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  TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE

  oe ligatures have been expanded.

  The footnote in Paragraph #35 on page 69 (the only one in the book)
  was moved to follow the paragraph from which it is referenced.

  Eight pages of advertisements that preceded the title page have been
  moved to the end of the book and placed before the two pages of
  advertisements that closed the book.

  Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
  corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
  the text and consultation of external sources.

  More detail can be found at the end of the book.




  [Illustration: THE HORSE'S MOUTH,

  SHOWING THE AGE BY THE TEETH.]




  THE HORSE'S MOUTH,
  SHOWING THE AGE
  BY
  THE TEETH.

  CONTAINING
  A FULL DESCRIPTION OF THE PERIODS WHEN THE TEETH ARE CUT;
  THE APPEARANCES THEY PRESENT;
  THE TRICKS TO WHICH THEY ARE EXPOSED;
  THE ECCENTRICITIES TO WHICH THEY ARE LIABLE;
  AND
  THE DISEASES TO WHICH THEY ARE SUBJECT.


  BY
  EDWARD MAYHEW, M. R. C. V. S.


  DEDICATED, BY PERMISSION,
  TO
  THE PRESIDENT AND COUNCIL
  OF
  The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons,

  AND EMBELLISHED WITH
  NUMEROUS COLOURED ENGRAVINGS FROM
  DRAWINGS MADE EXPRESSLY FOR THE WORK, AND
  TAKEN FROM AUTHENTICATED MOUTHS;
  WITH
  THIRTY-TWO WOOD-CUTS, ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE LETTER-PRESS.


  FOURTH EDITION.


  LONDON:
  MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY.




  TO THE

  PRESIDENT AND COUNCIL

  OF THE

  ROYAL COLLEGE OF VETERINARY SURGEONS,

  THIS WORK

  IS (BY PERMISSION) RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,

  BY THEIR OBLIGED AND

  VERY OBEDIENT SERVANTS,

  THE PUBLISHERS.

  41, _Piccadilly_.




  ILLUSTRATIONS.


  COLOURED ENGRAVINGS.
                                                                Page.
  Frontispiece--The Head of a Horse with the teeth exposed
  Nine months old, and 2 years old                                 70
  Three years old, and 3 years off                                 80
  Rising 4 years, and 4 years old                                  82
  Rising 5 years, and 5 years old                                  94
  Five years off, and 6 years off                                  96
  Seven years off, and 8 years off                                104
  Twelve years old, and 20 years old                              112
  Sixteen years old, and 30 years old                             120


  WOOD CUTS.

  Section of an incisor tooth                                      21
  Arrangement of the substances composing a molar tooth            26
  View of a molar tooth                                            29
  A permanent and temporary incisor tooth                          48
  Molar tooth about to be shed                                     62
  Molar tooth recently cut                                         62
  Table of the 3 year old incisor tooth                            79
  Table of the 3 year off incisor tooth                            79
  Tables of the incisor teeth at 4 years off                       85
  Tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth rising 5 years       92
  Tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at 5 years old       95
  Tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at 6 years old       99
  Tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at 7 years off      103
  Tables of the incisor teeth at 8 years off                      106
  Tables of the incisor teeth at 9 years old                      109
  Tables of the incisor teeth at 10 years old                     110
  Tables of the incisor teeth at 12 years old                     112
  Tables of the incisor teeth at 14 years old                     112
  Tables of the incisor teeth at 16 years old                     115
  Tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at 28 years old     119
  Tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at 29 years old     120
  Tables of the incisor teeth at 30 years old                     121
  Irregularity in the growth of the corner incisor tooth          140
  A parrot mouth                                                  147
  Changes caused by a diseased tooth                              175
  Mr. Gowing's tooth forceps                                      183
  The lever to ditto                                              184
  The forceps, fixed                                              185
  Mr. Gowing's framed chisel                                      188
  Mr. Gowing's guarded chisel                                     190
  Mr. Gowing's repeller for the guarded chisel                    191
  Mr. Gowing's lateral repeller for the guarded chisel            193




CONTENTS.


  Par.                                                          Page.

   1. That the teeth of the horse denote the age of the
     animal &c.                                                     1

   2. In every case the evidence of the teeth is secondary
     to direct and substantiated testimony; &c.                     3

   3. Some of the causes which induce certain persons
     to doubt &c.                                                   4

   4. The teeth more frequently contradict an arbitrary
     calculation than disagree with fact.                           7

   5. For the security of the purchaser of a horse, not
     connected with the turf, the teeth are a sufficient
     guard, &c.                                                    10

   6. The description of the teeth &c.                             14

   7. The teeth are situated &c.                                   15

   8. The teeth are organised, &c.                                 16

   9. The horse possesses forty teeth, &c.                         16

  10. Three substances enter into the composition of the
      horse's tooth.                                               18

  11. The crusta petrosa &c.                                       18

  12. The enamel &c.                                               20

  13. The ivory &c.                                                20

  14. The uses of the ivory, enamel, and crusta petrosa
      &c.                                                          22

  15. The separate uses of the three component structures,
      &c.                                                          24

  16. The various parts and peculiarities of form, &c.             32

  17. There are infundibula also in the molar teeth, &c.           35

  18. To distinguish an upper from a lower molar
      tooth &c.                                                    36

  19. The teeth of the horse are very firmly implanted in
      the jaws, &c.                                                37

  20. The molars of the lower jaw are the active agents
      of mastication, &c.                                          37

  21. Provision has been made by Nature to meet the
      wear to which the horse's teeth are subjected.               38

  22. The cavity of the pulp &c.                                   42

  23. Nature provides the horse with two sets of teeth.            43

  24. To know the temporary from the permanent
      teeth, &c.                                                   46

  25. To recognise a milk incisor tooth &c.                        46

  26. The permanent incisors are indicated by their
      greater size, &c.                                            49

  27. The temporary cannot be well distinguished from
      the permanent molars, while the horse is alive.              51

  28. The various points which denote youth &c.                    52

  29. The indications of age &c.                                   53

  30. The incisor teeth in old age, &c.                            54

  31. Some judges depend upon the tushes as indicative
      of the age, &c.                                              57

  32. The wolf's teeth or eye teeth aid us in judging of
      the age; &c.                                                 59

  33. The mode in which the horse cuts his teeth &c.               60

  34. The manner of examining the teeth &c.                        65

  35. At birth &c.                                                 69

  36. At six weeks, &c.                                            69

  37. At six months, &c.                                           69

  38. At nine months old, the corner milk teeth are up,
      but their edges do not yet meet.                             70

  39. At one year, &c.                                             70

  40. At eighteen months, &c.                                      71

  41. At two years old, there is a full mouth of milk
      incisors, all of which show considerable wear.               71

  42. At three years old, the centre horse teeth are well
      up, and are distinguished by their size, shape,
      and colour.                                                  72

  43. At three years off, the lateral milk teeth are shed,
      and the permanent teeth are coming up.                       80

  44. When rising four years old the lateral horse teeth
      are in the mouth, but their edges do not fairly
      meet.                                                        81

  45. At four years, four pair of horse teeth are well up,
      but the corner milk teeth are retained.                      82

  46. When rising five years old all the horse teeth are in
      the mouth, but the corner teeth have yet to meet.            90

  47. At five years old there is a full mouth of horse
      incisors, all the edges of which fairly meet.                94

  48. At five years off the corner teeth only show slight
      wear, and the posterior margins are round.                   95

  49. At six years of age the corner teeth look more
      firmly set, and their edges begin to be uneven; &c.          97

  50. At seven years off, the corner teeth, without showing
      age, exhibit further evidence of wear.                       99

  51. At eight years off, the gum of the lower corner tooth
      has become square, and the lower tush blunt.                104

  52. After the eighth year, &c.                                  106

  53. At twelve years old, there may be tartar on the
      lower tush. The teeth are longer, narrower, and
      the enamel darker.                                          110

  54. At sixteen years old, when the teeth are viewed
      from the side, only two incisors can be seen in the
      lower jaw, &c.                                              112

  55. At twenty years old, the form of the mouth has
      changed, and the lower teeth are imperfectly seen
      from the front.                                             115

  56. At thirty years old, the jaws are contracted; the
      lower are not seen when the upper teeth are in
      view.                                                       117

  57. The tricks that are practised on the teeth, &c.             123

  58. The irregularities of growth in the horse's teeth &c.       138

  59. The diseases to which the teeth of the horse are
      subjected, &c.                                              149

  60. The agents which are likely to injure the teeth, &c.        177

  61. The instruments used in connexion with the teeth
      of the horse &c.                                            181




PREFACE.


When submitting to the reader this my first work on Veterinary Science,
I cannot forbear from addressing to him a few remarks, in the hope of
explaining some of those peculiarities which it may appear to present.

At a period of life, when many men retire from active business, I
commenced the study of a new profession. My mind was not prepared to
receive instruction through the ordinary process, and I was, by
necessity, obliged to be, in a great measure, my own tutor. I found that
I could learn only through observation, and this circumstance led me
into inquiries which often left me in opposition with established
opinions. Hence many of the facts announced in the following pages are
new, and not very much contained in them is strictly accordant with the
acknowledged authorities. The latter circumstance I may regret, but I
have no apology to offer for it. My convictions are derived from the
study of Nature, and are conclusions gained from a higher source than
conjecture or opinion sanctioned by time or approved by professors.

Short as may have been my experience, nothing herein set down will be
found which is not the result of practice, or the consequence of
reasoning. Perhaps a longer professional existence would have given more
weight to that which is either novel in its announcement, or may appear
to be bold in its assurance. Truth, however, is speedily read by those
who are intent on deciphering it, and facts are not rendered more clear
to the mental vision by years of conventional dependence.

The teaching of our English Veterinary School has, for too long a
period, been traditional; what one had said, he who succeeded him
repeated, and when I entered as a pupil, there existed no spirit of
inquiry, or thought of extending the boundaries of knowledge. To what a
degree an evil system had been established, I may here state as an
instance, that in the first horse which I dissected, I was able to
demonstrate the existence of four muscles that had previously been
unnoticed by my teachers.

Under such circumstances, it is not surprising if a fresh intruder, on a
comparatively unexplored soil, did turn up something which, though it
laid near to the surface, had not before been exposed. On the teeth, my
investigations began from the beginning; and though I cannot but say I
have been greatly assisted by the information derived from the labours
of previous writers, yet I have, in every instance, accepted their
assertions only after I had tested them, and found them to be correct.

To the members of my profession, I am deeply indebted. When they knew
the subject on which I was engaged, each volunteered to aid me, and
generously gave me the benefit of that experience, which personally I
was unfortunate in not possessing. It was acknowledged, that upon the
teeth, some work which might be depended upon, was sadly needed, and to
render the present worthy of the confidence of the public, all to whom I
applied cheerfully gave their utmost help. From their cordial
communications and disinterested co-operation, I learnt much, and gained
many valuable ideas.

  _16, Spring Street,_
     _Westbourne Terrace._




THE HORSE'S MOUTH,

SHOWING THE AGE

BY

THE TEETH.


1. _That the teeth of the horse denoted the age of the animal_ appears
to have been a very ancient belief, which the experience of centuries
seems in no degree to have weakened. As a general rule, applied within
certain limitations, the impression is certainly well founded; for
perhaps no development is more regular than the teeth of the horse, and
no natural process so little exposed to the distortions of artifice. We
are, nevertheless, not to expect that the animal carries about in its
mouth a certificate of birth, written in characters so deep or legible
that they cannot be obliterated or misinterpreted. The indications to
be discovered by an inspection of the mouth of the horse, however, are
so generally true, that in these dependence may be placed; although they
are not so arbitrary or invariable, that upon them in every instance an
absolute opinion can hastily be pronounced. He who would judge of the
age by the teeth, must therefore be content to study and prepared to
encounter difficulties. In proportion as he has done the one, and is
fortified thereby to overcome the other, will be his success. There is
no secret charm which will enable man to unravel Nature's mysteries. Her
ways are regular, but they are not uniform--her laws are fixed, but her
acts cannot be measured by a system of rule or compass. The qualified
judge alone will read the teeth correctly; but in proportion as the task
is difficult, will be the candour and caution of him who fulfils it
properly. He will make allowance where certain marks are indistinct or
absent--he will not feel himself degraded by a confession of inability
to speak with certainty when the signs are complex or confused--and
above all, he will be cautious before he pronounces a final opinion, and
gives it forth as a decision, against which there ought to be no
appeal. The Veterinary Practitioner knows from repeated trials, tested
by long experience, that the teeth of the horse are worthy of attention;
he feels that their indications, scientifically interpreted, will seldom
mislead; but he does not regard them with a reverence resembling that
originating from an antiquated superstition, or look upon them as the
exemplifications of a principle which admits of no exceptions.

2. _In every case the evidence of the teeth is secondary to direct and
substantiated testimony_; for as there is no limit to possibility, so no
man can be prepared to say what Nature may or may not do. In the
absence, however, of positive and corroborated testimony, the teeth
become the best evidence, and that on which reliance should be placed.
When opposed to the indications of the mouth, the oath of a single
individual, for obvious reasons, would be of no weight. A foal can
hardly be born without many parties being cognizant of the fact--the
colt cannot change its master without several persons being made aware
of the transaction--and horses, for honest purposes, are not generally
sold or bought in secret. Proof of the age can generally be adduced, if
the parties interested think proper to seek it; or when it is not
possible to adduce such proof, the teeth deserve more confidence than an
uncorroborated assertion. An individual may be interested to mis-state,
or may be mistaken in his belief; whereas the teeth, being natural
growths, are removed from such suspicions.

3. _Some of the causes which induce certain persons to doubt_ the
possibility of the horse's age being accurately told from the teeth, are
not difficult to explain away. The Jockey Club has seen reason to
declare, that all thorough-bred animals shall be born on the 1st of
January, or if any should make their appearances at a later period, such
shall be esteemed one year old when the 31st of December has expired.
All blood horses have but one birth-day, nor do they in that respect
differ from their brethren of the coarser breeds; only those of the last
description are supposed to begin their existences upon the 1st of May.
If a racer has seen six Januaries, it is said to be six years old; and
if a nag had looked upon half a dozen Mays it would be pronounced to be
of a similar age. These customs are convenient, as affording a point
from which to date the age of an animal; but under such regulations,
confusion will and does frequently arise. In a long number of years, a
few months may be of little importance; but at the earlier period the
difference of several weeks may, in the calculation of the age, be a
serious matter. I will endeavour to show how far, in an extreme case,
confusion may be created by the operation of these customs, and to
prove, that he who should read the teeth correctly, would be unable to
satisfactorily pronounce the accepted age of a colt. According to the
received laws, a blood foal dropt on the 31st of December, and a foal
not thorough-bred, born on the 30th of April, would each, the second day
of life, complete the first year of its existence. Let it be supposed
that a blood mare bore a foal in the latter end of December--the animal
would be entered in the stud book according to the year of its birth,
but for obvious reasons could never be put into training; it would be
kept until another January arrived, when, although but one year and a
few days of age, it could, in strict accordance with the established
custom, be sold as a two-year-old; and the entry being in the stud book,
of course the point would not be disputed. The colt is bought and taken
into an ordinary stable, where all the horses not being thorough-bred
advance a year when the 1st of May appears; and when that day dawns, the
blood colt, not eighteen months of age, rising with the rest, is called
three years off. Now in such a case, the man who judged by the teeth
would be certain to be wrong; and if it is possible under any
circumstances for truth to be discredited, we may imagine that many
apparent mistakes would, on inquiry, be cleared up. The age of a horse
is seldom correctly stated even in a court of law. Witnesses swear by
the customs of men, and it never seems to occur to them that Nature has
not yet given in her adherence to the codes by which their consciences
are narcotized. Horses are born at all times and seasons. The regular
breeder, it is true, takes care towards the observance of the
regulations; but all who may think proper to have "a foal out of the old
mare when she's done up for work," are by no means nice in that
particular. Stallions are paraded for "service" in the autumn, and there
are to be found men who will argue stoutly in favour of a "late get."

4. _The teeth more frequently contradict an arbitrary calculation than
disagree with fact._ The mouth declares only the positive age, reckoned
from the actual day of birth, and I know of no evidence of a similar
description which may be more confidently trusted. Occasional exceptions
are to be found, and of these notice will be hereafter taken; such
exceptions, however, are not sufficiently frequent to upset the rule,
and were the testimony of the teeth to be rejected, I know of no other
that could be substituted. We are therefore necessitated to retain the
test, and consequently should know how to apply it. Almost every one
within or about the stable pretends to be able to do this, but some even
of those who have studied the subject are not capable of doing it
correctly. The evidence is often true when the judgment is false, and in
this circumstance, perhaps, lies the chief danger of the test. A
knowledge of the teeth is by no means universal; but where that
knowledge is profound, though the test may seldom disappoint, yet
because it will occasionally do so, the indications of the mouth ought
to be corroborated. To proceed summarily (as in the case of the Queen of
Cyprus) upon an inspection of the teeth, is certainly not justifiable,
since the mouth may possibly be eccentric, or the judgment pronounced
upon it may be erroneous. The teeth in every horse case are of
importance. The suggestions to which they give rise should not be
disregarded; yet at the same time no opinion of a final kind should be
based upon their showing. The utmost that the inspection of the teeth
could warrant is a doubt, certainly a strong one, as to the reported age
of the animal. That doubt would justify inquiry, and the teeth can
substantiate no more than the right to inquire. Some may be disposed to
think that such a right would not be worth possessing; but it must be
remembered, that until the inquiry were ended, no decision as to the
qualification of the animal could be arrived at. A valid doubt would
have been created. Let the owner of the suspected horse dispel it, or
the party who is interested to do so have time to seek the evidence
which would convert it into certainty. The umpire, on the showing of the
teeth, would be bound to withhold his judgment, not called upon to
decide. Were such the rule, all fear of injustice would be guarded
against; and as gentlemen connected with the turf cannot endure
suspicion, and are not very patient of delay, those who were the owners
of animals, the mouths of which presented any peculiarities, ought to
notify the fact some days before the horses started. By forbearing to do
so, gentlemen expose themselves to accusation. By examining the animal
at the moment of starting, and founding a decision thereon, no good can
be done, but injustice may be perpetrated; for supposing the suspected
horse is pronounced to exhibit the tokens of the lawful age, the
inspection of its mouth by a stranger may, by exciting its irritability,
lose the race. At the same time, to permit an unqualified animal to
start, would be unjust; and therefore the greater necessity for such a
timely inspection as would allow of a preliminary investigation of the
proofs that could be brought forward in contradiction of the teeth.
These suggestions are made with the less hesitation, as the writer feels
that were they adopted, few cases would spring out of them; for the
mouths of racers are so regular in their development, that the age of
this description of animal can with more certainty be pronounced than
that of any other kind of horse.

5. _For the security of the purchaser of a horse not connected with the
turf, the teeth are a sufficient guard_, and their indications, when
properly understood, may be confidently acted upon. This opinion is put
forth after a matured consideration of the subject, and probably there
is no dealer who would dissent from the decision at which the author has
arrived. The purchasers possibly may, on reflection, see less reason to
be satisfied, because the teeth would, perhaps, in many instances, seem
to favour the interest opposed to theirs. Let the matter, however, be
deliberately weighed, and perhaps it may be found that neither party is
likely to gain considerably, or to be seriously injured. In ordinary
trade, the word of the seller is not much regarded; but in horse
transactions, the assertion of the dealer is never received. One source
of evidence is therefore discarded, and some other must be sought. Now,
where horses are concerned, even the oaths of men appear to be of little
force; "hard" swearing is expected in every business of that nature, and
such expectation almost disqualifies all those persons to whose
testimony the dealer could appeal. Let it be remembered that it is not
the dealer who refuses to give evidence, or to adduce it; but the
purchaser, who is prejudiced against accepting it. This act on the
purchaser's part limits the proof he might demand; for as attestation is
rejected by him, not denied to him, he is by his conduct left without
cause of complaint, and bound to seek the evidence which he will accept.
Such evidence he looks for in the mouth of the animal, and is seldom
deceived when capable of interpreting it. The teeth, in fact, are the
only testimony that his caution leaves him to decide upon; and it will
be hereafter shown, that even when the teeth are early in their
development, the purchaser is not virtually wronged. All men, however,
seek to arm themselves by suspicion, when dealing in horse-flesh; and
the tricks that are played upon the teeth, rise immediately to the mind.
Such tricks certainly are played, but they are assuredly more talked
about than practised. There is a superstitious idea afloat, that
breeders can make horses appear of any age they please, by torturing the
mouths of the poor animals. The folly of such a belief will be exposed
in another part of this work; it is sufficient for the present to state,
that the credulity of the public in this matter has no foundation. A
colt cannot be made by any barbarity to look like a horse; and an old
horse cannot be forced to exhibit the mouth of a colt. That attempts are
made to disguise the teeth, and that such attempts occasionally impose
upon the buyer, is not denied; but all of such practices are shallow in
the extreme, and so easily detected, that the person deceived by them is
not an object of pity. If people will presume to judge before they have
learnt to recognize, their temerity is more to be blamed than its
consequence is to be commiserated. No one goes to buy a horse unwarned
of the dangers that will surround him; and if in his conceit he rather
prefers to hazard these than to seek protection, what right has he to
murmur at a result which it needed no conjurer to foretell? Is there any
market in the world where ignorance is secure from imposition? The world
is not yet so honest that the affairs of the horse mart are a subject
worthy of its special wonder; and it may be doubted if the principles
which regulate the conduct of the horse dealer, are not those which
influence the transactions of the most honourable traders. There are men
of the highest character living by the sale of horses; and it is
creditable to humanity, that after all of a certain class have been
unscrupulously stigmatized and openly reproached, there may still among
its members be found, beings preserving honour for the sake of itself
alone. The liberal public, however, in its wisdom, has pronounced the
character of the horse dealer; it has rejected his attestations, and
refused to listen to the testimony of those with whom he has
communication. The age of a horse is not taken from the mouth of its
owner, but looked for in that of the animal. This mode of procedure is
convenient--the record is at hand, the evidence brief, and the decision
to which it leads is that to which the purchaser by choice appeals. The
dealer stands by and knows that his voice is to be restrained. The teeth
denote the age, and when the word of the owner is not to be accepted,
there is no other evidence at hand. Were additional proof to be
required, in some instances it could not be procured, and in the
majority its production would be attended with an expense perhaps equal
to the price of the horse which it concerned. The expence, the seller of
course could not be expected to bear, and the buyer equally would resist
its infliction. Nothing is more high priced than absolute proof of any
kind; and there is always a further difficulty in the difference of
opinion which prevails, as to what constitutes absolute proof. A cursory
glance at the matter is enough to convince us, that the custom of
inspecting the teeth of the horse to ascertain the age of the animal, is
one which has had its origin in necessity. Experience has taught that
the mouth of the horse affords the most satisfactory evidence, and the
author's investigations on this subject have convinced him that the
public need require no better or more conclusive testimony. The reader,
however, before he ventures to abide by his own interpretation of the
signs which the horse's teeth exhibit, must be content to study, and
prepared to find the task somewhat difficult. All that can be done to
render the subject plain and clear, the author will attempt.

6. _The description of the teeth_ cannot be rendered pleasing; but as it
is a necessary part of the subject, the reader must exert his patience,
while the matter is briefly discussed. Teeth are anatomically classed
with bones, which in many respects they resemble. A tooth is divided
into two parts, or into _crown_ and _fang_. The _crown_ is that portion
which projects above the gum into the mouth; therefore so much as can
be seen while the animal lives, is the crown of the tooth. The _fang_,
the end of which is called the _root_, is that part of the tooth which
is hidden from view, and is inserted into the jaw. For the convenience
of description, however, other portions of the tooth have received
distinct names, and the _neck_ and _table_ are spoken of. The neck is
that portion of the tooth which is immediately surrounded by the gum.
The _table_ is the upper surface, or the part which touches the
corresponding tooth of the opposing jaw when the mouth is closed. Such
is the division made, and it will hereafter be found to assist the
description of the various changes which the teeth undergo.

7. _The teeth are situated_ in the maxillary bones, in which certain
osseous cups, like indentations or holes, called the alveolar cavities,
are developed for their reception. Each tooth has its separate cavity,
and however close the crowns may appear, nevertheless each fang is
divided from those before and behind by bony plates. The alveolar cavity
always corresponds to the fang. As the fang alters in form, or
diminishes in length, so does the shape of the cavity simultaneously
change; and should the tooth be removed, the space, no longer needed, is
filled up; the alveolar cavity being obliterated by a growth of bony
matter.

8. _Teeth are organised_, that is, they possess nerves, arteries, veins,
and absorbents, or are endowed with those vessels needed to resist
decay, and to promote nutrition. That a tooth possesses nerves, no one
who has submitted to have these members filed by the dentist, or who has
endured the tooth-ache, can for an instant doubt; and that they are
even, in some degree, susceptible of external impressions, the sensation
produced by certain acids seems to render probable. The growth they
exhibit shows they are gifted with arteries and veins; and these vessels
can be traced directly to and from, though not unto, their substance.
The existence of absorbents some have doubted; but the removal by nature
of the fangs of the temporary teeth, clearly testifies the presence of
these vessels.

9. _The horse possesses forty teeth_, viz., twelve incisors, four
tushes, and twenty-four molars. The _incisors_, sometimes called
_nippers_, are those which, situated in front of the mouth, are seen
when the lips are parted. They are the instruments, by means of which
the animal bites its food, and are placed six in the upper, and six in
the lower jaw. They are classed as pairs, being generally cut or
developed after that fashion. The middle two, in both jaws, are called
the _centre_ incisors; the two most backward, on either side of the
mouth, the _corner_ incisors; and the teeth, by which the corners and
centres are separated, the _lateral_ incisors. Of the _tushes_, the two
placed in the lower jaw are the most forward. These teeth, which are
sometimes termed canines, and sometimes cuspidati, (from _cuspis_, a
point,) are isolated, appearing in the space which divides the incisors
from the molars. They are only fully developed in the male, the mare
often being without any indication of them, and never displaying them in
so prominent a degree as the horse. Their use is not very apparent, but
they certainly would be employed in those combats to which stallions
seem naturally predisposed, and would render the grasp, and the wound it
could inflict, more severe. Because the mare is of a more pacific
temperament, Nature seems to have denied to her a perfect tush, by the
presence or absence of which, the sex is indicated by the mouth, and
upon which castration appears to exercise no influence, since the
gelding has as well-formed a tush as the perfect male. The _molars_ are
ranged in companies of six, one company on either side of the upper, and
a like number similarly situated in the lower jaw. The molars are the
instruments which enable the horse to grind down the fibrous and hard
food upon which it subsists, and they are distinguished by their
locality, as first, second, third, fourth, fifth, or sixth molar tooth
of the near or off side in the upper or lower jaw; the first being that
growing in front, or nearest to the incisors, and the sixth that placed
most backward in the cavity of the mouth.

10. _Three substances enter into the composition of the horse's tooth._
Each of these substances is distinct, and can be distinguished from
either of the others. The names given to the various parts are--1,
crusta petrosa, or hard crust; 2, enamel; and 3, ivory.

11. _The crusta petrosa_ is the most externally situated, and when the
tooth first appears in the mouth, it is entirely coated by this
substance, having a somewhat dull and dark appearance, which is only
lost when the hard crust is removed by attrition, and the enamel thereby
exposed. In amount, the crusta petrosa is second to the ivory, being
more in quantity than the enamel. In composition, it is characterized by
containing a great amount of animal substance; and, in structure, it is
peculiar for exhibiting, under the microscope, numerous corpuscles or
cells, from which pores or minute tubes appear to radiate. Within the
alveolar cavity, the crusta petrosa, which around the fang becomes of
considerable thickness, is of a yellowish white colour; but where, in
connexion with the crown of the tooth, it is exposed to the chemical
action of the food and air, it presents a darker aspect and looks like
an accumulation of tartar, for which indeed it has been mistaken. It
fills up the infundibula of the molars of the upper jaw, and lines those
of the incisors, being pierced by all the vessels which nourish the
teeth. If a tooth be subjected to the action of dilute hydrochloric
acid, the enamel will be removed, and the ivory and crusta petrosa be
rendered separate and distinct.

12. _The enamel_ of the horse's tooth appears to be unorganized, and to
contain no animal matter. Hydrochloric acid entirely dissolves it with a
slight effervescence, and though a few and a very few threads remain,
these rather seem to be connexions between the ivory and crusta petrosa,
than component parts of the enamel itself. That the enamel is an
unorganized substance, it may be essential to state, is asserted only of
this body in the tooth of the horse; for the enamel of the cow's tooth
is of a different nature, since hydrochloric acid does not dissolve it,
affect its whiteness, or destroy its form. The enamel is the least of
the three components of the tooth; of a whitish semi-transparent shining
aspect, it forms a thin crust to the ivory, lying immediately under the
crusta petrosa, and extending nearly to the root.

13. _The ivory_ forms the main bulk of the tooth, and though blood
vessels can be traced to, but not within its substance, yet it presents
numerous pores or minute canals, radiating from the centre to the
circumference, which the mind naturally associates with nutrition. These
pores cannot be traced to the cells or corpuscles of the crusta
petrosa, though in works of high authority, drawings obviously
indicating such a connexion, are presented; they are limited to the
ivory, and terminate within it. What their exact use may be, is not
known, but that they are of service, their presence is sufficient proof.
Like the minute canals of bone, they probably convey a serous or
colourless fluid, for the nutrition of the part in which they are
developed.

[Illustration]

The relative positions of the various structures that enter into the
composition of the incisor tooth, will be better understood by
reference to the accompanying wood-cut, which represents one of those
members divided down its centre:--_a_ indicates the crusta petrosa,
which can be traced to enclose the organ, and to dip down the
infundibulum B. The crusta petrosa is shown to be thicker at the root of
the fang, and at the base of the infundibulum, than at other parts. _b_
denotes the ivory, which forms the principal and central portion of the
tooth, in the middle of which is the darker space marked by the letter
_d_. This last is intended to represent the cavity of the pulp, which,
in the young incisor is, as in the diagram, of great length. Between the
ivory _b_, and the crusta petrosa _a_, is a white line _c_, which
indicates the position of the enamel, and will be seen to cover the
upper surface of the tooth dipping into the infundibulum, but not to
extend quite to the root.

14. _The uses of the ivory, enamel, and crusta petrosa_ must be now
noticed. The ivory is less dense than the enamel, and harder than the
crusta petrosa. On the external surface of the incisor teeth, the crusta
petrosa is, by the attrition to which this part must be subjected during
the gathering of the food, soon sufficiently removed to expose a
portion of the enamel: as the years of the animal increase, the outer
coating is almost worn away, and not being reproduced, little of the
crusta petrosa will be found on the nippers of very old horses. The
ivory, however, is always nearly on a level with the enamel,
notwithstanding the greater attrition which the substance forming the
principal portion of the table of the tooth must necessarily endure. A
sufficient indentation of the ivory, nevertheless, can be observed, to
render prominent the ridge of enamel, and to indicate that the
last-named material is endowed with the greatest power of resistance.
The enamel, in fact, is as hard as flint, and by striking it against a
steel, fire can be drawn forth. The three structures, therefore, vary in
hardness, and in an opposite direction they contrast to one another in
toughness. The ivory is sometimes fractured, but not frequently. I have
never seen the crusta petrosa of a living tooth exhibit such an injury;
but the enamel is rarely inspected without its being discovered to be
more or less in a ragged, chipped, and broken condition, especially at
the anterior edge of the table of the incisors.

15. _The separate uses of the three component structures_, however, is
not well shown in the incisors; for as the crusta petrosa is by a
natural process removed, and the ivory is not of essential service in
cutting the food, it might be supposed that the first was no more than a
temporary covering to, and the last only a basement for, the enamel.
When the mind, however, is directed to the observation of the molars or
double teeth, the properties and uses of all become apparent. The sense
of touch in the horse resides in the lips; with those organs he gathers
together the food before he grasps it with the incisors. Delicate,
however, as the animal's sense of touch is, the selection of the food is
further aided by the sight and smell. The most fragrant, the softest,
and the cleanest portions, therefore, are selected; but it would be too
much to suppose, that no particle of dirt, sand, or grit, was ever taken
into the mouth. That much is necessarily bitten, the incisors of those
horses which pasture on sandy soils, afford sufficient proof, as such
animals generally exhibit the anterior edges of those teeth considerably
jagged or notched. In the best fields, the grass is never free from
adherent impurities, and the manger, as well as the rack, is not always
remarkable in that respect. All, however, that is gathered by the lips,
or grasped by the incisors, passes to the molars to be comminuted and
mixed with the saliva previous to being swallowed. The molars, in fact,
are animal grindstones, and the different degrees of hardness which the
three component substances display, by wearing unevenly, always keep the
grinding surfaces irregular or sharp. The inequality of the grinding
surfaces of the molars enables the horse to reduce the toughest fibre to
a pulpy mass; but as many substances little less hard than the tooth
itself must frequently be ground up with the food, the molars would, at
first sight, appear to be subject to injury, especially as they have ten
times the work of the incisors to perform, and the senses of touch,
smell, and sight, cannot operate for their protection. Nature, however,
has provided against the danger to which they appear to be exposed; for
if, notwithstanding the guarding agency of the senses, the incisors are
so often injured, the molars, blindly employed, and used when the full
power of the horse's jaw is exerted, certainly needed some provision
against fracture. The crusta petrosa gives all the security that could
be desired; it encircles these teeth, dips into their fissures, and
fills their infundibula, forming no small part of the substance of the
molars. The subjoined wood-cut will better explain the manner in which
the various substances are arranged.

[Illustration: _Fig._ 1.]

[Illustration: _Fig._ 2.]

_Figure_ 1 represents the table of one of the molars taken from the
upper jaw. _Figure_ 2 the table of a molar extracted from the lower jaw.
The difference of size between the two organs is thus well marked, as
also the difference of shape. The white line indicates the enamel, and
the variegated substance which is encircled by it, denotes the
comparative quantity and position of the ivory. The crusta petrosa is
represented by the somewhat darker shade situated on the exterior of the
enamel. In figure 1, however, the reader will observe two patches
enclosed by white lines. These are the representatives of the two
infundibula which exist in all of the molars of the upper jaw, but which
are not developed in the lower teeth. The similar direction of the lines
will enable the reader to connect them with the crusta petrosa, which
substance, save in the newly-cut tooth, generally fills up these
cavities, although the enamel lining extends almost to the root. The
intricacy of the arrangement is, by this diagram, made apparent, and the
purpose rendered plain. Without such a provision, the first meal of the
animal consumed would probably shatter the instruments of mastication
into innumerable atoms; but girded round, and bound up with the tough
and resistant crusta petrosa, however hard may be the fibre the animal
chews--however much of grit or sand may be contained in it--or however
great may be the force by which the molars are pressed together, and
made to pass at the same time from side to side--not a particle of the
brittle enamel is fractured. Like a thin layer of glass, guarded between
two pieces of wood, it performs its office in security; and as the
necessity for the provision, towards which I have directed attention,
is obvious, so is it the more strange that the thick coating of the
crusta petrosa around the molars should by authors have been mistaken
for an accumulation of tartar. The mistake was certainly extraordinary,
as the crusta petrosa in the horse's tooth is of physiological
importance, and will presently be shown to merit the attention of the
pathologist. I am aware, when making this statement, that contradiction
is offered to the opinions of many and deservedly esteemed authorities;
and while I regret the necessity of differing with such writers, I also
lament that my opinion as to the supposed use of the outer membrane of
the newly-developed organ, does not coincide with theirs. The nature of
this treatise will not allow me to enter into the subject of the
development of the teeth; but I may here say, that the outer membrane
has been generally stated to secrete the enamel. It is that membrane
which, thickening with the growth of the tooth, becomes the crusta
petrosa; but with regard to its secretive powers, I do not imagine it is
endowed with any function of that description, or that it is in any way
concerned in the production of the enamel. My reasons for making such
and so bold an assertion are well considered, not hastily advanced. I
have before me the left anterior molar, taken from the jaw of a colt
which was rising four. A representation of the tooth alluded to is here
given.

[Illustration]

_a_ denotes the crusta petrosa, _b_ the outer surface of the enamel, the
lines representing the plated or finely grooved aspect, which this part
exhibits on its exterior. _c_, which letter will, on inspection, be
discovered in the centre of the darkened space to the right of the lower
portion of the enamel, indicates a spot where disease was existing, and
to which reference will be hereafter made. _d_ denotes the roots, which,
as will be seen, are (although the tooth had been in active employment
for twelve months) still incomplete, and not enveloped by crusta
petrosa. The above wood-cut, the accuracy of which is not to be
disputed, shows a comparatively large portion of the assumed secretive
membrane to be absent. The deficient part of the outer covering, I may
here state, was removed by a natural process, as I myself extracted the
tooth. Nevertheless where the crusta petrosa is deficient, the laminated
external surface of the enamel is exposed in perfect and normal
condition. This evidence appears pretty conclusive, for where the
secretive substance is absent, the secretion would hardly appear. On the
other hand, if the secretion of the enamel were the special function of
the crusta petrosa, then wherever the one was found, the other would
also be present. Let the reader, however, refer to the wood-cut inserted
at page 21. In that diagram, the crusta petrosa is faithfully
represented as thickest at the root; but at this very point the enamel
is seen to be entirely wanting. The conclusion towards which such facts
point, is almost decisive; but, nevertheless, there are many inferences
which help to support it. If a longitudinal section of a tooth be made,
a very thin white line may be plainly seen, indicating, probably
between the ivory and the enamel, another source for the production of
the substance which the crusta petrosa has been said to secrete.
Moreover, if a tooth be boiled for some hours, a very little force will
enable any person to pull off the enamel from the ivory; and this
experiment likewise suggests the intervention of some gelatinous
membrane between the two structures. The microscope also confirms the
opinion I advance, and shows that, in the old tooth, the membrane is
absorbed, for its remains can only be detected in isolated places. I am
fully aware that none of the arguments here advanced are, with the
exception of the first, at all conclusive. Appearances are deceptive,
and results consequent upon artificial processes by no means to be
trusted. After all, however, the necessity for such a secretive membrane
is by no means imperative for the production of the enamel. Our views on
these points may be too circumscribed, since at the extremities of the
bones we see cartilage and osseous structure connected, without any such
interposition; and no one expects such a matrix for the vitreous table
of the cranial parietes. The crusta petrosa may have its uses apart from
any conjectural function of secretion; and, in further proof that it
does not secrete, it can, in the young subject, before the tooth has
emerged from its primary cavity, be separated with the greatest facility
from the enamel. It serves to protect the enamel, but it likewise
answers the end of keeping the tooth firm in the jaw: around the neck of
the molars it becomes thickened to a great extent; and at the roots,
especially of old teeth, it exhibits considerable substance. The horse's
molars are continually being wrenched from side to side while the food
is being ground, and unless they were very firmly mortised, the vessels
which nurture them would be continually lacerated: this the crusta
petrosa, by entirely filling the alveolar cavity, prevents; and as the
molars wear down with age, the thickening of the membrane enables the
jaw to retain with security the latest portion of the tooth. I have
specimens taken from very aged subjects, where the fang having been worn
away, the molar consists merely of the roots of teeth embedded in a mass
of crusta petrosa.

16. _The various parts and peculiarities of form_, now require
consideration. If the table of an incisor tooth be observed, a cavity
will be seen in the centre of it: this cavity, called the infundibulum,
is of variable depth. In the temporary or milk teeth, it extends only
half way down the crown; in the permanent or horse incisors, it is from
three quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter deep, being of
greater depth in the teeth of the upper than in those of the lower jaw,
and not of the same magnitude in all horses. The infundibula are
indentations in the body of the ivory, and they possess two coverings,
an external one of crusta petrosa, and internal investment of enamel:
the enamel does not materially vary in thickness upon this part, but the
crusta petrosa of the infundibula is, in different subjects, of very
unequal extent. In some animals it becomes very thick, and in such, the
infundibula seem soon to be obliterated, owing to the crusta petrosa
filling up the cavity. A good specimen of the early obliteration of the
cavity, by the thickness of its investing membrane, is shown by the
teeth preserved with the jaw of the horse Leander, which is now in the
possession of Mr. W. Field. That animal, though but four years old, had
lost the "marks" in the central incisors. A white line, however, shows
that the enamel dips deep into the substance of the ivory, and indicates
what would have been the form of the infundibula, had not the crusta
petrosa filled up the cavities. The infundibula have received special
attention from horsemen, and have been thought to indicate correctly the
age of the horse; their lining membrane speedily becomes blackened by
the chemical action of the food, &c., constituting what are called the
"marks" of the mouth; and as the teeth undergo wear, these marks are
ultimately lost. The period at which they may disappear, and the
appearances which they may put on, are well shown in a plate which Mr.
Fores has published, entitled "_The Age of the Horse_," and to that
plate I therefore refer the reader; but, while doing so, I must caution
him not to depend too much upon a sign, which is only true as a general
rule; for as the infundibula in all animals are not of the same depth,
or supposing them to be of one depth, the crusta petrosa is seldom of
the like thickness in any two horses, and the teeth do not wear
uniformly in different subjects, of course the indications they exhibit
cannot be absolutely relied upon. Those indications, however, ought to
be known, and should never be disregarded. Some animals of seventeen
years of age, and even in rare instances of twenty-eight years old, will
retain the marks in two or more of the incisors; nevertheless, as a
general rule, these signs are worthy of attention, and, taken in
conjunction with the illustrations presented in this work, afford all
that can be obtained to confirm the judgment.

17. _There are infundibula also in the molar teeth_, but not in all of
them. Those of the lower jaw have no infundibula, but only grooves or
fissures, into which the crusta petrosa dips, and which it fills up. The
manner of the arrangement will be seen in the table of one of these
teeth represented in figure 2, page 26. In the same place, the wood-cut,
figure 1, depicts the grinding surface of one of the superior molars.
Every tooth of the last description, possesses two infundibula, which
extend almost to the root, and are possessed of the same coverings as
the like cavities in the incisors. The crusta petrosa, however, which
lines the infundibula of the superior molars, is much thicker than the
similar membrane inverting the like parts in the incisors; consequently,
absolute cavities, answering to the marks of the nippers, are of
comparatively slight extent, soon obliterated, and not generally found
in any of these teeth after the horse is six years old; indeed all the
marks are often obliterated before the fifth year.

18. _To distinguish an upper from a lower molar tooth_ is not difficult.
The presence of the infundibula in the first would alone enable it to be
pointed out; but there are other indications that are worthy of a
passing notice. The table of the upper molars is much broader, being
compared to those of the lower jaw as nine is to five. Then the form of
the table is different in each. The table of the lower tooth is indented
on either side, the indentation extending downwards along the fang. The
table of the upper molars present two narrow prominences, and two broad
grooves on the outer side; and also exhibits one broad prominence upon
the centre of the inner side--all of these developments being likewise
contained along the fang. The slant of the tables also differs. In the
upper jaw, the outer edge is the lowest. In the lower jaw, the tables
incline in the opposite direction.

19. _The teeth of the horse are very firmly implanted in the jaws._ The
fangs are of a length which they who have only seen the teeth extracted
from the mouth of a human being would hardly imagine. The length of fang
of course gives the teeth some security; but this is not the only
provision made for that end. The teeth radiate towards a common centre,
being widely separated at their roots, but approximating at the crowns.
They also incline laterally from the perpendicular, so that the force
applied to them never acts in a direct line, or is concentrated upon one
particular point.

20. _The molars of the lower jaw are the active agents of mastication_,
for motion, during this process, only takes place in that part of the
head in which those teeth are placed. The inferior molars are the
instruments that grind--the upper molars are simply the surfaces upon
which the food is ground. The whole of the molars, however, are never
simultaneously employed. The horse can chew but on one side at a time,
for as the inferior maxillary bone is considerably narrower than the
superior, if the teeth on one side are brought into apposition, those
of the opposite side are necessarily separated. Any one who has
observed a horse feeding, will have remarked that the animal, during the
act, continually abducts and adducts, the lower jaw not causing it to
describe a circle, as does the cow, but urging it first to one side and
then to the other. It will be seen, therefore, that the whole force of
those strong muscles, which close the mouth of the horse, is employed on
a portion of the jaw at the same moment, and the power then exerted must
obviously be very great. Recognizing this fact, the reason for all that
has been pointed out--the shelving tables--the grooved or indented
sides--the double inclination, and the great length of the fangs is at
once perceived, for the action is a wrenching one; and the greater
extent of, and more uneven, surface presented by the molars of the upper
jaw, facilitates the comminution, without imposing weight upon the
muscular activity. Had the larger teeth been implanted in the inferior
maxillary bone, the labour imposed would have been much augmented, and
the end attained have been in no way expedited.

21. _Provision has been made by Nature to meet the wear to which the
horse's teeth are subjected._ Such provision, however, I am of opinion,
has been somewhat mis-stated by the majority of writers who have treated
of this matter. Many of these authors dwell greatly upon the growth of
the teeth of the horse, as though this function were in constant
activity during the life of the animal. The arguments by which their
views are supported, are primarily drawn from analogy rather than
deduced from observation. Because the teeth of certain animals,
especially those classed by naturalists as rodentia, and of which the
rat and rabbit are familiar types--because the teeth of these creatures
are known to grow, and those of the elephant are also proved to
increase--the same is assumed of the horse. The inference is certainly
of strength, but nevertheless it is far short of proof; a similarity
between the animals is not demonstrated, and a sameness cannot be shown.
Moreover, in another direction, an evidence is attempted to be made of
the consequence which ensues when one of the molar teeth loses its
vitality; the tooth that so suffers is rapidly worn down, and the
opposing tooth becomes of an unnatural length, projecting far beyond its
fellows. The increase of length in such a case has been supposed to go
on in the sound organ at the natural rate, and the growth of the
diseased tooth only has been thought to be stopped; hence the amount of
wear and of growth is attempted to be measured; but on consideration it
will be seen, that something more than the mere cessation of increase
has to be calculated. The carious tooth had ceased to be a part of the
living body, and with its vitality the organ lost its capability of
self-preservation. The condition of the part had changed, and of the
strength which vitality bestows, all persons must be conscious. To argue
from the results produced upon dead matter, and then apply the
deductions to living organs, is a course which no physiologist will
sanction. The tooth that had ceased to live, might be quickly worn down,
for other reasons than that it had ceased to grow. This is so clear, and
the inference to which allusion was formerly made so obviously
untenable, that I shall not longer detain the reader by dwelling upon
either, but proceed to state my own views of the subject. I admit the
teeth of the horse do grow, and only doubt if the process has been
properly described. When the crown of the tooth first appears in the
mouth, the fang is not completed, and the root has not even been
developed. The horse is seven years old before all the roots are
perfected, and when these are completed, I doubt if the after growth is
material. If the jaw of an old horse be examined, the alveolar cavities
will be found to be shallow, showing that the loss, consequent upon the
wear, was compensated by the tooth being projected into the mouth, and
not by any increase of substance. Again, those animals, the incisors of
which retain the marks in extreme old age, may show long teeth, but not
of that excessive length which growth would suppose; only such as the
want of wear would occasion, supposing the increase to cease when the
root was perfected. The fang, in fact, is so much tooth in reserve, and
as such answers the purpose for which growth was supposed to be
necessitated. I have by me, specimens of old teeth, but the measurement
of none of them contradicts the opinion I have advanced, there being but
a material increase of the crusta petrosa, which at the root blends with
the ivory, and cannot be clearly separated from it. The thickening of
the crusta petrosa around the root and neck, probably never ceases
during the health of the animal; but to this substance alone is
confined the imaginary growth of the horse's teeth. When the roots are
perfected, the length of the tooth is completed, and the only after
process consists in a gradual deposition of earthy matter, within the
body of the member, the bulk of which is defined. In old teeth, the
ivory becomes very dense; and he who attempts to cut through an old and
young tooth, will be made aware of a contrast. The pulp in the teeth,
after the formation of the root, gradually diminishes and ultimately
disappears, in consequence of the ossific deposition. In fact, when
growth ceases, consolidation has taken place, and rendered its
continuance no longer necessary.

22. _The cavity of the pulp_ has been always stated to exist in the
tooth of the horse. In the human tooth it occupies the extremity of the
fang, being situated within the substance of the ivory; and the double
teeth are known to have as many cavities of this kind as there are roots
to the part. The same has been assumed to be the case also with the
horse, but I cannot say that investigation enables me to corroborate
this opinion. I find no cavity, that is no empty space, constantly
present in the fangs of the horse's teeth, and no separate or defined
cavities at the roots of the molars. The bone or ivory may be deficient,
more or less, towards the centre of the fang; but this space, not yet
occupied by the osseous deposit, is filled by a membraneous substance
which is continuous with the crusta petrosa of the root, and will
ultimately be converted into bone. I cannot separate the tissues forming
the pulp, from the crusta petrosa itself; and I assume the two to be
continuous. The only difference I can observe is, that the tissue of the
pulp is the finest; but as the vessels of the one primarily pierce
through and ramify upon the other, I cannot perceive the necessity for
their separation. It will be understood, that I am speaking of these
parts in a fresh subject, and not alluding to a mascerated and dried
specimen, the appearance presented by the last being calculated to
mislead. With age, the pulp diminishes; and in a tooth extracted from a
very old animal, no positive remains of it will be found--osseous matter
filling up the space which the pulp once occupied.

23. _Nature provides the horse with two sets of teeth._ The first are
small, or of a size proportioned to the diminutive stature of the foal,
and are called milk teeth--colt's teeth--or temporary teeth--either of
which terms equally well characterizes them. The temporary teeth are
twenty-four in number--six incisors in either jaw, and three molars on
both sides of the upper and also of the lower jaw. The incisors
sometimes begin to appear in the mouth before birth, though generally
the gums are unbroken when the foal is dropped; they commence to be shed
when the colt is two years and a half old--none remaining in the jaws
after the fifth year. The molars, which are the first, second, and
third, or the anterior three, begin to be cast off at two years and a
half, being entirely removed between the third and fourth year. It used
to be asserted that the last temporary molar was shed between the fourth
and fifth year of the animal's life; but while I was connected with the
Veterinary College, I inspected several heads and found none that
corroborated the doctrine, which, for half a century, had been
inculcated at that Institution. My observations were at first violently
contested, and opportunities were sought to uphold the received and old
manner of teaching. By slow degrees, however, the truth prevailed; and
I have now the pleasure of knowing, that what I pointed out to the
professors, those gentlemen at present communicate to their pupils.
Several parties, however, have been mean enough to pretend they either
are ignorant of what I effected, or believe what I accomplished was the
work of another person; while I am sorry to add, that a professor has
even gone so far as to lay claim to a discovery, which at the time cost
me some pains to fully make out, and more to firmly establish. My
observations were, in the first instance, made alone, and the only
person who eventually assisted me was Mr. I. K. Lord, of Tavistock. That
gentleman did afford me much help, and to him I beg publicly to record
my sense of obligation. No other individual was in any manner concerned
in the investigation, and I regret that I should be necessitated to make
such an assertion. The point, however, is now fully established; and it
will be seen, that it may be of practical importance. The molars, as
truthfully as the incisors, denote the age; and, as corroborators, they
should, in every doubtful case, be inspected.

24. _To know the temporary from the permanent teeth_, or to be able to
distinguish one from the other, is very essential; but such knowledge is
not so common as may be generally imagined. Dealers have blundered, and
many a gentleman having purchased a yearling for a horse, has afterwards
been surprised to discover that the animal was losing some of its front
teeth. These kind of mistakes are mostly confined to the smaller
breeds--with ponies the incident is common enough, but even with horses
it has occurred. I may therefore be excused if I enter rather minutely
into those points of difference which distinguish the one from the
other. The reader must be content to study well this portion of the
treatise, for the age is best marked by the number of milk teeth
retained in the jaw, and easiest told during those years when these
teeth are in the course of being shed.

25. _To recognize a milk incisor tooth_ the reader must bear in mind
that it is of a temporary nature, and intended only to exist during the
few first years of the animal's life, or during its colthood; for when
all the permanent teeth are fairly up, the creature becomes a horse.
The recollection of their temporary character will cause them to be the
more easily distinguished: they look less solid and less firm; they are
smaller, more white, and if ideas of beauty and sentiment befit such a
subject, have a prettier and more innocent appearance. This is perfectly
true as a general rule, but nevertheless must not be absolutely applied;
for I have seen rare instances in which the milk teeth were, from
constitutional or other causes, so discoloured, as altogether to lose
their infantine and prepossessing character--the permanent incisors
appearing cleanly by the contrast. On account of so singular a
circumstance occasionally happening, if for no stronger reason, it is
imperative therefore, even at the risk of being tedious, to enter
minutely into this part of the subject. In colour these teeth are white,
because the coating of crusta petrosa which originally invests them is
particularly thin, and soon, for the most part, disappears, exposing the
enamel; their crowns are shorter, and the neck is well developed,
because their fangs are narrow and of less length. In the annexed
wood-cut, for the purpose of making the dissimilarity the more
conspicuous, a temporary and a permanent incisor are contrasted.
_Figure_ 1 is the horse, _Figure_ 2 the milk tooth. The fang of the milk
tooth is properly represented of considerable less diameter than the
crown; and just where it arises will be observed a little shading, which
indicates a sinking in, or nipping up, at that particular spot: the
place so narrowed is the neck, which in the temporary teeth of the colt
is not badly developed.

[Illustration: _Fig._ 1.]

[Illustration: _Fig._ 2.]

However, while the milk tooth is retained in the mouth the neck is not
particularly well shown, because the gum encircling the crown in a great
measure conceals that part. But the form of the outer surface of the
crown can hardly be mistaken. In the foal's tooth it more or less
approaches to a semi-circle, from which the permanent teeth greatly
differ, as will be seen by comparing the representations of the two as
given in the plates. The outer surface likewise is characterized by
peculiar indentations: a number of small channels run along it, taking a
course from the neck towards the margin of the table, and giving an
irregular fluted appearance to the enamel. There will be seen, on the
crown of _Figure_ 2, lines intended to convey an idea of the situation
and direction of these little grooves. The table is always oblong, but
the infundibula are generally absent after the second year, and when
they are present, the cavities are narrow, and obviously of little
depth. These numerous signs enable the milk tooth to be recognized with
facility, at a single glance, for it is seldom that one of the various
indications is absent; and after all have been impressed by observation,
the milk tooth can hardly be mistaken.

26. _The permanent incisors are indicated by their greater size_, a
circumstance which the foregoing wood-cut does not exaggerate. The gum
is much further retracted, and this gives to these organs an irregular
oblong figure, which is very different from the semi-circular shape of
the milk teeth. The incisors, however, are not of equal length in all
horses, and in some the gum may be so prominent as to give the permanent
somewhat the appearance of a temporary incisor; other indications,
however, even then, enable the different nature of each to be with
certainty distinguished. The enamel is only partially exposed in the
horse tooth; the shaded portion of _Figure_ 1, in the preceding
wood-cut, denotes the extent to which it is generally covered during the
period of dentition; and when the teeth first appear, the enamel is
wholly concealed by a covering of crusta petrosa. That covering is never
entirely removed--a small portion of it, even in the oldest mouths, is
seen near to the gums. It looks like an accumulation of tartar, and is
most conspicuous in the tooth that has been newly cut. The presence or
absence of this substance, therefore, should be noted, and moreover, the
enamel surface should be further inspected. The numerous channels that
give so peculiar a fluted appearance to the milk tooth, are not to be
seen upon that of a permanent description; but in the stead are to be
detected only one or two broad grooves, which extend the entire length
of the crown. _Figure_ 1, at page 48, indicates the shape and direction
of the grooves upon the surface of the permanent tooth, though probably
a better idea of them is to be derived from an inspection of the
coloured engravings, in which they are more prominently exhibited. By
means of such guides, the opinion is rendered positive, and the
inspection of the table is hardly needed to confirm it; but the table
affords corroborative evidence, which may be of service. The table is
broader, and the infundibulum is deeper. In this latter cavity, food
accumulates in the permanent, but rarely in the temporary incisor. The
gum may so contract as to give to the tooth some appearance of
possessing a neck, but in reality no such part is developed in the horse
incisors, as will be seen by referring to the previous cut, which may,
with profit, be compared with the coloured engravings, which depict
these members as they are exhibited in the mouth of the living animal.

27. _The temporary cannot be well distinguished from the permanent
molars, while the horse is alive._ It is true that the table of the
first is somewhat narrower than, though of equal length, with that of
the last; but the difference is not so marked as to justify an opinion
being pronounced upon the imperfect inspection which, under the most
favourable circumstances, can be made of these organs. The number of the
molars may, however, be counted, and from this the age of the animal
deduced with correctness. The operation can be at all times performed,
and the fact ascertained. When, however, removed from the jaw, the
character of the molar is easily recognized, for the difference in the
length and shape of the fang renders it then impossible to confound the
temporary with the permanent tooth.

28. _The various points which denote youth_ must now be noticed. The
remarks on this subject, however, must be confined to the mouth, to
which this treatise is devoted. In the foal, the membrane of the mouth
is of a delicate pink colour, suggestive of its high vascularity. The
gums are prominent, for as the permanent are cut posteriorly to the milk
incisors, and the germs of the horse teeth are developed even at the
time of birth, the anterior part of the jaw is pushed forward to make
room for their growth. This gives the little animal somewhat the
appearance of being parrot-mouthed, as will be observed by referring to
the coloured plate of nine months. Then the palate is low in its
position, and the bars appear almost on a level with the tables of the
upper teeth, and may even descend beyond them. The lower jaw, also, if
felt, will be found to be quite round; and the face, if observed at that
part under which the molar teeth are situated, will seem full, or the
cheek will look a little blown out. These last signs, more or less,
remain till the process of dentition is completed.

29. _The indications of age_ are no less deserving of notice. The edges
of the lower jaw become sharp, and ultimately retracted; the cheeks grow
flat; the membrane of the mouth loses its vascularity, and puts on a
dull yellowish colour; the gums look hard, and the front of the jaw
becomes narrower, while at the same time it inclines more backward,
causing the teeth to project horizontally. The inclination which age
gives to the teeth, will be easily perceived by comparing the coloured
engravings with each other; and the peculiarity of the upper and lower
incisors not being perceptible at the same time in the mouth of a
thirty-years old, entirely springs from the acuteness of the angle which
they form at that period. The bars, as years accumulate, also change
their positions, being drawn upwards. From the space between the corner
incisors and the first molars, the tongue on either side protrudes, as
if the narrowed cavity left not sufficient room for the organ to repose
in. The extent to which the tongue will project may be conjectured, by
regarding the representation of it given in the coloured plate of the
thirty-year old mouth. At that age, the protrusion is too strongly
marked to escape the observation of any one whose attention has once
been directed to the circumstance. Accompanying the inability to retain
the tongue within the jaws, is a constant flow of saliva, which
continually falls from the mouth of the old horse when the lips be held
apart. The latter fact, the author, when he made the drawings for the
present work, had ample experience of, as in some instances it
occasioned serious delay.

30. _The incisor teeth, in old age_, have their characteristic signs.
Mostly they appear unnaturally long, though in rare instances they are
worn down almost to the gums. When long, they will generally show
interstices dividing them, such interstices, however, not being free,
but occupied by a compact mass of foreign matter, derived from the food,
and having a black colour. The reader will, by turning to the coloured
plates of twenty and thirty years, see these accumulations indicated.
When the incisors are very short, they are arranged in a different order
to those of the young animal. The tables of the teeth of the young
horse, form almost a semi-circle; in the adult animal, they gradually
assume a crescentic order, and as age progresses, they ultimately range,
more or less, in a straight line. The teeth also look narrower as the
fangs descend with the wear of the organs, and in colour they slightly
change. The enamel loses much of its semi-opaque and characteristic
appearance, assuming a more dull aspect, and a yellowish tint. The
crusta petrosa is to be seen only near to the gums, and within the
grooves, which often are deep and very well defined, and within which
the remains of the once-investing membrane becomes almost black. Then
again, the tables themselves change their shape as the years increase.
At first, these surfaces are of an oblong and somewhat oval figure; by
degrees, however, they become angular, and ultimately more or less
square. The continental authors have been very minute, and not a little
profuse upon the changes of form which the tables undergo, and attribute
the alteration to the gradual wear of the teeth. The correctness of this
view they endeavour to establish by sawing a tooth through at various
places, and attempting to show, that the forms of the surfaces exposed
by this process correspond to the shapes assumed by the table during the
progress of age. Their deductions can, in the study, be made to appear
true, but in the stable will not bear the absolute application to which
these writers would put them. By means of this test, Pessina asserted he
would tell the age of a horse, accurately, up to the twenty-second year.
The Girards acknowledge the tables will not guide them so far, but
nevertheless are willing to apply them during the first seventeen years
of the animal's life. I leave the reader to form his own opinion of the
value of such speculations--for while I confess they are of some worth
as guides to the primary study, and helps to the proper understanding of
the cause of those changes of figure to be anticipated--I am not
satisfied that any rule drawn from them can be depended upon. For that
reason I shall hereafter present the reader with figures of the tables
taken from authenticated mouths, rather than amuse him with
speculations, which, however imposing they may seem to the ignorant,
practice soon discovers to be no more than remote and plausible
possibilities.

31. _Some judges depend upon the tushes as indicative of the age_, and
taken in conjunction with the other parts they afford corroborative
evidence; singly, however, they should not be relied upon, nor should
too much weight at any time be placed upon their appearance. In the
first place, the tushes are cut irregularly; they may appear in the
mouth between the second and third, and they may not pierce the gums so
late even as the eighth year; the periods named being of course the
extremes. As a general rule, however, they come up between the fourth
and fifth year. The custom, however, which Nature so frequently
disregards, can afford no positive guide to the judgment, and the wear
which may begin thus early or late, should not be too particularly
insisted upon. The tushes when they first show are shaped somewhat like
a spear head, smooth and rounded on their external surfaces, but grooved
on the side which touches the tongue, pointed at their extremities, and
sharp at their edges. The inclination of the young tush is oblique,
standing forward, and the situation is comparatively near to the
incisors. As the animal's age advances, the tushes retract, the grooves
on the inner surfaces wear out, and the space which separates them from
the incisors increases: all observations, however, concerning the
tushes, must be accepted with much allowance, for these teeth are very
irregular. As a general rule, the lower tush becomes blunt, or rounded
at its point and edges, and also of considerable length, while the upper
is often so diminished as to be worn almost to the level of the gum. In
stallions, kept only for service, the lower tush, however, frequently
attains a great length, presenting the appearance depicted in the
coloured engravings of the mouths at twelve and sixteen years. In those
plates, the reader will observe the tushes no longer point in a forward
direction, but have a decided inclination outward, and somewhat backward
also. Another indication of extreme age is also worthy of notice,
although, if too absolutely relied upon, it may occasionally mislead.
Tartar, not generally found in any quantity upon the other teeth in the
horse, accumulates around the tush, and in very old animals almost
conceals it. This excessive deposit I have rarely observed in horses of
moderate age.

32. _The wolf's teeth or eye teeth aid us in judging of the age_; though
we are bound to state of these that they can be received only as
presumptive evidence. The wolf's teeth have not been before alluded to,
because they are not concerned in mastication, and are no more than the
representatives of those organs which form the continuous chain in the
mouths of some other animals. These teeth appear to be of no use to the
horse. They are little nodules of tooth-like structure, having minute
fangs, which are inserted immediately anterior to the first molars of
the upper, being rarely seen in the lower jaw, and when present there,
always being even yet more diminutive. These wolf's teeth are generally
shed with the first temporary molars, and therefore if they can be seen,
it may be assumed that the permanent molars have not begun to appear.
The assumption, however, must not be converted into an assertion; for
in some instances the wolf's teeth are retained, and, in a few heads,
will remain after the horse has reached an age far beyond that of
colthood: their presence, therefore, rather leads our expectations than
confirms our judgment.

33. _The mode in which the horse cuts his teeth_ remains to be pointed
out. It is generally said, that the tooth, originally growing in its
circumscribed cavity, pushes its way through the parts which oppose its
entrance into the mouth. So mechanical an idea is characterized by a
small amount of physiological knowledge, and it is time the notions
which attributed development to mere force were discarded. The tooth is
first a pulpy mass, very soft and highly vascular; the superior part, or
that part which primarily shows itself above the gum, is the first to
become consolidated. Enamel and ivory are there simultaneously
deposited, and gradually these extend towards the fang. When a portion
of the fang is completed, and the time has arrived for the tooth to be
cut, those structures which oppose the egress of the tooth are absorbed;
the absorption taking place, not only on the internal surface, against
which the young tooth has been supposed to exert its force, but also
upon the external parts, upon which it could have no effect. By
absorption the barrier is removed and the tooth then comes forward. The
process is very beautiful, and no less worthy of admiration is the
manner in which the milk teeth are shed. The incisors lose their fangs,
and just when the permanent teeth appear, the crown of the temporary
ones is removed from the mouth. The removal of the fangs of the milk
incisors is the result also of absorption, and the same process effects
the removal of the temporary molars, only its operation is not precisely
similar; for in these last, not only the fang but the greater portion of
the crown is taken away, and little more than the table is cast off when
the remnant of what once was a tooth is at length shed. The process of
cutting the molar teeth will be more clearly comprehended by referring
to the annexed wood-cut, in which the darkened spots indicated by the
line running from _a_ denotes the permanent tooth already through the
gum and in the mouth, though still covered and partially concealed by
the retained table of the temporary grinder _c_. The appearance of the
table of the temporary molar when cast off is shown in the figure
immediately underneath, to which the letter _c_ is also affixed, and the
projecting portions ascending from its edges exhibit the last remnants
of what originally was the fang: _b b_ are molars, well up and worn to a
level.

[Illustration]

The next wood-cut exhibits the molar _a_, immediately after it has lost
its covering. At this time the table is very uneven, presenting points
which the finger would readily recognize, but in a short time these wear
off, and an even surface is obtained, rendering it level with the other
teeth, _b b_.

[Illustration]

As is here seen, when the crown has been removed, the permanent molar is
well up, although it occupies the same place, and fills the same
alveolar cavity which the temporary molar originally held. The horse
incisors do not occupy the same cavities in which the milk incisors were
placed, but are developed in cells formed especially for their
reception, and come up rather behind than absolutely under the primary
teeth. The form of the anterior part of the jaw in the foal admits of
such an arrangement, and its greater comparative bulk gives all the
space that was required. The space, however, between the branches of the
lower jaw where the molars are developed, is filled by important
muscles; and while any thickening externally would deteriorate from the
symmetry of the head, any internal enlargement would have interfered
with the free motion of the tongue and hyoideal appendages, the
movements of both being as essential to perfect mastication as the
presence of the teeth themselves. Hence the grinders are in their
development regulated by a different law to the incisors; nor is the
ordinization which declared the first should be well up, and the last
scarcely to be seen when the period for casting off the temporary teeth
arrived, to be passed over in silence. The molars are more important to
the welfare of the animal than the incisors can be supposed to be. If
the front teeth are irregular, the horse, nevertheless, can manage to
feed; and if some are even wanting, the animal can subsist. A few would
serve to grasp a sufficiency of food, especially such food as the state
of the mouth, during the period of dentition, would dispose the colt to
partake of. The animal is then in an inflammatory condition--the system
is excited--and it is a wise provision which leaves the creature
inclined only, at such a time, to consume a soft and laxative herbage,
not in too great a quantity. The molars, on the contrary, if irregular
in their growth, or uneven upon their surfaces for any lengthened
period, would produce great local pain, and much constitutional
disturbance. The food, in consequence of the rugged condition of these
teeth, would be imperfectly masticated, the organs of digestion would
become impaired, and the whole frame would suffer. To prevent this, the
molars are fully cut before the temporary tables are cast off, nor do
both the tables leave the mouth at the same time. The one on the upper
jaw is first shed, and it is not until this has, by attrition, been
rendered somewhat flat, so as to present a surface upon, or against
which the food can be ground that the permanent molar of the lower jaw
is uncovered. The unevenness of the grinding agent becomes now of less
moment, since the part over which it is to be moved has been rendered
fit for its uses, and since there are other teeth that present all their
surfaces, suited for the purposes of mastication.


34. _The manner of examining the teeth_ is simple enough, and yet a few
remarks may as well be made upon this part of the subject. To see the
incisors, all that is necessary is to part the lips; but many horses are
naturally shy when their mouths are touched, and more are rendered so by
unnecessary severity in the administration of medicine, or by the tricks
to which they may have been subjected. A certain degree of caution is
always needed when an animal is strange to the examiner. Where the horse
shows a disposition to resist, the groom who attends upon it, if
present, should be allowed to handle the mouth, the judge being content
to look and form his opinion from what he sees. If the groom be not in
the way and the horse seems nervous, let the neck be patted, the face
below the eye gently rubbed, then the nose caressed; and when the timid
animal is assured that no harm is intended, the lips may be freely drawn
asunder: but should the head be snatched away, when the first attempt to
see the teeth is made, let the hand immediately release the mouth,
rather than endeavour to retain the hold. It is far better to begin
again than justify the fears of the horse, by a needless and worse than
useless struggle, which in the end will probably be of no avail. After
the horse has by forbearance been rendered quiet, while the lips are
held asunder, the _shape_, _colour_, _length_, and _obliquity_ of the
teeth are noted, and the presence or absence of milk teeth observed.
When this is done without violence, the animal will not often offer any
opposition to the finger being introduced to feel the tushes, or to the
sides of the mouth being separated so as to obtain a fair view of them.
The examiner now places himself in front of the horse, and by
introducing one finger behind the incisors and getting it under the
tongue, will cause the animal to open its mouth, or the tongue may be
seized and drawn out of the mouth; and if confidence is established, no
opposition will be offered to the jaws being kept for a short time
apart. Of this, advantage is taken to observe the arrangement of the
teeth, to inspect the tables, and to note the shape or depth of the
infundibula. When all this has been accomplished, in less time perhaps
than it takes to read a description of the process, the business is
generally finished, and a conclusion has been arrived at that amounts to
positive conviction. On certain occasions, however, it may be desirable
to inspect the molars; and to do this properly requires a little tact.
Some persons cast the horse for this slight operation: indeed, there are
people who throw horses as though they imagined nothing could be done
without the hobbles. There is, however, generally no occasion for such a
proceeding; the twitch in the great majority of cases is all that is
needed, and, with a little patience, even that instrument of torture may
be dispensed with. A stool, or if nothing better is at hand, the stable
pail is fetched for the operator to stand upon, so as to look with ease
into the mouth of the elevated head. The animal is led into a good
light, the balling iron placed between its jaws to keep them asunder,
the tongue being drawn out to the side, removed from that which it is
desired to inspect. While the mouth is thus distended, the person who is
to judge, mounts the stool or pail, and looks into it till he is
satisfied. Should the operator be desirous of feeling the teeth, he
descends from his rostrum, and having pulled off his coat and bared his
arm, introduces it into the mouth, while the tongue is drawn to one side
by the assistant who holds the iron; always, however, taking care if
possible, to have a balling iron which is open on one side, the arm
being so introduced that the elbow is towards the free space. Should
this precaution be neglected, if the horse prove suddenly restive, an
accident may ensue. The lower jaw being easiest felt, and the teeth
therein situated being most readily counted, that is the part generally
manipulated. This is not difficult unless made so, and often rendered
dangerous by the intemperance of the party who undertakes to accomplish
it. Having described it, the author will now proceed to state the times
at which the different teeth appear, and the signs which they exhibit.

35. _At birth_ the foal has usually three molar teeth on either side of
each jaw,[*] and perhaps two front incisors, which last are then
lateral in situation, and appear to be very large in proportion to the
age of the animal. It is, however, usually a fortnight or three weeks
after birth before the incisors appear. I have to acknowledge the
greatest obligations to the Messrs. Tattersall, for the valuable
opportunities afforded me of inspecting blood stock, at their large and
admirably-conducted establishment at Willesden Paddocks.

[Footnote *: The wolf's teeth at the anterior of the two rows of
upper molars are generally present or indicated at birth; but as they
are not invariably found, and are by no means to be depended upon as
significant of the age, no direct notice need be taken of their
existence.]

36. _At six weeks_, two more incisors are generally cut in either jaw,
and those which originally seemed to grow from the sides, have, by this
time, taken a position more directly in the front of the mouth.

37. _At six months_, the incisors have moved almost into the situation
they will hereafter occupy, and the jaw appears somewhat elongated; but,
if the gums be observed, it will be seen that nature is preparing to
cut the corner milk teeth, which may even be through the gum.

38. _At nine months old, the corner milk teeth are up, but their edges
do not yet meet._ The coloured engraving will show the appearance they
present, and likewise exhibit the protruded state of the gums at this
age. The drawing was made from a head in the author's possession. It has
been tested several times, and its correctness fully ascertained. The
last occasion, when it was authenticated, was by the mouth of a bay
colt, by Muley Moloch, out of Canaletti's dam, with which it perfectly
agreed.

[Illustration: _NINE MONTHS OLD._

_The Corner Milk-teeth up, but their edges do not yet meet._]


[Illustration: _TWO YEARS OLD._

_A full Mouth of Milk Incisors, all of which show considerable wear._]

39. _At one year_, all the temporary teeth are up and in apposition; but
by this time two pairs of permanent teeth, which are the fourth molars,
have made their appearance, and the yearling therefore has sixteen
molars and twelve incisors, or twenty-eight teeth. The large number of
yearlings annually brought into the market afford such frequent
opportunities of examining the mouth at this age, that I need not state
here the means by which the drawing has been authenticated. It would
be a task of supererrogation to allude further to a fact which is so
well known and thoroughly established.

40. _At eighteen months_, the incisors show some wear, the infundibula
look as if they would soon be obliterated; indeed some of them may be
lost. At or about this time also four more permanent molars, one on each
side of either jaw, being the fifth in situation, protrude into the
mouth.

41. _At two years old, there is a full mouth of milk incisors, all of
which show considerable wear._ The coloured engraving of the two-year
old mouth, will convey an accurate idea of the features which it
presents at that age. The original drawing was made for the Jockey Club
in anticipation of the celebrated Running Rein trial. Accepted by such
authority, it perhaps hardly requires further proof of its correctness,
but it has since been repeatedly tested. On the last occasion it was
compared with the mouth of a chesnut filly, by Calmuck out of Miss
Greatrex, and was found to agree with the indication therein presented.
At two years, the infundibula are lost in the temporary incisors, and
the fifth molars are in perfect apposition; indeed the smooth surfaces
of these last are the best evidence that the animal is two years old,
for he cannot then be far below that age. The incisors having been for
some time employed, but still being to be retained for some months, have
an aspect of wear and strength conjoined. The two-year old mouth,
therefore, by those who cannot distinguish the milk from the horse
teeth, (none of the latter being present to help the judgment by the
contrast they exhibit) is likely to be mistaken for that of a five-year
old; especially if the colt chances to be somewhat fully developed. A
regular horseman, however, would not require the aid of the mouth to
discover the animal was still in its colthood.

42. _At three years old, the centre horse teeth are well up, and are
distinguished by their size, shape, and colour._ The appearance which
the mouth will exhibit, the coloured engraving represents. The original
drawing is in the possession of the Jockey Club, for whom it was made.
It has, however, been repeatedly tested, in order to place its
correctness beyond doubt. Both colts and fillies have been inspected
for this purpose, and equally have the different breeds been consulted.
As the public, however, place the greater confidence in blood stock, it
may here be mentioned that the appearances perfectly coincided with
those exhibited by a brown colt by Muley Moloch out of Miss Greatrex,
and Roxey, a brown filly, by Lanercost, out of Ellen Percy, besides
various others which it would be both needless and tedious to
recapitulate. The mouth, at this period, indeed is so marked, and in
general so regular, that it is the more readily recognized. The new
horse incisors, by their size, contrast with the milk teeth which are
still retained. The comparative length and squareness of their figure
cannot fail to attract attention, and their deeper colour can hardly be
unobserved; that colour is caused by much of the primitive coating of
crusta petrosa being retained, or only removed from the edges where the
enamel is bright. But as a vast number of horses are sold at this age,
and many are started for heavy stakes, it will be imperative now to
proceed more cautiously in the description. About this time the terms
"rising three," or "coming three," or "three next birth-day," are made
use of, as well as "three off"--the first phrases indicating that the
colt is yet between its second and third year, or will in a month or
more be three years old, and the last term meaning that the animal has
attained its third year, and has recently entered the fourth year of its
existence. The season here materially aids the judgment; for if a blood
horse shows a fair three-year old mouth in December, it is
unhesitatingly pronounced to be "coming three;" and if it exhibits the
same appearance in January the animal is declared to be "three off." The
same holds good with the coarser breeds, only, as before stated, the
month of April would then be estimated as that of December in the former
case, and May would answer to January. "Coming three," however, can,
with a little stretching of the term, be applied to any foal; and is
commonly used when the colt is strictly but "two off;" for the terms are
somewhat loosely used, though in their stringent sense a horse is only
rising three, four, or five, after the mouth has began to assume the
form which characterizes the respective ages. When the colt is two off,
that is two years and three months old, the milk teeth are all retained,
and to a casual observer, the mouth would still say "two." A little
closer observation will, however, correct the judgment, for looking
attentively, perhaps a slight, and only a slight difference in the
colour of the central incisors may be remarked. The tinting of the
enamel may be a "thought" darker, and yet the contrast so delicate, that
the difference can only be seen in a certain light. Then again casting
the eye to the gums of the upper central incisors which are first shed,
that part of them immediately covering the neck of one of these teeth
may show a little redness, and the other exhibit nothing of the kind.
The redness indicates that nature is making ready for the appearance of
the permanent incisors, and on evidence no heavier than this, the animal
is pronounced to be "two off." The redness, it may be said, can be
artificially produced--so it may be, but the natural character can
hardly be imitated. The colour in the normal mouth is not deep or angry;
it is not caused by inflammation, but is only increased vascularity of
the part, and it is at first limited to the edge of the gum. The colt
shows no symptoms of tenderness in the reddened gum, but stands quite as
still, and even more quiet when it is pressed, than when the opposite
one is handled. If the part had been tampered with, the animal would
probably tell tales when the finger touched it, and the redness would be
more intense on the prominent or bulging portion of the gum than where
the margin encircles the neck of the tooth; while it is ten to one
inflammation had been produced rather than vascularity excited. Little
occasion, therefore, is there to fear imposition, and little room for
those who would practise it to hope for success. The next indication of
advancing age is given by the gums growing more vascular, even now
looking inflamed, while a yellow deposit (the nature of which is not
well understood) may be seen upon the neck of the tooth, and the central
incisors of the upper jaw, if felt, may probably be found loose. In
another or about the sixth month, one of the central incisors is
removed. It does not fall out, as is generally stated, but while the
animal is feeding, the tooth is, as by accident, wrenched off. The gum
bleeds, and being slightly lacerated, looks sore and angry for some
time. The sharp edge of the new brown-coated permanent incisor is now
seen protruding. In a week or two the remaining milk central incisor of
the upper jaw is, by a seeming accident, forced out; and the mouth now
has an irregular appearance, the edges of the upper central incisors not
being level with the tables of the lateral milk teeth. The lower central
incisors, when the upper milk teeth are lost, generally are loose, and
their gums inflamed; but a month or sometimes six weeks may elapse
before these are gone: by that time the upper permanent teeth have grown
considerably. When the central milk incisors have disappeared, the
molars begin to change, and those of the upper jaw are the first
uncovered; not in any regular order, or the two teeth on the same day,
but generally the first molar before the second, the wolf's teeth mostly
departing at the same time. A week or two subsequent, the first two
permanent molars of the lower jaw are laid bare, so that at or about the
ninth month, the horse has all those teeth, which denote the animal to
be three years old, fairly in the mouth; that is, he has between the
second and third year cut four horse incisors and eight permanent
molars. Lest the description should not be perfectly clear, or such as
to enable the reader to readily understand which teeth by this time are
shed, a drawing of the head of an adult animal, which forms the
frontispiece of this work, was designed. It will enable the reader to
form some notion of the extent of the horse's mouth and likewise of the
positions of the teeth. Near to the teeth will be seen figures which do
not denote the periods when these organs first appear, but the time at
which they are fairly up, or to some extent exhibit wear. In that
engraving no further notice is taken of the milk teeth than is conveyed
by the small star associated with such of the figures as indicate the
places from which they have been displaced: thus the figures 1, 2, and
the last 4, having no star, indicate that those molars are developed
only as permanent teeth. The figures 3*, 3*, 3*, having stars, denote
that milk teeth originally occupied the situations where these teeth are
shown: those figures will be seen above and below the central incisors
and the first two molars of either jaw; and as but one side of the face
could be displayed, of course the number has to be doubled, the colt
getting twelve additional permanent teeth by the time it completes the
third year. At three years, therefore, the central permanent nippers are
in apposition, and show wear, though to only a limited extent. The
infundibulum is broad, as depicted in the accompanying cut.

[Illustration]

In the above representation of the table of a three year old tooth, it
will be remarked that the infundibulum appears in the outward direction
to extend quite across the surface. This aspect is produced by an
indentation at that part, which, by the completion of the third year, is
in most instances not worn out, but after the third year is attained, it
speedily disappears; so the table of the three year off has become
somewhat broader, and the infundibulum circumscribed, or well defined,
as it is shown in the subjoined wood-cut.

[Illustration]

In fact, the shape of the table is here the best guide, and should be
carefully studied, as otherwise the judgment can never be assured. At
this age, one tush may be peeping through. I have never seen more than
one present at three years, and then these teeth have always been
slightly developed, rather indicating what was to grow than exhibiting
that which had actually grown. The tushes, however, now in almost every
case, may be felt under the membrane through which they are ultimately
to protrude, and can most readily be felt in the upper jaw.
Nevertheless, the tushes of the lower jaw always make their appearance
first, because the membrane covering these is less loose, and therefore
more easily penetrated; and also because the lower jaw being the active
agent of mastication, as well as the resting place for the bit, it is
naturally subjected to greater wear, thereby assisting the egress of the
tushes. In the upper jaw they are often concealed by the loose membrane
long after they are fully developed. The tushes, at this age, however,
are no guides. The three year old colt, for general purposes, is easily
recognized, when the lips only are separated.

[Illustration: _THREE YEARS OLD._

_The Centre Horse Teeth well up and distinguished by size, shape, and
Colour._]


[Illustration: _THREE YEARS OFF._

_One of the lateral Milk-teeth shed, and the permanent Tooth coming
up._]

43. _At three years off, the lateral milk teeth are shed, and the
permanent teeth are coming up._ The coloured engraving, the original of
which is also the property of the Jockey Club, for whom it was executed,
was made from the mouth of a bay gelding, by Almack, out of a mare by
Rubens, Jun., belonging to--Goring, Esq. The state of the mouth
therein exhibited is so peculiar to the age, and so decided in its
indications, that it can hardly be mistaken. One of the lateral milk
teeth from the lower jaw has been recently lost. The gum is sore, and
the top of the permanent incisor is seen rising up. By comparing the
temporary incisor, which is speedily to fall from the upper jaw, with
those representations of the same teeth given in the previous plates,
the gum will be observed to have considerably retracted. Preparation is
evidently being made for the change which will in a few weeks take
place. The milk teeth begin to be shed about the seventh or eighth month
after the completion of the third year, those in the lower jaw being the
first to quit the mouth; and all that was observed on the subject in the
former paragraph, may be applied to the present, only making allowance
for the differences of position in the teeth.

44. _When rising four years old the lateral horse teeth are in the
mouth, but their edges do not fairly meet._ The coloured engraving of
this age will denote the altered aspect of the mouth, consequent upon
the development of a few months, when the colt may want only a dozen
weeks for the completion of its fourth year. The original sketch for
this plate was taken from the mouth of a horse called the General, the
property of Sir Samuel Spry. To test it, however, it has been largely
applied, and in every case it has been confirmed. If the mention of
names is here required, I may repeat those of Blackbird, Marquiss of
Conyngham, and a host of others. The plate, therefore, may be regarded
as fully established, and the reader, without fear, may depend upon its
correctness. As is shown in the engraving, the lateral incisors, at this
age, touch, but nevertheless do not meet so as to be of any service in
nipping the food. It is of some importance to attend to this
peculiarity, inasmuch as were the presence of the indicative teeth alone
remarked, an animal wanting some months to be four years old might be
purchased for one that was rising five.

[Illustration: _RISING FOUR YEARS._

_The lateral Horse Teeth in the Mouth, but their edges not fairly
meeting._]


[Illustration: _FOUR YEARS OLD._

_Four pairs of Horse Teeth well up, but the Corner Milk teeth
retained._]

45. _At four years, four pairs of horse teeth are well up, but the
corner milk teeth are retained._ Such a state of the mouth is very
characteristic of the age, and not likely to be mistaken. The appearance
which the teeth present, if viewed from the front when the lips are
separated, is shown in the coloured engraving, and it is such as no
person can well mistake. The original drawing in this case was also made
for the Jockey Club, and was produced upon the famous trial. On all
occasions that presented themselves, which have indeed been numerous, it
has been compared with the mouths of living animals, and in no single
instance has it been found to be contradicted. This has not only been
done with colts, but also with fillies, among which last I may mention
Lupine, Mora, Nightcap, Chamois, and Jew Girl. To the plate, therefore,
the reader should refer; and supposing him to have done so, the other
indications which the mouth presents between the third and fourth year
will now be enlarged upon. The state of the molars at this period may be
regarded as demonstrative of the age of the animal. The reader will
remember, that according to what has been pointed out, the colt at three
years old has five molar teeth on either side of both jaws, and that of
these teeth, one only, the third in situation, marked thus, 4* in the
frontispiece, is of a temporary nature. Shortly after the upper lateral
milk incisors have been cast off, and sometimes previous to that
occurrence, the point of the sixth molar penetrates through the gum,
and before it is fully up the covering of the third permanent molar is
removed. This effected, the colt has six molars on either side of both
jaws, and whenever that number is found they may be assumed to be all of
a permanent character; so at four years old the tables of the central
incisors exhibit some considerable wear, the infundibula no longer
extend entirely across, but have become circumscribed and well defined.
The tables of the lateral incisors, on the contrary, are only beginning
to be formed, and very often the part posterior to the infundibulum has
not received any attrition. The infundibula in these last extend the
entire breadth of the table, and in consequence of an indentation on
that side which touches the corner milk teeth, the space is there free.
The reader will comprehend this particular formation, by referring to
the wood-cut of the table of the tooth presented at page 79, the
appearance being so much alike as not to necessitate a repetition to
enforce it. When the fourth year, however, has been for a month or two
perfected, the tables then assume the form represented in the following
wood-cut, which exhibits the change that has taken place in the central
incisor, and also the appearance of the more recent lateral tooth when
the colt is fairly four years off.

[Illustration]

One or more of the tushes may also be well up: the whole may have made
their appearance; but more frequently only the two originating from the
lower jaw are through the gum. No dependence, however, can be placed on
the presence or absence of the tushes, which repeated proof has shown to
be irregular in their development: nor is the state of the mouth during
the fourth year such as justifies an off-hand opinion being pronounced;
for though during that period the growth of the teeth is generally well
marked, nevertheless exceptions more frequently happen than between the
second and third years. An instance illustrative of this fact occurred
at the Veterinary College, at St. Pancras, during November, 1844. To
that Institution was brought a dun colt, which the professors, one and
all, pronounced to be "rising three." Mr. Robb, a gentleman of great
talent, and then a pupil at the school, having looked at the animal's
mouth, pronounced it to be "three off," or "rising four." Here was a
difference of opinion to the extent of a whole year; and of course the
pupil was sneered at for his ignorance and presumption. Mr. Robb,
however, had reasons for his conviction; he would not give up the point,
but wrote to the breeder, and obtained a reply which showed the teachers
had yet to learn. Being an acute observer, Mr. Robb had attended to the
wear of the tables; had seen the infundibula had become defined, and the
surrounding surface broad. He had also remarked the gums, and seen that
those of the lower jaw were slightly red; and, taking these tokens in
conjunction with the appearance of the colt, arrived at a conclusion
which the result proved to be correct, and which did not show the mouth
deficient in its symbols. Mr. Goodwin, veterinary surgeon to the Queen,
has casts of mouths taken from horses of known ages. No gentleman
connected with the veterinary profession, perhaps, has enjoyed such
peculiar opportunities as Mr. Goodwin, and no one could be characterized
by a greater inclination to take advantage of them. With a natural
talent for observation, and an innate love for scientific inquiry,
combined with enthusiasm in the cause of truth, Mr. Goodwin has, in the
midst of ill health, pursued his researches, and spite of an opposition,
which did not stop short of calumny, fearlessly advanced his opinions.
Those opinions, Mr. Goodwin's position, and his acknowledged ability
should have claimed consideration for. The conclusions which had not
been hastily arrived at, ought to have been deliberately weighed. The
author of this work is proud to acknowledge the obligation under which
the courtesy of Mr. Goodwin has placed him, and with pleasure confesses
that he has, in that gentleman's society, learned much upon a subject
which he had previously diligently studied to become the master of. The
facts which Mr. Goodwin brings forward in support of his convictions,
are strange and startling. The candour with which he courts
investigation, enforces belief. He is certainly right in his own sphere;
so far as his observations have extended, his conclusion cannot be
overthrown. To the information he has generously afforded the author,
allusion will repeatedly be made in the course of this work; but at
present the remarks must be confined to the models in Mr. Goodwin's
possession. One of these exhibits the mouth of a colt called Julius,
(which was ridden by Her Majesty) retaining the lateral milk incisors,
when but a few days were wanting for the completion of the fourth year.
The teeth that should have been shed, however, are evidently on the eve
of leaving the jaw, and therefore though an exception, it is not so much
so as to grossly mislead the judgment beyond a few months. It is to be
regretted that the molars of this horse were not examined, and to the
tables of the incisors, as shown in the model, I make no allusion,
because these parts evidently have not received the particular attention
of the artist, and consequently cannot be argued upon. The same
gentleman has also favoured me with the inspection of a model of the
teeth of a horse known to have wanted three months of the third year:
nevertheless the mouth is that of a colt which would be pronounced to be
"rising four." The lateral incisors on both sides, and in both jaws are
fully up, and they possess tables, which, if correctly depicted,
indicate that for some time they have been in apposition. A lusus naturæ
of this sort is beyond the pale of reason. Connected with it there is no
record of the development of the molars; and on the state of the tables
as shown in the cast, I am, for the causes before stated, not inclined
to place any great reliance. The growth of the incisors shows the colt
to be "rising four;" the evidence declares it only to be "coming three."
Here is an exception to a general rule: one which I believe is unique;
at all events I am aware of the existence of no similar specimen; and it
is to be lamented that the growth of the incisors, from the earliest
period, had not in this horse been observed. As a unique specimen it is
curious, but as a premature and extraordinary development, it cannot be
opposed to a general rule. Children have been born with three legs, or
joined together at various parts; but the race of men are nevertheless
described as having two inferior extremities, and as being independent
in their existence. A solitary instance is no more than a curiosity,
and, until it is proved to be the exemplification of a general rule,
must not be made the basis of a general deduction. Such occurrences,
however rare, nevertheless deserve consideration; and had the animal
last alluded to been trained, there is no doubt any qualified judge
would have pronounced it beyond the actual age. Therefore, gentlemen
possessed of racing studs, should, from time to time, have the mouths of
their horses examined by approved members of the Royal College of
Veterinary Surgeons, that any irregularity of development may be known
and stated. To neglect so simple and reasonable a precaution, is to
incur a needless hazard. By adopting it, the proprietor would be
prepared to meet objection; and the idle reports that every year get
into circulation would be quashed at their birth. A firmer basis for the
authenticity of the age would be established than the reputation of the
owner; and gentlemen would not annually be subjected to having their
characters questioned by a host of interested ignoramuses. The turf is
bound to adopt some measure of this kind for its own defence, especially
as the honour of its members is, on every occasion, called into
question, and a single instance of suspicion, seems, in the public eye,
to warrant a general aspersion.

46. _When rising five years old all the horse teeth are in the mouth,
but the corner teeth have yet to meet._ The peculiar sign of this
particular age is the loss of the corner temporary incisors. It is
scarcely possible to mistake the last milk tooth of the four year old,
for the horse incisor which is characteristic of the fifth year; the
difference between them is so great, that no person ought to confound
one with the other. The corner milk tooth is often by the third year
worn almost to a stump; its table being somewhat triangular, or
occasionally round. By the fourth year it generally becomes a mere
stump, or so changed in appearance that it contrasts in size with the
other nippers, and seems incapable of performing any active function. At
first, the permanent tooth when it makes its appearance, strikes us by
its greater breadth, the gum not then having sufficiently retracted, or
the tooth sufficiently grown to allow its after length being estimated.
When the corner teeth are in the mouth, some time will elapse before
they touch, but the incisors are then arranged so as to represent almost
a semi-circle. The annexed wood-cut will convey an idea of the manner in
which they are placed, and also of the shape of the tables of the
central and lateral nippers, at the time when the corner teeth do not
approximate, although they are through the gums.

[Illustration]

The periods when the teeth which characterize the fifth year make their
appearance, must now be described. When the animal is four years and
three months of age, the gums of the upper corner teeth begin to redden,
and before it is three months older, one of the corner milk teeth may
have been removed. The opposite milk tooth speedily follows, and then
the corner horse incisors grow down, and seem almost to be fully
developed before the corner milk teeth of the lower jaw are shed. When,
however, all the milk teeth are lost, the corner incisors will not touch
for some time; and by the completion of the fifth year, though the teeth
approximate, their tables are not formed, nor do their edges denote any
amount of attrition. The corner tooth at five years old, looks young,
and is principally covered by the membraneous crusta petrosa, which give
to it a dark aspect, as though it were encrusted with tartar, little of
the enamel being to be seen, while the shape of the gum is also
characteristic. The five year old mouth, therefore, is easy of
recognition, the shelly character of the corner teeth being very marked
and not subject to much eccentricity in its figure. As five however, is
the age when, for general purposes, the majority of high priced horses
are brought into the market, the changes which take place before and
after this period have been illustrated in the coloured engravings. When
the animal is near to or rising five, the corner teeth are dark
coloured, and though they touch, nevertheless their edges are not fairly
together. The superior surfaces exhibit no tables, and the general
aspect is such as is depicted in the engraving; the original of which
was made from recollection of the appearances presented by the mouth of
Mr. Payne's Rebel, which horse was seen at Hampton Court. The drawing
was more recently corroborated and corrected by the mouth of a fine
young black hunter, the property E. C. Crowley, Esq. The peculiarities
of this age, as denoted by the corner teeth not closing, should be
remarked. It is not altogether unimportant to observe this circumstance,
as animals are esteemed suitable for particular uses, only after the
fifth year has been completed, and certainly all are less liable to
disease when the mouth has been perfected. The distinction, therefore,
is of some moment; and the better to enforce it, the reader will
remember, that not until the accomplishment of the fifth year do the
tables of the corner teeth begin to show: even at that time, however,
they are very imperfect.

[Illustration: _FIVE YEARS OLD._

_A full Mouth of Horse Incisors, all the edges of which fairly meet._]

[Illustration: _RISING FIVE YEARS._

_All the Horse Teeth in the Mouth, but the Corner Teeth have yet to
meet._]

47. _At five years old there is a full mouth of horse incisors, all the
edges of which fairly meet._ The coloured engraving--which has been
amply proved, by comparing it with the mouths of horses of various
breed, among which those of blood have not been forgotten, since it was
last tested by the aspect presented by the teeth of the well-known
horse, The Baron,--will instruct the reader in the altered character
which the mouth now assumes. It looks more huge, and far more powerful
than it did at the fourth year. The teeth fairly close, but on
inspection there can be detected slight signs of wear. The tables are
not yet formed. The anterior edges alone are rendered level; all
posterior to the infundibulum being as yet untouched. The tables then
present the appearance indicated in the following wood-cut, which also
represents the semi-circular order in which they are arranged.

[Illustration]

48. _At five years off the corner teeth only show slight wear, and the
posterior margins are round._ Much of the original coating of the crusta
petrosa is retained, but in colour it may not at this time be dark. At
those places where it has been recently worn down, it is often of a
yellow tint, which is but a little deeper than the enamel, which last,
however, is nevertheless easily distinguished by its greater
transparency and more pearly appearance. This peculiarity in the crusta
petrosa not unseldom gives to the six year old mouth a darker aspect
than is presented by the teeth of the younger animal; and the author, to
convey to the reader some idea of this fact, has purposely rendered the
incisors of the next representation of the mouth, as they frequently are
seen. Such a circumstance, however, will not confuse the judgment. The
corner nippers still look young to him who is acquainted with those
signs which denote youth in the horse's teeth, and the coloured
engraving will convey a fair idea of the aspect they now put on. The
corner nipper, in fact, after the fourth year, leads, in a great
measure, if it does not entirely sway, the judgment. This tooth is
sometimes called the shell tooth, on account of its infundibulum being,
for the most part, better exhibited and longer retained than in the
other incisors. The tables, however, of the other teeth should also
receive some attention: those of the centre nippers may exhibit the
infundibula shallow, or, in certain instances, when the crusta petrosa
which lines these cavities is very thick, no infundibula may be
distinguishable: even then, however, on close inspection, the form of
the cavity will be discovered, marked out by a line of enamel, and the
space that is usually vacant filled up with a substance, which in
appearance differs little from the ivory. The tables of the lateral
incisors will be fully formed, and the infundibulum is rarely
obliterated, while its margin is always circumscribed and well defined,
as the previous wood-cuts will indicate.

[Illustration: _FIVE YEARS OFF._

_The Corner Teeth only show slight wear, and the posterior Margins are
round._]

[Illustration: _SIX YEARS OFF._

_The Corner Teeth look more firmly set, and their edges begin to be
uneven._]

49. _At six years of age, the corner teeth look more firmly set, and
their edges begin to be uneven_; they have become more square in the
figure of the external surface; the edges of the teeth, when the mouth
is closed, fairly meet; the round appearance of the posterior border is
nearly lost, and the teeth are altogether of a most prominent character.
The table of the corner teeth, nevertheless, is still confined to the
part anterior to the infundibulum, which cavity is not yet fairly
circumscribed or surrounded by a level margin. The infundibula may be
lost in the central incisors, and those of the lateral teeth may begin
to look shallow; but more generally these cavities are retained at six
years old. The tables, likewise, have somewhat changed their positions,
and the semi-circle which they formed at the fifth year, now is hardly
so perfect, though still well marked. The above description will be the
better understood by reference to the coloured engraving, which has been
compared with the mouths of numerous animals, viz., Skeleton Sorella,
and a brown horse, the property of Mr. T. Brown, &c., &c. The reader,
however, will at once recognise the general truth of the drawing, the
purpose of which the accompanying wood-cut will serve to explain. The
alteration in the semi-circular arrangement will be better perceived by
contrasting the present diagram with the one which preceded it, and
though the change may not seem very great, nevertheless, sufficient is
indicated to instruct the eye accustomed to observe it. The corner teeth
have now acquired a degree of surface which will fairly represent a
table, though it is still imperfect. The more darkly shaded portion of
the separated table denotes the part which has yet received no
attrition, but notwithstanding it is readily discerned that the nipper
has come into active use.

[Illustration]

50. _At seven years off, the corner teeth, without showing age, exhibit
further evidence of wear._ The coloured engraving to which the reader
must refer, exhibits those alterations which have now taken place. The
original sketch was made from the mouth of a horse in the possession of
the author's father, and having been corroborated by the inspection of
numerous others, it is confidently put forward as characteristic of the
age. I cannot here forbear from acknowledging the personal kindness and
professional attention bestowed upon me by Mr. Percival, who, on being
made aware that I was engaged upon a work illustrative of the horse's
teeth, not only allowed me to inspect the mouths of the animals under
his charge, but honoured me by accompanying me and assisted my
endeavours to arrive at a just conclusion by his remarks. I have also to
express my thanks to Mr. Braby for the liberty to inspect the large stud
of heavy dray horses in the stables of Messrs. Barclay and Perkins, the
eminent brewers. The advantages I derived from comparing so many mouths
of the same age at the same time, and the facilities which were given of
minutely examining each, enable me with more certainty to speak upon a
subject which otherwise it would have been prudent to mention only in
the most qualified terms. However, after such ample investigation, I
can, with confidence, refer to the plate depicting the mouth at seven
years off. Looking at it, the reader will see the teeth have become more
white, in consequence of the crusta petrosa having, by the natural wear,
been to a greater extent removed. The tushes are exhibited as fully up,
in which condition they are generally seen. Where the corner teeth meet,
they close in such a manner as denotes considerable use. The way in
which the gums encircle the necks of the shell teeth has also changed.
By referring back to the engraving of the five-year off mouth, the
difference will be more readily understood, the round arrangement of
the gums at the earlier age being very significant. The tables of the
teeth, however, at this period ought never to be overlooked; they
afford, perhaps, the best indications on which the judgment can be
based. The infundibula may or may not be gone in the lateral teeth; but
those of the corner teeth have at this age become defined. Where the
corner teeth meet, in consequence of those of the lower jaw being, in
many horses, a little the most forward, the upper shell teeth may
present posteriorly a small projection, which is seldom seen prior to
the seventh year. When this is present, it is so obvious as not to
escape observation, therefore, it has not been depicted in the coloured
engraving, which has purposely been made to represent the less marked
indication that is more difficult to judge by. The reader will see the
projection alluded to slightly indicated in the previous coloured
engraving, portraying the mouth at six years off. Where the two shell
teeth meet, he will observe that the most backward portion of the upper,
not being opposed by the lower tooth, and consequently suffering no
wear, bulges slightly downwards. It is this particular part, which often
at the seventh year, by the wearing down of the upper tooth, becomes so
apparent as to be significant of the age. It is, however, not constantly
present, and the tables consequently become of the greater importance,
as they are always to be found. Those of the lateral incisors begin to
depart from their oval figure, and those of the central nippers are
growing decidedly angular: the tushes may have the edges slightly
rounded, and the semi-circle which the tables of the incisors formed
when the animal was five years old, may exhibit some inclination to
change in favour of the lineal arrangement that is in many horses so
prominently marked in old age. This semi-circular arrangement of the
incisors is most conspicuous when the colt is rising five; and from that
period gradually alters, till in very old subjects the tables will
occasionally be ranged almost in a straight line. The alteration which
takes place in this respect is, however, by no means uniform, and
though, consequently, no rule can be absolutely laid down concerning it,
yet, from the known inclination of the teeth to assume a certain figure,
an inference can be drawn which, connected with other signs, enables a
pretty close opinion to be formed. At the seventh year, however, the
corner teeth, their external figure, and the form of their tables, taken
in conjunction with the wear exhibited by the central and lateral
incisors, and considered with the narrowed but not yet sharp edge of the
lower jaw, enable the judge to arrive, with tolerable certainty, at a
conclusion. The following representation of the tables, taken in
conjunction with the coloured engraving of the seven-year old mouth,
will convey an idea of its appearance at that age. The reader will
remark the infundibulum of the corner tooth has become circumscribed,
being now encircled by a flattened surface, which posteriorly is of some
width.

[Illustration]

[Illustration: _SEVEN YEARS OFF._

_The Corner Teeth without showing age, exhibit further evidence of
wear._]

[Illustration: _EIGHT YEARS OFF._

_The Gum of the lower Corner Teeth has become Square, and the lower Tush
blunt._]

51. _At eight years off, the gum of the lower corner tooth has become
square, and the lower tush blunt._ The original drawing was made from
the teeth of that noted horse, Oakley; and in order to render it as
perfect as possible, the mouths of mares (Meal, Edgworth, Bess, &c.)
have been compared. The departure from the circular form of the gum, as
depicted in the coloured engraving, is even more marked than it was at
the seventh year. Added to this change of figure, the gums appear more
hard and less delicate; the mouth looks more firm, and seems to have
attained the perfection of its strength. The margin of the lower jaw is
now comparatively sharp, and the cheeks are flat. The crusta petrosa on
the upper teeth is in a great degree removed; the enamel not yet,
however, having a marked yellow tinge. On the lower corner incisors the
crusta petrosa may still continue, but it no longer has a dull brown
aspect: it is never prominent at this age, but rather speckled over the
outer surface, than regularly enveloping any portion of it. It has a
somewhat rough and worm-eaten aspect, and in colour is nearer to a dirty
yellow than a dull brown. If the posterior angle of the upper corner
incisor is pendant, or exhibits that species of notch, which was alluded
to in the previous paragraph, it is at the eighth year well shown, and
the table has undergone considerable alteration. There is now on the
shell tooth, a full table, the infundibulum of which, if not
obliterated, is always of lessened size, well marked out, and on all
sides surrounded by a broad and a flattened surface. The other teeth
have also changed their figures. The tables of the centre nippers have
taken on a decided angular shape, and those of the lateral display no
dubious tendency to assume that form. The infundibula may be
obliterated, but more generally those in the lateral and corner teeth
are retained, or if now absent, the circle of enamel will, on
inspection, show that the cavity is only filled up by crusta petrosa,
not absolutely worn out. The following wood-cuts exhibit the changes
which the tables undergo; and as the eighth year is an important one,
inasmuch as the horse which has attained it is called "aged," a double
set is here introduced, to show the difference of figure which these
parts may present. In those tables, it will be seen the infundibulum has
gone from a central nipper only; but even in that instance, a white
mark indicates that the cavity is merely filled up by crusta petrosa,
the enamelled lining not being yet worn out. The alteration in the form
and magnitude of the infundibula cannot, if the accompanying wood-cut be
compared with those which have preceded it, fail to strike the reader;
indeed these changes, aided by the worn appearance of tables of the
shell teeth, are now the principal guides when judging of the age by the
mouth.

[Illustration]

52. _After the eighth year_, there is no certainty in any opinion drawn
from the teeth. A guess may be hazarded, and very often that guess will
prove correct, but at the same time it should be received only as a
conjecture. The chance of naming the age decreases as the number of
years increase. After the twelfth, the probability of hitting the exact
year is very small. After the sixteenth year, all is confusion, and
there remains no sign which could warrant any person in pretending he
could pronounce the age by the teeth. It is true that certain tokens may
induce a conviction that an animal is much older than sixteen, and this
conviction may be so justified as to amount almost to a certainty; but
no man, I imagine, could form any opinion with regard to the number of
years by which a horse exceeded sixteen, or pronounce a decision that
should have any appearance of exactitude. They who pretend to an ability
of this kind, may, in a few solitary instances, strike the point; but
repeated failures will show that there is no positive principle in
operation to guide the judgment. Indeed the age is most correctly told
during the periods of dentition, and up to the sixth year. After the
sixth year, the certainty is not so great, but a very fair, if not a
positive judgment can be pronounced until the eighth year is
accomplished. After the eighth year, no man should give an unqualified
opinion concerning the age of a horse. After the twelfth, whatever may
be pronounced should be offered only as a conjecture; and, after the
sixteenth, the practitioner had better be silent. When stating this the
author must be understood as expressing the conviction at which almost
exclusive attention to the subject, and much necessary consideration,
has enabled him to arrive. It must not, however, be thought that he is
arrogating a power of measuring the capabilities of genius; his wish is
only to declare the truth as he perceives it. The intention to publish a
work upon the teeth has not been concealed; opinions have been solicited
and information sought; the author has many obligations to acknowledge;
all to whom he has made application have been liberal in their
communications; but from no one has he been able to obtain anything
opposed to the conclusions he has here promulgated. It may be that
hereafter the power of judging of the age shall be extended. Pessina and
the Girards thought it could be done with exactitude up to an extreme
point, and saw a principle in the latest changes which the teeth
undergo. The general experience in this country, however, seems to have
decided that, after the eighth year, there is no certainty. With that
decision the author is reluctantly obliged to acquiesce, and even to add
that certainty is not to be obtained after the sixth year. This
limitation, coupled as it is with a confession of inability, may seem to
be a backward movement; but truth cannot retrograde. By ascertaining how
far our present knowledge leads us, a motive is given to genius by the
opportunity created for its exercise. No pains have been spared to
investigate the hypotheses which have been made known; they have been
candidly put to the test, and on the proof of their inefficiency
discarded. That the reader may judge for himself, the tables of teeth,
and mouths of various ages are presented. The altered aspect of the
tables at the ninth year is indicated in the following wood-cut, which
exhibits these surfaces as gaining depth and narrowing from side to
side. This appearance they generally assume, and at the same time the
infundibula are either lost or much contracted.

[Illustration]

The next wood-cut, which depicts the form of the tables at the tenth
year, though true in its general character, will serve to show how far
dependence may be placed in ordinary signs, since the infundibulum of
the lateral nipper shows a well-marked cavity, while from the other
teeth it seems to be upon the eve of disappearing. On inspection,
however, it will be seen that in figures the tables approach more
towards the square, which is the last form these surfaces assume.

[Illustration]

53. _At twelve years old, there may be tartar on the lower tush. The
teeth are longer, narrower, and the enamel darker._ The coloured
engraving, which was, on the last occasion justified by a comparison
with the mouth of that famous horse, Charles the Twelfth, will convey a
general idea of the prevailing characteristics of this age. The teeth
have lost the white and firm set aspect they bore at the eighth year.
Often, at this period, they have, by wear, become irregular generally,
as exhibited in the plate; the grooves, extending down the length of the
upper incisors, contain the remnants of the crusta petrosa, which is
almost black. The upper tush is usually much diminished, while the lower
is long, especially in stallions kept for service. The teeth project
more outward and begin to arrange themselves more in a line, no longer
showing the crescentic order which they assumed at five years old. Also,
by the twelfth year, the tongue, when the jaws are closed, protrudes
from the open space between the incisors and molars. The degree in which
these alterations have taken place, together with the protrusion of the
incisors, is all that is present to guide the judgment; and practical
experience is needed, to give him, who attempts to decide upon such weak
evidence, any chance of success. As in cases of this description every
thing that can help the judgment is eagerly seized upon, the general
appearance of the animal is always to be considered; and that may warn
the practitioner to modify his opinion. The lower jaw is sharp, the
cheeks flat, and around the tushes there may be an accumulation of
tartar. It is true the tables, consequent on the wear of the teeth, will
have undergone some change, but that alteration is now so slightly
marked as not to enforce itself upon the observation. It is easily
overlooked, and by no means easily recognised. The annexed wood-cut
will suggest the nature of the change. In it will be seen a further
remove from the oval form of these parts in the young mouth. The
surfaces have become square or angular, and the corners are only
sufficiently rounded to indicate what once was the shape which they
exhibited.

[Illustration]

The following wood-cut depicts the tables at the completion of the
fourteenth year, and only by careful comparison could the increase of
age which they denote be detected. On inspection, however, it will be
seen that the irregularities of outline are less prominent even than at
the twelfth year.

[Illustration]

[Illustration: _TWELVE YEARS OLD._

_Tartar on the lower Tush. The teeth longer, narrower, and the enamel
darker._]

[Illustration: _TWENTY YEARS OLD._

_The Form of the Mouth changed, and the lower Teeth imperfectly seen
from the front._]

54. _At sixteen years old, when the teeth are viewed from the side, only
two incisors can be seen in the lower jaw_, as depicted in the
coloured engraving, which was last authenticated by the mouth of Muley
Moloch, which favourite stallion I was, by the kindness of Mr. Theobald,
permitted to examine at his well-known establishment, where I also saw
many other horses of the purest blood and highest promise. Of the
excellence of the arrangements and the value of the animals, which give
character to that gentleman's establishment, it would be presumption of
me to speak. I have only to express my admiration of what I beheld, and
tender my thanks for the attention I received. The engraving, however,
was fortunately corroborated, and its general indications may therefore
be accepted. The enamel has entirely lost its white and pearly tone. The
tushes, perhaps, loaded with tartar in both jaws, are blunt, and
generally either very short or long, inclining somewhat outward. The
extension of the crescentic arrangement of the lower teeth enables only
two to be seen when the parts are viewed from the side. The tongue
protrudes to an obvious degree, and the saliva runs from the mouth when
the jaws are separated. The edge of the lower jaw is very sharp and
somewhat retracted, while the incisors have taken a horizontal
direction. No sign, however, save the protrusion of the tongue, is
positive. The general character is that of advanced age, and this
general character, at once recognised by the eye of experience, is more
to be depended upon than the teeth themselves. The teeth have now
assumed the permanent character of old age; and in the figure of the
tables will undergo no further alteration upon which any dependence can
be placed. Up to the sixteenth year, however, the tables deserve to be
consulted. Below is exhibited such evidence as they present, which the
reader will perceive is so nice and delicately marked as to be easily
misinterpreted. In the tables which belonged to the fourteenth year, it
will be seen the infundibula are almost gone, a speck alone denotes
their latest trace; nevertheless, the next wood-cut, which exhibits the
tables at the sixteenth year, will show that the absence of the
infundibula is not to be relied upon. Still the advance in age is,
though feebly, indicated. The central incisor has assumed a form which
is peculiarly characteristic of age in the horse. It is seldom that at
sixteen years all the tables take so marked a shape, but some of them,
and generally those in the centre, will, at this period, be symbolical
of the truth.

[Illustration]

Had it not been for the very conspicuous indication of the central
tables, the others in the former wood-cut might have been reasonably
decided to be more juvenile in their aspect.

55. _At twenty years old, the form of the mouth has changed, and the
lower teeth are imperfectly seen from the front._ This circumstance
springs from the more horizontal direction which the teeth have now
assumed, and the acuteness of the angle which they consequently form
when closed. The engraving also depicts that alteration in position
which disables a person, standing in front, from well seeing both rows
of incisors when the lips are separated. When the upper incisors are
fairly presented to the sight, a partial view only of the lower teeth is
obtained, and as the age advances even that is lost. Further inspection
also shows additional changes in position, shape, and tint. The grooves
are broad, deep, and well marked by their dark colour. Between the upper
incisors there are interspaces in which the food has accumulated and
become black, giving to the mouth the appearance represented in the
coloured plate. The upper tush, which is now of a brownish hue, may be
worn to the gum, and the lower continue long and surrounded by tartar,
or both may be reduced to mere stumps. The tongue protrudes greatly; the
membrane of the mouth seems hard; and no longer vascular, it is thrown
into wrinkles. The edge of the lower jaw is sensibly retracted, and its
sides are flattened or narrowed. The general appearance indicates the
decay of nature. Here again, however, nothing is positive, save the
yellowness of the teeth and the protrusion of the tongue. The general
character of the animal is of more value than the indications of the
mouth; and, persons familiar with horses can, sometimes by this, guess
the age of an animal with the same approach to accuracy, which most
people exhibit, when pronouncing the extent of an individual's life, by
simply looking at a man's face. In neither instance, perhaps, could the
basis of the opinion, which possibly shall approach very close to
correctness, be accurately stated. Proof, as to the evidence upon which
a conclusion is in such cases based, cannot be anticipated, and to the
inquiry how they were able to tell the age, each would probably answer,
by the "looks," but neither would be capable of precisely defining in
what these "looks" consisted.

56. _At thirty years old, the jaws are contracted; the lower are not
seen when the upper teeth are in view._ The coloured engraving, which at
first sight seems to suggest that the animal possessed only a single
jaw, exhibits the mouth as it appears at the thirtieth year. The animal,
the mouth of which is here depicted, had a lower jaw with excellent
teeth considering its age, but without elevating its head these could
not, while the mouth was closed, be seen, or when seen, the view of
those in the upper jaw was lost. This peculiarity arises from the teeth
having taken a still more horizontal inclination; they are now crowded
together; and, from the irregularity of their wear, may assume the
pointed figure indicated in the plate. The change of colour also has
become more decided, and the general indications, which have been before
alluded to, are more marked. After what has been so frequently repeated
concerning the deceptive character of the tables in extreme age, little,
perhaps, need be added to that subject. Nevertheless, to convey an idea
of the appearances which these surfaces may assume, subjoined are
wood-cuts taken from authenticated mouths, for the inspection of which I
am indebted to the liberality of Mr. Ernes, of Dockhead, who has paid
great attention to the changes of the teeth. To the honour of that
gentleman, I may, while confessing the heavy obligations under which his
generosity has placed me, here mention, that no member of the veterinary
profession had, to my knowledge, under his care so great a number of
animals working at a period of life when the horse is usually supposed
to be worthless. The majority of these were in good condition, active,
and capable of doing every kind of ordinary service. They presented a
pleasing spectacle, more than creditable to the talent of him under
whose charge they had retained health and vigour. The aspects which the
tables of the teeth exhibited, however, were such as set judgment at
defiance, and for the purpose of enabling the reader to form his own
opinion on the matter, engravings of a few of them are here introduced.

[Illustration]

The above wood-cut exhibits the tables and arrangement of the incisors
as they were seen in the mouth of an animal which was proved to be no
less than twenty-eight years old. Any one, who should base his opinion
solely on the marks, must have pronounced the creature to have been no
more than five, since none of the infundibula are lost. The
semi-circular arrangement also had suffered no very material change, and
altogether the contrast with the next representation of the same parts,
as they appeared in the mouth of a horse which was but one year older,
is very striking.

[Illustration]

In the above engraving the teeth are seen to be ranged almost in a line,
which is the form they have a disposition to take at this great age. The
appearance, here delineated, is more true than the foregoing in its
general character, the infundibula being entirely worn out; for the
specks in the centre of the tables show, not the remains of the last
portion of the marks, but the exposure of the upper extremity of what
once was the cavity of the pulp. In the next wood-cut, however, which
depicts the tables of the teeth which were in the jaw of a horse, that
had reached its thirtieth year, and from which the drawing for the
coloured engraving was made, displays a portion of the infundibulum
still retained in the corner incisor. The true character of age
nevertheless is conspicuous in the form of the tables.

[Illustration: _THIRTY YEARS OLD._

_The jaw contracted. The lower teeth not seen when the upper are in
view._]

[Illustration: _SIXTEEN YEARS OLD._

_Viewed from the side, only two Incisors can be seen in the lower
jaw._]

[Illustration]

Such contradictory indications admit of being to a certain degree
reconciled. The representations of the tables are correctly given, but,
in the living mouths, these were corrected by the appearances of the
teeth themselves. The incisors of the horse which was twenty-eight years
old had suffered but little wear. An unusual degree of hardness, or an
extraordinary power of self-preservation, contributed to keep them, so
far as the tables were concerned, in appearance, young, long after the
season of youth had passed. Almost from the fifth year the tables would
seem to have suffered but a very gradual change; for even when
twenty-eight, these parts do not indicate the horse to be more than
"aged." The absence of wear may, in some measure, be attributed to the
kind of food which the animal had consumed, it having been chiefly fed
from the manger; and also to its being of a quiet disposition, or not
inclined to bite and snap when the groom was dressing it. The want of
wear, however, did not necessitate the cessation of growth, which went
on at the natural rate; therefore, though the tables had a very youthful
look, the teeth were, nevertheless, unusually long, and gave to the
mouth a decided appearance of age. Their colour, and the removal of
almost every vestige of the crusta petrosa, together with the general
appearance of the horse, was sufficient to awaken those suspicions which
would warn the practitioner. The eccentricities, however, which
particular parts can exhibit, will teach the student, that a conclusion
should only be drawn from observation and comparison of all the various
signs which the teeth present. No sign can be singly relied on; but, by
weighing the evidence, and placing the contradictory indications in
opposition, something approaching to truth may, even in extreme age, be
deduced; though such deductions, for obvious reasons, ought to be
expressed with caution, and never, under any circumstances, positively
advanced. Mr. Henderson, the respected veterinary surgeon to Her Majesty
the Queen Dowager, possesses in his museum many interesting specimens of
the teeth. Among the rest, he has the jaw of an animal which was
ascertained to have reached the thirty-eighth year. This preparation,
however, exhibits no sign that could characterize the extreme age which
the horse had attained, and I allude to it, only as a confirmation of
the opinion I have expressed, that, as the period of life advances, the
mouth of the horse becomes more and more difficult of interpretation.

57. _The tricks, that are practised on the teeth_, are so much talked
about and so generally feared, that the subject demands a few words in
explanation. The breeders are known to extract the milk teeth, hoping
thereby to hasten the growth of the permanent incisors, and to increase
the apparent age of the colt. The gums they are likewise known to touch
with the hot iron, or to freely lance for the same purpose. All of these
practices are common enough; but that they accomplish the design of the
persons who employ them is not at all certain. By either of these
practices the animal is pained, and pain does not favour development,
but, on the contrary, retards it. The suffering, however, may be brief,
yet the effect does not stop there. If the milk tooth is firm in the
mouth, when the attempt is made to extract it, in nineteen cases out of
twenty, it will be broken and the fang left in the jaw. When the
extraction of the milk teeth has been general, I have seen numbers of
horses, with the broken fangs in their mouths, palpable evidences that
the animals have been tampered with. But, supposing all of the tooth to
be removed, nothing would be thereby gained. The permanent tooth does
not push out the temporary; nor does the temporary, so directly obstruct
the coming up of the permanent, as to render its presence or absence of
much consequence. If the fang be removed, there may be nothing to
absorb, but on that account it does not follow that there will be
anything more deposited. The body of a man does not grow larger because
one or more of his limbs have been amputated. On the contrary, the shock
occasioned to the system by the operation, and the consequence ensuing
on the loss of blood, may cause an immediate diminution of the frame.
So, if a horse's tooth be drawn, the animal is alarmed, tortured--and,
if the creature recovers from these effects very speedily, so that no
loss of growth could be estimated, certainly the most favourable
circumstances would not allow us to imagine any stimulus to development
had been created. There will be some loss of blood, and this, however
slight it may be, nevertheless being taken from the immediate part, must
act as a local depletion. Now to deplete is to check growth by
abstracting the very source of nutriment. The hemorrhage, however small,
must be injurious; and the mouth being made more or less sore, the
inclination to feed, as a natural consequence, is diminished, thereby
further checking the development. I cannot see in what manner the
extraction of the milk teeth is to hasten the growth of the permanent
incisors; but I can perceive that the operation may have the opposite
effect; and I have known the practice to have been followed by the
non-appearance of the very tooth, the protrusion of which through the
gum, it was employed to quicken. The tooth, which previously seemed to
be on the eve of piercing the gum, after the extraction of the milk
incisor never came up,--nor will any person who has thought for an
instant, wonder if the violence, necessarily used, does occasionally
injure or rupture the delicate vessels and gelatinous tissues of the
pulp. More often the breeder's impatient interference breaks the tooth
off at the neck and leaves the fang in the jaw. This he has not the
skill to extract, and as it is not afterwards absorbed but speedily
assumes a dark colour, it remains a tell-tale and an eye-sore during the
life of the animal. Had the colt been left alone, the fang in a few
months would, by the natural process, have been absorbed: but the force
which broke the tooth, though incapable of extracting it, probably
ruptured the delicate tubes of the absorbent vessels. The broken member
is left in the mouth, either to act as a foreign body, or to become
united by anchylosis to the jaw, and continue for life a deformity. The
folly of the practice will surely on reflection be evident to all; and
the other means employed for the same end are in a like degree
injurious. The breeder will consult his own interest best by studying
the feelings of his animals. For the sake of profit, if not for the love
of humanity, he had better cease to torture the poor beasts by which he
hopes to gain. Suffering will neither engender spirit, growth, or fat,
and the market pays price for each of these. The mouth of the horse is
too important towards the value of the animal to be ignorantly
mutilated. Let the mind reflect, before the hand is permitted even to
use the lancet. To lance the gums of the human infant was once a
favourite practice; nor has the custom at the present time fallen quite
into disuse, but it is generally resorted to only during the cutting of
the primary teeth, and not commonly adopted to facilitate the appearance
of those teeth which the horse-dealer employs it to quicken. In the
latter case, on man the gum lancet is not employed; and, if found
useless on one animal, a strong inference is created as to the inutility
of constantly experimentalizing with the instrument upon another. By
incising the gums a wound is created, the part is thickened, and a
cicatrix induced; the effects of which are to cause an impediment to the
growing tooth; and this being seen and corroborated by practical
observation, the best dentists and surgeons of the present day are not
very enthusiastic in the use of the gum lancet, which they have in a
great measure cast aside, and which is beneficial only in scientific
hands. The loss of blood likewise is to be considered, and that
certainly aids in retarding the growth, which the adoption of the other
means, general with the breeders of horses, could not accelerate. The
employment of the cautery, to expedite the appearance of the teeth, is
so strange a resort, that I can only account for the use of that agent
by imagining certain persons to be totally ignorant of its action. In
the first place, it destroys the part with which it comes in contact;
inflammation follows and suppuration ensues; a quantity of blood is
diverted to the surface, and of course drawn from the pulp of the new
tooth, which originally it flowed to and nurtured. A slough must take
place, and the mouth remain sore till the escar is thrown off and the
exposed granulating surface cicatrized. But wherever the hot iron is
applied the immediate part is thickened, rendered more hard and tense.
Which of these effects is it the horse-dealer regards as likely to
promote his wishes? A little knowledge would inform any one, that the
cautery must act in the opposite direction to that, which it is
supposed, by ignorant people, to favour. Indeed, I do not think, that
horse-dealers or others have yet obtained so great a mastery over
nature, that the dame can be made to hurry at their bidding, however
cruelly their orders may be enforced. A "Yorkshire five" may sound well,
but there is no more possibility of making a four-year old colt, by
barbarity, show the development of a five-year old horse, than there is,
by wrenching, cutting, and burning, of making a boy of fifteen look
like a man of twenty. Nature obeys her own laws, and is not yet
subjected to human practices. Careful rearing, nutritious food,
sufficient exercise, and no work does promote development, and of the
growth thereby engendered, the purchaser has no reason to be in fear;
for if one part shows maturity, he may be assured, that the other parts
are also equally matured. The time the animal has lived is not of half
the consequence, that the use which has been made of its life is, to the
future possessor. The horse that has a mouth indicating five, and that
can be proved to be five, if it has been worked from its earliest year
and stinted in its food, has less energy and life than a younger
creature forwarded by the fostering care of the breeder. The two animals
are not to be compared. Supposing the one to be no more than four, it
possesses the vigour and development of five; while the other, which is
five, may have the decrepitude and constitutional infirmity of twenty.
Let not the buyer fear the deceit of the breeder, but without dread
accept the mouth as proof of the age; if the animal is not in years, he
is in development, that which the teeth declare. To this conclusion,
however, some will oppose their opinions. The animal, they will argue,
has been stimulated to exhibit an unnatural maturity, and the seeds of
future disease have thereby been planted in the system; therefore, it
will be urged, the worth is depreciated. The statement looks well, but
it is of no value, for a little inquiry will prove it to be based on
false principles. Excessive stimulus checks the growth, or causes early
disease, sacrificing either the health or life of the being. The feeder
knows, from experience, that the quantity of nutriment must be measured
by the powers of the creature that consumes it; and that over-feeding,
by impairing the digestion, destroys or weakens rather than nurtures the
body. The stimulus, pushed beyond a certain point, would keep the horse
in the infirmary, and never fit it for the market. Every dealer knows
this, and though such persons are, by the prejudice of the public,
obliged to keep their animals loaded with fat, or in what is called
"bloomy condition," they nevertheless fear to maintain this state of
body for too long a period; and while it lasts, constantly resort to
drugs, to counteract that tendency to disease which it engenders. They
treat their stock, almost as a physician would treat so many city
aldermen; and give dinner or digestive pills almost as regularly. A
_fatted_ beast is always diseased, but an animal liberally fed is
thereby rendered the more healthy. In fact, the dread of those results
which ensue from comfort is, with regard to the horse, quite as
unfounded as the fear, that mankind once had, of the "miseries of the
rich," and the envy, poets taught them to indulge, towards the
starvation of the poor. Such idle fancies may be dismissed with profit
to the person who discards them; but at the same time there are some
practices the reader needs to be cautioned against. To give the face of
the horse a youthful appearance, some of the class of dealers who
frequent public markets, low auctions, and country fairs, puncture the
skin at that part where the falling or depression is seen above the eyes
in old animals. Having inserted into the orifice a small quill, they
then blow into the part, thereby inflating the subjacent tissue, and
concealing the cavity. This notable artifice, which is called "_puffing
the glym_" ought to impose upon no one. Should the trick be suspected,
let the hand be carelessly raised to pat the neck and cheek of the
animal, when it can, under pretence of likewise stroking the face, be
passed over the part which is supposed to have been tampered with; and
in the act a little pressure may be made upon the suspicious region:
then, if the swelling has been induced in the manner stated, the passage
of the hand is sufficient to squeeze out the air, and the contrast which
the two sides of the face will afterwards present, gives to the
countenance of the poor horse, a very knowing and peculiar expression.
Let the person, however, who thus undertakes to expose roguery, be
assured of his ability to protect himself in the office he has assumed;
for the gentlemen who display their ingenuity on horses, are not averse
to occasionally mutilating the human frame. To lay bare and detect such
low, mean, and obvious cheatery, as the above, properly belongs to the
police; and the least acute of the force, ought to be equal to the
detection of so gross an imposition. The swelling, when caused by
inflation, always has an unnatural aspect, such as a school-boy would
find no difficulty in recognising, after his attention has been directed
to the point. It looks puffed, and when the jaw moves, the part does not
play freely with the motion. These circumstances, at a glance, declare
the cheat which the pressure of the hand can, in an instant, prove to
have been practised. The artifice, however, when adopted, ought to be of
no avail. Young horses often exhibit the depression above the eye, of
great depth; nor is it unusual to see old animals, in which the cavity
is naturally shallow. The qualified judge, therefore, glances at, but
never permits the state of, the part, to influence his decision; and the
trick, when resorted to, can impose only on those who are too vain to
acknowledge their ignorance, or too mean to pay for protection. Other
indications are of greater worth, and to these, observation is directed.
The roundness or flatness of the cheek, the sharpness or fulness of the
lower jaw, no art can imitate: these, consequently, receive more
attention. The eye is directed to the mouth; and still supposing the
reader to be present at such places as the parties who practise tricks
with horse flesh mostly frequent, let him be thought desirous of
purchasing the animal, and therefore proceed with an examination: it
will not be long before the teeth will be inspected. When the lips are
separated, the incisors may be long and horizontal in their
inclination; and, by the time this is noted, the seller probably has
volunteered the information, that the horse he is most reluctantly
obliged to part from, was six years old last grass. The expression of
surprise such a statement elicits, is answered by oaths as to the fact,
and direct accusations of ignorance against any one who would assert the
animal to be a day older. The jaws are pulled asunder, and all the marks
are seen. Here is proof; no man who knows anything of horses, he is
told, would reject such evidence; and a host of ready bye-standers stare
at the mouth, and only doubt if the creature is full six _yet_. The
judge also looks at the marks, and then walks away: he has formed his
opinion, and the sight of the marks confirms him in the conclusion he
had arrived at. The absence of the police may caution him not to expose
himself by noticing the shout of defiance, and bellowed taunts, that
signalize his retreat; but he has seen the animal is a "bishop." Now
what promoted the poor brute to ecclesiastical dignity? The term in
horse slang, simply means that the marks are not natural, but have been
made. There are two means by which that can be done. When time presses,
and tools or skill are wanted, the tables of the teeth are touched only
with a red hot wire, which leaves a black _mark_ wherever it is applied.
This, however, is a coarse expedient, and the more usual practice is, to
dig out the cavities with a kind of engraver's tool, and then to blacken
the spaces thus created. The infundibula are imitated with much nicity;
but the resemblance, however close it may be, never for a moment imposes
on the qualified judge. The shape of the table, characteristic of the
old tooth, cannot be altered, nor can the edge of enamel, which should
gird the infundibulum, be artificially produced. Moreover, many of the
people who "bishop" horses, are content to perform the operation only on
the lower jaw, leaving the upper teeth untouched, because these are not
generally inspected. Should such be the case, of course the marks will
be more or less faded, where naturally they would be most fresh; for the
infundibula of the lower jaw are lost some years prior to those of the
upper disappearing. The attempted deception, therefore, is never
successful, save when the "copers" are fortunate enough to meet with a
"flat," who has just knowledge enough to be very wise in his own
conceit. It must, however, be remembered, that the lower class of
dealers are not limited in their transactions, and often dispose of
animals to persons of respectability; therefore, it is not unusual to
find horses standing for sale at commission stables, with mouths of a
most conspicuous character. The owners of such horses may be gentlemen
of the highest probity, and in ignorance the age may be mis-stated. For
this reason, no man should purchase a horse of any individual, without
having the animal previously examined by a certificated member of the
Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. The money so spent, is the
smallest item in the account; and the sum saved by following this rule
is often disproportioned to the expenditure,--to make no estimate of the
disappointment and vexation which may be prevented. Respectable dealers
will not knowingly allow the character of their stables to be injured by
the presence of a "bishoped" animal. This class of persons are very
scrupulous in that respect, but they are not always able to detect the
truth--their education is often limited, and though good ordinary
judges, they cannot, under every circumstance, decide correctly--they
unconsciously deceive, being themselves deceived; and consequently
every purchaser should take the precaution pointed out, no matter
whence, or from whom, he may be buying a horse. Were all to act in the
way indicated, much law would be spared, and a great deal of anger
allowed to slumber. The dealers are not the rogues the enlightened
public are fond of believing--many among them are as honourable as all
men should be--some of the class, however, never let a horse escape out
of their hands unmutilated. The teeth invariably receive the primary
attention: if long, they are, by the application of a file, reduced to
the length which the self-taught equine dentist supposes proper to
youth. An acid is also applied to the enamelled surface, in order to
render it white. No vast good is effected, but if the means were not
designed to impose, no great harm would perhaps be done. The acid is not
allowed to corrode the tooth, and the diminution of the length may
possibly in some degree benefit the animal. The welfare of the creature,
however, is not the object sought--the hope is to cheat; but no person
who ought to be trusted, or even to trust himself to purchase a horse,
should be so imposed upon. Whiteness is no sign of youth in the tooth
of a horse, and the file cannot make the tables assume the juvenile
figure. Horses that show such mouths, may be easily recognised--perhaps
they are quiet while their legs are handled, but shy when the head is
touched--they are not vicious, but timid, and the teeth tell the reason
of their fear. It is well to pass them by, and dangerous to accept them
at any price. If the teeth have been tampered with, what tricks may not
have been practised to conceal other defects?

58. _Irregularity of growth in the horse's teeth_, should, in all
cases, be early noticed, and speedily attended to, for so much of the
worth of the horse depends on the animal's ability to feed, that it
may be said, "no teeth no horse." The milk teeth are so regular in
their growth, that I have not been able to hear of, or meet with a
specimen, in which they were eccentric. The permanent teeth, however,
are not unusually irregular; the most common irregularity which they
exhibit, is that of retention of one or more of the milk incisors,
and this more frequently is to be seen in the lower than in the upper
jaw. Mr. Ernes, of whom I have before spoken as an excellent judge of
the teeth, and a most able practitioner, was kind enough to show me
the mouth of a cart horse which was under his care; the lower jaw had
eleven incisors, but of these five were milk teeth. The appearance
which the mouth presented was rather that of some foreign animal than
of an ordinary horse. The bone had become deformed, and the gums
were in several places in an inflammatory condition. Mr. Henderson
possesses a most curious preparation of the lower jaw of a horse,
in which there is exhibited eleven permanent teeth. The appearance
which this specimen presents is extraordinary, and the existence of
such a monstrosity, showing the extent to which nature may violate
her own laws, deserves special attention. The possibility of so
great a variation being encountered, will prepare the mind to expect
and to consider the less marked deformities, which in practice are
not unusually met with. It is not unusual to find horses with eight
teeth in one jaw, two of which are generally, on inspection, found
to be retained milk incisors. The milk teeth, if allowed to remain
after the horse incisors are fairly up, often give to these last a
very strange appearance. The following wood-cut depicts the mouth
of a mare, to which my notice was directed by Mr. Henderson, the
gentleman to whose generosity I have before had occasion to confess
my obligations.

[Illustration]

The corner milk tooth here not having been extracted after nature had
failed to remove it by the process of absorption, has caused the last
permanent incisor to take an unnatural situation, where, being removed
from attrition, it has become of extraordinary length, and looks as much
like a curious tush as the thing it really is. Such a state of the
mouth is far from rare, and because of its frequency, being the more
likely to be met with in practice, it was chosen for illustration. The
molar teeth are less subject to distortion, but, nevertheless, are
sometimes irregular, and from the same causes. I have seen the palate
pierced by a tooth which grew in an unnatural direction. The treatment,
in both cases, would be alike. The milk teeth should never be allowed to
remain in the mouth after the corresponding permanent teeth are fairly
up. If removal prior to this period does no good, now the operation is
suggested by its accordance with the natural process, and the sooner it
is undertaken the better: any delay will only create difficulty, and
render the restoration of the displaced tooth, more problematical. The
unabsorbing fang, will, in time, become united to the bone; and if its
extraction is then attempted, fracture of the jaw may be the
consequence. In no instance should the stable keeper be told to pull out
the teeth: he has not the proper instruments for the purpose, and must
use unnecessary violence even if he does no greater injury. The animal,
besides, is rendered shy of him, in whom it is essential it should be
educated to repose confidence; and many a horse, by the bungling
efforts of such people, pretending to operate, is ultimately rendered
dangerous in the stable. Moreover, the horse owner cannot be too
seriously cautioned, against giving permission to those who attend on
his animals, to overstep their lawful limits. In the first instance he
may, perhaps, congratulate himself upon the result, but speedy
experience will convince him, to his cost, of the danger of the system.
If the operation should have been delayed so long, as to allow the teeth
to have become of unequal lengths, then, after the milk incisors are
extracted, the permanent teeth must be rendered level; and, however far
apart they may at first be, in time they will approximate. The
operation, which is recommended, any Member of the Royal College of
Veterinary Surgeons will execute; and, as in skilful hands, it is never
dangerous, so it should, on no account, be entrusted to quacks or
pretenders. For some irregularities, however, there is no help; for
instance, when the lower jaw exhibits only four permanent incisors,
which is by no means unusual, and which, in the majority of cases, could
be traced to the efforts made to extract the corner milk teeth, before
the time had arrived for their removal. An animal with such a mouth is
obviously deteriorated. The lessened number of its teeth may be of
little consequence while it is young and kept in the stable. During the
earlier years, the corner nippers, which are those most frequently
wanting, are not in perfect apposition, nor are the incisors of so great
importance, when the food is to be pulled from the rack or gathered from
the manger. But at grass, especially in old age, when horses are most
frequently turned out, and when the spreading of the semi-circle brings
all the teeth into play, none can be spared. The absence of one-third of
the nippers in the active jaw, would then cause the animal more work for
its livelihood, and probably counteract all the benefit which "the run"
was intended to produce, even if more serious evils did not ensue. The
eccentricities of the teeth should always be regarded, to conjecture how
far they may retard the welfare of the horse. The presence of an
additional molar in each jaw is sometimes seen, and is hardly to be
counted a defect: such supernumerary teeth are generally posteriorly
situated, and of small size; they may cause no inconvenience, and their
existence not be suspected during the life of the animal. The reverse,
however, is the case when an extra tooth is found only in one jaw. I am
indebted to Mr. Dunsford, a gentleman who pays more than usual attention
to every case entrusted to his care, for a fine specimen of the evil
which may result from an abnormal molar. In the lower jaw, on the near
side, are seen seven molar teeth; and the last has, from the absence of
attrition, grown to a length which caused it to do serious injury to the
mouth. The teeth are placed one behind the other in a perfect row;
hence, as well as from their all being of the full size, one, the last
in position, was occasioned to project, forcing itself through the gum,
even into the substance of the superior maxillary bone. The horse was
destroyed, having become useless, in consequence of its inability to
masticate its food. Another defect in the molars is observed, in these
teeth sometimes being placed apart from one another, leaving interspaces
between them, in which the food accumulates, and inflaming the gums,
causes the animal much pain whenever it attempts to feed. For this,
nothing can be done, beyond giving the poor beast its meat artificially
prepared; but with all care the unfortunate animal becomes emaciated,
and is speedily consigned to the knacker. Fortunately, however, the
molars are not often irregular in their growth. In fact, most
irregularities of the teeth must be carefully sought for, but one form
which is not rare by any means ought to be always observed. In certain
animals the lower jaw is so short, that the creatures cannot place the
incisors together or in apposition: the consequence is, that the lower
incisors being active instruments, have to perform their functions at
considerable disadvantage; but, nevertheless, they act and receive wear.
The upper incisors, however, are, in such mouths, subjected to little
attrition; the corner, and a portion of the lateral nippers alone,
meeting each other; hence the central nippers, which grow more forward
than they ought, at length project downwards, and overhang those of the
lower jaw. This arrangement of the incisors constitutes what is called a
"parrot mouth," because of the resemblance which the teeth bear to the
bill of the bird. Most old horses are more or less parrot-mouthed; but
young horses also occasionally exhibit mouths of this description, and
in these last it is certainly a defect, for in a state of nature, or at
grass, the animal would be necessitated to tear rather than bite its
food. The proprietor of such a beast, therefore, can or ought never to
turn the creature out, but keep it constantly in the stable, and under
many circumstances this would entail inconvenience and expense. There is
nothing to be done for such a malformation, but an allowance should be
made for it in the price. That the reader may be able to recognise it, a
copy of a mouth, in which the deformity was well marked, is here
presented. The animal, which was introduced to my notice by my talented
friend, Mr. Broad, of Paddington, was twenty-one years of age; and
though more conspicuous cases of the kind are sometimes seen, the one I
have chosen for illustration shows a rather greater malformation than is
usually met with; but, nevertheless, it well illustrates the point upon
which I have been dwelling.

[Illustration]

The molars sometimes wear unevenly, their edges becoming as sharp as
knives, and their tables slanting in an unnatural degree. The slanting
tables cannot perfectly comminute the food, so that which is swallowed,
not being properly prepared, affords little sustenance; while the sharp
edges cutting the inside of the mouth, and causing it to ulcerate,
render the animal, from the pain, disinclined to eat. The contraction of
the bones of the lower jaw, in some old horses, by disabling them from
bringing the tables of the molars in perfect apposition, is the cause of
these teeth assuming such a shape; for in young animals this species of
distortion is never witnessed, save as the consequence of disease. The
horse not feeding, attracts the attention of the groom, and rarely does
his intelligence detect the cause. Any member of the Royal College of
Veterinary Surgeons, however, will soon discover the seat of mischief;
by reducing the cutting edges of the molars, and invigorating the
constitution, while the ulcerated mouth is properly treated, and the
food carefully attended to, he will soon restore the horse once more to
health and activity. The proprietor, however, must ever after have the
horse, from time to time, attended to, as the symptoms denote a relapse;
and with such precaution the animal may continue in full work for a
number of years. Not a few horses show the edges of the incisor teeth
perfectly rounded, so that when the mouth is closed the tables no longer
touch in every part; indeed the form of the tables is destroyed, and the
age of the animal can by them hardly be conjectured. These rounded teeth
have been supposed to denote crib-biting, and gentlemen have for fifty
years been told, to set down every horse presenting such a mouth, as a
confirmed cribber. The notion, however, is not supported by fact, for
cribbers generally exhibit even mouths; and I have not yet been able to
discover an instance in which this habit had caused the tabulated
surfaces of the teeth to be convex. The round form of the tables results
from the horse biting when being groomed, and generally is seen in those
which are of an excitable nature. These animals are usually good
servants, but this shape of teeth unfits them for being turned out to
grass, as the cutting edges of the nippers are destroyed.

59. _The diseases to which the teeth of the horse are subjected_, are,
fortunately, not very common; though this assertion must not induce any
person to imagine that his animals may not be afflicted in this respect.
Every owner should be particularly watchful on such a point; for so
important are the teeth to the welfare of the animal, and so difficult
of cure are neglected cases of this description, that numbers of
valuable horses have been and will be slaughtered, simply on their
account. No animal is exempt from this species of affliction. One man
may during his life possess many horses, and die without knowing how
fatal are the diseases of the teeth. Another person, whose stable shall
contain but a single nag, may, in a few months, be taught how dreadful
are the ravages which this affection can induce. All therefore should,
for the security of their property, be aware of the first indication of
this species of disease. Though the teeth are not vital organs, and the
course of the malady is generally slow, nevertheless, the consequences
to which it gives rise are such as in every case, deteriorate the value
of the animal; and, in many, nay, perhaps the majority of instances,
render it alike prudent and humane to deprive the poor beast of
existence. Probably I do not assert too much when I add that, in the
ordinary examination of horses, little attention is paid to the
condition of the teeth. The incisors are inspected to ascertain the age,
and any peculiarity in these is particularly noted; but for the most
part the molars are passed over without comment. Here the rarity of
disease may shield the negligence of the practitioner, who,
nevertheless, is in every case exposed to blame through his inattention.
Such a man may pass through a long practice, and escape reproach; but,
nevertheless, the first horse on which he pronounced an opinion, might
have blighted his reputation, by exhibiting the disease he had taken no
pains to detect. Every animal purchased of a party whose warranty might
be at all suspicious, ought to be seen to feed before a conclusion as to
soundness is pronounced. If then the molars are affected, the truth
would be made obvious; and there is nothing can render a horse more
unsound than disease of these teeth. The animal so afflicted, may, for a
time, be equal to its work: yet to render it capable of exertion it
requires continual care, and in the end, spite of all precaution, it may
become worthless. Some means should therefore be adopted to ascertain
that the grinders are free from disease, and a little corn will enable
the fact to be conjectured. Should any suspicion be created, a further
examination will discover the truth. The molars, in the judgment of
every one who has thought upon the matter, are the teeth which,
especially in aged animals, require attention. The incisors indicate the
age, but they are not usually liable to disease. I have not met with a
single case in which the incisors were affected, nor in which the tushes
were diseased. I am, however, informed by Mr. Field, whose high
reputation and extensive practice give weight to his assertion, that he
has had to treat horses for disease of the incisor teeth, and has even
been obliged to remove a portion of the lower jaw in order to procure
relief. Other practitioners, of whom inquiry has been made, have not
known such a form of disease, neither have I witnessed it: instances of
this kind, therefore, are rare, and hitherto have not attracted
attention. The honour of making known the possibility of their
existence, belongs to a gentleman whose name is proudly associated with
the science which it has so long adorned. The incisors of the colt are
not, however, liable to be seriously affected: when those teeth decay,
age must have advanced. During colthood, nevertheless, the teeth, if
exempt from disease, may be the causes of great constitutional
disturbance. Mr. Percival, the gentleman who, as editor of the
"Veterinarian," and author of the best and most elaborate works on the
diseases of the horse that have yet appeared in the English language,
attaches much importance to those ailments incidental to dentition. Of
the consequences that may ensue from the cutting of the tushes, he
adduces positive proof, and from his admirable work on "Hippopathology,"
page 172, vol. 2, I cannot forbear extracting the following most
valuable case:--

     "I was requested to give my opinion concerning a horse, then in his
     fifth year, who had fed so sparingly for the last fortnight, and so
     rapidly declined in condition in consequence, that his owner, a
     veterinary surgeon, was under no light apprehensions about his
     life. He had himself examined his mouth, without having discovered
     any defect or disease; though another veterinary surgeon was of
     opinion, that the averseness or inability manifested in
     mastication, and the consequent _cudding_, arose from preternatural
     _bluntness_ of the surfaces of the molar teeth, which were, in
     consequence, filed; but without beneficial result. It was after
     this that I saw the horse; and I confess I was, at my first
     examination, quite as much at a loss to offer any thing
     satisfactory as others had been. While meditating, however, after
     my inspection, on the apparently extraordinary nature of the case,
     it struck me that I had not seen the tusks. I went back, and
     discovered two little tumours, red and hard, in the situation of
     the inferior tusks, which, when pressed, gave the animal
     insufferable pain. I instantly took a pocket-knife, and made
     crucial incisions through them, down to the coming teeth, from
     which moment the horse recovered his appetite, and by degrees his
     wonted condition."

The fact here recorded has certainly been generally overlooked; and Mr.
Percival deserves the gratitude of his professional brethren for
directing their observation to the point. Every practitioner, however,
has met with instances in which the molars were implicated. There are
two forms of disease to which these teeth are liable; caries, or decay,
and a loss of vitality, or death. The death of a tooth has not hitherto
been observed upon by veterinary authors, but it is not rare. The causes
which may give rise to it cannot be accurately stated, though they may
be conjectured. The vessels that nurture the fang and ramify through the
pulp, are small and delicate; the alveolar cavities are thin, some of
them in the upper jaw being not thicker in parts of their walls than
brown paper. The force of the masticatory muscles is very great, and if
any hard substance be taken between the teeth, it is easy to imagine
that the minute arteries of the fang should thereby be ruptured. The
effect produced upon the pulp, and the transient agony occasioned by
biting a piece of hard crust, are familiar to every human being; nor can
we suppose that the horse's teeth, especially when the greater strength
of its muscles is duly considered, are not liable to similar and
proportionably greater injury. There may be no history to such a case,
no record of the date when the occurrence took place; for the horse is
not always watched during the time of its feeding, nor were it watched,
is it possible that the groom would attribute the sudden exhibition of
pain to the right cause. The primary effect is therefore misinterpreted
or unnoticed; but after a time it is remarked that the creature is
longer than its companions emptying the manger; then it begins to quid
its hay,--that is, the hay is taken into the mouth partially masticated
and formed into a pellet or round mass; but instead of being swallowed,
the prepared morsel is allowed to fall from the mouth. Should no advice
be taken, the horse becomes bad in its coat, and loses flesh. No amount
of corn, or extra grooming, will restore it to condition; medicines may
be administered with no better effect. The disease is strictly local in
its nature, and the constitutional symptoms are only sympathetic. Should
the affection still be suffered to proceed unchecked, the animal is
continually moving its lips; either it is restless in the stable, or
leans the head against the manger, and neglecting the food which is
before it, remains dull and quiet, the eyes half closed, and the
breathing quickened. A dose of medicine seems to do it some temporary
good, but the purgation has hardly ceased before the symptoms reappear;
saliva runs from the mouth, and the food in the manger is rendered
sloppy, almost like to a mash, before it is eaten; the bones of the face
at last swell; the breath becomes fetid; and a thick offensive purulent
discharge issues from one of the nostrils. That discharge is not
continuous; sometimes it will cease for days, and the proprietor
congratulates himself that the horse is getting well; the fetor,
however, remains, and after a time it breaks forth again with redoubled
vigour. The animal becomes daily worse, and would linger on, but the
patience of the owner is exhausted; the knacker is employed to cut short
the hopeless trouble and expense, and then a hasty examination is made
for the cause of all this mischief. Such is a condensed description of
the customary incidents, in the order in which they ensue; but of course
the intelligent reader is aware that the symptoms of disease cannot be
mapped down, as though they were results obtained from inorganic matter.
Such symptoms always more or less vary, though upon the whole they
present sufficient similarity to enable them, in every case, to be
interpreted; and hence the value of practical experience, which enables
the party possessing it to recognise a fact, when not fully declared.
The writer cannot, to the like extent, communicate instruction; he must
condense his remarks, and be content to speak a general truth; for if he
descends to particulars he becomes tedious, and that which he would
teach is disregarded. Of course the symptoms vary: all may not be
present, yet one or more will lead the practised mind to the seat of
injury. The history, however, which has been recorded, supposes the dead
tooth to be located in the upper jaw: should it be situated in the lower
jaw, some difference will be presented in the effect; for then the
injury is not so serious. The discharge from the nostrils does not
ensue, but the inferior maxillary bone enlarges, and the breath becomes
offensive. The swelling of the bone takes place immediately under the
tooth which has ceased to be a part of the living frame; and at this
point also an abscess forms; this bursts, and discharges an unhealthy
matter: unlike ordinary abscesses, however, which, when they have thrown
out their contents, close, this, notwithstanding that the orifice is
dependent, exhibits no disposition to heal up: a thin stinking liquid
continuously issues from the opening, which becomes hard around its
edges, and the hair about which sticks out, looking coarse and ragged.
Such outward and visible signs are hardly to be misunderstood; and
attention being directed to the mouth, the examination of the teeth
will confirm them. From one jaw will be felt a molar projecting far
above the level of the rest, and in a like degree will the opposing
tooth in the other jaw be found depressed--worn down actually to the
gum. All is now clear; and the question is, what shall be done? In the
first place the condition of the mouth has certainly deranged the
digestive organs, and, where there is room for choice, no operation,
however simple or apparently safe, should be undertaken while the
stomach is out of order. The seat of the disease is known, but the
general health is first attended to; and when that has been in some
measure re-established, the great object of the surgeon is fit to be
accomplished. The question is, which of the teeth are to be interfered
with? One is diseased or dead, and there can be no doubt that the
diseased tooth should be removed. That which is unnaturally long,
obviously indicates that its power of growth is retained; and though
hypertrophy is an abnormal action, teeth are not parts liable to that
species of affection. The one which by its growth indicates vitality,
therefore displays no symptom of disease; but the tooth that is reduced
to the level of the gums, tells us that its power of self-preservation
has ceased, and that its vitality is gone. If that tooth be felt, it
will, in the majority of instances, be found loose, and therefore it can
be easily extracted: the operation, however, is not then ended. Should
the affected organ have occupied the upper jaw, a quantity of pus may
flow freely into the mouth on its extraction, but more frequently such
will not be the case: nevertheless, the discharge from the nostril,
(should the case have been of long standing,) together with the softened
and swollen condition of the facial bones, may convince the attendant
that matter is locked up in the maxillary sinuses. Some writers speak of
the antrum as the part most seriously affected; but I cannot find any
thing corresponding to the antrum in the horse's head. That animal has
no development of this description, and therefore it only shows
ignorance to operate with a special view to opening an imaginary cavity.
The maxillary sinuses are spacious cells, and freely communicate with
the frontal sinuses, which are also large. These facial sinuses have but
a limited and kind of valvular opening into the nasal chambers, and if
pus is allowed to remain within them there is little hope of cure:
therefore a means must be found for its escape. To this end the finger
is employed to probe the alveolar cavity, whence the tooth was taken,
and it will probably prove to be of no great depth. An instrument
constructed for the purpose is now used, and with it a hole is made
through the walls of the alveolar, directly into the maxillary
sinus--his knowledge of anatomy teaching the operator so to direct his
hand that none of the important nerves and vessels, which ramify through
the parts he is penetrating into, may be injured. On the withdrawal of
the instrument, pus will mostly follow, but not gush forth as from an
ordinary abscess. A dependent orifice has now been established, and if
the case is not a severe one, that may be sufficient: if, however, the
disease is aggravated, it will be necessary to trepline the frontal and
perhaps the maxillary bone, leaving in each a free space, from which a
circular piece has been removed. Through the superior opening, warm
water is injected; but if the stench be very offensive, a weak solution
of chloride of lime or of creosote may be employed, and must be daily
repeated. None of the coarse applications which some ignorant persons
recommend, ought to be used. A strong solution of the sulphate of
copper or of zinc, by coming in contact with a large surface of
granulating mucous membrane, can hardly be expected to allay its
irritability, or dispose it to take on a healthy action; and a seton,
forced barbarously through the orifices made with the trephine, can only
exist as a foreign agent, keeping up the action which the surgeon is
desirous should terminate. Gentle means are, in every sense, the ones to
be adopted. Mild tepid injections are to be employed, with the intention
to wash out the accumulated pus, allay the inflammation that caused it
to be secreted, and correct the diseased tendency of the part. All
stronger agents are barbarous; and I have witnessed animals rendered
dangerously vicious by their employment. When, however, the acute stage
has past; when the inflamed and secreting surface has lost its activity,
not unfrequently succeeds a dull, lethargic state, which the mild
treatment, hitherto advised, will not touch: now it is that stimulating
injections are beneficial; and however much reason there was in the
first instance to denounce their employment, they are now indicated by
the soundest principles of scientific practice. Even at this time,
however, they must not be pushed too far. The constitution should be
stimulated, that their effect may be aided, and their continuance
necessitated for the shortest possible period. The sulphate of copper or
of zinc; the acetate of copper or of zinc; the chloride of zinc or of
lime; the nitrate of silver or of mercury; the black or yellow wash, in
strength proportioned to the symptoms, may here be of service. It is
well, however, to remember that these agents soon lose the efficacy, and
the greatest benefit, therefore, is obtained when they are occasionally
changed on the first sign of their potency decreasing. Still injections
alone cannot be expected to effect a restoration, and, therefore,
topical measures must be combined with constitutional treatment. A
course of mercury may be tried, or some of the many agents, which, like
balsams, peppers, and essential oils, act on the mucous system, can be
administered,--never, however, relying upon any one medicine for too
long a period; but, as in the previous case of injections, changing it
wherever the drug appears either to have no effect, or to have lost its
power over the system. By such treatment, actively employed and combined
with a proper attention to exercise and diet, the case must be
aggravated indeed which is beyond relief. The cure, however, we must not
expect to be quick; but it will generally in the end be realized.
Perseverance may be required, but barbarity will not hasten success. I
object to many of the practices which the veterinary professors of the
London College inculcate to their pupils; because those practices, in my
opinion, being based on false principles, are needlessly severe. Of the
potent solutions habitually employed at the St. Pancras School, I have
spoken; but there is another practice to which I have not alluded: corks
are forcibly thrust into the holes made by the trephine, under the
notion that by such means the opening can be kept free, and the wound
uncorked and corked up like the mouth of a bottle. Mr. Percival has
spared me the trouble of exposing the folly of the idea, and the
inutility of the practice. That gentleman tried the notable experiment,
and found that the cork in no degree delayed the consequence it was
employed to retard. The presence of a foreign body thrust into immediate
connexion with a diseased surface, and violently there retained, must
cause excruciating agony--promote serious irritation--and might lead to
the worst possible results. The ignorance should indeed be gross, which
could conjecture such a vulgar resort was capable of inducing the
slightest benefit. Equally objectionable is the custom recommended by
the veterinary professors, of shutting an animal up in a close stable,
and causing it to inhale the fumes of chlorine gas. Chlorine is an
irritant to mucous membranes. If the nasal cavities were the seat of the
disease, the passage of the air being rapid through these channels, and
retained for a comparatively long period in the bronchia, the supposed
remedy would be far more likely to affect the lungs, than to act
immediately on the part which it was intended to benefit. In
respiration, however, it is not probable that even during health, any
large quantity of air enters the sinuses, which, in these cases, are the
seats of the disease; and when those cavities are blocked up by an
abnormal secretion, none could possibly gain admittance to them.
Chlorine, therefore, obviously is inoperative in the direction where its
remedial agency is desired to act; and it does some injury. It violently
affects the animal which requires to be soothed; causes it to endure
much inconvenience and even suffering; produces quickened respiration
with violent cough, and may be reasonably supposed to lay the foundation
of subsequent disease. The advantages of its employment have not been
demonstrated, but the results of practice rather show it to be
injurious. By the members of the veterinary profession it is not
generally used: gentler measures are of greater importance, and these
ought, only under very peculiar circumstances, to be abandoned. There,
however, yet remains to be described, the mode of proceeding when the
diseased tooth is seated in the lower jaw. In that case, a sinus or
canal, discharging an unhealthy matter, is present. No treatment will
cause that sinus to close, while the diseased tooth is retained; and
until its removal is effected, all applications designed for that end
are thrown away. After the tooth has been extracted, a solution of
sulphate of zinc may, with advantage, be daily injected, and
constitutional measures at the same time adopted, till an altered action
has been called forth, when the annoyance will quickly cease. The
enlarged bone will, however, remain; and, in the majority of cases, it
may be best no further to interfere with it, than by the external
application of such agents as are likely to promote absorption. In such
cases, however, no means are very speedily beneficial, and time must be
given for their operation: but should the deformity be great, the firing
iron may be employed to cause exfoliation of the part. Yet as in the
removal of one blemish, it is not justifiable to create another, the
violent agent must be applied after a particular manner. The integument
should be first divided, and the edges of the incision drawn asunder, so
as to expose the bone, which alone should be touched with the cautery.
By this simple expedient the osseous structure will be destroyed; and as
such structure is not highly sensitive, the suffering of the animal will
be slight, while after exfoliation has taken place, the trivial cicatrix
will be concealed by the hair. When caries is present, the symptoms do
not materially differ from those described as indicating the death of a
tooth. The disease may commence at any part of the fang or crown; but
the structure which it generally first involves in the horse, is the
crusta petrosa: for however far the caries had proceeded, I have usually
recognised it working from this substance into the ivory. The crusta
petrosa is the least osseous, and most vascular of all the structures
that enter the composition of the tooth. In proportion to the
vascularity, may be estimated the disposition to assume disease; and
when it is further remembered that the crusta petrosa being the
external, is the most exposed portion of the tooth, and that any
wrenching action, or other violence, would first affect this part, the
dullest comprehension will perceive why the crusta petrosa is likely to
be the primary seat of caries. Enamel is not subject to caries, nor is
it otherwise involved than by being deprived of its supports, and
chemically acted upon by the decomposed matters with which it is in
contact. The ivory, however, may, in exceptionable cases, be the
original seat of the affection; and when decay has commenced, this part
of the tooth is speedily diseased. When caries begins, there is only
partial death of the tooth; but the portions which retain their vitality
and are becoming affected, cause excruciating fits of agony. Before
anything can be perceived by manipulating the molars, the animal may
exhibit frequent slight fits of illness, being occasionally dull--off
its feed--sluggish at its work--soon fatigued--resting the head on the
manger, and displaying symptoms of transient attacks of fever. On other
days the animal is lively; eats well, looks well, and works well, and is
all the owner could desire. Something is evidently wrong, but as yet all
is doubt: then the hay is quidded and another examination of the molars
is made, when there may be detected a little roughness on some part of
one of those teeth, and the mystery is explained. There may be no, or a
very slight increased growth of the molar, which, in the opposing jaw,
corresponds to that which is evidently carious. The carious tooth may be
firmly implanted; and yet, notwithstanding the firm manner in which it
is fixed in the jaw, no time ought to be lost in its removal. The
operation may occupy some time, and should be conducted with proper
caution if the horse be young; and I have by me a molar taken from the
jaw of a colt that was rising four, in which the crusta petrosa was
diseased. A wood-cut representing that tooth, is inserted at page 29;
and the darker spot indicates the place where decay had commenced.
During youth the fangs of the molars are of great length, consequently,
any violence would be likely to do injury to the thin plates of the
alveolar cavity. In old animals the fangs being shorter, greater speed
may be allowable; but in every instance where the tooth is firm,
judgment must be exercised. Supposing the horse to be young, the
following method will be found to answer:--The precise position of the
tooth having been ascertained, and the animal cast, traction, with a
proper instrument, is made in the right direction. In the first attempt
the force is not designed to extract the tooth; if it can be perceptibly
moved or raised upward, so that the nerves and arteries of the pulp may
be broken or ruptured, a great point has been gained, and the molar
should be no further drawn in the first instance. The instrument should
be then loosened, and another hold having been taken, a renewed effort
should be made, when a little additional way may be gained. After this,
a further hold should be taken, and thus adapting the grasp of the
instrument to each pull, and proceeding gradually, the molar may be
extracted. The operator, however, must not, in every instance,
anticipate that he will be thus successful. The tooth may be perceptibly
moved, but after this it may resist all subsequent attempts. The surgeon
will become aware that only great force could accomplish his wishes,
and he will therefore reflect whether the employment of the necessary
violence might not fracture the jaw as well as extract the tooth.
Something has been gained by rupturing the arteries and nerves. The pain
and course of the disease has, in a degree, been checked. The molar is
no longer a part of the body, but a foreign substance; and Nature, if
left alone, will proceed in her own way to eject it. The course,
however, that Nature, if unaided, would pursue, might be too slow to
prevent evil consequences. The operator, therefore, discontinues his
attempts for the present; and though some foolish persons will think
slightly of him, for not at once doing the thing he desired to
accomplish, he orders the animal to be let up, and led back into the
stable. Many a proprietor has been so displeased by this, that he has
thereupon sought other advice; and the next operator has pleasingly
surprised him, by extracting, with ease, the tooth which the first
wisely forbore to wrench out of the jaw. The fact is, that the time
which intervened had made a material change; the molar had become loose,
and he who properly refused in the first instance to drag it forth,
would now, had he been permitted, have taken it out without difficulty.
Indeed in every case where the operator is made conscious of great
opposition from natural causes, it is better to cease all attempts for
the present--to wait for a week or two, and then renew the trial; and
even make a third effort, after a like pause, rather than by
unjustifiable violence hazard an accident, perhaps more fatal in its
consequences than the evil which it was desired should be removed. The
course of the malady allows the surgeon to exercise his patience,
without effort; and even if danger threatened, his principles teach him
that force is never justifiable. Gentle, resolute, and collected, must
such a person be at all times: the violence he seems to employ is but
the proper application of his art, and the speed he appears to make is
but the graceful use of the time and means at his command. Often does he
to the ignorant appear to be idle, when he is only anxiously waiting for
the proper time to commence his operations; and frequently is he accused
of precipitation, when he knows that activity alone can crown his
efforts with success. Let there then be no authority exercised over him
whose painful duty it is to deal with disease. The means at his command
are confessedly small, the end to be accomplished is acknowledged to be
great. The labour is harrassing, the result is dubious, and any
interference can but deteriorate from the success of the issue. A wise
person will therefore see often, observe much, and think long, before he
presumes to suggest anything to a medical practitioner, and never will a
command issue from his mouth. All, however, within and about the stable,
are, for the most part, in their own conceits, qualified to cure the
horse; and curious are the suggestions obtrusively volunteered, and the
judgments pronounced during every operation. Frequently, indeed, is the
animal sacrificed by the ignorance of its anxious attendants, who, in
their zeal, will often, out of their scanty wages, purchase injurious
nostrums, notwithstanding a member of the Royal College of Veterinary
Surgeons may be in regular attendance. Happily for the teeth, no
specifics are yet declared, and the groom is therefore unwillingly
obliged to be idle. The owner should also be passive, seeing that which
is ordered is administered, and taking care that no charms are employed.
When the tooth that was carious is in the early stage extracted, the
animal is by a little constitutional treatment, afterwards quickly
restored, but from time to time will require attention; for the teeth
that have once been operated on, will, at intervals, ever after during
the life of the horse, need the hand of the surgeon. If caries, however,
is neglected, and proceeds to the last stage, cure is all but hopeless.
During the death of a tooth, the symptoms are continuous. In caries,
there are intermissions, seasons of uncertain duration, during which the
horse appears to be free from suffering; but the effects, if not so
rapid in their development, are more frequently fatal in their
termination. When a tooth has lost its vitality, it becomes a foreign
body, which Nature, in time, will cast out. The retention irritates the
surrounding structures, but the irritation may in part be regarded as a
restorative process. When caries takes place, a portion only dies, but
that portion has all the injurious effect which could be attributed to
the former case, and even more, for the remaining vitality in the
unaffected part of the tooth, prevents Nature from resorting to that
process by which she would otherwise cast off the dead matter. In
consequence of this, a foreign substance is retained for a longer
period, and at the same time disease is progressing. Here, therefore,
is an additional cause at work, and hence the excess of effect. The
arteries which nourish the pulp, and the crusta petrosa, proceed from
the vessels which nurture the bone, and supply the mucous membrane of
the sinuses with the means of secretion. The same, likewise, may be
stated of the nerves going to the tooth, and though through these last
the constitution is affected, it is mainly through the agency of the
blood vessels, that the sinuses become diseased. Hence the necessity for
decision, and the need of judgment, in the application of the remedy. To
enforce the foregoing remarks, and convey to the reader a slight idea of
the consequences which ensue from a carious tooth, the accompanying
wood-cut is introduced. The specimen selected for illustration, does not
exhibit a rare or extraordinary proof of the results of this species of
disease.

[Illustration]

The head of a horse has been divided below the orbits, and a back view
of the facial portion is here shown, the spectator being supposed to
look into the cavities, which have been thereby exposed. _a_ indicates
the molar teeth on that side which was not the seat of disease, and they
are of the natural length and obliquity. _b_ denotes the teeth on that
side where the disease was seated, and shows them to be not only
unusually slanting on their grinding surfaces or tables, but also of
considerable length. It was the last tooth on this side which was
carious, and the shape of the molars has been occasioned by the animal
during its life, being unable, because of pain, to freely use these
organs in chewing its food. The effort to avoid any stress upon the
diseased tooth, has caused those on the same side to suffer only partial
attrition; hence they have become long and slanting, presenting sharp
pointed edges, which lacerated the lining membrane of the mouth. The
incisors, a distant view of which is given, likewise display the
consequence of the animal's mode of feeding. Turning from the teeth to
the exposed cavities above them, it will be seen that these are not
symmetrical, or of equal dimensions, which in the head of a healthy
subject, they undoubtedly ought to be. Those on the diseased side are
not only the largest, but differently formed. The alteration has
resulted from the inflammation and accumulation of pus within them.
Something besides pus, however, has been thrown out. _e_ represents the
healthy maxillary sinus as an empty space: _d_ is the like part, but it
is here filled by a fine cellular structure composed of bone, which has
been produced by the action of disease. The plates which form the cells
are delicately thin, and beautifully arranged: the little cavities were
once full of a thick and sanguineous matter, and the larger spaces above
them contained a very fetid but almost solid substance, which was pus,
that, by being pent up, had become of a cheesy consistency. _c_
indicates the nasal division, or cartilaginous wall, which separates the
two chambers of the nose. As will be observed, it has been forced on one
side by the enlargement of the affected parts.

60. _The agents which are likely to injure the teeth_, have been,
perhaps, too little regarded, especially when the importance of these
organs to the horse is considered. Some grooms, to increase the
appetites of the animals under their care, sprinkle vitriol, or
sulphuric acid upon the food; and the horse will ultimately become fond
of this kind of seasoning to his corn. Some veterinary surgeons, even of
high standing, will administer monstrous doses of the sulphates in
solution; and others will mingle, for a lengthened period, large
quantities of the acids in the animal's water. No suspicion seems
hitherto to have been entertained of the ill effects likely to ensue
upon a mode of treatment, which is often prolonged for months. The human
physician, however, has remarked, that most acids have a tendency to
affect the teeth, and that sulphuric acid, whether in the diluted
state, or in combination with substances of low affinity, is
particularly destructive in this respect. The patient who now takes the
soluble preparations of iron, is provided with an instrument to convey
the liquid into the pharynx, and prevent any portion of it from coming
in contact with the teeth. Those who swallow such a form of medicine,
without employing the tube, soon exhibit the consequence in the general
discolourization and decay of the mouth. The man, however, gulps his
physic, and can rinse out his mouth if the taste be retained; the horse,
when it takes a drench, holds the liquid for a considerable time before
it swallows, and the administration of the fluid is not very quickly
accomplished. Now, in proportion to the duration of contact would be the
effect; and if the hasty deglutition of the one being cannot save the
teeth from the ravage of the sulphate, is the prolonged retention of the
substance likely to be without effect upon the same organs in the other?
The horse, however, takes the sulphates of a strength which the human
being would not survive--where the one for a dose swallows a grain, the
other may imbibe a drachm. The consequences must bear some proportion to
the quantity, nor will the composition of the horse's tooth allow us to
suppose that it is less affected by chemical agents. The enamel of the
horse is more speedily acted upon than that of any other animal I am
acquainted with; and the substance being unorganized, the results
obtained by experiments tried on it when removed from the body, are as
conclusive as any effects produced during the life of the animal. The
sulphates are potent and valuable medicines; the Veterinary
Pharmacopoeia could not afford to discard them; but they can be
administered in substance, and should with caution be exhibited in a
liquid form. I am positive when promulgating this opinion, and
nevertheless I have no instance of their injurious effects to adduce. I
have not been able to trace caries in the horse to the use of the
sulphates or of acids, but the mind often recognises what the senses
fail to perceive; and the fact is so clear to reason, that it is not
disproved, because it hitherto has not been rendered plain to the
vision. Neither does it invalidate my conclusion to adduce instances
where the horse had been observed to exhibit no affection subsequent to
the use of these medicines. The negative can establish nothing. The
cause has not been suspected, and the effect, of course, has not yet
been observed; but we abuse our reason, if we refuse to listen to its
teachings. I am not likely to have met with the proof it may be
desirable I should adduce; for perceiving the evil I early forbore, to
render possible any evidence of its tendency in my own practice. Herein
lies my excuse; and though it may not be satisfactory to all, the
arguments I have advanced, I think, must be plain to everybody. The
sulphates, in substance, are as efficacious as when given in solution;
and if so large doses cannot be administered in the former manner, the
necessity for such prodigious quantities has never been demonstrated.
Let it, therefore, only be admitted, that there is room for suspicion,
and perseverance in the old practice is no longer justifiable. The
number of horses that exhibit diseased teeth, teaches us to look for
some cause. I cannot attribute every case to derangement of the
digestive organs, or to idiosyncracy. The latter term rather avoids the
question than elucidates it; and the former effect is as likely to be
produced by imperfect mastication, consequent upon chemical injury to
the teeth, as to be the primary cause of the disease of the masticatory
organs.

61. _The instruments used in connexion with the teeth of the horse_ are
not very numerous. _The gum lancet_, shaped like that used by the human
surgeon, and employed after the same manner, is seldom required, save
for the tushes, when any knife will be found equally if not even more
convenient. The rasp or file, for it is either, according to the taste
of the surgeon, though most commonly the former, consists of the
necessary part that gives the name to the instrument attached to a long
lever, which is inserted into a handle. Its employment is rather
laborious than difficult, and demands more endurance than skill on the
part of the practitioner. Several of different degrees of coarseness
should be used, and during the operation, a pail of water ought to be at
hand, so that the roughened surface may be constantly washed and
moistened, to increase its cutting power, and prevent it becoming
clogged. The rasp, however, though fitted to reduce any slight
inequality, or take down the sharp edges of the teeth, is not
sufficiently operative to level the long projections that are often
found in the horse's mouth. For that purpose a guarded chisel has been
employed; but the blow of the hammer or mallet very often fractures the
alveolar cavities, and the cutting edge, despite the guard, generally
wounds the mouth. The rasp may be tedious, but the chisel is dangerous;
and neither one or the other are proper for the purpose, though till
lately, these rude tools were the only dental instruments the veterinary
surgeon could boast of. A want of some more surgical and appropriate
means of shortening the projecting molars has long been seriously felt;
and that want the ingenuity of Mr. T. W. Gowing, the esteemed
practitioner of Camden Town, to whose inventive genius the members of
the veterinary profession are so largely indebted, has at length
supplied. The instruments he has constructed have two grand
recommendations: they are equally simple and effective. Seeing how
little complexity they exhibit, it seems strange that no one should have
previously thought of them; but the same thing is generally said of
every invention of real utility. The only difficulty in these matters is
to catch the idea, and this Mr. Gowing has most happily accomplished. He
has produced a complete set of veterinary dental instruments; discarding
all of those which have hitherto been employed, with the exception of
the mouth rasp, which he leaves untouched. Instead of the old tooth key
which was so formidable to look at, but so difficult and often
impossible to use, he employs a pair of forceps, of which the following
wood-cut will give the reader some idea.

[Illustration]

They are about twenty-two inches long, in order that they may be
applied, if required, to the most backward of the grinders, and of such
substance, as renders impossible any springy action which might cause
the bite to be lost when the force was applied. As will be imagined,
forceps of such dimensions are not to be used by the unassisted hand.
The reader, by looking at the end of the handles, will observe that one
is comparatively large: the smaller of the two contains within it a
female screw, and the other is only a plain eye. To act on these, a
cross handle or lever is added, and of this the following is an
outline.

[Illustration]

This, as is shown in the wood-cut, consists of two pieces, the smaller
of which works freely in a hole made for its reception, and being curved
at one end, can be either extended in the manner represented above, or
laid close to the lever in the way depicted in the next view of the
instrument. It is what is technically called a "tommy," and its use is
to gain dispatch and power in the employment of the forceps. The main
part consists of a rod of steel, having in the centre a screw, which at
the end towards the "tommy" exhibits an enlargement or shoulder. Such
are the various parts, and when using them, the operator having fixed
the claws of the forceps upon the tooth he wishes to extract, gives the
forceps to an assistant, whom he orders to hold them firmly in their
situation. He then takes the handle, and introducing it through the open
eye with the "tommy" as rapidly as possible, winds it round until he
feels the grasp is secure. Any amount of power can be thus obtained;
for as the screw threads through one handle, the shoulder presses
against the other, and thus forcing the claws together, fixes them upon
the substance which may be placed between them. When this is done, the
operator closes or folds up the free lever, and using both hands, has at
his command a power which will not necessitate employment of his utmost
strength.

[Illustration]

The above wood-cut depicts the forceps as they appear when put together;
and to render their mode of action more clear, a body indicative of the
situation which the tooth would occupy, has been introduced. The
advantages which these forceps have over the tooth-key in common use,
are so obvious, that the reader will not require they should be pointed
out. The benefits which this instrument confers, are indeed great;
neither can it be supposed that the principle can be changed, or its
adaptation improved upon. For its purpose, the thing appears perfect;
and I can speak confidently as to the admirable manner in which it acts.
One caution, however, may not be unnecessary. All surgical instruments
are capable of being abused, and in exact proportion to their utility is
their liability to abuse. With Mr. Gowing's forceps a horse's jaw could
be easily broken, or he who did not know the power of the screw, would,
if he kept on winding the handle, crush the tooth it was his intention
to secure. So much strength is gained that the judgment must be employed
to regulate it. Huge as the instrument looks, it requires delicacy in
the hand which uses it. With such a tool at his command, a child is in
power equal to a giant; and the man therefore must exercise his mind
rather than strain his muscles, when he has to operate with it. In
cautious hands it gives every facility that could be desired, and is
both more certain in its action, and more expeditious in its results
than anything of the kind which we at present possess, besides having
the further advantage of not requiring those adjustments and
unsatisfactory changes which the common instruments necessitate to be
made. For extraction, nothing beyond these forceps is wanted: they
answer every purpose; but the veterinary surgeon is less frequently
called upon to extract, than to shorten the horse's teeth. To this
subject Mr. Gowing has likewise given his attention, and it is pleasant
to state he has equally succeeded. The ordinary chisel was alike
inefficient and dangerous. The guard was not sufficient to prevent the
edge from seriously wounding the mouth, and the chisel could remove but
a small portion at a time. The shock, moreover, was sustained by the
tooth itself, which, transferring the force to the alveolar cavity, was
too often the cause of fracture. When cautiously conducted, the
operation was tedious, and the struggles of the horse were not devoid of
danger. We were possessed of nothing which, at a single blow, could
remove the entire bulk of a projecting tooth. To supply this
desideratum was Mr. Gowing's object, and the annexed wood-cut will, at a
glance, convince the reader that the requirement has been satisfactorily
complied with.

[Illustration]

A long cylindrical tube, of sufficient stoutness to afford the requisite
strength, forms the handle of this instrument, and being hollow, permits
a chisel to work freely within it. Indeed the chisel would work too
freely if some means were not employed to steady it, therefore a large
bulb, which is filled with packing and constitutes a stuffing box, is
fixed at one end, and by pressing against the shaft of the chisel
prevents it from being too readily displaced; though at the same time it
allows of the cutting agent being propelled, with all the force that
could be desired. The bulb likewise serves another purpose, as it gives
the operator a firm grasp, and prevents the danger of the hold being
lost when the instrument is struck. At the opposite end of the handle
there is a frame, the further part or base of which is sharp upon the
inner side; within this frame the chisel plays, and by it therefore is
securely guarded. When the instrument is used, the chisel is drawn back
to about the extent represented in the foregoing wood-cut, and into the
space thus created is introduced the projecting tooth, which
consequently is encircled on every side, and both before and behind is
between two cutting edges. The operator then firmly grasps the handle,
and applies to it such force as he calculates will be sufficient to
counteract the effect of that blow which he is about to deliver. With a
hammer of adequate weight he now strikes the head of the chisel, and the
tooth flies off. The operation is instantaneous, and so far it is an
advantage; but beyond this is the safety which accompanies it. The
softer parts cannot be wounded, for the action is strictly circumscribed
in every direction, but the main principle of the invention remains to
be pointed out. However great may be the force employed, no sensible jar
is communicated to the jaw. The writer has held between his fingers a
tooth which has been divided with this instrument at a single blow, and
the shock was so trivial as to be unworthy of any notice. The concussion
is received upon the guard resting against the hind part of the tooth,
and beyond that annoyance which the accompanying sound may excite, the
horse suffers no inconvenience. Fracture of the alveolar processes is
rendered impossible, and the ease with which the instrument is applied,
considerably enhances its value. It would, however, be of service only
when the tooth was large, and the entire body projected above the level
of the other molars. It is not unfrequent for portions of the grinders,
worn into various angles, to present themselves, and to occasion very
serious effects upon the health of the horse. To remove these is of no
less importance than to cut off the more regular and larger substance;
and Mr. Gowing has produced instruments capable of fulfilling these
intentions. In the first place he has improved upon the old guarded
chisel, concerning the danger and inefficiency of which, remarks have
been already made.

[Illustration]

In the old tool the cutting surface was small, being rarely more than
three quarters of an inch broad, and the blunt sides afforded rather a
show of protection than any positive security. Mr. Gowing has increased
the breadth needed to make the chisel useful, and he has also added two
falling sides, that, dropping over the lateral surfaces of the molars,
guide the instrument, which works as in a groove. More steadiness is
thus obtained, and the operator, consequently, can act with decision.
The new chisel, however, is not intended to be used alone; if singly
employed, it might do some damage, and fracture almost as readily be
induced as formerly. To prevent such an accident other aids were
imperative, and perceiving this, the instrument, which the following
wood-cut represents, was invented by Mr. Gowing.

[Illustration]

It is carved, so as to be suited to the shape of the horse's mouth, and
at one end has a handle, while at the other is a cutting edge, between
two circular guards, which prevent any injury being done to the softer
parts. When a shelving projection of tooth is to be removed, this
instrument is introduced into the mouth, and the sharp edge is lodged
against the back of the tooth, when it is given to an assistant to hold,
while the operator, taking the chisel, proceeds to employ it in the way
before mentioned. The object here is two-fold. In the first place, the
chisel is restrained or prevented from being urged against the posterior
of the mouth by the stroke of the hammer; and in the next place, the
concussion is received upon the instrument, and taken from the jaw.
Sometimes when a tooth is loose, but not either of sufficient size, or
fitting shape, for the application of the forceps, the sharp edge can be
got to a certain degree behind, and under it, when by a wrenching action
it can be either elevated or forced out. There are, however, cases in
which none of the instruments hitherto described answer so well as might
be wished. Frequently little pieces or sharp corners of teeth project,
and to remove these, demands more variety of position on the part of the
operator, than the previous instruments will admit of. To meet this
difficulty, Mr. Gowing, who to the surgery of the teeth has devoted more
study than any person has hitherto bestowed upon the subject, invented
the instrument represented in the annexed wood-cut.

[Illustration]

In principle it is similar to the one which preceded it, but the handle
being at the side instead of above, it can be adapted to those
irregularities which the former would not readily catch. The operator
can move it about at his pleasure, and where nicety is required, he can,
with it, take off particles, such as the previous instruments would not
enable him to touch. It consists of a cutting edge, guarded on one side
by the handle, and on the other by a rounded projection. In the manner
of its application, it is similar to the last, and like that is held by
an assistant when used in operation. For many points this is of much
service, but in order to be prepared for every difficulty, a pair of
them suited to the opposite sides are required. Possessed of these the
veterinary surgeon has, for the first time, what may be regarded as a
complete set of dental instruments, with which he can operate, with ease
to himself, and without hazard to his patient. The mouth rasp is all
that he requires, in addition to what has been depicted; and thus armed,
he can overcome obstacles which once bid defiance to his skill.


FINIS.


G. J. & E. WILSON, Printers, George Court, Piccadilly.




=FORES'S SPORTING ENGRAVINGS,=

ACCURATELY COLOURED FROM THE ORIGINAL PICTURES.


=FORES'S NATIONAL SPORTS.=

FOX HUNTING.

From the Original Pictures by MR. J. F. HERRING, Sen.

A SERIES OF FOUR ADMIRABLY COLOURED ENGRAVINGS. Price to Subscribers,
£10 10_s._--Size, with margin for Framing, 45 inches long by 26 high.

The Set comprises--

=Plate I.--THE MEET.=

                            "Delightful scene!
    Where all around is gay--men, horses, dogs,
    And in each smiling countenance appears
    Fresh blooming health and universal joy."
                             "Then to the copse,
    Thick with entangling grass or prickly furze,
    With silence lead thy many-coloured hounds
    In all their beauty's pride."--SOMERVILE.

=Plate II.--THE FIND.=

                           "Hark! what loud shouts
    Re-echo thro' the groves: he breaks away;
    Shrill horns proclaim his flight; each straggling hound
    Strains o'er the lawn to reach the distant pack.
    'Tis triumph all and joy."
                            "Hark! on the drag I hear
    Their doubtful notes preluding to a cry;
    More nobly full, and swell'd with every mouth."--SOMERVILE.

=Plate III.--THE RUN.=

                            "The riders bend
    O'er their arch'd necks; with steady hands, by turns
    Indulge their speed, or moderate their rage."
    "Happy the man who with unrivall'd speed
    Can pass his fellows, and with pleasure view
    The struggling pack."--SOMERVILE.


=Plate IV.--THE KILL.=

    "The pack inquisitive, with clamour loud,
    Drag out their trembling prize; and on his blood
    With greedy transport feast."
                            "A chosen few
    Alone the sport enjoy, nor droop beneath
    Their pleasing toils."--SOMERVILE.


Corresponding in Size and Style with FORES'S NATIONAL SPORTS--

  =Plate I.--The START FOR THE DERBY.=
  =Plate II.--STEEPLE-CHASE CRACKS.=

  Price £3 3_s._ 0_d._ each.
  Coloured in close imitation of the Original Pictures by MR. J. F.
  HERRING, SEN.

  LONDON: PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY,
  (CORNER OF SACKVILLE STREET.)


=FORES'S HUNTING SCENES=,

Price 12_s._ each, Coloured, from Pictures by H. ALKEN.

=Plate 1. The First introduction to Hounds.=

A string of young horses, crossed by a pack of hounds in full cry, put
on their mettle for the chase, proving "What's bred in the bone will
show in the flesh."

=Plate 2. Renewal of Acquaintance with Hounds.=

The young bloods represented in Plate 1., having had their day, now form
a team, and being brought out for "the change," are startled by the
well-known music of "hounds giving tongue," and dash after them in true
hunting style, as they were wont to do.


=FORES'S HUNTING ACCOMPLISHMENTS=,

INDISPENSABLE WITH HOUNDS.

Six Plates, price £1 5_s._, Coloured, from Original Drawings by H.
ALKEN.

  1. GOING ALONG A SLAPPING PACE.
  2. TOPPING A FLIGHT OF RAILS, AND COMING WELL INTO THE NEXT FIELD.
  3. SWISHING A RASPER.
  4. IN AND OUT CLEVER.
  5. CHARGING AN OX FENCE.
  6. FACING A BROOK.


=FORES'S HUNTING CASUALTIES=,

THAT MAY OCCUR WITH HOUNDS.

Six Plates, price £1 5_s._, Coloured, from Original Drawings by H.
ALKEN.

  =1. A TURN OF SPEED OVER THE FLAT.=

  The result of being broke in a grazing country.

  =2. A STRANGE COUNTRY.=

  "Only give him his head, and he'll bring you in at the death."

  =3. DESPATCHED TO HEAD QUARTERS.=

  Taking it with a Military Seat.

  =4. UP TO SIXTEEN STONE.=

  "Master of my weight, but would rather my weight was master of him."

  =5. A RARE SORT FOR THE DOWNS.=

  "They told me he'd leave everything behind him."

  =6. A MUTUAL DETERMINATION.=

  "If he goes on at this rate I'm afraid I must part with him."


=LEFT AT HOME=,

FROM THE ORIGINAL PICTURE BY MR. R. B. DAVIS.

PROOFS ... £2 2 0 | PRINTS, COLOURED £1 11 6

Represents a fine stamp of Hunter, and Hounds of perfect form, excited
by the sound of the huntsman's horn.--A subject full of life, and
possessing inexpressible charms for the eye of a sportsman.


Price 5_s._, post free, 5_s._ 6_d._

=Fores's Hunting Diary=,

To record the sport of the season with Fox Hounds, Stag Hounds, and
Harriers.

Coloured, price 10_s._,

=Fores's Hunting Rack=,

A Receptacle for the Appointment Cards.

=Appointment Cards for Ditto, 5s.=

Arranged for the Meets of Three Packs.

=Pocket Hunting Maps, price 3s. 6d. and 5s. each.=


PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY, (CORNER OF SACKVILLE
STREET.)


=FORES'S CONTRASTS,

FROM ORIGINAL PICTURES BY MR. H. ALKEN.=

Price 10_s._ each Plate, Coloured,

Illustrative of the Road, the Rail, &c.

  I.--THE DRIVER (Coachman) of 1832--THE DRIVER (Engineer) of 1852.
  II.--THE GUARD (Coach) of 1832--THE GUARD (locomotive) of 1852.
  III.--THE DRIVER of the MAIL of 1832--THE DRIVER of the MAIL of 1852.
  IV.--ST. GEORGE'S--ST. GILES'S.


=FORES'S SERIES OF THE BRITISH STUD.=

PORTRAITS OF CELEBRATED STALLIONS AND MARES

Whose Performances and Produce are well known on the Turf, Price £1
1_s._ each, coloured, from the Original Pictures by Mr. J. F. HERRING,
sen.

  =1. Sir Hercules and Beeswing.=
  =2. Touchstone and Emma.=
  =3. Pantaloon and Languish.=
  =4. Camel and Banter.=
  =5. Muley Moloch and Rebecca.=
  =6. Lanercost and Crucifix.=
  =7. Bay Middleton and Barbelle.=
  (The Sire and Dam of THE FLYING DUTCHMAN.)


=FORES'S RACING SCENES.=

Price 21_s._ each, coloured, from Pictures painted expressly by MR. J.
F. HERRING, sen.

  =Plate 1. ASCOT.=
  THE EMPEROR, FAUGH A BALLAGH, and ALICE HAWTHORN,
  RUNNING FOR THE EMPEROR'S PLATE, VALUE 500 SOVS.

  =Plate 2. YORK.=
  THE FLYING DUTCHMAN AND VOLTIGEUR
  RUNNING THE GREAT MATCH FOR 1000 SOVS. A SIDE.


=FORES'S CELEBRATED WINNERS.=

Price 21_s._ each, coloured, from Pictures by MR. J. F. HERRING, sen.,
and others.

  =1. THE HERO,=
        WITH JOHN DAY, SEN., AND ALFRED DAY.

  =2. THE FLYING DUTCHMAN,=
        WITH J. FOBERT AND C. MARLOW.

  =3. TEDDINGTON,=
        WITH A. TAYLOR AND JOB MARSON.

PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY, (CORNER OF SACKVILLE
STREET).


=FORES'S STABLE SCENES.=

ENGRAVED FROM PAINTINGS BY MR. J. F. HERRING, SEN.

Price £4 4_s._ the set of Four, highly coloured.

  =1. THE MAIL CHANGE.=
  =2. THE HUNTING STUD.=
  =3. THOROUGH-BREDS.=
  =4. THE TEAM.=


=FORES'S COACHING RECOLLECTIONS.=

ENGRAVED FROM PAINTINGS BY MR. C. C. HENDERSON.

Price £5 5_s._ the set of Five, highly coloured.

  =1. CHANGING HORSES.=
  =2. ALL RIGHT.=
  =3. PULLING UP TO UNSKID.=
  =4. WAKING UP.=
  =5. THE OLDEN TIME.=


=FORES'S COACHING INCIDENTS.=

ENGRAVED FROM PAINTINGS BY MR. C. C. HENDERSON:

Price £4 10_s._ the set of Six, highly coloured.

  =1. KNEE DEEP.=
  =2. STUCK FAST.=
  =3. FLOODED.=
  =4. THE ROAD v. THE RAIL.=
  =5. IN TIME FOR THE COACH.=
  =6. LATE FOR THE MAIL.=


=FORES'S SPORTING TRAPS.=

FROM THE ORIGINAL PICTURES BY MR. C. C. HENDERSON.

Price 21_s._ each, coloured,

TO RANGE WITH THE STABLE SCENES AND COACHING RECOLLECTIONS.

  =1. GOING TO THE MOORS.=
  =2. GOING TO COVER.=


=FORES'S ROAD SCENES.=

"GOING TO A FAIR." PAINTED BY MR. C. C. HENDERSON.

Price 15_s._ each, coloured.

  =1. HUNTERS AND HACKS.=
  =2. CART HORSES.=

  PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. FORES,
  AT THEIR
  Sporting and Fine Engraving Repository and Frame Manufactory,
  41, PICCADILLY, (CORNER OF SACKVILLE STREET.)


Fores's Marine Sketches.

Price 10_s._ each, coloured; tinted, 5_s._ each.

  The Cutter Yacht MARIA, 170 Tons.
  The Schooner Yacht AMERICA, 180 Tons.
  The Schooner Yacht ALARM, 248 Tons.
  The Cutter Yacht VOLANTE, 49 Tons.
  The Emperor of Russia's Iron Steam Yacht ALEXANDRIA.
  The Cutter Yacht CYNTHIA, 50 Tons.
  The Schooner Yacht NANCY DAWSON, 160 Tons.
  The Schooner Yacht WYVERN, 205 Tons. A Pair.
  The Schooner Yacht LEDA, 120 Tons. A Pair.
  YACHTING--SCENE OFF COWES, ISLE OF WIGHT.
  The ROYAL NAVY--The VICTORY SALUTING HER MAJESTY.

Price 21_s._ each, coloured; 10_s._ 6_d._ plain.

  The KESTREL, R.Y.S.
  The DOLPHIN, R.T.Y.C.

A COLLECTION OF MARINE PICTURES AND DRAWINGS BY SUPERIOR ARTISTS.


=FORES'S SPORTING SCRAPS=,

Price 7_s._ per sheet, coloured; or 2_s._ each mounted as Drawings.

  =1. STEEPLECHASING.=
  THE START. THE WALL. THE BROOK. THE FINISH.

  =2. HUNTING.=
  GOING TO THE MEET. THE MEET. COVER SIDE. DRAWING COVER.

  =3. HUNTING.=
  TALLY HO! THE BURST. A CHECK. FULL CRY.

  =4. HUNTING.=
  RUN TO EARTH. BOLTING THE FOX. WHOOP. THE RETURN HOME.

  =5. RACING.=
  SADDLING. READY FOR A CANTER. THE START. THE STRUGGLE.

  =6. COURSING.=
  GOING OUT. SOHO! THE COURSE. THE DEATH.

  =7. BOATING.=
  FOUR-OAR'D OUTRIGGER. PAIR-OAR'D OUTRIGGER. A FUNNY SCULLER'S OUTRIGGER.


=FORES'S STEEPLECHASE SCENES.=

Six Plates, coloured, price £2 12_s._ 6_d._, from Original Drawings by
MR. H. ALKEN.

  1. THE STARTING FIELD.
  "A picked lot, possessed of judgment and confidence."

  2. WATTLE FENCE WITH A DEEP DROP.
  "Skill and nerve brought into play."

  3. IN AND OUT OF THE LANE.
  "Science and a firm seat put to the test."

  4. THE WARREN WALL.
  "A quick eye and steady hand often save a fall."

  5. THE BROOK.
  "The pace and pluck clear it gallantly."

  6. THE RUN IN.
  "A good finisher, backed by luck, lands him a winner."


=FORES'S ANATOMICAL PLATES OF THE HORSE.=

Price 6_s._, mounted on Cloth to fold up like a Map,

  The Age Exhibited by the Shape of the Teeth.
  Price 5_s._ each, mounted on Cloth to fold up like a Map.

  The Age Exhibited by the Tables of the Teeth.

  The Structure of the Foot clearly defined.

  The Muscles and Tendons accurately delineated.

  PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY,
  (CORNER OF SACKVILLE STREET.)




FINE ENGRAVINGS,

PUBLISHED OR IN PROGRESS.


  THE ARCTIC COUNCIL.
  =Painted by S. PEARCE, Esq. Engraved by J. SCOTT.=
  Artists' Proofs, £6 6_s._; Prints, £2 2_s._

  "THERE'S LIFE IN THE OLD DOG YET."
  PAINTED BY SIR E. LANDSEER. ENGRAVED BY H. T. RYALL, ESQ.
  Artists' Proofs, £12 12_s._ Prints, £3 3_s._

  WEIGHING THE STAG.
  Painted by F. TAYLER, Esq. Engraved by T. L. ATKINSON, Esq.
  Artists' Proofs, £12 12_s._ Prints £4 4_s._

  =SIR RICHARD SUTTON'S HOUNDS.=
  Painted by F. GRANT, Esq. Engraved by F. BROMLEY, Esq.
  Proofs before Letters, £6 6_s._ Prints, £3 3_s._

  =THE BEST RUN OF THE SEASON.=
  Painted by SIR E. LANDSEER. Engraved by T. LANDSEER, Esq.
  Artists' Proofs, £8 8_s._ Prints, £2 2_s._

  =THE MONARCH OF THE GLEN.=
  PAINTED BY SIR E. LANDSEER. ENGRAVED BY T. LANDSEER, ESQ.
  Artists' Proofs, £10 10_s._ Prints, £3 3_s._

  =NAPOLEON CROSSING THE ALPS.=
  PAINTED BY M. PAUL DELAROCHE. ENGRAVED BY M. FRANCOIS.
  Artists' Proofs, £12 12_s._ Prints, £2 12_s._ 6_d._

  =SYMPATHY.=
  =Painted by FRANK STONE, Esq. Engraved by T. L. ATKINSON, Esq.=
  Artists' Proofs, £4 4_s._ Prints, £1 1_s._

  PORTRAIT OF LORD WILLIAM BERESFORD.
  PAINTED BY R. THORBURN, ESQ. ENGRAVED BY W. J. EDWARDS, ESQ.
  Proofs, £2 2s. Prints, £1 1s.

  =THE DUKE OF CAMBRIDGE.=
  PAINTED BY J. CROWLEY, Esq. ENGRAVED BY T. L. ATKINSON, Esq.
  Artists' Proofs, £5 5_s._ Prints, £1 11_s._ 6_d._

  =A DIALOGUE AT WATERLOO.=
  =Painted by SIR E. LANDSEER. Engraved by T. L. ATKINSON, Esq.=
  Artists' Proofs, £15 15_s._ Prints, £7 7_s._

  THE RUBBER AT WHIST.
  Painted by T. WEBSTER, Esq. Engraved by L. STOCKS, Esq.
  Artists' Proofs, £8 8_s._ Prints, £2 2_s._

  THE FORESTER'S FAMILY.
  PAINTED BY SIR E. LANDSEER. ENGRAVED BY T. L. ATKINSON, ESQ.
  Artists' Proofs, £10 10_s._ Prints, £4 4_s._


  MESSRS. FORES'S
  REPOSITORY OF WORKS OF ART,
  41, PICCADILLY (Corner of Sackville Street) LONDON.




SPORTING AND VETERINARY WORKS.

                                                                £._s. d._
  CHAMOIS HUNTING                           by _Boner_           0 18  0
  BREEDING AND TRAINING GREYHOUNDS             _Stonehenge_
  YACHT LIST                                   _Hunt_            0  4  0
  YACHT SIGNALS                                _Ackers_          1  0  0
  SECTION OF A LINE OF BATTLE SHIP 131 GUNS, IN
    A CASE                                     _Pickering_       1  5  0
  SEAMAN'S MANUAL                              _Dana_            0  5  0
  NAVAL ARCHITECTURE                           _Lord R. Montagu_ 0  6  0
  MR. SPONGE'S SPORTING TOUR                                     0 14  0
  MANAGEMENT OF HOUNDS                         _Scrutator_       0 15  0
  THE LIFE OF A SPORTSMAN                      _Nimrod_          2  2  0
  THE LIFE OF JOHN MYTTON, ESQ.                _Ditto_           1  5  0
  THE CONDITION OF HUNTERS                     _Ditto_           0 15  0
  HUNTING TOURS                                _Ditto_           0 15  0
  THE CHASE, TURF, AND ROAD                    _Ditto_           0  6  0
  ANALYSIS OF THE HUNTING FIELD                                  1 11  6
  JORROCK'S JAUNTS AND JOLLITIES                                 1  5  0
  THE ROADSTER'S ALBUM                                           1 11  6
  HUNTING REMINISCENCES                        _Wildrake_        0 16  0
  PICTORIAL GALLERY OF ENGLISH RACE HORSES     _Geo. Tattersall_ 1 10  0
  SPORTING ARCHITECTURE                        _Ditto_           1  1  0
  STABLE TALK AND TABLE TALK, 2 VOLS           _Harry Hieover_   1  4  0
  THE POCKET AND THE STUD                      _Ditto_           0  5  0
  THE STUD FOR PRACTICAL PURPOSES              _Ditto_           0  5  0
  PRACTICAL HORSEMANSHIP                       _Ditto_           0  5  0
  THE HUNTING FIELD                            _Ditto_           0  5  0
  THE PROPER CONDITION FOR ALL HORSES          _Ditto_           0  5  0
  SPORTING FACTS AND SPORTING FANCIES          _Ditto_           0 12  0
  DIARY OF A HUNTSMAN                          _T. Smith_        0  5  6
  THE LIFE OF A FOX                            _Ditto_           0  3  0
  THE LIFE OF A FOX HOUND                      _J. Mills_        0 10  6
  THE NOBLE SCIENCE                            _D. Radcliffe_    0 14  0
  FORES'S GUIDE TO THE HOUNDS OF ENGLAND       _Gêlert_          0  5  0
  FORES'S HUNTING RACK                                           0 10  0
  APPOINTMENT CARDS FOR DO.                                      0  5  0
  FORES'S HUNTING DIARY                                          0  5  0
  FORES'S GAME BOOK                                              0  2  6
  THE STUD FARM                                _Cecil_           0  5  0
  STABLE PRACTICE                              _Ditto_           0  5  0
  HUNTING ATLAS                                _Hobson_          4  4  0
  TURF RECKONER OR BOOK OF THE ODDS            _Green_           0  2  0
  THE LAWS OF HORSE RACING                     _Capt. Rous_      0  3  6
  TRAINING THE RACE HORSE, 2 VOLS.             _Darvill_         1 10  0
  DEER STALKING                                _W. Scrope_       1  0  0
  SALMON FISHING                               _Ditto_           2  2  0
  HAND BOOK OF ANGLING                         _Ephemera_        0  9  0
  BRITISH ANGLER'S MANUAL                      _Hofland_         1  1  0
  ANGLER'S COMPANION                           _Stoddart_        0 10  6
  WILD SPORTS OF THE HIGHLANDS                 _St. John_        0  6  0
  THE BAT                                      _Felix_           0 12  0
  THE CRICKET FIELD                                              0  5  0
  DOG BREAKING                                 _Hutchinson_      0  7  6
  THE MODERN SHOOTER                           _Lacy_            1  1  0
  GAMEKEEPER'S DIRECTORY                       _Johnson_         0  5  0
  ENCYCLOPÆDIA OF RURAL SPORTS                 _Blaine_          2 10  0
  VETERINARY ART                               _Ditto_           1  1  0
  CANINE PATHOLOGY                             _Ditto_           0  9  0
  WHITE'S FARRIERY                             _Spooner_         0 14  0
  FARRIERY                                     _Brown_           0 13  6
  THE HORSE                                    _Youatt_          0 10  0
  THE DOG                                      _Ditto_           0  6  0
  THE HORSE'S MOUTH                            _Mayhew_          0 10  6
  THE HORSE'S FOOT                             _Spooner_         0  7  6
  THE HORSE'S FOOT                             _Miles_           0 10  6
  TWO CASTS OF DITTO                           _Ditto_           0  6  0
  THE AGES OF THE HORSE IN CASE                                  0  5  0
  THE MUSCLES OF THE HORSE DITTO                                 0  5  0
  THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT DITTO                          0  5  0
  STABLE ECONOMY                               _Stewart_         0  6  6
  ADVICE TO PURCHASERS OF HORSES               _Ditto_           0  2  6
  NATURE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE           _Roper_           0  3  0
  THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE                     _Percivall_       1  0  0
  HIPPOPATHOLOGY, 5 VOLS.                      _Ditto_           3 17  6
  FORM AND ACTION OF THE HORSE                 _Percivall_       0 12  0
  VETERINARY PHARMACY                          _Morton_          0 10  0
  NOTITIA VENATICA                             _Vyner_           0 15  0

  THE RACING CALENDAR.
  STEEPLE-CHASE CALENDAR.

  STUD BOOK, AND GUIDE TO THE TURF.

  LONDON, MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY,

  (CORNER OF SACKVILLE STREET.)

  May and December,

  FROM THE ADMIRABLE PICTURE

  BY MR. J. L. BRODIE,

  EXHIBITED AT THE ROYAL ACADEMY,

  Engraved in Mezzotint, highly finished,

  BY MR. W. H. SIMMONS.


  SIZE OF THE ENGRAVING, WITH MARGIN FOR FRAMING, 30 BY 25 INCHES.


  Artists' Proofs                                £3 3 0
  Proofs Before Letters                           2 2 0
  Prints                                          1 1 0
  Prints, Coloured from the Original Picture      2 2 0


MAY AND DECEMBER. Engraved by W. H. Simmons, from a Painting by J.
Lamont Brodie.--Fores & Co.

The visitors to the Royal Academy Exhibition of the past year, such at
least of them as have an eye for the pleasing, the merry, and the
bright--the admirers of Allegro, rather than her more solemn
sister-nymph Penseroso--must have noticed, and having noticed, been
attracted, by the clever painting of Mr. Brodie, bearing the title of
"May and December." The original picture, which can throw sunshine but
on one apartment, is now multiplied; and numerous cheerful rays may beam
from the walls of humbler persons of taste, less fortunate than the
possessor of the artist's first conception. Mr. Simmons has well
performed his task of transferring from the canvas to the plate, the
spirit, the mind, the _vis comica_ of the original, while the depth of
the middle-tinting and the chalklike softness of the flesh are evidences
of his skilful care in the mechanical details. The subject, we may
observe, for the information of those who did not visit the Exhibition,
is a fine ripe laughing lass, a long way in her "teens," if not just
coming out of them; her face, which "smiles all over," is turned full
towards the spectator, and her half-delighted, half-mischievous eyes,
are glittering with a mixture of gratified vanity, and a sense of the
ludicrous absurdity of the situation of herself and her aged
_innamorato_. The latter is indeed "December" personified. Imagine a
beetle-browed, heavy-featured sexagenarian, or perchance approximating
the three-score-and-ten of man's pilgrimage, bending, with the devotion
of an idol-worshipper, over one of the plump hands of his earthly
divinity, which he holds in his gnarled and knotted fingers, and presses
to his sensual lips, exposing over his artistically foreshortened face a
polished cranium, denuded of its hirsute covering, except at the sides,
where two fiercely brushed tufts of white hair still stand upright in
admirable agreement with the organic development of obstinacy in its
general bony contour. The accessories of the picture are also
suggestive: on the left, where the mischievous maiden is seated, are a
modern flower-vase, a guitar, &c., and in the chimney glass is reflected
the portrait of a moustached _militaire_ (doubtless a suitor for the
fair hand here in the cold grasp of winter), which looks down on the
group with an expression of appealing regret. On the right of the old
man is a tankard of elegant chasing, a pen, and inkstand, and the like
emblems. As a composition the picture is excellent, and as a piece of
_genre_ painting, and highly-finished engraving, "May and December" is a
most agreeable and talented work.--_Morning Advertiser._


PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY.

(CORNER OF SACKVILLE STREET.)

London: Printed by HARRISON AND SONS, 45, St. Martin's Lane.




=FORES'S SPORTING ENGRAVINGS.=

=Fores's Steeple-Chase Scenes.=

From Original Drawings, by H. ALKEN, Sen.

  1. THE STARTING FIELD.
  2. WATTLE FENCE WITH DEEP DROP.
  3. IN AND OUT OF THE LANE.
  4. THE WARREN WALL.
  5. THE BROOK.
  6. THE RUN IN.

Price £2. 12_s._ 6_d._ the Set, colored.


=Fores's National Sports--Plates 1 & 2.=

  THE START FOR THE MEMORABLE DERBY.
  STEEPLE-CHASE CRACKS,
    (GOING AT A WALL FULL TILT,)

From Pictures by Mr. J. F. HERRING, Sen. Size of the Engravings, 42 in.
by 21.

Price £3. 3_s._ each, colored in close imitation of the Original
Pictures.


=Fores's Coaching Recollections.=

The Set of Five, colored, price £5. 5_s._ By C. C. HENDERSON, Esq.

  1. CHANGING HORSES.
  2. ALL RIGHT.
  3. PULLING UP TO UNSKID.
  4. WAKING UP.
  5. THE OLDEN TIME.


=Fores's Stable Scenes.=

The Set of Four, colored, price £4. 4_s._ By Mr. J. F. HERRING, Sen.

  1. THE MAIL CHANGE.
  2. THE HUNTING STUD.
  3. THOROUGH BREDS.
  4. THE TEAM.


=Fores's Sporting Traps.=

From the Original Pictures, by C. C. HENDERSON, Esq. Price 21_s._ each,
colored.

To range with the Stable Scenes and Coaching Recollections.

  Plate 1. GOING TO THE MOORS.
  Plate 2. GOING TO COVER.

=Fores's Series of the British Stud.=

Comprising Portraits of the most celebrated Thorough-bred Stallions and
Mares.

  1. SIR HERCULES AND BEESWING.
  2. TOUCHSTONE AND EMMA.
  3. PANTALOON AND LANGUISH.
  4. CAMEL AND BANTER.
  5. MULEY MOLOCH AND REBECCA.
  6. LANERCOST AND CRUCIFIX.

Price £1. 1_s._ each plate, colored in close imitation of the Original
Pictures, painted expressly, by Mr. J. F. HERRING, Sen., for this Work.


=Fores's Coaching Incidents.=

  Plate 1. KNEE DEEP.
        2. STUCK FAST.
        3. FLOODED.
        4. THE ROAD VERSUS RAIL.
        5. IN TIME FOR THE COACH.
        6. LATE FOR THE MAIL.

Price 15_s._ each, colored from the Original Pictures, by C. C.
HENDERSON, Esq.


=Fores's Celebrated Winners.=

The HERO. With Portraits of JOHN DAY, Sen., and ALFRED DAY.

Price 21_s._, colored from the Original Picture. Painted expressly at
Danebury.


=Fores's Steeple-Chase Winners.=

BRUNETTE. An admirable Portrait of this extraordinary Animal.

Painted by Mr. J. F. HERRING, Sen. Price 21_s._ colored.


=Fores's Racing Scenes.=

  Plate 1. ASCOT.

  THE EMPEROR,
  _Ridden by Whitehouse._

  FAUGH A BALLAGH,
  _Bell._

  ALICE HAWTHORN,
  _Robinson._

Running for the Emperor's Cup, value £500.

Price 21_s._, colored from the Original Picture, by Mr. J. F. HERRING,
Sen.


=Fores's Road Scenes.=

Price £1. 10_s._ the Pair, colored from the Original Pictures, by C. C.
HENDERSON, Esq.

HORSES GOING TO A FAIR.

  1. HUNTERS AND HACKS.
  2. CART HORSES.


=Fores's Instructive Anatomical Plates of the Horse.=

The Age exhibited by the Tables of the Teeth--the Structure of the Foot
clearly defined--the Muscles and Tendons accurately delineated.

Price 4_s._ each Plate colored, 5_s._ each in a case pocket size, or
5_s._ 6_d._ postage free.

LONDON: Published by MESSRS. FORES, _at their Sporting & Fine Print
Repository and Frame Manufactory_, 41, Piccadilly, corner of Sackville
Street.


SPORTING & VETERINARY WORKS.


                                                                £._s. d._
  THE LIFE OF A SPORTSMAN                  by _Nimrod_           2  2  0
  THE LIFE OF JOHN MYTTON, ESQ.               _Ditto_            1  5  0
  THE CONDITION OF HUNTERS                    _Ditto_            0 15  0
  THE HORSE AND THE HOUND                     _Ditto_            0 12  0
  THE CHASE, TURF, AND ROAD                   _Ditto_            0  9  6
  HUNTING TOURS                               _Ditto_            0 15  0
  ANALYSIS OF THE HUNTING FIELD                                  1 11  6
  THE ROADSTER'S ALBUM                                           2 12  6
  HUNTING REMINISCENCES                       _Wildrake_         0 16  0
  PICTORIAL GALLERY OF ENGLISH RACE HORSES    _Ditto_            0 18  0
  FORES'S TURF COMPANION, CONTAINING 40 PORTRAITS}               1 11  6
    OF CELEBRATED OLD RACE HORSES                }
  STABLE TALK AND TABLE TALK, 2 vols.         _Harry Hieover_    1  4  0
  THE POCKET AND THE STUD                     _Ditto_            0  5  0
  THE LIFE OF A FOX                           _T. Smith_         0  8  6
  DIARY OF A HUNTSMAN                         _Ditto_            0 10  6
  THE LIFE OF A FOX HOUND                     _J. Mills_         0 10  6
  THE NOBLE SCIENCE                           _D. Radcliffe_     0 14  0
  DEER STALKING                               _W. Scrope_        1  0  0
  SALMON FISHING                              _Ditto_            2  2  0
  WILD SPORTS OF THE HIGHLANDS                _St. John_         0  6  0
  THE BAT                                     _Felix_            0 12  0
  HAND BOOK OF ANGLING                        _Ephemera_         0  9  0
  DOG BREAKING                                _Hutchinson_       0  6  0
  THE MODERN SHOOTER                          _Lacy_             1  1  0
  TRAINING THE RACE HORSE, 2 vols.            _Darvill_          1 10  0
  THE HORSE'S MOUTH                           _Mayhew_           0 10  6
  WHITE'S FARRIERY                            _Spooner_          0 16  0
  WHITE ON CATTLE MEDICINE                    _Ditto_            0  9  0
  THE HORSE                                   _Youatt_           0 10  0
  THE DOG                                     _Ditto_            0  6  0
  CANINE PATHOLOGY                            _Blaine_           0  9  0
  ENCYCLOPÆDIA OF RURAL SPORTS                _Ditto_            2 10  0
  THE HORSE'S FOOT                            _Miles_            0  9  0
  SET OF FOUR CASTS OF DITTO                  _Ditto_            0 10  6
  STABLE ECONOMY                              _Stewart_          0  6  6
  ADVICE TO PURCHASERS OF HORSES              _Ditto_            0  2  6
  THE HORSE IN HEALTH AND DISEASE             _Winter_           0 10  6
  NATURE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE          _Roper_            0  3  0
  THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE                    _Percivall_        1  0  0
  HIPPOPATHOLOGY, 3 vols.                     _Ditto_            1 18  6
  VETERINARY PHARMACY                         _Morton_           0 10  0
  VETERINARY ART                              _Blaine_           1  1  0
  ADVENTURES OF A GENTLEMAN IN SEARCH OF A }  _Sir Geo. Stephen_ 0  7  6
    HORSE                                  }
  THE HORSE (Library Useful Knowledge)                           0  6  6
  CATTLE (Library Useful Knowledge)                              0 10  6
  BRITISH HUSBANDRY (Library Useful Knowledge)                   0 10  6
  GAMEKEEPER'S DIRECTORY                      _Johnson_          0  5  6
  NOTITIA VENATICA                            _Vyner_            0 15  0
  THE COMPLETE GRAZIER                                           0 17  0
  GARDENING                                   _Loudon_           2 10  0
  AGRICULTURE                                 _Ditto_            2 10  0
  COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AGRICULTURE        _Ditto_            3  3  0
  THE GUN                                     _Greener_          0 15  0
  GUIDE TO THE HOUNDS OF ENGLAND              _Gêlert_           0  6  6
  THE POULTRY YARD                            _Boswell_          0  2  6
  THE MOOR AND THE LOCK                       _Colquhoun_        0  9  6
  THE ROD AND GUN                             _Wilson & Oakleigh_0 10  6
  BRITISH ANGLER'S MANUAL                     _Hofland_          1  1  0
  FLY FISHING                                 _Oliver_           0  8  0
  COMPLETE ANGLER                             _J. Major_         0 18  0
  DOMESTICATED ANIMALS                        _Low_              1  5  0
  FARRIERY                                    _Brown_            0 13  6
  EVERY MAN HIS OWN FARRIER                   _Clater_           0  6  0
  EVERY MAN HIS OWN CATTLE DOCTOR             _Ditto_            0  6  0
  SPORTSMAN'S DIRECTORY                       _Mayer_            0  5  0

  THE RACING CALENDAR.        STEEPLE-CHASE CALENDAR.

  STUD BOOK & RUFF'S GUIDE TO THE TURF.

  _The Turf Ready Reckoner._       _Hunting Maps and Game Books._

  LONDON: MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY.
  Corner of Sackville Street.




  TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE

  The footnote in Paragraph #35 on page 69 (the only one in the book)
  was moved to follow the paragraph from which it is referenced.

  Eight pages of advertisements that preceded the title page have been
  moved to the end of the book and placed before the two pages of
  advertisements that closed the book.

  Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
  corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
  the text and consultation of external sources.

  Except for those changes noted below, misspelling by the author,
  and inconsistent or archaic usage, has been retained. For example,
  Milk teeth, Milk-teeth; Steeplechase, Steeple-Chase;
  Thorough Breds, Thorough-Breds.

  Page        Error
    9       'unqalified' changed to 'unqualified'
   12       'foretel?' changed to 'foretell?'
   36       'development' changed to 'developments'
   44       'temporay' changed to 'temporary'
   59       'have not began' changed to 'have not begun'
   64       'imflammatory' changed to 'inflammatory'
   76       'lascerated' changed to 'lacerated'
   97       'infundibula is' changed to 'infundibulum is'
  105       'infundibula of which' changed to 'infundibulum of which'
  108       'exteme' changed to 'extreme'
  110       'dependance' changed to 'dependence'
  114       'dependance' changed to 'dependence'
  122       'vestage' changed to 'vestige'
  122       'excentricities,' changed to 'eccentricities,'
  138       'is to seen' changed to 'is to be seen'
  144       'obnormal' changed to 'abnormal'
  166       'sensative' changed to 'sensitive'
  167       'transcient' changed to 'transient'
  169       'perceptably' changed to 'perceptibly'
  178       'rince' changed to 'rinse'
  187       'stuggles' changed to 'struggles'