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  THREE HUNDRED THINGS
  A
  BRIGHT BOY CAN DO

  BY
  MANY HANDS

  FULLY ILLUSTRATED

  LONDON
  SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON & CO., LTD.
  1914




CONTENTS


  CHAPTER                                                    PAGE

  I. IN TRAINING                                                1

  II. HOW TO BECOME A GYMNAST                                   7

  III. WALKING, RUNNING, AND JUMPING                           22

  IV. HOCKEY AND INDIAN CLUBS                                  26

  V. SWIMMING, ROWING, AND WATER POLO                          42

  VI. PAPERCHASING, FOOTBALL, GOLF, AND BOXING                 48

  VII. ON THE ICE                                              57

  VIII. ANGLING                                                67

  IX. CANOES AND YACHTS                                        84

  X. COOKING IN CAMP                                          112

  XI. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS                                   117

  XII. HINTS ON AQUARIUMS                                     131

  XIII. IN THE PLAYING FIELDS                                 138

  XIV. THE GARDEN                                             150

  XV. THE BOY AS ARTIST                                       157

  XVI. VENTRILOQUISM AND POLYPHONY                            191

  XVII. THE BOY AS MAGICIAN                                   208

  XVIII. PETS                                                 228

  XIX. THINGS BOYS CAN MAKE                                   255

  XX. FIRESIDE AMUSEMENTS                                     273

  XXI. WORK AND PLAY AT THE BENCH                             350

  XXII. SCIENCE FOR THE PLAY-HOUR                             365

  XXIII. HOME-MADE TOYS                                       389

  XXIV. CONCERNING MANY THINGS                                416




PREFACE


The Editor hopes that this volume will be the means of inspiring boys
to adopt some hobby and to follow it diligently. At any rate he has
arranged that they shall be able to have a wide choice of occupations,
and shall begin with expert assistance. Too many youths fall into mere
aimless dawdling, and waste the golden years of their life loafing
about smoking cigarettes, watching others play, chattering endlessly
about games, but never engaging in them. Though this book is written
for the boy's play hour, it will not be without value in aiding him
upon the sterner side of his career, if it shows him how to train hand
and eye, how to strengthen his will and muscles, and if it inculcates
patience, exactitude, and perseverance.




THREE HUNDRED THINGS A BRIGHT BOY CAN DO




CHAPTER I

IN TRAINING


There are few things about which so many mistaken notions exist as
about training. There are several reasons for this, but most of the
erroneous ideas may be traced back to the days when professional
pugilists and runners were the only men who ever entered on any
athletic exercise with any sort of organised preparation. For them
a severe course of training was possibly a necessity. They were for
the most part men well advanced in years and naturally fleshy; and
to achieve the feats which they accomplished they no doubt found it
necessary to reduce their weight, and for this purpose to take a great
deal of exercise and to avoid all food tending to the formation of
flesh; but for the average school-boy who plays football or fives,
or goes paper-chasing, or, in fact, takes the ordinary amount of
boy's exercise, training, as it is generally misunderstood, is quite
unnecessary, even if not harmful. He has no superfluous fat of which
to rid himself, so any sweating which he may do only weakens him and
renders him liable to cold. His lungs are in proper order and therefore
his wind is good, and so there is no need for him to deprive himself
of vegetables or his favourite pies or puddings. All he wants is to
lead a healthy active life, and to do a fair amount of practice in the
particular branch of athletics in which he hopes to excel.

If a boy be accustomed to walk to and from school, or even a part of
the way, or to take his place regularly in the school games, he will
already be in proper condition of wind and limb. He will now only
require to develop the muscles which, in his contests, he will find it
most necessary to use. These vary in nearly every branch of athletics;
so his practice must be specially directed to the races or events in
which he intends to take part. Now this practice is often as much
overdone as in the old days the dieting and sweating used to be. I
remember that when I was at school and training for a mile race, I was
seldom content unless I had run two or three miles each day. Since then
I have found out the error of my ways. The result of my long practice
run was that when the day came for the sports I was much over-trained,
and in the state usually described as "stale." I could have pounded
along for miles, but I was as slow as the proverbial cart-horse, and
when it came to hard racing I was beaten by boys who had practised less
persistently than I had, and whose limbs and muscles were therefore
lissom and pliant.

The exact amount of practice required depends a good deal on the
stamina and build of each particular boy. Big, muscular boys can
undergo far more work than lightly-strung ones of less robust
constitution; but it may be taken for granted as a general rule that
it is better to do too little than too much. Practice should never be
continued after one begins to feel tired; and if one is still feeling
the effects of the previous day's practice, it is always a good thing
to rest for a day from active work, and instead to take a good sharp
walk of four or five miles. When your muscles are stiff, as they are
bound to be at the beginning, never force them. Get them gradually
into working order, and never hesitate to rest entirely if you feel
disinclined for exercise.

Rest, in moderation, is always good, and for this reason I advise boys
of all ages who may be training, to make a point of going to bed early.
To get up early is another aid to leading a healthy life, but I would
especially warn my readers against taking any violent exercise before
breakfast. Have your bath, followed by a brisk rub down with a rough
towel; dress quickly, and then, if you like and can manage it, go out
into the open air for a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes. Put on
plenty of clothes, and eat either a biscuit or a piece of bread and
walk quietly about, breathing freely. In the same way never do any
practising immediately after a heavy meal. An interval of at least two
hours should elapse to allow of the digestion of food.

Remember that your one object in training is not to force your powers,
but to so increase and nurse them, that when the day for the sports
comes you will be able to do your very best without fear of hurting or
over-straining yourself.

Before entering for his school sports a boy must realise the important
fact that it is given only to a few to excel at everything. The
majority must be content to discover the branch of sport for which, by
their natural abilities, they are most suited, and then to practise
quietly and persistently so as to gain the best possible results.

School games and odd trials of skill will probably give the aspiring
athlete some idea of the direction in which he is better than, or as
good as, his fellows. In running races it is generally found that the
heavily and powerfully-built boy is best suited by short-distance
races, that is from a hundred yards to a quarter of a mile; but a long,
loosely-knit lad usually excels at distances from half a mile to a
mile. A short, sturdy boy, as a rule, develops into a long-distance
runner, but as events above a mile are generally excluded, and very
wisely too from the programmes of school sports, he has very little
chance of distinguishing himself until later years, when his frame is
set, and his heart and lungs are in a fit condition to withstand the
strain caused by prolonged contests.

The prime object of the boy who desires to train for short-distance
running should be to improve his speed. With this purpose in view, he
should practise running from thirty to fifty yards at a time--running
hard from the very beginning, and going at his fastest possible pace
the whole of the way. He should do this three or four times each day,
occasionally--that is, once or twice a week--running the full hundred
yards. Races of two hundred yards and a quarter of a mile in length
may be prepared for in just the same way, except that for the latter,
a practice-run should seldom exceed three hundred and fifty yards. A
quarter of a mile is a very fatiguing distance, and although it may be
run in practice at a moderate speed, it should not be taken at racing
pace, except in an actual race. In the intervals of training it is a
good plan to obtain the assistance of a friend, and practise starting.
In a short race so much depends on the start, that one who is able to
go right away directly the signal is given possesses a great advantage.

[Illustration: "HE SHOULD JUMP CLEANLY."]

The boy who intends to take part in the half-mile and mile races must
pursue a somewhat different method, but he also must make a point
of practising for speed. Most of his work must consist of running
a quarter of a mile, or six hundred yards, with an occasional spin
of half or three-quarters of a mile. The former distances must be
accomplished at almost top speed, but without quite exhausting oneself;
the latter must be taken at a regular, steady gait, bringing the legs
out well to the front, but not carrying the knees too high. One run a
day is quite sufficient, and perhaps once before the sports the full
mile may be run, but this should not be done within a week of the
eventful day.

Walking races are sometimes included in the sports' programme, the
distance usually being one mile. The best training for this is to walk
half a mile, or sometimes three-quarters, at one's best pace, taking
great care to be perfectly fair, to keep the head erect, and to avoid
all semblance of wriggle or shuffle.

For the hurdle race and steeplechase the beginner should practise
persistently over obstacles similar to the ones which are to be used on
the day, but never going the full distance, and occasionally running
fifty yards or so on the level with a view to an improvement in speed.

Of jumping competitions there are usually two kinds--the high jump and
the long jump, and much the same kind of advice applies to both. In
each instance practice should be daily, with an occasional rest for a
day, and taking great care to leave off always at the first symptom
of fatigue, coupled with the feeling that what has already been done
cannot be improved upon. In the high jump a beginning should be made at
a height well within reach, the jumper going gently and lightly over so
as to gradually extend the muscles. Then as he approaches the summit
of his powers, he should pull himself together so as to put full force
into each effort. He should jump cleanly, and start facing the bar. He
should avoid all contortions and straining of the body, and above all
things, refrain from the somewhat enticing-looking practice of jumping
from one side--a practice which I once heard described as "putting one
leg over the bar, and then going round and fetching the other." It
may pay up to a certain point, but after that point is reached it is
absolutely useless.

The best and most successful jumpers have been those who have depended
entirely on the spring from the hips. It is thence that all the power
is obtained. Byrd Page, the famous American jumper, who often cleared
6 ft., and once reached 6 ft. 4-1/4 ins., was a thorough believer in
the straightforward method. To show what persistent practice will do,
I may mention that when he was very young, his legs were so weak that
he was compelled to wear irons to support them. One day the doctor told
him to attend a gymnasium and practise jumping in order to strengthen
his limbs. He did so, with the result that his weakness was entirely
cured, and that he became, as well as an expert bicyclist, the most
famous jumper the world has ever seen.

To long jumping many of my previous remarks apply. In preparing for the
jump, too long a run should not be taken, and in making the spring, the
feet should be placed firmly together. The whole of one's force should
be put into each effort, and care should be taken to avoid making false
attempts. When once he has started, the jumper should make up his mind
to go right through. Both the jumper and the short-distance runner
will find that a few minutes' daily practice with a skipping rope will
greatly strengthen the legs and the fore part of the feet, on which
much of the strain is placed.

To all aspiring young athletes I would say: Be moderate, and take
care not to overdo it; lead healthy, active lives; and avoid stuffing
yourselves between meals with pastry and sweets.




CHAPTER II

HOW TO BECOME A GYMNAST


Much benefit can be derived from gymnastic appliances if they are
used understandingly. No advantage is to be gained by exercise that
is carried on in a careless manner. Neither too much nor too violent
exercise is beneficial, though constant and regular work is necessary.
It is better to work for a certain length of time every other day than
to devote all of one week to exercise, and not go near the gymnasium
the next.

To use any apparatus carelessly is to use it dangerously. The writer
has had many of his worst falls in doing some of the simplest tricks,
because he was careless, and did not put his entire mind upon what he
was doing. There is something besides and beyond the mere pleasure of
being able to perform tricks in a gymnasium; there is a lasting benefit
to be obtained in careful gymnastic exercise.

In beginning your exercises there are two points that you must bear in
mind always. Stand erect, and before beginning any work draw a long
deep breath. Breathe from the abdomen, so that the lower parts of the
lungs are expanded. You will find by following this simple advice
that anything you attempt will be much easier for you than if you go
about your exercises in a careless or slouchy way. There should be no
round-shouldered gymnasts. There is no one who has achieved distinction
as a gymnast who is not as straight as an arrow, and across whose
shoulder-blades a yardstick could not be placed without touching his
back.

In your exercises avoid devoting too much time to one kind of work.
Do not spend all your time, for instance, on the horizontal bar, or
on the parallel bars. What all would-be gymnasts should strive for is
a symmetrical development of their muscles. You do not want to have
legs like a piano, hard and knotted with muscles, and arms like pipe
stems. Nor do you want to have the arms and chest of a blacksmith, and
legs like those of a crane. You want to have all your muscles developed
alike, not one at the expense of another. To avoid this lop-sided
kind of growth is the reason that gymnasiums have such a variety of
appliances.

Now for the apparatus, and how it should be used. What boy, especially
if he has lived in the country, has not tried to climb a rope, or go
up a ladder hand over hand, and then, for the first time in his life,
realised how heavy he is? Perhaps no form of exercise develops so
quickly the upper arm and the chest as work on the rope and ladder in a
gymnasium. In practising on the ladder, first try to pull yourself up
until your chin is even with the rung. Keep at this exercise until you
can repeat it three or four times without tiring yourself; then try to
reach the rung above. Do not go up too far at first, for you may find
yourself many feet from the floor without strength enough to come back
as you went up. That, it is almost needless for me to remind you, means
a fall--and a hard one too it may be. The same advice applies to the
rope.

Almost as quick results may be obtained by practice with the
dumb-bells, with which it is possible to exercise almost every muscle
in the body. The dumb-bells should be light. Too heavy dumb-bells are
apt to make a boy slow and sluggish in his movements. The proper weight
for a beginner is half a pound, and under no circumstances should a boy
use for regular exercise bells that weigh more than two pounds. Indian
clubs are valuable, chiefly in strengthening the muscles of the arms
and wrists.

Exercises on the rings are divided into two classes--stationary and
swinging. In the former the rings are not swung. In the latter the
tricks are performed while swinging. There are two ways of grasping the
rings with the hands. In "single grip," the rings are clasped as a boy
grips his base-ball bat when he is ready to strike. It is used chiefly
in swinging tricks. In the "double-grip," the thumbs are kept close to
the palms, and the hands rest on and over the rings.

The first trick on the rings, and the one that must be mastered before
anything else is attempted, is the "breast-up." This consists in taking
a double-grip, and raising the body so that the chin is even with the
hands. The hands and wrists should be over the rings, and the elbows
straight out from the shoulder. Now, by leaning forward you necessarily
bring your hands under your armpits, and you find yourself in such a
position that you can push down on the rings and raise your body erect
by simply straightening your arms. You must not expect to be able
to do this the first time. It will take many efforts before you can
accomplish it. The best way to learn it is to hold your weight with one
hand, after you have raised your chin even with the rings, while you
practise pulling the other in and under your armpit. When a boy can do
this trick easily he will find that he has strength and skill enough to
learn the other feats, of which this is the foundation.

In horizontal bar exercises the "breast-up" is executed in the same
way, but it is seldom used in getting up on the bar. A much prettier
way is the trick called the "circle." This is done by clasping the bar
with the double-grip--which, by-the-way, is the only one used on the
bar--and raising your body as high as you can. If you can raise your
chin above the bar, all the better. Now raise your legs in front of
you as high as possible, and lift them over the bar, letting your head
drop back. This will bring your legs and body down on the other side.
If a boy can do this with a fortnight's hard practice, he is doing
remarkably well. In learning this trick lower the bar to the height
of the shoulder and start the "circle" with a jump, which materially
assists your progress during the revolution.

All boys who practise on the horizontal bar probably have in mind the
"giant swing," the hardest and most daring feat on the bar; but that is
a long way in the future, and many other tricks must be mastered before
it should even be attempted. Perhaps the best of these intermediate
exercises is the "hook swing." This is a very neat trick. You sit on
the bar, apparently fall backward, catching the bar in the knee joints,
and swing around, until you come up in your original position without
touching your hands to the bar. It is not so hard as it looks if you
go about it in the right way, and this is the proper way:

First practise by hanging head downward from the bar by the knees.
Any boy can do this; but to learn the rest of the trick you need two
assistants, who take hold of your hands and swing you gently at first,
gradually increasing the swing as you gain confidence. When you can
swing easily and safely without losing your grip and falling to the
mattress as you swing backward, straighten your knees, and you will
leave the bar and alight upon your feet. Your assistants will save you
from falling on your head should you happen to let go with your knees
too soon, which you would certainly do more times than once should you
attempt the trick alone. Practise this until you can do it without help.

The next step is to sit on the bar, which should be lowered to within
four feet of the ground, and fall backward. When you come to the end of
the swing, let go with your knees and alight on your feet. At first you
will need help in this, as in the early part of the practice.

When this is learned you can go half-way around. The object now is to
come back to the position you originally had on the top of the bar. The
mistake that nine boys out of ten make at this point is in thinking
that all that is needed to complete the revolution is to give the body
a harder swing. When you dropped from the bar in the way I have just
described it was because you straightened your knees. If you bent your
knees more at this point in the swing, and at the same time threw your
head back, you would have found yourself on the bar instead of on the
mattress. To prevent accident at first, you should have an assistant
stand in front of you, so that in case you should pitch forward the
moment you reach the top of the bar, you will fall into his arms. In
case you should swing so hard that you cannot stop when your body
becomes erect, you will simply make another half-revolution backward,
when you can straighten your legs and come down on your feet in the way
described already.

The most important exercises on the parallel bars are called the "dip"
and the "grasshopper." To do a "dip," stand between the bars, placing
your hands upon them, and raise your body to arm's length. Then lower
the body and raise it again by bending and straightening the arms.
To do a "grasshopper," begin in the same manner, but as the arms are
almost straight make a little forward jump, lifting your hands from the
bars, and bringing them down a few inches in advance of their original
position. In this way you can travel from one end of the bar to the
other, as this trick can be done equally well forward and backward. The
jump may be combined with a swing in an exercise called the "pump."
These tricks are easily learned; they are very safe and make muscle
fast. The chief danger in their use lies in their over-indulgence. In
this, as in all other gymnastic exercises, enough is as good as a feast.

The flying trapeze is the most difficult of all the apparatus, and
feats on the double trapeze are dangerous even to the trained gymnast.
After you have mastered the exercises already described, it will be
time enough for you to think about the trapeze.

Do not practise just before your meal hour, nor directly after it. The
best time is from an hour and a half to two hours after eating. Do not
practise for over an hour a day at first; that is sufficient for any
boy provided he does not waste his time. It should be remembered that
gymnastic feats are not necessary for health. It is quite possible to
exercise all the muscles without an indulgence in dangerous displays;
but many boys have the courage, the desire, and the skill to pass from
exercises to gymnastics.

We may supplement our remarks by adding some observations upon how he
became a gymnast by a writer who chooses to be known as "An Ex-Little
Fellow." He says: I have no doubt at least one of the readers of this
book is a little fellow. He has just as much pluck as his bigger
brother, his eye is as true and his mind as quick, but he does not
weigh enough to be a success at athletics. His arms are too weak to
knock out home-runs; his legs are not strong enough to carry a football
through a rush line; and as for his back, the muscles are not hard
enough, and the other fellow always turns him over when they are
wrestling on the grass.

This little fellow doubtless thinks he is made that way, and cannot
help himself. No matter how much he dislikes it, he feels that he will
have to go through life watching bigger and stronger fellows playing
all the games and having most of the fun. Now this is all a mistake,
that is, if the little fellow has as much pluck and perseverance as
little fellows generally have.

The writer of this sketch was a little fellow himself not many years
ago. He remembers how he used to look with complete and absolute
disgust on his bony little arms and thin pipe-stem legs. He used to
look at the big muscles of one or two companions with hopeless envy. In
fact, it got so bad that this particular little fellow determined to
get strong, if it took years to do it.

The first thing was to get a bar. I selected a nice spot in the garden,
planted deep in the ground two heavy timber uprights, and fastened
firmly across the top, with mortised ends, a long heavy pitchfork
handle, which was purchased at a village store, at a cost, I believe,
of tenpence. When the turning-pole was finished, the next thing was to
learn to do something. The first thing I learned was to hang on the
pole. This may not seem like a very exciting trick, but the fact is my
muscles were so weak that it took all my strength to hang there.

After hanging awhile I learned to swing a little back and forth,
working up higher and higher, and it was a proud day when I was able
to swing my body up over the bar, and rest my stomach on the top of
it. Then I had to learn to "chin myself." This came more slowly; but
daily practice at dumb-bells and constant tugging at the bar gradually
hardened the biceps and back, until on one happy day my arms bent to
the strain, my head went up, and my chin projected triumphantly over
the bar.

By this time the other boys became interested. They began to put bars
in their own yards, and the little fellow had to superintend the
operation and give instructions. The uprights should be about three by
three, and planted with side braces. The post-holes should be at least
three feet deep, and after the posts are set, filled in with stones
and earth firmly stamped down. The bar must be just a couple of inches
out of one's reach standing under it flat footed. Half a dozen private
bars resulted in a gymnasium in an empty stable loft, equipped with a
bar, a ladder, and two trapezes. The little fellow watched his arms and
legs with great concern, and could not for the life of him see that
they were getting any bigger.

[Illustration: "OTHER BOYS BECAME INTERESTED."]

It did not take many months for the breeze to blow over with the other
boys, but the little fellow kept on. When the weather got too cold
for the out-door bar, he read Blaikie's _How to get Strong_, and went
through the prescribed dumb-bell exercises every night before going
to bed. Then two pairs of cleats were put in the door-frame, as Mr
Blaikie directs, and a short bar cut to fit them. It did not improve
the looks of the bedroom door, but the little fellow was determined
to have muscle at any cost, and swung on the high bar, and pushed on
the low one every night for the whole winter. The next spring he was
happy. His chest was beginning to stand out in front of his shoulders,
and his biceps were swelling a little. He and his chum purchased a boat
that summer, and rowed on the river every day, until they were brown as
Indians, and could beat most of the light craft on the river.

The following year the little fellow went to the city, and joined a
Y.M.C.A. gymnasium. There was plenty of good apparatus here, and he
watched the other fellows and tried their tricks. A year or two in this
gymnasium, with daily rowing in the summer, began to tell. The little
fellow stripped at 123 pounds now; his arms were brown and sinewy; he
could hold a good steady stroke for ten or fifteen miles in a working
boat; could run several miles at a dog-trot; and had learned to "handle
his body" on the bar.

Then he went to college, and in the gymnasium his arms, brown to the
shoulders from rowing in the sun, won him among his classmates the
sobriquet of "Athlete." This was very agreeable to the little fellow.

Four years of work and practice in a college gymnasium could have only
one result. At the end of that time the little fellow was no longer a
little fellow. He weighed in his clothes 150 pounds, and every muscle
in his body was hard and well trained. The friends who came down to
college to see him get his diploma were greatly surprised to see him
on the programme as Captain of the Gymnastic Team, and still more
astonished to see him no longer a little fellow, but a stout gymnast
circling the bar, swinging gaily on the trapezes, and building pyramids
with his nimble _confreres_. That is not very long ago, and now the
little fellow is surprised to find himself spoken of as about the best
gymnast in one of the largest amateur athletic clubs in the country.

So much for our "Ex-Little Fellow"; and now we may recount how Mr. E.
Lawrence Levy became the amateur champion weight lifter of the world.
Although when a boy at school he was proficient in nearly every branch
of athletics, and an adept at all games, it was not until later years
that he turned his attention to gymnastics. It came about in this way.
When twenty-five years old, Mr. Levy, having passed from school-boy
to tutor, started a school of his own, and with a genuine love of
athletics and a knowledge of the benefit which boys may gain from them
by following them within reason, he had fitted up in his school-room a
trapeze on which he was wont to practise with his pupils. Finding that
it was scarcely safe to do this without skilled tuition, he sent for
Professor Hubbard, the instructor of the Birmingham Athletic Club. The
result was that the trapeze was removed from the school-room to the
playground, where other appliances such as horizontal and parallel bars
were also fixed. Here Mr. Levy again joined his pupils, and then, after
three or four lessons, he, to the instructor's surprise, accomplished
several feats which are, as a rule, only achieved by practised
gymnasts. Finding that he was outstripping his boys, he determined to
join the Birmingham Athletic Club. Here he was able to measure himself
against men of his own age and strength.

It was at the club gymnasium that he one night saw the heavy dumb-bells
belonging to two professional "strong men." He tried to lift the bells,
but failed. This seems to have shaped his future course. Instead of
being discouraged by failure, he determined to overcome all obstacles
and go in for heavy dumb-bell exercise. He began with comparatively
light bells, and with these he practised in the solitude of his
school-room for hours at a time. Then he bought two new bells weighing
28 lbs. each, using them assiduously until he could do almost anything
with them--holding them out at arms' length, bringing them down to the
sides of his legs and up again.

When he had thoroughly mastered the "twenty-eights," he tried two
"fifty-sixes." These he retained for months, being determined not to
attempt the heavier bells until he was quite perfect with the lighter
ones. At length Mr. Levy was able to put up the 112 lb. dumb-bell.
This was more than any member of the Birmingham Gymnasium had ever
done, and it then became necessary to add two 84 lb. dumb-bells to the
collection. With these Mr. Levy began quietly practising, one at a
time. Then he took to using them together, and gradually overcoming the
difficulties of the harder work, succeeded one evening in putting them
up simultaneously.

From that point he never went back. Having done as much with the
dumb-bells as at the time seemed possible, he decided to add the
lifting of bar-bells to his exercises. He bought three, weighing 140
lbs., 165 lbs. and 180 lbs. He practised assiduously with these, but
all the time he was yearning to do still bigger feats with dumb-bells.
At last his opportunity came. One Friday evening, on visiting the
Gymnasium, he found a dumb-bell weighing 150 lbs. It had been sent
there for exhibition by some professionals who were visiting the city.
He tried to put it up, and failed; but the dogged perseverance which
marked his whole career came once again to his aid. Finding that the
huge plaything was to be left at the gymnasium till the following
Tuesday, he began practising indefatigably, and on the Tuesday evening,
in the presence of his club fellows, he achieved his self-imposed task.
The next week a dumb-bell of the same weight (150 lbs.) was added
to his private collection, and he used it regularly. This private
collection now consisted of two 28 lbs., two 56 lbs., two 84 lbs.,
two 100 lbs., one 112 lbs., and one 150 lbs. in dumb-bells, the three
bar-bells already mentioned, and two iron bars, one 70 lbs. and one
120 lbs.--all these, together with two ring weights of 56 lbs. each,
representing a total weight of nearly sixteen hundred pounds.

Mr. Levy appeared constantly in public. In 1891 he won the contest,
held then for the first time, for the amateur weight-lifting
championship, and afterwards he succeeded, at Northampton, in
establishing a new record by putting up above his head no fewer than
ten times a bar-bell weighing in all 170 lbs.

Of the recognised records for weight-lifting he held as many as nine;
but Mr. Levy did not confine himself to one branch of gymnastics, nor
made gymnastics his only athletic exercise. Each year at the grand
"display" of the Birmingham Athletic Club he figured as a leader in
exercises on the horizontal and parallel bars and on the rings. He
was also an enthusiastic and expert cyclist, and took an intelligent
interest in nearly every form of manly sport. He was, too, a busy brain
worker.

His height was 5 feet 3-1/2 inches; his chest measurement 41 inches; he
weighed 11 st. 4 lbs., and had biceps measuring 16 inches and a forearm
of 12-1/4 inches. At twenty-five years of age, before he took to
gymnastics, his chest measurement was 34 inches, and the circumference
of his biceps was twelve inches.

[Illustration: "ACHIEVED HIS SELF-IMPOSED TASK."]

To my readers I commend Mr. Levy as an example of what pluck and
perseverance will do when used to a rational end. For the benefit of
those who may wish to follow in his footsteps, I will quote some advice
from his own pen:--

"In gymnastics it is never too late to begin. There may be some who may
want, like I did, to emulate the deeds of the strong men whom every
age supplies; to them I would say, give yourself up to your favourite
exercise as you would to music if you would excel in it. Athleticism is
as jealous an accomplishment as any art you would acquire. Excel in it
and you will find your reward in that rough physical vigour which the
world has not ceased to admire. In order to gain it you will go through
a course of training which will lay the impress of health on all you
do. Instead of defying nature you will learn more readily to obey her,
and your obedience will be gratefully, cheerfully accorded, for you
will realise how magnificent it is to be strong yourself, and by your
example and your deeds inspire others to dignify their physical powers."

It would be difficult to say which ranks the higher in the estimation
of modern boys--brain or muscle. Certain it is that in these days boys
of "grit" feel a contemptuous pity for the youth who is "all head and
no muscle." Possibly most readers will admit that muscular and mental
development should go together, and that modern athletics are the
necessary adjunct of school life for the building up of a "sound mind
in a sound body" (_Mens sana in corpore sano_).

Of the ancients it may be said that their faith was in "muscle." Even
old Homer, philosopher and poet, goes so far as to say, "There is
no greater honour for a man during his life than that he should be
accomplished in the use of his hands and feet." It was the "man of
muscle" who in ancient Greece received the highest honours and rewards;
it was for him that breaches were made in the city walls that he might
pass through in his triumphal march. It was he who was relieved from
the payment of taxes, whose statue was erected at the public cost, and
whose praise was sung by the poets.

In ancient days leaders and rulers were selected simply on account of
their development of "muscle." Hence we read of Caius Maximinus, who
from the lowly position of herdsman, was raised to the dignity of a
Roman Emperor on account of his physical strength. This Maximinus, it
is said, could squeeze to powder the hardest stone with his fingers,
and history tells us that on one occasion he "knocked down six men
without drawing breath!" Those fingers of his must surely have been
moved by muscles of iron, and his "biceps" must have appeared a
veritable mountain! A consideration of the fact that Maximinus was
upwards of eight feet in height renders these feats less surprising,
but to most beef-eating British boys it will perhaps be a "staggerer"
to learn that the mighty deeds of Maximinus were performed on a
vegetable diet.

[Illustration: MILO OF CROTONA.]

The history of another muscular leader, Milo of Crotona, may possibly
have some elements of truth in it, and we can quite imagine his
marching with his countrymen against an army of Sybarites, clothed in
a lion's skin and brandishing a tremendous club; but it will take more
than the proverbial "grain of salt" to enable us to swallow the story
of his running a mile with a four-year-old ox on his shoulders, killing
the animal, and _eating the carcase, every inch, in one day_!

It is not the way of modern athletes to show their strength by killing
four-year-old oxen, or knocking men down like ninepins. They let us see
their development of muscle at the wrestling match, at the oar and the
wicket, at swimming and cycling, at their walking, running, and leaping
performances, and one great advantage of this is that the ladies, who
were excluded from the ancient "gymnasia" on pain of death, can in
these days, by their presence, not only secure enjoyment to themselves,
but give pleasure and encouragement to many an aspirant for athletic
fame, who, if for no other reason, would endure the hardest training to
"win the plaudits of the fair."

In the matter of training and developing the muscles, the old Italian
proverb will, as in so many other cases, apply, "_Chi va piano va
sano e lontano_," or, as we should say, "He that goes gently and
steadily goes safely and far." There must be moderation in the
commencement, or there will be a "breakdown" in the end. No youth who
doubts the soundness of his heart and lungs should go in for muscular
training--for heavy work with the dumb-bells, for instance--without
medical advice. To weakly constitutions training may be injurious--even
fatal. In developing the voluntary muscles, as of the arm and leg, the
growth of which we can measure, we must be careful of the involuntary
muscles--those regulating the heart and lungs, and which are naturally
and unconsciously brought into use. Of course, those muscles most
brought into play by special exercise will be most developed--of the
legs and thighs, for instance, in _walking_, and those of the arms,
legs, and loins in _rowing_. For the general development of muscle,
it is, of course, well to "take on" those sets of muscles not used in
one's ordinary occupation. Thus a youth who is sitting the greater part
of his time at study or work should walk, swim, and row; one who has a
walking occupation would do well to take both to rowing and swimming;
whilst a "waterman" would do best to go in for hard walking.

Every one knows that diet has a great deal to do with the development
or deterioration of "muscle," and that meat, vegetables, and drink
should be very judiciously combined. Weston--whose great walk, in 1884,
of 5,000 miles in 100 days, was spoken of by Dr. Andrew Blyth as "the
greatest recorded labour, if its continuity be considered, that a human
being has ever taken without injury"--dieted himself as follows:--

BREAKFAST (6.30 a.m.).--Porridge, eggs or fish, bread and butter, toast
or mutton, and coffee.

LUNCH (11 a.m.).--Bread and butter, and coffee.

DINNER (2 p.m.).--Mutton broth, meat, potatoes, cabbage, bread pudding,
and soda water or ginger ale.

TEA (7 p.m.).--A little toast, and tea or coffee.

SUPPER (10.30 p.m.).--Toast, figs, sponge cake, pudding, and milk or
soda water.

It will be thus seen that alcohol formed no part of Weston's diet, and
that his principal drinks were _tea_, _coffee_, and _milk_.

This says much for the advantage of the practice of total abstinence,
especially in view of the fact of the _continuity_ of muscular
exertion. The number of steps taken in Weston's great walk has been
calculated at about 11,000,000, and the _daily_ work of the muscles
equivalent to that of raising 793 tons one foot.

Another testimony to the advantage of abstinence from stimulants in the
development of "muscle" is given by Louis Cyr, the Canadian athlete,
who secured the title of, "Strongest Man in the World" at a Paris
Exhibition. He weighed 315 lbs., and mentioned, among his feats, that
he could break with his bare fist a stone two inches thick, four inches
wide, and six inches long. He took his wife (who weighed 110 lbs.) and
balanced her on the top of a 12-ft. ladder, resting on his chin. Cyr
said that the great secret of his strength was his total abstinence
from all alcoholic drinks, and this bears out Dr. B. W. Richardson's
statement that "the idea of alcohol giving force and activity to the
muscles is entirely false."




CHAPTER III

WALKING, RUNNING, AND JUMPING


$Walking.$--As a rule, the walking of long distances in a short time
is a sad mistake. There is little or no pleasure in it, and the injury
it may do you quite counter-balances the satisfaction you may feel
in having accomplished it. I wouldn't give a pin to be able to do my
three miles in 21 min. 28 secs. like Webster, because I know perfectly
well that my mind would gain nothing, or my body either from such an
achievement. Every day of the year, unless specially hindered, I walk
between eight and ten miles, and I am always discontented if anything
stands in the way of my walk. From my own experience, I feel sure that
boys, whether training for football, or school examinations, cannot
do better for themselves than walk whenever they have the chance. You
never know what call may suddenly be put upon the muscles of your
legs. A life may depend upon your ability to sprint seven or eight
miles in the hour. And if you can walk as many miles straight off and
enjoy every yard of it, you may rely on being able to walk and run the
distance in the time.

A few words may be said on style in walking. It is simply wonderful
how people differ in this respect. Hardly two persons walk alike. They
either carry their heads, or bodies, or arms differently, or there is
a distinct difference in the way they use their legs or feet. However,
there is nothing very sad about this. Variety is charming, even in
pedestrianism, though in professional walkers this variety is apt
to show itself in a walk that is almost twin brother to a trot. The
following words of the once celebrated Westhall are valuable for boys
and men who walk for health and pleasure, as well as professionals who
walk for pots or purses:--"To be a good and fair walker the attitude
should be upright, or nearly so, with the shoulders well back, though
not stiffly so, and the arms, when in motion, held well up in a bent
position, and at every stride swinging with the movement of the legs
well across the chest, which should be well thrown out. The loins
should be slack, to give plenty of freedom to the hips, and the leg
_perfectly straight_, thrown out from the hip bodily and directly
in front of the body, and allowed to reach the ground with the heel
being decidedly the first portion of the foot to meet it." Some people
insist on the toes being turned out in a most unmistakable way when
walking. It is not at all a pretty sight, and much more suggestive
of a duck waddling out of a pond than a well-trained human being.
Besides, it throws an undesirable and harmful amount of strain upon the
smaller toes. Better to point the toes downwards and forwards, _never_
outwards; spring sharply towards the tiptoe, straightening the knee.
Learn also to hold the ground with the great toe at the beginning and
at the end of each step. We cannot grasp the ground; good foothold is
only to be obtained by pressure of the toes against it. This may, at
first reading, seem rather strange counsel; but if we have any physical
relationship with monkeys, the strangeness of it is at once removed.
Mark how the monkey holds with his feet. Perhaps a million years ago we
also (or rather our prototypes) held the ground with our feet in like
manner.

One thing is certain, that bad walkers (bad in style, I mean) are very
ugly to see, whereas there is something majestic about the carriage of
a good walker.

$Sprinting.$--Not many athletes can excel in all kinds of running, and
the champion sprinter is not generally a winner of long-distance races.
Moreover, it is necessary for each runner to decide which he will be,
for the training for each is different. Train gradually. At first
take sharp walks of three or four miles. This will make the muscles
begin to harden. Then run steadily for a quarter of a mile at a time,
not troubling much about the speed. Cultivate the use of the toes and
stride straight forward. Towards the end of the run the speed may be
increased, for the muscles will then be in working order. Even now,
however, the young sprinter should not tire himself. A week should be
employed in this way before the more severe training is undertaken.
Never begin to run violently at first, and this rule should be observed
particularly in cold weather, for until the muscles have warmed to
their work they are liable to strain, or even to suffer more severe
injury. Practise starting. If you have a friend ask him to act as
starter, and start over and over again, going to the mark and putting
yourself in position time after time. In a short race like this a good
start often makes all the difference, for it means sometimes a gain of
a yard.

$Middle Distance Races.$--Speed wins short-distance races; endurance
wins long-distance races, but a combination of each is needed in the
medium distance contests.

$Long Distances.$--The training for long-distance races needs patience
and endurance, for the tax upon the runner is great. Boys should not
compete in long distances. No one under eighteen years of age should
run a mile. The method of training is to run a quarter, or half a mile,
according to the strength of the runner, and then each day to increase
the distance or to run the same distance at a greater speed. Gradually
by this process the lungs, the heart, and the muscles are strengthened
until feats hitherto impossible become easy. In a long-distance race
judgment must be exercised whether to go the distance rapidly and trust
to endurance or to run warily and win by a spurt at the end, when it
may be that your opponent is exhausted.

$The Long Jump.$--Speed is an important element in this feat, more
important indeed than the spring. Experts take a run of from a hundred
to two hundred feet as though they were running a sprint race and are
going at their highest speed when they rise from the ground. When they
are coming to the ground again they thrust their legs forward as far
as they can, and so gain a foot or even more. This needs practice,
however, for if the leaper loses his balance and falls backward his
jump does not count. To start from the mark also needs practice, and
one of the methods of mastering this feat is to run slowly to a point
about nine paces short of the starting place. In training this point
may be marked by a piece of paper. Then sprint from the paper to the
starting place. Experts are able to jump twenty-four feet, and a leap
of twenty-two is excellent, but not many can hope to reach these
lengths.

$The High Jump.$--Here the athlete begins his run to the centre of
the bar slowly, then he increases his speed a little, finishing with
a quick run and a bound. The spring is taken in something like a
crouching position with the head drawn in, but in the air the shoulders
are lifted and the arms and legs jerked upwards. As the jumper crosses
the bar he shoots out his legs, raises his shoulders still higher,
and twists his body until he faces downwards. In fact he is then
nearly horizontal, and an amateur champion of the world has likened
his position at this stage to that of an arrow crossing a bow. When
he comes to the ground he faces the bar. Some jumpers rise from the
right foot, some from the left. The young athlete should find for
himself which method suits him best. It is usual to take the leap as
far in front of the bar as the bar is from the ground. Thus, if the
bar is four feet high the leap would begin four feet from a point on
the ground directly under the bar. The run usually begins twelve good
paces from the bar, and consists of one bound after another, concluding
with three short energetic ones. Then comes the spring from a crouching
position. If the start is from the right foot, this foot should be
almost parallel to the bar, and the heel of this foot should be the
last to leave the ground. A run would carry you far, but in this feat
it is the vigorous spring which carries you high. There are those who
can jump more than six-feet high in this way, but they are among the
champions.




CHAPTER IV

HOCKEY AND INDIAN CLUBS


$Hockey.$--Hockey is a game which has become very popular in England
during the past few years. It is generally believed to be a southern
form of the Highland game of shinty, the great game of the clansmen
in years gone past, and still played in many of the northern glens,
notably on the Dumbartonshire side of Loch Lomond. The hockey of the
North is not played according to any scale of points, the winning
team being that which secures most goals; in the South, where it is
frequently played on ice as well as on _terra firma_, certain marks of
merit are awarded, after the style of Rugby Union football.

The modern hockey stick is to some extent an artificial contrivance
after the style of the driver or play club of golf. Indeed, to golf
it bears some little semblance, and strangers frequently confound
the two pastimes. The Scottish school-boy, when hockey comes on in
its turn with other recreations of the playground, sets out for the
woodlands with a strong, sharp pocket-knife. He examines carefully all
the hedge-rows to see if there is any young plant which has a natural
turn at the end. If he can find such with a three feet shaft and a
four-inch crook at the end he sets to work there and then, and in due
time his "shinty" or hockey stick is pruned and ready for the game. The
full-grown Highland player will possibly provide himself with a very
heavy oak sapling, and with this he will strike powerful strokes, with
his right hand, or both hands if required, when in a close contested
maul or fray in front of the goal. These naturally-grown clubs have
more spring in them than those of artificial make, but unless they are
carefully bound with cord the head is apt to give after a little hard
play.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

A good deal of the art of the game consists in passing or nursing, as
in Association football. A novice would strike the knag or knob away
from him as soon as he had obtained his opportunity. Not so the adept,
who would "dribble" it forward, to use a football phrase, a few yards
at a time, work it on to his partner, back up, and keep following it,
then, with one swinging blow, make a shot for goal. In hockey on the
ice the dribbling game is seen to most advantage, as the skilful skater
can take the knag a hundred yards or more by adroit nursing or passing;
were he to strike it away with the first blow the chances are that it
would be immediately returned with interest, and a goal scored to the
opposite side.

[Illustration]


[Illustration]

In the Highlands it is a grand sight to see two opposing bodies of
clansmen--met as of old they met with targe and claymore--to fight
out a friendly game. Everything is cast aside but shirt and kilt,
and bare-headed and bare-legged the contestants seem to have walked
out of the picture of some ancient Highland foray. Striking off in
mid-ground the welkin soon rings with their shouts in Gaelic, their
cheers and expostulations. Blows that were meant for the knag sometimes
fall heavy upon an opponent's knees, and soon legs are to be seen
streaming with blood. In the heat of the play they feel it not, though
next day they will possibly not have a part of their under limbs
without bruises between ankles and knees. With terrific swing Donald
or Duncan, who stands six-feet two in his socks, will drive it like
a cannon ball through the air; and arrested by Malcolm's head in its
flight the latter drops like a stone, only to recover his senses in
a minute again and go off in wild pursuit. When the sun sinks, the
game is proclaimed over, and both sides shake hands, dress, and depart
homeward, well pleased with their sport, no matter whether they may
have won or lost.

[Illustration]

$Indian Clubs.$--Club swinging, if carried out in the correct style,
brings almost every muscle into play, develops the chest and arms,
imparts an easy carriage to the figure, and, if persevered in, under
proper conditions to be hereafter mentioned, will ultimately enable
the most round-shouldered individual to assume that lissom and
perpendicular attitude which is the characteristic of the finished
athlete.

First let me impress upon you the importance of avoiding heavy clubs
when you commence the exercise, or even after becoming moderately
proficient. Difficult feats are not easy to accomplish with very heavy
clubs, besides the latter, instead of strengthening the muscles, are
more likely to produce the opposite effect. Directly the club is heavy
enough to sway you about on your feet, the exercise is doing you harm,
and your attitude will appear ungraceful. Should you be ambitious to
swing very heavy clubs, be advised to proceed cautiously, and gradually
increase the weight at long intervals. Clubs recommended for ordinary
use should weigh between 1-1/2 and 2 lbs. each, as that weight affords
plenty of muscular exertion to strong and comparatively weak men alike,
especially in difficult exercises. After becoming fairly proficient
with the lighter weights, heavier clubs might be used with advantage,
say three or four pounds each, but a practised athlete of great
muscular power may safely swing clubs of twenty pounds or more. A club,
say twenty-two inches in length, made of willow which should weigh
about 1-1/2 lbs., is the most suitable for young boys or ladies. The
club should be well tapered towards the top and artistically shaped:
an ill-shaped club is a very awkward and unsatisfactory instrument.
In nearly all exercises the feet should be some distance apart in
proportion to your height: for a man of five feet nine inches, about
the proper distance between heels would be seventeen inches. For many
exercises the shoulders should be kept square to the front, while in
others it is necessary to turn more or less to the right or left. If
the shoulders are turned through half a right angle, reckoning from
the position with the shoulders square, the shoulders are said to be
half-right or half-left; if the shoulders are turned through a complete
right angle, the shoulders are considered full right or full left as
the case may be. Style is a most important item to be considered,
not only for the sake of appearance, but also in order that the
utmost physical benefit may be derived from the exercise. An eminent
authority, in speaking of style, remarks: "If you swing clubs without
regard to style, you will naturally contrive to cast almost all the
labour upon your strongest muscles, so that the exercise, instead of
searching out and strengthening your weak points, will merely tend to
increase the muscles which are already disproportionately developed;
whereas, if you attend carefully to style, you will be compelled to
bring a great variety into play, so that your weakest muscles will be
at first most severely taxed, and will gradually become developed in
proportion to those which are naturally strong."

It is necessary that the knees be kept straight and the muscles of the
legs well braced, as there is a tendency at first, especially with
heavy clubs, to let the knees bend in the course of certain movements;
the head should be carried erect, and should turn with the shoulders,
so that you always look in a direction at right angles to the line of
the shoulders. The best way to keep the head steady and in its proper
position is to fix the eyes on some point a trifle above their own
level, in a direction at right angles to the line of the shoulders for
the time being. Should you allow your eyes to wander, you will find
it impossible to keep the head steady. In summing up the chief points
relating to style, the following should be kept in view, viz.:--

(1) All unnecessary movement of the body should be avoided, the head
should be carried erect, and the feet firmly placed at a distance apart
in proportion to your height.

(2) In swings, keep the arm as nearly straight as possible; in twists,
the hand should be kept almost in the same place throughout the
movement.

(3) The movement of the club should be kept even, and avoid all abrupt
or sudden changes of pace.

(4) The clubs should be kept in accurate turn with each other.

In order to correct your own style, a good plan is to practise before a
looking-glass.

The proper position for holding the club before beginning an exercise
is called "the carry." Stand erect and grasp the club with the right
hand, lift the club and hold it up vertically, with the hand just in a
line, and not raised higher than the shoulder.

Club exercises are divided into four series. The first, called Outward,
are those in which the right club moves in the same direction as the
hands of a clock facing you, whilst the left club moves against the
hands of the clock.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

Inward exercises are those in which these conditions are entirely
reversed, and parallel exercises are those in which both clubs swing
with or against the clock. Windmill exercises are explained at Fig.
2, the subject is made clear in Fig. 1, where, for the sake of
simplicity, both hands are holding the same club; the right hand, which
is travelling in the same direction as a clock facing the athlete,
is making an outward circle, as the left hand is working against the
clock, the left hand is making an inward circle, and as both hands are
swinging with the clock, a parallel exercise would be in progress, if
there were two clubs instead of one as shown in the illustration.

The outward front swing follows "the carry" as a natural consequence.
Straighten the arm completely till the hand is above and about three
inches in front of the shoulder; the point of the club should then
be allowed to move slightly forward, with the wrist turned in, then
let the hand and club move to the right, the arm being kept straight,
and the club being kept in a straight line with the arm throughout
the movement. A circle can then be described and a return made to the
initial position.

To make this description more easily understood, I have a capital
illustration in front of me, and I cannot do better than quote it.

"If you were to stand with a wall about ten inches in front of you,
the point of the club, would, in the preparatory position, just touch
the wall at the highest point you could reach with the club; and as
you did the swing, the point of the club would always touch the wall,
and, if it were chalked, would draw a circle on the wall, of which the
radius would be as nearly as possible equal to the length of your arm
and the club together."

This is one of those simple-looking movements which are by no means
easy of accomplishment. The arm should be kept straight with the arm
and the club in a line, and avoid stooping as the club passes in front
of the legs. Beginners should practise front swings, and follow them up
until they are done with before attempting anything else.

CIRCLES, SWINGS, AND TWISTS.--It should be noted that circles are
divided into "swings" and "twists". The club and forearm acting in
a straight line during the movement would come under the heading of
"swings," whilst circles swung from the wrist with the hand as a centre
point are reckoned as "twists." Some of the very advanced movements,
however, unite the characteristics of both swings and twists, and it is
difficult to say under which heading they should be classed.

Fig. 2 illustrates the outward front swing with both clubs. The
exercise shown is a cross windmill, the performer with both clubs
straight above the shoulder swings the left club outwards; so soon as
the left club points downwards he will swing the right club outwards,
and it will arrive at the lowest point just as the left club has
completed its circle.

THE OUTWARD BACK TWIST.--From "the carry," raise the hand a little
above the shoulder, passing it slightly to the rear, so that the
forefinger is level with and within two inches of the lobe of the ear,
the elbow being raised to the right till it is nearly as high as the
shoulder, allowing the club to slope a little backwards from the hand.
From this preparatory position, let the point of the club move to the
right, and, keeping the hand close to the ear throughout the movement,
a circle can be described by the point of the club.

In this twist get the point of the club sufficiently to the right
and to the rear as the club descends, in order to avoid letting the
point of the club pass too far to the rear as it ascends. Care should
be taken to keep the hand in the same place throughout the twist,
and don't duck the head forward during the ascent of the club. This
tendency is produced by the fear of a blow on the head while the club
is travelling in its upward course.

WINDMILL EXERCISES.--The exercises known as windmill are very
interesting. As in parallel exercises, the one club does outward
circles and the other inward circles, keeping exact pace with each
other, the one being always half a circle ahead of the other;
therefore, when one club points straight up, the other points straight
down, so that when viewed from the front, the clubs appear always to
point in exactly opposite directions. A windmill exercise is difficult
to learn, but when grasped, you should at once tackle the corresponding
form on the other side.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

Fig. 3 shows the inward back twist being cross windmilled.

THE OUTWARD CROSS FRONT TWIST.--In this twist the hand should be kept
close to the left breast throughout the movement, and as the club
descends, turn the wrist out and bend it over, the while turning the
wrist out as the club ascends till it is horizontal on the left, again
turning it sharply as the club finishes its ascent. Twists similar to
the cross front twist may be performed with the hand above or below the
height of the shoulder, also a cross front twist may be done with the
hand at the height of and in front of either the right or left hip.
Avoid letting the clubs go too far forward while they are below the
horizontal, and too far back during the higher part of the movement.
Each front swing should be done in good style, and endeavour not to
stoop as the clubs pass each other when they begin to ascend.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

[Illustration: FIG. 4A.]

Fig. 4 shows the outward cross front twist with the right hand at
arm's length, whilst the left club is simultaneously making an outward
back twist at arm's length, it must be noted, that although the right
club is moving towards the performer, yet as it is moving in the same
direction as the hand of a clock, parallel, and in front of the twist
made, it is called an outward twist.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.]

Fig. 5 shows an outward back twist at arm's length with the right club,
the left club is making an outward front twist, the only difference
being, that the circle is made with the left club entirely in front of
the left arm, instead of in the rear of it.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.]

Fig. 6 shows an inward swing with the right club done simultaneously
with an inward swing with the left club. This exercise can be made into
a cross inside windmill in the same way that Fig. 2 can be made into a
regular outside exercise, instead of being a cross outside windmill.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.]

Fig. 7 shows an inside back twist at arm's length above the head and
an inward cross front twist at arm's length downwards, the connecting
inward front swings being also shown. This is very difficult.

PARALLEL EXERCISES.--These consist of an outward circle with one
club and an inward circle with the other, in which the two circles
are begun together, and in which the two clubs keep exact pace with
each other throughout, consequently both clubs appear to be always
parallel to each other. This is called a "parallel" combination. When
the various parallel combinations have become familiar to the learner,
he may continue such combinations in succession to each other and
profit thereby. Parallel exercises are considered the greatest test of
proficiency with clubs, as the slightest error will cause a divergence
of the clubs and be at once detected.

Endeavour to master a parallel combination thoroughly, and then the
combination on the other side will come easy enough.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.]

Fig. 8 shows a parallel exercise, an inward front swing with R. being
done simultaneously with an outward front swing with L.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.]

Fig. 9 shows an outward back twist with R. and an inward cross twist
with L.

[Illustration: FIG. 10.]

Fig. 10 shows an inward back twist with R. and an outward back twist
with L., followed by an inward front swing with R. and an outward front
swing with L.

[Illustration: FIG. 11.]

Fig. 11 shows an inward back twist with R. and an outward front swing
with L.

[Illustration: FIG. 11A.]

Fig. 11A shows an outward front swing with R. and an inward back twist
with L.

[Illustration: FIG. 12.]

[Illustration: FIG. 13.]

[Illustration: FIG. 14.]

Figs. 12, 13, 14 show some of the movements of clubs as generally
practised on the Continent, but we consider dumb-bells more suitable
for lunging movements.

[Illustration: FIG. 15.]

[Illustration: FIG. 16.]

Figs. 15, 16 show some wrist exercises, which are sufficiently plain to
need no explanation.

Fig. 14 shows the outward cross front twist with the R. hand near left
breast, while the left club is making an outward front swing; the
corresponding movement would be an outward cross front with the L.
whilst the R. made the outward front swing.

MISCELLANEOUS CIRCLES.--Circles which may be done with the arm passed
behind the neck, and the hand brought forward over the left shoulder,
require extraordinary length of arm and elasticity. Circles are
sometimes done in which the centre of gravity of the club is caused to
remain stationary while the hand moves in a circle, which conveys the
impression that the club is revolving about an axle through its centre
of gravity. These are difficult movements, and very attractive.

THROWING THE CLUBS.--These exercises require great dexterity before
satisfactory results can be obtained. To let go the club and cause it
to turn twice or more in the air and catch it again, is a feat that
entails endless practice. Dealing only with the right club, a few brief
notes regarding some of the simpler movements must suffice. (1) Perform
an outward front swing, and as the club approaches the horizontal in
its ascent let it go, and after it has made one revolution in the air
catch it again; this is the outward throw. (2) The inward throw is an
exact counterpart of the outward throw, but done by an inward swing.
(3) "The double outward throw" and "the double inward throw" are done
by allowing the club to turn twice before catching it. There are
endless varieties of other throws, all of which allow unlimited action,
as the shoulder cannot be kept strictly in position, because the clubs
have to be carefully watched while they are in the air.

Without doubt, Indian club exercise is an attractive pastime, and
entails no strain on the system, unless by the foolish practice of
using too heavy clubs.




CHAPTER V

SWIMMING, ROWING, AND WATER POLO


$Swimming.$--A glance at some books of instruction conveys the
impression that swimming is difficult and complicated; but many boys
learn in three or four days, and we know a timid boy who had much to
overcome in fear of the water who learnt in fourteen without more aid
than he obtained from reading directions in books. It is easier to
learn in a tepid indoor bath, because the novice is not worried by
having to keep himself warm, and he has the rail, a sure bottom, and
the side of the bath to help him. A friendly companion who will support
his chest with one hand at first, especially if he can instruct him
too, will shorten the period of learning. There is no need to go into
deep water, nor to run any risks in learning to swim.

The action of the arms may be practised in or out of the water. Draw
the arms to the chest with the elbows touching the sides. Close the
fingers and thumb of each hand, and make the hands slightly hollow.
The hands will be under the chin and the hollowed palms downwards.
Push them out in front of your nose, not vigorously, but quietly and
steadily, for so far the action is one that retards the swimmer rather
than advances him. Once at their full extent, however, the hands should
be turned almost back to back, and then each should be swept away from
the other in a semi-circle, something like the action of the oars when
a boat is being rowed. When the elbows touch the body the stroke ends,
and the hands should go back to their position under the chin ready for
another stroke.

More important than the arms in swimming are the legs, but their
movements are very simple and easy to learn. Grasp the rail that runs
round the bath with one hand and place the other hand flat upon the
side of the bath about a foot below. Draw the legs up to the body,
with the heels touching each other, toes of each foot turned outwards,
the toes of the right foot to the right, the toes of the left foot to
the left. Keep the knees wide apart and turned outwards. When the legs
have been drawn up as far as possible the soles of the feet should be
only just under the water. Now shoot both legs out vigorously, not
only as far as they will go, but as widely asunder as you can spread
them. Then bring the heels smartly together so that the legs return in
a line with the body again. This last movement is very important, for
it is in displacing the wedge of water between the widely opened legs
that the body receives its forward impulse. Writers upon swimming have
likened this action to the flight of the slippery orange pip when it is
squeezed in the fingers of the school-boy.

When the use of arms and legs is practised together the legs are drawn
up and the hands are placed under the chin at the same time, and the
hands and legs are sent out from the body together. The head should be
thrown back well, and it will help the learner to do this if he looks
at the sky or at the ceiling of the bath when he is learning.

It is easier to swim upon the back than upon the chest. The movement of
the legs is the same, and the movement of the hands not very different.
Lie backwards upon the water and with the hands together stretch the
arms behind the head, palms upwards, thumbs touching. Then sweep the
hands away from each other, using them like oars, and so bringing them
back with a wide curve to the hips. Upon the back it is possible to
swim without the use of the arms at all.

Learning to swim makes one sadly out of breath, but with practice the
art becomes easy, and we swim with almost as much ease as we walk.
Having learned plain swimming it is not difficult to add gradually the
numerous other methods of propelling the body through the water.

$Rowing.$--To watch and imitate a good rower is the best way to acquire
a good style, but a few hints will help. Sit squarely upon the seat
and stretch your legs straight before you, but with your toes turned
out slightly. Rowers are not agreed about the knees. Some keep them
together; others have them apart, and they will tell you that this
arrangement permits the body to come further forward over the knees.
Your feet should be placed firmly against the stretcher, and this must
be let out or shortened, to suit the length of the rower. One foot may
be placed in the strap which is often attached to the stretcher. The
outside hand is placed upon the handle of the oar, with the thumb as
well as the fingers above it, while the other hand grasps it firmly
lower down, keeping the nut towards you. The arms are now quickly
thrust forward till they are quite straight at the elbows, after which
the back follows the arms by bending forward at the hips. Be careful,
however, to avoid round shoulders. When your hands have reached their
full stretch raise them, and the blade will drop quietly into the
water. Then with the water just covering the blade, the body is brought
back with a strong but not clumsy movement, till it reaches a little
beyond the perpendicular of the back of the seat, when the hands are
brought back to the ribs, the elbows gliding near the hips; and at the
last moment, as the hand touches the ribs, the wrist of the inside hand
is lowered, the knuckles being at the same time brought against the
chest, and the oar is made to revolve in the rowlock. This is called
"feathering" the oar, a process by which it is brought neatly out of
the water. Now push the oar rapidly forward again, first, however,
restoring it to its original position in the rowlock. This is done by
raising the wrist, and then darting the arms forward till the elbows
are quite straight. Now the rower is at his starting point. To "back
water" these actions are reversed. The oar is first reversed in the
rowlock, and then it is pushed through the water with as much power as
is needed, and pulled through the air. When the oars on one side are
pulled, and those on the other are backed, the boat is made to turn
round completely in a small space. Expert rowers have arrived at the
following maxims: Straighten the arms before bending the body forward;
drop the oar neatly into the water; draw the oar straight through at
the same depth; feather the oar cleanly, and without bringing the oar
out before doing so; use the back and shoulders freely, keeping the
arms as straight as possible; keep your eyes fixed on the rower before
you. By this means the body is almost sure to swing backwards and
forwards regularly in a straight line. If you look out of the boat you
will probably lose this rhythmic motion.

$Sculling.$--This process is different from that of rowing in that the
sculler has a scull for each hand, whereas the rower uses both hands
for one oar. The rower sits near the side of the boat, the sculler in
the centre of the seat. The sculls are lighter than oars, the action
quicker. There are from thirty to forty strokes a minute in sculling,
but the average is about thirty-two. The boy who goes out sculling
alone is often his own steerer, and so needs to keep a sharp look-out
over his shoulder. Having taken a seat in the centre, stretch out
your legs to their fullest extent and adjust the stretcher. Grasp the
sculls, one in each hand, by the handles, and bend your body forward
until your head is well over your knees. Throw your arms well forward,
and straight, so that the sculls will be thrown well backwards. Then
dip the sculls, try to keep the dip uniform, and pull hard.

The stroke comes to an end when the elbows are brought to the top of
the hips, and the hands to the chest, with the body well back as a
result of the strong pull. The sculls are "feathered" as they leave the
water by the depressing of the elbows and the bending upwards of the
wrists, as the back of the hands are turned towards the forearms, an
operation which offers the least resistance to the water when releasing
the sculls to obtain the position known as the return, that is, the
position to begin again. To turn a boat in the water the sculler must
back water with one scull and pull with the other. To do this one scull
is reversed, its rounded face being towards the rear as the sculler
pushes it from him. At the same time pull sharply with the other scull
until the boat's head has been turned round completely. Boats without
rudders are managed in the water, either by pulling both sides alike,
in which case the boat moves in a straight line, or by reversing the
action of the oars, equally on both sides, pushing them through the
water instead of pulling them, and called backing water. In this case
the boat recedes. By pulling one side only, the boat describes a part
of a circle, which is made smaller by pulling one oar, and backing the
other. By means of a rudder the boat may be made to take almost any
direction without reference to the rowers.

A few experiments with a rudder will soon demonstrate what its powers
are.

[Illustration: WATER POLO.]

$Water Polo.$--Boys who can swim will find this excellent sport. Each
player should provide himself with a sound cask. Place it upon its side
and weight it with lead or other material, making this ballast fast so
that it cannot move about. Now make the cask quite water-tight. Upon
one end fix a horse's head made of wood, upon the other a tail. These
features may be made as extravagant and comic as the owner pleases.
Get a paddle like a canoe paddle, and astride of this horse take to the
water. Choose sides as at football and have for goals stakes driven
into the bed of the river or floating objects moored into position.
The ball should be a light hollow india-rubber one, or a bladder from
the butcher. Some players use the inner part of a football. The paddle
both strikes the ball and propels the steed. This game should never be
played unless the players are accompanied by a capable person in a boat
who can go to the assistance of those who may be in difficulties.




CHAPTER VI

PAPERCHASING, FOOTBALL, GOLF, AND BOXING


$Paperchasing.$--This may be practised with more or less success all
the year round, but it is in the winter time that it can best be
enjoyed. It is then that the air is cool and invigorating, and that
the fields, being unoccupied by crops, may be run over without any
very great damage being done. For boys it is a grand game; it affords
a welcome change from the scrimmages and knocks of football and fives;
and if the distance run be not too far, nor the pace too fast, there
are few who cannot take part in it with pleasure.

An important point in its favour is that the expenses connected with it
are small. The paperchaser wears jersey, knickerbockers and stockings
as at football, with the addition, in very cold weather, of woollen
mittens to keep the wrists warm, and the substitution of light leather
or rubber and canvas shoes, for heavy boots. For each of the "hares"
there must be provided a bag in which to carry the "scent." These bags
should be of stout linen or canvas and shaped like a life-buoy, so
that they go round the runner--under the left shoulder and over the
right--with a hole in the under-side, by means of which they are filled
and emptied. Time was when the "scent" consisted of paper torn up very
small, the preparation of which afforded almost as much fun as the
chase itself; but nowadays we have grown luxurious, and fill the bags
with the paper shavings which may be purchased for a very small sum
from any bookbinder or printer.

Much of the success of a paperchase depends on the choosing of the
hares. Of these there are generally two or three--more often the
former--and it is necessary that one of them should have a good
knowledge of the surrounding country. The time of their departure
having been noted, they start off and lay a trail as they go. Sometimes
one will lay for a while, and then the other will take a turn;
occasionally one will lead and lay his trail, and the other following
some little distance in the rear, will look out for gaps and fill them
in. It is not necessary to lay a continuous trail, but care should be
taken that it is quite easy to see from one patch of scent to the next.
When the wind is high, it is always well in crossing from one field to
another, to sprinkle some scent on the hedge itself.

The laying of an occasional "false" scent adds to the troubles of
the hounds, and gives the hares a chance of regaining some of the
advantage which they naturally lose in choosing their course. A "false"
is usually managed by the hares separating, and each laying a trail
in different directions; then one ceases laying, and makes his way
straight across country to join his companion, and they go on again
together as before. In laying a false trail, much ingenuity may be
shown. One way is to make the wrong one much the more distinct of
the two; but this must not always be done, or naturally it will soon
cease to have any effect. In selecting a course, it is well to choose
a circular one, so that in case of accidents, the distance from home
is not very far; and it is a very good plan, and one which is likely
to be of advantage to all, to start out against the wind and to return
with it. The reason for this is that it is easier to face the wind when
starting out fresh than when returning home fatigued at the end of a
run.

The hounds, or pack, must be provided with a captain and a
"whipper-in"--the former to set the pace and generally take command,
and the latter to look after the stragglers and see that none are left
behind. Both should be good runners, and if possible should have had
some experience of the game. After an interval--the length of which is
arranged with the hares before they start, and depends chiefly on the
distance it is proposed to travel--the pack set out on their journey.
The pace should be a steady jog-trot, especially at the beginning;
afterwards, if all goes well, it may be increased. It is a rule that so
long as the hares are not in sight, all must follow the trail; but if
once they are seen, it becomes a case of "catch who can," the scent is
ignored, and all go off straightway in pursuit. If the hares are not
seen and there appears to be no likelihood of their being caught, it is
usual for the captain on getting within a mile or so of home, to give
the word for a race and for the hounds to set off then to compete among
themselves for the honour of being the first to reach the goal.

Carried out on these lines, paperchasing provides plenty of fun, and
is as healthy a pastime as can be found. Now and again there will be
a ducking caused by a failure to clear a brook, or a stumble at a
fence; but if the victims of these mishaps keep moving, and immediately
they reach home, change their clothes, little harm will be done. Two
warnings may be given: Do not go too far; and when feeling tired, do
not strain yourself by trying to race. A six or seven miles spin is
quite long enough for any one; and it is better to go all through at
a jog-trot, and even to walk occasionally, than to sow the seeds of
future ills by striving to outdo fleeter rivals.

$Hints on Football.$--Football is one of the games which cannot
be learned from books. Its best lessons are those taught by hard
experience, and as much may be learned in an afternoon's play and in
watching a match between two good teams, as by a diligent study of
all the books on the game that have ever been written; but at the
same time there are a number of unwritten rules which, although they
often take years to learn, are of service to every player; and I have
therefore deemed it wise to collect them and put them down here in
black and white in the hope that they may be of use to many who, with
some experience of the game, and eager to improve their play, have no
opportunity for seeing big matches, and no one whom they can ask for
advice. These rules are fourteen in number, and should be learned by
heart by every player. They apply specially to the Rugby game, but some
of them are of use also to those who favour the Association pastime:--

1. Never play immediately after a meal. It is best to have dinner two
hours before the game begins.

2. In passing a ball to a comrade send it smartly and quickly straight
into his hands.

3. Never pass the ball when you are near your own goal line, and never
pass straight back except when opposite your opponents' goal, and the
player to whom you pass is well placed for dropping a goal.

4. Never be too eager to pick up the ball and run with it. A neat
dribble with the feet is often most effective, and it is generally very
difficult to stop.

5. In collaring an opponent always keep your eyes open, and always go
hard and low.

6. Never "speculate" or take flying kicks at the ball.

7. When fairly held by an opponent, do not waste your strength by
useless struggling, but at once cry "held," and put down the ball.

8. When you have the ball in your possession, and find it impossible to
pass it to advantage or to proceed, always punt into touch.

9. In handing off an opponent, turn your thumb inside your hand and
turn the palm outwards with the fingers held together.

10. When one of your own side is running with the ball, always follow
up close behind, but a little on one side of him. When passed by an
opponent who has it, try to get round again to meet him before he
reaches your goal line.

11. In your spare time practise punting, drop-kicking, and
place-kicking, with both feet. An otherwise good player is often left
out of a team in order to make room for one who is not quite so good,
but is able to kick.

12. Study the laws of the game whenever you have an opportunity.

13. Always keep your temper and do not talk. Obey your captain at once,
and unhesitatingly accept the decision of the referee.

14. Change your clothes as soon as possible after playing, and in going
home be careful to wrap up well.

In conclusion, I would point out that if properly played Rugby Football
is not dangerous. The great majority of accidents which occur are due
to the neglect of one of the simple rules here laid down--through
useless struggling, loose collaring, wild kicking, or blind rushing.
The rules for the Association and the Rugby game may be obtained for
one penny each, so we have refrained from reproducing them here.

[Illustration: DRIVING]

$Golf.$--This is another of those games well learned on the field, by
observation of the best players, and by hints from friends. We have,
however, compiled a series of injunctions based upon long experience.

DRIVING.--Lower your left shoulder. Stand still and do not see-saw with
your body. Plant your feet squarely. Grasp your club lightly yet firmly
in the hollow of your fingers. Slowly swing well back and complete your
stroke well through, pushing to the very end with your right hand. It
is a disadvantage to try to get under the ball.

[Illustration]

THE BRASSY.--In using this club swing as far back as you can, slowly.

THE MASHIE AND IRON.--Swing back very slowly and have the forefinger of
your right hand well down the club, which should be held lightly. Go
well through with the stroke and rise slightly off your left heel.

PUTTING.--Grasp the club firmly, swing back very slowly, and go well
through with the stroke.

[Illustration: OUT OF THE FURZE]

[Illustration: OUT OF A BUNKER]

[Illustration: PUTTING]

GENERAL ADVICE.--In all kinds of strokes swing back slowly with your
left shoulder down and the forefinger of your right hand well down the
club. Ever have your eye upon the ball, and finish every stroke to the
very end. In all your strokes let your arms go well out from your body.
Your hands should be close together on your club and the right hand
well round to the left but not under the club. Press the ground with
your feet and stand well back upon your heels.

$Hints on Boxing.$--It is true that boxing has become associated
with all manner of ruffianism, but it is true also that it is one of
the most effective forms of physical exercise, and that low life and
brutality need no more enter into this pastime than into cricket. All
the muscles are exercised, and dexterity, nimbleness, prompt decision,
quickness of sight and many other admirable qualities are promoted.

The right arm is held across the body so as to protect the pit of
the stomach. The elbow of the left arm is held to the side. This
position enables the boxer to hit from the shoulder, an important
matter in boxing. The right leg bears most of the weight of the body,
an arrangement which permits rapid movement backwards and forwards
as occasion demands with a minimum of exposure. The left side should
be towards your antagonist, the left hand has the principal part of
hitting allotted to it, the right stops, parries, and at close quarters
hits too.

Study all these things carefully before a mirror, noting what parts are
exposed and the manner in which the exposure may be remedied.

Throw your head well back, and watch your opponent's eyes, for there
you get the earliest indication of his intentions, and therefore you
are able to make your arrangements for circumventing his plans. When
you strike let it be from the shoulder and with all the weight of your
body pressing the right foot upon the ground and making a kind of
spring. Do not draw back your hand to make a stroke, because that gives
your adversary warning. Come upon him unawares and then recover your
position immediately. Generally the time to strike is when your left
toe is level with his heel, but if his reach is longer or shorter than
yours this rule may need modification. Remember that a curved blow is
longer on its way than a straight one.

If your adversary strikes at your face or the upper part of the chest,
do not retreat from the blow, but fling your right arm sharply outwards
and upwards, catching your opponent's arm by the wrist, and throwing it
out of the direction in which it was aimed. This generally lays open
your opponent's head, and gives opportunity for a smart return blow
with the left hand; it is then near his head, and has only a short
distance to go. This return blow is called the "counter," and is very
effective, as it arrives when your opponent is expecting to give rather
than receive a blow. This plan of campaign may be practised before a
mirror.

"Stopping" comes in where this parry is impracticable. If your
adversary strikes at your body you must either get away, stop, or
suffer the blow in hopes of being able to hit him in return. In
stopping you receive the blow on your arm, and break its force.




CHAPTER VII

ON THE ICE


$Figure Skating.$--As soon as the skater has gained confidence and can
skate in the ordinary way, he should begin to master the art of skating
upon the outside edge. Put upon the ice a small stone, piece of wood,
or any other object to serve for a centre. From this stand three yards
with your right side towards it. Leaning a little in the direction of
this centre and pressing your weight upon the outer edge of the blade
of the skate, push yourself round and round the centre with your left
foot. Then practise going round on the outside edge of your left skate
in a similar way. Difficult as these movements will be at first, they
become easy like other hard tasks by practice, and they open the way to
graceful figure skating.

When the two circles have been mastered it is quite easy to cut a
figure $3$ upon the ice. Begin on the outside edge of the right skate
as though you meant to go in a circle, but allow your left foot to
hang behind your right foot. There it will act as a kind of weight,
your body will tend to swing round and you will cut the second part of
the $3$ travelling backwards, and upon the inner edge of the skate.
The impetus gained in cutting the first part of the figure will carry
you to the end. Going in the other direction cut another $[|3]$ with
your left foot, and when you can do these you are on the high road to
complete success as a skater.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.]

$Sailing on Skates.$--Boys who are so fortunate as to live where there
is a large sheet of ice will find much fun in sailing. If you have the
money the draper will supply you with calico, or sheeting, or other
similar material, two yards wide, and a journey to the joiner will be
necessary, as we shall see. A B in Figure 1 is the yard made of wood,
one and a half inches thick in the middle, tapering to each end to
five-eighths of an inch. At C and D holes are bored for the lashings of
the sail. E F is the sprit, and we get its length by measuring the boy
who is going to use the sail from his neck to his ankles. This gives
the length of the sprit, and the yard should be made twice as long. We
have given the longest that the sprit should be. It may be shorter,
and then, of course, the yard would be shortened in proportion. The
sprit is tapered towards F and a hole is bored at G for lashings. The
sprit is connected with the yard by what sailors call a crotch. We have
given a representation of it in Fig. 2. The cord is used to lash the
sprit to the yard. C D G in Fig. 1 shows the sail. It is cut to allow
a broad hem, and may be sewn rapidly with a sewing machine. A strong
loop of tape or cord should be sewed at each corner of the sail C D G,
and at the head of the sail, that is from C to D, eyelets should be
made six inches apart. At each of these the sail is tied to the yard
and also at G. A reference to Figures 3, 4 and 5 will show how the sail
is used, but practice will be needed and much studying of the effect
of wind upon the sail before the art of sailing on skates has been
mastered. A wooden rod may be attached to F, Fig. 1. This will aid in
the management of the sail, as is shown in Figures 4 and 5.

$Curling.$--Like most other pastimes, curling is best learned when you
are young. Your good golfer, who "swipes" clean and clever from the
tee, picked up that draw and swing which the able golfer so much prides
himself upon, in youth. It is quite true that laddies in Scotland first
learn to skate; yet many of the best hands at "the roaring game" have
learned to throw a "stane" ere fifteen. You cannot learn young enough
at anything, a true sportsman will tell you. That little, bare-legged
herd laddie, who sits on the banks of the Ettrick or Yarrow, will laugh
at the middle-aged tyro who vainly tries to fling a fly where there is
no fish lying. The young yachtsman gets his tiller hand in his first
matches in an open boat; the trigger finger of the crack shot is made
over his early successes at rooks or rabbits; and the good seat in the
saddle on the back of the Shetland pony; but our boys are ready for
their _bonspeil_, which means _a good spell_ or game. Before giving
a description of an actual game, the writer will endeavour to give
some idea of what curling is like. In Germany it has been successfully
introduced by Sir Edward Malet, the English ambassador, and there is
every reason to believe that in a few years it will take as strong a
hold of the English people, as already golf has done.

Pennant, in his Tour of the North (1792), writes of it as follows:--"Of
all the sports of these parts, that of curling is the favourite, and
one unknown in England. It is an amusement of the winter, and played on
the ice, by sliding from one mark to another great stones of from forty
to seventy pounds weight, of a hemispherical form, with an iron or
wooden handle at the top. The object of the player is to lay his stone
as near the mark as possible, to guard that of his partner, which had
been well laid before, or to strike his antagonist's."

[Illustration: THE ROARING GAME]

"The game is played on a carefully-chosen piece of ice called the rink,
which should be forty-two yards long, unless special circumstances,
such as thaw, and consequently dull ice, require it to be shortened.
This piece of ice should be as level, smooth, and free from cracks
as possible. There is usually a trifling bias, which however to the
skilled curler rather adds interest to the game, as it calls forth
additional science in the play."

[Illustration: BRINGING DOWN THE STONES]

"When the rink is chosen, a little mark is made at each end. This is
called the 'tee,' and near that point stands, in his turn, each player,
whose object is to hurl or slide his stones to the opposite end by a
swinging motion of the arm. Each opponent also endeavours to place his
stones nearer the tee than those of his opponents."

So far for Pennant's description of curling in the olden time. The old
style, thanks to the Edinburgh men, who play on Duddingston Loch, has
long gone out. Seventy pound stones would no longer be tolerated by
any body of sportsmen affiliated under the Royal Caledonian Curling
Club. In the olden times it seems, in some parts of Scotland, notably
in the south-west, to have been a game of strength rather than of
skill, and the man who threw his huge block the farthest, and struck
his opponent's stone from the tee, or "cock," was considered to be
the superior player. The stones are not now much more than half this
weight, and so highly are the soles polished that they slip along keen
ice so much faster with slight exertion on the part of the player,
that they pass the tee or mark altogether, and go clean off the rink.
The rinks or sides have been chosen--four players, one of whom acts
as skip or director. He is generally the ablest and most experienced
curler, and equal to the responsible duty of guarding the winning shot,
if in his favour, or securing it if against him, with his last stone.
The rink, which is also the name of the diagram of the game, is drawn
off according to the rules of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club, and
carefully swept clear of all snow or hoar frost. The skip takes up
his station at the tee, which is the innermost of a set of circles,
known as the "hoose," no stone outside of the outer one counting in
the actual score. Sweeping scores are drawn for the guidance of the
players; one down the centre, which practically is a sort of hockey
arrangement, as you must stick to your own side of the rink.

[Illustration: PREPARING FOR THE GAME]

Sweeping commences half-down, that is, at the centre of the forty-two
yards between tee and tee, and can be carried on by the players' side
up to the tee, when, if it still has a little impetus, the opposing
skip will sweep it out of the house altogether. When this happens after
a stone has been brought on when apparently lagging, it is generally
greeted with what in Parliamentary phrase would be called "Opposition
cheers and laughter." In this a skip may show very superior judgment,
and order his men to desist from sweeping. At his words "up hands,"
brooms must be raised immediately. In front of the house or counting
circle is the hog score. If stones are not thrown with sufficient force
to be taken over this with the assistance of the sweepers they are
shoved off the ice as dead. This is sometimes galling to a young player
who, when it happens, as it does repeatedly happen on soft ice, is
practically put out of the game. But the "crampits" have been adjusted.
These are foot-boards, grated so that they hold firmly to the ice. On
these both feet must be placed when the stone is delivered. The skip
gives his directions to his first player to place him a stone on the
near edge of the outer ring. Why not exactly at the tee? Because if
there it would form a rest for the stone of his opponent and be forced
out. Our young player, who is wielding a beautifully polished pair
of Ailsa Craigs, with a sweep or two of the ice does exactly what is
wanted. His opponent is asked to play to the face of this stone. This
he does, hurling it out and laying his own almost in its place. The
next stone of the leading player fails to catch it, and goes away to
the rear, dead. The fourth stone played effectually covers or guards
the winner. The next pair of players give up their brooms to the
leaders, and take up their position at the crampits. A gentle draw
past guard and winning stone is counselled; and this is well executed,
the brooms taking the stone to the very edge of the tee or centre
circle. The next player fails to remove this, and being slow guards his
opponent's stone.

[Illustration: Soop her up]

This is a piece of good fortune for the other side, who now have a
second shot drawn by a very skilful player. The third pair of players
cannot well get home and try to wick, and _curl in_ (from the latter
expression we have _curling_). This is done by putting with a turn
of the wrist a certain bias or screw, by means of the handle when the
stone is being delivered. The position of the game is not changed when
the skips lay aside their brooms. There is a little more than half of
the winning shot visible through a port or channel. Through this the
skip, against whom the shot counts, threads his stone gently and easily
and rubs the winner out. His opponent has no chance now, unless he
rattles out the nearest guards. This he tries to do, but his opponent
guards again, this time just across the hog score. A gentle draw,
with an inner twist, might succeed. It is bravely attempted, but it
is short a foot, and the leading skip claims one shot--victory for a
well contested end. And so the game will last for twenty more heads,
the winning rink being that which has the majority of shots. It is a
happy, healthy game, not so well-known in England as it ought to be. In
Germany some enthusiasts have introduced it, and from the military-like
character in which it is carried out, guarding and storming and
knocking out occupants of the fortress, it is likely there to come
greatly into favour. It is to be hoped that we may oft see the pond
where, in the language of an old Scottish curling poet--

    "Drawn are the rinks where lines and curves combine,
    The tee, the house, hog score and central line;
    The cramps are laid, the champions ready stand,
    With eye intent and trusty broom in hand."

Those who decide to include this game in their activities should put
themselves into touch with the Royal Caledonian Curling Club through
its honorary Secretary, A. Davidson Smith, Esq., at the headquarters of
the club, York Place, Edinburgh. They will then be able to obtain the
rules for the proper playing of this delightful game.




CHAPTER VIII

ANGLING


$Hints by an Old Hand.$--When fishing in ponds, lakes, meres, canals,
or in waters where there is no stream, the depth should be carefully
taken the night before, or when ground-baiting, and marked on the rod,
or by measuring the distance from the plummet to the cap of the float
with a piece of cotton or string. If the angler prefers the bait to be
within touch of the bottom, the better plan is to use a self-cocking
float, and always use the finest possible tackle in clear water; but if
an ordinary float be employed, and the novice wishes the bait to lie
six or eight inches on the bottom (a good plan), the lowest shot should
be from 15 in. to 20 in. from the hook. This will neither interfere
with the proper cocking of the float nor with the angler striking, for,
from the moment the fish seizes the bait to the indication of a bite,
the resistance of (at most) two or three small shots is infinitesimal.
If the bottom be at all muddy, then the plummet should be as light as
possible, or into the ooze it will sink, and when this is known to
be the case, the depth may be obtained by the aid of a small pellet
of bread and bran. Should it drop off the hook before the depth is
obtained, the pellet should be made a little stiffer. A piece of "tea
lead" from a tea-chest, or lead wire, similar to that used on the gut
in Lea fishing (some use nothing else), may be carefully tied round the
bottom of the float, to make it cock without using any shots on the
tackle, and painted the same colour as the float, or, failing this, the
usual self-cocking float sold at the tackle-shops may be used.

Gentles should be kept in plenty of damp sand for a few days in an
earthenware pan, biscuit-tin, or tin pail, in a cellar, or any dark,
cool place, when they will be ready for use. The sides of the pan
or tin should not be allowed to get wet, or many of the gentles will
make their escape. They should be kept in what is termed golden sand.
This sand, which should be damp, is almost as fine to the touch as
barley-meal, of a deep rich golden colour, and they will live in it
for days without turning into the chrysalis state, which they do in a
comparatively short time if exposed to the sun--a practice to which
many anglers are addicted, and then wonder the gentles change colour.
It is a great mistake to use silver sand, as it over-scours and makes
them attenuated and hard. I have repeatedly seen them in this state.
So much for sand. The finest gentles I ever saw were obtained from the
best rump steak and a sheep's head, and kept in coarse bran; but for
taking out the black steck or "saddle-back" near the head, and scouring
them until perfectly white, give me the sand mentioned above and plenty
of it.

The weight floats required may be arranged and tested before they are
wound on the winder for final use. This saves the beginner considerable
time and trouble at the water-side. If he has a four-line winder, with
lines already weighted or shotted for roach, perch, bream, tench,
so much the better. A piece of cork about the size and shape of a
Tonquin bean attached to the line may sometimes be used with success
for fishing-swims, within easy distance from the side, in smooth clear
water, near patches of weeds, flags, or candocks, the angler taking
great care to keep out of sight, and to be as still as possible. When
the bean-like piece of cork goes under or runs, strike gently.

Never use long-shanked hooks (the well-known crystal roach hooks, for
instance) for such baits as gentles, cockspur, or small worms, small
pellets of paste, wheat and malt. A considerable portion of the shank
is certain to become bare in a short time, and so prevent the fish from
biting. I have repeatedly seen nearly the whole shank of a crystal hook
bare, and the small worm, gentles, and more especially a grain of creed
wheat, dangling from the bend as a kidney might from a butcher's hook;
and I have an idea that no fish properly constituted would be stupid
enough to be caught under such absurd conditions. I may just mention
in passing, that when fishing with gentles, the last one put on the
hook should have the point to come through the skin of the thick or
tail end, and the twirling thin or head end to hang clear of the hook.
One gentle on a No. 12 or 13 hook will often do the trick, when they
won't look at a bunch of gentles.

Use as small hooks as possible. They will hook a fish, or for the
matter of that, get fast into almost anything, much quicker than large
hooks: they penetrate sooner, hold very fast, and pierce the lips of
such fish as trout, perch, chub, barbel, carp, when a large hook would
not. For instance, the other day I hooked a 3 lb. barbel in the centre
of the upper lip with a No. 10 sneck-bend, and it was quite a job to
extract it. I once saw four splendid chub, all caught with similar
hooks; and on several occasions I have caught good perch with roach
hooks. If the novice will only remember not to allow slack line when
playing a good fish on a small hook, provided the tackle is good and
strong, a fish should seldom escape. Beginners often use hooks three
times too big for the fish they are after, and it goes without saying,
that the smaller the hook the finer the gut should be; for a small
hook on thick, coarse gut is not to be thought of. On the other hand,
never use a too small hook for too large a pellet of paste, with the
hook embedded in the centre, instead of the point just protruding. I
have seen an angler fishing under these conditions for chub with cheese
paste miss five fish out of six, the damson-like pellet being pulled
clean out of the mouth of the chub, without the slightest chance of
hooking the fish.

We will now supplement what our "Old Hand" has told us by other hints.

$Bait and Other Matters.$--We shall not occupy space discussing rods,
and such things. Each boy settles these questions for himself, in
accordance with the money he can spare, after a talk with the dealer
and a contemplation of his wares. Such accessories as landing nets he
leaves generally until he is grown up, and manages very well without
them. He may, however, provide himself with a clearing ring and line,
because he is likely to feel the need for these often. This useful
clearing tackle consists of a number of yards of strong cord, to the
end of which is fastened a heavy ring of lead or brass. If the hook
should get fast in a weed or anything else, this ring is put over the
butt of the rod, and allowed to slip down the line to the hook. The
rod should be held in the right hand, the top pointing downwards,
the clearing-line in the left; the ring falling on the hook from its
weight usually clears the hook. If not, the angler should grasp the rod
firmly, and draw the line sideways, and break away. In this case, he
seldom loses more than a hook; but without the use of a clearing-line
he frequently loses his float as well as his hook and line, and
sometimes breaks his rod. The brass clearing-rings are best, because
they are jointed, and can be used when the angler has a reel on his rod.

An old angler advises that after the young fisherman has made choice
of a place to fish, he should first plumb the depth truly, and with as
little disturbance to the water as may be. If the water be still throw
in small pieces of ground bait; if there is a strong current large
pieces. Keep as far from the water as you can, and go slily to work,
for even the shaking of the bank will frighten some of these fish. The
bait should be dropped into the water quietly. Stand as far from the
edge of the water as possible, and never let your shadow fall upon the
water. When it is possible hide behind a bush or a tree.

In baiting a hook insert the point of the hook near to the top of the
worm's head, and carry it down to within a quarter of an inch of its
tail. To do this you must work up the worm with your left thumb and
finger, while with your right you are gradually pressing the hook
downwards. If too much of the worm hangs loose the fish will seldom
take the whole in their mouth, and will not be hooked. To bait a hook
well with a worm is necessary to ensure catching a fish when you
strike; and it consists in drawing the worm without injuring it quite
over and up the shank of the hook, leaving only a small lively part
of the tail below. If you bait with half a worm, choose the tail end,
and insert the point of the hook into the top part, and bring it down
nearly to the end of the tail, leaving only a very small piece of it
free. If you bait with two worms on the same hook, draw the first up
above the shank, and put the second on in the same manner as directed
with one worm, but insert the hook near the tail of the second worm;
then draw the first one down on the second over the shank of the hook.

RED WORM.--Found with the brandling but not so common. At their best in
tan heaps, but are found also in the banks of ditches and sewers.

MARSH WORMS.--Known also as blue heads. Found in marshes at night,
especially after rain. A good bait for gudgeon, trout, perch, bream,
and grayling.

TAG TAIL.--Tail has a yellow tint. Found in fields in moist spring
weather. Often preferred when the water is muddy, especially for trout.

WATER WORMS.--Found in sedges and at the bottom of dock roots. Turn
up the long slimy moss on weirs for them. They are of a clear bluish
white, occasionally very light purple, becoming red at the head. Fish
eat them voraciously.

ASH GRUB.--Look for these in the bark of trees. They are good for
grayling, dace, roach, or chub.

COW DUNG BAIT.--From May to the end of September these may be found
under cow dung. They are eaten by roach, chub, grayling, and dace.

GENTLES.--The usual term, used in angling, for maggots. Putrid meat,
especially liver, will produce them. They may be obtained from butchers
or fell-mongers. Good for most fish.

LOB WORM.--Sometimes called the dew worm, or the wachel. It is the
ordinary large garden worm. Dig for them if they are needed at once.
If wet straw is strewed upon the ground for a couple of days they will
come to the surface. In the evenings they come out, and a quiet search
with a lantern in gardens, or church-yards, or on lawns will discover
them. They are useful for trout, eels, large perch, barbel, chub, and
salmon.

BRANDLING.--Search for these in chaff pits, old heaps of compost,
rotten tan, sweepings, manure of all kinds and tanners' bark. Good for
trout, grayling, carp, bream, and indeed for almost every fish.

MISCELLANEOUS BAITS.--Cockchafer, black or evening beetle,
grasshoppers, moths, May-flies, caddis worms, bees, caterpillars,
wasp-grubs, baked for half an hour, paste made of bread or cheese.

GROUND BAIT.--In addition to the bait upon the hook the angler usually
strews what is known as ground bait, and so attracts the fish to where
he is angling. It is chiefly by the judicious use of ground baits, and
by fishing at a proper depth, that one angler is more successful than
another, although fishing with the same baits and within a few yards of
each other. If a place can be ground baited frequently fish begin to
come there regularly for food. Care must be taken not to glut the fish,
and the bait upon the hook ought to be more attractive than the bait
flung into the stream. The ground bait most in use includes bran mixed
with clay, and made into balls of about the size of a pigeon's egg. If
the current is strong a stone in the ball may be needed. Another ground
bait is made by cutting the crust from a loaf. Then cut the loaf into
slices each about two inches thick. Put these slices into a deep vessel
of water, and when the bread has been well soaked squeeze it until it
is nearly dry. Add bran and knead the whole until the mixture is as
stiff as clay. This is well adapted for still waters. Another ground
bait is made of barley-meal one part, mashed potatoes three parts,
stiff clay two parts, worked thoroughly well together, but better even
than this is one composed of stiff clay with as much bran as it will
hold without destroying its stickiness. At the water side separate
pieces about the size of the egg of a goose, into which stick a few
worms and gentles. As these drop from the dissolving clay they are
seized on by the fish, who continue to wait in the expectation of more,
and are thus ready to take the angler's bait, especially if it is more
tempting than the ground bait. Boiled malt, barley, wheat, and such
things, mixed with coarse sand to sink them also answer the purpose.

$Trout-fishing.$--In the Easter holidays boys are apt to find it
difficult to decide just what to do. Football is nearly over, cricket
is hardly in. It is still somewhat early for bird-nesting, except for
rooks, and perhaps blackbirds and thrushes.

Just at this juncture the obliging trout come into season, and best of
all, are ravenously hungry. Now is the time for the beginner to try
his hand with the deceitful fly. Do not be discouraged, even if you
have made a dismal failure of it last August. In the summer holidays
it requires a practised hand to take trout with fly; but in April on a
moorland stream a boy may go out and actually have some success on his
first attempt. It will be wiser, certainly, to practise a little first,
in your own garden, with all the tackle except the fly.

By "tackle" I don't mean necessarily a glittering rod, fresh from the
shop, with a brilliant winch and gaudy fittings. It is well to get all
these things if you can afford them, though they should be toned down
before using; but want of money need not prevent a boy from trying his
hand at trout-fishing. A long willow wand, or even a hazel stick will
throw a fly if properly managed; and running tackle is not an absolute
necessity, though in every respect advantageous.

The only things that must be bought are the hooks, and these are very
cheap, as most boys know.

For this time of year your flies should be March browns and blue
uprights, and need not be tied on very fine gut. The outfit that is
required then need cost but a few shillings, but if you can spare more
get a small fishing-basket, and a fly-book, with a stock of flies. Thus
equipped and with good boots you may fish for weeks without needing to
visit a shop.

In order to learn how to throw a fly you should persuade a friend to
show you the way he does it. This need not be at the river, nor need
you tax your friend's time to any great extent. After you have once
learnt the knack practice only is required to enable you to throw a fly
fairly, though it may be years before you can do so well.

This preliminary trial (during which you will have wound the line round
your neck a few times) being over, you can go with some confidence to
the stream. Arrived at the bank, don't peer over to see whether there
are any trout, because if you do there won't be any--at least, not
after you have shown yourself.

If convenient, make for a point some distance down-stream, and work
upwards. By this plan you will have a chance of circumventing the
trout, even if the water be clear, and not rough. In rough or coloured
water these tactics are not necessary, and, in fact, it is as well,
because much easier, to fish down-stream under such circumstances.

Let us take first the case of clear water, not very rough. Keep back
from the edge and stoop a little, taking advantage of any cover, even
the stump of a thistle. Watch for a rise, and, if possible, throw your
fly lightly a little above it, and let it float down over the fish.
Should the fish be extra silly he may take your fly, and then you must
strike, as in bait-fishing, but with less force.

If you are fishing a northern stream, or a Devon or Cornwall brook, you
will find it worth while to go on casting even if you see no rises;
but on Hampshire, or other slow running rivers, the usual plan is to
wait for a rise. But this style of fishing, though practised with some
success by the lucky fellows who are in Winchester School, is not
altogether suited for the restless nature of a boy.

To return to the fish which has taken your fly. Being a little one (for
nothing large would be so silly), he will give you little trouble to
land. Take care, though, to guide him down-stream; which, being below
him, you can easily do. Lift him out as quietly as you can, and lose no
time in getting your flies on the water once more. I say flies, because
you will find it best to use two in ordinary fly-fishing.

The upper fly, or "bob," as it is called, should be two feet or more
from the tail, and should only have about three inches of gut attached
to it, so that it may stick out nearly at right angles with the line.
It should be fastened to a knot in the gut, so that it may not slip up
and down.

There are several ways of fastening it on, but they cannot be fully
explained without diagrams, and a boy of any ingenuity can easily find
out for himself.

The plan most commonly adopted, that of looping it on, though it is
not so neat as a knot, has the advantage of permitting the fly to be
changed easily--a great point when the trout are fickle.

[Illustration]

Having landed your first trout, do not try again in the same place,
but work gradually upwards, trying every likely pool and eddy; but not
casting more than two or three times in one place. If you succeed in
getting two or three little trout on your first attempt in clear water
you may think yourself lucky.

In April 'tis likely enough you may find the water coloured and high.
If it is in flood, or approaching to it, of course the worm or minnow
should be used; but of these anon.

We will suppose the stream to be but little above its usual level,
and of that rich brownish colour so dear to the heart of the angler.
Doubtless a worm or a minnow might still succeed; but a fly will give
abundant sport, and that without requiring a high degree of skill.

Your mode of procedure need not now be so cautious as before described;
and, in fact, you will find down-stream fishing often best in a
coloured water. Throw, then, a long line right across the stream, near
the edge of which you can safely show yourself, and work your flies
across and towards you, striking smartly at any rise. You will often
miss, for in down-stream fishing a strike tends to pull the fly out of
the fish's mouth, besides which the trout, on touching the surface,
having his head towards you, is apt to get a sight of your rod, and to
rise "short."

If the weather and water are both favourable for down-stream fishing,
you will have lots of rises, and some of the fish at least will fasten,
so that you have a chance of getting a dozen or so on a good day, even
before you have acquired any great skill.

The best fly for thick water I have found to be the soldier palmer,
a red fly with gold twist, but it will not always succeed. A March
brown, or a blue upright, or blue palmer with silver twist, may also be
useful. Remember that the thicker the water the larger and more gaudy
the fly may be.

We have to consider the chance of the water being too thick for fly.
Then either minnow or worm will answer, the former in moderately thick
water, and the latter in an absolute flood, unless the water is like
pea soup. The minnow is used on a short line, with a longish rod. It
requires considerable skill, and cannot be practised with safety in
strange water by the beginner, or the minnow will constantly be getting
lost by fouling snags. As minnows are expensive, this is a bad sort of
sport for a boy with limited pocket-money.

It is a favourite, however, with the professional angler in the north,
and _he_ doesn't lose his minnows. It is a treat to see one of these
gentry spin a rough run with his minnow, and take two or three good
trout where an amateur would do nothing but lose tackle.

The best way to learn to spin a minnow is to watch an old hand do it;
but if the stream you fish is free from snags you might find it worth
while to try to learn without such teaching. If so, be careful to keep
the tip of the rod near the water, and, using a short line, to spin
your minnow near the surface. If you get a run don't snatch your minnow
away, but keep it steadily on. Very likely the trout may bite short,
but there is always a good chance that one of the revolving hooks may
catch his jaw. If you do hook a fish get him out quickly, for your
tackle being stout (as it must be for minnow-fishing) will bear the
strain of anything short of a snatch.

To turn to worm-fishing. It is, of course, comparatively easy to
get a few fish with a worm, but it takes a practised hand to take a
basketful, even from thick water. A couple of shot will generally be
enough, and they should be about a foot from the hook, which should
be large, unless you use the Stewart tackle, which consists of two
or three small hooks. A small marsh worm is considered best, but a
brandling or a red worm will answer; or in a flood the tail half
of a lob worm. The worm should be kept rolling along the bottom of
fairly swift water, where the soil is gravelly; and a little time
should be given when you feel a bite. In this way not only are large
trout often taken in a flood, but sea trout, grilse, and sometimes
salmon. A delicate hand is the chief requisite; but much judgment is
also required in deciding which pools to fish, and when to shift your
ground, according to the rising or falling of the water.

There is a sort of worm-fishing which is very different from the
kind just described. The tackle used is much finer, and the method
altogether different. For as it is practised in the clearest water and
in the hottest weather, it is necessary to take great care not to be
seen, and to avoid the slightest possible disturbance of the water. A
very small red worm is used on one or two tiny hooks, and the boy who
can take good trout in this way is as much a skilled angler as any
fly-fisher can claim to be.

$Fishing for Roach.$--Most boys know what a roach is like, so it will
be enough by way of description to say that it is a fish of the carp
tribe, of a silvery colour, and covered with scales. Its fins are of a
pale, pinkish grey, and its mouth is small and soft, suited best for
vegetable food.

The roach grows sometimes to two pounds in weight, but in most rivers
one pound is considered large, whilst in ponds the fish seems to
deteriorate, and swarms of little roach are generally to be seen, but
very few fish of over a quarter of a pound.

In rivers roach should not be killed unless they are seven or eight
inches long; but in ponds, where they are very numerous, it is best to
keep all that are caught. More food is thus left for the remainder.

The roach spawns in May, and is, therefore, out of condition from the
end of April till June or July. It is fattest and most healthy in
autumn and winter, and when caught from a clear river will be found
fairly good eating. Pond roach taste muddy; but before we bring our
fish to table we must learn how to catch it.

The rod should be long, light, and stiff. White cane is best, but is
very dear; and the rods now to be had at many tackle-makers for three
or four shillings will answer nearly as well. They are of Japanese
make, and have no metal on them, which makes them light and cheap,
though less durable than the expensive English rods.

For the line, if roach only are expected, nothing is better than good
single horse-hair. If there are large carp about, fine gut will be
better; but carp do not feed after October. In any case, it will be
found convenient to have a few inches of fine plaited silk for that
part of the line which is next the rod. The float should be as small as
can conveniently be used, and if the fish are very shy, a little rough
bit of stick is sometimes preferable. A porcupine quill is generally
best, and just enough shot to sink it within a quarter of an inch, or
less, of the surface should be put on the line. One of the shot should
be placed within six inches of the hook, and the rest about a foot
higher. The hook should be of fine wire and about No. 12.

It is important to see that the hair or gut on which this is tied is
perfectly round and clear.

With regard to baits, the very best are wasp-grubs; but these are often
unobtainable, and gentles (the maggots of the friendly bluebottle)
answer fairly well. A cleaner and pleasanter bait to use is paste,
made from bread one day old. This should be dipped in water, and
then quickly squeezed dry with clean hands, or in a cloth. In some
rivers--the Ouse for instance--boiled wheat is a very good bait.

In order to find the depth, use a little roll of lead, called a
plummet. This should be attached to the line, close to the hook, by
being partly unrolled, to admit the hook, and then fastened again; and
the depth should be plumbed as soon as the tackle is ready, and before
bait is prepared. The operation necessarily disturbs the fish, and time
must elapse before they will feed. It is desirable to keep well away
from the water while putting your rod together, and, if possible, even
while fishing.

Many roach fishers carry a light square box, or basket, which serves
for a seat. These anglers will sit still for hours, patiently waiting
for the roach to come on; they are often very successful. When a roach
is hooked, the angler retains his seat, and in order to bring the fish
to the net, will remove the butt and second joint of the rod. This is
also done when rebaiting. It is the great length of the rod and the
shortness of the line that makes this necessary. But to return to the
method of fishing: the depth being ascertained, the float should be so
placed that the bait will just touch the bottom at the shallowest part
of the swim, and only a foot of line should be used between the float
and the top of the rod.

Calm weather is best for roach-fishing, as it is easier to see the
bites; but if there is a gentle wind from south or west, sport is often
good.

In summer, evening is much the best, but at this time of year roach
will often feed all day. Let us suppose that you start fishing on a
calm afternoon in February or March, and on reaching the river, which
is free for fishing, wonder where to begin. It is lined with rushes,
but here and there are gaps, and on the banks at some of these points
you notice scraps of ground-bait on the ground, and you also see that
the grass is trampled and worn. This shows that anglers have found the
spot a good one. Seat yourself, or stand quietly near one of these
points, and put your rod together. Then attach your line and plummet as
described, and when all the rest is ready put in a little ground-bait,
some yards above your swim. Chewed bread will do if you have no bran to
mix with it.

If your tackle is in order, and the roach are there, you will have
a nibble before many minutes; but at this stage of your education
it is useless to strike at nibbles. Keep on the alert, and you will
find that if you can manage to strike as the float is sinking, when a
bite occurs, you will hook your fish; not otherwise. A gentle jerk is
enough, as your little hook is sharp, and the roach's mouth soft.

Violence risks breaking the line, and in any case disturbs the fish
unduly.

If the roach is of good size, remember that your tackle is weak, and
play your fish carefully; and don't attempt to get it out, whether with
net or otherwise, till quite exhausted. Even if you have only a small
fish it is well to land him gently, or you will scare others.

When placing the line do not flop it in, but let it sink bait first,
and be prepared for a bite the moment the float cocks, for the first
few seconds are the best. There is also a good chance at the end of
the swim. If there is a stream the top of your rod must follow the
course of the float. The rule, as to only a foot of line above the
float, may be relaxed if the swim is long, for to walk along is most
undesirable; it scares the fish by shaking the banks. You should stand
still, or better sit still while roach-fishing. Even this rule has many
exceptions. If, for instance, the stream is very rapid, the saving in
time effected by following your float may more than compensate for the
disturbance caused by your footsteps.

In swift or flooded streams fish are less easily scared than when the
water is quiet. Under these circumstances a worm is often better bait
than paste, or even than gentles.

Again, in clear water which is swift and not deep it may be desirable
to let out line by using running tackle. In this way you may reach fish
which are too shy to let you get within casting distance of them.

The Nottingham anglers are particularly expert at this sort of fishing,
and use rods and reels which are specially adapted for it. They are
very successful on their own river, the Trent, and have introduced
their style on the Thames, and even the Lea, and have sometimes
taken fish when ordinary fishing was useless. They are very skilful
in casting from the reel without unwinding any line first; but many
different circumstances must be studied before the sort of fishing most
effective can be chosen.

Rules are very necessary; but the young angler will soon find that the
most important thing is to find out when the exceptions, which are so
numerous and important, come in. This can best be learnt by careful
study of the habits of the fish, carried on patiently, day after day,
at the water-side.

$The Fishing Season.$--On June 16th the "close" time comes to an end,
and boys may fish in free water for any kind of fish, from bleak to
barbel.

If we have had a very genial spring, many fish will have finished
spawning and be getting into condition, so that there will be no harm
in taking advantage of legal permission, and beginning to fish as soon
as opportunity occurs.

It will be found that many fish, especially chub and dace, can
be caught much better at this season by flies, either natural or
artificial, than by the usual float and shot system.

A common house fly, used either on the top of the water or sunk by a
single shot, will be found very effective, both for these fish and for
roach, rudd, and bleak. Chub will take any large insect readily, if it
is presented to them in an artistic manner--that is, in such a way that
they can see little of either tackle or angler.

On some parts of the Lea the wooded banks and deep holes afford capital
chances for dapping for chub--a kind of fishing in which a boy with
some patience and ingenuity should be very successful.

No cumbrous tackle is required, only a long, light, and stiff rod, and
two or three yards of medium gut, ending in a foot or two of finer
stuff, with a largish hook, about No. 6 or 7. Running tackle would
seldom be of use, as the awkward places, overgrown by bushes, in which
the best chub are usually hooked, make it very desirable to keep your
line short. If the chub run large (two pounds or more), you will have
to use stout tackle, or even carry a landing net.

If you have a bamboo rod, which is hollow throughout (through the
knots), it is a good plan to pass the line through the middle, instead
of the rings. In this way one disadvantage of using running tackle is
avoided--the rod can be pushed through bushes, etc., without entangling
the line.

Another and more lively plan for chub catching is to whip for them with
the artificial fly; and in this case running tackle is, of course,
necessary.

In the shallower parts of the rivers you will get more dace and bleak
than chub in this way, and very pretty sport it is, only second to
trout-fishing.

When you are trying for roach only, it is best to use a sunk fly, and
to move it up and down very gently. You can feel the roach bite if you
have a delicate hand, but if you find this difficult put on a small
gentle with the fly. This can be seen at a considerable depth, and will
disappear, of course, when the roach takes the fly.

It also forms an additional attraction, and at a pinch will do alone;
but I have found the house fly generally more effective. Single hair is
best for your line, unless you see large chub cruising about, which is
often the case.

In this sort of fishing you can generally watch your quarry, and you
have to be very careful that they do not see too much of you.

It will be found far more interesting than regular bottom-fishing, and
requires more thought and more resource for its successful prosecution.

Among the insects most useful for bait, the grasshopper stands (or
jumps) pre-eminent, but is not often obtainable much before July. The
cow-dung fly has a brilliant yellow colour, which is very fascinating
to roach; and the green caterpillar (to be obtained by tapping the
boughs of oaks) is almost irresistible, especially to trout. The
oak-fly, called also "the up and down fly," from the position it
always assumes on the oak trunk, is equally attractive, and no doubt
would be appreciated also by other fish.

The hottest and calmest weather is best for this sort of fishing, as it
is usually worst for the other sorts.

In case the day should be windy or otherwise unsuitable for dapping,
and yet the season too early to fish the deeps, a good plan is to put
on a very small quill float, and one shot; and, using a No. 10 or 11
hook and a single gentle, to fish the shallow gravelly runs from as
great a distance as you can manage.

The "Nottingham" method is very useful for this purpose. This consists
in using a free running wooden reel, and a light line, and throwing
from the reel. It is difficult, but very useful on open rivers, where
fishing fine and far off is essential.

Of course, you have to fish down-stream by this method, and will
often miss your fish when striking; but that is better than getting
no bites--the usual result of fishing under your nose at this time of
year. Occasionally you may get hold of a barbel in this way, when using
gentles for bait; and, if so, it will not be easy to land him, though
he is not so strong now as he would be later on.

Bream-fishing will be coming on before long, and the early boy will get
the bream. Before sunrise is the best time, and for this fish-tackle of
a different sort is required. A strong rod with rings is useful, and
the gut and reel line may be stout.

If the water is deep, use a long float and fairly heavy lead, and fish
on the bottom with a worm (a small lob by preference) on a large hook.
Put in ground-bait, over-night if possible, and lose no time when
fishing. A three-pound bream can be got out in two minutes, and twenty
or thirty may thus be had in an hour or two of early morning, and,
perhaps, not another all day, though in the Norfolk broads I've known
the bites continue till mid-day.

Roach-fishing proper is not in season till August, and has been
described in these pages.

Jack should be let alone for a month or two yet, and perch are scarcely
in order.

In conclusion, let me suggest that all fish found to be out of
condition should be gently returned to the water.




CHAPTER IX

CANOES AND YACHTS


To speak of canoes is to recall the name of John Macgregor, M.A., the
author of those delightful books _A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe
on Rivers and Lakes of Europe_; _The Rob Roy on the Baltic_; _The
Voyage Alone in the Yawl Rob Roy_, and other interesting works. When
the first of these was issued other people built canoes, the Canoe Club
was formed with the then Prince of Wales, afterwards King Edward the
Seventh, as Commodore. Macgregor was enthusiastic about canoes. When
he contemplated his voyage of a thousand miles he concluded that "no
row-boat would serve on a land-water voyage of this sort, for in the
wildest parts of the best rivers the channel is too narrow for oars,
or, if wide enough, it is often too shallow; and the tortuous passages,
the rocks and banks, the weeds and snags, the milldams, barriers,
fallen trees, rapids, whirlpools, and waterfalls that constantly occur
on a river winding among hills, make those very parts where the scenery
is wildest and best to be quite unapproachable in such a boat, for it
would be swamped by the sharp waves, or upset over the sunken rocks,
which cannot be seen by a steersman.

"Now these very things which bother the 'pair oar,' become cheery
excitements to the voyager in a canoe. For now, as he sits in his
little bark, he looks forward, and not backward. He sees all his
course, and the scenery besides. With one sweep of his paddle he can
turn aside when only a foot from destruction. He can steer within an
inch in a narrow place, and can easily pass through reeds and weeds
or branches and grass; can work his sail without changing his seat;
can shove with his paddle when aground, and can jump out in good time
to prevent a bad smash. He can wade and haul his craft over shallows,
or drag it on dry ground, through fields and hedges, over dykes,
barriers, and walls; can carry it by hand up ladders and stairs, and
can transport his canoe over high mountains and broad plains in a cart
drawn by a man, a horse, or a cow.

"Besides all this, the covered canoe is far stronger than an open boat,
and may be fearlessly dropped into a deep pool, a lock, or a millrace,
and when the breakers are high in the open sea or in river rapids, they
can only wash over the deck of a canoe, while it is always dry within.

"The canoe is also safer than a rowing-boat, because you sit so low in
it, and never require to shift your place or lose hold of the paddle;
while for comfort during long hours, for days and weeks of hard work,
the canoe is evidently the best, because you lean all the time against
a swinging backboard, and when the paddle rests on your lap you are at
ease as in an arm-chair; so that, while drifting along with the current
or the wind, you can gaze around, and eat or read, or sketch, or chat
with the starers on the bank, and yet, in a moment of sudden alarm, the
hands are at once on the faithful paddle ready for action.

"Finally, you can lie at full length in the canoe, with a sail as an
awning for the sun, or a shelter for rain, and you can sleep at night
under its cover, or inside it when made for that purpose, with at least
as much room for turning in your bed as sufficed for the great Duke
of Wellington; or, if you are tired of the water for a time, you can
leave your boat at an inn--where it will not be 'eating its head off,'
like a horse; or you can send it home, or sell it, and take to the road
yourself, or sink back again into the lazy cushions of a first-class
carriage, and dream you are seeing the world.

"But it may well be asked from one who thus praises the paddle, 'Has he
travelled in other ways, so as to know their several pleasures? Has he
climbed glaciers and volcanoes, dived into caves and catacombs, trotted
in the Norway carriole, ambled on an Arab, and galloped on the Russian
steppes? Does he know the charms of a Nile boat, or a Trinity Eight,
or a Yankee steamer, or a sail in the Ægean, or a mule in Spain? Has
he swung upon a camel, or glided in a sleigh, or sailed a yacht, or
trundled in a Rantoone?'

"Yes, he has thoroughly enjoyed these and other modes of locomotion,
fast and slow. And now having used the canoe in Europe, Asia, Africa,
and America, he finds the pleasure of the paddle is the best of them
all.

"The Rob Roy Canoe was built of oak, with a deck of cedar. She was
made just short enough to go into the German railway waggons; that is
to say, fifteen feet in length, twenty-eight inches broad, nine inches
wide, and weighed eighty pounds. My baggage for three months was in
a black bag one foot square and six inches deep. A paddle seven feet
long, with a blade at each end, and a lug-sail and jib, were the means
of propulsion; and a pretty blue silk Union Jack was the only ornament."

After the cruise the author had a better canoe constructed, shorter,
and narrower (but with the same name), and in her he voyaged through
Sweden, Norway and Denmark, Holstein, and some German waters. The
account of this voyage is given in _The Rob Roy on the Baltic_, 5th
Edition (Low and Marston). The later improvements of the canoe are
described in that book, with woodcuts. The full description of a third
canoe for sleeping in during a six months' voyage is given in _The
Rob Roy on the Jordan, Nile, Red Sea, and Gennesareth, a canoe cruise
in Palestine and Egypt and the waters of Damascus_, 6th Edition, with
eighty illustrations and maps (Murray). A fourth canoe was used in the
Zuyder Zee and among the isles of Holland and the Friesland coast; and
the latest Rob Roy (Number 7) ran through the Shetland Isles and the
Orkneys, and Scotch lakes.

$The Building Of the Rob Roy.$--John Macgregor has told us that among
the many who are building canoes, there may be some persons who have
undue expectations as to what such boats can do. Now, the three kinds
of canoes, for racing, for sailing, and for travelling, are quite
distinct in their forms and capabilities.

A long, narrow, light racing-canoe, with a long, spooned paddle, will
attain great speed.

A sailing-canoe with flat bearing, and some keel, will sail off the
wind admirably.

The "travelling-canoe" has to sail, to paddle, and to bear portage and
rough handling.

The endeavour to combine these three qualities in suitable proportions,
without sacrificing more of any of them than can be well dispensed
with, has led to the building of the canoe now to be described; and the
new Rob Roy has been a great success.

The old Rob Roy canoe, which made a voyage through France, Germany,
&c., was specially built for the purpose; and it is described in
the book which gives an account of that journey. A more detailed
description was given in the Transactions of the Institute of Naval
Architects, but the numerous improvements suggested during that voyage,
and in careful experiments afterwards, were embodied in the new Rob
Roy, so that this novel, inexpensive, and healthful mode of travelling
might be facilitated.

The Rob Roy was designed to sail steadily, to paddle easily, to float
lightly, to turn readily, and to bear rough usage on stones and banks,
and in carts, railways, and steamers; to be durable and dry, as well
as comfortable and safe. To secure these objects every plank and
timber was carefully considered beforehand, as to its size, shape, and
material, and the result has been most successful.

In the efforts to obtain a suitable canoe for this purpose ready
made, it was soon found that boat-builders might be proficient at
the cabinet-makers' work of their calling, without any knowledge of
the principles required for a new design, especially when sailing,
paddling, and carrying had to be provided for at once, and the
requirements for each were not understood, except by those who had
personally observed them, and had known how to work the paddle as well
as the saw and the plane.

A canoe ought to fit a man like a coat; and to secure this the measure
of the man should be taken for his canoe. The first regulating standard
is the length of the man's foot, which will determine the height of the
canoe from keel to deck; next, the length of his leg, which governs
the size of the "well;" and then the weight of the crew and luggage,
which regulates the displacement to be provided for. The following
description is for a canoe to be used by a man 6 feet high, 12 stone
weight, and with boots 1 foot long in the sole.

The Rob Roy is built of the best oak, except the top streak of
mahogany, and the deck of fine cedar. The weight, without fittings,
is 60 lb., and with all complete, 71 lb. Lightness is not of so much
consequence in this case as good line, for a light boat if crank, will
tire the canoeist far more in a week's cruise than would a heavier but
stiff craft, which does not strain his body at every moment to keep her
poised under the alternate strokes of the paddle or the sudden pressure
of a squall on the sail.

[Illustration: Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 6, Fig. 5, Fig. 10, Fig. 11 _Scale
of Figs 1 & 2. 1/4 of an inch to the foot._]

The illustration on page 89 represents, on a scale a quarter of an
inch to the foot, Fig. 1, a section, with masts and sails; Fig. 2 a
bird's-eye view of the deck. The woodcuts at pages 91, 93 represent,
on a scale of an inch to the foot, Figs. 3 and 4, cross sections at
the beam and at the stretcher; Figs 9, 10, and 11, the backboard and
the apron; the rest of the drawings showing particular portions more
minutely. The principal dimensions are:--Length over all, A S, 14
feet; from stem to beam, B, 7 feet 6 inches; beam, outside (6 inches
abaft midships), 26 inches; depth from top of deck at C, fore end of
the well, to upper surface of keel, 11 inches; keel, depth, outside,
1 inch, with an iron band along its whole length, 3/8 inch wide;
camber, 1 inch; depth at gunwale, 8-1/2 inches. The upper streak is of
mahogany, and quite vertical at the beam, where its depth is 3 inches.
The garboard streaks, and the next on each side are strong, while the
next two on each side are light, as it is found that they are less
exposed than the others, particularly in a canoe where all these lower
streaks are of oak. The stem and stern posts project over deck, the
canoe, if turned over, will rest on the upper edge of the combing,
round the well, 1/8 inch deep, projecting 1/2 inch, of steamed oak,
curved at the corners, and adding, by its angular position, very much
to the strength of the deck about the well. The well is 32 inches from
C to D, and 20 inches from E to F, so placed that D M is 2 feet, and
thus the beam of the boat being aft of the midships the weight of the
luggage G, and of the masts and sails stowed forward, brings the boat
to nearly an even keel. The additional basket of cooking-things at I
(Fig. 2) brings her a little by the stern. For a boat without luggage
the beam should be 1 foot abaft midships to secure an even keel.

[Illustration: FIG. 3, FIG. 5, FIG. 4, FIG. 6]

The deck is supported on four carlines forward and three aft, the
latter portion being thus more strengthened, because, in some cases, it
is required to support the weight of the canoeist sitting on the deck
with his legs in the water. Each carline has a piece cut out of its end
(see Fig. 6), so that the water inside may run along to the beam when
the canoe is canted to sponge it out. The after edge of the carline at
C is bevelled off (Fig. 5 in section), so as not to catch the shins of
your legs. All the carlines are narrow and deep, to economize strength,
and the deck is screwed to them with brass screws, so that it might be
removed for internal repairs. A flat piece is inserted under the deck
at the mast-hole H, which is also furnished with a flanged brass ring.
The deck is so arched as to enable the feet to rest comfortably on the
broad stretcher J (Fig. 4), the centre of it being cut down in a curve
in order that the mast and sails, rolled together, may rest there when
there is no luggage, and be kept under the deck, but above any wet on
the floor. When there is luggage (as in this voyage) I usually put the
mast and sails under the after deck. The cedar deck round the well at E
F is firmly secured by knee-pieces, and the boat may thus be lifted up
_by any part_, and may be sat upon _in any position_, without injury.
The luggage for three months, weighing 9-1/2 lbs., is carried in a
black leather-cloth bag, 1 foot by 1 foot by 5 inches deep (G, Figs. 1
and 2).

A water-tight compartment may be made by an after bulkhead, with a lid
to open, so as to allow the air to circulate when on shore.

The floor-boards, about 2 feet long, rest on the timbers until, at
the part below C (Fig. 2), they end at P P (Fig. 7), in notched
grooves, which fit into short oak pieces M N, 1/4 inch thick, sloping
forwards on each side of the keel O. Their ends rest on the garboard
streaks, and so lower the heels nearly 1 inch below the level of
the floor-board on the top of the timbers. The canoeist sits on the
floor-boards, I prefer this to any cushion or mat whatever; but if
a mat or cushion be used, it should be firmly fixed, especially in
rough water. The canoeist's knees touch the combing and the apron
boards, while his heels touch the keel. Thus the dotted lines in
Fig. 1, from the stretcher to the deck, show how the shin-bones are
supported in comfort, enabling the paddler to sit for hours together
without straining. But comfort is additionally secured by my new
kind of backboard, shown in Figs. 8 and 9, in section and elevation.
This consists of two strips of oak, 18 inches long, 2-1/2 inches
wide, and united by a cross piece at Y, and another at X, the latter
being grooved (Fig. 8) so as to rest on the top of the combing, and
to oscillate with the movement of the canoeist's back, which is thus
supported on both sides along the muscles, while the spine is untouched
between the strips. The dotted line U (Fig. 8) is a strong cord passed
round all (through a hole in the deck or two eyes), and this serves to
keep the backboard in general upright, while it is free to vibrate,
or, when on shore, to be closed down flat on deck or to be removed
entirely in a moment by unloosing the cord. The use of this backboard
is a leading feature of the canoe, and adds very much indeed to the
canoeist's comfort, and, therefore, to his efficiency. The length
and width of the oaken strips, and the width of the interval between
them, ought to be carefully adjusted to the size and "build" of the
canoeist, just as a saddle ought to fit a horse and its rider too.

The paddle is 7 feet long, flat-bladed, with a breadth of 6 inches in
each palm, which is copper-banded, and made of the best spruce fir, the
weight being little over 2 lbs. The spoon-shaped blade is better for
speed, and a longer paddle is suitable for a racing-boat, but for a
travelling canoe, where long paddling, occasional sailing, and frequent
"shoving," require the instrument to combine lightness, straight edge,
handiness, and strength, it is found that a short paddle is best for
the varied work of a protracted voyage. Leather cups have been usually
employed on the wrists of the paddle to catch the dripping water, but
round india-rubber rings look much better and answer every purpose, if
placed just above the points where the paddle dips into the water in
an ordinary stroke. These rings may be had for twopence, and can be
slipped on over the broad blade. If necessary, two are used on each
side, and they bear rough usage well, while if they strike the cedar
deck, no injury is done to it.

[Illustration: FIG. 14, FIG. 9, FIG. 8, FIG. 7, FIG. 11, FIG. 10]

After numerous experiments, the following very simple plan has been
devised for a waterproof apron, and its application at once removes
one of the chief objections to canoes in rough water, as heretofore
constructed. It is necessary to have a covering for the well which
shall effectually exclude the water, and yet be so attached as not to
hamper the canoeist in case of an upset, or when he desires to get
out of the boat in a more legitimate manner. These desiderata are
completely secured by the new apron, which is not permanently attached
in any manner to the boat, but is formed as follows:-A piece of light
wood, of the form in Fig. 10, 2 feet long and 3 inches deep at the
deepest part, is placed along each side of the deck vertically, so as
just to rest against the outside of each knee of the canoeist, and then
a piece of macintosh cloth (drab colour is best) is tightly nailed
along and over these, so as to form an apron, supported at each side
on Z (Fig. 11), and sloping from the highest part forwards down to the
deck in front of the combing, over which its edge projects 1 inch, and
then lies flat. The other or after end is so cut and formed as to fit
the body neatly, and the ends may be tucked in behind, or, when the
waves are very rough, they should be secured _outside_ the backboard
by a string with a knot. When this apron is so applied, and the knees
are in position, their pressure keeps the whole apron steady, and the
splash of small waves is not enough to move it. In rough water I place
a string across the end and round two screw nails on the deck; or an
india-rubber cord run through the hemmed end, but best of all is a
strip of wood bent across the deck with its ends under two screws or
chocks.

A button-hole at the highest point of the apron allows it to be
supported on the waistcoat. When you have to get out on shore, or when
sailing, it is usually best to stow the apron away, so that the legs
may be turned into any desired position of ease. The apron I used in
this tour had been perfectly fitted by myself to me and the boat.
Several others, a little like it (very little!), roughly made for other
canoes, have, as might be expected, failed to give satisfaction.

One important advantage of a canoe is the capacity for sailing without
altering the canoeist's seat; and we shall now describe the mast and
sails found by experience to be most convenient, after three masts had
been broken and eight sets of sails had more or less failed. The mast
is 1-3/4 inches thick (tapering), and 5 feet 6 inches long, of which
the part above deck is 4 feet 9 inches. The lug-sail K (Fig. 1), has
a yard and a boom, each 4 feet 9 inches long, so that when furled the
end of the boom and mast come together. The fore-leach is 2 feet long,
and the after-leach 6 feet 6 inches, giving an area of about 15 square
feet. The yard and boom are of bamboo, and the yard passes into a broad
hem on the sail-head, while the halyard is rove aloft through a small
boxwood block 3/4 inch long, and with a brass sheave, and through
another (a brass blind pulley) well fastened on the side of the mast
near the deck, so that the sail can be lowered and hoisted readily. The
lower joint of a fishing-rod, 4 feet 9 inches long, is a spare boom.
The tack end of the boom is made fast to the mast by a flat piece of
leather, lashed to its upper part and to the mast, and so as to be free
to swing in every direction; after many other plans had failed this was
quite successful, and lasted through the whole voyage. No hole is made
in the mast, and no nail or screw driven into it, for these are causes
of weakness. Two cord loops, about 6 inches apart, near the mast-head,
support the flagstaff, of bamboo-cane 2 feet long, and with a silk
flag 7 inches by 9 inches. When the mast is not used this flagstaff
is detached and placed in the mast-hole, which it fits by a button 2
inches wide, permanently fixed on the staff, the lower end of which
rests in the mast-step. The halyard and sheet should be of woven cord,
which does not untwist, and is soft to handle in the wet. The sheet
when not in hand may be belayed round a cleat on deck on either side
of the apron, where it is highest, and thus these cleats are protected
from the paddle.

For the sake of convenience the mast is stepped so far forward as to
allow the boom to swing past the canoeist's breast when the sail is
jibbed or brought over. This also allows the luggage-bag to be between
the stretcher and the mast. Thus the mast-hole H is at 3 feet 6 inches
distance from the stem. The mast-step is a simple wedge-like piece
of oak (see R, Fig. 14), made fast to the keel, and abutting on the
garboard streak on each side, with a square hole in it for the foot
of the mast. It may be thought that the mast is thus stepped too far
forward, but the importance of having the sail free to swing, without
lying against the canoeist's body, or getting entangled with his
paddle, which is used in steering, is so great, that some sacrifice
must be made to secure this point. However, it is found that the boat
sails very well on a wind with this sail, if the breeze is strong;
and in light breezes it is only expedient to sail with the wind well
aft, when the jib can also be used. A canoe must have a strong, light,
flexible painter, suitable for constant use, because a great deal has
to be done by its means in towing on dull water, guiding the boat while
wading down shallows or beside falls, lowering into lochs, hauling
her over hedges, walls, locks, banks, and even houses; and raising or
lowering her (with luggage in) to and from steamboats. The "Alpine
Club" rope, used in the new Rob Roy, was found to be hard and "kinky"
when wet, and the softer rope used in the old Rob Roy was far better.
Another kind of brown-tanned rope has been recommended. The painter
should not be longer than twice the length of the boat. Each end is
whipped with wax-end, which sort of fine twine is also invaluable for
all the other fastenings, as it never slips. The painter passes through
a hole in the stem, and another in the stern-post, and is drawn tight
to lie on deck in the lines AY and SY, Fig. 2; the slack of about four
feet is belayed round the windward cleat and coiled outside, so that
it may be seized instantly when you go ashore, or have to jump out to
save a smash or an overset in a dangerous place. This mode of fixing
and belaying the painter I adopted after numerous trials of other
plans, and it is found to be far the best.

The jib is a triangle of 3 feet hoist and 3 feet foot, the fore-leach
fast by a loop, passing under the painter and over the stem; the head
is fixed by a loop over the mast-head, and under the flagstaff button.
Thus the jib can be struck while the canoeist remains in the boat,
by pushing off these two loops with his paddle. To set the jib, it
is best to land. This is much more generally convenient than to have
jib-tackle on the mast. (I have now discarded the jib entirely.) The
sails are of calico, without any seam. This lasts quite well enough,
dries speedily, and sets well, too, provided that care is taken to have
it cut out with the selvage along the after-leach, and not along any of
the other sides. Inattention to this last direction simply ruins sails;
and it cannot be too often repeated that the success of the six Rob Roy
voyages could not be expected if great care had not been devoted to all
these details.

A good travelling canoe costing £15 ought to last a long time, for it
is not racked and pulled in pieces at every stroke, as a rowing-boat is.

THE PADDLE.--It has been said that the use of a canoe paddle must
contract the chest, but this is certainly a mistake. If indeed, you
merely dapple each blade of the paddle in the water without taking the
full length of the stroke the shoulders are not thrown back, and the
effect will be injurious; but exactly the same is true if you scull
or row with a short jerky stroke. In a proper use of the paddle the
arms ought to be in turn fully extended, and then brought well back,
so that the elbow grazes the side, and the chest is then well plied in
both directions. In very shallow water the paddle should be clasped
lightly (turning the thumbs upwards then), so that if it strikes the
bottom or a rock the hand will yield and not the blade be broken. The
distance between the hands should be that of the breadth of the chest.
One can tell a _tyro_ in a moment by seeing him with his hands two feet
apart, and therefore with a shortened stroke or too long a paddle.
Great caution should be used when placing the blade in advance to meet
a rock, or even a gravel bank, otherwise it gets jammed in the rock or
gravel, or the boat overrides it. It is better in such a case to retard
the speed rather by dragging the paddle (tenderly), and always with its
flat side downwards, so that the edge does not get nipped.

For long cruises lightness is the first necessity. An ounce more
or less makes a great difference when you have to carry it with
outstretched arms all day. My paddle weighs two pounds. A swivel crutch
on deck on the quarter is used sometimes. In my Shetland cruise I used
a single paddle blade and steered by my feet acting on a light rudder
by two cords. This plan has many advantages for a sailing cruise and
general work, but it is not good for rapids.

RUDDER.--For long sailing this is useful, and foot-lines should be
used, or a rod to the yoke. I used the rod for sailing in the Dutch
cruise always.

LEEBOARDS.--These may be made of wooden triangles one foot each way,
hung at each side by two corners. The lee one is thus pressed against
the gunwale, and acts well.

CENTRE-BOARD.--When the "Rothion" sailed across the English Channel,
the late Hon. James Gordon used a centre-board at my suggestion, and
his Rob Roy thus furnished held her wind admirably. The centre-board
might come up through a slit one foot long in the garboard streak (not
through the keel) into a closed mackintosh bag, so that when raised it
would turn to one side, and lie flat on the bilge within.

THE APRON.--The canoeist soon finds that this is the most difficult
part of the boat to arrange with perfect satisfaction. I have had more
experiments and trouble and thought about the apron than upon any other
part of the canoe's arrangements.

A full wooden hatch does well for common work, but not for rough
cruising. Now and then the legs need "play," and if the hatch is rigid
at the height thus needed, it is much too high in ordinary times; and
it curbs the freedom for the arms near the deck, being also unwieldy
for instant debarking in rapids, and for stowing away.

The detached apron of the Baltic pattern is wet in use. Side pieces on
deck to clutch the wooden cheeks kept out by a cane across the knees,
and a permanent flap on deck, covering the fore end of the mackintosh,
are great improvements. The Jordan Rob Roy had a sheet mackintosh
apron, with only a cane fixed in the combing to keep the apron off the
knees. For her cruise she had under this apron six inches of the after
part of wood. The loose breast flap and side flaps rolled up (usually)
form a curved edging near the body. By lifting this hatch, and laying
it forward, the whole apron is folded forward of the knees, and in one
foot of space fore and aft. This plan is a complete success; and at
last my apron is all right. When a single bladed paddle is used the
apron is needed only in rough water, that is, one day in four.

STRETCHER.--The form described with a cut in the "Rob Roy on the
Jordan," is a very great improvement. Each foot has a light board
abutting on the carline above and the timber below, so that ample
room is given for the luggage bag, and much strength is combined with
extreme lightness.

SAIL.--Many forms have been tried, but the Club sailing matches have
often been won by a lug sail. This rig is also the safest of all, and
the boom can be detached from a hook on the mast to stow away.

PORTABLE CANOES.--A wooden canoe in four pieces is easily made,
although somewhat heavy. The additional expense is soon saved, if
the canoe is taken often by railway as a box. Colonel Bradford's
india-rubber canoe packs up into a parcel five feet long, and one
foot across. In the Eastern trip a canoe in two pieces might have
been readily carried on a horse, but the Rob Roy, undivided, was thus
carried easily. Berthon's Collapsible Boat Company presented to me a
charming collapsible canoe, nine feet long, and which is very cheap,
safe, light, and can easily be carried in one hand. The shortest canoe
in the Club was the Wharbe, 8 feet 6 inches long. But I have paddled
the little "dingy" only eight feet long, which was carried aboard the
Rob Roy yawl. I think 12 feet the best length for a cruising canoe.

I have designed a cork canoe in three pieces, five feet, four feet, and
three feet long; the last to pack in the next, and both in the large
middle one; weight about 30 lbs.

SUN.--When there is a brilliant glare of the sun, and it is low, and
directly in front, and the eyes are dazzled by its reflection on the
water, a good plan is to direct the bow to some point you are to steer
for, and then observe the reflection of the sun on the cedar deck of
the boat. Having done this you may lower the peak of your hat so as
to cut off the direct rays of the sun, and its reflected rays on the
water, while you steer simply by the light on the deck.

CAUTION.--When a great current moves across a river to a point where
it seems very unlikely to have an exit, you may be certain that some
unusual conformation of the banks or of the river bed will be found
there, and caution should be used in approaching the place. This,
however, is less necessary when the river is deep.

WEEDS.--The ripple and bubbles among weeds are so totally different
from those on free water that their appearance at a distance as a
criterion of the depth, current, and direction of the channel must be
learned separately. In general, where weeds are under water, and can
sway or wave about, there will be water enough to pass--the requisite
three inches. Backing up stream against long weeds is so troublesome,
and so sure to sway the stern round athwart stream, that it is best to
force the boat forward instead, even if you have to get out and pull
her through. Paddling through rushes, or flags, or other plants, so as
to cut off a corner, is a mistake. Much more "way" is lost then by the
friction than might be supposed.

STORES ON THE ROB ROY.--Paddle, painter (31 feet at first, but cut down
to 20 feet), sponge, waterproof cover, 5 feet by 2 feet 3 inches, silk
blue union jack, 10 inches by 8 inches, on a staff two feet long. Mast,
boom, and yard. Lug sail, jib, and spare jib (used as a sun shawl).
Stretcher, two back boards, floor-boards, basket holding a mackintosh
coat. For repairs--iron and brass screws, sheet copper and copper
nails, putty and whitelead, a gimlet, cord, string, and thread, one
spare button, needle, pins, canvas wading shoes (wooden clogs would be
better); all the above should be left with the boat. Black bag for 3
months' luggage, size, 12 inches by 12 inches, by 5 inches deep (just
right), closed by three buttons, and with shoulder-strap. Flannel
Norfolk jacket (flaps not too long, else they dip in the water, or the
pockets are inverted in getting out and in); wide flannel trousers,
gathered by a broad back buckle belt, second trousers for shore should
have braces, but in the boat the back buttons are in the way. Flannel
shirt on, and another for shore. Before me while writing this there
are 21 various head covers used in different tours, but for boating
the straw hat is best of all. Thin alpaca black Sunday coat, thick
waistcoat, black leather light-soled shoes (should be strong for rocks
and village pavements), cloth cap (only used as a bag), 2 collars, 3
pocket handkerchiefs, ribbon tie, 2 pairs of cotton socks (easily got
off for sudden wading, and drying quickly on deck). Brush, comb, and
tooth-brush. Testament, passport (scarcely needed now), leather purse,
large (and _full_), circular notes, small change in silver and copper
for frequent use, blue spectacles in strong case, book for journal and
sketches, black, blue, and red chalk, and steel pen. Maps, cutting
off a six inch square at a time for pocket reference. Guide-books and
pleasant evening reading book. Cut off covers and useless pages, and
every page as read; no needless weight should be carried hundreds of
miles; even a fly settling on the boat must be refused a free passage.
Medicine (rhubarb and court plaster), small knife, and pencil.

$Rocks and Currents.$--Even if a set of rules could be laid down for
the management of a boat in the difficult parts of a river, it would
not be made easier until practice has given the boatman that quick
judgment as to their application which has to be patiently acquired in
all athletic exercises.

But the canoeist, who passes many hours daily in the consideration of
the river problems always set before him, will feel some interest in
this attempt to classify those that occur most frequently.

Steering a boat in a current among rocks is like walking on a crowded
pavement, where the other passengers are going in various directions,
and at various speeds. A great deal of practice, and lessons enforced
by collisions, are needed to make a pedestrian _au fait_ in a crowd.
But years of walking produce a certain power, which insensibly directs
a man in his course and his speed.

After this capacity becomes, as it were, instinctive, a man can walk
briskly along Fleet-street at four P.M., and, without any distinct
thought about other people, or about his own progress, he can get safe
to the end. Indeed, if he does begin to think of rules or how to apply
them, he is almost sure to knock up against somebody. Nay, if two men
meet as they walk through a crowd, and each of them "catches the eye"
of the other, they will probably cease to move instinctively, and, with
uncertain data to reason from, a collision is often the result.

The importance of this subject of "boating instinct" will be considered
sufficient to justify these remarks when the canoeist has by much
practice at last attained to that desirable proficiency which enables
him to steer without thinking about it, and therefore to enjoy the
conversation of other people on the bank, or the scenery, while he is
rapidly speeding through rocks, eddies, and currents.

As the descent of a current among rocks resembles a walk along the
pavement through a crowd, so the passage _across_ a rapid is even
more strictly in resemblance with the course of a man who has to
cross a street where vehicles are passing at uncertain intervals and
at various speeds, though all in the same direction. For it is plain
that the thing to be done is nearly the same, whether the obstacles
(as breakers) are fixed and the current carries you towards them, or
the obstacles (as cabs and carts) are moving, while you have to walk
through them on _terra firma_. To cross Park-lane in the afternoon
requires the very same sort of calculation as the passage across the
stream in a rapid on the Rhine.

We may divide the rocks thus encountered in fast water into two
classes--(1) Those that are _sunk_, so that the boat may possibly
float over them, and which do not deflect the direction of the surface
current. (2) Those that are _breakers_, and so deflect the current,
and do not allow the boat to float over them. The currents may be
divided into--(1) Those that are equable in force, and in the same
direction through the course to be steered. (2) Those that alter their
direction in a part of that course.

In the problems before the canoeist will be found the combinations
of every degree and variety of these rocks and currents, but the
actual circumstances he has to deal with at any specified moment may
be generally ranged under one or other of the six cases depicted in
the accompanying woodcut. In each of the figures in the diagram the
current is supposed to run towards the top of the page, and the general
course of the canoe is supposed to be with the current. The particular
direction of the current is indicated by the dotted lines. The rocks
when shaded are supposed to be _sunk_, and when not shaded they are
_breakers_. Thus the current is uniform in Figs. 1, 2, 3; and it is
otherwise in Figs. 4, 5, 6. The rocks are all sunk in Figs. 1, 2, 3,
and 5; whereas in Figs. 4 and 6 there are breakers. The black line in
all the figures shows the proper course of the centre of the boat, and
it is well to habituate oneself to make the course such as that this
line shall never be nearer to the rock than one-half of the boat's
length.

The simplest case that can occur is when the canoe is merely floating
without "way" through a current, and the current bears it near a rock.
If this be a breaker, the current, being deflected, will generally
carry the boat to one side. The steering in such cases is so easy, and
its frequent occurrence gives so much practice, that no more need be
said about it. But if the rock be a sunk rock, and if it be not quite
plain from the appearance of the water that there is depth enough over
the rock to float the boat, then it is necessary to pass either above
the rock, as in Fig. 1, or below it, as in Fig. 2.

A few days' practice is not thrown away if the canoeist seizes every
opportunity of performing under easy circumstances feats which may at
other times have to be done under necessity, and which would not be so
well done then if attempted for the first time. Let him, therefore, as
soon as possible, become adept in crossing above or below a single
sunk rock with his _boat's bow pointed to any angle of the semi-circle
before him_.

[Illustration]

Next we have to consider the cases in which more than one rock will
have to be avoided. Now, however great the number of the rocks may be,
they can be divided into sets of three, and in each of the figures 3,
4, 5, 6 it is supposed that (for reasons which may be different in each
case, but always sufficient) the canoe has to pass between rocks A and
B, and then between B and C, but must not pass otherwise between A and
C.

In Fig. 3 the course is below B, and above C, being a combination of
the instance in Fig. 2 with that in Fig. 1. The precise angle to the
line of the course which the boat's longer axis ought to have will
depend upon what is to be done next after passing between B and C, and
hence the importance of being able to effect the passages in Fig. 1 and
Fig. 2, with the axis at any required angle.

We may next suppose that one of the three rocks, say B, as in Fig. 4,
is a breaker which will deflect the current (as indicated by the dotted
stream lines), and it will then be necessary to modify the angle of the
boat's axis, though the boat's centre has to be kept in the same course
as before. It will be seen at once that if A were a breaker the angle
would be influenced in another manner, and that if C were a breaker the
angle at which the boat should emerge from the group of rocks would
be influenced by the stream from C also; but it is only necessary
to remind the reader that all the combinations and permutations of
breakers and sunk rocks need not be separately discussed,--they
may be met by the experience obtained in one case of each class of
circumstances.

Fig. 5 represents a _circular current_ over the group of three rocks.
This is a very deceptive case, for it looks so easy that at first it
is likely to be treated carelessly. If the boat were supposed to be a
substance floating, but without weight, it would have its direction
of motion instantly altered by that of the current. But the boat has
weight, and as it has velocity (that of the current even if the boat is
not urged also by the paddle so as to have "way" through the water),
therefore it will have _momentum_, and the tendency will be to continue
the motion in a straight line, instead of a curve guided solely by the
current. In all these cases, therefore, it will be found that the boat
_insists_ upon passing between A and C, where it must not be allowed
to go (on the hypothesis we have started with), and if it effects a
compromise by running upon C, that will be by no means satisfactory.
This class of cases includes all those in which the river makes a
quick turn round a rock or a tongue B, where the boundary formed by the
rock A on the outer bend of the stream is a solid bank, or a fringe of
growing trees, or of faggots artificially built as a protection against
the erosion of the water. This case occurs, therefore, very frequently
in some fast rivers, say, at least, a hundred times in a day's work,
and perhaps no test of a man's experience and capacity as a canoeist
is more decisive than his manner of steering round a fast, sharp bend.
The tendency of the canoeist in such cases is always to bring the boat
round by paddling _forward_ with the outer hand, thereby adding to
the "way," and making the force of the current in its circular turn
less powerful relatively. Whereas, the proper plan is to _back_ with
the inner hand, and so to stop all way in the direction of the boat's
length, and to give the current its full force on the boat. Repeated
lessons are needed before this is learned thoroughly.

The case we have last remarked upon is made easier if either A or C is
a breaker, but it is very much increased in difficulty if the rock B is
a breaker or is a strong tongue of bank, and so deflects the current
outwards at this critical point. The difficulty is often increased by
the fact that the water inside of the curve of the stream may be shoal,
and so the paddle on that side strikes the bottom or grinds along it in
backing.

When the curve is all in deep water, and there is a pool after B, the
boat ought not to be turned too quickly in endeavouring to avoid the
rock C, else it will sometimes then enter the eddy below B, which runs
up stream sometimes for fifty yards. In such a case the absurd position
you are thereby thrown into naturally causes you to struggle to resist
or stem this current; but I have found, after repeated trials of every
plan I could think of, that if once the back current has taken the
canoe it is best to let the boat swing with the eddy so as to make an
entire circuit, until the bow can come back towards B (and below it),
when the nose of the boat may be again thrust into the main stream,
which will now turn the boat round again to its proper course. Much
time and labour may be spent uselessly in a wrong and obstinate contest
with an eddy.

In Fig. 6, where the three rocks are in a straight line, and the
middle one is a breaker, an instance is given when the proper course
must be kept by _backing_ during the first part of it. We must suppose
that the canoeist has attained the power of backing with perfect
ease, for this will be quite necessary if he intends to take his
boat safely through several hundred combinations of sunk rocks and
breakers. Presuming this, the case in Fig. 6 will be easy enough,
though a little reflection will show that it might be very difficult,
or almost impossible, if the canoeist could give only a forward motion
to the boat. To pass most artistically, then, through the group of
rocks in Fig. 6 the stern should be turned towards A, as shown in the
diagram, and the passage across the current, between A and B, is to
be effected solely by backing (and chiefly in this case with the left
hand) until the furthest point of the right of the curve is reached,
with the boat's length still as before in the position represented in
the figure. Then the forward action of both hands will take the canoe
speedily through the passage between B and C.

Cases of this sort are rendered more difficult by the distance of
C from the point above A, where you are situated when the instant
decision has to be made as to what to do, and it would usually be
imprudent to rise in the boat in such a place to survey the rock C. If
it is evident that the plan described above will not be applicable,
because other and future circumstances will require the boat's bow to
emerge in the opposite direction (pointing to the right), then you must
enter forwards, and must back between B and C, so as to be ready, after
passing C, to drive forward, and to the right. It is plain that this is
very much more difficult than the former case, for your backing now has
to be done against the full stream from the breaker B.

In all these instances the action of the wind has been entirely
omitted from consideration, but it must not be forgotten that a strong
breeze materially complicates the problem before the canoeist. This is
especially so when the wind is aft; when it is ahead you are not likely
to forget its presence. A strong fair wind (that has scarcely been felt
with your back to it) and the swift stream and the boat's speed from
paddling being all in one direction, the breeze will suddenly become a
new element in the case when you try to cross above a rock as in Fig.
1, and find that the wind carries you broadside on against all your
calculations.

As for sailing among rocks in a current, if the rapid is long the canoe
must be directed solely by the paddle, and in short groups of rocks
the course to be steered by a boat sailing is the same as if it were
paddled, though the action of the wind has to be carefully taken into
consideration.

In all these things free boldness and skill come best after lessons of
experience, and the canoeist will find himself ready and able, at the
end of his voyage, to sail down a rapid which he would have approached
very timidly, at the beginning, even with the paddle.

But perhaps enough has been said for the experienced paddler, while
surely more than enough has been said to show the tyro aspirant what
varied work he has to do, and how interesting are the circumstances
that will occupy his attention on a delightful river cruise.

$The Boy as Yacht Owner.$--Boys who live near a sheet of water may like
to know how to make--or to have made for them by a carpenter--a homely
rough-hewn yacht. They may not be able to win the American cup with it,
but they may have much fun on board, and it will be difficult to wreck.
Indeed, it is said to be impossible to upset a yacht of this pattern.
The natives of South America use yachts of this build, and even go to
sea in this kind of craft. We do not advise our readers to round Cape
Horn or to cross the Bay of Biscay in a yacht like this, but on a lake
or river they are not likely to come to grief. All the same, skill in
swimming should precede boating of all kinds.

A, B, C, D represent six pine logs, each one fourteen feet long and
eight inches in diameter. The six joined together make a deck four
feet wide. Both ends of each log are roughly trimmed with an adze and
underneath each log is bevelled along three feet of its length at each
end. The middle eight feet of each log is thus left in its natural
state, round and still bearing its bark; but three feet at each end of
each log is trimmed to slope and taper towards its termination. E is
four feet seven inches from the bow and represents a hole down to the
water two inches wide and eighteen inches long. It is formed by cutting
an inch away from each of the two centre logs to make two inches, and
making the length of the indentation eighteen inches on each of these
two logs. The purpose of the hole is to hold a centre-board, which is
passed through it to act instead of a keel. It is a piece of two-inch
plank eighteen inches wide. Next the bow ends of the logs are fastened
together by what joiners call rabbeting and bolting. Fig. 2 represents
a rabbet, and gives the dimensions. One of these rabbets is cut upon
the upper side of each log, one foot six inches from the bow, so that
when all the logs have been served exactly alike, and they have been
placed in position side by side, these indentations form an unbroken
channel across the boat. Now a piece of the toughest dry wood--the
bolt--shaped like Fig. 3, should be made to fit this groove, and should
then be placed therein. At H, I, in Fig. 1 bore with an auger holes
three-quarters of an inch in diameter through the bolt, and right on
through the log. Into these holes fit pegs of hard, very dry wood.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

If these pegs and the bolt fit tightly when they are quite dry they
will swell and fit very much tighter when they become wet. Two and
a half feet further back at J, K, the logs are rabbeted again in
precisely the same way, and again at L M, N O, and P Q. The mast
should be as long as the boat, and at its base four and a half inches
in diameter. Generally it consists of a small tree, a spruce fir, or
something of that kind. The boom, seen in the completed picture, is
almost as long as the mast, though more slender, and it must have a
fork at its thickest end. A lighter bough, with a fork, three feet
six-inches long, is needed as a rest for the boom.

[Illustration]

The mast is fixed at R in Fig. 1, and is secured as in Fig. 4. It
stands in a hole four inches in diameter and four inches deep. A and
B in Fig. 4 stand a foot away from the mast in holes three inches in
diameter and three inches deep. A and B are each eighteen inches long,
and C is a piece of two-inch plank eighteen inches wide, and it has a
hole bored in it four inches in diameter to admit the mast. At S, T, U,
V, in Fig. 1 holes are bored three inches in diameter exactly upon the
middle of the next to the outermost log on each side of the boat. These
are fitted with forked uprights, those at S and T are eight inches
long; those at U and V are twelve inches long. At W, X, Y and Z in
Fig. 1 bore holes three inches in diameter and three inches deep, W and
X being one foot away from N, O. Two feet from W and X should be Y Z.
a and b are holes of the same size over the middle logs of the boat.
In W, X, Y and Z should be forked uprights fourteen inches long. In a
and b are uprights sixteen inches long with a cross piece upon which
to rest the oar of the steersman. Fig. 5 shows what the arrangements
are with regard to these uprights. A little before the mast, on each
side of the boat, a pole runs through the forks of the uprights. The
ends of these poles are joined aft by a piece of one-inch plank, upon
which sits the man at the helm. A shelter may be made with a piece of
sailcloth or other material as shown in Fig. 6.

[Illustration]

The helm consists of a pole four feet long, which is fixed at an angle
of forty-five degrees to a piece of inch plank two feet long and eight
inches wide, as shown in Fig. 7. It will be found that the vessel
easily answers this helm, which is used like an oar. Along the mast
the sail is nine feet long. It does not run on rings, but is nailed
to the mast. The corner is tied securely to the end of the boom,
whose length is ten feet. The boom rests with its fork upon the mast
and is prevented from slipping away by a forked, upright support. It
is an easy matter to unfurl the sail. Take the fork of the boom from
the mast, and the sail collapses instantaneously. Much navigation can
be learned in a vessel of this kind, and it may be that some future
admiral will have his small beginnings in a craft of this homely
character.




CHAPTER X

COOKING IN CAMP


In the last chapter we had much to say of the famous canoe traveller,
the late John Macgregor, and our readers will welcome an account of
his portable cooking apparatus, because even if they do not go voyages
in a boat they will find it useful for picnics and camping out. This
apparatus, the voyager tells us, "has been designed after numerous
experiments with various portable cooking-machines which I could
procure for trial, and, as it succeeds better than any of them, and has
been approved by trial in five of my own voyages, and in another to
Iceland, besides shorter trips, and in the Abyssinian campaign, it may
be of some use to describe the contrivance here."

The object proposed was to provide a light but strong apparatus which
could speedily boil water and heat or fry other materials even in wet
and windy weather, and with fuel enough carried in itself for several
days' use.

Fig. 1 is a section of the Rob Roy cuisine as it is made up for
carrying. There is first a strong waterproof bag about one foot high,
and closed at the top by a running cord. At the bottom is the cuisine
itself, _a_, which occupies a space of only six inches by three inches
(when of smaller size), and has the various parts packed inside, except
the drinking cup _b_.

Provisions, such as bread and cold meat or eggs, may be stowed in the
bag above the cuisine, and if the string of it be then attached to a
nail fixed in the boat, the whole will be kept steady.

For use, when it is desired to boil water, the cuisine being opened,
the lower part is a copper pan, _c_, Fig. 2, with a handle, _e_, which
can be fixed either into a socket in the side of the pan, or another
socket in the side of the lid, as represented in Figs. 2 and 6.

Three iron legs also fix into sockets and support the pan over the
spirit-lamp, _f_, by which the pan, two-thirds full of liquid, will be
boiled in five minutes.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.]

[Illustration: Fig. 2.]

[Illustration: Fig. 3.]

[Illustration: Fig. 6.]

[Illustration: Fig. 4.]

[Illustration: Fig. 5.]

The lamp is the main feature of the apparatus, and it is represented in
section in Fig. 3. It consists of two cylinders, one within the other.
The space between these (shaded dark) is closed at top and bottom, and
a tube _b_, fixed through the bottom, rises with one open end inside,
and another (a small nozzle) curved upwards in the open internal
cylinder. Another tube, _h_, opens into the annular chamber between the
cylinders, and it has a funnel-shaped mouth at the outer end, through
which the chamber may be filled, while a screw in the inside allows a
handle, Fig. 4 (in section), to have its end, _j_, screwed in. A small
hole in the upper surface is closed by a little cork, which will be
expelled if the pressure within is so high as to require escape by this
safety-valve. The hole may be in any part of the annular cover (but is
not shown in the sketch), and in such case the hole shown in the handle
is omitted.

The outer cylinder of the lamp, being larger than the inner one, has a
bottom, _k_, Fig. 3, which forms a circular tray of about two inches
wide and half an inch deep.

The original form of the lamp, which was first brought to notice by the
cook of the Royal Canoe Club, had a detached tray for the bottom, but
now, instead of this plan for the admission of air into the lamp, two
saw cuts are made, each about an inch long. One of them is shown below
_f_, Fig. 2, and thus the lamp and tray are united in one compact piece
while there still is access for air.

The late Professor J. D. Forbes, who used this lamp, says it was
introduced into this country from Russia by Dr. Samuel Brown, and that
"the jet of burning spirit has such force as to resist the blast of a
hurricane."

To put the lamp in operation, unscrew its handle from the position
in Fig. 2, so that it will be as in Figs. 3 and 4. Then from a tin
flask (which has been packed with the rest of the things in the pan)
pour spirits of wine--or, if the odour is not objected to, methylated
spirit, into the measure _m_, Fig. 5, and from that into the interior
of the lamp through the opening at _h_. Next screw in the handle, and
place the lamp level under the pan, and pour nearly another measure
full into the interior tray. Set fire to this, and shelter it for a few
seconds if there be much wind. I used this always with complete success
on the Jordan, Nile, Danube, and many other rivers.

In a short time the flame heats the spirits in the closed chamber, and
the spirituous steam is forced by pressure down the tube, and inflames
at the nozzle, from which it issues with much force and some noise in a
lighted column, which is about one foot in height when unimpeded.

This powerful flame operates on the whole of the bottom and lower edge
of the pan, and it cannot be blown out by wind nor by a blast from the
mouth, but may be instantly extinguished by sharply placing the flat
bottom of the measure upon it.

The cover may be put on so as to rest with the flat bottom downwards,
and with or without the handle. If tea is to be made with the water
when it boils, the requisite quantity is to be placed in the tea
vessel, _n_, Fig. 5, which has perforated sides, and, its lid being
closed, this is placed in the water, where it will rest on the curved
side, and can be agitated now and then for a minute, after which insert
the handle in the socket of the pan and remove the lamp, allowing the
tea to infuse for four minutes, when the tea vessel may be removed
and the made tea may be poured out into the cup. The dry tea can be
conveniently carried in a paper inside the tea vessel. Salt is carried
in the box _o_, and the matches are in the box _p_. Coffee may be
best carried in the state of essence in a bottle. An egg-spoon and a
soup-spoon are supplied. A flat clasp knife and fork may be had extra.

If bacon is to be fried, or eggs to be poached or cooked _sur le plat_,
they may be put into the lid and held by hand over the lamp-flame, so
as to warm all parts equally, or the slower heat of a simple flame may
be employed by lighting the measure full of spirits and then placing
it on the bottom of the upturned pan as shown at Fig. 6, where it will
be observed that the three legs are placed in their sockets with the
convex curve of each turned outward, so that the lid, as a frying-pan,
can rest upon their three points.

The spirit-flask contains enough for six separate charges of the lamp,
and the cost of using methylated spirits at 4s. 6d. a gallon is not one
penny a meal. The lamp-flame lasts from ten to fifteen minutes, and the
weight of the _cuisine_, exclusive of the bag and cup, is about two
pounds.

These cuisines, improved by the suggestions obtained in their use,
should be carefully made with the best materials and workmanship, and
the cost would be about two and a half guineas; or if with tin boiler
instead of copper, and brass lamp, £1 12s. 6d. Many of much larger size
(to cook for twenty men) have been used in Australia.

The lamp above described was used daily in my yawl but the other
fittings were on a more enlarged scale, as extreme lightness was not
then required.

The Norwegian Cooking Apparatus of another kind entirely will be a
valuable adjunct to the yachtsman's stores. By means of this, meat or
pudding after being heated for only _five minutes_, and then enclosed
in a box which retains the heat, will be found to be perfectly cooked
after three hours, though no more heat has been applied to it.

[Illustration]

Since John Macgegor used this stove there have been other wickless
stoves invented, and sold at more moderate prices. For instance there
are the Primus and the Optimus and the Wickless oil stove of the Wilson
Engineering Company. Several such stoves, of which two are illustrated
here, are included in the lists of Messrs. A. W. Gamage, Ltd., and they
are useful indoors and in the open.




CHAPTER XI

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS


For those boys who have the good fortune to live in Britain, few
hobbies are better or more enticing than collecting butterflies and
moths.

The following apparatus will be enough to start with: (1) a butterfly
net; (2) a few dozens of one ounce and two ounce deep willow
pill-boxes, which may be strengthened by a little liquid shellac glue
run round the inside edges; (3) a handbag which excludes the light; (4)
a two-pound biscuit-tin with tightly-fitting lid; (5) a zinc pinning
box, cork lined; (6) some entomological pins in three sizes; (7) some
setting boards or blocks; and (8) a store box for keeping the specimens
when dry enough to remove from the setting boards. We will now consider
these items in detail.

The butterfly net can quite easily be home-made, though, where money
is plentiful, it is best bought with the other things above named. To
make the net-frame, obtain from a dealer what is called a Y-piece, in
brass tube. Then obtain a piece of short walking-stick, not more than
two feet long, which will fit into the lower section of the Y, which
has a broader tube than the two upper sections. A short stick is always
best, because more handy and sure in manipulation when catching the
butterflies. Into the upper sections of the Y place the ends of a piece
of cane about three or four feet long, being careful that each end of
the cane fits tightly into the brass sockets. Then get a lady friend to
make for you a green or white leno-muslin bag net, with a brown calico
hem attached, into which the cane runs. This net should be made just
deep enough to reach with the hand to the bottom, or an inch or so
deeper only. Mind the bottom is made round, and not jelly-bag shaped
with a point, which will ruin nearly all your captures before they are
secured. Before using the net, have the muslin steeped in water for a
whole night, so as to take all the stiffness out of the muslin. It will
require several rinsings before the size is all removed, and it becomes
quite soft. Never mind the loss of colour if green--it will only look
the more workman-like. In using the net to catch the specimens, like so
many other things, it requires practice to make perfect; but when once
the knack is obtained, it should be a rare thing to miss a specimen.
Don't race after them, but wait until the butterfly hovers over a
flower, or flies steadily past, then, with a bold, steady stroke, catch
it in the centre of the net opening, at the same moment giving the
wrist a sharp half-turn, which will close the mouth of the net, and so
secure the novelty.

Carry the empty pill-boxes in the right-hand side pocket of the coat,
transferring them to the left-hand side as filled, so that the full
and empty boxes never get mixed in the pockets. Having safely netted
the butterfly, place the net on the ground, and take a suitable sized
pill-box in the right hand. Remove the lid, which is to be placed in
the ball of the hand loosely under the bottom of the pill-box. This
leaves the left hand free. Then insert the right hand into the net, and
cover the butterfly with the pill-box, holding it with the left hand
from the outside of the net, carefully keeping the gauze tightly over
the box with the left forefinger. The right hand, which is now free,
still contains the lid of the pill-box, which gently place over the
butterfly, slowly drawing out the gauze remaining between the lid and
the box. Quickly transfer the filled box, which should contain _only
one_ specimen, into the dark left-hand pocket. Most butterflies will
at once become quiet in the dark, if it is not too hot. As opportunity
occurs, it is best to transfer them to the hand-bag, which should be
left near, under the shade of a bush in a cool place. By this means
every specimen should be so boxed without the apparent loss of a single
scale from their wings. Only take good specimens--don't be tempted to
get a quantity, but rather go in for fine quality. Especially avoid any
which are chipped, rubbed, or otherwise unfit for cabinet specimens.
It is a great mistake to take imperfect specimens, for they give just
as much trouble as the finest, and are never of use either for the
collection or for scientific purposes. If it is not convenient on
arrival home to immediately set out our captures, they should not be
killed, but placed in the biscuit-tin or left in the bag just as they
are, in a cold, dark cellar, or like place, where they will be all
right for a couple of days or more, remaining perfectly still.

Having brought home our captures we now produce the biscuit-tin. This
is to be used for the "lethal-chamber," where the specimens are to be
sent to sleep, but not to "awake refreshed." The processes of by-gone
times for killing butterflies for collections have been many, the most
primitive, perhaps, being pinching the under side of the thorax, or
that part of the body to which the wings are attached. Doubtless, there
are in the various collections of butterflies, large numbers of fine
specimens which have been so killed; but it is an objectionable plan,
because even when skilfully executed, the specimens are more or less
mutilated in the structure, and are consequently difficult to set out
with accuracy. We are almost certain by this method to break off a leg
or two, or otherwise render the specimen imperfect. Chloroform is used
by some people to kill their butterflies, but it is unsatisfactory,
for it often renders them very rigid and too stiff to immediately set
out, which is a great disadvantage. Much the same may be said of the
fumes of cyanide of potassium, which constitute the active properties
of the "killing bottles" sold by the dealers. It is, however, always
wise to keep one of these bottles in the hand-bag, in case something
very special is to be immediately stupefied. It must, however, be a
good large bottle, with wide mouth, for it is needed generally for the
big butterflies, such as the larger fritillaries, purple emperors, and
the like in size and strength. There is nothing, however, so good for
obtaining perfect specimens as boxing the butterflies in the nets,
conveying them home in a dark hand-bag, and then killing them in a
biscuit-tin with the fumes of _strong_ liquid ammonia. It is best
to buy a four-ounce tightly-stoppered squat-bottle for keeping the
ammonia, which, when not in use, should be placed out of the light,
in a drawer or cupboard, taking care the stopper is tightly fixed. In
buying the ammonia ask the chemist for that with a specific gravity
of .880, which is commonly kept by them. Some chemists will try to
persuade the buyer that it is not safe, so as to supply a weaker
article; in which case don't trade with him again, for anything weaker
will not only not kill the butterflies, but simply irritate them into
knocking themselves into small pieces. Now to proceed. We place about a
large teaspoonful of the liquid ammonia into a little cup, or better,
in a small mustard-tin lid, taking care to keep our eyes and nose clear
of the fumes. Place this as quickly as possible at the bottom of the
biscuit-tin, and over it loosely a piece of paper, so as to let out
the fumes, but to stop the pill-boxes from falling into the fluid, and
so doing damage to box and contents. Then place the boxes containing
the butterflies into the tin and tightly close the lid and leave them
for not less than half an hour, or better still, a little longer. The
boxes thus placed may be left overnight and opened next morning, if
more convenient; but in that case it is best to put in with them a
small piece of damp sponge about the size of a walnut, so as to keep
the specimens from getting too dry. This damp atmosphere should also be
there when the butterflies are stored away alive in the dark, for a day
or two, as described already.

On opening the lid of the biscuit-tin containing the ammonia and
pill-boxes, be careful to keep your face well away, or the puff of
vapour may be very painful. There is no danger whatever to be feared
from the use of ammonia in this manner, but still it may lead to
temporary discomfort, such as pain in the eyes and loss of breath for a
moment.

Having removed the lid proceed in the following manner: First place
on the table before you a sheet of white paper or a blotting-pad. By
your side on the table have a small tea-tray, or other flat receptacle.
Take out of the tin one of the top pill-boxes, open the lid, and shake
out the butterfly on the sheet of paper in front of you. Then put the
lid of the pill-box with its top turned downwards, on the tea-tray,
and place the remainder of the pill-box, _sideways_ within the lid.
The object is to let the air get to the inside of the boxes, so as to
evaporate the ammonia still remaining about them, or the next butterfly
to occupy the box will object to the stale fumes of "smelling salts,"
and probably knock itself about in consequence. The boxes may be thus
all emptied and left to air, which will not require much more than an
hour, or even less, if the tray be placed in the sunshine near an open
window. By placing each box sideways in its lid, the boxes and lids all
fit one another, and do not get tiresomely mixed.

In shaking out the butterflies place them in rows neatly on the paper,
so that you know which was the first to leave the boxes, for that row
should be the first pinned, having been exposed longer to the fresh
air, to permit the ammonia attached to them to evaporate. If pinned too
soon, the ammonia is apt to affect the metal of the pin and make it
brittle where it passes through the body of the insect. The action of
this gas is most peculiar on the colours of some insects, especially
on that of the small heath butterfly, marbled whites, or some of the
blues. When seen for the first time one is horror-stricken, and apt
to exclaim that the specimens are ruined with the nasty stuff. This,
however, soon all passes away as the ammonia evaporates and the normal
colours reappear in all their former beauty. Some collectors rail
against ammonia, using themselves some worse killing medium. There is
no other such medium which will allow of one, after pinning the insect,
to move it up and down quickly in the air with the effect that the
wings are as flaccid as though the specimen were alive. It leaves not
the slightest trace of rigidity, which is of the highest importance for
quick and successful setting out.

The next proceeding is one which requires delicate handling and
touch, which can only come with practice. It is pinning the insects.
To do this there is only one way which permits of the specimen being
afterwards exactly set out, and that is, the "proper way." Any
deviation from it, simple as it is, leads to all sorts of trouble and
vexation when we come to set the butterflies out on the blocks. Take
the butterfly--with the wings closed together over the back, so that
the under side only can be seen--between the left hand first finger and
thumb. Touch it deftly, but firmly, holding no more than is necessary
of the under side of the thorax, where the legs are fixed. Be very
careful not to break off any of the legs, or rub off any scales from
the body or legs. A small pair of curved forceps are of great use in
delicately placing the butterfly in position between the fingers. The
proper position allows of the wings to more than half open, when gently
blown upon with one's breath. Then choose a pin of suitable size,
rather a little large than otherwise, and pass it through the centre of
the upper part of the thorax, just where the two front wings meet. Mind
it is exactly in the centre and so placed that the pin's head leans
somewhat forward when the pin is fully in the body. Pass the pin well
through the body, so that at least one third of its length is clear of
the underside of the butterfly, and all as nearly as possible the same
distance through.

When we have pinned the specimens, we proceed to set or spread them out
on the blocks to dry. In selecting these, say they are for butterflies,
do not get the slot groove down the centre too wide, as is needed for
the fat-bodied moths. Those blocks used in this country are generally
somewhat rounded on each side where the wings are to rest. This is
called "round-setting" in distinction to "flat-setting," which means
that the wings, when quite dry, remain set out flatly at right angles
from the body; while round-setting leaves them drooping at the tips in
an unnatural manner. Round-setting is considered, outside the British
Islands, an insular abomination. It was the style, unfortunately,
adopted in this country with the dawn of the present activity among
British entomologists, and everybody knows how difficult it is to
change even such a simple fashion as the round-setting of butterflies.
Simple as the matter seems at first sight, it has contributed more than
any other cause to the generally shameful ignorance which prevails
among British entomologists of even the butterflies of the Continent
of Europe outside our islands. Because they can only be obtained from
abroad "flat-set," most of our collectors would hardly look at a
"foreign" butterfly; and so the study of the British species has been
blocked for years, entirely from this cause, which fostered so largely
the prejudice in favour of "British specimens." A "British" Camberwell
Beauty is now worth a sovereign, if taken in Britain, although it
doubtless flew over from the opposite Continent; but the same specimen,
if taken in France or Belgium, would not be worth sixpence to a British
collector. Now all this is wrong and should not be. Of course, it is
quite right to know what does occur in our country, but there is no
need for these absurd differences in value of the specimens, whether
taken in Britain or on the mainland of Europe. It leads to fraud,
and it is sad to think that some professional dealers have actually
made more than comfortable livings, chiefly by inducing young or
inexperienced people to pay long prices for "British" specimens which
were perhaps captured in Germany, where they were set on rounded
blocks, sent out for the purpose to deceive English people, because
they were "round-set" and pinned with Birmingham-made pins!

Another result of this insular prejudice is that some species of
butterflies very closely allied to others have been overlooked for want
of familiarity with another Continental species. A case of this kind
was the cause of our last addition to the British list being so long
overlooked. There was this butterfly, quite common, year after year,
within twenty miles of London, and flying over fifty miles of country,
overlooked; all because of our want of knowledge of even the commonest
European species.

We therefore recommend the flat-setting, and if the new generation of
students of butterflies will adopt it, the round-setting style will
disappear in a very few years.

The blocks should be covered with very fine cork, or may be of soft
wood, if the steel pins can be obtained. Then they would be cheaper,
as the cork covering adds much to the expense, besides being always
unsatisfactory, in consequence of the holes in the cork, which hold
mites and such vermin.

Place the setting block on the table, with the top furthest away
from you. Proceed to select the various butterflies from your damp
collecting-box which will best suit the size of the block, allowing
about a quarter of an inch clear from the outer edge on each side.
Then, with the forceps, take hold of the upper part of the pin near
to the body and firmly drive it in the same leaning position as it is
fixed into the body, firmly into the _exact centre_ of the groove. If
the pin will not go readily into the block, make a lead for it with a
sharp-pointed penknife. Do not be tempted to push down the body on the
pin, or your specimens will, on removal from the blocks, be all sorts
of heights on the pins, and quite unfit for cabinet purposes. Next see
that the shoulders of the wings just touch the edge of the block, so as
to place the wings flat, without tilting up the tips. Observe carefully
that the bodies are straight and lifted by placing under them bits of
paper or cotton wool so as to extend on an even plane with the thorax
and wings. Continue placing your specimens until exhausted in number,
or until the block is quite full, after leaving a clear space between
each butterfly sufficient to lift the wing tips slightly forward of
the front part of the head. Then with a sharp penknife, very neatly
cut a thin nick in the under edge of the ends of the block directly
below the shoulder piece of the centre groove. There should be four of
these little nicks. Next get a piece of _glazed_ cotton thread, and
tie a knot at one end. Insert this knot in the top left-hand nick,
the knotted end being below the block. Very gently, but firmly, bring
the thread over the end of the block, close to the shoulder, down the
left-hand side closely into the inner edge of the block, catching it
in the bottom left-hand nick under the block. This will have had the
effect of placing all the wings firmly on that side of the block. Then
carry the thread underneath the block into the top right-hand nick and
over the end of the block, down the right-hand upper side, over the
lower end, firmly fix in that nick and cut off the thread. Great care
must be taken to pull the thread over the wings not so tightly as to
mark them. A good plan is to push under each upper end of the thread
a thin pin which eases it, so as to avoid damaging the top and bottom
specimens in the row while setting them into their respective places.
These pins may afterwards be withdrawn. Next proceed with a very fine
pointed needle to gently lift all the wings into their proper places
so as to get the effect of "a well-set butterfly."

It may be found that the thread is too slack in places to hold down the
wings in proper position. That may be obviated by neatly cross-pinning
down the thread on either side at intervals between the butterflies.

When all the specimens have been arranged with perfect uniformity, take
two slips of tracing-paper, which have been previously cut to fit the
length of the block, and each must be three-fourths the breadth of one
side of the setting block. Then lay one of these strips of paper on the
left-hand side, being very careful to keep just clear of the thread.
All the wings will be seen plainly through the transparent paper and
can be readjusted if any slip out of position. Next place with the
forceps a No. 10 entomological pin firmly through the top and at the
bottom of the paper, near the edge next the cotton. Place another
between the first and second butterfly on the block, and so on down
the row; also, _as you go along_, place another pin between the outer
indentation where the upper and lower wings meet; also put a fourth
pin by the tip of the upper wing. These pins should firmly secure the
paper over the wings, which, when thus treated on both sides, will dry
into the desired position for cabinet specimens. The greatest care
must be taken not to allow any pin-point to enter the wing or fringe
of a butterfly, or it will be quite spoiled. Next very carefully and
gently undo the fastened thread, first taking out any cross pins which
secure it. After its removal gently stroke from the body towards the
paper on each side with a soft camel's hair brush any disturbed scales.
With practice there should not be the least damage done by the thread,
which leaves no mark whatever if _moved at once_ when the papers are
firmly fixed. If they should be left on carelessly, or by any mistake,
the threads will be certain to mark every butterfly, to their complete
disfigurement.

Keep the blocks which contain the set-out butterflies in a dry
cupboard or other safe place. When thus drying they fall an easy prey
to earwigs, wasps, ants, cockroaches, and such like "small beasts,"
which will strip off all the bodies on a block in a single night.
They should not be exposed to too bright a light whilst drying on the
blocks, or they often suffer in colour. When single specimens have to
be set out it is easy to work the thread by putting a pin through the
knot and holding down the other end with the left-hand forefinger until
the paper is fixed, and then treating the other wings in like manner.

It is advisable to leave the butterflies on the blocks for about a
week, though the surest test is to touch the body gently with a pin,
and if _quite hard_, it is safe to remove the insects to a store box
without fear of the wings springing. After removing the butterflies,
pass over the surface of the block some hard substance, such as the
back of an ivory-handled knife, to rub down any little roughness made
by the pins on the surface, where the wings are placed, when setting
any fresh insects on the same block.

Most of the butterflies are easily reared through all their stages,
from the eggs up to the perfect insect. This is by far the most
interesting part of the study. Until within the last few years, when
the writer of these chapters pressed some of his friends to look more
closely into the life histories of our common butterflies, it was the
custom of some naturalists to sneer at "butterfly-catchers." Since
then a wonderful book has been published on the butterflies of the
Eastern portion of North America by Mr. Scudder, and all these scoffers
must feel very small when they see such splendid science in the study
of butterflies. Now, many people, who never thought of rearing a
butterfly, are giving careful attention to them in all their stages.

Several kinds of butterflies are readily induced to lay their eggs
in captivity when carefully managed. Various species differ much
in this--some may be depended upon with certainty, such as the
"green-veined white" (_Pieris napi_), which will deposit its eggs at
night upon a piece of watercress, under the influence of a warm room,
and the bright light of a paraffin lamp. This species, however, is
quite an exception, for, as a rule, every attention should be given
to copying their natural surroundings as closely as possible. A good
plan is to have ready planted in a large flower-pot a plant of the food
of the particular species from which it is desired to have eggs, or,
as they are called by the entomologists, the ova--that being, as you
know, the plural of ovum, the Latin for an egg. Having got your plant
nicely established in its flower-pot, buy a piece of wire-netting,
about a foot wide, and bend it round so as to fit just _inside_ the
flower-pot. By cutting the wire so as to overlap a little, it is easy
to twist or hook the ends, so as to make a cylinder to just fit inside
the pot. Then cover this with very open muslin all round and over the
top, neatly stretched, so as not to look untidy or to stop a single
ray of sunshine which can get through. Having had several of these
cages prepared, they may be used at the moment when you bring home the
freshly-caught females.

The sooner the female butterflies are placed in the cage the better,
for if they remain too long in the pill-box they are apt to get too
dry, and so never recover enough to deposit their ova. After firmly
tying the cage to the pot, do not disturb them when once in the cages,
so long as they are alive; but leave them out of doors, where they get
all the sunlight or rain. If the plant be watered, that is best done
by soaking the flower-pot in water up to two-thirds the height of the
soil, and not by removing the cage. Still, in dry weather it is best to
sprinkle the cage with water, so that the captive may drink, which they
often require to do.

Another way, especially in the case of small butterflies, is to use
large glass jam-pots, with a piece of muslin tied over the top. In
these pots should be a little sprig of food-plant in a small bottle of
water, and also a bit of damp sponge to keep up a moist atmosphere,
without which there will rarely be any eggs. The pots may be placed
in the sunlight in a room near an open window, but care should be
taken that the glass does not get too hot, or both parent and eggs
may be killed. When the eggs hatch, never, if possible, touch, except
with a camel-hair brush, the young caterpillars--or larvæ as they
are scientifically called, that being the plural for larva, a single
caterpillar. Pupa is the singular, and pupæ the plural, for the
chrysalis; imago the singular, and imagines the plural, for the perfect
insects or complete butterflies. These scientific terms are quite easy
to learn, and are the best to use when referring to the various stages
of insects generally.

In selecting females for depositing ova, take those which are a little
worn, and not too recently emerged from pupæ, as they are the more
likely to produce fertile eggs.

When the ova hatch, watch them very closely, at least three or four
times a day. If they are on growing food, do not touch them at all, but
if they require moving for any reason, a soft, sharp-pointed camel-hair
pencil is the best tool to use.

Glass jam-pots are very nice for feeding young larvæ of any kind.
The method is, to change the food daily, taking care to remove at
the same time all dirt made by the larvæ, which is called "frass."
Cleanliness in rearing larvæ is the first consideration, and the next
most important thing is to always gather their food from the same tree
as that from which they began to feed when hatched. If they are fed on
growing plants this does not, of course, apply. Tie over the mouth of
the pot with fine unglazed calico, and over this place a piece of glass
so as to stop, as far as possible, the drying of the food plant in the
jar. Be very particular to supply the fresh food always quite dry, and
never in a wet condition, which is apt to give the larvæ diarrh[oe]a,
to which in captivity they are very subject. Never give more food than
the young larvæ are likely to eat, increasing the supply as they get
older.

When changing the larvæ always count them, or some will be lost and
thrown out with the withered food. The best plan is to spread out a
sheet of white paper on a table, and empty the contents of the jar on
it. Then examine the interior of the jar, seeing that every little one
is out. Having cleaned it out with a clean, dry duster, put in the
fresh food.

Then lift in with the hair-pencil any active larvæ. Those which are
sulky-looking on the leaves clip off with part of the leaf, and drop
into the jar. They may be changing their skin, and, if disturbed then,
will probably not recover. The food should be changed at least once
every day.

While growing, larvæ of butterflies generally like plenty of light, but
it is unsafe to leave the sunshine too long on the jars, in case the
living contents get baked, as will the food certainly. Some species
while in the larval stage, feed only at night, hiding away in the
daylight. These are matters which will soon be found out by experience.

We have never heard of any one having reared all the British species
through their stages, but we know one friend who reared no less than
eighteen different kinds through, from ova to imagines, in a single
season.

$Moth Catching.$--Students of natural history in search of moths
which they may identify by a reference to such works upon the subject
as those by the Rev. J. G. Wood, will find an interesting method of
catching them in preparing "Treacles." The fancy "golden syrups" of the
kitchen should be avoided. Ask the grocer to get common treacle--green
treacle they call it in the trade. To a pound of this will be added a
wineglassful of stale beer and about three-quarters of a wineglassful
of the most inferior rum you can buy. A few drops of oil of aniseed
will improve this dreadful concoction. Do not add the rum, beer, and
aniseed to the treacle at once, but keep them in a bottle apart until
you are going to use the mixture.

With a companion who carries a net, look out now for isolated trees
that have a rough bark. Do not waste attention on dead trees, fences,
nor chestnut trees, willows, nor flowering ivy. In warm, damp weather
when there is no moon, go out with a bottle of this mixture and a
house-painter's brush, "a sash tool," as painters call it, will serve
you well, and a lantern, some pill-boxes or similar small receptacles.
Having selected a tree daub it well with your mixture in a patch about
a foot long and half a foot broad. So pass from tree to tree. Come back
at last to the first tree again. Your companion should hold the net
under the treacle patch for some of the moths that have come to enjoy
the rum and treacle will fall when you turn the lantern light upon
them. Those that do not may be taken from the tree by an upward scoop
of a pill-box, and then secured by the lid. Try to avoid getting the
sticky mixture upon the handle of the brush and upon your hands, for
it will prevent your deft manipulation of your pill boxes. After the
first night very little treacle will be needed to freshen the patches,
but the mixture may be used freely on your first round. The treacling
season begins about March 21 and goes on until the end of April. May
does not yield many moths, nor the first week in June, but after that
you may go round again with your bottle until the end of September. You
may find sometimes that toads and bats poach on your preserves.

[Illustration]

Another way to secure specimens of moths is to make a moth trap. Our
diagram gives a plan of it, that is a representation of it as seen from
above if we look down at it with the lid off. A, B, C, D is a box.
It may be made for the purpose, or a soap box or other case may be
purchased from the grocer for a few coppers. E, F, and G are panes of
glass, held in grooves. H is another pane of glass which comes up to
the lid, and cuts the box into two unequal parts. J is the reflector
of a lighted lamp placed in front of it. There will need to be a hole
in the lid over the lamp, and a flower pot upside down may be put over
this hole. It is best to have three doors into the larger compartment;
one in the lid and one in each of the two sides, K and L, so that two
hands may be used in putting the moths that come to the light into pill
boxes.




CHAPTER XII

HINTS ON AQUARIUMS


It is better to have several aquariums than one. Often the mistake is
made of gathering together all kinds of savage and voracious creatures
that prey upon each other. Pretty as they are, there is no need to buy
the glass aquariums, and indeed better in every way for the inhabitants
is a large tub put out of doors in a place where there is not too much
sun. Clean sand or gravel should be strewed upon the bottom and in this
water-plants may be fixed. If you have any bivalves they will love to
burrow in it, and some kinds of fish love to rest upon a bottom of this
kind. Large stones should be built to reach half-way up the tub, with
spaces between so that the fish may dart out of the light whenever they
wish. If you keep fish that need running water it will be necessary to
put the tub under a tap, and to pierce a hole near the top of the tub
for the superfluous water to flow away. In this case it will be as well
to cover the tub with a net, or the fish may be found to have leapt
over the edge. Boys may make their own net from the instructions given
in Chapter XIX., or may buy cheap gauze or other similar material.

If the tub is for newts and such things as do not live wholly in the
water, then the stones should be built until they come above the water
and so form a little island. For these creatures the water should not
be so deep, and there should be an abundance of weeds.

Freshwater shrimps and crayfish should have a shallow tub or trough,
a sandy bottom, and places in which they can hide. Here, too, there
must be water running in and out always. By these means we imitate the
natural surroundings of the shrimps and crayfish, for they delight
in the running water of shallow streams that have a bottom of sand
and stones. The outlet for the waste water should be protected with a
grating and probably with gauze, or some of the inhabitants of the tub
will escape.

There are many objections to glass vessels, though some of their faults
may be corrected. They trouble the fish with too much light, but if a
brown paper case of the same size and shape as the aquarium be made it
can be slipped over the vessel and removed occasionally when you wish
to observe the movements of the fish. Glass soon becomes foul, and
needs frequent cleaning. In any case the aquarium should be kept out
of the sun, and for this reason a northern window is best. Whatever
form of aquarium is selected there must be soil and sand at the bottom,
weeds, and shelter for the fish. The bell glass is the least favourable
form of aquarium, but even that may be made tolerable if the hints we
have given are adopted. In the square or oblong form only one side need
be glass and the remaining three sides wood, metal or slate. The sand
that forms the bottom of an aquarium should be quite clean. If you have
found it in the bottom of a swift stream it will not need much washing,
but if from any other place it should be washed thoroughly. Put a large
bucket under a tap, and as the water runs into the bucket strew the
sand gradually into the moving water with one hand, and stir the water
as hard as you can with the other. Keep this going until the water that
runs out of the bucket is quite clean. Even now, however, the sand may
not be thoroughly cleansed. Put a drop of the water upon a piece of
clean glass, and when the water has been evaporated there should be no
sediment. When the sand, plants, pebbles and stones have been arranged
in an aquarium it is best to introduce the water gently by means of a
syphon, a method explained in Chapter XIX. The aquarium may be emptied
in the same way.

There are a number of ways of supplying the fish with the amount of
oxygen they need. One is to change the water frequently, another
already mentioned is to have running water and a pipe for the surplus
water; a third means is to have a fountain, an attractive element
described in Chapter XIX.

These methods, however, are mechanical and artificial. The natural
way of providing the oxygen is to secure the aid of water plants.
These absorb carbonic acid gas, and, having made use of the carbon in
their growth, set free the oxygen, which is waste as far as they are
concerned. Thus in a well-balanced aquarium the fish provide the plants
with carbonic acid gas, and receive back the oxygen which they need;
the plants provide the fish with oxygen which they do not want, but
which is the very life of the fish, and receive back the carbon without
which they would die. Water-beetles, newts and some other creatures
come to the surface for their air, and take no oxygen, or very little,
from the water.

For many reasons the best aquarium is a pond in the garden, for here we
may have greater variety of animal and vegetable life, and beautiful
surroundings of plant life too. The pond should be about three feet
deep, and the banks should slope, so that there will be a little spade
work at first. The bottom may be of clay, but it is better for many
reasons to have cement. The points mentioned with regard to the indoor
aquarium apply here also, but many of the arrangements are more easily
carried out in the pond than in the tank.

$Plants for the Aquarium.$--The duckweeds float and need no planting.
They spread rapidly. There are four kinds: the Lesser Duckweed (_Lemna
minor_); the Ivy-leaved Duckweed (_Lemna trisulca_). Then there is
the American Pondweed (_Anacharis alsinastrum_), a weed that almost
blocks slow moving rivers and canals. It will grow either attached to
the bottom or floating. Not only does it supply the fish with air but
with food also. The Hornwort (_Ceratophyllum demersum_) needs no soil,
and gives off much oxygen, though probably not so much as _Vallisneria
spiralis_, a great favourite in the aquarium. Easier to obtain is the
Water Crowfoot (_Ranunculus aquatilis_), and we may mention also the
Broad-leaved Pondweed (_Potamogeton natans_), Close-leaved Pondweed
(_Potamogeton densus_), the Perfoliate Pondweed (_P. perfoliatus_), the
Curled Pondweed (_P. crispus_), the Starwort (_Callitriche verna_),
the Grassy Pondweed (_Potamogeton gramineus_), and the enterprising
boy will find many others for himself in ponds, streams, and canals.
Foreign plants are sold by dealers. For the garden pond the beautiful
water lilies may be obtained. The weeds should be prevented from
occupying too much space, and if the creatures in the aquarium do not
keep them in check by eating them it will be necessary to remove some
of the plants occasionally.

$Sanitation.$--If a fish dies remove it at once, or its dead body will
pollute the water. To clean a glass aquarium let the water run away
through a siphon until only a few inches remain, then clean the sides
with a piece of rag tied upon a stick. Now siphon the remaining water
away, at the same time supplying fresh water. Do not throw a lot of
food to the fishes. What they do not eat decays and poisons the water.
If there are molluscs in the aquarium this danger is lessened, for many
of them act as scavengers, and they are assisted by freshwater shrimps,
tadpoles, and beetles. The shrimps, however, may eat the living as well
as the dead, and the tadpoles, instead of being allowed to eat, may
themselves be eaten.

$The Food Supply.$--Fish eat the buds and tender shoots of pond weeds.
They may have also a moderate supply of small worms, gentles, different
kinds of larvæ, and what are called ants' eggs. Frogs and toads eat
insects, little beetles, worms, grubs, caterpillars, and newts need an
occasional worm.

$The Fish.$--Many of the fish that swarm in most ponds and streams are
suitable for the aquarium. The carp is related to the goldfish, which
is the golden carp. It is quiet and harmless, and will not interfere
with other creatures in the aquarium. Minnows are pretty, and should
have running water, and the roach is another suitable fish for life
in captivity. The gudgeon, loach, and bullhead serve for bottom fish.
Jack and sticklebacks are extremely interesting, but need a place for
themselves, as they eat any other inhabitants of the same aquarium.

$Fishes as Pets.$--Perhaps, writes one of our contributors, the
most interesting of freshwater fishes to watch is the stickleback,
especially if a pair can be kept during the breeding season in a
good-sized aquarium, so that they have the opportunity to collect
materials and build their curious nest in the natural way.

The male fish develops during this season a most beautiful
vermilion-coloured breast, and is exceedingly pugnacious, so that it is
useless to attempt to keep two males in the same aquarium.

In fact, the stickleback is often so quarrelsome that it is not
desirable to try to keep other fish with him, unless they are much
larger than he is.

The easiest fish to keep alive are the carp (to which tribe the
goldfish belongs) and the minnow.

These can be kept for years without much difficulty, and will not be
likely to injure one another, or any other fish that may be placed in
the same tank.

Small rudd are also very good pets, and are nearly as hardy and equally
harmless.

Roach are easily obtained, and will not quarrel, but they are not quite
so strong.

Perch, on the contrary, will live a long time if regularly fed, but it
will not do to put any smaller fish, except sticklebacks, with them;
yet they look so handsome that an aquarium containing two or three
perch and a pair of sticklebacks is perhaps better worth looking at
than one which can only boast of shoals of roach or other soft-mouthed
fishes.

Dace and chub are pretty and harmless, but require more changes of
water than is usually convenient, or they will soon die.

Tench are tenacious of life, but sluggish and fond of lying at the
bottom. Small bream are fairly lively, and I have found them moderately
hardy. They do not require water of special purity. Gudgeons live
very well, and may be kept with minnows, being good friends together.
The loach and the bullhead are fairly hardy, but have little other
attraction. The grayling is very delicate, and it is not possible to
keep her long, except under very favourable conditions. The ruffe or
pope is hardy, like its relative the perch, and might, if obtainable
(it is not a common fish), be placed in a perch tank, as a humble
companion.

The bleak is almost as delicate as the grayling; and the jack is too
ravenous for any fish to live in his company except another jack _of
his own size_. This about ends the list, excepting that I've left till
the last the noblest of fish--trout and salmon.

With regard to the latter I don't want to encourage a boy in the notion
that he can keep a ten-pound salmon in a tank.

Nevertheless, I have for many successive seasons kept salmon for weeks
or months in a small tank; but these were young ones, very young, about
the size of tadpoles, in fact, and not unlike them in some respects.

They are almost indistinguishable from the young trout with which I
keep them. Of course, they are but babies, and they have their feeding
bottles attached, and do not want feeding till these are absorbed.

To return to trout. These fish, when about a year old, are very
interesting, and if a constant change of water can be secured may be
kept alive for years. Even without this advantage, I have kept them
many months, and have found their little ways very curious.

The trait I objected to the most was the habit of cannibalism which the
larger fish developed. I found one fish of about one and a half ounces
with another about half that size half way down its throat.

This makes it desirable to keep only such trout as are about the same
size together. They will gradually, though very slowly, get tame, and
will come out from their shelter under a weed to eat a caddis as you
drop it from your hand. This was only the case with some of the fish,
others remaining as shy as ever in spite of petting.

It is best to choose fish that have been taken by net, but trout taken
by a fly, or roach taken by a small hook in the lip, will live very
well.

I have kept trout for months that I had caught with fly and carried
home for miles. Some of these were from a quarter to half-a-pound in
weight; but I found smaller fish would thrive better.

For food, caddis or other water insects are best; but gentles would
perhaps do, if the former are not to be had. I found the freshwater
shrimp capital food, as it keeps alive, of course, till the trout is
inclined to eat. One of the chief causes of mortality in the aquarium
is the fouling of water by the decomposition of surplus food. If you
are obliged to use dead matter, such as chopped liver, or meat, be
careful to remove any that may be left.

Flies may be put on the surface, and will be appreciated; but the trout
will seldom take them while you are watching, though they will often
eat the caddis as you put them in, and even chase the shrimps.

On the whole, I think perch are the best fish to make pets of, as they
can be taught even to take worms from your hand, and require much less
water running in and out than do the trout. I've known a perch to live
for years in a tin bath in my stable; whereas the trout would not be
happy without a long tank, and continual change of water.

If you have only a very small aquarium it may be better to be contented
with a few minnows. These, with the water weeds and little fresh-water
snails, which should be in every aquarium, will be quite enough to make
it look pretty.




CHAPTER XIII

IN THE PLAYING FIELDS


$Nickie, Nickie, Night.$--Before the period when lucifer matches came
into general usage and were manufactured at a moderate price, our
grandparents relied on the flint, the steel, and the tinder-box to
produce fire. These implements have been very completely dealt with by
various writers and illustrators, who have given us some idea of the
importance they were to every household.

To the student, and to the curious who desire a more tangible
acquaintance, we may remark that a very fine collection of
tinder-boxes, flints, and steels can be seen both at the British Museum
and at the Guildhall Museum of the City of London.

A very favourite boys' game, in the earlier part of the nineteenth
century, which necessitated the possession of at least a flint and
steel, the game being played in the after-dark of evening, was somewhat
similar to the modern game of "Touch." The game was called "Nickie,
Nickie, Night," and admitted any number of players. A boy was elected
to the position of "Nickie," and he could only retain this position by
fleetness of foot and dexterity in avoiding his pursuers, the pursuers
being formed by the remaining number of players. The game was played in
any open locality, and "Nickie" being allowed a start of perhaps thirty
to forty seconds, disappeared into the darkness, shouts of "Nickie!
Nickie! Night! show your light! show your light!" resounding from the
waiting boys, whereupon Nickie struck a few sparks from his flint
and steel, indicating to the others his position; these at once tore
off in his direction; while he, as quickly and silently as possible,
changed his locality to elude capture. Having baffled his pursuers,
Nickie would, if a good player, again quickly chink flint and steel,
drawing off the boys in a new direction; and so the game would continue
amidst the greatest excitement, fun, and laughter; Nickie, like a
Will-o'-the-Wisp, darting here, there, and everywhere, greeted with
shouts of "Nickie! Nickie! Night! show your light!" until, being
ultimately captured, he gave way to a new Nickie, and took his place
amongst the pursuers.

[Illustration]

Our illustrations of flint and tinder-box are selected from numerous
patterns; in many cases--older readers will probably remember the
immense variety of these--the tinder-box was round, and the steel
consisted of an old file stuck in a wooden handle, the flint being
frequently picked up from among the stones in the roadway.

[Illustration]

$How to make a Kite.$--Take a lath, A, B, which should be three feet
long and about an inch wide. One of the ordinary laths used by builders
will be quite suitable if one of the lighter ones is selected, and if
care is taken to choose a straight one. Next take a cane or other piece
of light flexible wood, and bind the centre of it tightly at the point
G an inch below A. Bend the cane into a semi-circle and connect C and
D with string. If this has been done properly the distance from C to
D will be two feet. Now connect D B C with string and the frame will
be ready. Many years ago it was possible to cover a kite with ordinary
newspaper, but the paper that is used now is not strong enough, and it
is better to use calico. Place the frame upon the calico and cut round
the frame with scissors, not close to the frame, but leaving a margin
of calico. Turn this over string and cane and stitch it in position.
This may be done with a sewing machine. At E midway between H G bore a
hole with a pricker, and another at F, which is the same distance from
H as E is. String a foot long should connect E and F, and this is kept
in position by having knotted ends so that the ends cannot pass through
the holes at E and F. This string will not be tight, but will hang
loosely. At C and D tassels about eight inches long may be fixed.

The tail is made by folding paper. Take a number of pieces about five
inches long and four broad, and fold them as though you were making
spills for the lighting of candles. How long the tail should be is a
matter for experiment. Try it with forty and a tassel at the end, and
you will see afterwards when you try to fly the kite if that is the
right length and weight. Attach your long flying line now to the string
that connects E and F, about four and a half inches below E.

Choose a breezy day and ask someone to face the wind and hold the
kite aloft. Keeping the line tight, run a few yards in the face of
the wind to give the kite a start upon its upward journey. Now is the
time to see if the tail is too heavy or too light. If the kite labours
upwards and shows a tendency to come straight down, tail first, then
it may be inferred that the tail is too heavy, and by reducing the
number of "chickens" as they are called in some parts of the country,
and by taking from the tassel the kite may be relieved of its too
heavy burden. If, on the other hand, the tail is not heavy enough, the
kite will plunge madly from side to side and will dive downwards head
foremost, demanding more "chickens" or a heavier tassel. The kite may
be flown in the dark with a Chinese lantern where the tassel is.

[Illustration]

$Rackets.$--A racket ground is in the form of a parallelogram, not
less than fifty yards long and twenty-five broad. Sometimes a wall of
a garden may be adapted by fixing boards and net-work along the top,
if there is space enough below. The wall should be painted black, and
the ground be divided into four equal divisions, distinctly marked. The
flooring of the court should be paved. The divisions are, two close to
the wall, A and B, and two in front of them, C and D. These divisions
are occupied by those who play the game. The wall should be marked by a
broad line of white paint E at forty-two inches from the ground, and
above this line each ball should strike. The ball weighs one ounce,
and should be white. When it becomes dirty its whiteness is renewed
by dipping it into a bag of chalk, so that it may be seen against the
black wall. The game may be played by two or more players. When it is
played by four, one stands in each of the compartments, A, B, C, D;
those near the wall being called in-hand, and those furthest from it
out-hand players. When two play, each player has two of the divisions,
and the one who takes the A and B is called in-hand player, and the
other out-hand player. Having decided who is to begin the game, the
in-hand player nearest the wall strikes his ball against the wall; if
it strikes under the line, goes over the wall, does not rebound into
the out-hand spaces, or goes beyond the racket ground, the striker is
out, and the out-hand player takes his place; but if the player is
successful, and the ball rebounds into the out-hand spaces, and as it
rises is sent back to the wall, to rebound into one of the in spaces,
the game proceeds. In a close-court game the "server" who serves the
ball properly above the line but not into his adversary's court is
allowed three trials before his "hand" is out. The game is, that the
in-player should send the ball in such a manner against the wall that,
on its rebound, the opposite player, or players, shall be able to pick
it up or strike it. When this happens, he who struck the ball counts
one point, or an ace, and the play proceeds until one player or players
scores eleven, or fifteen, as the players decide.

This game may be played either in an open court, that is in a court
with only one wall, against which the game is played, or in a closed
court surrounded by four walls. Sometimes there is an ordinary high
front wall, and a smaller back wall, omitting the side walls. The
close-court game is the best, but the expense compels many to adopt the
open-court game.

$Fives$.--This game needs a high wall, free from abutments, and under
it a smooth, dry, paved ground. A line is drawn on the wall, about
three feet from the ground; another line is drawn upon the ground
itself about 10 feet from the wall, A; and two others are drawn on
each side as boundaries, B, C. The player needs a ball of tightly-sewn
leather and a fives-bat. This has a long handle, and an oval bowl of
wood. The ball is hard, capable of bouncing, small and white. The
game may be played by two or four people; in the last arrangement,
two on each side. The game may be played either single-handed or with
partners. When it is played with partners, the players toss up for
first innings. The first player takes the ball, and strikes it against
the wall with his bat above the line on the wall, and so that it may
fall outside the line on the ground. The other then strikes it, and the
players continue to hit it against the wall, either before it comes to
the ground or at the first rebound, until one of them missing it, or
driving it out of bounds, or beneath the wall-line, loses or goes out.
The ball may fall anywhere within the side boundaries, after being once
struck up by the player who is in. The game is usually fifteen, but is
sometimes extended to twenty-five. This is bat-fives, and is not unlike
rackets, except that it may be played in any open court, and that
another kind of bat and a larger ball are used. Fives was originally
played with the hand, instead of a racket.

$Prisoners' Base.$--Appoint the two best players captains, and let
them choose their men alternately. Next mark the homes and prisons.
Two semicircles are drawn, large enough to hold the two sides, the
distance between the semicircles being about twenty yards. These are
the "homes," or "bounds." Twenty yards in front of these, two other
semicircles, of a rather larger size, are drawn. These are the prisons,
and the prison of each party is in a line with the enemy's home.
Having settled which side shall commence the game the captain of that
side orders out one of his own side who must run at least beyond the
prisons before he returns. As soon as he has started, the Captain of
the other side sends out one of his men to try to touch him before
he can regain his own home. If this is accomplished, the successful
runner is permitted to return home while the boy who has been touched
must go to the prison belonging to his enemies' side; from which he
cannot move until someone from his own side releases him, by evading
the enemy and touching him. This is not easy, because in order to
reach the prison, the player must cross the enemy's headquarters. It
is allowable for the prisoner to stretch his hand as far towards his
rescuer as possible, but he must keep some part of his body within the
prison; and if a number of prisoners are captured, it is sufficient
for one to remain within the prison, while the rest, by joining hands
make a line towards the boy who is trying to release them. When this is
done, both the prisoner and his rescuer return home, no one being able
to touch them until they have reached their home and started off again.
The game, however, is not only confined to the two originally sent out.
As soon as a captain sees his man in difficulty he sends out a third,
who is in his turn pursued by another from the other side; each being
able to touch any who have preceded, but none who have left their home
after him. The captains direct, and hold themselves ready in case of an
emergency, and the side wins which imprisons the whole of the boys upon
the other side.

$French and English.$--Choose two sides in the usual way. One side
takes hold of one end of a stout rope, and the other side of the other
end. A line is made midway between the sides, each strives to pull the
other over it, and those who are so pulled over, lose the game.

Two captains should be appointed, and each should have a code of
signals to communicate with his own side, that he may direct them when
to stop, when to slacken, or when to pull hard.

In this game sometimes a good captain may win even when he has an
inferior team. For instance, if he sees all the boys are pulling their
hardest, the captain of the other side sees that his opponents are
leaning back too much, that is they are trusting to their weight rather
than to their strength. He gives the signal to slacken, when down go
the enemy, and are then dragged over the line with the greatest ease.
If the enemy begins to be tired a united and sudden tug will generally
bring them upright, and once moved, the victory is easily gained. No
knots are to be allowed on the rope, nor is the game won, unless the
whole side has been dragged over the line.

$Fight for the Flag.$--A game played from a mound, and any number
may play. Each party chooses a captain, and having done this, divide
themselves into attackers and defenders. The defending party provide
themselves with a small flag, which is fixed on a staff on the top of
the mound, and then arrange themselves round it so as to defend it from
the attacks of their opponents, who advance towards the hillock, and
try to throw down those who oppose them. Those who are so thrown on
either side, are called "dead men," and must lie quiet till the game is
finished. This happens either when all the attacking party are dead,
or when the flag has been carried off by one of them. The player who
carries off the flag is called the knight, and is chosen captain for
the next game.

$Hop-Scotch.$--A game played by hopping on one foot and kicking an
oyster-shell or piece of tile or stone from one compartment to the
other, without placing the lifted foot, except in one case, upon the
ground, and without allowing the shell or tile to rest on any of the
lines. A diagram is first drawn consisting of twelve compartments, each
being numbered, and at its further end the picture of a plum pudding
with knife and fork. In commencing the game, the players take their
stand at the place marked by A, and throw for innings. He who can go
nearest to the plum in the centre of the pudding, plays first.

[Illustration]

The winner begins by throwing his shell into No. 1; he then hops into
the space, and kicks the tile out to A; he next throws the tile into
No. 2, kicks it from No. 2 to No. 1, and thence out. He then throws it
into No. 3, kicks it from 3 to 2, from 2 to 1, and out. He next throws
it into No. 4, kicks it from 4 to 3, from 3 to 2, from 2 to 1, and out;
and so he goes on till he has passed the cross and comes to No. 7, when
he is allowed to rest, by standing with one foot in No. 6 and the other
in No. 7; but he must go on hopping before he kicks the tile home. He
then passes through the beds 8, 9, 10 and 11, as he did those of 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, etc., and so on, till he gets to plum pudding, when he may
rest, and placing his tile on the plum, he is required, while standing
on one foot, to kick it with such force as to send it through all the
other beds to A at one kick. If one player throws his tile into the
wrong compartment, or when he is kicking it out, he loses his innings,
as he does also if the tile or his foot at any time rests on a line, or
if he kicks his tile out of the diagram.

We give also diagrams for simpler forms of the game.

$Turnpike.$--Although turnpike-keepers upon the roads have long since
been abolished, there is no reason why the game of turnpike, played
with hoops, should be played no longer. Any number of boys may play,
but we will suppose there are six. One should have a hoop and the
others will then be turnpike-keepers. These take two stones or two
bricks and place them about two inches apart upon the ground. We may
call each pair of stones or bricks the toll-bar, and each toll-bar
should be some distance from the others. It is the task of the boy with
the hoop to pass between the stones without touching them, and if he
goes through the five then he turns and comes through them again from
the other side, and so on until he fails. If he touches a toll-bar then
the keeper of the bar takes that hoop, and he who had hitherto been
driving the hoop becomes the keeper of that particular toll-bar at
which he failed. If the hoop driver touches his hoop with his hands, or
allows it to fall he must give it to the nearest toll-bar keeper and
take his place while the toll-bar keeper becomes a hoop driver. Each
keeper must stand upon that side of his toll-gate which is towards the
right hand of the hoop driver, so that when the hoop driver returns he
must cross to the other side of his toll-bar. If he is on the wrong
side the hoop driver need not trouble to pass through his toll-bar at
all. If the boys prefer it there may be more hoop drivers and fewer
toll-bar keepers.

$Posting.$--Places called posting-stations are formed at regular
intervals in a large circle or oval, and at each place a player takes
his stand. Every player, except the hoop driver, has charge of one of
these stations. Suppose there are seven players--A, B, C, D, E, F, and
G, and that G holds the hoop. The other six players having taken their
places, G starts from the station belonging to F, and drives the hoop
towards A, who waits, with hoop-stick in hand, ready to relieve G of
his hoop. G stops at the posting-station, while A runs the hoop to B,
who takes charge of it, and delivers it to C. C trundles the hoop to D;
D takes it to E; E to F, and F conveys it to the first player, G. In
this way the game continues, until all the players have worked round
the circle five or six times. The game is rendered more boisterous
by increasing the numbers of players, and having two or three hoop
drivers. Do not touch the hoop with your hands, and do not let the hoop
fall.

$Fox.$--One player is called Fox, and he has a den where none of the
players may annoy him. The other players arm themselves with knotted
handkerchiefs, and wait for Reynard's appearance. He is also armed with
a knotted handkerchief, and hops out of his den. When he is out, the
other players attack him with their handkerchiefs, and he endeavours to
strike one of them without putting down his other foot. If he puts down
his foot he has to run back as fast as he can, without the right to
strike the other players, who flog him the whole way. If, however, he
succeeds in striking one without losing his balance, the one so struck
becomes Fox; and, as he has both feet down, is thrashed to his den.

$Drop Ball.$--A line must be drawn three feet from the wall at which
this game of ball is to be played. The player must kneel outside this
line, and never cross it; if the ball falls inside the line it is
reckoned a miss. Each time the player throws up the ball and catches it
it counts a point. There are many ways of playing this game.

1. Throwing the ball and catching it before it touches the ground.

2. Clapping the hands after throwing, before the ball touches the
ground.

3. Putting one knee to the ground before catching the ball.

4. Putting one knee to the ground and clapping the hands before
catching the ball.

5. Circling round on one heel before catching the ball.

6. Circling round on one heel and counting 1, 2, 3, or any number
agreed upon, before catching the ball.

7. Strike the player nearest you before catching the ball.

There should not be too many players, for they would have to wait too
long for a turn.

$Jingling.$--The game should be played on soft grass inside a large
circle, enclosed with ropes. The players should not exceed ten. All
except one of the nimblest, who is the jingler, have their eyes
blindfolded with handkerchiefs. The jingler holds a bell in his hand,
which he is obliged to keep ringing. The aim of the jingler is to elude
the pursuit of his companions, who follow him by the sound of the bell
within the boundaries of the rope, for he is forbidden to pass beyond
it. If he be caught in the time allotted for the game, generally twenty
minutes, the player who caught him wins the match; if they are not able
to take him, he is proclaimed the victor.

$The Fugleman.$--The Fugleman places himself in a prominent place,
and arranges the other boys before him in a line. He then begins with
grotesque gestures, which all the boys are compelled to copy. Those who
are seen to laugh are immediately ordered to stand out of the line, and
when half the number of players are so put out, the others are allowed
to ride them three times round the playground, while the Fugleman with
a knotted handkerchief beats the steeds from behind.




CHAPTER XIV

THE GARDEN


$How to Dig.$--It is beyond the scope of this book to enter into all
the intricacies of gardening. To do this we should need a volume larger
than this devoted to that subject alone. Whatever branch of gardening
a boy may pursue, however, whether he grows gooseberries, sweet peas,
or cabbages, he will need to know how to dig. One of the pleasures of
life is to come to a garden that has been neglected or to a plot of
land that hitherto has been a field and to see it gradually become a
well kept garden without a weed, under the magic of good spade work.
It is like subduing an enemy. The simplest way to dig is to take a
spade full of earth, turn it over, and put it back where you found it.
This, however, is only for lightening the soil when the garden has been
cultivated already. You would not subdue an unruly garden in that way.

$Shallow Trenching.$--If ABCD is a plot of land and you are beginning
at the AB end, dig out the earth ABEF and convey it to the DC end and
put it near but off the plot you are digging. Now dig EFGH and throw
the earth from that into the trench ABEF and so on for the rest of the
plot. When you have come to the end of the plot there will be a trench,
but this will be filled by the earth you took there at the beginning of
your digging.

[Illustration: SHALLOW TRENCHING.]

$Deep Trenching.$--The best basis for gardening, however, is a more
drastic, deeper trenching than this. Let ABCD be the plot we are going
to dig deeply. Divide it into equal parts by the line EF. Make the
line GH 3-1/2 feet from FC. Dig out the earth from GHCF and carry it
to X where it may be put in a heap. Make the line IJ 3 feet from GH.
Dig out the earth one spade deep from GHIJ and throw it upon the heap
at X. This earth at X taken from the top is known as top soil. Now
return to GFCH and go another spade deeper, throwing the soil of this
digging into a heap at Y. Still at GFCH break up the soil there with a
fork, and manure and refuse may be placed there. Weeds put down here
would have no chance to grow again. Go now to GIJH, dig out the subsoil
there and put it into GFCH. On the top of this subsoil so removed place
the top soil from KIJL. Go on like this until you come to EB, when the
top soil from AEMN should go to NOQR and the subsoil of AEMN into NOQR
and the top soil from MNPQ into EBON. When you get to DF you will find
the subsoil at Y and the top soil at X ready for the filling of the
last trench. It is important to keep the top soil on the top and the
subsoil underneath. Drive the spade into the earth in a perpendicular
direction and the full depth of the blade. Let the garden endure the
winter with a rough surface so that the soil may present as many
surfaces to the frost as possible. Jack Frost is one of the very best
gardeners, and to see soil before he has bitten it and afterwards will
be a revelation to the young gardener.

$Double Digging.$--The deep trenching just described, in which the top
soil was kept upon the top, and the subsoil underneath, is excellent
where the subsoil is unfit for plant food, but there is a problem
which it does not solve. Suppose we come to a garden matted hard upon
the surface with buttercups, convolvulus, grass, twitch, groundsel,
thistles and other tiresome weeds, then the last thing we desire is
that these should remain on top. You cannot pull up the weeds by hand
because the ground is so hard that you do no more than break the
weeds, leaving the roots embedded firmly in the earth. Before there
is any peace in the garden these weeds must be killed, and we will
now describe how to do it. Suppose ABCD is the plot of ground. From
AB measure four feet and draw the line EF. From ABFE take out the
soil one spade deep, that is the top soil, and put it in a heap at G
outside the plot. Now from ABFE take out the soil another spade deep,
the subsoil, and put it in a heap at H. Now from EF measure two feet
and draw the line IJ. Take the top soil, weeds and everything, from
EFJI and throw it to ABKL--KL is two feet from AB--leaving KLFE empty
for the present. Now take the subsoil from EFJI and throw it into ABKL,
that is upon the top of the top soil you have just thrown there. Now
measure another two feet from IJ and draw the line MN. The soil from
IJNM will go into KLFE, top soil first and the subsoil on the top of
it. Proceed in this way, two feet at a time, and when you come to CD
throw the soil at G and H into the trench that will be left, top soil
first and subsoil upon the top of it. The plot ABCD will now be well
dug, and all the weeds will be deep under the soil where they will
speedily die and decay; and even supposing that the subsoil you had
brought to the top is not good, you may double dig again next year and
so recover the old top soil minus the weeds. Any weeds that grow now
may be eradicated easily from the loose soil, and even the weeds of
twitch and convolvulus may be followed down and extracted. Unless you
have unlimited time and patience to look after them do not be tempted
to leave grass paths, but dig the garden from side to side. Grass paths
are always spreading upon the garden and making the edges weedy and
untidy. If you prefer it you may do this double digging with the plot
divided as we divided it for deep trenching.

[Illustration: DEEP TRENCHING.]

$How to sow Seed.$--It is not wise to sow old seed. Even if they grow
the plants are often without vigour. Go to a seedsman who has a good
character and do not buy seed because its price is low.

The soil must be fine and firm, porous and moist. It must not be sticky
nor dry. The seeds will not germinate until they can have both warmth
and moisture. Sow thinly because crowded plants do not grow well. It
is best to sow small flower seeds in pans and boxes well drained, as
explained in our article on window-boxes to follow. Level the surface
of the earth and make it firm. Water it with a fine spray and then
stand it in the shade for about five hours. Now scatter the seed thinly
and cover it very lightly with sifted earth. White-washed or paper
shaded glass may be placed over the box or pan until the seeds appear.
The glass will keep the air warm and moist. Except in the case of the
very small seeds, the depth at which they are sown should be about
three times their size or thickness.

In the garden do not sow broadcast, but in drills, as the ground can
then be more easily weeded and kept loose when the seeds have grown.

After sowing press the soil well down and then water gently so that the
seeds are not washed out, and the water drains away quickly.

The soil must not be allowed to get quite dry, and yet excessive
moisture must be avoided. Too much watering is a common cause of
failure.

If the soil becomes caked before the seedlings appear or patches be
lifted by them, break it up with the point of a knife, and then water
gently and just sufficiently to settle the soil round the plants.

Do not water seeds or seedlings with water that is colder than the
soil, and in summer do not water until the evening. If the watering of
very small seeds is necessary, stand the pans or boxes in a shallow
vessel of water for an hour.

For watering seedlings use a vaporiser, or dip a hair brush in water,
shake off most of the fluid, and then, while holding the brush over the
plants draw the hand along the bristles several times.

When the seedlings are up, loosen the soil around them very gently.

$A Window Box.$--There are not many forms of gardening that are so
pleasant as that of having a window box. There need be no bearing of
the heat and burden of the day, no laborious double digging, no tedious
weeding, no back-aching hoeing, no hard days with the wheelbarrow.
The window box, too, is not merely a fine weather friend. As you sit
in your room upon a rainy day it is at the window beside you, and if
your window is open the scent from the flowers comes in with every
breeze. If you have a succession of window-boxes you can have a blaze
of flowers upon your window sill at most seasons of the year.

[Illustration: DOUBLE DIGGING.]

The box need not be made elaborately, and though some people do give
themselves much trouble yet flowers look as well or even better in
such a roughly made box painted green as most boys can make out of a
packing case bought for a few coppers from the grocer. You may put
plants already in pots in your box, but if you desire to grow flowers
in the box itself it will be necessary to fill it with earth. Before
this is done holes about the size of a farthing should be bored in the
bottom of the box with a brace and bit or with that more homely if
unjoiner-like tool the red hot poker. These are to provide drainage.
Then there should come between one and two inches of broken stones and
upon this the earth. As a rule this may be the ordinary earth from
the garden, but it is better to add some coarse sand if you have it,
and if in your walks into woods and along the hedges you can secure
some leaf mould to put with the earth so much the better. Well decayed
manure, odds and ends of mortar and lime which the builders may have
left about will all help to provide the flowers with food. There are
so many flowers that look well in window-boxes that no complete list
can be given. Boys should be ever on the look out to find from the
boxes of other people what thrives in these boxes. Each end of the box
should be left for climbers that will run up each side of the window,
and no better plant for this position can be named than the delicate
canary creeper with its pale green leaves and dainty yellow flowers.
Nasturtiums, too, look well in this position, and no better border for
the front of the box can be imagined than the blue of the beautiful
lobelia. Another good climber is convolvulus major. These climbers live
for one season only, but one that grows year after year is tropæolum
pentaphyllum. In the winter the tubers of this plant are kept in sand
and are placed in position each spring. Plants that hang over the front
of the box are graceful like single petunias and rock bindweed, and
for the rest each boy can make a selection of his favourites for the
remaining part of the box. If he likes he may have a number of boxes so
that when one has had its day another may be ready. In the spring box
he would have crocuses, snowdrops, squills, daffodils and such flowers;
then a box with primroses, tulips and hyacinths; and after that a box
of pinks, lilies of the valley, anemones, and next the real summer
flowers and blooms of autumn. Let the plants be watered regularly with
water that is not too cold, and if it be possible use rain water.




CHAPTER XV

THE BOY AS ARTIST


It would be idle to pretend that it is possible in the chapter of a
book, or indeed in a book itself, to give instruction that would make a
boy an artist; but most people have the capacity to make sketches, and
this is a pleasing and useful training of the eye and hand. The power
to bring away a sketch of a scene that has charmed us is one well worth
the cultivation, and in the making of the sketch we see many things
that would otherwise escape our notice. If a boy finds he has special
ability in this direction he should read the lives of artists, visit
picture galleries, and join an art class, where he will be conducted
through the severe discipline that leads him to drawing the living
human form, amusing himself meanwhile by sketching in the lanes and
woods, among the mountains, or wherever he happens to be, even if it is
in the streets.

$Hints on Sketching.$--The drawing of a cathedral with all its
complexities and innumerable details is governed by the same rules as
the drawing of a barn or even of a brick, and these rules are simple,
and are easily stated.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

In sketching we have to draw things as they seem, not as we know them
to be. The top of a bucket is a perfect circle; yet when we draw it,
unless we look down upon it from a point exactly above its centre,
we represent it by an oval. Similarly, when we look along a stretch
of railway line we know that the lines are exactly parallel, but
they seem to draw nearer to each other. The rails of a fence are of
equal height, and have been put at equal distances apart, but as we
look along the fence it seems as though further away the workman had
used shorter posts, and had put them nearer together. If we can see
through a railway tunnel, it looks as though the way out at the other
end were smaller than the way in at this; but we know they are of the
same size. The rules under which lines seem to draw together and spaces
become smaller have been called the rules of perspective, and it is
important that we should learn these rules. Luckily they are few and
not difficult to understand, and we will learn them as we go along in
drawing a few simple forms that shall include them. In Fig. 1 we have a
box, its corner towards us. In the box itself the lines A B, C D, and
E F would be the same distance from each other from end to end, and if
they were made ever so long would never meet, but here in the drawing
they meet at G. In the same way the lines A H, C E, and D F, which in
the actual box are parallel or equi-distant and so draw no nearer to
each other, meet in the drawing at I. In the drawing, as in reality,
the lines E H, C A, and D B are parallel, and would never meet, however
far we might lengthen them. The lines of the brass round the key-hole
follow the same rules. Let this box illustrate another matter. We move
it into a slightly different position, so that we almost lose sight of
the end E C A H. This end, in the language of artists, is now said to
be "fore-shortened." The lines that draw nearer together are said to
"vanish." The point where they meet is their vanishing point.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

We will give some further examples of the same rules of perspective
applied to different forms. The young artist standing before a scene he
is going to sketch should decide what point is opposite his eyes. It
may be some place in a church wall or in a tree, or even in the sky.
However, having fixed it, mark it also upon your paper, and then draw a
horizontal line through it. (Fig. 3.)

[Illustration: FIG. 4. RIGG'S FARM, NEAR AYSGARTH, WENSLEYDALE.]

In the scene we have selected we stand upon a hill and look at a
farmhouse that stands upon another hill. The point opposite our eyes
is the window A. It will be noticed that the lines above the eyes come
down to the line of sight or horizontal line, B C. Those below rise to
it. Lines that are parallel to each other, whether they are roof lines
tiles, the tops or bottoms of windows, meet in the same point, so that
if you get one of those lines right, it is easy to get all the others
right by continuing them to the same point.

From this sketch, and the foregoing examples, we arrive at the
following rules:--

[Illustration: SKETCH AT NORTON.]

Parallel lines, as they recede, vanish to a point.

Horizontal, receding lines, if they are below the level of the eyes,
appear to rise.

Horizontal, receding lines, if they are above the level of the eyes,
appear to descend.

Spaces, as they recede, appear to become smaller.

[Illustration: SASKIA VAN ULENBURGH, REMBRANDT'S WIFE. _From a drawing
by Rembrandt in the Berlin Museum._]

Objects, as they recede, appear to become smaller.

All horizontal receding lines have their vanishing point upon the line
of sight.

All parallel retiring lines have the same vanishing point as each other.

All horizontal lines which are parallel with the picture plane are
drawn parallel with each other, and with the line of sight.

All horizontal retiring lines forming right angles with the picture
plane, or with our position, have the point of sight for their
vanishing point.

We have here introduced a new term, the picture plane. The best way to
understand this is to imagine you are looking at everything through
a pane of glass. In this case the glass would be the picture plane,
and if we could stand steadily enough in one place and trace upon the
window pane the lines of the streets and houses, we should find the
lines upon the pane following the rules we have given.

Many of the rules of perspective are to be seen in the sketch of Rigg's
Farm, Wensleydale, Yorkshire, Fig. 4. The receding lines of the road,
the grass edges, and the walls; the front of the farmhouse is so much
foreshortened that it is possible to see only a very small part of it,
though the building is really a long one.

We have given also a sketch by Rembrandt, and a pen and ink landscape
drawing made at Norton in North Derbyshire by Charles Ashmore.

$Stencilling.$--The use of stencils is familiar to most people in one
form or other. Ladies frequently use stencil plates in which their
names or initials are cut out to mark linen. A commoner use is that of
metal plates in which the letters of the alphabet are cut out in thin
metal for use in labelling trunks, boxes in commerce, with the name
and destination of the owner, merchant, or goods. It is possible that
a very delicate form of stencilling is familiar to many of my readers,
which is used to multiply copies of letters, circulars or notices to go
through the post. The machine consists of a handle to which is attached
a small wheel which has projecting from its rim a series of sharp
points. The letters are formed by writing with this wheel. As the wheel
passes over the paper the points pierce small round holes, sufficiently
close to each other to indicate the letters, while the paper between
the holes are bridges or ties holding the inside of the loops firmly
to the rest of the sheet. This writing becomes the stencil. To obtain
copies, the stencil is laid over a sheet of paper, and a brush charged
with colour is rubbed across. The colour passes through the holes
to the paper beneath, and the copy is secured. In making the metal
stencil plates of letters, ties or bridges have to be left to prevent
the inner parts of the letters becoming solid like a printer's.
Such letters as I, F, J, T, and some others, can be given in their
complete form, though in the case of the F, it would be better, that
is, the stencil plate would be firmer, if a tie were left where the
top horizontal line joins the perpendicular stem. In cutting stencils
this matter of tying or supporting all the interior or enclosed parts
of the composition is very important, and should never be lost sight
of. It is better to err in an excess of ties, than to risk the falling
to pieces of the whole by insufficient support. The reader will
perceive that if the white parts of the loops in the letter B are not
connected with the outer surrounding whites, they would fall out, and
the letter would stencil solid, while if only one tie is given, the
loops would get out of position, as the paper swells with the moisture
of the paint. Instances of these ties will be found in nearly all the
illustrations, particularly in the Mooresque design, Fig. 2. It is the
aim of the designer to make these ties a part of the composition, and
an assistance in the effect of the whole. But cases will occur where
the composition must be ruthlessly cut across as in the Greek design,
Fig. 1, where in one repeat the central portions are shown with ties,
and in the other in its complete form. The restoration is made with the
brush afterwards. The ties should be broad or narrow according to the
strength of the material of which the stencil is made, and the number
of repeats for which it will be used.

[Illustration: FIG. 1. FRIEZE OR DADO.]

[Illustration: FIG. 1A. ALTERED FOR VERTICAL USE.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2. MOORESQUE DESIGN FOR DADO.]

Stencilling is employed as an easy method of repeating the same
ornament, figures, or letters, with exactness and speed. If I desired
to use the simple Greek composition Fig. 1, as a frieze in the study
in which I am writing, not by any means a large room, being about 14
feet by 11 feet, it would be necessary to repeat it between 90 and
100 times. If I had to draw this in by hand, and laboriously paint
it, probably the enthusiasm for art which projected the scheme would
be frittered away long before I completed it, and I should throw it
up in disgust and call in the paperhanger to put on the usual wall
furnishing. But if the design were cut out in stencil, it would take
but little if any longer to stencil the frieze than it would for the
hanger to paper it, and the scheme being carried out in the other
details, I should have the satisfaction and enjoyment of a room
specially decorated to suit my own taste, and unique according to the
originality of the design.

[Illustration: FIG. 3. FRIEZE: SILVERWEED, FROG.]

[Illustration: AND TOAD.]

In the article on the use of leaves which follows, it is suggested
that the forms of leaves to be met with in the field, hedgerow or
wood, are peculiarly adapted to ornamental purposes, stencilling in
decoration of the home among others. But this use of natural forms in
ornament requires taste and consideration. To stick a leaf here and
another there, without a purpose or design in the composition, is not
ornament. I propose, with the aid of the printer, to give an idea
of the principles which govern the making of designs. The first one
is _repetition_. To use a star thus * singly, is not ornament. Place
a number of stars side by side at regular distances between parallel
lines thus:--

  ================================

  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

  ================================

and you have a design, elementary, it is true, but as far as it goes
decorative. In place of the star put a clover leaf, a conventional
flower such as is used in Fig. 3, or a briar leaf laid slanting to the
right or left, and you have a border which may be used for a light
frieze or the top of a dado. Arrange the stars in parallel rows thus:--

  *     *     *     *     *     *     *
     *     *     *     *     *     *
  *     *     *     *     *     *     *
     *     *     *     *     *     *

so that each star falls midway between the star above and below, and
you have the elements of a design such as is very commonly used in
wall-papers, prints, and nearly all forms of decoration under the name
of diaper patterns. Again, in place of the star put some other form,
as an ivy leaf or a small spray. But in this class of design we shall
not be much concerned in room decoration, as they are only used for
large panels. Another principle in ornament is _alternation_. It may be
illustrated thus:--

  ====================================================
   ||    *    ||    *    ||    *    ||    *    ||   *
  ====================================================

in which parallel lines alternate with stars. This composition is not
more crude than much of what passes for decoration at the present
time. For our immediate purpose let a shapely leaf take the place of
the upright lines and a flower the place of the star, and you have a
more advanced border, and if the masses are well balanced and drawn,
one agreeable to the eye. I think the printer can illustrate another
principle of design for us in _symmetry_ thus:--

  ===========================================
   *    !    *    !    *    !    *    !    *
       !=!       !=!       !=!       !=!
   *    -    *    -    *    -    *    -    *
  ===========================================

in which three exclamation marks are placed side by side at different
levels, with parallel lines and a hyphen below, alternating with stars.
Or a simpler form still of the same principle may be given thus:--

  =====================================================
        +         +         +         +         +
   *    |    *    |    *    |    *    |    *    |    *
        +         +         +         +         +
  =====================================================

in which the double dagger alternates with a star. If you draw a
perpendicular line up the central exclamation mark or the daggers, the
right and left sides will be found to be alike or symmetrical. In
place of the daggers or the exclamation marks, draw the leaves of the
wild rose, one in the centre and one inclining to the right, another
to the left; put a flower in place of the parallel lines, and you will
have a symmetrical composition, the stalks being prolonged below. This
principle of design is clearly shown in the two designs, Figs. 1 and
1a. A perpendicular line divides the designs into two equal parts.
This is two-sided symmetry, what we are more particularly concerned
with. Another principle in ornament is _balance_ of _parts_. This is
symmetry of another order, in which the two sides of the composition,
although different in all the details, yet preserve the same weight
or balance. The general effect is the same. This is illustrated in
Fig. 3, which is a design for a frieze. In no place could a line be
drawn which would divide the composition into two similar parts, but
by the disposition of the leaves of the silverweed there is an equal
distribution of weight on either side of the design. This balance
of parts is important to preserve when the design departs from the
symmetrical in its arrangements. It makes all the difference between
a pleasing and unsatisfactory composition, and is not to be acquired
without considerable practice. The chrysanthemum design, Fig. 6, is
an illustration of this principle. It is designed for the panels of a
door, or the sides of a grate, or to go round a door in the form of a
vertical border, but in every case where it can be placed in pairs with
the flowers away from the centre, to be done by reversing the stencil.

[Illustration: FIG. 4. DADO OR FRIEZE: OAK AND SQUIRRELS.]

Having thus cleared the ground for practical work, we can describe the
way to make stencils. For our purpose the best material for the stencil
is the oiled paper used in the letter-copying press. This will be found
strong, hard, and non-absorbent. It is comparatively cheap and can be
purchased at most stationers. In cases in which this paper would not
be large enough, which may happen in some of the running patterns,
cartridge paper, or better still, hot-pressed Whatman's, if coated on
both sides with knotting varnish (to be procured at any oilman's shop),
would do very well. For smaller subjects, which are not required for
more than a score repeats, ordinary note paper, the highly polished
kind that crackles like sheet iron when bent is excellent, and has been
largely used by the writer. The knife used is one with a blade that
runs to a sharp point. This point must be kept with a keen edge, so
that one cut will go through the paper, leaving a clear edge. Hold the
blade of the knife at right angles to the paper, which must rest upon
a clean sheet of glass. If cut upon any yielding surface, the paper
will bruise. A hone should be close at hand to keep a good edge to
the knife. It is important to get a clean, square cut, with no ragged
margins.

To get the drawing on the paper, first make a rough sketch giving
the size and general character of the design on ordinary sketching
paper. If the design is symmetrical, _i.e._, both sides alike, rule a
perpendicular line. Draw as clearly and carefully as possible one-half
the composition, that is all that will appear on the left-hand side
of the line. When you are satisfied with this, place a piece of
looking-glass exactly on the vertical line; you will see the image of
your drawing in the glass, but in reverse, thus completing the design.
If looking-glass is not available, a coat of Brunswick black on one
side of any piece of glass will give you a sufficiently good reflector.
Probably you will not be altogether satisfied with the drawing as shown
complete in the glass. The lines are not agreeable ones, or pretty in
curve, or the balance of the parts is not quite as you would like it.
Make the alterations you feel necessary, and apply the glass again.
When satisfied, place tracing-paper over the drawing. This may be
fastened down by drawing-pins, a touch of gum, or pieces of the free
edge of postage-stamps. Indicate carefully by clear marks the position
of the vertical line, and proceed to draw a firm outline of the design,
with, say, an F pencil or an HB. When done, remove the tracing-paper
and fold it exactly down the vertical line, with the pencil drawing
outside. Double it, in fact. Then placing it on a sheet of white paper,
draw the other half, thus completing the design. Put it, pencilled
side downwards, on the oil paper or note-paper, and rub off with your
thumb nail. Go over the design, marking all the ties very distinctly.
Then cut out as before, taking care not to cut through the ties. In
practice you will find it best to begin cutting at the ties; the paper
will readily spin round on the glass so that you can follow the curves
of the design with your knife. Should you cut through a tie, it must
be made good. Cut off a slip of paper of the same size, put on some of
the knotting, and when it is tacky, stick down the strengthening slip.
The stencil may include more than one repeat of the pattern, the more
repeats there are the quicker the work can be done. Some decorators
in making stencils do rather more than they intend to use when
stencilling, so that parts overlap, which is done to get the repeat
true. I find it better, more exact, to work from two lines on the
stencil, one a horizontal line and another a vertical line. By using
a needle point (a needle in a wood handle), I rule a horizontal line
upon the wall in the position the horizontal line on the stencil should
fall. This is altogether indistinguishable when the work is finished.
Then, vertically to this line, with the same point, I indicate where
the repeats should fall, and then go ahead. It is a considerable help
to get a friend to join in the work, as he can assist in holding the
stencil on the surface to be decorated, giving you more freedom in the
use of the right hand. If working alone the stencil is held with the
left hand while the colour is applied with the free hand. The straight
lines are not stencilled, they are run on by the help of a bevelled
straight-edge. The position of these lines is indicated by ruling as
above or by twanging a piece of string charged with charcoal dust in
the position required.

[Illustration: FIG. 5. RUNNING BORDER.]

In decorating your room, the first point to be decided is to what
extent and where you will apply the work. If cost is not a great
consideration, undoubtedly the best thing to do is to paint the wall
over with a pleasing tone in oil colours. A frieze running round the
room immediately under the moulding, the depth being according to the
height of the room; a dado running round the bottom of the walls, high
enough to clear the top of the chair-backs: and if the room is large
enough, the division of the room into panels by ornamental columns at
the corners, and appropriate divisions. A border may be run round the
doors and the sides of the fireplace may receive separate attention
if there are surfaces suitable for stencilling. But it is usual to
apply this system of decoration to distempered walls, in which case
the decoration to be applied would probably be above the dado (which
would be papered in some richly decorated pattern), a frieze under the
ceiling, and a border round the door. In mixing the distemper (whiting
and size), powder colours are used to get the tone desired. This will
vary with the taste of the reader, the use the room is put to, and the
aspect, whether on the shady or sunny side of the house. Do not let it
be too dark, or muddy in tone: a cheerful terra-cotta, with a dash of
amber in it, if on the shady side; or some tone of sage green, French
grey, or peacock blue, if on the sunny side. Perhaps the best way is
to keep your eyes open when passing some decorator's establishment,
or buying the paper for the dado, and fix upon the tone of colour
you would like. Then mix some harmonizing tints which will go well
with the wall colour for your stencil work. You will find that if you
decide upon stencilling in dark tones upon light, that it will be
more pleasing to get these richer, that is more pure, than the ground
colour. The three rich or primary colours are red, blue, and yellow.
In mixing your stencil colours, approach these in purity, according to
the tone used. These powder colours are obtained by ounces or pounds
at colourmen's shops. The first thought to the beginner, if he wishes
to darken a tone, is to put black (lamp-black) in. In practice this
must be used sparingly. Rather get your strength of tint by using pure
colours. With distemper colours, you will find that they are much
darker wet than dry. If you wish to employ more colours than one, each
colour should have a separate stencil.

[Illustration: FIG. 6. PILASTER: CHRYSANTHEMUMS.]

Having made your stencils, fixed upon and mixed your colours, and
indicated the position of the repeats, the next step is the direct
application of the colour. This is usually done with flat-headed
hog-hair brushes, about 3/4 of an inch across, specially made for
the purpose. With your palette knife spread out a thin film of the
colour on the palette, which may be the back of a plate, or a glazed
tile, charge the flat end of the brush with it, and bring it down
perpendicularly upon the stencil. Don't overcharge the brush. If the
pattern is irregular in its details, do every other one with one side
of the stencil, and then having been round, wash off the colour from
the stencil, and turn it round and do the intervening repeats. The
lines are put on with a smaller brush, using the bevelled side of the
straight-edge to guide the hand, using more pressure for a broad line,
and charging the brush heavily with colour. Brushes specially made
for lining, known as Fitch hair tools, cost, according to size, from
1-1/2d. to 5d. each. Stencilling brushes cost only a few pence.

The method of producing designs, stencils, and using the stencils is
employed in the production of designs for paper-hangings, carpets,
floor cloths, damasks and most flat manufactured materials, except
that the white used is flake-white, and the colours are mixed with gum
and water. The colours are known in the trade as tempera colours.
The ground is laid evenly upon strained cartridge paper, and absolute
flatness of tint in working out the design may be gained by using
stencils. In making irregular designs, that is designs which are not
symmetrical, the whole composition has to be drawn and traced.

In decorating a room, there is a very considerable range of choice in
the styles available, some idea of which is given in the accompanying
designs, from the purely ornamental ones of Figs. 1 and 2 to the
natural treatment of Figs. 4 and 6. The design suitable for the top
of a dado as Fig. 1 would, with a slight modification, equally suit
the frieze of a room, as both are horizontal treatments; but for
perpendicular applications, the designs should be redrawn. Some idea
of the fresh treatment required is given in Fig. 1a, where the parts
of the composition have been re-arranged to suit a vertical position.
Should it be desired to adopt two colours, the principle to be acted
upon is to make the smaller masses darker tones, and more intense
colours, the larger the mass, the lighter and more neutral the tone
should be. Fig. 4 is equally adapted for a frieze or dado top. It
is designed in squares, so that by a re-arrangement of the squares,
_i.e._, by placing the squirrel squares under the oak-leaf squares, it
can be made suitable for a vertical treatment, or for the body of the
dado. In designing such patterns as Fig. 6, where again two or more
colours may well be used, care should be taken that the repeats fit
well in with one another, so that no ugly spaces are left unfurnished,
as decorators say, and also to prevent the recurrence of horizontal or
diagonal lines. This is a failure with many commercial designs and is a
fault very distressing to the eye.

$How a Portrait Bust is Made.$--The chief work of the sculptor consists
in working in clay; therein lies the main portion of his art, and there
are those at the head of their profession who rarely handle a chisel,
and then only to give a final touch here and there after their carver
has finished his work. Moreover, there are many more busts made in
bronze and in terra-cotta than in marble; but the initial procedure of
building up is the same in all cases.

The first thing a sculptor does in setting about a bust is to fix a
square, upright peg, or support, about twenty inches in length, into
a wooden platform eighteen inches square. The platform, in order to
prevent warping, should be made of two pieces of board so joined as to
have the grain of the one running transverse to the other. The peg is
generally furnished with a bar, like a Latin cross, and is provided at
the top with what is called an armature, that is, two pieces of lead
piping looped over the peg from side to side, so as to form, as it
were, the outline of a head. The ends of one piece are nailed to either
side of the top of the peg, and the ends of the other to the back and
front of it; or the armature may consist (as some sculptors prefer that
it should) of a "loop" of lead-piping, fixed to a large nail, with what
is called a "butterfly" attached (see illustration). The transverse, or
crosspiece, is fitted into a slot cut in the upright, and is intended
to support the shoulders of the bust, the armature serving as the
skeleton, so to speak, of the head. Being made of lead, the armature
can be bent this way and that, and twisted about, even after it has
been covered with clay. This is a very important matter, as a portrait
frequently consists as much in a characteristic pose of the head as
in the exact representation of features, and the peculiarity or habit
of the one whose bust is to be made cannot always be perceived at the
first sitting, everybody attitudinising more or less at first when
about to have a likeness taken. But after a while the sitter is sure to
forget himself; then the natural pose comes, and the sculptor flexes
his armature this way or that, and secures the right expression, in so
far as the turn or "cant" of the head is concerned.

[Illustration: HOW A BUST IS MADE.]

Having thus prepared his skeleton, the sculptor is now ready to begin
with the more important matter of modelling. But first of all he has to
see that his clay is all right. The clay commonly used for this purpose
is the china clay of the potter; but at a pinch any clay will do, and I
know of more than one sculptor who, in his impecunious days, has been
obliged to turn to the common clay of the brick-field. The essential
thing is that it should not be rotten and friable, but rather elastic,
spreading easily and cohering well. When the clay is too dry it is
put in water over night. In the morning it is in such a state that it
may be passed through a coarse sieve, and so the rough particles be got
rid of. Then, when it has dried until of the consistency of putty, it
is ready for use.

The sculptor now takes four or five largish lumps and rolls them with
his hands into long strips, from half to three-quarters of a foot in
length, and of the thickness of a good-sized ruler. He then takes
portions of these strips and applies them bit by bit to the armature
and the transverse bar, thus gradually building up the general shape of
the head and shoulders. Care has to be taken from the first to have an
eye to the features and contour of the head that is being modelled. It
is not necessary that the model should keep seated in the same attitude
all the time. If required to do so, he or she, as the case may be, is
apt to acquire a very stiff pose, with the result that the stiffness
may be transferred to the bust. The best way is to let the sitter
converse freely, and assume a natural position. By this means the
habitual expression is seized, and a good likeness is more likely to be
the result.

When a general rough outline of the head has been secured, it is then
time to begin to work for exactitude of feature and facial expression.
This the artist does by putting on a bit here, and taking off a bit
there. All this is done with the fingers and thumb. Occasionally it may
be necessary to use a tool, but rarely. The best sculptors work mainly
with the instrument nature has provided them withal, the hands. With
his fingers the artist has more freedom in handling his material, and
in communicating to it that life-like expression which is the aim and
object of his art. No tool yet invented by man enables him to enjoy
such fineness of touch, or to give so much breadth or such delicacy of
detail to his work, as that which he naturally commands in the use of
his fingers.

Of course, a bust is not modelled in an hour, nor in a day. A good
sculptor will finish one in four or five sittings of an hour or an
hour and a half each; others will require a dozen or more. Everything
depends upon the facility of the artist in seizing upon expression.
This will be the difficult point with the beginner. He may, after a
while, get the general outline of the head and face of his sitter and
feel utterly helpless to go further. But then is the time to exercise
patience. Michael Angelo did not become a sculptor in a day, nor
yet in a year. When the tyro feels that he cannot go further, it is
generally because he does not see further. Of course, he sees that his
portrait is not like; but he has not yet learned to see in detail,
in minutiae. That he must now begin to do by observing every little
point, depression, curve, wrinkle, wart, hair, and so forth. And then,
what his mind has learned to take note of, his hand will soon learn to
imitate.

All the time the work is in progress the clay must be kept moist,
otherwise it will crack and fall to pieces. This is commonly done by
spraying it with a garden syringe, and covering it over at night with
wet cloths.

When the bust is finished, if it has to be cast in bronze, or
reproduced in marble, a cast of it is taken in plaster of Paris; but
if it is intended to fire it, and make a terra-cotta bust of it, the
operation of hollowing it is necessary. This is effected by slicing off
the crown of the head with a piece of thin wire or thread, and then
scooping out the inside until a uniform thickness of about an inch and
a half is left. When this is done the bust will be easily freed from
its peg, and the armature attached to it. The next thing is to set it
aside to dry. This takes some time, and only when it is quite free
from all moisture is it ready to be taken to the kiln to bake or fire.
The kiln in which it is fired is the ordinary one of the potter. This
having been done, the work is complete.

If the bust has to be reproduced in bronze, the plaster cast must be
taken to the bronze casters, where the transformation will be effected.
The process of making an exact reproduction in marble is generally done
by the sculptor himself, or by his assistant, and is more or less a
mere mechanical operation, the carvers working by points, as they are
called, mathematically accurate, by means of which he is enabled to
make an exact copy of the cast. When this is done the sculptor goes
over it carefully with his chisel and gives some final touches by way
of finish, and to add to the vividness and life-likeness, so to speak,
of expression.

$How to Use Leaves.$--There is one desirable quality in the hobby I
am about to recommend boys, and that is its inexpensive character.
A quarter of a yard of nainsook muslin, a tube or two of oil paint,
a good-sized handful of lint or cotton wool, two or three sheets of
foolscap, and as many of cartridge paper, and you are set up for any
number of wet days or vacant half-holidays. The leaves can be obtained
free of cost, anywhere and at any time, winter or summer, and in any
number. Ivy leaves do well, leaves of the black or red currant or
gooseberry bushes are better, and the flowering currant better still.
Brambles, lime, and plane trees which grow everywhere, and most trees
or bushes except holly, will give you excellent subjects. Some boys
know how to keep in the good graces of the housekeeper, and would
"borrow" the muslin from her. (Say you would like it fine.) Probably
one of your sisters paints a bit, and would lend you the burnt sienna
tube (oil colour) upon the same terms; of course, the wool or lint you
would get from the housekeeper with the muslin; while an application
to the pater for some foolscap--you would prefer blue, it is more
business-like--would be sure to be successful, for somehow fathers like
to encourage boys when they mean to do something serious; and there is
left only the cartridge paper to finish the outfit. Perhaps somewhere
in the establishment there is even a store of this; if not, there is
nothing for it but a visit to the stationer and an attack upon the
pocket-money.

Now to proceed. Make the cotton wool into a nice round even ball, quite
free from lumps, particularly at the bottom. Fold the muslin to get a
double thickness, place the wool inside, make it into a mass about the
size of a cricket-ball, tie this tightly, leaving enough muslin free to
take hold of easily. (See Fig. 1.)

[Illustration: DABBER. Fig. 1.]

[Illustration: MAPLE LEAF CENTRE. Fig. 3.]

Next get your leaves. The front or back garden, or the greenhouse,
will probably afford all you want, to begin with. Choose in preference
leaves which lie flat, with no bulgings or cockles; you will get much
better results. Put them in a dish or basin large enough to take them
easily, and cover with a damp cloth. If you have to go farther afield
for your leaves take with you, if possible, a tin box or botanist's
vasculum, and sprinkle a little water upon them. If not able to obtain
such a box, then a wooden or cardboard one must do, but pack the leaves
in damp moss, if able to get any. When you reach home cover up as
before.

You are now ready to commence. Squeeze out some colour upon the
foolscap, spread this evenly with the muslin dabber, not by smearing
but by dabbing, with a slight twisting motion of the wrist, taking care
that the colour is evenly distributed on the paper and the dabber. Then
try it by bringing down the dabber upon a clean sheet of paper with a
smart blow. If the colour comes away evenly you are ready to begin upon
the leaves; if not, work away with the dabber on the foolscap till you
get better results. Patience will do it.

Take one of your flattest leaves, and remove all moisture from the
surface. A piece of blotting-paper is good for this purpose. Then, with
a series of good hard raps with the dabber--don't be afraid of hurting
the leaf--get the colour evenly upon the face, working as near to the
veins as possible. Cut a piece of cartridge paper twice the size of the
leaf--and now comes the careful treatment--put the leaf down, handling
it by the stalk, in the place you want it; don't shift it about or
attempt any fresh arrangement. To do so would smear the paper. Bring
down the upper half of the paper upon the leaf, and hold steadily with
the left hand. Then, with the forefinger of the right hand inside your
handkerchief or a cloth, rest upon the outside of the paper, taking
care not to let the leaf inside slip about. You may use some amount of
pressure; the colour will not yield itself up too readily. If the leaf
is full of sap, less force must be used, or you will crush the tissue.
Now raise the paper and remove the leaf. Probably you will not be
satisfied with the first attempt. Some parts will be faint, other parts
loaded with colour. Possibly also the leaf has shifted a little. If
this has not occurred you will have got a portrait of the leaf, showing
the cutting of the edges and the ramifications of the veins. Now try
again, either upon the same leaf or a fresh one. At each fresh attempt
you will be getting more skilful in handling the leaf, in the use of
the dabber, and the careful placing and rubbing to get the impression.
And the dabber, too, will be getting into better condition. The colour
will have penetrated the muslin and gone a little way into the wool.
Use as little colour as possible, getting the colour on rather by smart
blows than any other way. It would be well to have the cartridge paper
folded ready for use, in appropriate sizes, a little too large, to
permit of after-trimming.

[Illustration: HAWTHORN BORDER. FIG. 2.]

[Illustration: PLAQUE: W. VEITCH'S CREEPER LEAVES. FIG. 5.]

You will find that leaves are not alike in the character of the
surface. Some are covered with hairs, like the mulleins; these will
take almost any quantity of colour. Perhaps you had better begin upon
such leaves. Others have a few stiff hairs, and others, again, are
quite free from such appendages. These require least colour of all.
You will find, too, that it is better to commence with the back of the
leaf. The veins are usually more prominent, and the impression obtained
is more interesting. There is greater difficulty in getting the colour
on all parts of the leaf, close up to the principal veins, and the
rubbing for the impression is harder. But by patience and perseverance,
to quote the copybook, you will soon obtain pleasing results.

I don't think I can tell you much more that will aid you in getting
good impressions. I have recommended the use of burnt sienna, because
it is a cheap and easily worked colour; but any oil colour can be used,
either straight from the tube, or mixed to suit your judgment or taste.
Greens, olives, russets, browns, greys, yellows, or even reds, can
be used. You can certainly get some startling effects with these, if
removed some distance from Nature; or by using two or more colours and
dabbers you may graduate the tones or colours on the same leaf. Suppose
you want an autumn effect. Mix or choose your yellow, and prepare also
an orange-red colour. Coat the leaf first of all with the yellow--don't
use gamboge--then with the red dabber apply that colour to the end or
margin of the leaf, and take off as before

[Illustration: LEAVES OF THE GINKO TREE. Fig. 4.]

You may say, What is the use of it all when the necessary skill is
obtained? You will find it a very good and useful hobby even to so
obtain a series of prints of the leaves of our forest trees. There are,
perhaps, more of these than you are aware of. And there is another
point--the leaves of any particular plant vary very much in shape. A
collection of these variations, if at all complete, would be held even
by botanists to be very valuable indeed. Then, what a number of forest
trees there are! The common and wych elms, the oak and maple, the two
chestnuts, the Spanish and horse--a full-grown leaf of the latter you
will find a large order--the beech and hornbeam (note the difference
in the margin), the wild cherry, crab, and sloe, the dogwood, the
two buckthorns, the service tree, the wayfaring tree, the back of
the leaf of which you will find good to begin with. A good instance
of the variety in form in the leaves of one plant is the now common
wall plant, Veitch's Virginian creeper, which I have used to decorate
a plaque in Fig. 5. The seedling leaves, too, are well worthy of
collection--they vary very much from the more adult leaves. I have no
need to write more upon this, as, if you make the collection of leaves
a hobby, these details will come.

But the use of leaves does not stop here. More than any other part of
the plant, leaves are used by the designer for sculptural details, and
for decoration in all its branches. But most boys are not designers
or skilful draughtsmen, neither have they the time to make drawings
or paintings which would give the results so easily obtained by
this process. Even excellent artists shrink from giving the amount
of details which are secured in these transfers from the objects
themselves. Some applications of foliage which can be done from the
leaves themselves are given as hints of what is possible. These vary in
difficulty, until the results are to be described only as works of art.

Figs. 3 and 4 are applications of leaves to the decoration of
occasional tables, which more frequently than not are ebonised.

Fig. 4 is an arrangement of the leaves of the "Ginko," or Adiantum
tree. When the table is ready for the varnish, apply the leaves in
the positions marked out beforehand. In the illustration a band of
colour is supposed to be previously painted to the shape indicated, and
should be some rich olive or russet tone, upon which the leaves are
printed in a lighter, say a sage green. A very good scale of colours,
adapted for use on black, is used by the Japanese on the trays to be
found in almost any house. You may not be able to get "Ginko" leaves,
but several of the adiantums have fronds the pinnæ of which could be
similarly used. An arrangement of maple leaves in Fig. 3 could be
copied for the centre of the table, and similarly treated. By-the-by,
should you in placing the leaf make any false marks, these can be
easily removed while the colour is wet by wiping off with a cloth,
using turpentine or spirit of wine if obstinate.

[Illustration: PHOTO. MOUNT DECORATED WITH BRAMBLE LEAVES. FIG. 6.]

Fig. 6 is an arrangement of bramble leaves. A very considerable
variety of form is usually found on the same plant; this variety has
been utilised. Use pale tones of colour, and make out the stalks with
a brush afterwards. It will be found useful to roughly indicate the
position of the leaves by pencil or chalk after having placed them, and
before applying their painted surfaces. It is intended as a decoration
to a photographic mount. If the mount is of a dark tea-green colour
a very considerable richness of effect can be obtained. The chief
difficulty will be the careful adjustment and selection of the leaves.

Fig. 5 is the application of Veitch's Ampelopsis to a terra-cotta
plaque. You will find this more difficult, as the surfaces to which
the leaves are applied are not flat, and the material is absorbent to
a high degree. First give the plaque a coating of size; this will keep
the colour on the surface. Roughly sketch the position of the leaves
in pencil; apply colour more copiously to the leaves, and transfer.
When dry give a coating of quick-drying varnish. Copal, dissolved in
methylated spirits, will prove the most satisfactory. The end of the
spray is done all at once. The stems, stalks, and tendrils are put in
afterwards by brush work.

Fig. 2 is the most difficult of all. It is an arrangement of hawthorn
leaves in different tones of colour, and intended for a title-page or
elaborate mount. The leaves can be easily obtained in considerable
variety. Roughly mark out the places the leaves should occupy. Some
are in front of others; do these first in a paler green. Cut out paper
shapes to cover them, and stick them down temporarily after they are
dry. Then, in darker and richer tones of colour, transfer the back
leaves; when dry remove the covers, and touch up with a brush any
deficiencies. Add the stalks, stems, and thorns, and paint in the haws.

There are many other applications to which these prints from leaves
could be put. A branch of oak running across the panels of a door, a
simple leaf upon the cover of a book, nicely done; in the making of
stencil plates, for borders, friezes, and dados, or a conventional
pattern for wall papers. Studies for wood carving can easily be
obtained from the store of prints from leaves, such as the strawberry,
potentilla, goose-grass, buttercup, dandelion, and many wayside plants.
When the stalk or principal vein is too succulent or thick, it would be
well to pare it down, to permit of easier rubbing, not attempting to
get an impression from more than one surface of the leaf.

It may be useful to some readers to give the prices at which the
materials may be obtained. The cheaper colours are in every respect
quite as good for the purpose as the more expensive ones, and should
cost about threepence a tube from an artists' colourman. A small
camel-hair brush, from a penny upwards, would do; but it might be
sable in preference, from sixpence upwards. You can get a good-sized
sheet of cartridge paper for a penny. The nainsook muslin should be
new, and of a fine quality. Any holes in it would be fatal to good
work. A penny or two would buy the foolscap paper.

[Illustration: THE APPARATUS.]

[Illustration: THE POINTS.]

$Pyrography.$--The outfit consists of a platinum point, sometimes
called the burner, an alcohol lamp, and a benzine bottle with rubber
tubing terminating in a bulb as shown in the illustration. The points
or burners may be obtained in many sizes for fine or broad lines. The
work is done upon unvarnished wood, which should be seasoned and free
from resin. Sometimes designs are drawn too upon calf, cardboard, and
even upon velvet, but upon these materials be careful the point is
not too hot. To use the pyrography apparatus fill both the alcohol
lamp and the benzine bottle half full. Upon the benzine bottle put the
rubber stopper that has the metal nozzle and join the bellows and the
tubing. Now light your alcohol lamp, and in its flame hold with your
right hand the platinum point, and with your left hand work the bulb
steadily and continuously. The platinum point will thus become red hot
and it must be kept so. With this hot point draw upon the wood and you
will find that all kinds of designs and effects are possible by using
different points, and, indeed, by using the same in different ways and
at different temperatures. The judicious use of sandpaper improves
the general effect afterwards, and a wax finish may be obtained by
the application of pure bees'-wax slowly melted in turpentine. When
it is in a syrupy state apply it with a cloth, and a few days later
brush away the superfluous wax and wipe tenderly with a soft cloth.
The general effect may be heightened by the use of colour. The young
pyrographist may practise upon some of the designs given in the other
sections of this chapter, and he will be able to purchase his outfit
with directions for its use. Messrs. Gamage, in Holborn, and Messrs.
Benetfink, in Cheapside, have many kinds of apparatus and accessories.




CHAPTER XVI

VENTRILOQUISM AND POLYPHONY


$Ventriloquism.$--Ventriloquism is no more a gift than is the ability
to talk or sing; it does not depend on any peculiar formation of the
throat; it is, in fact, an art which can be acquired by almost any one
possessing a voice of average compass (some twelve notes), together
with an ordinarily good ear for music. If, in addition to these, the
tyro show any aptitude for acting and mimicry, there is prospect of his
becoming an expert performer.

Broadly speaking, ventriloquism consists in a close imitation of
sound _as it falls upon the ear_, the ventriloquist effecting this by
skilfully modifying the cavity of the mouth in such a way as to give
his voice a deceptive character.

The young ventriloquist must study all sorts and conditions of sounds
and voices _as they fall on the ear_. He must become familiar with the
models he seeks to imitate. He must, for example, note that a voice
from the cellar, heard in a room above, has a subdued and muffled
sound, many of the consonants being strangely altered, so that the
words, "I'm down here in the cellar, sir!" would sound more like, "In'e
down here in a zellar, zir!" Again, in listening to the knife-grinder,
he must observe, first the _bur-r-r_ of the wheel, and then a
combination of the _bur-r-r_ with a prolonged _iss_ when the knife
touches the grindstone. These little hints will, we trust, sufficiently
impress the beginner with the necessity of learning _to listen with new
ears_ whilst endeavouring to speak with a new voice.

You will observe, too, that the character of the assumed voice is
determined chiefly by the shape of the mouth. This is the more
important, because misguided learners are so apt to strain the larynx.
There should be no pressure on the throat, though some pressure must
necessarily be exerted on the chest and the abdominal muscles by reason
of the slow rate at which the air is allowed to leave the lungs; for,
be it carefully noted, _the ventriloquial voice can only be spoken
during a slow expiration of the breath_. Consequently, the learner must
exercise himself in controlling the breath, for which purpose let him
practise filling the lungs with air and then reading aloud as long a
passage as he can whilst the air is being slowly expelled.

With regard to modifying the natural voice, every one knows how this
can be done by extraneous means. A speaking-trumpet, for example,
renders it loud and harsh, whilst a hand placed lightly over the mouth
makes it low and muffled.

At an evening party where we had been amusing some juvenile friends,
a voice seemed to come from the chimney in obedience to one of the
boys, who stood before the fireplace as a new fledged professor of
ventriloquism, and we considered the imitation to be rather good until,
upon lifting the table-cloth near us, we discovered a confederate
on the floor, talking into an empty jug. This, of course, was mere
jugglery, but genuine ventriloquism is to be attained by a careful
management of the breath whilst _modifying the shape of the cavity of
the mouth_ by a proper adjustment of lips, teeth, jaws, tongue and
palate.

And here let us point out that, although the best ventriloquial
effects can only be produced by the mature voice, it is well to begin
practising at an early age, in order to make the vocal organs strong
and flexible. The present writer began experimenting at the age of
twelve, only resting therefrom, as every boy should, during that
beautiful period of "gruffiness" consequent on the breaking of the
voice. After that we went on again, making slow headway, until one
memorable night when we received undoubted assurance of our ability to
deceive. It was at a party given by a bluff sea-captain in a northern
town, and a young gentleman was singing a very sentimental ditty to a
saddened audience, when we essayed between whiles to imitate the singer
in a falsetto voice, muffled, as if coming through the closed shutters,
towards which we took care to cast an occasional glance of annoyance.
Presently the captain rose and left the room on tiptoe, at the same
time indicating by vigorous pantomime that the singer was to proceed
with his song. Before long a tremendous splash of water was heard on
the pavement outside, and our host soon after re-entered, remarking
that he had taught those young vagabonds not to mock people outside the
shutters, for he'd given them "billows" from the top bed-room window.

There are in reality only three well-defined ventriloquial voices:
(1) the _distant_ voice, as from the roof, the street, etc.; (2) the
_resonant_ voice, as from a chimney, cupboard, cellar, etc.; and (3)
the _falsetto_ voice.

"But," exclaims the intelligent reader, "how can each voice be used for
various imaginary places? Will the _distant_ voice serve equally well
for roof or street?" It will; and this brings us to a very important
point, viz., that we judge of the _direction_ of sound partly by means
of the sense of sight. A railway traveller, for instance, seated in a
waiting-room, is often perplexed as to whether an approaching train is
"up" or "down" until he notes the demeanour of those on the platform
who can see the train coming in. It is always difficult to determine
the direction from which distant sounds proceed, and frequently of
sounds much nearer. But this uncertainty is of vital importance to the
ventriloquist, as it enables him "to make the ears the fool of the
other senses." When he uses the _distant_ voice, the audience will
be unable to refer it to any particular quarter, unless the place be
suggested to them by the performer. The moment he does this, however,
by word or sign or mere glance even, the imagination of the audience
does the rest, and the illusion is complete. It is plain, therefore,
that the tyro should have some taste for acting, otherwise he can
neither conceal the internal efforts he is making, nor invest his
shadowy characters with any degree of naturalness.

Coming now to practical details, let the student attempt _the distant
voice_ in the following manner. Say the word "Hallo!" just in your
ordinary speaking voice, in order to fix the pitch. Then open the mouth
slightly, draw in the lower jaw a little, and firmly fix both jaws.
Next, stretch or arch the soft palate as in the act of yawning take a
deep breath, and utter the word "Hallo!" in the same pitch as before,
but softly, and _without moving the lips_, endeavouring at the same
time to direct the sound against the soft palate by turning the tongue
well back so as to strike the roof of the mouth. At first your strange
gurglings may alarm the household, and much fatigue may be felt in the
jaws and tongue, but persevere and you will soon acquire a new voice of
startling character.

_The resonant voice_ is produced on the lower tones of the scale, the
sound being forced into the nasal passages with a jerky explosive
delivery of the breath. The parts against which the voice and the
tongue should respectively strike may be felt by prolonging the sound
of the letter _n_ on a low note with the mouth nearly closed and
the lower jaw drawn back a little as before. In this way utter the
sentence, "Joe's down here in the cellar!" and the words will sound
deep and muffled and be accompanied by a resonant hum. _Remember always
to keep the lips and jaws immovable_, even at the cost of mutilating
your words. These will greatly improve by-and-by.

The practised ventriloquist can, of course, judge the effect he is
producing, but the learner, as soon as he makes any progress, had
better get a companion to criticize his efforts.

_The falsetto voice_ is feminine and must be familiar to all. If spoken
with the lower jaw drawn in and the mouth all but closed it will strike
against the hard palate and produce a thin, metallic voice like that of
a child. It can also be used for "distant" effects, according to the
method set forth for voice No. 1. The _falsetto_ voice is frequently
used for "doll-talking"--a branch of the ventriloquial art concerning
which, and polyphonism also, we shall have something to say presently.
Meanwhile, devote a few minutes daily to each of the following
exercises:--

(1) Singing the common musical scale to the vowel sounds, as well as to
the syllables _ha_ and _coo_. All good vocal exercises are an aid to
ventriloquism.

(2) Practising the management of the breath as already described.

(3) Experimenting with the three ventriloquial voices.

(4) Studying all the peculiarities of voices and other sounds _as they
fall upon the ear_.

The learner still finds it difficult, no doubt, to enunciate his words
at all clearly without moving the lips and jaws, but this difficulty,
though it will never quite vanish, may be greatly reduced. The vowels
run smoothly enough, but the consonants give trouble, particularly the
_labials_, _b_, _p_, _m_, and their first cousins, the _spirants_,
_v_, _f_, _w_. As to the _spirants_, one may soon acquire the knack of
sounding _f_ fairly well, so this must be used for _v_ also, unless one
can hit upon that nearer substitute got by compounding _g_ and _f_.
To catch this sound with lips and jaws immovable, pronounce the word
_never_ as "_negfer_," quickly, with a light touch on the _g_. The
sound of _w_ is well represented by that of _oo_. For the _labials_,
however, demanding as they do a positive closing of the lips, we must
substitute the letters _g_, _k_, _ng_. Thus, the sentence, "Jim broke
seven of Tom's pens this morning," would be rendered as "Jing groke
se(g)fen of Tong's kens this ng-orning," and the query, "When am I
to come up?" would become "Oohen ang I to cung uk?" Such sentences,
though good for practice, are bad for exhibition, and must be carefully
avoided in the preparation of dialogue. Nevertheless, they look much
more imperfect here than they would sound in the mouth of an able
ventriloquist; besides, as nobody expects to hear perfect words from
a distant source, the audience readily accepts the performer's mode
of rendering them. In this connection it should be remarked that the
performer may occasionally turn his face from view, and allow his lips
free play, although, as a rule, either a side face, or a three-quarters
face should be presented to the audience, and, pretty frequently, a
front face also.

We have next to deal with _ventriloquial perspective_, which appertains
to the gradual increase or decrease in the _loudness_ of a sound as
it approaches or recedes. Attention to this will give our assumed
voices just the magic touch. For the receding voice, speak more and
more gently, whilst gradually closing the mouth, until the sound
is shut off. For an approaching voice, reverse the process, but
in either case take care to _maintain the original pitch_. This is
just where beginners stumble; they mostly alter the pitch at every
step, graduating it from a growl to a squeak, or _vice versa_; nor
do they observe how the words spoken by a receding voice grow less
and less _distinct_ until only the vowel sounds remain. The following
presentment of these important matters may impress itself on the
reader's mind:--GOOD-NIGHT! GOOD-NIGHT! GOO'-NIGH'! 'oo'-nigh'! 'igh'!

We shall now give in outline a few sketches for the student to fill in
with dialogue of his own. The "situations" will readily suggest some
simple conversations well suited for effective treatment.

For _the man in the chimney_, assume a voice of low pitch, strongly
resonant throughout. Express your belief that somebody is up the
chimney, and stoop near the fireplace to question the intruder in a
soft and rather high-pitched voice. Then draw down the corner of the
mouth turned from the audience, and deliver your answers with force,
so that the sound may be deflected from the stone-work supporting the
mantel-piece. Your man in the chimney is a rough, cantankerous fellow,
who accounts for his presence in the most absurd way, and answers with
great warmth, especially when there is a fire in the grate. As soon as
he begins to ascend the chimney, step back a pace, keeping your face in
the same direction. To wind up, either leave him stuck in the chimney,
or dismiss him by way of the roof.

In speaking to _the man on the roof_, begin by taking a deliberate
look at the ceiling, and then shout "Hallo-o!" The answer, given
in the _distant_ voice, should sound almost like an echo. Before
answering, turn your face to the audience, and, with the head in an
easy, listening attitude, produce the reply softly on a note of _middle
pitch_. The man on the roof rarely speaks more than a few sentences.
The audience seem to understand how trying it is for him to converse at
such a distance, so he is humanely dismissed very soon, and may then be
heard faintly answering as he wanders on from roof to roof, or reaches
the ground by a ladder. Sometimes, however, the voice grows in strength
and resonance as the man enters the chimney, and descends almost to
the hearthrug; at other times, if the night is particularly cold, you
may ask him to remain where he is in the silvery moonlight.

[Illustration: THE MAN IN THE HALL.]

[Illustration: THE TALKING HAND.]

[Illustration: THE TRAP DOOR.]

[Illustration: RAISING THE TRAP DOOR.]

_The man in the hall_ is a capital voice to practise. With your hand
on the handle of the door, parley with the rough fellow who is trying
to push it open from the other side. At this stage use the _resonant_
voice, and explode your answers against the panel of the door. As the
man is noisy, you may produce a striking effect by alternately opening
and shutting the door rapidly, accompanying the action with a sudden
swelling and sinking of the voice, remembering at the same time to
maintain the original pitch. Much amusement will arise if your visitor
happens to be a sweep who has come to the wrong house, but insists on
cleaning the drawing-room chimney. You may even put your head outside
the door for a moment to remonstrate with him, and then step back
suddenly with the mark of a grimy hand upon your face--self-inflicted,
of course, with a burnt cork. As the voice moves away, its resonant
quality should be moderated, and, in case the man talks himself out
into the street, it should merge into the _distant voice_. Sometimes,
however, affairs take a novel turn, and the sweep, in seeking an exit,
wanders into the cellar, where he may be heard making unkind remarks in
accents faint and sooty.

The voice of _the man in the cellar_ is a modified form of the
_resonant_ voice, delivered with less force and less of the nasal
quality. A fine effect may be introduced by making your man slowly
ascend and descend the cellar steps, talking or singing all the time.
Moreover, this effect may be greatly heightened by using a trap-door
made in the following manner. Cover a sheet of stout cardboard (about
2-1/2 ft. square) with grained wall-paper to imitate woodwork, and
let it dry thoroughly under pressure, as warping would render it
useless. On it paint two large hinges with black enamel, and near the
front edge fix a large black ring by means of a loop of leather or
black tape. The ring may be either a wooden curtain-ring or a coil of
cane bound with "wax-end." To the under-side of the board glue two
leather tabs, in line with the hinges, but projecting, so that the
trap may thereby be fastened to the floor with drawing-pins. Before
the audience arrive, fix the trap-door in position, well to the right
or left of the platform or other space, and take care to indicate the
thickness of the woodwork on the edge which is to face the performer.
Under the trap a corresponding square of black tissue paper should be
pinned to the floor, so that, when the trap is raised, a dark hole
may appear beneath. During the performance, the trap must be lifted
with considerable toil, else its flimsy nature will be discovered, and
perhaps cause an untimely titter. If managed properly, however, it is
most realistic, and may be employed in a startling way to convey the
idea of a man raising it from below. This is done by fixing to the
upper edge of the board a piece of strong black thread (invisible to
the audience) at a few yards distance and attaching the other end to
a strong finger-ring to be worn by the performer. The ring, if placed
on a table or chair near the trap-door, may be slipped on the finger
at the right moment, and will thus enable the performer, whenever he
raises his arm with a gesture of alarm or of command, to raise the
trap-door at the same time.

Doll-talking is a branch of our subject which finds great favour
with boys, for it is often as funny as droll figures and smart witty
dialogue can make it. The nature of the dialogue, indeed, is of much
more importance here than in pure ventriloquism. The voices are easy to
acquire, but not so easy to describe. Draw back the lower jaw pretty
well; press the tip of the tongue against the lower teeth; raise
the rest of the tongue until it nearly touches (and it _will_ touch
every now and then) the roof of the mouth, and then project the sound
forcibly against the hard palate, just above the front teeth. The
falsetto voice treated in this way, sometimes becomes almost perfect,
enabling the ventriloquist to sound nearly every letter; whilst
appearing to be absolutely mute.

Fix upon two well-contrasted characters: one speaking in a shrill
falsetto, the other in a hard, metallic voice of middle pitch. Figures
for this purpose can be purchased at some of the London toy bazaars
and conjurers' shops. A pair of large dolls, with practical mouths
and eyes, would cost about two pounds, but heads may be purchased
separately and fixed to home-made bodies. These heads, which represent
a funny man, an old woman, a little girl and a negro, range in price
from five shillings and sixpence to eighteen and sixpence, the latter
kind being life-size. The pairs of dolls mostly used are styled "Tommy
and Joey," "Tommy and Granny," etc. The performer places a doll on each
knee and holds a lively conversation with them, often interrupted,
however, by the crying, giggling, and singing of the dolls, whose
unseasonable jokes and general naughtiness call down upon their wooden
heads many a resounding blow.

[Illustration: BETTY BOUNCER.]

There is a cheaper figure, however, called "The Talking Hand," which
may be bought at almost any large toy shop for about half-a-crown.
As great fun can be got from this figure, we shall now tell our boys
how to make it at the cost of a few pence. Get a quarter-yard of
unbleached calico, fold it double and trace upon it an outline of
the right hand and wrist. Then cut round the outline, taking care to
leave a broad margin and a long thumb. Stitch round the glove, turn
it inside out, and insert the hand. Now close the hand, and, with a
soft blacklead, mark in roughly the eyes, nose, etc. The projecting
knuckles will form the nose and the thumb the lower jaw. To give the
latter a better appearance fill out the tip with wadding and sew it
to that part of the glove just above it. Having withdrawn your hand,
flatten the glove, and proceed to mark in the features more carefully
with good writing-ink and a quill pen. The furrows in the face and
the hair should also be marked with black ink, but the wide mouth and
the tip of the nose with red ink. Colour the face with powdered chalk
(yellow ochre and red) rubbed in with pellets of blotting-paper. Take
care to make the eyes extra large and paint them with Chinese white.
To complete the figure, sew to the glove a cap-frill, a shawl of red
flannel, and a large bow under the chin, and "Betty Bouncer" becomes
one of the most comical creatures you ever saw, ready to talk, laugh,
or cry to order, while as to singing--well, you should just see the old
lady getting her top note!

The chief subject of our next section will be _polyphonism_, or the
imitation of various musical instruments, cries of animals, and other
sounds. Meanwhile the young ventriloquist will find quite enough to do
in practising: (_a_) Sentences containing labials and spirants; (_b_)
voices saying "Good-night," etc., in a monotone, whilst approaching or
receding; (_c_) voices at the door, on the roof, up the chimney, in the
cellar; (_d_) the "talking hand" or other figures.

$Polyphony.$--Polyphony is the art of imitating sounds of various
kinds, usually, without attempting to deceive the hearer as to their
direction. It may therefore be studied independently of ventriloquism.
Already the art is much in vogue. We all know the boy who occasionally
alarms the street with the yelp of an injured dog, or imitates the
"cock's shrill clarion" cleverly enough to deceive half the roosters in
the neighbourhood and make quiet people mutter of canes and constables.

As in ventriloquism, so now the learner must first of all study closely
the sounds he wishes to imitate. Very often they may be roughly
indicated in words or syllables, and this is very helpful. Indeed, many
words in our language, such as buzz, bang, tinkle, thud, crash, splash,
and the like, originated in this very way. Let us begin with a few easy
examples.

_Knife-grinding_ sounds like the combination of a _bur-r-r_--made
by fluttering the lips--with a prolonged _ss_. _Sawing_ may be
indicated by the syllables _shuh-szee_ uttered alternately with the
difference of a semitone. _Planing_ can be effectively rendered by
strongly whispering _shee-yick_, _shee-ic-yick_, _ll-ll-luc_, and then
_yu-yu-yook_ as a long shaving curls out of the plane. With regard
to musical instruments, there is the _ta-ra-ra_ of the trumpet, the
_pangka-bongka_ of the banjo, the _zhing-sching_ of the cymbals, the
_pom-pome_ of the trombone, the _r-rhumbu-dhumba_ of the drum, the
explosive _plim-blim_ of the harp, and the _floo-lu-loo_ of the flute,
whilst the notes of a clarionet may be imitated by the player's running
rapidly down the scale from a sharp nasal _pli-li-li-plan-plah_ into
a deeper _glug-lu-lu-glah_. Syllables like the foregoing give, as it
were, an outline for the polyphonist to fill in with sound of the
right colour or quality. Thus, a tune on the cornet should be sung
to a _ra-ra-ra_ forced through the tightly compressed lips, and the
_flu-lu-loo_ of the flute, with its roundness of tone and breathiness,
should be vocalised in the falsetto while the cheeks are distended
with air. An amusing and realistic imitation of the _Jew's-harp_ can
be given in the following manner. Stiffen the first and second fingers
of the left hand and place them firmly over the lips, but lightly, so
as to allow the lips perfectly free play. Then give a strongly nasal
rendering of some monotonous air whilst ringing the changes as rapidly
as possible on the syllables _whanga-whonga whee-whaw whoodle-ongle
eedle-ongle whow-zeedle oodle-ee whay-whonga whaw_, during which beat
time upon the projecting fingers with the right forefinger as if
twanging the tongue of the instrument. By following on the lines now
laid down the apt learner may even become skilful enough to imitate
an entire brass band, a feat which has been performed by at least one
ventriloquist of our acquaintance. Some sounds, of course, it is almost
impossible to reduce to writing, as, for example, the hollow "skaw" and
murmur produced by a multitude of skaters, or the roar of an excited
crowd, but in listening to these sounds, it is useful to remember
that we may often obtain a key tone to work upon by partly closing
the ears--just as a painter can often find the prevailing tint of a
confused mass of objects by partly closing the eyes.

[Illustration: PHANTOM POODLES.]

[Illustration: "I HAVE TO WATCH CHARLOTTE!"]

When the young polyphonist has acquired some degree of skill, he need
not be at a loss to entertain his friends, provided he is fairly
resourceful as regards acting. But acting is of the greatest importance
to the polyphonist. As a knife-grinder he must work an imaginary wheel,
and deftly turn the blade of a table knife upon the stone; as a waiter
about to "pop" a cork with a strong click of the tongue against the
palate--he should first insert a shadowy cork-screw with a chirrupy
squeak; and as a cook frizzling bacon, he may do a cardboard rasher to
a turn on a battledore or fire-shovel. Even the buzz of a bluebottle
(made sometimes by a prolonged cornet note, sometimes by a stream of
air forced through the compressed lips) will occasion much amusement
if the performer acts the part of a languid mortal lolling behind his
newspaper in the dog days, and murmuring,--

    "Oh! for the green of a lane,
      Where one might lie and be lazy!
    Buzz! goes a fly in the pane--
      Bluebottles drive me crazy!"

Then might follow a reckless chase after that fly, which should finally
buzz itself crazy beneath the huntsman's handkerchief. Again, the
barking of dogs may not be much in itself, yet we have seen a performer
cause roars of laughter by making his phantom poodles dance, tumble,
and leap over chairs and through a hoop, to a lively tune on the piano.

As a final step in polyphony, the learner should practise the
_ventriloquial treatment of noises_. This adds greatly to the
effectiveness of a ventriloquial sketch; as when the man in the cellar
takes to sawing and planing; or goes home accompanied by a dog,
whose barking, mingled with the shouts of the man, grows fainter and
fainter in the distance; or, it may be, the moaning of the wind is
heard without, while a last-century watchman proclaims the hour in a
storm-tossed voice.

To show how perfect such displays may become, we may instance the
case of Thomas Ring, a conjurer who gave an entertainment before the
entire English Court in the seventeenth century. From behind a screen
he imitated the voices of three butchers engaged in a conversation,
which was presently interrupted by a barking dog. The dog having been
whipped, a bleating calf was dragged in, a knife whetted, and the calf
killed amid the talk and laughter of the men. All this is, no doubt,
within the reach of some of our living ventriloquists.

[Illustration: "BLUEBOTTLES DRIVE ME CRAZY!"]

[Illustration: GOOD-BYE.]

And now a few necessary hints must be given in regard to the management
of an audience. Get your hearers seated in front of you, not around
you, with the front row at a distance of at least ten or twelve feet.
Politely impose silence upon them, and take care to repeat your opening
question two or three times before replying in the ventriloquial voice,
because this straining the attention stimulates the imagination of
your audience, and makes the illusion more complete. Another important
point--keep the assumed voice and the natural voice in contrast all
the time, by means of a running fire of questions; finally, never use
elaborate apparatus. Besides, ordinary windows, doors, and fireplaces,
an old chest, a folding screen, a trap-door, and perhaps one or two
"practical" dolls, will amply suffice.

Ventriloquists who employ a whole family of ingeniously contrived
figures--we have seen some of these dance a jig--should get them to
talk by machinery as well. There is very little artistic merit in such
performances. Nor should the performer be suspiciously surrounded by
scenery; it may cause misunderstanding, as the following instance will
prove:--

A ventriloquist performing at a London theatre some years ago imitated
a voice on the roof so successfully as to induce a man in the audience
to ascend to the roof in search of a confederate. Unfortunately,
however, two other men, filled with the self-same idea, also found
their way to the roof in company, and mistaking the first man for the
guilty person, gave him a sound thrashing.

In drawing our instructions to a close, let us point out that the
proper end and aim of ventriloquism should be not to play the pranks
of "Valentine Vox," but to afford our friends innocent amusement. Of
course, no manly boy would ever think of frightening little children;
but he might be tempted to give older people a little surprise. It
is therefore well he should know that persons altogether ignorant of
ventriloquism may be wonderfully deceived.

One morning, just after a new servant had come to the house, we
noticed a doll in the kitchen, sitting bolt upright and staring as hard
as her glass eyes would let her. So, going up to it, in presence of the
girl, we shook hands gravely, and said, "Good morning, Dolly!" To which
she sweetly replied, "Good morning, sir! I have to watch Charlotte!"
The effect produced on the girl was so pronounced that for days after
she would hardly touch the uncanny creature.

On another occasion, at a house in Kentish Town, affairs took a more
serious turn; for a young woman, upon hearing a gruff voice proceed
from the chimney, astonished a company of six or eight persons by
falling on her knees in broad daylight to implore the troubled spirit
to unburden its mind. Upon this we at once desisted, and explained,
though not without difficulty, the nature of the deception.

The ventriloquist should therefore use his strange power with caution,
and mainly, as we have said, for the innocent amusement of every one
concerned. At the same time he will reap from his studies certain
advantages often lost sight of, viz., the training given to the ear as
regards the nice discrimination of sound--musical and non-musical--and
the command obtained over the vocal organs with respect to elocution.

The whole of our instructions may be summarized thus: (1) Listen to
sound intently; (2) learn to analyze it; (3) experiment patiently and
regularly; (4) cultivate acting. With these points in view, no reader
possessing an average voice, together with some aptitude for mimicry,
should fail to acquire the coveted art.

Some folks may fear that these practical lessons will produce
ventriloquists by the score. To such we reply, Rest easy, good people!
Ventriloquism, like every other art, requires patience and perseverance
for its attainment. Consequently, many a reader, sufficiently gifted
by nature, will fail in its pursuit. It is the enthusiasts who will
succeed, and they, after all, are the ones who deserve the reward.




CHAPTER XVII

THE BOY AS MAGICIAN


$Cremated Alive.$--The curtain rises and a young and beautiful girl,
clothed in white, is introduced to the spectators as the victim who has
been doomed to cremation, which will be instantaneously accomplished.
The girl mounts upon a table placed at the back of a kind of alcove,
consisting of a three-sided screen, and above her is suspended a big
fire-proof sack, folded up as shown in Fig. 1.

The table upon which the victim stands ready for sacrifice appears to
have four legs, and under this table burn, or appear to burn, four
candles, the purpose being to indicate to the public that the space
beneath the table is open, perfectly free, and beyond suspicion of
any trickery. The sack, which forms a cylindrical screen under which
the victim is to be burned, has been previously handed round to the
spectators, so that they might assure themselves that it was entire,
without any hole or split, lacing, or other artifice allowing of an
escape from behind--a precaution invariably taken to allay the too
ready suspicions of incredulous spectators. All these verifications
being made, and the audience perfectly satisfied as to the _bona fides_
of the case, the sack is lowered upon the victim, a pistol is fired,
and the cremation commences.

Flames and smoke (see Fig. 2) soon indicate to the terrified spectators
that the fire is pursuing its destructive work. When the flames have
ceased, the sack, composed as we have stated, of an incombustible
material, is raised, and there is seen upon the table, in the midst of
the still smoking _débris_, only a few bones and a skull (Fig. 3.)

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2. FIG. 3. CREMATED ALIVE.]

An examination of the conditions under which the disappearance has
taken place does not in the least reveal the methods by which it has
been so rapidly accomplished; but as it is clearly inadmissible that
the sacrifice of a young and beautiful person should thus take place
every evening for the simple gratification of the public, one is, of
course, pushed to the conclusion that there must be some trick. And a
trick there is of a most ingenious character, as will be seen by the
following explanation, the comprehension of which will be aided by Fig.
4.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

In this particular case the illusion is a happy combination of suitable
appliances underneath the scene and of the well-known properties of
plane mirrors placed on the incline. The table upon which our victim
mounts for cremation has, as a matter of fact, only two legs, instead
of four, and the two others are only seen by the spectators as a
reflection of the two real legs in the two glasses inclined at an
angle of 90 degrees with each other, and at 45 degrees with the two
side panels of the three-fold screen which contains the scene of the
disappearance. It is precisely the same with the two candles, which, in
consequence of their reflection in the mirrors, appear to be four in
number, whilst the central rod hides the edges of the mirrors.

Thanks to the combination of the glasses and panels, and to the
adoption of a uniform surface for these panels, the reflection of the
two sides in the two lower glasses appears to be but the continuation
of the panel at the back. The triangular box, of which the two glasses
comprise the two sides, and the floor the bottom, has its surface
formed of two parts; the one made up of the top of the table itself,
and the other of pieces of mirror which reflect the back panel, and
pieces of material of the same colour as the panel itself.

It is easy from this to understand the whole course of the operations,
more or less fantastic, which the spectator watches with such
breathless interest. As soon as the victim is hidden by the sack which
comes down upon her, she at once escapes by a secret trap-door in the
top of the table, as is shown in Fig. 4; she then rapidly puts into
position the skull and bones, as well as some inflammable material, to
which she sets fire when she hears the pistol shot. She then, closing
the trap, tranquilly retires, and remains hidden in the triangular
space arranged between the back panel and the two glasses until the
fall of the curtain.

$Money Dissolved in Water.$--For this trick the young magician needs
a glass, which may be either the ordinary tumbler or a wine-glass, as
shown in our illustration (Fig. 2). It must be of such a size that if a
half-crown be dropped into the glass, it shall, lying flat, nearly or
quite fill the bottom space. The conjuror must be provided also with a
glass disc, of the thickness of a half-crown, and in diameter exactly
corresponding with the bottom space of the glass. This, when about to
perform the trick, he holds concealed in his right hand, after the
manner of _A_ in Fig. 3. Filling the glass about three-quarters full,
as shown in Fig. 2, he hands it to a spectator to hold. He then asks
the loan of a half-crown, and a lady's pocket-handkerchief. Taking the
coin as _C_ in Fig. 3, he accordingly throws the handkerchief over it,
or, rather, makes believe to do so, for in reality, under cover of the
handkerchief, he deftly substitutes the glass disc, and holds this
between his fingers, while the coin takes its place in his palm.

He now asks the person holding the glass to take charge of the coin
also. He is instructed to hold it (the glass disc) just over the glass,
the four corners of the handkerchief hanging down around it, and at the
word "three," to drop it into the glass. The conjuror counts "one, two,
_three_?" At the word three the supposed coin falls, and is heard to
tinkle upon the glass.

[Illustration]

Touch the glass through the handkerchief with your magic wand, and
state that by the time you have counted three the half-crown will have
dissolved. Count three very slowly, then the handkerchief is removed,
the water is seen, but the supposed coin has vanished, for the disc,
being of glass, lies quite invisible at the bottom; and if it fits the
water may be poured away without the disc falling out, the thin layer
of water remaining underneath it holding it by atmospheric pressure to
the bottom of the tumbler. It is not worth while to do this unless some
one challenges you to pour off the water, then the challenge should be
accepted readily.

The conjurer should now pay back the half-crown, but it will assist the
illusion if he pays it back with two shillings and a sixpence, or in
some other coins, instead of in the form in which it was borrowed.

$The Vanished Half-Crown.$--The trick of the dissolved half-crown may
be varied. In this case the coin should be marked by the owner. Upon
finding it is not in the water when the handkerchief has been removed
pretend to be anxious about its loss. Say you will pay it back in
instalments, and offer a shilling towards it. When the money-lender
tries to take the proffered shilling it vanishes too. This is managed
by boring a hole in the shilling, tying some elastic through the hole,
and stitching the other end of the elastic up your sleeve. Then as soon
as you leave hold of the coin it darts back up your sleeve. "Has that
gone too!" you exclaim. "Well, we must try to find that half-crown;
perhaps it is in this ball of worsted," you say, as you pick one from
the table. Hand the ball of worsted to someone to examine and they
declare that the coin is not in it. As you walk back to the table
secretly exchange this ball for another. Now this other ball of worsted
has been prepared in this way. It has been wound round a tin tube about
three inches long, a tube through which half-a-crown may be passed.
When you have the marked coin at the beginning of the trick you should
have the ball of worsted in your pocket, and putting your hand there,
should put the coin through the tube into the ball of worsted. Then
take the tube away and press the ball into its proper shape. It is this
ball that you now place in an empty glass, and giving the end of the
worsted to some lady in the audience, ask her to unwind it. As she does
so the half-crown will begin to rattle upon the glass.

$Magic Florins.$--Take four half sheets of note-paper from any table,
and then borrow four florins; these florins you place upon a table
about a foot apart, and gently lay the half sheets over each. You then
take up one sheet and discover the florin underneath. Placing the
paper on one side you take up the coin, and without touching, in some
extraordinary way, make it pass through the next paper. You lift it,
and sure enough, there lie _two_ florins.

You then lift the third paper, to find the florin you placed there.
Again, in the same mysterious manner you pass the coin through the
paper. It makes no hole going through, but when the paper is lifted up
there are the three of them.

Now you lift up the last piece of paper, thereby uncovering the last
florin. Repeating the same process, you then request one of the
audience to lift the paper, so that he or she may see that there is
no deception. This being done, there lie the four florins as cosy as
little fledglings in a nest.

The extreme simplicity of the trick is the most taking part of it.

And now to explain this seeming mystery.

One great golden rule of conjuring successfully is, as it were, to
take your audience into partnership with you. When you borrowed the
four florins of course they thought that was all you wanted. But you
began the trick with one in your left hand cunningly concealed under
the four sheets, all of which you hold in that hand. Then placing the
four borrowed coins on the table (which, by the by, must have a thick
cloth on it to deaden the sound), twelve inches apart, with the right
hand you take the three top sheets. This leaves you with the fourth
sheet in the left hand, the coin below being held in position by gentle
pressure from fingers below, and thumb above. Then simultaneously with
each hand you place a sheet of paper over two of the four coins on the
table. Doing it simultaneously distracts the audience's attention from
what you are doing with your left hand; for it is at this particular
moment that the trick is being performed. As you place the paper down,
with a gentle and even motion of the thumb you leave the fifth coin
there, too, taking great care that it does not clash with the one there
already. Now you have two coins under that sheet, though the audience
only know of one. There is one under each of the other three sheets.
You take one of these sheets up now and take the coin between the top
of the thumb and fingers of the left hand, then with the fingers and
thumb of the right hand you pretend to take it, but in reality you let
it fall into the palm of the left hand, a feat that must be practised
carefully before a mirror. You close the fingers of the right hand over
the imaginary coin in them, and act as if it were there. One way of
aiding the deception is to follow the right hand with your eyes as it
goes away from the left, at the same time dropping the left hand in an
easy unconstrained position to the side.

Now choosing the sheet which covers the two coins (though the audience
only know of one), you place the right hand a few inches above it, and
open the fingers, making some mysterious passes. Of course, nothing
passes in reality, but when you proceed to lift up the sheet and
display the second coin, the audience will either think that they could
not see it, or that you are a very mysterious person, which, indeed,
you are. The remainder of the trick is only a repetition of what has
been already explained; but it excites more and more astonishment as it
proceeds. The bewilderment of the audience culminates in the last act,
when, as before, you have pretended to take the coin in the right hand
(really having left it in the left), and making the passes, request
one of the audience to lift up the last sheet--there lie all the four
florins.

Meanwhile, your left has dropped quietly to your side, the coin in it
been slipped noiselessly into the pocket, and both hands are free to
return to their astonished owners the four borrowed coins.

This trick is a particularly effective one, requiring, as it does, no
paraphernalia except what are always to be met with in almost every
room.

Only let the beginner recollect this. He must never begin the trick
without the fifth coin, or he will come to grief. Nor must he accede to
requests to "do it again," or he will be detected.

$Magic Pens.$--Take a small quantity of "Aniline Violet," obtainable at
any chemist's, two pennyworth making about two dozen pens, and make it
into a thick paste with water, taking care not to leave any lumps; then
add a few drops of mucilage or good gum. Do not add too much, or the
paste will not set well. Apply a small quantity of the paste thus made
to the hollow part of a clean pen, within a quarter of an inch of the
point, and leave it for a few hours to dry. When dry, tell your friends
that you will write anything they like to tell you with the pen, but
instead of using ink, you will use water. Then dip the pen into the
water, taking care not to show the side with the paste on, and write
whatever they ask you to, the writing appearing the same as if you were
using an ordinary pen.

$The Magic Bottle.$--You will need two cardboard cases open at each
end, and large enough to slip easily over the bottles; a specially
constructed bottle, the upper part of which can contain a liquid, and
the lower part containing an open space in which a glass can stand;
an imitation bottle made of tin and large enough to just slide over
the special bottle; and two glasses. With this apparatus before us we
are ready to proceed with the performance. We introduce an empty glass
and what appears to be an ordinary wine bottle, but which is really
a special bottle, with its tin case over it, and containing a second
wine-glass inside. By careful manipulation we pour the contents from
the upper part of the bottle into the wine-glass, and then setting
the bottle down in its position, pour back half the liquid, which
now runs through a hole in the partition into the glass beneath. So
that the audience sees one glass half full, two cardboard cases,
and what appears to be the bottle (as in figure), but which really
is our special bottle covered by its tin case, shaped and coloured
like a bottle, and a second glass half full beneath it. Now we show
the cardboard cases to prove that they are empty, and then place
one case over the glass and another over the bottle. At this stage
everything depends on the talk of the performer, who, by his jokes and
comicalities, somewhat diverts the attention of his audience. Some
excuse is now invented for changing the cases, and in doing this by
nipping the one over the bottle the tin case is lifted off with it (as
in Fig. 2), and placed over the glass, then on again raising the cases,
the glass has disappeared, and there are now two bottles instead.
Again, the cases are put over the bottles, and again they are raised,
but by nipping both the cases, the bottles are lifted with them, and
now only the two glasses appear. Again the cases are put on, and the
bottle and glass restored as at first, and so a number of changes can
be worked at will, the performer, of course, talking all the while
and referring in the language of magicians to his power and skill in
causing the bottle and the glasses to obey his will. Fig. 3 shows the
construction of the special bottle with its two linings and the space
for the glass to stand within it.

[Illustration]

$The Magic Wand.$--By means of this wand (a piece of thin glass rod)
we may produce fire at will. Take a teaspoonful of castor sugar, and
rather less than half a teaspoonful of ground chlorate of potash,
thoroughly mix without friction, and place on a saucer standing on an
old tray. Secretly dip the point of the glass rod in sulphuric acid
(oil of vitriol) and then touch the mass on the saucer.

$Another Wand Trick.$--Leave the room under some pretext and bring in
with you a wand that has been made hot. Touch the wick of a candle,
in which you have concealed previously a piece of phosphorus, and tell
it to light and it will obey. It is better to use a candle that has
already been lighted, because such a wick lights more readily.

$The Dancing Egg.$--Request someone to play the piano, and, touching
an egg with your magic wand, call upon it to dance. It will do so if
you observe the following directions. Let the egg be boiled hard and
brought into the room piping hot. Make a small hole in the shell and
through this push into the egg a quill that contains quicksilver, and
has both ends firmly sealed. So long as the egg retains its heat, so
long will it dance.

$Mystic Thread.$--Have suspended by a long thread an ordinary ring.
Let someone in the audience strike a match and set fire to the thread.
It burns, but the ring does not fall because the thread has been
thoroughly steeped in common salt and water.

$Eggs without Hens.$--Have a bag made of calico or similar material.
Have it made double and just inside the mouth of the part you keep
towards you have six little pockets made. Into each of these put an egg
that has been blown or sucked until nothing remains in it. You may now
shake the bag and turn it inside out to show it is empty, and yet you
are able to produce one egg after another. One may be a full one, and
if you break this the trick will seem more real.

$Feathers from a Handkerchief.$--Obtain some long feathers--the longer
the better. Take off your coat and lay the feathers in the left sleeve
with the quills near the wrist. Now put on your coat with the feathers
still there. Borrow a large handkerchief, and after flourishing it,
to show it conceals nothing, throw it over your left arm. When you
take it up again take with it one of the feathers, and when you shake
the handkerchief again out drops the feather. If the feather is large
and curved it will not appear as though it had been up your sleeve.
Repeat the process with suitable talk until all the feathers have been
produced.

$Ink Changed to Water.$--Fit a black silk lining into a glass vessel so
that it lines the sides but not the bottom. Put water in the glass and
gold fish, but let the audience see nothing except the black lining.
Behind the glass have a spoon with ink in it. Speak to the audience
with an empty spoon in your hand, and then go to the glass, secretly
change the spoons and pretend to take a spoonful of ink from the glass.
Now show the spoon with the ink in it to the audience, and they will
believe the vessel is full of ink. Throw a cloth over the glass and
call upon the ink to change to water. Remove the cloth, and with it the
black lining, and there you have the water and the gold fish swimming
in it.

$The Mysterious Box.$--Secure a little round box, into the bottom of
which a half-crown will fit exactly. Line the box with dark paper and
cover one side of a half-crown with the same material. Retaining this
half-crown, pass the box round to be examined so that the audience
may be sure it has no false bottom. Now borrow half-a-crown, and as
you return to the table exchange it for your prepared one. Show this
to the audience, keeping the papered side carefully towards you, and
let them see you drop it into the box. In doing this keep the papered
side upwards. Close the box and shake it up and down so that the coin
rattles. Now touch the box with your wand and charge the coin to pass
into a box, vase, or any other object in another part of the room into
which you have previously placed half-a-crown. Shake the box again,
this time from side to side, and there will be no rattle. Open it, the
coin cannot be seen. Now ask the audience to go to the place where
you have planted the other half-crown, and while they are looking for
it take out your papered half-crown. When they have found the other
half-crown hand round the box again for them to examine. Simple as is
this trick, it is very puzzling to the audience.

$How Threepence Vanished.$--Place a threepenny piece upon the palm of
your hand. Close your hand, but have a piece of wax upon the nail of
your middle finger. Press this upon the coin, open your hand, and the
coin will be out of sight.

$The Hat Trick.$--Borrow a hat, for a trick with a hat always has an
air of importance. Now, with a deal of elaboration, take a glass
of water and proceed deliberately to cover the glass over with the
hat. You undertake to drink the water without removing the hat. Your
challenge is accepted. You stoop beneath the table and commence making
a loud sucking noise with the lips, as though you were drawing the
water through the table. With a sharp "Now, sir!" the curiosity of your
opponent will make him lift up the hat; you instantly seize the glass
and swallow the contents, saying, "You perceive, sir, I have drunk the
water and I have not removed the hat."

$Card Tricks.$--INSEPARABLE KINGS.--Take four kings. Beneath the last
place any two cards, which you take care to conceal. Then show the four
kings and replace the six cards under the pack. Then take a king and
place it on the top of the pack, place one of the two other cards in
the middle, and the other about the same place, and then, turning up
the pack, show that one king is still at the bottom. Then let the cards
be cut, and as three kings were left below, all must necessarily get
together somewhere about the middle of the pack. Of course in placing
the two other cards you pretend to be placing two kings.

TO GUESS CHOSEN CARDS.--Make a set of all the clubs and spades, and
another set of hearts and diamonds. Shuffle well each set, and even
let them be shuffled by the spectators. Then request a person to draw
a card from one of the sets, and another person to draw one from the
second set. You now take a set in each hand, presenting them to the two
persons requesting them to replace the drawn cards. You must pretend
to present to each person the set from which he drew his card, but in
reality you present the red set to the person who drew the black card,
and the black set to the person who drew the red card.

TO TELL A CARD THOUGHT OF.--Take twenty-one cards of a pack, and deal
them out one by one in three lots, requesting someone to think of a
card, and remember in which lot it is. Having dealt out the cards,
ask him in which lot the card is. Take up the lots successively, and
place the lot containing the card in the middle. Deal out the cards
again, and ask him to state in which lot the card is; and proceed as
before, placing the lot containing the card in the middle. Deal out
the cards in like manner a third time, proceeding as before. Then deal
them out as usual, and the eleventh card will be the one thought of,
infallibly. This is the usual way of showing the card thought of; but,
as the trick may be partly discovered by the counting, it is better to
hold the cards in your hand, and take out the eleventh card, counting
to yourself, of course, from the left hand, but pretending to be
considering the guess.

CHEATING THE MAID.--For this amusing trick you arrange the cards thus:
Holding the pack in your hands, find all the knaves, place one of them
next to your left hand, and the other three on the table. Then find a
queen, which also place on the table. Then say:--"Three scamps went
into a tavern, and ordered drink. Here they are--the three knaves.
'Who's to pay? I can't,' said the first. 'I won't,' said the second. 'I
wish she may get it,' said the third. 'I'll manage it,' said the first,
the greatest rogue of the three. 'I say, my pretty girl, haven't you
some very old wine in your cellar?' Here's the barmaid thus addressed
by the rogue in question (showing the queen), and she replied:--'Oh,
yes, sir, prime old wine.' 'Let's have a bottle.' Off went the barmaid.
(Put the queen in your pocket.) 'Now for it, my lads,' said the knave
in question; '"run" is the word. Let's be off in opposite directions,
and meet to-night; you know where.' Hereupon they decamped, taking
opposite directions, which I will indicate by placing one on the top of
the pack, one at the bottom, and the other in the middle.

"When the poor barmaid returned (taking out the queen from your pocket)
with the wine, great was her astonishment to find the room empty.
'Lor!' she exclaimed, 'why, I do declare--did you ever!--Oh! but I'm
not agoing to be sarved so. I'll catch the rogues, all of them--that I
will.' And off she went after them, as shown by placing her on or after
the first.

"Now, to catch the three seems impossible; but the ladies have always
smiled at impossibilities, and wonders never cease; for, if you have
the goodness to cut these cards, you will find that she has caught
the three rogues." When the cards are cut, proceed in the usual way
after cutting; and taking up the cards, you will find the queen
and three knaves together, which you take out and exhibit to the
astonished audience. One of these knaves is not one of the three first
exhibited, but the one which you slipped on your left hand at first.
There is no chance of detection, however; simply for the reason before
given--nobody suspects the trick.

ANOTHER GUESSING TRICK.--Lay out twenty cards of any kind, two by two,
and request a friend to think of two in a line; that is, one of the
ten sets formed by the twenty cards. This done you take up the sets in
the order in which they lie, and place them in rows according to the
letters of the following words:--

  +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
  |  c  |  i  |  c  |  o  |  s  |
  +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
  |  d  |  e  |  d  |  i  |  t  |
  +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
  |  t  |  u  |  m  |  u  |  s  |
  +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
  |  n  |  e  |  m  |  o  |  n  |
  +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

You may use a diagram like the above, but as the words are easily
retained it had better be dispensed with, distributing the cards on
the table just as though upon the diagram, which will make the trick
more puzzling and extraordinary. Proceed as follows:--Place the cards
two by two on similar letters: thus, place the two cards of the first
set on the two d's in _dedit_; the two cards of the second set on the
two _i'_s of _cicos_ and _dedit_; the two of the third set on the two
_c'_s, and so on with the ten sets.

All the letters of the words being thus covered, ask the friend who
has thought of the cards to tell you in which lines these cards are.
If both are in the first line (_cicos_), they must be those on the two
_c_'s; if they are both in the second line, they cover the _d_'s in
_dedit_; both in the third line, they cover the _u_'s in _tumus_; both
in the fourth, they cover the _n_'s in _nemon_.

If one be in the first line and the other in the second, they cover
the _i_'s in _cicos_ and _dedit_, and thus of the rest--the two cards
thought of _necessarily_ covering two _similar letters_, whilst each of
the letters occurs only _twice_ in the diagram.

TO TELL A CARD THOUGHT OF.--Take any number--say twenty. Pretend to
shuffle them with the faces towards you and remember the first card as
you close the pack--say, the ten of diamonds. Tell the friend that the
only condition you require is to be told the order in which the card is
dealt out by you; in other words he must tell you whether in dealing it
comes out first, second, third, etc.

Remembering your first card, you may then turn your back to him, and
deal out the cards one by one, and one upon the top of the other,
requesting him to think of a card and its order as before said.

Then take up the cards, and shuffle them repeatedly by throwing a
portion of them from the bottom to the top, taking care not to mix the
cards or letting any drop, and then let the friend cut them as often
as he pleases. Then take the cards in hand. Pretend to examine them
mysteriously, but in reality only look for your card--the first dealt
out--the ten of diamonds, for instance. Now, suppose he tells you that
the card he thought of came out fifth. Then, for a certainty, it is
the fourth card on the right of the ten of diamonds, in spite of all
shuffling, for shuffling cannot alter the order or sequence of the
cards. Always remember to count from your own card inclusive to the
number of the card thought of towards your right hand. But, should
your card happen to be so near the right hand or the top as not to
allow sufficient counting, then count as far as it admits to the right
and then continue at the left. Thus, suppose there are only two cards
above the ten of diamonds, then count two more on the left, making the
fifth. If the card you remember, or your first card, is first, then
count the requisite number on the left, always beginning with your
card, however.

The reason of this trick is simply that by merely cutting the cards and
shuffling them in the way indicated, you do not alter the sequence of
the cards.

ANOTHER METHOD.--Form three ranks of five cards each, and request a
person to think of one of these cards, and tell you in which rank it
is. Take up the cards of the three ranks, taking care to place the
cards of the ranks in which is the card thought of between those of the
two other ranks.

Make three more ranks as before. Ask him again in which rank the card
is, and take them up, placing the rank in which the card is between the
two others. Operate in like manner a third time, and the card thought
of will infallibly be the third of the rank named.

Observe, however, you must not form each rank with five consecutive
cards; but you must place the cards one by one, placing one
successively in each rank: thus, one at the top on the left of the
first rank, one below that first for the second rank, one below the
second for the third rank, then one in the first, one in the second,
one in the third, and so on.

This trick, which is very easy, always produces a great effect. It only
requires a little attention, and it can never fail unless you make a
mistake in arranging the cards.

TO TELL CHOSEN CARDS.--The cards may be easily divided into two
numerical parts, even and odd: by taking a king for four points,
a queen for three, a knave for two, and the other cards for their
especial points, we may make up two sets of sixteen cards each, the
even composing one, and the odd the other. These two sets being before
the performer, he takes one, shuffles it well, and lets a person take
a card. He then takes the other, shuffles it, and lets another person
take a card. Then, whilst each person is looking at his card, which he
is requested to do, the performer dexterously changes the place of the
two sets, and he requests them to replace the cards in the set whence
they took them. It follows that he who took a card from the even set
places it in the odd set, and he who took it from the odd set places
it in the even set. Consequently all the shuffling and cutting in the
world will be useless, for the performer has only to spread out the
cards of each set to point out the cards drawn.

SINGULAR ARRANGEMENT OF SIXTEEN CARDS.--Take the four kings, the four
queens, the four knaves, and the four tens of a pack, and ask if there
be any one in the company who can form a square with them in such a
manner that, taken in any direction, from right to left, from the top
to the bottom, by the diagonal--anyhow, in fact--there will always be
in each line a king, queen, knave, and a ten. Everybody will think the
thing easy, but it is certain that no one will succeed in doing it.
When they "give it up," take the sixteen cards and arrange them as
follows, when the king, queen, knave, and ten will stand as required.

  +----------+----------+----------+---------+
  |  Ten     |   Jack   |  Queen   |  King   |
  |  of      |    of    |   of     |   of    |
  | Spades.  |  Clubs.  | Diamonds.| Hearts. |
  +----------+----------+----------+---------+
  |  King    |  Queen   |  Jack    |   Ten   |
  |   of     |    of    |   of     |   of    |
  | Spades.  | Hearts.  | Diamonds.|  Clubs. |
  +----------+----------+----------+---------+
  |  Jack    |   Ten    |   King   |  Queen  |
  |   of     |   of     |   of     |   of    |
  | Hearts.  | Diamonds.|  Clubs.  |  Clubs. |
  +----------+----------+----------+---------+
  |  Queen   |  King    |   Ten    |  Jack   |
  |   of     |   of     |   of     |   of    |
  | Spades.  | Diamonds.|  Hearts. | Spades. |
  +----------+----------+----------+---------+

THE CARD THAT CANNOT BE FOUND.--Take any number of cards and spread
them out fan-like in your hand, faces fronting the spectators.

Ask one of them to select a card. You tell him to take it, and then to
place it at the bottom of the pack. You hold up the pack, so that the
spectators may see that the card is really at the bottom. Suppose this
card is the king of hearts.

Then, pretending to take that card, you take the card preceding it, and
place it at a point corresponding to A in the following figure.

  A   C
  B   D

You then take the card drawn, namely, the king of hearts, and place it
at the point corresponding to B in the above figure. Finally, you take
any two other cards, and place them at C and D. Of course, the cards
are placed face downwards.

After this location of the cards, you tell the person who has chosen
the card that you will change the position of the cards, by pushing
alternately that at the point A to B, and that at D to C, and _vice
versa_; and you defy him to follow you in these gyrations of the card,
and to find it.

Of course, seeing no difficulty in the thing, and believing with
everybody that his card is placed at the point A, he will undertake to
follow and find his card. Then performing what you undertake to do, you
rapidly change the places of the cards, and yet slowly enough to enable
the person to keep in view the card which he thinks his own, and so
that you may not lose sight of the one you placed at B.

Having thus disarranged the cards for a few moments, you ask the person
to perform his promise by pointing out his card. Feeling sure that he
never lost sight of it, he instantly turns one of the cards and is
astonished to find that it is not his own. Then you say:--"I told you
you would not be able to follow your card in its ramble. But I have
done what you couldn't do: here is your card!"

The astonishment of the spectators is increased when you actually show
the card; for, having made them observe, in the first instance, that
you did not even look at the drawn card, they are utterly at a loss to
discover the means you employed to find out and produce the card in
question.




CHAPTER XVIII

PETS


$Cavies or Guinea Pigs.$--In starting these little chats, suppose we
commence with cavies. Some who ought to know better have said that
cavies are very dull, stupid little animals, but I entirely disagree
with this, as will also the lad who has kept them for ever so short a
time; they are bright, intelligent little fellows, and most pleasant to
make pets of, and although they belong to the rodent or rat family are
not the least vicious. Cavies are extremely clean in their habits, very
handsome in colour, and if their little houses are kept clean there is
no disagreeable smell from them.

Now before you buy your "guineas" you should build and furnish their
house, and I will proceed to tell you how to do this. The selection
of a suitable place comes first. If you live in the country there is
generally an outhouse or wood-shed, and if so here is the spot to
commence operations; if, on the other hand, you only have a small
garden or back-yard, then select a spot in it which gets a fair share
of pure air and sunlight, and which is protected from the cruel east
winds. The smooth-haired cavy must have a hutch not less than 2 ft.
long, 18 to 20 in. from front to back, and about the same height.
Let the floor of your hutch have a slight fall to the back so as to
carry off the moisture; the roof must also have a slope, and should be
covered with tarred felt, or brown paper well tarred and sanded, which
makes a capital waterproof covering. In the front of your hutch have
a closely and well-fitting wooden door, large enough for you to clean
out the interior comfortably; the other portion of the front must be
covered with wire netting of a very close mesh. Be sure that your doors
fasten securely, as some cavies have a habit of shaking them, and if
not properly secured, open comes the door and out drops poor guinea,
who is almost sure to be killed. It is always best to have the hutch
two or three feet from the ground, and resting on four legs, which is
much better than nailing it to the wall. After having got so far, go
carefully over your work to see that there are no cracks or crannies in
your hutch, as these let in draughts, which lead to disease and death.
Cover the floor of the hutch with fine sawdust, and over this some
sweet chopped hay, and your house is ready for its occupants.

Without going fully into the history of the cavy, I may say that it is
a native of South America, where in many parts it is very numerous. In
its wild state the cavy, where the ground is suitable, burrows like
a rabbit; in damp, marshy places it hides under the many plants that
flourish in such neighbourhoods. They are not difficult to catch, and
not being of a savage nature are easily tamed. In their native haunts
they are greatly esteemed as an article of food, and although I have
never had the pleasure of tasting cavy flesh, I am told by those who
have, and who are well able to give an opinion, that it is delicious;
and I see no reason to doubt it, as cavies are exceedingly cleanly in
their habits and feeding.

There are several varieties of cavies, and as these are bred in almost
every colour they afford the greatest pleasure, not only to the lad who
is fond of experimenting, but also to hundreds of men and women. That
the various colours can be easily bred and well fixed, has been proved
beyond doubt by the many handsome little specimens that are to be seen
at any of our exhibitions to-day. As we have them now, we may for
our purpose divide the cavy into three classes or divisions, namely,
long-haired (Peruvians), rough-haired (Abyssinian), and smooth-haired;
but before going on with their description I would like to say a word
as to handling them. This may seem superfluous, but it is not so, as
they are easily injured; therefore, when you have occasion to lift your
pet put your finger and thumb of the right hand round its neck, not
tightly, but sufficiently firm to hinder it slipping, gently raise it
and place it on your left hand, and so it can be safely lifted about
and handled. In mating your cavies remember that the boar (male)
controls the colour and outward characteristics of the future family,
consequently he should be as typical in colour and shape as possible,
and not younger than ten or twelve months; the sow (female) must not
be less than about six months old, and in selecting her see that she
is very tame and gentle, as she gives the inward characteristics to
the young ones. Of course, in keeping cavies, as in any other variety
of pets, a very great deal depends on the individual fancy, and,
therefore, I shall give a short description of the three classes
mentioned, and leave you boys to select which you think will give you
the greatest pleasure.

THE PERUVIAN CAVY.--The Peruvian cavy is noted for its long hair, which
is its chief characteristic, and when nicely combed and brushed it
would be hard to find a handsomer little fellow. The hair grows right
over its head and face, so that it is sometimes difficult to see either
its eyes or ears; yet its beautiful bright eyes are always on the look
out, and can see you and all your movements. On the body the hair grows
to such a length that it trails on the ground, some actually having it
as long as seven or eight inches. The hair or fur should be as long,
soft, and silky as possible, and to keep it in proper order a good deal
of attention is necessary; it grows very evenly from a natural parting,
from the crown of the head to the stern, falling over to each side, and
to keep your pet neat and trim as well as healthy you must brush its
coat regularly, using a soft brush, and if any part is matted take a
wide-toothed comb and very gently comb it out. You boys know what it is
to comb your hair when it is matted, and how it hurts if roughly done.
Remember, therefore, that without care you will not only cause your pet
pain, but, as the fur or hair on it is only, comparatively speaking,
slightly attached to the skin, carelessness will result in pulling it
out, thus leaving bare and unsightly patches. If, however, the brush is
regularly used, there will be little or no need of the comb.

THE ABYSSINIAN CAVY.--The next variety that claims our notice is the
quaint little Abyssinian or rough-haired cavy. Unlike the Peruvian, the
hair of the Abyssinian is short and hard or rough to the touch, and
instead of growing all one way it is rosetted, as it were, in bunches,
each rosette or bunch being separate and distinct, and the more evenly
these are distributed over the body the more charming the result.

What do my readers think of one of these little fellows--a beautiful
tortoiseshell, very well rosetted, and with short, hard hair, being
sold for upwards of £30? But such is a fact. It was bred by a lady who
takes a very great interest in Master Cavy, and who exhibits some most
beautiful specimens, and it was disposed of for the sum mentioned. The
Abyssinian is a hardy little chap and must not be "coddled" up in a
warm hutch. Keep him dry and sheltered from draughts and he will thrive
merrily.

SMOOTH-HAIRED CAVIES.--Last, but not least in any shape or form, comes
the smooth-haired variety, which you boys all know, I am sure, and
which is, as it fully deserves to be, the favourite. The coat of the
smooth-haired cavy is soft and velvety to the touch, and the immense
number of colours in which it is now bred makes it a most delightful
little pet. I will not go through the many different colours further
than to mention that we have them black, white, golden, brown, grey,
red, and the various sub-divisions and blendings between these colours.

The cavy has a good-sized head, is Roman-nosed, has a very thick, or
bull, neck, and a nicely rounded body, tapering towards the stern;
eyes full and bright, and small, neatly-shaped ears; his whole make-up
giving him the appearance of a cheerful, happy, and contented little
fellow.

Now, as to feeding, remember that regularity and cleanliness must be
observed, and that a variety or change in food is very much relished,
and is necessary for the health of your cavies. For breakfast, which
give early, provide some bread and milk sop, in which now and again
put a piece of boiled potato; and as a change, in cold weather some
barley-meal, scalded in boiling water and made into a nice crumbly
mass. This latter is very warm and comforting, too, for supper, in cold
frosty weather. As dry food, you must have good sound oats, wheat,
a few crushed peas, bran, and hay. Green food must on no account
be overlooked, as it is one of the most valuable things for keeping
the blood cool and the stomach in proper working order; but remember
that all green food _must be fresh_ and dry. Almost any green stuff
is relished, but there are a few kinds that are very good: lettuce,
cabbage leaves (not too many), parsley, celery tops, carrot, turnip,
beet-root, chickweed, groundsel, and chicory. Clean water must be
always at hand, and a drink of milk now and then is much appreciated.
As cavies are very apt to scratch their food all over the hutch, and
so waste a lot of it, you should always feed in dishes or troughs.
The heavy earthenware troughs, with flanged edges, which are used for
rabbits, are best, as they cannot be upset, nor the food scratched out
easily. I prefer earthenware to any other material, as it is so easily
cleansed, and there is nothing about it that will poison or give a
disagreeable taste to the food. Though water and dry food should always
be at hand for your cavies, never leave soft food or greens long in the
hutch, as these soon become tainted, and if eaten in that state bring
on disease. Let them eat their fill of soft food and greens, and then
take away any that is left. The lad who pays proper attention to his
pets will soon be able to gauge to a nicety the amount of food they
require.

$Rabbits.$--If you have sufficient pocket-money you can buy a hutch
ready-made, or you can build it on similar lines to that for cavies,
but of course much larger.

For ordinary-sized rabbits a hutch 3-1/2 ft. long by 20 or 22 in. will
do, but for lop-eared and Belgians it should be 4-1/2 ft. by 2 ft.;
whilst for Flemish giants 5 ft. by 2 ft. It is always preferable to
have your hutch in some outhouse, where, though the inmates will have
plenty of fresh air, they will be protected from very cold winds and
rain. As there is a deal of moisture from rabbits, it is a good plan to
have the floor of the outhouse cemented and connected with a drain, so
as to carry off the wet that comes from the hutches; but as this cannot
always be managed by boys who keep a few rabbits as pets, you should
have a piece of guttering fixed along the back of the hutch and so
placed that it will drain into a pail, in which put some sawdust and a
little disinfectant, which will keep down any unpleasant smell. This
pail you must empty every two or three days. In every hutch I like a
part of it boarded off as a sleeping-room, which can be easily done by
making a wooden partition and slipping it into the hutch, allowing a
space of 12 inches for this purpose. This partition must have a hole
cut in it large enough for the rabbits to pop in and out comfortably.
Over this part of the hutch you must have a well-fitting wooden door,
not only to keep them warm, but to darken the nest and so make them
comfortable. In giving your rabbits their food, remember that you
cannot measure the quantity exactly, any more than you can say that
because you have eaten so much to-day you will want exactly so much
to-morrow and every day during the week. Study and observation are the
only true guides. In giving soft food and green food let them have as
much as they eat up _greedily_ and no more. Feed twice a day, as early
as possible in the morning and about sundown. In the morning give soft
food, such as barley-meal, pollard, sharps, middlings, and bran, which
mix with scalding water into a soft, rather crumbly than sticky mess. A
few tea-leaves in the soft food now and then is a nice change.

Of course, these foods must not be all mixed together, but given on
different mornings, so as to provide a nice variety. As there is not
much feeding in bran it should always have one of the other foods mixed
in it.

When they have had breakfast put sufficient corn into their troughs
to last them all day to nibble at, and for this oats are best; but as
a change, once or twice a week crack up some barley for them. A feed,
once a week, of grey peas, steeped till well soaked, will also be much
relished. Bits of biscuit and dry, stale crusts are also good, and can
be given at any meal. For the evening feed give a bit of sweet hay,
dry, sweet clover, and green food of almost any description that grows,
so long as it is fresh and dry. It is impossible here to mention all
the greens they will eat, but amongst others I may mention parsley,
chicory, dandelion, lettuce, cabbage, celery, clover in flower;
carrots, turnips, and mangolds (a slice or two) are very good. Be very
careful not to leave any soft food or greens lying about the hutch, as
they soon spoil, and not only smell offensively, but injure the rabbits.

On the floors of your hutches spread sawdust (pinewood sawdust is
first-rate when it can be had), and over this some nice clean straw;
and always keep in the hutch a little of one of the many disinfectants
that are now manufactured. Drinking vessels and feeding troughs should
all be made of glazed earthenware, the latter having a flange round
them to prevent the rabbit scratching out the food, and being heavy
enough to prevent them being pulled about and upset. Once more, do not
neglect cleanliness and regularity in feeding.

THE LOP-EARED RABBIT.--One of the oldest varieties of the rabbit when
these were first taken in hand and bred as fancy or domestic stock,
was the Lop-ear; and so, paying reverence to his age, I will give him
the first place. At the majority of rabbit shows I see lads and young
men, as well as old ones, congregated in eager groups round the pens
containing the Lops, or, as they are sometimes called, the King of the
Fancy. I need scarcely tell our boys that the great feature in the Lop
rabbit is the immense lop or hanging ears.

Well do I remember in the early days how proud the owner of a Lop was
if he could show to those assembled a specimen whose ears measured from
tip to tip 19 inches; yet to-day, such a rabbit (if an adult) would
not be looked at by the judges in a show, for specimens 25 inches and
upwards are now produced. In measuring the ears you must understand it
is done as follows: Take hold of one ear, lay it flat out full length,
but not stretching it to hurt the rabbit, then place a rule at the
extreme tip of the ear, pass it along, across the head, and so on to
the tip of the other ear, which must be held out at full length as was
the other, and so you have the proper measurement of your specimen
so far as length is concerned. Besides this, however, you want width
of ear, and this should, roughly speaking, be one quarter the total
length, measured across the widest part of one ear.

The ears of the Lop must be as long as possible and wide in proportion;
not set on too closely on top of the head; thick at the root, and
fall gracefully down the sides of the cheeks, nicely rounded at the
tip and free from knots or lumps; the head large, with full, round,
bright eyes. The body, when in repose, should be rather low at the
shoulders, rising in a graceful curve to the hind quarters, which
should be gradually and nicely rounded off, the head resting on the
pouch or dew-lap; the tail must be straight, and carried close to the
body, and the fore-legs straight and strong. Lops are bred in various
colours, such as black, yellow, fawn, blue, grey, and tortoiseshell, so
that there is any amount of room for experimenting. Some people, I am
sorry to say, have the absurd idea that constant pulling and stretching
the ears of their rabbits, whilst even in the nest, greatly helps to
lengthen them, but like many cruel and ignorant ideas it is altogether
wrong. All that Lop rabbits require to develop the length of ear and
keep them healthy is regular feeding, cleanliness, and being kept at
a temperature of from 55 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit; to secure which,
during spring, autumn, and winter, artificial heat must be supplied,
the best for the purpose probably being hot-water pipes.

Lops breed freely, but, as the young ones require a good deal of
nourishment, the doe should, in order not to weaken her too much,
only be allowed to bring up two or three, the others being given to
nurse-does or foster-mothers, which can generally be had easily if a
little trouble is taken to enquire for one or two amongst friends who
keep rabbits. A healthy common rabbit makes a good foster-mother.

THE HIMALAYAN RABBIT.--It would be difficult to find a more handsome
little rabbit than the Himalayan, and as it is one of the healthiest
and hardiest of the coney family, I propose to give a few particulars
of it. To commence, then, the Himalayan, or, as it has been called, the
Chinese rabbit, has a perfectly white body, with dark chocolate-brown
(as nearly black as can be) ears, nose, feet, and tail, and pink or
rich golden eyes, the whole appearance being that of a very handsome
animal. The ears must be short, close together, and stand very erect,
so much so that if you bend them in any direction they immediately
spring back into their proper position when released. The eye is
round, bright, and rather full, and as I have just said, pink or rich
golden in colour; the shape is very graceful, rather long than short
or stumpy, giving it all the appearance of a thoroughbred animal. The
coat is short, pure white, and fine and silky in texture, and the
weight of a full-grown specimen should not exceed about six lbs. The
fur is greatly in request for the making of imitation ermine, and
good skins are always saleable to the manufacturers. Now that we have
this beautiful little rabbit in our hutch, how are we to preserve its
distinctive markings in all their beauty? For be it remembered that the
white turns yellow, and the black or dark brown markings grey, unless
proper attention is paid to them. In Chinese or Russian markets where
these rabbits are on sale, we are told that the colour, especially on
the feet, is not so distinct as is seen in our domestic specimens; and
this I can quite understand, as, with their constant burrowing and
scratching amongst damp sand, earth, lime, etc., the colour on the feet
will soon be affected. A very great deal of care is bestowed by those
who exhibit Himalayans in order to have their handsome markings as even
as possible; for instance, the ears, from roots to tips, should be as
dark as possible, and the nose the same colour, as well as all four
feet and tail. This is often difficult to get; still, were it all as
simple as A B C, there would be little honour in producing what any one
else could produce without trouble.

As on many other questions, considerable discussion has been carried
on as to how best to preserve the distinct colour. Many argued that
the rabbits should be kept in entirely dark hutches, as they said the
light not only destroyed the colour, but the rabbits in their wild
state lived in dark burrows; just so, but these people forgot that such
of the wild specimens as are to be seen in the foreign markets are not
of that dark or nearly black colour, especially so far as their feet
are concerned, as are those which are domesticated. Others took up the
extreme opposition view, and recommended as much light as possible.
These latter were further astray than their "dark" opponents, for there
is no doubt that constant exposure to the full light does destroy the
purity of both black and white. Another thing that was overlooked by
the advocates of light was that too much exposure to light affected
the eyes of the Himalayan, which, as I have said, are pink, for it is
a well-known fact that human beings, as well as animals and birds who
have pink eyes, avoid a strong light. Himalayans are best provided
for in a partially darkened or shaded hutch, and this can be easily
arranged, especially if the hutch stands in an outhouse or shed; if
not, then partially cover the front with a bit of sacking or anything
that will keep off the full glare. If your Himalayan is allowed to
sleep or sit about in a wet hutch the colour of the feet will soon be
destroyed; but if the hutch is built as I previously described, all
water from the rabbit will soon run away. However, in the case of the
rabbit under notice, it is best to make "assurance doubly sure," so,
on the bottom of your hutch put a nice layer of fine sand or sawdust,
and over this straw or dried ferns, then any water will run through and
be absorbed by the sand or sawdust, which should be raked over each
morning, and renewed once a week. Do not give your Himalayan too much
green meat, and never any that is wet or stale, as they are rather
prone to scours. A few acorns are always a valuable thing to have on
hand, and immediately bunny is seen to be relaxed; give one or two, and
you will soon see the great good they will do.

SILVER AND ANGORA RABBITS.--Amongst the many beautiful specimens
that are to be seen now-a-days at exhibitions and in the rabbitries
of breeders, the silver varieties hold a deservedly high place. The
various colours include silver grey (light, medium, and dark shade),
silver brown, silver cream, silver fawn, and silver blue. The silvers
are of medium size, and should weigh between six lbs. and seven lbs.,
be compactly built, having a very neat head, ears moderately short,
clear bright eyes, and with that general appearance of activity that
denotes a healthy constitution. The coat or fur is close-fitting and
smooth to the touch. The skin or ground colour of the silver grey
should be blue, the fur consisting of black, white, and blue hair,
and, according to its distribution, so we have the three shades of
light, medium, or dark, as mentioned. When the silver grey is born it
is black, the colour only beginning to develop between the age of one
and two months, and being fully developed at about five or six months,
when their coats are very handsome. Some breeders, in order to get
the silvering as quickly as possible, help nature by keeping their
pets in artificially heated hutches; they succeed in thus accelerating
development, but, as we have found from many years' experience, those
who so interfere, and think they know more than Mother Nature, have
generally to pay the penalty for their presumption; for rabbits, too
quickly developed, although their coats have a beautiful appearance, do
not continue so long in that grand bloom and brightness that denotes
the rabbit that has been allowed to get its coat as nature intended.
All the warmth that is necessary can be obtained by having the hutches
water-tight, kept clean, and protected from the extremes of heat and
cold.

During the years the silver grey colour was being perfected, it is
needless to say, crosses of various colours had to be resorted to, and
amongst these were white rabbits, which naturally threw offspring with
white or very pale ground (skin) colour in many cases, and as the fur
grew, it was observed that the white hair predominated, giving the
rabbit a cream or fawn colour, the lighter being designated creams,
whilst the darker (or medium) were called fawns. The silver brown was
another outcome of the various crosses, the Belgian, wild English,
and common grey hutch rabbit, all leaving their trace in the silver
variety, the under coat and top coat being, as the name denotes, a
brown colour; this colour, pretty as it is, is not so "taking" to the
eye as the other handsome ones are, and so it has not been kept or
bred so carefully as the foregoing colours mentioned. The silver blue
is still a rare colour, and has not yet reached anything like such
perfection as the others; a correct blue, whilst evenly silvered,
should show a beautiful blue colour all through.

Although not so frequently seen, the Angora is an exceedingly handsome
rabbit, but needs a good deal of attention to keep it as it ought
to be. The great feature of this breed is the immense length of its
wool--not hair, mind, boys--which should be of the finest quality, soft
as silk, pure white, and well distributed all over the body; the face
and ears have less wool, in proportion to the other parts, but finer
and more silky. The head is not very broad, and is surmounted with a
pair of small and neatly-shaped ears, the eyes being pink and bright, a
beautiful contrast to the snow-white wool. The weight should not exceed
seven lbs. or eight lbs., although from the amount of wool they carry,
they look very much heavier. Angoras must be kept in large hutches,
on the bottoms of which have nice, clean, soft, oat straw. To keep
their coats in proper order, they must be gently combed and brushed at
least every other day, care being taken to pull as little wool out as
possible. Should any part of the coat become matted, do not "tug" at it
with the comb, which should be a wide-toothed one, but disentangle it
with your fingers, and use a little warm water on it to help; if it is
too securely matted to enable you to loosen it, there is nothing for it
but to clip it off, which will, of course, spoil its appearance till
the wool grows again.

A healthy, well-groomed Angora is one of the handsomest pets possible;
but on the other hand, if neglected, the coat becomes foul and matted,
and a more disconsolate, miserable-looking animal it would be difficult
to imagine. The hutches must be cleaned out thrice a week, and a manger
fixed in which to put hay or clover, of which they are very fond, and
which is good for them.

BELGIAN HARES.--The Belgian hare is a large and very handsome variety
of our domestic rabbit. Although designated "hare," it is not a hare
at all, but a rabbit pure and simple, although it has more of the
hare-like form and colour than any other variety. Being a large animal,
scaling from eight pounds to ten pounds in weight, it is necessary
that it should be kept in a large, roomy hutch. An old and experienced
breeder says the hutch should be at least 5 feet long, by 2 feet broad,
and 18 inches high, and the shaded sleeping compartment 6 inches wider
than in the ordinary hutch. The Belgian in colour somewhat resembles
the English hare, being of a sandy-brown or golden-foxey colour, ticked
as evenly as possible with dark chocolate, thus giving the fur, which
should be short, firm and glossy, a very handsome appearance; the head
is of good size, broad between the eyes, and gradually tapering towards
the nose; the eyes, a special feature in Belgians, are a beautiful
brown colour, full, bright, and wild-looking; the ears, about five
inches long, should be laced round the edges with black, and carried
very neatly and closely together; the body should be long, giving it a
graceful, hare-like carriage, so much esteemed, and the legs strong,
long, and straight. Belgians are very apt to develop a dew-lap or
pouch, or as some have called it a large double chin; this is a defect,
but, owing to an undoubted cross at a remote time with the lop rabbit,
is very difficult to avoid. Many specimens now-a-days do not show
this point until they get old and fat. One of the best preventatives
we believe is large airy hutches, and the avoidance of over-feeding.
Where it can be done, Belgians should be allowed to run in a nice dry
open shed, or failing this, an hour's run three or four times a week
on a nice, dry grass plot. Plenty of room, judicious feeding, and
cleanliness, work wonders in the development of the Belgian hare.

DUTCH RABBITS.--Unlike the Belgian, the Dutch rabbit is noted for its
small size, and is generally called the dwarf or bantam representative
of the domestic rabbit. There are few lads who have not been captivated
by the handsome little Dutchman, and there are few large rabbitries
where some of them are not kept, such great favourites are they. The
breed being of small size should not exceed about five pounds in
weight, and many grand ones are to be found under that weight. The
pretty markings, combined with the various colours of this variety and
the difficulties in getting both colour and markings exactly as they
ought to be, makes the breeding of them very fascinating to those fond
of experiments, and who delight in observing the various developments
of the little animal.

Probably the most favourite colours are the blacks and the blues; but
greys, tortoiseshells, and yellows, are all alike handsome. The head of
the Dutch rabbit is shapely and not large, the ears small, neat, and
carried slightly backwards; the eyes in this variety are frequently
not both of the same colour owing to crossing for various colours, and
the too frequent and pernicious habit of in-breeding. It is, however,
necessary that both eyes should match, and be bright and sparkling; the
body rises from behind the shoulders, curving nicely over the stern,
and giving the rabbit a compact, well-put-together shape; legs, medium
length, straight, and fine in bone.

Now to come to the markings of this little aristocrat of the rabbitry.
From between the ears comes a narrow white line, gradually widening
as it descends to, and encircles the smellers, and continuing round
the face, this is called the "blaze," the cheeks and ears are of the
same colour as the body, whilst the chest, fore-legs, and shoulders
are pure white, and the hind feet for about an inch and a half should
also be white, the whole remaining part of the rabbit being a solid
colour, as black, blue, grey, etc. The collar of white which runs round
the shoulders should descend in a straight line, as though cut with
scissors, encircling the fore-legs. The markings of a Dutch rabbit
should be sharply defined, and not blur or run into each other. For
instance, in a black Dutch, the cheeks, ears, and body from behind the
shoulders should be a bright, solid, glossy black, and the remaining
part pure white, a very beautiful contrast indeed. One great advantage
in keeping and breeding Dutch rabbits is that they are small and can be
more successfully brought up in cool, outdoor hutches.

If your rabbit has canker of the ear, clear out the discharge by gentle
pressure with a sponge or soft rag soaked in warm water, taking great
care that none of the water falls into the ear. When dry after this
bathing, apply the following lotion, which any druggist will make up
for you: sulphate of zinc 12 grains, water 2 ounces, wine of opium 1
drachm, mixed. Or you might try a mixture of one part Goulard's extract
of lead to five parts of pure olive oil. Hold the rabbit's head on one
side and pour into the ear half a teaspoonful of either of the above
twice a day. Give plenty of the best food, for if the rabbit does not
feed well the chances of recovery are slight.

$Cage Birds.$--CANARIES.--Having determined to keep a bird, the first
thing is to provide proper accommodation for it, and here let us
suppose the lad has only accommodation for one, or at most, a pair
of birds. Very well, then, procure a cage. Oh, yes, says the boy; of
course, I know that. Just so, but do not forget that there are cages
_and_ cages, and that whilst some look very pretty and are quite
an ornament, they are perhaps the most unsuitable and miserable of
prisons for poor little Dick; avoid by all means round cages, which
are the worst possible for the poor little inmates, who have no room
to exercise themselves, and where it is quite impossible for them to
get out of the way of draughts or shelter themselves from the scorching
sun. The best and most convenient cages are those which have plain wire
in front, the rest being made of wood; the larger the size the better,
as a great thing is to give the inmates plenty of room for exercise.
The size that I have used for years in which to keep a pair of canaries
or other small birds, is as follows:--Length 24 in., depth, from back
to front, 10 in., and height 15 in. In such a cage small birds will
live healthily for years. Next in importance to size of cage is where
to hang it, and a great deal depends upon this point. First, then, let
me impress upon you never to hang Dickey (except, perhaps, for an hour
or two's change in fine, but not too sunny weather) in front of the
window, for here the bird is exposed to draughts and every change of
temperature, which is more injurious to the health and well-being of
your pet than anything else. Select a part of the room against one of
the walls as free from draught as possible, and where there is plenty
of light and air; and be particular not to hang the cage higher than
(but rather below) the level of the gas, as when that is lighted the
air in the higher parts of the room becomes very hot, and anything but
comfortable or healthy for the bird. Now that you have got your cage,
which will be fitted with the necessary perches, drinking glasses, and
seed hoppers, examine it carefully to see that it is clean and free
from insects, then fill your water-glasses, and put seed in the tins
or hoppers, and on the bottom of the cage a good supply of sand and
small grit, which can be bought in penny bags at all corn chandlers
or bird-shops, and your house is ready for Master Dick. Perches are
usually too thin. They should not be like a lead pencil, but more like
your thumb, and flat on top. Feed regularly each morning, on either
the mixed seed, or, as we prefer it, buy some good, clean, sweet,
canary seed and summer rape seed, and mix them yourself, one part of
the latter to two parts of the former; clean water each day, and a wee
bit of nice, dry, fresh, green food, such as groundsel, watercress,
lettuce, chickweed, or plantain, as they are in season. Do not indulge
your bird in luxuries, but Dickey will enjoy (and it will do it good)
now and then, a morsel of sweet, ripe apple, pear, grape, or cherry.
Following these directions, and keeping the cage thoroughly clean, you
will find Dickey a delightful pet and one that will repay you for any
little trouble.

Whenever you have occasion to go near the cage, either to look at
the bird or to feed or clean it, always speak to it cheerfully but
quietly, and so gain its confidence, and you will soon be surprised how
earnestly it will greet you whenever you come into the room. It will
greatly contribute to the health and vigour of your bird if you can
now and then let it fly in the room where the cage is. Close the room
door and windows, and, yourself and Dick being the only inmates, talk
to him and then open the cage-door and sit down, and you will be amused
at the bird's antics; first he will hop on the ledge of the door, then,
looking this way and that, he will either try his wings on a fly round
the room or drop to a table or chair-back, and so investigate the whole
surroundings; do not startle the bird whilst it is out or it will get
frightened and dash itself about. If it seems unable to find its way
back to the cage, talk to it and drive it gently in that direction, but
never wave a handkerchief or paper at it or you will probably frighten
it to death.

ZEBRA-FINCHES.--One of the merriest, boldest, most impudent and
inquisitive little fellows is the handsome zebra, or chestnut-eared,
finch; a prettier or more charming little pet it would be difficult to
find. Zebra-finches are the hardiest and best known of the Australian
finches, and are natives of Queensland and New South Wales, where they
are found in great numbers; they are stoutly built, compact little
birds, measuring between four and five inches from beak to end of tail,
the tail itself being about an inch and a half long. The hen is soberly
clad in grey with yellow beak and legs, but her mate is a handsome
little fellow and somewhat difficult to describe; his beak is red;
head, neck, and throat grey, the feathers on the latter being pencilled
with white, which gives it a very beautiful appearance; the ears are a
bright chestnut colour, and a line of black and one of white surround
the beak; the breast is white, sides darker chestnut spotted with
white; back and wings grey; tail black, barred and spotted with white;
legs orange colour.

No description, however, can adequately convey the handsome appearance
of Master Zebra-finch when in the full beauty of his plumage. He is a
fearless little fellow and bold to the extent of rashness in defending
his mate, for he will attack birds many times larger than himself, and
generally comes off the victor; and then doesn't he let you know it;
how he struts about, blowing himself out and trumpeting to his heart's
content. They are most lovable little birds, their every action being
full of grace.

Zebra-finches do not sing, but the male bird's note is a sweet
trumpeting sound, very cheerful and pleasant, and varying in tone.
Watch him making love to his little mate or helping her to make a
nest; how low and soothing is his little trumpet, and how much it
is appreciated is easily perceived by the joyous twitterings of his
soberly clad lady-love; listen to him again when he is "showing-off";
with what vigour does he blow his trumpet, and how proudly he hops
about, especially if he has just thrashed a bigger fellow than himself.
I kept a pair for several years in a cage, such as I described to you,
and although kept in a room where more or less noise was going on all
day they were as happy as the day was long, and being continually
petted and talked to became very tame, "Master Jocky" never failing
to trumpet to us when we went to the cage or spoke coaxingly to him;
his little wife "Jenny" was, however, very shy and always allowed her
lord and master to do all the talking, she chiming in now and again as
though saying "Hear, hear," to his remarks. As I had not, at the time,
convenience for an aviary, I made a point, as soon as the birds were
thoroughly tamed, of opening the cage-door every afternoon for an hour
or two so that they might fly round the room; and how they did enjoy
themselves! The first time I opened the cage-door they made no rush
for freedom, but seemed to talk the matter over with each other, and
then Jocky came to the open door, trumpeting his best to attract my
attention. I spoke to him, and then, apparently reassured, he launched
himself forth across to where I was and back again to his cage; then he
enticed Jenny to come out, and they flew round and round, resting close
together on the top of the cage now and then, when he would trumpet in
his loudest and most vigorous tones; they would thus tire themselves
out, and in a few minutes after would be sound asleep. Thus they lived
joyously for years, but she at last succumbed to egg-binding, which,
unfortunately, with this variety is more common and more fatal than
with many others. They had lived together so long and so happily that
poor little Jock never got over his sorrow, his delightful little
trumpetings soon lost their bonny sound, and do what we could we failed
to rouse him to anything like what he used to be, and so one morning
when we took the cover off his cage he was dead. We all sorrowed over
their deaths, for they made themselves most lovable little companions
to one and all of us.

Dr. Greene, the naturalist, speaking of his first experience with these
delightful little birds, says:--

"As soon as I got them home, I turned the birds loose into a greenhouse
in which was nothing but a grape-vine in full foliage. I shall never
forget the delight of the little couple as they rushed into the midst
of the leaves, the male trumpeting loudly and his mate twittering in
joyful response. They paired almost as soon as I let them out of the
cage, and in a minute or two the hen bird was hopping about with
a little bit of fibre she had picked up off the floor in her beak,
looking for a place to build her nest in; this she was not long in
finding, and on my supplying her with some fine hay, she very soon,
or, I should say they, for the male helped in the construction, made a
little domed nest among the vine branches, and in less than a week were
engaged in the important duty of incubation, male and female sitting
alternately on five tiny white eggs."

Zebra-finches breed freely, especially when kept in cages in a rather
warm temperature. The young ones, which are hatched in about twelve
days, do not leave the nest till fully fledged, when they almost
immediately commence to feed themselves, when they must be removed or
they will interfere with the old birds. When kept in an aviary not
supplied with heat artificially, they generally content themselves with
two or perhaps three broods a year, which is much better for them. It
must be remembered that when kept in an aviary with other birds they
are inclined to be quarrelsome and masterful, frequently either taking
possession of some other nest or pulling it to pieces to construct
their own, in spite of the fact that abundant nest-making material is
lying about.

For food, canary seed and millet is the best, and will keep them
vigorous and in good health. As a change give them a few hay-seeds,
a spray of millet, or some grass in flower, which they will greatly
enjoy, as also now and again a morsel of sweet apple or pear. When
bringing up young, give a small piece of sponge cake and a little of
the yolk of a hard-boiled egg crushed and mixed with sweet biscuit.
Always see that they have plenty of grit, and keep a piece of rock-salt
and cuttlefish-shell for them to peck at. They are very cleanly birds,
and when the weather is not too cold, should be allowed a bath at least
twice or thrice a week.

BUDGERIGARS.--This beautiful little bird, called variously "Undulated
Grass Parrakeet," "Zebra Grass Parrakeet," and "Shell Parrot," is a
native of South Australia, and is deservedly a very general favourite,
its hardy constitution, the readiness with which it adapts itself to
confinement, its handsome plumage, and its winning ways, all tending
to make it a great pet. It can be kept in a large cage, but is much
merrier and more contented in a garden aviary, where it may be kept all
the year round so long as it has an inner compartment to retire to in
very severe cold or wet weather. It is a miniature long-tailed parrot,
measuring seven or eight inches, of which the tail is about half that
length; its general colour is a brilliant grass-green, the head pale
primrose, whilst the neck, shoulders, and wings are yellow-green, the
feathers being edged with grey, giving it an undulating appearance,
hence one of its names; the two long middle-tail feathers are blue,
whilst the others are yellow with green tips; the beak is white, chin
yellow, spotted with blue, which latter colour also runs down each side
of the beak like a moustache; legs and feet grey or slate colour. The
male bird is distinguished from the female by the blue colour of the
cere round the nostrils, which in the female is of a brown shade.

Budgerigars breed well in confinement, the season lasting from about
December to July, during which two or three broods will be produced.
Several pairs can be kept together in one aviary, the only thing to be
particular about is to provide sufficient nesting material, otherwise
quarrels ensue. In the native woods these handsome little fellows
generally make their nests in the hollows of gum-trees, taking very
little trouble as to furnishing it; in an aviary they will select
almost any hole or corner; but one of the best nests I know of is the
husk of a cocoa-nut, which should have a hole cut in one end; this
should be hung high up so that mice cannot reach it, and a perch should
be provided close to the hole, where the male will sit and sing his
love ditties, and tell his wife all the gossip of the day, whilst she
is attending to her maternal duties inside. The hen lays three, four,
five and sometimes six eggs, the youngsters being hatched in fourteen
or fifteen days. When feeding-time comes the young ones do not open
their mouths as do so many young birds, but the parents take the beak
of their offspring into their own, and the youngsters feed themselves
on the food which the old ones disgorge for them. The young birds
leave the nest when five or six weeks old, as soon as they are fully
fledged, and in a few days leave the parents, who soon set about
nesting again; the first thing they do being to thoroughly clean out
the husk for the reception of the next batch of eggs. If husks cannot
be got conveniently, little wooden boxes (which should have some
sawdust put in so that the eggs will not roll about) holes in the wall,
or a rotten wood log will do.

When kept in small cages budgerigars, not having room to properly "show
off," are apt to become silent, but once in an aviary and the change
is marvellous, as they dart about, tumbling, twisting, and climbing in
all positions in the most graceful and delightful manner, and singing
a pleasant little song all the while, stopping now and again as though
to exchange confidences and to express delight at their surroundings.
These birds do not bathe, but one of their greatest delights is to
tumble and roll about in wet grass; if, therefore, the aviary has not
a grass bottom, a large sod should be supplied and artificial rain
produced by the aid of the watering can. When thus tumbling about, and
the sun glints on their plumage it sparkles like so many gems. So far
as food is concerned these charming little birds are easily satisfied,
canary seed and white millet being sufficient to keep them healthy and
vigorous, the only change necessary being when they are feeding young
ones, when a little stale bread soaked in water and squeezed dry, and a
few oats, should be added to their bill of fare; the simpler the diet
the better, so do not indulge them with tit-bits. In the aviary or cage
always have a supply of clean drinking water at hand, pounded oyster
shells, as well as sand, fine shell grit and cuttlefish bone, which can
be had at all bird shops, seed dealers, etc.

Being such hardy, sprightly little fellows, the handsome budgerigars
are not liable to so many illnesses as frequently fall to the lot
of our caged pets; now and again one may have a fit, due probably
to improper feeding; should such occur, be careful to correct your
feeding, and give grass in flower, dandelion, or a bit of groundsel.
Cramp they sometimes suffer from, which is produced by cold or damp,
the latter more especially; a simple remedy is the removal of the
bird to a warm and dry atmosphere. All cage-birds (hens) are liable
to egg-binding, one of the most serious complaints, and difficult to
deal with, and budgerigars suffer from it like the rest; it is seldom
curable, but immediately the hen is observed to be suffering she should
be taken gently, very gently, in hand, and a drop or two of castor oil
or sweet oil put in her mouth, whilst the egg passage should be gently
oiled with a feather, and then held over the mouth of a jug of hot
water, so that the steam may get to the part affected, and so relax it
and assist in the delivery of the egg. A bird which has been egg-bound
should not be allowed to mate and go to nest again, as sooner or later
she will again suffer from the distressing complaint and die.

Any one fond of birds cannot fail to be delighted and charmed with
such a handsome, good-tempered, loving, and jolly little fellow as the
budgerigar.

$How to treat Dogs.$--Twice a day feed the dog moderately. Paunch and
tripe are excellent for dogs. Boil this food, cut into small pieces,
in a moderate quantity of water, and when the meat is sufficiently
done throw into the gravy some good dog biscuits. When these are soft
mix meat, biscuits and gravy well together. For an occasional change
oatmeal or rice may be given instead of meat. During the summer boil a
cabbage with the food twice a week, for unless dogs have vegetable food
occasionally they are liable to have mange and scurvy. In winter put
mashed potatoes in the food sometimes, for these contain the properties
for which dogs sometimes eat the coarse grass in some parts called
couch grass, in others twitch. Once or twice a week a dog should have
boiled liver and sometimes milk in which powdered brimstone has been
placed. Always he should be able to drink clean water. A dog's kennel
should be in a dry, sheltered place and lifted from the ground. It
should face south or west. Let him have plenty of dry straw. Wheat
straw and oat straw are best; it is said that barley straw will cause
mange. Cedar or pine shavings are good if you can secure some. In
cold weather a piece of canvas or carpet should be nailed to hang
over the entrance, and great care should be taken to keep the kennel
dry, or there will be mange and lameness. A kennel with an adjustable
bottom which can be removed to be cleaned, is better than one with a
fixed bottom. At least every two weeks the kennel should be thoroughly
cleaned. Apply some good disinfectant to every crevice with a brush,
then expose the inside to the sun and air to dry it. It is usual to
chain the dog to the kennel, but a better plan is to place in front of
the kennel a stout wire about fifteen feet long stretched between two
posts that are about three feet above the ground. The ring at the end
of the dog's chain should have this wire running through it. This plan
gives him a much wider range.

To destroy vermin in a dog rub soft soap well into his coat, and in
about a quarter of an hour lather it well into him, and then wash it
away with an abundance of tepid water.

When dogs have the "husk," a kind of cough, they should be fed with
finely chopped suet boiled in milk, with a little garlic also finely
chopped added to the suet. For worms, administer a teaspoonful of salt
either dry or dissolved in lukewarm water. This is also a good remedy
when distemper begins, for it acts as an emetic.

The least exercise a dog should have is an hour each day. Dogs kept in
the house should have exercise for half an hour before breakfast and
after supper too. A run at mid-day, too, is an advantage. To lead them
out soberly on a chain and back again is not sufficient for a dog. He
needs more lively exercise than that. A large dog should run six miles
each day. Brush your dog's coat each day and wash him once a week.

Bad habits should be checked when the dog is young, with a whip if
that is necessary, but without cruelty. A little whip goes a long way
with a dog. Even the sight of it is sufficient usually. Be sure he
understands for what he is being punished, and be consistent. Don't
laugh at him for one thing one day, and punish him for it another. Do
not let him annoy neighbours by barking. If you do it will serve you
right if the neighbours obtain an order from the magistrates for his
destruction. They are entitled to do this, and, indeed the right ought
to be exercised more often than it is.

So far we have mentioned grown dogs only, but a few hints about puppies
may be given. When these are five or six weeks old they may be weaned.
Feed them now for three weeks upon boiled milk, sometimes breaking into
it a little stale bread. Then they may begin to have soup made of meat
and vegetables occasionally. When they are between six weeks and a year
old they may be fed three times a day, the most generous meal at night
before they go to sleep.

$The Raven.$--If you keep a raven be prepared for unending mischief
and destruction. He needs plenty of room, and will eat most things.
Raw meat is perhaps his favourite diet, and he is pleased with rats,
mice, small birds, beetles, grubs or worms, and bread. He ought to be
fed once, and once only, each day, for he will find insects, worms, and
other delicacies for himself. From time to time he loves to retire to a
place that is sheltered, warm and dark, and where no one can see him.

$White Mice.$--The principal food for white mice is bread-and-milk,
oatmeal grits, and any other common food, except cheese, which is bad
for them. They should be kept particularly clean, and their cages
overhauled each day and the bedding changed, or they will smell
offensively. Cages may be adapted from boxes. Give them more room than
the bought cages give them, and a dark compartment.

$Jackdaws.$--The jackdaw is tamed easily, and can be taught to say a
few words. It is as alert as a terrier for visitors, and affectionate
towards its friends. Jack loves a bath, and may be fed on bread and
milk, oats, mice, small birds, insects, and meat.

$The Jay.$--The jay is not so impatient of captivity as the magpie,
and will tolerate confinement in a large cage. It will eat meat, small
birds, mice, insects, worms, and is particularly fond of eggs. It eats,
too, much vegetable food.

$The Magpie.$--Do not keep a magpie unless you can give him generous
room. He is a very clever talker and mimic. He is extremely fond
of bathing, and a plentiful supply of water is needful to keep his
beautiful plumage in good condition. The food of the magpie is the same
as that of the jackdaw.

$The Hedgehog.$--This animal likes insects and snails, frogs and mice,
and will even kill a snake, and eat it. In its wild state it sleeps all
the winter, rolled up in a hole which it has filled with grass, moss,
or leaves; and when tamed it will hide itself in some dark place for
weeks, and never make its appearance, unless it should feel hungry.
Hedgehogs destroy beetles, eating them quickly and gladly. They need
no looking after, but will fend for themselves, though it is better to
have a little hutch to put them into sometimes. Their feeding-time is
in the night; and if there are black-beetles in the kitchen, the best
plan is to leave the hedgehog there.

$Silkworms.$--Buy a few eggs, which should be of a lilac or grey
colour. Avoid yellow ones.

The silkworm when hatched is black, and about one-fourth of an inch
long. The desire for food is the first sign of life, and it is more
alive then than at any other time. When about eight days have elapsed
its head becomes enlarged and it turns ill, refuses food, and remains
torpid for about three days. This seems to be caused by the pressure of
the skin, which has become too tight. The difference in the size of the
worm from the beginning to the end of the caterpillar state is such,
that the worm has been provided with several skins, each of which it
throws off in succession.

The silkworm feeds on the leaves of the white mulberry; or, when these
cannot be obtained, upon those of the black mulberry; or even upon the
leaves of the lettuce.

The eggs should be bought about the end of April and placed in trays
made of pasteboard. Over the case put thin gauze. The trays may be
placed in a window facing the south, where they are fully exposed to
the sun, and there they should remain undisturbed till the eggs begin
to hatch. As the worms appear they should be removed into other trays,
and fed with the mulberry leaves. The temperature should be from
sixty-six to seventy degrees, and the room ventilated, and preserved
free from damp and from too much dryness. The trays should be kept
clean, dead leaves and any other refuse cleared away. In moving the
caterpillars from one tray to another they should not be touched by the
fingers, but removed by threads of cotton passed under their bodies, or
with a camel-hair brush.

The caterpillar has four moultings, which may be all over in four
days each, if the heat of the room be increased to from ninety-five
to one hundred degrees of Fahrenheit. When the heat is lower, the
first moulting takes place on the fourth or fifth day after hatching,
the second in four days more, the third in five or six days more,
and the last in about eight days. Ten days more are required after
this moulting, so that in about thirty-two days after hatching the
caterpillar is fully grown.

[Illustration]

At the end of this time the silkworms change to a clear pink or flesh
colour, and look semi-transparent; they refuse food, become restless,
and prepare to spin their cocoon. Care should be taken to raise the
walls of their tray or they will climb over and be lost. The cocoon
nest should now be prepared by twisting the corners of a piece of
writing-paper, and raising its edges into the form shown in the
illustration. A number of these should be prepared and fixed to a piece
of tape, with their pointed ends downwards; and into each one a single
worm should be placed when it refuses its food, and seems inclined to
spin: it will then weave its web so as to leave a space within.

The cocoon consists of three layers of silk: the first is loose and
flossy, and is of no use for the silk manufacture; the second is
closer, the silk crossing from side to side; and the third is still
finer, and is stuck firmly together, so as to form a compact inner
coating.

When the cocoon is completed, the enclosed caterpillar once more casts
its skin, with its head and jaws attached to it. It is now a conical
chrysalis of the ordinary shape. At first the chrysalis, when opened,
contains only a yellow fluid, but by degrees the parts of the moth
appear, and in a fortnight or three weeks a swelling of the chrysalis
indicates the approach of another change. A rupture down its back comes
next, and the moth bursts through its coating into the hollow of the
cocoon, and if left to itself would soon eat its way through.

The chrysalis, however, must be stopped from eating through the cocoon;
and the silk must be wound. When, by shaking the cocoon, it is found to
rattle, then it is time to wind the silk. The cocoon is placed in a cup
of warm water, after the loose outward silk has been removed, and then,
an end being taken, the whole filament may be wound off on a piece of
card. The length of the thread of a cocoon varies from 600 to 1,000
feet.

When the silk is wound off the aurelia presents itself, and being put
in a separate case, it remains motionless for about twenty days, when
it appears as a pale yellow moth. The male soon dies; the females lay
their eggs on the slips of paper provided for that purpose. They then
soon die.




CHAPTER XIX

THINGS BOYS CAN MAKE


$A Way to Bind Magazines.$--First, we must have a frame in which to
stitch the sheets together. Here is mine in Fig. 1. I made it myself,
and any handy lad can make one. The frame shown has an opening a foot
long, so it is big enough to bind a book as long as that, or any
smaller magazine. I have drawn it fitted with five strings, which would
be the right number for a full-sized magazine; more or less strings are
required according to the size of the book. They are, as may be seen,
passed through holes bored opposite to each other above and below, and
fixed tight with pegs. These strings are tapes 1/4 inch wide, which
mother or sister will supply.

Now for the sewing. We have stripped off the wrappers, cleaned the
backs of the sheets, and laid them in order, the last sheet on the
top. But to make neat work, we should have what bookbinders call "end
papers"--plain pieces of paper cut and folded to the size of the
magazine--to go at the beginning and end of the volume; one leaf of
each will be pasted down by-and-by to the inside of the cover adjoining
it.

We begin by laying an end paper on the frame with its back against
the tapes. We take a needle and thread, tie a knot at the end of the
latter, and pass the needle, as in Fig. 2, through the middle of tape
No. 1, and through the paper, drawing the thread to the knot. How we
then go on is shown by the dotted line in Fig. 2; at the nearer side of
tape No. 2 we pass the needle out again, carry it behind the tape, in
again at the farther side of the tape, and so on, till we finally bring
it out on the near side of tape No. 5. Please to notice that we do
not pass the needle _through_ any tape except through No. 1 at first
starting; with that exception, the thread merely _goes behind_ the
tapes.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

When we have reached the last tape and brought the needle out on the
near side of it, we lay a sheet, in this case the _last_ sheet, of the
magazine, on the frame, and pass the needle through it inwards on the
farther side of tape No. 5, and then work back to the nearest side of
tape No. 1. Another sheet is now laid on, and so we proceed till the
whole volume, including the front end paper, is stitched together.

If we now lay a good heavy weight on our volume, we can squeeze it into
narrower compass, for as the threads merely go round the tapes, they
will slip down them; and we can then glue the back. Everybody has not a
glue-pot, but everybody can get a 4d. bottle of Le Page's Liquid Glue,
and nothing is better or more handy. Damp a strip of paper, or better,
of thin muslin, and rub it down on the glue; it will strengthen the
back. Leave the volume under pressure till the glue has set, and we may
then take it out of the frame and cut off the tapes to, say, about two
inches long on each side.

[Illustration: _Fig. 2._]

And now we are ready for our covers; a couple of pieces of stiff
millboard, the wreckage of some old draper's box, will do very well.
We cut them to size, and glue down the tapes upon them, as is shown in
Fig. 3; and when the volume is heavy it is well to paste a strip of
thin muslin over the hinge, as indicated by the dotted lines at _a_, to
keep all tight.

I have just spoken of paste; we shall want it for everything else that
we have to do, so I will tell you how to make it. Take a couple of
tablespoonfuls of flour and half a teaspoonful of powdered alum, beat
them carefully with cold water to the consistency of thin cream, and
boil briskly for four minutes, stirring all the time.

What we want to do now is to put a back to our volume. We want
something that will look well, and be strong, and nothing that I have
tried has been equal to "window-blind holland." A dark green I prefer,
but colour is a matter of taste. This material will not stretch out
of place in pasting, as bookbinders' cloth is apt to do. Fig. 4 shows
how the back piece is cut. The middle part _b_ has a strip of stiff
paper pasted on it, which is not exactly the width of the back of the
volume, but just a shade wider, that when pasted in place, it may have
the proper curve outwards. The flap _c_ is to be turned and pasted down
on this strip of paper, but the flaps _d_ and _d_ will be turned and
pasted down inside the covers, after the back has been pasted in its
place on the volume; and when that has been done, the volume should be
kept under pressure till the paste is dry.

[Illustration: Fig. 3., Fig. 4.]

We must, of course, cover the sides of our volume; bookbinders' cloth
or marbled paper, both of which are very inexpensive, are what I
commonly use. After that, we can line the insides of the covers by
pasting down on them a leaf of the end paper. And only one more thing
now remains to be done, that is to letter a label neatly, and to paste
it on the back.

$Scrap Book and Index.$--Keep _two_ scrap-books--one for cuttings and
the other for notes. The scrap-book might be made of brown paper. Take
an ordinary quarto exercise-book, with about 100 pages in it, and set
apart the first fifteen pages for forming the index, for a scrap-book
or a note-book without an index is as absurd as a public library
without a catalogue. On the first page of your scrap-book write, in
clear style, your name and address. Next, put the date on which you
commenced to insert cuttings in the book. And then you might add an
appropriate motto. How would this title-page do?

[Illustration:

  "When found make a note of."

  CAPTAIN CUTTLE.

         *       *       *       *       *

  MY
  NEWSPAPER
  CUTTINGS.

         *       *       *       *       *

  FREDERICK COWLEY,
  14, ABBEY ROAD, KNUTSFORD.

  _Commenced Jan. 25th_, 1910.
]

[Illustration: Fig. A.]

Having finished the all-important question of a title-page, which might
be much more ornamental than the one above, begin the index on page 2
of the book.

Take a strip of paper of the same length as the pages in your book,
and by doubling it in half twice and then dividing it into three equal
parts, mark it off into twelve portions, as shown in Fig. B.

[Illustration: Fig. B. STRIP, THE SAME LENGTH AS THE PAGE. 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11 12]


Now place your strip alongside of the edge of page 2, and rule a line
on the page exactly where the figure 1 has been put. Only a tiny line,
about three-quarters of an inch in length, is needed. On page 3, again
place your strip along the edge, and rule a line where the figure 2
occurs. On page 4 rule a line where the figure 3 is; on page 5 rule a
line where the figure 4 is; on page 6 rule a line where the figure 5
is; and so on, till on page 12 you rule a line where the figure 11 is.
I expect you see why I have done this. Now neatly cut from the bottom
of page 2 a strip, three-quarters of an inch wide, as far as the line
you have ruled. This will leave at the top of the page a piece of paper
jutting out. On this write the letters [A | B] in ink. Then on page 3
cut your strip three-quarters of an inch wide, up to the ruled line,
and write [C | D] on the little square which projects underneath [A |
B]; and continue to write two letters of the alphabet on each page till
you get to page 12, when you must write [UV | W]. On page 13 you can
write [XY | Z]. Now your index is complete so far as the lettering. The
edge of your book should look something like Fig. C.

If you want the index to look still better, you should write the
letters alternately in red and black ink.

On the first line of page 2 in your book put A, and turning over the
leaf write B on the top line. On page 3 write C, and turning overleaf
write D upon the top line. Thus you will have allotted a page to each
letter in the alphabet, with the exception of the last six letters. I
think I should put on the top line of page 12 U V, and overleaf write
W, as W needs more room than U V. On page 13 write X Y, and overleaf Z.

[Illustration: Fig. C.]

Now that the mysteries of what the bookbinders call "index cutting"
have been overcome, nothing remains to be done in the way of preparing
your scrap-book for the reception of the numerous newspaper cuttings
which I hope will find a home therein.

We will suppose you are interested in cricket. Here comes the
usefulness of your book. When the averages of the County Cricket are
published you can cut out the list and paste it in your book, and enter
in your index, under C, the fact thus: "Cricket, County Averages, 25,"
the 25 referring to the page on which you have pasted the cutting.
When Brown _minor_ is trying to prove that his county of Kent was
third on the list, you will be able to convince him of his error by
a reference to the page in your scrap-book, whereon you have pasted
a cutting headed "County Championship." Reserve a few pages in your
book for cuttings from the comic papers. You have no idea, until you
commence, how interesting and engrossing your scrap-book will prove.
In the newspapers there are so many curious little incidents recorded
as to swimming, cycling, football, science, which you will be glad
to preserve for future reference. Then, any little facts about your
favourite hero may well find a place in your book. And when you have
filled one book, commence another, and thus manufacture your own
library of "best bits."

[Illustration: Fig. 1]

[Illustration: Fig. 2.]

[Illustration: Fig. 3.]

$Net Making.$--In Fig. 1 we have a netting needle and the way of
filling it, in Fig. 2 a mesh stick. The stick may be almost any shape
and about nine inches long. It regulates the mesh of the net, for
the mesh is twice the circumference of the stick, so you may make a
coarse net for tennis or a finer one to protect your strawberries, or a
hammock net, or any kind you wish. Fix a hook into a wall or door, or
in some other similar position. Take a piece of twine, a foot long will
serve, tie the ends together, and hang the circle A thus made over
the hook as in Fig. 3. Take the needle in your right hand and pass it
through the loop. At B hold the loop and the twine that comes from the
needle. Now cast a turn of the twine so that it rests on the upper part
of your left hand and wrist, and also over loop A. Next pass the needle
in an upward direction, pulling slowly and finishing with a tight knot.
What makes the knot is shown at Fig. 4. In Fig. 5 the knot loose and
tight is shown.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.]

[Illustration: Fig. 5.]

[Illustration: Fig. 6.]

[Illustration: Fig. 7.]

[Illustration: Fig. 8.]

Slowly as this is done a time will come when you can do it rapidly.
When you have tightened the knot, hold the mesh stick in the left hand,
lay the twine over the stick with the knot resting at its edge, as in
Fig. 6. Pass the needle through the loop that has thus been made, pull
the twine firmly round your mesh stick, then throw a turn of the twine
over your wrist and so make the same knot again. Throw the twine once
more round the stick and make one more stitch through our old friend
loop A. At this stage slip all you have done from your mesh stick,
and you will find two half meshes attached to your loop A. In Fig. 7
these are shown as 1 and 2. Treat 1 and 2 as you treated loop A, that
is first in 2 make 3 and 4 in 1. Now you have your first completed
mesh, 4. Mesh 5 also is made on 1, the knots being one on the top of
the other. Now go on in the same way, making the meshes in the order
that you find them numbered in Fig. 7. The taking of two stitches
through the last mesh of each row is the widening process, and this
operation is maintained to the end of the net as far as the top edge is
concerned. On the other edge, however, as soon as you have reached the
width you need you must change this policy to that of taking the stitch
through the last two meshes of the preceding row as in Fig. 8. When
the net is as long as you need it this narrowing as it is called is
applied to both edges, and the fourth corner is finished off by taking
the stitch through the last two meshes. Then they should be tied fast.
Do not widen or narrow at the wrong edges as you work. To prevent this
mistake some netters lie a piece of ribbon upon the top or narrowing
edge.

Nets for fishing and for such pursuits may be made in this way. First
make a square, then go along the edges of the square, narrowing at
regular intervals until the net is of the size needed. Gloves may be
worn if the fingers become chafed, or the knots may be drawn tight in
such a way that the strain is on the needle and not on the finger. When
a new needleful is commenced be sure to make the first knot very firm.
Among the useful articles that may be made in this way are tennis nets,
onion bags, nets for the protection of growing fruit, and hammock nets.

$Photographic Enlargements.$--There are so many excellent sources,
easily available, from which boys may learn how to use their cameras,
so many developers, toners, and fixers ready to their hands at the
chemist's, that we have not occupied space here with a general
dissertation upon photography. We think, however, a chapter on
enlargements will be welcome. The rapid development of bromide printing
paper, and the ease by which enlargements may be produced thereon,
has created quite a new era in amateur photography. No longer is it
necessary to carry about an unwieldy heavy kit, which destroys half the
pleasure of the amateur, when "on pictures bent," for now he may make
use of even the smallest form of camera, and enlarge his pictures when
he has returned from his meanderings. Enlargements may be produced in
several ways. The negative itself may be enlarged, or what is simpler
still a direct enlargement may be made on bromide paper. The latter
may be easily effected in two ways--(1) by means of daylight, or (2)
by artificial light. It is with the former that the writer intends to
deal in the present paper. A word first as to the kind of negative best
adapted for enlarging purposes. The quarter-plate size will be found
most suitable, and these may be successfully enlarged to 12 by 10. The
negative must be perfectly sharp, full of crisp detail, and perfect in
every way. Any small defect in a negative is fatal to its enlargement,
as it is made so much more apparent by magnification.

Most amateurs find a room at the top of the house the most convenient
for enlarging purposes, and one with only one window is best, and
that preferably with an uninterrupted view of the sky. The light
must next be excluded by pasting brown paper over the entire window,
or by having a tightly-fitting wooden frame made to answer the same
purpose. Provision is then made to fit into the frame a quarter-plate
printing frame, in which is placed the negative. By this means no
light is permitted to enter the room, save that which filters through
the negative. As a general rule, it will be found necessary to fit on
the outside of the window frame a reflector of some sort, and a piece
of white glazed board fixed at an angle will be found as effective as
anything. This will concentrate the light and produce an equal amount
of illumination over the entire negative.

The arrangement of the camera calls next for consideration. If the
camera possessed by the would-be enlarger is one which focuses from
the front, no adaptation of any sort will be required. All that is
necessary is to place an oblong table close to the window, so arranging
it that the camera when placed thereon will be on the same level as the
negative. The ground-glass at the back of the camera being removed,
place the camera as near to the negative as possible, which must have
its film side facing the room. To prevent any escape of light through
the body of the camera there should be as little space as possible
between the negative and the camera, a black cloth being thrown over
the end of the latter to make quite certain. At the other end of the
table is fixed the enlarging board, on which the bromide is affixed by
means of drawing pins. The farther this board is from the lens, the
greater the enlargement, of course. A few experimental trials will soon
show the tyro the proper distance the board should be placed, and this
discovered, the place should be marked for future reference.

It will be found a great convenience to have a piece of ruby glass
fixed in the end of the lens cap, as this will enable the operator to
see the full size of the image on the enlarging board, and thus obviate
any difficulty as to the exact spot in which the bromide paper should
be. The greatest difficulty experienced by the beginner in enlarging
is undoubtedly the gauging of the correct exposure. Light varies so,
that it will be found necessary to give the same negative longer or
shorter exposures at different times. The best plan is to make a table
of approximate exposures by experimenting with a few strips of bromide
paper, giving each a different exposure. These strips should then be
pasted in a note-book for any future reference, together with the
following particulars:--(1) Time of day and year; (2) intensity of
the light; (3) density of negative; (4) brand of paper; and (5) size
of the enlargement. An observant worker will soon master all these
little difficulties, and when once success has been achieved, enlarging
pictures from small negatives will be found to be one of the most
interesting branches of photographic operations.

$Magic Lantern Slides.$--Draw first on paper the figures you wish to
paint, lay the paper on the table, and cover it over with a piece
of glass of the right size and shape. Draw the outlines with a fine
camel's hair pencil or a pen, in black paint mixed with varnish, and
when this is dry, add the proper colours. The transparent colours are
alone to be used in this kind of painting, and these include aureolin,
gamboge, Italian pink, Indian yellow, madder lake, crimson lake,
Prussian blue, indigo, burnt sienna, madder brown, vandyke brown, lamp
black. Ox gall will cause the colours to flow more easily on glass.
Be careful that the glass is not greasy. Both water colours and oil
colours are available.

An easy way to make diagrams and other outline drawings for the magic
lantern is to take a piece of frosted glass of the right size and draw
upon it, using Indian ink. The frost enables you to do this, but would
prevent the maximum of light passing through the glass when it was in
the lantern. Accordingly, to remove the frost now that it has served
its purpose, pour Canada balsam upon it, cover with another piece of
glass and bind the two pieces together as other magic lantern slides
are bound.

A curious effect may be obtained by a magic lantern slide made as
follows:--Tint vaseline with cochineal and place some between glasses
of the magic lantern slide size, making a kind of vaseline sandwich.
Put this slide in the lantern and focus it, and then insert a knife
point a little way between the two pieces of glass and so let them be
alternately forced asunder and drawn together. The effect upon the
vaseline as seen upon the sheet is very peculiar.

$Three Ways of Making a Hectograph.$--It happens often that a boy,
especially if he be the secretary of a cricket or football club, needs
to send away many letters or notices, all alike; and few things are so
wearisome as this writing of the same thing over and over again. If he
will make for himself a hectograph he need write his notice no more
than once and yet he may have more copies than he is likely to need.
Here is the mixture that will prove so useful: gelatine, 4 ounces;
glycerine, 15 fluid ounces; carbolic acid, 1/2 fluid ounce; water, 15
fluid ounces. First add the water to the gelatine and let it stand
until the gelatine is quite soft. Now place all this in the glycerine
and heat it over the fire until the gelatine has been dissolved, and
then until the water has passed away in steam. The carbolic acid is to
keep the mixture from turning sour, and it must be added gradually now,
before cooling begins. Pour the whole into some shallow tray like the
lid of one of those square tin boxes in which grocers keep biscuits.
When the mixture has become firm and cold it is ready to be used.

Get a bottle of aniline ink and write or sketch whatever you desire
to multiply. When the ink is dry place your letter or drawing face
downwards upon the pad you have made with the gelatine. Rub the back
of the paper with your hand to force the ink upon the gelatine. When
the paper has been upon the hectograph for some time strip it off and
you will find that your drawing or writing has been transferred to the
gelatine. If you now press clean paper upon this drawing or writing it
will be printed upon the paper, and so you may have copy after copy.

When you have as many as you need clean the surface of the hectograph
for the next time you wish to use it. This may be done with a soft
sponge and tepid water, but this process being rather tedious, most
boys will be pleased to hear of an easier method, though it causes the
hectograph in time to lose its clean appearance. Put it in the oven and
let it melt, and when it is cold again it will be ready for the next
letter or drawing.

The following is another way to make a hectograph: Take of pure
glycerine, 9 parts; water, 6 parts; barium sulphate, 3 parts; sugar,
1-1/2 parts; gelatine, 1-1/2 parts. Mix well together, and allow all
to stand for twenty-four hours; then heat gently over a slow fire
until the whole is melted, stirring continuously until the various
ingredients are thoroughly amalgamated. It may now be poured into the
shallow tin or dish prepared to receive it, and allowed to stand for
a day where it will be free from dust. It should not be used until
absolutely cold and firm.

Here is another method we have found very successful. Take 2 ounces
of fine Russian glue and 4 fluid ounces of cold water. Let the glue
steep in the water until the water has been absorbed, or nearly so.
Now place the glue and water in a vessel upon the fire until the glue
melts. It need not boil. Add eight fluid ounces of common glycerine and
six drops of carbolic acid, and also as much Paris white as will make
the solution milky. Stir well and then pour the mixture into a shallow
tray. In about twelve hours it will have set. For ink Judson's purple
dye will serve.

$How to Make a Filter.$--You should procure a common flower-pot, nine
or ten inches deep. Put in a layer of animal charcoal two inches thick.
Wood charcoal may be used, but animal charcoal--that is charcoal made
from bones--is best. On this put a layer of well washed sand. For the
way to wash sand see page 132. The layer is two inches thick. Then
comes a two-inch layer of small pebbles, each about as large as a pea.
At the hole at the bottom of the flower-pot should be a fragment of
brick which fits the hole loosely. Put the filter on a stool or on a
shelf. There should be a hole in the stool or shelf to correspond with
the hole in the flower-pot, and under the hole a vessel to catch the
filtered water. The first drops that come through the filter may not be
clear, but in about a quarter of an hour clear water will commence to
issue from the hole in the bottom of the flower-pot. Take out the sand
and the pebbles and wash them thoroughly once in six weeks, and once in
four months replace the vegetable charcoal.

$The Syphon.$--In aquarium work and in other occupations it is
necessary sometimes to empty water from a vessel by means of a syphon.
Suppose that we wish to empty a bucket. The simplest thing would be to
take the bucket and turn it upside down. Suppose, however, the bucket
were fast and could not be moved, or suppose there were some dregs or
sediment in the bucket which we did not wish to disturb, then we should
find a syphon useful. Suppose a bucket is on a table. One end of a pipe
is in the water in the bucket and the other end is dangling down. Now
if we can once induce the water to flow through the pipe the water will
continue to run, although at first it has to run up-hill a little, a
most unwaterlike proceeding. There are two ways of inducing the flow.
If you take the lower end of the pipe and suck, water will be brought
over the elbow. Or if before you put the pipe in position you fill it
with water, it will flow, and in each case it will continue to flow
until it has emptied the bucket; that is, if the pipe reaches to the
bottom of the bucket.

$How to Make a Fountain.$--A fountain is based on the principle that
water strives to find its own level. The water tries to rise as high
as the reservoir which feeds it, and would succeed, but the pressure
of the air prevents it. In a U tube the water keeps at the same level
in each part of the tube, but if you were to cork one arm of the tube
it would not come so high there, because the air would not allow it.
The writer of this article when he was a boy made fountains for a fern
rockery and for a garden aquarium in the following simple way:--Upon
the garden wall he placed a bucket. At the bottom of the bucket he
punched a hole and inserted one end of a length of india-rubber tube
bought from a shop where they sell the appliances for the teaching of
chemistry. At the same place he bought some pieces of glass tubing of
such a size that it would fit inside the rubber tubing. Explain to the
man in the shop, and he will know exactly what you need. Take a few
inches of the tube and hold the middle of it in the gas flame, or in
a Bunsen burner if you have one. When the glass is soft draw the ends
asunder gently, and you will find you have two pieces of glass shaped
like a fountain-pen filler. It may be that one end of each of these two
pieces of tube may have been closed by this process, but all that needs
to be done is to file the sharp point until you have come to where
the tube is open again. This serves for the nozzle of the fountain.
There were no fountain pens when the author made his fountain, and it
has just occurred to him that perhaps the best thing would be to buy
a fountain pen-filler at once and have your nozzle ready-made. If you
make your own you may not get it right first time. It may be crooked
or the opening too large or too small. However, there will be this
advantage, you may make many nozzles, and so by changing them have a
variety of sprays. The finer the opening the higher will be the jet. It
is not difficult to apply the fountain to an aquarium. For a rockery it
will be easy to arrange the pipe and nozzle, and to fix it in position
with the stones.

$Case for Shaving Papers.$--Decide upon the size of paper you like
best. Cut a piece of millboard, celluloid, or even thin wood the same
size, and upon this paint an attractive design. Now cut a strip of
the same material as wide as this piece, but only an inch, or less,
deep. Arrange piece, paper and strip as in the sketch. A is the piece
of millboard, B the sheets of paper, C the strip. At D E F bore holes
and secure the whole with paper fasteners put through these. This pad
may hang upon the wall with ribbon, but the design and not the strip
should hang outwards. When all the pieces of paper have been used the
paper fasteners may be unfastened, and a new set of papers introduced.
The turned-down ends of the paper fasteners are ugly and are liable to
scratch. Paste over them very neatly a strip of brown paper or other
suitable material.

$A Blotting Pad.$--A very serviceable blotting-pad may be made upon the
same principle as the case for shaving papers. The measurements only
will be different, and a pad of writing paper may be made in the same
way.

[Illustration: SHAVING PAPERS.]

[Illustration: HYGROMETER.]

$A Hygrometer.$--This is a Greek word made up of _hygros_ meaning
moist, and _metron_ a measure. It indicates how much or how little
moisture there is in the air. In the diagram is a small nail A, a
thread B, or better still, a long hair begged from your mother, sister,
or friend. C is a weight of some kind. The author had a penny that had
a hole in it. Hang this on a wall in your bedroom or in an outhouse, or
even in some sheltered place out of doors. When you hang it up rule a
line at D, and put the date. In damp weather the weight will rise, in
dry it will descend so you may rule other lines showing where it was
at different times of the year. The hair should be as free from oil as
possible. You may have noticed that the clothes line slackens in dry
weather, and tightens on rainy days, and this applies also to the cords
of the window blinds. There is a story that when some men were putting
a London monument in position, by a miscalculation it needed to be
raised just a few inches more, and this elevation the men were unable
to bring about. At last, from the crowd that had gathered to watch the
proceedings, a sailor bawled, "Wet the ropes." They wetted the ropes,
and up went the heavy monument into its right place.




CHAPTER XX

FIRESIDE AMUSEMENTS


$Chess in Twelve Easy Lessons.$--There is nothing like beginning at the
beginning, so I first give a diagram of the board and men as set out
for play.

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE.]

It will be noticed that in the above diagram the square at the bottom
right hand is a white one, and it is in this way that, by custom, the
chess-board is always placed. The board is divided into 64 squares,
coloured alternately black and white, or some similar distinctive
colours. The squares are always called "White" and "Black," whatever
their actual colour may be, and similarly the men are invariably termed
"White" and "Black," though, as a matter of fact, often coloured white
and red.

Having got the board in proper position, with its white square at
the bottom right-hand corner, the next thing is to set up the men
in proper order. There are thirty-two men in all--sixteen White and
sixteen Black. They consist of the following:--

TWO KINGS: one White, one Black. The White King stands on the fourth
square, counting from the White player's _right_ hand, and the Black
King stands on the fourth square, counting from the Black player's
_left_ hand. This brings the two Kings opposite each other, the White
King standing on a black square and the Black King on a white square.

TWO QUEENS: one White and one Black. The White Queen stands on the
white square to the left of the square occupied by the King. Similarly,
the Black Queen stands on the black square next to the Black King. It
is of importance in setting up the men to bear in mind that the Queens
stand on squares of the same colour as themselves, the White Queen
being on a white square and the Black Queen on a black square.

FOUR BISHOPS: two White and two Black. These stand on the squares
adjoining their respective King and Queen. The one next the King is
called the King's Bishop, and the one next the Queen is known as the
Queen's Bishop.

FOUR KNIGHTS: two White and two Black. These stand on the squares
adjoining the Bishops. The Knight nearest the King is called the King's
Knight; the other is called the Queen's Knight.

FOUR ROOKS: two White and two Black. These occupy the four corner
squares, the one nearest the King being termed the King's Rook; the
one nearest the Queen the Queen's Rook. The Rooks are sometimes called
Castles.

These sixteen men are collectively called pieces.

SIXTEEN PAWNS: eight White and eight Black. These stand on the squares
immediately in front of the sixteen pieces. They are named after the
pieces in front of which they stand, as the King's Pawn, the Queen's
Pawn, the King's Bishop's Pawn, and so on.

As it would be very cumbrous to use the full name of each piece or Pawn
every time it may be necessary to refer to it, I shall in future use
the recognised English notation, as follows:--

  K   for  King.
  Q   for  Queen.
  B   for  Bishop.
  Kt  for  Knight.
  P   for  Pawn.

Other abbreviations will be--

  Sq       for  square.
  Ch       for  check.
  Dis ch   for  discovered check; and
  Doub-ch  for  double check.

Written in this notation, King's Rook's Pawn becomes K R P, and Queen's
Bishop's square Q B sq, and so on.

Now for the practical use of this lesson. Let all the readers who wish
to learn the game first of all set the board before them as herein
described. Then let them place the White men in their proper order on
the board, beginning with the K. Similarly let them place the Black
men on the board, beginning also with the K. As a second try, let them
place the men on the board beginning with one of the R's, and going
across to the other R. Finally, let them familiarise themselves with
the English notation, as given above. By the time they have done this
they will be in a position to benefit by a further lesson.


II

THE BOARD.--The chess-board is not merely something upon which the game
of chess is played; it is part of the game itself, for it limits, and,
to some extent, controls the action of the men. In my first lesson I
gave a diagram of the board with the men set out for play, and I now
give an outline diagram of the board on which the name of each square
is given, both from the White and the Black side.

Now, in order to read the moves correctly, it is of the greatest
importance for the student to understand the method of naming the
various squares. From the diagram on page 276 it is clear that,
according to our English style, each square has two names, the White
player naming the squares from his own side, and the Black player from
his. Thus, what the White player calls his King's square the Black
player calls his King's eighth, and so on with all the other squares.
All the boys who are taking an interest in these lessons should get
this point fixed in their minds to avoid mistakes.

[Illustration: FROM BLACK'S SIDE. FROM WHITE'S SIDE.]


III

The squares running across the board are termed _ranks_; those running
up and down, _files_; and those in a slanting direction, _diagonals_.
The squares, as will be seen, are named from the pieces, which, at
starting, occupy their first rank; thus the square at the lower
right-hand corner is White's King's Rook's Square (K R sq); the square
immediately in front is White's King's Rook's second (K R 2)--the word
square being omitted; the next in front is White's K R 3, and so on
till you come to White's K R 8. In a similar way you get White's K
Kt sq, or 2 or 3, etc., or White's K or Q sq, or 2 or 3, and so on.
Similarly, by turning the board round, you count the squares from the
Black side as Black's K R sq, or 2, etc., or Black's K or Q sq, or
2 or 3, etc. The files are also named in a similar manner; thus the
file running from White's K sq to Black's K sq is called the K's file,
and so with all the other files. The ranks are simply called first
rank, second rank, etc. The diagonals have no special name, with the
exception of the two running direct from one corner of the board to the
other--that is, the diagonal from White's K R sq to Black's Q R sq, and
that from White's Q R sq to Black's K R sq. These are called the long
diagonals. Of course, some of the very sharp boys who read this will
at once exclaim, "Why, they are the only diagonals a square can have,
for a rectangular figure can only have two diagonals." Well, that is
all right in mathematics, but in chess, use or custom has brought about
the practice of calling all the sloping lines of squares diagonals, and
the two which, according to mathematics, are really diagonals, the long
diagonals.

Having thus described the board, I next proceed to describe the moves
of the various men.

THE KING.--The King is by far the most important man on the board,
inasmuch as a successful attack upon him (as will be explained later
on) involves the loss of the game. On the other hand, his moves are
much more circumscribed and his powers of attack more limited than
those of any other man except the Pawn. He moves only one square at
a time, but that move can be made in any direction--that is, to any
adjacent square, either forward, backward, sideways, or diagonally.
Place the king on his own square and he can move to Q sq, Q 2, K 2, K
B 2, or K B sq. Similarly, if he be placed on a centre square, he can
move on to any of the eight adjacent squares. The King captures in the
same direction in which he moves; that is, if any one of the enemy's
men stands on an adjacent square to his own, he can occupy that square,
the other piece being removed from the board, or "taken" or "captured,"
as it is termed. The King cannot move on to any square commanded by
an enemy's man, or, as it is technically called, he cannot move into
check; neither can the two Kings occupy adjacent squares. Once during
the progress of each game the King has the option of an extension of
his ordinary move, but this I will describe under its proper head of
castling.

THE QUEEN.--The Queen is by far the most powerful piece on the board,
as she possesses such a wide range of moves. Like the King, she can
move in any direction--forward, backward, sideways, or diagonally; but
these moves are not confined to the adjacent squares, for the only
limits to her range of moves are the sides of the board, provided no
piece or Pawn is in the way of her march. Place the Queen on her own
square, and she can be moved to any one of twenty-one squares, namely,
Q B sq, Q Kt sq, Q R sq, K sq, K B sq, K Kt sq, K R sq, Q 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7 and 8 squares, Q B 2, Q Kt 3, Q R 4, K 2, K B 3, K Kt 4, and K R
5. Similarly placed on a centre square, say Q 4 or 5, or K 4 or 5, and
it will be found that she commands (that is, can be moved to) no less
than twenty-seven squares on a clear board. The Queen takes in the same
direction as she moves; this she does by displacing the enemy's man,
and occupying the vacated square herself.

THE ROOK.--Next in importance comes the Rook. This piece moves
forward, backward, or sideways, as far as the open board permits, but
not diagonally. Place the K R on its own square, and it can move to
fourteen squares, namely, R's 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 squares, K Kt sq,
K B sq, K sq, Q sq, Q B sq, Q Kt sq and Q R sq. Placed on any position
on the open board, in a corner, at the side, or in the centre, it will
be found that it always commands fourteen squares, neither more nor
less. It captures in the same direction as it moves in a similar manner
to the King or Queen; that is, by removing the enemy's attacked man and
occupying the square so vacated.


IV

THE BISHOP.--The Bishop moves diagonally only (that is, in a similar
manner to a man at draughts) but he can pass over any number of squares
that may be open to him. Place the K B on its own square, and it can
move on to any of the following seven squares, viz.: Kt 2, R 3, K 2, Q
3, B 4, Kt 5, or R 6. Placed on a centre square, it commands thirteen
squares in all. It captures in the same direction as it moves, and in
a manner similar to the K and Q. From the nature of its move the B can
never leave the squares of the colour on which it originally stood.
Therefore the White K B is always on a White square, and the Black K B
upon a Black one.

THE KNIGHT.--Whilst the move of the Kt is one of the most beautiful
upon the chess-board, it is, at the same time, the most difficult to
describe, though a knowledge of its move is not by any means difficult
to acquire by a little practice. It may be described as a combination
of the shortest move of the R with the shortest move of the B; that is,
one square in a straight direction--forward, backward, or sideways--and
one square in a diagonal direction. Place the K Kt on its own square,
and it can move on to the following three squares, viz.: K 2, B 3,
and R 3. It will be seen that its imaginary R's move would bring it
over Kt 2, and then its imaginary B's move places it on B 3 or R 3.
Or its imaginary R's move takes it over B sq., and then its imaginary
B's move places it on K 2. Placed on a centre square, say K's 4, it
commands eight squares--K B 2, K Kt 3, K Kt 5, B 6, Q 6, Q B 5, Q
B 3, and Q 2. It will be noticed that it invariably moves on to a
square differing in colour from that which it has just left; or, in
other words, that it leaps from a White square to a Black one, and
from a Black square to a White one. This peculiarity arises from the
combination of the R and B moves. Place the Kt again on K's 4 (a White
square), and it will be seen that the imaginary R's move brings it on
to a square of a different colour (in this case a Black one), either K
3, Q 4, K 5, or B 4--and then the imaginary B's move keeps it on the
same colour. The Knight captures as it moves in the same manner as the
other pieces--that is, the captured piece is removed from the board,
and the capturing Kt occupies the vacated square. It has one advantage
possessed by no other man, and that is the power of leaping over any
intervening piece or Pawn, whether belonging to its own side or the
enemy's. For example, when the men are first set out in battle array,
the only piece that can move without some of the Pawns first making an
opening is the Kt, for it can at once spring on to B 3 or R 3, despite
the intervening Pawns.

THE PAWNS.--The Pawn moves in one direction only, and that is one
square straight forward (that is the shortest P's move, except that
on its first move it has the option of moving forward either one or
two squares). Place the K P on its square, and it can move either to K
3 or K 4. Place on K 4, however, it can only move to K 5. Unlike the
pieces, the Pawn does not capture in the same direction that it moves,
but diagonally, one square only (the Bishop's shortest move). Place a
Pawn at K 4, and whilst it can move to K 5 it can only capture at B 5
or Q 5. The capture is effected, as it is by the pieces, by removing
the enemy's man and placing the Pawn on the square thus left vacant.
The Pawn has the privilege of claiming promotion as soon as it reaches
the eight square. This is done by its being exchanged for any piece of
its own colour (excepting a King) which the player may desire. This
is technically called "queening a pawn," although it does not follow
that a Queen is always called for. It is not necessary that the player
should have lost a piece when he thus promotes a Pawn, and it therefore
follows that he can have two or more Queens or three or more Rooks,
etc., on the board at the same time.

This last statement may puzzle a good many boys, some of whom may say:
"I am under the impression that there is only one set of chessmen used
at a game of chess. If this is so I do not see that there can be two or
more Queens, etc., of the same colour on the board at the same time.
Will you kindly explain this?"

They would be perfectly right in stating that only one set of men is
used in a game. The set constitutes thirty-two men (sixteen White
and sixteen Black), and these thirty-two men form a complete set. To
distinguish one piece from another different figures are used, but the
shape of these figures is purely conventional, and flat counters could
be used with the name or with some other distinguishing mark written
on them. As a matter of fact, indeed, the Mohammedans do play chess
with such counters, sculptured figures of any kind being prohibited by
the Koran. Now, supposing a set is rendered incomplete by a man being
lost, the place of the lost man can be taken by anything that will
serve to denote that the piece should be on the board. I have often
played a game where a thimble has done duty for a Bishop, and a small
paper-weight for a Rook, and so on. So that it is quite easy to get
something to do duty as a second Queen, etc.

In clubs and chess resorts, where there are many sets of men, a second
Queen, if need be, is borrowed from another set. Sometimes, where only
one set of men is available, a Rook (if one has been captured) is
turned upside down, the promoted Pawn is placed on the top, and there
you have a most excellent substitute for a Queen. Supposing, however,
that no piece has been lost when the Pawn is promoted, then a piece of
twisted paper can be placed on the head of the Pawn, and again we have
a good substitute for a Queen.

Some boys may ask me to explain to them what is meant by "Castling" and
"Taking _en passant_," and as it is somewhat difficult to do so without
the use of diagrams, I think I cannot do better than give the required
explanation.


V

CASTLING.--In describing the move of the K, I stated that once during
the game the K had the option of an extension of his ordinary move,
and promised to describe it later on. This extended move of the K--or
rather combined moves of K and R--is termed "Castling." There are two
species of Castling, one on the K's side, the other on the Q's side, as
shown on the diagrams upon the next page.

The operation of Castling can only be performed once on each side in a
game, and that under the following conditions:--

1. The King must not be in check.

2. The King must not have moved.

3. The Rook must not have moved.

4. The King must not pass over or occupy any square commanded by an
adverse man.

5. All the squares between the King and the Rook must be unoccupied.

[Illustration:]

These five points being kept in view, Castling is performed as
follows:--On the King's side by the K being moved to K Kt sq and the K
R over him to K B sq. On the Queen's side by the K being moved to Q B
sq and the Q R over him to Q sq. By inspecting the diagrams this will
be made clear. In Castling it will be observed that the K moves two
squares (to the right or left, as the case may be), and the R leaps
over him to the adjoining square. In Castling it is always best to
move the K first to show clearly that Castling is the move intended.
The diagrams show only White's method of Castling, but Black castles
exactly in the same way. It must be borne in mind that previous checks
do not prevent the K Castling, so long as he has not been moved, and
is not in check at the time of Castling. The young player must also
remember that though the K be on his own square, and the R on its
square with no intervening piece, yet Castling cannot be performed if
either the K or R has moved, and then come back to his original square.

PAWN TAKING EN PASSANT.--This method of capturing can only be exercised
by a P standing on its fifth square, and the captured P on the move
immediately preceding the capture, have been played from the second to
the fourth square. The following diagram will assist the student.

[Illustration:]

If Black in this position move the P to K 3, then the White P at B 5
can capture it in the usual course, that is by taking it off the square
it occupied at K 3 and occupying the vacated square. Should, however,
the Black P go to K's 4 then the White P at B 5 could capture it _en
passant_, or "in passing" as the term means. This is done by lifting
the B P from K 4 (to which square it has gone) and placing the W P not
on the square thus left vacant but on the K 6 (Black K 3) precisely as
if the Black P had only moved to K 3. In the position on the diagram,
should the Black P go to K 4, then the White P at Q's fourth could
capture it in the ordinary manner. It must be borne in mind that
the right of capturing _en passant_ must be exercised on the move
immediately following the one which the adverse Pawn has made its move
from the second to the fourth square, otherwise the right lapses.


VI

I now resume the easy lessons by giving a list of TECHNICAL TERMS.

ADVERSE PIECE, ADVERSE PAWN.--An "adverse piece" is a piece of an
opposite colour to your own, and, of course, belongs to your adversary.
Similarly, an "adverse Pawn" is a Pawn of an opposite colour to your
own.

ATTACK.--The combined action of several men against an adverse
position. Attacks, of course, are generally made directly against the
King, but occasionally they are directed against some weak point in the
enemy's position apart from the King.

TO ATTACK: ATTACKED.--A piece or Pawn attacks an adverse man when it
threatens to capture it on the move. A piece or Pawn is said to be
"attacked" when it is threatened with capture on the move by an adverse
man.

CASTLING.--This combined move of K and R I have fully described
previously.

CHECK.--This term signifies that the King is attacked by an adverse
piece or Pawn. It is one of the very fundamental principles of the game
that the King cannot be captured, and therefore when a move is made by
which he is attacked, notice thereof must be given by audibly saying
"Check." The King is now said to be "checked," or "in check," and this
check must be at once parried. There are three methods by which this
can be done:--

1. By moving the King on to a square not commanded by any of the
adverse men.

2. By interposing a man between the attacking piece and the King.

3. By capturing the attacking man.

There are three descriptions of checks:--

1. The "direct check," which is given by a piece or Pawn directly
attacking the King.

2. The "discovered check," or "check by discovery," which is given by a
piece, which, whilst it does not attack the King directly, yet by its
removal, uncovers an attack from another piece.

3. "Double check," which is a combination of the "direct check" and the
"discovered check." This is brought about by a piece directly attacking
the King and at the same time uncovering an attack from another piece.

This last is the most dangerous form of all the checks, for it cannot
be parried either by interposition or capturing. The available defences
of the King are therefore greatly lessened, as he must move to get out
of check.


VII

CHECKMATE.--When the King is in check and has no power of escape--that
is, the attacking piece cannot be captured, the King moved, or a piece
interposed between the King and the attacking piece--it is "checkmate,"
and the game is lost for his side. To escape from a double check the
King must move, and if there is no square to which he can move the game
is lost, though both the attacking pieces are _en prise_, for it is
plain that if one be taken the check from the other yet remains.

The diagram on page 286 will help the student to understand these
different checks.

In the first place let White play R to Q 2, and it is a _direct_ check.
The Black K cannot move out of check, as all the squares adjoining his
present position are either guarded by White pieces, or blocked by
Black ones; neither can the R be taken, for no Black piece attacks it.
Black, however, has one move to parry the check, and that is by playing
Q to Q 5, or interposing the Q as it is termed. Similarly, White can
play Q to Q sq, again giving _direct_ check, to which Black can again
only reply Q to Q 5. Once more, White can play P to R 8, becoming a Q
or a B and giving _direct_ check, to which Black's only reply is Q, Q
Kt 2.

In the second place, if White play Kt to Q 2 he gives a _discovered_
check; that is, by so moving his Kt he uncovers the attack of the Q
upon the K, or, in other words, the Kt moving discovers the check by
the Q. In reply to this move Black has again only one move, that being
P to B 5 or interposing the P. If White play B R 7, Q 3, B 2, or Kt sq.
there is again a _discovered_ check, for the R now attacks the K. In
reply to this Black has three lines of play, namely, K takes Kt (at K
3) which is left unguarded by the removal of the B, or by playing the
Q either to K 4, or Kt 4 interposing. If the B had gone to Kt 6 the Q
could only interpose at K 4; and if it had gone to Kt 4 or R 3 the K
could not then capture the Kt, but, instead, could have moved to K 5
out of check.

[Illustration: BLACK--5 MEN. WHITE--11 MEN.]

In the third place if the B move to K 4 there is then given _double_
check, for whilst the B now directly checks himself, by moving he has
also discovered the check from the R, and the King to get out of this
double attack must move. He has two lines of escape, one by capturing
the Kt at K's third, the other by capturing the attacking B.

In the fourth place let White play P K 4, and the K is in direct check;
but it is now _checkmate_, for the K has no possible move out of check,
and the checking Pawn cannot be taken. Again, let White play Kt, Kt 6,
and he gives double check, for the Kt checks directly, and has also
discovered the check by the Q. Once more this is _checkmate_, for the K
has no possible move. It is true that the B could capture the attacking
Kt, but then the Q still checks and the danger of mate has not been
averted; similarly, the P could cover at B 5, but the attack from the
Kt remains all the same. This aptly illustrates what I have already
said as to the extra danger of a double check.


VIII

CLOSE GAME.--See "Game" later on.

COMBINATIONS.--The concentrated action of two or more pieces and Pawns,
operating in common either for attack or defence.

COMMAND: COMMANDED.--To "command" a square is to have the power of
moving a piece on to it, or to capture an enemy's piece that already
occupies it. To "command" the board is to have the pieces so placed
that a great many of the squares are commanded.

COUNTER GAMBIT.--See "Game" later on.

COUNTER ATTACK.--See "Game" later on.

DEBUT.--A French word, meaning "opening," sometimes used by English
writers on chess.

DEFI.--A French word meaning "challenge," and sometimes used in English
chess books.

DEVELOP: DEVELOPMENT.--To develop a piece is to bring it into more
active play. To develop a game is to bring as many pieces as you
possibly can into active co-operation.

DOUBLED PAWN.--Two Pawns of the same colour standing on the same file
are said to be "doubled." Generally, but not always, this is a weak
position for the Pawns to occupy, as one cannot support the other.

DOUBLED ROOKS.--When two Rooks of the same colour occupy the same file,
or the same rank with no man of their own colour intervening they are
said to be "doubled." This is one of the strongest positions the Rooks
can occupy.

END GAME.--See "Game" later on.

EN PASSANT.--A French term, meaning "in passing," and applied to a
peculiar capture of P by P, which I have fully described previously.

EN PRISE.--A French term signifying "exposed," or in danger of capture.
In chess a piece or Pawn is said to be _en prise_ when it is attacked
by an enemy's piece and not sufficiently guarded. We do not say,
however, that the K is _en prise_ when attacked, but in check, as
already explained.

ESTABLISH.--To establish a piece or Pawn is to place it in such a
position that it cannot be dislodged by the enemy's pieces, except at a
loss. To establish a centre of Pawns is to occupy the centre squares of
the board with Pawns, which mutually strengthen and support each other.

EXCHANGE.--The winning of one piece by the losing of another.

EXCHANGE, TO WIN THE.--The winning of a superior piece by losing an
inferior one. Especially used when a Rook is won at the expense of a B
or Kt. The player on winning the R is said to have "won the exchange";
the player losing the R is said to have "lost the exchange."


IX

FILE.--Each line of squares stretching from one player's side of the
board to the other is termed a "file," and appears perpendicular in
printed diagrams. Each file is named from the piece which originally
stood on its outermost square, as the King's file, the Queen's file,
the K R's file, and so on. The lines of squares stretching horizontally
across the board are termed "ranks."

FILE: OPEN.--An open file is one unoccupied by pieces or Pawns, and it
is a great point that a Rook should be played so as to command such a
file. In the diagram on page 289 the K B's file is "open," whilst White
has doubled his Rooks on the otherwise "open" K Kt's file.

FORK.--A term originally applied to the attack of a Pawn upon two of
the opponent's men at the same time. It is now, however, so extended as
to include the minor pieces when any one of them--more especially the
Kt, however--attacks two pieces at the same time.

In the diagram the Black Pawn on Q Kt 4 "forks" the Q and B. If White
plays P Q 4 ch, then the P "forks" both K and Q. If the Kt goes to Q 7
ch, it also "forks" K and Q. Similarly if Kt B 3 it "forks" the Q and
R, and lastly, if B takes Kt ch, it "forks" K and Q. A "fork" from a
Kt on two superior pieces is always dangerous, and often fatal, whilst
that from a Pawn is also dangerous.

[Illustration: BLACK--6 MEN. WHITE--11 MEN.]


X

GAMBIT.--See "Game."

GAME.--Besides its ordinary meaning, the word is used in a technical
sense, such as "open game," "close game," etc. A game of chess has
three phases more or less well defined. The "opening," the "mid game,"
and the "end game."

THE "OPENING."--The first or developing moves in a game, wherein the
pieces are brought from their original comparatively inoperative
position into active co-operation, both for attack and defence. It is
here that book play comes in, and in the study of openings the young
student of chess will find wide scope.

THE "MID GAME."--That portion of the game immediately following the
opening; the pieces being developed on both sides, combinations
result, and attack, defence, and counter-attack take place. It is here
that the native skill of the player finds full scope for its display.

THE "END GAME."--The final scene of all, after the bustle and life of
the mid-game pieces have been exchanged, the board stripped of the men,
and the combat reduced to narrower bounds. Here again book knowledge is
of the greatest benefit to the player.

It is to be noted that some games never pass into the third stage, for
the attack in the mid-game may have been so strong that surrender was
imperative forthwith. Nay, in the hands of a weak player, or by some
gross blunder, a game may be finished even in the "opening" stage.

The "openings" may be thus classified--

(_a_) GAMES, when neither player offers any sacrifice of material force
in order to gain some strategical advantage.

(_b_) GAMBITS, when the first player offers to sacrifice some material
force in order to quickly develop his game, or otherwise to gain some
advantage in position. A Pawn is generally sacrificed in the gambits.

(_c_) COUNTER GAMBITS, when the second player makes the sacrifice.

(_d_) DEFENCES, when the game gains its distinctive character from the
line of play adopted by the second player. Some "defences" may properly
be termed _Counter Attacks_.

There are many well-known openings, all of which have a distinctive
name, sometimes that of their inventor, sometimes that of a well-known
player who may have made them familiar, sometimes from some place
or incident with which they have been connected. Thus there are the
"Scotch Game," the "Steinitz Gambit," the "Greco Counter Gambit," the
"Philidor Defence," and "Petroff Defence," the latter of which should
be more properly termed "Petroff Counter Attack." Then there are many
other recognised openings.


XI

GAME, CLOSE.--A "close" game is one wherein the development both of
pieces and Pawns is mainly of a conservative or non-committal nature,
the Pawns being very cautiously advanced, and the pieces mainly
massed behind them. The term "close" is used to designate this class
of openings, because, as a rule, for many moves the board presents a
crowded appearance, owing to the massing of the pieces and Pawns, and
the few exchanges effected. Great nicety is required in playing the
"close" game, so that when the time does come for dissolving the close
position, the pieces may occupy commanding positions.

GAME, OPEN.--An "open game" is one wherein the opening moves are of
a more immediately attacking nature, and where the pieces are more
quickly marched to the front. The game is termed "open" because the
board, as a rule, soon presents an open appearance. Pieces and Pawns
are often got rid of early, and attack and defence embarked on at an
early stage. Formerly all games commencing 1 P K 4 on each side were
classed as open, and all games, such as the French, etc., wherein one
or both players adopted other opening moves were classed as "close."
This is, however, now given up, for as a matter of fact, many French
defences develop into very "open" games indeed, whilst games commencing
1 P K 4, P K 4 often early take on a "close" character.

"HOLE," A.--This is a modern term greatly used by Mr. Steinitz, who
may be considered as the "great apostle" of what is called the "modern
school" of chess. As used by him, a "hole" means any square on the
third rank left unguarded by a Pawn during the developing or opening
moves. For example, if a player having advanced both his K P and Q P,
should follow this up by advancing his K B P, or his Q B P, in each
case he creates a "hole"; in one instance at K 3, in the other at Q
3. These "holes" are regarded by modern theorists as very dangerous,
for an adverse piece can often be posted with great advantage on the
unguarded square.


XII

INTERPOSE.--To move a man between an attacked man and the opponent's
piece which attacks it. Very often "checks" to the King, and attacks
upon the Queen are warded off by interposing a Pawn or piece. As an
illustration of "interposing" let the student refer to the diagram
on page 289. If White play 1 Q R 3 ch, then Black plays 1 ... P Kt
5, thereby warding off the check. The Pawn thus moved is said to be
interposed. Similarly, if it were Black's turn to move, and he played
1 Q K 8 ch, or 1 R Q 8 ch, then White could play either 1 ... R Kt
sq, or 1 ... Kt B sq, either piece then warding off the check, or
"interposing."

ISOLATED PAWN.--When a Pawn occupies any file, both the adjoining files
of which are unoccupied by any Pawns or Pawn of the same colour, such
Pawn is said to be "isolated." In the diagram on page 286, White's
Pawns on Q B 3 and Q R 7 are both "isolated." Isolated Pawns in an end
game are often weak, whilst Pawns on adjoining files are generally
strong.

J'ADOUBE.--This is a French term, and means "I adjust," and is used by
players who may touch a man without intending to move it. Any English
expression signifying that the man is touched merely with the intention
of adjusting it on the board may be used. Any man that may be touched
without such intimation being given, must be moved should it be the
player's turn to move, hence the importance of saying "_j'adoube_" (or
similar words) in such cases. Young players (and indeed old ones also
for that matter) should never get into a habit of touching any piece
unless they intend to move it, except such piece manifestly needs to
be adjusted on its square. Such a habit is likely to irritate your
opponent.

$Draughts in Nineteen Easy Lessons.$--It is very easy to learn the
moves of the men on the draught-board, but it is not quite so easy to
learn to play draughts. Draughts is not a complex game like chess, but
simple and straightforward, and herein lies its charm to many people
who are afraid of chess with its variety of men, and their diverse
powers and moves. In draughts there is only one description of men
when the board is set for play, and the only addition is when any of
these men become promoted to Kings by gaining the opposite side of the
board from that whence they started. It is plain then that any boy can
learn the moves of the game in a few minutes, and can at once commence
to play.

English draughts is played on the 32 white squares of a 64-square
board, the squares of which are alternately coloured white and black,
white and red, or in some other similar distinctive manner. There are
24 men--12 White and 12 Black.

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE.]

Above is a diagram of the numbered draught-board, and it is well for
the beginners to number the white squares of their draught-board in
a similar manner. The best way to do this is to write the numbers on
small pieces of paper and stick these on the upper left-hand corner of
the squares. Then when the men are placed on the squares the numbers
can still be read. It will be observed that the position of the board
is the reverse of that of the chess-board, for here a black, and not a
white square, occupies the lower right-hand corner. This brings what is
technically called "the double corner" to the right hand of the player.
The black "double corner" is formed by the squares 1 and 5; the white
"double corner" by squares 32 and 28.

At the commencement of the game the Black men occupy the 3 rows of
squares numbered from 1 to 12, and the White the 3 rows numbered from
32 to 21, the intervening two rows, numbered from 13 to 20, being
vacant. The row 1 to 4 is Black's crown-head, and the row 32 to 29
White's crown-head; the square 4 being Black's "single corner," the
square 29 White's "single corner." By usage in this country Black is
always given the first move, which again reverses the custom observed
in chess. The first move at draughts, however, gives no advantage to
the player having it, whereas in chess the advantage of the first move
is of some moment.


II

At draughts the men move forward diagonally from square to square.
That is, a black man on 11 can move to 15 or 16, and a white man on 22
can move to 17 or 18. When a man reaches the far side of the board he
becomes a King, or is crowned; that is, a second man is placed on top
of him. A King moves precisely in a similar way to an ordinary man,
except that he can go either backwards or forwards; that is, a King
(either Black or White) on 11 can go to 7 or 8, or 15 or 16.

In capturing or taking, the capturing piece jumps over the captured
piece or pieces. Supposing a Black man is on 15 and a White man on 18,
whilst 22 is vacant, then the Black man can capture the White man.
This he does by jumping over him to square 22, and the captured man is
removed from the board. If a second White man stood on 25, and 29 were
vacant, the Black man could jump over both the White men, and go to 29.
The King captures in a similar manner, except that he can capture as he
moves either backwards or forwards.


III

A game at draughts is won when all the pieces of one colour have either
been captured, or forced into such a position that their ultimate
capture is certain, or where the remaining pieces of one colour are
so blocked that the player thereof cannot move any of them when it is
his turn to move, and the player, who thus captures or blocks all his
opponent's men, is the winner of the game.

A game at draughts is drawn when an end game results wherein the two
forces are so balanced, both in number and position, that neither side
can force the capture or blocking of all the pieces of the opposite
side.

The following positions are illustrations of the close of games.

White to move and Black to win. (Fig. 1.)

In this position White cannot go to 27, or he would lose at once; he
therefore plays 31-26, and the game goes on 32-27, 26-22, 27-23, 22-17,
23-18, 17-13, 18-14. White has now no other move than 13-9, whereupon
the Black King jumps over it and the game is won. Had White had a King
instead of a man he would just as surely have lost.

Black to move and win. (Fig. 2.)

In this position the pieces are perfectly equal on both sides, but
Black has the advantage in position. He played 1-6, and the game
goes on 5-1, 6-9, 14-5, 7-10. Now White has no other move than 1-6,
whereupon the Black King jumps over it to 1, and the remaining White
man is "blocked" and consequently Black has won.


IV

Further illustrations of won and drawn games are the following
positions:--

White to move and win. (Fig 3.)

Black men on 3, 8, 12, 17, 20, 21, 25, and 28.

Kings on 29, 30, 31, and 32.

White man on 15. Kings on 18 and 19.

This is a position well known to old hands at the game; though it is
not likely to occur in actual play, yet it illustrates the power of the
"block." White has only three pieces against Black's twelve, yet he
wins the day. Here is the play which brings this about:--

  19-24  17-26  10- 6   8-11
  20-27  15-10  16-19   1- 5
  18-22  12-16   6- 1  11-15

White now plays 5-1 and 1-5 alternately, and the Black men must go
forward until they are blocked; and White therefore wins.

Now, to illustrate one form of the draw, let the student look again
at the first position in third easy lesson. Had it been Black's turn
to move, no more than a draw would result, for Black must play 32-28,
whereupon White plays 31-27 and runs down to 1, making a King and
drawing.

In the following position White has two Kings to one, yet Black, by the
strength of his position, forces the draw.

Black to move and draw. (Fig. 4.)

Black King on 22.

White Kings on 25 and 29.

The Black now plays 22-17 or 26, White replies 25-21 or 30, whereupon
the Black King comes back to 25 and the draw is manifest.


V

When a man reaches the crown-head in capturing, and thus becomes a
King, that completes the move, although there may be a piece or pieces
which could have been captured if it had been a King and not a man,
which made the original capture. Many of the finest stroke problems are
based upon this peculiarity, for the opposing player has thereby time
to make a move. The subjoined position (Fig. 5) shows another won game,
the victory being brought about by White gaining a move through the
Black having to stop to be crowned.

Black men on 2, 6, 15, and 22. (Fig. 5.)

White men on 27, 30, and 32.

White plays 30-26, then Black must play 22-31 and becomes a King. Then
the game goes on 32-28, 31-24, 28-1. Black must now play 2-7, and White
follows him up and takes him 24. If the piece on 22 had been a King
this could not have been brought about, for after going to 31, thereby
taking the man on 26, the move would not then have been finished, but
the King would have continued by taking the man on 27, thus winning
easily.

[Illustration: BLACK--ONE PIECE. WHITE--ONE PIECE. FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: BLACK--2 PIECES. WHITE--2 PIECES. FIG. 2.]

[Illustration: BLACK--12 PIECES. WHITE--3 PIECES. FIG. 3.]

[Illustration: BLACK--1 PIECE. WHITE--2 PIECES. FIG. 4.]

Many young players are puzzled how to force the victory when they
have two Kings against one, the single King being within reach of the
"double corner." Take the following position as an example:--

Black Kings on 18 and 19. (Fig. 6.)

White King on 27.

Black wins thus:--

  18- 1  15-19      28-32  15-18
  27-32  28-32      27-31  26-31
  19-24  24-28  (a) 19-15  18-22
  32-28  32-27      31-26  B. wins.

(a) It is here that many young players miss the point. They play 19-23
and Black moves to 31-27 and the work is all to do over again.


VI

The last lesson showed how to win with two Kings against one, the
latter being able to reach the double corner. Three Kings can also win
against two, even when each of these latter can reach a separate double
corner. The way to win has often puzzled young players, but yet it
is comparatively easy. The following position shows how to force the
victory:--

Black Kings on 14, 18, and 23. (Fig. 7.)

White Kings on 6 and 24.

Black to move and win.

The win is brought about thus:--

  18-15 (a)   6- 1 (c)  27-24       5- 1 (f)
  24-28      14-10       1- 5 (e)  24-19
  23-27 (b)  28-32 (d)  10-6       B. wins.

(a) One of the Black Kings must now go into the double corner.

(b) This is an important move, forcing as it does the remaining King
into the other double corner.

(c) For if 28-32, then 15-18 wins.

(d) Compulsory, for if 1-5, then 27-24 wins.

(e) If 32-28, then 24-19 wins.

(f) If 32-28, then 6-10 wins.

It will be noticed that Black must force the exchange of a King, and
then he wins with two Kings against one, as shown in fifth lesson.


VII

Already it has been pointed out that the weaker side, though a man
down, can often force a draw by correct play. Here is a position from
Sturge:--

Black man on 7. King on 6. (Fig. 8.)

White men on 14 and 20. King on 3.

Black to play and draw.

The draw is brought about thus:--

   7-10   6- 2   2-20  20-16
  14- 7  20-16   3- 7  Drawn.

Here is another example of a draw, this time by Payne:--

Black Kings on 7 and 11. (Fig. 9.)

White man on 20. Kings on 18 and 19.

Black to move and draw.

This position is more complicated than the former, and White can vary
his moves to a considerable extent, but Black, by careful play, can
always force the draw. The point is that Black must hold the White man
on 20. Here is a leading line of play:--

   7-10  18-23  15-11  (a) 12-16
  19-16  11-15  23-19       3- 7
  10-    16-12   7- 3       Drawn.

(a) If 19-16 then 11-15 draws.

This is a useful position as similar endings often occur in actual
play, and all younger students should study it carefully.


VIII

Here are some examples of easy forced wins. Payne has the following:--

Black man on 1. King on 7. (Fig. 10.)

White man on 14. King on 5.

Black to move and win.

The win is brought about thus:--

  1-6   6-9   7-10  10-1
  5-1  14-5   1- 6  B. wins.

Another very interesting position is:--

Black man on 2. Kings on 6 and 11. (Fig. 11.)

[Illustration: BLACK.

WHITE.

FIG. 5.]

[Illustration: BLACK.

WHITE.

FIG. 6.]

[Illustration: BLACK.

WHITE.

FIG. 7.]

[Illustration: BLACK.

WHITE.

FIG. 8.]

White man on 8. Kings on 1 and 4.

Black to move and win.

Black wins thus:--

  11-16   2- 7  16-12
   1-10  10- 3  B. wins.


IX

Some of the finest play in end games occurs in positions when two Kings
more or less sheltered by the double corner are opposed by three Kings
or two Kings and a man. The point for the player with the strong forces
to seize, is either to force the exchange of a King for a King, or to
give up a King for a forced won position. It is here that great nicety
of judgment is required, and the greatest attention is necessary if the
game is to be won. The following position is from Payne:--

Black Kings on 1 and 2. (Fig. 12.)

White man on 5. Kings on 10 and 11.

Either to move. White wins.

Here is the win when Black moves first:--

   2- 6   6- 9      9- 6   6-13
  11-15  14-17     22-18  18-14
   6- 9   9-13      6- 2   2- 7
  15-18  18-22     13- 9   1- 6
   9- 6  13- 9      1- 6  White wins (b)
  10-14  17-13  (a) 5- 1

(a) Here comes White's opportunity of sacrificing a King, thereby
obtaining a position won by force.

(b) For this King must ultimately "fix" the King now on 7.

This is the victory when White moves first:--

      10-14   6- 2      18-22      13- 9
       2- 6  16-19       6-2       14-10
      14-17   2- 6  (b) 13-9        9-13
       6- 9  19-23  (c)  1-6        5- 1
      17-13   6- 2      22-18  (d) 13-17
       9- 6  23-18       6-13       1- 5
  (a) 11-16   2- 6      18-14  White wins (e)

(a) Not 11-15, for then Black wins two for one by 6-9, and this danger
must be guarded against for several moves.

(b) This is the decisive moment when the sacrifice of the King must be
prepared.

(c) 2-7, too, would lose, for White would then move up his King now on
22, and ultimately man off.

(d) If 2-7, 10-14, 7-2, 14-9, and White wins.

(e) Black must play 17-13 or 17-22, and then comes 10-6, 2-9, 5-14, and
all is over.


X

The play in these "double corner" positions is always of a very
delicate nature. Here is a drawn position from Payne, requiring great
nicety of play:--

Black Kings on 1 and 6. (Fig. 13.)

White man on 5. Kings on 14 and 15.

Black to move and draw.

The draw is proved thus:--

   6- 9    18-22    9-13   22-18
  15-18    13- 9   17-14    9-13 (a)
   9-13    14-17   13- 9   Drawn.

(a) Black keeps command of square 13 and so forces the draw.

Here is another drawn position, from Rogers:--

Black Kings on 1 and 10. (Fig. 14.)

White man on 13. Kings on 3 and 16.

Black to move and draw.

The play on the position runs thus:--

   1- 6      10- 6    2-6     9-13
  16-11       9- 5    7-2    15-10
   6- 2       6- 1    6-9    13- 9 (b)
  13- 9 (a)   3- 7   11-15   Drawn.

        (a)   3- 8    6- 1   16-19
              2- 6   12-16   10-14
              8-12    1- 6   Drawn.

(b) White cannot crown the man or force an exchange, and hence the game
is drawn.

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 9.]

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 10.]

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 11.]

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 12.]


XI

When the forces on each side are reduced to two men, or a man and
a King each, many positions occur which are won, lost, or drawn by
well-known and long-recognised lines of play, and all who wish to
become draught players should have a knowledge of them. Here is such a
position:--

Black man on 22. King on 27. (Fig. 15.)

White man on 30. King on 7.

Black to move and win.

Here is the win:--

      27-23   18-14   6- 1   5- 1
       7-10    6- 1   5- 9  25-21
      22-26   22-18   1- 5   1- 5
  (a) 10-36    1- 6   9-13  10- 6
      26- 1   18-15  10-14  18-15
       6- 9    6- 1  13- 9  21-17
      31-26   15-10  14-18   5- 1
       9- 6    1- 5   9- 6   6- 9
      26-22   10- 6  18-15  15-18
       6-10    5- 1  30-25  Black wins
      23-18   14-10  15-18   by "first
      10- 6    1- 5   6-10   position."
  (a) 30-25   10- 6   1- 6   1- 5
      23-18   18-14  26-22  Black wins
      25-21    6- 1   6- 1   by "first
      26-30   30-26  22-17   position."

Here is another position:--

Black Kings on 14 and 22. (Fig. 16.)

White man on 29. King on 1.

Black to move and win.

This is the play for the defeat of your opponent:--

  22-17    1- 5   18-15   21-17
   1- 5    6- 1   29-25    5- 1
  17-13    5- 9   15-18    6- 9
   5- 1    1- 5    6-10   15-18
  13- 9    9-13    5- 1   Black wins
   1- 5   10-14   25-21    by "first
   9- 6   13- 9    1- 5    position."
   5- 1   14-18   10-6
  14-10    9- 6   18-15

The student will notice that all these victories are by "first
position." This so-called "first position" will be explained in the
next lesson.


XII

We now come to the ending known amongst all draught players as

  THE "FIRST POSITION."

Black Kings on 14 and 17. (Fig. 17.)

White man on 21. King on 5.

Black to move and win.

If the student refers to the solution of the position on the first
diagram in the eleventh lesson, he will find that the play shown in
note (a) ends with the position shown above. The victory is brought
about thus:--

      17-13   14-10   15-18      5- 1
       5- 1    1- 5    5- 9(a)   6- 9
      13- 9    6- 1    1- 5     15-18
       1- 5    5- 9    9- 6(b)  See
       9- 6   10-15   18-15      position
       5- 1    9- 5   21-17      below.

  (a) 21-17    1- 6    1- 5     Black
      18-22    5- 1   22-17      wins.
      17-14    6- 2

  (b)  9-13    5- 1   14-10      5- 1
      18-22   17-14   22-18     Black
      21-17    1- 5   10- 6      wins.


A MORE ADVANCED STAGE OF "FIRST POSITION."

Black Kings on 1 and 18. (Fig. 18.)

White man on 17. King on 9.

White to move. Black to win.

This position is formed at the end of main play of both positions given
in eleventh easy lesson, as well as of main play in the position on the
first diagram above.

White has two lines of play. First--

  17-13   15-10   25-22   10-15
  18-15   17-22    1- 6   22-25
   9-14   10-14   22-25   15-18
   1- 5   22-25    6-10   Black
  14-17    1- 5   25-22    wins.

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 13.]

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 14.]

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 15.]

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 16.]

Second--

  (a)  9- 5    1- 6    1- 5   Black
      18-22    5- 1   22-17    wins.
      17-14    6- 2   14- 9

(a) Both 17-14 and 9-13 lose at once by 6-2.


XIII

A careful study of the principles underlying the play given in the
positions in the eleventh and twelfth lessons will suffice to show
the student how to secure success (if that is possible) when two
Kings are opposed to man and King, the latter commanding or occupying
his opponent's double corner, where also the man can only hope to be
crowned. If the single man and the King cannot be forced to take up
some of the positions shown at some part of the different lines of the
play, then the game will be drawn.

The next class is composed of endings in which two Kings are opposed to
two Kings and a man.

The following diagram shows what is called


THE "THIRD POSITION."

Black man on 5. Kings on 13 and 21. (Fig. 19.)

White Kings on 14 and 22.

Black to move and win.

The end is brought about thus--

  13- 9   25-22   27-23   24-20
  22-18   15-10   22-25   22-26
   9- 6   22-26    2- 7   20-16
  18-22   14-18   25-22   26-22
   6- 1    5- 9    7-11   16-12
  22-18   10- 6   22-25   22-26
  21-25    9-13   11-15   12- 8
  18-15    6-10   25-22   26-22
   1- 6   26-31   23-27    8- 3
  14-17   10-14   22-26   14- 9
   6- 2   31-27   27-24   15-10
  17-14   18-22   26-22   Black wins.


XIV

Another class of endings is when three pieces are opposed to three
pieces, generally, of course, drawn, but yet in some cases admitting
of forced wins by delicate play. The following is a characteristic
specimen of such a forced victory, and should be carefully studied by
all young students of the game. It is well known to experts as

THE "SECOND POSITION."

Black men on 3 and 6. King on 1. (Fig. 20.)

White men on 12 and 13. King on 8.

Black to move and win.

The play for the victory follows:--

   1- 5   32-28   24-27   28-32
   8-11   24-27   28-24   19-24
   5- 9   28-32   27-32   32-28
  11-15   27-31   24-28   11-16
   9-14   32-28   32-27   28-19
  15-11   31-27   28-32   16-23
  14-18   28-32   27-24   12- 8
  11-16   27-23   32-28   23-18
  18-15   32-28   24-19    8- 4
  16-20   23-18   28-32   18-14
  15-11   28-24   19-15    4- 8
  20-24   18-14   32-28    6- 1
   3- 7   24-19   15-10    8-11
  24-19    6-10   28-24   14- 9
   7-10   19-23   10- 6   13- 6
  19-23   10-15   24-19    1-10
  10-15   23-27   14-10   11-16
  23-27   15-19   19-24   10-15
  15-19   27-32   10-15   16-20
  27-32   19-24   24-28   15-19
  19-24   32-28   15-19   Black wins.


XV

The position given below is well known to experts, and the play upon it
is very fine; but with the proviso, "Black to move and win," it cannot
easily occur in actual play, as the student will speedily discover if
he examine the position carefully. Nevertheless, it aptly illustrates
an important principle in end game play, and is well worthy of careful
study. It is known as

THE "FOURTH POSITION."

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 17.]

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 18.]

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 19.]

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 20.]

Black man on 21. Kings on 22, 23, and 28. (Fig. 21.)

White man on 30. Kings on 31 and 32.

Black to move and win, or White to move and draw.

The Black victory is brought about as follows:--

  28-24   23-19   18-22   24-27
  32-28   27-31   31-27   31-24
  24-20   19-24   22-26   20-18
  28-32   32-27   30-23   Black
  22-18   24-28   28-24    wins.
  31-27   27-32   27-31

The draw arises thus:--

  31-27   32-27   31-27   31-26
  23-19   24-20   28-24
  27-31   27-32   27-31   Drawn.
  19-24   22-18   18-23

Black can vary his play to some extent, but he can never man off to
advantage, or force a winning position by any line of play, and the
position is drawn.


XVI

Here is an example of a Black win brought about by very fine play, and
well worthy of attentive study. It is by the celebrated James Wyllie:--

Black man on 3. Kings on 11, 19, 27. (Fig. 22.)

White men on 12, 20. Kings on 1, 2.

White to move, Black to win.

   1- 6   18-14        1- 6    7-10
  27-23    5- 1        5- 1   18-23
   6-10   14- 9        6- 9   10-15
  23-18    6- 2       19-15   23-27
  10- 6   13-17   (b)  9- 5   15-19
  18-14    1- 5       11- 7   27-32
   6- 1   17-14       14- 9   19-23
  14-17    5- 1        7- 2   32-28
   1- 6    9- 5        9-13    6-10
  19-23    2- 6       15-11   28-24
   6- 9   14-18       13-17   10-15
  23-18    6-10        3- 7   Black
   2- 6   18-23       17-14    wins.

  17-13 (a) 10-14     2- 6
   9- 5     23-19     14-18

Var. (a.)

  10- 6     19-15      6- 2     Black
  23-19      2-6      17-10     wins.
   6- 2      3-7

Var. (b.)

   9-13     17-21     17-13     20-16
  11- 7      1- 6     10-14     18-15
  14-17     13-17     13-17     Black
  15-18      6-10      7-10     wins.


XVII

The position given in the last easy lesson showed a Black win when it
was White's turn to play, but it is only a draw if Black had to play
first. Let the student add to the diagram the condition "Black to move,
White to draw."

The draw is brought about as follows:--

  27-23      10- 6     7-10      2- 6
   1- 6      19-15     5- 1     18-23
  19-15       6- 2    14- 9      6-10
   6- 1       7-11    20-16     15- 6
  15-18       9- 6    10-15      1-10
   1- 6      17-13     1- 6     23-19
  18-22       6- 1     9- 5     16-11
   6- 9      15-10     6- 1     19-16
  22-17       2- 6    13-17     11- 7
   2- 6      10-14     2- 6     Drawn.
  23-19       1- 5    17-14
   6-10  (a) 11- 7     6- 2
  11- 7       6- 2    14-18

Var.(a.)

  11-15      10-14    18-23     23-19
   5- 1       5- 1     6-10     11- 7
  14-10       9- 5    15- 6     19-16
   6- 2      20-16     1-10      7- 2
  13- 9      14-18     5- 9     Drawn
   1- 5       2- 6     6-11

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 21.]


[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 22.]

Here is a neat winning stroke from Sturges:--

Black Kings on 10, 16, 23. (Fig. 23.)

White Kings on 9, 19.

Black to move and win.

The win is forced thus:--

10-14, 9-27, 16-32. Black wins.


XVIII

I give the following beautiful example of a Black win by W. G. W.
Leggett:--

Black man on 1. Kings on 3 and 11. (Fig. 24.)

White men on 9, 10, 13. King on 4.

Black to move and win.

The win is thus brought about:--

     11- 7   (b) 1- 5   25-22     5- 1
     10- 6      15-19    9- 5     7-10
      1-10       5- 1   22-18     1- 5
      9- 6      19-23    5- 9    10- 6
      7- 2       1- 5   18-15     5- 1
  (a) 6- 1      23-26    9- 5    14-10
      2- 6       5- 9   15-11     1- 5
      1- 5      26-30    5- 9     6- 1
     10-15       9- 5   11- 7     5- 9
      5- 1      30-25    9- 5     1- 5
      6-10       5- 9   10-14    Black wins.

Var. (a.)

  13- 9       3- 7    8-11    18-22
  10-15       4- 8   15-18    Black
   6- 1       7-10   11-16    wins.

Var. (b.)

  13- 9       4- 8     8-3    Black
   3- 7      15-18     7-2    wins.


XIX

CLASSIFIED LIST OF PRINCIPAL OPENINGS.

9-13 OPENING.

  Edinburgh

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 23.]

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 24.]

                            9-14 OPENING

  Double Corner                                                       9-14

  Choice                                                9-14, 22-18, 11-15

                            10-14 OPENING

  Denny                                                              10-14

                            10-15 OPENING

  Kelso                                                              10-15

                            11-15 OPENING.

  Ayrshire Lassie                                11-15, 24-20, 8-11, 28-24

  Second Double Corner                                        11-15, 24-19

  Virginia                                             11-15, 23-19, 10-14

  Glasgow (Irregular)                            11-15, 23-19, 9-14, 22-17
                                                        8-11, 25-22, 11-16

  Wilter (Irregular)                             11-15, 23-19, 9-14, 22-17
                                                                      7-11

  Fife                                           11-15, 23-19, 9-14, 22-17
                                                                       5-9

  Souter                                         11-15, 23-19, 9-14, 22-17
                                                                       6-9

  Sunderland                                     11-15, 23-19, 9-14, 22-17
                                                                     14-18

  Defiance                                       11-15, 23-19, 9-14, 27-23

  Will o' the Wisp                                      11-15, 23-19, 9-13

  Old Fourteenth                                 11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 22-17
                                                                       4-8

  Alma                                           11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 22-17
                                                                      3- 8

  Glasgow                                        11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 22-17
                                                                     11-16

  Laird and Lady                                 11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 22-17
                                                                      9-13

  Centre                                         11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 22-17
                                                                     15-18

  Doctor                                         11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 22-17
                                                 9-13, 17-14, 10-17, 19-10
                                                                      7-14

  Nailor                                         11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 26-23

  Cuckoo                                         11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 22-18

  Wilter                                                11-15, 23-19, 7-11

  Wilter-Cross                                   11-15, 23-19, 7-11, 26-23
                                                                3-7, 23-18

  Cross                                                       11-15, 23-18

  Cross Choice                                          11-15, 23-18, 9-14

  Dyke (second Irregular)                        11-15, 23-18, 8-11, 26-23
                                                         4-8, 30-26, 15-19

  Single Corner                                 11-15, 22-18, 15-22, 25-18
                                                                      8-11

  Flora Temple                                  11-15, 22-18, 15-22, 25-18
                                                                      9-13

  Maid of the Mill                                     11-15, 22-17, 15-18

  Maid of the Mill                               11-15, 22-17, 8-11, 17-13
            (Irregular)                                              15-18

  Pioneer                                        11-15, 22-17, 8-11, 25-22

  White Dyke                                     11-15, 22-17, 8-11, 17-14

  Albemarle                                      11-15, 22-17, 8-11, 17-13
                                                                4-8, 21-17

  Erie                                           11-15, 22-17, 8-11, 17-13
                                                                      9-14

  Dyke                                                 11-15, 22-17, 15-19

  Dyke (Irregular)                               11-15, 22-17, 9-14, 25-22
                                                                     15-19

  Boston                                         11-15, 22-17, 9-13, 17-14

  Wagram                                         11-15, 22-17, 9-13, 24-20

  Switcher                                                    11-15, 21-17

                            11-16 OPENING.

  Bristol                                                     11-16, 24-20

  Liverpool                                      11-16, 24-20, 9-13, 20-11
                                                                      8-15

  Paisley                                                     11-16, 24-19

  Manchester                                                  11-16, 23-18

  London                                                      11-16, 22-18

  White Doctor                                  11-16, 22-18, 10-14, 24-20
                                                       16-19, 23-16, 14-23

  Leeds                                                       11-16, 22-17

  Newcastle                                                   11-16, 21-17

                            12-16 OPENING.

  Dundee                                                             12-16

THE LOSING GAME.

As a matter of fact very fine scientific play is possible with this
form of Draughts, but all the same the youngest beginner can play at
it, and very amusing results will follow. The object in the game is
for one of the players to give all his men away, or get them fixed
immovably, which, of course, would be a lost game in ordinary draughts,
but is a won one at the losing game. It must be borne in mind, in
playing the losing game, that it is not good policy to give away men
at the beginning of the game so as to be left with three men against
six, or two against five, for as a matter of fact in most positions the
player with the superior forces can give all his men away, leaving the
other player with one or more of his men left. Here is where the laugh
comes in. The hasty player keeps giving away his men until possibly he
has only one left, whilst his more wary opponent has three or four.
But can he give that man away and so win? Not much! He soon finds he
is perfectly helpless, and the other player can force him to take all
his men, whilst his solitary man or King remains still on the board, a
woeful example of "vaulting ambition, overleaping itself and falling
on t'other side." In the losing game it is a case of "the more haste
the least speed," for he who is too hasty to give away his men at the
beginning finds he cannot give the remainder away at the end. From
the first "position" must be played for, the board opened, and men
exchanged carefully, so that at the end the player who wants to win
may have such advantage that he can compel his opponent to capture his
remaining pieces. When the game is reduced to one man on each side he
who has "the move," as it is called, which would enable him to win, or
draw, at the least, in the ordinary game must lose at the Losing Game.
Here is an example of

  A LOSING GAME.

  11-15     8-11     5- 9    20-27
  24-19    22-18    17-13    30-26
  15-24     9-14     3- 8    23-14
  27-20    18- 9    29-25    White wins,
   8-11     6-13    12-16    for his sole
  20-16    25-22    23-19    remaining man
  11-20     1- 6    16-32    is blocked.
  32-27    22-17    31-27
   4- 8    13-22    32-23
  28-24    26-17    21-17

Another form of the Losing Game is for one player to have all his
twelve men against a single man of the other player. I give a position
of this kind as

[Illustration: A PROBLEM IN THE LOSING GAME. BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 25.]

The 12 Black men on their original squares.

White man on 29.

Black to move and win, that is, give all his men away.

Another funny form of draughts is for one player to give the other the
odds of having once (or oftener during the progress of the game) the
right of moving twice in succession, this right being exercised at such
time as the odds-receiver may choose. There should be great disparity
in the strength of the two players, as the odds is really very great.

THE INTERCHANGED MEN.

As a final poser for those who like to puzzle their brains, I give
the following as a problem. Place the men in due order on the
draught-board, and then by a series of legal moves reverse the position
of the men, that is, the Black men must stand where the White men came
from, and _vice versa_.

$Quaternions.$--Quaternions is the name of a somewhat easy yet
interesting game played on a checkered board (similar to a draughts
board) with thirty-two counters or draughtsmen (sixteen white and
sixteen black). The players move alternately by placing one of their
men on a white square of the board, and the object of the game is
to get four men of the same colour in a line, either perpendicular,
horizontal, or diagonally, and the player who first succeeds in doing
this wins the game. Of course, each player also does his best to stop
his opponent from forming his quaternion or file of four. Should
neither player be able to form a quaternion, then the game is drawn.

To show clearly what a quaternion is, I give the following diagram:--

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 26.]

The four men on squares 1, 2, 3, and 4, form a quaternion, and
similarly do those on 5, 13, 21, and 29, and those on 10, 15, 19, and
24. The numbers here given to the squares are the same as in draughts.
The point to be borne in mind in playing the game is to try to unite
a perpendicular with a horizontal line of squares, or with a diagonal
line. By careful play three men can be got on one of these lines,
and three on a communicating line, each having a vacant square. The
player of the opposite colour can fill only one of these squares, and
consequently cannot prevent the formation of the quaternion on the
other line.

The most careful play on both sides is required from the very first
move, or the game can be forced right off. I give a diagram of an
opening:--

[Illustration: BLACK. WHITE. FIG. 27.]

It is now Black's turn to play, and he must stop White from forming a
line of three men with a vacant square at each end. To do this he must
place a man either on 7 or 17. Supposing he plays on to 17, then White
can force the game thus:--

  White. Black.

   18     23    Black plays on 23 to stop White
    7      3    getting an open three; 9 would not
    9      5    be so good.
   11     12
    2

The position is now as diagrammed:--

[Illustration: BLACK TO PLAY. FIG. 28.]

It will be seen that White has now three on a perpendicular (beginning
at 2) with a vacant square, and he also has three on a diagonal (also
beginning at 2) with a vacant square. Black can now only occupy one of
the vacant squares, and White thereupon occupies the other, thereby
forming his quaternion and winning. Black lost the game on his second
play by placing his man on 17; had he gone on to 7 his game would have
been as good as White's.

Now for a few general hints. Open the game on the middle of the
board. Play to squares near those occupied by your opponent's men.
Keep your men in connection (with an eye to forming threes, as in the
illustrative game given above). Keep forming threes as long as you can
so as to force your opponent to stop the threatened quaternion. Keep
a wary eye always on your opponent's game, and try to confine him
as much as possible so as to prevent him from forming threes with an
adjacent vacant square. Play the cautious game rather than the risky
one--that is, keep the draw always in hand, and win if you can.

$Consequences.$--Each player has a slip of paper. Three inches broad
and eight inches long is a convenient shape and size. Each player
writes upon the top an adjective which might be applied to a lady, and
then folds the top of the slip so as to cover the word. All now pass
their slips to their neighbours so that each one has another slip.
Without looking at the adjective, which should be well covered by the
fold, each writes the name of a lady who is in the room, and folds the
slip again so that no writing may be seen. Once more the slips are
passed along, and upon the new slip which each player has now should
be written an adjective applicable to a gentleman. Fold the paper and
pass it along again. This process is repeated until this adjective
has been followed by the name of some gentleman of the party, then
by the name of a place, next by what the gentleman said to the lady,
then her reply. After that come the consequences, and finally what the
world said. All the slips are now dropped into a hat, and someone is
appointed to read them one by one, supplying the verbs in the right
place. They will create roars of laughter, for they will run something
like this: Simpering Jane Cook met Knock-kneed Peter Thompson up a
tree. He said to her, "Well, I am surprised" and she replied, "Does
your mother know you're out?" The consequences were that he pawned his
boots, and the world said, "I told you so."

$Concert.$--The players having selected a "conductor," seat themselves
round him. The conductor now gives to each a musical instrument,
and shows how it is to be played. When all are provided with their
imaginary instruments, he orders them to tune, and so gives each
musician a chance to make all sorts of noises. Next the conductor waves
an imaginary _baton_, and begins to hum a lively tune, in which he
is accompanied by his band, each player imitating with his hands the
different movements made in performing on his supposed instrument.
Every now and then the conductor pretends to play an instrument, and
the player to whom it belongs must instantly alter his movements for
those of the conductor, and continue to beat time until the conductor
abandons his instrument. Should a player fail to take the conductor's
office at the proper time, he must pay a forfeit.

$Shadow Buff.$--A sheet or other large piece of white linen should be
fastened at one end of the room, so that it hangs without wrinkles;
Buff seats himself on a low stool with his face to the sheet, and
a table, on which is a lighted candle, should be placed about four
or five feet behind him, and the rest of the lights in the room
extinguished. Buff's playfellows next pass in succession, between him
and the candle, distorting their features as much as possible--hopping,
limping, and performing odd antics, so as to make their shadows very
unlike themselves. Buff, who is not blindfolded, must try to guess to
whom the shadows belong, and if he guesses correctly, the player whose
shadow he recognises takes his place. Buff is allowed only one guess
for each person, and must not turn his head either to the right or to
the left to see who passes.

$The Boat Race.$--A most exciting game, and one that is particularly
suited to parties. Any number of players may take part in it, the more
the merrier, and they must be divided into two sides. The players stand
in two rows, facing one another; at one end of the line there is the
starter and at the other the umpire.

At the word "Go!" the starter drops a penny into the hands of each
of the two men nearest him. These two men then drop it into the
outstretched palms of the people next to them, and so the pennies are
passed along from one to the other, and the winning side is the one
which manages to get its penny into the hands of the umpire first.
A great point which all the players must bear in mind is that on no
account must the coin be touched by the fingers. Each player must
secure the penny in the palms of his hands placed together, and must
drop the penny into the hands of the man next him by simply opening his
palms. This greatly adds to the fun of the game. In the hurry to pass
on the coin the excited player will drop the money and pick it up in
his fingers, and his side is then disqualified for that game.

$A Musical Glass.$--Take a thin cut-glass goblet, and having cut out of
stiff writing-paper a cross with arms of equal length, lay it on the
top of the glass, and turn down each end of the four arms, so that the
cross will not slip off. Having thus fitted the cross, take it off the
glass and pour water into the glass until it is nearly full. Now wipe
the rim carefully, so that no particle of moisture remains on it, and
replace the cross. You can make the glass vibrate and give out a sound
by rubbing your damped finger over some part of the exterior. That is
why it is called a musical glass; but an even more wonderful experiment
may be made with it. You rub the glass with your damped finger under
one of the arms of the cross; the cross will not move. Rub it between
any two of the arms, and the cross will begin to turn slowly, as if by
magic, and will not stop turning until one of the arms reaches a point
immediately over the place you are rubbing. You can then move your
finger round the glass and make the cross move as you please.

$Boomerangs.$--The wooden boomerang of the Australian savage has
elements of danger, and attempts should not be made to throw it except
away from other people and from animals. Even the thrower will do well
to have a tree behind which he can retire; but meanwhile much fun can
be derived from small boomerangs made of pasteboard. They should be cut
in the shapes given, A and B are the best. There is no need to be very
exact, but the card should not be bent and should be capable of lying
flat upon a table. Other similar shapes may be invented. The curious
flight of a little boomerang of this kind is induced by placing it upon
a book with one of its ends projecting over the side of the book. Raise
the book to a level with your eyes and then with a pencil or penholder
strike sharply the edge of the boomerang near the end. Do not treat the
boomerang as though you were playing at tip-cat or "peggy," and avoid
smiting it upon its upward flat surface. When you have learned to
hit it properly it will skim through the air, then rise a little, and
finally come back to some place not far from its starting-point. In any
case its peculiar movements are likely to be amusing. A flip with the
finger nail is another way to start the boomerang upon its course.

$An Amusing Game.$--In this game the ball is an empty egg-shell, and
the field a covered table.

After the sides have been chosen--any number of persons taking
part--the players kneel at both sides of the table, a captain at the
head on one side, and another captain at the foot on the other side. In
front of each captain are placed two upright articles--candlesticks,
tumblers, or what not. These are the goals, across which a ribbon is
stretched.

[Illustration: BOOMERANGS.]

The egg-shell is placed in the centre of the table, and put in play by
both captains blowing at it. All the other players then assist in the
blowing, which keeps the ball moving about the table at such a rapid
succession of tangents as to cause a great deal of fun. Soon most of
the players will be helpless with laughter.

A touchdown, which scores four points, is made by blowing the ball
through the opponents' goal. The captain of the victorious side then
takes the ball back to the opposite goal and blows it across the table,
the object being to pass it through the same goal again. This, if
successful, scores two more points.

The time limit of the game is thirty minutes, divided into two parts
of fifteen minutes each. After the first half the two teams change
positions, as in football.

$Nine Men's Morris.$--Two persons, having each of them nine pieces,
or men, different in colour from those of his opponent, lay them down
alternately, one by one, upon the spots; and the aim of both players
is to prevent his antagonist from placing three of his pieces so as
to form a row of three without the intervention of an opposing piece.
If a row be formed, he that made it is at liberty to take up one of
his competitor's pieces from any part he thinks most to his advantage;
unless he has made a row, which must not be touched. When all the
pieces are laid down, they are played backwards and forwards in any
direction that the lines run, but can only move from one spot to
another at one time. He that takes all his antagonist's pieces, is the
winner.

[Illustration: NINE MEN'S MORRIS. FOX AND GEESE.]

$Fox and Geese.$--Fifteen draughtsmen serve for the flock of geese.
The fox may be two draughtsmen placed one upon another. The game is
played on a board marked as shown in the illustration. Sometimes holes
are pricked at the junction of the lines and pegs are used instead of
draughtsmen. The fox is placed in the middle of the board, and the
geese as shown in the illustration. The game is to confine the fox to
some spot on the board, so that there shall be either the edge of the
board or else two rows of men round him. When the fox cannot escape,
the game is done, and the player of the geese wins; but when one of
the geese is left on a point next to that occupied by the fox, and is
not supported by another goose behind, or by the edge of the board,
the fox can take it, and by jumping over its head to the next space,
as in draughts, he may, perhaps, escape the others, as all the geese
are compelled to move forwards towards the end of the board that was
unoccupied at the commencement of the game. The fox is allowed to move
either backwards or forwards. Neither the fox nor a goose must be moved
more than one space at a time. If the fox neglects to take when he has
a chance, he is huffed, and one of the captured geese is restored to
the board. The fox should avoid getting into the lower square of the
board if possible, as he will find it difficult to extricate himself
from a position which can be so easily blockaded.

[Illustration: FOX AND GEESE--A SECOND METHOD.]

A SECOND METHOD.--There is another way of playing fox and geese on a
chessboard, with four white men, representing the geese, and one black
one, for the fox.

The geese are placed on the four white squares nearest one player, and
the fox may be put where his owner pleases. The best place for him is
that marked in the diagram.

The geese can move forward only, and the fox moves either way. The
object of the geese is to pen the fox so that he cannot move, and the
fox has to break through.

The geese have a great advantage, and a good player keeps them in a
line as much as he can. This the fox tries to prevent, and if the geese
make a false move he is able generally to break through the line.

$Puzzles.$--DEAD DOGS MADE LIVING.--The dead dogs are, by placing two
lines upon them, to be suddenly aroused to life and made to run away.
How and where should these lines be placed, and what should be the
shapes of them?

THE SPRINGS PUZZLE.--A is a wall, B C D three houses, and E F G three
springs. It is required to bring the water from E to D, from G to B,
and from F to C, without one pipe or channel crossing the other, and
without passing outside of the wall A.

THREE-SQUARE PUZZLE.--Cut seventeen slips of cardboard of equal
lengths, and put them on a table to form six squares, as in the figure.
Now take away five of the pieces, leaving only three perfect squares.

SIX AND FIVE MAKE NINE.--Draw six vertical lines, and, by adding five
more lines let the whole make nine.

CYLINDER PUZZLE.--Cut a piece of cardboard about four inches long, of
the oblong shape of the figure, and make three holes in it as shown.
Make one piece of wood pass through, and also exactly fill, each of the
three holes.

[Illustration: DEAD DOGS MADE LIVING.]

[Illustration: THE SPRINGS PUZZLE.]

[Illustration: THREE SQUARE PUZZLE.]

[Illustration: SIX AND FIVE MAKE NINE.]

[Illustration: CYLINDER PUZZLE.]

[Illustration: A BUTTON PUZZLE.]

A BUTTON PUZZLE.--In the middle of a piece of leather make two parallel
cuts, and below a small hole of the width of the distance between the
cuts, pass a piece of string under the slit and through the hole, as in
the diagram, and tie two buttons much larger than the hole to the ends
of the string. The problem is to draw the string out without taking off
the buttons.

A SLIT PUZZLE.--Cut a round piece of wood as in A, and four others,
like B. Get them all into the cross-shaped slit, as in C.

[Illustration: A SLIT PUZZLE.]

[Illustration: CREEPING THROUGH A SMALL SPACE.]

CREEPING THROUGH A SMALL SPACE.--Take a piece of cardboard or of
leather, the shape and size suggested in the diagram. Cut it in such a
way that you may creep through it, still keeping it in one piece.

AN INGENIOUS SQUARE.--Here is a way to place one to nine in three rows
of three figures each, so that they will add up to fifteen in eight
different ways.

  [Illustration]

  +--+--+--+
  | 4| 9| 2|
  +--+--|--|
  | 3| 5| 7|
  +--+--+--+
  | 8| 1| 6|
  +--+--+--+

  [Illustration: CIRCLE PUZZLE.]

  +-------------------+
  |o        o        o|
  |                   |
  |                   |
  |        o o        |
  |o                 o|
  |        o o        |
  |                   |
  |                   |
  |o        o        o|
  +-------------------+


THE CABINET-MAKER'S PROBLEM.--A cabinet-maker had a round piece of
veneering, with which he has to cover the tops of two oval stools.
It so happens that the area of the stools, without the hand-holes in
the centre, and the circular piece, are the same. How must he cut his
veneer so as to be exactly enough for his purpose?

CIRCLE PUZZLE.--Secure a piece of cardboard, the size and shape of the
diagram, and punch in it twelve holes in the position shown in the
diagram. Cut the cardboard into four pieces of equal size, each piece
to be of the same shape, and to contain three holes, without cutting
into any of them.

THE NUNS.--Twenty-four nuns were placed in a convent by night to count
nine each way, as in the figure. Four of them went for a walk; how
were the remaining nuns arranged in the square so as still to count
nine each way? The four who went out returned, bringing with them four
friends; how were they all arranged still to count nine each way, and
thus to deceive the sister in charge, as to whether there were 20, 24,
28, or 32 in the square?

[Illustration: THE NUNS.]

CROSS-CUTTING.--How can you cut out of a single piece of paper, and
with one cut of the scissors, a perfect cross, and all the other forms
that are shown in the diagram?

CROSS PUZZLE.--Cut three pieces of paper to the shape of A, one to the
shape of B, and one to that of C. Let them be of the same relative
sizes as in the diagram. Place the pieces together so as to form a
cross.

MORE CROSS CUTTING.--With three pieces of cardboard of the form and
size of A, and one each of B and C, to form a cross.

[Illustration: CROSS CUTTING.]

[Illustration: CROSS PUZZLE.]

[Illustration: MORE CROSS CUTTING.]

A PROBLEM FOR SURVEYORS.--A gentleman who lived in a house on an estate
decided that he would divide the estate into five building plots. There
were ten fine old trees, and his instructions to the surveyor were:
Don't count my house in the division. I shall have that extra, but
divide the remainder of the park into five equal parts with straight
boundaries. I shall retain one part for my own grounds. Be careful
to arrange that each plot shall have two of the trees. How did the
surveyor divide the estate?

[Illustration: A PROBLEM FOR SURVEYORS.]

ANOTHER PROBLEM FOR SURVEYORS.--A squire planted a number of oaks when
his heir was born, and on the twenty-seventh birthday of the young man
there was a tree for every year, and yet though there were only 27
trees, there were ten rows and six trees in each row, which made sixty,
the age of the squire himself. How did he manage it?

HALFPENCE PUZZLE.--Place ten halfpence in a row on the table. Take
up one of them and place it on another, never in any case passing
over more than two halfpence. Repeat the operation until no halfpenny
remains by itself in the row.

PUZZLING ADVICE.--Read the following:--

  If your B  m  t   put :
  When    your IS  .   putting :

THE MISER'S RUSE.--A miser once asked his tenants to dinner at an inn,
and asked the landlord to join the party. When the bill was presented,
the miser suggested that they should cast lots who should pay the
score. It was decided that they should be counted by the days of the
week, and that every time he who counted called "Saturday," the person
so named should leave the room until there was only one man left, and
he should pay. How did the miser manage to throw the expense on the
landlord?

TWO EYES BETTER THAN ONE.--Put a coin on a table's edge, with half the
coin's edge overlapping. Move three yards away and close one eye; now
advance, and try to knock it off with one finger, keeping the one eye
shut all the time.

[Illustration: THE DOUBLE HANDCUFFS.]

WOLF, GOAT, AND CABBAGES.--Suppose a man has a wolf, a goat, and some
cabbages on the bank of a river, and he wishes to cross with them,
and that his boat is only large enough to carry one out of the three
besides himself. He must, therefore, take them over one by one, in such
a manner that the wolf shall have no opportunity of devouring the goat,
or the goat the cabbages. In which way is he to do this?

THE DOUBLE HANDCUFFS.--Ask two friends to allow their hands to be
fastened together with string, which must be looped, as shown in the
illustration. Now tell them to liberate themselves without unfastening
the knots, or cutting the string.


Answers to Puzzles.

[Illustration: DEAD DOGS MADE LIVING.]

[Illustration: THE SPRINGS PUZZLE.]

THREE-SQUARE PUZZLE.--Take away the pieces numbered 8, 10, 1, 3, 13,
and three squares only will remain.

[Illustration: SIX AND FIVE MAKE]

A SLIT PUZZLE.--Arrange the pieces side by side in the short arms of
the cross, draw out the centre piece, and the rest will follow easily.
The same process reversed will put them back again.

[Illustration: SLIT PUZZLE.]

[Illustration: CREEPING THROUGH A SMALL SPACE.]

CREEPING THROUGH A SMALL SPACE.--Double the cardboard or leather
lengthways down the middle, and then cut first to the right, nearly to
the end, and then to the left and so on to the end of the card; then
open it and cut down the middle, except the two ends. By opening the
card or leather, a person may pass through it. A tough leaf may be
treated in this way.

[Illustration: CIRCLE PUZZLE.]

THE CABINET-MAKER'S PROBLEM.--The cabinet-maker must find the centre
of the circle, and strike another circle, half the diameter of the
first, and having the same centre. Then cut the whole into four parts,
by means of two lines drawn at right angles to each other, then cut
along the inner circle, and put the pieces together as in the following
diagram.

[Illustration: CABINET-MAKER'S PROBLEM.]

[Illustration: THE NUNS.]

[Illustration: MORE CROSS CUTTING.]

BUTTON PUZZLE.--Pull the narrow slip of the leather through the hole,
and the string and buttons may be released.

[Illustration: CROSS CUTTING.]

[Illustration: CROSS PUZZLE.]

CROSS CUTTING.--Take a piece of writing paper about three times as
long as it is broad, say six inches long and two wide. Fold the upper
corner down, as shown in Fig. 1; then fold the other upper corner over
the first, and it will appear as in Fig. 2; you next fold the paper in
half lengthwise, and it will appear as in Fig. 3. Then the last fold is
made lengthwise also, in the middle of the paper, and it will exhibit
the form of Fig. 4, which, when cut through with the scissors in the
direction of the dotted line, will give all the forms mentioned.

[Illustration: CYLINDER PUZZLE.]

CYLINDER PUZZLE.--Take a round cylinder of the diameter of the circular
hole, and of the height of the square hole. Having drawn a straight
line across the end, dividing it into two equal parts, cut an equal
section from either side to the edge of the circular base, a figure
like that represented by the woodcut in the margin would then be
produced, which would fulfil the required conditions.

HALFPENCE PUZZLE.--Place the fourth on the first, seventh on the third,
fifth upon the ninth, the second upon the sixth, and the eighth upon
the tenth.

PUZZLING ADVICE.--

  If your grate be (great B) empty, put coal on.
  When your grate is (great IS) full, stop putting coal on.

THE MISER'S RUSE.--The counting, which stopped at every seventh man,
was made to begin at the sixth from the landlord, who sat at the end of
the table.

WOLF, GOAT, AND CABBAGES.--First he takes over the goat; he then
returns and takes the wolf; he leaves the wolf on the other side, and
brings back the goat; he now takes over the cabbages, and comes back
once more to fetch the goat. Thus the wolf will never be left with the
goat, nor the goat with the cabbages.

[Illustration: A PROBLEM FOR SURVEYORS.]

[Illustration: ANOTHER PROBLEM FOR SURVEYORS.]

THE DOUBLE HANDCUFFS.--This is the way to do it. C must gather up into
a loop the string which binds his hands, pass it under the string
fastened round either of B's wrists, and slip it over B's hands. This
done, both will be set free. To replace the strings, reverse the
process.




CHAPTER XXI

WORK AND PLAY AT THE BENCH


$Wood Carving.$--The best kinds of wood include white holly, walnut and
sycamore, and pieces of empty cigar boxes, often Spanish cedar, are not
to be despised. A pocket-knife, some bradawls, a few files, flat, round
and triangular, a fine saw and some coarse sandpaper complete the tools
needed for most of the work.

Draw very carefully upon paper the design with which you wish to
ornament some article you may have made with wood. When you have at
last drawn the design quite accurately there are many ways in which you
may transfer the drawing to the wood. It may be pasted upon the wood so
that paper and wood will be cut away together in those parts that are
to fall below the general surface of the wood and at the end the paper
that remains may be washed away. Another way is to cut out the design
with scissors, lay it upon the wood and go carefully round the edges
with a lead pencil; or you may without cutting it out place it upon the
wood and prick through the design or at any rate the principal points
with a pin. If you were to scribble with crayon, coloured chalk or
pencil upon the back of the paper and were then to lay the paper upon
the wood and go over the design with a hard point, using some pressure,
the design would be transferred to the wood, or still another way would
be to use carbon paper (see Chap. XXIV.) between the paper and the wood
instead of scribbling upon the back of the paper.

However, we will suppose the design in some way or another has been
placed in pencil upon the wood. Now with regard to every part in which
the intention is to take out the wood completely from front to back
bore a hole. Then take your fret-cutter's saw or dentist's saw and
unfastening one end put this end through the hole and fasten it again.
Saw perpendicularly.

At this stage the young carver will need to decide whether he will
follow the pencil lines exactly. If he is a very expert sawyer he
may, but it is much safer to leave a little wood to be removed by
pocket-knife, chisel, or file. It is easy to do this; but if he saws
out a little too much wood, if he transgresses the pencil line, he
cannot put back the wood he has wrongfully cut away. After the filing a
little rubbing with sandpaper will complete the work. Sometimes it is
an advantage to adjust the saw in its frame with the teeth inside or
sideways.

$How to make a Schooner.$--Take a block of wood two feet four inches
long, eight inches wide, and eight inches deep. We name this as a
convenient size; but a boy may if he likes make his boat twice this
size, or half this size, and so long as he makes his alterations in
proportion it will not matter. Try to get the wood without knots or
other faults. White pine or deal with a straight grain is the best, for
this wood is easy to cut into shape, and it is light.

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

Before the schooner is shaped it should be hollowed. Draw a straight
line with pencil along the centre of the upper surface of the block A B
(Fig. 1). If the breadth of the block is eight inches then the centre
will be four inches from each edge. Next, in a similar way divide the
length of the block into two equal parts with a pencil line C D. If the
length is two feet four inches then this line will be one foot two from
each end of the block. Now divide the length into three equal parts by
the lines E F and G H. One third of two feet four inches is nine inches
and one third of an inch, so that each of the three parts will have
this measurement. Draw now the line I J C B and when this line is of
the right shape make a tracing of it, and from the tracing a cardboard
model. By placing this model upon the other side of the line A B and
drawing round its edge you will get the line B D K I and it will be
exactly like I J C B, a very important matter. With a knife, gouge, and
chisel the boat may now be hollowed with care, and we may repeat that
it is easier to hollow the block before its outside has been shaped
than afterwards, because it stands now more firmly upon the table or
bench.

The shape of the outside is shown in Fig. 2, and it should be noticed
that the line L M N is not straight but curves so that M is the lowest
point and L and N the highest. Upon the counter at O a hole must be
bored for the stern-post, which will come through at P in Fig. 1.

[Illustration: FIG. 2]

It is well from time to time to try the boat in water to see if it
floats evenly, or if more has been taken from one side than the other.
These little matters should be corrected, and a number of little
touches will be needed here and there with tools or sandpaper before
the vessel is right inside and out. Then put a deck of thin wood over
the hollowed part. This should be fitted very carefully so that no
water can pass into the hold of the ship. If bulwarks are desired the
deck may be half an inch or an inch below the edge of the vessel, but
if the deck is flush with the sides of the hull there will be no place
for water to lodge.

We now come to the masts, of which there will be two. For the foremast
make a hole through the deck at Q on Fig. 1. It is about an inch from
the line G H. At R two inches from the line E F a similar hole should
penetrate the deck for the main mast. The circumference of the lower
masts should be one inch and three quarters, but an inch will serve
for the topmasts. The bowsprit and the booms should measure one inch
and a quarter round, and the gaffs an inch.

[Illustration: A SCHOONER.]

  A Bobstay.
  B Bowsprit.
  C Forestay.
  D Stay Foresail.
  E Foremast.
  F Gaff Foresail.
  G Fore Gaff.
  H Fore Boom.
  I Mainmast.
  J Mainsail.
  K Main Boom.
  L Main Gaff.
  M Main Topmast.
  N Gaff Topsail.
  O Main Topmast Stay.
  P Fore Peak Haulyards.
  Q Fore Throat Haulyards.
  R Main Peak Haulyards.
  S Main Throat Haulyards.
  T Mainsheet.
  U Foresheet.
  V Stay Foresheet.
  W Rudder.
  X Lead Ballast.
  Y Forecap and Cross Trees.
  Z Maincap and Cross Trees.

Linen will serve for the sails, and odds and ends of fishing lines for
the ropes and rigging, with stouter cord like whipcord for the shrouds.
The caps, deadeyes, blocks and such things may be made, but the process
is wearisome and difficult and perhaps the better way is to buy them.
The following measurements will be useful:--

                          inches
  Bowsprit                 3-1/2
  Foremast                15
  Mainmast                16
  Topmast                  6
  Fore boom                8-1/2
  Fore gaff                8
  Main boom               12
  Main gaff                8

The sails should be made to fit these. If the schooner has been
properly made she will sail well with the rudder but slightly turned
to one side. If it is necessary to turn her rudder much she will lose
speed and will not rank in the first class. To steady the schooner
it is necessary to nail or screw along her keel, a strip of lead as
ballast. Err upon the side of making this too heavy, because it is
easier to cut and file away than it is to add.

$The making of a Cutter.$--Having made a schooner it will not be
difficult to make a cutter from the appended diagrams with a few
particulars regarding the measurements.

[Illustration]

The cutter has but one mast reaching about fifteen inches above the
deck. This is surmounted by a seven-inch top-mast, so that the
complete height above the deck is twenty-two inches. Here are the other
measurements.

Bowsprit, 9 inches from the stem of the vessel to the end.

Main gaff, 9 inches long.

Main boom, 15 inches.

[Illustration: A CUTTER.]

  A Bobstay.
  B Bowsprit.
  C Forestay.
  D Foresail.
  E Jib.
  F Topmost Stay.
  G Mast.
  H Topmast.
  I Mainsail.
  J Main Boom.
  K Main Gaff.
  L Gaff Topsail.
  M Peak Haulyards.
  N Throat Haulyards.
  O Main Sheet.
  P Rudder.
  Q Lead Ballast.
  R Jib Sheets.
  S The Cap.
  T Cross Trees.

$A Sleigh that can be Steered.$--With the sketches we shall give, a boy
unaided, or with a little assistance from a carpenter, will be able
to make a sleigh that he can steer. Take a piece of board 9-1/2 feet
long, six inches wide and 7/8 of an inch thick. Ash is excellent. Avoid
large knots. Let Fig. 1 represent the face of the board. From B measure
three inches to C. Connect A C. From A measure two feet, four times.
These measurements will give you D E F G. From C repeat this process
and you will have H I J and K. Saw from A to C; from D to H; from E to
I; F to J, and from G to K. You will have now four pieces of wood like
the piece in Fig. 2 and some wood to spare for a purpose that will be
explained soon. With regard to your four pieces of wood which are to
serve for runners remember that two will be right-hand runners and two
left-hand runners, because the treatment of each kind varies a little.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

With regard to Fig. 2 draw the curved line A E. No rule can be given
for this except that B E represents eight inches. Cut the curve from A
to E, round off the angle C D B a little, and you will have a runner
from which the three remaining runners may be made. This runner however
is not yet finished. From C in Fig. 2 measure 2-1/2 inches to F, then
another 2-1/2 inches to G. Make F H one inch deep and G I. Then connect
H I. Measure 8 inches from G to J and then mark off J K L M making
it like H G F I. Now direct your attention to the upper edge of the
runner represented in Fig. 3. Two points will have been fixed already.
M J, G F. To find the remaining points N O, P Q draw the lines M N; J
O; G P and F Q making the angles N M J; O J M; P G F and Q F G the same
as the angle B D C in Fig. 2. Now saw and chisel out carefully N O M
J L K and P Q G F I H making what joiners call mortices. In repeating
this process upon the other runners remember to have the narrower end
of these dovetails inside the sledge. The arrangement will be as in
Fig. 4.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.]

The next thing is to connect your four runners with cross bars (Fig. 5)
which are each fourteen inches long, two and a half inches broad, and
one inch thick. Of these cross bars there are four. The distance from A
to B and from C to D is one inch in each case. These ends are shaped to
form what joiners call dovetails, and they should fit exactly into the
mortices upon the upper edges of the runners. The black dots represent
screws. One of the cross bars does not appear in Fig. 13. The runners
should be shod with iron by the blacksmith.

He will need eleven-and-a-half feet of half round 5/8 inch rolled iron,
divided into four, a piece for each runner. Each piece will be 34
inches long pierced for screws as in Fig. 6. A and B are an inch from
centre to centre. C is eight inches from the end, D another ten inches;
E a further ten inches. F G are like A and B.

Take now a piece of board one foot wide, fifteen inches long and one
inch thick (Fig. 7). Find the centre by connecting B and C and A and D
by straight lines. The place where they cross, E, will be the centre.
This board should be placed lengthways upon the cross bars of the front
portion of your sleigh and should be fixed very securely in position
with long screws. It should be at A in the completed sleigh, Fig. 13.
Now for the long board upon which you sit, the board that connects the
two pairs of runners, the board marked B in the completed sleigh, Fig.
13. Its width is sixteen inches, its length 7-1/2 feet, its thickness
1-1/2 inches. It is known as the reach board and should be of seasoned
pine. This board is represented in Fig. 8. Fix your compass at A and
describe a semi-circle, and then at B. A and B are each seven inches
from the end of the board and seven inches from the sides. By the aid
of these lines you will be able to give your board rounded ends as in
Fig. 9.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.]

[Illustration: FIG. 7.]

[Illustration: FIG. 9.]

[Illustration: FIG. 10.]

Having decided which end of this board you will have forward measure
underneath 8 inches from the front extremity and at that point draw
the line A B (Fig. 10). Now take the piece of wood you spared from
your runners and saw it lengthwise into two equal parts. Make each
part precisely as long as your reach board is wide. Screw one at C D
in Fig. 10 so that its outer edge is close to the line A B. The screws
go through the reach board into the cross piece. In the centre of the
cross piece bore a hole with a half inch bit right through cross piece
and reach board, this is for the bolt. Now take that other piece of
runner wood and fix hinges upon it as shown in Fig. 11. The hinges
should be 4×4 hinges, and should move round to their full extent each
way. Leaving the reach board for a few minutes we go to the pair of
runners that will be at the back of the sleigh. It will be seen that
we connected these with two cross pieces. It is upon the back cross
piece that we have to place our piece of wood that has the hinges upon
it. Lay it upon the cross piece and when the two are even all round
fasten the remaining flap of the hinges with screws upon this cross
piece of the runners. These two cross pieces of wood will be separated
only by the thickness of the hinges if the work has been deftly done.
Place the reach board so that the outer edge of the cross piece shall
come exactly to a line we may draw now upon the under-side of the reach
board five inches from its backward end as in Fig. 12.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.]

[Illustration: FIG. 11.]

[Illustration: FIG. 12.]

[Illustration: FIG. 13.]

Fasten there the reach board to the cross piece with screws. The front
pair of runners is fastened by passing a half inch bolt through the
half inch hole we bored in the reach board and in the top of the front
pair of runners. Here you will need a few washers and a nut. Each back
runner should be fastened to the reach board by a loose chain as shown
in the completed sleigh. Foot rests of bent iron or of wood are a great
advantage. Place these where you need them. The sleigh is steered by
means of two strong cords. Fig. 13 is merely general. Some of the
details do not appear there.

[Illustration: Fig. 1., Fig. 2., Fig. 3., Fig. 5., Fig. 6., Fig. 4.]

$Baby's Sleigh.$--In Fig. 1 we have the sleigh as it looks when it is
finished. To upholster it would add to our difficulties, so we will
depend upon an abundance of cushions for baby's comfort. In Fig 2 we
have a piece of strong board A B C D 3/8 of an inch thick, two feet
long and one foot wide. From C to E is three inches, from C to G seven
inches and from D to F three inches. The curve from A to G must be
drawn according to the taste of the young joiner. When this side has
been cut out it is easy to make the other from it.

Now for the backboard. In Fig. 3 A B C D we have a piece of wood
fifteen inches square. The inside lines at the bottom are one and
a half inches from D and C. E and F are three inches from A and B.
Put your compasses at I for a centre and draw the curve E F. If your
compasses are not large enough a piece of pencil tied to a string will
serve. The front board may be made like the lower half of the back
board. Nail or screw the parts together and put on a bottom that fits.
Inside, the seat rests on two strips, one screwed upon each side. These
strips are of wood three eighths of an inch thick, an inch wide and
eight inches long. The seat may be about a foot wide. The runners come
next. In Fig. 4 A B C D, we have a board three quarters of an inch
thick, three feet long and seven inches wide. The distance from D to E
is eight inches. From A measure eight inches along the upper edge to
G, then two inches to H and from H draw the line H F. Draw the curve A
H. F should be three inches from the line B C. From F draw a straight
line to C. Cut out the runner and use it as a pattern for the making
of another. To connect the two runners use a couple of cross bars of
hard wood each an inch and a half wide, one inch thick and a foot long.
Cut the ends as shown in Fig. 5, the cuts being three quarters of an
inch deep. Carpenters call an arrangement of this kind a tenon. The
front cross bar will connect the two runners fifteen inches from the
front and the back cross bar will be fifteen inches further back than
that. The method of fixing them is shown in Fig. 6. The cuts A and
B--mortices, joiners call them--are half an inch deep. Having placed
the tenons in the mortices fasten them there with screws. Now get a
board ten inches wide, half an inch thick and two feet long and screw
this to the bars. If you want the runners shod with iron the blacksmith
will do this for you. Place now the car in position upon the runners,
and bore two quarter-inch holes in the centre of the bottom, one under
the seat and the other in front. Make two corresponding holes in the
board of the sleigh and so with two bolts and nuts secure the car to
the runners.

[Illustration: HAMMOCK FROM A BARREL.]

$A Hammock from a Barrel.$--Look round for a clean barrel. Perhaps
an apple barrel will be as easy to find as any. Strip off the hoops
and draw all the nails. Measure three inches from the top, and three
inches from the bottom of the barrel, and draw thence a line round the
top and a line round the bottom of the barrel, keeping it three inches
from top or bottom all the way round. Upon these lines, and upon each
stave, bore two holes with a brace and bit. Place the holes so that
they are about the same distance from each other and from the edges of
the staves. If some of the staves are wider than others, each will need
slightly different treatment. A stout rope should be threaded through
these holes in the manner shown in the diagram. About twenty feet of
rope will be sufficient. An inch or thereabouts should be left between
each stave. Cushions add to the comfort of this simple hammock.

[Illustration: HAMMOCK FROM A BARREL.]

[Illustration: ÆOLIAN HARP.]

$An Æolian Harp.$--Make a shallow box of thin dry pine. The top piece
should be free from knots and three-sixteenths of an inch thick. This
is the sounding board. The sides and bottom of the box may be of wood
one quarter of an inch in thickness. The harp should be two inches
shorter than the width of the window in which you are going to place
it. The width of the box itself may be ten inches, its depth two and a
half inches. The ends should be of hard wood, for they have to bear the
strain of the strings. In one end put studs or rings or eyes to which
are fastened the wires or catgut strings. At the other end should be
a corresponding row of violin pegs if you use catgut, or iron piano
pins if you use wire. If you do use wire it should be of steel. In
the diagram you will see the two bridges of hard wood glued diagonally
across each end for the strings to rest upon. If steel wire is employed
a piece of wire should run along the top of each bridge to prevent the
other wires from cutting into the wood. Four holes, each an inch in
diameter, in the sounding board improves the harp. The tuning may be
harmonics, thirds, fifths, and octaves. Raise the sash of the window,
and place the harp so that the wind blows across the strings.




CHAPTER XXII

SCIENCE FOR THE PLAY-HOUR


$A Home-Made Electrical Machine.$--To make a really first-class machine
of the modern type would require a good deal of mechanical skill, even
supposing my readers to be the happy possessors of the necessary tools
and materials; but the older type of machine--though of course not so
powerful--will probably do quite well enough for most of their purposes.

I will, therefore, describe one of the simplest forms of these
machines, such as any one, with a little care and patience, can make
for himself.

The first thing to do is to get a general idea of what you are going to
construct, which may be had from the illustration, and from the actual
machines you may sometimes see in a shop window or in a scientific
collection, like the Science Departments of the South Kensington
Museum. It is the making of the cylinder machine we are going to
work out, and, therefore, to begin with, the glass cylinder must be
procured. This can be had from a dealer in chemical apparatus and costs
only a few pence for the smaller size--about 3 inches by 6 inches. At
the same time purchase a round glass rod, 3/8 inch diameter by 5 inches
long; a sheet or two of tinfoil, and sixpennyworth of amalgam. From
a carpenter or timber-merchant you will require a base-board for the
machine, say 13 inches by 8 inches, by 1 inch thick, and of heavy wood;
also two uprights, which are to stand on the base-board to support the
cylinder. These may be 6 inches tall, by 2 inches by 3/4 inch.

Having now the principal parts of the frame, the work of fitting
together can be begun by making a circular hole (centre about
1-1/4 inches from the end) in one wooden upright, to take easily
one of the projecting glass pieces, or pivots, at the ends of the
cylinder--probably 3/4 inch diameter will do. This hole may be
made with a brace and suitable bit, or failing that, with a round
chisel--taking care not to split the wood. In one end of the other
upright cut a slot of same width as the hole, the bottoms of both being
on the same level. Then rest the two glass pivots in the hole and slot,
holding the uprights vertically on the base-board, when the cylinder
should be quite horizontal. If it is not so, deepen the slot, or
shorten either upright, as required. Drill a hole through the two sides
of the slot at the top, and insert a round nail to keep the pivot from
having too much play.

It will next be necessary to secure these supports to the board, which
may be done by driving stout screws from below, together with the aid
of some strong glue. If you have the skill it will be better to sink
the supports 1/2 inch into the surface.

The position should be such, that the cylinder is not quite over the
middle of the board. (See illustrations.) Next remove the cylinder by
a little side working, and screw a piece of wood, 1-1/2 inches by 1/4
inch by about 7 inches, to the supports and base. This is to act as a
brace to the supports, and also for holding tightening screws for the
rubber.

We now come to the preparation of the rubber, which is an important
detail. Get a wooden block 1-1/4 inches by 1/2 inch and 1 inch shorter
than the cylinder. Smoothe off all the corners, and glue on one long
edge, a piece of thin leather (chamois will do); fold over the flat
side, and then glue it again at the other long edge; double it back
_loosely_, and glue again in original place. This should make a sort of
bag on one side of the block, which should now be stuffed with _dry_
wool or hemp, and the two ends fastened down. A piece of black silk,
about 5 inches by 9 inches, must be attached to the bottom edge.

[Illustration: FRONT VIEW, SHOWING RUBBER SEEN THROUGH CYLINDER;
CONDUCTOR REMOVED. A A Supports; R Rubber; B Brace Board; C C Adjusting
Screws; F Rubber Stand.]

[Illustration: END VIEW. H Handle; D Conductor; E Glass Support.
RUBBER, SILK FLAP AND SUPPORT. A HOME-MADE ELECTRICAL MACHINE.]

Now place the cylinder on its bearings, and press the rubber against
the middle of one side, which will show what length to make the rubber
stand. The thickness may be 1/4 inch, and the breadth 2 inches; one end
being screwed to the rubber block at the back, and the other resting
on the base-board, but attached to the brace piece by two bolts with
adjustable nuts. These you can get at an ironmonger's--thumb nuts are
preferable, as they can be tightened up without pliers.

As this board will be on a slope, the cushion block must be bevelled
off with a chisel, so that it may rest "squarely" against the glass.
The adjusting screws will enable the pressure on the glass to be
regulated. Be careful to see that the silk flap (attached to the bottom
edge of the rubber) comes _between_ the leather and the cylinder, and
then folds over the cylinder to about the middle of the opposite side.

We next come to the "prime conductor," which is a piece of rounded
wood, 2 inches in diameter and 1 inch less than the length of the
cylinder. The end corners must be made round with a knife and
sandpaper, so the whole surface may be quite smooth. Then lay on
_evenly_ with paste, a sheet of tinfoil, notching it so that it may
fold nicely over the spherical ends, and take out any ridges by rubbing
with the knife handle.

An insulating support must be given to the conductor, as it is to
hold the accumulated electric energy, and for this the glass rod
above mentioned is required. Make a suitable hole in one side of the
conductor, and in it fix one end of the rod with cement. The other end
can be fixed to the base-board in the same way; or a separate stand
may be used; but before doing this, drive a horizontal row of strong
pins along a side of the conductor, at right angles with the rod. These
should be 1/4 inch apart, starting and finishing 1/4 inch from where
the surface becomes spherical at the two ends; the heads should be cut
off previously with pliers, and the external length, when driven into
the wood, should not exceed 1/2 inch. Now erect the conductor, and see
that the rod brings it level or thereabouts with the centre line of the
cylinder-side. The points should not quite touch the latter; and the
silk flap must not hang down far enough to come between.

There remains now but one piece of mechanism to construct--the
handle. This is apt to give trouble at first, but with care may be
successfully completed. A short piece of hard wood (say 2-1/2 inches
long), half of circular and half of square section, must be procured,
and the rounded half cemented into one of the glass pivots. This
must be done with good cement and both the glass and wood warmed,
and cleaned first of all. Be careful not to crack the glass by too
rapid heating. A thin layer of cement is best, while, of course, the
wooden rod ought to fit closely. The square end now projecting must
be provided with a handle, the making of which will serve to pass the
time during which the cement is drying. Cut a square hole to fit the
end in a piece of wood say 1/4 inch by 2-1/2 inches by 1 inch, which
is the handle shaft. Pass a bolt through the lower part and secure
the handle-bobbin itself by a nut. If nothing else can be got, a
cotton-reel makes a fair handle when the flanges are cut off. If the
nut works loose, pinch the threads at the end of the screw, or add a
"lock nut"--_i.e._ an extra nut. Dry the cylinder and put a wooden
stopper in the other glass pivot to keep out damp.

Take care to have the handle on the right-hand end of the machine when
the rubber is closest to you and the conductor opposite; notice also
that of the supports the _slotted_ one should now be on the _left_-hand
side.

All the woodwork, as well as the ends and pivots of the cylinder,
and the glass rod should be painted with shellac varnish, which may
generally be had ready mixed from paint merchants, or may be made
at home by dissolving shellac in methylated spirits. A stick of red
sealing-wax gives a more pleasing colour for the glass work if added to
the shellac solution.

All through the construction of the machine must be borne in mind the
fact that rough edges or points "attract" away the electricity, and,
therefore, all the edges and corners must be well rounded off and
smoothed with sandpaper, and everything must be kept clean and free
from dust.

When the shellac is dry, let all the parts, especially the rubber,
cylinder, and rod, have a good warming before the fire. Then fixing
the cylinder in its place, press the rubber firmly against it by means
of the adjusting screws. After turning for a few minutes, the handle
should become stiffer, and a small spark be obtained on touching the
conductor. If not, tighten up the screws a little more. It is also
advisable to lay a little amalgam with tallow on the rubber, _between_
the silk and the leather: a piece of tinfoil is also said to be of
advantage when amalgam is not handy. Sometimes, too, a wire connection
from the back of the cushion to a neighbouring gas or water pipe helps
the success of the machine, but if proper attention be paid to warming
and cleaning and the avoiding of edges and corners, success is almost
certain after a short time. A delicate test is to observe whether a
thread is attracted by the conductor, and if so, a spark may be soon
looked for.

An iron clamp or two will be found of great assistance for holding down
the base-board to the corner of a table.

$The Indestructible Candles.$--When a candle burns, the matter of
which the candle is composed, is not lost nor destroyed. It is simply
changing its form, and every part of it may be accounted for.

If we take a cold clean tumbler and hold it over the flame of the
candle (Fig. 1) we shall see that the inside becomes moist with water,
and on touching it our fingers are made wet. On the tumbler becoming
warm, this moisture disappears. If we could surround the tumbler
with an ice jacket, we should see the water from the flame of the
candle dripping down, and if this were caught in a vessel we could
obtain from an ordinary candle about a wine-glassful of water. We may
therefore produce water from a burning candle. The cause of the water
being formed is that there is in the fat of the candle, as one of its
constituents, hydrogen, and as the candle burns, this unites with the
oxygen of the air to form water. Wherever water is found it always
consists of hydrogen and oxygen in combination, and of nothing else.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.]

[Illustration: FIG. 7.]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.]

[Illustration: FIG. 8.]

$Presence of Hydrogen Proved.$--We may prove the presence of hydrogen
gas by bringing a lighted taper within two or three inches of the
wick of a candle just after it has been extinguished. On holding the
lighted taper in the stream of smoke coming from the wick, we shall see
a tiny flame run down the smoke and re-light the candle. The hydrogen
gas coming from the hot fat is being carried off in the smoke. It is
very inflammable, and the flame from the taper ignites it, and in turn
rekindles the candle. When the stream of smoke has ceased, it does
not matter how near we hold the taper to the wick without actually
touching, it will not be re-lighted. (See Fig. 2.)

$The Hydrogen Located.$--A still better way of showing the presence of
this gas is by bending a piece of glass tubing of small-bore, into the
shape shown in Fig. 4.

Glass tubing may be bent easily to any shape by holding it in the flame
of an ordinary gas burner. The tube becomes covered with soot, and this
prevents its getting hot too rapidly, and so enables the tube to bend
easily and evenly. The bending must never be forced, but very gently
done as the glass softens. (See Fig. 3.) A little practice will enable
any boy to make a first-rate bend.

On carefully observing the flame of the candle we shall see that it
really consists of three distinct parts. Round the wick it looks black,
this is really a hollow chamber filled with unconsumed hydrogen. Next
to this is a bright luminous cone, and outside of that is an almost
invisible covering of blue flame. In the black space gas is unconsumed,
in the luminous part the combustion is only partial, but outside of
all, where there is most oxygen, the combustion is complete, and the
flame can hardly be discovered. Now when the flame is quite steady the
tube must be gently inserted at an angle into the black cone; after a
few minutes, on applying a light at the end of the tube, although the
candle is still burning, we shall see that this free hydrogen will burn
there too with a small bluish flame.

$The Candle's Carbon.$--As the candle burns, another part of its
constituents is passing off into the air as soot or carbon, and this
can be shown by holding a sheet of white paper or cardboard in the top
of the flame, or better still, a cold saucer, on which there will be a
copious deposit of black soot. This is another proof that as a candle
burns it is not destroying matter, but only changing its form; from
the white fat of the candle, black sooty carbon is liberated by the
process of incomplete combustion that is going on. (See Fig. 5.)

$Carbonic Acid Gas.$--When substances containing carbon are burnt, one
of the products is an invisible gas, commonly called carbonic acid
gas. After an explosion in a mine, all the workings are filled with
a deadly gas, which often kills more men than the explosion. This is
called choke damp, and is the same as carbonic acid gas. Whenever a
fire burns--gas, lamp, coal fire, or candle, this gas is one of the
products. Let us fasten a piece of wire round our candle, and, after
lighting it, lower it down into a glass bottle with a wide mouth.
At first the candle burns dimly, and then, when a current of air is
established, brightens. Now cover the mouth of the jar with a piece of
card or the hand, and we shall see that the candle again burns dimly
and quickly goes out. The jar now contains a considerable quantity of
this carbonic acid gas. We may prove its presence by pouring into the
jar a little clear lime-water and shaking it up. The carbonic acid gas
will turn the lime-water milky. (See Fig. 6.)

Lime-water can be purchased at any chemist's very cheaply, or it can
be made by pouring water on a piece of quicklime, well shaking it, and
then allowing it to settle. The clear lime-water may then be poured
off. The lime may be used again and again until it is all dissolved.

$Our Use of Oxygen.$--We are breathing out carbonic acid gas; and
on breathing through a piece of glass tubing into some of the clear
lime-water we shall see that it will be turned milky in just the same
way as when the candle burned. We are using up oxygen to support
life, the candle uses up oxygen to support life, and in both cases
the product is carbonic acid gas, as we have proved by means of the
lime-water test. (See Fig. 7.)

$Convincing Proof.$--All that we have done up to the present supports
our statement that the matter of the candle is not destroyed. In fact
we have accounted for all its parts excepting that of a little mineral
ash which will be left after the candle has burned away. We may,
however, show in a very convincing way that our contention is true. An
ordinary gas chimney is obtained, and at about three inches from one
end a piece of wire gauze is placed, and the open end filled up with
quicklime, at the lower end a cork is fixed upon which a short piece
of candle is placed. There must also be a hole in the cork for the
admission of air; when all is ready, carefully counterpoise the scales.
Then remove the cork and light the candle and quickly replace. After
burning a short time it will be found that the chimney glass bears
down the beam because of increased weight. The products of the burning
candle have united with the oxygen of the air, and these products,
consisting chiefly of carbonic acid gas and water, have been caught by
the quicklime. Because of the added oxygen they are heavier than the
original candle. (See Fig. 8.)

$Capillary Attraction.$--There is still one interesting thing to
illustrate about the burning candle, and that is the way in which
the particles of fat ascend the wick to reach the flame. This is
accomplished by what is known as capillary attraction. A very good
illustration of this is afforded by a piece of salt standing upon a
plate, on which is poured some salt water coloured blue with indigo or
ink. The liquid will rise up the pillar of salt, and eventually reach
the top. It rises by the force of capillary attraction. Let the pillar
of salt represent the wick of the candle, and the coloured water, the
fat, and the illustration is complete.

$Analysis of Candle Flame.$--Our candle can still give us some useful
and suggestive illustrations of flame and combustion. We have seen that
unconsumed gaseous vapours can be obtained from the flame by means
of a bent glass tube. In the candle flame (Fig. 9) we see that this
is because of the way the flame is built. The part marked _o_ is the
gaseous chamber, _i_ is the luminous part, and _e_ is where combustion
is complete. On taking a sheet of clean white paper and pressing it
down on the candle flame for a moment or two we shall get the fact of
this hollow chamber demonstrated by the smoke ring upon the paper,
which will appear thus--

The paper is left clean at the hollow chamber, but marked with smoke at
the luminous part of the flame. (See Fig. 10.)

[Illustration: FIG. 9.]

[Illustration: FIG. 10.]

[Illustration: FIG. 11.]

[Illustration: FIG. 14.]

[Illustration: FIG. 13.]

[Illustration: FIG. 12.]

Now we must find the differences between the non-luminous outer
flame and the luminous inner flame. To do this thoroughly we must
have a Bunsen burner to afford the best illustration. This is not an
expensive item. A cheap and simple form of it can be obtained for 1s.
3d. To understand the nature of the flame we must first understand the
principles of the Bunsen. It is a burner in which a mixture of air and
gas is consumed. A is a brass tube, mounted on a solid foot K, with a
small tube C to admit the gas. There are two holes at the bottom of the
brass tube to admit air in the direction of the arrows, and a movable
brass collar fits over these holes, so that the air can be admitted or
excluded at will. On igniting the gas, with the holes of the Bunsen
open, we shall see that it burns with a non-luminous but exceedingly
hot flame. On closing the holes we shall notice that the flame becomes
luminous, much more languid, and does not give off nearly so much heat.
(See Fig. 11.)

We must ask ourselves the question, What is the cause of this
difference? The answer is a simple but very instructive one. Coal-gas,
like the fat of the candle, contains carbon, and in the luminous flame,
owing to the limited supply of oxygen, these particles of carbon are
made white hot, and so emit light, but are not entirely consumed till
they reach the outer edge of the flame, where combustion is more
complete, owing to the contact of the flame with the air, and even then
many of them escape; and so where gas is burnt the ceilings after a
time become blackened.

In the non-luminous flame, owing to the air being admitted and mixed
with the gas, the increased supply of oxygen renders combustion more
complete, greatly increases the heat of the flame, but renders it
incapable of giving light. Now, the reasons for the differences of the
two flames are made clear.

A very clever modification of this principle has been utilised in what
is known as the Argand burner, in which the gas and air are not mixed
as in a Bunsen, but the burner is made circular, and the air is made to
pass up the centre of the flame, so that it gets its supply of oxygen,
burns steadily, and presents a very large surface of luminous flame.
(See Fig. 12.)

$A Pretty Experiment.$--Let us now go back to our candle flame. We
see that it gives light, emits smoke, and does not yield a very
large amount of heat. We have learnt that it gives light because the
particles of carbon are heated to a white heat, but not entirely
consumed. These particles in the flame are held very closely together,
and so present a continuous surface. If we could get inside the flame
and scatter them we should have a pretty shower of glowing sparks.

We can illustrate this by the following experiment. Take as much
gunpowder as will rest on a sixpence, and a like quantity of iron
filings, mix them together on a small tin dish. (See Fig. 13.)

This must be done carefully and without friction. Then ignite with a
taper. The gunpowder burns, makes the particles of iron red hot, and
scatters them in a beautiful shower of glowing sparks. This is a fair
representation of pulling a candle flame to pieces, the only difference
is that the glowing particles are of iron instead of carbon.

$Artificial Lightning.$--This may be further illustrated by putting
a flame together. We may accomplish this by passing any very fine
particles of carbonaceous matter through a non-luminous flame, and we
shall see that whilst these particles pass through the flame it will
give light owing to their presence.

We require a little lycopodium, a piece of glass tubing one foot long,
and about a quarter-inch bore, and the non-luminous flame of the Bunsen
burner or a spirit lamp. Insert into one end of the tube a little of
the lycopodium powder, and then, pea-shooter fashion, apply the mouth
to the other end of the tube, and blow the contents into the flame.
There will be a great flash of light whilst these infinitely small
particles are passing through the flame, thus establishing the fact
that luminosity is due to the presence of unconsumed solid matter in
the flame. This experiment is sometimes called "making artificial
lightning," and in a dark room it is very effective. (See Fig. 14.)

$Flames that Laugh.$--What makes the candle flame burn steadily is the
next problem before us, and we shall see that it is very simple and at
the same time most philosophical. It tells us the reason why candles
are made round, and not square. The section of a candle being circular,
with the wick in the centre, it can, as it burns, get its supply
of oxygen from all directions at an equal distance; thus it burns
regularly and steadily. If the candle were square, the four corners
being at a greater distance from the wick than the sides, we should
have four columns of fat standing up at the corners, and as the air
rushed in to feed the flame it would come into contact with these, and
so the current would be broken and the flame would become unsteady. We
can show this by placing some cotton wool on tin dishes, and saturating
it with methylated spirits and igniting it. This will give us what are
known as laughing flames, because they burn so unsteadily. The air
rushing in to feed the flame comes into contact with the wool, which
impedes it, and so the flame has a dancing or laughing appearance. This
experiment may be made very pretty by rendering the flames coloured.
To do this add to the cotton wool, before pouring on the methylated
spirit, chloride of copper; this will give a green flame; to another,
chloride of strontium; this will colour the flame red; to another,
common salt; this will give a yellow coloration. All these should be
shown in a dark room.

$The Importance of Oxygen.$--By previous experiment we have seen that
oxygen is necessary to a flame, and our ingenious readers may now make
a piece of apparatus to prove this. (See Fig. 15.) It consists of two
pieces of glass tube standing upright near the two ends of a board, in
which there is a covered channel communicating with the two. A small
candle is lighted and placed in one of the tubes. The air heated by the
flame rises in the tube and causes a corresponding descent of cold air
down the other tube. This gives us a good illustration of ventilation
produced by artificial heat. So great is the down draught, that if we
hold a lighted taper over the mouth of the cold tube the smoke and the
flame will be carried down, with the result that the candle is soon
extinguished. The reason for this is that the smoke and burnt air
from the taper contain insufficient oxygen to feed the candle flame,
and it dies. To make this apparatus, obtain a piece of deal board
about ten inches long and four inches wide, cut along the middle a
groove about three quarters of an inch deep, and about the same width,
leaving about half an inch at each end uncut. Cover this groove with
a tightly-fitting slip. Over the two ends of the groove are fastened
two small blocks of cork pierced with apertures, into which fit the
vertical glass tubes; these should be about ten inches high and about
three-quarters of an inch bore. Fig. 16, which is a section of one end
of the apparatus, shows how a small candle like those used on Christmas
trees is held erect by a wooden socket at the end of the groove so as
not to impede the current of fresh air.

$Rates of Combustion.$--We must remember that all things do not burn
at the same rate. Iron rust is a product of very slow combustion. In
using up food to maintain the heat of the body, combustion goes on more
quickly than in rusting iron, the candle burns more quickly still, gas
still faster, the Bunsen burner faster still. We may get an idea of
the different rates of combustion by the two following experiments. On
a tin dish place half a thimbleful of gunpowder and lay on it a tiny
piece of gun-cotton. Ignite the gun-cotton; it burns so fast that it
has no time to set fire to the gunpowder, which may now be ignited in
its turn by the taper. Another example is the laying of two long trains
of gunpowder, one fine grain and the other coarse. It will be found
that the two flames travel at very different rates along the same path.

$The Egg and Bottle Trick.$--An ordinary water-bottle, a hard-boiled
egg, divested of its shell, and a piece of thin paper are all that is
requisite. How can we make this egg get inside the bottle? Light the
paper, quickly thrust it into the bottle, and immediately place the egg
over the mouth of the bottle, gently pressing it closely down to the
glass. The burning paper consumes some of the air, a partial vacuum is
formed, and air pressure will force the egg into the bottle with a loud
detonation. (See Fig. 17.)

$Making Water Boil by Means of Coldness.$--Heat some water to boiling
in a glass flask over a spirit lamp. After the water has boiled for a
minute or two, quickly insert a well-fitting cork, and remove the flask
from the flame. Wrap a duster or towel round the neck of the flask,
and, holding it over a basin (in case of breakage), pour gently a
stream of cold water on to the flask. The steam inside is condensed, a
partial vacuum is formed, and as long as any heat remains in the water,
it will boil, whilst the stream of cold water is continued on the
outside. When ebullition no longer occurs, it will be found that the
cork is held in so tightly by air pressure that it is very difficult to
draw it. (See Fig. 18.)

$Fire Designs.$--This is very simple, amusing, and effective. Make a
saturated solution of nitrate of potash (common nitre or saltpetre), by
dissolving the substance in warm water, until no more will dissolve;
then draw with a smooth stick of wood any design or wording on sheets
of white tissue paper, let it thoroughly dry, and the drawing will
become invisible. By means of a spark from a smouldering match ignite
the potassium nitrate at any part of the drawing, first laying the
paper on a plate or tray in a darkened room. The fire will smoulder
along the line of the invisible drawing until the design is complete.
(See Fig. 19.)

$The Magic Wine Glass.$--The holding of a wine-glass to a substance
mouth upwards without its falling off, may be accomplished thus. Obtain
a wine-glass with a very even edge (this may be done by grinding on a
flat stone), a square of blotting-paper, and a piece of glass. About
half fill the glass with water, place upon its rim the blotting paper,
and then the piece of glass. Whilst pressing them closely down invert
the glass. The blotting-paper absorbs some of the water, a partial
vacuum is formed, and on holding the sheet of glass, the wine-glass
will remain suspended, being held on by atmospheric pressure. (See Fig.
20.)

[Illustration: FIG. 15.]

[Illustration: FIG. 17.]

[Illustration: FIG. 16.]

[Illustration: FIG. 18.]

[Illustration: FIG. 19.]

[Illustration: FIG. 20.]

$The Floating Needle.$--The idea of making a needle float upon water
at first sight seems an impossibility but it can be done, and that
with comparative ease. Take a fine needle, and rub the fingers over
it gently to grease it. Now lay it very carefully on a piece of thin
tissue paper on the surface of the water, as shown. Presently the paper
will sink, and leave the needle floating on the water. The thin coating
of grease serves to protect the needle from actual contact with the
water, and thus enables it to float. (See Fig. 21.)

$A Glass of Water Turned Upside Down.$--A tumbler is filled with water,
a piece of paper laid on, and the surface and the tumbler deftly
inverted, the atmospheric pressure being unable to enter the glass,
the water is kept in, so long as the paper holds. The effect of the
experiment is very greatly increased, if, instead of using paper, a
piece of thin mica, cut to the size of the glass, is used. The audience
cannot then discover what prevents the water from running out. Any
gasfitter will supply a piece of mica.

$The Inexhaustible Bottle.$--This wonderful bottle, from which five
separate liquids can be poured, owes its marvellous qualities to the
application of the simple law of atmospheric pressure. It is made of
tin, and encloses five internal cylinders, each of which has a tube
from the upper end running into the neck of the bottle, and another
tube from the lower end opening into the side. The cylinders are filled
with different liquids--water, milk, tea, coffee, lemonade. Whilst the
fingers are kept over the holes the bottle may be inverted, and nothing
will run out. On opening the holes one by one the liquid may be poured
out, according to the wishes of the audience, and greatly to their
astonishment. (See Fig. 22.)

$The Magic Writing.$--Fill a deep tumbler with water, and add a few
crystals of iodide of potassium and a few drops of sulphuric acid. The
liquid will remain perfectly clear like water. On some strips of white
cardboard write various names with starch paste; when dry these will
be invisible. On dipping the cardboard into the liquid the name will
appear in blue writing, owing to the formation of starch iodide, which
is blue. By previously preparing the names of those present at the
experiment, by a little manipulation you can, to the astonishment of
the audience, produce any name called for.

[Illustration: FIG. 21.]

[Illustration: FIG. 22.]

[Illustration: FIG. 25.]

[Illustration: FIG. 23.]

[Illustration: FIG. 24.]

$Producing Smoke at Will.$--Two glass cylinders are the best for this,
but ordinary tumblers will do. With a separate feather make the inside
of each tumbler quite wet, one with hydrochloric acid, and the other
with liquid ammonia. Both glasses appear to be quite empty, and nothing
occurs. But on bringing the mouths of the two vessels together, a thick
white smoke is at once developed. The hydrochloric acid gas and the
ammonia gas unite chemically, and form the solid white powder known as
sal-ammoniac. (See Fig. 23.)

$A Novel Fountain.$--This is a pretty experiment, and owes its action
to the fact that ammonia gas is very soluble in water. In a basin place
some water. Fit up a flask with a small-bore glass tube, about eighteen
inches long, as shown. The end entering the flask should be drawn
out so that there is only a small opening. In the flask place about
a teaspoonful of liquid ammonia, and heat it over a spirit lamp. As
soon as the liquid boils a large amount of ammonia gas is disengaged,
and fills the flask and the tube. Now close the tube by means of the
finger, and invert the flask over the basin of water. When the end of
the tube is under the water remove your finger, and then, as the water
dissolves the gas, it will rise in the tube, and will presently play
into the flask like a fountain until the flask is full. (See Fig. 24.)

$To Boil Water in a Paper Bag.$--"Here is a sheet of note-paper; can
you boil me a little water in it?" This would appear to be a thorough
puzzler, yet it is exceedingly easy to do. Fold a piece of paper so
that it will hold water, now suspend it above the flame of a lamp. The
water will so readily take up all the heat that there is none left with
which to burn the paper, and presently it will bubble and give off
steam. (See Fig. 25.)

$Illuminated Water.$--Wet a lump of loaf sugar with phosphorized ether,
and throw it into a basin of water in a dark room. The surface of
the water will become luminous. Blow on the water, and you will have
phosphorescent waves, and the air, too, will be illuminated. In winter
the water should be warmed a little. If the phosphorized ether be
applied to the hand or to other warm bodies these will become luminous.
The ether will not injure the hand.

$Brilliant Crystals.$--Spread upon a plate of glass or upon a smooth
slate, a few drops of nitrate of silver, previously diluted with double
its quantity of soft water. Place at the bottom of it, flat upon the
glass, and in contact with the fluid, a copper or zinc wire, bent
to any figure, and let the whole remain undisturbed in a horizontal
position. In a few hours a brilliant crystallization of metallic silver
will make its appearance around the wire upon the glass, and this
arrangement of crystals will extend gradually till the whole quantity
of fluid has been acted on by the wire.

$A Well of Fire.$--Add gradually one ounce, by measure, of sulphuric
acid, to five or six ounces of water in an earthenware basin; and add
to it also, gradually, about three quarters of an ounce of granulated
zinc. A rapid production of hydrogen gas will instantly take place.
Then add, from time to time, a few pieces of phosphorus of the size of
a pea. A multitude of gas bubbles will be produced, which will fire on
the surface of the effervescing liquid; the whole surface of the liquid
will become luminous, and fire balls, with jets of fire, will dart from
the bottom through the fluid with great rapidity and a hissing noise.

$The Writing on the Wall.$--Take a piece of phosphorus from the bottle
in which it is kept, and, while the room is lighted write upon a
whitewashed wall any word or sentence, or draw any object. Now put out
the light, and the writing will appear in illuminated letters. Care
must be taken to dip the pencil of phosphorus in cold water frequently
while you are using it. Otherwise it will burn.

$To Make a Ghost.$--Put one part of phosphorus into six of olive oil,
and let it dissolve in a slightly warm place. Shut your eyes tightly
and rub the mixture upon your face. In the dark your face will be
luminous, your eyes and mouth like dark spots. Altogether you will have
a very ghastly appearance. There is no danger in the experiment, and
the effect might be useful in charades or home theatricals.

$A Seeming Conflagration.$--Take half an ounce of sal-ammoniac, one
ounce of camphor, and two ounces of aqua vitae. Put them into an
earthen vessel that is small at the top. Set fire to the contents, and
the room will seem to be on fire.

$Three Haloes.$--One of the pleasing experiments of Dr. Brewster was to
take a saturated solution of alum, and having spread a few drops of it
over a plate of glass, it will crystallize rapidly though the crystals
are so small you may scarcely see them. When this plate of glass
is held between you and the sun or artificial light, with the eyes
very near to the smooth side of the glass, there will be seen three
beautiful haloes of light.

$Beautiful Crystals.$--Pour three ounces of diluted nitric acid into
a glass vessel, and add gradually to it two ounces of bismuth, broken
by a hammer into small pieces. The metal will be attacked with great
energy, and nitrate of bismuth will be formed. Crystallize the solution
by a gentle heat, and preserve the crystals, which possess great
beauty, under a glass.

$The Centre of Gravity.$--A shilling may be made to balance on the
point of a needle with very simple apparatus. Put a bottle on the
table with a cork in its neck; into the cork stick a middle-sized
needle in an upright position. In another cork cut a slit, and insert
the shilling, then into this cork stick a couple of forks, one on
each side, with the handles inclining outwards. Now poise the rim of
the shilling upon the point of the needle, and it will rotate without
falling. So long as the centre of gravity is kept within the points
of support of a body it cannot fall. The balancing shilling may be
transposed to the edge of a bottle, and it will still perform, even as
the bottle is being tilted.

$What a Vacuum Can Do.$--Take a new or nearly new penny and rub it
briskly upon your coat sleeve until it is warm. Then slide it up and
down upon a door panel, pressing it closely to the wood. Now hold it
in one place for a few seconds and you will find it will stick there,
because between the penny and the surface of the door there is a layer
of air which was slightly heated. As it became cool a partial vacuum
was formed, and the pressure of the outer air held the penny to the
door.

$An Experiment in Leverage.$--It would seem almost impossible that a
column of iron or a plank or a spar of any kind could be so placed
that one end of the spar needs support only, whilst the other end
would extend from, say the edge of a precipice, horizontally into
space; but that such can be done is very easily demonstrated, by very
simple materials almost always at hand. By adopting the principle we
may easily perform an interesting scientific parlour experiment, which
always causes difficulty to the non-studious section of humanity, until
the apparent mystery is explained.

In illustrating this experiment the prongs of two ordinary table forks
are fastened together, one over the other--net fashion--thus causing
the handles of the forks to form the termini of an angle of about 45
degrees. Now take an ordinary lucifer match and place one end between
the network of the prongs firmly. Then place the other end of the match
upon the edge of an elevation, such as a tumbler or cup, when the
match, acting as a lever, with the forks giving a hundred or a thousand
times additional weight to the lever, will rest (or apparently float in
the air) without further support.

Ask your friends to try the experiment, after placing the materials
before them, and find how many can perform it without guidance.

$Coloured Fires.$--It is perilous to make some coloured fires,
especially those in which there is sulphur, and even if they do not
explode their fumes are harmful, so that their use in the house
for charades or other home purposes is objectionable and at times
positively dangerous. We give, however, a number of coloured fires
that are free from these drawbacks, though all the same it is wiser
to reduce the ingredients to powder quite separately before they are
mixed, and if a pestle and mortar are used all traces of one powder
should be removed before another is introduced. Each ingredient should
be reduced to a fine powder.

              RED FIRE.
                                Parts.
  Strontia                        18
  Shellac                          4
  Chlorate of Potash               5
  Charcoal                         4

              GREEN FIRE.

  Nitrate of Barytes              18
  Shellac                          4
  Calomel (Chloride of Mercury)    4
  Chlorate of Potash               2

              GREEN FIRE.

  Nitrate of Barytes               9
  Shellac                          3
  Chlorate of Potash              12
  Charcoal                         4

              BLUE FIRE.
                               Parts.
  Chlorate of Potash             14
  Salpetre                        6
  Ammonia Sulphate of Copper      6
  Arsenite of Copper              6
  Shellac                         2

              BLUE FIRE.

  Ammonia Sulphate of Copper      8
  Chlorate of Potash              6
  Shellac                         1
  Charcoal                        2

              RED FIRE.

  Nitrate of Strontia             9
  Shellac                         3
  Chlorate of Potash              1-1/2
  Charcoal                        4




CHAPTER XXIII

HOME-MADE TOYS


It may be that some of these toys would amuse only little boys, but we
have included them because our directions will enable older boys to
entertain their little sisters and brothers.

$How to Make Fire Balloons.$--You will require for materials, tissue
paper, which may be all white, or varied in colour. A balloon of white
and red gores alternately is perhaps the best, as it may be used day or
night; and as the balloon is constantly turning when it is in the air,
the stripes add to the effect. Then again there are conditions of the
clouds and atmosphere when a white balloon ascending by daylight would
be scarcely visible, and for parachute purposes a daylight ascent is
desirable. Tissue paper, then, paste, bonnet wire or cane, finer wire;
some tow, cotton wool, or common sponge, or better than all, some round
lamp-cotton, and methylated spirit or tallow, as fuel for your furnace.

The shaping of the gores which are to form your balloon must be your
first consideration. You will find it advisable not to go in for
overgrown balloons. They are far more troublesome to build, and to
manage when they are built, and are little if any more effective than
those of moderate dimensions. About four feet in height is the size
which produces the best results, and in making it one is neither
cramped for room, nor are the gores of unmanageable proportions.

Twelve or fourteen gores, if you use two colours, or thirteen if you
confine yourself to one, will be needed; and it will be wise not to
attempt to emulate the graceful pear-shape of the ordinary passenger
_gas_ balloon, but to aim at something approaching much nearer to a
ball in form. The pear-shaped balloon would take fire to a certainty.
Fig. 1 is an example of the unsafe form which is to be avoided; Fig. 2
is a perfectly safe model.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.]

[Illustration: Fig. 2.]

[Illustration: FIRE BALLOONS.]

A piece of common cardboard or stout brown paper, six feet in length
and a foot in width, will serve for a pattern gore. Fold it exactly in
half lengthwise, and then mark off each foot, beginning at the bottom
(Fig. 3). At _a_ measure off horizontally 2 inches; at _b_, which is
the first foot, 3-1/2 inches; at _c_, 5 inches; at a point 4 inches
above _d_, the third foot, measure off 6 inches; at _e_ 5-1/2 inches,
marking each point. Then connect the points by as graceful a curve as
may be, and cut through the line thus obtained, unfold the pattern, and
you have your standard gore.

Sufficient tissue paper should have been pasted together by the narrow
edges from which to cut the 12, 13, or 14 lengths of 6 feet each. The
sheets should now be placed one upon the other, and the pattern being
opened out and laid upon the top, the whole of the gores may be cut at
one operation.

Fold a gore in half lengthwise and lay it upon your table or the floor,
and upon this place a second about half an inch within the margin of
the first (Fig. 4). With a stiff brush--sable is the best--paste the
protruding edge of the lower gore, turn it over the edge of the upper
and smooth it down with a duster. If you have a warm flat-iron by
your side, and laying a piece of flannel or cloth over the join, you
run the iron carefully along, the paste will dry at once and all fear
of puckering or displacement will be obviated. Fold the upper gore
lengthwise as you did the lower, and proceed in the same way with the
remainder of the gores until the whole have been pasted (Fig. 5). If
your balloon is a very big one it will be advisable to lay a string
inside each seam as you paste it, leaving the ends long enough to tie
round the hoop which is to go at the bottom or neck of your balloon.

A piece of bonnet wire or split cane 5 feet long, bent to a circle,
will form this hoop, and this must now be pasted at the bottom, and the
neck _may_ be strengthened by pasting inside a strip of stouter paper,
such as foolscap or cartridge, snicked with the scissors so that it may
take the right shape readily.

Now a circular piece of stronger paper, "curl" paper for instance,
about 9 inches or a foot across, should be pasted over the top to
cover the hole where the points of the gores approach each other, and
to this should be pasted a piece of yet stronger paper, writing paper
for instance, to form the loop by which the balloon is to be supported
during the process of inflation. The handle of a saucepan-lid should be
the model to be followed.

This is the method to be adopted if you want to produce a balloon of
a shape which will bear criticism, but if you are not particular in
this respect, a rough and ready gore may be made by a much simpler
process. You have only to take four sheets of tissue paper and paste
them together by the narrow edges. Then trim off the two outside sheets
as shown in Fig. 6, and from the pieces so trimmed off, add a small
piece at the top A, and there is your pattern gore in a little less
than no time. You can then paste several together as already directed,
arranging the number as you wish your balloon to be pudgy and safe, or
lanky and dangerous.

The next thing is to provide the means of ascension.

[Illustration: Fig. 4., Fig. 5., Fig. 3., Fig. 6., Fig. 7., Fig. 8.,
Fig. 9., Fig. 10., Fig. 11., Fig. 12., Fig. 13., Fig. 14., Fig. 15.,
Fig. 16., Fig. 17., Fig. 18., Fig. 19., Fig. 20.]

Lamp cotton is the best material for the wick, though any of the other
substances already mentioned may be used if this is not come-at-able.
It may be saturated with methylated spirit, or, if the material is
easily accessible, melted tallow. In the latter case the wick should
then be sprinkled with turpentine that it may catch fire readily. The
tallow gives the best light, and lasts the longest.

Two pieces of thin wire should be attached to the hoop as shown in Fig.
7, W W, and your ball of lamp-wick is to be placed in the centre, L W.
The placing of the wick is the last operation, but of course, it will
have been prepared beforehand. It is simply a loosely rolled ball of
lamp-cotton through which a piece of fine wire has been passed and the
ends formed into hooks (Fig. 8). The size of the ball must be governed
by the dimensions of the balloon and by your ambition as to the height
to which it is to rise. The wick may easily be made large enough to
carry the balloon out of sight altogether, especially if tallow be used.

In this case the wick should have been saturated with melted tallow
beforehand, but where methylated spirit is used the proceedings must be
delayed till the moment of ascension.

With a fan--a folded newspaper will do as well as anything--fan the
balloon full of air to start with. Then your assistant must elevate
the balloon to the right height by the aid of a smooth stick inserted
in the loop, and he must stand on something to raise him to the right
level.

Now the air in the inflated balloon must be warmed by holding beneath
it a paper torch, care being taken that no flame touches the balloon,
or it will be shrivelled up by the fire in a moment and your labour
wasted.

Another assistant meanwhile should have been looking after the
methylated spirit--if you use the tallow you can do without him. The
spirit should be kept in a closely corked bottle and as far from your
paper torch as possible. When the balloon begins to try to rise give
the word to assistant No. 2, who will pour some of the spirit into the
jam-pot in which the wick is lying, wait till it is saturated, and
then, taking it from the jam-pot, run with it to the balloon and attach
it to the cross wire by the hooks. Directly it is in position, give
the word to assistant No. 1 to let go; touch the wick with a light, and
up will sail the balloon into the air. A windy day should, naturally,
be avoided, or your balloon is not likely to proceed far on its journey
in safety.

But a good deal more is to be got out of a fire balloon than a mere
ascension, and even the mere ascension may be improved. You may, for
instance, attach a car to the balloon (Fig. 9) and a couple of figures
A A--it matters little how rough they are--will, very shortly after
the liberation of the balloon, look so natural that the balloon will
be taken for the real thing. When it has mounted but a little distance
there is nothing by which its size may be compared, and if netting is
imitated by lines drawn with a pen and ink, the illusion will be yet
more complete.

The car may be made of a square of writing paper with the four edges
folded over equally all round. The corners should then be pinched
together, folded over as in the illustration, and secured with a little
paste.

A parachute may be dropped "from the clouds." This may be simply a
square of paper with a string at each corner and a figure hanging on
at the ends (Fig. 11). The figure may be as rough as you like, detail
would be lost. Or, two squares of paper may be used, the strings being
crossed over the lower and kept in place by the upper, which should be
pasted upon it (Fig. 15).

A more elaborate parachute may be made by folding a square of paper
from corner to corner into a triangle. This should be folded again and
once again from corner to corner when it will take the shape of Fig.
12. A cut through the dotted line and a couple of holes pierced at the
dots will give, when opened out, Fig. 13; and a string passed through
each hole and made to carry a car will give the complete parachute
(Fig. 14).

A piece of cotton or twine should be passed through the parachute to
attach it to the balloon. Then a piece of wire should be twisted and
bent, as in Fig. 10, _w_. Fasten to this with thin wire a piece of
time-fuse, _t f_, turned up as shown, and to the bend _b_ attach the
cotton. At the moment of ascension, light the top end of the fuse at
_a_, and when it has burned to _b_ the parachute will be liberated.

Fireworks may be lighted in the same way. You will need time-fuse,
quickmatch, and such fireworks as you prefer. Blue lights, squibs,
and fireworks of that description should be arranged as in Fig. 20.
Here _c_ is a cork or bung with holes bored in it for the insertion
of the fireworks _f f f f_. _Q_ is the quickmatch which is to light
them simultaneously when the time-fuse, _t f_, has burnt far enough. A
catherine wheel may be pinned at the bottom of the cork and connected
with the quickmatch, or the pin may be dispensed with, when it will
whizz through the darkness in grand style.

One of the most successful effects may be obtained with the balls or
stars from Roman candles. You can, of course, pull the candles to
pieces, but a better plan is to buy the balls at 6d. a dozen.

Bend a piece of wire into a circle (Fig. 16) and take two wires across
at a right angle. Then place the balls, one by one, in pieces of tissue
paper and cover them with meal powder and tie up the ends (Fig. 17),
fastening them on the wire, as shown in Fig. 16. A piece of time-fuse,
or quickmatch, _q_, as you want the stars to drop singly or in a
shower, must next be passed through each ball packet and connected with
lighted time-fuse. Of course the fireworks should hang some distance
below the balloon. Crackers or maroons may be arranged as in Figs. 18
and 19, and many other devices invented.

Your balloon may also carry up a piece of magnesium wire with which the
country may be lighted up, or it may take up a Chinese lantern--in fact
there is no end to the fun which may be got out of it. You will find it
difficult, however, to get an effect to beat the Roman candle balls.

Quickmatch costs 2d. or 3d. a six-feet length, according to the
thickness required; time-fuse one penny an inch.

$Bubble Balloons.$--One reason for the short life of the bubble as
usually blown is the excessive evaporation which takes place from
the large surface presented to the air. As this evaporation of the
fluid goes on, the film gets thinner, the tension gets more acute,
accompanied by ever changing and brightening hues of colour, until
the thin walls can no longer bear the strain, and the bubble bursts
into fine spray. Another, perhaps, more powerful reason is the unequal
strength of the walls, due to the drainage of the moisture from the
upper parts of the bubble into the lower parts by its own weight.
This produces a weak and thin area, denoted by the refraction of the
blue rays of light in the top of the bubble, and it cannot resist the
pressure from within. There are two ways of prolonging the life of a
bubble. When the breath is first driven into the liquid, the force used
is sufficient to send the fluid surging in all directions, and the film
is fairly well nourished. Presently as the soapy water dipped out by
the bowl of the pipe gets distributed over the walls of the bubble and
it increases in size, this no longer acts, and drainage from the top
at once sets in. If the blowing is now continued, the end so much the
more quickly approaches. To enable you to continue enlarging the bubble
and lengthen its life, feed it. This may be done readily and safely,
by dipping a camel-hair brush in the soapy emulsion and, letting it
touch the bubble at the top, when the fluid will stream down over the
surface, thickening the film, and permitting you to get a bubble as big
as your hat.

This is only a temporary expedient, a flank movement, and merely defers
the end by a minute or two. To attack the difficulty with more success,
change the mixture. Shred some Castile soap, which may be purchased
by the pennyworth at the chemist's, and beat up in the usual way with
water; you will find that much more can be done with this preparation
than the usual household soap. If your aim is merely to produce an
overgrown, sagging, wobbling bubble, feed with a brush as above.
For further experiments do not blow large unmanageable ones, but an
ordinary sized bubble blown in this liquid will enable you to show its
toughness, length of life, and other qualities. If your coat is made of
a woollen fabric, release some bubbles on the shoulder; they will roll
down the sleeve and tumble off to the floor, if they do not meet with
any cotton fabric on the way; This is due to the repulsion which exists
between wool and the watery film, doubtless due to the presence of fat
in some form upon the fibres. While upon the sleeve they may be carried
about the room, or passed from one person to another. This repulsion
may be further utilized, too, and the bubble treated as a shuttlecock.

To do this, procure the ordinary wooden bat used by your sister for the
game of bat and shuttlecock. Cover it with a piece of flannel, fine
or coarse will do. Then blow a bubble not too large, so that the film
shall be robust and heavy. Such is the toughness of the skin of the
bubble, and the repulsion of the woollen surface to the soapy film,
that it may be batted nearly two hundred times before the collapse
takes place. By striking it on the side and getting some work into
the bubble, it revolves slowly and the drainage from the upper part
is counteracted. Two or more can play thus with the glittering ball,
passing it on, or a ring of players may be formed and a stream of
bubbles passed round from one member to another. Another form of the
game is the keeping up a number of bubbles by the same bat. As the
bubbles are very light they fall slowly, and six or eight may be kept
up by the player. By having two bats, one in each hand, this becomes a
game of considerable skill, and will tax the concentrated attention of
the player to the utmost.

Now cut some circular discs out of note-paper about the size of a
sixpence, larger rather than smaller. Get a reel of fine white cotton,
and pass the end of the thread through the centre of the disc. Tie a
knot in the cotton, so that it cannot readily be pulled through the
hole. Then dip the disc in the mixture till the paper is wet. Blow
your bubble, and before you release it from the pipe bowl, place the
dripping disc of paper on the side of the bubble by dangling it from
your right hand by the cotton. When it is in complete contact, a slight
turn of the wrist releases the bubble from the pipe, and you will find
that you have it attached to the paper disc, which in the meantime has
sunk to the lowest part of the bubble. It can now be carried about by
means of the disc.

There is so much carbon dioxide in the breath that bubbles blown in
this way have very little power of rising, as the difference in the
heat of the breath does not sufficiently counterbalance the heavier
weight of the expired air. By attaching a piece of india-rubber tubing
to the stem of the pipe and gas burner, you can get a supply of lighter
gas which will make the bubble into a balloon. Having effected this
arrangement, dip the pipe in the mixture and turn on the gas. Feed the
top of the bubble with more fluid, and when it has reached a size which
satisfies you, attach the paper disc as before. It will be an easy task
to detach the bubble, which will rise towards the ceiling, until the
weight of the thread counterbalances the buoyancy of the gas. It will
probably rise to the ceiling, where it is quite safe, as a cushion
of air will prevent the bubble striking the surface. Instead of the
long thread, make out of the thinnest and lightest paper you can get,
a small car, attach cotton to the corners of the car and gather the
threads together and tie them so that the car hangs level. Attach this
to the cotton which bears the paper disc, and connect the disc with
the bubble as before, wetting only the disc. You will have a miniature
gossamer balloon. Cut out two small figures of men in paper and put
inside the car. Do all this before blowing the bubble. If you have
a glass shade, a number of these bubbles balanced by threads may be
kept for hours inside. You will find it very interesting to watch the
changes of colour in the films as they get thinner through evaporation.
To check this, put under the shade a wet sponge, this will moisten the
air enclosed in the shade, and prolong the life of the bubbles.

No great skill is required in making the above experiments, and
variations of an amusing character can be made by cutting out figures
of animals and men and attaching them to the disc in place of the car.
If the figures are painted so much better will the trick look. To
make the mixture still stronger add nearly half as much again of pure
glycerine.

$Boxing by Electricity.$--A B C is a piece of iron wire inserted in
the board D E F G. Cut out the boxer H in cardboard. On one side of
this figure paste tinfoil bringing the tinfoil to the other side of
the figure just a little at the edges. You will be able to get your
tinfoil from the packages of tea, chocolate, tobacco or other source.
Fasten the boxer to the board with sealing-wax. Now make the other
boxer I in the same way and suspend him from the iron wire by means of
thread. Borrow a lamp glass or the chimney from the incandescent gas
burner and fit a cork K into the bottom. Through the cork pass a nail
L. Connect the nail with the boxer by means of the wire M. Warm and dry
the lamp chimney, and rub it with fur or silk. The boxer I will rush at
boxer H, then retreat hurriedly, and this will be repeated as long as
you rub the lamp chimney. Men, skilled in the science of electricity,
will tell you that the reason for these strange proceedings is that the
rubbing of the lamp chimney produces electricity; this passes along the
wire to boxer H who becomes charged with the mysterious property. This
electricity attracts boxer I who goes for boxer H. When he touches he
becomes charged with the same kind of electricity and is then attracted
no longer but repelled, and he continues to be repelled until his
electricity has drained away by the linen thread, wire and board to the
earth. Then he is ready for another "round."

[Illustration: BOXING BY ELECTRICITY.]

$A Prancing Horse.$--Carve the figure of a horse, and having fixed a
bent wire to the under part of its body, place a small ball of lead
upon the end of the wire. Place the hind legs of the horse upon the
table, and it will prance to and fro. Sometimes the figure of a man
is treated in the same way and in Yorkshire it used to be called a
"Saaging Tommy," to saag being an old word meaning to saw or see-saw.

[Illustration: A PRANCING HORSE.]

$Boats Made of Pasteboard.$--Pasteboard is not a very satisfactory
material of which to construct model boats, if these are wanted to
sail, but it is possible to make them. The best plan for making
pasteboard waterproof is to paint it with a solution of sealing wax.
To make this, take sealing wax of the colour you prefer, break it
into small pieces and place it in a wide-mouthed bottle. Now pour in
some methylated spirits and shake occasionally until the wax is all
dissolved. If too thick, add more spirit; if too thin, more wax. Apply
with a brush. Owing to the evaporation of the spirit, this paint dries
hard and glossy in an hour.

[Illustration: A SIMPLE TOP.]

$A Simple Top.$--Procure a piece of white cardboard, two inches square,
and cut it into a sexagon, as shown in Fig. 1. Now bore a small hole
in the middle, into which push an ordinary match. You may number the
sections of the sexagon and see who scores the highest number, counting
the figure resting against the table as it falls. Fig. 2 shows the top
complete.

[Illustration: THE APPLE OR POTATO MILL.]

$The Apple or Potato Mill.$--This is made by boring a hole in a nut,
just large enough to pass a thin skewer through; the kernel should
then be extracted, and another hole bored in the side of the nut, as
in the diagram. A skewer should next be cut large enough at the top to
form a head. A piece of string is then tied to the skewer, and passed
through the hole in the side of the nut, and an apple or potato stuck
on the end of the skewer. The mill should be twirled round in the
same way as the humming top to wind up the string, holding the nut
stationary between the forefinger and thumb of the left hand. When this
is done, the string must be pulled out rapidly, and the mill will spin.
Many other toys may be made upon the same principle, and some of these
we will now describe.

[Illustration: WHIRLING MAC.]

$Whirling Mac.$--Our illustration shows how the apple mill may be
modified for a whirling Mac. The arms and legs of the figure should
be tied loosely to the body and the skirt should be loose too. Tie the
string to the spindle inside the nut and have a button on the end of
the string so that you may have a firm hold. Now twist the figure round
until all the string is wound, then hold the nut firmly in your left
hand and draw the string out suddenly and swiftly with your right hand.
The figure will whirl round, throwing out his arms and legs. When the
string comes to an end slacken it, and the impetus of the figure will
cause it to wind the string again. Thus you may go on and on until you
are tired.

[Illustration: FIG. 1., FIG. 2., FIG. 3., FIG. 4. FLYING MACHINE.]

$A Flying Machine.$--Similar in principle is the flying machine now to
be described. In Fig. 1 _a_ is a handle cut in any hard wood four and
a half inches long. Into the top of this handle bore a hole down its
centre about one inch deep, and force into this a piece of wire so that
the wire will be quite firm. This wire should be of iron or steel, with
a diameter of one-eighth of an inch, and it should be about three and
a half inches long. It will be easier to force the wire into the wood
if it is sharpened. The hole you have bored is only an inch deep; force
the wire half an inch deeper than that. Obtain now from your mother or
sister an ordinary cotton spool about one and a quarter inches long.
This is shown at _b_ in Fig. 1. In the same figure _c_ is a kind of
wheel made as follows. If you cannot find something ready made take
a small piece of well-seasoned wood. Cut it until it is an inch in
diameter and five-eighths of an inch deep. See Fig. 2. Down the middle
bore the hole _a_ large enough that the wire you put down the handle in
Fig. 1 may turn easily in it. Mark the upper surface of the wheel into
four equal parts, and then you will be able to draw four perpendicular
lines round this wheel at equal distances. Two of these lines are shown
in Fig. 3.

Now draw the line _a b_ in Fig. 3 half way down the wheel. Follow this
line round and bore four pairs of holes as deeply as you can without
piercing the centre hole. One pair is shown in Fig. 3. Each little hole
is about a quarter of an inch from its neighbour. These pairs of holes
must be the same distance from each other; they are for the wings you
see in Fig. 1, and which we will now proceed to make. Take forty-two
inches of light brass wire. Divide this into four equal parts. You will
then have four pieces of ten and a half inches each. Bend each one into
the shape shown in Fig. 4. These wings will be about four inches long
and about two inches broad at their widest part. The ends of the wire
should be about a quarter of an inch apart. Cover these wire frames
with light tough paper, using as little paste as possible. The wings
are inserted slanting like the sails of a windmill. Now let us go back
to the spool. Upon the upper surface midway between its centre hole
and the edge of the spool insert a piece of strong wire or the end of
a broken knitting needle. The wire should be rigid, and should project
from the spool about half an inch. When you put your wheel and wings
upon the spool this wire will rest beside one of the wings and cause it
to turn when the spool turns. Now take a piece of cord and wind it away
from you with your right hand round the spool. Hold the handle firmly
in your left hand and withdraw the string rapidly. The wheel and
wings will mount rapidly in the air for about fifty feet and then come
steadily down.

[Illustration: A DANCING FIGURE.]

$A Dancing Figure.$--The illustration shows the back view of a toy
easily constructed but capable of affording much amusement to the
little ones. A is an ordinary lath glued to a cardboard figure of a
man. The arms and legs too are of cardboard fixed loosely with short
string knotted at each end. At the extremities of the arms and legs
the strings B and C are tied and connected with the string D. Pull the
string D and the figure will throw up his arms and legs wildly. Bears
and other figures may be made upon the same principle. A string F may
be put at E and then the lath is not necessary, for the performer can
then hold string F in one hand and pull string D with the other.

[Illustration: THE LIVELY DONKEY.]

$The Lively Donkey.$--On stout paper or cardboard draw upon a large
scale the illustration. Divide the drawing into three parts by cutting
out the circle. You may now pin the parts upon the wall in such
attitudes as are shown in the smaller illustration, or if you cut out
many donkeys you may have all these attitudes and more.

[Illustration: CAMERA OBSCURA.]

$A Camera Obscura.$--Obtain an oblong box, about two feet long, twelve
inches wide, and eight high. In one end of this a tube must be fitted
containing a lens. It must be possible to slide the tube backwards and
forwards so as to obtain the focus. Inside the box should be a plain
mirror reclining backwards from the tube at an angle of forty-five
degrees. See A B in the Figure. At the top of the box at C is a square
of frosted glass or a piece of tissue paper, upon which from beneath
the picture will be thrown, and may be seen by raising the lid D. To
use the camera place the tube with the lens in it opposite the object
or scene, and having adjusted the focus, the image will be thrown upon
the ground-glass or tissue paper.

$Jig Saw Puzzle.$--This old form of toy has been revived lately. It is
easily made. Glue upon a thin piece of wood a picture, a coloured one
is best. Then with a fret saw cut picture and board into all manner of
wild shapes, shake them into disorder and then try to put them back
again into their proper position. Jig saw is a piece of American slang
for fret saw.

$The Wonderful Chicken.$--With the help of the diagram it will not be
difficult to construct a chicken that will move its head and tail in
a comic manner. A B C D is a box that acts as a base and conceals the
pendulum. It will need to have a slit in the top for the strings which
hold the pendulum. The chicken is of wood and its body has two sides.
One side has been removed so that the mechanism may be seen, but when
the chicken is complete the mechanism is hidden. It will be seen that
the head and tail are attached to the body with nails, but in such a
way that they are not rigid but will move up and down. E is a pendulum
of lead or other heavy material, and as it swings to and fro the
strings cause the head and tail to bob up and down alternately. Other
moving figures may be made upon the same principle. Longer strings,
and a longer box to accommodate them, give slower and more lasting
movements.

[Illustration: THE WONDERFUL CHICKEN.]

$The Mouse in the Trap.$--Cut a piece of cardboard of the size of a
penny, and paint on one side a mouse, and on the other a trap; fasten
two pieces of thread one on each side at opposite points of the card,
so that the card can be made to revolve by twirling the threads with
the finger and thumb. While the toy is in its revolution, the mouse
will be seen inside the trap. Many others may be made upon the same
principle.

$Distorted Landscapes.$--Take a piece of smooth white pasteboard and
sketch a picture upon it. Prick the outlines in every part with a pin
or needle, then put the pricked drawing in a perpendicular position,
and place a lighted candle behind it. Stand in front of it another
piece of pasteboard, and trace with a pencil the lines given by the
light, and you will have a peculiar distorted landscape. Take away
the candle and the pricked drawing, and put your eye where the light
was, and the drawing will lose its peculiarities. To find the proper
position for your eye it will be best to cut out a piece of card,
adjust it, and look through a hole made to occupy the place where stood
the flame of the candle.

[Illustration: THE MOUSE IN THE TRAP.]

[Illustration: FIG. 1., FIG. 2., FIG. 3.]

$The Working Woodman.$--The wind, as well as a pendulum, may be used to
make wooden figures move. In Fig. 1 we have two pieces of wood, each
an inch thick, an inch and a half wide, and twelve inches long. If we
place them as in Fig. 1 we have four arms five and a quarter inches
long. Each one of these four arms has now to be cut into a shape to
adapt it as a windmill sail; that is it has to be made into a slanting
thin blade not more than an eighth of an inch thick, and all the
blades must present a similar slope to the wind. As mistakes are likely
to occur, here we will endeavour to make the point clear. Take the
arm A, Fig. 2. Suppose you have slanted this from x to y. Now imagine
that B comes round to A's position, then it, too, must be sloped in
precisely the same way, and not sloped from y to x. The same applies to
arms C and D. Imagine them coming to this upright position, and make
them all alike as they arrive there.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

The method of fixing the four arms into one piece is shown in Fig. 3. A
hole should now be bored exactly in the centre at the crossing of the
arms. The platform upon which the figure of the woodman will stand,
shown in Fig. 4, consists of a piece of wood half an inch thick, six
inches wide and twelve inches long. At each end is screwed a block to
hold the shaft which communicates the movement of the sails to the
figure. This shaft is a piece of strong wire fifteen inches long, bent
into a crank, as shown in the diagram, and working round and round
in the two blocks. The end of the wire that comes through the centre
of the windmill sails should be bent up or down to prevent it from
slipping out of position. The vane, which will cause the mill to keep
in the right position whichever way the wind blows, is shown twice in
Fig. 4. It is of thin wood, and is fastened to the underside of the
platform by means of the little catch, which should be left when the
vane is made. The figures whose parts are shown should be cut out of
thin wood with a fret-saw, and put together so that the joints turn
easily on the pins that are put through them. Two bodies are needed. To
adjust the figure take off one side of the body and place the woodman
in the act of completing his stroke, with the axe touching the wood,
then put a peg or small tack or nail immediately behind the projection
on the top of the legs. This will keep his body from bending too far
forward. Now let the axe be raised to the beginning of the stroke, and
put a peg in front of the projection. The arm is connected with the
crank by a piece of wire. You may not find the right place at first,
but a few trials will put you right. Bore a hole in the arm, put the
wire through, and twist it round to keep it there.

[Illustration]

A sawyer may be made upon the same principle, as the illustrations
show, or you may have a simple windmill and no figures. Fix the
platform and its figures on the top of a pole with a pivot so that
they may turn freely in the wind. Before you bore the hole through the
platform balance the whole carefully upon the pole or you will put the
hole in the wrong place.

$The Skip-Jack.$--The skip-jack is made out of the merry-thought of
a goose. A strong doubled string must be tied at the two ends of the
bone, and a piece of wood about three inches long put between the
strings, as shown in the illustration, and twisted round until the
string has the force of a spring. A bit of shoemaker's wax should then
be put in the hollow of the bone at the place where the end of the
piece of wood touches, and when the wood is pressed slightly on the
wax the toy is set. The wood sticks only a very short time, and then
springs forcibly up. The skip-jack is placed on the ground with the
wax downwards. Upon this principle toy frogs are made sometimes.

[Illustration: THE SKIP-JACK.]

[Illustration: THE JOLLY PEA.]

$The Jolly Pea.$--Stick through a pea, or small ball of pith, two pins
at right angles, and put upon the points pieces of sealing-wax. The pea
may be kept dancing in the air at a short distance from the end of a
straight tube, by means of a current of breath from the mouth. This
imparts a rotatory motion to the pea. A piece of broken clay tobacco
pipe serves very well. Some boys prefer one pin (the vertical one) and
dispense with the cross pin.

[Illustration: REVOLVING SERPENT.]

$A Revolving Serpent.$--Draw on a piece of cardboard a spiral serpent,
as shown in the figure. Cut along the lines with a sharp knife, and
mount it on a needle fixed in a cork. The serpent will now revolve on
its own account. Its movements may be greatly accelerated by fixing it
by means of a bent wire over the flame of a lamp or candle.




CHAPTER XXIV

CONCERNING MANY THINGS


$A Simple Shelter.$--A very easy way to rig up a shelter from sun or
rain is given in the accompanying sketch. Two poles with a deep notch
in the top of each, a rope, two pegs, a sheet, and a few large stones
complete the shelter. An ingenious boy could arrange an end, or two if
he needs them.

[Illustration: A SIMPLE SHELTER.]

$A Calendar on Your Fingers.$--This is the way that an old-timer
manages to keep account of the days of the week that months open with.
It will be found correct and interesting to people who have a memory
for such things:

"What day of the week did January come in on?" asked Grandfather
Martin. "If you can tell that, I can tell you the day that any month
will come in on, by help of a little lingo I learned from my father
when I was a boy. Friday, did you say?" and he held up his hand
preparatory to counting his fingers. "Now, April is the fourth month;
let us see--'At Dover dwelt George Brown, Esq., good Christopher Finch,
and David Frier.' We go by the first letters of these words--1, 2, 3,
4: 'At Dover dwelt George'--G is the letter, and it is the seventh in
the alphabet. January came in on Friday you say, Friday, Saturday,
Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday--seven; April comes in on
Thursday. Take February--second month: 'At Dover.' D is the letter,
and fourth in the alphabet. Friday, one; Saturday, two; Sunday, three;
Monday, four; February comes in on Monday.

"If you make no mistake in using the rule, it will give you the answer
every time."

"But it did not give the answer for April," said Harry, who had been
referring to an almanac. "April began on Friday."

"To be sure, boy! This is Leap Year, is it not?" Leap year requires the
addition of one day for the last ten months, to allow for the 29th of
February. So All Fools' Day came on Friday this year.

"I never knew anybody outside of my father's family," continued the old
gentleman, "who knew this little lingo and how to use it. He taught it
to his children, and I have tried to teach it to mine, but they seem
to forget it, and I am afraid it will get lost. When father used to go
to Presbytery, fifty years ago, it often happened that a question of
dates and their relation to days would come up, and no almanac at hand;
in fact, the question might be as to some day of the next year; but
almanac or not, my father could always find the fact wanted with just
the little key of the first day of the year."

$Leap Year.$--Divide the year by 4. If nothing remains it is leap year.
For instance 1876 / 4 = 469 so that 1876 is leap year. If 1, 2 or 3
remain these figures give the years after leap year. Remember, leap
year lapses once a century.

$Spiders and the Weather.$--If the weather is likely to become rainy,
windy, or anything but fine, spiders fix the terminating filaments, on
which the whole web is suspended, unusually short. If these filaments
are made unusually long we may expect a spell of fine weather. In
proportion to their length is the fineness of the weather. Spiders are
generally indolent in rainy weather. If they are active in rain the
rain will not long continue.

$A Barometer.$--Put two drams of pure nitre and half a dram of chloride
of ammonia, reduced to powder, into two ounces of spirits of wine, or
pure alcohol, and place this mixture in a glass tube, ten inches long
and about an inch in diameter, the upper extremity of which must be
covered with a piece of skin or bladder, pierced with small holes.
If the weather is to be fine, the solid matters remain at the bottom
of the tube, and the alcohol is transparent. If rain is to fall in a
short time, some of the solid particles rise and fall in the alcohol,
which becomes somewhat thick. When a storm or even a squall is about
to come on all the solid matters rise from the bottom of the tube and
form a crust on the surface of the alcohol, which appears in a state
of fermentation. These appearances take place twenty-four hours before
the storm comes, and the point of the horizon from which it is to blow
is indicated by the particles gathering most on the side of the tube
opposite to that part whence the wind is to come.

$Another Simple Barometer.$--Take a common phial bottle, and cut off
the rim and part of the neck. This may be done by means of a piece
of string, or better still, whipcord, twisted round it, and pulled
strongly in a sawing position by two persons, one of whom holds the
bottle firmly in his left hand. Heated in a few minutes by the friction
of the string, and then dipped suddenly into cold water, the bottle
will be beheaded easily. Let the bottle be filled now with water, and
applying the finger to its mouth, turn it quickly upside down. When you
remove your finger it will be found that only a few drops will escape.
Without cork or stopper of any kind, the water will be retained within
the bottle by the pressure of the external air. Now let a bit of tape
be tied round the middle of the bottle to which the two ends of a
string may be attached so as to form a loop to hang on a nail. Let it
be thus suspended in a perpendicular manner, with the mouth downwards.
When the weather is fair, and inclined to remain fair, the water will
be level with the section of the neck, or perhaps elevated above it,
and forming a concave surface. When the weather is disposed to be wet
a drop will appear at the mouth, which will enlarge till it falls, and
then another drop so long as the humidity of the air continues.

$How to go to Sea.$--Decide first whether you will go by wind or steam,
as steamboat seamen and sailing-ship sailors are distinct, the former
having little to do with actual seamanship, the latter everything.
Consequently, most parents are well advised to send their boys on
sailing ships only. Parents generally are at their wits' end to know
what to do with boys with the sea "craze." Therefore they are, as a
general rule, "rushed" into paying exorbitant sums for apprenticing
fees, only to find, after a voyage, their sons refuse to go again,
having had enough to tire them of it. Now, the best and safest way to
get boys comfortably berthed as apprentices is to see by the daily
papers, or the _Shipping Gazette_, the names of the largest firms
advertising Australian voyages, or voyages to the East Indies, and
write them particulars briefly, enclosing a stamped envelope for reply.

The large firms keep a book or register, where boys' names are entered,
so that when an apprentice is required the first on the page has the
preference. This is the simplest and safest way, for there are always
plenty of sharpers advertising for boys in the London and Liverpool
journals, offering midship berths and other "baits" at the moderate sum
of from £10 to £50. This is by no means a high estimate, for by some of
the gentry larger sums are asked, and these reap golden harvests. These
sharpers act as intermediates between the office people and themselves,
sharing the bounty. Now, few are aware that when apprenticing boys to
the sea a trial voyage is necessary. A number of lads after one voyage
prefer shore. Therefore, before any binding moneys are paid, be careful
to see that the indentures are made out clearly, as often they are
carefully worded, or "blinded," as it is called at sea; so that if by
chance money were paid down the difficulty would be to get it refunded,
for if this is not stipulated, and a wish is afterwards expressed to
cancel agreements, the purchase-money is forfeited.

An excellent plan is to have a paper drawn up and signed by both
parties, witnessed, and the indentures made up after the first trial
trip; but it must be understood that the time of the first voyage, if
it be a long one, makes a difference, as unless lads are apprenticed
off-hand the "time" is counted as nothing.

There is a pamphlet sold by mercantile stationers at one shilling
containing much information, showing parts, and describing the various
builds of sea-going craft. The contents of this should be completely
mastered before any boy joins a ship, as it will help him to know part
of his duties in addition to the nautical language, thereby showing to
his officers that he is not a "know-nothing" lad. It will also help him
in a variety of ways, it being in point of fact the A B C of ship life.
"Do as you are told with a will" is an expression often made use of,
and in fact it must be practised by all contemplating sea life. "Ship
shape" is another saying suggested by the rigid discipline exercised by
mariners.

On one large vessel the following maxim was painted on the walls of the
midship quarters: "There is a place for everything; put everything in
its place." One of the things a captain or the mates dislike to see is
a boy clambering over the rigging in port; time and circumstance will
soon teach him that part of his duties, so that while he is in port a
lad should busy himself in tidying up the deck, or by doing the work
allotted to him.

A boy does well to be on board his ship a day or two before departing,
so as to get acquainted with the various parts, also to get himself
known, and somewhat used to the deck.

Apprentices are expected to have a stout chest made for the purpose
of storing clothes and sundries. Some companies provide the articles
necessary for the mess-room use, but it is well to inquire of
berth-mates, or the steward, and arrange accordingly.

A stout tin box, capable of holding linen is necessary, and the
following articles must be procured:--

White shirt, collars, and a uniform suit for shore wear. This must
be made in accordance with the rules of the company, the coat and
waistcoat brass-buttoned, and the cap embellished with the house flag
design and gold cordage.

For ship wear no complete list can be given, the principal articles
being the following: oilskin suit, one pair of sea boots, one or
two pairs of half Wellingtons; flannel shirts, and as many pairs
of trousers and shoes as can be procured, the limit of these being
at least three pairs. The numerous small articles may be left to
discretion.

Another word of warning--do not deal with slop-shop outfitters
advertising "rig outs" at low figures, but rather go to respectable
tailors and traders, and purchase, or have made, the articles
separately.

With strict obedience, promptitude, and a cheerful disposition a lad
can hardly fail to get promoted.

$To Make Your Own Toffee.$--To one pound of the best Demerara sugar add
about a quarter of a pint of cold water and a pinch of cream of tartar.
Go on boiling it until when you drop a little into cold water it goes
hard. You may look for this stage in about ten minutes. Next take it
off and add three ounces of butter cut into small pieces. Boil again
and test in the same way for hardness. At this stage put in lemon juice
to flavour it and then pour the mixture into oiled tins. When it is
nearly cold mark it into squares, and when it is quite cold divide it
according to these marks.

$Steam Rings.$--When the kettle is boiling and sending steam from its
spout gently raise the lid and then shut it down again deftly. This
will force the steam rapidly from the spout in the shape of very pretty
rings which will rise in the air, growing larger and larger.

$Skeleton Leaves.$--Leaves from which the reader intends to derive the
skeleton should be gathered fresh from tree or shrub, and put in an
earthen pan filled with rain water and placed in the sunshine. When the
substance of the leaf becomes soft and easily detached, they should be
removed to another pan, containing clean water, in which they must be
shaken about until the soft tissue breaks away from the skeleton. Wash
again in fresh water, and so continue until only the ribs and nervures
remain. A soft tooth-brush, carefully used, will assist in the final
part of this operation, the leaf being held in the palm of the hand
during the process. Now for the bleaching. Purchase two pennyworth of
purified chloride of lime, and dissolve it in a pint of water. In this
solution put your skeleton leaves, and keep them under observation. As
soon as one has become quite white it should be taken out and rinsed
in clear water, then carefully dried. The softening process will take
weeks, in some tougher species of leaf it may take months. This period
may be lessened by using a small quantity of either muriatic acid or
chloride of lime, but with either of these agents there is danger of
rotting the skeleton. The rain-water process is the safest and most
permanent.

$To Imitate a Nightingale.$--Many years ago a clever Frenchman analysed
the song of the nightingale and made out that it consists of the
following sounds:--

  Temee temee temee tan
  Spretu zqua
  Querree pee pee
  Teeo teeo teeo tix
  Quteeo quteeo quteeo
  Zquo zquo zquo zquo
  Zee zee zee zee zee zee zee
  Querrer teeu zqula peepee quee.

$Pith Beads.$--A little boy we know amuses himself by threading pieces
of pith and then painting the pith with water colours. When his mother
wears the necklace he has made in this way people are very curious to
know what the beads are, and fancy they must have been made by the
natives of foreign parts, probably of the South Sea Islands.

$Hints on Handwriting.$--Although typewriters are excellent things,
they are comparatively useless just in those particular cases where
distinct handwriting is of the greatest importance, and where it is
so very rarely met with. By some strange process of reasoning, it has
come about that almost any sort of writing is thought good enough for
a postcard, telegram, or medical prescription. The same man who would
make a very fair performance when engaged on a long communication,
in which the context would be almost certain to help the reader to
decipher a queer word here and there, will dash off the most puzzling
penmanship when writing a short but urgent note or postcard. The very
brevity of the communication adds to the difficulty of understanding
it. When the present writer was at school, it was impressed upon us
that, whatever else might be faulty, the addressing of the envelope
should be as near perfection as we could make it. The postman of the
present day will tell you that this arrangement is now reversed, and,
with the exception of letters sent out by business firms, the addresses
he has to grapple with are very badly and incompletely written.

Here are a few short hints, the acting upon which will vastly improve
the most slovenly handwriting in a week, if persevered in. In the
first place, reduce the slope of your handwriting until it is almost,
if not quite vertical. Then break yourself of the habit of crowding
your letters too closely together, on the one hand, and sprawling
them out unduly, on the other. Instead of sprawling the letters out
so, write each character compactly, but join it to the following one
by a distinct link-stroke, as it were. This is the sort of writing
approved of by the Civil Service Commissioners. At one time much stress
was laid upon the importance of thick and thin strokes, hair strokes,
and so on. Excepting in the case of professional engravers, and for
artistic purposes, all these refinements are out of date. What is of
vastly more importance is the making of a careful distinction between
the letters m, n, and u, and again between the letters e and i. Good
test-words to practice with are these: union, commence, ounce, suit,
sweet, manumotive, immense, unite, untie. Characters which extend
above or below the line should not do so more than is sufficient to
prevent their being mistaken for other letters. All the i's should be
dotted and the t's crossed. Finally, the last letter of every word
should be written distinctly, no matter in what hurry you may be,
for it is wonderful what an aid to legibility the observance of this
simple rule will afford. Those who follow these hints may never write
a pretty hand, but they can scarcely fail to write a legible one, no
small accomplishment in these days, when so many of us can do almost
any out-of-the-way thing, but find it difficult to sign our names
distinctly.

$Secret Writing.$--Mix well some lard with a little Venice turpentine,
and rub a small part of it equally on very thin paper by means of a
piece of fine sponge, or in some other way. Lay this with the greasy
side downwards upon a sheet of note-paper, and write your message upon
the plain side of the greasy paper with a style or the thin end of
your pen-holder, using a little pressure. Nothing will be seen on the
note-paper; but what you have written may be made visible there by
dusting upon it some pounded charcoal or other coloured dust. Shake or
blow this dust away and there will remain as much of it as has fallen
upon the parts where your style pressed the lard upon the note-paper.

$Resin Bubbles.$--If the end of a copper tube or of a tobacco pipe be
dipped in melted resin at a temperature a little above that of boiling
water, taken out and held nearly in a vertical position, and blown
through, bubbles will be formed of all possible sizes, from that of a
hen's egg down to sizes which can hardly be seen. These bubbles have a
very pleasing appearance and are permanent.

$Etching on Glass.$--Cover the glass with a thin coat of beeswax, and
draw your design with a needle cutting down through the wax to the
surface of the glass. Place the glass in a shallow bath, and cover it
evenly with fluor-spar to the depth of an eight of an inch. Now pour
sulphuric acid diluted with three times its weight of water upon the
spar. Let this remain three or four hours. Pour away the acid, remove
the spar, and clean the glass with turpentine, and your design will be
found upon the glass.

$How to make Carbon Paper.$--Carbonic paper for use with order books,
and for other purposes, is made as follows: Cold lard well mixed with
lamp-black is well rubbed into the paper with a soft piece of cotton
rag. When evenly and thoroughly done, wipe the surface gently with
flannel until the colour ceases to come off; it is then ready for use.
To obtain similar papers but of other colours, substitute ordinary
paint powders for the lamp-black. The most suitable colours will be
found to be Venetian red, Prussian blue, chrome green.

$The Making of Paste.$--There are so many occupations with which boys
amuse themselves that need paste that we have included a few recipes.

A SIMPLE PASTE.--For a breakfast cup full of a simple paste, needed
for use at the moment, and not required to be kept for many days, take
a heaped tablespoonful of flour. Mix it thoroughly with cold water as
though you were mixing mustard, then fill the cup with boiling water,
pour the whole into a saucepan, and let it boil gently for a few
minutes. It is then ready for use. You may use starch instead of flour.

A LARGE QUANTITY THAT WILL LAST.--In a quart of water dissolve a
teaspoonful of pure powdered alum. Into this stir as much flour as
will make a thick cream, and keep on stirring until the mixture is
smooth and until every lump has been removed. Thoroughly mix with this
a teaspoonful of powdered resin, and into this mixture pour a cup of
boiling water. Keep on stirring, and if the mixture does not thicken
from the action of the boiling water assist it to thicken by placing it
upon the fire for a minute or two. Afterwards add a few drops of oil of
cloves to preserve it from going sour. Pour the paste into some vessel
that has a cover, and keep it covered and in a cool place. In this form
it will be thicker and stronger than is necessary for general use, but
take a little as you need it and reduce it to its right consistency
with warm water.

$Rice Glue.$--Mix rice flour well with cold water, then simmer it
gently over the fire. This makes a fine kind of paste, durable and
effective. Mixed thickly it may be used as a modelling clay, and when
it is dry it takes a high polish.

$Dressing the Skins of Small Animals.$--Different dressings have been
recommended, most of which contain arsenic or corrosive sublimate,
which are deadly poisons; but really all that is necessary is simple
alum, a pound of which can be bought for three-halfpence. Stretch the
skin fur downwards on a board, and fasten it with tacks. Put powdered
alum over it, and rub it in well. Continue to do this every two or
three days for a fortnight. Then remove the alum, and with a knife
scrape carefully off any bits of flesh or fat that may be left on the
skin. When dried, to render it soft, rub a little yolk of egg or oil
into it, and draw it backwards and forwards across the edge of a blunt
knife, fixed for the purpose. Drawing through a ring, or well rubbing
between the hands will also serve to soften it.

$Casts of Medals and Coins.$--Cut a strip of brown paper about six
inches long by one inch deep. Rub a little oil or grease all over that
side of the coin you wish to reproduce, cleaning off all superfluous
grease with a little cotton wool, but still leaving the surface
greased. Then roll the paper round the edge of the coin so that it
resembles a pill-box with a metal bottom, and fix the loose end with a
dab of sealing wax. Into this pour a mixture of plaster of Paris and
water made to the consistence of cream, tapping the box lightly on
the table to cause the plaster to settle down free from bubbles. When
the plaster is set quite hard, strip off the paper, and you have your
plaster mould. By soaking this with oil and fastening a strip of paper
round it as round the coin, you have a complete mould into which you
can pour plaster and so take a cast exactly like the original except
in colour, which however may be imitated with water colours. Another
plan is to make the mould of a different substance, such as isinglass;
thoroughly dissolve isinglass in spirits of wine, then pour upon the
coin as before, and set aside for a day or two. When quite hard it will
separate easily and be found as clear as a bit of glass.

$Removal of Ink Blots.$--Ink-blots can be removed from paper by
painting over with a camel-hair brush dipped in a solution of 2
drachms muriate of tin in 4 drachms of water. When the ink has quite
disappeared, rinse the paper in clean water; then dry it.

$Grease removed from Paper.$--To remove grease spots from paper, gently
warm the greasy part and press it, under and over, with blotting-paper.
Repeatedly change the blotting-paper until most of the grease has
disappeared. Then heat a very little oil of turpentine until nearly
boiling, again warm the paper, and apply the turpentine to the grease
spot by means of a camel's hair brush, on both sides of the paper.
Repeat this process until the grease has _quite_ disappeared. Finally,
with a clean brush, dipped in spirits of wine, again brush over the
spot, and as the spirit evaporates the paper will be left free from
grease or stain. Remember that oil of turpentine is very inflammable.
It would be safer to heat it in the oven.

$Invisible Ink.$--Take an ounce of oil of vitriol, and mix with a pint
of rain water, and when cool write with a clean pen. When it is cold it
will disappear. Heat it and it will appear in black ink. Here are some
other inks which appear and disappear at the writer's will:--

Solution of nitro-muriate of cobalt, when heated turns green; solution
of acetate of cobalt, with a little nitre becomes rose-colour when
warm. Inks which remain visible when heated, but do not disappear
when cooled include, onion-juice, yellow; equal parts of copper and
sal-ammoniac in water, yellow; aquafortis, spirits of salt, oil of
vitriol, and salt and water, yellow or brown. Inks which appear when
exposed to light may be made with diluted solution of nitrate of
silver, or with diluted solution of terchloride of gold.

$How Leaves Keep Clean.$--While leaf shapes have formed a subject of
study ever since botanical science has existed, it is only recently
that one of the most remarkable purposes which the points of leaves
serve has been clearly brought out.

It has been shown, as the result of some special investigations made in
Germany, that the long points quickly drain off the excess of moisture
deposited upon the foliage in heavy rains.

This ready method of disposing of a surplus of moisture is important to
some plants. It also serves as a means of cleaning the surface of the
leaves.

Round leaves do not so easily get rid of the rain water, and it has
been noticed that they remain dusty and dirty after a shower, the
escape of the water by evaporation not tending to cleanse them, while
long, narrow, pointed leaves are washed clean and bright.

[Illustration]

[Illustration: DEAF AND DUMB ALPHABET]

[Illustration: DEAF AND DUMB ALPHABET SINGLE HAND.]

[Illustration: DEAF AND DUMB ALPHABET SINGLE HAND.]

[Illustration: How to Tie Knots.]

[Illustration:]

[Illustration:]

THE END




INDEX


  Alcohol and Athletics, 21

  Alphabet, Deaf and Dumb, 428

  Angling, 67

  Apple Mill, 402

  Aquariums, 131

  Artist, The boy as, 157

  Æolian Harp, An, How to make, 363


  Balloons, Bubble, 396

  Balloons, Fire, To make, 389

  Barometers, Simple, 418

  Barrel, Hammock made from a, 362

  Beads of Pith, 422

  Binding Books, 255

  Blotting Pad, 271

  Boat Race, Game of, 328

  Boats made of Pasteboard, 401

  Books, How to bind, 255

  Boomerangs, 329

  Bottle, The inexhaustible, 382

  Boxing, 55

  Boxing by Electricity, 399

  Bubble Balloons, 396

  Bubbles of Resin, 424

  Budgerigars, 246

  Bust in Clay, How made, 175

  Butterflies, 117


  Cage Birds, 242

  Calendar, A, on your fingers, 416

  Camera Obscura, A, 407

  Camp, Cooking in, 112

  Canaries, 242

  Candle, The chemistry of a, 370

  Canoes, 84

  Canoes, Steering of, 100

  Carbon Paper, How to make, 424

  Card Tricks, 220

  Casting Coins and Medals, 426

  Cavies, 228

  Chess, How to play, 273

  Chicken, The wonderful, 408

  Coins, How to cast, 426

  Coloured Fires, 387

  Concert, Game of, 327

  Conflagration, A seeming, 385

  Conjuring, 208

  Consequences, Game of, 327

  Cooking in Camp, 112

  Cremated Alive, 208

  Crystals, Beautiful, 385

  Crystals, Brilliant, 384

  Curling, 60

  Cutter, Model, How to make, 354

  Cyr Louis, 21


  Dancing Figure, 406

  Deaf and Dumb Alphabet, 428

  Digging, 150

  Distorted Landscapes, 409

  Dogs, 249

  Donkey, The lively, 407

  Draughts, How to play, 292

  Draughts, The losing game, 321

  Drawing, 157

  Drop Ball, 148

  Dumb Bells, 8, 12, 13, 15


  Egg and Bottle Trick, 379

  Electricity, Boxing by, 399

  Electrical Machine, An, How to make, 365

  Enlargement of Photographs, 264

  Etching on Glass, 424


  Fight for the Flag, 145

  Filter, How to make a, 268

  Fire, A well of, 384

  Fire Balloons, To make, 389

  Fires, Coloured, 387

  Fire Designs, 380

  Fishing, 67

  Fives, 143

  Flying Machine, 404

  Football, 49

  Fountain, A novel, 383

  Fountain, How to make a, 269

  Fox, 148

  Fox and Geese, 331

  French and English, 144

  Fugleman, 149


  Game, An amusing, 330

  Games, 138

  Gardening, 150

  Ghost, To make a, 385

  Glass, Etching on, 424

  Glue made of Rice, 425

  Golf, 52

  Gravity, The centre of, 386

  Grease, To remove, 426

  Guinea Pigs, 228

  Gymnastics, 7


  Haloes, Three, 385

  Hammock, How to make a, 362

  Handwriting, Hints on, 422

  Harp, Æolian, An, How to make, 363

  Hectograph, How to make, 267

  Hedgehog, The, 252

  Hockey, 26

  Hoops, Games with, 147

  Hop-Scotch, 145

  Horizontal Bar, 9, 12

  Horse, A prancing, 401

  Hurdle Races, 5

  Hygrometer, A, 271


  Illusions, Optical, 409

  Index, How to make, 258

  Indian Clubs, 8, 31

  Ink, Invisible, 427

  Ink, Removal of, 426


  Jackdaws, 251

  Jay, The, 251

  Jig Saw Puzzle, 408

  Jingling, 149

  Jumping, 5, 24


  Kite, How to make a, 139

  Knots, How to tie, 432


  Landscapes, Distorted, 409

  Lantern Slides, 266

  Leap Year, 417

  Leverage, An experiment in, 386

  Leaves, How they keep clean, 427

  Leaves, How to use, 180

  Leaves, Skeleton, 421

  Levy, Mr. E. Lawrence, 14


  Mac, A Whirling, 403

  Macgregor, John, 84

  Magazines, How to bind, 255

  Magician, The boy as, 208

  Magic Lantern Slides, 266

  Magpie, The, 251

  Medals, How to Cast, 426

  Mice, White, 251

  Modelling with Clay, 175

  Moths, 117

  Mouse, The, In the Trap, 409

  Musical Glass, A, 329


  Needle, The floating, 380

  Net Making, 261

  Newspaper Cuttings Book, 258

  Nickie Nickie Night, 138

  Nightingale, To imitate a, 422

  Nine Men's Morris, 331


  Optical Illusions, 409


  Paperchasing, 48

  Parallel Bars, 10

  Pasteboard, Boats made of, 401

  Paste, How to make, 425

  Pea, The jolly, 414

  Perspective, Rules of, 161

  Pets, 228

  Photographic Enlargements, 264

  Pith Beads, 422

  Polyphony, 201

  Portrait Bust, How made, 175

  Posting, 147

  Potatoe Mill, 402

  Prisoners' Base, 144

  Puzzles, 333

  Puzzles, 408

  Puzzles, Answers to, 342

  Pyrography, 189


  Quaternions, How to play, 324


  Rabbits, 232

  Rackets, 141

  Raven, The, 251

  Resin Bubbles, 424

  Rice Glue, 425

  Rings, Exercises with, 8

  Rings of Steam, 421

  Rob Roy Canoe, 84, 86

  Rowing, 43

  Running, 3, 23


  Sailing on Skates, 57

  Schooner, Model, How to make, 351

  Scrap Book, How to make, 258

  Sculling, 45

  Sea, How to go to, 419

  Secret Writing, 424

  Seed, How to sow, 153

  Serpent, A revolving, 415

  Shadow Buff, 328

  Shaving Papers, Case for, 270

  Shelter, A simple, 416

  Silkworms, 252

  Skates, Sailing on, 57

  Skating, 57

  Skeleton Leaves, 421

  Sketching, 157

  Skins, How to dress, 425

  Skip-Jack, The, 413

  Sleigh for Baby, How to make, 360

  Sleigh, How to make, 356

  Slides for Magic Lantern, 266

  Smoke produced at Will, 383

  Spiders and the Weather, 417

  Sprinting, 23

  Steam Rings, 421

  Steeplechasing, 5

  Stencilling, 163

  Swimming, 42

  Syphon, The, 269


  Tent, A simple, 416

  Toffee, To make your own, 421

  Top, A simple, 402

  Training for athletics, 1

  Trapeze, 11

  Turnpike, 147


  Vacuum, A, What it can do, 386

  Ventriloquism, 191


  Walking, 5, 21, 22

  Water boiled by Coldness, 380

  Water boiled in Paper Bag, 384

  Water, Illuminated, 384

  Water Polo, 46

  Water upside down, 382

  Weather, The, and Spiders, 417

  Weston's Walk, 21

  Whirling Mac, A, 403

  White Mice, 251

  Window Box, 154

  Wine Glass, The magic, 380

  Wood Carving, 350

  Woodman, The working, 410

  Writing Pad, 271

  Writing, Secret, 424

  Writing, The magic, 382

  Writing, The, on the wall, 385


  Yachts, 84, 107


  Zebra Finches, 243




  PRINTED BY
  THE LONDON AND NORWICH PRESS, LIMITED
  LONDON AND NORWICH




  Transcriber's Notes:

  The symbol [|3] represents a reversed numeral three.

  Missing punctuation has been added in several places.

  The symbol [A | B] represents an A printed vertically above a B.

  The oe ligature is rendered as [oe].

  Italics are rendered between underscores, e.g. _italics_.

  Bold text is rendered between dollar signs, e.g. $bold$.

  Small caps are rendered with ALL CAPS.

  The following table lists other changes made by the transcriber.

  +---------------------------+
  |   Transcriber's Changes   |
  +-----+----------+----------+
  |page |as printed|changed to|
  +-----+----------+----------+
  | 126 | throught | thought  |
  | 224 |shufflling|shuffling |
  | 281 |          |    V     |
  +-----+----------+----------+