner was a long narrow cloth fastened to a wand, and covered with
small pieces of gold to imitate stars. In this province there are also
many fruit trees, and some deer, _guadaquinajes_, and other game,
besides many edible roots.

Leaving this province, we came to that of Quinbaya, in which the city of
Cartago is situated. Cartago is twenty-two leagues from the town of
Arma. Between the province of Carrapa and that of Quinbaya, there is a
very large and desert valley, of which the tyrant I have just spoken of
was lord; he whose name was Urrua, and who ruled in Carrapa. The war
between him and the natives of Quinbaya was very fierce; and he also
forced many in Carrapa to leave their country when he took possession of
it. It is rumoured that there are great sepulchres in this valley, of
chiefs who are buried there.




CHAPTER XXIV.

Of the province of Quinbaya, and of the customs of the chiefs. Also
concerning the foundation of the city of Cartago, and who was its
founder.


The province of Quinbaya is fifteen leagues long by ten broad, from the
Rio Grande to the snowy mountains of the Andes. It is populous
throughout its whole extent, and the country is not so rugged as that
through which we had passed. It contains extensive and dense cane
brakes, which cannot be penetrated without great labour, and this
province, with its rivers, is full of these cane brakes. In no part of
the Indies have I seen or heard of any place where there are so many
canes as in this province, but it pleased God, our Lord, that this
country should have a superabundance of canes, that the people might not
have much trouble in making their houses. The snowy mountains, which
are a part of the great chain of the Andes, are seven leagues from the
villages of this province. In the highest parts of them there is a
volcano which, on a clear day, may be seen to send forth great
quantities of smoke, and many rivers rise in these mountains, which
irrigate the land. The chief rivers are the Tacurumbi, the Cegue, which
passes close to the city, and there are many others which cannot be
counted for number. When the freshes come down in the winter season, the
Indians have bridges of canes fastened together with reeds, and strongly
secured to trees on either side. All the rivers are very full of gold.
When I was there in the year 1547 they got more than fifteen thousand
_pesos_ worth in three months, and the largest gang of labourers
consists of three or four Negroes and some Indians. Valleys are formed
along the courses of the rivers, and though the banks are densely lined
with canes, there are many fruit trees of the country, and large
plantations of _Pixiuare_ palms.

In these rivers there are fountains of healing water, and it is a
marvellous thing to see their manner of rising in the midst of the
rivers, for which thanks be to God our Lord. Further on I will devote a
chapter to these fountains, for it is a matter well worthy of note. The
men of this province are well disposed, and of good countenances; the
women the same, and very amorous. Their houses are small, and roofed
with the leaves of canes. There are now many fruit trees and other
plants which the Spaniards cultivate, both from Spain, and of the
country. The chiefs are very liberal; they have many wives, and are all
friendly, and in alliance with each other. They do not eat human flesh,
except on very great occasions, and the chiefs alone were very rich in
gold. Of all the things that were to be seen, the most notable were
their jewels of gold and great vases out of which they drink their wine.
I saw one, which a cacique named Tacurumbi gave to the captain Don Jorge
Robledo, which would contain two _azumbres_,[228] of water. The same
cacique gave another to Miguel Muñoz which was still larger and more
valuable. The arms of these Indians are lances and darts, and certain
_estolicas_,[229] which they throw with great force, a mischievous
weapon. They are intelligent and observant, and some of them are great
magicians. They assemble to make feasts for their pleasure, and when
they have drunk, a squadron of women is placed on one side, and another
on the other; the men are placed in the same way, and they pass
backwards and forwards, chanting the word _Batatabati, Batatabati_,
which means “we play.” Thus, with darts and wands, the game begins,
which ends in the wounding of many, and the death of some. They twist
their hair into great wheels, and thus they wear it when they go to war.
They have been a fierce and encroaching people, until justice was
executed upon the old chiefs. When they assembled for their feasts and
games in an open space, all the Indians gathered together, and two of
them made a noise with drums. One then began to dance, and all the rest
followed, each with his cup of wine in his hand, for they drank, danced,
and sang all at the same time. Their songs consisted of a recitation of
their deeds, and of the deeds of their ancestors. They have no creed,
and they converse with the devil, like all the rest of the Indians.

When they are ill they bathe many times, at which times they themselves
relate that they see awful visions. And, in treating of this subject, I
will here relate what happened in this province of Quinbaya in the year
1547. At the time when the viceroy, Blasco Nuñez Vela, was embarrassed
by the movements of Gonzalo Pizarro and his followers, a great
pestilence spread over the whole kingdom of Peru, which began on the
other side of Cuzco, and pervaded the whole country. People without
number died. The illness consisted of a headache accompanied by raging
fever, and presently the pain passed from the head to the left ear, when
it became so great that the patient did not last more than two or three
days. The pestilence reached this province. Now there is a river, about
half a league from the city of Cartago, called Consota, and near it
there is a small lake where they make salt from the water of a spring.
Many Indian women were one day assembled there, making salt for the
households of their lords, when they saw a tall man with his belly open
and bowels hanging out, holding two boys by the hand. When he came to
the women, he said, “I promise you that I have to kill all the women of
the Christians, and all those of your people, and it shall be done
presently.” As it was day time the Indian women showed no fear, but
related the occurrence in a laughing way when they went to their homes.
In another village of the neighbourhood, called Giraldo Gilestopiña,
they saw the same figure on horseback, galloping over all the hills and
mountains like the wind. In a few days the pestilence and ear-ache came
on in such a manner, that most of the people died, the Spaniards losing
their Indians bound to service, so that few or none were left; in
addition to which such terror prevailed that the very Spaniards seemed
to be fearful and afraid. Many women and boys affirmed that they saw the
dead with their own eyes walking again. These people well understand
that there is something in man besides the mortal body, though they do
not hold that it is a soul, but rather some kind of transfiguration.
They also think that all bodies will rise again; but the devil has given
them to understand that it will be in a place where there will be great
ease and pleasure, and this is the reason that they place great
quantities of wine and maize, fish, and other things in their
sepulchres, together with the arms of the deceased, as if these could
free him from the pains of hell. The custom among them is that the son
succeeds the father, and, failing sons, the nephew being the son of a
sister. In ancient times these Indians were not natives of Quinbaya, but
they invaded the country many times, killing the inhabitants, who could
not have been few, judging from the remains of their works, for all the
dense cane brakes seem once to have been peopled and tilled, as well as
the mountainous parts, where there are trees as big round as two
bullocks. From these facts I conjecture that a very long period of time
has elapsed since these Indians first peopled the Indies.[230] The
climate of the province is very salubrious, so that the Spaniards, who
have settled in it, neither suffer from heat nor from cold.




CHAPTER XXV.

In which the subject of the preceding chapter is continued; respecting
what relates to the city of Cartago, and its foundation; and respecting
the animal called _chucha_.


These cane brakes, of which I have already spoken, are so close and
thick, that if a man is not well acquainted with the country, he would
lose himself, and be unable to get out of them. Amongst the canes there
are many tall _ceybas_, with many wide-spreading branches, and other
trees of different sorts which, as I do not know their names, I am
unable to give them here. In the depths of these cane brakes there are
great caves or cavities where bees make their hives, and make honeycombs
which are as good as those of Spain. There are some bees which are
little bigger than mosquitos, and at the entrance of their hives, after
they have been well closed, they insert a tube apparently of wax, and
half a finger long, by which they enter to do their work, their little
wings laden with what they have collected from the flowers. The honey of
this kind of bees is a little sour, and they do not get more than a
_quartillo_ of honey from each hive. There is another species of bees,
which are black and rather larger, those just mentioned being white. The
opening which the black bees make to get into the tree, is of wax
wrapped round with a mixture that becomes harder than stone. Their honey
is, without comparison, better than that of the white bees, and each
hive contains more than three _azumbres_.[231] There are other bees
larger than those of Spain, but none of them sting. When, however, they
take the hive, the bees surround the man who is cutting the tree down,
and stick to his hair and beard. Of the large hives of the last-named
bees, there are some weighing half an _arroba_,[232] and their honey is
much the best of all. I got some of these, and I saw more taken by
Pedro de Velasco, a settler at Cartago.

Besides the above products, there is a fruit in this province called
_Caymito_,[233] as large as a nectarine. It is black inside, and has
some very small pips, and a milk which sticks so closely to the beard
and hands that it takes some time to get it off. There is another fruit
like very savoury cherries, besides _aguacates_,[234] _guavas_,[235] and
_guayavas_,[236] and some as sour as lemons, with a good smell and
flavour.

The cane brakes, being very dense, become the haunts of many animals.
There are great lions, and an animal like a small fox, with a long tail
and short feet of a grey colour, and the head of a fox. I once saw one
of these creatures which had seven young ones near it. Directly it was
frightened, or heard a noise, it opened a bag which nature has placed on
its belly, put its young inside, and fled so swiftly that I was
astonished at its agility, being so small, and running so rapidly with
such a weight. They call this creature _chucha_.[237] There are also
small and very poisonous serpents, many deer, and some rabbits, besides
_guadaquinajes_,[238] which are a little larger than hares, and whose
flesh is very good and savoury. There are many other things to relate,
but I desist because they would appear trifling.

The city of Cartago is situated on a smooth plain, between two small
streams, seven leagues from the great river of Santa Martha, and near
another small stream, the water of which is drunk by the Spaniards.

This river is always crossed by a bridge of those canes which I have
already mentioned. The city has very difficult approaches on both sides,
and bad roads, for in the winter time the mud is deep. It rains all the
year round, and the lightning is great, thunderbolts sometimes falling.
This city is so well guarded, that the inhabitants cannot easily be
robbed.

The founder of the city was the same captain Don Jorge Robledo who
peopled the others which we had passed, in the name of the majesty of
the Emperor Don Carlos, our lord, the Adelantado Don Francisco Pizarro
being governor of all these provinces, in the year of our Lord 1540. It
is called Cartago, because all the settlers and conquerors who
accompanied Robledo had set out from Carthagena, and this is the reason
that this name was adopted.

Now that I have arrived at this city of Cartago, I will go on to give an
account of the great and spacious valley where the city of Cali is
seated, and that of Popayan, towards which we journeyed through the cane
brakes until we reached a plain traversed by a great river called La
Vieja. This river is crossed with much difficulty in the winter time; it
is four leagues from the city. After crossing the river in _balsas_ and
canoes, the two roads unite, one coming from Cartago, and the other from
Anzerma. From Anzerma to Cali the distance is fifty leagues, and from
Cartago to Cali a little more than forty-five leagues.




CHAPTER XXVI.

Which touches upon the provinces in this great and beautiful valley, up
to the city of Cali.


From the city of Popayan this valley begins to spread out like a level
plain between the chains of mountains, and is twelve leagues broad, more
or less. In some parts it is narrower, and in others broader, and the
river which flows through it becomes so narrow that neither boat, nor
_balsa_, nor anything else can pass, by reason of the fury of the
stream, and of the stones which come down in it. Boats are upset and go
to the bottom, and thus many Spaniards and Indians have been drowned and
much merchandise lost, for the rapidity of the stream is such that they
have no time to get on land.

All this valley, from the city of Cali to these rapids, was formerly
very populous, and covered with very large and beautiful villages, the
houses being close together and of great size. These villages of Indians
have wasted away and been destroyed by time and war; for, when the
Captain Don Sebastian de Belalcazar, who was the first captain to
discover and conquer this valley, made his entry, the Indians were bent
on war, and fought with the Spaniards many times to defend their land,
and escape from slavery. Owing to these wars, and to the famine which
arose on account of the seeds not having been sown, nearly all the
Indians died. There was another reason which led to their rapid
extermination. The Captain Belalcazar founded, in the midst of the
Indian villages in this plain, the city of Cali, which he afterwards
rebuilt on its present site. The natives were so determined not to hold
any friendship with the Spaniards (believing their yoke to be heavy)
that they would neither sow nor cultivate the land; and from this cause
there was such scarcity that the greater part of the inhabitants died.
When the Spaniards abandoned the first site, the hill tribes came down
in great numbers, and, falling upon the unfortunates who were sick and
dying of hunger, soon killed and ate all those who survived. These are
the reasons why the people of this valley are so reduced that scarcely
any are left. On one side of the river, towards the east, is the
Cordillera of the Andes, and on the other side there is a larger and
more beautiful valley called Neyva, through which flows the other branch
of the great river of Santa Martha.[239]

In the skirts of the mountains there are many villages of Indians of
different nations and customs, who are very barbarous, and who all eat
human flesh, which they hold to be very delicious. On the highest parts
of the mountains there are some small valleys which form the province of
Buga. The natives of these valleys are brave warriors; and they watched
the Spaniards who came to their country, and killed Cristoval de Ayala,
without any fear.

When he, of whom I have spoken, was killed, his goods were sold in the
market at excessive prices. A sow was sold for 1600 _pesos_, together
with a small pig. Sucking pigs went for 500 _pesos_, and a Peruvian
sheep (llama) for 280 _pesos_. I saw these sums paid to one Andres
Gomez, now a citizen of Cartago, by Pedro Romero of Anzerma. The 1600
_pesos_ for the sow and the pig were paid by the Adelantado Don
Sebastian de Belalcazar, out of the goods of the Marshal Don Jorge
Robledo. I even saw that very sow eaten at a banquet which was given on
the day we arrived at the city of Cali with Vadillo. Juan Pacheco, a
conqueror who is now in Spain, bought a pig for 220 _pesos_, and knives
were sold for 15 _pesos_. I heard Jeronimo Luis Texelo say that, when he
went on the expedition with the Captain Miguel Muñoz, which is known as
that of La Vieja, he bought a shoemaker’s knife for 30 _pesos_, and
shoes went for 8 _pesos_ of gold. A sheet of paper was sold in Cali for
30 _pesos_. I might relate other facts of this kind to the glory of the
Spaniards, as showing how cheap they held money, for if they required
anything they thought nothing of it. They bought pigs in the sow’s
belly, before they were born, for 100 _pesos_ and more.

I would now request the judicious reader to reflect on and wonder at
what countries were discovered and settled between the year 1526 and the
present year 1547: and, thinking upon this, he will see how great are
the deserts of the discoverers and conquerors who have laboured so
greatly in this work; and what reason his Majesty has to give thanks to
those who passed through those labours, and served loyally without
butchering the Indians. Those, however, who have been butchers are
deserving of punishment, in my opinion. When this province was
discovered they bought a horse for 3000 or 4000 _pesos_, and even now
there are those who have not yet paid their old debts, and who, covered
with wounds received in the service, are shut up in prison until they
can pay the debts demanded by their creditors.

On the other side of the Cordillera is the other valley which I have
already mentioned, where the town of Neyva was founded. Towards the west
there are still more villages and Indians in the mountains, but I have
already given the reason why those in the plains nearly all died. The
villages of the mountains extend to the shores of the South Sea, and
stretch away far to the south. Their houses, like those I described in
Tatabe, are built on trees like granaries; they are large, and contain
many inhabitants. The land of these Indians is very fertile and
prolific, and well supplied with swine and tapirs, and other game, such
as turkeys, parrots, pheasants, and abundance of fish. The rivers are
not poor in gold, indeed we can affirm that they are very rich in that
metal. Near these villages flows the great river of Darien,[240] very
famous on account of the city which was founded near it. All these
Indians also eat human flesh. Some of them use bows and arrows, and
others staves, clubs, darts, and long lances. Towards the north of Cali
there is another province, bordering on that of Anzerma, the natives of
which are called Chancos. They are so big that they look like small
giants, with broad shoulders, robust frames, and great strength. Their
faces are large and heads narrow; for in this province, in that of
Quinbaya, and in other parts of the Indies, when a baby is born, they
force the head into the shape they may choose; thus some grow up without
an occiput, others with a raised forehead, and others with a very long
head. This is done when the child is just born, by means of certain
small boards fastened with ligatures. The women are treated in the same
way. The Chancos, both men and women, go naked and barefooted, with only
a cloth between the legs, made, not of cotton, but of bark, taken from a
tree and made very fine and soft, about a yard long, and two _palmos_
broad. They fight with great lances and darts; and occasionally they
leave their province to wage war with their neighbours of Anzerma. When
the Marshal Robledo entered Cartago for the last time (which he ought
not to have done), that he might be received as the lieutenant of the
Judge Miguel Diaz Armendariz, certain Spaniards were sent to guard the
road between Anzerma and the city of Cali. These men encountered certain
of these Chancos, who had come down to kill a Christian who was going to
take some goats to Cali, and one or two of the Indians were killed. The
Spaniards were astonished at their great size.

In the hills and valleys which sweep down from the Cordillera to the
westward, there are many Indian villages, extending to the vicinity of
the city of Cali, and bordering on the district of the Barbacoas. The
natives have their villages scattered over the hills, the houses being
grouped in tens and fifteens, sometimes more, sometimes less. They call
these Indians Gorrones, because, when the city of Cali was founded in
the valley, they called the fish _gorron_, and these Indians came in
laden with them, calling out, “_gorron! gorron!_” Not knowing their
correct name, the Spaniards named them after the fish they carried,
_Gorrones_: just in the same way as they named the Indians of Anzerma
after the salt, which in their language is _anzer_. The houses of these
Indians are large and round, and roofed with straw. They have few fruit
trees, but plenty of gold of four or five _quilates_, though little of
the finer sort. Some rivers of fresh water flow near their villages.
Near the doors of their houses they keep, from motives of pride, many
feet of the Indians whom they have killed, and many hands. They preserve
the insides, that they may lose nothing, and hang them up in rows like
sausages in great quantities, and the heads and entire quarters are also
kept. When we came to these villages with the Licentiate Juan de
Vadillo, a negro belonging to Juan de Cespedes, seeing these bowels, and
thinking they were really sausages, would have eaten them if they had
not been hard and dry from time and smoke. Outside the houses they have
many heads placed in rows, entire legs, arms, and other parts of bodies,
in such abundance as to be hardly credible. If I had not myself seen
what I write, and did not know that there are now many people in Spain
who have also seen it, I would not venture to state that these men are
such butchers of other men for the sole purpose of eating them; but we
know for certain that these Gorrones are great butchers in the matter of
eating human flesh. They have no idols, nor did I see any house of
worship, but it is publicly known that some of them converse with the
devil. Neither priests nor friars have gone amongst them, as they have
in Peru and other parts of the Indies, for fear of being killed.

These Indians are separated from the valley of the great river by a
distance of two or three leagues, but they go down to fish in the great
river and in the lagoons, returning with great store of fish. They are
of middling stature, and fit for little work. I only saw the men wearing
cloths, but the women are dressed in large cotton mantles. Their dead
are wrapped in many of these mantles, which are about three yards long
and two broad, and fastened by cords. Between the mantles they put
golden ornaments, and then bury the bodies in deep tombs. This province
is within the jurisdiction of the city of Cali. In the ravine of the
river there is a village, which is not very large, owing to the wars
which have destroyed the population. Near it there is a great lake
formed by the overflow of the river, but which is drained when the river
is low. In this lake the Indians kill a vast quantity of very savoury
fish, which they give to travellers, and with which they trade in the
cities of Cartago and Cali, and in other parts. Besides the quantity
they thus dispose of, or eat themselves, they have great deposits for
sale to the Indians of the mountains, and great jars of grease taken
from the fish. When we were engaged in exploring with the licentiate
Juan de Vadillo, we arrived at this village very short of food, and
found some fish. Afterwards, when we came to found the town of Anzerma
with captain Robledo, we found enough fish here to load two ships.

This province of the Gorrones is very fertile, and yields plenty of
maize and other things. There are many deer, _guadaquinajes_, other wild
beasts, and birds in the woods. But the great valley of Cali, once so
fertile, is now a desert of grassy land, yielding no profit to any but
the deer and other animals who graze in it, for the Christians are not
in sufficient numbers to occupy such extensive tracts.




CHAPTER XXVII.

Of the situation of the city of Cali, of the Indians in its vicinity,
and concerning the founder.


To reach the city of Cali it is necessary to cross a small river called
the Rio Frio, which is full of weeds and flags. This river is very cold,
because it comes down from the mountains, and, flowing through a part of
the valley, loses itself in the great river. Beyond this river the road
leads over extensive plains, where there are many small and very fleet
deer. The Spaniards have their grazing farms in the plains, where their
servants live, and look after the estates. The Indians come from their
villages in the mountains to sow and reap the maize in the plains. Near
the farms many very pretty water-courses flow through and irrigate the
fields, besides some small rivers of good water. Many orange, lime,
lemon, pomegranate and banana trees have been planted along these rivers
and water-courses, besides excellent sugar-canes. There are also
pine-apples, _guayavas_,[241] _guavas_,[242] _guanavanas_,[243]
_paltas_,[244] and other fruits in great abundance. There are Spanish
melons and legumes, but wheat has not yet been introduced, though I am
told they have it in the valley of Lile, which is five leagues from the
city; neither have they planted vines as yet, though the land is as well
adapted for them as that of Spain.

The city of Cali is situated a league from the great river, near a small
river of particularly good water, which rises in the overhanging
mountains. Its banks are bordered with pleasant gardens, where there are
plenty of the fruits and vegetables just mentioned. The city is built on
a level platform; and, if it was not for the heat, it would be one of
the best sites I have seen in any part of the Indies, for it wants
nothing to make it excellent. The Indians and caciques who serve the
Spaniards holding _encomiendas_,[245] live in the mountains. When I left
the place there were twenty-three citizens who had Indians, and there
are never wanting Spaniards who are travelling from one part to the
other, looking after their affairs. This city of Cali was founded by
captain Miguel Muñoz in the name of his Majesty, the Adelantado Don
Francisco Pizarro being governor of Peru, in the year 1537; though, as I
said before, it was first founded by the captain Sebastian de Belalcazar
in the country of the Gorrones. And some say that the municipality of
the city obliged Miguel Muñoz to remove the settlement to its present
site, whence it appears that the honour of founding the city is in
dispute between Belalcazar and the municipality, for the conquerors, who
composed the citizens, declare that it was not known whether Miguel
Muñoz acted of his own accord or not.




CHAPTER XXVIII.

Of the villages and chiefs of Indians who are within the jurisdiction of
this city of Cali.


On the western side of this city, towards the mountains, there are many
villages of Indians, who are very docile, a simple people void of
malice. Amongst these villages there is a small valley closed in by
mountains. The valley is level, and is always sown with maize and yucas,
besides having plantations of fruit trees, and of the palms called
_pixinares_. The houses in this valley are very large, round, lofty, and
supported on straight poles. There were six chiefs when I entered this
valley, who were held in small estimation by the Indians, many of whom
are always in the houses of Spaniards. Through the centre of this
valley, which is called Lile, a river flows, and is fed by many streams
coming from the mountains. The banks of this river are well covered with
fruit trees, amongst which there is one which is very delicious and
fragrant called _granadilla_.[246]

Near this valley there was a village, the chief of which was the most
powerful and respected of all the chiefs of the neighbourhood. His name
was Petecuy. In the centre of his village there was a great and lofty
round wooden house, with a door in the centre. The light was admitted by
four windows in the upper part, and the roof was of straw. As one
entered through the door, there was a long board stretching from one end
of the house to the other, on which many human bodies were placed in
rows, being those of men who had been defeated and taken in war. They
were all cut open, and this is done with stone knives, after which they
eat the flesh, stuff the skins with ashes, and place them on the board
in such sort as to appear like living men. In the hands of some they
placed lances, and in those of others darts or clubs. Besides these
bodies, there is a great abundance of arms and legs collected together
in the great house, insomuch that it was fearful to see them, thus
contemplating so sad a spectacle, and reflecting that all had been
killed and eaten by their neighbours as if they had been beasts of the
field. But these Indians gloried in the sight, saying that their fathers
and ancestors taught them to act thus. Not content with natural food,
they turned their bellies into the tombs of their neighbours. But now
they do not eat human flesh as they used to do; the Spirit of heaven has
shone upon them; they have come to a knowledge of their blindness, and
many of them have become Christians. There is hope that more will turn
to our holy faith day by day, with the help and mediation of God our
Redeemer and Lord.

An Indian, native of a village called Veache (in this province),
formerly in the _repartimiento_ of the captain Don Jorge Robledo, when I
asked him why they had such a number of dead bodies in this house,
replied that it was to show the grandeur of the lord of the valley, and
that not only was it the custom to preserve the bodies, but also to
collect the arms of enemies, and hang them to the beams of the house as
memorials. He also said that when the people were asleep the devil often
entered into the bodies which were stuffed with ashes, and assumed so
fearful and terrible a form that some persons died of mere terror.

The dead Indians, whose bodies this lord preserved as trophies, in the
manner already described, were mostly natives of the wide valley of
Cali, for, as I have stated before, there were villages containing
thousands of Indians in that valley, who never ceased to wage war with
those of the mountains, nor, during most of their time, did they ever
think of anything else.

These Indians have no other arms than those which are used by their
neighbours. They generally go naked, though now most of them have shirts
and mantles of cotton, and their women also wear cotton clothes. Both
men and women have their noses pierced, and wear a sort of twisted nails
in them of gold, about the thickness of a finger, called _caricuris_.
They also wear necklaces of fine gold, rarely worked, and ear-rings of
twisted gold. Their former dress consisted of a small cloth in front,
and another over the shoulders, the women covering themselves from the
waist downwards with a cotton mantle. When their chiefs die, they make
large and deep tombs inside their houses, into which they put a good
supply of food, arms, and gold, with the bodies. They have no religion
whatever, so far as we could understand, nor did we see any house of
worship. When any of them fell sick, they bathed, and for some
illnesses they used certain herbs, the virtue whereof cures them. It is
a public and well-known fact that those who are chosen by the devil
converse with him. I have not heard that either these Indians, or those
we have left behind, practise the abominable crime, but if, by the
advice of the devil, any Indian commits this crime, it is thought little
of, and they call him a woman. They marry their nieces, and some chiefs
marry their sisters. The son of the principal wife inherits the
chiefship and property of the father. Some of them are magicians, and
above all they are very dirty.

Beyond this village, of which Petecuy was chief, there are many others,
the natives of which are all friends and allies. These villages are
short distances from each other. The houses are large and round, with
roofs of straw. Their customs are the same as those of the Indians I
have already described. At first they entered into a war with the
Spaniards, and underwent severe punishment, insomuch that they have
never rebelled since. They have now taken more to Christianity than any
of the other tribes; go dressed in shirts, and serve those who have
become their masters with good will.

Beyond this province, towards the south, there is another called Timbas,
in which there are three or four chiefs. It is situated amongst rugged
mountains containing some valleys where they have their villages, and
the land is well covered with crops, fruit trees, palms, and other
things. Their arms are darts and lances. They have been much addicted to
the invasion and subjection of their neighbours, and they are not yet
entirely tamed, being established in a very inaccessible country. Being
warlike and valiant, they have killed many Spaniards, and done much
harm. Their customs and language differ but slightly from the others.
Further on there are other tribes which extend as far as the sea, all
having the same language and customs.




CHAPTER XXIX.

In which the matter relating to the city of Cali is concluded; and
concerning other Indians inhabiting the mountains near the port which
they call Buenaventura.


Besides these provinces, there are many other Indian tribes under the
jurisdiction of the city of Cali, who dwell in the most rugged and
inaccessible mountains in the world. Amongst these wilds there are some
valleys which are very fertile, and which yield all manner of fruit.
There are also many wild animals, especially great tigers, which kill
many Indians and Spaniards who go to, and come from the sea coast, every
day. The houses of the Indians in these mountains are rather small, and
roofed with leaves of palm trees, of which there are many in the
forests. These houses are surrounded by stout and very long poles
forming a wall, which are put up as a defence against the tigers. The
arms, dress, and customs of these Indians are neither more nor less than
those of the valley of Lile, and their language leaves me under the
impression that they are the same people. They are strong and powerful
men. They have always been at peace from the time that they declared
their allegiance to his Majesty, and are very friendly to the Spaniards,
so that, although Christians are always passing through their villages,
they have not killed nor harmed any up to the present time; on the
contrary, as soon as they see them, they give them food to eat. The port
of Buenaventura is three days’ journey from the villages of these
Indians, all the way through thickets of palm trees, and rocky brokenup
country, and is thirty leagues from the city of Cali. I shall not give a
chapter on this port, because I have nothing more to say of it than that
it was founded by Juan Ladrillo under the direction of the Adelantado
Don Pascual de Andagoya, and that afterwards it was abandoned, owing to
the absence of this Andagoya, arising from disputes between him and the
Adelantado Belalcazar respecting the boundaries of their governments.
Finally, Belalcazar took Andagoya,[247] and sent him prisoner to Spain.
Then the _Cabildo_ of Cali arranged that six or seven of the citizens
should always reside in the port, in order that, when the ships arrived
from New Spain and Nicaragua, they might see that the merchandise was
landed, and provide houses to receive it. These residents are paid at
the cost of the merchants, and among them there is a captain who has no
power to pronounce judgments, but only to hear cases and forward them to
the city of Cali for decision. These remarks seem sufficient to give the
reader a knowledge of how the port of Buenaventura was first
established.[248] The only means of conveying merchandise from the port
to the city of Cali is by the aid of the Indians of the intervening
mountains, whose ordinary work is to carry it on their backs, for it is
impossible to transport it in any other way. If it was desired to make a
road, I believe that laden beasts could not pass over it on account of
the ruggedness of the mountains. It is true that there is another way,
practicable for horses and cattle, by the river of Dagua, but they pass
it in constant peril, and many die by the way, while the rest arrive in
such sorry condition that they are of no use for many days.

When a ship arrives at the port, the chiefs presently send down as many
Indians as they can, according to the capacity of their villages, and
these porters come up by roads and passes with loads weighing three
_arrobas_ and more, and some of them carry men or women, even when they
are stout, in chairs made of the bark of trees. In this way they journey
with their loads, without showing fatigue, and without being overworked.
If they should receive any pay, they would go off to their homes, but
all that these poor fellows gain is taken by the _encomenderos_, though,
in truth, they pay little tribute. It is said that they come and go
willingly, but they in reality undergo great labour. When they come into
the plain, and approach the city of Cali, they go along painfully. I
have heard the Indians of New Spain highly praised for the great loads
they carry, but these people between Cali and Buenaventura astonish me;
and if I had not seen it, and traversed the mountains where they have
their villages, I could neither believe nor affirm it.

Beyond these Indians there are other lands inhabited by warlike tribes,
and the river of San Juan, which is marvellously rich, flows through
them. These people have their houses fastened in trees. There are many
other rivers, all rich in gold, the banks of which are inhabited by
Indians, but they cannot be conquered because the land is covered with
forests which are impenetrable, nor can the rivers be crossed without
boats. The houses are very large, for each one contains twenty or thirty
inhabitants.

Amidst these rivers there was a Christian settlement founded, but I will
say little concerning it because it lasted only a short time. The
natives killed one Payo Romero, who was there as the lieutenant of the
Adelantado Andagoya, for he had received all these rivers from his
Majesty, with the title of governor of the river of San Juan. The
Indians deceitfully enticed Payo Romero, and other Christians, on to a
river in canoes, saying that they wanted to give them plenty of gold,
and soon so many Indians assembled that they killed all the Spaniards,
but they took Payo Romero alive, inflicting cruel torments upon him, and
slicing off his members till he died. They also took two or three women
alive, and dealt very cruelly with them. Some of the Christians, by
great good luck, escaped from the cruelty of the Indians. No further
attempt was made to establish this village, for that land is evil.

I will now relate what there is between this city of Cali and that of
Popayan.




CHAPTER XXX.

In which the road is described from the city of Cali to that of Popayan,
and concerning the villages of Indians that lie between them.


The distance from the city of Cali to the city of Popayan is twenty-two
leagues, over a good level road without any forest, although there are
some zigzag ascents, but they are not rugged nor difficult, like those
we have left behind. Leaving, then, the city of Cali, the road passes
through meadows and plains watered by rivers, until one is reached,
which is not very large, called Xamundi,[249] spanned by a bridge of
stout canes. He who has a horse crosses by a ford without any danger.

Near the source of this river there are Indians whose district, also
called Xamundi, extends over three or four leagues. The district and
river take their name from that of a chief. These Indians trade with
those of the province of Timbas, and they collect much gold, which they
have supplied in great quantity to those who hold them in
_encomienda_.[250]

Five leagues further on, in the same road to Popayan, is the great river
of Santa Martha, where there are always balsas and canoes, so that it
can be crossed without danger, and thus the Indian inhabitants go and
come from one city to the other. The banks of this river were once very
populous, but the people have been extirpated by time and by the war
which they waged with the captain Belalcazar, who was the first to
discover and conquer them. Although he was one cause of their rapid
destruction, yet another cause of it was their evil custom and accursed
vice of eating each other. The remains of these tribes and nations
consist of a diminished race on both banks of the river, who are called
Aguales, and who are subject to the city of Cali. There are, however,
many Indians in the mountains on each side, who, on account of the
difficulty in penetrating their country, and of the troubles in Peru,
have not yet been subjugated. Concealed and isolated as they are, they
have yet been seen by the invincible Spaniards, and defeated many times.
They all go naked, and have the same customs as their neighbours.

After crossing the great river, which is fourteen leagues from the city
of Popayan, there is a morass about a quarter of a league in extent, and
beyond it the road is very good, until the river called _Ovejas_ is
reached. There is much risk to him who attempts to cross this river in
the winter time, for it is very deep, and the ford is near its mouth,
where it falls into the great river. Many Spaniards and Indians have
been drowned here. On the other side of this river there is a smooth
plain, six leagues in extent, and very good for travelling, and at the
end of it a river called Piandomo is crossed. Its banks, and the whole
of this plain, were once well peopled, but those whom the fury of the
war has spared, have retired to a distance from the road, where they
think they are safer. To the eastward is the province of Guambia, and
many other chiefs and villages. Beyond the river of Piandomo, there is
another called Plaza, the banks of which are well peopled, both at its
sources, and all along its course. Then the great river is again crossed
by a ford, and from this point to Popayan the whole country is covered
with beautiful farms, such as in Spain we call _alcarias_ or
_cortijos_,[251] and here the Spaniards have their flocks. These plains
are also sown with maize, and it is here that they have begun to sow
wheat. The land will yield great quantities, for it is well suited to
its growths. In other parts of this country they reap the maize in five
or six months, so that they have two crops in the year. They, however,
only sow it once in the year on this plain, and their harvest is in May
and June; that of wheat in July and August, as in Spain. All these
meadows and plains were once very populous, and subject to the lord
whose name was Popayan, one of the principal chiefs in these provinces.
Now there are few Indians, owing to the war with the Spaniards, and to
their custom of eating each other, and also to the great famine, which
was caused by their not sowing the crops, with the hope that, there
being no food, the Spaniards would leave their country. There are many
fruit trees, especially _aguacates_ or pears, which are abundant and
savoury. The rivers rising in the Cordillera of the Andes flow through
these plains, and the water is very limpid and sweet. In some of them
there are signs of gold.

The site of the city is on a high table land, in an excellent situation,
being the healthiest and most temperate of any in the government of
Popayan, and even in the greater part of the kingdom of Peru. Truly the
climate is more like Spain than the Andes. There are large houses of
straw in the city. This city of Popayan is the chief and head of all the
cities I have described, except that of Uraba, which belongs to the
government of Carthagena. All the rest are under Popayan, which contains
a cathedral church, and, as this is the principal and most central city,
the government is entitled Popayan. To the east is the long chain of the
Andes; to the west are other mountains which overhang the South Sea, and
on the other side are the plains which I have described. The city of
Popayan was founded by the captain Don Sebastian de Belalcazar,[252] in
the name of the Emperor Charles, our lord, by authority of the
Adelantado Don Francisco Pizarro, governor of all Peru, for his Majesty,
in the year of the Lord 1536.




CHAPTER XXXI.

Concerning the river of Santa Martha,[253] and of the things which are
met with on its banks.


Now that I have reached the city of Popayan, and described its site,
neighbourhood, founding, and people, it seems well that I should give an
account of the river which flows near it, and which is one of the two
branches which form the great river of Santa Martha. Before treating of
this river, however, I will relate what I find in the Scriptures
concerning the four principal rivers mentioned there, which are, first,
the Ganges, flowing through the East Indies; second, the Nile,
separating Asia from Africa, and watering the land of Egypt; third and
fourth, the Tigris and Euphrates, which encircle the two regions of
Mesopotamia and Cappadocia. These are the four which are said, in the
Holy Scriptures, to issue out of the earthly paradise. I also find that
mention is made of three others, which are the river Indus, whence India
takes its name; the river Danube, being the principal in Europe; and the
river Tanais, dividing Europe from Asia. Of all these, the greatest is
the Ganges, concerning which Ptolemy says, in his book of geography,
that the narrowest part is eight thousand paces, and the broadest
twenty thousand paces across. According to this, the broadest part of
the Ganges is seven leagues across. This is the extreme breadth of the
largest river in the world, that was known before the discovery of these
Indies. But now they have found rivers of such strange bigness, that
they appear more like gulfs of the sea, than rivers which flow through
the land. This appears from what is stated by many of the Spaniards who
went with the Adelantado Orellana. They declare that the river which
flows from Peru into the North Sea (commonly called the Amazons or
Marañon) is more than a thousand leagues long, and in some parts
twenty-five broad; and the Rio de la Plata is said by many who have been
there to be so broad that, in many places, the banks on either side are
not visible from the centre of the stream, being more than eight leagues
across. The river of Darien, too, is great, and that of Urapa is no
smaller, and there are many others of great size in these Indies,
amongst which is this river of Santa Martha.

The river of Santa Martha is formed by two branches. One of these, which
flows by the city of Popayan, rises in the great Cordillera of the
Andes, in some valleys formed by the mountains five or six leagues from
the city. These valleys were well peopled in former times, and are so to
this day, though not so thickly, by certain Indians whom they call
Coconucos, and among these, near a village called Cotara, this river has
its source, which, as I have before said, is one of the branches of the
great and rich river of Santa Martha.

The sources of the two branches are forty leagues from each other, and
the river is so large at the place where they unite, that it has a
breadth of one league, while, where it enters into the North Sea, near
the city of Santa Martha, it is seven leagues broad, and its force is so
great that its waters enter into the waves at last to be converted into
a part of the sea. Many ships have taken in good fresh water from it
out at sea, for its force is so mighty that it passes for more than four
leagues into the sea before it mingles with the salt water. It enters
the sea by many mouths and openings. In the mountain of the Coconucos
(which I have already said is the birth-place of one of the branches) it
is like a little brook, but it flows on to the broad valley of Cali,
receiving streams from mountains on both sides, so that, when it reaches
the city of Cali, it is so great and powerful that to me it seemed to
have as much water as the Guadalquivir at Seville. Lower down, when it
reaches Buritica, near the city of Antiochia, having received many more
streams, it is still larger. There are provinces and villages of Indians
from the source of this river to the point where it enters the ocean,
and such wealth of gold, both in mines and in the possession of the
Indians, that it cannot be exaggerated, it being so great. The natives
of these regions are not very intelligent, and they have so many
languages that, in going amongst them, it was necessary to take many
interpreters.

All the wealth of the province of Santa Martha, most of that of
Carthagena, of Nueva Granada, and of the province of Popayan, is near
this river; and, besides the country which has been discovered near its
banks, there are rumours of populous districts between the two branches,
which have yet to be explored. The Indians say that in these districts
there is great store of riches, and that the Indians who are natives
possess the mortal herb of Uraba. The Adelantado Don Pedro de Heredia
passed by the bridge of Brenuco, where, the river flowing in great
strength, the Indians had made a bridge with trees and strong creepers,
after the fashion of the bridges I have described already. He went some
days march by land, but returned, having few horses and Spaniards with
him. The Adelantado Don Sebastian de Belalcazar also wished to send
another captain by a route more to the eastward, which is less
dangerous, called the valley of Aburra, to explore the country
thoroughly between the two branches of this great river. But when he was
on the road the enterprise was abandoned, in order to send the troops to
the viceroy Blasco Nuñez Vela, at the time when he was at war with
Gonzalo Pizarro and his followers.

Returning to the subject of this river of Santa Martha, I would observe
that, where the two branches unite, a number of islands are formed, some
of which are inhabited. Near the sea there are many very fierce
alligators and other great fish, called _manatee_,[254] which are as
large as a calf, and are born on the beaches and islands. They come out
to browse when they can do so without danger, and presently return to
their haunts. About one hundred and twenty leagues below the city of
Antiochia, that of Mompox has been founded, within the jurisdiction of
Carthagena, and here they call this river the Cauca. The length of the
river from its source to the sea is more than four hundred leagues.




CHAPTER XXXII.

In which the account of the villages and chiefs subject to the city of
Popayan is concluded; and what there is to be said until the boundary of
Popayan is passed.


This city of Popayan has many large villages within the boundaries of
its jurisdiction. Towards the east it has the populous province of
Guambia, and others called Guanza, Maluasa, Polindara, Palace, Tembio,
and Colaza, all thickly peopled. The Indians of these districts have
much gold of seven _quilates_, more or less. They also have some fine
gold, of which they make ornaments, but the quantity is small in
proportion to the baser kind. They are warlike, and as great butchers as
those of the provinces of Arma, Pozo, and Antiochia. But as these
nations have no knowledge of our true God Jesus Christ, it seems that
little account should be taken of their life and customs. Not that they
fail to understand all that pleases them and is good in their eyes,
living cunningly, and compassing the death of each other in their wars.
And they also had great wars with the Spaniards, without caring to keep
the peace which they had promised, until at last they were conquered.
Before they would yield, they preferred to die rather than be subjected,
such was their hardihood, and they believed that the want of provisions
would force the Spaniards to leave the country. In truth the Spaniards
suffered much misery from famine, before they could fully establish
their new settlement. The natives were the cause of the loss of
thousands of lives, eating each others’ bodies, and sending their souls
to hell. At first some care was taken for the conversion of these
Indians, but they were not supplied with complete knowledge of our holy
religion, owing to the want of priests. At present things are in better
order, both as to their treatment and conversion; for his Majesty, with
great zeal for Christianity, has ordered that they shall be preached to.
And the lords of the high council of the Indies take great care that
this order is complied with, and have sent out learned friars of holy
life and manners, so that, by the favour of God, great fruit will be
derived from their labours.

Towards the snowy mountains or Cordillera of the Andes, there are many
valleys thickly inhabited by Indians called Coconucos, in whose country
the great river takes its rise. Their customs are the same as those of
the Indians we have left behind, except that they do not commit the
abominable sin of eating human flesh. There are many volcanoes, or fiery
mouths, in the lofty parts of the mountains, and out of one comes hot
water, from which they make salt. Their art in making salt is a thing
well worthy of note, and I promise to give an account of it further on,
after I have finished what I have to say concerning the town of Pasto.
Near these Indians there is a village called Zotara, and further on
another called Guanaca.

To the eastward is the extensive province of the Pacs, who have worked
so much evil to the Spaniards. It contains seven or eight thousand
Indians fit for war, who are valiant and dexterous in fighting, with
fine bodies, and very clean. They have their captains whom they obey,
and live in valleys surrounded by very rugged mountains through which
many rivers and streams flow, and in which it is believed there are good
mines. In fighting, they use stout lances of black palm wood,
twenty-five _palmos_ long, besides huge stones, which they throw or roll
down when occasion serves. They have killed so many valiant Spaniards,
as well captains as soldiers, that it causes sorrow and fear to behold
what injury these Indians have done, being so few. But there were grave
faults on the part of those who were killed, in that they held these
people so cheap, and God permitted that the Spaniards should fall, and
the Indians be victorious. So things went on until the Adelantado Don
Sebastian de Belalcazar destroyed their crops, and forced them to make
peace.

Towards the east is the province of Guachico, and further on are many
other provinces. To the south is the village of Cochesquio, and the
small Lagoon, also the district they call Las Barrancas, where there is
a small village of the same name. Further on are other villages, the
river called Las Juntas, another called Los Capitanes, the great
province of Masteles, and the district of Patia, which includes a
beautiful valley watered by a river that is fed by streams flowing from
the other district. This river carries its waters into the South Sea.
All these plains and valleys were once thickly peopled, but the natives
who have survived the wars have retired into the heights and fastnesses
which overhang them.

Towards the west is the province of Bomba and other villages, whose
inhabitants trade with each other, besides other districts peopled by
many Indians, where a town has been founded, and they call them the
provinces of Chapanchita. All these villages are situated in fertile
land, and they have a great quantity of gold. In some parts idols have
been seen, but there is no report of any temple or house of worship
having been met with. They converse with the devil, and, by his advice,
they do many things in accordance with his wishes. They have no
knowledge of the immortality of the soul, but they think that their
chiefs will return to life, and some believe (as I have been informed)
that the souls of the dead enter into the bodies of the newly born. They
perform ceremonies at the burial of their dead, and place them in large
and deep tombs. With their chiefs they inter some women and all their
property, besides food and wines. In some parts they burn the bodies
until they are converted to ashes, and in others they merely preserve
the dried bodies.

In these provinces there are the same fruits and provisions as in those
we have left behind, except that there are no _pixibae_ palms, but they
gather great quantities of potatoes. The people go naked and barefoot
without more clothes than a small mantle and a few ornaments of gold.
The women go covered with small mantles of cotton, and wear necklaces of
small flies made of pure gold, which are very pretty and becoming. As to
their customs in the matter of marriage, I will not relate anything
about them because they are childish, and I also pass over other matters
as being of no importance. Some of the Indians are great magicians and
sorcerers. We here learnt, also, that there are many herbs, both
wholesome and harmful, in these parts. All the Indians eat human flesh.
The province round Popayan was one of the most populous in all Peru, and
if it had been subjected by the Yncas it would have been the best and
richest of all.




CHAPTER XXXIII.

In which an account is given of what there is between Popayan and the
city of Pasto; who was the founder of Pasto; and what there is to be
said concerning the natives of the neighbouring districts.


The city of Popayan is forty leagues from the town of Pasto, and the
first village on the road was great and very populous in ancient times,
as well as when the Spaniards discovered it, and even now it contains
many Indians. The valley of Patia becomes very narrow at this village,
and the Indians live in deep and lofty ravines on the western side. The
Spaniards call the place “El pueblo de la Sal.” It is very rich, and has
yielded goodly tribute of fine gold to those who have held the
_encomienda_ here. The natives, in their arms, dress, and customs,
resemble those of the countries we have already passed, except that they
do not eat human flesh, and are a little more civilised. They have many
very fragrant pine-apples, and they trade with the province of
Chapanchita and with other neighbouring districts. Beyond this village
is the province of Masteles, which contains, or did contain, more than
four thousand Indians fit for war. Adjoining it is the province of the
Abades and the villages of Ysancal and Pangan and Caquanpas, and that
they call “Los Chorros,” and Pichilinbuy, also Tuyles and Angayan,
Pagual, Chuchaldo, and many more. Inland, towards the west, there are
reports of many more Indian villages and rich mines in districts
extending as far as the South Sea. The following villages also border on
the road, namely, Asqual, Mallama, Tucurres, Sapuys, Iles, Gualmatal,
Funes, Chapal, Males and Piales, Pupiales, Turca, and Cumba. All these
villages were inhabited by chiefs and Indians called Pastos, and hence
the town of Pasto has received its name, being as much as to say, “the
town built in the land of Pasto;” also another tribe of Indians borders
on the Indians called Pastos, who are known as the Quillacingas, and
whose villages are to the eastward, and are well peopled. The names of
their principal villages are Mocondino, Bexendino, Buyzaco,
Guajanzangua, Mocoxonduque, Quaquanquer, and Macaxamata. Still further
to the east there is another province, which is somewhat larger and more
fertile, called Pastoco, and another near a lake on the summit of a
mountain, where the water is so cold that, though the lake is eight
leagues long and more than four broad, no fish nor bird can live in it.
The land, too, produces no maize, nor are there any trees. There is
another lake near it of the same kind. Further on there are great
mountains, and the Spaniards do not know what there is on the other side
of them.

There are other villages on the road to this city, but it seems
unnecessary to enumerate them, having already mentioned the principal
ones. With regard to this city of Pasto, I have to say that no city or
town in the whole government of Popayan has so many Indians subject to
it, and it even has more than Quito and other places in Peru. Populous
as the district now is, in ancient times it must have been far more
populous, for it is most astonishing to see, in all the wide spread
plains, on the banks of rivers, on the hills and lofty mountains, that
there is not a part (how rugged and inaccessible soever) which does not
give signs of having been tilled or built over in times past. The
customs of these Indians, called Quillacingas and Pastos, differ from
those of the people we have passed, for the Pastos do not eat human
flesh, either when they fight with the Spaniards or with each other.
Their arms are stones thrown from the hand, staves like shepherds’
crooks, and a few badly-made lances. They are a poor-spirited people.
The chiefs are well-mannered, but the rest of the Indians are
ill-favoured, as well the men as the women, and all very dirty, but
gentle and good-tempered. All these Indians are so nasty, that, when
they louse themselves, they eat the lice as if they had been nuts, and
their drinking vessels and cooking utensils are very seldom cleaned out.
They have no creed, nor have idols been seen amongst them, but they
believe that after death they will come to life again to live in some
pleasant and delightful place. There are some things amongst these
Indians that are so secret that God alone can penetrate them. Their
women go dressed in a narrow cloth which covers them from the bosom to
the knees, with a smaller one falling over it. These mantles are made
either of the bark of a tree or of cotton. The men wear a mantle three
or four _varas_ long, which is passed once round the waist, and then
over the neck, the end being wrapped round the head. The Quillacingas,
as well as the Pastos, also wear a cloth between the legs. They wear a
mantle of cotton, which is broad and flowing, with another over the
shoulders, the women wearing one which falls over the bosom. The
Quillacingas converse with the devil. They have neither temple nor
creed, and when they die the bodies are put into large and deep tombs,
together with all the property of the deceased, which is not much. If
the dead man has been a chief, they bury some of his wives and servants
with him. They also have a custom, which is this (according to what I am
told): when one of the chiefs dies, the surrounding chiefs send two or
three of their women, who are taken to the tomb and given enough
maize-wine to make them drunk. As soon as they are insensible they are
buried in the tomb to keep company with the dead man; so that none of
these savages die without having twenty persons to keep them company,
and, besides these people, they put many jars of wine and other
provisions into the tomb.

When I passed through the country of these Indians, I collected the
particulars which I now relate with great diligence, making all the
inquiries I possibly could; and, among other things, I asked why they
practised such an evil custom, and why, not content with burying their
own women alive, they sought for more victims from amongst their
neighbours? I found out that the devil appears in a terrible and
appalling form (according to their own account), and gives them to
understand that they will come to life again in a great kingdom which is
prepared for them, and that they will arrive with more authority if they
are well attended. They also fall into other sins through the wiles of
this accursed enemy. God our Lord knows why he allows the devil to
converse with these people, and to wield such great power over them by
deceiving them. Now his Divine Majesty is displayed, and many Indians,
abhorring the devil, have embraced our holy religion. Some of the Pastos
converse with the devil. When the chiefs die, all possible honour is
done to their memory; the people mourn for many days, and the same
things are put into their tombs as I have already stated.

The districts of Pasto yield but little maize, but there are great
breeding-places for cattle, and especially for pigs, which are raised in
vast quantities. The country yields much barley, potatoes, and
_xiquimas_,[255] and there are very luscious _granadillas_[256] and
other fruits. In the country of the Quillacingas there is plenty of
maize and much fruit, except in the neighbourhood of the lake, where the
people have neither trees nor maize, the land being so cold. These
Quillacingas are warlike and untameable. There are great rivers of very
remarkable water in their country, and it is believed that some of them
contain abundance of gold. One of these rivers flows between Popayan and
Pasto, called the hot river, which is dangerous and difficult to cross
in the winter time. They have stout ropes stretched from one bank to the
other, for crossing it. This river contains the most excellent water I
have met with in the Indies, or even in Spain. Beyond this river, on the
road to Pasto, there is a mountain, of which the ascent is three good
leagues long. The famous chase which Gonzalo Pizarro and his followers
gave the Viceroy Blasco Nuñez Vela, extended as far as this river.




CHAPTER XXXIV.

In which the account of what there is in this country is concluded, as
far as the boundary of Pasto.


There is another rather large river in this country of the Pastos,
called Ancasmayu,[257] which is the point to which the King Huayna
Ccapac, son of the great captain Tupac Ynca Yupanqui, extended his
conquests. Having passed the hot river, and the mountain beyond it, the
road continues over some plains and hills, and crosses a small
_paramo_,[258] where there was no little cold when I travelled over it.
Further on there is a high mountain, on the summit of which a volcano
sends forth quantities of smoke at intervals, and in times past, the
natives say, it threw out volleys of stones. Coming from Popayan, this
volcano is left on the right-hand side. The town of Pasto is situated in
a very beautiful valley, through which a river of very sweet and
wholesome water flows, fed by numerous springs and brooks. This valley
is called Atris, and was formerly very populous, but the inhabitants
have now retired to the mountains. It is surrounded by mountains, some
wooded and others bare, and the Spaniards have their farms and
hunting-lodges in the valley. The banks of the river are always sown
with much excellent wheat, barley, and maize, and there is a mill where
the wheat is ground, for in this town they do not eat maize-bread, owing
to the abundance of wheat. In the plains there are quantities of deer,
rabbits, partridges, doves, pigeons, pheasants, and turkeys, and the
Indians take many in the chase. The land of the Pastos is excessively
cold, and in summer it is colder than in winter, the same thing
occurring in the town of the Christians, insomuch that the company of a
wife is by no means irksome to a husband, nor is plenty of clothes
disagreeable. The delightful town of Pasto was founded and settled by
the captain Don Lorenzo de Aldana, in the name of his Majesty, the
Adelantado Don Francisco Pizarro being his governor and captain-general
of all the provinces of Peru, in the year of our Lord 1539. The said
Lorenzo de Aldana was lieutenant-general for the same Don Francisco
Pizarro in Quito, Pasto, Popayan, Timana, Cali, Anzerma, and Cartago. He
governed them all, either himself or through lieutenants whom he named,
and, as is said by many conquerors in these parts, he ordered that the
natives should be well treated during the whole time that he was in
command.[259]




CHAPTER XXXV.

Of the notable fountains and rivers in these provinces, and how they
make salt of good quality by a very curious artifice.


Before I treat of the kingdom of Peru, or leave the government of
Popayan, it seems to me well to give some account of the notable
fountains there are in this land, and of the rivers of water from which
they make salt, for thus the people are sustained, having no salt pits
in these parts, and the sea being far distant.

When the licentiate Juan de Vadillo set out from Carthagena, we marched
over the mountains of Abibe, which are very rugged and difficult to
cross, so that we passed a time of no little hardship; most of the
horses died, and we were obliged to leave the greater part of our
baggage in the road; and, having reached the plain, we found many
villages, with great store of fruit trees, and broad rivers. But, as
the stock of salt which we had brought with us from Carthagena was
coming to an end, our food being herbs and beans for want of meat,
except that of horses and a few dogs we caught; we began to feel
distress, and many, from the want of salt, began to lose their colour,
and became yellow and thin. We procured some things in the Indian farms,
but there was only a little black salt mixed with the _aji_ that the
natives eat, and even this was very scarce, so that he thought himself
fortunate who could get any. Necessity teaches men notable things, and
we found a lake in a small mountain, the water of which was black and
salt. We put a quantity of this water into jars, which gave us a relish
for our food.

The natives of these provinces take the quantity of water they require
either from this lake or from others of the same kind, and boil it in
great jars. As soon as the fire has consumed the greater part of the
water, black salt remains at the bottom, with which, though not of good
taste, they season their food, and live without feeling the want that
would let itself be known if it were not for these fountains.

Divine Providence takes such care of his creatures that, in all parts,
he gives them what they require; and if men would always consider the
ways of nature, they would know the obligation they are under to serve
our true God.

In the province called Cori, which is near the town of Anzerma, there is
a river which flows with considerable force, and near it there are some
ponds of salt water, whence the Indians obtain the quantity they
require, and, making great fires, they place jars of this salt water on
them, and set the water to boil until from an _arroba_ there is not left
half an _azumbre_. Then their experience enables them to convert the
residue into as pure and excellent salt as is made from the salt-pits of
Spain. Throughout the districts of Antioquia there are many of these
fountains, and they make so much salt that they take it inland, and
exchange it for gold, cotton cloth, and other things which they may
require.

Beyond the great river which flows near the city of Cali, and near that
of Popayan, towards the north, we discovered a village called Mungia, in
company with the captain Jorge Robledo, whence we crossed the Cordillera
of the Andes, and discovered the valley of Aburra and its plains.

In this village of Mungia, and in another called Cenusara, we found some
other fountains in mountains near a river, and from these fountains the
natives made so much salt that their houses were full of it, moulded
into shapes exactly like loaves of sugar. They took this salt by the
valley of Aburra to the provinces to the eastward, which have not been
discovered or seen by the Spaniards to this day. This salt has made the
Indians exceedingly rich.

In the province of Caramanta, which is not very distant from the town of
Anzerma, there is a fountain which rises out of a river of sweet water,
and turns some of its water into a vapour resembling smoke, which
assuredly must arise from there being some metal in that part. The
Indians make good black salt from this water, and they also say that
they know of a lake near a great rock, at the foot of which there is the
same kind of water. They make salt from this water for their chiefs, for
they say that it makes better and whiter salt than in any other part.

In the province of Anzerma, and in all its districts, there are
fountains of the same sort, from which they make salt.

In the provinces of Arma, Carrapa, and Picara, they suffer much from the
want of salt, there being many inhabitants and few of these fountains,
so that the salt that is brought fetches a high price.

In the city of Cartago every citizen has his apparatus for making salt,
which is prepared in an Indian village called Consota, a league from the
city, where a small river flows. Near the river there is a mountain,
out of which comes a large spring of very black and thick water. The
water is taken from this spring and boiled in cauldrons until it is
nearly all evaporated, when a white-grained salt remains, as good as
that of Spain. The citizens of that city use no other salt than that
which is obtained from this spring. Further on there is another village
called Coyusa, near which flows several rivers of very remarkable water.
I noticed in them a thing which astonished me not a little. This was
that certain brackish pools were formed by these streams, and also at
the source whence they take their rise; and that the Indians, with much
industry, had certain pipes, made of the stout canes of these parts,
fixed in them after the manner of ships’ pumps, so that they could pump
up the quantity of water they required, and make their salt from it.

In the city of Cali there are none of these springs, and the Indians get
their salt by barter from a province near the sea, called Timbas. Those
who cannot make the exchange boil fresh water, and mix a certain herb
with it, by which they make a bad salt of very evil smell. The Spaniards
who live in this city do not feel the want of salt because the port of
Buenaventura is near, and vessels arrive there from Peru with large
blocks of salt.

In the city of Popayan there are some of these fountains, especially
among the Coconucos, but not so many, nor of such good quality as those
of Anzerma and Cartago. At Pasto all the salt is obtained by trading,
and it is better than that of Popayan. I have seen many springs, besides
those which I have now described, with my own eyes, but it seems to me
that I have said enough to make the reader understand the manner of
procuring salt from these springs. Having declared the method of making
salt in these provinces, I shall now pass on to the great kingdom of
Peru.




CHAPTER XXXVI.

Which contains the description and appearance of the kingdom of Peru
from the city of Quito to the town of La Plata, a distance of more than
seven hundred leagues.


Now that I have finished what there is to be told respecting the
province of Popayan, it appears to me that it is time to use my pen in
giving an account of the notable things that are to be said of Peru,
commencing from the city of Quito. But, before describing that city, it
will be convenient to give a sketch of the whole country, which is seven
hundred leagues long and one hundred in breadth, rather more in some
parts and less in others.

I do not at present desire to treat of the whole empire over which the
Kings Yncas ruled, which was more than one thousand two hundred leagues
long, but I shall confine myself to that part which is understood under
the name of Peru, from Quito to La Plata.

In this land of Peru there are three desert ranges where men can in no
wise exist. One of these comprises the _montaña_ (forests) of the Andes,
full of dense wildernesses, where men cannot, nor ever have lived. The
second is the mountainous region, extending the whole length of the
Cordillera of the Andes, which is intensely cold, and its summits are
covered with eternal snow, so that, in no way, can people live in this
region, owing to the snow and the cold, and also because there are no
provisions, all things being destroyed by the snow and by the wind,
which never ceases to blow. The third range comprises the sandy deserts
from Tumbez to the other side of Tarapaca, in which there is nothing to
be seen but sand-hills and the fierce sun which dries them up, without
water, nor herb, nor tree, nor created thing, except birds, which, by
the gift of their wings, wander wherever they list. This kingdom, being
so vast, has great deserts, for the reasons I have now given.

The inhabited region is after this fashion. In parts of the mountains of
the Andes there are ravines and dales, which open out into deep valleys
of such width as often to form great plains between the mountains, and,
although the snow falls, it all remains on the higher part. As these
valleys are closed in, they are not molested by the winds, nor does the
snow reach them, and the land is so fruitful that all things which are
sown yield abundantly, and there are trees and many birds and animals.
The land being so fertile, is well peopled by the natives. They make
their villages with rows of stones roofed with straw, and live healthily
and in comfort. Thus the mountains of the Andes form these dales and
ravines, in which there are populous villages, and rivers of excellent
water flow near them. Some of these rivers send their waters to the
South Sea, entering by the sandy deserts which I have mentioned, and the
humidity of their water gives rise to very beautiful valleys with great
rows of trees. The valleys are two or three leagues broad, and great
quantities of _algoroba_[260] trees grow in them, which flourish even at
great distances from any water. Wherever there are groves of trees the
land is free from sand, and very fertile and abundant. In ancient times
these valleys were very populous, and still there are Indians in them,
though not so many as in former days. As it never rains in these sandy
deserts and valleys of Peru, they do not roof their houses as they do in
the mountains, but build large houses of _adobes_,[261] with pleasant
terraced roofs of matting to shade them from the sun, nor do the
Spaniards use any other roofing than these reed mats. To prepare their
fields for sowing, they lead channels from the rivers to irrigate the
valleys, and the channels are so well made, and with so much regularity,
that all the land is irrigated without any waste. This system of
irrigation makes the valleys very green and cheerful, and they are full
of the fruit trees both of Spain and of this country. At all times they
raise good harvests of maize and wheat, and of everything that they sow.
Thus, although I have described Peru as being formed of three desert
ridges, yet from them, by the will of God, descend these valleys and
rivers, without which no man could live. This is the cause why the
natives were so easily conquered; for, if they rebelled, they would all
perish of cold and hunger. Except the land which they inhabit, the whole
country is full of snowy mountains of enormous height, and very
terrible.

This kingdom, as I have already said, is seven thousand leagues long
from north to south, but if we include all the country that the Kings
Yncas had under their dominion, its length would be one thousand two
hundred leagues of road from north to south on a meridian. Its greatest
breadth, from east to west, will be little less than one hundred
leagues, and in other places from forty to sixty, more or less. What I
say of the length and breadth is to be understood as applied to the
mountains also, which extend over the whole of this land of Peru. And
this mighty chain, which is called the Andes, is forty leagues from the
South Sea in some parts, in others sixty; in some more, and in others
less. Being so very high, and the greatest heights being towards the
South Sea, the rivers which flow from them on that side are small
because their courses are short.

The other chain of mountains, which also extends along the whole length
of this country, prolongs its spurs into the plains, and ends close to
the sea in some places, and at others eight or ten leagues from it, more
or less. The climate of these plains is more hot than cold, and in some
seasons more so than in others, and the plains are so low, that the sea
is almost as high as the land. The season of greatest heat is when the
sun has passed by and reached the tropic of capricorn, which is on the
11th of December, and then it turns again towards the equinoctial line.
In the mountains, although there are provinces with a warm climate, yet
the contrary may be said of them, that there is more cold weather than
hot. So much I have said concerning these provinces, and further on I
shall add what more there is to be observed concerning them.




CHAPTER XXXVII.

Of the villages and provinces between the town of Pasto and the city of
Quito.


Having written what is notable concerning the pleasant town of Pasto, it
will now be well to continue the journey, by relating what there is on
the road to the city of Quito.

I said that the town of Pasto was built in the valley of Atris, within
the territory of the Quillacingas, a shameless people, and they and the
Pastos are very dirty, and are held in little estimation by their
neighbours. Leaving the town of Pasto, the road leads to a village of
the Pastos called Funes, and farther on there is another called Iles.
Three leagues more bring the traveller to Gualmatan, and another three
leagues on the road towards Quito bring him to the village of Ipiales.

In all these villages there is little or no maize, the country being
very cold, and the maize seed very delicate. But they grow plenty of
potatoes and _quinoa_,[262] besides other products. From Ipiales the
road leads to a small district called Guaca, but before reaching it the
road of the Yncas is seen, which is as famous in these parts as that
which Hannibal made over the Alps when he descended into Italy. Indeed,
the former ought to be held in more estimation, as well on account of
the great lodgings and storehouses along its whole length, as for being
made in spite of many difficulties over rugged and swampy mountains, so
that it is a sight marvellous to behold. There is also a river near the
road, close to which the place is seen where, in former days, the Kings
Yncas had built a fortress. Here they made war upon the Pastos, and set
out to conquer them. There is a natural bridge over the river which
appears artificial. In truth it is a lofty and massive rock, with a hole
in it, through which the river passes in its fury, and on the top all
wayfarers can pass at their pleasure. This bridge is called
_Rumichaca_[263] in the language of the Yncas, which is as much as to
say the “stone bridge.”

Near this bridge there is a fountain of hot water, the heat of which is
such, that in no wise can any man keep his hand long in it. The land is
so cold that no one can endure it without great suffering. The Kings
Yncas intended to have built another fortress near the bridge, and they
placed faithful guards in order to prevent the troops from returning to
Cuzco or Quito, for the people held the region of the Pastos to be a
worthless conquest.

In all these villages there is a fruit called _mortuños_, which is
smaller than a sloe, and black. If a man eats many of them he becomes
giddy and sick, and for a whole day is in great pain. I know this,
because when we went to give battle to Gonzalo Pizarro, a man named
Rodrigo de las Peñas came with us, a friend of mine, and ensign to the
captain Don Pedro de Cabrera. When we reached this village of Guaca, the
said Rodrigo, having eaten some of these berries, suffered so much that
we thought he would have died of them.

From the small district of Guaca the road leads to Tusa, which is the
last village of the Pastos. On the right hand are the mountains which
overhang the sea of sweet water, and on the left the height which rises
from the South Sea. Further on a small hill is reached, where a fortress
may be seen, built by the Yncas in former days, which must be of no
small strength for Indian warfare. Beyond this fort and the village of
Tusa is the river of Mira, which is very warm, and on its banks there is
plenty of fruit, such as melons, besides game, excellent rabbits,
pigeons, and partridges. Here they reap large harvests of wheat, barley,
and maize, for the land is very fertile. From the river there is a
descent to the great and sumptuous buildings of Carangue, but, before
arriving at them, the lagoon of Yahuar-cocha[264] is seen, which, in our
language, is as much as to say “the sea of blood.” The Indians say that,
before the arrival of the Spaniards, the King, Huayna Ccapac, for some
offence committed by the natives of Carangue and other villages, ordered
more than twenty thousand to be killed, and their bodies to be thrown
into this lake. The dead men were so numerous that it looked like a sea
of blood, for which reason this name was given.[265]

Further on are the buildings called Carangue, where some say that
Atahualpa, the son of Huayna Ccapac, was born, for his mother was a
native of this place. But this is certainly not the case, for I
inquired into the matter with great care, and Atahualpa was born in
Cuzco. Any other account of his birth is unworthy of credit. These
buildings of Carangue are in a small square, and within there is a basin
of cut stone. The palace and lodgings of the Yncas are also of elegant
stones of great size, and are very neatly fitted without cement, which
is a thing worthy of no small attention. Formerly there was a temple of
the sun, and within there were more than two hundred beautiful maidens
dedicated to the service, who were obliged to preserve their chastity,
and if any of them failed to do so she was very cruelly punished. Those
who committed adultery, which was considered a great sacrilege, were
buried alive. These maidens were carefully watched, and there were also
priests who performed the sacrifices enjoined by their religion. This
house of the sun was held in great estimation in the days of the Lords
Yncas. It was reverenced and guarded, and was full of great vases of
gold and silver, and of other riches which cannot be quickly enumerated.
Even the walls were lined with plates of gold and silver. Although it is
now in a ruinous state, there is enough left to show that it was once a
magnificent structure. The Yncas maintained a garrison of troops, with
their officers, in this station, who were here both in time of peace and
war to put down any rising. Speaking of these Lords Yncas, I will treat
somewhat of their greatness and power before passing onwards in our
journey.




CHAPTER XXXVIII.

In which it is stated who were the Kings Yncas, and how they ruled over
Peru.


As I shall often have to treat of the Yncas, and give an account of many
of their buildings, and of other notable things, it appears to me to be
appropriate that I should say something concerning them in this place,
that readers may know who these Yncas were, and not misunderstand their
importance, or fall into mistakes about them. I, however, have written a
special book upon them and their deeds, which is very copious.

From the accounts which the Indians of Cuzco have given us, we gather
that, in ancient times, there were great disorders in all the provinces
of that kingdom which we now call Peru, and that the natives were so
savage and stupid as to be beyond belief; for they say that these early
tribes were bestial, and that many ate human flesh, others taking their
mothers and daughters for their wives. Besides all this, they committed
other greater sins, having much intercourse with the devil, whom they
all served and held in high estimation. They had their castles and forts
in the mountain fastnesses, and, on very slight provocation, they made
war upon each other, killing and taking prisoners without mercy.
Notwithstanding that they committed all these crimes and walked in
wickedness, they are said to have been given to religion, which is the
reason why, in many parts of this kingdom, great temples have been found
where they prayed to, adored, and had interviews with the devil, making
great sacrifices before their idols. The people of this kingdom lived in
this manner, and great tyrants rose up in the provinces of Collas, in
the valleys of the Yuncas, and in other parts, who made fierce wars upon
each other, and committed many robberies and murders; insomuch that
they caused great calamities, and many castles were destroyed, while the
devil, the enemy of human nature, rejoiced that so many souls should be
lost.

While all the provinces of Peru were in this state, two brothers rose
up, the name of one of whom was Manco Ccapac. The Indians relate great
marvels and very pleasant fables respecting these men, which may be read
by any one who pleases, when the book written by me on the subject sees
the light. This Manco Ccapac founded the city of Cuzco, and established
laws for the use of the people. He and his descendants were called
Yncas, a word which signifies lords or kings. They conquered and
dominated over all the country, from Pasto to Chile, and their banners
were carried to the south as far as the river Maule, and north to the
Ancasmayu. These rivers were the boundaries of the empire of these
Yncas, which was so great, that from one end to the other is a distance
of one thousand three hundred leagues. The Yncas built great fortresses,
and in every province they had their captains and governors. They
performed such great deeds, and ruled with such wisdom, that few in the
world ever excelled them. They were very intelligent and learned without
having letters, which had not been invented in these Indies. They
introduced good customs into all the conquered provinces, and gave
orders that the people should wear _usutas_ in the place of leathern
sandals. They thought much of the immortality of the soul, and of other
secrets of nature. They believed that there was a Creator of all things,
and they held the sun to be a god, to whom they built great temples;
but, deceived by the devil, they worshipped among trees and on stones,
like heathens. In the principal temples they kept a great quantity of
very beautiful virgins, just as was done in the Temple of Vesta, at
Rome, and the rules concerning them were almost the same. They chose the
bravest and most faithful captains they could find to command their
armies. They were very astute and artful in turning enemies into
friends without having resort to war, but they chastised rebels with
severity and cruelty. But, as I have already said, I have a book
concerning the Yncas, so that what I have now written will suffice to
enable those who may read it to understand who these Kings were, and
their great power, and I will therefore return to my road.




CHAPTER XXXIX.

Of other villages and buildings between Carangue and the city of Quito:
and of the robbery which the people of Otabalo are said to have
committed on those of Carangue.


In the former chapter I spoke of the great power and dominion which the
Yncas, Kings of Cuzco, held over all Peru, and it will now be well to
proceed on our journey.

From the royal station of Carangue the famous road of the Yncas leads to
the station of Otabalo, which is not, and never has been, very rich or
important, but on each side of it there are large villages of Indians.
Those on the west side are called Poritaco, Collaguaso, the Huacas, and
Cayambes; and near the great river Marañon are the Quijos in a country
covered with vast forests. It was into this region that Gonzalo Pizarro
made his way when he went in search of the cinnamon. He was accompanied
by many valiant Spaniards, and they took with them great store of
provisions, yet with all this they suffered terrible hardships and much
hunger. In the fourth part of my work I will give a full account of this
discovery, and I will relate how they came, by this way, to the great
river, and how Captain Orellana came down it into the ocean, went to
Spain, and was named governor of these countries by his Majesty.

Towards the east are the farms of Cotocoyambe and the forests of Yumbo,
besides many other districts, some of which have not been thoroughly
explored.

The natives of Otabalo and Carangue are called Guamaraconas (_Huayna
cuna_[266]). The name arose from what was said after the massacre
ordered by Huana Ccapac in the lake, where most of the men were killed.
Only boys were left in these villages, and the word means in our
language “Now you are boys.” The natives of Carangue are very hostile to
those of Otabalo for the following reason. When the news of the arrival
of the Spaniards was spread abroad in the provinces of Quito, together
with the imprisonment of Atahualpa, the people were filled with wonder
and fear, and were particularly astonished at what they heard concerning
the swiftness of the horses. Thus they awaited their arrival, thinking,
that as they had overthrown the Ynca their Lord, they also would be
subjugated. At this time the Lord of Cayambe had a great quantity of
treasure in his charge, and he of Otabalo observed that his neighbour
was in great fear and perturbation for the safety of the precious
treasure. The chief of Otabalo then called together his people, and,
selecting those who were most agile and cunning, ordered them to dress
in shirts and long mantles, and, with wands in their hands, to mount
their best sheep and to climb up into the heights, so that they could be
seen by those of Carangue. He, with most of his people and some women,
in the mean time, fled to Carangue with great demonstrations of fear,
saying that he was flying from the fury of the Spaniards, who had
reached his villages on their horses, and that he had left all his
valuables behind, to escape from their cruelty.

This news caused great terror, and it was received as certain, because
the Indians, mounted on sheep, could be seen on the hills, so the people
of Carangue began their flight. Otabalo pretended to do the same, but
he and his people returned to Carangue, and stole all the treasure they
could find, which was not little. When those of Carangue returned, at
the end of a few days, the deceit was discovered.

This strange robbery caused much agitation among the people of Carangue,
and they had several debates among themselves; but, as the captain
Sebastian de Belalcazar, with the Spaniards, entered the provinces of
Quito a few days after this occurrence, they dropped their quarrels in
order to defend themselves. Thus the people of Otabalo retained what
they had robbed, as is stated by many Indians of these parts, and the
feud has not ceased amongst them.

From the station of Otabalo the road leads to that of Cochesqui, and
crosses a snowy pass, where it is so cold that there is some trouble in
preserving life. From Cochesqui the road passes on to Guallabamba, which
is four leagues from Quito, and here, the land being low and nearly on
the equator, it is warm, but not so much so as to prevent it from being
very populous, and it yields all things necessary for the support of
man. We who have travelled in these parts know what there is on this
equinoctial line, which some ancient authors held to be an uninhabitable
region. Under the line there is winter and summer, and the country is
thickly inhabited, the crops which are sown yielding abundantly,
especially wheat and barley.

The road which unites these stations is crossed by several rivers, all
with bridges, now much out of repair, and there are grand buildings and
many other things to be seen.

The distance from Guallabamba to Quito is four leagues, and there are
several houses and farms along the roadside, where the Spaniards have
their flocks until the plains of Añaquito is reached. Here, in 1545,
during the month of January, the viceroy Blasco Nuñez Vela arrived with
a company of Spaniards, who followed him, in opposition to those who
upheld the tyranny. Gonzalo Pizarro, who had seized the government of
the country, and called himself governor under false colours,
accompanied by most of the conquerors of Peru, marched out of the city
of Quito and gave battle to the viceroy. The unfortunate viceroy, and
many brave knights who were showing their loyalty and desire to serve
his Majesty, were left dead on the field. Passing this plain of
Añaquito, the city of Quito is presently reached.




CHAPTER XL.

Of the situation of the city of San Francisco del Quito, of its
foundation, and who it was who founded it.


The city of San Francisco del Quito is in the northern province of the
kingdom of Peru. This province is nearly sixty leagues long from east to
west, and twenty-five or thirty broad. The city is built amongst ancient
buildings, which the Yncas, in the days of their power, had ordered to
be raised in these parts. They were the work of the illustrious and
powerful Huayna Ccapac, and of the great Tupac, his father, and the
natives called these royal and noble buildings Quito, whence the city
took its name.[267] The climate is healthy, and more cold than warm.
There is little or no extent of view from the city, because it is
situated in a hollow surrounded by high mountains, and the level space
is so confined that there will be some difficulty in building if it is
desired to enlarge the city, but it could be made very strong if it was
considered necessary. To the west are the cities of Puerto Viejo, and
Guayaquil, which are about seventy and eighty leagues distant, and to
the south are the cities of Loxa and San Miguel, the one one hundred and
thirty and the other eighty leagues distant. To the east are the forests
and the sources of the river which is called the fresh water sea,[268]
and to the north is the government of Popayan, which we have just
passed.

The city of Quito is under the equinoctial line, indeed only seven
leagues distant from it. The surrounding country appears to be sterile,
but in reality it is very fertile, and all kinds of cattle are bred in
it plentifully, besides other provisions, corn and pulse, fruit and
birds. The country is very pleasant, and particularly resembles Spain in
its pastures and its climate, for the summer begins in April, and lasts
until November, and, though it is cold, the land is no more injured by
it than in Spain.

In the plains they reap a great quantity of wheat and barley, so that
there is a plentiful supply of provisions in the province, and in time
it will yield all the fruits of our Spain, for even now they begin to
grow some of them. The natives are in general more gentle and better
disposed, and have fewer vices than any of those we have passed, and
indeed than all the Indians of the greater part of Peru. This, at least,
is what I myself have seen and understood, although others have formed a
different opinion. But if they had seen and noted all these people as I
have done, I hold it for certain that they would be of my way of
thinking. They are a people of middle height, and very hard workers.
They live in the same way as the people of the Kings Yncas, except that
they are not so clever, seeing that they were conquered by them, and now
live by the rules which were ordered to be observed by the Yncas. For
in ancient times they were, like their neighbours, badly dressed and
without industry in the erection of buildings.[269]

There are many warm valleys where fruit trees and pulses are cultivated
all the year round. There are also vineyards in these valleys, but as
the cultivation has only lately commenced, I can only mention the hope
that they will yield; but they already have large orange and lime trees.
The pulses of Spain yield abundantly, and all other provisions may be
had that man requires. There is also a kind of spice, which we call
cinnamon, brought from the forests to the eastward. It is a fruit, or
kind of flower, which grows on the very large cinnamon trees, and there
is nothing in Spain that can be compared with it, unless it be an acorn,
but it is of a reddish colour inclined to black, and much larger and
rounder. The taste is very pleasant, like that of real cinnamon, and it
is only eaten after it has been pounded, for, if it is stewed like real
cinnamon, it loses the strength of its flavour. It makes a warm cordial,
as I can affirm from experience, for the natives trade with it, and use
it in their illnesses, particularly for pains in the bowels and stomach.
They take it as a drink.[270]

They have great store of cotton, which they make into cloth for their
dresses, and also use it for paying tribute. In the neighbourhood of the
city of Quito there are many flocks of what we call sheep, but they are
more like camels. Further on I shall treat of these animals, of their
shape, and of the different sorts of these sheep of Peru, as we call
them. There are also many deer, rabbits, partridges, pigeons, doves, and
other game. Of provisions, besides maize, there are two other products
which form the principal food of these Indians. One is called potatoe,
and is a kind of earth nut, which, after it has been boiled, is as
tender as a cooked chestnut, but it has no more skin than a truffle, and
it grows under the earth in the same way. This root produces a plant
exactly like a poppy. The other food is very good, and is called
_quinoa_.[271] The leaf is like a Moorish rush (amaranth?), and the
plant grows almost to the height of a man, forming a very small seed,
sometimes white and at others reddish. Of these seeds they make a drink,
and also eat them cooked, as we do rice.

There are many other seeds and roots, but the natives of Quito, seeing
the value of wheat and barley, sow one or the other, and eat them, also
making a drink from the barley.[272] As I have said before, all these
Indians are industrious, although, in some of the provinces, they have a
different character, as I will relate when we pass through them, for the
women are made to work in the fields, while their husbands sew and
weave, and occupy themselves with female work. I have seen, in the
villages near Cuzco, while the women are ploughing, the men spinning and
preparing their arms and clothes, work suited to women and not to men.

In the time of the Yncas there was a royal road made by the force and
labour of men, which began at this city of Quito, and went as far as
Cuzco, whence another of equal grandeur and magnitude led to the
province of Chile, which is more than one thousand two hundred leagues
from Quito. On these roads there were pleasant and beautiful lodgings
and palaces every three or four leagues, very richly adorned. These
roads may be compared to that which the Romans made in Spain, and which
we call the silver road.

I have stopped longer to describe the noteworthy things of Quito than at
any of the other cities we have left behind, and the reason is that this
city is the principal place in this part of Peru, and has always been
much esteemed. To conclude with it, I must add that it was founded and
settled by captain Sebastian Belalcazar (who was afterwards governor and
Adelantado of the province of Popayan) in the name of the Emperor, Don
Carlos our lord, the Adelantado Don Francisco Pizarro being governor and
captain-general of the kingdoms of Peru and provinces of New Castille,
in the year of the nativity of our Redeemer Jesus Christ 1534.




CHAPTER XLI.

Concerning the villages beyond Quito as far as the royal palaces of
Tumebamba, and of some customs of the natives.


The distance from the city of Quito to the palaces of Tumebamba is
fifty-three leagues. Soon after leaving the city there is a village
called Pansaleo, the natives of which differ in some things from their
neighbours, especially in the fillets or bands round their heads; for by
these bands the descent of the Indians is known, and the provinces of
which they are natives.[273]

These and all the other natives of the kingdom, over a space of more
than one thousand two hundred leagues, speak the general language of the
Yncas, being that which is used in Cuzco. They generally speak this
language, because such is the order of the Yncas, and it was a law
throughout the kingdom that this language should be used. Fathers were
punished if they neglected to teach it to their sons in their childhood,
yet, notwithstanding that they speak the language of Cuzco, all these
tribes had a language of their own which was spoken by their ancestors.
Thus, those of Pansaleo had a different language from those of Carangue
and Otabalo. The people of Pansaleo are dressed in shirts without
sleeves or collars, with openings at the sides for their arms, and above
for their heads. They also have large mantles of wool or cotton. The
mantles of the chiefs were very fine, and were dyed with many bright
colours. For shoes they used certain _usutas_, made from a root or herb
called _Cabuya_,[274] which forms great leaves, out of which very useful
white fibres are drawn, like hemp. Of these they make their _usutas_, or
sandals, which serve as shoes, and they wear the ends of these fibres as
a covering for their heads. Some of the women wear the very graceful
dress of those of Cuzco, with a long mantle extending from the neck to
the feet, having holes for the arms. Round the waist they fasten a very
broad and graceful belt called _chumpi_, which tightens and secures the
mantle. Over this they wear another fine mantle falling from the
shoulders, and coming down so as to cover the feet, called _lliella_. To
secure their mantles they wear pins of gold and silver, rather broad at
one end, called _topu_. On the head they wear a very graceful band,
which they call _uncha_, and the _usutas_, or sandals, complete their
attire. In short, the dress of the ladies of Cuzco is the most graceful
and rich that has been seen up to this time in all the Indies.[275]
They are very careful in combing out their hair, and wear it very long.
In another place I will treat more fully of this dress of the _Pallas_,
or ladies of Cuzco.

Between this village of Pansaleo and the city of Quito there are some
scattered villages here and there among the hills. To the westward are
the valleys of Uchillo and Langazi, where the land, which is very
fertile, yields many of those products concerning which I wrote in the
chapter on the foundation of Quito. The inhabitants are not hostile to
each other, nor do they eat human flesh, and they are not so wicked as
some of those in the provinces which we have passed. Formerly they
adored many idols, according to their own report, but after they were
conquered by the Kings Yncas, they offered their sacrifices to the sun,
and worshipped it as a god.

Here a road leads to the forests of Yumbo, where the natives are not so
serviceable nor so docile as those of Quito, but, on the contrary, proud
and vicious. They live in a rugged and inaccessible district, which is,
however, very rich by reason of the warmth and fertility. These people
also worship the sun, and resemble their neighbours in their habits and
customs, for, like them, they were subjugated by the great Tupac Ynca
Yupanqui and his son Huayna Ccapac.

Another road leads towards the rising of the sun, where there is a
province called Quijos, inhabited by Indians with the same manners and
customs.

Three leagues beyond Pansaleo are the buildings and village of
Mulahalo,[276] which though now small from the desertion of its
inhabitants, was, in ancient times, a station where there were lodgings
for the Yncas and their captains when they travelled on this road, and
great store of provisions for the troops. On the right hand of the
village of Mulahalo there is a fiery mouth, or volcano, of which the
Indians say that, in former times, it threw out great quantities of
stones and cinders, insomuch that many villages were destroyed by them.
Some pretend that, before the irruption, infernal visions were seen, and
trembling voices heard. What these Indians say of the volcano appears to
be certainly true, for at the time Don Pedro de Alvarado (formerly
governor of the province of Guatemala) entered Peru with his armed force
by way of these provinces of Quito, it rained cinders for several days,
as several Spaniards assert who came with Alvarado. They must have burst
from some fiery mouth, as there are many in these mountains which would
yield much sulphur.

A little beyond Mulahalo are the village and great buildings called
Llacta-cunga, which were as important as those of Quito.[277] The
buildings, though now in ruins, give signs of their former grandeur,
and in some of the walls the niches may be seen where the golden sheep
and other valuable things which they carved, were kept. The building set
apart for the Kings Yncas, and the temple of the sun, where they
performed their sacrifices and superstitions, were especially remarkable
for these precious things. There were also many virgins here, dedicated
to the service of the temple, whom they called _Mama-cuna_. In this
village the Lords Yncas placed a superintendent, who had charge of the
collection of tribute in the neighbouring provinces, and stored it here,
where there were also a great number of _Mitimaes_.[278] The Yncas,
considering that the centre of their dominion was the city of Cuzco,
whence they promulgated laws, and sent forth their captains to war, and
that Quito was six hundred leagues distant, while the road to Chile was
still longer; and considering, also, that all this vast extent of
country was peopled by barbarous, and some of them very warlike tribes,
they adopted the following system in order to keep the empire in greater
security. It was first commenced in the time of King Ynca Yupanqui,
father of the great Tupac Ynca Yupanqui, and grandfather of Huayna
Ccapac.

As soon as a province was conquered, ten or twelve thousand men were
ordered to go there with their wives, but they were always sent to a
country where the climate resembled that from which they came. If they
were natives of a cold province, they were sent to a cold one; and if
they came from a warm province, they went to a warm one. These people
were called _Mitimaes_,[278] which means Indians who have come from one
country and gone to another. They received grants of land on which to
work, and sites on which to build their houses. The Yncas decreed that
these _Mitimaes_ should always obey the orders of the governors and
captains who were placed over them, so that if the natives rebelled, the
_Mitimaes_, who owed obedience to their captains, would punish them and
force them into the service of the Yncas; consequently, if there was any
disturbance among the _Mitimaes_ themselves, they were attacked by the
natives. By this policy these Lords Yncas kept their empire safe and
free from rebellion; and the provinces were well supplied with
provisions, for most of the inhabitants of each were natives of some
other country. They also adopted another plan, in order that they might
not be detested by the natives. They never deprived the native caciques
of their inheritance, and if any one of them was so guilty as to merit
deprivation, the vacant office was given to his sons or brothers, and
all men were ordered to obey them. In my book of the Yncas I treat more
fully of this system of _Mitimaes_ than I am able to do here. To return
to what I was saying, these Indians, called _Mitimaes_, in the station
of Llacta-cunga, were ordered to obey the officer appointed by the Ynca.
Around the buildings were the farms and villages of the chiefs and
officers, which were well supplied with provisions.

When the last battle was fought in Peru (which was in the valley of
Xaquixaguana, where Gonzalo Pizarro was put to death) we set out from
the government of Popayan with the Adelantado Don Sebastian de
Belalcazar, and little less than two hundred Spaniards, to take the side
of his Majesty against the tyrants, and some of us arrived at this
village, for we did not all march along the same road, lest there should
be difficulty in obtaining food and other necessaries. In one direction
there were plenty of rabbits, in another pigs, in another fowls, and so
on with sheep and lambs; and thus all were provided for.

The natives of this village all go about dressed in shirts and mantles,
each one as richly and gallantly adorned as his means will allow. The
women also go dressed in the same way as those of Mulahalo, and they
speak almost the same language. All their houses are of stone, roofed
with straw, some being large, and others small, according to the rank
and wealth of the occupants. The captains and lords have many women, but
there is one principal and legitimate wife, through whom the lordship is
inherited. They worship the sun, and when the chiefs die, they make
large tombs in the mountains and plains, where they bury his gold and
silver jewels, arms, clothes, and live women (not the ugliest) with the
body, together with plenty of provisions. This custom of thus burying
the dead is adopted throughout the greater part of the Indies by advice
of the devil, who gives the people to understand that they will thus be
well provided for when they arrive in the new country. They make great
lamentations over their dead, and the women who are not killed, with all
the servants, are shorn of their hair, and remain for many days in
constant mourning. After weeping through all the day and night in which
the death took place, they still continue to weep for a whole year.
These Indians eat early in the morning, and they eat on the ground
without troubling themselves much about cloths or napkins. After they
have eaten their maize, with meat or fish, they pass all the rest of the
day in drinking _chicha_,[280] or wine made from maize, always holding
the cup in their hands. They are very careful and orderly in their
festive songs, the men and women holding hands, and going round to the
sound of a drum. They recount former events in their songs and ditties,
but they always go on drinking until they are very drunk. [_Here follow
sentences unfit for translation._][281]

They believe in the immortality of the soul, and know that there has
been a Creator of all things in the world, so that in contemplating the
grandeur of the heavens, the movements of the sun and moon, and other
marvels, they understand that there was a Creator of them all, but,
blinded and deceived by the devil, they think that the same devil has
power over all things. Some, however, seeing his villainy, and that he
never tells the truth, abhor him, and they obey him more from fear than
because they believe in his divinity. They hold the sun in great
reverence, and believe it to be a god. The priests are much esteemed by
the people.

I shall conclude this chapter by saying that these people of
Llacta-cunga use lances of palm wood, darts, and slings for fighting.
The women are very amorous, and some of them are beautiful. There are
still many _Mitimaes_ here, descended from those who came here when the
Yncas ruled over these provinces.




CHAPTER XLII.

Of the other villages between Llacta-cunga and Riobamba; and of what
passed between the Adelantado Don Pedro de Alvarado and the Marshal Don
Diego de Almagro.


After travelling for some distance beyond Llacta-cunga, along the royal
road which leads to the great city of Cuzco, the buildings of Muliambato
are reached, concerning which I have nothing more to say than that they
are inhabited by Indians of the same nation and customs as those of
Llacta-cunga. There were ordinary buildings at this station, where
stores were deposited according to the orders of the officer delegated
by the Ynca, who obeyed the principal superintendent at Llacta-cunga.
The chiefs looked to large stations, such as Quito, Tumebamba,
Caxamarca, Xauxa, Vilcas, or Paria, and others of the same rank for
orders. These stations were like the seat of a bishopric, or the capital
of a kingdom, which gave the tone to all the parts, and whence came the
officers who administered justice, or formed armies in case of war or
insurrection. Nevertheless affairs of great difficulty or importance
were not decided upon without a reference to the Kings Yncas. The
transmission of these references was arranged with such skill and order,
that the post went from Quito to Cuzco in eight days. Every half-league
along the road there was a small house, where there were always two
Indians with their wives. One of these ran with the news that had to be
transmitted, and, before reaching the next house, he called it out to
the other runner, who at once set off running the other half-league, and
this is done with such swiftness that neither mules nor horses could go
over such rocky ground in a shorter time.[282] But, as in the book of
the Kings Yncas (which is the one that, with the help of God, will
appear after this) I treat fully of these posts, I will not say more
here, my present intention being merely to make things clear to the
readers’ understanding.

From Muliambato the road leads to the river called Ambato, where there
are also buildings which served the same purpose as those already
described. Three leagues from this place are the splendid buildings of
Mocha, which are so numerous and so grand, that I was astonished at the
sight of them; but, now that the Kings Yncas have lost their power, all
these palaces and buildings, with other grand works of theirs, have
fallen into ruin, so that the vestiges of some of these edifices alone
remain. As they are built of very beautiful stone, and as the masonry is
excellent, they will endure for ages as memorials, without being
entirely destroyed.

Round Mocha there are several villages where the inhabitants and their
women all go dressed. Their customs and language are the same as those
of the Indians we have left behind.

To the westward are the villages of Indians called Sichos, and to the
east are the Pillaros. All these have great store of provisions, because
their land is very fertile, and flocks of deer, some sheep of the kind
called Peruvian, many rabbits, partridges, doves, and other game.
Besides these, the Spaniards have large herds of cattle in all the
plains and villages, and they breed extensively by reason of the
excellent pasture. There are also goats, the country being well suited
for them; and better swine than in any other part of the Indies, and
they make as good ham and bacon as in the Sierra Morena.

Leaving Mocha, the great buildings of Riobamba are reached, which are
not less worthy to be seen than those of Mocha. They are in the province
of the Puruaes, in the midst of beautiful plains, very similar to those
of Spain in climate, in the flowers and grasses, and in other things, as
every one knows who has travelled over them.

For some days the city of Quito was established at Riobamba, before it
was removed to its present site. But the buildings at Riobamba are more
memorable for another event. The Adelantado Don Pedro de Alvarado,
formerly governor of the province of Guatemala, which borders on the
great kingdom of New Spain, set out with a fleet of ships filled with
many knights (concerning whom I shall treat fully in the third part of
this work), and landed on the coast, where the fame of Quito reached the
Spaniards. They marched inland by difficult and rugged forests, where
they suffered from hunger and other hardships. I cannot and ought not to
pass on without saying something concerning the evils and miseries which
these Spaniards, and all others, suffered in the discovery of these
Indies, because I hold it for very certain that no nation that has ever
been in the world has passed through so much. It is a thing well worthy
of note that, in less than sixty years, a navigation so long, and a land
so vast and so full of different tribes should have been discovered, the
way leading through dense and dismal forests, and over deserts without
roads; and that these countries should have been conquered, and more
than two hundred cities founded in them. Surely those who have done this
deserve great praise and everlasting fame, far more than my memory knows
how to imagine, nor my weak hand to write. One thing is very certain,
that the followers of Alvarado suffered so much on this road from hunger
and fatigue, that many of them cast aside gold and precious emeralds,
from want of strength to carry them. As soon as the arrival of the
Adelantado Don Pedro de Alvarado was known in Cuzco, through evidence
brought by Gabriel de Rojas,[283] the governor, Don Francisco Pizarro,
although he was occupied in peopling that city with Christians, set out
to take possession of the coasts of the South Sea; while he ordered his
companion, the marshal Don Diego de Almago, to march in all haste to the
province of Quito, place himself at the head of the troops then under
the orders of his lieutenant, the captain Sebastian de Belalcazar, and
take every necessary precaution. By hasty marches the diligent marshal
arrived in the province of Quito, and took command of the troops that
he found there, speaking sharply to the captain Belalcazar for having
left Tangaraca without orders from the governor.

The Adelantado Don Pedro de Alvarado, accompanied by Don Diego de
Alvarado, Gomez de Alvarado, Alonzo de Alvarado, who is now marshal of
Peru,[284] the captain Garcilasso de la Vega,[285] Juan de
Saavedra,[286] and other knights of high rank, arrived in the
neighbourhood of the camp of the marshal Don Diego de Almagro. There
was some danger of a rupture between them; but at last, by the
intervention of the licentiate Caldera and other prudent persons, it was
agreed that the Adelantado should leave the fleet of ships he had
brought, with the arms and troops, in Peru, and that, in consideration
of the expenses of the expedition, he should receive one hundred
thousand _castellanos_.[287] This capitulation having been agreed to,
the marshal took the troops into his service, and the Adelantado
proceeded to the City of the Kings, where the governor Don Francisco
Pizarro received him with the distinction that was due to so valorous a
captain as Don Pedro de Alvarado. He received the one hundred thousand
_castellanos_, and returned to his government of Guatemala. The
agreement and capitulation above-mentioned was made and agreed to in the
buildings of Riobamba, concerning which I am now treating. It was also
here that the captain Belalcazar, who was afterwards governor of the
province of Popayan, fought a battle with the Indians, in which, after
many of them had been killed, the victory remained with the Christians.




CHAPTER XLIII.

Which treats of what there is to be said concerning the other Indian
villages as far as the buildings of Tumebamba.


These buildings of Riobamba, as I have already said, are in the province
of the Puruaes, which is one of the best and most populous within the
jurisdiction of the city of Quito. The men go dressed, as well as the
women. They have the same customs as their neighbours, but are
distinguished by the band round their heads. They all wear very long
hair, and plait it in very small tails. The women do the same. They
worship the sun, and those who are selected as most fit for such a
business, converse with the devil. They have other rites and abuses, the
same as those of the Yncas who conquered them. When a chief dies they
dig a deep square tomb, into which they put the body, with the arms and
other effects of the deceased. Some of these tombs are made within the
houses of the inhabitants. They have the same customs as the other
natives of these parts; that is to say, they bury the most beautiful of
the women of the deceased with the body. I have been told by the Indians
that this is done because some among them, who are looked upon as men of
credit (God permitting that, for their sins and idolatries they may at
times be deceived by the illusions of the devil), have seen, or thought
they saw, those who had long been dead walking, adorned with the things
that were buried with them, and accompanied by their wives who had been
buried alive. Seeing this, they concluded that where the souls went,
women and gold should also be sent, and so they do as I have described.
The reason why the son of the sister inherits, and not the son of the
brother, I will relate hereafter.

There are many villages in this province of the Puruaes, which I shall
not further allude to, in order to avoid prolixity. To the east of
Riobamba there are other villages in the forests near the sources of the
river Marañon, and the mountain called Tinguragua, round which there are
also many villages. The inhabitants have the same customs as all the
others, they wear clothing, and their houses are built of stone. They
were conquered by the Kings Yncas, and their captains speak the general
language of Cuzco, although they have their own tongue as well. To the
westward there is a snowy region thinly inhabited, called Urcolaso. Near
this land a road leads to the city of Santiago, which is called
Guayaquil.

Leaving Riobamba, some other buildings are reached, called Cayambe. All
this country is bare and very cold. Beyond Cayambe are the _tampus_, or
lodgings of Teocaxas, situated on a large and bitterly cold plain, where
the Indian natives fought the battle with the captain Sebastian de
Belalcazar, which is called Teocaxas. Although it lasted all day, and
was very obstinately contested, neither party obtained the victory.

Three leagues further on are the important buildings called Tiquisambi,
which have the forests of Guayaquil on the right, and on the left
Pomallata, Quizna, Macas, and other regions as far as the great river.
The road then descends to the buildings of Chanchan, where, the country
being warm, it is called by the natives _Yunca_, which means a warm
land. There being no snow nor cold, the trees grow abundantly, besides
other things which are not to be had in cold countries. For this reason
all those who live in warm and genial countries are called _Yuncas_;
they have this name now, and will never lose it while they exist,
although ages should pass away. The distance between these buildings and
the sumptuous royal edifices of Tumebamba is nearly twenty leagues, the
whole intervening country being scattered over with depôts and other
buildings, at intervals of two or three or four leagues. Amongst these
there are two principal stations, one called Cañaribamba and the other
Hatuncañari,[288] whence the natives and their province took the name of
Cañaris, as they are now called. Right and left of the road there are
numerous villages and provinces, which I shall not further mention,
because the natives, having been conquered by the Kings Yncas, have the
same customs as all the rest, speak the general language of Cuzco, and
wear clothes, both men and women. In the order of their marriages, rules
of inheritance, and custom of burying food, arms, and live women with
their dead, they are also the same as their neighbours. They all believe
the sun to be god, but that there was also a Creator of all things,
whom, in the language of Cuzco, they call _Huiracocha_.[289] Although
they now have this belief, they formerly worshipped trees, stones, and
the moon, being prompted by the devil, our enemy, with whom some of them
converse, and they obey him in many things. In our time, the wrath of
God having been raised, the sacred evangel will be preached, and the
light of faith spread abroad, so that they will abhor the devil. Already
in many places where he was esteemed and venerated, he is now detested,
and the temples of the accursed idols are destroyed, insomuch that there
is no sign of an image, and many Indians have become Christians. There
are now few villages in Peru without a friar or clergyman who teaches
the people; and, in order that the Indians may more readily be made to
understand their errors, and induced to embrace our holy religion, a
grammar has been made, by which to speak their language, so that the
priests and Indians may understand each other. The reverend father Don
Domingo de Santo Tomas has laboured much in this work.[290]

All along the road there are rivers, some small others larger, and all
with excellent water. Over some there are bridges to pass from one side
to the other. In former times, before the Spaniards gained this kingdom,
there were great quantities of sheep in these mountains of the kind
peculiar to this country, and a still greater number of _huanacos_ and
_vicuñas_. But the Spaniards have slaughtered so many, that now there
are scarcely any left. No wolves nor other mischievous animals have been
met with in these parts, except the tigers, which I mentioned in
describing the forests of Buenaventura, and some small lions. In the
wooded ravines there are also some snakes, and in all parts there are
foxes of the country, and other wild creatures. Of partridges, pigeons,
doves, and deer, there is abundance, and in the vicinity of Quito there
are many rabbits. _Dantas_, or tapirs, are met with in the forests.




CHAPTER XLIV.

Concerning the grandeur of the rich palaces of Tumebamba, and of the
province of the Cañaris.


In some parts of this book I have alluded to the great power of the
Kings Yncas of Peru, and to their surpassing valour, and how, along a
distance of more than one thousand two hundred leagues of coast which
was under their rule, they appointed their delegates and governors, and
formed many deposits full of all things necessary for their troops. In
some of these depôts there were lances, in others darts, and in others
sandals, and so on with other arms and articles of clothing which these
people use, besides stores of food. Thus, when a chief was lodged in one
of these depôts with his troops, there was nothing, from the most
important to the most trifling article, with which they were not
supplied. If there was any rising in the surrounding districts, they
were ready to punish it with great severity; for the Yncas were such
perfect judges, that they did not hesitate to punish even their own
sons. Besides these depôts and lodgings throughout the kingdom, there
were palaces and temples of the sun at every ten or twenty leagues along
the road, where there were priests, _Mama-cunas_, virgins, and more
complete supplies than at the other stations. There were also governors,
or chief captains, appointed by the Ynca, with the _Mitimaes_ and
Indians bound to service. In the time when there was no war, and when
the Ynca was not travelling in the neighbourhood, the duty of these
people was to collect the tribute in their districts, and see that all
necessary supplies were kept in readiness. One of these stations was a
grand affair, for, when a King died his successor disturbed nothing, but
rather repaired and improved the place, for each Ynca had his own
palace, while that of his predecessor was ordered to be preserved as he
left it.

The famous buildings of Tumebamba are in the province of Cañaris, and
they were among the richest and most splendid in the whole kingdom of
Peru.[291] Certainly there is nothing which the Indians say of these
buildings that did not appear to me to be even greater than their
account, judging by the remains which still exist.

To the westward is the province of Guancavilcas, which borders on the
cities of Guayaquil and Puerto Viejo, and to the east is the great river
Marañon, with its forests and some villages.

The buildings of Tumebamba are situated in a plain more than twelve
leagues in extent, near two small rivers. The climate is cold, and there
is plenty of game, such as deer, rabbits, partridges, pigeons, and other
birds.

The temple of the sun is built of stones very cunningly wrought, some of
them being very large, coarse, and black, and others resembling jasper.
Some of the Indians pretend that most of the stones of which these
buildings and the temple of the sun are built, have been brought from
the great city of Cuzco by order of the King Huayna Ccapac, and of the
great Tupac Ynca his father, by means of strong ropes. If this be true
it is a wonderful work, by reason of the great size of the stones and
the length of the road.[292] The doorways of many of the buildings were
very handsome and brightly painted, with several precious stones and
emeralds let into the stone; and the interior walls of the temple of the
sun, and of the palaces of the Yncas, were lined with plates of the
finest gold stamped with many figures. The roofs were of straw, so well
put on that no fire would consume it, while it would endure for many
ages.[293] Within the buildings there were several bunches of golden
straw, and sheep, lambs, birds, and many other things were sculptured on
the walls. Besides all this, they say that there were enormous sums in
gold preserved in jars and vases, and many rich vestments adorned with
silver work and beads. In short, I am unable to describe the
magnificence of these royal palaces of the Yncas. The cloth in the
store-houses was in such quantity, and so rich, that, had it been
preserved and not lost, it would have been worth a great treasure. There
were more than two hundred virgins dedicated to the service of the sun,
who were very beautiful, and natives of Cañaris, the province governed
by the chief superintendent of the Ynca, who resided in these buildings.
They and the priests were well cared for by those who had charge of the
temple, at the doors of which there were porters. Near the temple and
the palaces of the Yncas there were many buildings used as lodgings for
the troops, and as store-houses, which were always kept full.

The natives of this province, called Cañaris, are good-looking and well
grown. They wear their hair very long, so much so, that by that and a
circular crown of wands, as fine as those of a sieve, the Cañaris may
easily be known, for they wear this head-dress as a distinguishing
mark.[294]

The women also wear their hair very long, and take a turn with it round
their heads, by which they may be known as easily as their husbands.
They dress in woollen and cotton cloth, with _usutas_ on their feet,
which are, as I have said before, like sandals. The women are very
pretty, amorous, and friendly to the Spaniards. They are great
labourers, for it is they who dig the land, sow the crops, and reap the
harvests, while their husbands remain in the houses sewing and weaving,
adorning their clothes, and performing other feminine offices. When any
Spanish army passed through their province, the Indians at that time
being obliged to supply people to carry the baggage of the Spaniards on
their backs, many of these Cañaris sent their wives and daughters, and
remained at home themselves. I saw this myself when we marched to join
the licentiate Gasca, president of his Majesty, for they sent us a
number of women who carried our baggage.

Some Indians say that this arises from the dearth of men and the great
abundance of women, owing to the cruelty of Atahualpa to the people of
this province, when he entered it after having killed the
captain-general of his brother Huascar at Ambato, whose name was Atoco.
They affirm that, although the men and boys came out with green boughs
and palm-leaves to seek for mercy, he, with a haughty air and severe
voice, ordered his captains to kill them all. Thus a great number of men
and boys were killed, and they say that now there are fifteen times as
many women as men, and, being so numerous, they have to work as they are
ordered by their husbands or fathers. The houses of the Cañaris are
small, and built of stone with straw roofs. The land is very fertile,
and abounds in provisions and game. The people worship the sun. The
chiefs marry as many women as they please, but one is always the
principal wife. Before the marriage takes place, they make a festival,
and, after eating and drinking at their will, they perform other
ceremonies according to the custom of the country. The son of the
principal wife inherits the chiefship, although the chief may have many
sons by other wives. They place their dead in tombs resembling those
made by their neighbours, and also bury the women alive, together with
arms and food. Some of these people are great magicians and sorcerers,
but they do not practise the abominable crime, nor other sins and
idolatries; but they certainly reverence the devil, and those who are
selected for the purpose converse with him. At present the chiefs have
become Christians, and (when I passed through Tumebamba) the principal
chief was called Don Fernando. It has pleased our Lord and Redeemer that
they should be worthy to be called his sons, and to come into the union
of our holy mother Church; for they hear the sacred evangel, and his
words bear fruit in them. The temples of these Indians have been
destroyed.

If the devil now deceives them it is in an underhand way, as happens
sometimes even to the faithful, and not openly, as was his wont before
the standard of the cross of Christ was planted in these Indies.

Very great events passed in the time of the Yncas in these royal
buildings of Tumebamba, and many armies have been assembled there for
important objects. When the King died, the first thing that his
successor did, after he had taken the royal fringe or crown, was to send
governors to Quito and Tumebamba, with orders to take possession in his
name, and to build rich palaces adorned with gold, like those of his
predecessor. The _Orejones_ of Cuzco (the most learned and noble men in
the kingdom), say that Ynca Yupanqui, father of the great Tupac Ynca,
who was the founder of Tumebamba, enjoyed being here more than in any
other place, and they say the same of Tupac Ynca. They also affirm that
while Huayna Ccapac was residing here, he heard of the first arrival of
the Spaniards in the land, when Don Francisco Pizarro reached the coast
in the ship with thirteen companions, who were the first discoverers of
Peru; and that he said that, after his days, a strange people would rule
the land, like those who had arrived in the ship. He must have said this
at the suggestion of the devil, as well as that the Spaniards would
return to the country with great power. Now these buildings of Tumebamba
are in ruins, but it is easy to see how grand they once were.

The province of Cañaris is very broad, and full of many rivers, in which
there are great riches. In 1544, they discovered such great and rich
mines in these rivers, that the people of the city of Quito extracted
more than eight hundred thousand _pesos_ of gold. The quantity of this
metal was such, that they often took out of the troughs more gold than
earth. I affirm this, because I spoke with a man who had taken more than
seven hundred _pesos_ of gold out of a single trough; and besides what
the Spaniards got, the Indians took an unknown quantity.

In all parts of this province where wheat is sown, it yields abundantly,
and so also does barley. It is believed also that great vineyards may be
planted, and that all the fruits and pulses of Spain may be grown, as
well as those of the country.

There is no want of a good site for building a great city. When the
viceroy Blasco Nuñez Vela passed this way, flying before the tyrannical
fury of Gonzalo Pizarro and his followers; it is stated that he said
that, if he should become governor of this kingdom, he would build a
city on these plains, and divide the Indians among the settlers who
should establish themselves in it. But, God permitting it for some
reason which he alone knows, the viceroy was killed, and Gonzalo Pizarro
ordered the captain Alonzo de Mercadillo to found a city in these parts.
As, however, the district was within the limits of Quito, he selected
the province of Chaparra instead, as I will relate presently. The
distance from the city of San Francisco de Quito to these buildings is
fifty-five leagues. Here I will leave the royal road, along which we
have hitherto been travelling, in order to give an account of the
country in the neighbourhood of the cities of Puerto Viejo and
Guayaquil; and having done this I will again return to the royal road.




CHAPTER XLV.

Concerning the road which leads from the province of Quito to the coast
of the South Sea, and the bounds of the city of Puerto Viejo.


I have now brought my narrative as far as the buildings of Tumebamba,
and it is necessary that I should describe the cities of Puerto Viejo
and Guayaquil, although I would rather go on, both because I have not
been much in the latter districts, and because the natives are deficient
in intelligence, and it is difficult to get information from them. Also
because it seemed to me sufficient that I should conduct the reader
along the royal road; but my obligation to satisfy the curious obliges
me to give a true account of everything that has come within my
observation; and I feel certain that this will be agreeable to all
learned, benevolent, and judicious readers. Thus I make the following
statements with all the truthfulness and exactness that I am master of.
Having said so much concerning these provinces, I will then return to
the royal road.

To go, then, to these cities of Puerto Viejo and Guayaquil, it is
necessary to take the road from Quito to the coast of the South Sea, and
I will commence my account at Guaque, which is the beginning of the one
region and the boundary of the other. From Tumebamba there is no direct
road to the coast, except in the direction of the city of San Miguel,
the first settlement made by the Christians in Peru.

In the district of Quito, not very far from Tumebamba, there is a
province called Chumbo, but before reaching it there are other villages
of various sizes, inhabited by Indians wearing clothes, with
good-looking women. There are royal buildings in the villages, as in
those we have passed, and the people obeyed the Lords Yncas, and used
the general language which was ordered to be talked in all parts. The
natives have the same customs as their neighbours, and the same
religion, worshipping the sun and other gods, and believing in the
immortality of the soul. They had relations with the devil, and, God
permitting it for their sins, the evil one had great power over them.
Now, as the holy faith is preached in every direction, many of them have
become Christians, and friars are living amongst them, who teach them
the things concerning the faith.

The natives of these parts have a very well marked sign of distinction,
by which they may be known of all men. When I was in Cuzco people
arrived there from all parts, and we knew by their distinguishing marks
that some came from Canchiz, others from Canas, others from Collao,
others from Huancas, and others from Chachapoyas. This was, assuredly,
an excellent invention, by means of which, in time of war, they could
not mistake one tribe for another, and, in time of peace, each man knew
his own countryman. Without some distinguishing mark, there would be
many tribes gathered together by order of their chiefs, all of one
colour, with the same features and appearance, all without beards, the
same dress, and using one language.

In all these villages there are now churches where they say mass, and
great care is taken to teach the children their prayers, so that, with
the help of God, there is hope that things will go on improving.

From this province of Chumbo the road continues for fourteen leagues
over rugged and sometimes difficult ground, until a river is reached
where there are always natives with _balsas_ who ferry travellers
across. This place is called the pass of Huayna Ccapac, and it is said
to be twelve leagues from the island of Puna. Further on the Indians are
not so civilised as those we have passed, because some of them were not
completely subjugated by the Kings Yncas.




CHAPTER XLVI.

In which an account is given of certain things relating to the province
of Puerto Viejo; and also concerning the equinoctial line.


The first port in the land of Peru is that of Passaos, and from it and
the river of Santiago the government of the Marquis Don Francisco
Pizarro commenced, for to the northward the land falls within the limits
of the province of San Juan, and thus it may be said that the land to
the north is within the boundaries of the city of Santiago de Puerto
Viejo, where, being so near the equator, the inhabitants are not very
healthy.

Touching the equinoctial line, some of the ancient cosmographers were in
error when they affirmed that the heat was such as to render the country
lying under it uninhabitable. The fertility of the land, and the
abundance of all things necessary to sustain man, are manifest to all,
and, as the equinoctial line is touched upon in several parts of this
history, I will here give an account of what I have gathered from the
best cosmographers concerning it. The equinoctial line is an imaginary
line round the world from east to west, at equal distances from the
poles of the earth. It is called equinoctial, because the passage of the
sun across it makes the days and nights equal. This occurs twice in the
year, namely on the 11th of March and 13th of September. It is to be
understood, as I have already said, that the opinion of some ancient
authors was that the country under this equinoctial line was
uninhabitable. They believed this because, as the sun there sent its
rays on the earth vertically, the heat must, as they thought, be so
excessive that none could live. Virgil, Ovid, and other worthies were of
this opinion. Others held that some part might be inhabitable, following
Ptolemy, who says, “It does not follow that we should believe the torrid
zone to be entirely without inhabitants.” Others thought, on the
contrary, that the climate was not only temperate and moderately warm,
but very pleasant. This is affirmed by St. Isidore, who says that the
terrestrial paradise is a temperate and delightful place in the east,
under the equinoctial line. Experience has now taught us that, not only
the country exactly under the equinoctial line, but the whole torrid
zone, from one tropic to the other, is habitable and fertile, by reason
of the days and nights being almost equal. The coolness of the night
tempers the heat of the day, and the land has its due season for growing
and producing its fruits. This is the natural condition of the country,
though some parts are different.

The Indians of the province of Santiago de Puerto Viejo are not long
lived; and, as regards the Spaniards, there are very few old men amongst
them, though their number has been thinned more by the wars than by
sickness. From this equinoctial line towards the Arctic Pole, the tropic
of cancer is distant 420 leagues in 23½°, and the sun arrives there on
the 11th of June, but never passes beyond it, for it there takes a turn
towards the equinoctial line again, and reaches it on the 13th of
September. Then it descends to the tropic of capricorn, another 420
leagues, and also in 23½°. There is, therefore, a distance of 840
leagues from tropic to tropic. The ancients called this the Torrid Zone,
which is as much as to say the parched or toasted land, for the sun
moves over it all the year.

The natives are of middle height, and have a most fertile land, yielding
abundance of maize, _yucas_, _aji_, potatoes, and many other roots which
are useful for the support of man. There are also plenty of _guavas_ and
_aguacates_, besides _tunas_[295] of two kinds, one white and of
excellent flavour, _caymitos_, and another fruit they call _cerezilla_.
The melons are of two kinds, also, those of Spain and those of the
country, and there are all sorts of beans and peas. The orange and lemon
trees abound, also bananas, and pine-apples of excellent flavour. There
are great quantities of those pigs which (as I said before in speaking
of the port of Uraba) have the navel on the back, which, however, is not
really the navel, but some other thing that grows there. As they did not
find a navel below, they called this excrescence on the back a navel.
The flesh of these pigs is very savoury. There are also pigs of the
Spanish breed, and many deer with the most singularly delicate flesh of
any in Peru. Partridges, doves, pigeons, turkeys, and a vast number of
other birds are found; among them one called _Xuta_, which is about the
size of a large duck, and which the Indians rear in their houses. These
birds are tame and good to eat. There is another bird called
_Maca_,[296] very little smaller than a cock. It is a beautiful thing to
see the colours of the plumage of this bird, and the beak, which is
rather thicker than a finger, is most distinctly divided into two
colours, yellow and red. In the forests they meet with foxes, bears,
small lions, and some tigers and serpents, but they all fly from men who
do not first attack them. There are also night birds of prey, as well
inland as on the coast, such as condors, and the bird they call
_gallinazo_,[297] or _aura_.[298] In the wooded ravines and forests
there are many trees, which are useful for building houses and for other
purposes. In some of these trees the bees make excellent honeycombs. The
Indians have fisheries where they kill many fishes, among which are fish
called _bonitos_, a bad kind of fish which causes fevers and other evils
to those who eat it. In all parts of the coast the men are afflicted
with dark-coloured excrescences, the size of nuts, which grow on the
forehead, nostrils, and other parts, and, besides being dangerous, they
are very disfiguring. These bumps are said to be caused by eating a
certain fish. However this may be, they are common on the coast, and,
besides the natives, many Spaniards have been afflicted with these
bumps.

In this coast and territory, subject to the city of Puerto Viejo and to
that of Guayaquil, there are two kinds of people. From the cape of
Passaos and river of Santiago to the town of Solango, the men are marked
in the face, and the mark begins at the root of the ear and descends to
the chin, the breadth being according to each man’s fancy. Some mark
the greater part of the face, and others less, much after the fashion of
the Moors. Both men and women wear mantles and shirts of cotton, and
sometimes of wool. They also wear a few ornaments, such as jewels of
gold and very small beads, called _chaquira_.[299] In some provinces I
have myself seen that the people put so high a value on these
_chaquiras_, that they will give their weight in gold for them. In the
province of Quinbaya (where the city of Cartago is situated) certain of
the chiefs gave more than one thousand five hundred _pesos_ to the
marshal Robledo for little more than a pound weight of them, but at that
time they gave two or three hundred _pesos_ for three or four glass
diamonds. In the matter of selling to Indians we were then pretty safe
from being deceived by them. It has even happened to me to sell a copper
axe to an Indian for its weight in gold. But things are now changed, and
the Indians well understand how to sell what they have, and how to buy
what they require.

The principal places where the Indians mark their faces in this province
are Passaos, Xaramixo, Pimpaguace, Peclansemeque, the valley of Xagua,
Pechonse, Apechigue, Silos, Canilloha, Manta, Sapil, Manaui, Xaraguasa,
and others. Their houses are of wood, roofed with straw, some small and
others large, according to the means of the owner.




CHAPTER XLVII.

Treating of the question whether the Indians of this province were
conquered by the Yncas or not; and concerning the death which they
inflicted on certain captains of Tupac Ynca Yupanqui.


Many Indians say that the Lords Yncas never conquered, nor were able to
bring under their yoke, these natives of Puerto Viejo, of whom I am now
treating, though others affirm the contrary, saying that the Yncas
subjugated them, and had them under their orders. The latter say that
Huayna Ccapac came in person to conquer them, and that, having been
disobedient in some particular, he made a law that they and their
descendants should have three of their front teeth pulled out in each
jaw. They add that this custom was preserved for a long time in the
province of Guancavilcas. In truth, as all vulgar reports are confused,
and as the common sort can never tell the plain facts, it does not
astonish me that they should relate these things, for in all things else
the like reports are spread abroad, and become the talk of the people,
being in reality mere fables. I make this digression here, that it may
be borne in mind hereafter, for if things are repeated over and over
again they become tiresome to the reader. This, therefore, will serve to
give notice that many of the stories commonly reported among the people,
concerning events which have happened in Peru, are fables. As regards
the natives, those who have been curious in trying to learn their
secrets know that what I say is the case. Concerning the government, and
the affairs of war and of state which have occurred, I only look upon
those principal men who were in high positions as authorities. These
will relate what occurred, and the sayings of the people.

Returning to the thread of my narrative, I have to say (according to
what I have been given to understand by old Indians who were captains
under Huayna Ccapac), that, in the time of the great Tupac Ynca
Yupanqui, his father, certain of his captains came, with a force
collected from the ordinary garrisons of the provinces, and, by their
politic arts, drew some of the chiefs to the service of Tupac Ynca
Yupanqui. Many of them went with presents to do him homage, and he
received them with love and kindness, giving them rich pieces of woollen
cloth made in Cuzco. When they returned to their provinces, they
esteemed him so highly for his great valour, that they called him
father, and honoured him with other titles, his benevolence and love for
all being such that he acquired perpetual fame among them. In order to
instruct them in things appertaining to the government of the kingdom,
he set out in person to visit these provinces, and left governors in
them who were natives of Cuzco, that they might teach the people more
civilised customs, and other useful things. But these natives not only
did not wish to learn from those who remained in their provinces by
order of Tupac Ynca Yupanqui, in order to indicate to them a better mode
of life, and to teach them agriculture; but, in payment of the benefits
they had received, they killed them all, so that not one was left. They
killed them, although they had done no ill, nor had they been
tyrannical, so as to merit such treatment. Tupac Ynca heard of this
great cruelty, but he dissimulated, because, for other important
reasons, he was unable to chastise those who had so treacherously
murdered his captains and vassals.




CHAPTER XLVIII.

How these Indians were conquered by Huayna Ccapac, and how they
conversed with the devil, sacrificed to him, and buried women alive with
the bodies of their chiefs.


After the events which I have just alluded to as having occurred in the
provinces near the city of Puerto Viejo, many of the natives relate
that, in process of time, when the King named Huayna Ccapac was reigning
in Cuzco, he visited the provinces of Quito in person, and entirely
subjugated all these Indians. It must be understood that all these
occurrences in the history of the Indians are written from accounts
given by the Indians themselves, who, having no letters, made use of a
curious invention in order that their deeds and history might be
recorded.[300] Although these Indians were subject to Huayna Ccapac, and
paid tribute in rich emeralds and gold, yet there were no buildings, nor
depôts, as in the other provinces we have passed through. The reason of
this is that the country is poor and the villages small, so that the
_Orejones_ did not wish to live here, and held the country in small
estimation. The natives of these villages were great sorcerers, and it
is well known that no people in all Peru were so addicted to sacrifices
and religious rites. Their priests had charge of the temples, and of the
service to images which represented their false gods, before whom, at
stated times, they recited songs and performed ceremonies which they
learnt from their fathers, from whom they received the ancient customs.

The devil, in frightful shape, appeared to those appointed for this
accursed office, who were much respected by all the other Indians. Among
these one gave replies, and heard what the devil had to say, who, in
order to preserve his credit, appeared in a threatening form. Thus he
let them know future events, and no battle or other event has taken
place amongst ourselves, that the Indians throughout this kingdom have
not prophesied beforehand. At the same time they never really knew, for
it is clear, and must be believed, that God alone knows what will come
to pass. If, therefore, the devil is right in anything, it is because
his words are equivocal, and will bear many meanings. With his gift of
subtlety, and his great age, which has given him experience in affairs,
he speaks to the simple who will hear him; but many of the Gentiles know
the deceitfulness of his replies. Thus, many of these Indians hold it to
be certain that the devil is false and wicked, and they obey him more
from fear than from love. At one time, deceived by the devil himself, at
others by their own priest, they submit to his service by permission of
Almighty God. In the temples, or _huacas_, they gave presents to objects
which they held to be gods, and offered bloody sacrifices to them. And
in order to do them more honour, they sacrificed something still more
noble, namely, the blood of certain Indians, as many affirm. When they
took any of their neighbours prisoners, with whom they had war or
enmity, they assembled (as they themselves declare) and, after having
got drunk with their wine, and also having made the prisoner drunk, the
chief priest killed him with lancets of stone or copper. They then cut
off his head, and offered it, with the body, to the accursed devil, the
enemy of human nature. When any of them were sick, they bathed many
times, and offered up sacrifices, praying for health.

They mourned for their chiefs when they died, and put the bodies in
tombs, together with some women alive, and all their most precious
effects. They were not ignorant of the immortality of the soul, although
they did not fully understand it. There can be no doubt that, by an
illusion of the devil, the figures of persons who were dead, perhaps
fathers or relations, appeared to these Indians in the fields in the
dress they wore when living. By such false apparitions were these poor
people made to obey the will of the evil one, and for this reason they
buried people alive, together with the dead, that they may rise again
with more honour. They held that by so doing they observed the rules of
their religion, and obeyed their gods, and would go to a very delightful
and pleasant place surrounded by the food and drink they were accustomed
to when they were alive in the world.




CHAPTER XLIX.

(The heading of this chapter is unfit for translation.)


In many parts of these Indies the people worshipped the sun, although
they also believed in a Creator whose seat was in heaven. The worship of
the sun was either received from the Yncas, or, as in the province of
Guancavilcas, established from ancient times.

The people of Guancavilcas (so they say) used to pull out three teeth in
each jaw, the fathers doing it to their children when of very tender
age, which they thought was no evil, but rather a service very
acceptable to their gods. They marry in the same way as their
neighbours. [_The remainder of this paragraph is unfit for
translation._]

The chiefship is inherited by the son (according to the account which
they gave me), and, failing sons, then the next brother, and, failing
brothers, the sons of the sisters. There are some women who are good
looking. Among the Indians of whom I am now treating the best-flavoured
maize bread is made in all the Indies. It is so good and well kneaded,
that it is even better than some wheaten bread.

In some villages of these Indians they have a great quantity of skins of
men full of ashes, the appearance of which is as frightful as those in
the valley of Lile, near the city of Cali. [_The rest of the paragraph
is unfit for translation._]

They have heard the preaching of many clergymen and friars, and begin to
understand that our faith is the perfect and true one, and that the
teaching of the devil is false, so that his deceitful communications
have ceased. In all parts where the holy evangel is preached, a cross is
placed at which the devil is terrified and flies away. But it is true
that the faith impresses itself more on the young than on the old; for
as the latter are grown old in their vices, they do not cease to commit
their former sins in secret, and in such sort that the Christians cannot
detect them. The youths listen to our priests, and follow our Christian
doctrine, so that in these districts there are good and bad, as in all
other parts of the world.




CHAPTER L.

How in ancient times the Indians of Manta worshipped an emerald as their
god; and of other things concerning these Indians.


In many histories which I have seen, I have read, if I am not mistaken,
that in some countries they worshipped God in the form of a bull, in
others of a cock, in others of a lion, and that there have been a
thousand superstitions of this kind, which seem to afford matter for
laughter more than anything else. I will only remark, therefore, that
the Greeks, among whom there were excellent worthies, whose memory will
last as long as writing itself, fell into these errors, as also did the
Egyptians, Bactrians, and Babylonians. Grave and learned doctors say
that the Romans had many gods, and that they worshipped those from whom
they had received benefits, such as Jupiter or Saturn; these gods,
however, were men and not brutes. These Indians, too, notwithstanding
that they worshipped the sun and moon, also adored trees and stones, and
other things suggested by their imaginations. I was informed, at the
same time, that their priests saw the devil, who communicated perdition
to their souls. In the important temple of Pachacamac they held a she
fox in great veneration, and worshipped it. In this province, also, the
Lord of Manta had an emerald of great size and value, which the people
and their ancestors held in great veneration. On certain days it was
publicly displayed, and worshipped as if it contained some deity.[301]
On these occasions if any man or woman was sick, they performed a
sacrifice, and then came forward to pray to the stone. They affirm that
the priest, who conversed with the devil, gave them to understand that
the stone would bring health to them in requital for their offerings,
after they and other ministers of the devil had applied to it. People
who were afflicted with sickness came to Manta from all parts of the
interior to offer gifts and perform sacrifices; and the Spaniards, who
first discovered this kingdom, have told me that they found great riches
in this town of Manta, and that it always yielded more than those which
bordered on it to the _encomienderos_. They also say that, although
threats and menaces have been resorted to to discover where this great
and rich emerald is concealed, they have never been able to find it, nor
will the natives betray the place if they are all killed, so great is
the veneration in which it is held.

This town of Manta is on the coast. In the interior there are more
villages and more people, and they differ in language from those on the
coast, but they have the same food. The houses of those inland, called
_Serranos_, are of wood and small, the roofs of straw or palm leaves.
They have some flocks of Peruvian sheep, but not so many as there are in
Quito or in the province of Cuzco.

The _Serranos_[302] were not such sorcerers and magicians as the natives
of the coast, nor were they so wicked in practising the abominable sin.
There is hope of some gold mines in some of the rivers of these
mountains, and there is certainly a very rich emerald mine; but although
many captains have tried to discover it, they have not succeeded, nor
will the natives tell them where it is. It is true that Captain Olmos is
said to have known where this mine was, but I think that surely he would
have told his brothers or some other persons. Certainly the number of
emeralds that have been brought to Puerto Viejo is very great, and they
are the best in all the Indies; for though emeralds are more numerous in
the new kingdom of Granada, they are not so good, so that the best there
do not equal in value the most ordinary ones here.

The Caraques formed another tribe. They are not labourers, and are less
intelligent than their neighbours, being a disorderly people, and making
war for very slight causes. When a child was born they put its head
between two boards, so that at the age of four or five, the head was
long and broad, but flat behind. Not content with the heads that God
gives them, they thus make them into the shapes that please them most.
They themselves say that they force their heads into these shapes that
they may be more healthy, and be able to do more work. Some of these
people, especially those near the village of Colima, to the northward,
go naked. They relate that Huayna Ccapac arrived here, after having put
to death the chiefs as far as Colima, where he ordered a fort to be
built. Seeing that the Indians went naked, he did not go any further,
but returned, leaving orders to his captains to conquer and subjugate as
far as the river Santiago.

Many of the Spaniards who came with the Adelantado Don Pedro de Alvarado
(especially the marshal Alonzo de Alvarado, and the captains Garcilasso
de la Vega, Juan de Saavedra, and another gentleman named Suer de
Cangas) told me that when they landed on the coast with the said
Adelantado Don Pedro, and came to this village, they found many vases
full of gold, silver, and precious stones, besides a great quantity of
emeralds, so that they gained much wealth for their valour. But many
said that the emeralds were of glass; so, to try the question (for some
considered they might be stones), they determined to beat them with
hammers, saying that if they were of glass they would soon break, but if
they were of stone the blows would have no effect. Thus, from want of
knowledge and experience, they broke many of these emeralds, and
profited little by having found them. Nor did they enjoy their gold and
silver, for they suffered much from cold and hunger, and left their
loads of treasure in the forests.




CHAPTER LI.

In which the account of the Indians of Puerto Viejo is finished; and
concerning the founding of that city, and who was its founder.


I shall be brief in describing what more there is concerning these
provinces of Puerto Viejo, because the substance of my account of them
has already been written in the preceding chapter; and I shall then
return to the palaces of Tumebamba, where I left the main thread of my
history. I may here observe that, as soon as the Adelantado Don Pedro de
Alvarado and the marshal Don Diego de Almagro had made their agreement
on the plains of Riobamba, the Adelantado Don Pedro went to the City of
the Kings, where he was to receive the hundred thousand _castellanos_
which were to be paid for his fleet and armament. Meanwhile the marshal
Don Diego de Almagro left the captain Sebastian de Belalcazar with
certain orders respecting the conquest of the province of Quito, and set
out to establish the settlements on the coast. He then put things in
order at San Miguel and Chimo, and looked out for a good and convenient
site for the city of Truxillo, which was afterwards founded by the
marquis Don Francisco Pizarro.

In all these affairs (as I have been told) the marshal Don Diego de
Almagro showed himself to be a diligent captain. When he arrived at the
city of San Miguel it was made known to him that, when the ships which
came from Tierra Firme, and from the provinces of Nicaragua, Guatemala,
and New Spain, arrived on the coast of Peru, the crews landed and did
much harm to the natives of Manta, and of the coast of the province of
Puerto Viejo. To avoid these evils, and that the natives might be
watched and protected, he determined to send a captain to select a site
where a town or city might be founded.

He selected the captain Francisco Pacheco for this duty, and ordered
him to set out with the requisite number of followers. Francisco
Pacheco, in obedience to his orders, started from a village called
Piquasa, and founded the city of Puerto Viejo in the locality which
appeared to him most suitable. This was on the day of St. Gregory, the
12th of March, in the year of the birth of our Redeemer the Lord Jesus
Christ 1535, and he founded it in the name of the Emperor Don Carlos our
King and Lord.

While the captain Francisco Pacheco was employed on this service, Pedro
de Puelles,[303] with some Spanish troops, came from Quito (where the
captain Sebastian de Belalcazar was lieutenant-general for Don Francisco
Pizarro) to conquer the same coast of the South Sea, and there were some
misunderstandings between them. When the news reached the governor Don
Francisco Pizarro, he gave such orders as appeared to him best for the
service of his Majesty and the good government and protection of the
Indians; in obedience to which, after the captain Francisco Pacheco had
conquered these provinces, and marched through them for nearly two
years, he peopled this city, the captain Pedro de Puelles having
returned to Quito.

At first the city was called the new town of Puerto Viejo, and it is
situated in the most convenient and best part of the province, not very
far from the South Sea. In many districts belonging to this city of
Puerto Viejo, they make deep holes for the burial of their dead, which
look more like wells than tombs. When they wish to inter a body, they
clear out all the loose earth. A large number of Indians then assemble,
dancing, singing, and mourning, not forgetting to drink, and beating
drums. After they have done all these things, according to the custom of
their ancestors, they lower the body down into the deep tomb, and, if he
is a chief or important person, they bury the most beautiful and beloved
of his women with him, besides jewels, food, and jars of wine made from
maize. They then place those thick canes which grow in the country over
the hole. As these canes are hollow, they take care to fill them with
that drink made of maize or of roots, which they call _acca_,[304]
because, being deceived by the devil, they believe (at least so they
have told me) that the dead man drinks of the liquor they put into the
canes. This custom of burying arms, treasure, and food with the dead, is
practised in the greater part of these newly-discovered countries; and
in many provinces they also bury women and boys alive with them.




CHAPTER LII.

Of the wells which there are at the point of Santa Elena; of the story
they tell respecting the arrival of giants in those parts; and of the
tar which is found there.


As, at the beginning of this work, I gave a detailed account of all the
ports on the coast of Peru, from Panama to the confines of Chile, which
is a great length of coast, it does not appear necessary to repeat them
here, and for this reason I shall not treat of them. I have also
described the principal places in this province. There are, however,
reports concerning giants in Peru, who landed on the coast at the point
of Santa Elena, within the jurisdiction of this city of Puerto Viejo,
which require notice. I will relate what I have been told, without
paying attention to the various versions of the story current among the
vulgar, who always exaggerate everything. The natives relate the
following tradition, which had been received from their ancestors from
very remote times. There arrived on the coast, in boats made of reeds,
as big as large ships, a party of men of such size that, from the knee
downwards, their height was as great as the entire height of an ordinary
man, though he might be of good stature. Their limbs were all in
proportion to the deformed size of their bodies, and it was a monstrous
thing to see their heads, with hair reaching to the shoulders. Their
eyes were as large as small plates. They had no beards, and were dressed
in the skins of animals, others only in the dress which nature gave
them, and they had no women with them. When they arrived at this point,
they made a sort of village, and even now the sites of their houses are
pointed out. But as they found no water, in order to remedy the want,
they made some very deep wells, works which are truly worthy of
remembrance; for such are their magnitude, that they certainly must have
been executed by very strong men. They dug these wells in the living
rock until they met with water, and then they lined them with masonry
from top to bottom in such sort that they will endure for many ages. The
water in these wells is very good and wholesome, and always so cold that
it is very pleasant to drink it. Having built their village, and made
their wells or cisterns where they could drink, these great men, or
giants, consumed all the provisions they could lay their hands upon in
the surrounding country; insomuch that one of them ate more meat than
fifty of the natives of the country could. As all the food they could
find was not sufficient to sustain them, they killed many fish in the
sea with nets and other gear. They were detested by the natives, because
in using their women they killed them, and the men also in another way.
But the Indians were not sufficiently numerous to destroy this new
people who had come to occupy their lands. They made great leagues
against them, but met with no success. [_The next sentence is unfit for
translation._] All the natives declare that God our Lord brought upon
them a punishment in proportion to the enormity of their offence. While
they were all together, engaged in their accursed ... a fearful and
terrible fire came down from heaven with a great noise, out of the midst
of which there issued a shining angel with a glittering sword, with
which, at one blow, they were all killed, and the fire consumed them.
There only remained a few bones and skulls, which God allowed to remain
without being consumed by the fire, as a memorial of this punishment.
This is what they say concerning these giants, and we believe the
account because in this neighbourhood they have found, and still find,
enormous bones. I have heard from Spaniards who have seen part of a
double tooth, that they judged the whole tooth would have weighed more
than half a butcher’s pound. They also had seen another piece of a shin
bone, and it was marvellous to relate how large it was. These men are
witnesses to the story, and the site of the village may be seen, as well
as the wells and cisterns made by the giants. I am unable to say from
what direction they came, because I do not know.[305]

In this year 1550, I, being in the City of the Kings, heard that, when
the most illustrious Don Antonio de Mendoza was viceroy and governor of
New Spain, they found certain bones of men who must have been even
larger than these giants. I have also heard that previously they
discovered, in a most ancient tomb in the city of Mexico, or in some
other part of that kingdom, certain bones of giants. From all this we
may gather that, as so many persons saw and affirmed these things, these
giants really did exist.

At the point of Santa Elena (which, as I have before said, is on the
coast of Peru within the jurisdiction of the city of Puerto Viejo) there
is a thing well worthy of note, and this is that there are certain
wells, or mines, of such excellent tar, that as many ships as require
caulking might be caulked with it. This tar must be some mineral which
flows out at this place, and it comes forth very hot. I have not seen
any other mines of tar in any of the other parts of the Indies which I
have visited; but I believe that Gonzalo Hernandez de Oviedo, in the
first part of the general history of the Indies, gives an account both
of this and of others. Nevertheless, as I am not writing concerning the
Indies generally, but only of the events which have taken place in Peru,
I do not treat of other parts. With this I shall conclude what I have to
say concerning the city and province of Puerto Viejo.




CHAPTER LIV.[306]

Concerning the foundation of the city of Guayaquil; and how certain of
the natives put the captains of Huayna Ccapac to death.


Further on, towards the west, is the city of Guayaquil; and, as soon as
the boundary of its jurisdiction is crossed, the Indians are
Guancavilcas--those toothless ones who, from custom, or to honour their
accursed gods, pulled out their teeth, as I have before said. As I have
already given an account of their dress and customs, I have no wish to
repeat it in this chapter.

In the time of Tupac Ynca Yupanqui, lord of Cuzco, these people were
conquered. The Lord Ynca subjugated them, and, in doing so, he proved
himself to be a great captain, and won victories and notable trophies,
displacing the garrisons of the natives, and allowing no armed men in
any part except those who were posted at stations assigned by himself.
He then ordered certain of his captains to explore the country, and to
bring the natives to obedience by kindness and friendship. All these
captains, as I have said before, were killed by the natives, without one
being left alive. The natives did not at once receive the punishment
they deserved for killing those who slept in confidence without
suspecting such treason, because the Ynca was in Cuzco, and his
governors and delegates had enough to do in their respective
governments. When Huayna Ccapac succeeded, he showed himself to be as
brave and valiant a captain as his father, with even more prudence, and
full of pride at his new power. He set out from Cuzco in great haste,
accompanied by the principal _Orejones_[307] of the two famous tribes of
that city, called Hanan-Cuzcos, and Hurin-Cuzcos. After having visited
the sacred temple of Pachacamac, and the garrisons which were stationed
by his order in the provinces of Xauxa and Caxamarca, and other parts,
both in the mountains and in the fruitful valleys of the coast, he
reached Tumbez, where a fortress was built by his order, although some
Indians say that this edifice is more ancient. The people of the island
of Puna being hostile to the natives of Tumbez, it was easy for the
captains of the Ynca to build this fortress while the Indians were
engaged in their own quarrels. When it was finished Huayna Ccapac
ordered a temple of the sun to be built, and two hundred virgins, from
amongst the most beautiful daughters of the chiefs of the province, to
be collected together in it. In this fortress (which before it was
ruined, is said to have been a thing worthy of notice) Huayna Ccapac had
his captain or delegate, with a number of _Mitimaes_, and stores and
provisions for their maintenance, as well as for the troops that passed
that way. They also say that a lion and a very fierce tiger were placed
in the fortress and ordered to be well guarded. These must have been the
beasts which made as if they would tear the Captain Pedro de Candia in
pieces,[308] at the time when the governor Don Francisco Pizarro, with
his thirteen companions (who were the discoverers of Peru, as I shall
relate in the third part of my work) reached this coast. In the fortress
of Tumbez there were a great number of silversmiths who made vases of
gold and silver, and many other ornaments both for the service and
adornment of the temple, which these people considered sacred, and for
the use of the Ynca himself. They also had to prepare the plates of
these metals, to line the walls of the temples and palaces. The women,
who were dedicated to the service of the temple, only understood how to
spin and weave very fine woollen cloth, which they did with great skill.
As I shall write very fully and copiously of these things in my second
part, which will treat of the kingdom of the Yncas in Peru, from Manco
Ccapac, who was the first, to Huascar, who was the last, I shall say no
more in this chapter than is necessary to make the narrative clear. As
soon, then, as Huayna Ccapac had made himself master of the province of
the Guancavilcas and of Tumbez, he sent to Tumbala, the lord of Puna, to
order him to come and do homage. When the lord of the island of
Puna[309] heard what the Ynca’s message conveyed, he was much moved,
for, being a chief, and having received that dignity from his ancestors,
he held it to be a great calamity to lose that liberty which is so much
esteemed by all the nations of the earth, and to receive a stranger as
sole lord of his island; for he was not only required to serve him, but
to allow his edifices and fortresses to be built on the island, and to
give up his most beautiful women, which was what he felt most. Finally,
however, those of the island consulted one with another touching the
present calamity, and, considering how small their power was to resist
that of the Ynca, they agreed that it would be prudent to seek for his
friendship, and to feign submission. Tumbala then sent messengers to
Huayna Ccapac with presents, and invited him to visit the island of Puna
for a few days. The Ynca was satisfied with this humility, and Tumbala,
with the chiefs of the island, sacrificed to the gods, seeking what they
should do to escape from the Ynca, who sought to be supreme lord over
all. It is said that messengers were sent to all the neighbouring
provinces to try the temper of the people, and to excite them to resist
Huayna Ccapac. This was done very secretly, and in the meanwhile the
Ynca went to the island of Puna, where he was honourably received, and
lodged in buildings which had been prepared for him. The _Orejones_ and
the chiefs of the island assembled, and showed signs of real and not
simulated friendship.

As many of the natives of the main land desired to live as their
ancestors had done, and as a foreign yoke is always heavy and
distasteful, while that of a countryman is easy and light, they
conspired with the natives of the island of Puna to kill all those who
came into the country with the Ynca. At that time Huayna Ccapac ordered
certain of his captains, with a large force, to visit some of the
villages on the mainland, and to arrange affairs connected with his
service; and he ordered the islanders to convey them in _balsas_ across
the sea, and to disembark them in a river whence it would be convenient
to go to their destination. Having arranged these and other matters on
the island, Huayna Ccapac returned to Tumbez, or to some place near it.
The _Orejones_, noble youths of Cuzco, then got into the _balsas_, with
their captains, a large and well-appointed fleet. They were crossing the
water without suspicion, when the islanders treacherously unfastened the
cords by which the poles of the _balsas_ were secured, so that the poor
_Orejones_ fell into the water, where they were all cruelly murdered by
the islanders with the arms which they had secretly brought with them.
By killing some and drowning others, they put an end to all the
_Orejones_, and nothing was left of them but some mantles and a few of
their ornaments. As soon as the aggressors had committed these murders,
their joy was very great, and they talked and complimented each other in
the _balsas_ to such an extent, that it might have been supposed that
the Ynca and all his troops were in their power. They enjoyed their
victory, and appropriated the treasures and ornaments of these people of
Cuzco, but they finally met a fate very different from their thoughts,
as I am about to relate. The _Orejones_ who came in the _balsas_ being
dead, the murderers quickly returned to the place whence they had
started, to take more people on board. The rest of the _Orejones_,
unaware of the trick which had been played on their companions, then
embarked with their clothes, ornaments, and provisions, and were all
killed in the same way, so that not one escaped. If any that knew how to
swim tried to save their lives, they were killed by fierce and cruel
blows, and if they dived, and thus strove to fly from their enemies by
seeking favour of the fishes that dwell in the depths of the sea, it was
of no avail, for the islanders, who live much in the sea, employed in
their fisheries, swim as well as the fishes, and easily overtook the
fugitives and strangled them. The sea was full of blood, the sign of a
sad spectacle. As soon as all the _Orejones_ who went in the _balsas_
were killed, those of Puna, with the other Indians who had conspired
with them, returned to the island.

When these events were made known to the King Huayna Ccapac, he was
enraged and deeply distressed that so many of his nobles should have no
tombs. In truth they think more of the building and adorning of their
tombs where they are to be put after death, than of the houses where
they dwell while living. Presently the Ynca assembled all his remaining
forces, and resolved to punish the barbarians in such a manner that
neither resistance nor submission should avail them, for their offence
was held to be so grave, that it was more necessary to punish with
severity than to pardon with clemency and humanity. Thus thousands were
put to death in various ways, and the chiefs who formed the conspiracy
were impaled or hung.[310] After he had inflicted a great and terrible
punishment on these Indians, Huayna Ccapac ordered that the misfortune
which had befallen his followers should be recorded in songs, and sung
in seasons of mourning; for such subjects are recited in their languages
in elegies. He also ordered a causeway to be made along the river of
Guayaquil, which, judging from some parts that may still be seen, must
have been a superb work, but it was never finished. It is called the
“passage of Huayna Ccapac.” Having inflicted this punishment, he ordered
that all the natives should obey his governor, who was in the fortress
of Tumbez, and having arranged other matters, the Ynca departed from
this province. There are other districts and villages within the
jurisdiction of the city of Guayaquil, but I have nothing to say
concerning them, except that the manners and dress of the inhabitants
are the same as those already described, and that their country is the
same.




CHAPTER LV.

Of the island of Puna, and of that of La Plata: and concerning the
admirable root called sarsaparilla, which is so useful for all diseases.


The island of Puna, which is near the port of Tumbez, is little more
than ten leagues round, yet in former times it was considered an
important place; for, besides that the inhabitants are great traders,
and possess in their islands all things needful to sustain human life,
which are sufficient causes for their wealth, they are held to be
valiant by their neighbours, and in ancient times they waged fierce wars
with those of Tumbez and of other provinces. For very slight causes they
killed each other, and seized their women and children. The great Tupac
Ynca sent ambassadors to these islanders, proposing that they should be
his friends and allies; and they, owing to his great fame, heard his
embassy, but refused to serve him, and they were not entirely subdued
until the time of Huayna Ccapac, although others say that they had been
conquered and brought within the rule of the Yncas by Ynca Yupanqui, but
that they had rebelled; however this may have been, the events connected
with the murder of the captains, already described, certainly took
place. These islanders are of middle height, and dark skinned. They
dress in cotton cloths, both men and women, and wear _chaquiras_ on
several parts of the body. They also put on pieces of gold in order to
look smart.

The island is covered with large woods and flowering meadows; and
abounds in fruit. It yields plenty of maize, _yucas_, and other edible
roots, and there are also birds of all kinds, such as parrots,
_guacamayas_,[311] and of beasts, monkeys, lions, foxes, snakes, and
many others. When the chiefs die they are lamented by all the people, as
well men as women, and are interred with great signs of respect,
according to their custom. They bury the most valuable things, arms, and
most beautiful women with the deceased, the women being buried alive in
the tombs to keep their husbands company. They mourn for the dead during
many days, and shave the heads of the women in the houses, even those
who are the nearest relations. They are given to religious ceremonies,
and to the commission of some crimes. The devil had the same power over
them as he had over other Indians, and some of them conversed with him.

They had their temples in dark and hidden places, and carved the walls
with horrible pictures. In front of their altars, where they performed
sacrifices, they killed many animals and some birds; and it is said that
they even killed slaves or prisoners taken in war, offering up their
blood to the accursed devil.

In another small island, at no great distance, the natives say that, in
the time of their ancestors, there was a temple, or _huaca_, where they
also worshipped their gods and performed sacrifices. Round the temple
they had quantities of gold, silver, and other valuable things, such as
woollen cloths and jewels, which had been offered up at different times.
It is also said that some of the islanders of Puna committed the
accursed sin. At present, by the will of God, they are not so bad, or,
if they are, they do not commit their crimes publicly and openly, for
there are clergy on the island now, and the natives are aware of the
blindness in which their fathers lived, and how erroneous was their
belief. They also know how much they gain by believing our holy catholic
faith, and by having Jesus Christ, our Redeemer, for their God. Thus, by
his great goodness and mercy, many have become Christians, and more are
converted every day.

An herb grows in abundance on this island, and in the province of
Guayaquil, which is called sarsaparilla because it grows like a bramble
from its birth, and small leaves grow out of the suckers and other parts
of the branches.[312] The roots of the herb are useful for all
sicknesses, and especially for _bubos_, and to mitigate the evil which
this pestiferous disease causes to man. Those who wish to be cured are
put in a warm room, well covered up, so that the cold or air can do no
injury. Then, by merely purging, eating delicate meats, and drinking an
infusion of this root for some days, without any other remedy, the evil
is cleared out of the body, and shortly the patient is more healthy than
he ever was before, and the body is left without any vestige of the
evil, but remains so perfect that it seems as if it had never been
ailing. Thus they have truly effected great cures in the town of
Guayaquil at different times. Many, too, whose bowels are out of order,
by simply drinking an infusion of these roots, become healthy, and in
better condition than before they were taken ill. Others suffering from
_bubos_ are also cured, as well as those with boils or tumours. I take
it for certain that this is the best root and herb in the world, and the
most useful, as is proved by the numbers who have been cured by it. This
sarsaparilla grows in many parts of the Indies, but none is so good or
efficacious as that which is found on the island of Puna and in the
province of the city of Guayaquil.[313]




CHAPTER LVI.

How the city of Santiago de Guayaquil was founded and settled, of some
Indian villages which are subject to it, and concerning other things
until its boundary is passed.


That it may be known how the city of Santiago de Guayaquil was founded,
it will be necessary to say something concerning it, although, in the
third part of my work, I shall treat more fully on the subject, in the
place where the discovery of Quito and conquest of these provinces by
the captain Don Sebastian Belalcazar is narrated. This officer, having
full powers from the Adelantado Don Francisco Pizarro, and hearing of
the province of Guayaquil, determined to found a city within its limits.
He, therefore, started from San Miguel with a party of Spaniards, and,
entering the province, induced the natives to come to terms, giving them
to understand that their natural lord and king was his Majesty. As the
Indians already knew that San Miguel, Puerto Viejo, and Quito itself,
were peopled by Christians, many of them came forward to make peace; so
the captain Sebastian de Belalcazar chose a place which seemed to him
proper for the site of a city, but he remained there only a few days,
because it was necessary for him to return to Quito. He left one Diego
Dasa as captain and alcalde, and it was not long before the Indians
began to understand the exacting spirit and avarice of the Spaniards,
their greed for gold and silver, and their desire after pretty women. As
the Spaniards were also divided amongst themselves, the Indians
conspired to kill them, and as they determined so they acted, the
Spaniards being very incautious. All were killed except five or six
soldiers and their chief, Diego Dasa. These, amidst great dangers and
difficulties, escaped to Quito, but the captain Belalcazar had already
set out to discover the provinces further to the north, leaving as his
lieutenant a captain of good lineage, named Juan Diaz. When the news was
heard in Quito, several Christians returned with the same Diego Dasa and
the captain Tapia, and had several fights with the Indians, who had
encouraged and animated each other to defend their persons and property.
The Spaniards made proposals of peace, but without avail, for the
natives were full of hatred and animosity. They showed these feelings by
killing several Christians and horses, and the rest retreated to Quito.
These events having occurred, the governor Don Francisco Pizarro sent
the captain Saera to form this settlement. He entered the province
afresh, with the intention of dividing the villages amongst the
Spaniards who accompanied him on this conquest, but the governor
recalled him in great haste to relieve the City of the Kings, which was
besieged by the Indians. The new city was therefore again abandoned,
owing to this order of the governor. Some time afterwards the captain
Francisco de Orellana[314] entered the province, by order of the
Adelantado Don Francisco Pizarro, with a larger force of Spaniards and
horses. He founded the city of Santiago de Guayaquil in a better
position, in the name of his Majesty, Don Francisco Pizarro being
governor and captain-general of Peru, in the year 1537. Many of the
Guancavilcas Indians serve the Spanish citizens of this city of Santiago
de Guayaquil; and, besides the city, the towns of Yaquel, Colonche,
Chanduy, Chongon, Daule, Chonana, and many others are within the limits
and jurisdiction of the province. All these places have fertile lands
well supplied with provisions and abundance of fruit, and in the hollows
of the trees there is much excellent honey. Near the city there are wide
open plains, forests, and thickets of tall trees. Rivers of good water
flow down from the mountains.

The Indians, both men and women, dress in shirts, with cloths between
their legs. On their heads they wear crowns of very small gold beads,
called _chaquira_, and some of silver. The women wear one mantle from
the waist downwards, and another over their shoulders, and their hair is
worn very long. In some of these villages the caciques or chiefs fasten
bits of gold on their teeth. It is said by some of them that when they
sowed their fields, they sacrificed human blood and the hearts of men to
him whom they reverenced as god; and that in every village there were
old Indians who conversed with the devil. When the chiefs were sick, to
appease the wrath of their gods, and pray for health, they made other
sacrifices of a superstitious nature, killing men (as I was told), and
believing that human blood was a grateful offering. In doing these
things they sounded drums and bells before certain idols shaped like
lions or tigers, which they worshipped. When any of the chiefs died,
they made a round tomb with a vaulted roof, and the door towards the
rising sun. The body was buried with live women, his arms, and other
things, in the same way as was done by the Indians already described.
The arms with which these Indians fight are wands, and clubs called
_macanas_.[315] Most of these Indians have died out and come to an end.
Those that remain are, by the will of God, becoming Christians, and
little by little forgetting their evil customs as they embrace our holy
faith. It now appears to me that I have said enough concerning the
cities of Puerto Viejo and Guayaquil, so I will return to the royal road
of the Yncas, which I left after reaching the buildings of Tumebamba.




CHAPTER LVII.

Of the Indian villages between the buildings of Tumebamba and the city
of Loxa, and concerning the founding of that city.


Setting out from Tumebamba, in the direction of Cuzco, the great road
passes through the province of the Cañaris, until it reaches Cañaribamba
and the buildings a little further on. Villages belonging to the same
province are seen on either hand, and to the eastward there are
mountains, on the other side of which the country, which is inhabited,
slopes down towards the river Marañon. Beyond the boundary of these
Cañaris Indians is the province of the Paltas, in which there are some
buildings now known as “the stones,” because many are to be seen which
the Yncas, in the time of their power, had sent to their superintendents
or delegates. These _tampus_[316] were ordered to be built, because the
province of the Paltas was considered important. They were extensive and
handsome, the masonry being well executed. The quarry whence the stones
were brought is near the source of the river of Tumbez. Here the tribute
was collected, which the natives were obliged to pay to their king and
lord, or to the governors in his name.

To the westward of these buildings is the city of Puerto Viejo, and to
the eastward the province of Bracamoros,[317] where there are vast
territories and many rivers, some of them very great and powerful. There
is hope that by marching for twenty or thirty days, a rich and fertile
land will be reached. But there are great forests in the way, some of
them very frightful and dangerous. The Indians go naked, and are not so
intelligent as those of Peru, nor were they subdued by the Kings Yncas.
They are not so civilised, nor have they any polity, any more than the
Indians subject to the city of Antioquia, or to the town of Arma, or
those in the government of Popayan. These Indians of the province of
Bracamoros resemble those mentioned above in their customs, and they are
said to be very valiant warriors. Even the very _Orejones_ of Cuzco
confess that Huayna Ccapac turned and fled before their fury.

The captain Pedro de Vergara was occupied for some years in making
discoveries and conquests in this region, and founded a settlement in
it; but the troubles of Peru prevented its complete exploration, and the
Spaniards entered it two or three times in the course of the civil wars.
Afterwards the president, Pedro de la Gasca, sent the captain Diego
Palomino, a citizen of the town of San Miguel, to undertake this
discovery. When I was in the City of the Kings, certain conquerors
arrived to give an account of what they had done for the said president
and the judges. As the doctor Bravo de Seravia, a judge of the Royal
Audience, is very curious, they gave him a particular account of what
had been discovered. In truth, any captain who set out in that direction
with a sufficient force, would bring to light a very rich land, as I
learn from the reports I have heard. But, although I have heard that the
captain Diego Palomino settled in those parts, yet I shall say no more,
as I have not obtained any certain intelligence, and what I have already
said is sufficient for the understanding of what may have been done.

The distance from the province of Cañaris to the city of Loxa (which is
also called La Sarza) is seventeen leagues, the whole road being rugged
or boggy, and half way is the town of the Paltas, as I have already
said. Soon after leaving the building of “the stones,” an ascent
commences which lasts a little more than ten leagues. Here it is very
cold, and at the end of the descent there is another building called
Tamboblanco, whence the royal road leads to a river called Catamaya. On
the right-hand side, near the same river, is the city of Loxa, which was
founded by the captain Alonzo de Mercadillo, in the name of his Majesty,
in the year of our Lord 1546.[318]

There are numerous villages around the city of Loxa, and the natives
have almost the same customs as those in the neighbouring districts.
They wear a particular fringe, or band, on their heads to distinguish
them. They performed sacrifices, and worshipped the sun as well as other
more common objects, but, like the other Indians, they believed in a
Creator of all things. As regards the immortality of the soul, they all
understand that man is composed of something more than the mere mortal
body. When their chiefs die, deceived by the devil, in common with all
the other Indians, they bury women alive with the bodies. Now, however,
as some of them understand that it profits nothing to persevere in their
ancient evil practices, they will not kill women by burying them with
dead bodies, nor are they now so particular in this matter of sepulture.
Indeed, they laugh at those who still continue the customs which their
ancestors considered of such importance. Not only do they refrain from
spending so much time in making these tombs, but, on the approach of
death, they desire to be interred like Christians in small and humble
graves. This is done by those who, having been washed in the most holy
water of baptism, deserve to be called the servants of God and the sheep
of his pasture. But there are many thousands of old Indians who are now
as bad as they ever were, and will continue to be so until the goodness
and mercy of God brings them to a true knowledge of his laws. These
desire their bodies to be placed in secret places, far from the roads
and villages frequented by Christians, on lofty mountains, or amidst
snow-covered rocks, wrapped in richly-coloured mantles, with all the
gold they possess.

Most of the villages subject to the city of Loxa were under the rule of
the Yncas, ancient lords of Peru, who (as I have said in many parts of
this history) had their court in the city of Cuzco, which was always the
capital of these provinces; and, notwithstanding that many of the
natives were dull and stupid, they abandoned their barbarous ways, and
became more civilised by contact with the Yncas. The climate of these
provinces is pleasant and healthy, and in the valleys and on the banks
of rivers it is more temperate than on the mountains. The cultivated
part of the mountains is good land, but rather cold, and the snowy rocks
and desert places are intensely so. There are many _guanacos_ and
_vicuñas_, which are like their sheep; and partridges, some a little
smaller than domestic fowls, and others larger than doves. On the banks
of the rivers there are flowering shrubs, and many fruit trees of the
country. The Spaniards have now planted pear, fig, orange, and other
trees of Spain. In the district of Loxa they also breed large herds of
swine of the Spanish sort, goats, and sheep, for there is excellent
pasture and many streams of water flowing in all directions, which
descend from the mountains. There are hopes that the district may
contain rich mines of gold and silver, and some have already been
discovered. The Indians, now that they are secure from the turmoils of
war, and are the masters of their persons and property, raise many
Spanish fowls, pigeons, and other birds. Pulses grow well in the
district.

The natives of the country round Loxa are of middle height, and dress
in shirts and mantles, both men and women. Within the forests, it is
affirmed by the natives that there are numerous tribes rich in gold, and
some large rivers. These tribes go naked, both men and women, for the
country is hotter than Peru, and was never subjugated by the Yncas. The
captain Alonzo de Mercadillo, with a force of Spaniards, set out in the
year 1550 to verify these reports.[319]

The situation of the city of Loxa is the best and most convenient that
could be found within the province. The _repartimientos_ of Indians held
by the citizens were first obtained in _encomienda_ by those who were in
Quito and San Miguel. As the Spaniards who travelled by the royal road,
to go to Quito and other parts, ran risks from the Indians of
Carrochamba and Chaparra, this city was founded; and, notwithstanding
that Gonzalo Pizarro had ordered it to be peopled while he was engaged
in his rebellion, still the president Pedro de la Gasca, considering
that it would be for the service of his Majesty that it should not be
abandoned, approved of its being founded, and after the judgment on
Gonzalo Pizarro, he gave Indians to the settlers. It appears to me that
I have now said enough concerning this city, so I shall pass on, and
treat of the other cities in this kingdom.




CHAPTER LVIII.

Concerning the provinces between Tamboblanco and the city of San Miguel,
the first city founded by the Christian Spaniards in Peru; and what
there is to be said of the natives.


As I have undertaken in this work to satisfy the reader on all points
worthy of note concerning the kingdom of Peru, although it will be great
trouble to me to stop at one place and return to another, still I shall
not fail to do so when it is necessary. In this place I shall treat of
the foundation of San Miguel,[320] the first city founded by Christian
Spaniards in Peru, and of the valleys and sandy deserts in this great
kingdom, leaving the grand road over the mountains once more. I shall
fully describe these provinces and valleys on the coast, along which
runs another grand road made by the Kings Yncas, of the same magnitude
as that in the mountains. I shall give an account of the _Yuncas_,[321]
and of their great edifices, as well as of the information I obtained
concerning the secret of its never raining in these valleys and sandy
deserts, and of the great abundance of things necessary for the support
of man. Having done all this, I shall return to my mountain road, and
follow it until I come to the end of this first part. But, before
descending to the coast, travelling along the same royal mountain road,
we come to the provinces of Calva and Ayavaca, which have the forests of
Bracamoros on the east, and the city of San Miguel, of which I shall
treat presently, on the west.

In the province of Caxas there are great buildings, erected by the
orders of the Yncas, and formerly occupied by a governor and a number of
_Mitimaes_, who had charge of the collection of tribute. Beyond Caxas is
the province of Huancabamba, where there were still larger buildings
than in Caxas, for here the Yncas had their forces, and amongst the
buildings there is a great fortress which I saw, but it was then in
ruins. In Huancabamba there was a temple of the sun, with a number of
women. The people of the surrounding districts came to worship and offer
gifts at this temple, and the virgins and priests were held in great
reverence and esteem. The tribute of the chiefs of all these provinces
was brought here, and was forwarded to Cuzco when orders came to that
effect. Beyond Huancabamba there are other buildings and villages, some
of them under the jurisdiction of Loxa, while the natives of others have
been granted in _encomienda_ to the citizens of San Miguel. In times
past these Indians had wars amongst themselves, and for very slight
causes they killed each other and seized the women. It is even said that
they went naked, and that some of them ate human flesh, like the natives
of the province of Popayan. When the Yncas conquered and subjugated
them, they lost many of these customs, and adopted the polity which they
now have. Thus their villages were ordered after a different fashion to
that which had formerly prevailed. They wear clothes made of fine wool
from their flocks, and now instead of eating human flesh, they detest
the practice and hold it to be a great sin. Although they are so near
the tribes of Puerto Viejo and Guayaquil, they do not commit the
abominable sin. They declare that, before they were subjugated by the
Ynca Yupanqui and by Tupac Ynca his son, who was father of Huayna
Ccapac, and grandfather of Atahualpa, they defended their liberties so
resolutely, that many thousands were killed, and as many of the
_Orejones_ of Cuzco; but they were so closely pressed that, to escape
destruction, certain of their chiefs, in the name of the rest, gave in
their submission to the Lords Yncas. The men of these districts are
dark, and good looking, and both they and the women clothe themselves
in the way they learnt from the Yncas, their ancient lords. In some
parts they wear the hair very long, and in others short and plaited in
very small plaits. If any hairs grow on the chin, they pull them out,
and, strange to say, this is done wherever Indians are met with in these
lands. They all understand the general language of Cuzco, but they also
have their own particular languages, as I have already said. There used
to be great flocks of llamas, the sheep of Peru, but now there are very
few, owing to the way the Spaniards have destroyed them. The clothes of
these Indians are of llama wool, and also of _vicuña_ wool, which is
better and finer. There are also some _guanacos_, which frequent the
desert heights. Those who cannot get clothes made of wool, use cotton.
In the valleys and inhabited meadows there are many rivers and small
brooks, and some fountains with good and wholesome water. In all parts
there is herbage for flocks and plenty of provisions for man. There are
priests in most of these districts, who, if they live well and abstain
from evil, as their religion requires, will reap great fruits. By the
will of God, this is done in the greater part of the kingdom, and many
Indian lads have become Christians, who, by their example, attract
others.

The ancient temples, which are generally called _huacas_, are now ruined
and desecrated, the idols are broken, and the devil is thus badly
wounded in these places. Where he was once, for the sins of men, so
reverenced and esteemed, the cross is now planted. Truly we Spaniards
should ever give infinite praise to our Lord God for this.




CHAPTER LIX.

In which the narrative is continued down to the foundation of the city
of San Miguel, and who was the founder. Also of the difference of the
seasons in this kingdom of Peru, which is a notable thing; and how it
does not rain along the whole length of these plains, which are on the
coast of the South Sea.


The city of San Miguel is the first that was founded in this kingdom, by
the marquis Don Francisco Pizarro; and here the first temple was raised
in honour of God our Lord. To describe the coast valleys, I must begin
with the valley of Tumbez, through which flows a river which rises (as I
have before said) in the province of Paltas, and falls into the South
Sea. The land of this valley of Tumbez is naturally very dry and
sterile, but it sometimes rains, and showers even extend to near the
city of San Miguel. But these showers take place in the parts nearest to
the mountains, and it never rains in the vicinity of the sea coast. The
valley of Tumbez was formerly thickly peopled and well cultivated, full
of beautiful fresh watercourses drawn from the river to irrigate the
land, and yielded maize and other things necessary for the support of
man, besides plenty of delicious fruit. The ancient chiefs of the
valley, before they were subjugated by the Yncas, were dreaded and
obeyed by their subjects in a greater degree than any other chiefs of
whom I have yet written, as is notorious to all, and they were served
with much ceremony. They dressed in mantles and shirts, and wore an
ornament on their heads, consisting of a circlet of wool adorned with
pieces of gold and silver, and very small beads, called _chaquira_.
These Indians were addicted to their religion, and were great
sacrificers, as is stated at large in my account of the founding of the
cities of Puerto Viejo and Guayaquil. They are very industrious
labourers in the fields; and carry heavy burdens. They till the ground
in concert, with beautiful regularity, and raise maize and many kinds of
well-tasted roots. The maize yields a harvest twice in the year, and the
beans and peas also come up abundantly when they are sown. Their clothes
are made of cotton, which they grow in the valley, according to the
quantity they require. These natives of Tumbez also have a great
fishery, from which they derive no small profit, for with it, and their
trade to the mountains, they have always been rich. From this valley of
Tumbez a journey of two days brings the traveller to the valley of
Solana, which was thickly peopled in former days, and contained edifices
and store-houses. The royal road of the Yncas passes through these
valleys, with pleasant shady trees on either side. Leaving Solana, the
road next comes to Pocheos, on a river also called Pocheos, though some
call it the Maycahuilca, because there is a chief or lord of that name
in the valley. This valley was once very thickly populated indeed, as we
are led to suppose from the numerous remains of great buildings. These
buildings, though now in ruins, prove that the valley was as populous as
the natives describe, and they also show the great estimation in which
the Kings Yncas held this place, for here there were royal palaces and
other buildings. Time and wars have so entirely obliterated them that
nothing can be seen now but vast numbers of great tombs of those dead
who once cultivated all the fields in this valley. Two more days’
journey beyond Pocheos bring us to the great and wide valley of Piura,
where two or three rivers unite, which is the reason why this valley is
so broad. In it is built the city of San Miguel. Although this city is
now held in little estimation, the _repartimientos_ being small and
poor, it is just to remember that it deserves privileges and honour,
because it was the beginning of all the cities that have since been
built, and is on the site selected by the brave Spaniards, before the
great lord Atahualpa was seized by them. At first the city was founded
on the site called Tangarara, which was abandoned on account of its
unhealthiness. It is now built between two very pleasant level valleys,
full of trees. It is said to be rather unhealthy, and the people suffer
in their eyes from the wind and dust of summer and the dampness of
winter. They say that it never rains in this district, but some dew
falls from heaven, and, at intervals of a few years, a heavy shower of
rain comes down. The valley is like that of Tumbez, and there are many
vines, figs, and other trees of Spain growing in it. This city of San
Miguel was founded by the Adelantado Don Francisco Pizarro, governor of
Peru, then called New Castile, in the name of his Majesty, and in the
year of our Lord 1531.

       *       *       *       *       *

Before going any further, it seems well that I should say what I have
learnt in the matter of there being no rain. In the mountains summer
commences in April, and lasts during May, June, July, August, and
September. In October winter begins, and lasts during November,
December, January, February, and March, so that there is little
difference in the seasons between this land and our Spain. The fields
are ploughed in the proper seasons, and the days and nights are almost
equal. The time when the days increase a little and are longest, is
during the month of November. But in the coast valleys bordering on the
South Sea, the seasons are opposite to what I have here described; for
when it is summer in the mountains it is winter on the coast, where we
begin the summer in October, lasting till April, and then the winter
commences. It is truly a strange thing to consider this great difference
in the same country. What is still more worthy of note is, that you may
start in the morning from a country where it is raining, and, before
vespers, you will find yourself in another where it never rains. From
the beginning of October it never rains in any of the coast valleys,
except in such small showers as scarcely to lay the dust. For this
reason the inhabitants are dependent upon irrigation, and do not
cultivate more land than what the rivers can irrigate, for everywhere
else (by reason of the sterility) not even a blade of grass will grow,
but all is an intensely dry, stony, or sandy waste, where nothing is
seen but a tree with few leaves and no fruit. In some parts there are
thorn bushes and cacti, in others nothing but sand. What they call
winter on the coast is nothing more than the season when clouds arise,
which look as if they were charged with plenty of rain, but nothing
comes of it save a drizzle so light that it barely damps the ground. It
is a strange thing that though, as I have said, the heavens are well
charged with clouds, yet it does not rain more than these slight
showers. At the same time, some days pass during which the sun is not
seen, being concealed by the thickness of the clouds. As the mountains
are so high, and the coast valleys so low, it would appear that the
former attract the clouds to themselves without allowing them to abide
in the low lands. And when it is the natural time for rain, it falls in
the mountains, while there is none in the plains, but, on the contrary,
great heat. On the other hand, the light showers fall on the coast when
the region of the mountains is clear and rainless.

There is another curious thing, which is that there is only one wind on
this coast, and that is from the south; and although the wind from that
quarter is moist and attracts rain in other countries, it is not so
here, and this wind prevails continually along the coast as far as
Tumbez. Further up the coast, as there are other winds, it rains, and
the winds are accompanied by heavy showers. I do not know the natural
reason for these things, but it is clear that this sterile rainless
region extends from 4° south of the equinoctial line to beyond the
tropic of capricorn.

Another thing, very worthy of note, is, that on the equinoctial line in
some parts it is hot and moist, and in others cold and dry; but this
land of the coast of Peru is hot and dry, while on either side it rains.
I have gathered all this from what I have myself seen, and he who can
assign natural reasons for these things, let him do so. As for me, I
have said what I saw, and can do no more.[322]




CHAPTER LX.

Concerning the road which the Yncas ordered to be made along these coast
valleys, with buildings and depôts like those in the mountains; and why
these Indians are called Yuncas.


That my writings may be conducted with all possible regularity, I wish,
before returning, to conclude what there is to be said about the
provinces in the mountains, and to relate what is worthy of remark on
the coast, which, as I have said in other parts, is important. In this
place I will give an account of the grand road which the Yncas ordered
to be made along the coast valleys, which, although now it is in ruins
in many places, still shows how grand a work it once was, and how great
was the power of those who ordered it to be made.

Huayna Ccapac, and Tupac Ynca Yupanqui, his father, were those who,
according to the Indians, descended to the coast and visited all the
valleys and provinces of the _Yuncas_, although some say that Ynca
Yupanqui, the grandfather of Huayna Ccapac and father of Tupac Ynca, was
the first who saw the coast and traversed its deserts. The Caciques and
officers, by order of the Yncas, made a road fifteen feet wide through
these coast valleys, with a strong wall on each side. The whole space of
this road was smooth and shaded by trees. These trees, in many places,
spread their branches laden with fruit over the road, and many birds
fluttered amongst the leaves. In every valley there was a principal
station for the Yncas, with depôts of provisions for the troops. If
anything was not ready, a severe punishment was inflicted, and if any of
those whose duty it was to traverse the road, entered the fields or
dwellings of the Indians, although the damage they did was small, they
were ordered to be put to death. The walls on each side extended from
one place to another, except where the sand drifted so high that the
Indians could not pave the road with cement, when huge posts, like
beams, were driven in at regular intervals to point out the way. Care
was taken to keep the road clean, to renew any part of the walls that
was out of repair, and to replace any of the posts which might be
displaced by the wind in the deserts. This coast road was certainly a
great work, though not so difficult as that over the mountains.[323]
There were some fortresses and temples of the sun, which I shall mention
in their proper places. As, in many parts of the work, I shall have to
use the words _Ynca_ and _Yunca_, I will satisfy the reader as to the
meaning of _Yunca_, as I have already done with regard to _Ynca_. He
will understand, then, that the towns and provinces of Peru are situated
in the manner I have already described, many of them in the openings
formed by the snowy mountains of the Andes.

All those who live in these mountains are called _Serranos_, and those
who inhabit the coast are called _Yuncas_; and in many parts of the
mountains where the rivers flow, as the mountains are very high, the
plains are sheltered and warm, and in some of them there is as much heat
as there is on the coast. The inhabitants who live in these warm valleys
and plains, although they are strictly in the mountains, are also called
_Yuncas_. Throughout Peru, when they speak of these warm and sheltered
places between the mountains, they call them _Yuncas_, and the
inhabitants have no other name, though they may have in their own
districts. Thus, those who live in the parts already mentioned, and all
who live in the coast valleys of Peru, are called _Yuncas_, because they
live in a warm land.




CHAPTER LXI.

How these Yuncas were very superstitious, and how they were divided into
nations and lineages.


Before I proceed to describe the valleys of the coast, and the founding
of the three cities, of the Kings, of Truxillo, and of Arequipa, I will
here recount a few things, that I may not have to repeat them over
again, both those I saw myself, and those which I learned from Fray
Domingo de Santo Tomas. This friar is one of those who understand the
language well, and he has been a long time among the Indians, teaching
them the truths of our holy catholic faith. Thus, my account of these
coast valleys will be founded on what I saw and learned when I travelled
through them myself, and on the information given me by Fray
Domingo.[324]

The native lords of these valleys were, in ancient times, feared and
obeyed by their subjects, who served them with much ceremony, according
to their usage. These lords were attended by buffoons and dancers, who
were always jesting, while others played and sang. They had many wives,
taking care that they should be the prettiest that could be found. Each
lord had a great building in his valley, with many _adobe_ pillars,
extensive terraces, and doorways hung with matting. Round the building
there was an open space where they had their dances. When the lord ate,
a great concourse of people assembled, and drank their beverage made
from maize or from roots.

In these buildings there were porters, whose duty it was to guard the
doors and see who entered or came out. All were clothed in cotton shirts
and long mantles, the women as well as the men, except that the dress of
the women was large and broad like a morning gown, with openings at the
sides for the arms. Some of the lords waged war upon each other, and in
some parts the people were never able to learn the language of Cuzco.
Although there were three or four tribes of these Yuncas, they all had
the same rites and customs. They spent many days and nights at their
banquets and drinking bouts; and certainly it is marvellous the quantity
of _chicha_ that these Indians drink, indeed the glass is scarcely ever
out of their hands. They used to receive the Spaniards with great
hospitality when they passed near their dwellings, and to treat them
honourably. Now they do not do so, because, when the Spaniards broke the
peace, and contended with each other in civil wars, they were detested
by the Indians on account of the cruel way in which they treated them,
and also because some of the governors have been guilty of such
meanness, that the Indians no longer treat those well who pass near
their dwellings, pretending to think that those are servants whom they
used to treat as lords. The fault lies in those who have been sent here
to govern, some of whom have considered that the old order of things was
bad, and that it was wrong to keep the natives under their ancient
polity, which, if it had been preserved, would neither have destroyed
their liberties, nor failed to bring them nearer to the way of good
living and conversion; for it appears to me that few nations in the
world had a better government than these Yncas. I approve of nothing in
the present rule, but rather deplore the extortion, cruel treatment, and
violent deaths with which the Spaniards have visited these Indians,
without considering the nobility and great virtue of their nation.

Nearly all the rest of these valleys are now almost deserted, having
once been so densely peopled, as is well known to many persons.




CHAPTER LXII.

How the Indians of these valleys and of other parts of the country
believe that souls leave the bodies, and do not die: and why they
desired their wives to be buried with them.


Many times in this history I have said that, in the greater part of the
kingdom of Peru, it is a custom much used and observed by all the
Indians to inter, with their dead, all their precious things, and some
of the most beautiful and best-beloved of their wives. It appears that
this custom was observed in other parts of the Indies, from which it may
be inferred that the devil manages to deceive one set of people in the
same way as he does another. I was in Cenu, which falls within the
province of Carthagena, in the year 1535, when so vast a quantity of
burial places were found on a level plain, near a temple raised in
honour of the accursed devil, that it was a thing worthy of admiration.
Some of them were so ancient, that there were tall trees growing on
them, and they got more than a million from these sepulchres, besides
what the Indians took, and what was lost in the ground. In other parts
great treasure has been, and is every day, found in the tombs. It is not
many years since Juan de la Torre, who was Gonzalo Pizarro’s captain in
the valley of Yca, which is one of the Peruvian coast valleys, found one
of these tombs, from which those who entered it affirm that he took more
than 50,000 dollars.[325]

The custom of these Indians, in ordering magnificent and lofty tombs to
be made, adorned with tiles and vaulted roofs, and in burying with the
dead all his goods, his wives, great store of victuals, and no small
quantity of _chicha_ (or wine used by them), with their arms and
ornaments, leads us to believe that they had some knowledge of the
immortality of the soul, and of there being more in man than his mortal
body. Deceived by the devil, they obey his commands, and he (according
to their own account) gives them to understand that, after death, they
will be brought to life in another place which is prepared for them,
where they will eat and drink at their pleasure, as they did before they
died. In order that they may believe that what he tells them is true,
and not false and deceitful, he sometimes, when the will of God is
served by giving him the power and permitting it, takes the form of some
one of the dead chiefs, and, showing himself in the chief’s proper shape
and figure, such as he had when in this world, gives them to understand
that the said chief is in another pleasant world in the form in which
they there see him. Owing to these sayings and illusions of the devil,
certain of these Indians, holding all these false appearances to be
realities, take more pains in adorning their sepulchres or tombs than in
any other thing.

When a chief dies, they bury him with his treasure; and his wives,
youths, and persons with whom he had much friendship when alive, are
also buried. From what I have said, it seems that it was the general
opinion of all these Indians _Yuncas_, and even of those in the
territory of this kingdom of Peru, that the souls of the dead did not
die, but lived for ever, and that they would all meet each other, and
eat and drink, which is their chief delight.

Holding these opinions for certain, they buried with dead men their most
beloved wives and most trusted servants, together with all their arms,
treasures, plumes, and other personal ornaments. Many of the companions
of a dead chief, for whom there was no room in the tomb, would make
holes in the fields belonging to him, or in the places where he used
generally to hold festivals, and there be buried, thinking that his soul
would pass by these places and take them in his company to do him
service. And some of the women, in order that their faithful service
might be held in more esteem, finding that there was delay in completing
the tomb, would hang themselves up by their own hair, and so kill
themselves.

We believe that all these things are done, because the accounts of the
Indians concerning them are confirmed by the contents of the tombs, and
because, in many parts, the Indians believe in and retain their accursed
customs. I recollect, when I was in the government of Carthagena, more
than twelve or thirteen years ago, the licentiate Juan de Vadillo being
then governor and judge, that a boy came from a village called Pirina,
and fled to the place where Vadillo then was, because they wanted to
bury him alive with the chief of the village, who died at that time.

Alaya, who was lord of the greater part of the valley of Xauxa, died
about two years ago, and they say that a great number of women and
servants were buried alive with him. If I am not deceived, they told
this to the president Gasca, and though he gave the other chiefs to
understand that they had committed a great sin, his discourse was
without fruit.

All over Peru they call the devil _Supay_.[326] I have heard that he has
been seen by them many times. They even affirm that in the valley of
Lile he entered the bodies stuffed with cinders that are there, saying
many things to the people.

Friar Domingo, who is (as I have already said) a notable searcher into
these secrets, relates that when a certain person was sent to call Don
Paullu,[327] the son of Huayna Ccapac, whom the people received as Ynca,
he heard a servant say that, near the fortress of Cuzco, there were loud
voices crying with a great noise, “Why, Ynca, dost thou not observe the
customs that thou art bound to observe. Eat and drink, for soon thou
must cease to eat and drink.” These voices were heard by him who was
sent to Don Paullu, during five or six nights. Such are the wiles of the
devil, and the nooses with which he arms himself, to catch the souls of
those who esteem sorcerers so highly.

All the chiefs and Indians of the coast valleys have peculiar
head-dresses, by which one tribe is known from another....[328] In our
time they are abandoning their old rites, and the devil has neither
influence, nor temple, nor public oracle among them, for they are
finding out his deceitfulness; so that they are not now so bad as they
were before they heard the word of the holy gospel. But this will not
avail if the grace of God does not lessen their eating, drinking, and
lasciviousness, in which they are engaged day and night without tiring.




CHAPTER LXIII.

How they buried their dead, and how they mourned for them, at the
performance of their obsequies.


In the previous chapter I recounted all there is to be said concerning
the belief of these Indians in the immortality of the soul, and what the
enemy of the human race makes them think concerning it. It now seems
good to me that in this place I should give some account of their mode
of burying their dead.

In this there are great differences, for in some parts they make holes,
in others they place their dead on heights, in others on level ground,
and each nation seeks some new way of making tombs. Certain it is that,
though I have made many inquiries, and talked with learned and curious
men, I have not been able to ascertain the origin of these Indians, nor
of their customs.

These Indians, then, have various ways of constructing their tombs. In
the Collao[329] (as I shall relate in its place) they make them in the
cultivated land in the form of towers, some large and others small, and
some built with great skill. These towers have their doors opening
towards the rising sun, and near them (as I will also relate presently)
they were accustomed to make sacrifices and to burn certain things,
sprinkling the towers with the blood of lambs and of other animals.

In the district round Cuzco they bury their dead in a sitting posture,
on certain seats called _duhos_, dressed and adorned with their most
precious ornaments.[330]

In the province of Xauxa, which is a very important part of these
kingdoms of Peru, they sew their dead up in fresh sheep skins, with the
face exposed, and thus they are kept in their own houses. The bodies of
chiefs and principal men are, at certain seasons of the year, taken out
by their sons, and carried to the cultivated fields and homesteads in a
litter with great ceremony, and sacrifices of sheep and lambs, and even
of women and boys, are offered up. When the archbishop Don Hieronymo de
Loaysa[331] heard of this, he sent strict orders to the Indians of the
district, and to the clergy who were there teaching the doctrine of the
church, that all the bodies were to be immediately buried.

In many other provinces, through which I have passed, they bury their
dead in very deep holes, while in others, as those within the
jurisdiction of the city of Antioquia, they pile up such masses of earth
in making their tombs, that they look like small hills. A door is left
through which they pass in the body, the live women, and all the things
that are buried with it. In Cenu many of the tombs are level and large,
with courtyards, and others are like rocks or small hills.

In the province of Chincha, which is one of the coast valleys of Peru,
they bury their dead on beds made of canes.[332] In another of these
valleys, called Runa-huanac,[333] they bury their dead sitting. These
Indians also differ in the way they inter the bodies, some of them
putting them feet first, and others in a sitting posture.

The Indians of many of these coast valleys have great walls made, where
the rocks and barren mountains commence, in the way from the valleys to
the _Sierra_. In these places each family has its established place for
burying its dead, where they dig great holes and excavations, with
closed doors before them. It is certainly a marvellous thing to see the
great quantity of dead bodies that there are in these sandy and barren
mountains, with their clothes now worn out and mouldering away with
time. They call these places, which they hold to be sacred,
_Huaca_,[334] a mournful name. Many have been opened, and the
Spaniards, when they conquered the country, found a great quantity of
gold and silver in them. In these valleys the custom is very general of
burying precious things with the dead, as well as many women and the
most confidential servants possessed by the chief when alive. In former
times they used to open the tombs, and renew the clothes and food which
were placed in them; and when a chief died the principal people of the
valley assembled, and made great lamentations. Many women cut off their
hair until none was left, and came forth with drums and flutes, making
mournful sounds, and singing in those places where the dead chief used
to make merry, so as to make the hearers weep. Having made their
lamentations, they offered up more sacrifices, and had superstitious
communion with the devil. Having done this, and killed some of the
women, they put them in the tomb, with the treasure and no small
quantity of food; holding it for certain that they would go to that
country concerning which the devil had told them. They had, and still
have, the custom of mourning for the dead before the body is placed in
the tomb, during four, five, or six days, or ten, according to the
importance of the deceased, for the greater the lord the more honour do
they show him, lamenting with much sighing and groaning, and playing sad
music. They also repeat all that the dead man had done while living, in
their songs; and if he was valiant they recount his deeds in the midst
of their lamentations. When they put the body into the tomb, they burn
some ornaments and cloths near it, and put others with the body.

Many of these ceremonies are now given up, because God no longer permits
it, and because by degrees these people are finding out the errors of
their fathers, and how little these vain pomps and honours serve them.
They are learning that it suffices to inter the bodies in common graves,
as Christians are interred, without taking anything with them other
than good works. In truth, all other things but serve to please the
devil, and to send the soul down to hell more heavily weighted.
Nevertheless, most of the old chiefs order that their bodies are to be
buried in the manner above described, in secret and hidden places, that
they may not be seen by the Christians; and that they do this is known
to us from the talk of the younger men.




CHAPTER LXIV.[335]

......




CHAPTER LXV.

How they have a custom of naming children, in most of these provinces,
and how they sought after sorceries and charms.


One thing that I observed during the time that I was in these kingdoms
of Peru was, that they are accustomed to name their children, in most of
the provinces, when they are fifteen or twenty days old. This name is
retained until they are ten or twelve years old, when they receive
another, the relations and friends of the father having previously been
assembled on a certain day which is set apart for such purposes. They
dance and drink according to their usual custom, and then one of them,
who is the oldest and most respected, cuts the hair and nails of the boy
or girl who receives the new name. The hair and nails are preserved with
great care. The names which they receive are those of villages, birds,
plants, or fish.[336]

I learnt these particulars because an Indian servant whom I employed was
called _Urco_,[337] which means sheep; another was called _Llama_, also
a name for sheep; and another _Piscu_, which means a bird. Some of the
Indians are careful to retain the names of their fathers and
grandfathers. The chiefs and principal men seek out names according to
their pleasure. For _Atahualpa_ (the Ynca whom the Spaniards captured in
the province of Caxamarca) means “a fowl,” and his father was called
_Huayna Ccapac_, which signifies “a rich youth.”[338]

These Indians hold it to be unlucky for a mother to bring forth two
babes at once, or when a child is born with any natural defect, such as
having six fingers on one hand.[339] If these things happen, the man and
his wife become sad, and fast, without eating _aji_[340] or drinking
_chicha_, which is their wine, and they do other things according to
their customs, as they have learnt them from their fathers.

These Indians also believe much in signs and wonders. If a star falls,
the noise they make is prodigious. There are many sorcerers among them,
and they take great note of the moon and the planets. There are some
Christians now alive who were with the Marquis Don Francisco Pizarro
when he seized Atahualpa in the province of Caxamarca, and they saw a
green sign in the sky, in the middle of the night, as broad as a cubit,
and as long as a lance. When Atahualpa heard that the Spaniards were
looking at it, he requested that he also might be allowed to see it; and
when he beheld it, he became very sad, and continued so during the next
day. The governor Don Francisco Pizarro asked him why he continued to be
so sad, and he replied, “I have seen a sign in the sky, and I tell you
that when my father, Huayna Ccapac, died he saw a similar sign.”[341]
Within fifteen days Atahualpa was dead.




CHAPTER LXVI.

Of the fertility of the land in these coast valleys, and of the many
fruits and roots they contain. Also concerning their excellent system of
irrigating the fields.


Now that I have given as brief an account as possible of several things
connected with our subject, it will be well to return to the valleys,
treating of each one separately, as I have already done of the provinces
and villages of the _Sierra_.[342] But first I will say somewhat
concerning the fruits, other food, and works of irrigation which are to
be found in them.

All the land of these valleys, which is not reached by the sand, forms
one of the most fertile and abundant regions in the world, and the one
best suited for cultivation. I have already mentioned that it does not
rain, and that the water for irrigation is drawn from the rivers which
descend from the mountains and fall into the South Sea. In these valleys
the Indians sow maize,[343] which is reaped twice in the year, and
yields abundantly. In some parts they grow _yucas_,[344] which are
useful for making bread and liquor when there is want of maize. They
also raise sweet potatoes,[345] the taste of which is almost the same as
that of chesnuts, besides potatoes, beans, and other vegetables.

Throughout all the valleys there is also one of the most singular fruits
I ever saw, called _pepinos_, of very pleasant smell and taste.[346]
There are great quantities of _guayavas_,[347] _guavas_,[348] and
_paltas_,[349] which are like pears, _guanavanas_,[350] _caymitos_,[351]
and the pines of those parts. About the houses of the Indians many dogs
are seen, which are very different from the Spanish kind, and about the
size of ordinary curs; they call them _chonos_.[352] The Indians breed
many ducks. In the thickets of these valleys there are _algarobas_,
somewhat long and narrow, and not so thick as the pods of beans.[353] In
some parts they make bread of these _algarobas_, and it is considered
good. They are very fond of drying such of their fruits and roots as are
adapted for it, just as we make preserved figs, raisins, and other
fruits.[354] Now there are many great vineyards in these valleys, where
large harvests of grapes are gathered. No wine has yet been made from
them, and I cannot, therefore, certify to its quality; but, as the land
is irrigated, it will probably be weak.[355] There are now also
fig-trees and pomegranates, and I believe, and hold for certain, that
all the fruits of Spain may be grown here.

Wheat is raised, and it is a beautiful sight to see the fields covered
with crops, in a region devoid of natural supplies of water. Barley
grows as well as wheat, and lemons, limes, oranges, and citrons are all
excellent and plentiful. There are also large banana plantations; and
besides those which I have already enumerated, there are many other
luscious fruits which I do not mention, because it seems sufficient to
enumerate the principal ones.

As the rivers descend from the mountains and flow through these valleys,
and as some of the valleys are broad, while their whole extent is, or
was, when the country was more thickly populated, covered with flocks,
they led channels of water in all directions, which is a remarkable
thing, for these channels were conducted over high and low places, along
the sides of hills and over them, some in one direction, some in
another, so that it is a great enjoyment to travel in these valleys, and
to pass through their orchards and refreshing gardens.

The Indians had, and still have, great works for drawing off the water,
and making it flow through certain channels. Sometimes it has chanced
that I have stopped near one of these channels, and before we had
finished pitching the tent the channel was dry, the water having been
drawn off in another direction, for it is in the power of the Indians to
do this at their pleasure. These channels are always very green, and
there is plenty of grass near them for horses.[356] In the trees and
bushes many birds fly about; there are pigeons, doves, turkeys,
pheasants, and some partridges, besides many deer in the thickets. But
there are no evil things, such as serpents, snakes, and wolves. There
are, however, many foxes, which are so cunning that, although great care
is taken to watch the things where the Spaniards or Indians encamp, they
come to steal, and when they can find nothing better, they make off with
the bridles or switches for the horses.[357] In many parts of the
valleys there are extensive fields of sweet cane, and they make sugar,
treacle, and other things from it.

All these Yunca Indians are great labourers, and when they carry loads
they strip to the skin, until they have nothing on save a bit of cloth
between the legs, and so they run with their loads. They took great care
in irrigating their land, and also in sowing, which was done by many in
concert together. I will now speak of the road from the city of San
Miguel to that of Truxillo.




CHAPTER LXVII.

Of the road from San Miguel to Truxillo, and of the valleys between
those cities.


In a former chapter I described the foundation of the city of San
Miguel, the first settlement made by the Spaniards in Peru. I will now
treat of what there is between this city and Truxillo, the distance
between the two cities being seventy leagues, a little more or less. On
setting out from San Miguel there is a distance of twenty-two leagues
over a sandy waste before reaching the valley of Motupe. The road is
very wearisome, especially by the route which is now used. There are
certain little ravines on this road, but, although some streams descend
from the mountains, they do not reach these ravines, but are lost in the
sand, in such sort that no use can be made of the water. To go over
these twenty-two leagues it is necessary to set out in the afternoon,
and, travelling all night, some springs are reached early in the
morning, where the traveller can drink, and go on without feeling the
heat of the sun. It is usual for travellers to carry calabashes of water
and bottles of wine with them.

In the valley of Motupe the royal road of the Yncas is seen, broad and
constructed in the manner described in a former chapter. This valley is
broad and very fertile, and although a good sized river flows down into
it from the mountains, all the water is lost before reaching the sea.
The _algarobas_[358] and other trees grow well, on account of the
moisture which they find under their roots. In the lower part of the
valley there are villages of Indians, who are supported by water which
they obtain from deep wells. They get all that they require by
exchanging one thing for another amongst themselves, for they do not use
money, nor is any die for coining to be found in these parts. They say
that there were great buildings for the Yncas in this valley; and the
people had, and still have, their _huacas_, or burial-places in the
barren heights and stony places leading to the _Sierra_. The late wars
have reduced the numbers of the Indians, and the buildings have fallen
into ruins, the present inhabitants living in small huts, built in the
same way as those described in a former chapter. At certain seasons they
trade with the people of the _Sierra_; and in the valley there are great
fields of cotton, with which they make their clothes.

Four leagues from Motupe is the fresh and beautiful valley of Xayanca,
which is nearly four leagues broad. A pleasant river flows through it,
whence they lead channels which serve to irrigate all the land that the
Indians choose to sow. In former times this valley was thickly peopled,
like all the others, and it contained great buildings and store-houses
belonging to the principal chiefs, where their officers were stationed.
The native chiefs of these valleys were reverenced by their subjects,
and those who survive still are so. They go about with a retinue of
servants and women, and have their porters and guards.

From this valley the road leads to that of Tuqueme, which is also large,
pleasant, and full of trees and bushes. It contains vestiges of
edifices, which are now ruined and abandoned. A short journey further
on brings us to another very beautiful valley called Cinto. And the
reader is to understand that from valley to valley the way is over sandy
and parched-up stony wastes, where no living thing is to be seen,
neither grass nor tree; nothing but a few birds that may be seen flying.
Those who travel over the broad sandy deserts, and catch sight of the
valley (although still far off) are much cheered, especially if they are
on foot, under a hot sun, and suffering from thirst. Men who are new to
the country should not travel over these wastes, except with good guides
who know the way.

Further on is the valley of Collique, through which flows a river of the
same name, so broad that it cannot be forded except in the season when
it is summer in the _Sierra_, and winter on the coast. Nevertheless the
natives are so well practised in the management of irrigation channels
that, even when it is winter in the _Sierra_, they sometimes leave the
main stream dry. This valley, like the others, is broad and full of
trees, but there is a want of inhabitants, for most of them have been
carried off by the wars with the Spaniards, and by the evils which these
wars brought with them.




CHAPTER LXVIII.

In which the same road is followed as has been treated of in the former
chapter, until the city of Truxillo is reached.


Beyond the valley of Collique there is another valley called Sana, which
resembles the others. Further on is the valley of Pacasmayu, which is
the most fertile and populous of any that I have yet mentioned. The
natives of this valley, before they were conquered by the Yncas, were
powerful, and respected by their neighbours, and they had great temples
where they offered sacrifices to their gods. They are all now in ruins.
In the rocks and hills of the surrounding desert there are a great
quantity of _Huacas_, which are the burial-places of these Indians. In
all these valleys there are clergymen or friars who look after the
conversion and teaching of the Indians, not permitting them to practise
their ancient religious customs or usages.

A very fine river flows through this valley of Pacasmayu, whence they
lead many large channels, sufficient to irrigate all the fields that are
cultivated by the Indians, and they raise the fruits and roots already
enumerated. The royal road of the Yncas passes through this valley, as
it does through all the others, and here there were great buildings for
the Yncas’ use. The natives tell some ancient traditions of their
fathers, which, being fables, I shall not write down. The lieutenants of
the Yncas collected the tribute, and stored it in the buildings which
were made to receive it, whence it was taken to the chief station in the
province, the place selected for the residence of the captain-general,
and where the temple of the sun was erected.

In this valley of Pacasmayu they make a great quantity of cotton cloth;
the land is suited for breeding cows, still better for pigs and goats,
and the climate is healthy. I passed through this valley in the month of
September, in the year 1548, to join the other soldiers who had come
from the government of Popayan to reinforce the royal camp, and chastise
the late rebellion. It then appeared to me to be extremely pleasant, and
I praised God on seeing its freshness, with so many trees and flowers,
and branches full of a thousand kinds of birds.

Further on is the valley of Chacama,[359] not less fertile and abundant
than that of Pascamayu, and in addition it contains great quantities of
sweet cane, of which they make much excellent sugar, and other
conserves. There is here a Dominican monastery, which the reverend
father Friar Domingo de Santo Tomas founded.

Four leagues further on is the valley of Chimu,[360] which is broad and
very large, and here the city of Truxillo is built. Some Indians relate
that, in ancient times, before the Yncas extended their sway so far,
there was a powerful lord in this valley, who was called _Chimu_, as the
valley is now. He did great things, was victorious in many battles, and
built certain edifices which even now, though so ancient, clearly appear
to have been very grand. When the Kings Yncas made themselves lords of
these coast valleys, they held that of Chimu in great estimation, and
ordered large buildings and pleasure-houses to be erected in it. The
royal road, built with its walls, also passes through the valley. The
native chiefs of this valley were always esteemed and held to be rich.
This is known to be true, for in the tombs of the principal men much
gold and silver have been found.[361] But at present there are few
Indians in the valley, most of the land being divided amongst Spaniards
who are citizens of the new city of Truxillo, to form their estates. The
sea port, called the roadstead of Truxillo, is not very far from the
valley, and all along the coast they kill much fish for the supply of
the city and of the Indians themselves.




CHAPTER LXIX.

Of the founding of the city of Truxillo, and who was the founder.


The city of Truxillo is founded in the valley of Chimu, near a large and
beautiful river, whence they draw channels by which the Spaniards
irrigate their orchards and flower gardens. This city of Truxillo is
situated in a region which is considered healthy, and on all sides it is
surrounded by estates which the Spaniards call granges and farms, where
the citizens have their flocks and crops. All the land is irrigated, and
in all parts there are many vines, fig and pomegranate trees, and other
fruits of Spain, great abundance of wheat, and many orange trees, and it
is a pleasant thing to see the flowers. There are also lemons, limes,
and citrons, besides plenty of excellent fruits of the country, and they
breed many fowls and rear capons. It may be said that the Spanish
inhabitants of this city are provided with all they require, having
abundance of all the things which I have enumerated. There is no want of
fish, as they have the sea not much more than half a league off. The
city is built in a level part of the valley, in the midst of a
refreshing grove of trees. It is well built, with broad streets and a
large open square.[362] The Indians of the _Sierra_ come down from their
provinces to serve those Spaniards who hold them in _encomienda_,[363]
and they supply the town with the things they have in their own
villages. Vessels sail from the port, laden with cotton cloth made by
the Indians, for sale in other parts. The Adelantado Don Francisco
Pizarro, governor and captain-general in the kingdoms of Peru, founded
this city of Truxillo, in the name of the Emperor Charles our Lord, in
the year of the birth of our Saviour Jesus Christ 1535.




CHAPTER LXX.

Of the other valleys and villages along the coast road, as far as the
City of the Kings.


In the mountains, before reaching the City of the Kings, are the cities
of the frontier of Chachapoyas, and that of Leon de Huanuco. I have
determined that I will say nothing of these until I begin to give an
account of the villages and provinces in the mountains, which still
await my notice. I will then write conceiving their foundation, with as
much brevity as I can, but at present we must pass forward on our road.

The distance from the city of Truxillo to that of the Kings is eighty
leagues, over sandy deserts and intervening valleys.[364] After leaving
Truxillo the first village is Guanape, being seven leagues on the road.
This valley was no less noted among the natives in times past for the
_chicha_ which was brewed there, than Madrigal or San Martin in Castille
are for the good wine that they yield. In ancient times the valley of
Guanape was very populous, and was the residence of chiefs, who were
honourably and well treated by the Yncas after they submitted to their
rule. The Indians who have survived the wars and troubles are skilful in
their labour, drawing channels of water from the river to irrigate their
fields. The remains may be clearly seen of the buildings and
store-houses erected by the Kings Yncas. There is a useful port at this
valley, where many of the ships which sail on the South Sea, from Panama
to Peru, call for supplies.

From Guanape the road leads to the valley of Santa, but before reaching
it there is a valley with no river, but a small well at which travellers
quench their thirst. This well may be caused by some river which flows
through the bowels of the earth. In former days the valley of Santa was
very populous, and there were great chiefs who, at first, even defied
the Yncas. They say of them that it was more by intrigue and a display
of friendship than by force of arms, that they were induced to
acknowledge the Yncas as their lords. Afterwards the Yncas honoured
them, and held them in great esteem, and the chiefs erected grand
edifices by order of the Yncas. This valley is one of the largest of any
we have passed. A great and rapid river flows through it, which is much
swollen when the season in the _Sierra_ is winter, so that some
Spaniards have been drowned in crossing from one side to the other.[365]
There are now _balsas_ for crossing in. The valley contained many
thousands of Indians in former times, but now there are only four
hundred; and this is a lamentable thing to contemplate. That which I
most admired, in passing through this valley, was the great number of
burial-places, and that in all parts of the barren hills above the
valley there were quantities of tombs made according to the custom of
the Indians, and full of the bones of the dead. Thus the things that are
most worthy of notice in the valley are the tombs of the dead and the
fields which they cultivated when alive. They used to take great
channels of water from the river, with which they irrigated the land.
But now there are few Indians, and most of the fields which were once
cultivated, are converted into woods, ground overgrown with brambles,
and such dense thickets that, in some places, it is difficult to make a
way through them. The natives go dressed in shirts and mantles, and the
women also. They wear a head-dress on their heads to distinguish them
from other tribes. All the fruits I have already mentioned grow well in
this valley, and the pulses of Spain; and the Indians kill much fish.
The ships sailing along the coast always take in water at the river of
Santa. And as there are many thickets and few inhabitants, the mosquitos
swarm in such numbers as to be grievous to those who pass through or
sleep in this valley.

Two days’ journey further on is the valley of Huambacho, of which I
shall say no more than that it resembles those already described, that
there were buildings in it erected by its chiefs, and that the
inhabitants drew channels of water from the river which flows through
it, to irrigate their crops.

I went in a day and a-half from this valley to that of Guarmay, which
was likewise very populous in former days.[366] At present they breed
great quantities of cattle, horses, and pigs in it.

From Guarmay the road leads to Parmonga, which is no less pleasant than
the other valleys, but I believe that it contains no Indians at all who
avail themselves of its fertility. If, by chance, a few remain, it must
be in the upper parts near the foot of the mountains, for we saw nothing
but trees and wild thickets. There is one thing worth seeing in this
valley, which is a fine well-built fortress, and it is certainly very
curious to see how they raised water in channels to irrigate higher
levels. The buildings were very handsome, and many wild beasts and birds
were painted on the walls, which are now all in ruins and undermined in
many places by those who have searched for buried gold and silver. In
these days the fortress only serves as a witness to that which has
been.[367]

Two leagues from this valley is the river _Huaman_, a word which, in our
language, means “falcon,” but it is usually called “the ravine.”[368]
When it rains much in the _Sierra_, this river is dangerous, and some
people have been drowned in crossing it. One day’s journey further on
brings us to the valley of Huara, whence we pass to that of Lima.




CHAPTER LXXI.

Of the situation of the City of Kings, of its founding, and who was the
founder.


The valley of Lima is the largest and broadest of all those of which I
have written between it and Tumbez; and, as it was large, so it was very
populous. But now there are few native Indians, for, as the city was
built on their land, and as their fields and water-courses were taken
from them, some have now gone to one valley and some to another. If by
chance some have remained, they continue to irrigate their fields. At
the time when the Adelantado Don Pedro de Alvarado came to this kingdom,
the Adelantado Don Francisco Pizarro, who was his Majesty’s governor,
was in Cuzco; and, while the marshal Don Diego de Almagro was doing
those things which I mentioned in my chapter on Riobamba, he came down
to the coast, and determined to found a city in this valley. At that
time neither Truxillo, Arequipa, Guamanga, nor any of the other cities
were commenced. While the governor Don Francisco Pizarro was thinking of
founding this city, after having inspected Sangallan, and other sites on
the coast, he one day came with some Spaniards to the place where the
city now stands, and it appeared to him a convenient site, possessing
all necessary advantages. He, therefore, soon afterwards laid out a
plan, and built the city on a level part of the valley, two short
leagues from the sea. Above this site a river flows from the east, which
has little water when it is summer in the _Sierra_, but which is
somewhat swollen when it is winter. The city is so near the river that a
strong arm may throw a small stone into it from the _plaza_, and on that
side it cannot be enlarged. After Cuzco it is the largest city in the
whole kingdom of Peru, and the most important.[369] It contains very
fine houses, and some ornamental buildings with towers and terraces. The
_plaza_ is large[370] and the streets broad, and through every street a
channel of water flows, which is no small convenience. The water from
these channels serves to irrigate the orchards and gardens, which are
numerous, refreshing, and delightful. At this time the Court and Royal
Chancellory is established in the city, for which reason, and because
all the business of the country is done here, there are always many
people in the city, and rich shops for the sale of merchandise. In the
year that I departed from this kingdom there were many inhabitants of
this city who possessed _encomiendas_ of Indians, and were so rich and
prosperous, that they valued their estates at 150,000 ducats and
upwards. In fine, I left them very rich and prosperous, and ships often
sail from the port of this city, each carrying 800,000 ducats, and some
more than a million. I pray to Almighty God that, as it will be for his
service, for the spread of our holy faith, and for the salvation of our
souls, he will allow this wealth to increase continually.

On the east side of the city there is a great and lofty hill, on the top
of which a cross is planted.[371] Outside the city there are many farms
and estates on all sides, where the Spaniards have their flocks and
pigeon-cotes, vineyards, and refreshing orchards full of the fruits of
the country, figs, bananas, sugar-canes, melons, oranges, lemons, limes,
citrons, and beans brought from Spain. All is so good, that no fault can
be found, but rather thanks should be offered up to the great God our
Lord, who made all these things. Certainly, if all commotions and wars
were at an end, this would be one of the best countries in the world to
pass a life in,[372] for we see in it neither hunger, nor pestilence,
nor rain, nor thunder and lightning, but the heavens are always serene
and very beautiful. I could have mentioned some other particulars, but
as it seems to me that I have said enough, I shall pass on, concluding
by saying that the Adelantado Don Francisco Pizarro, governor and
captain-general in these kingdoms, founded the city in the name of his
Majesty the Emperor Charles our lord, in the year of our salvation
1535.[373]




CHAPTER LXXII.

Of the valley of Pachacamac, and of the very ancient temple in it, and
how it was reverenced by the Yncas.


Four leagues from the City of the Kings, travelling down the coast, is
the valley of Pachacamac, which is very famous among these Indians. This
valley is fruitful and pleasant, and in it there was one of the grandest
temples that is to be seen in these parts. They say of it that, although
the Kings Yncas built many temples besides the temple of Cuzco, and
enriched them greatly, yet none were equal to this temple of Pachacamac.
It was built on the top of a small hill, entirely made of earth and
_adobes_ (bricks baked in the sun). The edifice had many doors, and the
doors and walls were painted over with wild beasts. Within the temple,
where they placed the idol, were the priests, who feigned no small
amount of sanctity. When they performed sacrifices before the people,
they went with their faces towards the doors and their backs to the
idols, with their eyes to the ground, and they were filled with a mighty
trembling. Indeed, their perturbation was so great, according to the
accounts of those Indians who are still living, that it may almost be
compared with that of which we read concerning the priests of Apollo
when the gentiles sought for their vain replies. The Indians further
relate that they sacrificed animals, and some human blood of persons
whom they had killed, before the figure of this devil, which, at their
most solemn festivals, gave replies, and when the people heard them,
they believed them to be true. In the terraces and lower parts of this
temple a great sum in gold and silver was buried.

The priests were much reverenced, and the chiefs obeyed them in many of
the things which they ordered. Near the temple many great buildings were
erected for the use of those who came on pilgrimage, and no one was
considered worthy to be buried in the vicinity of the temple except the
chiefs, or those who came as pilgrims bringing offerings to the
temple.[374] When the annual festivals of the year were celebrated, a
great concourse of people assembled, rejoicing to the sound of such
instruments of music as they use.

When the Lords Yncas, in extending their sway, came to this valley of
Pachacamac, and saw the grandeur and great antiquity of the temple, and
the reverence paid to it by all the people in the neighbourhood, they
knew that it would be very difficult to put aside this feeling, although
it was their general practice to order temples to the sun to be built in
all the countries they conquered. They, therefore, agreed with the
native chiefs and with the ministers of this god or devil, that the
temple of Pachacamac should continue with the authority and reverence it
formerly possessed, and that the loftiest part should be set aside as a
temple of the sun. This order of the Yncas having been obeyed, the
temple of the sun became very rich, and many virgins were placed in it.
The devil Pachacamac was delighted with this agreement, and they affirm
that he showed great satisfaction in his replies, seeing that his ends
were served both by the one party and the other, while the souls of the
unfortunate simpletons remained in his power.

Some Indians say that this accursed demon Pachacamac still talks with
the aged people. As he sees that his authority and credit are gone, and
that many of those who once served him have now formed a contrary
opinion, he declares that he and the God of whom the Christians preach
are one, and thus with other false and deceitful words induces some to
refuse the water of baptism. Nevertheless God, taking pity on the souls
of these sinners, is served by many coming to His knowledge and calling
themselves sons of the church. Thus every day some are baptised. The
temple is now so completely dismantled that the principal edifice is
gone altogether, and in the place where the devil was once so served and
adored, a cross is planted to increase his terror, and to be a comfort
to the faithful.

The name of this devil is intended to signify “creator of the world,”
for _camac_ means “creator,” and _pacha_, “the world.” When the governor
Don Francisco Pizarro (God permitting it) seized Atahualpa in the
province of Caxamarca, he heard wonderful reports of this temple, and of
its great riches. He, therefore, sent his brother, the captain Hernando
Pizarro, with some Spanish troops, with orders to seek out the valley,
and take all the gold he could find in the accursed temple, with which
he was to return to Caxamarca. Although the captain Hernando Pizarro
succeeded in reaching the temple of Pachacamac, it is notorious among
the people that the priests had already taken away four hundred loads of
gold, which have never yet appeared, nor do any Indians now living know
where they are. Nevertheless Hernando Pizarro (the first Spanish captain
who came to this place) found some gold and silver. As time passed on,
the captain Rodrigo Orgoñez, Francisco de Godoy, and others, took a
large sum of gold and silver from the burial places. It is considered
that there is much more, but as the place where it was buried is
unknown, it was lost. From the time that Hernando Pizarro and his
Christians entered the temple, the devil has had little power, the idols
have been destroyed, and the temple and other edifices have fallen into
ruins. Insomuch that very few Indians now remain in the place. This
valley is as full of trees as the other valleys, and many cows and other
stock are reared in the fields, besides mares, from which come some good
horses.[375]




CHAPTER LXXIII.

Of the valleys between Pachacamac and the fortress of Huarco, and of a
notable thing which is done in the valley of Huarco.


From this temple of Pachacamac, where the temple is, the road leads to
Chilca, and at that place there is a thing well worthy of note, for it
is very strange. It is this,--that neither rain falls from heaven, nor
does any river or spring flow through the land, and yet the greater part
of the valley is full of crops of Indian corn, of roots, and of fruit
trees. It is a marvellous thing to hear what the Indians do in this
valley. In order to secure the necessary moisture, they make broad and
very deep holes where they sow their crops, and God is served by their
growing with the aid of dew alone; but by no means could they make the
maize grow if they did not put two heads of sardines to each grain,
these sardines being small fish which they catch with nets in the sea.
At the time of sowing, these fishes heads are put with the maize in the
same hole that is made for the grain, and in this manner the grain grows
and yields abundantly. It is certainly a notable thing that in a land
where it does not rain, and where nothing but a very fine dew falls,
people should be able to live at their ease. The water which the natives
of this village drink is taken from very deep wells, and they catch so
many sardines in the sea, that the supply is sufficient to maintain all
the inhabitants, besides using many for manuring the crops. There were
buildings and store-houses of the Yncas in this valley, for their
reception when they visited the provinces of their kingdom.[376]

Three leagues beyond Chilca is the valley of Mala, where the devil, for
men’s sins, completed the evil which had commenced in this land, and
secured the breaking out of war between the two governors, Don Francisco
Pizarro and Don Diego de Almagro. First, a number of events took place,
and at last they left the decision of the dispute (as to which of the
governments the city of Cuzco belonged) in the hands and power of
Francisco de Bobadilla, a friar of the order of our Lady of Mercy. After
a solemn oath had been taken by one captain and by the other, the two
Adelantados Pizarro and Almagro met, but no result came of the
interview, and Don Diego de Almagro returned, with great dissimulation,
to his own troops and captains.[377] The umpire Bobadilla then
pronounced his judgment on the dispute, and declared that which I shall
write in the fourth part of this history, in the first book, entitled
“The war of Las Salinas.”

A fine river, bordered by thickets of trees and bushes, flows through
this valley of Mala.[378]

A little more than five leagues beyond the valley of Mala is that of
Guarco, which is highly spoken of in this kingdom, being large, broad,
and full of fruit trees.[379] Especially there are many _guayavas_,
which are very delicious and fragrant, and still more _guavas_. The
wheat and maize yield plentifully, and all other things that are sown,
as well those of the country as the trees of Spain. There are also
pigeons, doves, and other kinds of birds. The thickets of bushes in this
valley are very shady, and irrigating channels flow through them. The
inhabitants say that, in times past, the valley was very populous, and
that the people contended with their neighbours, and with those of the
_Sierra_.

When the Yncas advanced their conquests and extended their sway over all
the provinces they came in contact with, the natives of this valley had
no wish to become vassals, seeing that their fathers had left them free.
They showed great valour, and maintained the war with no less spirit
than virtue for more than four years, during which time many notable
things fell out between the combatants. It was a protracted war, and
although the Ynca himself retired to Cuzco in the summer, on account of
the heat, his troops continued fighting. On account of the length of the
war, which the Ynca desired to bring to a close, he came down with his
nobles to build a new city which he called Cuzco, after his principal
seat of government. The Indians relate that he ordered that the
different divisions of the new city should have the same names as those
of Cuzco. Finally, but not until they had fought to the last extremity,
the natives of the valley of Guarco were subdued, and subjected to the
yoke of the tyrant king, who had no other right to be their lord than
that which the fortune of war had given him.[380] Having brought the
enterprise to a successful conclusion, the Ynca returned with his troops
to Cuzco, and the name of the new city was lost. Nevertheless he ordered
the most handsome and imposing fortress in the whole kingdom to be
erected on a high hill commanding the valley, to commemorate his
victory. It is built on great square slabs, the portals are very well
made, and the halls and courts are very large. From the upper part of
this royal house a stone flight of steps leads down to the sea, and the
waves dash with such force against the base of the edifice, that it
causes wonder to think how it could have been built with such strength
and solidity. In its time this fortress was richly adorned with
paintings, and it contained great treasure in the days of the Kings
Yncas. Although the building is so strong, and the stones so large,
there does not appear to be any mortar or other cement by which they
were joined together. When the edifice was built they say that, on
reaching the interior of the rock, they made holes with their picks and
other tools, and filled them with great slabs and stones, and thus it is
that the building is so strong. Considering that it is built by these
Indians, the building is worthy of praise, and must cause admiration to
those who see it, although now it is ruined and deserted. It may still
be seen to have been a great work in times past. It seems to me that
both Spaniards and Indians should be forbidden, under heavy penalties,
from doing further injury either to this building or to the remains of
the fortress at Cuzco; for these two edifices are those which should
cause most admiration in all Peru, and, as time rolls on, they may even
be made use of for some good purpose.[381]




CHAPTER LXXIV.

Of the great province of Chincha, and how much it was valued in ancient
times.


About two leagues beyond the fortress of Guarco is a rather large river
called Lunahuana, and the valley which it forms is like all the rest.
Six miles further on is the large and beautiful valley of Chincha, so
far famed throughout Peru, as well as feared in former days by the other
natives. When the Marquis Don Francisco Pizarro, with his thirteen
companions, discovered the coast of this kingdom, it was said on all
sides that Chincha was the fairest and best part of it. Thus it was
that, by reason of the fame borne by the place, and without knowing the
secrets of the soil, he sought from his Majesty the government of a
territory extending from the river of Santiago or Tempulla to this
valley of Chincha.[382]

As to the origin of the Indians of Chincha, they say that, in time past,
a quantity of them set out under the banner of a valiant captain of
their own tribe and arrived at this valley of Chincha, where they found
many inhabitants, but all of such small stature that the tallest was
barely two cubits high. The new comers being valiant, and the natives
cowardly and timid, the former gained possession. They also affirm that
all the natives perished, and that the fathers of the grandfathers of
men now alive saw their bones in certain tombs which were as small as
has been described.

These Indians thus became lords of the valley; they flourished and
multiplied, and built their villages close together. They say that they
heard a certain oracle near a rock, and that they all hold the place to
be sacred. They call it _Chincha_ and _Camay_. They constantly made
sacrifices, and the devil held converse with the older men, and deceived
them as he did all the other Indians. The principal chiefs of the
valley, and many other Indians, have now become Christians, and a
monastery of the glorious Saint Dominic has been founded in the valley.

But to return to our subject. They affirm that the Indians of this
valley increased so rapidly in numbers and in power, that those of the
other neighbouring valleys sought friendship and alliance with them as a
great honour and advantage. Finding themselves so powerful, they are
said to have set out to rob the provinces of the _Sierra_ at the time
that the first Yncas were founding the city of Cuzco. They are said to
have done much mischief in Soras and Lucanas, and to have got as far as
the great province of the Collao, whence, after having taken great
spoils, and gained many victories, they returned to their valley. Here
they and their descendants lived, given up to their pleasures and
amusements, with over many women, and following the same rites and
customs as the other tribes. The valley was so populous, that many
Spaniards say, that when the Marquis conquered it, it contained more
than 25,000 men. At present, I believe, that there are barely 5000, such
have been the strifes and misfortunes they have gone through. The
lordship of this valley was also safe and prosperous until the valiant
Ynca Yupanqui extended his rule in this direction. Wishing to bring the
chiefs of Chincha under his rule, he sent a captain of his own lineage,
named Ccapac Ynca Yupanqui, with an army of many _Orejones_ and others,
who reached the valley, and had several encounters with the natives. Not
being able to subjugate them, the _Orejones_ passed on; but in the time
of Tupac Ynca Yupanqui, father of Huayna Ccapac, they were finally
conquered, and from that time they obeyed the laws of the Lords Yncas;
the villages of the valley were ruled by them, and great buildings and
storehouses were erected for the King. The Yncas did not deprive the
chiefs of their lordship, but his delegate lived in the valley, and the
natives were ordered to worship the sun. Thus a temple was built, and
many virgins and priests to celebrate festivals resided in it. But,
notwithstanding that this temple of the sun was so pre-eminently
established, the natives did not cease to worship also in their ancient
temple of Chinchaycama. The Kings Yncas also sent _Mitimaes_ into this
great valley, and ordered that, during certain months in the year, the
native chiefs should reside at the court of Cuzco. The chief of Chincha,
who is still living, was in most of the wars which were waged during the
time of Huayna Ccapac. He is a man of ability and good understanding for
an Indian.

This valley is one of the largest in all Peru, and it is a beautiful
thing to see its channels of water and groves of trees, and the great
abundance of fruit, more especially the luscious and fragrant _pepinos_,
not like those of Spain, although they bear some resemblance. These are
yellow when the peel is taken off, and so delicious that it is necessary
to eat many of them before a man is satisfied. In the thickets there are
the same birds as have already been mentioned. There are scarcely any
sheep of the country, because the wars between the Christians have
caused their destruction. This valley yields plenty of wheat, and they
cultivate vines which they have planted. The valley yields all the other
things which have been planted by the Spaniards.

There were an immense quantity of burial-places made on the surrounding
arid heights. The Spaniards opened many of them, and obtained a great
quantity of gold. The native Indians were fond of dancing, and the
chiefs went about with much ceremony and parade, and were reverenced by
their vassals. After the Yncas established their rule, the natives
copied many customs from them, adopted their dress, and imitated them in
all other things as their sole lords.

The large population of this great valley has been reduced by the long
civil wars in Peru, and because many natives have been taken away to
carry burdens for the Spaniards (as is well known).




CHAPTER LXXV.

Of the other valley, as far as the province of Tarapaca.


After leaving the beautiful province of Chincha, and travelling over
sandy wastes, the traveller reaches the refreshing valley of Yca, which
was not less rich and populous than the others. A river flows through
it, which, during some months in the year when the season is summer in
the _Sierra_, has so little water that the inhabitants of the valley
feel the want of it. In the days of their prosperity, before they were
subdued by the Spaniards, and when they enjoyed the government of the
Yncas, besides the channels with which they irrigated the valley, they
had one much larger than the rest, brought with great skill from the
mountains in such wise that it flowed without reducing the quantity of
water in the river.[383] Now that this great channel is destroyed, they
make deep holes in the bed of the river when it is dry, and thus they
obtain water to drink, and for watering their crops. In this valley of
Yca there were great lords in former times who were much feared and
reverenced. The Yncas ordered palaces and other buildings to be made in
the valley. The inhabitants had the same customs as the other Indians,
burying live women and great treasure with their dead.

In this valley there are very large woods of _algaroba_ trees, and many
fruit trees of the kinds already described; besides deer, pigeons,
doves, and other game. The people breed much cattle.[384]

From this valley of Yca the road leads to the beautiful rivers and
valleys of Nasca,[385] which were also very populous in times past, and
the streams were made to irrigate the fields. The late wars destroyed by
their cruelty (as is well known) all these poor Indians. Some Spaniards
of credit told me that the greatest harm to the Indians was done during
the dispute of the two governors Pizarro and Almagro, respecting the
boundaries of their jurisdictions, which cost so dear, as the reader
will see in the proper place.

In the principal valley of those of Nasca (which by another name is
called Caxamalca) there were great edifices built by order of the
Yncas.[386] I have nothing more to say of the natives than that they
also assert that their ancestors were valiant, and esteemed by the Kings
of Cuzco. I have heard that the Spaniards took a quantity of treasure
from the burial-places, or _huacas_. These valleys being so fertile, as
I have said, a great quantity of sweet canes have been planted in one of
them, of which they make much sugar for sale in the cities of this
kingdom. The great road of the Yncas passes through all these valleys,
and in some parts of the desert signs may be seen to indicate the road
that should be taken.

Beyond these valleys of Nasca is that of Acari, and further on are those
of Ocoña, Camana, and Quilca, in which there are great rivers.[387]
Notwithstanding that at the present time these valleys contain few
inhabitants, in former times they were populous, but the wars and
calamities have reduced their numbers of late years until there are now
few left. These valleys are as fruitful and abundant as the others, and
are well adapted for breeding stock.

Beyond this valley of Quilca,[388] which is the port of the city of
Arequipa, are those of Chuli, Tambopalla, and Ylo. Further on are the
rich valleys of Tarapaca. Out of the sea, in the neighbourhood of these
valleys, rise some islands much frequented by seals. The natives go to
them in _balsas_, and bring a great quantity of the dung of birds from
the rocks, to apply to their crops of maize, and they find it so
efficacious that the land, which formerly was sterile, becomes very rich
and fruitful. If they cease to use this manure they reap little maize.
Indeed the people could not be supported if the birds, lodging on the
rocks round these islands, did not leave that which is afterwards
collected, and considered so valuable as to become an article of trade
between the natives.[389]

It does not appear to me necessary to dwell longer on the things
concerning these valleys, for I have already written down the principal
things I saw or was able to obtain notice of. I will conclude,
therefore, by saying that there are now few natives, and that in ancient
times there were palaces and store-houses in all the valleys, the
tribute rendered to the Kings Yncas being conveyed partly to Cuzco,
partly to Hatuncolla, partly to Vilcas, and partly to Caxamalca. The
principal grandeur of the Yncas was in the _Sierra_. I now pass on to
the valleys of Tarapaca.

It is certain that there are very rich mines in these valleys of
Tarapaca, of white and resplendent silver. Further on, I am told by
those who have travelled in these parts, there are some deserts which
extend to the borders of the government of Chile.[390] Along all this
coast they kill fish, some of them good, and the Indians make _balsas_
of sealskin for their fishing; and in some parts there are so many seals
that the noise they make when congregating together is a thing worth
hearing.




CHAPTER LXXVI.

Of the founding of the city of Arequipa, how it was founded, and who was
its founder.


The distance from the City of the Kings to that of Arequipa is one
hundred and twenty leagues. The city of Arequipa is built in the valley
of Quilca, fourteen leagues from the sea, in the most healthy and best
part for building. The situation and climate of this city is so good
that it is praised as the most healthy in all Peru, and the most
pleasant. The country yields very good wheat, of which they make
excellent bread. The jurisdiction of the city extends from Acari to
Tarapaca, and there are also some villages belonging to it in the
province of Condesuyo. Hubinas, Chiquiguanita, Quimistaca, and Collaguas
are villages belonging to this city, which were formerly very populous,
and possessed many flocks of sheep. The civil wars of the Spaniards have
now destroyed the greater part both of the natives and of the sheep. The
Indians who were natives of these mountain villages worshipped the sun,
and buried their chiefs in great tombs, in the same manner as was
practised by other Indians. They all go about clothed in shirts and
mantles. Ancient royal roads traversed these parts, made for the Kings;
there were palaces and store-houses, and all the natives gave tribute of
their crops. This city of Arequipa, being so near a seaport, is well
supplied with Spanish goods, and most of the treasure which is sent from
Charcas comes here, and is put on board ships which are generally lying
off Quilca, to be taken to the city of the Kings.

Some Indians and Christians declare that, opposite to Acari, but very
far out at sea, there are some large and rich islands, and it is
publicly reported that much gold is brought from them to trade with the
natives of this coast. I left Peru in 1550, and in that year the Lords
of the Royal Audience charged the captain Gomez de Solis with the
discovery of these islands. It is believed that they must be rich, if
they exist.

Concerning the founding of the city of Arequipa I have only to say that,
when it was founded, it was in another place, and that it was removed to
its present site, as being more convenient.[391] Near it there is a
volcano, which some fear will burst forth and do mischief.[392]
Sometimes there are great earthquakes in this city,[393] which the
Marquis Don Francisco Pizarro founded and settled, in the name of his
Majesty, in the year of our redemption 1540.




CHAPTER LXXVII.

In which it is declared how that, beyond the province of Huancabamba,
there is that of Caxamarca, and other large and very populous provinces.


In most of the provinces of this great kingdom the natives imitate each
other so closely that, in many things, one may say that they all seem to
be one people; and for this reason I touch briefly upon such matters in
some parts of my work, because I have treated more fully of them in
others.

Now that I have finished all I have to say concerning the coast valleys,
I shall return to the mountains. I have already written an account of
the villages and edifices from Quito to Loxa, and of the province of
Huancabamba, where I halted, in order to treat of the foundation of San
Miguel and of other subjects. Returning now to the former route, it
seems to me that the distance from Huancabamba to the province of
Caxamarca is fifty leagues, a little more or less. This province is
famous as the scene of Atahualpa’s imprisonment, and is noted throughout
the kingdom for its riches. The natives of Caxamarca state that they
were much esteemed by their neighbours before the Yncas subdued them,
and that they had their temples and places of worship in the loftier
parts of the mountains. Some of them say that they were first subdued by
the Ynca Yupanqui, others that it was not so, but that his son Tupac
Ynca Yupanqui first conquered them. Whoever it may have been, it is
stated positively that before he became lord of Caxamarca, they killed
the greater part of his troops, and that they were brought under his
yoke more by intrigues and by soft and winning speeches than by
force.[394] The native chiefs of this province were much respected by
their Indians, and they had many women. One of the wives was the
principal, and her son, if she had one, succeeded in the lordship. When
the chiefs died the same customs were observed as have already been
described. Their wives and riches were buried with them, and there was
much and long-continued lamentation. Their temples and places of worship
were much venerated, and the blood of sheep and lambs was offered up as
sacrifice. They say that the ministers of these temples conversed with
the devil; and when they celebrated their festivals, they assembled a
vast concourse of people in a clear open space, and performed dances,
during which they consumed no small quantity of wine made from maize.
They all go dressed in mantles and rich tunics, and wear a peculiar
head-dress as a distinguishing mark, being narrow cords in the manner of
a fillet.

When the Yncas had subdued this province of Caxamarca, it is said that
they valued it greatly, and ordered palaces and a very grand temple of
the sun to be built, besides many store-houses. The virgins of the
temple were employed in weaving very fine cloths, which they dyed with
better and more perfect colours than can be done in most other parts of
the world. In this temple there were great riches for its services; and
on certain days the ministers saw the devil, with whom they had
intercourse and converse. There were a great number of _Mitimaes_ in
this province of Caxamarca, obeying the superintendent, who had orders
to collect tribute and bear rule over the province. The officers in
charge of store-houses in various parts of the country came to him to
give an account of their charge, for he was the chief officer in these
districts, and also bore rule over many of the coast valleys. And
although the people on the coast had the temples and sanctuaries already
described by me, and many others, yet many of them came to worship the
sun, and to offer sacrifices. There are many things worthy of note in
the palaces of the Yncas, especially some very fine baths, where the
chiefs bathed when they were lodged in those edifices.[395]

Now the province of Caxamarca is much diminished in importance; for when
Huayna Ccapac, the rightful king of these realms, died in the very year
that the Marquis Don Francisco Pizarro, with his thirteen companions, by
the grace of God, discovered this prosperous kingdom, his first-born and
general heir, Huascar, being the eldest son that he had by his
legitimate wife the Ccoya (which is the name of the Queen), took the
fringe and crown of the whole kingdom,[396] as soon as his father’s
death was known in Cuzco. He sent messengers in all directions, with
orders that, since his father was dead, all men should obey him as sole
lord. But, during the war of Quito, waged by Huayna Ccapac, the great
captains Chalcuchima, Quizquiz, Yncla-hualpec, and Rumi-ñaui had been
engaged, who were very famous, and had intrigued to make another new
Cuzco in Quito, and to form a kingdom in the northern province, divided
and separated from Cuzco. They wished to take for their lord a noble and
very intelligent youth named Atahualpa, who was well beloved by all the
veteran soldiers and captains, for he had set out with his father from
Cuzco at a tender age, and marched with the army for a long time. Some
Indians even say that Huayna Ccapac himself, before his death,
reflecting that the kingdom which he left was so vast as to extend along
a thousand leagues of coast, determined to leave Quito and his other
conquests to Atahualpa. However this may be, it is certain that, when
Atahualpa and his followers knew that Huascar desired them to yield
obedience to him, they took up arms. It is said, however, that at first,
by the cunning of one captain Atoco, Atahualpa was made prisoner in the
province of Tumebamba, and that he escaped by the help of a woman, and
reached Quito, where he assembled his troops. He gave battle to the
captain Atoco near Ambato, and the army of Huascar was then defeated, as
I shall more fully relate in the third part of this work, in which I
treat of the discovery and conquest of this kingdom. As soon as the
defeat and death of Atoco were known in Cuzco, the captains Huancauque
and Yncaroque, with a large force, set out from Cuzco by order of the
King Huascar, and waged a great war with Atahualpa, to force him to
yield obedience to the rightful King Huascar. Atahualpa not only refused
to do this, but sought to obtain the kingdom for himself. Thus there was
a great struggle, and it is affirmed by the Indians themselves that more
than 100,000 men were killed in the wars and battles, in which Atahualpa
was always victorious.[397] At last he came with his army to the
province of Caxamarca (which is the reason that I treat of his history
in this part), and here he first heard of the strange people who had
entered the country, and who were then not far off. Thinking it certain
that it would be very easy to capture them and hold them as his
servants, he ordered his captain Chalcuchima to march to Cuzco with a
great army, and either seize or kill his enemy. Meanwhile he himself
remained in Caxamarca, at which place the governor Don Francisco Pizarro
arrived, and afterwards those events took place which ended in the
encounter between the forces of Atahualpa and the Spaniards (who did not
number more than one hundred and fifty men), the death of many Indians,
and the imprisonment of Atahualpa. Owing to these troubles, and to the
length of time that the Christian Spaniards remained there, Caxamarca
received much damage, and as, for our sins, there have never ceased to
be civil wars, it has not recovered. It is held in _encomienda_ by the
captain Melchor Verdugo, a citizen of Truxillo.[398] All the edifices
of the Yncas and the storehouses are, like the rest, in a ruinous
condition.

This province of Caxamarca is very fertile, and yields wheat like
another Sicily. They also breed stock, and raise abundance of maize and
of edible roots, and of all the fruits which I have mentioned as growing
in other parts. Besides these, there are falcons, many partridges,
doves, pigeons, and other game. The natives are well-mannered, peaceful,
and amongst themselves they have some good customs, so as to pass
through this life without care. They think little of honour, and are not
ambitious of having any, but they are hospitable to Christians who pass
through their province, and give them good food, without doing them any
evil turn, even when the traveller is solitary. For these and other
things the Spaniards praise the Indians of Caxamarca. They are very
ingenious in forming irrigating channels, building houses, cultivating
the land, breeding stock, and in working gold and silver. They also
make, with their hands, as good tapestry from the wool of their sheep as
is to be found in Flanders, and so fine that the threads of it look
like silk, although they are only wool. The women are amorous, and some
of them are beautiful. They go dressed in the same way as the _Pallas_,
or ladies of Cuzco. The temples and _huacas_ are now in ruins, and the
idols are broken, many of the Indians having become Christians. There
are always priests and friars among them, teaching them our holy
Catholic faith.




CHAPTER LXXVIII.

Of the foundation of the city of the frontier, who was its founder, and
of some customs of the Indians in the province.


Before reaching this province of Caxamarca, a road branches off, which
was also made by order of the Kings Yncas. It leads to the country of
the Chachapoyas, where the city of the frontier is built. It will be
necessary to relate how it was founded, and I shall then pass on to
treat of Huanuco. I hold it to be quite certain that, before the
Spaniards conquered this country of Peru, the Yncas, who were its
natural lords, had great wars and made many conquests. The Chachapoyas
Indians were conquered by them, although they first, in order to defend
their liberty, and to live in ease and tranquillity, fought with such
fury that the Yncas fled before them. But the power of the Yncas was so
great that the Chachapoyas Indians were finally forced to become
servants to those Kings, who desired to extend their sway over all
people.[399] As soon as the royal government of the Yncas was
established, many persons came from Cuzco to secure its continuance, who
received land to cultivate, and sites for their houses, not very far
from a hill called Carmenca, close to the present city. As there were
disturbances in the provinces bordering on Chachapoyas, the Yncas
ordered frontier garrisons to be established under the command of some
of the _Orejones_, to overawe the natives. For this reason there were
great stores of all the arms used by the Ynca soldiers, to be ready in
case of need.

These Indians of Chachapoyas are the most fair and good-looking of any
that I have seen in the Indies, and their women are so beautiful that
many of them were worthy to be wives of the Yncas, or inmates of the
temples of the sun. To this day the Indian women of this race are
exceedingly beautiful, for they are fair and well formed. They go
dressed in woollen cloths, like their husbands, and on their heads they
wear a certain fringe, the sign by which they may be known in all parts.
After they were subjugated by the Yncas, they received the laws and
customs according to which they lived, from them. They adored the sun
and other gods, like the rest of the Indians, and resembled them in
other customs, such as the burial of their dead and conversing with the
devil.

The marshal Don Alonzo de Alvarado, being a captain under the Marquis
Don Francisco Pizarro, entered this province.[400] After he had
conquered it, and reduced the natives to the service of his Majesty, he
peopled and founded the city of the frontier in a strong place called
Levanto, and began to prepare the ground for building with spades and
pickaxes; but in a few days he removed to another province, which is
considered healthy, inhabited by the Huancas.[401] The Chachapoyas
Indians and these Huancas serve the citizens of the new city who hold
_encomiendas_ over them, and the same thing is done in the province
called Cascayunca, and in others which I refrain from mentioning, as I
have seen little of them. In all these provinces there were great
storehouses of the Yncas; the villages are very healthy, and near some
of them there are rich gold mines. All the natives go about in clothes,
men as well as women. They sacrificed to their gods, and had great
flocks of sheep. They made rich and valuable cloth for the Yncas, and
they still make it, as well as such fine and beautiful tapestry as would
be highly esteemed anywhere. In many parts of the provinces subject to
this city, there are trees and fruits like those already described. The
land is fertile, and wheat and barley yield well, as well as vines,
fig-trees, and other fruit trees of Spain that have been planted. In
customs, ceremonies, modes of burial, and sacrifices, the same may be
said of these Indians as of all the others, for they also buried their
dead in great tombs, accompanied by live women and their riches.

The Spaniards have farms in the vicinity of the city for their crops and
animals, where they reap a great quantity of wheat, and the legumes of
Spain also yield well. The cordillera of the Andes passes to the
eastward of the city, and to the west is the South Sea. Beyond the woods
and fastnesses of the Andes is Moyobamba,[402] and other very large
rivers, and some villages of Indians who are less civilised than those I
have been describing; as I shall repeat in the account of the conquest
made by the captain Alonzo de Alvarado in Chachapoyas, and by Juan Perez
de Guevara in the provinces which are situated in the forests. It may be
held for certain that the land in this part is peopled by the
descendants of the famous captain Anco-allo, who, owing to the cruelty
of the captains-general of the Ynca towards him, fled from his native
country, and went away with those Chancas who desired to follow
him,[403] as I shall relate in the second part. Fame relates wonderful
things of a lake, on the shores of which it is said that the villages of
these people are built.

In the year of our Lord 1550 there arrived at the city of the frontier
(the noble cavalier Gomez de Alvarado being then its governor) more than
two hundred Indians, who related that it was some years since a great
body of them started from the land where they lived, and travelled over
many provinces, but that they had fought so many battles that only the
number of men I have mentioned were left. These Indians declare that to
the eastward there are vast and populous regions, some of them very rich
in gold[404] and silver. These Indians, with those who were killed, set
out to seek new lands for their homes, at least so I have heard.[405]
The captain Gomez de Alvarado, the captain Juan Perez de Guevara, and
others, have demanded the grant of this region, and many soldiers have
waited on the viceroy for permission to follow these captains, if they
receive a commission to make this discovery.

The city of the frontier was founded and settled by the captain Alonzo
de Alvarado, in the name of his Majesty, the Adelantado Don Francisco
Pizarro being his governor of Peru, in the year of our redemption 1536.




CHAPTER LXXIX.

Which treats of the foundation of the city of Leon de Huanuco, and who
was its founder.


To describe the founding of the city of Leon de Huanuco, it must be
understood, first, that when the Marquis Don Francisco Pizarro founded
the rich City of the Kings in the valleys and deserts of the coasts, all
the provinces which were then within the jurisdiction of that city had
to do service, and the citizens held _encomiendas_ over the chiefs. And
the tyrant Yllatopa, with other Indians of his tribe, waged war against
the natives of the district, and ruined the villages, so that the
_repartimientos_ became excessive. At the same time many of the
conquerors were without any _encomienda_ of Indians. The Marquis was,
therefore, desirous of gratifying these Spaniards, especially some who
had followed the Adelantado Don Diego de Almagro, and had afterwards
become his friends, by giving them Indians. He wished to satisfy those
who had laboured for his Majesty by giving them some profit from the
land; and, notwithstanding that the municipality of the City of the
Kings protested against what they thought might be to their detriment,
he named the captain Gomez de Alvarado, brother to the Adelantado Don
Pedro de Alvarado, as his lieutenant to found a city in the province
called Huanuco, with a small force of Spanish soldiers. Thus Gomez de
Alvarado set out, and, after some encounters with the natives, he
founded the city of Leon de Huanuco, and named persons to hold offices
in it. After some years the new city was abandoned on account of the
general insurrection throughout the kingdom. Pedro Barroso returned to
build this city again. Finally, with powers from the licentiate
Cristoval Vaca de Castro, after the bloody battle of Chupas, Pedro de
Puelles completed the settlement, Juan de Varagas and others having
previously captured the tyrant Yllatopa. It may, therefore, be said that
Gomez de Alvarado founded the city, for he gave it the name it now
bears, and if it was abandoned afterwards, this was more from necessity
than from inclination. It was founded in the name of his Majesty, by the
authority of the Marquis Don Francisco Pizarro, his governor and
captain-general in this kingdom, in the year of the Lord 1539.




CHAPTER LXXX.

Of the situation of this city, of the fertility of its fields, and of
the customs of its inhabitants: also concerning a beautiful edifice or
palace of the Yncas at Huanuco.


The situation of this city of Leon de Huanuco is good, and is considered
very healthy. It is praised as a place where the nights and mornings are
cool, and where men are healthy, owing to a good climate. They reap
wheat and maize in great abundance, and they also have grapes, figs,
oranges, lemons, limes, and other fruits of Spain; and of the fruits of
the country there are many kinds which are excellent. They grow the
pulses of Spain, and besides all these there are large banana
plantations. Thus it is a prosperous town, and there is hope that it
will increase every day. They breed many cows, goats, and mares in the
fields, and have abundance of pigeons, doves, partridges, and other
birds, as well as falcons to fly at them.[406] In the forests there are
some lions and very large bears, besides other animals. The royal roads
passed through the villages near this city, and there were store-houses
of the Yncas, well supplied with provisions.

In Huanuco there was a fine royal edifice, the stones of which were
large and very accurately set. This palace was the chief place in the
provinces of the Andes, and near it there was a temple of the sun, with
many virgins and priests. It was so grand a place in the time of the
Yncas, that more than 30,000 Indians were set apart solely for its
service.[407] The overseers of the Indians had charge of the collection
of tribute, and the people of the surrounding districts assisted the
work at the palace with their services. When the Kings Yncas ordered
that the lords of the provinces should appear personally at the court of
Cuzco, they came. It is said that the Indians of many of these nations
were hardy and valiant, and that, before the Yncas subjugated them, they
had many cruel wars, so that the people were scattered and did not know
each other, except when they gathered together at their assembles and
festivals. They built fortresses on the heights, and carried on wars
with each other on very slight provocation. Their temples were in places
convenient for making sacrifices and performing other superstitious
rites, and where those could hear the replies of the devil who were set
apart for that duty. They believed in the immortality of the soul in
that same blind fashion as is common with all the other Indians. These
Indians of Huanuco are intelligent, but they answer _Yes!_ to everything
that is asked of them.[408] The chiefs, when they died, were not put
into their tombs alone, but were accompanied by the most beautiful of
their wives, as is the custom with all the other tribes. These dead men
lie with their souls outside their bodies, and the women who are buried
with them in the great vaults await the awful hour of death, holding it
to be an auspicious and happy thing to go with their husbands and lords,
and believing that they will soon again have to do them the same service
as they did in this world. Thus it seemed to them that the sooner they
departed from this life the sooner they would see their lords and
husbands in the other. This custom originates, as I have said before on
other occasions, from the apparition of the devil in the fields and
houses, in the form of chiefs who had died, accompanied by their wives
who had been buried alive. There were some sorcerers who watched the
signs of the stars amongst these Indians.

After these people were conquered by the Yncas they adopted their rites
and customs. In each of their villages there were royal store-houses,
and they adopted more decent ways of dressing and ornamenting
themselves, and spoke the general language of Cuzco in conformity with
the law and edict of the Kings, which ordered that all their subjects
should know and speak it.

The Conchucos, the great provinces of Huaylos, Tamara, Bombon, and other
districts large and small, are under the jurisdiction of this city of
Leon de Huanuco; they are all very fertile and productive, yielding many
edible roots which are wholesome and nourishing, and good for the
sustenance of animal life. In former times there was so great a number
of flocks of sheep that they could not be counted, but the late wars
have caused their destruction to such an extent that very few remain.
The natives preserve them for the sake of their fleeces, from which they
make their woollen clothing. The houses of these Indians are built of
stone, and thatched with straw. On their heads they all wear peculiar
head-dresses of cords, by which they are known. Although the devil has
had great power over them, I have not heard that they commit the
abominable crime. In truth, however, as in all other parts, there must
be bad men among them.

       *       *       *       *       *

In many parts of this province they find great mines of silver, and when
the Spaniards begin to work them they will yield largely.




CHAPTER LXXXI.

Of what there is to be said concerning the country from Caxamarca to the
valley of Xauxa; and of the district of Guamachuco, which borders on
Caxamarca.


Having told all that I was able to gather touching the foundation of the
cities of the frontier of Chachapoyas and of Leon de Huanuco, I shall
now return to the royal road, and describe the provinces between
Caxamarca and the beautiful valley of Xauxa, a distance of eighty
leagues, a little more or less, all traversed by the royal road of the
Yncas.

Eleven leagues beyond Caxamarca there is another large province called
Huamachuco, which was once very populous, and half way on the road to it
there is a very pleasant and delightful valley. It is surrounded by
mountains and is therefore cold, but a beautiful river flows through it,
on the banks of which grow wheat, vines, figs, oranges, lemons, and many
other plants which have been brought from Spain. In ancient times there
were buildings for the chiefs in the meadows and dales of this valley,
and many cultivated fields for them and for the temple of the sun. The
province of Huamachuco is like that of Caxamarca, and the Indians are of
the same race, imitating each other in their religion and sacrifices, as
well as in their clothes and head-dress. In times past there were great
lords in this province of Huamachuco who were highly favoured by the
Yncas. In the principal part of the province there is a great plain,
where the _tampus_ and royal palaces were built, amongst which there are
two the thickness of which was twenty-two feet, and the length as much
as a horse’s gallop, all made of stone, embellished with huge beams,
over which the straw was laid with much skill. Owing to the late
troubles the greater part of the population of this province has
perished. The climate is good, more cold than hot, and the country
abounds in all things necessary for the sustenance of man. Before the
Spaniards arrived there were great flocks of sheep in the province of
Huamachuco, and in the lofty and uninhabited mountains there were other
wild kinds, called _guanacos_ and _vicuñas_, which resemble those which
are domesticated.

They told me that, in this province, the Yncas had a royal chase, and
the natives were forbidden to enter it for the purpose of killing the
wild animals, on pain of death. It contained some lions, bears, and
deer. When the Ynca desired to have a royal hunt, he ordered three
thousand, four thousand, ten thousand, or twenty thousand Indians to
surround a wide tract of country, and gradually to converge until they
could join hands. The game was thus collected in the centre, and it is
great fun to see the _guanacos_, how they jump up into the air with
fright, and run from one side to the other, seeking for a way to get
out. Another party of Indians then enters the enclosure, armed with
clubs, and kills the number of animals that the lord requires, often ten
thousand or fifteen thousand head, such was the abundance of these
animals.[409] They made very precious cloth from the wool of the
vicuñas, for the use of the Ynca, his wives, and children, and to
ornament the temples. These Indians of Huamachuco are very docile, and
have almost always been in close alliance with the Spaniards. In times
past they had their religious superstitions, and worshipped certain
stones as large as eggs, and others still larger, of different colours,
which they kept in their _huacas_ in the snowy mountain heights. After
they were conquered by the Yncas they worshipped the sun, and became
more civilised, both in their government and in their personal habits.
In their sacrifices they shed the blood of sheep and lambs, flaying them
alive without cutting off their heads, and presently cutting out their
hearts and entrails with great rapidity, to search in them for signs and
omens; for some of them were sorcerers, who also watched the courses of
comets, like other heathens. The devil came to the place where they had
their oracles, with whom it is publicly known that they held converse.
Now these things have come to an end, their idols are destroyed, and a
cross has been raised in their stead, to strike terror and dismay into
our adversary the devil. Some of the Indians, with their wives and
children, have become Christians, and every day, by reason of the
preaching of the holy gospel, more are converted, for in these
buildings and edifices there are clergymen who teach the people. The
royal road of the Yncas goes from the province of Huamachuco to the
Conchucos, and in Bombon it joins another road equally large. One of
these roads is said to have been made by order of Tupac Ynca Yupanqui,
and the other by order of his son Huayna Ccapac.




CHAPTER LXXXII.

In which it is told how the Yncas ordered that the storehouses should be
well provided, and how these were kept in readiness for the troops.


The royal road of the Yncas goes from this province of Huamachuco to the
province of the Conchucos, a distance of two short days’ journey, and
half-way there were buildings and store-houses prepared for the
reception of the Kings when they travelled this way; for it was their
custom, when they visited any part of this kingdom, to travel in great
state, and to be served with all things appertaining to their rank; and
it is said that, except on occasions when their service required it, the
Yncas did not travel more than four leagues each day. In order that
there might be sufficient food to support their retinue, there were
buildings and store-houses at every four leagues, with great abundance
of all the provisions that the surrounding districts could supply. The
lieutenants and overseers who resided at the chief stations in the
provinces took special care that the natives kept these _tampus_ well
provisioned. And that one might not have to contribute more of this
tribute than another, accounts were kept by a kind of knots, called
_quipu_, which were understood, and thus there was no fraud. Certainly,
although to us it may appear confusing and obscure, this is a good way
of keeping accounts, as I will more fully show in the second part.[410]
Between Huamachuco and the Conchucos, although it was two days’ journey,
there were store-houses and _tampus_ in two places on the road, which is
always kept very clean. If some of the mountains were rocky, the road
was made in steps, having great resting places and paved ways, which are
so strong that they will endure for many ages.

In the Conchucos there were buildings and other things, as in the
provinces we have passed, and the natives are of middle height. They and
their wives go dressed, and they wear distinguishing cords or fringes on
their heads. It is said that the Indians of this province were warlike,
and that the Yncas would have had some trouble in subjugating them if
they had not always managed to conciliate their enemies by kind deeds
and friendly speeches. Some of these Indians, on various occasions, have
killed Spaniards, insomuch that the Marquis Don Francisco Pizarro sent
the captain Francisco de Chaves[411] against them with some Christians,
who waged a terrible and awful war. Some say that he burnt and impaled
a great number of Indians. At about this time, or a little earlier, the
general insurrection of all the other provinces took place, when more
than seven hundred Christian Spaniards were put to cruel deaths by the
Indians between Cuzco and Quito. God delivered us from the fury of the
Indians, which is truly fearful when they can effect their desires.
Howbeit, the Indians said that they fought for their liberty, and to
escape from the cruel treatment they received from the Spaniards, who
had become lords of their land and of themselves.[412]

In this province of the Conchucos there have always been rich mines of
gold and silver. Sixteen leagues further on is the province of
Piscobamba, in which there was a stone building for the lords, which was
rather broad and very long. The people go clothed, as do all the Indians
who are natives of Piscobamba, and they wear certain small pieces of red
wool on their heads. Their customs are the same as those of their
neighbours, and they are now intelligent, docile, and well-disposed
towards the Christians. The land, where they have their villages, is
very fertile and prolific, and there are abundant supplies of
provisions.

Further on is the province of Huaraz, which is eight leagues from
Piscobamba, over very rugged mountains. Here it is an admirable thing to
see how the royal road is made to pass over these mountains, always
broad and level, and in some parts the live rock is cut away to form
steps and resting-places. The Indians of this province also are of
middling height, and they are excellent workmen. They worked the silver
mines, and in former times paid their tribute to the Kings Yncas in
silver. Among the ancient buildings there is a great fortress in the
form of a square, with sides measuring one hundred and forty paces, the
breadth being rather more. On many parts of it faces and human figures
are carved with most skilful workmanship. Some of the Indians say that,
in token of triumph, the Yncas ordered this memorial to be raised in
memory of a victory. Others relate that, long before the time of the
Yncas, there were giants as large as the figures that are carved on the
stones, but time, and the wars which they carried on with those who are
now lords of these districts, caused them to disappear without leaving
any other memorial than these stones.

Beyond this province is that of Pincos, near which a river flows, and
over it there is a bridge to pass from one side to the other. The
natives of this province are well made, and, considering that they are
Indians, of noble bearing. Further on is the great and splendid palace
of Huanuco, the chief station between this point and Caxamarca, as I
stated in the chapter where I described the founding of the city of Leon
de Huanuco.




CHAPTER LXXXIII.

Of the lake of Bombon, and how it is supposed to be the source of the
great river of La Plata.


This province is strong from its position, and because the natives were
very warlike. Before the Yncas could conquer them they fought great
battles with them, until (according to what many of the oldest Indians
declare) they at length induced them to submit by the use of intrigues
and presents. There is a lake in the country of these Indians which is
more than ten leagues round. This land of Bombon is level and very cold,
and the mountains are some distance from the lake.[413] The Indians have
their villages round the lake, with large dykes. These natives of
Bombon had great numbers of sheep, and, although most of them have been
destroyed in the late wars, yet some still remain, and in the desert
heights there are quantities of the wild kinds. There is little maize in
this country on account of the cold, but there is no want of other
provision by which the people are sustained. There are some islands and
rocks in the lake, where the Indians form garrisons in time of war, and
are thus safe from their enemies. Concerning the water which flows from
this lake, it is held for certain that it forms the source of the famous
river of La Plata, because it becomes a powerful river in the valley of
Xauxa, and further on it is joined by the rivers of Parcos, Vilcas,
Abancay, Apurimac, and Yucay. Thence it flows to the west, traversing
many lands, where it receives other rivers which are still unknown to
us, until it finally reaches Paraguay, the country discovered by those
Christian Spaniards who first came to the river of La Plata. I myself
believe, from what I have heard of this great river, that it owes its
origin to two or three branches, or perhaps more; like the rivers
Marañon, Santa Martha, Darien, and others in those parts. However this
may be, in this kingdom of Peru, we believe that it owes its source to
the lake of Bombon, which receives the water caused by the melting of
the snow from the heat of the sun on the desert heights, and of this
there cannot be little.[414]

Ten leagues beyond Bombon is the province of Tarma, the inhabitants of
which were not less warlike than those of Bombon. The climate is here
more temperate, and much maize and wheat are grown, besides various
fruits of the country. In former times there were great buildings and
store-houses of the Kings Yncas in Tarma. The natives and their wives go
dressed in clothes made from the wool of their sheep, and they adore the
sun, which they call _Mocha_. When any of them marry, the friends
assemble together, and, after drinking, saluting their cheeks, and
performing other ceremonies, the marriage of the bride and bridegroom is
complete. When the chiefs die they are buried in the same way as amongst
all the other tribes, and their women shave their heads and wear black
cloaks, also anointing their faces with a black ointment, and this state
of widowhood lasts for a year. When the year is over, as I understood,
and not before, they may marry again. These people have their annual
festivals and fasts, which they carefully observe, abstaining from meat
and salt and from sleeping with women. They also ask him who is
considered most religious, and on the best terms with their gods and
devils, to fast for a whole year for the benefit of the others. This
being done, at the time of maize harvest, they assemble and pass some
days and nights in eating and drinking.

       *       *       *       *       *

It is notorious that some of them conversed with the devil in their
temples, and the devil replied in a terrible voice. From Tarma,
travelling by the royal road of the Yncas, the traveller reaches the
great and beautiful valley of Xauxa, which was one of the principal
districts in Peru.




CHAPTER LXXXIV.

Which treats of the valley of Xauxa, and of its inhabitants, and relates
how great a place it was in times past.


A river flows through this valley of Xauxa, which is that which I said,
in the chapter on Bombon, was the source of the river of La Plata. The
valley is fourteen leagues long, and four to five broad, in some places
more, in others less.[415] It was so populous throughout, that, at the
time the Spaniards first entered it, they say for certain that it
contained more than thirty thousand Indians; now I doubt whether it has
ten thousand. They were divided into three tribes, although all are and
were known by the name of _Huancas_.[416] They say that this
arrangement has existed since the time of Huayna Ccapac, or of his
father, who divided the lands and settled their boundaries. One of these
tribes was called Xauxa, whence the valley took its name, and the chief
Cucixaca. The second was called Maricavilca, over which Huacarapora was
chief. The third was known as Llacsapallanca, and its chief Alaya. In
all these parts there are great buildings of the Yncas, but the largest
edifices were in the principal part of the valley, called Xauxa. Here
there was a great area covered with strong and well-built stone
edifices, a house of virgins of the sun, a very rich temple, and many
store-houses well supplied with provisions. Here there were many workers
in silver, who made vases of silver and gold for the service of the
Yncas, and for ornaments in the temple. There were more than eight
thousand Indians set apart for the service of the temple and palaces.
These edifices were all of stone, above which there were enormous beams
covered with long straw. These _Huancas_ had great battles with the
Yncas before they were conquered, as I will relate in the second part.
The virgins of the sun were guarded with great vigilance, and if they
had any intercourse with men they were severely punished.

These Indians relate a very pleasant legend. They affirm that their
origin is derived from a certain man (whose name I do not recollect) and
a woman called Urochombe, who came forth out of a fountain called
Huarivilca. These two were so prolific, that all the _Huancas_ have
proceeded from them. In memory of this pair the fathers of the present
inhabitants made a great and high wall, and near it they built a temple,
to which the Indians all go to worship. It may be gathered from this
that, as these Indians were ignorant of the true faith, God, for their
sins, allowed the devil to attain great power over them, and, that he
might secure the perdition of their souls, which is his desire, he made
them believe these follies and others, such as that they were born from
stones and lakes and caves; all that they might erect temples in which
to adore him.

These _Huancas_ know that there is a Creator of all things, whom they
call Ticeviracocha. They believe in the immortality of the soul. They
flayed the captives they took in war, making some of the skins into
drums, and stuffing others with ashes. The Indians go dressed in shirts
and mantles. The villages had fortresses of stone, like small towers,
broad at the base and narrow above. Even now they appear, to one seeing
them from a distance, like the towers of Spain. In ancient times all
these Indians made wars with each other, but, after they were subjugated
by the Yncas, they became expert workmen and bred large flocks. Their
head-dress consisted of a woollen wreath about four fingers broad. They
fought with slings and lances. Formerly there was a fountain, over
which, as has been already said, they built a temple, called
Huarivilca.[417] I saw it, and near it there were three or four trees
called _molles_,[418] like walnut-trees. These trees were considered
sacred, and near them there was a seat made for the chiefs who came to
sacrifice, whence some paved steps led to the precincts of the temple.
Porters were stationed to guard the entrance, where a stone flight of
steps led down to the fountain already mentioned. Here there is an
ancient wall of great size built in the form of a triangle. Near these
buildings there is a plain, where the devil, whom they adored, is said
to have been, and to have conversed with some of them.

These Indians relate another legend which they heard from their
ancestors, namely, that a great multitude of devils once assembled in
these parts, and did much damage to the natives, terrifying them with
their looks. While this was going on five suns appeared in the heavens,
which, with their brilliant splendour, annoyed the devils, who
disappeared with loud screams and groans. The devil Huarivilca, who was
in this place, was never seen again, and all the places where he had
stood were scorched and burnt. As the Yncas were lords of this valley, a
grand temple of the sun was built for them, as in other parts, but the
natives did not cease to offer sacrifices to this Huarivilca. The temple
of the sun, equally with that of Huarivilca, is now in ruins, and full
of weeds and abominations; for when the governor Don Francisco Pizarro
entered the valley, the Indians say that the bishop, Friar Vicente de
Valverde,[419] broke the idols, and the devil was never again heard in
that place. I went to see this temple with Don Cristoval, son of the
chief Alaya, who is now dead, and he showed me the monument. He, as well
as the other chiefs of the valley, has turned Christian, and there are
two clergymen and a friar who have charge of the instruction of these
Indians in our holy catholic faith. This valley of Xauxa is surrounded
by snowy mountains, and in many parts of them there are ravines where
the _Huancas_ raise their crops. The City of the Kings was seated in
this valley before it was removed to the place where it now is, and the
Spaniards found a great quantity of gold and silver here.




CHAPTER LXXXV.

In which the road is described from Xauxa to the city of Guamanga, and
what there is worthy of note on this road.


I find that the distance from this valley of Xauxa to the city of the
victory of Guamanga is thirty leagues. Going by the royal road, the
traveller journeys on until certain very ancient edifices, now in ruins,
are reached, which are on the summit of the heights above the valley.
Further on is the village of Acos, near a morass full of great rushes.
Here, also, there were edifices and store-houses of the Yncas, as in all
the other towns of this kingdom. The natives of Acos live away from the
royal road, in some very rugged mountains to the eastward. I have
nothing more to say of them, except that they go dressed in woollen
clothes, and that their houses are of stone thatched with straw. The
road goes from Acos to the buildings at Pico, then over a hill, the
descent from which is rugged and would seem difficult, yet the road
continues to be so broad and smooth, that it almost seems to be passing
over level ground. Thus it descends to the river which passes by Xauxa,
where there is a bridge, and the pass is called Angoyaco. Near this
bridge there is a certain white ravine, whence comes a spring of
wholesome water. In this pass of Angoyaco there was an edifice of the
Yncas, where there was a bath of water that was naturally warm and
convenient for bathing, on account of which all the Lords Yncas valued
it. Even the Indians of these parts used to wash and bathe in it every
day, both men and women. In the part where the river flows the valley is
small, and there are many _molle_[420] and other trees. Further on is
the valley of Picoy, but first another small river is crossed, where
there is also a bridge, for in winter time this river washes down with
much fury.

From Picoy the road leads to the buildings of Parcos, erected on the top
of a hill. The Indians have their abodes in very lofty and rugged
mountains on either side of these buildings. Before reaching Parcos
there is a place called Pucara (which in our language means a strong
thing[421]) in a small wilderness, where, in ancient times, as the
Indians declare, there was a palace of the Yncas and a temple of the
sun. Many provinces sent their usual tribute to this Pucara, and
delivered it to the overseer who had charge of the stores, and whose
duty it was to collect the tribute. In this place there is such a
quantity of dressed stones that, from a distance, it truly appears like
some city or towered castle, from which it may be judged that the
Indians gave it an appropriate name. Among the rocks there is one, near
a small river, which is so large that its size is wonderful to behold. I
saw it, and slept one night under it, and it appeared to me that it had
a height of two hundred cubits, and a circuit of more than two hundred
paces. If it was on any dangerous frontier, it might easily be turned
into an impregnable fortress. This great rock has another notable thing
connected with it, which is that there are so many caves in it that more
than a hundred men and some horses might get into them. In this, as in
other things, our God shows his mighty power. All these roads are full
of caves, where men and animals can take shelter from the wet and snow.
The natives of this district have their villages on lofty mountains, as
I have already said. Their summits are covered with snow during most
parts of the year. The Indians sow their crops in sheltered spots, like
valleys, between the mountains. In many parts of these mountains there
are great veins of silver. The road descends a mountain from Parcos,
till it reaches a river bearing the same name, where there is a bridge
built over great blocks of stone. This mountain of Parcos is the place
where the battle took place between the Indians and the captain
Morgovejo de Quiñones, and where Gonzalo Pizarro ordered the captain
Gaspar Rodriguez de Campo-redondo[422] to be killed, as I shall relate
in another part of my work. Beyond this river of Parcos is the station
of Asangaro, now the _repartimiento_ of Diego Gavilan,[423] whence the
royal road passes on till it reaches the city of San Juan de la Victoria
de Guamanga.




CHAPTER LXXXVI.

Which treats of the reason why the city of Guamanga was founded, its
provinces having been at first partly under the jurisdiction of Cuzco,
and partly under that of the City of the Kings.


After the war at Cuzco between the Indians and the Spaniards, the King
Manco Ynca, seeing that he could not recover the city of Cuzco,
determined to retire into the provinces of Viticos, which are in the
most retired part of these regions, beyond the great Cordillera of the
Andes; after having first led the captain Rodrigo Orgoñez a long chase,
who liberated Ruy Diaz, a captain whom the Ynca had had in his power for
some days. When it was known that Manco Ynca entertained this intention,
many of the _Orejones_ of Cuzco (the nobility of that city) wished to
follow him. Having reached Viticos with a great quantity of treasure,
collected from various parts, together with his women and retinue, the
King Manco Ynca established himself in the strongest place he could
find, whence he sallied forth many times, and in many directions, to
disturb those parts which were quiet, and to do what harm he could to
the Spaniards, whom he considered as cruel enemies. They had, indeed,
seized his inheritance, forcing him to leave his native land, and to
live in banishment. These and other things were published by Manco Ynca
and his followers, in the places to which they came for the purpose of
robbing and doing mischief. As in these provinces no Spanish city had
been built; the natives were given in _encomienda_, some to citizens of
Cuzco; and others to those of the City of the Kings. Thus the Indians of
Manco Ynca were able to do much harm to the Spaniards and to the
friendly Indians, killing and robbing many of them.

These things rose to such a height that the Marquis Don Francisco
Pizarro sent captains against Manco Ynca. The factor Yllan Suarez de
Carbajal,[424] by order of the Marquis, set out from Cuzco and sent the
captain Villa-diego to reconnoitre with a force of Spaniards, for there
was news that the Ynca was not far distant from the place where he was
encamped. Notwithstanding that they were without horses (which is the
most important arm against these Indians), they pressed on because they
were confident in their strength, and desired to enjoy the spoils of the
Ynca, thinking that he had his women and treasure with him. They reached
the summit of a mountain, fatigued and exhausted, when the Ynca, with
little more than eighty Indians, attacked the Christians, who numbered
twenty-eight or thirty, and killed the captain Villa-diego, and all his
men, except two or three, who escaped with the aid of the friendly
Indians. These fugitives presented themselves to the factor, who deeply
felt the misfortune. When the Marquis Don Francisco Pizarro heard it, he
hastily set out from the city of Cuzco with a body of men, who had
orders to pursue Manco Ynca. But this attempt also failed, for the Ynca
retreated to his settlement at Viticos, with the heads of the
Christians.[425] Afterwards the captain Gonzalo Pizarro undertook the
pursuit of the Ynca, and occupied some of his passes and bridges. At
last, as the evils done by the Indians had been great, the governor Don
Francisco Pizarro, with the assent of the royal officers who were with
him, determined to form a settlement between Cuzco and Lima (which is
the City of the Kings), so as to make the road secure for travellers.
This city was called “San Juan de la Frontera,” until the licentiate
Christoval Vaca de Castro, Pizarro’s successor in the government of the
country, called it “De la Victoria,” after the victory which he gained
over the men of Chile, on the heights of Chupas.[426] All the villages
and provinces from the Andes to the South Sea were under the
jurisdiction either of the city of Cuzco or of that of the Kings, and
the Indians were granted in _encomienda_ to the citizens of one or other
of these cities. When, therefore, the governor Don Francisco Pizarro
determined to build this new city, he ordered that some citizens from
each of the two cities should come to live in it, so that they might not
lose their claim to the _encomienda_ of the Indians in that part. The
province of Xauxa then became the limit of Lima, and Andahuaylas that of
Cuzco. The new city was founded in the following manner.




CHAPTER LXXXVII.

Of the founding of the city of Guamanga, and who was its founder.


When the marquis Don Francisco Pizarro determined to found a city in
this province, he did not select the site where it now stands, but chose
an Indian village called Guamanga, which is the reason why the city
received the same name.[427] The village was near the great Cordillera
of the Andes. The marquis left the captain Francisco de Cardenas as his
lieutenant here. After some time, and from various causes, the city was
removed to the place where it now stands, which is on a plain, near a
chain of hills on its south side. Although a small plain half a league
from the present city, would have been a site more pleasant to the
inhabitants, yet they were obliged to give it up owing to the want of
water. Near the city a small stream of very good water flows, at which
the citizens drink. In this city the best and largest houses in all Peru
have been built, all of stone, bricks, and tiles, with tall towers, so
that there is no want of buildings. The _plaza_ is level and very
large.[428] The climate is very healthy, for neither the sun nor the
air do harm, nor is it damp nor hot, but it possesses an excellent and
most salubrious temperature. The citizens have also built houses where
they keep their flocks, in the valleys adjoining the city. The largest
river near the city is called Viñaque, near which there are some great
and very ancient edifices, which are now in ruins, but appear to have
stood for many ages.[429] When the Indians are asked who built these
ancient monuments, they reply that a bearded and white people like
ourselves were the builders, who came to these parts many ages before
the Yncas began to reign, and formed a settlement here. These, and some
other ancient edifices in this kingdom do not appear to me to be like
those which were erected by order of the Yncas; for their buildings were
square, and those of the Yncas are long and narrow. It is also reported
that certain letters were found on a tile in these buildings. I neither
deny nor affirm that, in times past, some other race, possessed of
judgment and intelligence, made these things, and others which we have
not seen.

On the banks of this river of Viñaque, and in other adjacent parts,
they reap a great quantity of wheat, of which they make bread as
excellent as the best that is made in Andalusia.[430] They have planted
some vines, and it is believed that in time there will be many extensive
vineyards, and most other things that grow in Spain. There is abundance
of all the fruits of the country, and so many doves that there is no
other part of the Indies where they are so numerous. In the spring there
is some difficulty in getting enough fodder for the horses, but, owing
to attendance from the Indians, this want is not felt. It must be
understood that at no time do the horses and other beasts feed on straw,
nor is any use made of what is cut, for neither do the sheep eat it, but
all are maintained by the grass of the field.

The outlets to this city are good, but in many parts there are so many
thorns and briars that it is necessary for travellers to be careful,
whether they go on foot or on horseback. This city of San Juan de la
Victoria de Guamanga was founded and settled by the marquis Don
Francisco Pizarro, governor of Peru, in the name of his Majesty, on the
9th day of the month of January, 1539.




CHAPTER LXXXVIII.

In which some things are related concerning the natives of the districts
near this city.


Many Indians have been given in _encomienda_ to the citizens of
Guamanga, and notwithstanding that they are numerous, yet the wars have
caused the destruction of great numbers. Most of them were _Mitimaes_,
who, as I have already said, were Indians transported from one province
to another, the work of the Kings Yncas. Some of these were _Orejones_,
although not of the principal families of Cuzco. To the eastward of this
city is the great mountain chain of the Andes. To the west is the coast
of the South Sea. I have named villages which are near the royal road.
The others have very fertile land round them, and large flocks. All the
Indians go about clothed. They had temples and places of worship in
secluded corners, where they performed their sacrifices and vain
ceremonies. In their burials they practised the same customs as all the
other Indians, interring live women and treasures with their dead. After
they were brought under the yoke of the Yncas, they adored the sun, and
adopted the laws and customs of their conquerors. Originally they were a
brave race, and so warlike that the Yncas were hard put to it, when they
invaded their country; insomuch that, in the days of the Ynca Yupanqui,
after the Soras and Lucanas (provinces inhabited by a robust people) had
been subdued, these Indians fortified themselves, in great numbers, in
strong positions. For, to preserve their liberty, and escape servitude
under a tyrant, they thought little of hunger and long protracted wars.
Ynca Yupanqui, covetous of the rule over these people, and jealous of
his own reputation, besieged them closely for more than two years; at
the end of which time, after they had done all they could, they
surrendered to the Ynca.

When Gonzalo Pizarro rose in arms, the principal citizens of Guamanga,
from fear of his captains, and from a desire to serve his Majesty, after
having raised a standard in his royal name, marched to this same
stronghold to fortify themselves (as I myself heard from some of them),
and saw the vestiges of the former war spoken of by the Indians. All
these Indians wear certain marks by which they are known, and which were
used by their ancestors. Some of them were much given to omens, and were
great sorcerers, pretending to predict what would happen in the future,
on which occasions they talked nonsense, as all must do who try to
foretell what no creature can know; for God alone can tell what is about
to happen.




CHAPTER LXXXIX.

Of the great buildings in the province of Vilcas, which are beyond the
city of Guamanga.


The distance from the city of Guamanga to that of Cuzco is sixty
leagues, a little more or less. On this road is the plain of Chupas,
where the cruel battle was fought between the governor Vaca de Castro
and Don Diego de Almagro the Younger. Further on, still following the
royal road, are the edifices of Vilcas, eleven leagues from Guamanga,
which, say the natives, was the centre of the dominions of the Yncas;
for they assert that from Quito to Vilcas is the same distance as from
Vilcas to Chile, these being the extreme points of the empire. Some
Spaniards, who have travelled from one end to the other, say the same.
Ynca Yupanqui ordered these edifices to be built, and his successors
added to them. The temple of the sun was large and richly ornamented. On
one part of the plain, towards the point where the sun rises, there was
a chapel for the lords, made of stone, and surrounded by a low wall,
which formed a terrace about six feet broad, with other steps upon it,
on the highest of which there was a seat where the lord stationed
himself when he said his prayers. This seat was made of a single
enormous stone, eleven feet long, and seven broad. They say that this
stone was once set with gold and precious stones, for it was thus that
they adorned a place held by them in great veneration. On another stone,
which is not small, in the centre of the open space, they killed
animals and young children as sacrifices, whose blood they offered to
their gods. The Spaniards have found some treasure on these terraces.

By the side of the chapel were the palaces of Tupac Ynca Yupanqui, and
other great buildings, besides many storehouses where they put the arms
and fine cloths, with all other things paid as tribute by the Indians of
provinces within the jurisdiction of Vilcas, which was, I have heard it
said in other places, as it were the head of the kingdom. Near a small
hill there were, and still are, more than seven hundred houses, where
they stored up the maize and other provisions for the soldiers who
marched that way. In the middle of the great square there was another
form or seat, where the lord sat to witness the dances and festivals.
The temple of the sun, which was built of stones fitted one on the other
with great skill, had two doorways, approached by two flights of stone
stairs, having, as I counted them, thirty steps apiece. Within this
temple there were lodgings for the priests and virgins. The _Orejones_
and other Indians affirm that the figure of the sun was very rich, and
that there was great treasure in smaller pieces. These buildings were
served by more than forty thousand Indians, divided into relays, and
each chief understood the orders of the governor, who received his power
from the Ynca. To guard the doorways alone there were forty porters. A
gentle channel of water, conducted with much skill, flowed through the
great square, and the lords also had their secret baths both for
themselves and for their women. What may now be seen of all this are the
outlines of the buildings, the walls of the chapels, the temple with its
steps all in ruins, and other ruined buildings. In fine, it once was
what it now is not, and by what it now is we may judge what it once was.
Some of the first Spanish conquerors saw this edifice entire and in its
perfection, as I have myself been told by them.[431]

From Vilcas the road passes to Uramarca, which is seven leagues nearer
Cuzco, and here the great river called Vilcas is crossed, the name being
given because it is near these buildings. On each side of the river
there are very large stone pillars made very strong and with very deep
foundations. From these pillars a bridge of ropes, like those used for
drawing water with a wheel, is slung across the river. These ropes are
so strong that horses may pass over with loosened rein, as if they were
crossing the bridge of Alcantara, or that of Cordova. The bridge was one
hundred and sixty-six paces long when I passed over it.[432] The river
rises in the province of the Soras, which is very fertile, and
inhabited by a warlike race. They and the people of Lucanas[433] speak
one language, and go about dressed in woollen cloths. They possessed
large flocks, and in their provinces there are rich mines of gold and
silver. The Yncas esteemed the Soras and Lucanas so highly, that their
provinces were favoured, and the sons of their chiefs resided at the
court of Cuzco. There are store-houses in these provinces, and great
numbers of wild flocks in the desert mountains. Returning to the royal
road, the traveller reaches the buildings of Uramarca, which is a
village of _Mitimaes_, for most of the natives were killed in the wars
of the Yncas.




CHAPTER XC.

Of the province of Andahuaylas, and of what is to be seen as far as the
valley of Xaquixaguana.


When I entered this province of Andahuaylas,[434] the chief of it was an
Indian named Guasco, and the natives were called _Chancas_. They go
about dressed in woollen shirts and mantles. In former times they were
so valiant, that they not only conquered other lands and lordships, but
extended their dominions so widely that they came near to the city of
Cuzco. There were fierce encounters between those of the city and these
_Chancas_, until, by the valour of the Ynca Yupanqui, the _Chancas_ were
conquered. The captain Ancoallo,[435] so famous in these parts for his
great bravery, was a native of this province. They relate that he could
not endure to be under the yoke of the Yncas, and under the orders of
his captains; so, after having performed great deeds in the districts of
Tarama and Bombon, he penetrated into the depths of the forests, and his
followers peopled the banks of a lake which is, according to Indian
statements, down the course of the river of Moyobamba. When I asked
these _Chancas_ concerning their origin, they told me such another
legend as did those of Xauxa. They said that their fathers were born in,
and came out of, a small lake called Soclo-cocha, and conquered the
country as far as a place called Chuquibamba, where they established
themselves. After some time they strove with the Quichuas,[436] a very
ancient nation, who were lords of this province of Andahuaylas, and
conquered their country, which they have been lords of ever since. They
held the lake out of which they came to be sacred, and it was their
chief place of worship, where they prayed and made sacrifices. They
buried their dead in the same way as the other Indians, and believed in
the immortality of the soul, which they called _Sonccon_, a word which
also means “heart.”[437] They buried women alive with the bodies of
their lords, and also treasure and apparel. They had their days set
apart for solemnising festivals, and places where they held their
dances. As there are priests in this province labouring among the
Indians, some of them have become Christians, especially among the young
men.

The captain Diego Maldonado has always held these Indians in
_encomienda_.[438] They all wear their hair long, and plaited into many
very small plaits, with some woollen cords which are allowed to fall
below the chin. Their houses are of stone.[439] In the centre of the
province there were large edifices and store-houses for the chiefs.
Formerly the Indians in this province of Andahuaylas were very numerous,
but the wars have reduced them, as they have done the other Indians of
this kingdom. The province is very long, and contains many large flocks
of domesticated sheep. The part which is forest is not included within
the limits of the province. This province is well supplied with
provisions; it yields wheat, and there are many fruit trees in the warm
valleys.[440]

We were here for many days with the president Gasca, when he marched to
punish the rebellion of Gonzalo Pizarro,[441] and great were the
sufferings of these Indians from the exactions of the Spaniards. The
good Indian chief of this valley, Guasco, was very diligent in
collecting supplies. From this province of Andahuaylas (which the
Spaniards usually call Andaguaylas) the road leads to the river of
Abancay, which is nine leagues nearer Cuzco, and this river, like many
others, has its strong stone pillars, to which a bridge is
attached.[442] Where the river flows, the mountains form a small valley
where there are trees, and they raise fruit and other provisions in
abundance. It was on the banks of this river that Don Diego de Almagro
defeated and captured the captain Alonzo de Alvarado, general for the
governor Don Francisco Pizarro, as I shall relate in the book containing
the history of the war of Las Salinas.[443] Not very far from this river
there were edifices and storehouses like those in all the other
districts, but they were small and not of much importance.




CHAPTER XCI.

Of the river of Apurimac, of the valley of Xaquixaguana, of the causeway
which passes over it, and of what else there is to relate until the city
of Cuzco is reached.


Further on is the river of Apurimac, which is the largest of those which
are crossed between this place and Caxamarca. It is eight leagues from
that of Abancay, and the road is much broken up by mountains and
declivities, so that those who made it must have had much labour in
breaking up the rocks, and levelling the ground, especially where it
descends towards the river. Here the road is so rugged and dangerous,
that some horses, laden with gold and silver, have fallen in and been
lost without any possibility of saving them. There are two enormous
stone pillars, to which the bridge is secured. When I returned to the
City of the Kings, after we had defeated Gonzalo Pizarro, some of our
soldiers crossed the river without a bridge, which had been destroyed,
each man in a sack fastened to a rope passing from the pillar on one
side of the river to that on the other, more than fifty of us.[444] It
is no small terror that is caused by seeing what men pass through in
these Indies. After crossing this river the place is presently seen
where the buildings of the Yncas were, and where they had an oracle. The
devil, according to the Indians, replied from out of the trunk of a
tree, near which they buried gold, and offered up sacrifices.

From this river of Apurimac the road leads to the buildings of
Limatambo,[445] and crossing the mountains of Vilcaconga (which is the
place where the Adelantado Don Diego de Almagro, with some Spaniards,
fought a battle with the Indians before he entered Cuzco) the valley of
Xaquixaguana is reached, which is a plain situated between the chains of
mountains. It is not very broad, nor long. At the beginning of it, is
the place where Gonzalo Pizarro was defeated, and close by he and his
captains were tried by order of the licentiate Don Pedro de la Gasca,
president for his Majesty. In this valley there were very rich and
sumptuous edifices, where the nobles of Cuzco retired to enjoy their
ease and pleasure. Here, also, was the place where the governor Don
Francisco Pizarro ordered Challcuchima, the captain-general of
Atahualpa, to be burnt. The distance from this valley to the city of
Cuzco is five leagues along the grand royal road. The water of a river
which rises near this valley forms a large and deep morass, and it would
be very difficult to cross it, if the Yncas had not caused a broad and
strong causeway to be made, with walls on either side so strong as to
last for a long time. In former times this valley was very populous,
and was covered with crops, in fields which were so numerous that it was
a sight worth seeing. These fields were divided from each other by broad
walls, with the crops of maize and roots sown between them, and thus
they rose up the sides of the mountains.[446] Many of these crops are of
wheat, which grows well.[447] There are also large flocks belonging to
the Spaniards who are citizens of the ancient city of Cuzco, which is
built between certain hills in the manner and fashion that I shall
declare in the following chapter.




CHAPTER XCII.

Of the manner in which the city of Cuzco is built, of the four royal
roads which lead from it, of the grand edifices it contained, and who
was its founder.


The city of Cuzco is built in a very rugged situation, and is surrounded
by mountains on all sides. It stands on the banks of two streams, one of
which flows through it, and there are buildings on both sides. To the
eastward there is a valley, which commences at the city itself, so that
the waters of the streams which pass by the city flow to the east.[448]
This valley is very cold, and there are no trees which yield fruit,
except a few _molles_. On the north side of the city, on the highest and
nearest mountain, there is a fortress which, for its strength and
grandeur, was and still is an excellent edifice, although now most of it
is in ruins. The massive foundations, however, with the principal blocks
of stone, are still standing.[449]

To the north and east of Cuzco are the provinces of Anti-suyu, which
contain the dense forests of the Andes, and also those of Chincha-suyu,
extending towards Quito. To the south are the provinces of the Collao
and of Cunti-suyu, of which the Collao is between the east and south
winds, and Cunti-suyu between the south and west.

One part of this city was called Hanan-Cuzco, and another Hurin-Cuzco;
where the most noble and ancient families lived. Another division was
the hill of Carmenca,[451] where there were certain small towers for
observing the movements of the sun,[452] which the people venerated. In
the central and most populous part of the city there was a large open
space, which they say was once a lake or swamp, but that the founders
filled it up with earth and stones, and made it as it now is. From this
square four royal roads led. That which they called Chincha-suyu went
towards the coast, and also to Quito and Pasto. The second road, called
Cunti-suyu, led to the provinces which are subject to this city, and to
that of Arequipa. The third royal road, called Anti-suyu, goes to the
provinces at the skirts of the Andes, and to some villages beyond the
mountains. The last road, called Colla-suyu, leads to the provinces
which extend as far as Chile.[453] Thus, as in Spain, the ancients made
a division of the whole country according to provinces; and thus the
Indians knew those districts, which extended over so vast a country, by
the names of the roads. The stream which flows through the city has its
bridges for passing from one side to the other. In no part of this
kingdom was there found a nobly adorned city, except at this Cuzco,
which was (as I have already said many times) the capital of the empire
of the Yncas, and their royal seat. In all the other parts of the
kingdom the people live in houses scattered about, and if there are some
villages, they are without plan or order, or anything worthy of praise.
But Cuzco was grand and stately, and must have been founded by a people
of great intelligence. It had fine streets, except that they were
narrow, and the houses were built of solid stones, beautifully joined.
These stones were very large and well cut. The other parts of the houses
were of wood and straw, but there are no remains of tiles, bricks, or
lime amongst them. In this city there were many grand buildings of the
Yncas in various parts, in which he who succeeded to the lordship
celebrated his festivals.[454] Here, too, was the solemn and
magnificent temple of the sun, called Ccuri-cancha, which was rich in
gold and silver.[455] Most parts of the city were inhabited by
_Mitimaes_, and laws and statutes were established for their conduct,
which were understood by all, as well regarding their superstitions and
temples, as in matters relating to government. This city was the richest
of which we have any knowledge, in all the Indies, for great store of
treasure was often brought in to increase the grandeur of the nobles;
and no gold nor silver might be taken out, on pain of death. The sons of
the chiefs in all the provinces came to reside at court, with their
retinues, for a certain time. There were a great many gilders and
workers in silver, who understood how to work the things ordered by the
Yncas. The chief priest, called Huillac-Umu, lived in the grand temple.

At present there are very good houses, with upper stories roofed with
tiles. The climate, although it is cold, is very healthy, and Cuzco is
better supplied with provisions than any other place in the kingdom. It
is also the largest city, and more Spaniards hold _encomiendas_ over
Indians here than elsewhere. The city was founded by Manco Ccapac, the
first King Ynca; and, after he had been succeeded by ten other
lords,[456] the Adelantado Don Francisco Pizarro, governor and
captain-general of these kingdoms, rebuilt and refounded it in the name
of the Emperor, Don Carlos, our lord, in the month of October of the
year 1534.




CHAPTER XCIII.

In which the things of this city of Cuzco are described more in detail.


As this city was the most important and principal place in the kingdom,
the Indians of the neighbourhood were assembled at certain seasons of
the year to clean the streets, and perform other duties. Near the city,
on one side and the other, there were the same storehouses as are to be
found in all parts of the kingdom, some larger, and some stronger than
others. As these Yncas were so rich and powerful, some of their edifices
were gilded, and others were adorned with plates of gold. Their
ancestors held, as a sacred place, a great hill near the city called
Huanacaure, and they say that human blood and many lambs and sheep were
sacrificed on it. The city was full of strangers from all parts, Indians
of Chile and Pasto, Cañaris, Chachapoyas, Huancas, Collas, and men of
all the tribes in the provinces, each living apart in the quarter
assigned by the governors of the city. They all retained the costumes of
their fathers, and went about after the manner of their native land;
and, even when one hundred thousand men were assembled together, the
country of each Indian was easily known by the peculiar head-dress which
distinguished him.[457] Some of these strangers buried their dead in
high mountains, others in their houses, and others in tombs with live
women, precious things, and plenty of food. The Yncas, as I was given to
understand, interfered in none of these things, so long as their vassals
adored and venerated the sun, and this adoration they called
_mocha_.[458] In many parts of the city there are great edifices under
the ground, and even now some tiles and pieces of gold are found buried
in the bowels of the earth. Assuredly there must be great treasure
buried within the circuit of the city, but those who are living know not
where to find it. As there was so large a concourse of people here, and
as the devil, by the permission of God, had such complete mastery over
them, there were many soothsayers, sorcerers, and idolaters. Even now
the city is not yet entirely free of them, especially as regards
witchcraft. Near the city there are many warm valleys where there are
fruit and other trees which grow well, and most of the fruit is brought
to the city for sale. They also reap much wheat, of which they make
bread; and they have planted many orange trees and other fruit trees
both of Spain and of the country. They have mills over the stream which
flows through the city, and at a distance of four leagues may be seen
the quarry from which the stones were conveyed of which the city is
built, a sight well worth seeing. They rear fowls in Cuzco, and capons
as fat and good as those of Granada, and in the valleys there are herds
of cattle, and flocks, both of Spanish sheep and of those of the
country. Although there are no trees round the city, the pulses of Spain
ripen very well.




CHAPTER XCIV.

Which treats of the valley of Yucay and of the strong fortress at Tambo,
and of part of the province of Cunti-suyu.


About four leagues from this city of Cuzco, a little more or less, there
is a valley called Yucay, which is very beautiful, confined between
ranges of mountains in such sort that the shelter thus afforded makes
the climate very pleasant and healthy.[459] It is neither too hot nor
too cold, and is considered so excellent that the citizens of Cuzco
have several times proposed to remove the city into the valley. But as
the houses in the city are so grand, they could not undertake to build
them anew. They have planted many trees in this valley of Yucay, and
there is good hope that in time there will be large vineyards and
beautiful and refreshing orchards as well in this valley, as in that of
Vilcas, and in others; indeed, they have already been commenced. I say
more of this valley than of the others, because the Yncas thought much
of it, and went to it for their festivities and solace, especially
Huira-ccocha Ynca, who was the grandfather of Tupac Ynca Yupanqui. In
all parts of the valley are to be seen fragments of many buildings which
have once been very large, especially those at Tambo, three leagues down
the valley, between two great mountains, forming a ravine through which
a stream flows. Although the climate of the valley is as pleasant as I
have described, these mountains are quite white with snow during the
greater part of the year. In this place the Yncas had the strongest fort
in all their dominions, built on rocks, where a small force might hold
their own against a large one. Among these rocks there were certain
masses of stone which made the place impregnable, and, lower down, the
sides of the mountains are lined with terraces one above the other, on
which they raised the crops which sustained them. Among the stones there
may still be seen the figures of lions and other wild animals, and of
men with arms like halberds, as if they were guarding the way. They are
all well and skilfully executed. There were many edifices, and they say
that, before the Spaniards conquered this kingdom, they contained great
treasure. In these buildings there are stones, well cut and fitted,
which are so large that it must have required many men and great
ingenuity to raise them, and place them where they now are.[460] It is
said for certain that, in these edifices of Tambo, or in others at some
other place with the same name (for this is not the only place called
Tambo), in a certain part of a royal palace or of a temple of the sun,
gold is used instead of mortar, which, jointly with the cement that they
make, served to unite the stones together. The governor Don Francisco
Pizarro got much of this gold, before the Indians could take it away.
Some Spaniards also say that Hernando Pizarro and Don Diego de Almagro
the Younger got much gold from Paccari-tambu. I do not myself hesitate
to believe these things, when I remember the rich pieces of gold that
were taken to Seville from Caxamarca, where they collected the treasure
which Atahualpa promised to the Spaniards, most of it from Cuzco. There
was little to divide afterwards, found by the Christians, for the
Indians carried it off, and it is buried in parts unknown to any one. If
the fine cloths which were destroyed and lost in those times, had been
preserved, they would have been worth a great deal.

The Indians called Chumbivilicas, Vuinas, and Pomatambos, and many other
nations which I do not mention, lived in the country called
Cunti-suyu.[461] Some of them were warlike, and their villages are in
very lofty mountains. They have vast quantities of flocks, both
domesticated and wild. All their houses are of stone, thatched with
straw. In many places there are buildings for their chiefs. The rites
and customs of these Indians were the same as those of other parts, and
they sacrificed lambs and other things in their temples. It is notorious
that the devil was seen in a temple which they had in a certain part of
the district of Cunti-suyu, and I have heard of certain Spaniards, in
the present times, who saw apparitions of this our enemy. In the rivers
they have collected much gold, and they were getting it out when I was
at Cuzco. In Pomatambo and other parts of this kingdom they have very
good tapestry, the wool being very fine from which they make it, and the
colours with which they dye it are so perfect that they excell those of
other countries. There are many rivers in this province of Cunti-suyu,
some of which are crossed by bridges of ropes, made in the way I have
already described. There are also many fruit and other trees, deer and
partridges, and good falcons to fly at them.




CHAPTER XCV.

Of the forest of the Andes, of their great thickness, of the huge snakes
which are bred in them, and of the evil customs of the Indians who live
in the interior of these forests.


This cordillera of the Andes must be one of the grandest in the world,
for it commences at the straits of Magallanes, extends along the whole
extent of this kingdom of Peru, and traverses so many provinces that
they cannot be enumerated. It is covered with high peaks, some of them
well covered with snow, and others with mouths of fire. The forests on
these mountains are very difficult to penetrate by reason of their
thickness, and because during the greater part of the year it rains. The
shade is so dark that it is necessary to go with much caution, for the
roots of the trees spread out and cover all the ground, and when it is
desired to pass with horses, much labour is necessary in making roads.
It is said among the _Orejones_ of Cuzco, that Tupac Ynca Yupanqui
traversed these forests with a large army, and many of the tribes who
inhabited them were very difficult to conquer and bring under his sway.
In the skirts of the mountains towards the South Sea, the natives were
intelligent; they were all clothed, and were ruled by the laws and
customs of the Yncas. But, towards the other sea, in the direction of
the sun-rise, it is well known that the inhabitants are of less
understanding and reason.[462] They raise a great quantity of _coca_,
which is a very precious plant among the Indians, as I will relate in
the next chapter. As the forests are very large, the truth may be
received that they contain many animals, as well bears, tigers, lions,
tapirs, pigs, and striped wild cats, as other wild beasts worthy of
note. Some Spaniards have also seen serpents of such bigness that they
looked like beams, but, although one should sit on them, they would do
no harm, nor do they try to kill any person. In talking over this matter
of the serpents with the Indians of Cuzco, they told me something which
I will relate here, as they assured me of its truth. In the time of the
Ynca Yupanqui, who was grandson of the Ynca Huira-ccocha, certain
captains were sent with a large army to visit these forests, by the
Ynca’s order, and to bring the Indians they met with under subjection to
him. Having entered the forests, these serpents killed all those who
went with the said captains, and the calamity was so great that the Ynca
showed much concern at it. An old enchantress heard this, and she said
that if she were allowed to go to the forests, she would put the
serpents into so deep a sleep, that they would be able to do no harm. As
soon as she had received permission, she went to the place where the
people had been killed. Here she performed her incantations, and said
certain words, upon which the snakes changed from fierce and wild, to
the gentle and foolish creatures they now are. All this that the
Indians say may indeed be a fiction or fable, but it is certainly true
that these snakes, though so large, do no hurt to any one.

The forests of the Andes were well peopled in those parts where the
Yncas had buildings and store-houses. The country is very fertile,
yielding maize and yucas, as well as the other roots which they raise,
and there are many excellent fruits. Most of the Spanish citizens of
Cuzco have planted orange, lime, fig, vine, and other trees of Spain,
besides large plantain groves, and very luscious and fragrant pines. In
the very distant and dense parts of these forests they say that there is
a people so savage, that they have neither houses nor clothes, but go
about like animals, killing birds and beasts with arrows.[463] They have
neither chiefs nor captains, and they lodge in caves or in the hollows
of trees, some in one part and some in another. It is said, also (but I
have not seen them), that there are very large monkeys which go about in
the trees.

       *       *       *       *       *[464]

In the year 1549 I was at Charcas; and I went to see the cities in that
region, for which purpose the president Gasca gave me letters of
introduction to the corregidors, that I might learn all that was worthy
of notice.

       *       *       *       *       *


NOTE TO CHAPTER XCV.

ON THE RIVER PURÚS, A TRIBUTARY OF THE AMAZON.

BY

MR. RICHARD SPRUCE.

     “Notwithstanding the slow rate at which commerce and civilisation
     advance in the interior of South America, the opening up of routes
     of communication is becoming daily of more importance, and is
     exciting greater interest among the inhabitants. Some of the mighty
     rivers of that continent might seem to have been made by nature’s
     hand expressly for steam navigation, being so wide and deep, and
     flowing with so gentle and equable a descent, as to allow vessels
     of considerable size to reach the very foot of the mountains whence
     they take their rise; such are the Amazons, the Magdalena, and the
     Plata, with its tributary the Paraná; while others, of scarcely
     inferior volume, such as the Orinoco, the Rio Negro, the Madeira,
     and the Cauca (the main tributary of the Magdalena), are navigable
     for a considerable distance in their lower and upper parts, but
     towards the middle of their course are beset by rapids and
     cataracts, which can only be ascended, even by small boats, with
     infinite trouble, risk, and delay. In the case of the Orinoco and
     Rio Negro, the cataracts occupy so short a space, the actual fall
     is so slight, and the nature of the ground is such, that the
     obstructions might be easily turned or avoided by a navigable canal
     or a railroad, neither of which is likely to be constructed until
     the exigencies of commerce or colonisation shall make it an
     imperative necessity. The Madeira, however, the largest tributary
     of the Amazons, has no less than two hundred and forty miles of its
     middle course rendered practically unnavigable by a succession of
     rapids and cataracts, below which it is navigable down to its
     mouth,--a distance of five hundred miles,--for steamers of a
     thousand tons; and above them for smaller vessels for an equal
     distance, counting the navigation of its tributary, the Mamoré,
     which was explored by Lieut. Gibbon, of the U. S. navy, in 1851.
     Its other large tributaries, the Béni, the Ubahý, and the Guaporé,
     are said to be navigable for an equal or even greater distance. Now
     the navigation of the Madeira is of the first importance to the
     Brazilians, not only as a means of communication with the western
     part of the empire, but also with the highlands of Bolivia and
     Southern Peru, and it has been proposed to obviate its
     difficulties, 1. By opening a road from the point where it ceases
     to that where it begins again to be navigable, along which cargos
     might be transported on beasts of burden, and then be re-embarked
     above the falls; or, 2. By exploring the rivers running to the
     Amazon from the southward, between the Madeira and Ucayali, in the
     belief that some one of them might prove to be navigable up to a
     point beyond the last falls of the Madeira. The three principal of
     these rivers, beginning with the most easterly, or that nearest the
     Madeira, are the Purús, the Yutahý, and the Yauarý (or Javarí). All
     these rivers are stated by Baena[465] to take their rise in the
     highlands of Peru, and the Purús has always been considered the
     largest of the three; for although it drains a far narrower basin
     than the Madeira, and its stream is much less wide and rapid, it
     is still a noble river, with deep water for a very long way up.
     People have gone up it from the Amazon and the Barra do Rio Negro,
     in quest of turtle, brazil-nuts, and sarsaparilla, for months
     without encountering any obstacle to its navigation. Lieutenant
     Herndon, in descending the Amazon in 1851, found the mouth of the
     Purús to be half a mile wide, with a depth of 16 fathoms, while at
     one mile up the depth was 18 fathoms.

     “The Purús communicates with the Amazon by one principal mouth, and
     by four narrow channels (called _furos_) which leave the Purús at a
     good way up, and enter the Amazon, three above and one below the
     real mouth. Along these channels the water sometimes flows from the
     Purús into the Amazon, and sometimes in the contrary direction,
     according to the variable height of the water in the two rivers;
     and sometimes, when both rivers are very low, the channels are left
     nearly dry. The middle one of the three upper channels is called
     the Furo de Cochiuará, a name which Acuña applies to the whole
     river, and writes it ‘Cuchiguará.’ It is a famous and navigable
     river, he says, and adds, ‘Although there are rocks in some places,
     it has plenty of fish, a great number of turtle, abundance of maize
     and mandioc, and all things necessary for facilitating the entrance
     of an expedition.’[466] The rocks of which he speaks, we shall
     afterwards find to be cliffs rising from the river’s edge, and
     offering no hindrance whatever to navigation.

     “When I was at the Barra do Rio Negro in 1851, a man of colour,
     named Serafim Salgado, arrived there from the Purús, where he had
     spent some six months, trading with the Purupurú (or Spotted)
     Indians, who inhabit the lower part of the river, and from whom it
     takes its name; and also with the Catauixís, whose settlements
     extend upwards to a distance of two months’ journey from the
     mouth.[467] I purchased from him various warlike and other
     instruments used by the Catauixís, which are now deposited in the
     Museum of Vegetable Products at Kew; and obtained from him some
     curious information about the customs of those Indians. They use
     the powder of the roasted seeds of _Acacia Niopo_ as a stimulant
     and narcotic, as I have also seen it used by the Guahibos on the
     Orinoco, where it is called _Niopo_, and by the Múras and other
     Indians on the Amazon, where it is called _Paricá_. For absorbing
     the _Paricá_ by the nose, a tube is made of the bone of a bird’s
     leg cut in two, and the pieces joined again at such an angle, that
     one end being applied to the mouth the other reaches the nostrils;
     a portion of snuff is then put into the tube and blown from it with
     great force up the nose. A _Paricá_ clyster-pipe (which seems
     peculiar to the river Purús, as I have myself nowhere seen it
     used) is made on the same principle, of the long shankbone of the
     Tuyuyú (_Mycteria Americana_). The effect of the _Paricá_, taken as
     snuff, is to speedily induce a sort of intoxication, resembling in
     its symptoms that produced by the fungus _Amanita muscaria_. Taken
     as a clyster it is a purge, more or less violent according to the
     quantity employed. When the Catauixí Indian is about to set forth
     on the chase, he takes a small clyster of _Paricá_, and administers
     another to his dog, the effects on both being (it is said) to clear
     their vision and render them more alert! His weapon is generally
     the blowing cane, from which he propels slender darts tipped with
     _Uirarí_ poison. Attached to the quiver that holds the darts is a
     slender tube of bamboo, two inches and a half long, filled with
     soot, with which he smears his face when he approaches his hut, if
     he returns successful from the chase. By this signal his family are
     advertised beforehand whether or not they will have to go without
     supper.--The Catauixí name for the blowing-cane darts is
     _Araráicohí_, and for the poison _Arinulihá_--the only two words I
     possess of their language.

     “When in 1852 the upper part of the Amazon, and the adjacent
     territory east and west of it (corresponding to the ancient
     Capitania do Rio Negro), were separated from the province of Pará,
     and erected into a province, under the name of ‘Amazonas,’ the
     exploration of the rivers entering the Amazon on the south was
     taken up in earnest by the new president and the provincial
     assembly; and Serafim Salgado was appointed to explore the Purús,
     with instructions “_to seek a passage to the towns of Bolivia, by
     the river Purús and the savannahs of the Beni, shorter than that by
     the Madeira, and free from the cataracts of that river_.”
     Unfortunately he was not furnished with a single instrument--not
     even a compass, or so much as a lead line for soundings; and his
     diary of his long and tedious voyage is deficient in information on
     almost every point of importance; yet, meagre as it is, as no
     account of that river has ever appeared in print, I give here a
     translation of it, appending thereto a few deductions which I think
     may be legitimately made from it.[468]


“‘_Report of Serafim da Silva Salgado on the Exploration of the River
Purús._

     “‘Most illustrious and excellent Sir,--I have the honour to present
     to your Excellency the report of the voyage which I made from this
     capital to the 7th _Maloca_ (village) of the Purús, which river I
     ascended during the space of four months and nineteen days. Along
     with it your Excellency will find also a list of the articles
     which I expended during this long and painful voyage, and another
     of the presents and other objects which were furnished me to enable
     me to undertake it.

     “Your Excellency will allow me to mention that I have not yet paid
     the _Tuxaúa_ (chief) Mamurité, and the Purupurú Indian Baidá, who
     accompanied me on this voyage, and who have hitherto received no
     pay whatever. The first will be satisfied with a few presents and
     clothes, and the second with something less. I regret much that I
     have not been able to perform better the task which your
     Excellency’s most excellent predecessor confided to me, and (from
     circumstances specified in the Report) that I could not go forward
     until I reached some Bolivian town; although I believe there is
     none such on the banks of the Purús, because at the seventh village
     of the Cucamas, which is the highest point I reached, the river is
     so narrow and obstructed, that it would be impossible to ascend
     much beyond it even in the season of flood.

     “‘I beg your excellency to kindly excuse the incompleteness of my
     performance, and to honour me by receiving it, with the expressions
     of faithful respect and attachment that I offer to your Excellency.

     “‘_Deos guarde á V. Exª._ Barra do Rio Negro, 20 de Dezembro de
     1852.

“‘SERAFIM DA SILVA SALGADO.

     “‘To the most illustrious and excellent Senhor Dr. Manoel Gomes
     Correa de Miranda, 1st Vice-president of the Province of Amazonas.’


     “‘_Report of the voyage made by the undersigned from the capital of
     the Province of Amazonas to the limit of navigation of the river
     Purús._

     “‘Honoured by being appointed, on the 5th of May of the current
     year, by his Excellency the President of the Province, to explore
     the river Purús, and furnished with the necessary instructions, I
     set out from this city of the Barra on the evening of the 10th of
     May, in two canoes, manned by twelve Indians, and accompanied by a
     corporal and twelve soldiers with their arms and ammunition, and
     travelled as far as the lake Curupira, twelve hours’ journey. It
     was six in the evening of the 11th when I reached that lake, where
     I remained until the 13th, occupied in making _toldas_[469] for the
     canoes. I started again on the morning of the 14th, and at
     nightfall was within the _furo_[470] of Aranduba, and as we could
     not pass it with daylight we remained there, and on the 15th passed
     out at the other end, and that day reached another _furo_ called
     Bode.

     “‘On the 16th reached the Caldeiraō;[471] the 17th the mouth of the
     _furo_ Arapapá; the 18th the farm of José Antonio Barrozo; the 19th
     a little way above the lake Calado; the 20th lake Manacapurú, where
     we had to remain till the 24th to mend the ironwork of the helm of
     one of the canoes. On the 24th, continuing to ascend the
     Solimoēs,[472] we reached the upper point of the island Marrecaō;
     on the 25th the island Paratarý; on the 26th the _paraná-merím_ of
     the same name,[473] along which we sailed the three following days,
     passing along the lake Berury (_already within the mouth of the
     Purús_) on the 30th, and on the 31st the Castanha lake. In front of
     Berury on the right (ascending the Purús) is the _paraná-merím_ of
     S. Thomé.


                           “‘_River Purús._

     “‘June 1st. Navigated as far as the upper point of the island Naná,
     passing lake Estopa on the right hand as night closed in.

     “‘June 2nd. Reached the mouth of lake Mathias, passing the mouths
     of lakes Sunára and Ubím.

     “‘June 3rd. Reached Paricatuba, where there was a guard of
     soldiers, having passed this day the mouths of lakes Cuiuaná, Cáua,
     and Tapurú on the right, and Xaviana on the left. Here we remained
     until the 5th, to make a _tolda_ for an additional canoe.

     “‘June 6th. Reached the mouth of lake Uaiapuá, and on the left hand
     lake Paricatuba.

     “‘June 7th. To the beach called Carapaná.[474]

     “‘June 8th. To lake Uarumá on the left.

     “‘June 9th. To the _paraná-merím_ of Yary, along which we navigated
     all through the 10th and 11th.

     “‘June 12th. To the _paraná-merím_ of Macaco.

     “‘June 13th. To the _paraná-merím_ of Sapiá.

     “‘June 14th. To lake Taboca, on the right bank.

     “‘June 15th. To the mouth of lake Campina.

     “‘June 16th. To the _paraná-merím_ of Guajaratuba, along which we
     went all through the 17th, before we got out again into the main
     river.

     “‘June 18th. Along the _paraná-merím_ of Chapeo.

     “‘June 19th. Rested this day below Taná-merím, the site of an
     ancient _maloca_ of the Muras. Started again on the 20th, and on
     the 21st reached the _sitio_ of Hygino (a man of colour), where we
     remained all through the 22nd, and on the 23rd reached the beaches
     of Tabocál.

     “‘June 24th. Went on until we passed the Paraná-pixuna.

     “‘June 25th. Reached Itaituba, so called from its rocky cliffs.

     “‘June 26th. To the beaches of Quatí.

     “‘June 27th. Drew up in front of Arimá, a place where they are
     founding a new village. We passed this day the mouth of lake
     Jacaré, on the left.

     “‘June 28th. Went on this day without stopping, and on the 29th
     reached the beach called Paxiuba, and on the 30th the mouth of the
     Tanariá Grande. Passed the outlet of lake Manarý on the left, and
     that of the Tauarí on the right. Throughout this month the voyage
     was not interrupted by any untoward occurrence, but we suffered
     much from the heavy rains and the great plague of mosquitos.

     “‘July 1st. This day reached the beach of Tauaná on the left. Went
     on all through the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th, and on the 5th reached the
     beach of Ituá. During this time eight Múra Indians, part of our
     crew, deserted, and we were obliged to seek hands to supply their
     place in the village of Arimá, in which we succeeded by the aid of
     the Tuxáua Marý. We could then start again, and on the 6th reached
     the beach of Jaburú.

     “‘July 7th. This day halted in front of the _furo_ Muahán, and on
     the 8th in the mouth of the furo Caiaupé.

     “‘July 9th. To the mouth of the river Tapauá, which enters on the
     right.

     “‘July 10th. Reached the beach of Macuquirý.

     “‘July 11th. To the beach of Aramiá, passing the mouth of the
     Pauatrarý on the right.

     “‘July 12th. To the beach of Mapuahán.

     “‘July 13th. To the beach of Pucutihán.

     “‘July 14th. To the beach of Cauarchan.

     “‘July 15th. To beyond lake Capihán.

     “‘July 16th. To the beach of Juihán.

     “‘July 17th. Below lake Caquatahán, where we met rafts of Purupurú
     Indians.

     “‘July 18th. To the beach Arapapa, passing the mouths of the rivers
     Mucuín and Caquatahán on the left. We went along the margin of the
     same beach all through the 19th, 20th, and 21st, and arrived on the
     22nd at the beach of Auaboneny, the 23rd at that of Uarimá, and the
     24th at that of Curianhán, passing this day the mouth of the river
     Apituhán.

     “‘July 25th. Navigated this day along the river bank, and on the
     26th reached the beach of Mapuahan; on the 27th that of Assaituba,
     where we remained all the 28th to repair one of the canoes.

     “‘July 29th. Reached this day the beach of Pacihá, having passed
     the mouth of the river Marý, and on the 31st reached the beach of
     Jurihán.

     “‘During this month the voyage was continued without any other
     interruption than the desertion of the Mura Indians, and the
     necessity of repairing the canoes. On some days we went on until
     midnight to make up for the delay in the mornings, when the thick
     fog was not dissipated by the sun’s rays until eight or ten
     o’clock.

     “‘August 1st. Reached the beach of Jurucuá; on the 2nd that of
     Capim; on the 3rd that of Situahán; on the 4th that of Terrahán; on
     the 5th that of Catarrahán; on the 6th that of Boto, passing this
     day a point called Catatiá on the right.

     “‘August 7th. Reached the beach of Maquirahán, and passed the mouth
     of the river Cunhuaryhán.

     “‘August 8th. To the beach of Parahán, having passed this day some
     high cliffs called Cumarihán.

     “‘August 9th. To the beach of Curianá, passing lake Learihán on the
     right.

     “‘August 10th. To the beach of Quarý, passing the mouth of lake
     Tumehán, where there are rocky cliffs.

     “‘August 11th. Reached the beach of Mamurihán-merím, which is on
     the right bank; the 12th the beach of Gamuhím; the 13th that of
     Itirapuá; the 14th that of Caçadua; the 15th that of Guajará; the
     16th that of Arutá; the 17th the mouth of the river Paniný; the
     18th the beach of Parahán; the 19th the mouth of the river
     Chiriuiný. From this river begins a very long beach, along which we
     navigated all through the 20th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd, 24th, and 25th,
     and on the 26th arrived at another beach called Pedreira. On the
     27th we were alongside another extensive beach, by which we went on
     until the end of the month. Nothing worth mentioning happened
     throughout this month; but the voyage began to grow more difficult,
     because the river got gradually narrower, much obstructed with
     trunks of trees, and so very tortuous, that we have sometimes gone
     on a whole day without advancing scarcely anything, on account of
     the great bends of the river.

     “‘September. Continuing to ascend the river during the 1st, 2nd,
     and 3rd, on the 4th passed the mouth of the igarapé Macuianý, said
     to be inhabited by a horde of cannibals, of the tribe Jamamadi, to
     the number of about four hundred. Thus we went on until the 11th,
     when we passed another igarapé, the Euacá, on the left, in which
     also there are numerous Jamamadi Indians. In the mouth of this
     stream, and on an adjacent beach, there was an encampment of more
     than a hundred people who had been drawn together by hearing our
     _réveillé_.

     “‘On the 12th passed the mouth of the river Canaquirý, whose
     sources are in the _campos_ of the river Madeira. In this river
     appeared sixteen _ubás_ and _cascas_[475] with Indians of the
     tribe Canamarý (cannibals), who came out to meet us; they were in
     all sixty-five souls. By an Indian who accompanied our expedition,
     and who understood a little of their language, we learnt that the
     Canamarýs were plotting among themselves to surprise our canoes by
     night, kill us all, and carry off our goods. Profiting by this
     timely warning, I had the canoes anchored in the middle of the
     stream, and prepared our troops to resist any attack that should be
     attempted by night. Early in the morning the Indians dispersed, but
     not before we had bought of them their arrows and _curabís_
     (poisoned arrows), and then, telling them that another canoe was
     following us, we got rid of them.

     “‘On the 18th reached the first _malóca_ (village) of the Cucama
     Indians; on the 23rd we drew up at the second; on the 29th at the
     third, and, although the voyage began to be very arduous, we went
     on all day of the 30th.

     “‘October. After having gone on the whole of the 1st, we arrived on
     the 2nd of this month at the fourth _maloca_ of Cucamas; on the
     4th, at the fifth _maloca_; on the 6th, at the sixth _maloca_; and
     on the 9th, at the seventh _maloca_.

     “‘These Indians, gathered together in _malocas_, to the number of
     thirty, forty, or fifty each, subsist on _aipím_ (=_Manihot Aypi_
     Pohl.)[476] and bananas of which they have plantations, and on
     game. They are light-coloured, well-made (that is, the men, for of
     women we saw not a single one, because they hide them away, except
     the old ones), and they bore the under lip. _They wear ponchos._
     They had no iron tools of any kind, and they were well content with
     some axes which we gave them. They would employ this tool to make
     their canoes, for they make their clearings by fire alone.

     “‘They were highly delighted when they saw us approach, for they
     had never before seen civilised people; although they mentioned a
     few names of persons whom they had seen at the headwaters of the
     Juruá.

     “‘Many of these Indians wished to go down the river with our
     expedition, but, as our farinha was nearly exhausted, I did not
     venture to take them; besides, as their principal aliment is
     _aipím_ and bananas, and we had a great distance to go before
     coming to those plants again, they would necessarily have suffered
     much by the way.

     “‘They live unceasingly persecuted by the tribes Canamarýs,
     Apurinás, and Oainomarís (all cannibals), who unite to harass them,
     rob them, and kill those they meet in order to devour them.

     “‘The Cucamas have such a way of speaking that they seem to us to
     belong to Bolivia, for they make use of several Spanish words, and
     call, for instance, an axe _hacha_, a cutlass _machéte_, a knife
     _cuchillo_, etc.

     “‘It was quite impossible to ascend higher than the seventh
     _maloca_, for the river was so narrow, and so much obstructed, that
     it did not admit the passage of even the smallest canoes.

     “‘For this cause we set out to return on the 10th, and, going along
     without stopping, we reached this capital on the 30th of November,
     about eight o’clock at night.

     “‘Finally, in all this long and painful voyage, we had not to
     deplore any fatal accident.

     “‘Barra do Rio Negro, 20th of December, 1852.

“‘SERAFIM DA SILVA SALGADO.’




     “With the ‘Report’ before us, let us endeavour to ascertain the
     extreme point of Serafim’s navigation on the Purús. As he says not
     a word about bearings and distances, the only guide we have to the
     latter is the time occupied in the ascent, and I find that,
     deducting the days when he was stationary, he travelled from the
     Barra to the head of navigation on the Purús in 141 days. Now, if
     we take a known distance on the Amazon, viz. from the Barra to
     Manacapurú, which is 82 nautical miles (following the course of the
     river), we find that Serafim spent just 8 days over it, being at
     the rate of 10¼ miles per day. In the month of May, when he
     started, the Amazon would already have risen considerably and the
     current would be difficult to stem; hence this slow rate of
     progress.[477] The Purús in its lower part has a much gentler
     current than the Amazon, and there he would no doubt get on better;
     but it would attain its highest level during the period of
     Serafim’s voyage up it, and would then run much more than usual;
     and he mentions expressly that in its upper part the current became
     from day to day more rapid as he proceeded; so that I think we may
     safely assume 10¼ miles a day as the average rate of progress
     throughout the voyage, and travellers who have had to creep up
     South American rivers in canoes will agree with me that it is
     rather over than under the mark. This would give us for

  Distance from Barra to head of navigation of Purús  1445 miles
  Deduct distance from Barra to mouth of Purús         150 miles
                                                      ----
                                           And we get 1295 miles, for

     the whole length of Serafim’s navigation of the Purús, including
     all the bends of the river, from which at least one-third (but
     probably more) would have to be deducted to reduce it to a straight
     line. Taking off the third part, leaves 863 miles for the shortest
     distance between the extreme points of the navigation of the Purús,
     or say in round numbers 800 miles, which is possibly still in
     excess of the actual distance. Supposing that on the map of Spix
     and Martius (which is even yet the best we possess for a great part
     of South America) the general direction assigned to the Purús is
     correct (N.E., or rather N. 46° E.), and measuring on that rhumb
     for 800 miles, we reach a point which is in lat. 12° 30´ S., long.
     (from Greenwich) about 70° W. To ascertain where this takes us to
     we must go to the Andes of the S. E. of Peru, and inquire what
     streams flow northward from thence, between the headwaters of the
     Ucayali on the west, and those of the Madeira on the east. The
     fullest and probably the only trustworthy account we have of those
     streams is contained in two memoirs, by Mr. Clements Markham,
     published in the journals of the Royal Geographical Society, giving
     an account of an expedition made to the north-east of Cuzco in
     1853, and of another in the adjacent province of Carabaya in 1860.
     He found the streams there divided into three groups, the most
     westerly uniting to form the river called the Madre de Dios, or
     Amaru-mayu, while the streams of the middle group formed the
     Inambarí, and the most easterly were tributaries of the Tambo-pata.
     He descended the Tono (as the upper part of the Madre de Dios is
     called) to a point in about lat. 12° 45´ S., long. 70° 30´ W.; the
     Sandia to where it unites with the Huari-huari to form the
     Inambarí, in lat. about 13° 10´ S., long. 69° 15´ W.; and the
     Tambo-pata to lat. 12° 18´ S., long. 68° 38´ W. Now if the Purús be
     prolonged but forty miles beyond the point to which Serafim is
     supposed to have ascended in 1852, it brings us exactly to where
     Mr. Markham descended on the Madre Dios in the following year
     (1853). In so savage a region it is quite possible that two
     explorers, the one starting from the mouth and the other from the
     head of a river, might reach nearly the same point on it, at the
     very same time, and yet not only be unaware of each other’s
     proximity, but afterwards, in comparing their itineraries, not find
     therein a single name common to both. There is, however, one name
     on Mr. Markham’s map, that of the river Inambarí, which I feel
     pretty confident is the same as the Oainamarí mentioned by Serafim
     as the name of an Indian nation who harassed the pacific and
     agricultural Cucamas at the head of the Purús. The Indian name of a
     river is generally that of a nation inhabiting its banks, as in the
     case of the Purús itself. Besides, the Indian of the Amazon,
     following the genius of their language (the Tupí), are very apt to
     prefix to names, especially such as begin with a vowel, a sound
     like that of the English _w_, which the Portuguese and Spaniards
     have variously represented by the letters _u_, _o_, _oa_, _hu_,
     _gu_, and even _b_; thus, to the northward of the Amazon, we have
     the river _Guaupés_, _Uaupés_, or _Aupés_; the _Guasié_, _Sié_, or
     _Xié_ (pron. _Shié_); precisely analogous instances to _Oainamarî_,
     _Uinamarí_, or _Inam(b)arî_; for (it should be added) the letter
     _b_ is generally a modern interpolation in names of the plain, not
     heard from the month of a native Indian.[478]

     “Serafim does not tell us, and probably did not ascertain, whether
     his Oainamarí Indians lived on a river which fell into the Purús.
     Mr. Markham’s impression, after visiting the Madre de Dios, the
     Inambarí, and the Tambo-pata, and noting their direction at the
     lowest point he attained on them, was that all three united to form
     one river, which he supposed to be the Purús; and his opinion is
     entitled to great weight, as that of the only person capable of
     giving an account of what he saw, who has visited all the three
     rivers. Here, however, is the difficulty, which only a new and
     thorough exploration can clear up; for all speculation on such a
     point is uncertain and valueless. Comparing the maps of Martius and
     Markham, and bearing in mind the statement of Baena, one would be
     tempted to say that the Tambo-pata was the head of the Purús, the
     Inambarí of the Yutahý, and the Madre de Dios of the Yauarý; or the
     Madre de Dios may really be the origin of the Purús, and the other
     two streams may flow into the Beni. There are other possible modes
     of combination, and there is even another tributary of the Amazon,
     intermediate between the Yutahý and the Purús, I mean the Yuruá,
     which, though a smaller river, has so long a course, that we see
     (in Serafim’s story) Cucamas of the Purús having intercourse with
     people at the head of the Yuruá.

     “It is clear from Serafim’s report, that the plain through which
     the Purús flows has a scarcely perceptible declivity, for he
     nowhere encountered cataracts, or even rapids. Indeed, on referring
     to the maps, and considering the nature of the ground, we see that
     the head of navigation of the Purús must needs be on a lower level
     than that of the Beni and Mamoré; and yet on a tributary of the
     latter (the Chaparé) Gibbon found that water boiled at 209° 5´,
     indicating an elevation above the sea of only four hundred and
     sixty-five feet. This goes far to show that Humboldt may be correct
     in his supposition of a strip of low land extending from the Amazon
     valley, between the Andes on the one hand, and the mountains of
     Brazil on the other, all through the provinces of Mojos and
     Chiquitos to the basin of the river Plate. The navigable part of
     the Purús extends to the southward, along this lowland, apparently
     to far beyond the last falls of the Madeira; its depth is probably
     great enough to admit of its being navigated by steamers at least
     up to within two hundred miles of the highest point reached by
     Serafim; and we may therefore be allowed to predict that the Purús
     will at some future day become one of the great highways between
     the Andes and the Amazon.

     “Like other affluents of the Amazon flowing through a champaign
     country, the Purús has numerous lakes, and but very few rivers
     tributary to it. I have ascended two rivers, entering the Amazon
     from the northward, which have precisely the same character, viz.,
     the Trombetas and the Pastasa. The latter of these two rivers is in
     some parts nearly two miles in breadth, but its stream is generally
     sluggish and so shallow that, although I entered it when the waters
     were at their highest level, yet when they partially subsided
     during the voyage, we had great difficulty in finding a channel
     sufficiently deep to float our canoes, although the latter were
     merely hollowed trunks, and we were still some distance below the
     confluence of the Bobonasa. On the Purús, however, Serafim does not
     once mention being impeded by insufficient depth of water. He
     complains of the foggy mornings, such as I have experienced on all
     the rivers whose course is northerly or southerly; whereas on the
     Amazon, and even on the Rio Negro, so long as its course (in
     ascending) is westerly, the easterly trade-wind usually prevents
     any accumulation of fog, especially in the dry season, when that
     wind prevails most.”

“RICHARD SPRUCE.”

     “June 13th, 1864.”




CHAPTER XCVI.

How the Indians carry herbs or roots in their mouths, and concerning the
herb called coca, which they raise in many parts of this kingdom.


In all parts of the Indies through which I have travelled I have
observed that the natives take great delight in having herbs or roots in
their mouths. Thus, in the district of the city of Antioquia, some of
the people go about with a small leaf in their mouths, and in the
province of Arma they chew another leaf. In the districts of Quinbaya
and Anzerma they cut small twigs from a young green tree, which they rub
against their teeth without ceasing. In most of the villages subject to
the cities of Cali and Popayan they go about with small _coca_ leaves in
their mouths, to which they apply a mixture, which they carry in a
calabash, made from a certain earth-like lime. Throughout Peru the
Indians carry this _coca_ in their mouths, and from morning until they
lie down to sleep, they never take it out. When I asked some of these
Indians why they carried these leaves in their mouths (which they do not
eat, but merely hold between their teeth), they replied that it prevents
them from feeling hungry, and gives them great vigour and strength. I
believe that it has some such effect, although, perhaps, it is a custom
only suited for people like these Indians. They sow this _coca_ in the
forests of the Andes, from Guamanga to the town of Plata. The trees are
small, and they cultivate them with great care, that they may yield the
leaf called _coca_. They put the leaves in the sun, and afterwards pack
them in long narrow bags, containing a little more than an _arroba_
each. This _coca_ was so highly valued in Peru in the years 1548, 1549,
1550, and 1551, that there was not a root nor anything gathered from a
tree, except spice, which was in such estimation. In those years they
valued the _repartimientos_ of Cuzco, La Paz, and Plata at eighty
thousand dollars, more or less, all arising from this _coca_. _Coca_ was
taken to the mines of Potosi for sale, and the planting of the trees and
picking of the leaves was carried on to such an extent, that _coca_ is
not now worth so much, but it will never cease to be valuable. There are
some persons in Spain who are rich from the produce of this _coca_,
having traded with it, sold and re-sold it in the Indian markets.[479]




CHAPTER XCVII.

Of the road from Cuzco to the city of La Paz; and of the villages, until
the Indians called Canches are passed.


The distance from the city of Cuzco to the city of La Paz is eighty
leagues, a little more or less. It must be known that, before La Paz was
founded, all the towns and villages now subject to that city were within
the limits of the city of Cuzco. Setting out from Cuzco by the royal
road of Colla-suyu, it leads to the narrow pass of Mohina, leaving the
buildings of Quispicanchi on the left hand. The road goes by this place,
after leaving Cuzco, and is paved with stones. In Mohina there is a
large swamp, across which the road is carried on a paved causeway. There
were great edifices in Mohina, which are now in ruins. When the governor
Don Francisco Pizarro entered Cuzco with the Spaniards, they found much
gold and silver, and rich and precious clothing in these edifices. I
have heard some Spaniards say that there was a block of stone in this
place, in the shape of a man, with long ropes, and beads in the hand,
besides other figures, some of which they adored as idols.

Beyond Mohina is the ancient village of Urcos, which is about six
leagues from Cuzco.[480] On this road there is a very large and strong
wall, and the natives say that along the top of it a channel of water
was conducted with great labour from a river, with the same skill and
order as they make their other irrigating channels. In this great wall
there was a broad doorway, at which there were porters who collected the
tribute which the Indians were obliged to pay to the lords. There were
other overseers of the same Yncas at this place, to seize and punish
those who had the audacity to take gold or silver out of the city of
Cuzco. In this place there were quarries whence they took stones for
building edifices, which are well worth seeing. Urcos is built on a
hill, where there were palaces for the lords. Thence to Quiquixana the
distance is three leagues over a rugged country. Here the river of Yucay
flows through the valley, over which there is a bridge made like others
in this country. Near this place the Indians called Cavinas are settled,
who, before they were subjugated by the Yncas, wore a large ornament in
their ears. They say that Manco Ccapac, the founder of the city of
Cuzco, secured the friendship of these Indians. They go about dressed in
woollen clothes, with a black fillet twisted round their heads. In the
mountains there are villages in which the houses are built of stone. In
former times they held a temple in great veneration, called Ausancata,
near which they say that their ancestors saw an idol or devil in the
same dress as their own. These Indians held for certain that the souls
which departed from the bodies went to a great lake, where, in their
vain belief, they held that they had their origin, and where they again
entered into the bodies of those who were born. After they were
subjugated by the Yncas they became more civilised and intelligent, and
adored the sun, without forgetting their former temple. Beyond this
province is that of the Canches, who are intelligent and homely Indians,
without malice, and always skilful in working, especially gold and
silver. They also had large flocks of sheep. Their villages are like
those of their neighbours; they wear the same clothes, with a black
fillet round the head, the ends of which hang down as low as the chin.
They say that, in ancient times, they waged great wars with Huira-ccocha
Ynca, and with some of his predecessors, and that, when they submitted
to their rule, the Yncas valued them highly. Their arms were darts,
slings, and weapons called _Ayllos_, with which they captured their
enemies. Their methods of interment were the same as those already
described; their tombs were built of stone, on the heights, and here
they put the bodies of their chiefs, together with some of their wives
and servants. They do not value the vanities and honours of the world,
though it is true that some of the chiefs are haughty to the Indians,
and treat them with asperity. At certain seasons of the year they
celebrate their festivals, for which they have fixed days. In the
buildings of the chiefs there were places where they had their dances,
and where the chiefs ate and drank. They conversed with the devil, like
all the other Indians. Throughout all the land of these Canches there is
maize and wheat, and plenty of partridges and condors, and in their
houses the Indians have many fowls. They also catch excellent fish in
the rivers.




CHAPTER XCVIII.

Of the provinces of Canas, and of Ayavire.


After leaving the province of Canches, that of Canas[481] is entered,
which is the name of another tribe, and the names of the villages are
Hatuncana, Chiquana, Horuro, Cacha, and others which I shall not
enumerate.[482] These Indians all wear clothes, both men and women, and
they have large, round, high woollen caps on their heads. Before they
were subjugated by the Yncas, they had their villages in the mountain
fastnesses, whence they came forth to make war; afterwards they
descended into the valley. Their customs with regard to burials are the
same as those of the Canches. In the province of these Canas there was a
temple which they called Ancocahua, where they performed sacrifices, in
their blindness; and in the village of Cacha there were great edifices,
built by order of Tupac Ynca Yupanqui. On the other side of the river
there is a small enclosure, within which they found some gold. This
temple was built in memory of their god Huira-ccocha, whom they call the
Creator. Within it there was a stone idol the height of a man, with a
robe, and a crown or tiara on the head. Some said that this might be the
statue of some apostle who arrived in this land.[483] In the second part
of this work I shall treat of what I believe, and of what I was able to
collect respecting the report that fire came down from heaven, and
converted many stones into cinders. Throughout this province of Canas
the climate is cold, as well as in Canches, but the country is well
supplied with provisions and flocks. To the west is the South Sea, and
to the east the forests of the Andes. From the village of Chiquana, in
this province of Canas, to Ayavire the distance is fifteen leagues,
within which limits there are some villages of the Canas, many plains,
and great meadows well suited for flocks, if it were not so cold. Now
the great quantity of herbage is only useful for guanacos and vicuñas.

In ancient times it was a grand thing to see this town of Ayavire, and
the place is still worthy of note, especially the great tombs, which are
so numerous that they occupy more space than the habitations of the
living. The Indians positively assert that the natives of this town of
Ayavire are of the same descent and lineage as those of Canas; and that
the Ynca Yupanqui waged wars and fought battles with them, in which they
suffered so severely that they submitted to his service, to save
themselves from entire destruction. But as some of the Yncas were
vindictive, after the Ynca had killed a great number of the Indians of
Copacopa and other villages in the forests of the Andes, whom he had got
into his power by deceit, he did the same to the natives of Ayavire, in
such sort that few or none were left alive. It is notorious that those
who escaped wandered in the fields for a long time, calling on their
dead, and mourning with groans and great sorrow over the destruction
that had come upon their people. As Ayavire is a large district, through
which a good river flows, the Ynca Yupanqui ordered that a great palace
should be built here, which was accordingly done, together with many
buildings where the tribute was stored up. A temple of the sun was also
built, as one of the most important things. The Ynca then ordered that
Indians (who are called _Mitimaes_) should come here with their wives,
for there were few natives left, and the _Mitimaes_ became lords of the
soil, and heirs to the dead natives, and they were directed to form a
large town near the temple of the sun and the principal edifices. The
town went on increasing until the Spaniards arrived in this kingdom, but
since that time, what with the civil wars and other calamities, it has
greatly decreased, like all the others.

I entered it at the time when it was held in _encomienda_ by Juan de
Pancorbo, a citizen of Cuzco; and I learnt these particulars, which I
have written down, from the best information within my reach. Near this
town there is a ruined temple, where once they offered up sacrifices.
And the multitude of tombs which appear all round this town is held to
be a notable sight.




CHAPTER XCIX.

Of the great district which is inhabited by the _Collas_, of the
appearance of the land where their villages are built, and how
_Mitimaes_ were stationed to supply them with provisions.


The region which they call _Collao_ appears to me to be the largest
province in all Peru, and the most populous. The Collas are first met
with at Ayavire, and they extend as far as Caracoto. To the east of
their province are the forests of the Andes, to the west are the peaks
of the snowy mountains, which descend on the other side to the South
Sea. Besides the lands which the natives occupy with their fields and
houses, there are vast uninhabited tracts full of wild flocks. The land
of the Collas is level in most parts, and rivers of good water flow
through it.

These plains form beautiful and extensive meadows, the herbage of which
is always plentiful, and at times very green, although in the spring it
is parched up as in Spain. The winter begins (as I have already said) in
October, and lasts until April. The days and nights are almost equal,
and the cold in this district is greater than in any other part of Peru,
excepting the snowy peaks, because the land is high, and comes up to the
mountains. Certainly if this land of the Collao had a deep valley like
those of Xauxa or Chuquiapu, which would yield maize, it would be one of
the richest in all the Indies. When the wind is blowing it is hard work
to travel over these plains of the Collao, but when there is no wind,
and the sun is shining, it is very pleasant to see the beautiful and
well-peopled meadows. But the climate is so cold that there is no maize,
nor any kind of tree; and the land is too sterile to yield any of the
fruits which grow in other parts.[484] The houses in the villages are
built of stone, and roofed with straw instead of tiles, and they are
placed close together. This country of the Collao was once very
populous, and was covered with large villages, round which the Indians
had their fields, where they raised crops for food. Their principal food
is potatoes,[485] which are like earth nuts, as I have before declared
in this history. They dry these potatoes in the sun, and keep them from
one harvest to another. After they are dried they call these potatoes
_chuñus_, and they are highly esteemed and valued among them.[486] They
have no water in channels for irrigating the fields, as in many other
parts of this kingdom, so that, if the natural supply of water required
for the crops fails, they would suffer from famine and want if they had
not this store of dried potatoes. Many Spaniards have enriched
themselves and returned prosperous to Spain by merely taking these
_chuñus_ to sell at the mines of Potosi. They have another kind of food
called _oca_,[487] which is also profitable, but not so much so as a
seed which they also raise, called _quinua_,[488] a small grain like
rice. When the harvest is abundant, all the inhabitants of the Collao
live contented and free from want, but when there is want of water they
suffer great distress.

But, in truth, the Kings Yncas who ruled over this empire were so wise,
and such excellent governors, that they established laws and customs
without which the majority of their people would have suffered great
hardships, as they did before they came under the rule of the Yncas. In
the Collao, and in all the parts of Peru, where, owing to the cold
climate, the land is not so fertile and abundant as in the warm valleys,
they ordered that, as the great forests of the Andes bordered on these
sterile tracts, a certain number of Indians with their wives should be
taken from each village, and stationed to cultivate the land in the
places where the chiefs directed them to settle. Here they sowed the
things which would not grow in their own country, sending the fruits of
their labours to their chiefs, and they were called _Mitimaes_. At the
present day they serve the principal _encomienderos_, and cultivate the
precious _coca_.

Thus, although no maize can be raised throughout the _Colloa_, the
chiefs and people did not fail to obtain it by this arrangement, for the
_Mitimaes_ brought up loads of maize, _coca_, and fruits of all kinds,
besides plenty of honey, which abounds in all parts of the forests,
where it is formed in the hollows of trees in the way I have described
when treating of Quinbaya.[489] In the province of Charcas this honey is
excellent. It is said that Francisco de Carbajal, master of the camp to
Gonzalo Pizarro, always ate this honey, and though he drank it as if it
had been water or wine, he always remained strong and healthy, as he was
when I saw him judged in the valley of Xaquixaguana, although he was
over eighty years of age according to his own account.




CHAPTER C.

Of what is said concerning the origin of these Collas, of their
appearance, and how they buried their dead.


Many of these Indians say that they have heard from their fathers that,
in times past, there was a great deluge, in the manner described by me
in the third chapter of the second part. They also declare that the
origin of their ancestors was very ancient, and they relate so many
sayings and fictions that I shall not stop to write them down, for some
say that their ancestors came out of a fountain, others from a rock, and
others out of a lake, so that no sense can be learnt from them
concerning their origin. But they all agree that their ancestors lived
in a wild state before they were subjugated by the Yncas, that they had
strongholds in the mountains whence they came out to fight, and that
they had many vicious customs. Afterwards they learnt from the Yncas all
that had been made known to the other vassals, and they built their
villages in the same way as they have them now. Both men and women are
clothed in woollen dresses. They say that, before marriage, the women
may go loosely, but that they are punished with death if they are guilty
of infidelity after they have been delivered to husbands. These people
wear woollen caps called _chucos_ on their heads. Their heads are very
long, and flattened behind, because they are pressed and forced into
what shape they choose during childhood. The women wear hoods on their
heads, almost of the same shape as those worn by friars. Before the
Yncas conquered the country, many of the Indians declare that there were
two great lords in the Colloa, the one called Sapana and the other Cari,
who conquered many _pucaras_, which are their fortresses. They add that
one of these chiefs entered the large island in the lake of Titicaca,
and found there a white people who had beards; that they fought with
them in such a manner that all were killed; and that they also fought
great battles with the Canas and Canches. After they had performed
notable deeds, these tyrants, or lords, who had risen up in the Collao,
turned their arms against each other, seeking also for the friendship of
the Ynca Huira-ccocha, who then reigned in Cuzco. The Ynca made a treaty
of peace with Cari at Chucuito, and intrigued so skilfully that he
became lord of a great part of the Collao without fighting. The
principal chiefs of this country go about with a large retinue, and,
when they travel, they are carried in litters, and treated with great
respect by all the Indians. They had their temples and _huacas_ in
secret places, where they adored their gods, and those who were selected
for that duty conversed with the devil.

The things which, to my mind, are most worthy of notice in the Collao,
are the tombs of the dead. When I travelled over this country I stopped
to write down all that deserved mention concerning the Indians; and I
was truly astonished to see how little they cared for having large and
handsome houses for the living, while they bestowed so much care on the
tombs where the dead were interred, as if all happiness did not consist
in something else. Thus, in the plains and meadows near their villages,
the tombs were built in the form of small towers, some of stones only,
and others of stones mixed with earth, some broad and others narrow,
according to the rank and wealth of those who built them.[490] Some of
them were roofed with straw, and others with large slabs. I observed
that the doors of these towers were towards the east. When the natives
of the Collao died they were mourned for during many days, the women
holding staves in their hands, and putting ashes on their bodies. The
relations of the deceased each contributed something, as well sheep,
lambs, and maize, as other things, and, before they buried the corpse,
they killed sheep, put the cooked meat into the rooms of their houses,
and made much drink from the maize. The deceased is honoured according
to the quantity of this beverage that is made. When the drink is ready,
and the sheep and lambs killed, they carry the corpse to the place where
the tomb is prepared, accompanied, if the deceased was a chief, by the
people of the village. Then they burnt ten, twenty, or more sheep,
according to the rank of the dead man, and killed the women, boys and
servants who were to accompany him, according to their vain belief. All
these are buried in the same tomb with the body, into which they also
put some people alive. Having interred the deceased in this manner, they
all return to the house whence they had taken the body, and there eat
the food and drink the _chicha_, coming out from time to time to dance
mournful dances in the appointed places near the house. This goes on for
some days, at the end of which the poorest men and women are assembled,
and given what remains of the food and _chicha_. If the deceased was a
great chief, they did not bury him immediately, but, before doing so,
they practised superstitious vanities for some days, which I shall not
describe. When these are finished, the women and servant-girls who have
not been killed come out into the village in their mantles and hoods,
some carrying the arms of the chief, others his ornamental head-dress,
and others his clothes and other things. They walk along uttering sad
and sorrowful words, while an Indian goes before them mourning and
playing on a drum. Thus they traverse the greater part of the village,
declaring, in their songs, the deeds of the dead chief, and other things
concerning him. I remember that when I was going to Charcas in company
with Diego de Uzeda, who now lives in the city of La Paz, we saw certain
women walking in this way through the village of Nicasio,[491] and we
learnt from the people of the village that they were saying what I have
described in this chapter. One of the Indians added that when these
women had finished their lamentations, they would be made drunk, and
some of them would be killed to accompany the dead man. In many other
villages I have seen them mourn for the dead during many days, and put
ropes of sedge round their heads as a sign of grief.




CHAPTER CI.

How these Indians perform their annual ceremonies, and of the temples
they had in ancient times.


In the last chapter I have declared how these people made great ado when
they put their dead into the tombs. After the interment the women and
servants shaved their heads, put on their commonest clothing, and took
no care of their persons. Besides this, in order to show their grief,
they twisted ropes of sedge round their heads, and uttered continual
lamentations during a whole year if the deceased was a chief, and had no
light in the house for several days. These people, by the permission of
God, were, like all the others, deceived by the devil with the false and
delusive apparitions of some people who were dead, dressed and adorned
in the way their bodies had been put into the tombs. In order to show
more care for the dead they held annual festivals, when they brought
animals and killed them near the tombs, also emptying many vases of
liquor over the tombs, which completed this vain and foolish ceremony.

As this nation of the Collao was so numerous, they had, in former times,
great temples and superstitious rites, venerating those whom they set
apart as priests, and who conversed with the devil. They held their
festivals at the season when they got in their potatoes, which is their
principal food, and then they killed animals as sacrifices. At the
present time we do not know that they have any public temple, but, by
the will of our God and Lord, many Catholic churches have been founded,
where our priests preach the holy gospel, and teach the faith to all the
Indians who desire to receive the water of baptism. I verily believe
that if there had been no civil wars, and if we had sincerely and
earnestly endeavoured to convert these people, many would have been
saved, who have now been damned. At present there are priests and friars
in many parts of the Collao, appointed by those who hold _encomiendas_
over the Indians; and I pray to God that he will carry this work forward
without weighing our sins.

The natives of the Collao say the same as all the other people of the
_Sierra_, that the Creator of the world was called Huira-ccocha, and
they know that his principal abode is in heaven; but, deceived by the
devil, they adored various gods, like all the other gentiles. They have
certain romances or songs in which they preserve the memory of their
deeds, and prevent their being forgotten, although they have no letters.

Among the people of the Collao there are men of great intelligence, who
reply to what is asked from them; and they take account of time, and
know some of the movements both of the sun and the moon. They count
their years from ten months to ten months, and I learnt from them that
they called the year _Mari_, the moon or month _Alespaquexe_, and the
day _Auro_. When they submitted to the Yncas they made great temples by
their order, both on the island of Titicaca and at Hatun-colla, as well
as in other parts.




CHAPTER CII.

Of the ancient ruins at Pucara, of the former greatness of Hatun-colla,
of the village called Azangaro, and of other things which are here
related.


Now that I have related certain things that I was able to collect
respecting the Collao as briefly as possible, I propose to continue my
writing by giving an account of the villages along the royal road, as
far as the city of La Paz, which is built in the valley of Chuquiapu, on
the confines of the great province of the Collao.

Coming from Ayavire along the royal road, the traveller reaches Pucara
(which means a strong place), four leagues from Ayavire. I remained a
whole day at Pucara looking at everything.[492] It is reported by the
Indians that there was formerly a large population in this place, but at
present there is scarcely an inhabitant. The neighbouring Indians say
that Tupac Ynca Yupanqui besieged the place during many days, for,
before they could be conquered, the natives showed themselves to be so
valorous, that they killed many people. When they were finally
conquered, the Ynca ordered great stone pillars to be set up in memory
of the victory. Whether this be really so or not I cannot say, but the
Indians declare it. I saw the ruins of great edifices in Pucara, and
many pillars of stone carved in the form of men, besides other things
worthy of note.

The distance from Pucara to Hatun-colla is fifteen leagues, and on the
road there are some villages, such as Nicasio, Juliaca, and others. In
former times Hatun-colla was the principal place in the Collao, and the
natives affirm that before the Yncas conquered the country, the chief
Sapana and some of his descendants ruled here, who were so powerful that
they gained many spoils from the neighbouring people whom they defeated
in battle. Afterwards the Yncas adorned the place with new edifices and
many storehouses, where, by their order, the tribute was received from
the surrounding districts. There was also a temple of the sun, with many
_Mama-cunas_ and priests for its service, and a great quantity of
_Mitimaes_ and soldiers to watch the frontier, and to prevent any tyrant
from rising against him whom they held as sovereign lord. Thus it may be
affirmed that Hatun-colla was a grand place, as its name implies, for
_Hatun_ means “great” in their language. In these times all is in ruins,
and most of the inhabitants have been killed in the wars.[493]

From Ayavire another road goes to Omasuyu, which leads round the other
side of the great lake of which I shall treat presently, and nearer to
the forests of the Andes. It passes by the large villages of Asillo,
Azangaro, and others of less importance, and the country is very rich
both in flocks and provisions. When the Yncas conquered this country,
the people of these villages had large flocks of sheep. In the same
district, in the forests of the Andes, is the famous and very rich river
of Caravaya, whence, in former years, they took more than 1,700,000
_pesos_ of gold of such fineness that it exceeded the standard; and gold
is still found in the river, but it is only obtained with great labour,
and by the death of the Indians who work in it, for the climate is
unhealthy, though the wealth of the river is great.[494]




CHAPTER CIII.

Of the great lake which is within the province of the Collao, of its
depth, and of the temple of Titicaca.


This land of the Collao is very extensive (as I have said in former
chapters), and, besides the inhabited parts, there are many deserts,
snowy mountains, and grassy plains which yield sustenance to the wild
flocks which wander in all directions. In the centre of the province
there is the largest and broadest lake that has been found in the
Indies, near which are most of the villages of the Collao. The people
raise their crops on large islands in the lake, where they also keep
their valuables, as being safer than in the villages along the roads. I
remember that I have already said that it is so cold in this province,
that not only are there no fruit trees, but they cannot raise maize. In
the beds of reeds in this lake there are many kinds of birds, such as
large ducks, and they kill two or three kinds of fish in the lake, which
are very good, though they are held to be unwholesome.

This lake is so large that it has a circumference of eighty leagues, and
so deep that the captain Juan Ladrillero told me that in some parts,
when he was sailing with his brigantines, he found the depth to be
seventy or eighty _brazas_, in some places more, in others less. In this
respect, and in regard to the waves that are formed when the wind rises,
it appears like some gulf of the sea.[495] If it is desired that I
should say how so much water was collected into this lake, I am unable
to do so, for, though many rivers and streams fall into it, I do not
think that they would suffice to make it what it is, especially as a
river flows out of it into another smaller lake called Aullagas. It may
be that, after the deluge, this lake remained with the water we now see
in it, for if it communicated with the sea the water would be salt and
not fresh; besides it is at a distance of sixty leagues from the sea.
All this water flows out in a deep river which they called the
Desaguadero, and falls into the lake which, as I have already said, is
called Aullagas.

Another thing worthy of attention is, that we see how the water of one
lake enters the other (that is, the water of the lake of the Collao
flows into the Aullagas), but not how it flows out of the lake of
Aullagas, although it has been examined on all sides. On this subject I
have heard both Spaniards and Indians say that, in some of the valleys
near the South Sea, they had seen streams of water, which flow under
the earth towards the said sea; and they believe that this may be the
water of the lake, draining out and opening for itself a road through
the bowels of the earth, until it reaches the place to which all waters
go, which is the sea.

The great lake of the Colloa is called Titicaca, from the temple which
was built on an island in it. The natives held a very vain and foolish
belief, which was, that in the time of their ancestors there was no
light for many days, and that, when all was wrapped in darkness and
obscurity, the resplendent sun came up out of this island of Titicaca,
for which reason it was considered sacred, and the Yncas erected a
temple on it in honour of the sun, which was much revered and venerated
among them, and which contained many virgins and priests, and great
store of treasure, of which the Spaniards, at different times, have
collected a great deal, but most of it is still missing.[496] If, in
truth, the Indians ever really were in want of light, as they say, it
must have been owing to some eclipse of the sun; and, as they are such
sorcerers, they invented this fable, in which they were assisted by the
illusions of the devil, God permitting it for their sins.




CHAPTER CIV.

In which the narrative continues, and the villages are described as far
as Tiahuanaco.


Returning to the road where I left it, which was at Hatuncolla, I have
to say that it passes thence by Paucar-colla, and other villages of
this nation of the Collas, to Chucuito, which is one of the principal
and most complete towns in any part of this great kingdom, and is the
chief place of the Indians owned by his Majesty in this province. It is
certain, too, that the Yncas in former times held Chucuito to be an
important place, and, according to the accounts of the Indians, it is
the most ancient place of any that I have yet described. Cariapasa was
the chief of this place, and, for an Indian, was a very intelligent man.
There are large buildings here; and, before the chiefs were subjugated
by the Yncas, they were very powerful, among whom the Indians mention
two as the principal, named Cari and Yumalla. Chucuito is now, as I have
said, the principal village of the Indians of his Majesty, whose other
villages are Juli, Chilane, Acos, Pomata, and Zepita, in which there are
chiefs who command the Indians. When I passed through these parts the
corregidor was Simon Pinto, and the governor was an Indian named Gaspar,
an intelligent and clever man. The natives are rich in flocks, and they
have plenty of provisions. In other parts they have _Mitimaes_ stationed
to raise their maize and coca. There are fine churches in these villages
founded by the reverend father friar Tomas de San Martin, principal of
the Dominicans. The young men, and others who most desire it, assemble
to hear the evangelical doctrine preached by the friars and clergymen.
Most of the chiefs have turned Christians. Near Zepita flows the
Desaguadero, where, till the days of the Yncas, there used to be toll
takers who received tribute from those who passed over the bridge, which
is made of bundles of stalks, in such sort that men and horses can cross
over it. In one of these villages, called Juli, the master of the camp,
Francisco de Carbajal, hung the captain Hernando Bachicao.[497] This is
one of the examples which show us that the civil wars and troubles in
Peru were the scourges of God, for they killed each other with great
cruelty, as I shall relate in the proper place.

Beyond these villages is Huaqui, where there were buildings of the
Yncas, one of which is now a church, where the children may hear the
Christian doctrine at the proper hours.




CHAPTER CV.

Of the village of Tiahuanaco, and of the great and ancient edifices
which are to be seen there.


Tiahuanaco is not a very large village, but it is celebrated for the
great edifices near it, which are certainly things worth seeing.[498]
Near the buildings there is a hill made by the hands of men, on great
foundations of stone.[499] Beyond this hill there are two stone idols,
of the human shape and figure, the features very skilfully carved, so
that they appear to have been done by the hand of some great master.
They are so large that they seem like small giants, and it is clear that
they have on a sort of clothing different from those now worn by the
natives of these parts. They seem to have some ornament on their
heads.[500] Near these stone statues there is another building. Their
antiquity and the want of letters, are the causes why it is not known
who built such vast foundations, and how much time has since elapsed;
for at present there is only a wall very well built, and which must have
been standing for many ages. Some of the stones are much worn. At this
part there are stones of such enormous size that it causes wonder to
think of them, and to reflect how human force can have sufficed to move
them to the place where we see them, being so large. Many of these
stones are carved in different ways, some of them having the shape of
the human body, which must have been their idols. Near the wall there
are many holes and hollow places in the ground. In another, more to the
westward, there are other ancient remains, among them many doorways,
with their jambs, lintels, and thresholds, all of one stone.[501] But
what I noted most particularly, when I wandered about over these ruins
writing down what I saw, was that from these great doorways there came
out other still larger stones, upon which the doorways were formed, some
of them thirty feet broad, fifteen or more long, and six in thickness.
The whole of this, with the doorway and its jambs and lintel, was all
one single stone. The work is one of grandeur and magnificence, when
well considered. For myself I fail to understand with what instruments
or tools it can have been done; for it is very certain that before these
great stones could be brought to perfection and left as we see them, the
tools must have been much better than those now used by the Indians. It
is to be noted, from what now appears of these edifices, that they were
not completed, for there is nothing but these portals, and other stones
of strange bigness which I saw, some of them shaped and dressed ready
to be placed on the edifice, which was a little on one side. Here there
was a great idol of stone, which must have been placed there to be
worshipped. It is rumoured that some gold was found near this idol; and
all round there are more stones, large and small, all dressed and fitted
like those already described.[502]

There are other things to be said concerning Tiahuanaco, which I pass
over, concluding with a statement of my belief that this ruin is the
most ancient in all Peru. It is asserted that these edifices were
commenced before the time of the Yncas, and I have heard some Indians
affirm that the Yncas built their grand edifices at Cuzco on the plan
which they had observed at the wall near these ruins. They even say that
the first Yncas thought of establishing their court at Tiahuanaco.
Another remarkable thing is, that in all this district there are no
quarries whence the numerous stones can have been brought, the carrying
of which must have required many people. I asked the natives, in
presence of Juan de Varagas (who holds them in _encomienda_), whether
these edifices were built in the time of the Yncas, and they laughed at
the question, affirming that they were made before the Yncas ever
reigned, but that they could not say who made them. They added that they
had heard from their fathers that all we saw was done in one night. From
this, and from the fact that they also speak of bearded men on the
island of Titicaca, and of others who built the edifice of Vinaque,[503]
it may, perhaps, be inferred that, before the Yncas reigned, there was
an intelligent race who came from some unknown part, and who did these
things. Being few, and the natives many, they may all have been killed
in the wars.

Seeing that all these things are hidden from us, we may well say,
Blessed be the invention of letters! by virtue of which the memory of
events endures for many ages, and their fame flies through the universe.
We are not ignorant of what we desire to know when we hold letters in
our hands. But in this new world of the Indies, as they knew nothing of
letters, we are in a state of blindness concerning many things. Apart
from these ruins there are the buildings of the Yncas, and the house
where Manco Ynca, the son of Huayna Ccapac, was born. Close by are the
tombs of the native chiefs of this place, as high as towers, broad and
square, with doors towards the rising sun.




CHAPTER CVI.

Of the founding of the city called of Our Lady of Peace, who was its
founder, and of the road thence to the town of Plata.


From the village of Tiahuanaco the road leads to Viacha, a distance of
seven leagues, leaving the villages called Cacayavire, Caquinhora,
Mallama, and others on the left hand; but it seems to me of little use
to name them all. In the midst of them is the plain near another village
called Huarina; the place where, in the days that are passed, there was
a battle between Diego Centeno and Gonzalo Pizarro.[504] It was a
memorable event, as I shall show in the proper place, and many captains
and knights of the King’s party fell, fighting under the banner of the
captain Diego Centeno, as well as some of those who were the accomplices
of Gonzalo Pizarro. God was served by the rebel being the victor in this
battle. To reach the city of La Paz, it is necessary to leave the royal
road of the Yncas, and to go to the village of Laxa. The city is a day’s
journey further on, built in the narrow part of a small valley formed by
the mountains. It was founded in the most level part that could be
selected, for the sake of the wood and water, of which there is much in
this small valley, as the climate is warmer than on the plains of the
Collao, which are higher, and where there are none of the things
necessary for a large city. Notwithstanding all this, the citizens have
thought of moving nearer to the great lake of Titicaca, between the
villages of Huaqui and Tiahuanaco. Yet the city has remained in the
valley of Chuquiapu where, in former years, great quantities of gold
were taken out of the rich mines that are there. The Yncas held this
Chuquiapu in great estimation. Near it is the valley of Oyune, where
they say that there is a great treasure hidden in a temple on the summit
of a snowy mountain, but it cannot be found, nor is it known where it
is.

This city of La Paz was founded by the captain Alonzo de Mendoza, in the
name of the Emperor our lord, when the licentiate Pedro de la Gasca was
president of this kingdom, in the year of our redemption 1549.[505] In
the valley formed by the mountains, where the city is built, they raise
a few trees, some maize, and the pulses and garden stuffs of Spain. The
Spaniards are here well supplied with provisions and with fish from the
lake, as well as with plenty of fruit from the warm valleys, where they
also grow a great quantity of wheat, and breed goats, cows, and other
animals. This city has very rugged and difficult approaches, being, as I
have said, amongst the mountains. A small river of excellent water flows
near it.

The distance from this city of La Paz to the town of Plata, which is in
the province of Charcas, is ninety leagues, a little more or less. I
will now return to the royal road which I had left, and I have to say
that it goes from Viacha to Hayohayo, where there were great buildings
for the Yncas. Beyond Hayohayo is Sicasica, to which point the province
of Colloa extends. On both sides of these villages there are several
more. Eleven leagues beyond Sicasica is the village of Caracollo, which
is built in a certain plain near the great province of Paria, which was
highly esteemed by the Yncas. The natives of this province of Paria are
clothed like all the rest, and they wear, as an ornamental head-dress, a
small woollen cap. The chiefs were much reverenced by the Indians, and
there were royal edifices and store-houses of the Yncas, and a temple of
the sun. Here there are a great many lofty tombs where they buried their
dead. The villages of Indians subject to Paria are Caponota and many
others, some near the lake, and some in different parts of the district.
Beyond Paria are the villages of Pocoata, Macha, Coracora, Moromoro, and
near the Andes there are other provinces and great chiefs.




CHAPTER CVII.

Of the founding of the town of Plata, which is situated in the province
of Charcas.


The noble and loyal town of Plata, a settlement of Spaniards in
Chuquisaca (in the province of Charcas), is very famous throughout the
kingdoms of Peru, and in other parts of the world, for the great
treasure which, in these latter years, has been brought thence to Spain.
This town is built in the best situation that could be found, in a
place, as I have already said, which is called Chuquisaca.[506] The
climate is temperate, and well suited for the growth of fruit trees,
vines, wheat and barley, and other things. At present the farms and
lands are very valuable by reason of the rich mines that have been
discovered at Potosi. Several rivers of very good water flow near, and
many cows, mares, and goats are bred on the estates of the Spaniards.
Some of the citizens of this town are among the richest and most
prosperous people in the Indies, for in the years 1548 and 1549 a
_repartimiento_ belonging to the general Pedro de Hinojosa[507] yielded
a rent of more than one hundred thousand _castellanos_, and others
yielded eighty thousand, some even more. The treasure that was found in
those times was a wonderful thing. This town of Plata was settled and
founded by the captain Peransurez, in the name of his Majesty the
emperor and king, our lord, the Adelantado Don Francisco Pizarro being
his governor and captain-general of Peru, in the year 1538. Besides the
villages already mentioned, this town has jurisdiction over Totora,
Tapacari, Sipisipe, Cochabamba, the Carangues, Quillanca, Chayanta,
Chaqui, the Chichas, and many others, all very rich, and some, like the
valley of Cochabamba, suited for the growth of wheat and maize, and for
breeding cattle. Beyond this town is the province of Tuquma, and the
regions which were entered and discovered by the captains Felipe
Gutierrez, Diego de Rojas, and Nicolas de Heredia, in which direction
they discovered the river of La Plata, and reached the fortress which
was built by Sebastian Cabota. Diego de Rojas died of a wound from an
arrow poisoned with the herb used by the Indians, and afterwards
Francisco de Mendoza seized Felipe Gutierrez, and obliged him to return
to Peru. The same Francisco de Mendoza, when he returned to discover the
river, was killed, together with his lieutenant Ruy Sanchez de
Hinojosa, by Nicolas de Heredia. Thus these parts were not entirely
discovered, owing to the quarrels and feuds amongst the explorers, who
returned to Peru. Here they met with Lope de Mendoza, the lieutenant of
Diego Centeno, who was flying from the fury of Carbajal, Gonzalo
Pizarro’s captain; and joined him. They were defeated by the same
Carbajal at a village called Pocona, and soon afterwards Lope de Mendoza
and Nicolas de Heredia fell into his power, and were put to death by
him, with others.[508]

Further on is the government of Chile, of which Pedro de Valdivia is the
governor, and other lands bordering on the strait which is called
Magellanes. But as the affairs of Chile are important, and require a
special narrative, I have only written what I saw between Uraba and
Potosi, which is near this town, a road of such length that it must be
(from the borders of Uraba to the further end of the town of Plata) a
good two thousand two hundred leagues, as I have already stated. I shall
not go further in this my first part, except to say that the Indians
subject to the town of Plata have the same customs as those of other
parts. After they were conquered by the Yncas, their villages were well
ordered, and both men and women wore clothes. They worshipped the sun
and other things, and had temples in which they performed their
sacrifices. Many of them, such as the Charcas and Carangues, were very
warlike. From this town captains and soldiers set out to serve his
Majesty several times during the late wars, and they served loyally.
With this I make an end of what I have to say touching the founding of
the town of Plata.




CHAPTER CVIII.

Of the riches in Porco, and how there are large veins of silver near
that town.


It appears from what the Indians now say that, in the times when the
Kings Yncas governed this kingdom of Peru, they obtained a great
quantity of silver from some parts of this province of Charcas, and
Indians were stationed there, who gave the metal to the overseers or
their deputies.[509] In the hill of Porco, which is near the town of
Plata, there were mines out of which the Indians got silver for their
lords. Much of the silver which was in the temple of the sun, called
_Ccuri-cancha_, is said to have been taken from this hill, and the
Spaniards have also got a great deal out of it. In the present year a
mine belonging to the captain Hernando Pizarro has been cleaned out,
which was worth more than two hundred thousand _pesos_ of gold every
year. Antonio Alvarez, an inhabitant of this town, showed me, in the
City of the Kings, a little ore taken from this hill of Porco, which
appeared to be nearly all silver. In short, Porco was in former times
extremely rich, and is so still, and it may be believed that it always
will be. In many neighbouring hills, within the jurisdiction of this
town of Plata, rich mines of gold and silver have been found. It may be
held for certain that there is so much of this metal that if there were
those to seek and extract it, they would get little less than, in the
province of Biscay, they get iron. But as it must be got out by Indians,
and as the country is too cold for Negroes, there are reasons enough why
such great wealth is lost. I have also to say that in some parts of the
district belonging to the town of Plata there are rivers which bring
down very fine gold. In the Chichas, villages given in _encomienda_ to
Hernando Pizarro, and subject to this town, it is said that there are
some silver mines; and great rivers rise in the Andes, near which, if
gold mines were sought for, I hold that they would be found.[510]




CHAPTER CIX.

How they discovered the mines of Potosi, whence they have taken riches
such as have never been seen or heard of in other times; and how, as the
metal does not run, the Indians get it by the invention of the
_huayras_.


The mines of Porco, and others in this kingdom, have been open since the
time of the Yncas, when the veins whence they extract the metal were
discovered; but those which they have found in the hill of Potosi
(concerning which I now desire to write) were never worked until the
year 1546. A Spaniard named Villaroel was searching for veins of metal
with some Indians, when he came upon this wealth in a high hill, being
the most beautiful and best situated in all that district. As the
Indians call all hills and lofty eminences Potosi, it retained that
name. Although Gonzalo Pizarro was then waging war against the viceroy,
and the whole kingdom was troubled with this rebellion, the skirts of
the hill were soon peopled, and many large houses were built. The
Spaniards made their principal settlement in this place, the court of
justice was removed to it, and the town of Plata was almost deserted.
They discovered five very rich veins on the upper part of the hill,
called the “rich vein,” the “vein of tin,” etc. This wealth became so
famous, that Indians came from all parts to extract silver from the
hill. The climate is cold, and there are no inhabited places in the
vicinity. When the Spaniards had taken possession, they began to extract
the silver, and he who had a mine gave each Indian who entered it a
marc, or, if he was very rich, two marcs every week. So many people came
to work the mines, that the place appeared like a great city. That the
greatness of these mines may be known, I will say what I saw in the year
of our Lord 1549 in this place, when the licentiate Polo[511] was
corregidor of the town of Plata for his Majesty. Every Saturday the
metal was melted down in his house, and of the royal fifths there came
to his Majesty thirty thousand or twenty-five thousand _pesos_, and
sometimes forty thousand. And while extracting such immense wealth, that
the fifth of the silver, which belonged to his Majesty, came to more
than one hundred and twenty thousand _castellanos_[512] every month,
they said there was little silver, and that the mines were not well
worked. Yet this metal, which was brought to be melted, was only what
belonged to the Christians, and not even all that, for a great deal was
taken in pure bits and carried off; and it may be believed that the
Indians took a great deal to their own homes. It may with truth be
asserted that in no part of the world could so rich a hill be found, and
that no prince receives such profits and rents as this famous town of
Plata. From the year 1548 to 1551 the royal fifths were valued at more
than three millions of ducats, which is more than the Spaniards got from
Atahualpa, and more than was found in the city of Cuzco, when it was
first occupied.[513] It appears that the silver ore cannot be made to
run by the bellows, nor can it be converted into silver by means of fire
at Potosi. In Porco, and in other parts of the kingdom where they
extract metal, they make great plates of silver, and the metal is
purified and separated from the dross by fire, in which operation large
bellows are used. But in Potosi, although this plan has been tried, it
has never succeeded; and though great masters have endeavoured to work
with bellows, their diligence has availed them nothing.

As a remedy may be found in this world for all evils, there has not been
wanting an invention for extracting this metal, which is the strangest
imaginable. The Indians, who were so ingenious, found that in some parts
the silver could not be extracted with the aid of bellows, as was the
case at Potosi. They, therefore, made certain moulds of clay, in the
shape of a flower-pot in Spain, with many airholes in all parts.
Charcoal was put into these moulds, with the metal on the top, and they
were then placed on the part of the hill where the wind blew strongest,
and thus the metal was extracted, which was then purified and refined
with small bellows. In this manner all the metal that has been taken
from the hill is extracted. The Indians go to the heights with the ores
to extract the silver, and they call the moulds _Guayras_.[514] In the
night there are so many of them on all parts of the hill, that it looks
like an illumination. When the wind is fresh they extract much silver,
but when there is no wind they cannot by any means extract silver; so
that, as the wind is profitable in the sea for navigating, it is so here
for extracting silver. As the Indians have no overseers when they carry
the metal up to the heights, it must be supposed that they have enriched
themselves, and taken much silver to their own homes. This is the reason
that Indians have come from all parts of the kingdom to this settlement
of Potosi, to take advantage of the great opportunities offered for
enriching themselves.[515]




CHAPTER CX.

There was the richest market in the world at this hill of Potosi, at the
time when these mines were prosperous.


In all parts of this kingdom of Peru we who have travelled over it know
that there are great fairs or markets, where the natives make their
bargains. Among these the greatest and richest was formerly in the city
of Cuzco, for even in the time of the Spaniards its greatness was caused
by the gold which was bought and sold there, and by the other things of
all kinds that were sent into the city. But this market or fair at Cuzco
did not equal the superb one at Potosi where the traffic was so great
that, among the Indians alone, without including Christians, twenty-five
or thirty thousand golden _pesos_ exchanged hands daily. This is
wonderful, and I believe that no fair in the world can be compared to
it. I saw this fair several times, and it is held in a plain near the
town. In one place there were _cestos_ (bags) of coca, the most valuable
product in these parts. In another place there were bales of cloth and
fine rich shirtings. Here were heaps of maize, dried potatoes, and other
provisions, there great quantities of the best meat in the country. This
fair continued from early morning until dusk; and as these Indians got
silver every day, and are fond of eating and treating, especially those
who have intercourse with Spaniards, they all spent what they got, so
that people assembled from all parts with provisions and other
necessaries for their support. Many Spaniards became rich in this
settlement of Potosi by merely employing two or three Indian women to
traffic in this fair. Great numbers of _Yana-cuna_,[516] who are free
Indians with the right of serving whom they please, flocked to the
fair, and the prettiest girls from Cuzco and all parts of the kingdom,
were to be met with at the fair.

I observed that many frauds were committed, and that there was little
truth spoken. The value of articles was not great, and cloths, linens,
and Hollands were sold almost as cheap as in Spain. Indeed, I saw things
sold for so small a price, that they would have been considered cheap in
Seville. Many men, possessed of great wealth, owing to their insatiable
avarice, lost it by this traffic of buying and selling, some of whom
fled to Chile, Tucuman, and other parts, from fear of their debts. There
were also many disputes and lawsuits among the traffickers.

The climate of Potosi is healthy, especially for the Indians, for few or
none fall ill there. The silver is conveyed by the royal road to Cuzco,
or to the city of Arequipa, which is near the port of Quilca. Most of it
is carried by sheep, without which it would be very difficult to travel
in this kingdom, owing to the great distance between the cities, and the
want of other beasts.




CHAPTER CXI.

Of the sheep, _huanacus_, and _vicuñas_, which they have in most parts
of the mountains of Peru.


It appears to me that in no part of the world have sheep like those of
the Indies been found or heard of. They are especially met with in this
kingdom and in the government of Chile, as well as in some parts of the
province of the Rio de la Plata. It may be that they will also be found
in parts that are still unknown. These sheep are among the most
excellent creatures that God has created, and the most useful. It would
seem that the Divine Majesty took care to create these animals, that
the people of this country might be able to live and sustain themselves,
for by no other means could these Indians (I speak of the mountaineers
of Peru) preserve their lives without these sheep, or others which would
supply them with the same necessaries. In this chapter I shall relate
how this is.

In the valleys on the coast, and in other warm regions, the natives sow
cotton, and make their clothes from it, so that they feel no want,
because the cotton cloth is suitable for their climate.

But in the mountainous parts, such as the Collao and Charcas, no tree
will grow, and if the cotton was sown it would yield nothing, so that
the natives, unless they obtained it by trading, could have no clothing.
To supply this need, the Giver of all good things, who is God our Lord,
created such vast flocks of these animals which we call sheep, that, if
the Spaniards had not diminished their number in the wars, there would
be no possibility of counting them, such would have been their increase
in all parts. But, as I have already said, the civil wars of the
Spaniards have been like a great pestilence, both to the Indians and to
their flocks.

The natives call these sheep _llamas_, and the males _urcos_. Some are
white, others black, and others grey. Some of them are as large as small
donkeys, with long legs, broad bellies, and a neck of the length and
shape of that of a camel. Their heads are large, like those of Spanish
sheep. The flesh of these animals is very good when it is fat, and the
lambs are better and more savoury than those of Spain. The _llamas_ are
very tame, and carry two or three _arrobas_ weight very well. Truly it
is very pleasant to see the Indians of the Collao go forth with their
beasts, and return with them to their homes in the evening, laden with
fuel. They feed on the herbage of the plains, and when they complain
they make a noise like the groaning of camels.

There is another kind called _huanacus_, of the same shape and
appearance, but they are very large and wander over the plains in a wild
state, running and jumping with such speed that the dog which could
overtake them must be very swift. Besides these, there is another sort
of _llamas_, called _vicuñas_. These are more swift than the _huanacus_,
though smaller. They wander over the uninhabited wilds, and eat the
herbage which God has created there. The wool of these _vicuñas_ is
excellent, and finer than the wool of merino sheep in Spain. I know not
whether cloth can be made from it, but the cloths that were made for the
lords of this land are worth seeing. The flesh of these _huanacus_ and
_vicuñas_ tastes like that of wild sheep, but it is good. In the city of
La Paz I ate a dinner off one of these fat _huanacus_, in the inn kept
by the captain Alonzo de Mendoza, and it seemed to me to be the best I
ever had in my life. There is yet another kind of tame _llamas_, which
are called _alpacas_, but they are very ugly and woolly. They are of the
shape of _llamas_, but smaller, and their lambs when young are very like
those of Spain. Each of these _llamas_ brings forth once in the year,
and no more.[517]




CHAPTER CXII.

Of a tree called _molle_, and of other herbs and roots in this kingdom
of Peru.


When I wrote concerning the city of Guayaquil I treated of the
sarsaparilla, an herb the value of which is well known to all who have
visited those parts. In this place I propose to treat of the trees
called _molles_, and of their uses. In the valleys and great forests of
Peru there are many trees of different kinds, and with different uses,
very few of which are like those of Spain. Some of them, such as the
_aguacates_, _guayavos_, _caymitos_, and _guavas_ bear fruits such as I
have already mentioned in various parts of this work; others are covered
with thorns, and others are very large, with great hollows in their
trunks, where the bees make their honey with marvellous great order and
concert. In most of the inhabited parts of this land, large and small
trees are to be seen, which they call _molles_. These trees have very
small leaves, with a smell like that of fennel. Their bark is possessed
of such virtue that, if a man has great pain and swelling in his legs,
it is removed, and the swelling is reduced, by merely soaking this bark,
and washing the place several times. The small branches are very useful
for cleaning the teeth. They also make a very good drink from the very
small berries which this tree bears, as well as vinegar, by merely
steeping the quantity required in vases of water, and putting them on
the fire. After they have stood some time, the residue of the liquor is
converted into wine, vinegar, or treacle, according to the manner of
treating it. The Indians hold these trees in great estimation.[518]

There are also herbs of great virtue in these parts, and I will mention
some which I saw myself. In the province of Quinbaya, where the city of
Cali stands, they raise certain roots among the trees, which are so
efficacious for purging, that it is merely necessary to take a little
more than a _braza_ in length, of the thickness of a finger, place it in
a small jar of water, and drink the greater part of the water during the
night, to cause the required effect, as well as rhubarb. There are also
beans which have the same effect, but some praise them, while others say
they do harm. In the buildings of Vilcas one of my slave girls was very
ill with certain tumours, and I saw that the Indians carried yellow
flowers, which they reduced to powder by applying a light to them. By
anointing her once or twice with this powder she was cured.

In the province of Andahuaylas there is another herb so good for
cleaning the teeth, that by rubbing them with it for an hour or two, the
teeth become as white as snow. There are many other herbs in these
parts, which are useful for curing men, and others which do harm, and
form the poisons of which men die.[519]




CHAPTER CXIII.

How there are large salt lakes and baths in this kingdom; and how the
land is suited for the growth of olives and other fruits of Spain, and
for some animals and birds of that country.


Having concluded what I have to say concerning the founding of the new
cities in Peru, it will be well to give an account of some of the most
noteworthy things in the country, before I bring this first part of my
work to a conclusion.

I will now make mention of the great salt lakes in this country, a thing
very important for the sustenance of the people. I have mentioned how
there were no salt lakes throughout the government of Popayan, and how
God our Lord has provided salt springs, from the water of which the
people make the salt for their support. Here in Peru there are such
large and fine salt lakes that they would suffice to supply all the
kingdoms of Spain, France, Italy, and other parts. Near Tumbez they get
large rocks of salt from water near the sea shore, which they take in
ships to the port of the city of Cali,[520] and to the Tierra Firme. In
the sandy deserts, not very far from the valley of Huara, there are some
large and valuable salt lakes, and great heaps of salt which are lost,
for few Indians take advantage of this supply.[521] In the mountains
near the province of Huaylas there are other still larger salt lakes;
and half a league from the city of Cuzco there are wells, where the
Indians make enough salt to supply all the province. In Cunti-suyu, and
in parts of the Anti-suyu, there are some very large salt deposits. In
short it may be said that Peru is well supplied with salt.

There are also baths in many parts of the country, and fountains of warm
water, where the natives bathe. I have seen many of these, in the parts
through which I have travelled.[522]

Many places in this kingdom, such as the coast valleys and the land on
the banks of rivers, are very fertile, and yield wheat,[523] maize, and
barley[524] in great quantities. There are also not a few vineyards at
San Miguel, Truxillo, the City of the Kings, Cuzco, and Guamanga, and
they are beginning to plant them in other parts, so that there is great
hope of profitable vine cultivation. There are orange and pomegranate
trees, and other trees brought from Spain, besides those of the country;
and pulses of all sorts.

In short Peru is a grand country, and hereafter it will be still
greater, for large cities have been founded, and when our age has passed
away, Peru may send to other countries, wheat, meat, wool, and even
silk, for there are the best situations in the world for planting
mulberries. There is only one thing that has not yet been brought to
this country, and that is the olive tree, which, after bread and the
vine, is the most important product. It seems to me that if young plants
were brought from Spain, and planted in the coast valleys, and on the
banks of rivers in the mountains, there would soon be as large olive
woods as there are at Axarafe de Sevilla. For if they require a warm
climate it is here; if they want much water, or none, or little, all
these requirements can be found here. In some places in Peru it never
thunders, lightning is not seen, nor do snows fall in the coast valleys,
and these are the things which damage the fruit of olive trees. When the
trees are once planted, there will soon come a time when Peru will be as
well supplied with oil as with everything else.[525] No woods of oak
trees have been found in Peru, but if they were planted in the Collao,
in the district of Cuzco, and in other parts, I believe that they would
give the same result as olive trees in the coast valleys.[526]

My opinion is that the conquerors and settlers of these parts should not
pass their time in fighting battles and marching in chase of each other;
but in planting and sowing, which would be more profitable. I have to
mention a thing here, that there is in the mountains of Peru. I allude
to certain foxes, not very large, which have the property of emitting so
foul and pestiferous an odour, that there is nothing with which it can
be compared. If one of these creatures, by any accident, comes in
contact with a lance or anything else, the evil smell remains for many
days, even when the lance is well washed.[527] I have not seen wolves,
nor other mischievous animals, in any part, except the great tigers
which I have mentioned as frequenting the forests of the port of
Buenaventura, in the province of the city of Cali, which have killed
some Spaniards, and many Indians. Ostriches[528] have been met with
beyond Charcas, and the Indians value them very highly. There is another
kind of animal called _huis-cacha_,[529] of the size and shape of a
hare, except that the tail is like that of a fox. They breed in stony
places, and amongst rocks, and many are killed with slings and
arquebuzes. They are good to eat, and the Indians make mantles of their
skins, which are as soft as silk, and very valuable. There are many
falcons, which would be prized in Spain. I have already said that there
are two kinds of partridges, one small, and the other the size of
fowls.[530] There are the best ferrets in the world in this country.
There are also certain very obscene birds, both in the coast valleys and
in the mountains, called _auras_, which eat dead bodies, and other
noisome substances.[531] Of the same kind are the enormous condors,
which almost appear like griffins, and carry off the lambs and small
_huanacus_ in the fields.




CHAPTER CXIV.

How the native Indians of this kingdom were great masters of the arts of
working in silver, and of building; and how they had excellent dyes for
their fine cloths.


From the accounts given to us by the Indians, it appears that, in
ancient times, they had not the same order in their affairs as they
established after they were subdued by the Yncas. For verily things may
be seen made by their hands with such skill, that they cause admiration
to all who have any knowledge of them. And what is more curious is that
they have few tools for making what they do make, and yet that they work
with great skill. When this kingdom was gained by the Spaniards, they
saw pieces of gold, silver, and clay welded together in such fashion
that they appeared to have been born so. They also saw very curious
figures and other things of silver which I do not describe, as I did not
see them myself. It is sufficient to say that I have seen vases made of
pieces of copper or stone, and jars, fountains, and other things richly
ornamented by means of the tools they have. When they work, they make a
small furnace of clay, where they put the charcoal, and they then blow
the fire with small canes, instead of bellows. Besides their silver
utensils, they make chains, stamped ornaments, and other things of gold.
Even boys, who to look at them one would think were hardly old enough to
talk, know how to make these things.[532] Few are the things they now
make in comparison with the great and rich ornaments they made in the
time of the Yncas. They, however, make the _chaquiras_,[533] so small
and accurately worked, by which they show themselves still to be eminent
workers in silver. Many of these silversmiths were stationed by the
Yncas in the principal parts of the kingdom.

These Indians also built strong foundations and grand edifices with
great skill; and now they build the houses of the Spaniards, make bricks
and tiles, and put large stones one on the top of the other with such
exactness that the point of junction is scarcely visible. In many parts
they do these things with no other tools than stones, and their own
wonderful skill. I do not believe that there is any people or nation in
the world who could lead irrigation channels over such rugged and
difficult places as do these Indians. They have small looms for weaving
their cloth; and in ancient times, when the Kings Yncas ruled in this
kingdom, the Mama-cunas, who were held to be sacred, and were dedicated
to the service of the temples of the sun, had no other employment than
to weave very fine cloth of vicuña wool, for the lords Yncas. This cloth
was as fine as any they have in Spain. The dresses of the Yncas
consisted of shirts of this cloth, some embroidered with gold and silver
work, some with emeralds and other precious stones, some with feathers
of birds, and some merely with the cloth. To make these clothes they had
such perfect colours--crimson, blue, yellow, and black--that in this
respect they have the advantage of Spain.[534]

In the government of Popayan there is an earth with which, and with the
leaves of a tree, they make a perfect black dye; but it would be
wearisome to repeat all the details connected with the way they make
these dyes, and it seems sufficient, therefore, to mention the principal
one.




CHAPTER CXV.

How there are great mines in most parts of this kingdom.


The long chain of mountains, which we call Andes, commences at the
strait of Magallanes, and traverses many regions and great provinces,
and we know that on the side towards the South Sea (which is the west)
great riches are found in the hills and rivers, while the provinces to
the eastward are considered to be poor in metals, according to the
account of those who extended their conquests to the river of La Plata,
and came thence to Peru by way of Potosi, They said that they heard of a
country no less fertile than populous, which was a few days’ journey
beyond Charcas, and this proved to be no other than Peru. They saw
little silver, and even that came from the district round the town of
Plata; neither did those who went on an expedition of discovery with
Diego de Rojas, Felipe Gutierrez, and Nicolas de Heredia find any
riches. The Adelantado Don Francisco de Orellana, too, who went down the
Marañon in a boat, at the time when the captain Gonzalo Pizarro was in
search of the cinnamon country, although he passed many large villages,
saw little or no gold or silver. Indeed, except in the province of
Bogota, there is no wealth in these parts of the Cordillera of the
Andes. But it is very different in the southern parts, where greater
treasure has been found than had been seen before in the world during
many ages. Yet if the gold in the provinces near the great river of
Santa Martha, from the city of Popayan to the town of Mompox, had been
in the power of a single lord, as it was in Peru, the wealth would have
been greater than that of Cuzco. In the skirts of these cordilleras they
have found great mines of gold and silver, both near Antiochia, at
Cartago, in the government of Popayan, and throughout the whole kingdom
of Peru.

If there were people to extract it, there would be gold and silver
enough to last for ever; for in the mountains and plains, in the valleys
and in all parts, they have found gold and silver. There is also a great
quantity of copper, and some iron in the mountains which descend towards
the plains. In fine, there is lead in this kingdom, and all the metals
which God has created; and it seems to me that if there were men to
work, there would not fail to be great riches in Peru. Already so much
treasure has been extracted and sent to Spain, that men never thought
there could be so much.




CHAPTER CXVI.

How many nations of these Indians make war one upon the other, and how
the lords and chiefs oppress the poorer people.


I verily believe that the people in these Indies have been there for
many ages, as is shown by the ancient buildings and the extensive
regions they have peopled; and, although they are all brown and
beardless, and are so much alike, they have such a multitude of
languages that there is almost a new language at every league in all
parts of the country.[535] As so many ages have passed away since these
people came here, they have waged great wars and battles, retaining the
provinces they conquered. Thus, in the district of the town of Arma, in
the government of Popayan, there is a great province called Carrapa,
between which and that of Quinbaya (where the city of Cartago is
founded) there are many people. These people, having for their leader a
chief named Yrrua, entered Carrapa, and, in spite of the natives, made
themselves masters of the greater part of the province.[536] I know
this, because, when we discovered these districts, we saw the villages
burnt just as they were left by the natives of the province of Quinbaya.
It is notorious that they were all killed, in former times, by those who
made themselves masters of the land.

In many parts of the provinces of the government of Popayan the same
things happened. In Peru they talk of nothing else but how some came
from one part, and some from another, and made themselves masters of the
land of their neighbours by wars and battles. The great antiquity of
these people is also shown by the remains of cultivated fields, which
are so numerous.

The Yncas, it is well known, made themselves masters of this kingdom by
force and intrigues. They relate that Manco Ccapac, who founded the city
of Cuzco, had an insignificant origin, and the sovereignty remained in
the hands of his descendants until the time of the dispute between the
sole heir Huascar, and Atahualpa, concerning the government of the
empire, after which the Spaniards arrived, and easily got possession of
the country. From all this it appears that there were wars and
oppressions among these Indians, as well as among all the other nations
of the world; for do we not read that tyrants have made themselves
rulers of great kingdoms and lordships?

When I was in these parts I heard that the chiefs oppressed the people,
and that some of them treated the Indians with great severity; for if
the _Encomenderos_ asked for any service, or desired some forced
service, either from the persons or goods of the Indians, they obliged
the chiefs to supply it. The chiefs then went to the houses of the
poorest people, and ordered them to comply with the demand; and if they
made any excuse, even if it was a just one, not only were they not
listened to, but they were also ill-treated, and their persons or goods
were taken by force. I heard the poor Indians of the King, and others in
the Collao, in the valley of Xauxa, and in many other parts, lamenting
over this oppression, but though they receive an injury they cannot
resent it. If sheep are required, they are not taken from the chiefs but
from the unhappy Indians. Some of them are so much molested that they
hide away for fear of these exactions; and in the coast valleys they are
more oppressed by the chiefs than in the mountains. It is true, however,
that, as there are friars preaching in most of the provinces of this
kingdom, and as some of them understand the language, they hear the
complaints of the Indians, and remedy many of their wrongs. Each day
things get into better order, and the Christians and Indian chiefs have
such fear of the strict justice enforced in these parts by the Audience
and royal Chancelleries, that they dare not lay their hands on the poor,
and there has thus been a great reform in the government.




CHAPTER CXVII.

In which certain things are declared concerning the Indians; and what
fell out between a clergyman and one of them, in a village of this
kingdom.


As some people say evil things of these Indians, comparing them with
beasts, saying that in their customs and ways of living they are more
like beasts than men, and that they not only eat each other, but commit
other great crimes; and as I have written of these and other abuses of
which they are guilty in this history, I wish it to be known that all
this is not true of every nation in these Indies, and that, if in some
provinces they eat human flesh, and commit other crimes, in others they
abhor these things. It would, therefore, be unjust to condemn them all,
and even those who practise these sins will be freed from them by the
light of our holy faith, without which they were ignorant of what they
did, like many other nations, such as the gentiles, who knew no more of
the faith than these Indians, and sacrificed to idols as much or more
than they did. And even, if we look round, we shall see many who profess
our law, and have received the water of the holy baptism, committing
great sins every day, being deceived by the devil. If, therefore, these
Indians practised the customs of which I have written, it was because
formerly they had no one to direct them in the way of truth. Now those
who hear the doctrine of the holy gospel, know that the shades of
perdition surround those who are separated from it; while the devil,
whose envy increases at the fruits of our holy faith, deceives some of
these people by fears and terrors; but his victims are few, and are each
day decreasing, seeing that our Lord God works in all times for the
extension of his holy faith.

Among other notable things, I will relate one which happened in a
village called Lampa, according to the account which was given me of it
in the village of Azangaro, a _repartimiento_ of the priest Antonio de
Quiñones,[537] a citizen of Cuzco. It relates to the conversion of an
Indian, and I asked my informant to give me the statement in writing,
which, without adding or omitting anything, is as follows:--

“I, Marcos Otaso, a priest and native of Valladolid, being in the
village of Lampa, teaching the Indians our holy Christian faith, in the
month of May 1547, the moon being full, all the chiefs and principal
people came to me and asked very eagerly for permission to do what was
their custom at that season. I replied that if it was anything that was
unlawful in our holy Catholic faith, it must not be done from that time
forward. They received my decision, and returned to their homes. At
about noon they began to sound drums in several directions with one
stick, which is their way of sounding them; and presently several
mantles were spread in the _plaza_ for the chiefs to sit upon, who were
dressed in their best clothes, with their hair plaited according to
their custom--a plait, twisted four times, falling on each side. Being
seated in their places, I saw a boy deity, aged about twelve years, go
up to each cacique. These boys were very handsome, and richly dressed.
From the knees downwards they were covered with red fringe, their arms
were clothed in the same way, and they had many stamped medals of gold
and silver on different parts of their bodies. In their right hands they
carried a kind of weapon like a halberd, and in the left a large bag of
coca. On the left hand of each boy walked girls of ten years old,
beautifully dressed in the same way, except that they wore a long train
behind, which is not the custom with other women. This train was held by
an older girl, who was beautiful and stately. Behind came many women as
attendants. The girls carried bags of very fine cloth in their right
hands, full of gold and silver medals. From the shoulders a lion skin
hung down and covered everything. Behind the attendants came six Indian
labourers, each with a plough on his shoulder, and beautiful crowns of
many-coloured feathers on his head. Then followed six others, as their
pages, with bags of potatoes, playing on drums. Thus they advanced
towards the chiefs, and, as they passed them, the boys and girls, and
all the others, made deep reverences and bowed their heads. The chiefs
returned the salute by bowing also. They then retired without turning
their heads, for about twenty paces, in the same order. The labourers
then put the ploughs on the ground, and took the bags of the large and
choice potatoes, at the same time beating drums, and performing a sort
of dance, raising themselves on the points of their toes, and holding up
the bags which they held in their hands from time to time. Only those I
have mentioned did this; for all the chiefs and the rest of the people
were seated on the ground in rows in perfect silence, watching what was
going on. Afterwards those in the procession sat down, and others
brought a one-year old lamb all of one colour, and took it before the
chief, surrounded by other Indians, so that I might not see what was
going on. They then threw the lamb on the ground, and, having torn out
the bowels, they gave them to the sorcerers, called _Huaca-camayoc_, who
are to them what priests are with us. I then saw certain Indians taking
up as much of the lamb’s blood as they could hold in their hands, and
pouring it quickly amongst the potatoes in the bags.[538] At this moment
a chief came forward, who had become a Christian a few days before,
calling them dogs and other things, in their own language, which I did
not understand. He then went to the foot of a high cross which stood in
the middle of the _plaza_, where, with a loud voice, he fearlessly
denounced this diabolical rite. They all went away in great affright,
without finishing the sacrifice, or prognosticating the success of the
harvests during the year, as was their wont. Other priests, called
_umu_,[539] also predict coming events, and converse with the devil,
carrying about with them a figure of the enemy, made of a hollow bone,
with a lump of the black wax, that is found in the country, on the top.

“While I was in this village of Lampa, a boy of mine came to me on
Maundy Thursday, who had slept in the church. He was very much
frightened, and asked me to get up and go to baptise a cacique who was
in the church on his knees before the images, in a state of great
terror. On the Wednesday night, when this cacique was in the _huaca_
where they go to worship, he saw a man dressed in white, who told him to
go to the church and be baptised by me. As soon as day dawned I got up
and recited my prayers, and then, not believing the story, went to say
mass, and found the man still on his knees. Directly he saw me, he threw
himself at my feet, and begged me to make him a Christian. I consented,
and having said mass in presence of several Christians, I baptised him.
He then went out with great joy, crying out that he was now a Christian,
and not a bad man like the other Indians. Then, without saying anything
to anybody, he burnt his house, divided his women and flocks amongst his
servants, and returned to the church, where he was always preaching to
the Indians what concerned their salvation, and urging them to forsake
their sins and vices. He did this with great fervour, as if he had been
inspired by the Holy Spirit. Many Indians became Christians, owing to
the persuasions of the newly-converted chief; and the chief related that
the man whom he saw in the _huaca_, or temple of the devil, was white
and very beautiful, and that his clothes were resplendent.”

The priest gave me this account in writing, and I myself see great signs
every day that the Lord is more served now than in times past. The
Indians are converted, and little by little they are forgetting their
rites and evil customs. If this work has been slow, the fault lies more
in our neglect than in their malice; for the best way to convert the
Indians is to do good works, that the newly converted may take example.




CHAPTER CXVIII.

How, when a chief near the town of Anzerma wished to become a Christian,
he saw the devils visibly, who wished to deter him from his good
intention by their terrors.


In the last chapter I related how an Indian of the village of Lampa was
converted to Christianity. I will here tell another strange story, that
the faithful may glorify the name of God who is so merciful to us, and
that the wicked and incredulous may acknowledge the works of the Lord.
When the Adelantado Belalcazar was governor of the province of Popayan,
and when Gomez Hernandez was his lieutenant in the town of Anzerma,
there was a chief in a village called Pirsa, almost four leagues from
the town, whose brother, a good-looking youth, named Tamaraqunga,
inspired by God, wished to go to the town of the Christians, to receive
baptism. But the devils did not wish that he should attain his desire,
fearing to lose what seemed secure, so they frightened this Tamaraqunga
in such sort that he was unable to do anything. God permitting it, the
devils stationed themselves in a place where the chief alone could see
them, in the shape of birds called _Auras_.[540] Finding himself so
persecuted by the devils, he sent in great haste to a Christian living
near, who came at once, and, hearing what he wanted, signed him with the
sign of the cross. But the devils then frightened him more than ever,
appearing in hideous forms which were only visible to him. The Christian
only saw stones falling from the air, and heard whistling. A brother of
one Juan Pacheco, citizen of the same town, then holding office in the
place of Gomez Hernandez, who had gone to Caramanta, came from Anzerma
with another man, to visit the Indian chief. They say that Tamaraqunga
was much frightened and ill-treated by the devils, who carried him
through the air from one place to another, in presence of the
Christians, he complaining, and the devils whistling and shouting.[541]
Sometimes, when the chief was sitting with a glass of liquor before him,
the Christians saw the glass raised up in the air and put down empty,
and a short time afterwards the wine was again poured into the cup from
the air. The chief covered his face with his cloak, that he might not
see the horrible visions before him. Then, without having moved the
cloak from his face, the devils forced clay into his mouth, as if they
wished to choke him. At last the Christians resolved to take the chief
to the town, that he might be baptised at once, and more than two
hundred Indians came with him, but they were so frightened by the
devils, that they would not come near the chief. Thus, journeying with
the Christians, they came to a bad part of the road, where the devils
took the chief into the air, to dash him against the rocks. He cried out
to the Christians for help, who presently took hold of him, but the
Indians did not dare to speak, much more to offer any assistance. So
cruelly was he persecuted by the devils, all for the good of his soul,
and for the greater confusion of this our cruel enemy.

The two Christians saw that God would not be served if the Indian was
left to these devils, so they fastened some cords round his waist, and,
calling upon God for help, they went on with the Indian between them,
and with crosses in their hands, and reached a hill; but still with
great difficulty. As they were now near the town, they sent a messenger
to Juan Pacheco for assistance. Presently the devils began to throw
stones about in the air, and in this way they reached the town, and went
straight to the house of this Juan Pacheco, where all the Christians in
the village assembled. The devils then began throwing small stones on
the top of the house, and whistling; and as the Indians, when they go to
war, cry out _Hu! Hu! Hu!_ so the devils also made these noises in very
loud voices. Every body then began to pray to our Lord that, for his
glory and for the salvation of the Indian’s soul, the devils might not
be allowed to have their own way; for these devils, according to the
words heard by the chief, cried out that he must not become a Christian.
While many stones were flying about, the people came out to go to
church, and some Christians heard noises within, before the doors were
opened. The Indian Tamaraqunga, on going into the church, saw the devils
looking very fierce, with their heads beneath, and feet in the air. A
friar named Fray Juan de Santa Maria, of the order of our lady of mercy,
then came in to baptise the chief, upon which the devils, in presence of
all the Christians, but without being seen by any one but the chief,
took him up in the air; putting his head below and his feet above, as
they were themselves. The Christians cried out in a loud voice, “Jesus
Christ! Jesus Christ, be with us!” made the sign of the cross, and
taking hold of him, wetted him with holy water; but still the whistling
and other noises continued inside the church. Tamaraqunga saw the
devils visibly, and they gave him such buffets, that a hat, which he
held before his eyes so as not to see them, was hurled to a distance.
They also spat in his face. All this happened during the night, and in
the morning the friar dressed, to say mass. As soon as he began, the
noises ceased, and the chief received no more evil treatment from the
devils. When the most holy mass was concluded, Tamaraqunga asked for the
water of baptism, together with his wife and son. After he was baptised
he said that he was now a Christian and might be left to walk alone, to
see if the devils st¡ll had any power over him. So the Christians let
him go, while they all prayed to our Lord that, for the exaltation of
his holy faith, and that the Indians might be converted, he would not
permit the devils to have any further power over the chief, now that he
was a Christian. Then Tamaraqunga went out with great joy, saying “I am
a Christian,” and praising God in his own language. He went round the
church two or three times, and neither felt nor heard anything from the
devils, so he went to his house full of joy and contentment. This event
was so famous among the Indians, that many became Christians. It
happened in the year 1549.




CHAPTER CXIX.

How mighty wonders have been clearly seen in the discovery of these
Indies, how our Sovereign Lord God desires to watch over the Spaniards,
and how He also chastises those who are cruel to the Indians.


Before finishing this first part, it seems good that I should here
mention some of the marvellous works which our Lord God has seen fit to
display in the discovery which the Christian Spaniards have made in
these kingdoms, as well as the punishments he has inflicted on certain
notable persons. For they will teach us how we must love Him as a
father, and fear Him as a just Judge and Lord.

Passing over the first discovery made by the admiral Don Christoval
Colon, and the successes of the Marquis Don Fernando Cortez, and of
other captains and governors who discovered Tierra Firme, because I only
wish to mention the events of the present time, I come to the marquis
Don Francisco Pizarro. How many hardships did he and his companions
suffer, without discovering anything beyond the land north of the river
San Juan, and the succours brought by the adelantado Don Diego de
Almagro did not suffice to enable him to press forward. Then it was that
the governor Pedro de los Rios, learning from the couplet which was
written to him:--

    “Look out, Señor Governor,
      For the drover while he is near,
     For he goes home to get the sheep
      For the butcher who is there.”[542]

that Almagro came to bring people to the shambles of these hardships,
where Pizarro would butcher them, sent Juan Tafur of Panama to bring
them back. They all returned with him except thirteen Christians[543]
who remained with Don Francisco Pizarro in the island of Gorgona, until
Don Diego Almagro sent them a ship with which to continue the voyage.
It pleased God that, though they had made no discovery during the three
or four previous years, they discovered all in ten or twelve days. Thus
these thirteen Christians, with their leader, discovered Peru.
Afterwards, at the end of some years, when the same marquis with 160
Spaniards invaded the country, he could not have prevailed against the
multitude of Indians, if God had not permitted that there should be a
very cruel war between the two brothers Huascar and Atahualpa, at the
time. When the Indians rose against the Christians at Cuzco, there were
not more than 180 Spaniards mounted and on foot, to resist the attacks
of Manco Ynca at the head of more than 200,000 Indians. It was a miracle
how they escaped from the hands of the Indians during a whole year, and
some of the Indians themselves affirm that sometimes, when they were
fighting with the Spaniards, they saw a celestial figure which did them
great mischief. When the Indians set fire to the city, and the flames
began to approach the church, it was seen to reach it three times, and
to be put out as often, the place where the flames touched it being
covered with dry straw.

The captain Francisco Cesar, who set out from Carthagena in the year
1536, and traversed great mountains and deep rivers, with only sixty
Spaniards, reached the province of Guaca, where there was a principal
house dedicated to the devil, and he collected thirty thousand _pesos_
of gold from a tomb near it.[544] When the Indians saw how few Spaniards
there were, more than twenty thousand assembled and surrounded them. As
the Spaniards were so few and weak, having eaten nothing but roots, God
still favoured them so that they killed and wounded many Indians,
without losing a man. Not only did God work this miracle for the
Christians, but he was also served by guiding them to a road which took
them to Uraba in eighteen days, when they had wandered on the other for
a whole year.

We have seen many more of these miracles, but it must suffice to say
that a province containing thirty or forty thousand Indians is held by
forty or fifty Christians. And in lands where there are heavy rains or
continual earthquakes, we see clearly the favour of God, as soon as
Christians enter them. For the rains abate, the lands become profitable,
and there are fewer storms than in the times before the Christians
arrived.

Another thing must also be noted, which is, that those who carry the
standard of the cross as their guide must not make their discoveries as
tyrants, for those who do so receive heavy chastisement. Of those who
have been tyrants, few have died natural deaths, such for instance as
those who compassed the death of Atahualpa. All these have perished
miserably. It would even appear that the great wars in Peru have been
permitted by God, to punish the conquerors, and thus Carbajal may be
looked upon as the executioner of His justice. He lived until God’s
chastisement was complete, and then paid with his life for the grave
crimes he had committed. The marshal Don Jorge Robledo consented to
allow great harm to be done to the Indians in the province of Pozo, and
many to be killed with crossbows and dogs. And God permitted that he
should be sentenced to death in the same place, and have for his tomb
the bellies of the Indians.[545] The comendador Hernan Rodriquez de Sosa
and Baltasar de Ledesma died in the same way, and were also eaten by the
Indians; they having themselves been previously very cruel to them. The
Adelantado Belalcazar killed many Indians in Quito; and God permitted
that he should be driven from his government by the judge who came to
try him, and that he should die at Carthagena on his way to Spain, poor,
and full of sorrow.[546] Francisco Garcia de Tobar, who was so much
feared by the Indians by reason of the number he had killed, was himself
killed and eaten by them.

Let no one deceive himself with the belief that God has not punished
those who were cruel to these Indians; for not one of them failed to
receive chastisement in proportion to the offence. I knew one Roque
Martin, an inhabitant of the city of Cali, who gave the dead bodies of
the Indians to the dogs, and afterwards the Indians killed, and, I even
believe, ate him. I could enumerate many other examples, but I shall
conclude by saying that our Lord favours us in these conquests and
discoveries; but if the discoverers afterwards become tyrants, He
chastises them severely, as I have myself seen, some of them dying
suddenly, which is a thing most to be feared.




CHAPTER CXX.

Of the dioceses in this kingdom of Peru, who are the bishops of them,
and of the Royal Chancellery in the City of Kings.


In many parts of this work I have treated of the rites and customs of
the Indians, and of the many temples and places of worship they had,
where the devil was seen and adored by them. It will now be well to
mention the dioceses, and who those are who rule the churches and have
charge of so many souls.

After the discovery of this kingdom, as the very reverend father Don
Fray Vincente Valverde[547] was in the conquest, he received Bulls from
the Supreme Pontiff, and was nominated as bishop by his Majesty. He held
the post until the Indians killed him in the island of Puna. Afterwards,
as the Spaniards founded new cities, the number of bishops was
increased. The very reverend father Don Juan Solano,[548] of the order
of San Domingo, was made Bishop of Cuzco, and is so still in 1550, the
diocese extending to Guamanga,[549] Arequipa, and the new city of La
Paz. The most reverend father Don Jeronymo de Loaysa,[550] a friar of
the same order, has been nominated archbishop of the City of the Kings,
with a diocese reaching to Plata, Truxillo, Huanuco, and
Chachapoyas.[551] Don Garcia Diaz Arias is bishop of the city of San
Francisco del Quito, including San Miguel, Puerto Viejo, and Guayaquil.
He has his seat in Quito, which is the chief place in the diocese. The
bishop of the government of Popayan is Don Juan Valle. These fathers
were the bishops of this kingdom when I left it, and they have the duty
to perform of placing clergymen to celebrate mass in the towns and
villages. The government of this kingdom is so good, in these times,
that the Indians are complete masters of their goods and persons. By the
will of God the former tyranny and ill-treatment of Indians have ceased,
for He cures all things by his grace. Royal audiences and chancelleries
have been established, composed of learned men, who give an example to
others by their incorruptible justice, and who have established the
rules for the payment of tribute. The excellent lord Don Antonio de
Mendoza,[552] a knight as full of valour and other virtues as he is
wanting in bad qualities, is the viceroy; and the licentiate Andres de
Cianca, the doctor Bravo de Saravia, and the licentiate Hernando de
Santillan are the judges. The court and royal chancellery are
established in the City of the Kings.

I will conclude this chapter by saying that, when the lords of his
Majesty’s council of the Indies were examining my work, the very
reverend father Fray Don Tomas de San Martin was appointed bishop of
Charcas. His diocese commences at the limit of that of Cuzco, and
extends to Chile and Tucuman, including the city of La Paz and the town
of Plata, which is the seat of this new bishopric.




CHAPTER CXXI.

Of the monasteries which have been founded in Peru, from the date of its
discovery down to the present year 1550.


In the previous chapter I have briefly stated what bishops there are in
this kingdom, and it will now be well to mention the monasteries which
have been founded in it, and who were the founders, for in these things
grave worthies and some very learned doctors have assisted.

In the city of Cuzco there is a house of the order of San Domingo, on
the site where the Indians had their principal temple. It was founded by
the reverend father Fray Juan de Olias. There is another house of the
order of San Francisco, founded by the reverend father Fray Pedro
Portugues. Another house exists of the order of our Lady of Mercy,[553]
founded by the reverend father Fray Sebastian. In the city of La Paz
there is another monastery of San Francisco, founded by the reverend
father Fray Francisco de los Angeles. In the village of Chucuito there
is a house of Dominicans founded by the reverend father Fray Tomas de
San Martin. In the town of Plata there is another of Franciscans,
founded by the reverend father Fray Jeronimo. In Guamanga there is
another of Dominicans founded by the reverend father Fray Martin de
Esquivel; and a monastery of our Lady of Mercy founded by the reverend
father Fray Sebastian.[554] In the City of the Kings there is another of
Franciscans founded by the reverend father Fray Francisco de Santa
Ana;[555] another of Dominicans, founded by the reverend father Fray
Juan de Olias[556] and another of our Lady of Mercy, founded by the
reverend father Fray Miguel de Orenes. In the village of Chincha there
is a house of Dominicans, founded by the reverend father Fray Domingo de
San Tomas. In the city of Arequipa there is another house of this order,
founded by the reverend father Fray Pedro de Ulloa; and in the city of
Leon de Huanuco there is another, founded by the same father Fray Pedro
de Ulloa. In the town of Chicama there is also a house of Dominicans,
founded by the reverend father Fray Domingo de San Tomas. In the city of
Truxillo there is a monastery of Franciscans, founded by the reverend
father Fray Francisco de la Cruz, and another of Mercy. In Quito there
is a house of Dominicans, founded by the reverend father Alonzo de
Monte-negro, another of Mercy, and another of Franciscans, founded by
the reverend father Fray Jodoco Rique Flamenco. There are some other
houses, besides the above, which have been founded by the numerous
friars who are constantly sent by his Majesty’s council of the Indies,
to engage in the conversion of the Indians, for so his Majesty has
ordered, and they occupy themselves in teaching the natives with great
diligence. Touching the rules and other things of which I should treat,
it w¡ll be more convenient to do so in another place.

With this I make an end of my first part, with glory to God, our
Almighty Lord, and to his blessed and glorious Mother our Lady. I
commenced writing in the city of Cartago, in the government of Popayan
in the year of 1541, and I finished writing originally in the City of
the Kings, in the kingdom of Peru, on the 8th day of the month of
September 1550, the author being thirty-two year’s of age, and having
passed seventeen of them in these Indies.

                               THE END.




                                 INDEX

                                TO THE

                 FIRST PART OF THE CHRONICLE OF PERU,

                                  BY

                        PEDRO DE CIEZA DE LEON.


Abancay, 318

Abibe mountains, 43;
  certain hairy worms met with on the, 38

Aburra valley, 67-114

Acari, 28, 265

Acos, 301, 373

_Adobes_, 129, 219, 251

Aguales Indians, 108

Aguacate, a fruit (see Palta).

Aguja, point of, 25

Agaz, Juan, eats a dozen apples, 39

Aji, 142 _note_, 232

Alaya, chief of Xauxa, 224, 301

Alcobasa (Diego de), his account of the ruins of Tiahuanaco, 378 _note_

Alcon (Pedro), one of the thirteen companions of Pizarro, 420 _note_

Aldana (Lorenzo de), 123

Algoroba trees, 129, 235, 239 _note_

Alligators, 16

Alligator pears (see Paltas).

Alonzo (Rodrigo), in company with Cieza de Leon, sees
   a pretty girl killed and eaten, 79

Almagro (Diego de), 7, 159, 186, 256, 318, 419

Almagro the Younger, 306 _note_, 312, 335

Alpacas, 394

Alvarado (Alonzo de), 157, 279, 282

---- (Pedro de), 148, 155, 156, 157, 185, 186, 248

---- (Gomez de), 157, 281, 283

---- (Diego de), 157

Amaru-mayu river, 337 _note_

Ambato, 154

Ancocahua, temple of, 357

Ancasmayu river, 122

Anco-allo, chief of the Chancas, 280

Andagoya (Pascual de), 105 _note_

Andahuaylas, 315, 317

Angoyaco pass, 302

Animals, 42;
  guinea pigs, 63 _note_;
  _chucha_, 91;
  _guadaquinajes_, _ib._;
  tigers, 104;
  tapirs, 164;
  of Puerto Viejo, 175;
  dogs, 235;
  llama tribe, 392;
  of Peru, 402;
  foxes, 237-402

Añaquito, plains of, 139

Andeneria, 321

Andes, description of, 129;
  forests of, 323, 337;
  animals and snakes of, 338;
  nations of, 339;
  riches of, 406

Antioquia, 4, 52;
  customs of natives of, 59;
  road from, to Arma, 66, 114

Anti-suyu, province, 323-337

Anunaybe, father of the cacique Nutibara, 46

Anzerma, Indians of, 63;
  founding of, 65;
  supply of salt at, 126

Apurimac, river and bridge, 319

Aqueducts (see Irrigation, works of).

Arbi, valley of, 81

Arequipa, 287, 392

Arias (Garcia Diaz), bishop of Quito, 424

Arica, 29

Arma, 69-70;
  Indians of, 70-72

Armendariz (Miguel Diaz), 96

Arrows, poisoned, used by the Indians of Uraba, 39

Art, Peruvian works of, 403-4

Asillo, 369

Astete (Miguel de), 272 _note_

Astopilco, cacique at Caxamarca, descended from Atahualpa, 272 _note_

Atacama desert, 267

Atahualpa, his cruelty to the Cañaris, 167;
  his residence at Caxamarca, 271;
  war with Huascar, 273 _note_, 275, 409, 421;
  meaning of the word, 231

Atienza, (Blas de), protests against the murder of Atahualpa, 292 _note_

Atoco, Indian general takes Atahualpa prisoner, 167, 273

Atongayo bay, 30

Atrato river, 49 _note_

Atris, valley of, 123

Aura, bird so called, 175, 403, 416

Ausancata temple, 354

Avila (Alonzo de), protests against the murder of Atahualpa, 292 _note_

Avogada pears (see _Paltas_).

Ayala (Christoval de), killed, 94;
  his pigs, _ib._

---- (Pedro de), protests against the murder of Atahualpa, 292 _note_

Ayavire, 358, 369

Ayllos, weapon so called, 355

Aymara Indians (same as Collas, which see).

Ayniledos river, 31

Azangaro, 369


Bachicao (Hernando), 373 and _note_

Balsas, 265

Barranca (La), 248 _note_

Barley, 144, 400

Baths of the Yncas, 271, 285 note, 313 _note_, 400 _note_

Bees, 90

Belalcazar (Sebastian de), kills Robledo, 79;
  founds Cali, 93, 105;
  notice of, 110 _note_, 113, 145, 201, 423;
  marches to assist the president Gasca, 151, 186

Bio-bio river, 31

Birds of Puerto Viejo--the _xuta_ and _maca_, 175;
  on the Peruvian coast, 237 (see _Aura_).

Blanco, cape, 25

Blasco Nuñez Vela, the viceroy, 87, 139, 187 _note_, 221 _note_, 275 _note_

Bobadilla (Fray Francisco de), umpire between Pizarro and Almagro, 256

Bomba, province of, 117

Bombon, 286;
  lake of, 294

Bracamoros, province and Indians, 204-209

Briceño (Alonzo), one of the thirteen companions of Pizarro, 420

Bridge of rope across the Vilcas, 314 _note_;
  across the Apurimac, 319 _note_

---- of Desaguadero, toll for crossing, 373

Buenaventura, 20, 104, 105 _note_, 106

Buga, province of, 94

Building, Peruvians skilled in, 405

Burial of the dead, customs of the Indians, 40, 51, 64, 77, 81, 83, 102,
   120, 151, 168, 180, 188, 199, 203, 206, 221, 222, 226 _note_, 252, 262,
   279, 285, 358, 364

Buritica hill, 56


Cabaya, a kind of aloe, 146

Cacha village, 356

Calamar, 33

Caldera, Licentiate, 159

Callao, 27

Cali, city of, 93;
  Indians of, 96;
  river and situation, 99;
  villages, etc., 100-3, 105;
  road from, to Popayan, 107;
  to Buenaventura, 106

Camana, 29, 265

Campo Redondo (Gaspar Rodriguez de), 303 _note_

Cañaris, 162, 167, 169

Cañari-bamba, 204

Canas, Indians, 356 _note_, 358

Canches, Indians, 355, 356 _note_, 358

Candia (Pedro de), one of the thirteen companions of Pizarro, 193 _note_, 419

Cane brake, near Cartago, 90

Cañete valley, 257 _note_, 259

Cangas, Suer de, 185

Cannibalism, 50, 52, 60, 71, 79, 84, 96, 97, 101, 115, 118

Capitulation (between Pizarro and Queen Juana), 420 _note_

Carachine Point, 20

Caracollo village, 381

Caraques, 185

Caramanta province, 126

Carangues, 133, 138

Caraquen bay, 22

Caravaya river and gold of, 369

Carbajal (Francisco de), 276 _note_, 303 _note_;
  feeds on honey, 362, 373 _note_, 384, 422, 424 _note_

---- (Yllan Suarez de), 305 _note_

Cari, a chief of the Collas, 363

Cariapasa, Chief of Chucuito, 373

Carmenca hill at Cuzco, 325

Carrapa, 82, 84

Carrion (Anton de), one of the thirteen companions of Pizarro, 420

Cartago, 67, 85, 92

Cartama, 60

Carthagena, 33, 35

Casma, port of, 26

Cauca river, 58 _note_, 80 _note_, 114

_Castellano_, value of, 159, 272, 387

Castro, Vaca de, 283, 306 _note_, 312

Carinas Indians, 354

Caxamarca, 269 _note_, 271

Cayambes Indians, 137, 161

Caymito fruit, 16, 234

Ccapac Yupanqui, a victorious Ynca general, 269 _note_

Ccuri-cancha, 328, 385

Cegue river, of Quinbaya, 86

Cenasura, 67

Centeno (Diego de), 380, 384

Cenu, 228;
  burial places at, 221

---- river, alligators in, 16-35

Cenasura, 126

Cesar (Francisco), 46, 47 _note_, 48, 422

Cespedes (Juan de), a negro belonging to, mistakes dried bowels for sausages, 97

Chacama valley, 241

Chachapoyas, 277, 278

_Chacu_ or hunting of the Yncas, 288 _note_

Chagres river, 17

Challcuchima, General of Atahualpa, burnt by order of Pizarro, 320

Chanca Indians, 280, 315, 316

Chanchan buildings, 162

Chancos flatten the skulls of their children, 96

Chapanchita provinces, 117

Chaqui, 383

_Chaquira_ beads, 176, 405

Charcas province, 381;
  mines, 385

Chaves (Diego de), wife of, see Escobar.

---- (Francisco de), 292 and _note_

Chayanta, 383

Chicha liquor, 152, 220

Chichas village, 383

Chilane village, 373

Chilca, 255

Children, naming of, 231

Chile, 30-384

Chimu, valley and ruins, 242 and _note_

Chincha valley, 228, 260; islands, 28 _note_

Chinchay-cocha lake, 294, 296

Chinchona plants at Loxa, 206 _note_

Chiquana, 356

Chirimoya fruit, 234 _note_

Choape, 31

_Chono_, dog so called, 235

_Chucha_, animal so called, 91

---- a shell fish, 16

Chucuito, 373

Chumbivilica, 335

_Chumpi_ (belt), 146

Chunchos, 337 _note_

Chupas, field of, 306 _note_

Chuñus, 361

Chuqui-apu, 380

Cianca (Andres), a judge of the audience, 425

Cieza de Leon, dedication of his work, 1;
  his habit of writing on the march, 3;
  plan of his work, 6;
  collects information concerning the coast, 27;
  loses his journals after the battle of Xaquixaguana, 32;
  joins Vadillo, 41;
  finds a quantity of gold, 77;
  joins Belalcazar, 110 _note_;
  method of collecting information, 177;
  marching to join the royal army, 151, 167, 241;
  crosses the bridge over the Apurimac, 319;
  goes to Charcas, 339;
  at Pucara, 368;
  continues to take notes in the Collao, 364;
  and at Tiahuanaco, 376;
  proposes to form plantations of trees, 401;
  sees God’s hand visibly in the conquest of the Indies, 418;
  finishes his work, 427

Cinnamon, 137, 142

Cinto, valley of, 240

Climate of Peru, 130;
  of Quito, 140;
  of the Peruvian coast, 214;
  of the Collao, 360

Cloth weaving, 405

Coast valleys, 129, 214-216 to 268;
  fertility of, 233

Coca, 352

Coconucos Indians, 112, 116

Cochabamba, 383

Cochesqui, 139

Collaguaso village, 137

Collahuayos, 398 _note_

Collao province, 324, 359, 360, 362, 370

---- Indians (see Collas), 367

Collique, 240

Colmenares (Diego de), 34 _note_

Colonists (see _Mitimaes_).

Conchucos, 286-291

Consota, salt from, 126

Conversion of an Indian, in spite of the Devil, 415

Copayapo, 30

Coquimbo, 30

Cori, salt from, 125

Corrientes cape, 20

Cosa (Juan de la), 33

Cotton, 143, 393

Cuellar (Francisco de) one of Pizarro’s thirteen companions, 420

_Cui_, or guinea pigs, 63 _note_

Cunti-suyu, 324, 335

Cuzco, dress of ladies of, 146;
  situation, 322;
  divisions, 325;
  streets and wards, 327 _note_;
  temple of the sun, 328;
  founded by Manco Ccapac, 329;
  description, 330;
  Indians from all parts living in, 330;
  Bishop of, 424


Dabaybe (or Dobaybe, which see).

_Dantas_, or tapirs, 164

Darien river, 95

Desaguadero river, 373

Deserts on the coast, described, 128, 238, 240

Devil, in nearly every page;
  his wiles, 225;
  devil of Peru (see _Supay_, see _Xixarama_);
  devils interfering to prevent conversion of an Indian, 416

Dioceses in Peru, 424

Dobaybe, country of, 36, 47 _note_, 49 _note_

Dogs in Peru, 235

Doorways (monolithic) at Tiahuanaco, 376

Dress of ladies of Cuzco, 146

Ducks, Indians breed many, 235

Dyes used by the Indians, 405, 406 _note_


Earthquakes at Arequipa, 268

Enciso, the Bachiller, 34 _note_

Equinoctial line, 173

Emeralds, 183;
  broken by the Spaniards, 185

Encomiendas, 72 _note_

Escobar (Maria de) introduces wheat into Peru, 400


Fair at Potosi, 391

Female succession, 64, 73, 83

Ferrol, port of, 26

Fertility of coast valleys, 233

Fish, _Manatee_, 114;
  bonitos, 175;
  sardines used as manure, 255

Flowers used for sacrifices, 71

Fossil bones, 194 _note_

Fountain (hot) near Quito, 132

Foxes, 237, 402

Fruits of Panama, 16;
  in the Cauca valley, 73;
  of Pasto, 122;
  called _mortuño_, 132;
  of Puerto Viejo, 175;
  of the Peruvian coast valleys, 234, 235;
  of Huanuco, 283

Funes, a village of the Pastos, 131


Gallo, island of, 21;
  Pizarro and his thirteen companions on, 419 _note_

Garcilasso de la Vega, 157 _note_, 185

Gasca (Pedro de la), 208;
  Cieza de Leon marches to join the army of, 241;
  at Andahuaylas, 318;
  executes Gonzalo Pizarro, 320;
  gives letters of introduction to Cieza de Leon, 339

Gaspar, an Indian Governor at Chucuito, 373

Gavilan (Diego), 303 _note_

Giants at Point Santa Elena, 189

Giron (Francisco Hernandez de), 79 _note_

Gold, 57, 70, 77, 79, 86;
  Quichua word for, 281 _note_;
  of Cunti-suyu, 336;
  of Caravaya, 369;
  of Chuquiapu, 381, 386 _note_

Gorgona island, 21, 420

Gorrones Indians, round Cali, 97, 98

Government of the Yncas, 164

Guaca, province of, 132, 422

_Guacamayos_ (macaws), 199

_Guadaquinages_, animals the size of a hare, 91, 98

Guallabamba, 139

Guamanga, founded, 307, 308;
  Indians of, 310;
  bishops of, 424 _note_

Guamaraconas (_Huayna-cuna_), natives of Otabalo and Carangue so-called, 138

Guambia, province of, 109

Guanaco (see Huanacu).

Guañape, 26, 245

Guancavilcas, 168, 181, 192

Guano islands, 265, 266 _note_

Guarco valley, 257; fortress, 258

Guarmay, 26, 247

Guanavanas (fruit), 99, 234

Guasco, chief of Andahuaylas, 315, 318

Guavas (fruit), 16, 99, 234

Guayaquil, 197, 201, 203

Guayavas (fruit), 73, 99, 234

Guevara (Juan Perez de), 280, 281

Guinea pigs, 63 _note_

Gutierrez (Felipe), 383, 406


Haro (Hernando de) protests against the murder of Atahualpa, 292 _note_

Harvest, Indian ceremony at, 412

Hatun-cana village, 356

Hatun-cañari buildings, 162

Hatun-colla, 369 _note_

Hayo-hayo, 381

Heads (see Skulls).

Head-dresses of Indian tribes, 145 _note_;
  of the Cañaris, 167;
  Indians known by them, 171-2;
  of chiefs on the coast, 225;
  different tribes collected together at Cuzco known by their head-dresses, 330;
  head-dress of the Cavinas, 354;
  of the Collas, 363

Herrada (Juan de) protests against the murder of Atahualpa, 292 _note_

Herbs (medicinal), 398

Heredia (Pedro de), 35 _note_, 47 _note_, 113

---- (Alonzo de), 35

---- (Nicolas de), 383, 406

Hernandez (Gomez), 415

Hervay, Ynca fortress of, 259 _note_

Hinojoso (Pedro de), 383 _note_

---- (Ruy Sanchez de), 384

Honey (see Carbajal, Francisco de).

Horuro village, 356

Huacas, 77, 228 _note_

Huaca-camayoc or sorcerers, 413, 414 _note_

Huaqui village, 374

Huamachuco, 287

Huambacho, 247

Huanacus, 394

Huancas, Indians, 279, 298

Huancabamba, 210, 269

Huanuco, 282, 283, 284 _note_, 285

Huara, 26, 248

Huaray, 293

Huarina, battle of, 9, 380 and _note_;
  village and battle, 380

Huarivilca, god of the Huancas, 300

Huascar Ynca, 272, 273 _note_, 421

Huayna Ccapac, Ynca, 133 _note_, 140, 169, 179, 193

Huaylos, province of, 286

_Huayras_ used in the mines at Potosi, 389

Huillac-Umu, chief priest, 329

Huira-ccocha, Creator, 162;
  Ynca, 226 _note_, 308 _note_, 332, 338, 355, 363;
  God, 162, 357, 367

Huis-cacha (rabbit), 402

Hunting of the Yncas, 288 and _note_


Inca (see Ynca).

Indies, discovery of, 11

Indians, attempts at converting, 12;
  of Uraba, 36-9;
  arms of, 71;
  of Arma, 70;
  of Antioquia, 63;
  sacrifices, 71;
  granted in _Encomienda_, 72 _note_;
  eat human flesh, 73;
  of Paucura, 75;
  of Pozo, 76;
  great warriors, 78;
  of Picara, 80;
  of Carrapa, 82;
  of Cali, 96-100;
  customs of, 101, 112, 116;
  of Pasto, 120;
  of Carangue, 138;
  of Otabalo, 138;
  Puruaes, 161;
  Cañaris, 162-7;
  of Puerto Viejo, 172-6;
  Guancavilcas, 181, 192;
  Mantas, 182;
  of Puna, 199;
  of Guayaquil, 203;
  of the coast (see Yuncas);
  of Chachapoyas, 278;
  Huancas, 279, 298;
  Charcas, 280, 315;
  of Huanuco, 285;
  of Guamanga, 310;
  of Cunti-suyu, 335;
  in the eastern forests, 339;
  Cavinas, 354;
  Canches, 355;
  Canas, 356;
  Collas, 359, 363;
  oppression of by the chiefs, 410

Ipiales, village of, 131

Irrigation, works of, 236 and _note_;
  at Yca, 263;
  near Cuzco, 354


Jerez (Garcia de), one of Pizarro’s thirteen companions, 420 _note_

Juli village, 373

Juliaca village, 369


Ladrillo (Juan de) founds Buenaventura, 104

Ladrillero (Juan) navigates Lake Titicaca, 370

Lakes, salt, 399 (see Bombon, Titicaca).

Lampa, village, harvest ceremony at, 412

La Merced church in Cuzco, 426 _note_

Langazi, valley and inhabitants, 147

Language of Indians, 70;
  of Indians of Paucura, 74;
  Quichua grammar, 163;
  Quichua to be used throughout the empire of the Yncas, 146;
  Great variety of, 407

La Paz, 380, 381

La Plata river, supposed source, 295, (see Plata)

Ledesma (Baltazar de), 423

Legends of the Huancas, 299;
  of the Chancas, 316;
  of the temple at Cacha, 357 _note_

Lejesama (Marcio Serra de), curious will of, 124

Lile, valley of, 101, 104

Lima, 248

Limara river, 31

Limatambo, 320 and _note_

Llacta-cunga, ruins, 143, 150

Llamas, 393

_Lliclla_ (or mantle), 146

Loaysa, Archbishop of Lima, 227, 424

Lobos, island of, 25

Loxa, 205;
  _Chinchona_ plant of, 206

Luchengo island, 31

Lunahuana river, 260;
  (or Runahuanac), 228


_Maca_, bird so-called, 175

_Macana_, a weapon, 49, 203

Magdalena river, 111 _note_

Magellan’s strait, 31, 384

Maize, 233, etc.

Mala, valley of, 256 and _note_

Maldonado (Diego de), 317 and _note_

Mama-cunas, 25, 149, 164, 369;
  employed in weaving, 405

Manatee, 114

Manco Ccapac, 136, 194, 329, 354, 409

Manco Ynca, 304, 306 _note_

Mansanillo tree, 38;
  Juan Agraz eats a dozen apples off the mansanillo trees, 39

Mantas, 182, 184

Market at Potosi, 391

Martin (Roque), Retribution for cruelty to the Indians, 423

Maule river, 31

Mendoza (Antonio de), viceroy of Peru, 425

---- (Alonzo de), founds La Paz, 381

---- (Francisco de), 383

---- (Lope de), 384

---- (Pedro de) protests against the murder of Atahualpa, 292 _note_

Mercadillo (Alonzo de) founds Loxa, 206, 208

Metals, precious, knowledge of, by the Peruvians, 385

Miller, General, 265 _note_

Mines in Cañaris, 169;
  of emeraldsat Manta, 183;
  of Tarapaca, 266;
  of Conchucos, 293;
  of Potosi, 382-6;
  of silver in Charcas, 385;
  of Porco, 385;
  of gold in Tipuani, 386 _note_;
  in the Andes, 406 (see _Gold_, _Silver_).

Mira river, 133

Miracles in favour of the Spaniards, 422

Misti volcano, 268 _note_

Mitimaes (colonists), 149, 150, 209;
  at Caxamarca, 271, 328, 362

Mocha, buildings at, 154

Mohina, treasure found at, 353

_Molle_ trees, 299, 397

Molina (Alonzo de), one of the thirteen companions of Pizarro, 420 _note_

Mompox, city of, 114

Monasteries in Peru, 426

Mora (Diego de) protests against the murder of Atahualpa, 292 _note_

Morgan the buccaneer, 17 _note_

_Mortuñas_, a fruit near Quito, 132

Moscoso (Francisco) protests against the murder of Atahualpa, 292 _note_

Motupe, valley, 239

Moyobamba, 280

Mulahalo, 147, 148

Muliambato, buildings of, 153

Mummies of the Yncas, 226 _note_;
  carried about at Xauxa, 227

Mungia, supply of salt from, 126

Muñoz (Miguel), founder of Cali, 87, 100

Mussels, used as food at Panama, 16


Nabonuco, a cannibal chief, 51

Names given to children, 230;
  signification of, 231 _note_;
  of the Yncas, 231 _note_;
  329 _note_

Nasca, promontory, 28;
  works of irrigation at, 236 _note_;
  valley, 264

Navigation, of the west coast, 19

Neyva, valley of, 94

Nicasio village, 365, 369

Nicuesa (Diego de), 33, 34 _note_

Nombre de Dios, 16, 17

Nutibara Cacique, 46


Oca, 361 and _note_

Ocoña valley, 29, 265

Ojeda (Alonzo de), 33, 34 _note_

Olive trees in Peru, 401 _note_

Ollantay-tambo, ruins at, 333

Omasuyo, 369

Ondegordo (Polo de), 387 and _note_

Opossum (see _Chuchu_).

_Orejones_, nobles of Cuzco, 193, 196, 261, 337

Orellana (Francisco de), 112, 202, 406

Orgoñez, Rodrigo, 254, 304

Otabalo, robbery by natives of, 138

Otaso (Marcos), a priest, who gives an account of a harvest
   ceremony of the Indians at Lampa, 412

Ovejas river, 108

Oviedo, the historian, 35 _note_


Pacasmayu valley, 240

Paccari-tampu, 320 _note_, 335

Paccay fruit, 16

Pachacamac, 251, 253, 254

Pachacutec Ynca, 269 _note_

Pacheco (Francisco), founds Puerto Viejo, 187

----, Juan, 417

Pachachaca river, 317 _note_

Pallas, ladies of Cuzco, their dress, 146, 147, 277

Palms and _palmitos_, 36, called Pixiuares, 44, 68, 73, 100

Palta fruit, 16, 73, 99, 234

Paltas, town of, 205

Pampas river, 314 _note_

Panama, 14, 15, 16, 17

Pancorbo, Juan de, 359

Pansaleo, 145, 147

Paria province, 381

Pariña, point of, 25

Parcos, 302

Passaos, 22;
  the first port in Peru, 172

Pasto, 54, 55, 120, 121, 123

Parmonga ruined fortress, 247

Patia valley, 118

Paucar-tampu, 320 _note_, 337 _note_

Paucura, 74, 75

Paullu, son of Huayna Ccapac Ynca, 77, 224 _note_

Payta, port of, 25

Paz, Martin de, one of the thirteen companions of Pizarro, 420

Pearl Islands, 20

Peccary, 37

Pedrarias, governor of Panama, 34

_Pepino_ fruit, 234, 262

Peralta, Cristoval de, one of the thirteen companions of Pizarro, 420

Pericos-ligeros, 36

Petecuy, chief, 101

Peru, description, 128;
  climate, 130;
  natives, 135;
  products, 400;
  races in, 407 _note_

Philip II, dedication to, 1

Piandomo river, 109

Picara, province of, 80, 81

Picoy valley, 302

Pigs, value of, 95

Pillaros Indians, 155

Piñas, puerto de, 20

Pincos, 294

Pine apples, 99

Pinto Simon, Corregidor of Chucuito, 373

Pirsa village, chief of tormented by devils, 415

Pisacoma village, 149 _note_

Pisagua river, 30

Piscobamba, 293

_Pitahaya_ fruit, 69

Piura valley, 213

Pixiuares palms (see Palms).

Pizarro, Francisco de, at Darien, 34 _note_;
  at Gorgone, 21;
  hears of the arrival of Alvarado, 156;
  founds San Miguel, 214;
  Truxillo, 244;
  Lima, 250;
  interview with Almagro at Mala, 256;
  founds Arequipa, 268;
  at Caxamarca, 272;
  assassination of, 292 _note_, 353;
  refounds Cuzco, 329;
  founds Guamanga, 310;
  account of his thirteen companions on the island of Gallo, 419 _note_

---- (Gonzalo), 32, 137, 187 _note_, 221 _note_, 255 _note_,
   303, 306 _note_, 311, 320, 380

---- (Hernando), 253, 254, 335

Plata, island of, 24, 199

Plata, town, 382

Pocheos, river, on the coast, 213;
  city of, 32, 381, 382, 384

Pocona village, 384

Pocras Indians, 308 _note_

Poison of Indians of Carthagena, 38

Pomata, 373

Popayan, 32, 54, 55, 109, 115, 124

Porco, 285

Ports between Panama and Chile, 19, 27

Pozo, 75, 76, 79

Potatoe, 360 and _note_;
  sweet potatoe, 234

Potosi mines, 384, 390, 391

Pottery, Peruvian, 404 _note_

Pucara, 302, 368

Puelles, Pedro de, 187, 283

Puerto Viejo, 22, 174, 180, 187

Pultamarca medicinal springs, 271 _note_

Puna, island of, 24, 198

Puruaes Indians, 154, 161

Purús river, _note_ on by Mr. Spruce, 339


Qualmatan village, near Quito, 131

Quepaypa, battle of, 274 _note_

Quichua language, 146, 163;
  meaning of the word, 316 _note_

Quijos, 137, 147

Quilca river and port, 29, 265

Quillacingas Indians, 131

Quinua, 143 _note_, 361

Quinbaya province, 85, 88

Quinuchu, brother of the Cacique Nutibara, 46

Quipus, 290

Quiquixana, 354

Quito, 131, 140, 141, 144, 145

Quiximies rivers, 22

Quizquiz, general of Atahualpa, 292 _note_


Rain, absence of, on the coast, 214

Ransom of Atahualpa, amount, 272 _note_

_Repartimiento_ of Indians, 68, 208

Ribera, Nicolas, one of Pizarro’s thirteen companions, 419, 420

---- (Antonio de), introduces olives into Peru, 401 _note_

Religion of Cañaris, 162;
  Guancavilcas, 181;
  of Mantas, 183;
  of Indians of Huamachuco, 289;
  of Canas, 357;
  of the Indians of the Collao, 366;
  of Huanuco, 285;
  of the coast, 221;
  of Huancas, 299

Retribution on Spaniards for cruelty to Indians, 422-3

Rimac river, 250

Riobamba, buildings at, 155;
  people, 160

Rio frio, 99

Rios (Pedro de los), 419

Roads of the Yncas, 158 and _note_;
  on the coast, 217, 218 _note_, 287, 290;
  in Huaraz, 293;
  from Xauxa to Guamanga, 302;
  along a causeway, 320;
  roads leading from Cuzco, 326;
  from Cuzco to the Collao, 253

Robledo (Jorge de), founds Antioquia, 53, 58;
  founds Anzerma, 65, 67, 70, 76, 77;
  account of death of, 79, 79 _note_, 81, 86;
  founds Cartago, 92, 94, 102;
  retribution for cruelty to Indians, 422

Rojas (Gabriel de), 156

---- (Diego de), 383, 406

Romero (Pedro), 94

---- (Payo), killed by Indians, 107

Ruins at Mulahalo, 147;
  at Callo, 148;
  Riobamba, 155;
  Hatun Cañari, 162;
  Tumebamba, 165;
  at Parmonga, 247;
  of fortress of Guarco, 259 _note_;
  Nasca, 264 _note_;
  Pachacamac, 284;
  Chimu, 242;
  Huanuco, 284 _note_;
  Huarivilca in Xuaxa valley, 299;
  Viñaque, near Guamanga, 309;
  Vilcas, 313;
  Limatambo, 320;
  fortress of Cuzco, 323 _note_;
  Ollantaytambo, 333 _note_;
  Sillustani, 364 _note_;
  Hatun-colla, 369;
  Tiahuanaco, 375

Ruiz (Bartolomé), _the pilot_, one of the thirteen companions of Pizarro, 420 _note_

Rumichaca, natural bridge near Quito, 132

Runa-huanac (see Lunahuana).


Saavedra (Juan de), 157, 159 _note_, 185

Sacsahuana (see Xaquixaguana).

Salt, supply of, 124-27

San Cristoval hill, 250 _note_

Sana valley, 240

San Domingo, tower of, at Lima, 426 _note_

San Francisco, cape of, 22

San Gallan, 27

San Lorenzo, cape of, 23

San Juan river, 55, 106

San Juan de la Frontera, 306

San Martin (Fray Tomas de), 373;
  bishop of Charcas, 425

San Miguel founded, 213-14

San Nicolas point, 28

San Sebastian de Uraba, 32, 40, 41

Santa, village, 245, 246

Santa Clara island, 24

Santa Elena point, 23, 189

Santa Fé mining establishment, 58

Santa Maria, Cape, 31

Santa Maria (Fray Juan de), 417

Santa Martha river, 54, 66, 108, 111

Santiago bay and river, 31, 172, 260

---- city, 31

Santo Tomas (Fray Domingo de), author of a Quichua grammar, 163;
  his great knowledge of the Indians, 219;
  a notable searcher into Indian secrets, 224;
  founds a monastery, 242, 427

Santillan (Hernando de), judge of the Audience, 425

Sapana, a chief of the Collao, 363, 369

Saravia (Dr. Bravo de), a judge of the Audience, 205, 425

Sardinas, anchorage of, 21

Sarsaparilla, 200, 395

Sayri Tupac, 272 _note_

_Schinus Molle_, 299

Seal Island, 27-28

Seravia (see Saravia)

_Serranos_, 184, 218

Sicasica village, 381

Sichos Indians, 155

Silver veins at Potosi, 388;
  of Charcas, 385;
  of Potosi, 386;
  mode of extracting, 388, 389

Silversmiths, Peruvian, 404 _note_

Sipisipe village, 383

Sheep, Peruvian, 392, 394 _note_

Skulls. Chances Indians flatten the skulls of their infants, 96;
  at Pachacamac, 252 _note_;
  skulls flattened in the Collao, 363

Sloth, 36

Snakes, 42, 338

Solana, on the coast, 213

Solano (Juan), Bishop of Cuzco, 424

Soria Luce (Domingo de), one of the thirteen companions of Pizarro, 420

Sosa (Herman Rodriguez de), retribution for cruelty to Indians, 423

Springs, medicinal, 271 _note_, 400 _note_

Storehouses of the Yncas, 290

Supay, the Peruvian Devil, 224

Surite, 321 _note_


Tacama point, 30

Tacurumbi river, 86

---- Cacique gives Robledo a cup of gold, 86

Tafur (Juan) sent to bring back Pizarro’s party, 419

Tamara (Tarma), 286

Tamaraqunga, Cacique, sorely vexed by devils, who sought
   to hinder his conversion, 415-18

Tambo (see Ollantay-tambo).

Tamboblanco, 205

Tambopalla, 29

Tampus (inns and storehouses), 161, 290

Tangarara, original site of Piura, 214

Tapacari village, 383

Tar at point Santa Elena, 191

Tarapaca, 30, 128, 205, 266

Tarma (Tamara), 286-296

Temple of the Sun at Tumebamba, 165;
  Pachacamac, 251-4;
  at Caxamarca, 271;
  at Huanuco, 284;
  at Cuzco, 328;
  at Vilcas, 313;
  at Ancocahua, 357;
  at Hatun Colla, 369;
  on the island of Titicaca, 372 _note_

Teocaxas, great battle at, 161

Texelo (Jeronimo Luis), price he gave for a shoemaker’s knife, 94

Tiahuanaco, 374 to 379

Timbas province, 103

Ticeviracocha, 299

Tiquisambi, buildings of, 162

Titicaca, lake of, 370, 371;
  island of, 372

Tobar (Francisco, Garcia de), retribution for cruelty to the Indians, 422

Toledo (Garcia Gutierrez de), discovery of treasure by, 243 _note_

Tombs (see burial of the dead) of the Collao, 364 _note_

Topocalma, port of, 31

Topu, or ornamental pin, 146

Torre (Juan de la), 221 _note_;
  one of Pizarro’s thirteen companions, 419, 420

Totora village, 383

Treasure found in the ruins of Chimu, 243 _note_;
  found by Juan de la Torre, 221;
  vast quantity of, buried, 77;
  collected for Atahualpa’s ransom, 272 _note_

Trees of Peru, 129, 142, 235, 239, 397;
  fruit trees, 234;
  suggestion of Cieza de Leon to form plantations of, 401 (see Palms).

Truxillo, 26, 186, 242, 244

Tumbala, lord of Puna, 195

Tumbez, river of, 23;
  desert of, 128, 213;
  fortress, 193;
  Pedro de Candia lands at, 193 _note_, 420 _note_

Tumebamba, 165

Tuqueme, coast valley of, 239

Tuquma, province, 383

Turbaco, town, 33;
  great battle of, 34 _note_

Tupac Ynca Yupanqui, 147, 149, 165, 169, 178, 192, 217, 261, 269, 313, 337, 357

Tusa, last village of the Pastos, on the road to Quito, 132


Uchillo, valleys of, 147

Uchu (see Aji).

Umu, a priest, 414 and _note_

Uraba, port, 32, 35;
  Indians of, 36 to 39, 41

Urcos village, 354

Urco (male llama), 393, 231

Urochombe, the woman from whom the Huancas were descended, 298

Ursua (Pedro de), 281 _note_

Usutas (sandals), 146

Uzedo (Diego de) goes with Cieza de Leon to Charcas, 365


Vaca de Castro (see Castro).

Vadillo (Juan de), 40, 47 _note_, 50;
  his fate, 53 _note_, 57;
  sufferings of his party, 60, 62, 94, 97, 124

Valdivia, 31

---- (Pedro de) joins Gasca, 318 _note_

Valle (Juan), Bishop of Popayan, 425

Valparaiso, 31

Valverde (Vincente de), 300 _note_;
  Bishop of Cuzco, 424

Varagas (Juan de) held the Indians of Tiahuanaco in _encomienda_, 379

Vasco (Nuñez de Balboa), 34 _note_

Velasco (Pedro de) collects honey at Cartago, 91

Verdugo (Melchor), 275 _note_

Vergara (Pedro de), 205

Viacha, village of, 380

Vicuña, 288, 289 _note_, 394, 396 _note_;
  cloth woven from wool of, 405

Vilcamayu, valley of, 331 _note_, 354 _note_

Vilcas, ruins at, 312, 313, 314 _note_

Villa-diego (Captain) sent against the Ynca Manco, 305

Villaroel discovers the mines of Potosi, 386

Viñaque river and ruins, 309, 379

Vineyards, 235

Viracocha (see Huira-ccocha).

Viraratu, Indian chief, arrives in Peru, 281 _note_

Virgins of the Sun, 136 (see Mamacunas).

Viticos, Ynca Manco retires to, 304

Volcano of Cotopaxi, 147 _note_;
  Arequipa, 268 _note_

Vuilla, a fruit, 69


Weapons, 39, 49, 355

Wheat introduced into Peru, 400;
  much grown near Guamanga, 309

Winds on the coast of Peru, 19 _note_


Xamundi river, 107

Xaquixaguana, battle of, 9, 32, 150;
  plain, 320, 321 _note_

Xauxa river, 296; valley, 297

Xayanca valley, 239

Ximon (Pedro) killed by a snake, 43

Xixarama, name of the devil among the Anzerma Indians, 64

Xuta, bird so called, 175


Yahuar-cocha, dreadful slaughter at, by the Ynca Huayna Ccapac, 133

Yahuar-huaccac Ynca, 280 _note_

Yahuar-pampa, battle of, 280 _note_

Yana-cuna, 391 and _note_

Yca, valley of, 263, 264 _note_

Yguana, kind of lizard, 42

Ylo, port of, 265

Yncas, origin of, 136;
  government of, 149, 153, 164;
  discovery of embalmed bodies of three Yncas, mode of interment, 226;
  wars of, 409;
  names of, 329 _note_ (see Manco Ccapac, Huira-ccocha, Tupac Ynca Yupanqui,
   Huayna Ccapac, Atahualpa, Manco Ynca, and Ynca Yupanqui).

Ynca Yupanqui, 169, 217, 261, 269, 270 _note_, 338

Yrrua, Indian chief, 82, 409

Ytata river, 31

Yuca, an edible root, 233

Yucay, valley of, 354

Yumalla, chief of the Collao, 373

Yumbo forests, 147

Yunca, meaning of the word, 162, 209, 218;
  Indians on the coast, 219;
  their method of burial, 223, 232;
  their industry, 237


Zepita village, 37

FOOTNOTES:

 [1] See note at page 192.

 [2] Don Pascual de Gayangos is inclined to this opinion.

 [3] See notes at pages 157 and 123.

 [4] Cesar had been with Sebastian Cabot, in his expedition to the
 mouth of the Rio de la Plata; and joined Heredia at the island of
 Puerto Rico. See page 47, and note.

 [5] Herrera says that Heredia gave the name of Carthagena to the bay;
 but in reality the place had already received that name, either from
 Ojeda or Bastidas.

 [6] See pages 35 to 40.

 [7] _Acosta, Descubrimiento de la Nueva Granada_, cap. xiv, p. 251.

 [8] See note p. 123.

 [9] See p. 79, and note.

 [10] See p. 422.

 [11] Page 15.

 [12] Page 3.

 [13] Page 151.

 [14] _Conquest of Peru_, ii, p. 365, (note).

 [15] Page 362.

 [16] Page 339.

 [17] Page 364.

 [18] Page 376.

 [19] See p. 177.

 [20] The fullest biographical notice of Cieza de Leon is to be found
 in Antonio, and is as follows:--

 “Petrus Cieza de Leon (patria an dumtaxat domicilio incolatave
 Hispalensis) tredecim fere annorum puer ad occidentales Indos
 Peruanamque plagam transfretavit, militiamque ibi sequutus,
 plusquam septemdecim in his oris commoratus est. Fructum tam longæ
 peregrinationis, eximium quidem, is edidit in eo libro, quæ prima
 pars est designati, an vero perfecti ab eo atque absoluti operis?
 Hispali apud Martinum Clementem 1553, fol., Antwerpiæque apud Joannem
 Stelzium 1554: in 8. Italica autem ex interpretatione Augustini
 di Gravaliz prodiit Romæ ex officina Valerii Dorigii 1555: 8. Ex
 quatuor partibus, in quas fidem suam auctor obstrinxerat, hæc tantum
 edita est, reliquæ valde ab omnibus desiderantur. In fine istius hoc
 testatum voluit, se primam huic parti anno M.D.XLI
 in Carthagine gubernationis ut vocant Popajanicæ, manum admovisse,
 postremam vero in Regia urbe Lima anno M.D.L. cum per
 id tempus duobus super triginta natus esset annos. Obiisse eum
 Hispali anno M.D.LX. vel paulo ante monet in schedis
 ad _Bibliothecam Universalem_ Alfonsus Ciaconius, Dominicanus.
 _Bibliotheca Hispana Nova sive Hispanorum Scriptorum, qui ab anno_
 M.D. _ad_ M.D.C.LXXXIV. _floruere
 notitia: auctore D. Nicolao Antonio Hispalensi J. C._ (Madrid, 1788:
 ii, p. 184.)

 An author named Fernando Diaz de Valderrama, who published a biography
 of illustrious sons of Seville in 1791 (under the pseudonym of Fermin
 Arana de Valflora), transcribes the above notice of Antonio, without
 adding any new particulars. His work is entitled _Hijos de Sevilla,
 ilustres en santidad, letras, armas, artes, ó dignidad_. Don Enrique
 de Vedia, in the second volume of his _Historiadores primitivos de
 Indias_,{a} published at Madrid in 1853, also merely copies his notice
 of Cieza de Leon from Antonio.

 {a} Forming part of the _Biblioteca de Autores Españoles de
 Rivadeneyro_.

 [21] Page 27 and page 32.

 [22] Chapters vi to xxxii.

 [23] Chapters xxxvi to xliv.

 [24] P. 153, and note.

 [25] Chapter xxxvi.

 [26] Chapter xxxviii.

 [27] See p. 177.

 [28] See p. 173.

 [29] See p. 214.

 [30] Chapters lix to lxxvi.

 [31] Chapters lxxvii to xci.

 [32] Chapters xcii and xciii.

 [33] Chaptes xciv and xcv.

 [34] The following is Mr. Prescott’s notice of Cieza de Leon, given in
 the second volume of the _Conquest of Peru_, p. 297:--

 “Cieza de Leon is an author worthy of particular note. His _Crónica
 del Peru_ should more properly be styled an itinerary, or rather
 geography of Peru. It gives a minute topographical view of the
 country at the time of the conquest; of its provinces and towns,
 both Indian and Spanish; its flourishing sea coasts; its forests,
 valleys, and interminable ranges of mountains in the interior, with
 many interesting particulars of the existing population--their
 dress, manners, architectural remains, and public works,--while
 scattered here and there may be found notices of their early history
 and social polity. It is, in short, a lively picture of the country
 in its physical and moral relations, as it met the eye at the time
 of the conquest, and in that transition period when it was first
 subjected to European influences. The conception of a work, at so
 early a period, on this philosophical plan, reminding us of that of
 Malte-Brun in our own time--_parva componere magnis_--was, of itself,
 indicative of great comprehensiveness of mind in its author. It was a
 task of no little difficulty, where there was yet no pathway opened
 by the labours of the antiquarian, no hint from the sketch-book of
 the traveller, or the measurements of the scientific explorer. Yet
 the distances from place to place are all carefully jotted down by
 the industrious compiler, and the bearings of the different places
 and their peculiar features are exhibited with sufficient precision,
 considering the nature of the obstacles he had to encounter. The
 literary execution of the work, moreover, is highly respectable,
 sometimes even rich and picturesque; and the author describes the
 grand and beautiful scenery of the Cordilleras with a sensibility of
 its charms not often found in the tasteless topographer, still less
 often in the rude conqueror.

 “The loss of the other parts of his work is much to be regretted,
 considering the talent of the writer, and his opportunities for
 personal observation. But he has done enough to render us grateful
 for his labours. By the vivid delineation of scenes and scenery, as
 they were presented fresh to his own eyes, he has furnished us with
 a background to the historic picture--the landscape, as it were, in
 which the personages of the time might be more fitly pourtrayed. It
 would have been impossible to exhibit the ancient topography of the
 land so faithfully at a subsequent period, when old things had passed
 away, and the conqueror, breaking down the landmarks of ancient
 civilisation, had effaced many of the features even of the physical
 aspect of the country as it existed under the elaborated culture of
 the Yncas.”

 [35] Mr. Rich, of Red Lion Square, got possession of a manuscript of
 Cieza de Leon, which is described in one of his catalogues as being an
 account of the civil wars of Peru. He sold it to Mr. Lenox of New York.

 [36] See chapter cxii, and note at page 397.

 [37] See note at p. 143.

 [38] _Oxalis tuberosa._ See note at p. 361.

 [39] See note at p. 234.

 [40] See note at p. 16.

 [41] For a theory of the derivation of this word, see note at p. 316.

 [42] See note at page 407.

 [43] See page 129.

 [44] The bird called by Cieza de Leon _maca_, and described at page
 175, is no doubt the toucan.

 [45] Animals closely allied to the present wild forms of the llama
 tribe, namely to the huanacu and vicuña, wandered over the Cordilleras
 in the post-pleistocene geological period; but there is no vestige
 either of the llama or of the alpaca at that remote epoch. Fossil
 remains of an animal, resembling a gigantic huanacu, have been found
 in Patagonia, and named by Professor Owen _Macrauchemia_. In 1859 a
 fossil skeleton of a mammal was produced in Bolivia by Mr. Forbes,
 and examined by Professor Huxley. It was found in one of the copper
 mines of Corocoro, and the bones are almost converted into copper, the
 strata in which it was found being highly impregnated with that metal.
 This animal has been named _Macrauchemia Boliviensis_. It is not half
 as large as the Patagonian species, and its proportions are nearly as
 slender as the modern vicuña, with even a lighter head. _Quarterly
 Journal of the Geological Society_, February 1st, 1861, pages 47 and
 73. _Fossil Mammalia of the Voyage of the Beagle._ 1839.

 [46] See chapter cxi, and its notes, for more detailed particulars
 respecting the animals of the llama tribe.

 [47] See note at p. 166.

 [48] _Prehistoric Man_, i, p. 110.

 [49] Humboldt mentions a cutting-instrument found near Cuzco, which
 was composed of 0.94 parts of copper and 0.06 of tin. The latter metal
 is scarcely ever found in South America, but I believe there are
 traces of it in parts of Bolivia. In some of the instruments silica
 was substituted for tin.

 [50] See page 405.

 [51] It has been stated that the ancient Peruvian buildings had no
 windows. This is a mistake. Amongst other instances I may mention the
 occurrence of one in the palace of the Colcampata, at Cuzco.

 [52] See note at page 400.

 [53] The year, called _huata_, was divided into the following twelve
 moons or months (_quilla_). It commenced at the summer solstice on the
 22nd of December with the month of

     1. RAYMI or December.

     2. HUCHUY POCCOY or January, when the corn begins to
     ripen.

     3. HATUN POCCOY or February, when the ripeness of the
     corn increases.

     4. PACCARI HUAÑUY and PAUCAR HUARAY or March.

     5. ARIHUA or April.

     6. AYMURAY or May. The time of harvest.

     7. YNTIP RAYMI and CUSQUIC RAYMI or June.

     8. ANTA ASITUA or July. The season of sowing.

     9. CCAPAC ASITUA or August.

     10. UMU RAYMI or September.

     11. AYA MARCA or October.

     12. CCAPAC RAYMI or November.

 (See _Cuzco and Lima_, pp. 121-26.)

 [54] For further information respecting the Quichua language, see the
 introduction to my _Quichua Grammar and Dictionary_. (Trübner. 1863.)

 [55] See chapter lxxxii, and note at page 291.

 [56] On this point let the last of the Spanish conquerors give his
 remorseful testimony:--

 “True confession and protestation in the hour of death by one of the
 first Spaniards, conquerors of Peru, named Marcio Serra de Lejesama,
 with his will proved in the city of Cuzco on the 15th of November
 1589, before Geronimo Sanchez de Quesada, public notary--First, before
 beginning my will, I declare that I have desired much to give notice
 to his Catholic Majesty king Philip, our lord, seeing how good a
 Catholic and Christian he is, and how zealous in the service of the
 Lord our God, concerning that which I would relieve my mind of, by
 reason of having taken part in the discovery and conquest of these
 countries, which we took from the Lords Yncas, and placed under the
 royal crown, a fact which is known to his Catholic Majesty. The said
 Yncas governed in such a way that in all the land neither a thief,
 nor a vicious man, nor a bad dishonest woman was known. The men all
 had honest and profitable employment. The woods, and mines, and all
 kinds of property were so divided that each man knew what belonged
 to him, and there were no law suits. The Yncas were feared, obeyed,
 and respected by their subjects, as a race very capable of governing;
 but we took away their land, and placed it under the crown of Spain,
 and made them subjects. Your Majesty must understand that my reason
 for making this statement is to relieve my conscience, for we have
 destroyed this people by our bad examples. Crimes were once so little
 known among them, that an Indian with one hundred thousand pieces of
 gold and silver in his house, left it open, only placing a little
 stick across the door, as the sign that the master was out, and nobody
 went in. But when they saw that we placed locks and keys on our doors,
 they understood that it was from fear of thieves, and when they saw
 that we had thieves amongst us, they despised us. All this I tell your
 Majesty, to discharge my conscience of a weight, that I may no longer
 be a party to these things. And I pray God to pardon me, for I am the
 last to die of all the discoverers and conquerors, as it is notorious
 that there are none left but me, in this land or out of it, and
 therefore I now do what I can to relieve my conscience.” _Calancha_,
 lib. i, cap. 15, p. 98.

 [57] See chapters xcvii and xcviii, and note, p. 356.

 [58] See page 363.

 [59] See page 360.

 [60] For a full description of the ruins of Tiahuanaco see chapter cv;
 and notes at pages 375 to 378.

 [61] See note at page 364.

 [62] See pages 363-4.

 [63] See page 412.

 [64] See page 363.

 [65] An Aymara grammar and dictionary by Torres Rubio was published
 at Lima in 1616. The gospel of St. Luke was translated into Aymara,
 and published by the Indian Pasoscanki. An Aymara grammar, by Padre
 Ludovico Bertonio, was published at Rome in 1608. A second edition,
 which was edited by Diego de Gueldo, was printed by the Jesuits in the
 little town of Juli, on the banks of lake Titicaca in 1612. See also
 Hervas, the Mithridates, and D’Orbigny.

 [66] In the same way the Dravidian languages of Southern India count
 up to one thousand, but for higher numbers they have to borrow from
 Sanscrit. This is considered as one proof of the superiority of the
 Aryan Hindus over the Tamils in civilisation: and a similar conclusion
 may be drawn from the same fact, as regards the Quichuas and Aymaras.
 Adam Smith says that numerals are among the most abstract ideas that
 the human mind is capable of forming. See Mr. Crawfurd’s paper “On
 Numerals as Evidence of the Progress of Civilization.” (_Ethnological
 Society_, February 1862.)

 [67] The names of tribes, which have come down to us, are generally
 nicknames given by their conquerors. _Chanca_ means a polluted thing,
 and _huanca_ is a drum in Quichua.

 [68] Except possibly the word for water--_yacu_. In Quichua water is
 _unu_.

 [69] Described by Cieza de Leon. See page 299 and note.

 [70] See page 299, page 280 and note, and page 317 and note. The
 Morochucos and Yquichanos of the department of Ayacucho, who are
 descendants of the Pocras, fully sustain the warlike fame of their
 ancestors. See _Cuzco and Lima_, p. 70.

 [71] See page 285.

 [72] A vocabulary, professing to be of the language spoken by the
 tribes in Northern Peru, and called Chinchay-suyu, is printed at the
 end of Figueredo’s edition of Torres Rubio’s Quichua grammar. But
 the vast majority of words are pure Quichua, and it must have been
 collected when Quichua was generally spoken, and after the aboriginal
 language had fallen almost entirely into disuse. It is, therefore, of
 very little use to the comparative philologist.

 [73] For the meaning of this word, see pages 162 and 218.

 [74] See in the _Anthropological Review_ for February 1864, p.
 lvii, a paper “On Crystal Quartz Cutting Instruments of the Ancient
 Inhabitants of Chanduy (near Guayaquil), found by Mr. Spruce; by
 Clements R. Markham.”

 [75] See page 234 and notes.

 [76] See note at page 236.

 [77] See _Cuzco and Lima_, p. 12.

 [78] See page 255.

 [79] See page 266.

 [80] The indigenous cotton of the coast valleys of Peru, from which
 the Yunca Indians wove their cloths, is a perennial plant with a long
 staple, which now fetches a very high price in the Liverpool market,
 as a valuable sort. I have recently introduced its cultivation into
 the Madras Presidency, where the result has been very successful,
 and the Peruvian cotton is considered as one of the most promising
 of the foreign kinds. The wool is perfectly white, but about one in
 every fifty plants yields cotton of a deep orange-brown colour. This
 sport, on the part of the cotton plants, attracted the attention of
 the Yuncas; who looked upon the dark coloured wool as sacred, and the
 heads of their mummies were wrapped in it. The same thing has taken
 place in India, much to the astonishment of the cultivators, who
 cannot understand why one of the plants should yield brown cotton, and
 all the others snow white; when the leaves, flowers, seeds, and pods
 are the same in all. One cultivator in South Arcot scrubbed the brown
 cotton with soap and water, but without changing its colour.

 [81] See pages 251 to 254.

 [82] See page 242.

 [83] See page 261.

 [84] See chapters lxi to lxv.

 [85] A grammar of the Yunca language was written by Fernando de
 Carrera, and published at Lima in 1644; and forty words were collected
 by Mr. Spruce last year from the mouth of an old woman at Piura. But
 nearly all the Indians now speak Spanish, and the ancient language
 is, as nearly as possible, extinct. Quichua appears never to have
 been generally spoken on the coast. Yet the Ynca conquerors gave
 names to some of the principal places, such as Caxamarquilla, Rimac,
 Pachacamac, Nanasca, etc. In the case of Pachacamac, the reasons of
 the Ynca for sanctioning the reverential worship of the natives at
 that great temple, is given by Cieza de Leon at page 252. Originally
 an idol with a fish’s head, or, according to others, a figure of a
 she-fox, was worshipped there. The Yncas put aside this idol, called
 the temple and its deity _Pachacamac_ (literally “Creator of the
 world”), and, from motives of policy, encouraged pilgrimages to this
 grandly situated fane, overlooking the ocean. It seems, however, to
 have lost much of its importance after the Ynca conquest, for when
 Hernando Pizarro first arrived at it, a considerable portion of the
 adjoining city was in ruins. _Caxamarquilla_, the name of another
 great ruined city near Lima, is a corrupt word, half Quichua half
 Spanish, meaning “a little ice-house,” from the circumstance that the
 snow from the Cordilleras, for the use of wealthy citizens at Lima,
 was deposited there as a resting place on the road. None of these
 names are those originally used by the Yunca Indians who erected the
 buildings. Another Quichua word is _Chuqui-mancu_, a name given by the
 Yncas to the chief of the Rimac valley, whom they conquered. _Chuqui_
 is a lance, and _mancuni_ to hew wood. This latter word may be the
 derivation of the first part of the name of _Manco Ccapac_, though it
 is stated by Garcilasso to have no meaning in Quichua.

 [86] “According to information obtained at Piura, in the north of
 Peru, there still exist, along and near the neighbouring coast, large
 remnants of five distinct nations, viz. the _Etenes_, the _Morrópes_,
 the _Sechúras_, the _Catacáos_, and the _Colanes_. The _Etenes_
 inhabit the first coast-valley to the southward of the large valley
 of Lambayeque, and their town stands on a steep hill (_morro_) close
 by the sea; they still preserve their original language and speak it
 constantly among themselves, so that it ought to be possible to obtain
 a complete vocabulary of it.

 “The _Morrópes_ occupy chiefly a village of that name lying on the
 north side of Lambayeque.

 “The _Sechuras_ inhabit the large village of Sechura, still farther
 northward, at the mouth of the river Piura (which, according to Fitz
 Roy, is in latitude 5° 35´ S., long. 80° 49´ W.). Only the very
 oldest people recollect anything of their original language, but they
 relate that in their younger days it was in general use. They are
 the stoutest and best looking Indians I have seen on the Peruvian
 coast, and their favorite occupation is that of muleteer, in which (as
 their beasts of burden are all their own property) they often attain
 considerable wealth--not to be laid up, however, but to be liberally
 spent in the decoration of their church, their houses, and their
 wives. The church of Sechura is internally one of the most gorgeous in
 Peru. I have seen a list, filling several folio pages, made last year
 (1863), of the sacred vessels it contains, including great numbers of
 gold and silver candlesticks, censers, crucifixes, etc. These are in
 charge of a mayordomo, who is chosen each year out of the wealthier
 inhabitants, and who on retiring from office always adds some costly
 gift to the stock; so that I suppose Sechura to be at this moment
 richer in the precious metals than it was when the Spaniards landed in
 Peru, and perhaps nearly as rich as the neighbouring town of Tumbez
 was at that time.

 “The Sechurano has a great predilection for the number _four_. He
 divides his gains into four equal portions, _the first for God_ (or
 the church), _the second for the devil_ (_i.e._, his wife or women),
 _the third for drink_ (chicha and brandy of Pisco), and _the fourth
 for food_. If he has four sons, the first must be an _arriero_
 (muleteer), the second a _salinero_ (worker and trader in salt, which
 is procured in large quantities at the mouth of the Piura), the third
 a _pescador_ (fisherman), and the fourth a _sombrerero_ (maker of
 Panamá hats).

 “The _Catacáos_ live in the village of that name, about five leagues
 higher up the valley of Piura. They are, perhaps, more numerous than
 the Sechuras, but are in every way an inferior race, lower in stature
 and coarser looking. Still they are very industrious, and manufacture
 great numbers of hats, besides working up the native cotton and wool
 into stout fabrics for their own garments, and also for _alforjas_,
 or saddle-bags (often beautifully woven in various coloured devices),
 _mantas_, belts, etc. I was unable to find among them any one who
 recollected anything of their ancient language, beyond the tradition
 that it was entirely distinct from the Sechura.

 “The _Colánes_, formerly very numerous on the lower part of the river
 Chira (a little to the north of the port of Payta), and still existing
 in the village of Colan, at the mouth of the river, and at Amotape, a
 little way within it, have also lost all remembrance of the language
 of their forefathers.

 “By none of these Indian nations is the Quichua language spoken or
 understood, nor is there any evidence of its ever having been used by
 them.” R. S.

 [87] For a good account of these _balsas_, see the _Nautical Magazine_
 for 1832, vol. i, p. 345.

 [88] “The Indians of Yca and Arica relate that, in ancient times, they
 used to make voyages to some very distant islands to the westward; and
 that these voyages were performed on the inflated skins of seals. Thus
 signs are not wanting that the South Sea had been navigated, before
 the arrival of the Spaniards.” _Historia Natural de Indias_, lib. i,
 cap. 20, p. 68.

 [89] The aboriginal people of Quito, or at least the dominant race
 which was found there when the first Ynca army invaded the country, is
 said to have spoken the Quichua language; and it has been mentioned,
 as a very curious fact, that the same language should have been spoken
 at Cuzco and Quito, at a time when those places held no intercourse
 with each other; whilst the inhabitants of the intervening country
 spoke totally distinct languages. As one explanation of this, it has
 been suggested that the Caras were a Quichua colony which, at some
 remote period, had come in _balsas_ from the Peruvian coast, landed
 at Esmeraldas, and eventually marched up to Quito. But there is no
 probability that any large body of Quichuas ever reached the coast
 before they came as conquerors, and the Yuncas did not speak Quichua.
 In my opinion there is no sufficient evidence that the people of Quito
 did speak Quichua previous to the Ynca conquest. They were forced to
 adopt it afterwards by their conquerors, and it completely superseded
 their own more barbarous tongue: but in Cieza de Leon’s time, though
 Quichua was the official language, the Puruaes and other tribes of
 the Quitenian Andes still spoke their own language in private. (See
 p. 161.) There is a tradition that the giants, who are said to have
 landed at Point Santa Elena (see chap. lii), forced the Caras to
 abandon the coast, and retire into the mountainous district round
 Quito.

 [90] See chapters xxxix to xliv.

 [91] The traditions of the origin of the first Ynca, given by
 Garcilasso de la Vega, Herrera, and Montesinos, are entirely unworthy
 of credit. They are mere foolish stories obtained from the Indians, by
 credulous inquirers who probably put leading questions, and who mixed
 everything up with Noah’s flood, and other ideas of their own.

 Garcilasso de la Vega gives three stories, one, told him by his
 mother’s uncle, that two children of the sun mysteriously appeared
 on the banks of lake Titicaca, marched north to Cuzco, and taught
 the savage people to sow, reap, and weave: another, that a mighty
 personage appeared at Tiahuanaco and divided the land amongst four
 kings, one of whom was Manco Ccapac: and a third, that four men and
 four women came out of a hole in a rock near Paccari-tampu, of whom
 the eldest was Manco Ccapac, the first Ynca. _G. de la Vega_, i, lib.
 i, cap. xv-xviii.

 Herrera also gives three accounts. The first, obtained from the
 Huancas and Aymaras, that there was a great deluge, during which some
 people were preserved by hiding in caves on the highest mountains,
 after which a, mighty civiliser arose in the Collao. The second, that
 the sun, after a long absence, rose out of lake Titicaca{a} in company
 with a white man of large stature, who gave men rules to live by. He
 eventually spread his mantle on the sea and disappeared. The third
 story is the same as Garcilasso’s, about the people coming out of a
 hole in the rock. _Herrera_, dec. iii, lib. ix, cap. 1.

 Montesinos says that, five hundred years after Noah’s deluge, four
 brothers led the first inhabitants to Peru, of whom the youngest
 killed his brothers and left the empire to his son Manco Ccapac.
 Montesinos then gives a list of one hundred Yncas who succeeded Manco;
 the inventions of his own imagination, or at best the results of
 affirmative answers from Indians who only half understood him: for, as
 Cieza de Leon shrewdly remarks, “these Indians are intelligent, but
 they answer _Yes!_ to everything that is asked of them.”{b}

 Cieza de Leon, whose testimony I consider to be worth more than that
 of all the other chroniclers put together, says that Manco Ccapac was
 believed to have been the first Ynca, and that the Indians relate
 great marvels respecting him.{c} Indeed, all that Cieza de Leon has
 recorded concerning the traditions of the people goes to prove that
 they had no idea of their ancestors having had a foreign origin, but,
 on the contrary, that they believed them to have sprung from their
 native rocks or lakes. Thus the Huancas thought that their first
 parents came forth from the fountain of Huarivilca.{d} The Chancas
 sought the origin of their race in the lake of Soclo-cocha.{e} The
 Aymaras were divided in opinion as to whether their first parents came
 out of a fountain, a lake, or a rock, but believed that once there was
 a great deluge. In short, “no sense can be learned from these Indians
 concerning their origin.”{f} All that we know for certain is, that
 they had dwelt for generation after generation in the valleys and on
 the mountains where the Spaniards found them in the middle of the
 sixteenth century. “A very long period has elapsed,” says our author,
 “since these Indians first peopled the Indies.”{g}

 The series of Ynca sovereigns according to Garcilasso de la Vega, the
 last ten of whom are historical personages, is as follows:--

 _Circa_ 1021 Manco Ccapac.
     “   1062 Sinchi Rocca.
     “   1091 Lloque Yupanqui.
     “   1126 Mayta Ccapac.
     “   1156 Ccapac Yupanqui.
     “   1197 Ynca Rocca.
     “   1249 Yahuar-huaccac.
     “   1289 Huira-ccocha.
     “   1340 Pachacutec.
     “   1400 Ynca Yupanqui.
     “   1439 Tupac Ynca Yupanqui.
     “   1475 Huayna Ccapac.
     “   1526 Huascar.
     “   1532 Atahualpa.
     “   1533 Ynca Manco.
     “   1553 Sayri Tupac.
     “   1560 Cusi Titu Yupanqui.
     “   1562 Tupac Amaru (_beheaded_ 1571).

 For the signification of these names, see note at page 231.

 {a} See p. 372.

 {b} See p. 285.

 {c} See pp. 136, 329.

 {d} See p. 298.

 {e} See p. 316.

 {f} See p. 363.

 {g} See p. 89.

 [92] See pages 332, 338, 355, etc.

 [93] See note at p. 226.

 [94] See note at page 280.

 [95] See note at p. 269.

 [96] See p. 261.

 [97] See p. 337 and note.

 [98] The last aggressive enterprise of the Yncas seems to have been
 the invasion of the island of Puná, in the gulf of Guayaquil. Cieza de
 Leon gives a detailed account of the transactions connected with this
 invasion. See chapters xlvii, xlviii, and liv.

 [99] The battle-axe was called _champi_, the club, _macana_, and the
 spear, _chuqui_. They also had a terrible weapon of copper, in the
 shape of a star; a two-handed axe; and bows and arrows, _huachi_.

 [100] Cieza do Leon says that “the Yncas were very astute and artful
 in turning enemies into friends, without having resort to war” (p.
 137).

 [101] See page 133 and note, and page 137.

 [102] See page 369.

 [103] See chapter xcvi.

 [104] See chapters xcii and xciii; and notes at pages 322 and 327.

 [105] See pages 145 and note, and 167 and note.

 [106] See the second note at p. 322.

 [107] See page 328 and note.

 [108] See pages 153 with note, and 217 and 218 with note.

 [109] See pages 149, 150, 361, and 362.

 [110] See page 146.

 [111] Toleration is the last, as it is the greatest virtue that a
 ruler learns. It is a virtue that has yet to be learnt by the nations
 of Europe. An eminent divine of the present day (_Spectator_, July
 30th, 1864, p. 877) declares that it is well he has not the power to
 persecute his theological opponents, for that he would not trust his
 will. The brightest European examples of tolerant princes are Marcus
 Aurelius and Oliver Cromwell, yet one permitted the persecution of
 Christians, and the other hunted down papists and malignants. For
 perfect toleration we must look beyond Europe, and contemplate the
 policy of the illustrious Akbar in India, and of the Yncas in South
 America.

 [112] See page 136.

 [113] See page 220.

 [114] See pages 17, 93, 108, 119, 203, 213, 220, etc.

 [115] See note at p. 218.

 [116] See page 263.

 [117] See chapter cxix.

 [118] See page 40.

 [119] When Columbus returned from his first voyage, he brought home
 several Indians, who were baptised at Barcelona, and one of them died
 shortly afterwards. Herrera tells us that this Indian was the first
 native of the new world who went to heaven. (Dec. i, lib. ii, cap. 5.)
 The countless millions of his countrymen who had died unbaptised, are
 of course suffering eternal torments in hell!

 [120] This is the part which is now translated, the only one which was
 ever published, and, indeed, the only one which is suited to form a
 volume for the HAKLUYT SOCIETY. It is a narrative of travel
 in the strictest sense, while the other parts would have been purely
 historical.

 [121] Old Panama was founded in 1520, in 8° 57´ N. latitude and
 79° 31´ W. longitude; on the shores of a bay discovered by Tello
 de Guzman, one of the companions of Columbus. In 1521 the city was
 granted a royal charter by Charles V, with the title of “_Very noble
 and very loyal city of Panama_.”

 [122] _Inga spectabilis_ Wild: the _paccay_ of Peru; a pod with black
 seeds in sweet juicy cotton.

 [123] _Chrysophyllum Caimito_ Lin.: or star apple.

 [124] Alligator pear, called _palta_ in Peru. (_Persea gratissima
 R. P._) The Aztec name _ahuacahuitl_ was corrupted by the Spaniards
 into _aguacate_, and by the English West Indians into _avogada_
 (_alligator_) pears. It is a most refreshing fruit, eaten with pepper
 and salt.

 [125] _Panama_ is an Indian word, signifying a place abounding with
 fish.

 [126] 8° 59´ N.

 [127] About a mile outside the present city of Panama there is a hill,
 now laid out as a garden with a summer house on the top. This is the
 “Cerro de Buccaneros,” whence Morgan, with his ruffians, got the first
 view of the rich city of old Panama; and a most magnificent view it
 is. Undulating hills clad in bright foliage, green savannahs, the
 blue bay with its islands, and the modern city of Panama on a long
 promontory almost surrounded by the sea. Far away to the left, rising
 out of a dense forest, is the solitary tower which alone remains of
 the once flourishing old Panama, the town founded by Pedrarias, and
 described above by our author. So complete is the desolation of this
 once splendid city, the centre of trade between Peru and Spain, that
 it is difficult to reach the site. The way leads through a trackless
 forest of tall trees and tangled undergrowth, and over a swampy creek
 of deep black mud, which opens on the sea-shore, the port described by
 Cieza de Leon. The tall tower of San Geronimo covered with creepers,
 with decayed and falling walls rising up around it, out of the dense
 jungle, amidst thick brushwood and tall forest trees, alone marks the
 site of the old city. When we reached the beach it was low water, and
 the wide sands were covered with pelicans, cranes, sandpipers, and
 other water fowl, which made the place look still more melancholy and
 deserted. Old Panama was one of the richest cities in Spanish America.
 It had eight monasteries, two splendid churches and a cathedral, a
 fine hospital, two hundred richly furnished houses, near five thousand
 houses of a humble kind, a Genoese chamber of commerce, two hundred
 warehouses, and delicious gardens and country houses in the environs.
 All is now covered by a dense and impervious forest.

 The buccaneers marched to the attack of this doomed city under the
 command of the notorious Morgan, and, after three weeks of rapine
 and murder, left it on February 24th, 1671, with one hundred and
 seventy-five laden mules and over six hundred prisoners. The houses
 were built of cedar, so that when Morgan set fire to them, the
 destruction was complete.

 After this fearful calamity the governor of Panama, Don Juan Perez de
 Guzman, was recalled and sent prisoner to Lima by order of the Viceroy
 of Peru, and in 1673 Don Alonzo Mercado de Villacorta was ordered to
 found a new town on the present site, some miles from the ruins of old
 Panama.

 A paved road led from old Panama to Porto Bello, on the opposite side
 of the isthmus.

 [128] The prevailing winds along the shores of Peru blow from S.S.E.
 to S.W., seldom stronger than a fresh breeze.

 [129] 8° 20´ to 8° 40´ N.

 [130] 8° 5´ N.

 [131] 7° 24´ N.

 [132] 3° 48´ N.

 [133] 2° 55´ N.

 [134] Quite correct.

 [135] Near the port of Tumaco.

 [136] 0° 38´ N.

 [137] 0° 20´ S.

 [138] Bajos de Cojimies.

 [139] 1° 2´ S.

 [140] Or Salango, where good water may be got from a rivulet, and also
 very fine timber.

 [141] This is quite correct, there is good anchorage, but no fresh
 water to be had.

 [142] See chapter lii.

 [143] The island of Santa Clara is also called the _Isla del Muerto_;
 Pizarro landed on it during his first voyage to Tumbez, and his people
 found a few pieces of gold there. The man who attends the lighthouse
 on the island, recently opened a _huaca_, and found in it a quantity
 of gold ornaments, which he sold to the Prussian Consul at Guayaquil.
 Mr. Spruce tells me that they are the most interesting and perfect
 specimens of Peruvian art he has seen. One of the objects was a small
 statue, six to eight inches high, of very creditable sculpture. More
 curious still were several thin plates, almost like a lady’s muslin
 collar in size and shape, covered with figures. One of them has
 perhaps a hundred figures of pelicans (the sacred bird of the people
 of Puna). Every figure represents the bird in a different attitude,
 and as they have been stamped, not engraved, a separate die must have
 been used for each figure.

 [144] _Mama_ (Mother) and _cuna_ (the plural particle) in Quichua.
 They were Matrons who had charge of the virgins of the Sun.

 [145] The town of Tumbez, about two leagues up the river, now consists
 of a few huts. Whalers come here for fresh water. It is in 3° 30´ S.

 [146] Cape Blanco is high and bold.

 [147] Twenty-two leagues.

 [148] The island of Lobos de Tierra is two leagues long and two miles
 wide, ten miles from the main land.

 [149] A bluff about eighty feet high, with a reef running out to a
 distance of half a mile on its western side. Pariña Point is the
 western extremity of South America.

 [150] Nine leagues S.E. ¼ S.

 [151] 5° 3´ S.

 [152] A long level point terminating in a steep bluff one hundred and
 fifty feet high. It is in 5° 55´ S.

 [153] These are the islands of Lobos de Afuera, about one hundred feet
 high. There are regular soundings in fifty fathoms between them and
 the shore.

 [154] The road of Malabrigo is a bad anchorage, though somewhat better
 than the road of Huanchaco, the port of Truxillo, which is in 8° 6´ S.

 [155] There is a small cove with a tolerable landing on the north side
 of Guañape hill.

 [156] Santa bay, though small, is a tolerable port, and fresh
 provisions, vegetables, and water may be procured.

 [157] Ferrol bay is an excellent place for a vessel to careen, being
 entirely free from the swell of the ocean. There is no fresh water.

 [158] The bay of Casma is a snug anchorage.

 [159] Guarmay is the best place on the coast for firewood. The river
 cannot be depended upon for supplies of water, except during the wet
 season.

 [160] There are large salt lakes here.

 [161] Several islets off the coast.

 [162] The high barren island of San Lorenzo, which Cieza de Leon
 called the island of Lima, forms the spacious and safe anchorage of
 Callao Bay.

 [163] 12° 4´ S.

 [164] Sangalla, so called also by Alonzo Enriquez de Guzman (p. 149),
 Herrera, and others, was no doubt close to the modern Pisco, which is
 in latitude 13° 43´ S. If Sangalla is not identical with Pisco, it was
 probably on the site of the modern village of Paraccas, a few miles
 further south, and about in the latitude given by Cieza de Leon. There
 is an island still called Sangallan, off the peninsula of Paraccas,
 about two miles and a half long, with a bold cliffy outline.

 [165] See chapter lix.

 [166] These are the _Ballista_ and _Chincha_ islands: the latter, now
 so famous for their guano deposits, supplying all the world with that
 rich manure, which forms the chief item in the revenue of modern Peru.

 [167] Cape Nasca is a lofty bluff, one thousand and twenty feet
 high, in 14° 57´ S.; there is an anchorage called Caballas Roads to
 the westward, rocky and shallow, “which should only be known to be
 avoided.” The _Beagle_ was at anchor there for twenty-four hours
 without being able to effect a landing. I rode along the whole of
 this coast in January 1853, a most desolate miserable region. Near
 Cape Nasca there are a few huts, called Sta. Anna, used as a bathing
 station for the ladies of Nasca, San Xavier, and other coast valleys.

 [168] In latitude 15° 11´ S.

 [169] In latitude 15° 20´ S. The port of Acari is called San Juan, and
 is one of the best on the coast; but wood, water, and provisions are
 all brought from a distance.

 [170] In latitude 16° 42´ S. The anchorage is much exposed, but
 landing is tolerably good. Quilca was the port of Arequipa in Spanish
 times, but since 1827 it has given place to Islay, another port a
 short distance down the coast.

 [171] In lat. 17° 7´ there is a point of that name, a few miles S.E.
 of Islay.

 [172] This is Coles point, a low sandy spit, running out into the sea,
 with a cluster of rocks off it.

 [173] Ylo is five miles and a half N.E. of Coles point, in latitude
 17° 36´ S. Water is scarce.

 [174] This may be Sama hill, the highest and most conspicuous land
 near the sea, on this part of the coast.

 [175] In latitude 18° 27´ S. Our author is beginning to get a good
 deal out in his reckoning.

 [176] This is the port of Iquique, in latitude 20° 12´ S.; a place of
 considerable trade, from the quantity of saltpetre that is exported.
 The anchorage is under a low island correctly described by our author.

 [177] The spacious bay of Mexillones is eight miles across, but no
 wood nor water can be obtained there.

 [178] In latitude 27° 2´ S. A very bad port, with a remarkable island
 called Isla Grande to the north.

 [179] The point forming Huasco bay is low and rugged, with several
 small islands between it and the port. The river is small, and a
 heavy surf breaks outside; the water, however, is excellent. There is
 another small river of brackish water nearer the port. The port is
 in latitude 28° 27´ S. Here our author becomes more correct in his
 reckoning.

 [180] In latitude 29° 55´ S. The islands he mentions are the Pijaros
 Niños islets and rocks.

 [181] The point here mentioned is a low rocky spit called Lengua de
 Vaca, round which is Tongoy, or, as our author calls it, Atongayo bay.
 About twenty-two miles further south is the mouth of the Limari river.

 [182] I cannot identify this.

 [183] In latitude 32° 50´ S. The bay of Quintero is roomy and
 sheltered during southerly winds.

 [184] In latitude 33° S.

 [185] Coasters sometimes anchor here for a few hours, but there is no
 place fit for a vessel of two hundred tons.

 [186] In latitude 36° 47´ S.

 [187] He must mean the island of Mocha.

 [188] In latitude 39° 49´ S.

 [189] The above is, on the whole, an excellent account of the coast
 from Panama to Valdivia. It agrees, in all essential points, with
 Admiral Fitz-Roy’s sailing directions printed in 1851; and Cieza de
 Leon deserves great credit for his care and diligence in collecting
 what, in those days, must have been very useful information. Indeed,
 it is not a little remarkable that, in those early days of the
 conquest, the old Spanish pilots should have completed a manual of
 sailing directions such as is contained in the preceding chapters, on
 a plan very similar to those now issued by the Hydrographic Office.

 [190] Or Darien.

 [191] Or Atrato.

 [192] The events thus briefly alluded to by our author, will be made
 more intelligible by a short summary. The main land of the American
 continent was first discovered by Columbus during his third voyage in
 1498, at Paria, opposite to the island of Trinidad. In 1499 one of his
 companions, Alonzo de Ojeda, accompanied by Amerigo Vespucci, touched
 the coast somewhere near Sarinam, and coasted along as far as the gulf
 of Maracaibo, naming a village at the mouth of that gulf _Venezuela_.
 In 1508 Ojeda, who was a brave soldier of great personal strength,
 obtained the government of the coast from Cabo de la Vela to the gulf
 of Uraba, which was called New Andalusia; and at the same time Diego
 Nicueza, a very different sort of person,--a polished courtier and
 good musician, was appointed governor of Veragua or Castille del Oro,
 a territory extending from the gulf of Uraba to Cape Gracias á Dios.

 The two adventurers arrived at Hispaniola at the same time; but Ojeda
 set out first on his voyage of discovery, and landed at Carthagena in
 1510. Advancing into the country he was surprised and defeated by the
 Indians in the bloody battle of Turbaco, losing seventy Spaniards,
 among them Juan de la Cosa, Ojeda’s lieutenant. At this time Nicuesa
 arrived, and, in spite of former jealousies and quarrels, offered
 assistance to Ojeda. The Indians were in their turn defeated, and all
 were put to the sword, neither age nor sex being spared.

 Ojeda then took leave of Nicuesa, and, sailing to the westward,
 selected a spot on the east side of the gulf of Uraba or Darien as a
 site for a town. It consisted of about thirty huts surrounded by a
 stockade, and was called San Sebastian de Uraba. Here Ojeda was again
 defeated by the Indians, and, returning to Hispaniola for assistance,
 he died there in extreme poverty. The Spaniards at San Sebastian were
 left under the command of Francisco Pizarro, the future conqueror
 of Peru; they suffered from famine and disease, and at last Pizarro
 embarked them all in two small vessels. Outside the harbour they met
 a vessel which proved to be that of the Bachiller Enciso, Ojeda’s
 partner, coming with provisions and reinforcements. They all returned
 to San Sebastian, but found that the Indians had destroyed the fort,
 and Enciso determined to abandon it. One of the crew of Enciso’s
 ship, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, the future discoverer of the South Sea,
 induced his commander to form a settlement on the other side of the
 gulf, called Santa Maria la Antigua del Darien. No vestige of it now
 remains. The troops, however, soon became discontented, Enciso was
 deposed, and Diego Colmenares, who arrived with provisions, was sent
 to offer the command to Nicuesa. This commander, after parting from
 Ojeda, had suffered most fearful hardships on a desert island, and
 Colmenares found him in a state of great misery, in a bay which he had
 called _Nombre de Dios_. When he arrived at Darien, the Spaniards had
 changed their minds, and refused to receive him, and he was finally
 obliged to sail in a wretched boat, and was never heard of again. This
 was in March 1511. Vasco Nuñez, a clever and courageous adventurer,
 then took command of the Darien settlement, and the Bachiller
 Enciso was sent back to Hispaniola. The new commander entered upon
 a career of conquest in the neighbourhood of Darien, which ended
 in the discovery of the Pacific Ocean on September 25th, 1513. In
 1514 Pedrarias de Avila was appointed governor of Darien, an old man
 of rank and some reputation, but with no ability, and of a cruel
 disposition. He set out with a large expedition, the historian Oviedo,
 and the Bachiller Enciso being in his train; and superseded Blasco
 Nuñez in the government of Darien in June.

 [193] In 1517.

 [194] Don Pedro de Heredia was one of the most distinguished among
 the discoverers of New Granada, a firm, intrepid, enterprising man,
 gifted with the art of securing the confidence and obedience of his
 usually lawless followers. He commenced his career as lieutenant under
 Garcia de Lerma, the second governor of Santa Martha, and, returning
 to Spain with great wealth, he obtained the government of all the
 country between the mouth of the river Magdalena and the gulf of
 Darien, and set sail again with a hundred men in 1532. He founded the
 city of Carthagena in January 1533, and his brother Alonzo de Heredia
 established a settlement at Uraba in 1535.

 Our author sailed from Spain, in the fleet of Pedro de Heredia, at the
 early age of thirteen. The lad seems to have accompanied Alonzo de
 Heredia to Uraba, and, with the interesting account of the Indians of
 that region which now follows, the personal narrative of his travels
 commences.

 [195] _Perico ligero_, one of the sloth tribe (_Bradypus didactylus_).
 The snout is short, forehead high, eyes black and almost covered with
 long black eyelashes, no incisors in the upper jaw, legs ill-formed,
 thighs ill-shaped and clumsy, hind legs short and thick, the toes
 united, having three long curved claws on the hind and fore feet,
 twenty-eight ribs, and very short tail. The whole length of the body
 is between four and five feet. The animal is the very picture of
 misery, and covered with long shaggy hair like dried grass. Its motion
 is very slow, at each step it howls most hideously, and scarcely walks
 ten yards in as many hours. It feeds on leaves and buds, and when it
 has once gained the top of a tree it will remain there as long as a
 leaf is to be procured. _Stevenson_, ii, p. 237.

 [196] The Peccary, or South American wild pig.

 [197] What Cieza de Leon, and other old writers, called a navel, is a
 dorsal gland on the backs of these peccaries, which must be cut out
 soon after the animal’s death, or it soon vitiates the whole carcase.

 [198] “Manzanillo de playa.” (_Hippomane Mancinella_ Lin.), a
 euphorbiaceous plant. In the West Indies it is known as the manshineel
 tree.

 [199] For an account of the office and duties of a Juez de Residencia,
 see a note at page 86 of my translated edition of “Alonzo Enriquez de
 Guzman,” printed for the HAKLUYT SOCIETY in 1862.

 [200] The _Emys decussata_ of Bell. It is a land tortoise.

 [201] Macaws.

 [202] The Abibe mountains are a branch of the Andes, extending from
 the shores of the gulf of Darien to the village of the cacique Abibe,
 whence the range took its name. They are covered with dense forest,
 and the only paths are the tortuous beds of mountain torrents, flowing
 on one side to the Cauca river, and on the other to the gulf of Darien.

 [203] In 1537 Don Pedro de Heredia sent his lieutenant, Don Francisco
 Cesar, in search of the wealth of the cacique Dobaybe, which had
 been famous ever since the days of Vasco Nuñez. He set out from San
 Sebastian de Uraba with a hundred men and some horses, and crossed
 the mountains of Abibe, a barrier which had proved insurmountable to
 all previous explorers during twenty years. After passing over these
 mountains he descended into a valley ruled by the cacique Nutibara,
 with a force reduced to sixty-three men. The cacique attacked him with
 an array of three thousand Indians, but eventually retreated on the
 death of his brother. Nutibara caused the body to be placed on his
 own litter, and he was seen by the Spaniards to run by the side on
 foot for many miles, mourning his brother’s loss, in the midst of the
 retreating host. Cesar found forty thousand ducats worth of gold in
 the tombs, in this valley.

 During Cesar’s absence, the licentiate Pedro Vadillo, sent by the
 Audience of San Domingo to examine into the government of Carthagena,
 had arrived there and thrown Heredia into prison. On his return the
 faithful lieutenant went first to the prison of his unfortunate
 master, and supplied him with funds to conduct his defence, and
 then paid his respects to Vadillo. The harsh conduct of Vadillo
 was disapproved in Spain, and it was resolved that a lawyer should
 be sent out to sit in judgment upon him. The licentiate, who was a
 bold and audacious man, determined to attempt some new discovery in
 anticipation of the arrival of his judge, in hopes of performing
 a service the importance of which might wipe off all former
 delinquencies. He, therefore, organized a force of four hundred
 Spaniards at San Sebastian de Uraba, and, taking the gallant Cesar as
 his lieutenant, set out early in 1538. Cieza de Leon, then nineteen
 years of age, accompanied this expedition.

 [204] A quintal is about a hundredweight.

 [205] This word, as well as the word _huaca_, at the end of the last
 chapter, are Quichua: and Cieza de Leon must, I think, have confused
 them in his mind, in applying them to the language of the Indians of
 the Cauca valley.

 [206] The wealth of the cacique Dabaybe is the theme of many old
 chroniclers. He seems to have ruled a country near the river Atrato,
 where gold ornaments are frequently found at the present day. Vasco
 Nuñez de Balboa went in search of the Dabaybe.

 [207] The province of Antioquia, in New Granada, including the lower
 part of the course of the great river Cauca, is still the least known
 part of Spanish South America. Even now the account of this region
 given by Cieza de Leon in this and the following chapters, is the
 best that has been published. Humboldt was never there, nor is this
 country described in such modern books of travels as those of Captain
 Cochrane, Mollien, or Holton. Some of these travellers, as well as
 General Mosquera in his pamphlet, give accounts of Cartago, Cali, and
 other places in the upper part of the valley of the Cauca: but none of
 them visited or described the lower part of the course of that river
 nor the province of Antioquia. Besides that of Cieza de Leon, I only
 know of one account of this province, namely that written in 1809 by
 Don José Manuel Restrepo, the colleague of the illustrious Caldas,
 which was published in the “_Semanario de la Nueva Granada_,” pp.
 194-228.

 Restrepo says that the province of Antioquia, one of the richest and
 most fertile in New Granada, was entirely unknown to geographers up to
 the time when he wrote. No astronomical or other observation had ever
 been taken in it, and its rivers and other features were either not
 marked at all, or put down in false positions on the maps. The first
 map of Antioquia, a copy of which is in the map room of the Royal
 Geographical Society, was made by Restrepo in 1807. He triangulated
 the whole province, corrected his bearings by sun’s azimuths, took
 meridian altitudes of stars for his latitudes, and deeply regretted
 that he had no instruments to enable him to get his longitudes by
 observing the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites. In the _Semanario_
 Restrepo gives a long and detailed geographical description of the
 valley of the Cauca.

 [208] In latitude 6° 36´ N. according to Restrepo.

 [209] It will be as well here to give, in a few lines, the fate of
 Vadillo’s expedition. He led his men up the left bank of the Cauca,
 suffering terribly from want of proper food, the difficulties of the
 road, and the constant attacks of the Indians. At last his gallant
 lieutenant Francisco Cesar died. His death filled the soldiers with
 consternation, and they clamoured for a retreat to the coast. This,
 however, did not at all suit the views of Vadillo, who knew that
 imprisonment was awaiting him at Carthagena; and, when the discontent
 of his men became formidable, he drew his sword and rushed alone into
 the woods, crying out that, let who would go back, he should press on
 till he met with better fortune. The men were ashamed and followed
 him, and eventually reached Cali. Here at last Vadillo was deserted by
 most of his people, he went on nearly alone to Popayan, was sent by
 sea to Panama, and thence to Spain for trial. He died in poverty at
 Seville, before the termination of his trial. This soldierlike lawyer
 thus completed the discovery of the course of the river Cauca. Though
 harsh and obstinate, he was a brave commander, and cheerfully shared
 all privations with his men.

 Meanwhile the licentiate Santa Cruz, who had arrived at Carthagena
 with orders to arrest Vadillo, sent two officers in chase of him in
 1538. It is of one of these officers, named Juan Greciano, that a
 story is told at p. 42. Their troops met those of the captain Don
 Jorge Robledo, who had advanced down the Cauca from Cali, and joined
 them.

 The expeditions of Cesar and Vadillo, the first discoverers of the
 valley of the Cauca, thus came to an end without a foot of ground
 having been permanently conquered. The same fate did not attend the
 next invader, Don Jorge Robledo. He had accompanied Belalcazar from
 Quito to Popayan, and in 1541 set out from Cali with one hundred and
 thirty men, for the conquest of Antioquia. Our young author, on the
 breaking up of Vadillo’s expedition, seems to have joined that of
 Robledo, whose fortunes he followed for some time; and he witnessed
 the conquest of many Indian tribes, and the foundation and settlement
 of several Spanish towns in this valley of the Cauca.

 [210] The river Cauca is still noted for its gold washings, and
 mines. Boritica, the very place alluded to by our author, is also
 mentioned by Restrepo as having once yielded great treasure, though
 now exhausted. The gold of the Cauca valley is mentioned as one of
 the resources of New Granada in a letter to the Committee of Spanish
 American Bondholders (_New Granada and its Internal Resources_, p.
 27.) In the beginning of the present century, the Viceroyalty of
 New Granada yielded 20,505 marcs of gold, worth 2,990,000 dollars,
 according to Humboldt. In 1850 the produce of gold in New Granada was
 worth £252,407.

 [211] _Cui_, according to Velasco, is the smallest kind of rabbit
 in the country. From most ancient times the Indians have bred great
 quantities of these _Cuis_ or _Ccoys_ (guinea pigs) in their houses.
 He describes them as under five or six _dedos_, but very broad and
 thick, with round ears, great variety in colour, and very fat delicate
 flesh. _Hist. de Quito_, i. p. 89.

 [212] The Atrato.

 [213] Cieza de Leon calls the Canea, the river of Santa Martha. In
 this part of its course it flows between two chains of mountains,
 which only leave a space of one hundred or two hundred yards between
 them and the river. The stream is full of huge blocks of rock causing
 numerous rapids, and impeding navigation.

 [214] Probably the _Ceroxylon andicola_.

 [215] A _repartimiento_ was a grant of Indians, who were bound to pay
 tribute and to render personal service.

 [216] Or _Pitajaya_ (_Cereus Pitajaya_, De Cand.), a cactus used for
 making fences.

 [217] _Vanilla?_

 [218] Or _carats_, a small weight used for gold and silver. It was the
 twenty-fourth part of a _marc_, so that nineteen _carats_ would mean
 nineteen parts of pure gold and five of alloy, in the _marc_.

 [219] _Encomiendas_ were estates granted to the Spanish conquerors,
 the inhabitants of which were bound to pay tribute and to render
 personal service to the holders of the grants. Pizarro was empowered
 to grant _encomiendas_ to his followers in 1529, and in 1536 these
 grants were extended to two lives; but by the “New Laws,” enacted in
 1542, the _encomiendas_ were to pass immediately to the crown after
 the death of the actual holders, and a fixed sum was to be settled
 as tribute to be paid by the Indians. All forced labour was also
 absolutely forbidden. The conquerors were furious at the promulgation
 of these humane laws, and, it being considered unsafe to enforce them,
 they were revoked in 1545. The president Gasca redistributed the
 _encomiendas_ in Peru in 1550, and they were granted for three lives
 in 1629. For further information on this subject see my _Travels in
 Peru and India_, chap. viii.

 [220] _Jatropha Manihot_, Lin., an excellent edible root.

 [221] _Psidium Guayava_ Raddi.

 [222] _Persea gratissima._ R. P.

 [223] That is, “As the Indians themselves have no greed after gold, it
 behoves the Spaniards to show them that avarice is not the only motive
 which influences the conduct of their conquerors.”

 [224] Francisco Hernandez Giron was afterwards famous as the leader of
 the final rebellion in Peru. The anger of the Spanish soldiers at a
 law prohibiting the use of Indians as beasts of burden enabled him to
 assemble a number of discontented spirits at Cuzco in November 1553.
 He routed the royal army at Chuquinga, but was finally defeated at
 Pucara, and publicly beheaded in the great square of Lima. His head
 was hung up in an iron cage, besides those of Gonzalo Pizarro and
 Carbajal.

 [225] When Vadillo’s expedition came to an end, our young author
 transferred his services to Don Jorge Robledo.

 Robledo was one of the followers of Sebastian de Belalcazar, the
 discoverer of Quito and Popayan, and was detached by him for the
 conquest of the Cauca valley. After Robledo had founded the city of
 Antioquia in 1541, he determined to go to Spain by way of Carthagena,
 and solicit the formation of a separate government for himself, to be
 carved out of the grant formerly made to Belalcazar. On arriving at
 San Sebastian de Uraba, he was arrested by Don Pedro de Heredia, who
 had returned from Spain with renewed titles and privileges, accused
 of an attempt to upset his government, and sent to Spain for trial.
 In 1546 Robledo returned from Spain with the title of marshal, and,
 landing at San Sebastian, marched once more up the valley of the
 Cauca. Belalcazar demanded that he should retire from the territory
 which he had invaded, and, by forced marches, surprised him on the 1st
 of October 1546, and took him prisoner. The unfortunate Robledo was
 reviled by his captor as a deserter, traitor, and usurper, and finally
 hung, although he entreated to be beheaded as became a knight.

 [226] _Muchos tienen con la una mano la vasija con que estan bebiendo,
 y con la otra el miembro con que orinan._

 [227] The tendency to the partial adoption of the rule of female
 succession amongst these Indians is worthy of note. When a chief had
 no son, the son of his sister succeeded, to the exclusion of brothers’
 sons. It appears that this was the general practice amongst the
 Indians of the valley of the Cauca. The Indians of Anzerma (see p.
 64), of Arma (see p. 73), and of Carrapa, all adopted it; and Velasco
 says that the same custom prevailed in the family of the _Scyris_
 or ancient kings of Quito. (_Hist. de Quito_, i, p. 8.) It is well
 known that with the Nairs of Malabar the rule of female succession is
 absolute, and that the son of a sister succeeds to the exclusion of
 the possessor’s son. The heirs apparent in these South American tribes
 seem to have had sufficient influence to ensure their own succession,
 although the sister’s son came next, even to the exclusion, as Velasco
 tells us, of daughters. Friar Jordanus gives us the reason for this
 rule amongst the people of Malabar:--“Whatever man may be the father
 of their sister they are certain that the offspring is from the womb
 of their sister, and is consequently thus truly of their blood.”
 Colonel Yule, in a note to his edition of Friar Jordanus (HAKLUYT
 SOCIETY’S _volume for 1863_, p. 32), has given a list of all the
 people amongst whom this custom of female succession has prevailed.
 They are the Nairs of Malabar, the people of Canara, the aborigines of
 Hispaniola, the tribes of New Granada, the royal family of Quito, the
 negro tribes of the Niger, certain sections of the Malays of Sumatra,
 the royal family of Tipura, the Kasias of the Sylhet mountains, the
 people of a district in Ceylon adjoining Bintenne, in Madagascar, the
 Fiji Islanders, and the Hurons and Natchez Indians of North America.

 [228] About half a gallon.

 [229] The _estolica_, used by South American Indians, consists of
 flattened pieces of wood about a yard long, in the upper end of which
 a bone is fixed. A long dart is fastened on the bone, and hurled with
 tremendous force and sure aim.

 [230] Truly! so long ago that it is the merest waste of time to make
 conjectures or surmises as to whence they came. The testimony given
 by Cieza de Leon that, even in his time, there was evidence of the
 country having once been far more densely peopled, is very interesting.

 [231] Half a gallon.

 [232] One arroba = 25 lbs.

 [233] _Chrysophyllum Caimito_, Linn., or star apple.

 [234] Alligator pear. _Persea gratissima R. P._

 [235] _Inga spectabilis._

 [236] _Psidium Guayava_, Raddi.

 [237] Velasco says that the _chucha_, _tututu_, or _guanchaca_, is
 a sort of domestic fox, rather larger than a cat, with a very long
 tail, generally without hair; it is very cunning, is seldom seen in
 the daytime, and carries its young in a bag which opens and shuts on
 its belly, within which are the two nipples of its teats. _Hist. de
 Quito_, i, p. 92. Probably this is the small opossum of the genus
 _Didelphys_.

 [238] Velasco describes the _guadaquinaje_ as about the size of a
 hare, with no tail, and very good for food. Found in the warm parts of
 the province of Popayan. i, p. 89.

 [239] The Magdalena.

 [240] The Atrato.

 [241] _Psidium Guayava_ Raddi.

 [242] _Inga spectabilis_ Willd.

 [243] _Anona muricata_ Linn.

 [244] _Persea gratissima R. P._ In other places he calls it
 _Aguacate_. _Palta_ is the Quichua word.

 [245] See note at page 72.

 [246] The fruit of the passion flower.

 [247] The licentiate Pascual de Andagoya came to the Indies in the
 train of Pedrarias, governor of Panama, and was appointed governor of
 San Juan, including the coast of the Pacific between the gulf of San
 Miguel and the river of San Juan, in 1539. He landed at the mouth of
 the river Dagua, and marched inland until he came to the town of Cali,
 which he claimed as coming within the limits of his jurisdiction. At
 this time Belalcazar was in Spain, petitioning for the government
 of Popayan. When he received it, with the title of Adelantado, he
 came out by way of Panama, landed at Buenaventura, and marched to
 Cali. Here the people received him as their governor, and he arrested
 Andagoya as an intruder, and sent him prisoner to Spain. Andagoya
 was a learned man, and wrote a _Relacion_ of his expedition, which
 occupies sixty pages of Navarrete’s work.

 [248] Mollien describes Buenaventura as consisting of a dozen huts
 inhabited by negroes, a barrack with eleven soldiers, a battery of
 three guns, and the residence of the governor built of straw and
 bamboo, on an island called Kascakral, covered with grass, brambles,
 mud, serpents and toads. _Travels in Colombia_, 1824, p. 299.

 [249] Or Jamondi.

 [250] See note to page 72.

 [251] Grange or farm.

 [252] After the fall of Robledo, our author attached his fortunes to
 those of Belalcazar.

 Sebastian de Belalcazar was born in a village called Belalcazar,
 on the borders of Estremadura and Andalucia. He was the child of a
 peasant, and one day, having killed the only donkey possessed by
 his family because it was slow in getting over a miry road, the
 ill-conditioned young rascal run away, fearing to return home, and
 reached Seville in 1514. At that time Pedrarias was enlisting men
 for his expedition to the isthmus of Darien, and the fugitive took
 service as a soldier in one of the ships. He knew not of any other
 name by which he was called, save Sebastian, and to it was added the
 name of his birthplace. It is said that his father’s name was Moyano.
 On one occasion his sagacity saved the governor Pedrarias when he was
 nearly lost in the woods near Darien, and from that time his fortune
 was made. Pedrarias sent him in the expedition to Nicaragua, where
 he assisted in the founding of the city of Leon, and he afterwards
 followed Pizarro to Peru. Pizarro appointed him governor of San
 Miguel, whence he marched, with a force of one hundred and forty
 well-armed soldiers, to the city of Quito in 1533. In 1536 he set
 out from Quito, discovered Popayan and Pasto, and the valley of the
 Cauca, and reached Bogota in 1538. Thence he descended the Magdalena
 and returned to Spain, where, to check the ambition of the Pizarros,
 Charles V granted him the government of Popayan, with the title of
 adelantado. He went out again by way of Panama, landed at Buenaventura
 on the Pacific coast, and marched to Cali, where he seized Andagoya
 and established his own authority. Afterwards he was wounded
 fighting on the side of the Viceroy Vela against Gonzalo Pizarro at
 Añaquito, he treated Robledo with harsh cruelty, and he marched to
 the assistance of the President Gasca against Gonzalo Pizarro, on
 which occasion he was accompanied by our author. Briceño, a judge,
 who had married the widow of Robledo, was sent to examine into the
 conduct of Belalcazar, and, urged by his wife, was not very favourably
 disposed towards him. Indeed he condemned him to death for the murder
 of Robledo. Belalcazar appealed, and set out for Spain with a heavy
 heart. He died at Carthagena on his way home in the year 1550.

 [253] The Magdalena. By the two branches he means the Magdalena and
 the Cauca.

 [254] _Manatus Americanus._ They are also called by the Spaniards
 _Vaca Marina_, and by the Portuguese _Pegebuey_, and they abound
 in the great South American rivers, especially in the Amazon. The
 _manatee_ is a sort of porpoise, often eight feet long. See the very
 interesting account of it given by Acuña, at page 68 of my translation
 of that author. (HAKLUYT SOCIETY’S Vol. for 1859.)

 [255] I cannot make out what this can be. It may possibly mean the
 grain called _quinoa_ (_Chenopodium Quinoa_), which is cultivated in
 the loftier parts of the Andes.

 [256] The fruit of the passion-flower.

 [257] Literally “Blue river.”

 [258] _Paramo_ is the name given, in the Quito provinces, to the
 elevated plateaux of the Andes. In Peru they are called _Punas_.

 [259] Lorenzo de Aldana came to Peru with the Adelantado Pedro de
 Alvarado. He was appointed lieutenant-governor of Quito by Pizarro,
 and it was then that he founded the town of Pasto. During the
 subsequent civil wars he acted a very conspicuous part, especially
 in the battle of Chupas, when the younger Almagro was defeated. When
 Gonzalo Pizarro determined to send an embassy to Spain to obtain a
 confirmation of his authority, Aldana was selected as his envoy in
 1546; but he was won over to the side of Gasca at Panama, by the
 persuasions of that wily ecclesiastic. He was then sent to cruise off
 Callao, and receive all those on board who wished to join the royal
 cause; and during the remainder of the struggle he took an active part
 against his old commander. Aldana died at Arequipa in 1556, unmarried
 and leaving no children. In his will he left all his property to the
 Indians whom he had received in _repartimiento_, for the payment of
 their tribute in future years. He seems to have been a noble minded
 man, and superior to the common run of Spanish _conquistadores_.
 Aldana was not the only _conquistador_ whose conscience smote him
 on his death bed, when too late, for his treatment of the Indians.
 The curious dying confession of Marcio Serra de Lejesama, addressed
 to Philip II in 1589, is another instance of these stony-hearted
 men being moved at last. (_Calancha_, i, cap. 15. p. 98.). After
 telling the simple truth concerning the poor Indians, their former
 happy state, and the desolate misery to which the Spaniards had
 reduced them, the guilty wretch thus concludes: “I pray to God that
 he will pardon me, for I am the last to die of all the conquerors and
 discoverers; it is notorious that there are none surviving except I
 alone, in all this kingdom nor out of it; and I now do what I can to
 relieve my conscience.”

 [260] _Prosopis horrida._ Willd.

 [261] Bricks of immense size, baked in the sun.

 [262] See note at page 143.

 [263] _Rumi_ (a stone) and _chaca_ (a bridge) in Quichua.

 [264] _Yahuar_ (blood) and _Cocha_ (a lake) in Quichua.

 [265] After the conquest of Quito by Huayna Ccapac, the cacique of
 Carangue was the first to submit to his authority, and, while he
 lulled the Ynca and his captains into security, he meditated their
 destruction by a sudden and secret blow. Suspecting nothing, they
 were encamped in his country, when his Indians made a furious attack
 upon them in the dead of night, many of the nobles of the guard were
 killed, and the Ynca himself narrowly escaped with his life. Huayna
 Ccapac resolved to give these people of Carangue a terrible and
 memorable lesson. He put every man in the province, who was capable
 of bearing arms, to death, and ordered their bodies to be thrown into
 the lake, which to this day is called “the lake of blood.” Garcilasso
 de la Vega considers that the number stated by Cieza de Leon to have
 been put to death on this occasion is an exaggeration, and that two
 thousand would be nearer the truth than twenty thousand. _G. de la
 Vega_, i, lib. ix, cap. ii; _Velasco_, i, p. 18.

 [266] _Huayna_ (a youth) and _cuna_ (the plural) in Quichua.

 [267] Before the country of Quito was conquered by the Yncas, it was
 governed by native kings called _Scyris_. The Ynca Tupac Yupanqui
 first extended his dominion beyond the frontiers of Quito, and Huayna
 Ccapac completed the conquest in 1487. Cacha, the last Scyri, was
 killed in battle, and Paccha, his only daughter, was married to Huayna
 Ccapac and became the mother of Atahualpa.

 [268] The Amazon.

 [269] It seems to be generally allowed, even by Velasco, that all the
 ruins in the kingdom of Quito date from the time of the Yncas, and
 that none can be referred to the Scyris, or native kings.

 [270] It was partly in search of this spice, that Gonzalo Pizarro
 undertook his famous expedition into Quijos. The dried calyx alone
 is used as a spice, and its flavour resembles a mixture of cinnamon
 and cloves. The tree is a species of _Lauracea_. Herrera describes
 it as resembling an olive, with large pods. Velasco declares that
 the cinnamon of his country exceeds that of Ceylon in fragrance and
 sweetness. Garcilasso de la Vega says that the cinnamon tree of
 Quijos, a province of Quito, is very tall, with large leaves, and
 fruit growing in clusters like acorns. He adds that many grow wild in
 the forests, but that they are not so good as those which the Indians
 get from trees which they plant and cultivate for their own use,
 but not for the people of Peru, who care for nothing but their own
 condiment called _uchu_ (_aji_, pepper). When I was in the forests of
 Caravaya, in Southern Peru, I met with trees of great height which my
 guide called _canela_ (cinnamon). The inner bark had a strong taste
 of that spice, and the natives use it to scent and flavour their
 _huarapu_ or fermented juice of the sugar cane. _G. de la Vega_, ii,
 lib. iii, cap. 2; _Velasco_, i, p. 51; _Markham’s Travels in Peru and
 India_, p. 264.

 [271] The quinua (_Chenopodium Quinua L._) is cultivated in the higher
 parts of the Andes of Quito and Peru, and is probably the hardiest
 cereal in the world, growing at the greatest elevation above the level
 of the sea. Velasco mentions two kinds, the white and red. The former
 is a small white round grain, extensively raised on the cold lofty
 mountains, and yielding good food; the latter, a very small round red
 grain, only eaten toasted. Garcilasso de la Vega mentions quinua as
 having been extensively cultivated by the ancient Peruvians, both for
 the sake of the grain, and for the leaves, which they use in soup.
 He sent some seeds of it to Spain in the year 1590, but they did not
 come up. In Quichua the cultivated plant is called _quinua_; the green
 leaves, _lliccha_; the plant growing wild, _azar_; a pudding made of
 quinua grains, _pisque_; and boiled quinua grains, dried in the sun
 and ground into a coarse powder for food on a journey, _quispiña_.
 At harvest time the stalks are cut and tied up in bundles, and the
 grain is then beaten out with sticks. It is an insipid and not very
 nutritious grain.

 Ulloa gives the following account of the quinoa. It resembles a lentil
 in shape, but is much smaller and very white. When boiled it opens,
 and out of it comes a spiral fibre, which appears like a small worm,
 but whiter than the husk of the grain. It is an annual plant, being
 sown every year. The stem is about three or four feet in height, and
 has a large pointed leaf. The flower is of a deep red, and five or six
 inches long, and in it are contained the grains or seeds. The quinoa
 is eaten boiled like rice, and has a very pleasant taste. It is used
 in external applications, ground and boiled to a proper consistency,
 and applied to the part affected, from which it soon extracts all
 corrupt humours occasioned by a contusion. _Ulloa’s Voyage_, i, p. 290.

 [272] Barley is cultivated successfully in Peru, at heights from 7000
 to 13,200 feet above the sea. It was introduced by the Spaniards. _Von
 Tschudi_, p. 177.

 [273] The different tribes of the empire of the Yncas were
 distinguished by their head-dresses, the people of each province
 wearing one of a distinct colour. This was not a custom introduced
 by the Yncas, but, being the usage of the different tribes, those
 sovereigns decreed that it should be continued, in order that the
 tribes might not be confounded one with another, when serving in the
 army or at Cuzco. _G. de la Vega_, i, lib. vii, cap. 9.

 [274] Some kind of aloe.

 [275] All these names of parts of the dress are correct Quichua words.
 The dress here described by Cieza de Leon is exactly the same as those
 represented in pictures still preserved at Cuzco, which are almost
 contemporaneous with the conquest.

 [276] “The stone made use of for the house of Huayna Ccapac, mentioned
 by Cieza de Leon under the name of _Mulahalo_, is a rock of volcanic
 origin, a burnt and spongy porphyry with basaltic basis. It was
 probably ejected by the mouth of the volcano of Cotopaxi. As this
 monument appears to have been constructed in the beginning of the
 sixteenth century, the materials employed in it prove that it is a
 mistake to consider as the first eruption of Cotopaxi that which took
 place in 1533, when Sebastian de Belalcazar made the conquest of the
 kingdom of Quito.” _Humboldt’s Researches_, i, p. 6.

 [277] These are the ruins called Callo, near Latacunga (Llacta-cunga).
 In Ulloa’s time they served as a house for the Augustine monks at
 Quito. As Humboldt says that Ulloa’s description of Callo is very
 inaccurate, it will be preferable to refer to the account given of the
 ruins by the great Prussian traveller.

 The Yncas Tupas Yupanqui and Huayna Ccapac, when they had completed
 the conquest of Quito, caused magnificent roads to be formed, and
 _tampus_ (inns), storehouses, and magazines to be built for the
 reception of the sovereign and his armies. Travellers have called
 the ruins of these buildings palaces. The most celebrated of these
 ruins are those near Latacunga, ten leagues south of Quito, and three
 leagues from the volcano of Cotopaxi. The edifice forms a square, each
 side of which is thirty-five yards long. Four great outer doors are
 still distinguishable, and eight apartments, three of which are in
 good preservation. The walls are nearly five yards and a half high,
 and a yard thick. The doors are similar to those in the Egyptian
 temples, and there are eighteen niches in each apartment, distributed
 with the greatest symmetry. _Humboldt’s Researches_.

 [278] Cieza de Leon gives the best account of these _Mitimaes_ or
 Colonists. Indeed, Garcilasso de la Vega quotes from him. (i, lib.
 vii, cap. 1; and i, lib. iii, cap. 19.) It is curious that the
 descendants of _Mitimaes_ on the coast of Peru still retain the
 tradition concerning the villages in the Andes, whence their ancestors
 were transported. Thus the Indians of Arequipa are descended from
 _Mitimaes_ who were sent from a village called Cavanilla, near Puno;
 those of Moquegua, from _Mitimaes_ who were natives of Acora and
 Ilave, on the shores of Lake Titicaca; and those of Tacna, from
 natives of Juli and Pisacoma, near the same lake.

 [278] I am doubtful about the etymology of this word, but incline
 to believe that it is derived from the Quichua word _Mita_ (time or
 turn), whence come other cognate words. From labourers or soldiers
 taking their turn at work, it came to mean service generally--hence
 _Mitta-runa_ (a man required to perform forced service) and
 _Mitta-chanacuy_ (a law of the Yncas regulating the division of labor).

 [280] A fermented liquor made from maize, called _acca_ in the Quichua
 language, and universally drunk by the Indians, in all parts of Peru.

 [281] “_Y como estan sin sentido, algunos toman las mugeres que
 quieren, y llevadas a alguna casa, usan con ellas sus luxurias, sin
 tenerlo por cosa fea; porque ni entienden el don que esta debaxo de la
 verguença, ni miran mucho en la honra, ni tienen mucha cuenta con el
 mundo._”

 [282] This account of the great Ynca road from Quito to Cuzco is
 quoted at length by Garcilasso de la Vega (i, lib. ix, cap. 13).

 Zarate, the Accountant, was equally impressed with the grandeur of
 this work. He says that “the road was made over the mountains for a
 distance of five hundred leagues. It was broad and level, rocks were
 broken up and levelled where it was necessary, and ravines were filled
 up. When the road was finished it was so level that carts might have
 passed along it. The difficulty of this road will be understood when
 it is considered how great the cost and labour has been in levelling
 two leagues of hilly country in Spain, between Espinar de Segovia and
 Guadarramar, which has never yet been completely done, although it
 is the route by which the Kings of Castille continually pass, with
 their households and their court, every time they go to or come from
 Andalusia.” Zarate was Comptroller of Accounts for Castille from 1528
 to 1543, and in 1544 he went to Peru to hold the same office. He was
 an educated man and an eye-witness, so that his testimony is valuable.
 _Historia del Peru_, lib. i, cap. 10.

 Velasco, who was a native of Riobamba, near Quito, measured the
 breadth of the great road of the Yncas, and found it to be about six
 yards in one place, and seven in another. He says that the parts cut
 through the living rock were covered with a cement to make the surface
 smooth, while the loose places were paved with stones and covered with
 the same cement, in which he observed very small stones, not much
 larger than grains of sand. To cross ravines the road was raised with
 great pieces of rock united together by cement; and he adds that this
 cement was so strong that, where torrents had worked their way through
 the embankments, the road still spanned the ravines in the form of
 bridges. _Hist. de Quito_, i, p. 59.

 [283] This captain was a native of Estremadura and a follower of
 Pizarro. He was distinguished for his valour at the defence of Cuzco,
 when that city was besieged by the Indians; but seems subsequently to
 have gone over to the party of Almagro, who left him as his governor
 of Cuzco, when he marched towards Lima after his return from Chile.
 He had charge of Gonzalo Pizarro and other prisoners, who broke loose
 and forced Rojas to accompany them. On arriving at the camp of Pizarro
 near Lima, the marquis, notwithstanding his desertion, gave Rojas a
 large estate in Charcas. In the war between Gonzalo Pizarro and Gasca,
 he went over to the latter and was given command of his artillery.
 Immediately after the fall of Gonzalo he was sent as treasurer to
 Charcas, where he died.

 [284] These Cavalleros played a very conspicuous part in the conquests
 and civil wars of Peru. For an account of Alonzo de Alvarado, see my
 _Life of Enriquez de Guzman_, p. 109 (_note_); of Diego de Alvarado,
 _Ibid._, p. 124 (_note_).

 [285] Garcilasso de la Vega was born, of noble parentage, in the city
 of Badajos, in Estremadmura. His great-grandfather was Gomez Suarez de
 Figueroa, the first Count of Feria, by Elvira Lasso de la Vega. This
 lady was a sister of the famous Marquis of Santillana, the charming
 poet, and founder of the great family of Mendoza. She was a maternal
 granddaughter of that Garcilasso who in 1372 received the surname of
 “de la Vega,” in memory of a famous duel fought with a Moorish giant
 before the walls of Granada:--

      “Garcilasso de la Vega
    They the youth thenceforward call,
       For his duel in the Vega
    Of Granada chanced to fall.”

 The lady’s paternal grandfather was Don Diego de Mendoza, the knight
 who, in the battle of Aljubarrota with the Portuguese in 1385, saved
 the life of King John I by giving him his horse, when his own was
 killed under him, a loyal act which is commemorated in an old ballad:--

    “Si el cavallo vos han muerto
     Subid Rey en mi cavallo.”

 The subject of this note was a second cousin twice removed of
 Garcilasso de la Vega the poet, whose poems were published with those
 of his friend Boscan in 1544.

 So much for Garcilasso’s descent, which was sufficiently noble and
 distinguished. He was a young man of twenty-five years of age, tall,
 handsome, polished, generous, and well practised in the use of arms,
 when in 1531 he set out for the New World as a captain of infantry
 in company with Alonzo de Alvarado, who was returning to resume his
 government of Guatemala. That famous chief, on hearing of the riches
 of Peru, set out with a large fleet from Nicaragua, and landed in
 the bay of Caragues in March 1534. Garcilasso de la Vega accompanied
 him, and shared in all the terrible hardships and sufferings of the
 subsequent march to Riobamba. After the convention with Almagro, and
 the dispersion of Alvarado’s forces, Garcilasso was sent to complete
 the conquest of the country round the port of Buenaventura. He and
 his small band of followers forced their way for many days through
 dense uninhabited forests, enduring almost incredible hardships, and
 finding nothing to repay their labours. He displayed much constancy
 and endurance and persevered during a whole year, but, having lost
 eighty of his men from hunger and fever, he was at last obliged to
 retreat. He was nearly drowned in crossing the river Quiximies, and
 after many other strange adventures and narrow escapes, he reached the
 Spanish settlement of Puerto Viejo, and went thence to Lima, where
 Pizarro was closely besieged by the insurgent Indians. He then marched
 to the relief of Cuzco, and afterwards accompanied Gonzalo Pizarro in
 his expedition to the Collao and Charcas. On the arrival of Vaca de
 Castro in Peru, Garcilasso de la Vega joined him, and was wounded in
 the battle of Chupas. When Gonzalo Pizarro rose in rebellion against
 the viceroy Blasco Nuñez de Vela, Garcilasso and several other loyal
 knights fled from Cuzco to Arequipa, and thence up by the deserts of
 the coast to Lima, in order to share the fortunes of the viceroy. But
 when they arrived at Lima, that ill-fated and wrong-headed knight was
 gone, and the whole country was in favour of Gonzalo. The fugitives,
 therefore, concealed themselves as best they could. Garcilasso was
 lodged in the house of a friend, and afterwards hid himself in the
 convent of San Francisco. Through the intercession of friends Gonzalo
 Pizarro granted him a pardon, but detained him as a prisoner until
 he escaped to the army of Gasca on the morning of the battle of
 Xaquixaguana, galloping across the space between the two camps at
 early dawn, on his good horse _Salinillas_. He afterwards resided at
 his house in Cuzco until the rebellion of Giron broke out in 1554,
 when he once more showed his loyalty by escaping in the night, and
 joining the royal camp. After the fall of Giron, Garcilasso de la Vega
 was appointed corregidor and governor of Cuzco, where he appears to
 have devoted himself to the duties of his office, and, amongst other
 good deeds, restored the aqueduct which brought a supply of water from
 the lake of Chinchiru for a distance of two leagues, to irrigate the
 valley of Cuzco. His house was a centre of hospitality and kindness,
 where the conquerors fought their battles over again in the evenings,
 while Garcilasso’s wife, the Ynca princess, and her friends dispensed
 their numerous charities. Both he and his wife were engaged in acts of
 benevolence, and in collecting subscriptions for charitable purposes
 during the time that he held office. It is said that in one night they
 raised 34,500 ducats for a hospital for Indians. When Garcilasso was
 relieved of his charge, the _Juez de Residencia_, who came to review
 his administration, honourably acquitted him of the charges which were
 brought against him, and he retired into private life. He died at
 Cuzco in the year 1559, after a long illness.

 Garcilasso de la Vega was married to a ñusta or Ynca princess, who
 was baptised under the name of Isabella in 1539. She was a daughter
 of Hualpa Tupac, a younger brother of the great Ynca Huayna Ccapac.
 By this lady he had a son, the well known historian, who was born at
 Cuzco in 1540. After his father’s death the young Garcilasso Ynca de
 la Vega, who had received his early education at a school in Cuzco,
 went to Spain. This was in 1560, when he was just twenty years of
 age. He fought against the rebel Moriscos under the banner of Don
 John of Austria, and afterwards settling at Cordova, devoted himself
 to literary pursuits. He wrote a history of the conquest of Florida,
 and the two parts of his _Commentarios Reales_ were published in 1609
 and 1616. An excellent second edition appeared at Madrid in 1722. His
 memory was well stored with the recollections of his youth, when he
 had learnt the history of the Yncas from his mother’s relations, and
 of the conquest from his father’s old companions in arms. He also
 quotes largely from Cieza de Leon, Gomara, Zarate, Fernandez, and
 Acosta, as well as from the manuscript of the missionary Blas Valera,
 a most important work which was destroyed when Lord Essex sacked the
 city of Cadiz. No man, therefore, could be better qualified to write
 a history of the early civilisation of the Yncas, and of the conquest
 of Peru by the Spaniards. He has been invaluable to me in explaining
 and illustrating the text of Cieza de Leon; and in gratitude I have
 therefore devoted a long note to an account of his father. The Ynca
 Garcilasso died in 1616 at the advanced age of seventy-six, and was
 buried at Cordova.

 [286] Juan de Saavedra was a native of Seville. He afterwards
 accompanied Almagro in his expedition into Chile, and, when Hernando
 Pizarro was in his commander’s power, he persuaded the old marshal not
 to put his enemy to death. In the battle of Chupas he fought against
 the younger Almagro. When Gonzalo Pizarro and his unscrupulous old
 lieutenant Carbajal entered Lima and wreaked vengeance on those who
 had opposed them, Juan de Saavedra, with two other knights, were hung
 under circumstances of great barbarity.

 [287] A _castellano_, in those days, was worth about £2:12 of our
 money; so that Alvarado was bought off by Pizarro for the sum of
 £260,000.

 [288] Ulloa describes the ruins at Hatun-cañari as the largest
 and best built in the province of Quito. In the rear the building
 terminates in a high thick wall on the slope of a mountain. In the
 centre there is an oval tower containing two chambers. The walls are
 full of niches with stone pegs in them. The outer walls are very
 thick, with ramparts round the inner sides.

 [289] Literally “Foam of the lake.” It was the name of one of the
 Yncas.

 [290] The first Quichua grammar was composed by Father Santo Tomas,
 and printed at Valladolid in 1560, with a vocabulary as an appendix.
 This friar, a Dominican, was the first doctor who graduated in the
 University of Lima.

 [291] Velasco says there were few traces left of the buildings at
 Tumebamba in his time. This was the favourite residence of the Ynca
 Huayna Ccapac.

 [292] Garcilasso de la Vega quotes this statement from Cieza de Leon
 (i, lib. viii, cap. 5).

 [293] I can testify to the truth of this statement, having carefully
 examined a thatch roof at Azangaro in Peru, which undoubtedly dates
 from the time of the Yncas. It is over the ancient circular building
 in that town, known as the _Sondor-huasi_. The outside coating
 consists of a layer of grass (_Stypa Ychu_: Kunth) two feet thick,
 placed in very regular rows, and most carefully finished, so as to
 present a smooth surface to the weather. Next there is a thick layer
 of the same grass placed horizontally and netted together with reeds,
 and finally an inner perpendicular layer:--the whole thatch being five
 feet thick, and finished with most admirable neatness. It has been
 said that the colossal and highly finished masonry of the Yncas, such
 as that of the palace at Tumebamba, formed a barbaric contrast with
 the poor thatched roof, but the _Sondor-huasi_ proves that the roofs
 made by the Peruvians rivalled the walls in the exquisite art and
 neatness of their finish. See my _Travels in Peru and India_, p. 194.

 [294] The Cañaris wore their hair long, and rolled it up in a knot on
 the top of their heads. On the knot of hair they fastened a wooden
 hoop, from which hung a fringe of various colours. The commoner sort,
 in place of this hoop, wore a small calabash over their hair, and
 hence the whole tribe was nicknamed by the other Indians _Mathe-uma_
 (_Mathe_ in Quichua is a calabash, and _Uma_, head). _G. de la Vega_,
 i, lib. viii, cap. 4.

 [295] Prickly pears.

 [296] This name is not given by Velasco.

 [297] The turkey buzzard, a carrion bird which acts as a scavenger in
 the streets of South American towns.

 [298] The word used in Mexico.

 [299] The _chaquiras_ were very minute beads, which were so skilfully
 worked that the best silversmiths in Seville asked Garcilasso how they
 were made. He took some to Spain with him, where they were looked upon
 as great curiosities. _G. de la Vega_, i, lib. viii, cap. 5.

 [300] The _quipus_, or system of recording events by means of knots.

 [301] See also _Garcilasso de la Vega_, i, lib. ix, p. 311; and
 _Acosta_, lib. iv, cap. 14, p. 233. Acosta says that emeralds were
 found most abundantly in New Granada, and in Peru, near Manta and
 Puerto Viejo. The country round Manta, he adds, is called Esmeraldas,
 from the reported abundance of emeralds in it.

 According to Ulloa the emerald mines of Manta, which were known to
 the Indians, were never discovered by the Spaniards. The skill of the
 Indians in working these precious stones is very remarkable. They are
 found in the tombs of the Indians of Manta and Atacames: and are, in
 beauty, size, and hardness, superior to those of New Granada. They
 were worked by the Indians into spherical, cylindrical, conical, and
 other shapes, and it is difficult to explain how this could have been
 done without a knowledge of steel or iron. They also pierced the
 emeralds with a skill equal to that of modern jewellers. _Ulloa’s
 Voyage_, i, lib. vi, cap. 11.

 Velasco says that an emerald was among the insignia of the _Scyris_
 or kings of Quito, and that the Indians of Manta worshipped a great
 emerald under the name of _Umiña_. _Historia del Quito_, i, p. 29.
 There are also some interesting remarks on the emeralds of Manta in
 _Bollaert’s Antiquarian and other Researches in New Granada, Ecuador,
 Peru_, etc., p. 84.

 [302] Inhabitants of the mountains inland.

 [303] Pedro de Puelles, a native of Seville, was left as governor of
 Quito when Gonzalo Pizarro went on his famous expedition to the land
 of cinnamon in 1539. He was appointed to the command of the cavalry of
 Vaca de Castro’s army, served in the battle of Chupas when the younger
 Almagro was defeated, and was afterwards sent as governor to Huanuco.
 He was confirmed in this command by Blasco Nuñez de Vela, the viceroy;
 but he went over to the party of Gonzalo Pizarro, and commanded his
 cavalry at the battle of Añaquito, when the viceroy was killed. After
 the battle he urged Gonzalo to assume the title of king, believing
 that no terms could possibly be obtained from Charles V, and that they
 were committed too far to hope for forgiveness. Gonzalo left Puelles
 in Quito as his governor, and he afterwards seems to have intended to
 desert his old master and hand over his troops to the president Gasca,
 on condition of full pardon. But he was surrounded by greater traitors
 than himself, and one Rodrigo de Salazar headed a conspiracy of five,
 who murdered Puelles in his own house, and led his troops to join
 Gasca, in order to get all the credit for their loyalty.

 [304] The Quichua word for _chicha_ or fermented liquor.

 [305] This account of the tradition concerning giants at Point Santa
 Elene, is the fullest that is given by any of the old writers, and it
 is quoted as such by Garcilasso de la Vega (i, lib. ix, cap. 9).

 Zarate’s version of the tradition differs but slightly from that of
 Cieza de Leon. He adds that little credit was given to the story
 until 1543, when a native of Truxillo, named Juan de Holmos, caused
 excavations to be made, and found huge ribs and other bones, and
 enormous teeth. From that time the native tradition was believed.
 (_Historia del Peru_, lib. i, cap. iv.) Acosta also mentions the
 bones of giants of huge greatness, found about Manta. (_Acosta_,
 lib. i, cap. 19.) Mr. Ranking, a fantastic theorist, who published
 his _Researches on the Conquest of Peru and Mexico by the Mongols,
 accompanied with Elephants_, in 1827, founds his theory on this
 tradition of giants having landed at Point Sta. Elena. (p. 51.)

 It appears that fossil bones of huge mammals have been found on this
 part of the coast, where pieces of cliff are constantly breaking away,
 and they doubtless gave rise to this story about giants. Mr. Spruce
 tells me that a French naturalist took a quantity of these fossils
 home with him not long since. Ulloa calls these fossils the bones
 of giants, and Humboldt thinks they belonged to cetaceous animals.
 Stevenson says he saw a grinder which weighed more than three pounds,
 with enamel spotted like female tortoise shell, in the possession of
 Don Jose Merino of Guayaquil. (_Travels_, ii, p. 235.)

 [306] In the second edition of Cieza de Leon the chapters are
 incorrectly numbered. Two chapters are numbered liv, and chapters liii
 and lv are omitted altogether. Two chapters are also numbered lix. It
 is necessary to retain the incorrect numbering, because all modern
 writers have quoted from the second edition.

 [307] Ynca nobles, so called by the Spaniards from the large gold
 ornaments worn in their ears.

 [308] Pedro de Candia was a Greek, and one of the heroic thirteen
 who crossed the line drawn on the sand by Pizarro, at the island of
 Gallo. He was a very tall stout man. When the ship arrived at Tumbez,
 in Peru, there was some hesitation as to landing amongst a hostile
 people, and Pedro de Candia volunteered to go first. Putting on a
 coat of mail reaching to the knees, with a sword by his side and a
 cross in his hand, he walked towards the town with an air as if he
 had been lord of the whole province. The Indians were astonished at
 his appearance, and, to find out what manner of man he was, they let
 loose a lion and a tiger upon him, but the animals crouched at his
 feet. Pedro de Candia gave the Indians to understand that the virtue
 of the cross he held in his hand had been the cause of this miracle.
 The Indians, believing that he must be a child of the sun, showed
 him the temple and palace of Tumbez, and so he returned to the ship,
 which sailed back to Panama. He accompanied Pizarro to Spain and
 was rewarded by Charles V. This Greek captain fought by the side of
 Pizarro during the conquest of Peru, and when it was completed, he
 led an expedition into the forests of Moxos, east of Cuzco, but was
 obliged to return. After the murder of Pizarro he joined the younger
 Almagro, and superintended the casting of cannon for him at Cuzco; but
 afterwards entered into correspondence with the royal army under Vaca
 de Castro, and at the battle of Chupas he purposely pointed the guns
 at such an angle as to send the balls over the heads of the enemy.
 Young Almagro, observing this treachery, ran him through the body, and
 he fell dead.

 Garcilasso de la Vega says that he was at school with Pedro de
 Candia’s son, at Cuzco, who inherited his father’s stature; for being
 only twelve years old he had a body large enough for one twice his age.

 [309] The large island at the mouth of the river of Guayaquil.

 [310] G. de la Vega, in relating these events, copies largely from
 Cieza de Leon (i, lib. ix, caps. 1, 2, and 3).

 [311] Macaws.

 [312] _Sarsa_, a bramble, and _parilla_, a vine.

 [313] _Smilax officinalis H. B. K._ The root of sarsaparilla was
 brought to Europe in about 1530. The stem is twining, shrubby, and
 prickly. Acosta says that the water on the island of Puna, flowing
 past the sarsaparilla roots, has healing virtues (lib. iii, cap.
 17). There is a great trade in sarsaparilla down all the Peruvian
 tributaries of the Amazon.

 [314] This is the officer who afterwards deserted Gonzalo Pizarro, and
 was the first to sail down the Amazon.

 [315] A Quichua word.

 [316] Inns.

 [317] More correctly _Paca-muru_.

 [318] Loxa afterwards became famous for its forests of Chinchona
 trees yielding Peruvian bark; the healing virtues of which were not
 made known to the Spaniards until fifty years after the time of Cieza
 de Leon. M. Jussieu tells us that the first fever cured by means of
 Chinchona bark was that of a Jesuit at Malacotas, some leagues south
 of Loxa, in the year 1600. The countess of Chinchon, wife of the
 viceroy of Peru, was cured of a fever by a dose of Loxa bark, in the
 year 1638.

 [319] He explored the course of the Marañon as far as the _pongo_ or
 rapid of Manseriche, in 1548.

 [320] Now better known as Piura.

 [321] Inhabitants of the warm valleys on the coast.

 [322] Nearly all travellers, from Cieza de Leon downwards, who have
 been on the west coast of South America, have had something to say
 concerning the rainless region of Peru: but “the natural reasons
 for these things,” for which our author asks, are given in the most
 agreeable form in Captain Maury’s charming book. “Though the Peruvian
 shores are on the verge of the great South Sea boiler, yet it never
 rains there. The reason is plain. The south-east trade winds in the
 Atlantic ocean strike the water on the coast of Africa. They blow
 obliquely across the ocean until they reach the coast of Brazil. By
 this time they are heavily laden with vapour, which they continue
 to bear along across the continent, depositing it as they go, and
 supplying with it the sources of the Rio de la Plata and the southern
 tributaries of the Amazon. Finally they reach the snow capped Andes,
 and here is wrung from them the last particle of moisture that the
 very low temperature can extract. Reaching the summit of that range,
 they now tumble down as cool and dry winds on the Pacific slopes
 beyond. Meeting with no evaporating surface, and with no temperature
 _colder_ than that to which they are subjected on the mountain tops,
 they reach the ocean before they again become charged with fresh
 vapour, and before, therefore, they have any which the Peruvian
 climate can extract. The last they had to spare was deposited as snow
 on the tops of the Cordilleras, to feed mountain streams under the
 heat of the sun, and irrigate the valleys on the western slopes.”
 _Physical Geography of the Sea_, para. 195. See also Acosta’s way
 of accounting for the absence of rain on the Peruvian coast, in his
 _Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias_, A.D. 1608,
 lib. iii, cap. 23.

 [323] Zarate thus describes this coast road of the Yncas. “Through
 all the valleys of the coast which are refreshed by rivers and trees
 (which are generally about a league in breadth) they made a road
 almost forty feet broad, with very thick embankments on either side.
 After leaving the valleys the same road was continued over the sandy
 deserts, posts being driven in and fastened by cords, so that the
 traveller might not lose his way, neither turning to one side nor to
 the other. The road, like that in the Sierra, is five hundred leagues
 long. Although the posts in the desert are now broken in many parts,
 because the Spaniards, both in time of war and peace, used them for
 lighting fires, yet the embankments in the valleys are still for the
 most part entire.” _Historia del Peru_, lib. i, cap. x. _Garcilasso
 de la Vega_, in his account of the Ynca roads, merely copies from
 _Zarate_ and _Cieza de Leon_ (i, lib. ix, cap. 13). See also _Gomara_
 (cap. 194).

 [324] Fray Domingo de Santo Tomas was the author of the first Quichua
 grammar, which was printed at Valladolid in 1560 with a vocabulary.

 [325] Juan de la Torre was one of the famous thirteen who crossed the
 line which Pizarro drew on the sandy shore of the isle of Gallo, and
 resolved to face any hardships rather than abandon the enterprise.
 He afterwards became a staunch adherent of Pizarro’s younger brother
 Gonzalo, to whom he deserted, when serving under the ill-fated Blasco
 Nuñez de Vela, and he carried his ferocious enmity to the viceroy
 so far as to insult the dead body, and, pulling the hairs out of
 the beard, to stick them in his hat band. He married the daughter
 of an Indian chief in the province of Puerto Viejo, and gained so
 much influence among the followers of his father-in-law that they
 revealed to him a tomb containing, as Cieza de Leon says, more than
 fifty thousand dollars worth of gold and emeralds. Thus enriched,
 he meditated a retreat to Spain, where he might enjoy his wealth,
 but the fear of punishment for his treason to the viceroy, and other
 considerations, deterred him. He first proposed to Vela Nuñez, the
 viceroy’s brother, that they should seize a ship and escape from
 Peru; and, afterwards, hearing a false report that Gonzalo Pizarro
 had been appointed governor by the king, he changed his mind in the
 hope of receiving great favours from his old commander. But Vela Nuñez
 knew of his earlier project to desert, so, mindful of the adage that
 “dead men tell no tales,” La Torre invented such a story against the
 viceroy’s brother as induced Gonzalo to cut off his head. The villain
 was appointed captain of arquebusiers in the army of Gonzalo Pizarro,
 and acted a conspicuous and cruel part in the subsequent war down to
 the final overthrow of Gonzalo by Pedro de la Gasca in 1548. Then at
 last he received a reward more in accordance with his deserts. After
 hiding for four months in an Indian’s hut near Cuzco, he was at last
 accidentally found out by a Spaniard, and met the fate which he so
 richly deserved. He was hung by order of La Gasca.

 [326] _Supay_ is the Quichua word for the evil spirit in which the
 ancient Peruvians believed.

 [327] Paullu was a son of the great Ynca Huayna Ccapac. He escaped
 from his half-brother Atahualpa, when many of the royal family were
 killed by that usurper, and, soon after the arrival of the Spaniards,
 was baptized under the name of Christoval. He accompanied Almagro in
 his expedition to Chile, and his services on that occasion were of the
 utmost importance to the Spaniards. While in Chile he received tidings
 from his brother Manco of his resolution to rise in arms and expel the
 invaders; but Paullu deemed it most prudent to dissimulate until the
 expedition, in which he was serving, returned to Peru. He afterwards
 lived for many years at Cuzco, in the palace built by Manco Ccapac,
 the founder of his house, on a hill called the Colcampata. The ruins
 of this edifice are still very perfect. After the death of his brother
 Manco, Paullu was looked upon by the Indians as their legitimate Ynca.
 His son, named Carlos, was a schoolfellow of the historian Garcilasso
 de la Vega, and afterwards married a Spanish lady whose parents were
 settled at Cuzco; and his grandson Don Melchior Carlos Ynca went to
 Spain in 1602, and became a knight of Santiago.

 [328] Unfit for translation.

 [329] The Collao is the great plateau of the Andes, including the
 basin of lake Titicaca, between two chains, the maritime cordillera,
 and the eastern range, out of which rise the lofty peaks of Illimani
 and Yllampu (Sorata).

 [330] The obsequies of the Yncas at Cuzco were celebrated with great
 pomp. The bodies were embalmed with such extraordinary skill that they
 appeared to be alive, and were seated on thrones within the great
 temple of the sun. The bowels were deposited in golden vases, and
 preserved in a temple at Tampu (twelve miles from the capital); just
 as the Emperors of Austria have their bodies buried in one church at
 Vienna, their hearts kept in silver pots in another, and their bowels
 deposited in St. Stephen’s. The corregidor Polo de Ondegardo found
 five bodies of Yncas at Cuzco, three of men and two of women, said to
 have been those of the Ynca Huira-ccocha, with hair white as snow, of
 the great Tupac Ynca Yupanqui, of Huayna Ccapac, of Huira-ccocha’s
 queen Mama Runtu, and of Ccoya Mama Ocllo, the mother of Huayna
 Ccapac. These bodies were so well preserved that all the hair,
 eyebrows, and even eyelashes remained intact. They were dressed in
 royal robes, with the _llautu_, or royal fringe round their foreheads.
 They seem to have excited much curiosity, were conveyed by order of
 the viceroy Marquis of Cañete to Lima, and finally buried in the
 courtyard of the hospital of San Andres in that city.

 The chiefs were buried in tombs of stone masonry on the mountain
 heights round Cuzco. A very peculiar kind of maize is often found in
 the tombs, now little cultivated, called _Zea rostrata_. The bodies,
 which are in a squatting posture with the knees forced up to the head,
 are found enveloped in many folds of cloth, over which is placed a
 mat of reeds, secured by a strong net. The covering next the body is
 generally of fine cotton; round the neck there is almost invariably a
 small household god, called _Conopa_ in Quichua, made of clay, stone,
 silver, or gold; and a piece of copper, gold, or silver is often
 found in the mouth. The hair is, in most instances, well preserved,
 but the skin is withered up. None of the thousands of bodies that
 have been examined, show any signs of having been embalmed. It seems
 clear that this operation was only resorted to in the case of the
 Yncas themselves. _G. de la Vega_; _Rivero_, _Antiq. Per._; _Personal
 Observation_.

 [331] Fray Geronimo Loayza was appointed bishop of Lima in 1540, and
 was the first archbishop from 1548 to 1575. When Gonzalo Pizarro
 rebelled, he sent the archbishop as his envoy to Spain, but, meeting
 La Gasca at Panama on his way, that prelate returned with him, and
 accompanied him throughout the campaign, which ended in the overthrow
 of Gonzalo Pizarro in 1548. This Friar Loayza was a cruel fanatic.
 The inquisition was not introduced into Peru until 1569, but the
 archbishop had previously held three _autos de fé_ at Lima on his
 own account, at one of which, John Millar, a Fleming, was burnt as
 a Lutheran heretic. The first _auto de fé_ held by the inquisition
 at Lima took place in 1573, two years before the death of Loayza,
 when a Frenchman was burnt as a heretic. Loayza presided over two
 provincial councils, one in 1552 and the other in 1567. There have
 been twenty-two archbishops of Lima since the death of Loayza. The
 present one, Dr. Don Sebastian de Goyeneche, who succeeded in 1860,
 is probably the oldest bishop in Christendom, having been consecrated
 bishop of Arequipa in 1817, and is also one of the richest men in
 South America. He is now seventy-nine years of age.

 [332] The nation of the Chinchas, and others on the coast, buried
 their dead on the surface of the ground, covered with a light coat of
 sand, so that the place is only indicated by a very slight inequality.
 _Rivero_, p. 199.

 [333] Now corrupted into Luna-huana; near the rich sugar estates of
 Cañete, between Lima and Pisco.

 [334] _Huaca_ is a word of many significations in Quichua (_e.g._,
 idol, temple, sacred place, tomb, figures of men, animals, etc.,
 hill), but its most ordinary meaning is a tomb. Cieza de Leon
 probably calls it a “mournful name,” partly from its being the word
 for a tomb, and partly from his having confused it with the nearly
 similar word _huaccani_, “I mourn.” The mummy or dead body was called
 _malqui_. There were holes in the tombs, leading from the exterior
 sides to the vases placed round the bodies, through which the Indians
 poured liquor, on the days when festivals were held in honour of the
 _malquis_. _Rivero._

 [335] This chapter is unfit for translation.

 [336] The children were weaned at two years of age, when their heads
 were shaved, and they received a name. On these occasions all the
 relations assembled, and one was selected as godfather, who cut off
 the first lock of hair with an instrument made of stone. Each relation
 followed, according to his age or rank, and cut off a few hairs. The
 name was then given, and the relations presented gifts, such as cloth,
 llamas, arms, or drinking vessels. Then followed singing, dancing, and
 drinking until nightfall, and these festivities were continued for
 three or four days. _G. de la Vega_, lib. iv, cap. 11; _Rivero_, p.
 177.

 [337] _Urco_ is a word denoting masculine gender, in Quichua, when
 applied to animals, and _china_ is female. For mankind the words
 denoting gender are _ccari_ (male) and _huarmi_ (female).

 [338] Garcilasso de la Vega says that, as they had no domestic fowls
 in Peru before the Spanish conquest, so there was no word for them,
 and that _hualpa_ was not originally the name for a fowl, but a
 corruption of _Atahualpa_, the name of the usurping Ynca. It seems,
 however, that domestic fowls were the first things that the Spaniards
 introduced into Peru; and the Indians, finding some resemblance
 between the crowing of the cocks and the sound of _Atahualpa_,
 gave them that name, which was afterwards corrupted into _hualpa_.
 Garcilasso adds, “I confess that many of my schoolfellows at Cuzco,
 the sons of Spaniards by Indian mothers, and myself amongst them,
 imitated this sound in the streets, together with the little Indians.”

 The names of the Yncas, and those of their wives, have a meaning
 in the Quichua language; with the exception, however, of _Manco_,
 _Mayta_, and _Rocca_, which seem to have been borrowed from some other
 source. _Ccapac_ means “rich, grand, illustrious.” _Sinchi_ signifies
 “strong.” _Lloque_ is “left-handed.” _Yupanqui_ is “virtuous.” It is
 the second person singular, future, indicative of _Yupani_, and means
 literally, “you will count,” that is--“he who bears this title will
 count as one who is excellent for his virtue, clemency, and piety.”
 _Yahuar-huaccac_ signifies “weeping tears:” it was the name of an
 Ynca whose reign was unfortunate. _Huira-ccocha_ means “foam of a
 lake,” and Garcilasso gives the legend from which the name is said
 to have originated. _Pacha-cutec_ means “overturning the world,” a
 name given to one of the Yncas who was a great reformer. _Tupac_ is
 anything royal, resplendent, honourable. _Huayna_ means a “youth,” a
 name given to the great Ynca Huayna Ccapac, possibly from his youthful
 appearance. _Huascar_ is a “chain,” from the golden chain which was
 made to celebrate his birth. _Cusi_ is “joy.” _Titu_ is “liberal,
 magnanimous.” _Sayri_, a “tobacco plant.” _Amaru_, a “serpent,” etc.

 [339] Twins, called _chuchu_, and children born feet first, called
 _chacpa_, were offered up to the _huacas_, in some districts.
 _Rivero_, p. 173.

 [340] _Aji_ or _uchu_, a Chile pepper with a very peculiar flavour
 (_Capsicum frutescens_, Lin.), is the favourite condiment of the
 Peruvian Indians, sometimes eaten green, and sometimes dried and
 pounded. The consumption of _aji_ is greater than that of salt; for
 with two-thirds of the dishes, more of the former than of the latter
 is used. The _aji_ pepper was introduced into India by Mrs. Clements
 Markham in 1861.

 [341] Before the death of Huayna Ccapac, fearful comets appeared
 in the air, one of them very large and of a green colour, and a
 thunder-bolt fell on the house of the Ynca. The _amautas_ or learned
 men prognosticated that these awful signs were the forerunners, not
 only of the death of Huayna Ccapac, but of the destruction of the
 empire. _G. de la Vega_, i, lib. ix, cap. 15.

 [342] Or mountainous region.

 [343] _Zea Mais_ Lin.: called _sara_ in Quichua.

 [344] _Jatropha Manihot_ Lin.: called _asipa_ or _rumu_ in Quichua.
 The yuca is still the edible root most used in the coast valleys of
 Peru. It grows to a great size, and is excellent when roasted.

 [345] _Batatas edulis_, Chois.: called _apichu_ in Quichua, and
 _cumar_ in the Quito dialect. Dr. Seemann has pointed out to me the
 curious and interesting fact that _kumara_ is also the word for sweet
 potatoe in Tahiti, the Fiji Islands, and New Zealand.

 [346] The _pepino_ (a _cucurbitacea_) is grown in great abundance in
 the fields. The plant is only a foot and a half high, and it creeps on
 the ground. The fruit is from four to five inches long, cylindrical,
 and somewhat pointed at both ends. The husk is of a yellowish green
 colour, with long rose coloured stripes. The edible part is solid,
 juicy, and well flavoured, but very indigestible. _Tschudi_, p. 192.

 [347] _Psidium guayava_ Raddi.

 [348] _Inga spectabilis_ Willd.

 [349] _Persea gratissima_ R. P. See note at p. 16.

 [350] The _guanavana_ is called sour sop in the West Indies (_Anona
 muricata_ Lin.), where Cieza de Leon must have seen it. It has long
 been naturalized in India, as well as the _A. squamosa_ (custard
 apple) and _A. reticulata_ (sweet sop), and on occasions of famine
 these fruits have literally proved the staff of life to the natives in
 some parts of the country. (Drury’s _Useful Plants of India_, p. 41.)

 But the fruit which Cieza de Leon here mistakes for the _guanavana_ or
 sour sop is, no doubt, the delicious _chirimoya_ (_Anona cherimolia_
 Mill.) Von Tschudi says of it: “It would certainly be difficult to
 name any fruit possessing a more exquisite flavour. The fruit is of
 a roundish form, somewhat pyramidal or heart-shaped, the broad base
 uniting with the stem. Externally it is green, covered with small
 knobs and scales. The skin is rather thick and tough. Internally the
 fruit is snow-white and juicy, and provided with a number of black
 seeds. The taste is incomparable. Both the fruit and flowers of the
 _chirimoya_ emit a fine fragrance. The tree which bears this finest of
 all fruits is from fifteen to twenty feet high.” Mrs. Clements Markham
 introduced the cultivation of this delicious fruit into Southern India
 in 1861.

 [351] _Chrysophillum Caimito_ Lin., or star apple.

 [352] The name for the ordinary Peruvian dog, in Quichua, is _allco_
 (_Canis Ingæ_).

 [353] The _algaroba_ or _guaranga_ (_Prosopis horrida_, Willd). A tree
 the bean of which furnishes food for mules, donkeys, and goats.

 [354] The _dulces_ or preserves of Peru are still the most delicious
 in the world, especially those made at Cuzco. No confectionary in
 London or Paris can be compared with them.

 [355] The vineyards of the Peruvian coast valleys have become famous
 for the delicious grape spirits called _italia_ and _pisco_. In 1860
 the valleys of Yca and Pisco alone yielded seventy thousand _botijas_
 or jars of spirits, and ten thousand barrels of excellent wine.

 [356] Next to the wonderful roads, these irrigating channels are the
 most convincing proofs of the advanced civilisation of the Yncas. Once
 nearly all the coast valleys were supplied with them, and thousands of
 acres were reclaimed from the desert; but, owing to the barbarism or
 neglect of the Spaniards, they nearly all went to ruin very soon after
 the conquest. In one valley alone, that of Nasca (or, more properly,
 _Nanasca_, “pain”), the irrigating works of the Yncas are still in
 working order, and from them an idea may be formed of the extent and
 grandeur of the public works of the Yncas throughout the coast region
 of Peru.

 The valley of Nasca descends from the Andes by an easy and gradual
 slope, widening as it descends, and is hemmed in by lofty mountains on
 either side. It is covered with cultivation, consisting of vineyards,
 cotton plantations, fields of _aji_, maize, wheat, pumpkins, melons,
 and other vegetables, and fruit gardens. In 1853 I examined the
 irrigation channels of this valley very carefully. All that nature
 has supplied, in the way of water, is a small water course, which
 is frequently dry for six years together; and, at the best, only a
 little streamlet trickles down during the month of February. The
 engineering skill displayed by the Yncas, in remedying this defect,
 is astonishing. Deep trenches were cut along the whole length of the
 valley, and so far into the mountains that the present inhabitants
 have no knowledge of the place where they commence. High up the valley
 the main trenches or _puquios_ are some four feet in height, with
 the floor, sides, and roof lined with stones. Lower down they are
 separated into smaller _puquios_, which ramify in every direction over
 the valley, and supply all the estates with delicious water throughout
 the year, feeding the little streams which irrigate the fields. The
 larger _puquios_ are several feet below the surface, and at intervals
 of about two hundred yards there are man-holes, called _ojos_, by
 which workmen can get down into the channels, and clear away any
 obstructions.

 Further on Cieza de Leon describes other works of irrigation in the
 valley of Yca, on the same magnificent scale, which, even when he
 wrote, had already been destroyed by the barbarian Spaniards.

 The subterranean channels were called _huirca_ in Quichua, and those
 flowing along on the surface _rarca_. In all parts of the _Sierra_
 of Peru the remains of irrigating channels are met with, which
 the Spaniards destroyed and neglected, and thus allowed the once
 fertile fields to return to their natural sterility. The principal
 remains of works of irrigation, in the _Sierra_, are to be found at
 Caxamarca and at Cerro Pasco. Garcilasso de la Vega relates how the
 Ynca Huira-ccocha caused an aqueduct to be constructed, twelve feet
 in depth, and more than one hundred and twenty leagues in length.
 Another aqueduct was made in the province of Condesuyos (Cunti-suyu),
 which was more than fifty-five leagues long. The Ynca historian
 justly exclaims: “These are works worthy of the grandeur of such
 princes. They are equal to the finest works of the kind in the world,
 considering the enormous rocks which were cut through to form them,
 without iron or steel tools. When a deep ravine crossed the intended
 course of the aqueduct, it was led round to the head. The channels
 were cut out of the living rock in many places, the outer side being
 formed of a stone wall of large six-sided slabs, fitting exactly into
 each other, and banked up with earth.”

 [357] There is a fox (_Canis Azaræ_, Pr. Max.) which abounds in the
 coast valleys, where it preys on the lambs.

 [358] _Prosopis horrida_, Willd. This tree grows to a large size. The
 wood is very hard, the leaf small, and the branches bear an abundance
 of clusters of pods, which form excellent food for mules and cattle,
 and for immense herds of goats.

 [359] “Formerly the valley of Chacama was called the granary of Peru,
 and, until the great earthquake of 1687, the wheat produced its seed
 two hundred fold. This valley alone harvested two hundred thousand
 bushels of this grain.” _Stevenson_, ii, p. 124-5.

 [360] “The valleys of Chimu, Chacama, and Viru, may be considered
 as one, being separated from each other only by the branches of the
 Chacama river. United they are about twenty-eight leagues long and
 eleven broad. Their soil, irrigated by the waters of the river, is
 very fertile.” _Stevenson_, ii, p. 124.

 [361] The ruins in the valley of Chimu or Truxillo are a league
 and a half from the port of Huanchaco. It is not known when they
 were built, but in the time of Pachacutec, the ninth Ynca (about
 A.D. 1340 to 1400), a powerful chief reigned in this
 valley, called Chimu-Canchu. After a long war with the Ynca’s son
 Yupanqui, the Chimu consented to worship the sun, and to abandon his
 own idols, consisting of figures of fish and other animals.

 The ruins of the Chimu’s city cover a space of three quarters of
 a league, exclusive of the great squares. These squares, seven or
 eight in number, vary from two hundred to two hundred and seventy
 yards in length, and from one hundred to one hundred and sixty in
 breadth. They are on the north side of the large edifices or palaces.
 The walls surrounding the palaces are of great solidity, formed of
 _adobes_ (bricks baked in the sun) ten or twelve yards long and five
 or six broad in the lower part of the wall, but gradually diminishing
 until they terminate in a breadth of one yard at the top. Each palace
 was completely surrounded by an exterior wall. One of them, built
 of stone and _adobes_, is fifty yards high, five yards broad at the
 bottom, and gradually tapering to one at the top. In the first palace
 there is an interior court, in which are chambers built of stone, and
 plastered within. The lintels of the doorways consist of a single
 stone about two yards long. Some of the walls are adorned with panels
 and tasteful patterns, and ornaments sculptured on the _adobes_. There
 is also a large reservoir, which was formerly supplied with water, by
 subterranean aqueducts, from the river Moche, about two miles to the
 north-east. The second palace is one hundred and twenty-five yards
 east of the first. It contains several courts and chambers, with
 narrow lanes between them. At one of the extremities is the _huaca_ of
 _Misa_, surrounded by a low wall. This _huaca_ is traversed by small
 passages about a yard wide, and it also contains some large chambers,
 containing cloths, mummies, pieces of gold and silver, tools, and
 a stone idol. Besides these palaces there are the ruins of a great
 number of smaller houses, forming an extensive city. _Rivero Antiq.
 Per._

 In 1566 one Garcia Gutierrez de Toledo paid 85,547 _castellanos de
 oro_ (£222,422) as the fifth or royal share of the treasure found by
 him in the _huacas_ of the grand Chimu; and in 1592 the royal fifth
 of further treasure discovered in these tombs amounted to 47,020
 _castellanos_ (£122,252). The value of the whole was £1,724,220 of
 our money. This will give some idea of the wealth concealed in these
 burial places. There is a tradition that there were two priceless
 treasures in the form of fishes of gold, known as the great and little
 _peje_, in one of the _huacas_.

 The curiosities that have been found in the _Chimu_ ruins are very
 interesting:--such as mummies in strange postures, one in an attitude
 as if about to drink, with a monkey on his shoulder, whispering into
 his ear.

 [362] The city of Truxillo stands on a sandy plain, in lat. 8° 6´ 3” S.

 [363] See note at p. 72.

 [364] The distance is one hundred and eight leagues by the road.

 [365] The river of Santa is about eighteen hundred yards across at
 the mouth, and its current, during the rainy season, sometimes flows
 at the rate of seven miles an hour. In 1795 a rope bridge was thrown
 across it, about a league from the mouth, but it was destroyed by a
 sudden rise of the water in 1806. _Stevenson._

 [366] Guarmay is a small Indian village, famous for its _chicha_,
 which is remarkably strong.

 [367] These are the ruins of a fortress defended by the Chimu against
 the army of the Yncas, the outer walls being three hundred yards long
 by two hundred. The interior is divided into small houses, separated
 by lanes. It is partly covered with a kind of plaster, on which
 Proctor saw the uncouth coloured representations of birds and beasts
 mentioned in the text. The ruined fortress stands at the extremity of
 a plain, close to the foot of some rugged mountains, about a league
 from the sea. _Paz Soldan_: _Proctor_, p. 175.

 [368] _La Barranca._ The river is approached by a precipitous descent
 down a high bank of large pebbles and earth. The breadth of the
 channel is about a quarter of a mile, and, during the rains in the
 Andes, it is completely full, running furiously, and carrying along
 with it trees and even rocks, which render it impassable. In the dry
 season it merely consists of three separate torrents about as deep as
 the saddle, but unsafe.

 [369] The city of Lima is about two miles long and a mile and a
 half broad. Its circumference is about ten miles, but many gardens,
 orchards, and fields of alfalfa are included within the walls. The
 best and fullest account of Lima is contained in a work called
 _Estadistica de Lima_, by Don Manuel A. Fuentes.

 [370] Each side of the grand square of Lima is five hundred and ten
 feet long. It contains the cathedral and palace.

 [371] This is the hill of San Cristobal, a rocky height rising
 abruptly from the plain, on the opposite side of the river Rimac, near
 the bull-ring. There is still a cross planted on its summit.

 [372] One does not always hear such praise from those who have visited
 the City of the Kings; but at least the feelings of the editor of
 this work agree with those of the author. Some of the happiest days
 in the editor’s life were passed on the banks of the Rimac; and he,
 therefore, will not criticize the enthusiastic and, as some will
 think, exaggerated praise of Cieza de Leon.

 [373] The city of Lima was founded by Pizarro on the 6th of January,
 1535. As it was the day of Epiphany, Lima received the title of
 _Ciudad de los Reyes_ (City of the Kings).

 [374] Great numbers of bodies have been dug up at the foot of the
 temple of Pachacamac, the extreme dryness of the climate having
 preserved the long hair on the skulls, and even the skin. There are as
 many as one hundred and four Pachacamac skulls in European museums,
 which have been carefully examined. “They exhibit a vertically
 flattened occiput, a narrow and receding forehead, the glabella being
 slightly prominent. The acrocephalic or sugar-loaf form predominates.
 The range of skulls from Pachacamac varies from the globular or oval
 type, with a slightly depressed coronal suture, which Tschudi terms
 the ‘Chincha’ skulls, to the pyramidal brachycephalic cranium, with
 a high and vertical occiput, ordinarily termed the ‘Inca cranium.’”
 C. C. Blake, Esq., _On the Cranial Characters of the Peruvian Races_.
 _Transactions of the Ethnological Society._ Vol. ii. New Series, p.
 227. Cieza de Leon states, in the text, that only chiefs and pilgrims
 were allowed to be buried near the temple of Pachacamac; and, if
 this was really the case, it would be natural to expect that the
 fact would be corroborated, to some extent, by an examination of the
 skulls. Accordingly I am informed by Mr. Carter Blake, that Mr. Clift
 and others have spoken of Pachacamac as being the depository of more
 than one type of skull, which may be the remains of pilgrims from
 various localities. Mr. Clift mentions bodies at Pachacamac with heads
 depressed like those of the people near lake Titicaca, and others with
 heads properly formed.

 [375] The ruins of Pachacamac are about twenty miles south of Lima,
 on the sea-coast. The temple was on the summit of a hill about four
 hundred feet above the sea, and half a mile from the beach. The
 view from the platform, where the temple once stood, is exceedingly
 striking. Half the horizon is occupied by the ocean, and the other
 half is divided into two widely different scenes. One is an arid
 desert, with no object on which the eye can rest save the ruined city;
 the other is a lovely valley, covered with fields of maize and sugar
 cane, and dotted with houses half hidden by the encircling fruit
 gardens. The little town of Lurin stands in its centre. A narrow
 stream separates this enchanting valley from the dreary expanse of
 sand, while the glorious Andes bound the inland view.

 The upper part of the temple hill is artificially formed of huge
 _adobes_ or bricks baked in the sun, rising in three broad terraces,
 the walls of which are thirty-two feet high. Towards the sea the
 terraces are supported by buttresses of ordinary sized sun-dried
 bricks, and the red paint, with which the walls were originally
 coated, may still be seen in several places. The temple stood on a
 level platform on the top, facing the sea. The door is said to have
 been of gold plates, richly inlaid with coral and precious stones,
 but the interior was rendered filthy by the sacrifices. Garcilasso
 says that the Yunca Indians had idols in the form of fish and other
 animals, and that they sacrificed animals, and even the blood of men
 and women; but that these idols were destroyed by the Yncas.

 At the foot of the temple hill are the remains of houses for pilgrims;
 and it is here that the numerous skulls are found, with long flowing
 hair, which are to be met with in European museums. Further on are
 the ruins of an extensive city. The streets are very narrow, and
 the principal houses or palaces generally consist of halls of grand
 proportions, with a number of small apartments at each end: all now
 choked with sand. The foundations are frequently of stone.

 It is said by some old writers that this temple was erected for
 the worship of Pachacamac--the Supreme Being, the “Creator of the
 world”--by an ancient race, long before the time of the Yncas, and
 of whom the Yunca Indians were degenerate descendants. Its great
 antiquity is proved by the fact that, when Hernando Pizarro first
 arrived at it, a considerable portion of the city was already in ruins.

 [376] The plain of Chilca is a broad sandy waste, with a thin line
 of vegetation running from the Andes to the sea. The village is a
 collection of cane flat-roofed houses, with a handsome church. It is
 about two miles from the beach, where there is an abrupt headland
 called Chilca Point. There are none of the maize fields described by
 Cieza de Leon, and the land is no longer manured with sardine heads,
 but there are several palm and fig trees, and holes where crops of
 reeds, for making matting to cover the house tops, are raised. A
 little scanty herbage grows on the sand hills, where mules and donkeys
 graze. The inhabitants of Chilca are all pure Indians, and they
 allow no whites to reside in their village. They employ themselves
 in plaiting straw for hats and cigar cases of great beauty. In the
 time of the Yncas this valley was very populous, as is clear from the
 numerous ruins in various directions; but Spanish occupation has acted
 as a blight on every corner of this once happy land.

 [377] Here Cieza de Leon shows his strong prejudice against Almagro.
 It is well known that Pizarro formed a plot to seize him after the
 interview at Mala, and that he was warned of the meditated treachery
 by the voice of an old comrade, who sang a couplet in the verandah--

    “Tiempo es de andar, Cavallero!
     Tiempo es de andar de aqui.”


 [378] The valley of Mala is six miles from that of Chilca. It is
 covered with rich vegetation--bananas, figs, oranges, fields of maize,
 vines, and willow trees, and is well supplied with water by a large
 river. In the southern part there are extensive pastures, where some
 of the bulls are bred for the Lima bull fights.

 [379] This is the rich modern valley of Cañeta, containing six very
 extensive and flourishing sugar estates, and two villages.

 [380] What other right had our author’s countrymen? or does he mean
 more than meets the eye, in writing this sentence. Cieza de Leon was
 evidently impressed with the excellence of the government of the
 Yncas, and deplores, in almost every chapter, the destruction and ruin
 brought upon the country by the Spaniards. Is this a covert thrust at
 the justice of the Spanish conquest?

 [381] The ruins of this great edifice, half fortress half palace, are
 still to be seen on an elevated point of land overhanging the sea, on
 the south side of the river of Cañete. I examined these ruins very
 carefully in 1853. They are divided into two parts. Those furthest
 from the sea consist of nine chambers. Entering from a breach in
 the wall, I passed along a gallery broad enough for two men to walk
 abreast, with a parapet five feet high on one side, and a wall sixteen
 feet high on the other. The parapet is on the edge of a hill partly
 faced with _adobes_. At the end of about twenty yards the gallery
 turns at right angles into the centre of the building. Here there is
 a doorway about ten feet high, three feet across at the base, and
 narrowing as it ascends, with a lintel of willow beams. It leads into
 a spacious hall, and, on the opposite side, there is a deep recess
 corresponding with the door. The walls are sixteen feet high, built
 of moderate sized _adobes_, formerly plastered over, and, as Cieza de
 Leon tells us, painted with figures. At the sides of the hall there
 are small chambers with recesses in the walls, communicating with each
 other by passages in the rear. There is a distance of two hundred
 yards, strewn with ruined walls, between this portion of the ruins and
 that overhanging the sea. The latter is entered by a doorway, which
 leads into a large square hall, nearly a hundred feet each way. The
 sides towards the north and west are smooth, but the eastern wall is
 pierced by fifteen small recesses. On the south side two doorways lead
 by passages into smaller chambers, also with recesses in the walls. In
 the upper part of the walls of the great hall the holes, for the beams
 which supported the roof, are distinctly visible. The walls throughout
 are three to four feet thick. The doorways, from the lintel to the
 ground, are eight feet high. On the whole, this is one of the best
 preserved ruins in the land of the Yncas. The portions of the fortress
 which were built of stone, were barbarously destroyed by order of the
 Spanish viceroy Count of Moncloa, and the materials were used for
 building the castles at Callao.

 [382] From the great gate of the hacienda of Laran, in the valley
 of Chincha, a broad road leads towards the Andes. This road formed
 the division between the governments of Pizarro and Almagro on the
 sea-coast, and the question as to whether Cuzco was on the north or
 south side of the imaginary line continued east from Laran, was the
 cause of a quarrel which ended in the defeat and death of Almagro.
 Laran now belongs to the hospitable Don Antonio Prada, marquis of the
 towers of Oran.

 [383] Another great public work of the Yncas, now utterly destroyed.

 [384] The valley of Yca forms a delightful contrast to the surrounding
 deserts. The traveller, leaving the sandy waste behind him, finds
 himself riding through vineyards and cotton plantations, with hedges
 of fig trees, jessamine and roses on either hand. Yca is a large
 town about two leagues from the foot of the Andes, in the middle of
 a fertile and beautiful valley; but it has suffered fearfully from
 earthquakes. The river is crossed by a bridge of ropes and willow
 branches, and during January and February it dashes impetuously down
 the valley, but it is dry for the rest of the year, and, as Cieza de
 Leon says, the people dig holes in its bed, to get water. There are
 some very extensive woods of _guaranga_ or _algaroba trees_ (_Prosopis
 horrida_) in the valley of Yca, generally on the skirts of the deserts.

 [385] He includes the rich valleys of Palpa, San Xavier, and Nasca
 under the same name.

 [386] I carefully examined these ruined edifices when I was at Nasca.
 They are built in terraces up the sides of the mountains, which hem
 in the valley on the south. The houses contained spacious halls,
 with niches in the walls. About forty feet higher up the mountain,
 and immediately overhanging the ruined palaces, there was a fortress
 with a semicircular wall in front, and a high _adobe_ breastwork in
 the rear. Its only approach was by a steep ramp leading up from the
 edifices below. The walls of the buildings are all of stone.

 [387] I know of only one modern traveller who has visited and
 described the coast valleys of Acari, Ocoña, and Camana; namely,
 that noble old warrior General Miller, who led his patriot troops
 from Quilca to Pisco in 1823, a most difficult march over trackless
 deserts, and through a country then in possession of the Spaniards.

 The Camana valley, which in its upper part is called Majes, has a
 considerable river; and contains olive yards, vineyards, and sugar
 plantations. It is in 15° 57´ S. The yellow _aji_ or capsicum of
 Camana is also famous, and guano has been used as manure in its
 cultivation from time immemorial.

 [388] Quilca was the port of Arequipa until the year 1827, when it was
 supplanted by its present successful rival Islay, some leagues further
 down the coast.

 [389] This account of the use of guano by the ancient Peruvians is
 exceedingly curious. Garcilasso de la Vega also describes the use made
 by them of the deposits of guano on the coast. He says: “On the shores
 of the sea, from below Arequipa to Tarapaca, which is more than two
 hundred leagues of coast, they use no other manure than that of sea
 birds, which abound in all the coasts of Peru, and go in such great
 flocks that it would be incredible to one who had not seen them. They
 breed on certain uninhabited islands which are on that coast; and the
 manure which they deposit is in such quantities that it would almost
 seem incredible. In the time of the kings, who were Yncas, such care
 was taken to guard these birds in the breeding season, that it was not
 lawful for any one to land on the isles, on pain of death, that the
 birds might not be frightened, nor driven from their nests. Neither
 was it lawful to kill them at any time, either on the island or
 elsewhere, also on pain of death. Each island was, by the Yncas, set
 apart for the use of a particular province, and the guano was fairly
 divided, each village receiving a due portion” (ii, lib. v, cap. iii).
 See also _Antiguedades Peruanas_, p. 77.

 Frezier mentions that, when he was on the coast in 1713, guano was
 brought from Iquique, and other ports along the coast, and landed at
 Arica and Ylo, for the _aji_ and other crops. Frezier’s _South Sea_,
 p. 152.

 [390] The desert of Atacama.

 [391] The original site was in the rear of the little village of Cayma.

 [392] The splendid volcano of Misti rises immediately in the rear of
 the city of Arequipa, in a perfect cone capped with snow, to a height
 of 18,000 feet above the level of the sea, or, according to Pentland,
 20,300 feet.

 [393] The most terrible earthquakes at Arequipa, took place as
 follows:--

  January 2,   1582
  February 18, 1600
  November 23, 1604
  December 9,  1609
               1613
  May 20,      1666
  April 23,    1668
  October 21,  1687
  August 22,   1715
  May 13,      1784
               1812
  July 10,     1821
  October 9,   1831
  June 3,      1848. Between 10
  P.M. and 2 A.M. there were forty
  terrific shocks.


 [394] After the armies of Ynca Pachacutec, under the command of his
 brother, the able general Ccapac Yupanqui, had conquered the Huanca
 nation, that commander invaded the province of Caxamarca in about
 1380 A.D. The natives replied to the usual Yncarial
 summons, by saying that they had no need for new gods or new laws
 beyond those which they had received from their ancestors. The
 Yncarial troops were victorious in the open ground, but the natives of
 Caxamarca then retreated into their fortified strongholds, and made
 continual forays. Thus the war lasted for four months, but the Ynca
 general lost no opportunity of ingratiating himself with the enemy,
 setting the prisoners at liberty, curing the wounded, and sending
 messages of peace and amity to the hostile chiefs. At last the people
 of Caxamarca began to reflect that they might meet a harder fate
 than that of submitting to rulers who, while they were able to kill,
 treated their prisoners with so much kindness. The chiefs sent in
 their submission, and were confirmed in their privileges, while the
 province of Caxamarca became an integral part of the empire of the
 Yncas. The general Ccapac Yupanqui was accompanied in this campaign by
 his youthful nephew the Ynca Yupanqui, who afterwards succeeded his
 father Pachacutec as tenth Ynca of Peru.

 It was by this enlightened policy of conciliation, accompanied by
 vigorous movements in the field, that most of the conquests of the
 Yncas were effected. _G. de la Vega_, i, lib. vi, cap. xv.

 [395] The valley of Caxamarca (_Ccasa_, “frost,” and _marca_, “tower”
 or “house” in Quichua) is about five leagues long and three broad.
 It is intersected with green hedges enclosing hundreds of small
 plots bearing luxuriant crops, and a river winds from one extremity
 to the other. Humboldt believed this valley to be the bottom of an
 ancient lake. The soil is extremely fertile, and the plain is full
 of gardens and fields, traversed by avenues of daturas, willows, and
 the beautiful _queñuar_ tree (_Polylepis villosa_). In the northern
 part of the plain, small porphyritic domes break through the sandstone
 strata, and probably once formed islands in the ancient lake, before
 its waters had flowed off.

 Atahualpa had a palace at the warm sulphur baths of Pultamarca, in
 this plain, some slight remains of which can still be traced. The
 large deep basin, forming the baths, appears to have been artificially
 excavated in the sandstone rock above one of the fissures through
 which the spring issues. There are also slight remains of the fort
 and palace of Atahualpa in the town. The palace was situated on a
 hill of porphyry. The most considerable ruins still visible are only
 from thirteen to fifteen feet high, and consist of fine cut blocks
 of stone two or three feet long, and placed upon each other without
 cement. The cacique Astopilco, a descendant of Atahualpa, resided in
 a part of these ruins at the time when Humboldt and Stevenson visited
 Caxamarca. The room was shown them, where the unhappy Atahualpa was
 kept a prisoner for nine months in 1532-33. _Humboldt’s Aspects._
 _Stevenson_, ii, cap. v.

 Prescott gives the amount of gold collected for Atahualpa’s ransom at
 Caxamarca at 1,326,539 _pesos de oro_, besides 51,610 marcs of silver.
 (From _Xeres_, in _Barcia’s Coll_., iii, p. 232. Xeres was Pizarro’s
 secretary.) The _peso_ or _castellano de oro_ was equal, in commercial
 value, to £2:12:6; so that the gold alone, of this ransom, was worth
 £3,500,000. _Prescott_, i, p. 425.

 [396] When Pizarro rudely pulled Atahualpa from his chair, and took
 him prisoner, a soldier named Miguel Astete tore the crimson fringe,
 the token of his sovereignty, from his forehead. Astete kept the
 fringe until 1557, when he gave it to Sayri Tupac, the son of Ynca
 Manco, who was recognized as Ynca, and received a pension from the
 viceroy Marquis of Cañete.

 [397] This account differs slightly from that given by Garcilasso de
 la Vega, which is as follows.

 After the death of the Ynca Huayna Ccapac in 1526, his two sons,
 Huascar and Atahualpa, reigned peaceably for about four or five years,
 the former at Cuzco, and the latter at Quito. At last the elder
 brother became jealous of the power of his rival at Quito, and sent
 an envoy demanding that he should do him homage as sole and sovereign
 lord. Atahualpa replied that he would most willingly submit to the
 rule of the Ynca, and announced his intention of making a journey to
 Cuzco, accompanied by all his vassals, to take an oath of obedience,
 and to celebrate the obsequies of their common father. Under this
 feigned submission Atahualpa concealed the treacherous intention of
 attacking and dethroning his brother. He collected thirty thousand
 armed Indians under the command of his two generals Challcuchima and
 Quizquiz, and sent them by different ways towards Cuzco, disguised as
 ordinary serving men. Huascar had so little suspicion of treachery
 that he ordered these men to be supplied with clothing and provisions
 on the road. The passage of so many armed men through the provinces,
 excited the alarm of several veteran governors, who warned Huascar
 of his danger; but meanwhile the forces of Atahualpa had crossed the
 river Apurimac without opposition, and, raising their banners, threw
 off the mask and advanced as open enemies. Thoroughly alarmed, Huascar
 summoned the chiefs of the southern, eastern, and western districts,
 Colla-suyu, Anti-suyu, and Cunti-suyu. Chincha-suyu, the northern
 province, was already in the power of Atahualpa. Those of Cunti-suyu
 alone had time to join the Ynca, with thirty thousand undisciplined
 Indians. The forces of Atahualpa advanced to the attack without delay,
 in order that there might be no time for more reinforcements to reach
 Cuzco, and a desperate battle was fought at a place called Quepaypa
 (literally _of my trumpet_), a few leagues west of Cuzco. Garcilasso
 mentions that, as a boy at school in Cuzco, he twice visited this
 battle field, when out hawking in the neighbourhood. The battle lasted
 during the whole day. At last the veteran troops of Atahualpa, who
 had served in all his father’s wars, triumphed over the raw levies
 of his more peaceful brother, Huascar was taken prisoner after a
 thousand of his body guard had fallen around him, and most of his
 faithful _curacas_ or chiefs voluntarily surrendered, in order to
 share the fate of their beloved lord. This battle took place in 1532.
 Atahualpa was not present at the battle, but he hurried to Cuzco on
 hearing of his victory. Knowing that, according to the ancient laws
 of the empire, he, as an illegitimate son, could not inherit the
 crown; he resolved to put all the legitimate heirs out of his way by
 indiscriminate slaughter. Not only did he order all his half-brothers
 to be put to death, but also his uncles, nephews, and cousins of the
 blood royal, and most of the faithful nobles of Huascar. One of the
 Ynca’s wives, named Mama Huarcay, fled with her little daughter Coya
 Cusi Huarcay, who afterwards married Sayri Tupac, the Ynca who was
 pensioned by the marquis of Cañete in 1553. Out of so large a family
 several other members also escaped from the fate intended for them
 by the cruel Atahualpa. Among these were the mother of the historian
 Garcilasso de la Vega, and her brother Hualpa Tupac Ynca Yupanqui;
 Manco, Paullu, and Titu, legitimate sons of Huayna Ccapac; and several
 princesses, who were baptised after the conquest. Of these, Beatrix
 Coya married Don Martin de Mustincia (the royal accountant), and had
 three sons; Leonora Coya married first Don Juan Balsa, by whom she
 had a son--a schoolfellow of Garcilasso, and secondly Don Francisco
 de Villacastin; and there were about a hundred other survivors of
 Ynca blood. The Ynca Huascar himself was thrown into prison at Xauxa,
 and murdered by order of Atahualpa, after the latter had been made
 prisoner by Pizarro. Huascar was a mild and amiable prince, and fell a
 victim to his guileless and unsuspicious disposition. _G. de la Vega_,
 i, lib. ix, caps. 32 to 40.

 This is the version given by Garcilasso de la Vega of the war between
 Huascar and Atahualpa. As a descendant of the Yncas he was of course
 strongly prejudiced in favour of his maternal ancestors, and his
 account of Atahualpa’s cruelties after his victory, are probably
 much exaggerated. At the same time no one could have had better
 opportunities of obtaining authentic information, and doubtless the
 principal facts are correct.

 Velasco defends the conduct of Atahualpa through thick and thin. As a
 native of the province of Quito, he naturally takes the part of the
 last sovereign of his own country, whose subsequent misfortunes throw
 a veil over his cruelties and treason to the Yncas of Cuzco. _Hist. de
 Quito_, ii, p. 76.

 [398] Melchor Verdugo was a native of the town of Avila, in Spain.
 He distinguished himself in the battle of Chupas, fighting against
 the younger Almago, and, receiving the district of Caxamarca in
 _encomienda_, settled himself at Truxillo. As a townsman and partizan
 of the ill-fated viceroy Blasco Nuñez, he was in bad odour with the
 party of Gonzalo Pizarro, and was seized by Carbajal, but evaded
 pursuit, and was concealed by his Indians at Caxamarca until he
 thought it safe to return to Truxillo. He escaped from Peru by an act
 of unsurpassed audacity. A vessel arrived at the port of Truxillo,
 from Callao, and Verdugo resolved to seize her. He, therefore,
 collected about twenty armed men, upon whom he could depend, and
 concealed them in his house. He, then, sent for the master and pilot,
 saying that he wanted to ship some merchandise for Panama, and as
 soon as he got them into his house he locked them up. Presently
 the alcaldes of the town walked down the street with a notary, and
 Verdugo, throwing open a window, called out to them to come in, as he
 wanted them to witness a deed, and could not come out to them, owing
 to a disease in his legs. They entered, without suspecting anything,
 and were immediately put in irons and locked up with the master and
 pilot of the ship. Returning to his window, Verdugo continued to call
 up people he saw passing, saying he had something to say to them,
 until he had more than twenty of the principal people of the town, of
 Gonzalo Pizarro’s party, safely locked up. He then told them that he
 would take them all in the ship with him, unless they paid a ransom,
 and, after thus collecting a large sum of money in gold and silver, he
 went on board, and sailed for Nicaragua; where his ship was seized by
 Palomino, an officer serving under Hinojosa, Gonzalo Pizarro’s admiral
 at Panama. Verdugo then collected three small vessels in the lake of
 Nicaragua, and, descending the river, entered the sea and sailed to
 Nombre de Dios, and thence to Carthagena. After the arrival of the
 president Gasca at Panama, Verdugo returned to Spain, and received
 the habit of Santiago from the Emperor. Eventually he returned to his
 estates in Peru. _Zarate_, lib. vi, cap. vi, etc.

 [399] Chachapoyas was a district to the eastward of Caxamarca,
 inhabited by brave men and beautiful women, according to Garcilasso
 de la Vega. Their chief god was the condor, and they also worshipped
 snakes. These Indians were attacked by the Ynca Tupac Yupanqui, and
 a fierce war ensued. They defended themselves in fortresses perched
 on inaccessible heights, and were only dislodged after a prolonged
 resistance. After the death of their conqueror, they rebelled against
 his son Huayna Ccapac, but were again subdued and pardoned. The modern
 town of Chachapoyas gives its name to a bishopric, with a diocese
 extending over that part of the vast forest-covered region of the
 Amazon and its tributaries which lies within the boundaries of Peru.

 [400] Alonzo de Alvarado, a brother of Cortes’s famous companion, was
 detached by Pizarro with orders to conquer Chachapoyas; but he was so
 constantly engaged in the civil wars, until his death, that he had
 little time to spare in conquering and settling this province; which
 duty devolved upon his second son.

 [401] The Huancas were the inhabitants of the valley of Xauxa, or
 more properly Sausa. They are described by Garcilasso as living in
 small villages strongly fortified, and worshipping dogs. The Huancas
 mentioned by Cieza de Leon, were probably _Mitimaes_ sent into the
 Chachapoyas district by the Yncas.

 [402] Moyobamba is now the chief town of the modern province
 of Loreto, which includes all the course of the Amazon and its
 tributaries within the boundaries of Peru. It contains about fourteen
 thousand inhabitants, and is built near the river Mayo, an affluent
 of the Huallaga. The ground consists of sandstone, which is easily
 washed away by the heavy rains, and deep ravines have been formed in
 the course of time, some of them thirty and forty yards deep, which
 intersect and break up the town. The inhabitants are employed in
 making straw hats, which are exported to Brazil. _Apuntes, &ca., por
 Antonio Raimondy_, p. 60.

 [403] The Chanca Indians originally inhabited the valley of
 Andahuaylas, between Cuzco and Guamanga. They were invaded by the Ynca
 Rocca, sixth in descent from Manco Ccapac, and obliged to submit to
 his yoke. But soon after the accession of Rocca’s son Yahuar-huaccac,
 the Chancas rose in rebellion under their chief Anco-huallu, a youth
 of twenty-six years of age. The pusillanimous Ynca not only neglected
 to march against him, but even abandoned Cuzco, and retreated in
 an opposite direction. His son Huira-ccocha, however, was a man
 of different metal. He led an army against the insurgents, and
 utterly defeated them in a bloody and well-contested battle on the
 Yahuar-pampa, or “plain of blood.” Anco-huallu received a full pardon,
 and for ten years he continued to reside in his native valley as a
 tributary chief. But this dependent position was distasteful to him,
 and eventually he emigrated with eight thousand followers, and settled
 in the forests of the Moyobamba district. Garcilasso tells us that
 the exact position of his new settlement was never exactly known, the
 report merely stating that he descended a great river, and established
 his people on the banks of a beautiful lake. Mr. Spruce has suggested
 that Anco-huallu and his Chancas conquered Moyobamba, and drove the
 original inhabitants out, who, descending the Huallaga and Amazon,
 settled between the rivers Ucayali, Marañon, and Yavari, and were the
 progenitors of the fierce and untameable modern tribe of _Mayorunas_
 (_Mayu_, a river, and _runa_, a man in Quichua). _G. de la Vega_, i,
 lib. v, cap. 26.

 [404] The word for gold in Quichua is _ccuri_. In the Tupi language,
 which was prevalent among the Indians of the river Amazon, the word
 _curí_ means coloured earths, much used in plastering huts, and for
 other purposes. It is very probable that Spaniards from Peru who
 descended into the valley of the Amazon, asked for _ccuri_ (gold), and
 were told there was plenty of _curí_ (coloured earth); and that from
 this mistake the fame of the wealth of Omagua and El Dorado arose.

 [405] For an account of this remarkable emigration of Indians from
 Brazil, see my Introduction to the Expedition of Pedro de Ursua
 (“_Search for El Dorado_.” HAKLUYT SOCIETY’S volume for 1861,
 p. xxviii, and p. 2 of the text.) Their chief, named Viraratu, was
 sent to Lima, and it was his report that led to the organisation of
 the expedition in search of El Dorado and Omagua, which descended the
 Amazon in 1559, under Pedro de Ursua, and met with so tragic a fate.

 [406] The climate of Huanuco is delightful. The thermometer seldom
 rises above 72° in the shade, nor sinks below 66°, and no place in the
 world equals it as a retreat for patients suffering from diseases of
 the lungs--but it is terribly inaccessible. The plain still, as in the
 days of Cieza de Leon, yields wheat and maize, bananas, figs, coffee,
 cotton, grapes, pomegranates, oranges, lemons, citrons, and limes.
 _Smith’s Peru As It Is._

 [407] The ruins of the Huanuco palace or temple are chiefly
 interesting from the six portals, one within the other, which are well
 preserved. There is also a species of look out, which was probably
 the place where the priests offered their sacrifices to the sun. The
 architecture of these ruins is very distinct from that of other Ynca
 edifices, and would appear to be of earlier date. The Indians know
 these ruins by the name of _Auqui Huanuco_. The look out is 56 paces
 long by 36 in width, the height of the wall five yards, and inclined
 inwards from the base. It rests upon two courses of round stone,
 about five feet high. The walls are of cut stone and terminate in a
 cornice, the stones being 4½ feet long and 1½ feet thick. The interior
 is composed of gravel and clay, and in the centre there is a large
 cavity, which is said to communicate with the palace by a subterranean
 passage. The look out is approached by a steep ramp or inclined plane,
 and two figures of animals are carved on either side of the entrance.

 The palace is entered by six portals. On entering the first there are
 halls, 100 yards long by 14 wide, on either side. The walls are built
 of round stones mixed with clay, the doorways alone having cut stone.
 These doorways are 9 feet high and 4½ broad, the lintels being of a
 single stone, 12 feet long and 1½ thick. The jambs are of a single
 piece. Three yards further on is the second portal, resembling the
 first, with two figures carved on the upper part. This leads into a
 spacious court, at the other end of which are two smaller doorways
 in a line, leading into a smaller court, and finally there are two
 other portals, still smaller, and of sculptured stone. Beyond the
 sixth portal there are rooms with stone walls containing niches, and
 an aqueduct passes through one of these rooms, which is said to have
 been the bathing place of the Ynca. In front of the building there
 is a broad artificial terrace, and underneath a large court, with a
 receptacle for water in the centre.

 The stones of which the ruins are composed were taken from a ridge
 about half a mile distant, and some are yet to be seen, lying cut in
 the quarry.

 [408] In these days a Peruvian Indian answers _No!_ (_Manan canchu_)
 to everything that is asked of him. The change is one of the baneful
 results of three centuries of Spanish domination.

 [409] The Yncas restricted all hunting by their subjects, and the
 number of animals of all descriptions consequently multiplied
 prodigiously. At a certain season of the year, after breeding time,
 the Yncas and governors of provinces held a grand hunt, called _Chacu_
 in Quichua. As many as thirty thousand Indians were assembled, who
 surrounded a space of several square leagues, and gradually drove all
 the animals into the centre, closing upon them until they were so
 close as to be easily caught by hand. Very often there were as many
 as forty thousand head of _guanacos_ and _vicuñas_ alone. Most of the
 female _guanacos_ and _vicuñas_, and a certain number of males, were
 then released; but they were shorn of their wool before they were
 allowed to go free. The rest were killed. The deer were also killed,
 and the meat was distributed amongst the Indians. An accurate account
 was kept of the number released, the number killed, and the number
 shorn, by means of the _quipus_. The coarse wool of the _guanacos_
 was then given to the people, while that of the _vicuñas_, as fine as
 silk, was reserved for the Ynca’s service. These hunts were held in
 each district every four years, giving three years of rest for the
 animals to multiply. The Indians dried the meat which was served out
 to them, and this preserved meat, called _charqui_ in Quichua (hence
 “jerked beef”), lasted them until another hunting year came round. _G.
 de la Vega._ _Comm. Real_, i, lib. vi, cap. 6.

 [410] The Peruvian _quipus_ were of twisted wool, and consisted of a
 large cord, with finer threads fastened to it by knots. These fringes
 contained the contents of the _quipu_, which were denoted either
 by single knots or by artificial intertwinings. Sometimes the main
 cord was five or six yards long, at others not more than a foot. The
 different colours of the threads had different meanings; and not only
 was the colour and mode of intertwining of the knots to be considered,
 in reading a _quipu_, but even the mode of twisting the thread, and
 the distance of knots from each other, and from the main cord. The
 registers of tribute; the enrolment of tribes, distinguishing between
 taxpayers, aged, invalids, women, and children; lists of arms and
 troops; inventories of the contents of storehouses; all these were
 the primary uses of the _quipus_. But they were also made available
 for recording the most striking events, and thus supplied the place
 of chronicles. Acosta says that the ancient Peruvians, by their
 combinations of larger and smaller threads; double and single knots;
 green, blue, white, black, and red colours; could express meanings and
 ideas as innumerable, as we can by the different combinations of our
 twenty-four letters.

 All attempts, in modern times, to decipher the _quipus_ found in
 tombs, have failed; yet there are Indians of noble family, especially
 in the southern part of Peru, who know the secret of deciphering these
 intricate memorials, but guard it as a sacred trust transmitted from
 their ancestors. The _quipu_ records referring to matters of revenue
 or registration were kept by officers called _Quipu-camayoc_; while
 the chronicles of events were recorded by the _Amautas_ or learned
 men, and the poems and songs by _Haravecs_ or bards. Garcilasso de
 la Vega distinctly states that the sole specimen of Quichua poesy
 preserved in his work, was obtained from an ancient _quipu_ record by
 the missionary Blas Valera. See _G. de la Vega_, i, lib. vi, cap. 8.
 _Acosta_, lib. vi, cap. 8. _Antiguedades Peruanas_, cap. 5. Markham’s
 _Quichua Dictionary_, etc., p. 11.

 [411] The name of Francisco de Chaves deserves honourable mention, as
 that of one of the few Spaniards who protested against the foul and
 dastardly murder of the Ynca Atahualpa by Pizarro, at Caxamarca. He
 and his brother Diego, natives of Truxillo, Francisco Moscoso, Pedro
 de Ayala, Diego de Mora, Hernando de Haro, Pedro de Mendoza, Juan
 de Herrada, Alonzo de Avila, and Blas de Atienza were the principal
 officers who raised their voices against that horrible crime. Their
 names deserve to be remembered far more than do those of the famous
 thirteen who crossed the line drawn by Pizarro on the sea-shore of the
 isle of Gallo.

 On the march from Caxamarca to Cuzco, Pizarro’s small force was
 attacked by the Indians led by the Ynca general Quizquiz, and, after
 a long and well contested battle, the Indians retired, taking several
 Spanish prisoners with them, among whom was Francisco de Chaves. He
 was brought before Atahualpa’s brother, the Ynca Titu Atauchi, and
 was treated with great kindness because he had protested against the
 perpetration of the murder; while another prisoner named Cuellar, who
 had acted as notary and been present at the Ynca’s execution, was
 himself most justly put to death by the Indians. Chaves was cured
 of his wounds, and set free with many gifts. Pizarro and his other
 comrades were astonished when he arrived at Cuzco, having mourned him
 as dead, since the day that he fell into the hands of the Indians.

 The remaining part of his history is not so creditable, for he
 seems to have committed great atrocities in his Conchucos war. The
 statements of Cieza de Leon are quoted by G. de la Vega (ii, lib. ii,
 cap. 28), who corroborates the account given by the former, of the
 cruelties perpetrated by Chaves:--a shameful return for the kindness
 and forbearance he had himself experienced at the hands of the
 Indians. He was with Pizarro when the assassins came to murder him.
 Pizarro called to Chaves to close the door, in order that he and his
 friends might have time to arm. Instead of obeying, Chaves went out
 to parley with the intruders, and met them coming up the stairs. He
 had scarcely asked them their business before he was stabbed to death,
 and his body hurled down the steps. The assassins then completed their
 bloody work by the murder of the conqueror of Peru.

 [412] Nor, if he would speak out, was our young author without
 sympathy for the Indians, and their sufferings.

 [413] Also called the lake of Chinchaycocha. Near its southern shore
 the famous cavalry action was fought in 1823 between the Spaniards
 and Patriots, known as the battle of Junin, in which the gallant old
 general Miller distinguished himself. The lake is thirty-six miles
 long in a north-west and south-east direction, with an average breadth
 of about six miles, and 12,940 feet above the level of the sea. The
 plain or basin in which it lies, is forty-five miles long and from
 six to twelve broad, with a gravelly soil producing a short grass. A
 great number of large and beautiful water-fowl, including the scarlet
 flamingo and several varieties of snipe, frequent the banks of the
 lake, which are overgrown by reeds. As the lake loses by various
 outlets much more water than it receives from its tributary sources,
 it is evident that it must be fed by subterraneous springs. The
 Indians entertain a superstitious belief that this lake is haunted by
 huge fish-like animals, who at certain hours of the night leave their
 watery abode to prowl about the adjacent pasture lands, where they
 commit great havoc among the cattle. _Von Tschudi_, _Herndon._

 [414] The lake of Bombon or Chinchay-cocha is drained by the river
 of Xauxa, which flows into the Mantaro, one of the sources of the
 Ucayali, a principal affluent of the Amazon. The other rivers
 mentioned above, namely the Vilcas, Abancay, Apurimac, and Yucay,
 are also tributaries of the Ucayali. The erroneous surmise of Cieza
 de Leon and his informants, who would carry off all these streams
 into the Paraguay, is by no means surprising when we remember that
 maps were published in England not twenty years ago, which conveyed
 the waters of the Beni right across the line of drainage of the
 great river Purus, and poured them into the Ucuyali! The mistake of
 Cieza de Leon possibly arose from his having observed that the Xauxa
 flows south while in the mountains, and that all other tributaries
 of the Amazon flow north. The Xauxa does not change its direction
 until it enters the tropical forests, far beyond the ken of the early
 conquerors.

 [415] No more picturesque view can charm the eye of the weary
 traveller than is presented by the immense garden which forms the
 valley of Xauxa, which is forty square leagues in extent. Its two
 principal towns are Xauxa and Huancayo, in the centre of the valley
 is the convent of Ocopa, and the remaining population is scattered
 in small villages surrounded by trees on either side of the river of
 Xauxa, which flows through the valley. The mighty Andes bound the
 river on every side.

 [416] The Huancas were conquered by Ccapac Yupanqui, the brother and
 general of the Ynca Pachatutec; and at that time they are said to have
 numbered thirty thousand souls in the valley of Xauxa. Garcilasso
 informs us that, before they were subjugated by the Yncas, they
 worshipped the figure of a dog, and feasted on the flesh of dogs. He
 surmises that they adored the dog-idol because they were so fond of
 roast dog. _G. de la Vega_, i, lib. vi, cap. 10. _Huancar_ (“a drum”
 in Quichua,) is probably a name given to this nation by the Yncas.

 [417] “The temple of Guarivilca, in the valley of Xauxa, was
 consecrated to the god Ticeviracocha, chief divinity of the
 Huancas, whose singular worship reminds one of the mythology of the
 northern countries of Europe. Notwithstanding the most scrupulous
 investigations, it has been impossible to find any vestiges of the
 ruins of this temple.” _Antiq. Per._

 [418] _Schinus Molle_ Lin.

 [419] Vincente de Valverde, a Dominican friar, accompanied Pizarro to
 Peru, and we first hear of him as addressing an intolerably prolix
 theological discourse to the Ynca Atahualpa, when he came to visit
 the Spanish camp at Caxamarca. The treacherous friar completed his
 evil work by calling out to Pizarro and his bloodhounds to attack
 their guest. Valverde continued to torment the ill-fated Ynca with
 his theology while in prison, until the poor captive’s sufferings
 were consummated by his murder on August 29th, 1533. We next find
 him tormenting the unfortunate general Challcuchina, whom Pizarro
 burnt alive, disturbing his last moments by officious importunities.
 He performed mass at the humiliating coronation of Ynca Manco, who
 received the _llautu_ from the hands of Pizarro. Valverde was soon
 afterwards confirmed as bishop of Cuzco by the Pope in 1538. He
 returned to Spain, but came out to Peru again in the following year
 (1539), and wrote a curious letter to Charles V, still preserved
 in the archives of Simancas, in which he describes the ruin and
 devastation caused by the Spaniards in the once flourishing capital of
 the Yncas. Bishop Valverde protested against the execution of Almagro;
 and also endeavoured to save Pizarro’s secretary, who was put to death
 at Lima by the assassins of his master. The assassins allowed the
 bishop to depart in a vessel from Callao, which touched at the island
 of Puna, where he was killed by the Indians in 1541.

 Valverde was the first bishop of Cuzco, from 1538 to 1541. He was
 succeeded by friar Juan Solano (1545-62), since whose time twenty-six
 bishops have filled that episcopal chair.

 [420] _Schinus Molle_ Lin., the prevailing tree in this part of the
 Andes.

 [421] _Pucara_ is Quichua for a fortress.

 [422] Gaspar Rodriguez de Campo Redondo was brother of a distinguished
 officer who was killed in the battle of Chupas. Gaspar Rodriguez
 joined Gonzalo Pizarro in his rebellion against the viceroy Blasco
 Nuñez de Vela, but afterwards, seeing reason to think that he had
 chosen the losing side, he sent to the viceroy to ask for a safe
 conduct. This treachery became known to Pizarro and his ruthless
 lieutenant Carbajal, who came to the traitor’s tent. The wretched man
 offered many excuses, but Carbajal never showed mercy, and his head
 was cut off on the spot.

 [423] Diego Gavilan, with his brother Juan, joined Francisco Hernandez
 Giron in his rebellion at Cuzco in 1553; and the rebel chief appointed
 Diego to the post of captain of infantry. The municipality of Cuzco
 was obliged to elect Giron captain-general of Peru, more, says
 Garcilasso, from fear of one hundred and fifty arquebusiers under
 the command of Diego Gavilan, who were drawn up in front of the
 court-house, than from good will. After the overthrow and flight of
 Giron at Pucara, Diego and Juan Gavilan went over to the royal army
 and received pardon for their share in the rebellion.

 [424] Yllan Suarez de Carbajal was the factor of the royal revenue.
 After the death of Pizarro he fled from the camp of the younger
 Almagro, and fought bravely under Vaca de Castro in the battle of
 Chupas. Carbajal was at Lima when Blasco Nuñez de Vela arrived, and
 one night the hot-headed viceroy sent for him, accused him of treason,
 and, during the altercation which followed, stabbed him with a
 poniard. The attendants dispatched him with their swords, and the body
 was secretly buried before morning. This foul murder was the immediate
 cause of the viceroy’s downfall.

 [425] Manco Ynca, the second legitimate son of Huayna Ccapac, was
 invested with the royal _llautu_ at Cuzco by the conqueror Pizarro;
 but he chafed under the yoke of the invaders, and, on the first
 opportunity, raised the standard of revolt. Then followed the famous
 siege of Cuzco, and when the place was relieved by Almagro, and
 Manco’s last chance of regaining the ancient capital of his ancestors
 failed, he retreated into the forest fastnesses, continued his
 hostilities against the Spaniards, and led the romantic life described
 above by Cieza de Leon. On one occasion Gonzalo Pizarro sent a negro
 slave to him with presents, to open a negotiation, who was murdered
 by a party of Indians; upon which Gonzalo perpetrated an act of
 such devilish cruelty upon a young wife of Manco, whom he had made
 prisoner, as to be barely credible. The story is related by Prescott,
 on the authority of Pedro Pizarro’s MS. (ii, p. 136). Manco’s end was
 very melancholy. He was playing at a game with balls, with one Gomez
 Perez and some other Spaniards of Almagro’s faction, who had taken
 refuge in the Ynca’s fastness, when the ill-conditioned ruffian was
 guilty of some act of disrespect. The Ynca pushed him on one side,
 upon which Gomez Perez hit him such a blow on the head with a ball
 that he fell dead. (_Gomara_, cap. clvi.) This was in the year 1544.
 The gallant young Ynca left two sons, Sayri Tupac and Tupac Amaru. The
 former was pensioned by the Spaniards and died at Yucay; the latter
 perished on the scaffold at Cuzco.

 [426] After the assassination of Pizarro, the younger Almagro
 assembled his partizans and prepared to resist the royal forces under
 the new governor Vaca de Castro. The two armies met on the heights of
 Chupas, which overhang the city of Guamanga, on the 16th of September
 1542. During my residence at Guamanga I went in search of the battle
 field, which is about three leagues from the town. The field of Chupas
 is on a sort of terrace of the Andes, with the mountains rising in the
 rear, a rapid descent towards Guamanga, and slightly wooded ravines
 to the right and left. The view from it is magnificent. It is now
 covered with fields of wheat, with a few huts scattered here and
 there amidst thickets of _chilca_ (a species of _Baccharis_). A most
 furious and bloody encounter was the battle of Chupas. It was long
 doubtful, but at length Vaca de Castro was victorious, and out of 850
 Spaniards brought into the field by young Almagro, 700 were killed.
 The victors lost about 350 men. Among the slain, on the royal side,
 was Pedro Alvarez Holguin, one of the first corregidors of Guamanga,
 and formerly a companion of Hernan Cortez--the same who captured
 Guatimozin in the lakes of Mexico. He was buried in the little church
 of San Christoval at Guamanga, which was built by Pizarro and still
 exists. Several of the prisoners, who were implicated in the murder of
 Pizarro, were beheaded in the _plaza_ of Guamanga.

 [427] The country round Guamanga was inhabited, in ancient times,
 by the nation of Pocras. They joined the Chancas under Anco-huallu
 in their war against the Ynca (see note at p. 280), and after the
 bloody defeat of the allied tribes on the plain of Yahuarpampa, and
 the emigration of Anco-huallu, they again rose in rebellion. They
 were finally crushed in a bloody battle at the foot of the heights of
 Condor-canqui, by the Ynca Huira-ccocha, in a place which has ever
 since been called _Aya-cucho_ (“the corner of dead men”). Four hundred
 and fifty years afterwards, on the same spot, the battle was fought
 between the Spaniards and the Patriots, which finally established the
 independence of Peru. (December 9th, 1824.)

 After the overthrow of the Pocras, the Ynca was serving out rations of
 llama flesh to his soldiers when a falcon (_huaman_) came wheeling in
 circles over his head. He threw up a piece of meat crying _Huaman-ca_
 (Take! falcon), and the bird caught it and flew away. “Lo,” cried the
 soldiers, “even the birds of the air obey him:” and the place was
 ever afterwards called _Huaman-ca_, corrupted by the Spaniards into
 _Guamanga_. Since the independence, the name of the city has been
 altered to _Ayacucho_, in honour of the battle.

 Others derive the name from _Huaman_ (falcon) and _Ccaca_ (a
 rock)--“the Falcon’s Rock.”

 [428] The city of Guamanga, now called Ayacucho, is in lat. 12° 59´
 S., and long. 73° 59´ W. From the steep mountains which overhang it
 on the south-west, the city presents to the view a mass of red tiles,
 with church towers rising here and there, surrounded by gardens of
 fruit trees, which extend in different directions up the sides of the
 mountains, while to the north-west is the broad grassy plain called
 _Pampa del Arco_, and the view is bounded in that direction by the
 frowning heights of Condor-canqui, at the feet of which the famous
 battle of Ayacucho was fought. The streets run at right angles,
 sloping gradually from north to south, and in the centre is the _plaza
 mayor_. On the south side of the _plaza_ are the handsome stone
 cathedral and the _cabildo_ or court-house. The other three sides are
 occupied by private houses on handsome arcades, with stone pillars
 and circular arches. The south part of the town was formerly broken
 up by a deep ravine, but in 1801 the Spanish intendente, Don Demetrio
 O’Higgins, spanned it with a number of well built stone bridges. On
 the west side there is an _alameda_ or avenue of double rows of willow
 trees, by the side of which a stream of clear water flows down and
 supplies the city. On either hand the hills rise up abruptly, covered
 with fruit trees, and hedges of prickly pears. There are more than
 twenty churches, built of limestone, with well proportioned towers.
 The climate, as Cieza de Leon says, is delicious, and Ayacucho is one
 of the pleasantest places in Peru.

 [429] In alluding to these ruins, Tschudi and Rivero, in their
 “_Antiguedades Peruanas_,” merely refer to the above passage in Cieza
 de Leon, but do not appear to have identified or examined them.

 [430] The country round Guamanga still yields abundant supplies of
 wheat, and is capable of supporting ten times the present population.

 [431] I have been unable to find any other detailed account of the
 ruins of Vilcas, near Guamanga, where there was evidently a very
 important station in the time of the Yncas. There is a bare allusion
 to the above passage of Cieza de Leon in the _Antiguedades Peruanas_,
 without a word of further information. I made an endeavour to find the
 ruins, when I was in this part of the country, but without success.
 They are mentioned, and nothing more, by Paz Soldan (_Geografia del
 Peru_, p. 366); and, indeed, no author tells us so much concerning the
 once splendid palaces and temples of Vilcas as does Cieza de Leon.

 [432] This river is now known as the Pampas. It flows through the very
 deep valley of Pumacancha, which is covered with dense underwood, and
 tall stately aloes. The mountains rise up abruptly, in some places
 quite perpendicularly, on either side. In a place where the river is
 about twenty paces across, a bridge of _sogas_, or ropes made of the
 twisted fibres of the aloe, is stretched from one side to the other.
 It consists of six _sogas_, each of about a foot in diameter, set
 up on either side by a windlass. Across these _sogas_ other smaller
 ropes are secured, and covered with matting. This rope bridge is
 considerably lower in the centre than at the two ends, and vibrated
 to and fro as we passed over it. It has to be renewed several times
 every year. In Spanish times the Indians of certain villages were
 excused other service, to repair the bridge. It has been a point
 of considerable strategical importance, in the frequent intestine
 wars which Peru has suffered from, as commanding the main road from
 Cuzco to Lima and the coast. On the side towards Cuzco the valley of
 Pumacancha is bounded by the mountains of Bombon, up which the road
 passes through woods of _molle_, _chilca_, and other trees, while
 rugged peaks rise up on either side. One of those glorious views which
 are seldom equalled out of the Andes, may be enjoyed from the _cuesta_
 of Bombon.

 [433] Lucanas is one of the provinces of the modern department of
 Ayacucho.

 [434] From the Quichua words _anta_ (copper) and _huaylla_ (pasture),
 “the copper coloured meadow.”

 [435] See _ante_, note at p. 280.

 [436] The original followers and subjects of Manco Ccapac, the first
 Ynca of Peru, appear to have been called _Quichuas_, and hence the
 name of the language. The derivation of the word is doubtful. In
 Peru the hot tropical valleys are called _Yunca_, the lofty cold
 heights _Puna_, and the intermediate temperate region _Quichua_.
 Mossi suggests the following derivation of the word. _Quehuani_
 is “to twist” in Quichua, the participle of which is _Quehuasca_,
 “twisted;” and _Ychu_ is “straw.” Hence _Quehuasca-ychu_, “twisted
 straw,” corrupted into _Quichua_; from the quantity of straw growing
 in this temperate region. Thus the Quichuas were the inhabitants of
 the temperate zone, between the _Punas_ and the _Yuncas_; and they
 were the original followers of the first Ynca of Peru. _Gramatica de
 la Lengua General del Peru, con Diccionario, por el R. P. Fray Honorio
 Mossi (Misionero) Sucre_, 1857.

 [437] _Sonccon_ is the Quichua word for “heart.”

 [438] Diego Maldonado was one of the first _conquistadores_. He was
 imprisoned in the fortress of Cuzco by Almagro, after the marshal
 returned from Chile, with Marcio Serra de Legesamo, and many others.
 He was afterwards in the battle of Chupas, fighting on the royal side.
 He became a _regidor_ of Cuzco, where he had several houses, received
 Andahuaylas in _encomienda_, and was surnamed “the rich.” When Gonzalo
 Pizarro rebelled, Maldonado was with the insurgent forces, and,
 hearing that accusations had been brought against him, he fled from
 his tent on foot, and hid himself in a field of sugar cane. An Indian
 found him, and, with the usual kind-heartedness of his race, guided
 him to the beach, made a _balsa_ out of a bundle of straw, and paddled
 him to one of La Gasca’s ships, which was lying off and on in Callao
 bay. He was then sixty-eight years of age; but he still continued
 to play an important part in public affairs, and was wounded in the
 rebellion of Giron in 1554. He lived for twelve years afterwards,
 though he eventually died, in 1566, of wounds received in the battle
 against that rebel.

 [439] The Indians of Andahuaylas, descendants from these Chancas,
 are a tall and generally handsome race, and many of the women are
 beautiful. The population of the valley is about six thousand.

 [440] The valley of Andahuaylas is one of the most beautiful in the
 Andes. It contains the three small towns of Talavera, Andahuaylas, and
 San Geronimo. Through its centre flows a little river, lined on either
 side by lofty willows, while here and there large fruit gardens slope
 down to its banks. Every part of the valley is carefully cultivated,
 and large fields of wheat cover the lower slopes of the surrounding
 mountains.

 [441] From the beginning of January to the end of March 1548. Gasca
 was here joined by Valdivia, the conqueror of Chile, and when he
 commenced his march against Gonzalo Pizarro, he was at the head of
 nearly two thousand well armed men.

 [442] This is the river Pachachaca. It is now spanned by a handsome
 stone bridge of one arch, at a great height above the stream. This
 bridge is some sixty years old. The Pachachaca is a tributary of the
 Ucayali.

 [443] See my translation of the life of Don Alonzo Enriquez de Guzman,
 chap. xlviii, and note at p. 114. HAKLUYT SOCIETY’S volume
 for 1862.

 [444] A few miles beyond the little village of Curahuasi, is the
 precipitous descent to the bridge over the Apurimac (_Apu_, “chief,”
 and _rimac_, “speaking,” or “a speaker,” in Quichua). A steep zigzag
 path leads down to the side of the cliff, and at last the precipice
 becomes so perpendicular that a tunnel has been excavated in the solid
 rock, about twenty yards long, at the end of which is the bridge.
 It is made in the same way as that over the river Pampas. The river
 dashes furiously along between vertical precipices of stupendous
 height, and a high wind is not uncommon, which blows the frail rope
 bridge to and fro, rendering the passage very dangerous, and at times
 impossible.

 [445] The empire of the Yncas, as it existed in the time of Manco
 Ccapac, the founder of his dynasty, only extended from the Apurimac on
 the west, to the Paucar-tambo on the east, a distance of about fifty
 miles. In the centre was Cuzco, while on each frontier there was a
 fortress and a palace--Ollantay-tampu on the north, Paccari-tampu on
 the south, Paucar-tampu on the east, and Rimac-tampu (corrupted by the
 Spaniards into Limatambo) on the west, near the river of Apurimac. The
 ruins of the palace of Lima-tambo are situated in a delightful spot,
 commanding a fine view. Only two walls, and the face of the stone
 terrace on which the palace was built, now remain. These walls are
 twenty and forty paces long respectively, forming an angle, and about
 fourteen feet high. The stones are beautifully fitted into each other,
 without cement of any kind, and to this day look angular and fresh.
 At intervals there are recesses in the walls, about one foot deep and
 eight feet high. The interior of the palace is now an extensive fruit
 garden.

 [446] These are the _andeneria_ or terraced fields and gardens. They
 may still be seen on the hills bordering the plain of Xaquixaguana or
 Surite.

 [447] The original name of this plain appears to have been
 _Yahuar-pampa_ (field of blood), so called in memory of the bloody
 battle between the army of Ynca Huira-ccocha and the allied tribes led
 by Anco-hualluc. In the days of the Spanish conquest it was known by
 the name of _Xaquixaguana_ (Cieza de Leon and Zarate) or _Sacsahuana_
 (G. de la Vega); here the Ynca general Challcuchima was cruelly
 burnt to death by Pizarro, and here the President Gasca defeated and
 executed Gonzalo Pizarro and Carbajal. It is now generally called the
 plain of Surite, from a village of that name at its north-western
 corner.

 The plain of Surite is a few leagues west of Cuzco, on the road to
 Lima, at a sufficient elevation to be within the region of occasional
 frosts, and is surrounded by mountains, up which the ancient
 _andeneria_ or terraced fields, now left to ruin, may be seen rising
 tier above tier. The plain is swampy and covered with rank grass, and
 would be difficult to cross, if it were not for the causeway, built
 by order of the Yncas, and accurately described by Cieza de Leon,
 which is still in good preservation. This causeway is of stone, raised
 about six feet above the plain, and perfectly straight for a distance
 of two leagues. At the end of the causeway is the little village of
 Yscu-chaca.

 [448] The ancient city of Cuzco is in lat. 13° 31´ S., and long. 73°
 3´ W., at the head of a valley 11,380 feet above the level of the sea.
 The valley is nine miles long, and from two to three broad, bounded on
 either side by ranges of bare mountains of considerable elevation. It
 is covered with fields of barley and lucerne, and, besides many farms
 and country houses, contains the two small towns of San Sebastian
 and San Geronimo. On the north side the famous hill of Sacsahuaman
 rises abruptly over the city, and is divided from the mountains on
 either side by two deep ravines, through which flow the little rivers
 of Huatanay and Rodadero. The former stream rushes noisily past the
 moss-grown walls of the old convent of Santa Teresa, under the houses
 forming the west side of the great square of Cuzco, down the centre
 of a broad street, where it is crossed by numerous stone bridges, and
 eventually unites with the Rodadero. The Huatanay is now but a noisy
 little mountain torrent confined between banks faced with masonry;
 but in former times it must have been in the habit of frequently
 breaking its bounds, as the name implies, which is composed of two
 words, _Huata_ (a year), and _Ananay_, an ejaculation of weariness,
 indicating fatigue from the yearly necessity of renewing its banks.
 The principal part of the ancient city was built between the two
 rivers.

 [449] “The grandeur of the fortress of Cuzco,” says Garcilasso de la
 Vega, “is incredible to those who have not seen it, and those who
 have examined it carefully might well imagine, and even believe,
 that it was made by some enchantment, and by demons rather than
 men. The multitude and bigness of the stones in the three lines
 of fortification (which are more like rocks than stones) cause
 admiration, and it is wonderful how the Indians could have cut them
 out of the quarries whence they were brought, for they have neither
 iron nor steel. How they conveyed them to the building is a still
 greater difficulty, for they had no bullocks, nor did they know how to
 make carts which could bear the weight of the stones; so they dragged
 them with stout ropes by the force of their arms. The roads by which
 they had to come were not level, but led over very rugged mountains,
 up and down which the stones were dragged by sheer force. Many of
 the stones were brought from distances of ten, twelve, and fifteen
 leagues, particularly the stone, or, to speak more correctly, the
 rock which the Indians call _saycusca_ (as much as to say ‘tired’),
 for it never reached the building. It was brought from a distance of
 fifteen leagues, across the river of Yucay, which is little smaller
 than the Guadalquivir at Cordova. The nearest quarry was at Muyna,
 five leagues from Cuzco. But it is still more wonderful to think how
 they fitted such great stones so closely that the point of a knife
 will scarcely go between them. Many are so well adjusted that the
 joining can scarcely be seen, and to attain such nicety it must have
 been necessary to raise them to their places and lower them very
 many times; for the Indians had no square, nor had they any rule by
 which they could know that one stone fitted justly on another. They
 had no knowledge of cranes nor of pulleys, nor of any machine which
 would assist them in raising and lowering the stones.” ... Acosta
 (lib. vi, cap. 14, p. 421, ed. 1608) makes similar remarks on the
 size of the stones and on the difficulty of raising them. Garcilasso
 continues: “They built the fortress on a high hill to the north of
 the city, called Sacsahuaman. This hill rises above the city almost
 perpendicularly, so that on that side the fortress is safe from an
 enemy, whether formed in squadron or in any other way. Owing to its
 natural advantages this side was only fortified with a stout wall,
 more than two hundred fathoms long. But on the other side there is a
 wide plain approaching the hill by a gentle incline, so that an enemy
 might march up in squadrons. Here they made three walls, one in front
 of the other, each wall being more than two hundred fathoms long. They
 are in the form of a half moon, and unite with the wall facing the
 city. The first wall contains the largest stones. I hold that they
 were not taken from any quarry, because they bear no marks of having
 been worked, but that they were huge boulders (_tormos_) or loose
 rocks which were found on the hills, adapted for building. Nearly
 in the centre of each line of wall there was a doorway, each with
 a stone of the same height and breadth, which closed it. The first
 of these doorways was called _Ttiu-puncu_ (Sand gate); the second,
 _Acahuana-puncu_, so called after the chief architect; and the third,
 _Huira-ccocha-puncu_. There is a space of twenty-five or thirty feet
 between the walls, which is made level, so that the summit of one wall
 is on a line with the foot of the next. Each wall had its parapet or
 breastwork, behind which the defenders could fight with more security.
 Above these lines of defence there is a long narrow platform, on which
 were three strong towers. The principal one was in the centre, and was
 called _Moyoc-marca_ or ‘the round tower.’ In it there was a fountain
 of excellent water, brought from a distance underground, the Indians
 know not whence. The kings lodged in this tower when they went up to
 the fortress for amusement, and all the walls were adorned with gold
 and silver, and animals, birds, and plants imitated from nature, which
 served as tapestry. The second tower was called _Paucar-marca_, and
 the third, _Sacllac-marca_. They were both square, and they contained
 lodgings for many soldiers. The foundations were as deep as the towers
 were high, and the vaults passed from one to the other. These vaults
 were cunningly made, with so many lanes and streets that they crossed
 each other with their turns and doublings.” Garcilasso complains that
 the Spaniards, instead of preserving this wonderful monument, have
 taken away many stones, from the vaults and towers, with which to
 build their new houses in Cuzco; but they left the three great walls,
 because the stones were so enormous that they could not move them. He
 adds that the fortress took fifty years in building.

 The ruins of the fortress of Cuzco are the most interesting in Peru,
 and I made a very minute examination of them in 1853. On the side of
 the hill immediately above the city there are three stone terraces.
 The first wall, 14 feet high, extends in a semicircular form round
 this end of the hill, for 180 paces. Between the first and second
 walls there is a level space 8 paces broad. Above the third wall there
 are many carefully hewn stones lying about, some of them supporting
 three lofty wooden crosses. Here, probably, were the three towers
 mentioned by Garcilasso, now totally destroyed. The view from this
 point is extensive and beautiful. The city of Cuzco is spread out like
 a map below, with its handsome church towers and domes rising above
 the other buildings. The great square is seen, crowded with Indian
 girls sitting under shades before their merchandise, or passing to
 and fro like a busy hive of bees. Beyond is the long plain, and far
 in the distance, rising above the lower ranges of mountains, towers
 Asungato, with its snowy peak standing out in strong relief against
 the cloudless sky.

 The length of the platform or table land on the summit of the
 Sacsahuaman hill is 525 paces, and its breadth, in the broadest part,
 130 paces. Many deep excavations have been made in all parts of it,
 in search of hidden treasure. On the south side the position was so
 strong that it needed no artificial defence, being bounded by the
 almost inaccessible ravine of the Huatanay. On the north, from the
 terraces already described for 174 paces in a westerly direction,
 the position is naturally defended by the steep ravine through which
 flows the river Rodadero, and only required a single stone breastwork,
 which still exists. But from this point to the western extremity of
 the table land, a distance of 400 paces, it is entirely undefended
 by nature. Here the Yncas constructed that gigantic treble line of
 Cyclopean fortification, which must fill the mind of every traveller
 with astonishment and admiration. The first wall averages a height
 of 18 feet, the second of 16, and the third of 14: the terrace
 between the first and second being 10 paces across, and that between
 the second and third 8 paces. The walls are built with salient and
 retiring angles. The position is entered by three doorways, so narrow
 that they only admit of the passage of one man at a time. The outer
 angles are generally composed of one enormous block of stone. I
 measured some of these. One was 17 feet high, 12 broad, and 7½ long;
 another, 16 feet high by 6 broad. They are made to fit so exactly one
 into the other as to form a piece of masonry unparalleled in solidity
 and the peculiarity of its construction, in any other part of the
 world. These walls are composed of a limestone of a dark slate colour,
 and are now overgrown with cacti and wild flowers.

 [451] Known, in the days of the Yncas, as _Huaca-puncu_ (“the holy
 gate”).

 [452] The Yncas ascertained the time of the solstices by means of
 eight towers on the east, and eight towers on the west of the city,
 put four and four, two small between two large ones. The smaller
 towers were eighteen or twenty feet apart, and the larger ones were
 the same distance, one on each side. The solstice was ascertained by
 watching when the sun set or rose between the smaller towers. _G. de
 la Vega_, i, lib. ii, cap. 22.

 [453] The four grand divisions of the empire of the Yncas gave
 their names to these four royal roads. The whole empire was called
 _Ttahua-ntin-Suyu_, literally “The four regions.”

 [454] The most detailed account of ancient Cuzco is to be found in
 the pages of the Ynca historian. He says that the first houses were
 built on the steep slopes of the Sacsahuaman hill. The city was
 divided into two parts, Hanan-Cuzco (upper or north) and Hurin-Cuzco
 (lower or south). The chief ward or division was on the slopes of
 Sacsahuaman, and was called _Collcam-pata_. Here Manco Ccapac built
 his palace, the ruins of which are still in good preservation; and the
 great hall, where festivals were celebrated on rainy days, was entire
 in the days of Garcilasso. The next ward, to the east, was called
 _Cantut-pata_ (“the terrace of flowers”); then came _Puma-curcu_
 (“lion’s beam”), so called from a beam to which wild animals were
 secured; then _Toco-cachi_ (“window of salt”); then, further south,
 _Munay-sencca_ (“loving nose”); then _Rimac-pampa_ (“speaking place”),
 where ordinances were promulgated, close to the temple of the sun,
 at the south end of the city; then _Pumap-chupan_ (“lion’s tail”),
 where the two streams of Huatanay and Rodadero unite, and form a long
 promontory, like a tail. To the westward there was a division called
 _Chaquill-chaca_; and next to it, on the north, were others called
 _Pichu_ and _Quillipata_. Finally, the division known as _Huaca-puncu_
 (“holy gate”) adjoined the _Collcampata_ on the west side.

 The inner space, between the abovenamed divisions or suburbs, and
 extending from the Collcampata on the north to Rimac-pampa on the
 south, was occupied by the palaces and houses of the Ynca and his
 family, divided according to their _Ayllus_ or lineages. This central
 part of the city was divided into four parts, called _Hatun-cancha_,
 containing the palace of Ynca Yupanqui; _Puca-marca_, where stood the
 palace of Tupac Ynca Yupanqui; _Ynti-pampa_, the open space in front
 of the temple of the sun; and _Ccori-cancha_, which was occupied by
 the temple of the sun itself. Immediately south of the _Collcam-pata_
 was the _Sacha-huasi_ or college, founded by Ynca Rocca, where the
 _Amautas_ or wise men resided. Near the college was the palace of Ynca
 Rocca, called _Coracora_, and another palace called _Cassana_,{a} the
 abode of the Ynca Pachacutec. The latter was so called because it
 would cause any one who saw it to freeze (_cassa_) with astonishment,
 at its grandeur and magnificence. These palaces looked upon the
 great square of the ancient city, called _Huacay-pata_ (“the festive
 terrace”), which was two hundred paces long and one hundred and
 fifty broad from east to west. At the west end it was bounded by the
 Huatanay stream. At the south side there was another royal palace,
 called _Amaru-cancha_ (“place of a serpent”), the residence of Huayna
 Ccapac, and south of the _Anaru-cancha_ was the _Aclla-huasi_.

 {a} The site is now occupied by the convent of San Francisco. or
 convent of virgins. West of the _Huacay-pata_ was the _Cusi-pata_
 (“joyful terrace”), which was united with it, the Huatanay being paved
 over with large flagstones.

 All the streets of modern Cuzco contain specimens of ancient masonry.
 Many of the stones have serpents sculptured in relief, and four slabs
 are to be seen, with figures--half bird, half man--carved upon them,
 with some pretence to artistic skill. The wall of the palace of Ynca
 Rocca is still very perfect. It is formed of huge masses of rock of
 various shapes, one of them actually having twelve sides, yet fitting
 into each other with marvellous accuracy. They are of a sombre hue,
 and have an imposing effect. With the exception, however, of this
 building, of the palace on the Collcampata, and of the fortress, which
 are in the Cyclopean style, all the ancient masonry of Cuzco is in
 regular parallel courses. The roofs were of thatch, but very neatly
 and carefully laid on, as may be seen in the specimen still existing
 at the _Sondor-huasi_ of Azangaro (See _note_ to p. 166), and the
 city must altogether have presented a scene of architectural grandeur
 and magnificence which was well calculated to astonish the greedy and
 illiterate conquerors.

 [455] _Ccuri-cancha_ means literally “the place of gold.” Its site
 is now occupied by the convent of San Domingo, but several portions
 of the ancient temple of the sun are still standing, especially at
 the west end, where a mass of the dark, beautifully-formed masonry,
 about eighteen feet high, overhangs the Huatanay river. At the east
 end of the convent the ancient wall of the temple is almost entire,
 being seventy paces long and about thirty feet high. The stones are
 of irregular length, generally about two feet by one and a-half, and
 very accurately cut. They are in regular parallel courses, with their
 exterior surfaces projecting slightly and sloping off at the sides to
 form a junction with their neighbours. The roof was formed of beams
 pitched very high, and thatched with straw. In the interior the four
 walls were lined with plates of gold, and at one end there was a huge
 golden sun, with features represented, and rays of flame darting from
 its circumference, all of one piece. It extended from one wall to the
 other, occupying the whole side. This magnificent prize fell to the
 share of a Spanish knight named Marcio Serra de Lejesama, who gambled
 it away in one night; but he never took a card into his hand again.
 The reformed knight married an Ynca princess, and left the memorable
 will which I have quoted in a note at page 124.

 On each side of the golden sun were the mummies of the deceased Yncas,
 seated in chairs of gold. The principal door faced towards the north,
 and opened on the open space known as the _Ynti-pampa_; and a cornice
 of gold, a yard broad, ran round the exterior walls of the temple.
 On the south side were the cloisters, also ornamented with a broad
 cornice of gold, and within the enclosure were buildings dedicated to
 the moon, and adorned with silver, to the stars, to lightning, and to
 the rainbow; as well as the dwellings of the _Huillac Umu_, or high
 priest, and of his attendants. Within the courts of these cloisters
 there were five fountains, with pipes of silver or gold. In the rear
 of the cloisters was the garden of the sun, where all the flowers,
 fruits, and leaves, were of pure beaten gold. I have myself seen some
 of these golden fruits and flowers.

 [456] Namely Sinchi Rocca (1062), Lloque Yupanqui (1091), Mayta Ccapac
 (1126), Ccapac Yupanqui (1156), Ynca Rocca (1197), Yahuar-huaccac
 (1249), Huira-ccocha (1289), Pachacutec (1340), Ynca Yupanqui (1400),
 and Tupac Ynca Yupanqui (1439). The last named was succeeded by Huayna
 Ccapac (1475), in whose reign the Spaniards first appeared on the
 coast of Peru.

 [457] G. de la Vega quotes this passage (i, lib. vii, cap. 19).

 [458] In Quichua, _Muchani_ is to adore or to kiss; and _Muchay_ would
 be “adoration.”

 [459] The valley of Yucay or Vilca-mayu is the paradise of Peru. It
 was the favourite residence of the Yncas, and is one of the most
 delightful spots in this favoured land. The rapid river which flows
 through it rises in the mountains of Vilcañota, and, leaving the city
 of Cuzco at a distance of about ten miles to the west, eventually
 joins the Apurimac after a course of about four hundred miles, and
 becomes one of the main affluents of the Ucayali.

 The valley is seldom more than three miles in breadth, and is bounded
 on its eastern side by the snow-capped range of the Andes. To the
 westward there is a lower range of steep and rocky mountains. Within
 these narrow limits the vale of Yucay enjoys a delicious climate, and
 the picturesque farms, with their maize towers surrounded by little
 thickets of fruit trees, the villages scattered here and there along
 the banks of the rapid river, the groves of trees, and the lofty
 mountains rising abruptly from the valley, combine to form a landscape
 of exceeding beauty. The little village of Yucay is on the site of the
 delicious country retreat of the Yncas, a palace on which all the arts
 of Peruvian civilisation were lavished to render it a fitting abode
 for the sovereign and his court. The only remaining vestiges of the
 palace are two walls of Ynca masonry, forming sides of a modern house
 in the _plaza_ of the village.

 [460] Next to the fortress of Cuzco, the ruins at Tambo or
 Ollantay-tambo, in the valley of Yucay, are the most astonishing in
 Peru. They are built at a point where the valley is only about a
 league in width, covered with maize fields, with the broad and rapid
 river flowing through the centre. The dark mountains rise up almost
 perpendicularly on either side to such a stupendous height that but a
 narrow portion of blue sky smiles down upon the peaceful scene between
 them. A ravine, called Marca-ccocha, descends from the bleak _punas_
 of the Andes to the valley of Yucay at this point, and at the junction
 two lofty masses of rock rise up abruptly in dark and frowning
 majesty. The fortress of Tambo is built on the rock which forms the
 western portal to the ravine. The rock is a dark limestone, the lower
 part of which, to the south and east, is faced with masonry composed
 of small stones. At a height of about 300 feet there is a platform
 covered with a ruin apparently left in an unfinished state. Here there
 are six enormous slabs of granite, standing upright, and united by
 smaller pieces fitted between them. Each slab is 12 feet high, and at
 their bases there are other blocks of the same material, in one place
 formed into a commencement of a wall. This spot appears to have been
 intended as the principal part of the citadel. In the rear, and built
 up the steep sides of the mountains, there are several edifices of
 small stones plastered over with a yellow mud. They have gables at
 either end, and apertures for doors and windows. Still further to the
 east, a flank wall of the same material rises up from the valley to
 near the summit of the mountain, which is very steep and rocky, and
 indeed difficult of ascent. Immediately below the principal platform
 there are a succession of stone terraces. The upper one is entered at
 the side by a handsome doorway with an enormous granite lintel. The
 wall is built of polygonal-shaped blocks, fitting exactly into each
 other, and contains eight recesses, two feet two inches high by one
 broad and one deep. When the inner sides of these recesses are tapped
 with the fingers, a peculiar metallic ringing sound is produced. In
 front of the terraces there a series of well-constructed _andeneria_,
 or hanging gardens, sixteen deep, all faced with masonry, which
 descend into the ravine. On the opposite side of these _andeneria_ the
 mountain rises perpendicularly, and terminates in a dizzy peak, where
 there is a huge block of stone called the _Ynti-huatana_, or place for
 observing the sun.

 The most astonishing circumstance connected with these ruins is the
 distance from which the stones which compose them have been conveyed.
 The huge blocks of granite of enormous dimensions rest upon a
 limestone rock, and the nearest granite quarry is at a distance of six
 miles, and on the other side of the river. On the road to this quarry
 there are two stones which never reached their destination. They are
 known as the _Saycusca-rumicuna_ or “tired stones.” One of them is 9
 ft. 8 in. long and 7 ft. 8 in. broad; with a groove round it, three
 inches deep, apparently for passing a rope. The other is 20 ft. 4 in.
 long, 15 ft. 2 in. broad, and 3 ft. 6 in. deep.

 At the foot of the rock on which the fortress is built there are
 several ancient buildings. Here is the _Mañay raccay_ or “court of
 petitions,” sixty paces square, and surrounded by buildings of gravel
 and plaster, which open on the court by doorways twelve feet high,
 surmounted by enormous granite lintels. On the western side of the
 ravine of Marca-ccocha, opposite the fortress, there is another mass
 of rock towering up perpendicularly, and ending in a sharp peak. It
 is called the _Pinculluna_ (“Place of Flutes”). Half-way up, on a
 rocky ledge very difficult of approach, there are some buildings which
 tradition says were used as a convent of virgins of the sun. They
 consist of three long chambers separated from each other but close
 together, and rising one behind the other up the declivitous side of
 the mountain. They are each twenty-eight paces long, with a door at
 each end, and six windows on each side. There are steep gables at
 each end about eighteen feet high, and the doors have stone lintels.
 There may have been six cells, according to the number of windows,
 making eighteen in all. On one side of these buildings there are three
 terraces on which the doors open, which probably supplied the inmates
 with vegetable food and flowers, and whence they might view one of
 nature’s loveliest scenes, the tranquil fertile valley, with its noble
 river, and mountains fringed with tiers of cultivated terraces.

 About a hundred yards beyond the edge of these convent gardens the
 Pinculluna becomes quite perpendicular, and forms a yawning precipice
 eight hundred feet high, descending sheer down into the valley. This
 was used as the _Huarcuna_ or place of execution, and there is a small
 building, like a martello tower, at its verge, whence the victims were
 hurled into eternity.

 For an account of the tradition connected with the building of
 Ollantay-tambo, and of the Quichua drama which is founded on it, see
 my work, _Cuzco and Lima_, pp. 172 to 188.

 The authors of the _Antiguedades Peruanas_ believe these ruins to be
 anterior to those of Cuzco.

 [461] _Cunti-suyu_ was the western division of the empire of the
 Yncas. The word was afterwards corrupted by the Spaniards into
 _Condesuyos_; and the district of that name is now a province of the
 department of Arequipa. It is nearly on the watershed of the maritime
 Cordillera, and is drained by a river which, after irrigating the
 valley of Ocoña, falls into the Pacific.

 [462] To the eastward of the Andes are the great forests which extend
 unbroken to the Atlantic. Those in the immediate neighbourhood of
 Cuzco are watered by the tributaries of the Purus, one of the largest
 and most important, though still unexplored affluents of the Amazon.
 These forests comprised the _Anti-suyu_ or eastern division of the
 empire of the Yncas, and were inhabited by wandering savage tribes
 called Antis and Chunchos. The forest region was first invaded by the
 Ynca Rocca, but no permanent conquest was made until the reign of the
 Ynca Yupanqui, who received tidings of a rich province inhabited by a
 people called Musus (Moxos) far to the eastward. All the streams were
 said to unite and form a great river called the Amaru-mayu (“serpent
 river”), which is probably the main stream of the Purus. The Ynca
 made a road from the Andes to the shores of the river, through the
 forest-covered country now known as the _montaña de Paucartambo_, and
 was occupied for two years in making canoes sufficient to carry ten
 thousand men, and their provisions. He then descended the river, and,
 after a long and bloody war, subjugated the savage tribes of Chunchos
 on its banks, and collected them into a settlement called Tono. They
 ever afterwards paid an annual tribute of parrots, honey, and wax to
 the Yncas. Yupanqui then penetrated still further to the south and
 east, and conquered the province of Moxos.

 In the early days of the conquest, the Spaniards established farms
 for raising coca, cacao, and sugar in the beautiful forests of
 Paucartambo, especially along the banks of the Tono, and Garcilasso de
 la Vega tells us that he inherited an estate called Abisca, in this
 part of the country. But as Spanish power declined, these estates
 began to fall into decay, the savage Chunchos encroached more and
 more, and now there is not a single farm remaining in this once
 wealthy and flourishing district. The primitive forest has again
 resumed its sway, and the country is in the same state as it was
 before it was invaded by the Ynca Yupanqui. The exploration of the
 course of the Purus is one of the chief desiderata in South American
 geography. An expedition under Don Tiburcio de Landa, governor of
 Paucartambo, penetrated for some distance down the course of the Tono
 in about 1778; in about 1824 a Dr. Sevallos was sent on a similar
 errand; General Miller, in 1835, penetrated to a greater distance than
 any other explorer before or since; Lieutenant Gibbon, U.S.N., entered
 the forests in 1852; and I explored part of the course of the Tono in
 1853. I have been furnished with a most valuable and interesting paper
 on the river Purús, by Mr. Richard Spruce, the distinguished South
 American traveller and botanist, which I have inserted as a note at
 the end of this chapter.

 [463] These are the _Chunchos_ and other wild tribes.

 [464] Unfit for translation.

 [465] “_Ensayo Corografico sobre o Pará._ This author cites no
 authorities, but he had access to very valuable documents and
 manuscript maps in the archives of Pará, most of which were
 unfortunately destroyed or dispersed during the uprising of the
 _cabanos_ in 1835; and wherever I have had the opportunity of testing
 his statements by personal observation I have found them very exact.

 [466] “_New Discovery of the Great River of the Amazons._ Markham’s
 Transl., p. 107.

 [467] “Acuña writes these names respectively ‘Curucurus’ and
 ‘Quatausis.’

 [468] “The original exists as an appendix to the ‘Falla dirigida á
 assemblea legislativa provincial do Amazonas, no dia 1º de Outubro de
 1853,’ by Senhor Herculano Ferreira Penna, the learned and patriotic
 president of the province, who presented me with a copy of it when I
 revisited the Barra in 1854.

 [469] “_Tolda_, roof to shelter the after part of a canoe.

 [470] “_Furo_, a channel between two points of the same river, or from
 one river to another, which becomes filled with water in the time of
 flood. A narrow channel between an island and the bank is generally
 called a _Paraná-merím_, or little river.

 [471] “Caldeiraō, a noted whirlpool in the Amazon, near the left bank,
 above the mouth of the Rio Negro.

 [472] “Solimoēs, the Brazilian name of the Amazon from the Rio Negro
 to the frontier, or even as far up as to the mouth of Ucayali.

 [473] “The _furo_, or _paraná-merím_, of Paratarý is the lowest
 mouth of the Purús, and it appears that Serafim sailed along it for
 three days before reaching the main channel. In 1851 I spent nearly
 a month on the lakes of Manaquirý, about forty miles below the mouth
 of the Purús, and found that the Paratarý had many ramifications,
 communicating not only with those lakes, but also with the much larger
 lake of Uauatás to the eastward, and thence with the river Madeira.
 In the rainy season, indeed, it is possible to navigate for hundreds
 of miles parallel to the southern side of the Amazon without ever
 entering that river.”

 [474] “The beaches on the Amazon and its tributaries are very
 important to the Indians, being the places where the turtles lay their
 eggs; and hence they all have a special name.

 [475] “_Ubá_, a canoe made simply of a hollow trunk, and stretched to
 the form of a boat by putting fire under it and cross pieces of wood
 within it. _Casca_, a bark canoe.

 [476] “This is the _yúca_ of Peru, and is a distinct species from the
 _mandiocea_ (_Manihot utilissima_ Pohl.), which is the staple article
 of food throughout Brazil.

 [477] “In June 1851, I took six days to go from the Barra only half
 way to Manacapurú, but the river was then at the height of flood, and
 my large boat was manned by only three men.

 [478] “I should suppose the Uainamarís to be a tribe of the savage
 Chunchos. Many of the large Indian nations spoken of by old authors
 are now much subdivided; thus of the Jibaros, on the eastern side of
 the Quitenian Andes, have been constituted in modern times the tribes
 Achuales, Pindus, Huambisas, etc.

 “The Cucamas are a section of the great Tupi nation, and speak a very
 euphonious dialect of Tupi. They are now found scattered in most of
 the villages on the Marañon (or upper Amazon) in Peru, and formerly
 existed in much greater numbers than at present in the village of
 La Laguna, within the Huallaga. It is curious to find a remnant of
 them so far separated from the bulk of their nation as at the head
 of the Purús, but it is explicable enough when we come to trace the
 migrations of the Tupís and Cucamas, as narrated by Acuña and other
 writers.”

 [479] See my chapter on coca cultivation in _Travels in Peru and
 India_, chap. xiv, p. 232.

 [480] Cieza de Leon now conducts the reader up the beautiful valley of
 Vilca-mayu, or Yucay.

 [481] Canas was conquered by Lloque Yupanqui, the third Ynca. _G. de
 la Vega_, i, lib. ii, cap. 18.

 [482] The country inhabited by the Indian tribes of Canas and Canches
 was, in Spanish times, included within the Corrigimiento of Tinta,
 one of the divisions of the Presidency of Cuzco. It now comprises the
 two provinces of Canas and Canches. It consists of lofty plateaux
 or _punas_ of the Andes, intersected by the deep and fertile ravine
 through which flows the river Vilcamayu or Yucay; and is bounded on
 the south by the equally lofty plains of the Collao. The _punas_ are
 covered with flocks of llamas; and the more inaccessible fastnesses
 are the haunts of huanacus, vicuñas, deer, and viscachas (a kind of
 rabbit).

 In the most remote times the tribe of Canas inhabited one side of
 the Vilcamayu ravine, and that of Canches the other. The former were
 proud, cautious, and melancholy, their clothing was usually of a
 sombre colour, and their music was plaintive and sad. The latter were
 joyous, light hearted, and sociable, but very poor, their clothing
 consisting of skins. They made wars upon each other, and built their
 villages in strong fortified positions called _pucaras_. These tribes
 were brought under the yoke of the Yncas by Sinchi Rocca, the second
 of his dynasty. He permitted the ancient chiefs to retain their power,
 but insisted upon their children being educated at Cuzco. The Canas,
 however, were constantly in a state of revolt, until the Ynca Huayna
 Ccapac gave one of his daughters in marriage to their chief.

 The Canches were of middle height, very bold, restless, inconstant,
 but good workmen, industrious, and brave. The Canas, though of a
 darker complexion, were stouter and better made. The Canches loved
 solitude and were very silent, and built their huts in secluded
 ravines and valleys. The villages of the Canches were Sicuani, Cacha,
 Tinta, Checacupe, Pampamarca, Yanaoca, and Lanqui; and those of the
 Canas were Checa, Pichigua, Yacuri, Coparaque, Tungasaca, Surimani.
 Sicuani, in the ravine of the Vilcamayu, is the principal place in
 the country of the Canches and Canas. At the end of the last century
 it contained a population of four thousand Indians, and one thousand
 Mestizos. The number of Indians in the whole district was calculated,
 at the same time, to amount to twenty-six thousand souls. _Mercurio
 Peruano_ (_Nueva Edicion_), i, p. 193.

 [483] Garcilasso de la Vega relates a tradition respecting this temple
 at Cacha, which is on the right bank of the river Yucay, sixteen
 leagues south of Cuzco. A supernatural being is said to have appeared
 to the Ynca Huira-ccocha, before the battle with Anco-hualluc and his
 allies on the plain of Yahuar-pampa (see note to p. 280), and after
 his victory the grateful prince caused a temple to be erected at
 Cacha, in memory of the phantom. As the vision appeared in the open
 air, so the temple was to have no roof, and as he was sleeping at the
 time under an overhanging rock, so there was to be a small covered
 chapel opening into the temple, which was 120 feet long by 80. The
 edifice was built of large stones carefully dressed and finished. It
 had four doors, three of them being merely ornamental recesses, and
 the fourth, facing to the east, was alone used. Within the temple
 there were walls winding round and round and forming twelve lanes,
 each seven feet wide, and covered overhead with huge stone slabs ten
 feet long. As these lanes went round and round they approached the
 centre of the temple, and at the end of the twelfth and last there
 was a flight of steps leading to the top. At the end of each lane or
 passage there was a window by which light was admitted. The steps were
 double, so that people could go up on one side and down on the other.
 The floor above was paved with polished black stones, and on one side
 there was a chapel, within which was the statue representing the
 phantom. The Spaniards entirely demolished this temple.

 [484] This description of the Collao is very accurate. South of the
 Vilcañota mountains the Andes separate into two distinct chains,
 namely the cordillera or coast range and the Eastern Andes, which
 include the loftiest peaks in South America, Illimani and Sorata. The
 Collao is the region between these two ranges. It contains the great
 lake of Titicaca, and consists of elevated plains intersected by
 rivers flowing into the lake.

 [485] The potatoe was indigenous to the Andes of Peru, and the best
 potatoe in the world is grown at a place called Huamantango, near
 Lima. I am surprised to find that Humboldt should have doubted this
 fact, (“La pomme de terre n’est pas indigène au Pérou.” _Nouv.
 Espagne_, ii, p. 400), seeing that there is a native word for potatoe,
 and that it is mentioned as the staple food of the people of the
 Collao, by Cieza de Leon, and other early writers. Moreover the
 _Solanaceæ_ are the commonest plants in several parts of Peru. The
 ancient Quichua for potatoe is _ascu_ or _acsu_, and the same word
 exists in the Chinchay-suyu dialect. (_Torres Rubio_, p. 219.)

 [486] _Chuñus_ or frozen potatoes are still the ordinary food of the
 natives of the Collao. They dam up square shallow pools by the sides
 of streams, and fill them with potatoes during the cold season of
 June and July. The frost soon converts them into _chuñus_, which are
 insipid and tasteless.

 [487] The _oca_ (_Oxalis tuberosa_ Lin.) is an oval shaped root, the
 skin pale red, and the inside white. It is watery, has a sweetish
 taste, and is much liked by the Peruvians.

 [488] See note at page 143.

 [489] See chapter xxv, p. 90.

 [490] The most remarkable of these tower tombs of the Collao are
 at a place called Sillustani, on a promontory running out into the
 lake of Umayu, near Puno. This promontory is literally covered with
 places of sepulture. Four of them are towers of finely cut masonry,
 with the sides of the stones dovetailing into each other. See a full
 description of them in my _Travels in Peru and India_, p. 111; also
 _Vigne’s Travels in South America_, ii, p. 31; and _Antiguedades
 Peruanas_, p. 293.

 [491] A small village of the Collao, on the banks of the river Pucara,
 near the point where, uniting with the Azangaro, it forms the Ramiz,
 which empties itself into lake Titicaca at the north-west corner.

 [492] The editor also remained a whole day at Pucara in 1860, looking
 at everything, but more than three centuries had elapsed since the
 visit of Cieza de Leon, and there is no longer a vestige of the ruins
 mentioned in the text. Pucara is a little town at the foot of an
 almost perpendicular mountain, which closely resembles the northern
 end of the rock of Gibraltar. The precipice is composed of a reddish
 sandstone, and is upwards of twelve hundred feet above the plain,
 the crevices and summit being clothed with long grass and shrubby
 _queñuas_ (_Polylepis tomentella_ Wedd.) Here Francisco Hernandez
 Giron, the rebel who led an insurrection to oppose the abolition of
 personal service amongst the Indians, was finally defeated in 1554.
 In 1860 the aged cura, Dr. José Faustino Dasa, was one of the best
 Quichua scholars in Peru.

 [493] Hatun-colla is now a wretched little village, not far from the
 towers of Sillustani, already alluded to.

 [494] See my chapter on the province of Caravaya, in _Travels in Peru
 and India_, chap. xii, p. 199.

 [495] A thorough survey of the great lake of Titicaca is still a
 desideratum in geography. The lake is about 80 miles long by 40 broad,
 being by far the largest in South America. It is divided into two
 parts by the peninsula of Copacabana. The southern division, called
 the lake of Huaqui, is 8 leagues long by 7, and is united to the
 greater lake by the strait of Tiquina. A number of rivers, which are
 of considerable volume during the rainy season, flow into the lake.
 The largest of these is the Ramiz, which is formed by the junction
 of the two rivers of Pucara and Azangaro, and enters the lake at its
 north-west corner. The Suchiz, formed by the rivers of Cavanilla and
 Lampa, also flows into the lake on its west side, as well as the Yllpa
 and Ylave; while on the eastern side are the rivers Huarina, Escoma,
 and Achacache. Much of the water thus flowing in is drained off by the
 great river Desaguadero, which flows out of the south-west corner, and
 disappears in the swampy lake of Aullagas, in the south of Bolivia.
 Perhaps a great quantity is taken up by evaporation. On the eastern
 side lake Titicaca is very deep, but on parts of the west shore it
 is so shoal that there is only just water enough to force a _balsa_
 through the forests of rushes. The winds blow from the eastward all
 the year round, sometimes in strong gales, so as to raise a heavy
 sea. Along the western shore there are acres of tall rushes. The
 principal islands are those of Titicaca and Coati, near the peninsula
 of Copacabana, Campanario, Escoma, Soto, and Esteves.

 [496] The temple, on the island of Titicaca, was one of the
 most sacred in Peru, and the ruins are still in a good state of
 preservation. The buildings are of hewn stone, with doorways wider
 below than above. But they are inferior to those on the adjacent
 island of Coati. See _Rivero_, _Antiguedades Peruanas_, chap. x.

 [497] We first meet with Hernando Bachicao as a captain of pikemen
 in the army of Vaca de Castro. When Gonzalo Pizarro rose against the
 viceroy Blasco Nuñez de Vela, he entrusted Bachicao with the formation
 of a navy. That officer took command of a brigantine at Callao, which
 had just arrived from Quilca, and sailed up the coast. At Tumbez he
 found the viceroy, who fled inland on his approach; and Bachicao
 seized two vessels. Sailing northward he captured several others, and
 with the fleet thus formed, he got possession of the city of Panama
 in March 1545. Soon afterwards Gonzalo Pizarro appointed Hinojosa to
 command the fleet, and superseded Bachicao; who then joined his chief
 with reinforcements from Panama, and took part in the final defeat of
 the viceroy at Añaquito, where he commanded the pikemen. At the battle
 of Huarina, where he also commanded the pikemen, believing that the
 forces of Centeno were about to gain the victory, he turned traitor
 and deserted his colours; but he was mistaken, for his old commander
 Gonzalo Pizarro won that bloody fight. Bachicao, therefore, returned
 to his own side, and would have been glad if his conduct had escaped
 observation. But the eagle eye of the fiery old master of the camp,
 Carbajal, was not to be deceived, and the captain Hernando Bachicao
 was hung by his order, a few days afterwards, in the little village of
 Juli, on the western shore of lake Titicaca.

 [498] These ruins are in lat. 16° 42´ S. long. 68° 42´ W., 12,930 feet
 above the level of the sea, and twelve miles from the south shore
 of lake Titicaca. (See Mr. Bollaert’s paper, in the _Intellectual
 Observer_ for May 1863.)

 [499] It is 918 feet long, 400 broad, and 100 to 120 in height.

 [500] The head of one of these statues is 3 feet 6 inches long, from
 the point of the beard to the upper part of the ornamental head dress;
 and from the nose to the back of the head it measures 2 feet 7 inches.
 It is adorned with a species of round cap, 1 foot 7 inches high, and
 2 feet 5 inches in width. In the upper part are certain wide vertical
 bands, and in the lower are symbolical figures with human faces. From
 the eyes, which are large and round, two wide bands, each with three
 double circles, project to the chin. From the outer part of each eye
 a band descends, adorned with two squares terminating in a serpent.
 The nose is slightly prominent, surrounded on the lower side by a
 wide semicircular band, and terminating towards the inner side of the
 eyes in two corners. The mouth forms a transverse oval, garnished
 with sixteen teeth. From the under lip projects, in the form of a
 beard, six bands, towards the edge of the chin. The ear is represented
 by a semi-lunar figure in a square, and in the fore-part of it is a
 vertical band with three squares, terminating in the head of a wild
 beast. On the neck there are many human figures. The sculpture of this
 head is very remarkable. _Antiguedades Peruanas_, p. 295.

 [501] Of these huge monolithic doorways there is one block of hard
 trachytic rock measuring 10 feet in height by 13 wide, and another
 7 feet in height. In the former block a doorway is cut, which is 6
 feet 4 inches high, and 3 feet 2 inches wide. On its eastern side
 there is a cornice, in the centre of which a human figure is carved.
 The head is almost square, and there proceed from it several rays,
 amongst which four snakes can be discerned. The arms are extended,
 and each hand holds a snake with a crowned head. The body is covered
 with an embroidered garment, and the short feet rest upon a pedestal,
 also ornamented with symbolical figures. On each side of this figure
 there are a number of small squares on the cornice, in three rows,
 each containing a human figure in profile with a walking-stick in the
 hand. Each row has sixteen figures, the central row with birds’ heads.
 _Antiguedades Peruanas_, p. 296.

 Acosta says that he measured one of the great stones at Tiahuanaco,
 and found it to be 38 feet long, 18 broad, and 6 deep. _Historia
 Natural de las Indias_, lib. vi, cap. 14, p. 419.

 (In the _Intellectual Observer_ for May 1863, there is an excellent
 engraving of one of the great monolithic doorways at Tiahuanaco, to
 illustrate a paper by Mr. Bollaert.)

 [502] The famous ruins of Tiahuanaco, generally considered to be
 long anterior to the time of the Yncas, appear, like those at
 Ollantay-tambo, to be remains of edifices which were never completed.

 Garcilasso de la Vega gives the following account of Tiahuanaco.
 “Amongst other works in this place, one of them is a hill, made
 artificially, and so high that the fact of its having been made by man
 causes astonishment; and, that it might not be loosened, it was built
 upon great foundations of stone. It is not known why this edifice was
 made. In another part, away from the hill, there were two figures of
 giants carved in stone, with long robes down to the ground, and caps
 on their heads: all well worn by the hand of time, which proves their
 great antiquity. There is also an enormous wall of stones, so large
 that the greatest wonder is caused to imagine how human force could
 have raised them to the place where they now are. For there are no
 rocks nor quarries within a great distance, from whence they could
 have been brought. In other parts there are grand edifices, and what
 causes most astonishment are some great doorways of stone, some of
 them made out of one single stone. The marvel is increased by their
 wonderful size, for some of them were found to measure 30 feet in
 length, 15 in breadth, and 6 in depth. And these stones, with their
 doorways, are all of one single piece, so that it cannot be understood
 with what instruments or tools they can have been worked.

 “The natives say that all these edifices were built before the time
 of the Yncas, and that the Yncas built the fortress of Cuzco in
 imitation of them. They know not who erected them, but have heard
 their forefathers say that all these wonderful works were completed
 in a single night. The ruins appear never to have been finished, but
 to have been merely the commencement of what the founders intended to
 have built. All the above is from Pedro de Cieza de Leon, in his 105th
 chapter; to which I propose to add some further particular obtained
 from a schoolfellow of mine, a priest named Diego de Alcobasa (who
 I may call my brother, for we were born in the same house, and his
 father brought me up). Amongst other accounts, which he and others
 have sent me from my native land, he says the following respecting
 these great edifices of Tiahuanaco. ‘In Tiahuanaco, in the province
 of Collao, amongst other things, there are some ancient ruins worthy
 of immortal memory. They are near the lake called by the Spaniards
 Chucuito, the proper name of which is Chuquivitu. Here there are
 some very grand edifices, and amongst them there is a square court,
 15 _brazas_ each way, with walls two stories high. On one side of
 this court there is a hall 45 feet long by 22 broad, apparently once
 covered, in the same way as those buildings you have seen in the house
 of the sun at Cuzco, with a roof of straw. The walls, roofs, floor,
 and doorways are all of one single piece, carved out of a rock, and
 the walls of the court and of the hall are three-quarters of a yard
 in breadth. The roof of the hall, though it appears to be thatch, is
 really of stone. For as the Indians cover their houses with thatch,
 in order that this might appear like the rest, they have combed and
 carved the stone so that it resembles a roof of thatch. The waters of
 the lake wash the walls of the court. The natives say that this and
 the other buildings were dedicated to the Creator of the universe.
 There are also many other stones carved into the shape of men and
 women so naturally that they appear to be alive, some drinking with
 cups in their hands, others sitting, others standing, and others
 walking in the stream which flows by the walls. There are also statues
 of women with their infants in their laps, others with them on their
 backs, and in a thousand other postures. The Indians say that for the
 great sins of the people of those times, and because they stoned a man
 who was passing through the province, they were all converted into
 these statues.’

 “Thus far are the words of Diego de Alcobasa, who has been a vicar and
 preacher to the Indians in many provinces of this kingdom, having been
 sent by his superiors from one part to another: for, being a mestizo
 and native of Cuzco, he knows the language of the Indians better than
 others who are born in the country, and his labours bear more fruit.”

 The part of the country in which Tia-huanaco is situated, was first
 conquered by Mayta Ccapac, the fourth Ynca. The name is derived from a
 circumstance connected with the conquest. It is said that, while the
 Ynca was engaged in this campaign against the Aymara nation, and being
 encamped amongst the ruins, a Cañari Indian, serving as a _chasqui_
 or courier, arrived from Cuzco in an extraordinarily short space of
 time. The Ynca exclaimed _Tia_ (Be seated) _Huanaco_: the _huanaco_
 being the swiftest animal in Peru. Thus, like Luxor, and so many other
 famous places, these wonderful ruins have received a comparatively
 modern name, which has no real connection with their history.

 [503] See chapter lxxxvii.

 [504] On the 26th of October 1547 Centeno mustered a thousand men, of
 whom 250 were mounted. Gonzalo Pizarro’s force barely amounted to 400
 infantry and 85 cavalry. Pizarro gained a complete victory, and 350 of
 Centeno’s followers were killed.

 [505] The president Gasca ordered Don Alonzo de Mendoza, an officer
 who had come over to him from the party of Gonzalo Pizarro, to found
 a new city south of lake Titicaca, which was to be called “La Ciudad
 de Nuestra Señora de la Paz;” to commemorate the peace which had been
 established, after the overthrow of the rebel Gonzalo Pizarro. It was
 deemed convenient that there should be a Spanish settlement between
 Cuzco and the rich silver-yielding province of Charcas, and thus the
 building of the city of La Paz was commenced. It is now one of the
 principal towns in the modern Republic of Bolivia.

 [506] It is now known as the city of Chuquisaca, or Sucre, and is the
 capital of the republic of Bolivia.

 [507] Pedro de Hinojosa is first heard of as fighting bravely against
 Almagro the younger, in the battle of Chupas. He afterwards joined the
 fortunes of Gonzalo Pizarro, and that ill-fated chief entrusted him
 with the command of Panama and of the fleet. On the arrival of the
 president Gasca from Spain, Hinojosa, after some months of hesitation,
 betrayed his trust, and handed over the fleet to the wily ecclesiastic
 on November 19th, 1546. He was rewarded by being appointed Gasca’s
 general by land and sea, and commanded the troops at the final
 overthrow of his old commander on the plain of Xaquixaguana. Gasca
 granted Gonzalo Pizarro’s valuable estates and mines in Charcas to
 Hinojosa. He was also appointed corregidor of Charcas, where he was
 assassinated two years afterwards in a mutiny headed by Sebastian de
 Castilla.

 [508] Before the defeat and death of the viceroy Blasco Nuñez de Vela,
 near Quito in January 1546, Gonzalo Pizarro had sent his lieutenant
 Carbajal to reduce the province of Charcas, and put down a revolt
 headed by Diego Centeno and Lope de Mendoza. Centeno fled, closely
 pursued by Carbajal, and hid himself in a cave somewhere near Arequipa
 for eight months. The aged veteran Francisco de Carbajal, having run
 this fox to earth, then marched into Charcas, and captured Lope de
 Mendoza and Nicolas de Heredia, both of whom he hung. Carbajal sent
 the heads of his victims to Arequipa, while he busied himself in
 collecting silver from the rich mines of Potosi, to supply the needs
 of his commander.

 [509] The ancient Peruvians knew of gold, silver, copper, tin, and
 quicksilver. They took the silver from mines which were not very
 deep, abandoning them as soon as the hardness of the ore offered a
 resistance sufficient to withstand their imperfect tools. They not
 only knew native silver, but also its chemical combinations, such as
 the sulphate, antimonial silver, etc. They also knew how to extract
 the pure metal from these compounds by fusion, or in portable stoves.

 [510] The gold mines of Tipuani, to the eastward of the Andes of
 Bolivia, are the richest in South America. See an account of the
 method of working them in Bonelli’s _Travels in Bolivia_, i, p. 268.

 [511] The licentiate Polo de Ondegardo was appointed corregidor of
 Charcas by the president Gasca, and subsequently of Cuzco, where he
 remained for several years. He was the author of two _Relaciones_, or
 reports to the government, the first addressed to the viceroy Marquis
 of Cañete in 1561, and the second to the Count of Nieva. They contain
 an account of the laws, habits, religion, and policy of the Yncas.
 Unfortunately these valuable documents have never been printed, and
 Mr. Prescott obtained copies both of them and of the equally important
 manuscript of Sarmiento from Lord Kingsborough’s collection, through
 the agency of Mr. Rich. Their publication would be a great boon to the
 student of ancient South American civilisation. See _Prescott’s Peru_,
 i, p. 162, etc.

 [512] A _castellano_ was worth about £2 12s 6d. of our money.

 [513] Acosta says that in his time there were four principal veins of
 silver on the hill of Potosi, called _La Rica_, _Centeno_, _Estaño_
 (tin), and _Mendieta_. They were all on the east side, and ran in a
 north and south direction. There were many other smaller veins which
 branch off from these four, and in each vein there were several
 mines. In _La Rica_ there were seventy-eight mines, which were very
 deep; and to remedy the evils caused by their great depth, horizontal
 excavations, called _socabones_, were made in the sides of the
 hill, and continued until they met the veins. The mines of Potosi
 were discovered by an Indian named Hualpa, a native of Chumbivilica
 near Cuzco. He was climbing up a steep part of the hill in chase of
 deer, and helping his ascent by catching hold of the _queñua_ shrubs
 (_Polylepis tomentella_, Wedd.) which grow there. One of the shrubs
 came up by the roots, and disclosed a quantity of native silver, which
 was the commencement of the vein called _La Rica_. He secretly worked
 the vein himself for some time, but eventually disclosed the secret
 to a native of Xauxa, who told his master, a Spaniard of Porco, named
 Villaroel, and the latter began to work the vein in April 1545. The
 three other principal veins were discovered between April and August
 of the same year. People soon flocked from all parts to seek their
 fortunes at the hill of Potosi. _Acosta_, lib. iv, cap. 6, 7, 8.

 [514] _Huayra_ is “wind” or “air” in Quichua.

 [515] Acosta tells us that, when he wrote in 1608, most of the
 silver was extracted from the ore by means of quicksilver. Formerly,
 however, he says that there were more than six thousand _huayras_
 on the sides and summit of the hill of Potosi. “The _huayras_ were
 small ovens in which the metal was melted, and to see them burning at
 night with a red heat, and throwing their light to a distance, was a
 pleasant spectacle. At present if the number of _huayras_ reaches to
 one thousand or two thousand, it is the outside, because the melting
 is done on a small scale, nearly all the metal being extracted by
 quicksilver.” _Acosta_, lib. iv, cap. 9, p. 218.

 The hill of Potosi is in 21° 40´ S. lat., and seventeen thousand feet
 above the level of the sea. The name is said to be derived from the
 Aymara word _Potocsi_ (“he who makes a noise”), because, when Huayna
 Ccapac in 1462 ordered search to be made for a silver mine on the
 hill, a terrible voice cried out from underground that the riches it
 contained were reserved for other masters. _G. de la Vega._

 Zarate says, that in a short time after the discovery of the silver,
 seven thousand Indians were at work, who had to give two marcs of
 silver to their masters every week, which they did with such ease,
 that they retained more silver for themselves than they paid to their
 employers. _Historia del Peru_, lib. vi, cap. 4.

 In 1563 Potosi was constituted a town, and was granted a coat of
 arms by Philip II; and in 1572 the viceroy Don Francisco de Toledo
 went in person to this great seat of mining wealth, and established
 regulations for its government. This viceroy also introduced the use
 of quicksilver, a mine of which had been discovered at Huancavelica,
 by a Portuguese named Enrique Garces, in 1566. Toledo also regulated
 and legalised the atrocious system of _mitas_, or forced labour in
 the mines. He caused a census to be taken of Indians in Peru, between
 the ages of eighteen and fifty, the result of which gave a total of
 1,677,697 men liable for service, who were divided into 614 _ayllus_
 or lineages. Of these he assigned a seventh part of those living in
 the seventeen nearest provinces, or 11,199 Indians, to work at the
 mines of Potosi, under certain rules for their protection, which
 were generally evaded. According to Toledo’s law, each _Mitayo_, or
 forced labourer, would only have to serve for eighteen months during
 the thirty-two years that he was liable. They were to receive twenty
 rials a week, and half a rial for every league of distance between
 their native village and Potosi. In 1611 there was a population of
 one hundred and sixty thousand inhabitants in the town of Potosi, of
 whom seventy-six thousand were Indians, three thousand Spaniards,
 thirty-five thousand Creoles, forty thousand Europeans, and six
 thousand Negroes and Mulattoes. The riches accumulated by individuals
 were enormous, and a man named Sinteros, “the rich,” who died in 1650,
 was worth twenty million dollars. _Mercurio Peruano._

 In 1825 there were about five thousand mouths of mines on the
 mountain, of which only fifty or sixty were then worked. The upper
 portion of the mountain, indeed, was so completely honeycombed,
 that it was considered as nearly worked out. The lower part, about
 one-third of the cone, was then hardly touched, in consequence of the
 number of springs which impede the working.

 [516] _Yana_, in Quichua, is a “companion,” and also a “servant.” The
 word also means “black.” _Cuna_ is a particle denoting the plural
 number. The _Yana-cuna_ were a class of Indians forced to labour as
 domestic servants, but with the power to choose their masters.

 [517] “The domestic animals,” says Padre Blas Valera, “which God has
 given to these Indians of Peru, are bland and gentle, like their
 masters, so that a child can lead them where he likes. There are
 two kinds, one larger than the other. The Indians call the animals
 _llamas_, and their shepherds _llama-michec_. They are of all colours,
 like the horses of Spain, when domesticated, but the wild kind, called
 _huanacus_, have only one colour, which is a washed-out chestnut.
 The _llama_ stands as high as a deer of Spain, but no animal does it
 resemble more than a camel without a hump, and a third part of the
 size. The neck of the _llama_ is long and smooth. The Indians used the
 skin, softened with grease, as soles for their sandals, but, as they
 had not the art of tanning, they took them off in crossing brooks or
 in rainy weather. The Spaniards make very good reins of it for their
 horses. The skin is also used for girths and cruppers of saddles, and
 for whips. Besides this, the animals are useful to both Indians and
 Spaniards as beasts of burden, to carry merchandise whithersoever they
 list, but they are generally used on the road from Cuzco to Potosi,
 a distance of near two hundred leagues. They carry three or four
 _arrobas_” (75 or 100 lbs.) “weight, and only make journeys of three
 leagues a day. When they are tired they lie down, and nothing will
 induce them to stir, for if any one tries to force them to rise, they
 spit in his face. They have no other means of defending themselves,
 having no horns like a stag. That they may not be easily tired, some
 forty or fifty unladen animals accompany the drove, that they may take
 their turn with the burdens. Their flesh is the best in the world;
 it is tender, wholesome, and savoury. The doctors order the flesh of
 their lambs of four or five months, for sick persons, in preference to
 chickens.

 “The Yncas possessed enormous flocks of _llamas_ of all colours, and
 each colour had a special name. The flocks were divided according to
 their colours, and if a lamb was born of a different colour from its
 parents, it was passed into the flock of its own colour. The _Quipus_
 had knots for each flock, according to the colour, and thus an account
 of their number was easily kept.

 “There is another domestic kind, called _Paco_. The _Pacos_ are not
 reared for carrying burdens, but for the sake of their flesh, and
 for their wool, which is excellent and very long. The Indians make
 very fine cloths of it, dotted with rich colours. The Indians do not
 use the milk of either of the kinds, nor do they make cheese of it.
 Indeed, they only have sufficient to nourish their lambs, and the
 Indians call the milk, the udder, and the act of sucking, by the same
 word _nuñu_.

 “The wild kind was called _huanacu_, and these _huanacus_ are of the
 same size and form as the llamas. Their flesh is good, though not so
 good as that of the domesticated llama. The males always remain on
 lofty heights, while the females come down into the plains to feed,
 and when the males see any one coming, they bleat like the neighing of
 a horse, to warn the females, and they gallop away with the females
 in front. Their wool is short and rough, yet it was also used by the
 Indians for their cloths. There is another wild kind called _vicuña_,
 a delicate animal with plenty of fine wool. The _vicuña_ stands higher
 than a goat, and the colour of its wool is a clear chestnut. They are
 so fleet that no dog can overtake them, and frequent the loftiest
 fastnesses near the line of snow.” _G. de la Vega_, i, lib. viii,
 caps. 16 and 17.

 “Among the notable things possessed by the Indians of Peru,” says
 Acosta, “are the _vicuñas_ and _llamas_. These llamas are tame and
 very useful; the vicuñas are wild. The vicuñas live in the loftiest
 and most uninhabited parts of the mountains, which are called _punas_.
 Snow and frost do not harm them, and they run very swiftly. They are
 not very prolific, and the Yncas therefore prohibited the hunting of
 these animals, except on special occasions. Their wool is like silk
 and very durable, and, as the colour is natural and not a dye, it
 lasts for ever. Acosta also says that vicuña flesh is excellent for
 sore eyes.

 “The domestic flocks are of two kinds, one small, and called _pacos_,
 the others with less wool, and useful as beasts of burden, called
 llamas. The llamas have long necks like those of camels, and this
 is necessary to enable them to browse, as they stand high on their
 legs. They are of various colours, some white all over, others black
 all over, others grey, others black and white, which they call
 _moro-moro_. For sacrifices the Indians were very particular to
 select the proper colour, according to the season or occasion. The
 Indians make cloth from the wool, a coarse sort called _auasca_, and
 a fine sort called _ccompi_. Of this _ccompi_ they make table cloths,
 napkins, and other cloths very skilfully worked, which have a lustre
 like silk. In the time of the Yncas the principal _ccompi_ workers
 lived at Capachica, near the lake of Titicaca. They use dyes which are
 gathered from various plants.

 “The llamas carry loads weighing from four to six arrobas (100 to 150
 lbs.), but do not go further than three, or at the most four leagues a
 day. They are all fond of a cold climate, and die when they are taken
 down into the warm valleys. They have a very pleasant look, for they
 will stop in the road and watch a person very attentively for some
 time without moving, with their necks raised up, so that it causes
 laughter to see their serenity; but sometimes they suddenly take
 fright and run off to inaccessible places with their loads.” _Acosta_,
 lib. iv, cap. 41, p. 293.

 The llama measures, from the sole of the hoof to the top of the head,
 4 feet 6 to 8 inches, and from the sole of the hoof to the shoulders 2
 feet 11 inches to 3 feet. The female is usually smaller, but her wool
 is finer and better. The young llamas are left with their dams for
 about a year. In Acosta’s time (1608) a llama was worth six or seven
 dollars, and in 1840 about from three to four dollars. The Indians are
 very fond of these animals. They adorn them by tying bows of ribbon to
 their ears, and, before loading, they always fondle and caress them
 affectionately. See _Von Tschudi’s Travels_, pp. 307-14.

 The llama is invaluable to the Peruvian Indians, and Cieza de Leon
 truly says that without this useful animal they could scarcely exist.
 Their food is llama flesh, which may be preserved for a long time in
 the form of _charqui_ or smoke-dried meat, their clothing is made from
 llama wool, all the leather they use is from llama hides, the only
 fuel they have in many parts of the Collao is llama dung, and, while
 living, the llama is their beast of burden.

 [518] The molle tree (_Schinus Molle_: Lin.) is well known in the
 countries bordering on the Mediterranean, and Mrs. Clements Markham
 introduced it into the Neilgherry hills in Southern India in 1861. It
 is the commonest tree in some parts of the Andes, especially in the
 valleys of Xauxa, Guamanga, Andahuaylas, Abancay, and the Vilcamayu,
 and in the _campiña_ of Arequipa; where its graceful foliage and
 bunches of red berries overshadow the roads.

 Acosta says that the molle tree possesses rare virtues, and that the
 Indians make a wine of the small twigs (lib. iv, cap. 30). Garcilasso
 de la Vega describes it as forming its fruit in large bunches. “The
 fruits are small round grains like coriander seeds, the leaves are
 small and always green. When ripe the berry has a slightly sweet taste
 on the surface, but the rest is very bitter. They make a beverage of
 the berries by gently rubbing them in the hand, in warm water, until
 all their sweetness has come out, without any of the bitter. The water
 is then allowed to stand for three or four days, and it makes a very
 pleasant and healing drink. When mixed with _chicha_ it improves the
 flavour. The same water boiled until it is curdled, forms treacle,
 and when put in the sun it becomes vinegar. The resin of the molle is
 very efficacious in curing wounds, and for strengthening the gums. The
 leaves boiled in water also have healing virtues. I remember when the
 valley of Yucay was adorned with great numbers of these useful trees,
 and in a few years afterwards there were scarcely any; for they had
 all been used to make charcoal.” _Comm. Real._, i, lib. viii, cap. 12,
 p. 280.

 The resin of the molle is a substance like mastick, and the Peruvians
 still use it for strengthening their gums.

 [519] The _Collahuayas_, or itinerant native doctors of Peru, still
 carry about a vast number of herbs and roots, which are supposed to
 cure all diseases.

 [520] Buenaventura.

 [521] See p. 26.

 [522] The best known hot medicinal springs in Peru are those near
 Caxamarca (129.7° Fahr.), those at Laris, in the mountains overhanging
 the valley of the Vilcamayu, and those at Yura, near Arequipa.

 Great attention was paid by the Yncas to the formation of their baths,
 called _armana_ in Quichua. The springs (_puquio_), or hot springs
 (_ccoñic puquio_), were carefully paved with a mixture of small stones
 and a species of bitumen, and over them was arranged the figure of an
 animal, bird, or serpent in marble, basalt, or even gold or silver,
 which threw water from the mouth, either perpendicularly into the
 air, when the jet was called _huraca_, or horizontally, when it was
 called _paccha_. The flowing water was conducted through a pipe of
 metal or stone into jars of sculptured stone. The baths had small
 dressing-rooms attached, which were ornamented with statues in stone
 and metal. _Antiguedades Peruanas_, p. 238.

 [523] Wheat was introduced into Peru by a lady named Maria de Escobar,
 wife of Don Diego de Chaves, a native of Truxillo; and one of those
 noble knights who raised their voices against the murder of the Ynca
 Atahualpa. She first sowed it in the valley of the Rimac, but there
 were so few seeds to begin with, that three years elapsed before any
 wheaten bread was made.

 [524] Garcilasso says he does not know who introduced the barley, but
 thinks it probable that a few grains may have come with the wheat.
 _Comm. Real._, i, lib. ix, cap. 24.

 [525] Olive trees from Seville were introduced into Peru in 1560, by
 Don Antonio de Ribera, a citizen of Lima, ten years after Cieza de
 Leon left the country. Ribera brought more than a hundred young plants
 out very carefully in two jars, but, as might have been expected,
 there were only three alive when he reached Lima, and he was very
 fortunate in preserving any. He planted them in a fruit garden near
 Lima, and stationed an army consisting of a hundred negroes and
 thirty dogs, to guard and watch over them night and day. In spite of
 all this care, one of the three plants was stolen and carried off
 to Chile, where it yielded many cuttings, which eventually formed
 flourishing plantations. At the end of three years the same olive tree
 was secretly planted again in Ribera’s garden, and he was never able
 to discover who had stolen it, nor who had restored it. There are now
 several olive plantations in the coast valleys of Peru, especially at
 Tambo, near Aiequipa, where there are five thousand olive trees and
 seven mills. _G. de la Vega._

 [526] This excellent suggestion, which Cieza de Leon made more than
 three hundred years ago, has never been adopted by the indolent
 Peruvians. I am convinced that plantations, not perhaps of oak, but
 of larch, fir, and birch, might be successfully formed in the more
 sheltered ravines of the Collao, and of other treeless parts of the
 Andes, for the supply of timber and fuel. The winters, from May to
 September, are not nearly so cold as in Scotland, though very dry;
 and during the rainy season, though it is cold, there is plenty of
 moisture. The introduction of these plantations would change the whole
 face of the country, and the introducer would confer an inestimable
 blessing on the inhabitants.

 [527] This nasty animal is called _añas_ in Quichua.

 [528] Called _Suri_ in Quichua. (_Rhea Americana_ L.)

 [529] The _Huis-cacha_ (_Lagidium Peruvianum_ May) is a large rodent
 very common in the Andes, and frequenting rocky ridges. It has a long
 bushy tail. In the morning and evening it creeps out from amongst its
 rocks to nibble the alpine grass.

 [530] One called _chuy_ in Quichua; the other _yutu_.

 [531] He here alludes to the turkey buzzards, or _gallinazos_, obscene
 vultures, which act as scavengers in the streets of Lima and other
 coast towns, but are unknown in the mountains. The Quichua word for
 them is _suyuntuy_. _Aura_ is the word used in Mexico.

 [532] The ancient Peruvian silversmiths knew how to melt the metal, to
 cast it in moulds, to solder it, and to hammer it. For melting they
 used small ovens, with tubes of copper through which the air passed.
 The moulds were made of a clay mixed with gypsum, and the moulded
 figures were finished off with a chisel. They hammered out figures on
 the sides of open vases with wonderful skill, and soldered the parts
 with great art, after burnishing so that the points of junction can
 scarcely be discerned. They supplied the place of gilding by fastening
 very thin leaves of gold or silver to copper, timber, and even stone.
 They also extracted fine threads from the precious metal, and wove
 them into cloths. Unfortunately, all their best works were either
 destroyed by the covetous Spaniards, or concealed by the Indians
 themselves at the time of the conquest. Zarate mentions four llamas
 and ten statues of women, of the natural size, of the finest gold, as
 having been found at Xauxa; and all the ancient writers agree in their
 accounts of the vast number and great merit of the gold and silver
 ornaments of the Yncas.

 The ancient pottery of Peru is very remarkable. The Indians imitated
 every quadruped, bird, fish, shell, plant, fruit, besides heads of
 men and women. All these varied forms were moulded in clay, and the
 vessels thus made were used as sacred urns to be buried with the
 dead, or for sacrificial purposes. Those for domestic uses were more
 simple. The material made use of was coloured clay and blackish earth,
 and the vessels do not appear to have been burnt, but dried in the
 sun. Many of these vessels are double, others quadruple, and even
 octuple, the principal vessel being surrounded by smaller appendages,
 which communicate with each other and with the principal vessel. When
 the double ones were filled with water, the air escaped through the
 opening left for that purpose, and produced sounds, which imitated
 the voice of the animal represented by the principal vessel. Thus, in
 a vessel representing a cat, when water is poured in, a sound like
 mewing is produced, and another gives out a sound like the whistling
 of a bird, the form of which is moulded on the handle. See some very
 interesting remarks on ancient Peruvian pottery, in Professor Wilson’s
 work. _Prehistoric Man_, i, p. 110.

 [533] Small beads. See note at page 176.

 [534] The Peruvians wove cotton and woollen cloths with great skill,
 and there are a great number of words connected with weaving in the
 Quichua language, such as _ahuana_ (loom), _ahuay_ (woof), _comana_
 (a wooden batten used in weaving), etc. They also knew the secret of
 fixing the dyes of all colours--flesh colour, yellow, gray, blue,
 green, black--so firmly that they never fade after the lapse of ages,
 and all their dyes were extracted from vegetables. They ornamented
 their textures by sewing leaves of gold or silver, mother-of-pearl,
 and feathers on them; and they also made fringes, laces, and tassels
 of wool and cotton, to adorn carpets and tapestries.

 [535] The people included within the empire of Yncas are comprised
 by D’Orbigny in his Ando-Peruvian race, which he divides into three
 branches, namely the Peruvian, Antisian, and Araucanian. The Peruvian
 branch is subdivided by him into four nations, namely the Quichua,
 Aymara, Atacama, and Chango. This Peruvian branch is characterised by
 a rich brown olive colour, middling height (1 mètre 597 millimètres),
 massive form, trunk very long in comparison with the whole height,
 forehead receding, face large and oval, nose long, very aquiline, and
 full at the base, mouth large, eyes horizontal, cornea yellowish,
 ball not jutting out: character serious, thoughtful, and sad. The
 height of the pure Quichua Indians varies from 4 feet 9 inches to 5
 feet 3 inches. Their shoulders are very broad, and square; breast
 excessively voluminous, and longer than ordinary, so as to increase
 the length of the trunk. The arms and feet are always small. The
 head is oblong, forehead slightly receding, but the cranium is
 nevertheless voluminous, and indicates a well developed brain. The
 face is generally large, and nearer a circle than an oval. The nose is
 long and very aquiline, nostrils large and open. The lips are thick
 and the mouth large, but the teeth are always good. The chin is short
 but not receding. The cheeks are somewhat high. The eyes are always
 horizontal, the cornea yellowish, the eyebrows much arched, and the
 hair black, long, and very straight. They have no beard beyond a few
 straggling hairs, appearing late in life.

 Such were the main characteristics of nearly all the tribes which
 formed the empire of the Yncas. These tribes were, as mentioned by
 Cieza de Leon, the Quichuas, Collas or Aymaras, Canas and Canches,
 Chancas, Huancas, Yuncas, Antis, Chachapuyas, and Cañaris. It is
 generally found that a vast number of languages exist in a mountainous
 country, and the Caucasus offers a striking example of this rule;
 to which the Andes was no exception, for Cieza de Leon assures us
 that nearly every village originally had a language of its own. But
 the dominant tribe of the Quichuas, with its civilised rule and
 astute policy, had gradually superseded all the other dialects by
 their own language--the richest and most copious to be found in the
 whole American group of tongues. Thus at the time of the conquest
 the Quichua was alone spoken throughout the empire of the Yncas,
 and we now have but few scattered remnants of any other language on
 the plateaux of the Andes, except the Aymara. The vocabulary of a
 Chinchay-suyu dialect, spoken in the north of Peru, as given by Torres
 Rubio, differs little, if at all, from the Quichua, and the same
 remark applies to the Quito dialect. I am of opinion that the whole of
 the ancient tribes mentioned above, were essentially members of one
 and the same race.

 D’Orbigny says of the Quichua or Ynca Indians that their character
 is gentle, hospitable, and obedient. They are good fathers, good
 husbands, sociable or rather gregarious, always living together in
 villages, taciturn, patient, and industrious. (_L’Homme Américain_, i,
 p. 255). I have myself seen much of these interesting people, and have
 found them to be intelligent, patient, obedient, loving amongst each
 other, and particularly kind to animals. They are brave and enduring.
 I was in the dense untrodden forests with four of these Indians for
 many days, and they proved to be willing, hard working, intelligent,
 good humoured, efficient, and companionable. Of the higher qualities
 of this race, their copious language; plaintive songs; superb works of
 art in gold, silver, stone, and clay; beautiful fabrics; stupendous
 architecture; enlightened laws; and marvellous civilisation in the
 days of the Yncas; are sufficient proof.

 [536] See p. 82.

 [537] The family of Quiñones is still the principal one in Azangaro;
 and the enlightened and liberal Don Luis Quiñones, late a member of
 Congress, was my host during my stay in that interesting town.

 [538] This is a very curious account of the ceremony at harvest time,
 in use among the ancient inhabitants of the Collao.

 [539] _Umu_ is the correct word for priest in Quichua, and
 _huillac-umu_ for high priest. _Huaca-camayoc_ was a person having
 charge of the _huacas_, or tombs and holy places.

 [540] This is the Mexican name for turkey buzzards.

 [541] All this sounds very like a spirit-rapping and table-turning
 piece of business.

 [542]

    “Pues Señor Gobernador
      Mirelo bien por entero
     Que allá va el Recogedor
      Y acá queda el Carnicero.”

 The above is Mr. Prescott’s version of these famous lines. Mr. Helps
 translates them thus:--

    “My good lord Governor,
      Have pity on our woes;
     For here remains the butcher,
      To Panama the salesman goes.”


 [543] Of the famous thirteen only four ever appear again in the
 history of the times. These are Pedro de Candia (see note, p. 193);
 Juan de la Torre (see note, p. 221); Nicholas de Ribera, who is
 mentioned as having deserted from Gonzalo Pizarro to Gasca, as having
 been afterwards appointed captain of the guard of the royal seal
 by the Royal Audience of Lima in 1554, and as having lived quietly
 on a _repartimiento_ granted to him near Cuzco, and left children
 to inherit it; and Alonzo de Molina. When Pizarro finally left the
 desert island, and continued his voyage of discovery, he first
 touched at Tumbez, on the northern boundary of Peru, and then sailed
 some distance down the coast. Alonzo de Molina was sent on shore at
 one place, and, the sea running high, he was left there until the
 return of the ship. The natives treated him with great kindness, and
 when Pizarro’s ship came back, three more of the thirteen, Nicolas
 de Ribera, Francisco de Cuellar, and Pedro Alcon were sent ashore,
 the latter being very gaily dressed. This Alcon fell madly in love
 with an Indian lady at first sight, and was so furious at not being
 allowed to stay behind, that he drew his sword on his own shipmates,
 and the pilot Ruiz was obliged to knock him down with an oar. He was
 afterwards kept chained on the lower deck. When Pizarro finally sailed
 for Panama again, on his way to Spain, Alonzo de Molina was allowed
 to remain behind at Tumbez until the Spaniards should come back,
 the Indians promising to use him well. But he died before Pizarro
 returned, and the Indians gave various conflicting accounts of the
 manner of his death. _Herrera_, dec. iii, lib. iii, cap. 3, and lib.
 iv, cap. 1.

 The most authentic and only complete list of the thirteen is given
 by Prescott, from a manuscript copy of “the Capitulation made by
 Pizarro with Queen Juana on July 26th, 1529,” which he obtained from
 Navarrete. The original is at Seville. In this document all those,
 among the thirteen, who were not already hidalgos, were created so.

 Gomara gives the names of two, the pilot Ruiz, and Pedro de Candia.
 Zarate adds seven more, one of whom is not in the “Capitulation.”
 Garcilasso de la Vega copies from Zarate, but adds that there were two
 whose names were Ribera, and that he knew them both afterwards. There
 is only one in the “Capitulation.”

 The list in the “Capitulation,” supplied by Pizarro himself, must of
 course have been the correct one: it is as follows:--

  Bartolome Ruiz (the pilot).
  Cristoval de Peralta.
  Pedro de Candia.
  Domingo de Soria Luce.
  Nicolas de Ribera.
  Francisco de Cuellar.
  Alonzo de Molina.
  Pedro Alcon.
  Garcia de Jerez.
  Anton de Carrion.
  Alonzo Briceño.
  Martin de Paz.
  Juan de la Torre.

 The name added by Zarate is that of Alonzo de Truxillo; but he may
 have been one of the two Alonzos of the “Capitulation;” Zarate giving
 his birth place of Truxillo, instead of his surname. Garcia de Jerez
 (or de Jaren), another of the thirteen, seems to have given evidence
 before a judge respecting this transaction in 1529, which has been
 preserved (_Doc. Ined._, tom. 26, p. 260), and is quoted by Mr.
 Helps (iii, p. 446, _note_). He says:--“Pizarro being in the island
 of Gallo, the governor Rios sent for the men who were with the said
 captain, allowing any one who should wish to prosecute the enterprise
 to remain with him.”

 This story respecting Pizarro, who, when his people were suffering
 from the extremities of famine and hardship, and when a ship had
 arrived to take them back to Panama, drew a line, and called upon
 those who preferred toil and hunger to ease and pleasure, to cross it
 and remain with him, is certainly one of the most heart-stirring in
 the history of Spanish conquest in America. Robertson gives the story
 on the authority of Herrera, Zarate, Xerez, and Gomara. Prescott adds
 the speech imputed to Pizarro, from Montesinos, a very unreliable
 source; and Helps gives the account according to Herrera’s version,
 which no doubt is very near the truth. The conduct of these thirteen
 brave men shows the spirit which animated the Spaniards of that age,
 and the dauntless act itself, in its simple grandeur, certainly
 derives no additional glory from the melodramatic speeches which have
 been put into Pizarro’s mouth by later chroniclers.

 [544] See note at page 47.

 [545] See page 79 and note.

 [546] See page 110, note.

 [547] See note at page 300.

 [548] This warlike prelate was in the battle of Huarina, fighting on
 the side of Centeno, and narrowly escaped with his life; for if grim
 old Carbajal had caught him, he would assuredly have been hanged.
 Solano succeeded Valverde in the bishopric of Cuzco in 1545, and died
 in 1562.

 [549] Guamanga was detached from Cuzco, and erected into a separate
 bishopric by a Bull of Pope Paul V, dated July 20th, 1609. The first
 bishop was installed in 1615; since which time there have been
 twenty-five bishops of Guamanga.

 [550] See note at page 227.

 [551] Plata (Chuquisaca), Truxillo, and Chachapoyas afterwards became
 the seats of distinct bishoprics.

 [552] Previously viceroy of Mexico. He died at Lima in 1555. He was a
 son of Inigo Lopez de Mendoza, second Count of Tendilla and Marquis of
 Mondejar, who was ambassador to Rome in the time of Innocent VIII.

 [553] The church of La Merced in Cuzco has a cloister, which is the
 finest specimen of architecture in Peru dating from Spanish times,
 and, I should think, in all South America. Here the Almagros, father
 and son, and Gonzalo Pizarro were buried.

 [554] All the monasteries in Guamanga have been suppressed.

 [555] This is by far the largest monastery in Lima.

 [556] The tower of San Domingo is the loftiest in Lima, being 180 feet
 high. The church contains a rich silver-cased altar to Santa Rosa, the
 patron saint of Lima.

       *       *       *       *       *

Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber:

disappoined courtiers=> disappointed courtiers {pg ii}

Descubrimiento de la Neuva Granada=> Descubrimiento de la Nueva Granada
{pg vii fn 7}

palms of the _Pixiuaes_=> palms of the _Pixiuares_ {pg 73}

The porvince round Popayan=> The province round Popayan {pg 118}

sumptuous buildings of Cavangue=> sumptuous buildings of Carangue {pg
133}

which, in our languege=> which, in our language {pg 133}

between the two camps at early down=> between the two camps at early
dawn {pg 158 fn 284}

marquis Don Fracisco Pizarro=> marquis Don Francisco Pizarro {pg 186}

of this punisnment=> of this punishment {pg 190}

were there are vast territories=> where there are vast territories {pg
204}

during most part of the year=> during most parts of the year {pg 303}

who try to foretel=> who try to foretell {pg 312}

The Indians of Andehuaylas=> The Indians of Andahuaylas {pg 317 fn 438}

Many deep excations have been made=> Many deep excavations have been
made {pg 324}

about two feet by one a-half=> about two feet by one and a-half {pg 328
fn 454}

got much gold from Paccari-tambo=> got much gold from Paccari-tambu {pg
335}

To the _paráná-merím_ of Sapiá.=> To the _paraná-merím_ of Sapiá. {pg
344}

Toledo (Garcia Gutierrèz do), discovery of treasure by, 243 _note_=>
Toledo (Garcia Gutierrez de), discovery of treasure by, 243 _note_ {pg
437}