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THE LIBRARY
OF WORK AND PLAY

    CARPENTRY AND WOODWORK
               By Edwin W. Foster

    ELECTRICITY AND ITS EVERYDAY USES
               By John F. Woodhull, Ph.D.

    GARDENING AND FARMING
               By Ellen Eddy Shaw

    HOME DECORATION
               By Charles Franklin Warner, Sc.D.

    HOUSEKEEPING
               By Elizabeth Hale Gilman

    MECHANICS, INDOORS AND OUT
               By Fred T. Hodgson

    NEEDLECRAFT
               By Effie Archer Archer

    OUTDOOR SPORTS, AND GAMES
               By Claude H. Miller, Ph.B.

    OUTDOOR WORK
               By Mary Rogers Miller

    WORKING IN METALS
               By Charles Conrad Sleffel


[Illustration: HANGING A PICTURE

The wall space is a part of the framing of a picture]




                            HOME DECORATION
                                   BY
                     PROF. CHARLES F. WARNER, Sc.D.

         _For eight years Master of the Rindge Manual Training
         School, Mass. Twelve years principal of the Technical
                High School and Director of the Evening
                 School of Trades, Springfield, Mass._

[Illustration: Title Page]

                    GARDEN CITY            NEW YORK
                       DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
                                  1916



           ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION
           INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN

             COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY




                    TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS OF AMERICA
                               THIS BOOK
               WHICH RECORDS WHAT SOME OF THEM HAVE DONE
                         IS HOPEFULLY DEDICATED




     Some pure lovers of art discard the formula, _Art for Progress,
     the Beautiful Useful_, fearing lest the useful should deform the
     beautiful. They tremble to see the drudge's hand attached to the
     muse's arm. They are solicitous for the sublime if it descends
     as far as to humanity. Ah! they are in error. The useful, far
     from circumscribing the sublime, enlarges it.... Is Aurora less
     splendid, clad less in purple and emerald--suffers she any
     diminution of majesty and of radiant grace, because, foreseeing an
     insect's thirst, she carefully secretes in the flower the dewdrop
     needed by the bee?
                                                         Victor Hugo.




                            ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


This volume is the result of an effort to bring together in close
relation with fundamental principles of design a variety of practical
problems which are more or less closely connected with the general
problem of home decoration and suited to the constructive ability of
boys and girls from twelve to eighteen years of age. While the book
is mainly a record of the author's experience and observation in this
department of educational work, he has received many suggestions from
co-workers in the same field. It will be impossible to give credit to
all who have directly or indirectly assisted in the preparation of
this book: but special acknowledgments are due to Mr. Fred M. Watts,
who furnished the material for the chapter on Pottery and several
drawings for other parts of the book; to Miss Grace L. Bell for the
illustrations and descriptions embodied in the chapter on Block
Printing; to Mr. Burton A. Adams for the problems in metal work; to Mr.
Edwin A. Finch and Mr. Lewis O. Richardson who contributed many of the
specifications for the problems in furniture-making; to Miss Elizabeth
M. Morton for specific suggestions pertaining to the subject of dress
as related to the principles of decoration; and to Mrs. Ruth B. S.
Flower, of Florence, Mass., who supplied several of the photographs and
much of the descriptive matter for the chapter on Weaving.

Springfield, Mass.

                                                       C. F. W.




                                CONTENTS


      CHAPTER                                          PAGE

       I. Introductory--The Story of a House              3

      II. Decorations and Furniture                      34

     III. Pictures                                       64

      IV. The Arrangement of Flowers                     81

       V. Decorative Fabrics                             95

      VI. Dress and the Principles of Decoration        121

     VII. Furniture Making                              129

    VIII. Finishing and Re-finishing                    212

      IX. Hand Weaving                                  244

       X. Pottery                                       280

      XI. Decorative Work in Leather, Copper, and Other
          Materials                                     321

     XII. Concluding Suggestions--Country Homes         366




                             ILLUSTRATIONS


    Hanging a Picture                            _Frontispiece_

                                                   FACING PAGE

    All the Rough Carpentry was Assigned to the Boys
    of the Woodworking Sections of the Vocational
    School                                                  22

    The Boys of the Forging Classes of the Technical
    High School were not Overlooked in the Distribution
    of the Work on the House                                24

    A Table Runner of Russian Crash and Pillow
    Cover with Geometrical Design                           96

    Window Draperies with Stencilled Border                108

    Crocheted Panels, a Linen Work Bag with Conventional
    Landscape in Darning Stitch, a
    Crash Table Mat Embroidered in Darning and
    Couching Stitch                                        118

    Finishing a Library Table                              212

    Weaving a Rug                                          244

    Hand Made Rugs, Hand Made Towels                       252

    An Alcove with Window Draperies, Pillow Covers,
    Window Seat and Moss Green Rug, All Hand
    Woven                                                  262
    Hand Woven Window Draperies, Couch Cover,
    Slumber Rug, and Pillow Covers                         266

    Girls at Work on Pottery                               280

    Bowls                                                  294

    Vases and Fern Dishes                                  312

    Tiles                                                  316

    Pottery: Designed and Made by Schoolgirls              318

    Decorative Forgings                                    364




                            HOME DECORATION




[Illustration: A model house: Designed by girls and built by boys]




I

INTRODUCTORY

THE STORY OF A HOUSE


To design, plan, and build a house is a task that rarely falls to the
lot of boys and girls. In fact, it is not the common experience of
men and women to build houses without the aid of architects, masons,
and carpenters. Such a task, however, was recently offered to certain
classes in one of the public schools of a well-known New England city.
It was, indeed, a school problem, and yet there was something about
it that seemed to suggest larger and more interesting things than
are ordinarily dealt with in the school-room. It did not seem at all
like some school work. It was more like real life; for all boys and
girls must some day have homes of their own, and here was a chance
to learn how the house, which is an important part of every home, is
planned and built. It is hardly necessary to say that this work--or
play, if you like that word better--was undertaken with genuine
enthusiasm. It was a task crammed full of the pleasure of interest and
of accomplishment--full of the joy of doing something worth while--from
the beginning to the end.

_The House a Work of Art._--One of the first lessons learned by these
young builders--perhaps the most important one of all--was that a
great many things have to be thought of in planning a house, if the
thing is to be well done. It is not simply a question of deciding how
many rooms one will have, arranging them in some conventional order,
and building the house around them with whatever external features
style or fancy may dictate. Too many houses, it is true, are planned,
or at least put up, in this thoughtless fashion; and whatever goes
into them in decoration or furniture is generally chosen either for
necessary use or for display--not with any thought of the real comfort
and satisfaction that come from artistic surroundings. People who are
satisfied with such dwellings seem to show less appreciation of art,
the highest product of civilization, than those uncivilized tribes who
decorated their caves or huts with beautiful rugs of their own weaving
and who ornamented their pottery and their utensils and implements
with wonderfully conceived and elaborately wrought designs. Modern
cave dwellers in apartment houses with all the conveniences of their
ready-made surroundings, are in danger of missing that self-expression
in their home belongings that encouraged and delighted even the savage.
The most extreme example of this form of degeneracy is found in the
suggestion of a certain great inventor, that the age of concrete
construction, now at hand, means that we are to have concrete houses
poured into a standard mould, hardened in twenty-four hours, and
finished for occupancy in a day or two.

The boys and girls of this story would not have accepted a
machine-made, standardized house if one had been offered them, ready
for use. There was a special purpose for which their house was to be
planned and built, as there generally is in the case of any real house.
No style A, B, or C, chosen from any series of pattern-built or moulded
houses, could fulfil such a purpose; and even if it could, would they
willingly give up all the fun of planning and building and furnishing?
Would they forego the lessons of experience to be learned from all this
work? This is always a large part of the satisfaction which comes to
any one who builds his own house. In the present instance it was the
chief motive, since the boys and girls who were planning this house
were not expecting to make their home there.

_Why the House Was Built._--What, then, was the purpose for which this
house was to be built; and what were the specific problems involved in
realizing this purpose? It was to be a practice house for the girls
of the household technology course. This meant that it should be, so
far as possible, a model house; but it must of necessity be a simple
one. Economy, always a safe guide, was a most important factor in
determining the character of the design. A limited appropriation--about
$1000--for building material was available. Economy of space as well as
of expense was also important. The only available land was a triangular
lot in the corner of the school yard, 665 square feet in area. This
limited the dimensions of the floor plan to 24 by 35 feet. It was
decided to develop the design within these dimensions, on a rectangular
plan, with one story and a hip roof, because such a design would
present comparatively easy problems in framing and insure a building of
pleasing external proportions.


THE GENERAL DESIGN AND THE PLAN

In attacking the problem of design the method of approach was
determined by the fact that school-girls and school-boys were to be
the architects and builders. House planning, home decoration, and
household management were important subjects of study on the part of
the girls and various forms of drawing and constructive work were
required of all the boys of this school; so they all felt that they
had a right to contribute something out of their study and experience
that might be of value in working out this problem. The design must
therefore be a composite of the best features of many studies.

_A Composite Design._--The rooms required for a house of this character
were thought to be a hall, a living room, a dining-room, a kitchen,
a pantry, a bedroom with a closet, a bath room, and a linen closet.
Nothing short of this outfit of rooms would satisfy the demands of
a house to be used to give practical training in all the essentials
of plain housekeeping and in the entertainment of guests. With these
requirements in mind and with full knowledge of all the limitations
of the problem, the girls of the junior and senior classes, who were
taking the course in household technology, entered into a lively but
friendly competition with each other to produce the most acceptable
design and draw the best plan. So many excellent plans resulted from
this competition that it was difficult to select the best. It was
therefore decided to combine in a new and final plan the best features
of several studies that seemed to meet the conditions of the problem
with equal success. Two of these were selected as having the greatest
number of good points. From these the final floor plan was developed
and the necessary modifications made in the original drawings to make
the general design of the building fit the plan.

[Illustration: Floor plan of the model house]

_The Hall._--It may be
of interest to note how some of the details of the problem of design
were worked out for the final plan. Beginning with the hall, it was
easily seen that economy of space required that the room should have
small dimensions. In fact, it did not need to be a separate room
at all. It could easily be a space between the living room and the
dining-room, separated from both by means of portières and joined
upon occasion with either room or with both, thus making possible
a reception room or a dining-room of good size, or one large room.
Of course, the central idea of a hall must not be lost sight of in
providing for a desirable extension of other rooms. It should suggest
a warm welcome to the guest; and here is where the fireplace may
fulfil the double function of giving the cheer of the hearth-stone at
all times and the comfort of fire when warmth is needed. The absence
of a stairway, since none was needed, was a favourable circumstance.
Appropriate decoration and furnishing in due time were to add a few
distinguishing marks so that the house could retain, without any
appreciable sacrifice of space, the dignity of an entrance hall.

_The Living Room and the Dining-room._--The relative positions of the
living room and the dining-room, as already stated, were determined
by the location of the hall. The purpose of each was distinct and
self-evident, and determined the features of design that lent
themselves most readily to appropriate decoration. In the living room
the floor, the wall spaces, and the ceiling needed consideration with
regard to their final treatment, to give pleasing proportions and
harmonious colouring. The same was true of the dining-room, though its
different purpose suggested a different design. An abundance of light
was important for both rooms, hence the large, multiple windows. Such
windows would also offer a good chance for pleasing drapery effects.

_The Kitchen and Its Appointments._--No room demanded so much study
as the kitchen. In the first place it was necessary to make provision
for a relatively larger kitchen than would ordinarily be needed in a
house of this size, because in this case it was designed to be used as
a practice kitchen and must therefore be large enough to accommodate
a considerable number of girls--at least eight--at one time. This
point assumed so much importance in the minds of the young designers
that they were constantly tempted to rob other rooms of the space that
was due them in order to get a "nice, big kitchen." But by clever
adjustments and combinations the necessary floor dimensions were
secured without unduly cramping other features of the plan. The range,
laundry tubs, and sink were conveniently located near each other with
the tubs at such a height that when not in use the cover was flush
with the top of the range, forming a shelf on which kettles and other
kitchen utensils could be easily placed as they were moved back and
forth from the range. It was thought that it would be very desirable,
if not necessary, to have this shelf covered with zinc or some kind of
sheet metal.

It will be noted as a possible fault in the plan that the range is
very near the door into the passageway leading to the bedroom, the
living room, and the hall. This point received due consideration; but
in view of the compensating advantages the arrangement was thought
allowable, inasmuch as the door into the passageway would be used
only occasionally. There seemed to be no more convenient location for
the passageway, which was designed to give privacy to bedroom and
bath room and, in cases of sickness or any emergency requiring it,
easy communication between the kitchen and the bedroom.

_Special Features._--The pantry was located between the kitchen and the
dining-room for obvious reasons--to give easy communication in serving
and to confine kitchen odours to their proper place. In place of a
kitchen closet a cabinet was provided for as being on the whole the
more serviceable of the two. It is always desirable to have an entry
or lobby, with a convenient part of it reserved for the refrigerator;
but the need of providing as much room as possible in the kitchen
itself seemed to justify the omission of the lobby. Another unusual
feature--this time not an omission--is to be found in the window of the
bedroom closet. Such a window, although not common, was thought to be
very desirable on sanitary grounds and as a possible protection against
moths.

_Early Plans for Decorating and Furnishing._--These were by no means
all the features of design that had to be considered. As already
suggested, there was much study given to the question of interior
decoration and furnishing, even at this early stage. This was simply
necessary forethought; for much of the attractiveness, restfulness,
and homelike atmosphere of any house is created by the architect, who,
in his arrangement of rooms, door-ways, and windows, disposes his wall
areas so that they may be divided symmetrically and lend themselves
naturally to colour toning, offering tempting spaces for a few choice
pictures and opening up beautiful vistas. Such house-planning, begun
with clear vision and followed with taste and delicacy in every detail,
may often lead to a harmony of effects as pleasing to people of
artistic temperament as a symphony is to those who enjoy a fine musical
composition. In fact, the parallel between sympathetic gradations of
form and colour and harmony of musical tones is a very close one, and
the appreciation of it is by no means rare. Any intelligent person,
on seeing a suite of rooms designed and arranged by a real artist,
though he may not understand why, will be impressed by the rhythm
of space divisions, the harmony of colours, the lack of any jarring
or discordant notes in the decoration, the simplicity, fitness, and
real beauty, not of any particular part, perhaps, but of the whole
combination. We often find ourselves using the same language whether we
are describing the work of an artist-architect or the work of a musical
composer.


FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

_Adaptation to Purpose._--Our young architects discovered that there
are certain fundamental principles or laws that must be observed at
the very beginning, if a really good and true design is to be made.
The first of these laws is the _law of adaptation to purpose_. The
application of this law was illustrated in the location of the various
rooms in the plan of the house, in the dimensions agreed upon for
each, and in the details of arrangement, especially in the kitchen
and other rooms connecting with it. But this law is universal in its
application. It determines not only the broad features of the plan but
the details as well. It does not permit anything useless or superfluous
to exist, for that would mean weakness. It aims at efficiency and
strength. It dictates the details of construction all along the line,
from the framing of the building to its finish and its decoration. It
even determines the character of the furniture and the amount of it.
Adaptation to purpose is a ruling principle.

_Simplicity._--Another great principle that revealed itself as the
plans of the house developed may be called the _law of simplicity_.
This is one of the elementary laws of nature transferred to the realm
of craftsmanship. It is an axiom of geometry that the straight line
is the shortest distance between two points. Not less evident is the
fact that when Nature undertakes to do anything she goes about it in
the simplest and most direct way. The natural tendency of all motion
is along a straight line--so reads the first law of motion. Analyze
the most complex forms and processes of nature and we shall find them
due to the harmonious combination of the simplest elementary lines
and movements. But the same law of simplicity which invariably marks
the works of nature gives strength and beauty also to the works of
man. Thus, in discussing the various problems that developed as the
designing of the house progressed, it was found--as of course it should
have been--that the solution which met the test of simplicity, while
satisfying the law of adaptation to purpose, was the true one.

_Correlation._--A third great fundamental principle that found
expression in these studies of the house plans was the _principle
of correlation_. Not only must each part of the design be adapted
to its use in the simplest possible manner, but it must support all
other parts and receive support in return. It is like cooperation or
team-work in play or in the practical affairs of life. Every room in
a house bears some natural relation to every other room, and even the
objects in the same room or in adjoining rooms must assist each other,
whether their purpose be utility or decoration or a combination of
both. Only by due attention to the mutual relations of the various
elements that must enter into the composition, can the designer produce
those pleasing space effects, those blendings of colour tones, those
manifest relations between the various objects, useful or decorative,
that give order, unity, and sympathetic feeling to a complete design.


THE COLOUR SCHEME

_The Floor the Foundation._--Almost unconsciously our young architects
found themselves under the guidance of these three great fundamental
principles of design. When they came to the problem of specifying the
finish for the floors and other wood work of the hall, living room, and
dining-room, they found that this problem was intimately associated
with the larger question of the colour scheme as a whole. The mutual
dependence of all the elements concerned could not be overlooked.
It was evident that the floor, which is the foundation of the room,
should be darker than the walls and ceiling and the general tone of the
furnishings, in order to give the suggestion of sufficient weight and
firmness for the support of the entire room and all it might contain.
The effect of solidity could be produced by staining the floor boards
or by providing a liberal supply of dark, rich-toned rugs, large ones
as well as small ones. There was no question of carpets. These, of
course, are not allowable in a model house. A few rugs were already
available, and others could be procured by buying them or by making
them. A properly toned floor, however, is desirable, even with a most
generous covering of rugs. It was therefore decided to give the floor a
coat of stain when it was ready to be finished.

_Importance of Colour Schemes._--But what was the colour to be? The
designers were thus brought face to face with that difficult but
important problem which all who plan houses have to solve before they
can hope to bring their work into harmonious adjustment with the
various natural and human conditions that must be satisfied in the
final product, if it be made a good example of the designer's art.
The problem of the colour scheme is fundamental. Upon this depends
not only the tone of the floors, the walls, and the ceilings, but
also, to a certain extent, as has already been suggested, the kind of
woods to be used in the interior finishing, and whether they are to be
painted, stained, or left in their natural colours. It will determine
the material and the colours of the portières, curtains, cushions,
lamp shades, picture frames, vases; in fact, it will largely settle
the decorative character of every article placed in the rooms. The
consideration of movable objects, however, may be deferred till the
more substantial and fixed elements are decided upon.

_Southern Exposures and Cool Colours._--In settling the all-important
question of the colour scheme the first point to be considered was
the location of the rooms with reference to light and to external
surroundings. Rooms that have a southern exposure and nothing to
interfere with their being flooded with sunlight need to be protected
against the glare of too much light. For such rooms dull tones of
colour are the best--dull browns, soft gray-greens, certain blue
tones, and the medium grays--light, cool colours that counteract the
overbrilliancy of direct sunlight and give a positively tempered
feeling to the atmosphere of a room. Incidentally, too, perhaps because
they are the tints associated with distant views, the cool colours make
a room seem larger than it really is.

_Northern Exposures and Warm Colours._--Northern rooms, on the other
hand, do not generally suffer from excess of sunlight and heat. Warm
colours are needed in such rooms. Deep reds, rich yellows, and golden
browns will seem to bring sunlight into a sunless room. Our designers
noted the fact that many of the rooms in the house they were planning
must be comparatively dark. The house was to face the high brick walls
of the neighbouring school building, not more than twenty-five feet
distant, and its principal rooms had a northern exposure. A warm colour
treatment, therefore, was unquestionably needed. Should red, brown, or
yellow be the prevailing tone? The deciding point was the location of
the hall and its relations to the other rooms. It was, first of all,
the hall, the place of welcome for the guest; but it was dark. Its
walls must have the sunniest of all colours--a rich golden yellow. The
same would serve the needs of the living room, or perhaps a brown with
yellow enough in it to be well in tune. The dining-room could safely be
darker and more luminous, in pleasing contrast with the golden yellow
of the hall; but it must not be decidedly red. The ceilings of these
three rooms, whether beamed or not, since they must be lighter than the
walls, could have the same or nearly the same tint. This might well be
a light corn yellow.

The colouring of the walls of the bedroom, bath room, and kitchen was
not so important a question as the decoration of the three front
rooms. Utility and sanitary conditions were important things to be
considered. Light tints were decided upon, which in the bedroom might
be relieved, in the finishing touches, by delicate stenciled figures in
some warm tone.

_Interior Woodwork._--With the colour scheme settled it was a
comparatively easy matter to decide what should be the general tone
and character of the interior woodwork. The floors of the three front
rooms, since they were to be closely associated, required the same
solid colour, which could well be a walnut brown, darker than any
of the walls. Fumed oak trimmings were thought desirable for the
dining-room and gum wood for the living room, either of which could be
extended to the hall; but ivory white for the living room and the hall,
leaving the oak for the dining-room, found much favour. It was finally
decided, however, to adopt for the three front rooms the combination
of natural woods first suggested. The bedroom and bath room, where
suggestions of cleanliness are peculiarly appropriate, were specified
to be finished in white. Yellow southern pine was decided upon for the
kitchen and its accessory rooms.


ORGANIZING THE WORK OF CONSTRUCTION

As soon as the chief features of design were decided upon, preparations
were made for carrying them out in the actual work of building; for the
house was not to be a "castle in air." The first step was to put these
ideas on paper and work out the details of construction in clearly
executed and accurately dimensioned drawings. These included, as the
first to be used, the working drawings for the framing and other rough
woodwork, blue print copies of which were to be put into the hands of
the boys of the elementary vocational school, who were to carry out
this part of the building plans.

[Illustration: Front or north elevation of the model house]

_The Working Drawings._--A considerable number of detailed drawings
had to be made before the work of construction could be wisely begun.
This furnished an interesting set of problems for the mechanical
drawing groups of the technical high school. The material for this work
consisted of rough sketches in pencil, but with the correct dimensions
as determined in the plan accepted as the result of the competition in
design. These preliminary sketches required much study on the part of
both boys and girls, under proper guidance, in order to find out what
the elements of construction should be, what dimensions were required,
and how the various parts should be put together. It was an experience
of great value to all, but especially to those boys who were looking
forward to architectural draughting as a possible vocation. They got
an inside view of the importance, on the one hand, of accurate working
drawings as a basis for good construction and, on the other hand, a
practical illustration of the necessity of a thorough knowledge of
constructive principles, in order to make correct working drawings.
They saw that the efficient architect must be a builder, acquainted
with all the detailed processes employed by the carpenter or mason,
informed upon all the conditions to be met, and knowing the best ways
of meeting them. They gained impressions which should help them, in
studying the work of great architects, to look beyond the exterior,
however pleasing it may be, for those elements of strength and beauty
that characterize all good workmanship.

[Illustration: All the Rough Carpentry Was Assigned to Boys of the
Woodworking Section of the Vocational School. Plate I]

_How the Work Was Distributed._--It will be recalled that boys and
girls were to be coworkers in the designing, planning, and building
of the house. The boys were to be held responsible for the drawings,
the decorating after designs made by the girls, and the higher grades
of woodwork, including the finishing of the rooms and the making of
the furniture. They were to do the wiring for the electric lights, the
bells, and the interior telephones; and they were to install all the
fixtures in connection with this wiring. Boys from the metal-working
sections were to do the necessary piping for gas and water and some
of the work of plumbing; but, since the laws regulating plumbing are
strict and well enforced, as they should be, it was necessary to keep
this most essential feature of the work under charge of licensed
plumbers. But this requirement did not remove even the plumbing of
the building from the field of public school work; for, fortunately,
this city has a well-equipped plumbing school in the trades school
department, under the direction of licensed plumbers of high standing,
who were glad to have given them, as an exercise for their classes, a
practical problem in house plumbing. The boys in the forging classes
were not overlooked in the distribution of the work on the house. Many
of the fixtures needed for use or ornament were designed to be made
in the school forge shop. The girls designed and made rugs, curtains,
portières, and cushions as a part of their school work in weaving and
stencilling; and they contributed many decorative articles in clay,
copper, leather, and other materials. Thus every technical department
of the school was brought into service; for in the building of a house
there is to be found something to enlist the interest of every boy and
girl.

[Illustration: The Boys of the Forging Classes of the Technical High
School Were Not Overlooked in the Distribution of the Work on the
House. Plate II]

_Boy Foremen in Charge._--To bring about the right distribution of
the work and to marshal the working forces effectually required the
oversight and management of an experienced instructor. But much of the
work of direction was delegated to competent boys. The preliminary
tool work in the school shops had revealed those who were especially
observant and capable as leaders, and those who worked best under
specific directions. Thus the twenty boys of the vocational school who
set the posts and framed the house worked sometimes in pairs--one
being the chief foreman and the other the helper--sometimes in gangs
of three or four under a foreman. The plan was varied according to the
nature of the work in hand. When leaders of more technical knowledge
and skill were needed, as was the case in setting the window frames and
directing the shingling, capable boys from the technical high school
were placed in charge of groups of younger boys from the vocational
school. In this way the work was advanced in several directions at the
same time; and the advantage was not all in the advancement of the
house construction. It was a delightful and profitable experience for
all the boys, not unlike that which some of them will doubtless repeat
when school days are over and they take their place in the more serious
affairs of life. In after years they may look back upon the first
house that they helped to build and recall the part they took, their
companions in the work, and the good time they had withal.


SOME DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION

_Setting Batter Boards, Posts, and Sills._--The first step in actual
construction was to mark off the lot and set the batter boards. These
were made by driving three stakes to form a right angle about four
feet from the point where each of the four main corners of the house
was to be located. Two rough boards, one for each side of each angle,
were nailed horizontally to each of the four sets of stakes, with their
upper edges all brought to the same level. It is very important to set
these batter boards with accuracy, since their function is to carry the
lines which mark the dimensions and level of the ground floor. In the
present instance their first use was to locate the concrete posts on
which the sills of the house were to rest. Twenty-two of these posts,
which were 4 feet long and 8 inches square, were put in position by
first setting moulds or boxes, the interior dimensions of which were
those of the posts, 3 feet deep in the light soil and filling them with
a mixture of concrete and crushed rock. It was not thought necessary
to remove the moulds after the hardening of the concrete. In fact, the
sills were framed and placed in position resting on these boxes before
sufficient time had been given for the concrete to harden. The sides of
the boxes, however, were scored with a saw cut so that they could be
easily broken off just below the ground, exposing the projecting ends
of the concrete posts for about one foot. The sills were of 6 by 8-inch
first quality spruce. They were set on the 6-inch face, the two long
sills being spliced over posts, using a long halved joint. Mortise
and tenon joints, draw-bored and pinned, were used at the corners. The
floor timbers of 2 by 8-inch spruce were gained into the sills with
the top faces flush with the top of the sill and crowning (_i. e._,
bending) upward if at all. The spacing of the floor timbers was taken
off at the sill on a strip of furring--spruce, 7/8 of an inch thick
by 2 inches wide--which was moved out to the centre near the line of
bridging and lightly nailed, bringing crooked timbers into line. The
bridging was then nailed in, the outside last to prevent springing the
sills.

[Illustration: Plan A. Framing details]

Referring to the accompanying sketch (Plan A) it will be noticed that
the corner posts and centres were not mortised into the sills, but were
simply butted on and heavily nailed or spiked. There was a time when
carpenters would have regarded such a method as altogether wrong; but
those were the days of great corner posts and heavy studding, placed
two or three times as far apart as is the practice now. It was thought
that placing the studs 16 inches on centres, which is the common
practice in modern house framing, removed the necessity of mortising
into the sill. Mortising is still recognized, however, as a good thing
to do and is sometimes practised by first-rate carpenters. Plan A
also shows how the outside walls were trussed over openings; and Plan B
shows how the corners of the building were tied by the lapping of the
double plate, and how the ceiling timbers and rafters were placed on
the top of the plate.


[Illustration: Plan B. Details of cornice, sill, and roof

  A SHINGLES
  B ROOF BOARDS
  C RAFTER 2" × 6" 20" O.C.
  D PLATE 4" × 4"
  E ROUGH BOARDING
  F STUD
  G FRIEZE
  H CROWN MOLD
  I BED MOLD
  J CEILING JOIST 2" × 6"
  K GROUND
  L LATH & PLASTER
  M BASE
  N FINISHED FLOOR
  O LINING FLOOR
  P FURRING
  Q SILL
  R CONCRETE POST 8" × 8"
  S CORNER POST
  T HIP RAFTER 3" × 8"
  U FLOOR JOIST
]

The window frame details are shown in a series of cuts (Plan C) which
for the sake of completeness are drawn to show also the interior
finish, not usually represented in the framing drawings. A detailed
description of these features of construction is unnecessary, since
the dimensions and relations of the various elements and the technical
terms by which they are known are all clearly indicated in the
illustrations.

[Illustration: Plan C. Details of interior finish

  A OUTSIDE CASING     I HEADER          Q SURBASE
  B BACK BAND          J CORNER BLOCK    R SILL 1-3/4" TH'K
  C HEAD               K ROUGH BOARDING  S INSIDE CASING
  D STOP 1/2"   THICK  L SHINGLES        T SOFFIT
  E SASH 1-3/8" ditto  M WEIGHT          U BED MOLD
  F LATH & PLASTER     N PULLEY STYLE    V FINISHED FLOOR
  G GROUND 3/4" TH'K   O PARTING STRIP   W BASE
  H STUD 2" × 4"       P STOOL CAP       X LINING FLOOR
]

In the same series of cuts a detail of the base is shown which includes
the framing, the base board, and the lath and plaster. It should be
stated, however, that a substitute for lath and plaster was recommended
to the student architects--a new product in paper board especially
designed for walls and ceilings, which it was decided to use. The use
of this material removed the necessity of the "grounds" shown in the
drawings and always needed as a nailing base for the wood trim when
the walls and ceilings are lathed and plastered. In the detail of the
dado cap, which will be found on the page of construction drawings,
the dotted lines show how the cap was to be expanded into a plate rail,
requiring the addition of brackets with a bed moulding between, in the
finishing of the walls of the dining-room. Among these drawings will
also be found a detail showing a section of the beamed ceiling finish.

It will be readily understood that none of the finishing work called
for in the detailed drawings was begun until the rough carpentry on the
house was practically completed. All the rough work, which included
framing, boarding, shingling, laying of the lining floors, and putting
up partitions, was assigned to boys of the woodworking sections of the
vocational school. This is an elementary industrial or trade school,
admitting from the grades below the high school boys who have attained
the age of fourteen years and wish to learn some mechanical trade.
It represents a new and promising experiment in American education.
The building of this house furnished an excellent opportunity for the
boys of this school to show the honesty of their purpose in enrolling
themselves to learn the fundamentals of a trade and thus prove their
right to have the chance.

So the house was built by the combined efforts of the boys and
girls of the public schools of this New England city, unassisted by
professional architects or paid labourers. How they carried out with
their own hands the designs for decorating and furnishing the house is
told in the succeeding chapters of this book, which also suggests wider
applications of the principles of household decoration as possible to
be made in the homes of clever boys and girls throughout the country.
To carry out these suggestions will mean work--but work of a kind that
gives pleasure to the worker and to many others. It was work for the
young designers and builders of whom this story tells, but they said
it was "great fun," and there really is no pleasure quite equal to
that found in doing with one's own hands an exceptionally good thing.
The true craftsmen of all time have found it so. One of these master
workmen, Stradivarius, the violin maker, so George Eliot tells us, made
his confession thus:

        " ... God be praised!
    Antonio Stradivari has an eye
    That winces at false work and loves the true,
    With hand and arm that play upon the tool,
    As willingly as any singing bird
    Sets him to sing his morning roundelay,
    Because he likes to sing and likes the song."




II

DECORATIONS AND FURNITURE

     Have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful, or
     believe to be beautiful--_William Morris_


The decorating and furnishing of a house have their true beginning
in good architectural design. It is a mistake to proceed upon the
theory that decoration necessarily implies something added for its
own sake--something beautiful in itself but selected and applied
without regard to the lines, spaces, and colours of the room in which
it is to be placed and without considering the relation of this room
to neighbouring rooms and to more remote surroundings. The truth is,
a decorative object may or may not be intrinsically beautiful; but
however beautiful it may be in itself, it finds its truest beauty in
an appropriate setting. And the decorator who is actuated by the true
spirit looks to the architect for inspiration and finds his greatest
successes in acknowledging that leadership. To attempt to lead when
one should follow is neither good art nor good sense.

There is danger, perhaps, that this truth may be taken too seriously.
It would also be a mistake to run to the other extreme and adopt at
the outset a rigid plan of decoration and furnishing, specified like
contract work to be carried out and completed on a certain date soon
after the house is built. The problem is one of growing interest,
especially as regards furniture, pictures, and the smaller objects of
use or beauty, and for its best and happiest solution requires time
and study. Only the broad and fundamental features can be settled in
advance. The important thing is to have the main lines, dimensions,
space relations, and colour schemes settled with due regard to utility
and appropriateness and, as the work of construction proceeds, to keep
all details in harmony with this general plan.


THE FLOORS, THE WALLS, AND THE CEILINGS

_Colour Harmony in the Model House._--It will be remembered that
the colour scheme of the hall, living room, and dining-room of our
model house was settled quite early in the development of the design.
Standing near the centre of the living room and looking through the
hall into the dining-room, one may see at a glance how some of the
details of decoration were worked out in keeping with the general
treatment. The walnut brown stain of the floors gives a good foundation
of colour. It flows easily into the lighter browns and yellows of all
the lower wall spaces. The suggestion of olive green in the frieze of
the living room offers a pleasing contrast with the prevailing browns
and harmonizes well with the woodwork of this room, which, it will be
remembered, was designed to be finished in gum wood. This beautiful
wood, when properly treated, presents a surface of satin-like texture
and soft colour tone. In the dining-room a corner of which is shown
in the frontispiece, the frieze lends a warmth of colour where it is
needed and is in keeping with the fumed oak trim. The wide openings
into the hall from the rooms on each side of it, together with the
long, unbroken lines of the beamed ceilings, give the impression of
generous width. The plain wall spaces, though varied in tone and
relieved of monotonous spacings by the location of the necessary doors
and windows, are of great assistance in increasing the apparent size of
the room. Plain walls are also the best of backgrounds for pictures.
_Redecorating Old Houses._--It is, of course, true that the decorating
and furnishing of a house or an apartment cannot always have a new
and original architectural design as the basis for the solution of
the problems involved. As a matter of fact, in the great majority of
cases, the houses in which homes are made are already built and have
been previously occupied. Often they are very old houses, presenting
difficult and even impossible tasks for the decorator. Sometimes,
however, such houses are all the more desirable if they bear the marks
of age that suggest a past of dignity and charm. But the spirit which
inspires the artist in decorating and furnishing a house already built
is the same as that which controls his thought when he can begin with
the foundation of a new and original design. His first thought is to
discover how beauty may be enhanced and at the same time unity of
purpose and harmony of treatment be preserved. His constant care is to
avoid incongruous elements, however beautiful they may be in themselves
or however appropriate in other houses. His general aim is to use his
art to develop the design as it is, if there be any design at all, and
make the most of it.

_Decoration as a Corrective._--But this does not prevent him from
attempting to counteract the blunders of faulty design and bad
architecture. Such correction, indeed, forms a large part of the work
of decorators and furnishers, both professional and amateur. If the
lines and space divisions of a room be not good, the decoration must
be planned with a view to giving the needed harmony of proportions,
or at least the appearance of it. If the ceiling be too high, it may
be made to "look" lower by carrying the ceiling paper or tinting one
or two feet down the walls of the room to meet the picture moulding.
The effect of reduced height is accentuated by a high base board or by
wainscoting. If the ceiling be too low, the depressing effect may be
largely overcome by extending the picture moulding along the top of the
wall spaces close to the ceiling. This is a desirable thing to do in
the living rooms of most modern houses. Striped wall papers of proper
tones may be used in low rooms with good effect in increasing their
apparent height. Bad wall spacing may also be corrected by enlarging
door-ways, substituting portières for the doors, and by arranging
the drapery over windows to give the effect either of increasing or
of diminishing their height, as the conditions may require. _Wall
Papers._--Probably no element of decoration furnishes so many pitfalls
to ensnare the unwary as wall papers do. It is easy to fall a victim
to a captivating design as it appears in the few square feet of wall
paper displayed on the dealer's rack. The same interesting figure,
spread out in endless repetition on the four walls of the living room,
may create an atmosphere of unrest and positive discomfort keenly felt
by sensitive persons. A wise choice cannot be made in the absence of
all the conditions that should really determine it. After all, it is
not the paper which is beautiful in the roll that should be selected,
but only that which will become beautiful when hung upon the walls of
a certain room. Papers with large figures should be avoided unless
there is a special reason for using them. They always have the effect
of reducing the apparent size of everything associated with them.
They make a small room appear dwarfish and a large one over decorated
unless well relieved by plain spaces harmonizing in colour with the
large-figured patterns. Strong contrasts in colour values should also
be avoided, not only between the designs and the ground colour of the
wall paper itself, but also between the paper and other objects of
importance in the room. The principle of gradation in colour values,
which does not as a general thing allow the placing together of light
and dark shades or tints, is almost as important as harmony of colour
tones.

_Nature of Decorative Design._--The one fact never to be lost sight
of by the decorator is the real nature of true decorative design. It
is never a picture. While it may suggest the natural forms of plants
or animals, it does not aim to represent them in a naturalistic way.
Some of the best decorative designs do not even suggest natural forms;
but, whether they do or not, the central idea is the repetition of good
combinations of line and form in closely related colours and values
on a flat surface. If natural forms are used, they should be more or
less highly conventionalized. Anything that destroys the idea of flat
surfaces in the same plane is a false note in wall decoration. In the
nature of the case, a wall can have but one plane. Clusters of flowers
or patterns of any kind that seem to hang in front of this plane, or
back of it, are out of place and therefore offend the sense of fitness.
Such incongruities are sometimes so pronounced that they positively
shock the sensibilities of refined people. Extreme examples have been
known to give such pain to sensitive persons as to drive them from the
room.

_Advantage of Plain Walls._--Decorative designs, however, are not
essential in wall papers. The main point in the treatment of walls is
to secure and preserve a good background. If one is in doubt as to
the kind of figure or pattern to be used, which is often a perplexing
question, it is well to leave them out altogether. Plain walls are
always good if the colour tone is right; for colour is the main thing
in wall decoration. The decorative effects of form may be brought out
in the portières and window draperies, which may easily carry more
elaborate patterns when associated with plain walls than is desirable
with figured wall decorations. In fact, with figured walls plain
portières and curtains are much to be preferred. In our model house,
as has been explained, the wall decorations were designed to offer a
plain background of colour. The figured borders of the portières and
curtains, combined with the careful gradation in the colouring of the
floors, wall spaces, and ceiling, gave such a variety of tone to this
background that nothing further was needed to avoid monotony.

_Trial Needed in Doubtful Cases._--It is, indeed, a good rule to omit
whatever is unnecessary. To observe this rule wisely is to escape much
that is positively bad in decoration. Overwrought designs, too great
variety in decorative material, too many decorative objects, however
great their individual beauty, too many odd pieces of furniture, too
many interesting things in whatever direction one may turn, create an
oppressive and disquieting atmosphere and a feeling of unrest which
it should always be the aim of home decoration to dispel. And yet it
may not always be best to set aside our treasures because they do not
seem perfectly suited to the general scheme of decoration or are not
apparently needed to complete it. It is, in fact, often very difficult
to determine where the line should be drawn between what is needed and
what is not needed. The fact that nothing seems to be lacking is not a
final test if one has at hand useful or beautiful things that may be
introduced into a scheme of decoration already well thought out and be
given a trial. Such experimenting will often reveal unsuspected needs
or add a new charm that at once proves its right to be retained.

To take a step like this, somewhat out of line with accepted rules
as strictly interpreted, is entirely safe if this step is dictated
by good taste and does not lead the young decorator too far afield.
Exceptional treatment of any kind should show proper restraint, and
such restraint, when it is plainly indicated in any work of art, is in
itself an attractive feature.

_Precise Rules not Always Practicable._--The truth is, the rules of
decoration, though founded upon fundamental principles of art, are not
rules of precision like those founded upon mathematical principles.
In the nature of the case they must in their application yield more
or less to circumstances. It is, for example, a good general rule
to determine the colour scheme and background first and accommodate
other decorative features to these as a foundation; and yet it is
possible for a situation to be so exceptional as to justify a complete
reversal of this rule. Here is a concrete case. A young artist was the
fortunate possessor of a considerable number of Japanese and Chinese
embroideries and other Oriental ornaments. He wished to make these the
main decorative materials for one of his rooms. The embroidered figures
were in yellow and white on a deep, strong blue, the general effect
being quite dark. There were in the collection several prints, showing
the typical dull reds, dark blues, and yellows of Japanese art. Now the
room itself happened to be one that, under the general principle of
colour schemes as determined by exposure and other fixed conditions,
would demand warm colours on its walls. It would easily support a rich
red frieze with appropriate combinations in floor, dado, and ceiling.
This would set off well the dark oak trim and the mahogany furniture,
but it would rule out the Oriental decorations. One or the other must
give way; and, since the value of these decorative materials was beyond
question, it was decided to try them, even at the cost of setting aside
the general rule. The whole matter resolved itself into selecting a
proper background for these beautiful pictures and embroideries; and
for these the best colour was a gray blue--the coldest of colours. But
when the whole decorative scheme was carried out to completion and the
cold background was fully employed in setting off the rich colours and
exquisite workmanship of the Oriental prints and draperies, all the
circumstances that ordinarily determine the choice of backgrounds were
forgotten in the charm of originality. No one thought of the exposure
as requiring warm colours, the dark oak trim was not noticed, and the
mahogany furniture was still in keeping. The result was so absolutely
satisfying that no one who saw it could question the good taste
displayed in this very original plan of decoration.

But such exceptional cases should not shake our confidence in the
fundamental principles of decoration. It is true that these principles
cannot be reduced to formulas to be applied invariably in all cases,
and it is unreasonable to assume that any form of treatment is the only
one possible in any given case. Modifications in the application of
these principles are always possible, but the principles themselves are
as unalterable as the Mosaic law. One is, indeed, tempted to summarize
them thus as the


TEN COMMANDMENTS OF DECORATION

     Thou shalt have no household gods except those that be beautiful
     or those that be useful.

     Thou shalt not make unto thyself any likeness that is in the
     heaven above or in the earth beneath, or in the waters under the
     earth, that does not find an appropriate setting in thine house.

     Thou shalt not look in vain upon the creations of the great
     masters of decorative art.

     Remember the colour scheme and keep a good background.

     Honour the original design, however old it may be, and make the
     most of it. Thou shalt not hesitate to correct the blunders of
     faulty design and bad architecture.

     Thou shalt not kill thy neighbours or thy friends with
     over-decorated wall papers or oppressive decorations of any kind.

     Thou shalt not bring together incongruous articles nor permit
     insane arrangements of anything that is thine.

     Thou shalt not permit any false note to mar the harmony of thy
     decorations.

     Thou shalt not imitate thy neighbour's house or anything that is
     thy neighbour's, for it is the glory of the good decorator to show
     originality but at the same time to acknowledge his dependence
     upon those who have preceded him.


THE FURNITURE

_Relation of Furniture to Decoration._--So much for the treatment
of floors, walls, and ceilings. We may now turn to the more special
consideration of those objects of use or beauty that are to be
associated with these backgrounds--furniture, pictures, lamp shades,
and small ornaments. That these are closely related to decoration
has been implied in all that has been said. They are, in fact, in
themselves elements in the decorative scheme and as such must obey
the same laws. Their value, however, depends more or less upon their
utility, and for this reason they seem to require consideration
somewhat apart from their merely decorative functions. This is
especially true of furniture, which would have very little reason for
being if it were not for its usefulness.

In designing the furniture for the model house the questions that
constantly suggested themselves were: What is this piece of furniture
under consideration to be used for? What form, construction, and finish
will enable it to give the best service? What features of design are
needed to render it suited to its surroundings? In considering the
furniture for the model house it was most natural to apply these tests
to the various rooms in order.

[Illustration: A library desk in fumed oak]

_Hall of the Model House._--First, there is the hall. This is the room
into which a visitor is first admitted, and from its atmosphere he gets
his first impressions. But in this house it is a very small room and
designed to serve not merely as a place for the formalities of welcome
but also as an expansion of the rooms on either side. Its furniture
must consist largely of the fireplace. There is no room for a hall
settle nor even for a chair. A mirror, simply but richly framed, might
hang on the wall near the front door, balanced by a picture on the
opposite wall behind the door. An umbrella rack should stand outside on
the porch.

[Illustration: A hall chair]

[Illustration: A hall settle--simplicity, strength, dignity]

_Hall Furniture in General._--The halls of modern houses vary greatly
in their relative importance. In some the traditions of the old English
manor houses seem partially to survive. In mediæval England the hall
was the principal room, if not the only one comfortably furnished. When
modern houses combine the living room and library or reception room
with the hall, there is need of something more than hall furniture
of the formal kind. The requirements of comfort must be met. But,
generally speaking, hall furniture is of little real use. Odd chairs,
attractive by reason of their oddity, the richness of the materials
used in their construction, or some other assertive quality, but not
fit to sit in, are suitable or at least excusable in the hall. The hat
and coat rack of our fathers has been declared insane and no longer
appears in well-regulated houses. In place of it is found the hall
settle, which is of real use. It should be designed on simple lines and
give the impression of strength and dignity. If the hall is to be used
as a waiting room for guests, a few good chairs, conveniently placed,
will be needed for their comfort and a choice picture or two on the
walls will add greatly to their pleasure.

[Illustration: Two Morris chairs that invite to solid comfort]

[Illustration: A satisfactory writing desk]

_Living Room Furniture._--In furnishing living rooms there is bound to
be a wide range for the exercise of good taste because of the variety
of needs to be met and the large facilities afforded in the markets
for meeting these needs with due regard to artistic requirements. It
will be quite impossible to go into detail in discussing so large a
topic. The important thing is to keep in mind the central idea of a
living room--the place of all places where the freedom, comfort, and
protection of home life are to be enjoyed. The very atmosphere of
the room should suggest simplicity, sincerity, and good cheer. Every
article of furniture should be there to serve a genuine need, and it
should be strong enough to do its full duty. Spider-legged, top-heavy
tables; light, weak chairs; chairs on casters or rockers; sofas with
carved backs or couches with none at all,--these have no place in the
living room. The long, straight lines of the craftsman or mission
style of furniture are in the right direction; but if these be used at
all they must be made quite general, since few other styles harmonize
with them. Wicker or reed furniture is a notable exception. When well
designed it will fit in almost anywhere.

[Illustration: An ample library table]

[Illustration: A plain but useful magazine stand]

The frequent combination of the library with the living room requires a
suitable adjustment of the furniture to this use. A plain, serviceable
magazine rack, which may be easily made, will relieve the tables of an
accumulation of weeklies and monthlies. Moderately low bookcases, with
or without doors, are to be preferred to the more ordinary high ones
because this form harmonizes better with the lines of a room, which are
generally longer horizontally than vertically. If doors are used, it
is well to break up the glare of the glass by heavy sash, the spacing
of which may be arranged in a very pleasing manner. Good design in
library tables calls for ample size. Firmness and convenience as well
as satisfactory proportions should control the choice of a writing desk.

[Illustration: A low bookcase with sash doors]

_Dining-room Furniture._ Only a few elements enter into the design for
the furnishing of a dining-room; but they are evident and should have a
controlling influence. The table and chairs are for a definite purpose
and this should show itself in good design. Heavy construction is
permissible since the chairs are to be moved but little and the table
is practically stationary. Moreover, weight and generous dimensions
are suggestive of bounty and good service. The rectangular extension
table is most readily adjusted to varied demands, but the round table
is preferable for the family circle; and for a company of twelve or
fifteen a large, round, temporary table top, placed on an ordinary
extension table, has been found very attractive.

[Illustration: A round dining table]

[Illustration: A sideboard of good proportions. Convenient and generous
but not overdone]

As comfort is the chief result to be obtained in furnishing a living
room, so richness, within one's means, is an appropriate aim in
furnishing a dining-room. The history of sideboard design might be
cited in proof of this statement, if proof were needed. Probably no
single article of furniture has been subjected to greater elaboration;
but the desirable suggestion of plenty with convenience may be secured
without overdoing it. The unique purpose of the sideboard makes it an
interesting study for one who wishes to design and construct his own
in conformity with the architecture of his dining-room. The buffet or
serving table furnishes an equally interesting, though simpler, problem.

[Illustration: A buffet of simple but effective design]

For the care of the china, the built-in cabinet as a feature of
the architecture of the room is to be preferred to the movable
cabinet designed for this purpose, because of its richer decorative
possibilities. Large, glazed doors are desirable in either case, not
for the full display of china and glassware but to give a suggestive
glimpse of it. As this cabinet is for decoration and not for show, it
is well to avoid plain glass doors unbroken by sash. Leaded panes are
frequently employed with good effect. The decorative effect of old
and odd pieces of china--not too many of them--is most appropriately
employed by the use of the plate rail; but it is better to leave
the plate rail bare than to load it with commonplace crockery and
inappropriate ornaments.

[Illustration: A china cabinet. A part of the finish of the room]

_Chamber Furniture._--The bedroom speaks for itself. A dainty freshness
in all its appointments is conducive to sleep and rest, which it is the
distinctive purpose of this room to provide. The necessary articles
of furniture are a bed, a dressing table, a bureau or chiffonier, a
few chairs, and, if there be no bath room attached, a commode or wash
stand. A couch is an appropriate addition; and here, if anywhere,
rocking chairs are allowable. When the bedroom must be used more or
less as a living room or sewing room, as it too often unfortunately
is, furniture to serve such uses must be provided. In selecting or
designing all this furniture, lightness, and simplicity of design,
combined with strength, should be allowed a controlling influence.
The recognition of this idea has given great popularity to the brass
or iron beds; but it is possible to design and construct beds of oak,
maple, or other woods that harmonize with the rest of the furniture,
carry out the idea of daintiness, and have sufficient strength for
service.

[Illustration: Leaded panes]

Many of these suggestions on furniture design are being carried out
in fitting up the model house described in our introductory chapter.
A small house like this, limited to one story, does not permit great
variety in its furnishings. Certain standard conditions, however, were
to be met here, as everywhere else, and the young designers found much
pleasure and great profit in working out the furniture problems. Some
of the construction details will be given in the later chapters.

[Illustration: A Duxbury chair]


ARRANGEMENT OF THE FURNITURE

_Arrangement Follows Selection._--The problem of furnishing a home is
not fully settled when the questions of design have been answered and
the right selections made. After selection comes arrangement, or, to
speak more accurately, after a certain amount of selection a certain
amount of arrangement; for, as has already been suggested, there is
considerable dependence of one upon the other. It is not wise to drop
the arrangement till the selection is complete, for the simple reason
that the happiest choices are often the late ones, determined by the
disposition of the earlier ones. And yet in the main the order as
stated is the true one. It should be noted, too, that in arrangement
there is a larger field for the exercise of individuality and taste.
While artistic principles still hold sway, they yield more readily to
exceptional interpretation by the ruling spirit of the household, to
the demands of style, and to the larger number of possibilities for
pleasing effects when the question is one of the arrangement of things
already well chosen for their usefulness and for their artistic value.

[Illustration: A dainty bed in white maple]

_Utility the Controlling Principle._--The problems of arrangement,
however, are by no means vague and uncertain. The natural law of
adaptation to purpose is not difficult to follow. In some rooms
obedience to it has become a settled custom. No one, for example, would
think of placing the dining table in any other place than the centre
of the dining-room or, if the room be a long one, in the centre of one
end. The sideboard, serving table, and china closet likewise fall into
their natural places. So also the bedroom and the hall, though perhaps
to a less degree, present comparatively easy problems in furniture
arrangement when due regard is paid to the purposes for which such
rooms are designed.

_Importance of Appropriateness._--But it is in the library and the
living room that we find the most difficult and at the same time the
most interesting problems. And this is due to the operation of the
same law of adaptation to purpose. It is the variety of uses and the
diversity of useful objects that make the problem somewhat complex.
However refined and beautiful the different units may be, there
must be some arrangement of them into working groups. The important
elements should dominate and those of lesser importance should fall
naturally into related but subordinate places. The easy corner with
its couch, pillows, and its low seats, has a definite function to
perform. So also have the piano and the music rack, the bookcases and
library table, the Morris chairs and tabourettes, the window seats and
screens, the writing desk and its proper lighting by window or lamp,
the fireplace and all the accessories of comfort that may belong to
it. The various centres of interest should be accentuated by grouping
around them the most appropriate furnishings and the most suggestive
decorative features. It may be well to add one word of caution, and
that is that a proper balance should be maintained between the various
centres of arrangement in order that no part of the room may seem
neglected and bare.

_The Danger of Overcrowding._--Finally, the one great danger to
be avoided in meeting the requirements of good arrangement is the
temptation to overcrowding. Many otherwise excellently appointed living
rooms suffer from an embarrassment of riches. Such overcrowded rooms
are worse than an overloaded ship because they cannot topple over and
sink as one might well wish them to. To secure the right things and
just enough of them, arranged with a proper balance between utility
and beauty, is the true aim. It is as true to-day as it ever was in
the arrangement and beautifying of the home, and, for that matter, in
everything that concerns every-day life--just as true as it was in
ancient times when men wrote those famous inscriptions over the doors
of the temple at Delphi: over one, KNOW THYSELF, and over the other,
THE GOLDEN MEAN OF NOT TOO MUCH.




III

PICTURES

     I now require this of all pictures, that they domesticate me,
     not that they dazzle me. Pictures must not be too picturesque.
     Nothing astonishes men so much as common sense and plain dealing.
     All great actions have been simple, and all great pictures
     are.--_Ralph Waldo Emerson_


The decoration of a room is generally not complete without pictures.
There is, of course, great value in good pictures entirely aside
from their decorative effect; and too great care cannot be exercised
in their selection. But our present purpose is to consider them as
decorative features; for, though a decoration is not a picture,
pictures themselves are properly regarded as important elements in the
general scheme of decoration. And this is especially true as regards
matting and framing, the distribution of pictures upon the wall spaces,
and the method of hanging them.

_Importance of Space Relations._--A picture mat and frame are simply
elements of finish, and their function is to give the picture a certain
individuality and yet connect it harmoniously with the space in which
it hangs. In fact, the wall space is a part of the framing of the
picture. The importance of giving some study to the relations of all
the spaces involved is evident. The mat and the frame should not be of
equal width. Here is a fine opportunity to secure variety in spacing.
No definite rules can be given; sometimes the one, sometimes the other
should give way. Generally speaking, tall wall spaces require vertical
pictures, and spaces longer horizontally demand horizontal pictures.
But variation from this rule is possible and even necessary through the
grouping of several pictures. In grouping, however, there is danger
of being tempted to allow too many pictures. In the houses of the
well-to-do, and even in the homes of those of moderate means, too many
pictures, rather than too few, are often found. The example of one New
England home, known to the author, may be mentioned. The house is new,
of generous proportions, and it is the home of an artist. There are
few pictures on the walls, but they are distributed with rare artistic
effect. There are many good pictures stored in the attic because there
is no suitable space in which to hang them.

_The Japanese Way._--The Japanese have taught us many valuable lessons
in art, and in the matter of the number of pictures to be displayed
they have a very interesting lesson to teach. It is their practice
to hang a single choice picture for a season in a space where it may
be best enjoyed, and then after a time to replace it with another
picture, and this, perhaps, by another if circumstances permit. There
are many conditions that determine the selection of the picture to
be displayed. It may be the preference of a guest, or it may be the
season of the year, or, in fact, any occasion that may give a certain
picture special significance. There is, in this singular custom, a very
definite service which the picture is made to perform, and it is given
an individuality which perhaps has no parallel in our own practice.

_Grouping of Small, Simple Pictures._--If a considerable number of
pictures are grouped together, it is quite essential that all the
pictures of the group should be of similar character and tone and
similarly framed. It is hardly possible for them to be all of the same
size, nor, indeed, is such agreement desirable except in so far as is
required to give proper balance to the group. Small pictures in light
frames are, of course, the most desirable for such grouping, and if
possible there should be an evident reason for the grouping. A series
of photographs of a certain locality, for example, might form a group
of four or five or even more pictures so that they could be easily seen
together and so more thoroughly enjoyed. A collection of photographs
in passe-partout bindings, especially if they deal with subjects in
any way related, may form an attractive group. But pictures of any
considerable size or those having decided individuality are generally
not suited to any plan of grouping. They should appear by themselves,
in frames and other surroundings which accentuate their peculiar merits.

_The Kind of Frame._--The material of the frame, its colour, and the
colour of the mat are determined by the tone of the picture. Oil
paintings easily support gilt frames and should be hung in good light.
Pictures of light values with white mats are well finished in narrow
gilt frames. Carbon photographs and other pictures of dull tones, are
appropriately framed in wood of dark or medium colour, and appear
best when hung against a dark wall. The truth of these statements
will hardly be questioned by any one who has a good sense of colour
harmony. But there are many other elements that enter into a concrete
problem of picture framing that cannot be brought under general rules
or formulas. It is generally best to depend largely upon the tests
of trial. In framing and hanging pictures, as in many other things,
observation and experience are the best teachers. Some suggestions may
be found in the following record of two actual framing problems that
were satisfactorily solved.


FRAMING AN OLD-TIME INTERIOR, DRAWN IN COLOURS

The conditions which had to be met in this problem are plainly shown
in the framed picture as it hangs on the wall. The picture itself is a
small one, 8 inches wide and 13 inches long. It is interesting because
of its representation of a sewing room in one of the high-class homes
of the colonial period. The mistress and her two young daughters are
engaged in sewing and embroidery. Patterns are displayed upon the wall;
the furniture is appropriate and evidently an example of the best of
the period. All these details are suggestive of the delightful home
life of our grandmothers.

Such a picture needs a mat to give it depth and to properly emphasize
its details; and it requires a simple, narrow frame. The mat was
accordingly made 2-1/2 inches wide and the frame 1 inch wide. The tone
of the mat selected was a light bluish gray, forming a good connecting
link between the bright colours of the picture and the gray of the wall
against which it was to be placed. Since it was to hang directly over
a fine old mahogany table, it was thought fitting to give the frame a
mahogany finish, connecting the furniture shown in the picture with
that of the room.

The frame was made with mitred corners of perfectly plain, square-edged
birch, which readily takes a mahogany finish. The stain was first
applied with a brush, rubbed in, and allowed to dry. A surfacing coat
of shellac, coloured to match the stain, was next put on, allowed to
dry, and then carefully sand-papered, special care being taken to
guard against rounding the edges and corners. A coat of varnish was
next applied, which, after hardening for one week, was rubbed first
with pumice stone and oil and finally with rotten stone and oil.
A final coat of thin finishing varnish was then put on, which was
lightly rubbed with rotten stone and water to give the half dull effect
required to match the antique mahogany table.


FRAMING A CARBON PHOTOGRAPH OF A MASTERPIECE

The picture is a copy in sepia tones of Murillo's Saint Anthony, 16
inches in height by 20 inches horizontally. The frame is made of
quartered oak 3 inches wide, slightly convex but smooth; and it is
well joined with mitred corners. A picture of this character needs
no mat. Indeed, it would have been the height of presumption to
strive to accentuate a masterpiece of such highly idealistic meaning
and treatment. It must be left to itself as much as possible. The
dimensions of the frame are therefore determined by the size of the
picture itself.

The picture hangs against a light gray wall in good light, somewhat
apart from other pictures. It was a happy thought thus to recognize its
dignity. It was given further distinction by finishing the oak frame
so that it should not associate itself with the other woodwork in the
room. Since the room in which the picture was to hang has a light ash
trim and most of the furniture a mahogany finish, this requirement was
easily met.

But there are many ways of finishing a frame to avoid too close
association with the commonplace that would have been anything but
appropriate to such a picture as this. A gilt surface, a silver-gray
tone, or a highly polished golden oak are possible blunders. Nothing
should be done to call attention to the frame of any picture, least
of all to one of such spiritual feeling as this one. The frame should
seem to be a part of the picture, repeating its prevailing tones with
a richness in keeping with the composition of the picture itself. The
colour should be a rich, dark brown, but not so dark as to obscure the
figure of the wood. The finish should be dull, but soft and smooth.

There are several brown stains which, properly applied, would give
the desired effect. For the colour it was thought best to rely upon
Van Dyke brown, which may be used either with alcohol or turpentine.
It is not desirable to use a water stain in a case like this because
it would raise the grain, necessitating sand-papering, which should
be avoided as much as possible on picture frames in order to keep the
edges and corners intact. Ammonia fuming preserves the figure of the
wood better than any other form of staining, but it was thought that
the oak might not take on a tone dark enough to meet the requirements.
It was decided, however, to try the fuming method and to tone up with
a thin coat of stain if the effect proved to be not sufficiently dark.
The ammonia process resulted in a rich, soft surface, but in a colour
too light. A thin Van Dyke brown alcohol stain was therefore applied
and when dry this was followed by a very thin coat of shellac--mostly
alcohol--coloured to match the stain. This was to fill partially the
grain of the wood. Finally, it was thoroughly coated with wax finish
and well rubbed to restore the soft, satin-like surface.

[Illustration: A group of passe-partouts]


PASSE-PARTOUTS

Framing pictures in passe-partout binding is one of the little
arts of home decoration, though it is by no means an unimportant
one. It is easy to learn and it involves small expense in time and
money, but it furnishes a means of preserving many pictures of real
worth in themselves or of value to their owners because of pleasant
associations; and it is in itself a delightful occupation. It offers
the same chances for artistic effects in colour harmony and contrasts,
in spacing, and in the arrangements for hanging that the more difficult
methods of framing do, with the added advantage that one need not be
deterred by the question of expense from discarding an unsuccessful
result and trying again.

_Varieties of Binding._--Passe-partout binding is made in a great
variety of colours. It costs from ten to twenty cents per roll of
twelve yards, according to colour and quality, and it may be purchased
of dealers in artists' supplies. For general use the ordinary width
of binding--7/8 of an inch--is required; but extra narrow widths are
supplied when it is desired to add a margin of a contrasting colour.
For these margins the gold and silver narrow bindings are, with certain
pictures, very effective; but white and other light colours are often
used for this purpose.

_Artistic Colour Effects._--The choice of the colour for the principal
binding should be controlled mainly by the tone of the picture, with
which, as a general thing, it should blend. If no mat be used, more
or less of a contrast in colour between the picture and the binding
is permissible; but the most artistic effects are obtained when mats
are used. These should, of course, be in harmony with the colour
tones and general character of the picture. It may be a harmony of
agreement if there is a border of light tone between the picture and
the mat, as illustrated in the accompanying drawing. Without such a
border it will be necessary to show a pleasing contrast of tone. But
in almost all cases when a mat is used the outer binding should repeat
the predominant colour or some other prominent characteristic of the
picture. For example, if it be a picture of an English hunting scene
with mounted sportsmen in red coats, the mat may be of a light greenish
hue and the binding red. If it be a landscape photograph in sepia
tones, a white or light coffee-coloured mat with a dark brown binding
is a good combination. A Scotch scene is appropriately framed in a
plaid binding. In this case it is the subject of the picture rather
than the colour that suggests the binding. But in all cases opportunity
is offered for carefully selecting the colour combinations, planning
the spacing, and arranging the grouping of pictures of like character.
Thus one of the simplest of decorative processes presents large
artistic possibilities.

_An Actual Problem._--The various steps in the process of framing
a picture in passe-partout binding may perhaps be best understood
by giving an example of it. The actual problem is to frame a
silhouette--an original drawing in black India ink on light gray paper,
8 by 10 inches in size, with the longer dimension vertical.

_Materials and Tools._--The materials and tools required are as
follows: A piece of glass the size of the picture (8 by 10 inches),
since no border is needed; two pieces of thin pasteboard, which may be
cut from an old box cover, the same size as the glass; a generous yard
of black passe-partout binding; two passe-partout rings, which cost
five cents per dozen; a little photographers' paste; a sharp knife or a
pair of scissors; and an awl or a pointed nail.

_The Process._--With these materials in hand it will require scarcely
more than twenty minutes to complete the work. The first step is the
setting of the rings. This is accomplished by punching two small holes
in one of the pieces of pasteboard two inches from the edge chosen
for the top and about one inch from each side. Through these holes
the points of the rings are pushed until the ring is close to the
pasteboard. Bending the points over in opposite directions fastens
the ring firmly. This is a comparatively large picture. Had it been
small--say 4 by 5 inches or smaller--only one ring in the centre,
fastened about 1-1/2 inches from the edge, would have been needed.

The picture is now mounted on the second piece of pasteboard by
fastening it at the upper corners with a little paste. It is desirable
to use as little paste as possible. The two pieces of pasteboard are
then brought together, care being taken that the rings are on the
outside, and the glass laid over the picture. These parts are now
ready to be bound together. The sides are bound first. This is done
by cutting two pieces of the binding 1/4 of an inch longer than the
short edges of the picture, wetting the gummed side and laying it
along the edge of the glass so that it will lap 1/4 of an inch over
the face of the glass. Each end of this binding will extend 1/8 of
an inch beyond the glass. The rest of the binding is now folded over
upon the pasteboard back, taking pains to draw it down close to the
edge of the glass and pasteboard before it is permanently fastened.
The 1/8 of an inch that projects at each end is then folded over the
corner and pressed down as close as possible to the edge of the glass
and pasteboard. The upper and lower edges are bound in the same way,
excepting that the pieces of binding are first cut the same length
as the edges over which they are to be pasted, and, before they are
pasted on, the two corners on the side to be pasted to the glass are
cut off 1/4 of an inch back at an angle of 45 degrees, and the other
corners are also trimmed back to about 1/8 of an inch. The accompanying
drawing shows more clearly how these binding strips are trimmed. The
purpose of it is evident; for when the strips are pasted over the top
and bottom edges of the glass, it is seen that they have been cut to
give the appearance of mitred corners, and that when folded over the
edges upon the back of the pasteboard no rough edges of binding are
left exposed at the corners.

[Illustration: How the binding strips are trimmed]

One of the lessons of experience in this work is that it is well to
take great pains in centring the binding strips accurately before
pasting them on, as they do not stick well if the attempt is made to
correct a mistake by removing the binding and pasting it on again.
The more elaborate passe-partouts, requiring mats, borders, and double
bindings, are scarcely more difficult than the simple example just
described, though they will require more time. It is well to begin
with the easier problems. When borders and double bindings are used
the narrow passe-partout strips are pasted on first, with proper care
to cut the mitres correctly and to centre the strips accurately before
pasting them down upon the glass. The edges are bound last. This partly
covers the brighter-coloured strips previously pasted along the edge of
the glass, and leaves a narrow line of colour exposed as a border just
inside the binding.


HANGING PICTURES

[Illustration: A correct method of hanging pictures]

_How to Hang Pictures._--If wire be used for hanging pictures, it
should be as small and inconspicuous as possible. In place of the
braided steel wire, which may be needed for large pictures, a single
brass or copper wire is much to be preferred for those of lighter
weight. In all cases where the wire shows it should appear as two
vertical lines against the wall and not as a single wire bent over
a single hook in the form of an inverted V, so commonly seen and so
manifestly failing to conform with any lines of a room. Levelling
the picture may be easily managed by using only one wire, making it
continuous through the screw eyes on the back of the picture. These
screw eyes should be placed near the top of the frame--about one
sixth the whole vertical width of the picture from the top--so that
the picture may hang nearly flat against the wall. Whenever possible,
however, pictures should be hung without showing the wire at all. This
may be easily managed without seriously marring the finish of some
rooms by driving two fine finishing nails in the part of the lower wall
which is to come directly behind the top of the picture, allowing them
to project about 1/2 of an inch and bending them up a little with
a pair of pliers so that the wires will not slip off. Choice, small
pictures may be hung in this way on fine upholstery tacks. It is often
possible, when the wire must be exposed, to stop it just below the dado
cap and thus avoid showing the wire over the frieze. Whenever it is
necessary, as it often is, to suspend wires by means of the so-called
picture hooks from a picture moulding or cornice strip placed above the
frieze, some attention should be paid to the colour of these hooks.
Bright metal hooks showing over a delicately coloured moulding are in
bad taste. Some people prefer to use the inverted V suspension in order
to reduce the number of these picture hooks. But it is far better to
retain the straight, fine, and nearly invisible wires and colour the
hooks to make them less conspicuous.

In determining the height of pictures it is only necessary to remember
that they are placed upon the walls to be enjoyed. While monotony
in height is to be avoided, the average eye level should not be
disregarded. The frontispiece illustrates an effective placing of a
picture in the dining-room of the model house.




IV

THE ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS

    "I know not which I love the most,
      Nor which the comeliest shows;
    The timid, bashful violet,
      Or the royal-hearted rose;

    "The pansy in her purple dress,
      The pink with cheek of red,
    Or the faint, fair heliotrope who hangs,
      Like a bashful maid, her head."

    --_Phoebe Cary_


Formerly when the furniture, pictures, and draperies had been
arranged in our rooms, with perhaps a few pieces of bric-à-brac, we
considered their decoration quite complete. But we have learned how
much cheerfulness a few simple flowers, properly arranged, impart to
the same rooms; and so flowers have come to be considered as almost
essential to the complete decoration of the home.

_A Lesson From the Japanese._--If we have learned much from the
Japanese in regard to the arrangement and hanging of pictures, from
them we have learned more about the artistic arrangement of flowers.
They have taught us to value the stem and leaves of the flower as
essential to an artistic arrangement, that flowers of the same kind
should be grouped together, and that harmony and blending of colour are
necessary to secure the most artistic effects.

_Flowers of a Kind Grouped Together._--We may have been in the habit
of putting several different kinds of flowers together and of being
satisfied with such a composition; but the Japanese would tell us that
when several different kinds of flowers are combined in one grouping
the full beauty of each is lost; and after a few experiments we shall
come to see the truth of this. Here is an illustration: At a summer
camp with which I am familiar it was the daily duty of one of the
younger boys to go for the wild flowers we used for keeping the camp
gay. He often brought home snug little bunches of the flower of the
wild convolvulus and the wild rose, to be used together. No pleasing
arrangement could be made from such a handful, so he was asked to bring
long pieces of the vine of the convolvulus and gather branches of the
rose, especially those with the buds. The convolvulus we arranged in a
flat dish at one end of a gray stone mantel, letting the vine hang over
the mantel, and he quickly saw that it "looked prettier--more as though
it were growing." When a few of the stalks of the wild rose were
arranged by themselves in a green glass vase he pronounced them much
"prettier than when mixed up with other flowers."

_The Way of the Garden._--In our gardens we plant the sunshiny
daffodils by themselves, the sweet peas grow in a mass together, and
we have beds of roses. If we follow the same plan in the arrangement
of our flowers indoors we shall realize their decorative qualities to
the utmost. So we may consider it a safe rule to follow in arranging
flowers,--to use only one kind of flower, with its stems and leaves,
arranging them loosely, rather than to have many in a compact grouping.
One single, long-stemmed rose, with its beautiful foliage, in a tall,
slender glass is more decorative and gives us more pleasure than a
dozen roses stripped of their foliage and crowded into a small vase.

_Exceptions._--While the above rule should be generally followed, there
are exceptional instances of the perfectly harmonious arrangement of
flowers of two or more kinds together. Among these we may mention the
combining of field daisies and buttercups, or buttercups with the
grasses among which they grow. So, too, the lacy flower of the wild
carrot may sometimes be effectively combined with some other flower.
The spikes of the cardinal flower, for example, are gorgeous in colour,
but very stiff and difficult to arrange; so the addition of a few
sprays of the wild carrot softens the effect and makes it more pleasing.


COLOUR ARRANGEMENT

We have just considered the grouping of flowers by themselves. There is
another element to be considered before we can have artistic results,
and that is arrangement as to colour.

_Colour Grouping._--We may not all be sensitive to colour ourselves,
but in arranging flowers we should always keep in mind the pleasure
that is to be given others, and so we wish nothing in our colour
grouping that will offend those whose colour sense is keen. There are
three colour schemes that can be followed with success and satisfaction
to all. In one we group together only flowers of the same colour, as
red roses, pink sweet peas, yellow iris, not red, pink, and white
roses, nor all of the various colours of sweet pea.

Another arrangement calls for shades and tints of the same colour. With
many flowers it is possible to get exquisite effects by following this
scheme. For instance, pansies ranging from a pale lavender to deep
purple are lovely arranged in a low basket of damp moss. Sweet peas
have beautiful shades of pink that can be combined, as well as shades
of red and of lavender. Nasturtiums are never so effective as when
the various shades of yellow, orange and brown are used together. The
garden aster of to-day is another flower that affords much pleasure in
colour arrangement; for it has lavenders and purples, a variety of pink
tones, beautiful reds, and perfect white ones.

And the white ones! What shall we do with these? Three or four pure
white asters of the same variety may be used together; or two or three
white ones may be grouped with a few lavender ones, or pink ones. White
may be combined with any colour with good results. Nature is a good
teacher here for she gives us both the coloured and the white in almost
every variety of flower. For example there are crimson cosmos and white
cosmos, scarlet geraniums and white geraniums, blue violets and white
violets, and so on through a great many varieties.

_Combination of Complementary Colours._--Another colour grouping
that is sometimes desirable makes use of the complementary colours.
The salpiglossis, a garden flower that ought to be better known than
it is, gives us examples of these, with its blue and orange-yellow
flowers that are so effective together. The iris also has flowers of
complementary colours, yellow and violet blue being common among them.


THE FLOWER HOLDERS

_A Flower Composition as a Picture._--Having learned something
about the artistic use of colour, we come to the consideration of
the arrangement of the flowers, and this includes the vase or other
receptacle used for holding them. An artistic flower composition is
a picture; and as the mat and frame give finish to a picture hanging
on the wall, so the vessel holding flowers should give the required
finish to the flower picture. Like the frame, it should be simple in
design, have graceful lines, and serve only as a medium to set off the
flowers to the best advantage. There should be as little decoration as
possible, and when jars or vases of colour are used they must blend or
harmonize with the colour schemes of the flowers placed in them.

_Receptacles for Flowers._--It often is a problem to find the most
fitting thing for holding flowers; but in the reliable Japanese shops
one can always find some simple holders, and there are very good
designs in the clear and in the green glass that are inexpensive and
appropriate. As a rule the less expensive the article the better
adapted it is as a suitable holder for flowers. One need never mourn
that she cannot afford cut glass vases for flowers, as they and their
cheap imitations are among the most unsuitable of holders.

_Four Typical Flower Holders._--Let us suppose our equipment includes
four simple receptacles,--a small, clear glass fish globe such as may
be had for twenty-five cents; a clear glass vase, about twelve inches
in height, cylindrical in shape though flaring a little at the top,
costing twenty-five cents; a large cylindrical Japanese jar of a pale
green tint, eighteen inches in height and costing about one dollar and
a quarter; and a deep green one, about eight inches in height, which
may be bought for sixty or seventy cents.

The fish globe is very effective when nasturtiums and their leaves are
loosely arranged in it. The stems show through the water and glass
and form a part of the composition. Short stemmed roses may be most
artistically grouped in it. I have seen a very charming combination
of mignonette and bachelor's buttons in the same bowl, as well as
a harmonious picture in yellow, composed of the various shades of
California poppies and their foliage.

[Illustration: A fish globe with daisies]

The tall glass sets off two or three long stemmed roses: and a few
yellow daffodils or the narcissus with their leaves look equally well
in it. Poppies for a day, in the same vase, have given pleasure to
the beholder. At Easter it has joyously borne a stalk of two perfect
lilies, and in the autumn tall spikes of salvia have been equally at
home in it.

Our tall Japanese jar is suited to larger arrangements, for we need
to remember that in tall or vertical compositions the vase should be
about one third the height of the whole combination; so this is adapted
to holding branches of apple blossoms or mountain laurel; or, if one
is fortunate enough to find tall lilac bushes, about three branches
from these are effective in it. Tall-growing golden-rod looks equally
well placed here. It furnishes a modest setting for dahlias and
chrysanthemums, and one of its most decorative compositions has been
two or three branches of pine bearing their brown cones.

The possibilities of the smaller green jar are numerous, and only
a few are given as suggestions. A loose arrangement of jonquils and
their leaves, or of white narcissus, is effective. The shorter stemmed
lilacs, either the purple ones or the white ones, may be placed in
it. An arrangement of white field daisies, and one of yellow roses,
have been found equally successful. One soon discovers the harmony and
balance that exist between the flower and holder.

[Illustration: A tall vase with narcissus]


THE BACKGROUND

_Space and Harmonious Surroundings._--To obtain the largest decorative
effect we must have not only artistic grouping and harmonious setting
of flowers, but space and background, just as are needed for the
hanging of pictures. Many a floral composition has lost all decorative
effect from being placed in too small a space and surrounded by
distracting objects. A few days ago I stepped into a room on an errand
and forgot my errand in the pleasure I derived from seeing some
beautiful yellow chrysanthemums, three or four, I think, in a yellowish
brown jar on a large mahogany table, having for a background the
upturned leaf of the table. It stood some little distance from anything
else, a shaft of sunlight lay across the whole, and as I looked at it
I thought: Here is all that constitutes a decorative arrangement of
flowers. It was the feature of the room that held one's attention.

[Illustration: An arrangement for the tall Japanese jar]

_Flowers for the Dining Table._--If we can have flowers in but one
room in the house, it may be difficult to decide which one it shall
be. Since it often happens that the dining-room is the only room where
a busy family comes together for any length of time, flowers should
certainly be introduced here that all may share their beauty and cheer.
Any arrangement for the home table should be moderately low; and there
are many simple flowers that can be used in this way to advantage. For
instance, one can gather a quantity of the innocence or common bluet
(root and all), to be found in any field in the spring, and put them in
a shallow glass dish. Simple and effective decoration for the table is
the result. Flowers with any degree of fragrance should never be used
in the dining-room. The fragrance of some flowers is offensive to many
people, and when combined with the odour of food doubly so.

[Illustration: An arrangement of roses in a small jar]

At a luncheon served by the girls in the model house the floral
decoration for the table was a half dozen single, yellow jonquils
with their foliage, placed in a creamy brown vase made by one of the
girls. Their dishes being in white with a gold edge and the walls and
furniture in browns, nothing could have been more harmonious than these
few simple flowers.

_Expensive Flowers not Necessary._--It is evident that for floral
decoration neither expensive nor lavish displays are necessary, that
simplicity is the thing to strive for, and that a few sprays of wild
flowers in their season are more truly artistic than many expensive
hot-house flowers. In this country we do not, as the Japanese do, make
a festival in honour of certain flowers; but if we rightly appreciate
and utilize the flowers of each season, we may give a touch of
festivity to the life of every day.

In the early spring nothing can be more appropriate than an arrangement
of pussy willows or branches of the alder with its tassels, while the
red maple when in flower gives a touch of colour that will brighten
any room. A clump of blood root in a small jardiniere is as decorative
as the expensive plants one may see in the home of some friend. The
flowers of the field and the garden offer so many possibilities for
decorative results that no one's home need lack the cheery touch which
they can give.

There is a personal element in flowers such as is not found in any
other means of decoration, not even in pictures, with the single
exception of good portraits. They seem to speak to us. We can almost
believe that they feel an interest in all that we have said about them.
If they really could know, would they not approve the principles that
we have laid down? We may fancy that they _would_ approve and that, if
they could really speak and we would listen, they would tell us so in
some such language as the following:


WHAT THE FLOWERS SAY ABOUT IT

Don't mix us; we are exclusive and prefer our own kind.

Don't make a confusion of colour with us.

Don't arrange us in snug, solid masses.

Don't neglect to use our stems and foliage as a part of the decoration.

Don't tie us with ribbons, nor put paper-lace frills around us.

Don't crowd us in with an assortment of household goods; we need space
and a background.

Don't arrange us in tall, stiff forms for the dining table.

_Do_ love us and use us in the home as much as possible. This is well
for you. By so doing not only will your love of us increase, but your
artistic perception of the fitness of things will constantly enlarge.
For truly has it been said, "The poorest woman in the world, if she has
faith in beauty, will always be able to fill her home with light; she
can always place there some flowers."




V

DECORATIVE FABRICS

PORTIÈRES, WINDOW DRAPERIES, CUSHION COVERS, TABLE MATS

     The very need of ornament arises out of a certain innate
     discontent with plain, smooth surface--_Lewis F. Day_


No kind of decorative art offers greater possibilities for touching
the right--or the wrong--chord than that which makes use of fabrics.
Portières, curtains, cushion covers, table runners and mats, lamp
shades, and many other furnishings, in which fabrics are involved,
present problems that quickly engage the interest of the amateur
decorator who wishes to avoid the commonplace and, when well worked
out, add greatly to the attractiveness of artistic surroundings. And
every house becomes a studio for problems peculiar to itself, when the
possibilities of development in this direction are realized. Here, as
everywhere else, decorative art is secondary to architectural design
and must never fail to acknowledge its dependence. Its glory is to
follow. To attempt to lead means miserable failure.

_Example of the Model House._--The wide doorways connecting the
hall, the living room, and dining-room of our model house made doors
undesirable and portieres necessary to assist in marking the division
between the rooms and to soften the lines of the wood finish. They were
made to harmonize with the colour scheme but were darker and richer
in tone. The multiple windows, with the absence of direct sunshine,
suggested the light style of drapery; and the preference given to
straight-lined, substantial furniture, made in the school shops, led as
a natural consequence to cushions and coverings of leather or coarse
fabric, in order to bear out the idea of simplicity, directness, and
durability in craftsmanship. Velvets and satins would have been out of
place.

_Utility to be Regarded._--The highly decorative function of such
accessories makes it doubly necessary to exercise care in selecting
materials, designing the ornamental features, and properly placing
the completed article, in order that the requirements of use be
not subordinated to the demands of art. It must never be forgotten
that utility is the basis of all true decoration. Portieres were
originally a substitute for doors--a means of closing an opening
between rooms. It must be possible always for them easily to serve
this purpose. Hence loops or rings, which slide easily over a pole,
should be used. Portières may properly be made of heavy cloth and
they may have a lining harmonizing or in pleasing contrast with the
tone of the principal fabric. They should always be at least opaque.
Window draperies, on the other hand, are not a substitute for shades
or curtains. They should not shut out the light but soften it. They
should, therefore, be made of light, washable, and durable material,
and be hung so that they can be easily taken down for cleaning. The
simplest style of hanging, by means of a brass rod and plain brackets,
is the best. Since there is no need of frequently sliding them over
the rod, it is well to hang them by means of a hem, stitched two or
three inches from the top of the drapery, through which the rod may
be easily pushed. Cushion covers and table runners, made of durable
material and decorated with colours that are washable, are manifestly
more serviceable than those that look fresh only when new, and hence
are more in keeping with the idea of sincerity in household decoration.
There is necessity for honesty in decoration as well as in plumbing if
it is to meet the tests with equal success.

[Illustration: Pillow Cover With Geometrical Designs Printed on Dyed
Cotton Cloth. Table Runner of Russian Crash with Block Printed and
Embroidered End Panels. Plate III]

How such decorative features are worked out from beginning to end, is
told in the following directions for a few practical problems which are
known to be practical, because they have been actually carried through
from the design to the completed article. This detailed and complete
explanation, with the accompanying illustrations, will suggest many
similar problems which every home offers.


BLOCK PRINTING

Problem: _Decorating a Table Runner_.--This problem is easily separated
into four distinct parts--making the design, cutting the block,
printing, and finishing. The materials needed are as follows:


  (1) Making the design
  Ordinary drawing paper
  Rice paper
  Charcoal
  Pencil
  Japanese or sable brush, medium size
  Water-proof India ink

  (2) Cutting the block
  Gum wood
  Small penknife
  Vise
  Sand-paper, fine

  (3) Printing the design
  Printing board
  Sheet of glass
  Oil paints
  Turpentine
  Palette knife
  Cotton batting
  Cheese cloth

(4) Finishing the runner
Embroidery silk or mercerized cotton

[Illustration: The peacock design]

_The Design._--To carry out the problem as illustrated, it is
necessary, first of all, to make the design. Geometry, nature, and the
imagination are satisfactory sources upon which to draw for the motif.
If the inventive faculty is quite undeveloped, one should study for
suggestions the figures in Oriental rugs, photographs of early Eastern
art, and the fine old tapestries in museum collections. Some good
geometrical designs, like that used on the pillow cover illustrated
on page 104, were made by school-girls after drawing many figures
found in rugs; and interesting bird patterns, after studying numerous
reproductions of Coptic designs. In no case was the block pattern in
the least like the designs studied. They served only as ideas to start
with and led to the production of truly original work. It is essential
to keep a few simple principles in mind in working out the design: (1)
Both the dark and light shades in the patterns should be varied in
size and form to avoid a monotonous result and should be as beautiful
in proportion as possible. (2) There should be a centre of interest,
one part of the design dominant--more attractive than any other. (3)
The design must be a unit--_i. e._, the parts must hold together. All
feeling of unity is lost if the parts of the design call attention to
themselves to the exclusion of the whole.

[Illustration: Block used in printing the peacock design]

_Preliminary Sketches and the Drawing._--It will be found desirable to
make many preliminary sketches in charcoal or soft pencil, rubbing in a
part of each sketch with a tone in order to secure immediately the dark
and light effect. These should be compared, keeping clearly in mind the
principles stated above. When one possessing the right qualifications
has been found, the next step is to draw on a fresh piece of paper an
accurate 3-inch square and copy upon it the satisfactory design in
pencil outline. This should be done very carefully, that the spirit
of the original charcoal sketch may not be lost. When the drawing is
completed it must be put into shape to be transferred to the block. To
do this we fasten a piece of rice-paper over the drawing and trace with
very light pencil lines, filling in the dark spaces with black ink,
using a brush. This brush work may be done directly without the pencil
line if the drawing underneath shows very plainly through the paper.
When the ink has thoroughly dried, the design may be cut out on the
edge of the 3-inch square.

[Illustration: Bird pattern]

_Laying the Pattern and Cutting the Block._--A block 3 × 3 × 7/8
inches will now be required. This should be procured and sand-papered.
One face of it should then be covered with a coating of library paste,
the pattern laid upon it, and rubbed down smooth. If the design
is symmetrical it should be pasted on the block, ink side up, but
otherwise with the ink side down, or the design will be reversed upon
the cloth. When the paste gets quite dry one may then fasten the block
in the vise and, holding the blade of the knife at a slight angle and
always away from the dark spots, proceed to cut the design along the
outlines. These must be kept very smooth and sharp. All of the white
shapes should be cut out, leaving the black ones in relief. Usually
an eighth of an inch will be deep enough for the background, but it
will be found after practise in printing that the larger spaces should
be cut deeper and that, when the edges or corners of the block form
a part of the background instead of the dark pattern, they also need
a deeper cut. The paper that still adheres to the face of the block
may now be removed by rubbing it upon a sheet of sand-paper laid upon
something hard and smooth like glass in order that the block may have
an absolutely level surface.

[Illustration: A flower and leaf design]

[Illustration: Block used in printing this design]

_The Padded Board._--All block printing should be done upon a padded
board. A very convenient one can be made by laying upon a bread board
three or four sheets of blotting paper, and tacking over these several
thicknesses of cheese cloth. In place of these an ironing board may be
used.

_Material Required._--It is essential to select for the runner a piece
of crash of fine texture and even weave. This is sold under the name of
Russian crash and is from 15 to 16 inches wide but varies considerably
in quality. It is very difficult to print well upon the coarser grades.

[Illustration: Alternating animal and geometrical design]

[Illustration: Blocks used in printing this design]

_Trying the Colours._--After deciding upon a colour which will
harmonize with the general colour scheme of the room in which the
table runner is to be used, it is in order to mix the paint and try
the block upon a small piece of crash. To prepare the paint, squeeze
a small quantity of the true colours chosen upon a sheet of glass and
blend thoroughly with the palette knife, thinning with turpentine to
the consistency of cream. It is seldom that a colour right from the
tube will prove a pleasing one to use. Other colours mixed with it will
change its hue and intensity; black or white will alter the value.
Tie a little cotton batting up in a small square of cheese cloth or
old handkerchief linen, being careful to remove from the raw edges
all ravellings that might drop into the paint. Spread out quite thin
upon the glass a small portion of the prepared paint and press the
pad into it a number of times until it has absorbed all it will. Now
charge the block by lightly pounding its surface with the pad. Press
the block upon the cloth evenly. Only by repeated experiment will it
be possible to determine just the right quantity of paint to mix, its
brilliancy of tone, its consistency, how heavily to charge the block,
etc. A good print shows the texture of the cloth through it, is even
in tone, and has clear-cut edges. If the print looks like a painted
spot, or if, when quite dry, you find it has stiffened the cloth, the
paint used was too thick or else the block was too heavily charged.
Different materials require different treatment. For a thin silk the
block should be very lightly charged and lightly though evenly pressed
upon the material. In printing upon crash it is necessary to press
the block very firmly upon the material; and frequently, to insure
getting a sufficiently strong impression, it is advisable to tap the
block lightly with a hammer or wooden mallet. If one has a steady hand,
the block can easily be lifted at one side to determine just where the
extra pressure is needed. The block should be thoroughly rubbed with
old cloth after each impression is made and occasionally sand-papered
to remove any paint that may adhere to it. The first print made after
sand-papering the block is liable to be a little less distinct than the
others and should therefore be made upon an extra piece of the material.

_Centring the Work._--A good way to plan the placing of the panel
design is to run a basting thread across the crash between two of the
woven threads. Mark the centre of the runner upon this thread, and,
using these guides, print the design, beginning with one of the central
units.

_Additional Features._--Considerable charm can be added to the pattern
by filling some of the spaces with a simple darning or running stitch
in some bright colour. The embroidery thread used should be rather
fine. It is well to finish the ends of the runner by button-holing with
ravellings of the crash. Tiny dots of some colour used in the panel
may be embroidered at intervals just above the button-holed edge.

_Colours._--The following list of oil colours will be found practical:
ivory black, flake white, burnt sienna, light red, crimson lake, chrome
yellow, chrome green, permanent blue.

_Materials._--Linen, cotton, soisette, all or part silk pongee, crêpe
de chine, cheese cloth, and unbleached muslin are excellent materials
for block printing. Beautiful background tones can be obtained by
dyeing the two latter with easy dyes.

In place of the gum wood for the block, basswood, maple, or holly may
be used. It is possible to get along without a vise by fastening the
block between two cleats nailed to an old table or heavy board. Success
is sometimes achieved in cutting blocks while simply held in the hand.

_Laundering._--If the material used for the foundation is washable,
block printed articles can be satisfactorily and easily laundered in
soapy, lukewarm water. The colours are not injured in the least. A
liquid called stencil mordant is sometimes used in place of turpentine,
insuring still greater permanency of colour.

_Other Applications of Block Printing._--Other articles suitable for
decoration by block printing are curtains, pillow covers, table covers,
cushion covers, bureau scarfs, Portieres, table mats, bags of many
sorts, etc. Printing may also be used to ornament articles for personal
use, such as aprons and scarfs.


STENCILLING

Problem: _Window Draperies_.--Making the design, cutting the stencil,
printing, and finishing form the divisions of the problem to be worked
out. A list of necessary materials follows:

  (1) Making the design
  Charcoal
  Pencil
  Reflector
  Ordinary drawing paper
  Tracing paper
  Carbon paper
  Stencil paper

  (2) Cutting the stencil
  Sheet of glass
  Sharp penknife

  (3) Printing
  Large board
  Blotting paper
  Turpentine
  Oil paints
  Bristle brushes
  Pins

_The Design._--Suggestions as to the method of procedure in making
a design have been already given in the section on block printing.
The principles of design to be considered are outlined there also.
In working out this problem, however, several new things come up for
explanation: (1) The difference between a design to be stenciled and
one to be printed by means of a wood block; (2) the method of
joining units to form a border; (3) the method of turning a corner in a
border design.

[Illustration: Window Draperies With Stenciled Border. Designed and
Executed by a School Girl. Plate IV]

_The Stencil Bands._--By studying the illustrations accompanying this
section and by experimenting with the charcoal or soft pencil, it will
be seen that in a stencil design the dark spots which stand for the
color in the finished work are completely separated from one another by
bands of varying widths.

[Illustration: A stencilled pattern--portion of pillow cover]

These bands, or bridges, as they are called, serve to hold the stencil
together and are connected throughout the design. Though they may be as
wide as one desires, it is seldom wise to make them much narrower than
one eighth of an inch, as they are easily broken; and, unless carefully
pinned down when stencilling, the paint is liable to run under them and
ruin the work. In a block print design no connection of the light or
separation of the dark parts has to be considered. In the illustration
of the stencil observe that the dark and light are reversed as compared
with the stencilled pattern--_i. e._, the dark represents the stencil
paper, the light the openings through which the paint is applied.

[Illustration: The stencil for this pattern]

_The Complete Unit._--It will be readily understood that a border may
be made up by repetition of one unit which is a complete thing in
itself. The unit in such a case may be made very long and narrow, so
that in repeating it along the vertical edge of a curtain it produces
a narrow band, while along the horizontal edge the band is broad. A
border worked out in this way, with perfectly straight and practically
continuous margins, is very structural in character, emphasizing, as
it does, the vertical and horizontal edges of the drapery. The effect
is strong and dignified. The corner in this kind of border presents no
difficulty.

_The Subordinate Unit._--By studying the illustration in Plate IV it
will be seen that the unit of the border in this case is not complete
in itself, but that the very conventional flower and stem composing it
are joined to the next unit by what might be called a subordinate unit,
composed, in this case, of a leaf form. The units are so closely spaced
that a structural effect is fairly well obtained--_i. e._, the upper
and lower edges of the border are nearly straight, giving a feeling of
restfulness to the design that never accompanies one with broken or
wavy edges.

_Designing the Corner._--Having planned a design for the straight
running border of the curtains, take a reflector and experiment with
the corner. The reflector can easily be made by cutting from an old
discarded looking-glass a small rectangular piece, 3-1/2 by 6 inches
being a convenient size. The edges should be very straight and the
corners square. Hold the reflector at various points along the border
and always at an angle of 45 degrees. Study these possible corners
which will be reflected in the glass, and when one sufficiently strong
and interesting is found draw a light line along the edge of the
reflector. This line, of course, exactly bisects the corner of the
border to be made. Avoid making a border of this kind too deep or, when
turned for the vertical edges, it will form a very broad and heavy band.

_The Outline Drawing._--The dark and light design having thus been
worked out in charcoal, the next thing to do is to make a very careful
pencil-outline drawing of the same. It is well to draw the corner
and one unit free-hand and trace the rest. To do the tracing, pin a
piece of very thin paper over the finished part, and trace with a well
sharpened and fairly soft pencil. Turn the tracing paper upside down,
fitting a part of the tracing to the drawing underneath. After tacking
it down, trace the remainder, using a firm, even pressure and being
careful exactly to follow the line. Strengthen the part of the pattern
thus transferred by going over it with a sharp, hard point, and
continue as before until you have a border of which both the vertical
and horizontal sections are from 9 to 12 inches long.

_Transfer to Stencil Paper._--Now, take a piece of stencil paper and
square up one corner. Fasten the pencil drawing securely to the stencil
paper along one edge, slip a piece of carbon paper between the two, and
trace the design.

_Cutting the Stencil._--Before cutting the stencil for the curtain
a beginner should do a little practising upon an extra piece of the
paper. Trace a portion of the design upon this piece, lay it upon a
sheet of glass or very hard wood, and with a sharp penknife cut along
the outline of the pattern. The knife should be held at a slight angle
and the cut made completely through the paper. The pieces of stencil
paper should never be pulled out but will fall out without aid when the
cutting is completed. After a little practice it will be found a simple
matter to cut the design with perfectly smooth edges.

_Suitable Materials for Stencilling._--For the curtains fine cheese
cloth or batiste will be found excellent. Even unbleached muslin will
make attractive curtains where expense must be carefully considered.
Unless the woodwork of the room is white, the pure white materials
will be found less pleasing than those that are quite creamy in tone.
Scrim in a charming, grayish tan colour is obtainable, and, if of good,
soft quality, makes most satisfactory curtains. It is not advisable to
hemstitch this material before stencilling as in case of accident or
failure so much work is lost; but the hems should be carefully planned
and basted, those along the inner edges of the curtains being narrower
than the bottom hems.

_The Colours._--The color scheme of the room should be carefully
considered in deciding upon the colour or colours to be used in
stencilling. If two colours are chosen, they should be of the same
value--_i. e._, the two colours should form equally dark spots in order
that the pattern of the border may appear in the same dark and light as
the original charcoal sketch.

_Pinning the Stencil._--When ready for the actual process of
stencilling, lay a large sheet of blotting paper upon a board and over
this place the corner of the curtain. Pin the stencil securely to the
curtain so that the edge of the border when printed shall be about
half an inch from the hem and the edges of both shall be absolutely
parallel. Use as few pins as possible but enough to keep the stencil
close to the cloth.

_Testing the Paint._--Having mixed the oil paint with turpentine or
stencil mordant, using an old cup or glass for each colour, practise
stencilling upon a small piece of cloth. Put blotting-paper under
the cloth and pin the stencil down with great care. Use short, stiff
bristle brushes for the stencilling, one for each colour. Remove almost
all the paint from the brush by pressing it upon blotting-paper. When
it leaves scarcely a mark, proceed to stencil the pattern by pounding
the brush upon the exposed portions of the cloth, working close to
the edge of each spot. If, upon removing the stencil, the edges are
blurred, the paint was too thin or the stencil not carefully pinned
down. If, on the other hand, the coloured spots look thick and painty,
so that upon drying, the cloth is found stiffened in these places, you
may be sure that the paint used was too thick or that the brush was too
wet. The secret of good stencilling is to use the paint as thin and the
brush as dry as possible. Hold the stencilled sample up to the window
and see whether, when the light shines through it, the colour appears
right.

_The Real Process._--When confident that the process is understood
and that the colour is satisfactory, proceed to stencil the corner of
the curtain. Always have at hand a bottle of turpentine and a clean
piece of cloth to use in case of accident. When removing the pins from
the stencil wipe each one carefully. Clean the stencil, too, handling
it with care that none of the slender bridges may be broken. Replace
the stencil, fitting a section of it to the finished work. Put the
pins in the holes already made, otherwise the paint will get into
them and disfigure the work. Continue the stencilling, a section at a
time, until the border is completed. Do not fold the curtains until
the stencilling is thoroughly dry. If the threads of the material can
be easily pulled, a hemstitched edge will make the best finish; but
careful hand hemming will look well upon material like fine batiste.

_The Valance._--The curtains should hang in vertical folds from the top
of the window to a point slightly below the window sill. They should be
drawn back at each side of the window and the space between at the top
filled by a valance about a foot deep, perhaps deeper if the window is
very high. This valance should have the border stencilled upon it and
should be tacked just underneath the edge of the curtains. Sometimes,
as in the illustration in Plate IV, a valance running across
the entire width of the window is used. In this case it is run upon an
extra rod in front of the one from which the curtain hangs. Double
rods for this purpose can be bought.

_Other Possible Problems._--As stencilling can be employed in
practically the same place and upon the same materials as block
printing, it is only necessary to refer to the lists given at the
end of that section of this chapter for suggestions as to further
possibilities in the way of home decoration by stencilling.


EMBROIDERY

Problem: _Table Mat_.--As in the preceding problems, the first thing to
do is to plan the design roughly in charcoal or soft pencil in order
to get the dark and light relations and the best proportions possible.
If convenient, the mat should be made for use with some special lamp
or vase. By measuring the base of this object it is easy to determine
the size of the plain central space, which may be either circular or
square in shape. The forms in the decorated part may be made of various
shapes, but it is well to keep them very simple in outline. Straight
lines alone may be employed, as in the mats illustrated in Plate V,
or a combination of straight and curved lines, as in the one shown in
Plate III. After working out the design very accurately with a
hard pencil, the next thing in order is to transfer it to a piece of
coarse Russian crash or heavy linen by means of carbon paper, taking
great care to get the straight edges of the design even with the
threads of the crash.

_Desirable Combinations of Colour and Stitches._--The simple running
or darning stitch should be employed in embroidering the pattern.
Two or more colours may be used. Darning in dull green and outlining
with black in the same stitch makes a very attractive mat. Other good
combinations are green and white, blue and white, blue and green, soft
dull blue, and pinkish orange. This by no means exhausts the pleasing
contrasts that may be found. The brighter colour should always be
employed in the smaller quantities. The mat illustrated in Plate V was
embroidered in dull green and red mercerized cotton. After the darning
was completed it was found that the red used in the small circles alone
was too conspicuous, although it was very dull in tone. This defect
was completely remedied and a perfect unity given to the design by
outlining the forms in a couching stitch, using both colours. This was
done by laying a green thread along the edge of each spot and taking a
stitch of red over it at equal intervals.

[Illustration: CROCHETED PANELS

A Linen Workbag With Conventional Landscape in Darning Stitch

A Crash Table Mat Embroidered in Darning and Couching Stitch

Designed and Executed by School Girls. Plate V]

After the embroidered pattern is done one may finish the mat with fine,
close hemstitching or by button-holing the edge with ravellings of the
crash. The latter method is usually more pleasing. The simple darning
stitch can also be used to make very attractive borders for table
runners, sofa pillows, decorations for work bags, as illustrated in
Plate V, besides being used to enrich a great variety of block printed
or stencilled articles.

_The Satin Stitch._--Another effective and easy embroidery stitch to be
used in decorating articles for the home is the over-and-over or satin
stitch. When planning to use this stitch upon coarse linen in which
the threads can be easily counted, transfer the design, after having
carefully drawn it in pencil outline, to paper marked off into little
squares. This can be bought where kindergarten supplies are sold.
Redraw the outline of the design, following exactly the lines on the
paper, and at the same time keep as close as possible to the original
form. Let a certain number of threads of linen represent a square of
the design and copy the pattern in the satin stitch or even the cross
stitch if preferred. No transferring of the pattern to the cloth is
necessary.

A pattern worked out on cross section paper in this way can also be
crocheted, as illustrated in Plate V, and set into linen or some of its
many imitations to decorate numberless articles for home or personal
adornment. This crocheted work, if evenly done in fine thread, is quite
suggestive of the Italian filet lace.




VI

DRESS AND THE PRINCIPLES OF DECORATION

    "A foolish little maiden had a foolish little bonnet
    With a feather and a ribbon and a bit of lace upon it;
    And that the other maidens of the little town might know it,
    She thought she'd go to meeting of a Sunday just to show it.

    'Hallelujah! hallelujah!' sang the choir above her head.
    'Hardly knew you! hardly knew you!' were the words she
    thought they said."


In considering the dress of the person as related to home decoration
one is not so far afield as one may seem to be at first thought. It
is true that dress has a variety of functions to perform that have no
connection with the subject of decoration; and yet there is much that
is common to both. Well-dressed people of whatever age or sex, in the
design and general make-up of their costumes, must observe the same
laws that govern design wherever it is applied, as an expression of
the artistic sense in the affairs of every-day life. Beauty of line
and proportion, harmony of colour, adaptation to use and to a great
variety of special conditions, simplicity, symmetry, restraint, are all
involved in personal attire, as they are in the decoration of a room;
and in most cases success or failure in one field has its counterpart
in the other. Have we not often remarked of a house or of a room
that it looks "just like her" or perhaps "just like him"; and do not
attractive costumes give pleasure to others than those who wear them
for the same reasons that properly decorated and well-arranged rooms
afford similar enjoyment to those who live in them?

_Art and the Fashions._--In discussing the parallel between art
in clothing and the more stable art of home decoration it must be
admitted, of course, that style in dress introduces some embarrassing
questions; for the styles, especially for women, suffer wonderful
changes with every season. And yet people of artistic feeling and good
taste, succeed in maintaining a fair degree of harmony between the
changing demands of fashion and the established principles of art as
applied in dress.

_How to Be Well Dressed._--The well-dressed woman knows how to select
her clothes and how to wear them. She must study her own figure and
know her defects as well as her good points. With this knowledge she
can learn to subdue the one and bring out the other. She should have a
clear conception of the ideal figure and strive to adapt herself to
it. To acquire this training the principles of the art of decoration
must be understood and applied. She should never wear a garment of a
certain style simply because it is the fashion, but strive to make it
conform to her individual type.

_Good Lines._--Decorative design in dress must follow the construction
lines of the figure and not destroy them. These are the much discussed
good lines of which we hear and read so much. Horizontal lines break
the figure and increase the breadth, while vertical lines give the
appearance of height. It is the simple lines, conforming to and
following the lines of the ideal figure, which are the best. The
taste of most women leads them to desire simple clothes; but through
ignorance or inexperience many of these women fail to achieve that aim.
A stout woman with a round back is sometimes seen wearing a dress with
lapels or ruffles over the shoulders. This only serves to accentuate
her defect.

_Unity and Harmony._--In all forms of decoration harmony is
essential--_i. e._, all the parts that are to be combined must agree
with one another and with their surroundings. To secure this in dress
is to give unity to the entire costume. A dress hat with plumes should
not be worn with a tailored suit in the morning; and yet we often see
such a combination. Here the lack of harmony is between the parts of
the costume; but the entire costume must be suited to the peculiarities
of figure. There are women who never look well in the straight lines
of a tailored suit: the severity is not becoming to them. They must
tone down the effects of the lines by ruchings, ruffles, a soft stock,
or some such softening elements of dress. Others do not look well in
fluffy things. Each must know what is becoming and dress accordingly.

_Importance of Colours._--Every season we hear that certain colours
are to be worn. Many women will choose a colour because they like it
without considering whether it is suitable for them to wear. A little
attention to a few well-known facts will help them to avoid failures
of this kind. It is generally recognized that light colours seem to
increase the size. Striped materials should not be worn by the stout
women unless the stripes are very indistinct. Dots are also very
dangerous for her; but she may choose a pattern with pin-point dots
scattered over the surface at some distance from each other. She is
always safe in a plain, dark colour.

_Colour and Complexion._--In deciding on a becoming colour one must
take into account the colour of the hair and eyes and the tone of
the complexion. It has been thought that young girls can wear clear,
light shades and that older women should keep to dark, quiet colours;
yet there are older women who wear pale gray, mauve, and lavender
charmingly and many young girls who cannot wear blue or pink. It is
quite impossible to make accurate colour rules, because it would be
hard to find two complexions that require exactly the same colour
setting. It is well, however, to study combinations of different
colours with the idea of finding the right colour, to use in any
costume, the amount of each, and the best arrangement to give a proper
balance.

_Proportion._--The importance of the principle of proportion is often
overlooked, but beauty of dress is never possible if it be neglected. A
well-dressed woman, in selecting her hat, must have given consideration
to the relation of the size and shape of the head to the lines of the
entire figure. Strictly speaking, a hat is a covering for the head,
and it should seem to belong to the head, to protect it, and, through
harmony of colour and proportion of line and mass, to improve the
appearance of the whole costume. The artist, when drawing a figure,
uses the head as the unit of measure. Therefore in choosing a hat
one should select a style that is in good proportion to the size of
the head and to the height of the figure. If the mass of the head is
increased disproportionately by too large a hat, the entire figure is
apparently shortened and the natural proportions destroyed. One often
wonders why photographs of people with hats on look so old-fashioned
and sometimes so ridiculous. It is because the hat is not in good
proportion. The Gainsborough and Reynolds ladies with hats never look
queer. Their hats bear the right relation to the head and the figure.

_Appropriateness._--The general proportions of a hat or a gown may
be good, but the addition of the decoration may destroy all the good
effect obtained by securing the right relation of line and mass. The
aim of all decoration should be to harmonize and strengthen the whole.
Beauty of dress, therefore, depends upon simplicity and appropriateness
of the material used as well as upon the form and arrangement of the
material. Wherever ornament is used it must fulfil the condition of
fitness to place; otherwise it is not really decorative. In trimming a
hat, the one who is to wear it should take her seat before a mirror,
and place the hat comfortably upon her head; then with the aid of a
hand glass she should try the trimming in different positions until
the best effect is obtained.

The designs in trimming should be appropriate to the garment. The size
of the design and the kind of form used should be considered. Simple
forms are the best for all decorative art work. In fact, there is great
advantage in plain materials. They always work to greater economy than
stripes or plaids.

_Influence of Occupation._--The well-dressed woman should realize how
great is the influence of occasion and occupation. Some gowns were
intended only for afternoon wear in the house; but we often see them
worn on the street cars or for shopping. I have always approved of the
rule in many shops which requires the clerks to wear plain black gowns.
Formerly it was the old finery which was used for every-day wear. Now
the business woman to be successful has to exercise more thought upon
her clothes than the woman at home. Her clothes have harder wear and
must be appropriate for her work.

The dress of school-girls and children must not be overlooked. It
should be as simple as possible and above all else it should be
comfortable. It should never bind or pinch; indeed, the clothing should
not interfere with any function of the body. But we often see children
dressed with much lace, with many ruffles, and even with jewellery;
and we have seen school girls wearing net waists, plumed hats, and
high-heeled shoes. What an infraction is this of the principle of
appropriateness in dress!




VII

FURNITURE MAKING

     It is only by labour that thought can be made healthy, and only by
     thought that labour can be made happy--_John Ruskin_


The chief purpose of this chapter is to outline the most important
general facts upon which good furniture making is based and to give
specific directions for working out a number of typical problems,
following designs which have been proved in completed articles made,
for the most part, by school-boys and tested by use. No attempt is made
to give this great subject complete and systematic treatment; for this
would involve many problems in constructive design and a corresponding
number of working drawings, with specifications for the selection and
preparation of materials and for the work of construction--a subject so
extensive that it would easily overrun the limits of a single chapter.
The aim is rather to select a few of the most suggestive lessons of
experience in constructive work with special reference to our main
subject of household decoration.

It is taken for granted that the interested reader is familiar with
the use of the common hand tools for woodworking or that he can, with
some assistance, perhaps, easily command their use. It is not thought
necessary, therefore, to describe in detail the proper method of using
tools, but rather to offer practical suggestions on the selection,
preparation and constructive use of woodworking materials and, in the
series of problems which follow, to give some helpful hints on the way
woodworking tools should be used. It is also assumed that in most cases
the very great advantage of woodworking machinery may be utilized,
especially in preparing the materials and bringing them within easy
reach of the hand-tool processes. The true art-craft spirit, which
always honours handwork as the supreme method, may not hesitate
to command the services of machines so long as it does not become
slavishly dependent upon them.


SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF STOCK

The first thing that should claim the attention of the artistic
woodworker is the selection and preparation of his materials, commonly
known as the stock. The sculptor selects his marbles with the
greatest care. So should the cabinet-maker make sure that his woods
are taken from the right parts of selected timber and that they are
properly sawed and well seasoned. The importance of this cannot be
overestimated. Hard wood boards, cut from the sides of a tree, will in
drying, invariably curve across their grain. It is only those that are
cut from the centre to the outside of the tree that may be depended
upon to remain approximately true; for, after this cutting, the grain
runs directly through the thickness of the board, or nearly so. Boards
taken from timber in this way are said to be "quarter sawed"; those cut
by sawing through the logs from side to side, as is always done with
soft woods and often with hard woods, are said to be "plain sawed."
This is illustrated in the accompanying drawings.

_Quartered Oak._--In the case of oak, the quarter sawing not only
maintains a flat surface but greatly improves the appearance of the
stock when finished. The popularity of quartered oak for furniture may
therefore be said to be well founded, for it is the sincerest of woods.
It is as good as it looks.

[Illustration: Quarter sawed log]

Quarter sawing, however, is very largely confined to oak because the
appearance of the grain and the strength of most woods is far from
being improved by this method of cutting. Thus ash and gum wood and all
the softer woods sometimes used in furniture making are plain sawed.
We shall, therefore, generally find stock from these woods curved and
twisted badly so that it will be necessary, in selecting material for
large surfaces such as table tops, to pick out the straight parts for
these surfaces and save the remainder to be cut into the smaller pieces
which will always be needed. These pieces can be easily planed without
much loss of thickness.

[Illustration: End of quarter sawed board]

[Illustration: Plain sawed log]

[Illustration: End of plain sawed board]

_Kiln-dried Lumber._--This bending and twisting of the boards does not
take place as soon as they are sawed out of the log, but gradually
during the process of seasoning; and, unless the lumber is kiln-dried,
the more gradual the seasoning the less the bending. Lumber is
kiln-dried by stacking it, with air spaces left between the boards, in
steam-heated closets or kilns, where the process of drying is carried
on evenly though rapidly. Kiln-dried lumber, therefore, retains its
shape quite as well as that which is dried slowly in the lumber pile.
But whether kiln-dried or not, it should be allowed to remain in a
dry place as long as possible before using it so that it will have a
chance to change all that it is likely to and so lessen the subsequent
shrinking and warping. A good cabinet-maker never undertakes to make
furniture from stock that he does not know to be perfectly dry and well
seasoned, not only because unseasoned lumber is more likely to shrink,
warp, and crack, but also because it cannot be depended upon to hold
the glue, take varnish well, or respond readily to other methods of
finishing.

_Planing Down to a Flat Surface._--Since boards are seldom perfectly
flat, even if one has taken the greatest pains to select well-seasoned
stock, it will almost invariably be necessary to work them down to a
plane surface when they are glued up or joined together in any way.
To accomplish this result it is necessary to plan the arrangement of
the pieces in such a way that the concave of the bend shall fall on
the same side, as shown in the illustration, and thus provide for the
final working down with the least possible removal of stock. They can
be arranged on a level bench top or floor with the convex side down so
that they will lie as flat as possible. The boards should then be taken
out one by one and their edges should be carefully planed so that they
will match together in the position in which they are laid. It will
be necessary to take each board from its place and return it several
times in order that this matching may be made as perfect as possible.
The object of all this is to prevent the entire arrangement from
springing--_i. e._, from acquiring any new bend or twist when the parts
are glued up. In joining boards to form large pieces of glued-up work,
like table tops, it is customary to strengthen the joints by means of
dowel pins. Small table tops and similar work may be safely glued up
without dowelling.

[Illustration: Boards placed for planing to flat surfaces]

_Fastening Glued-up Work._ It will be readily understood upon a little
reflection that all plain glued-up work should be allowed to move
slightly upon the framework to which it is attached; for even after it
is well seasoned and well finished all woods will swell slightly in a
damp atmosphere and shrink slightly when the air is dry, the greatest
movement being across the grain. Solid table tops, therefore, should
never be fastened down firmly upon the framework with glue or with
screws, but should be secured by means of buttons screwed to the under
side of the top which travel in grooves cut in the framework and thus
allow for expansion and contraction. A drawing is shown to illustrate
the method of attaching the table-top buttons. Much of the warping and
splitting of furniture is due to the failure of the designer or maker
to observe this precaution.

[Illustration: Method of fastening table tops]

In planing up stock, whether it be a single piece or several glued
together as just described, the cabinet-maker planes off one side first
and then, using this side as the working face, gauges to the required
thickness and planes off the other side if necessary. If the work be
upon glued-up stock, it is well to plane off the projecting edges of
the concave sides first, as that is generally somewhat easier and may
be all the planing that will be necessary. If it be single pieces of
stock that need to be planed up, the natural twist or "wind" is first
planed out to a flat working face on one side before putting the plane
to the opposite side.

_The Surface Plate._--Planing to a flat surface requires some device
to guide the eye. If the surface be very uneven at first, a beginning
may be made in the planing without much assistance; but a point
will finally be reached when neither the unaided eye nor the hand
can determine whether or not a surface is flat. To determine this a
surface plate, as it is called, is needed. This consists of a block of
cast-iron, thick enough to prevent it from being bent--_i. e._, an inch
or more--and with a somewhat rough but perfectly flat surface on one
side. This surface is well chalked over. When the wood surface which is
being planed down is laid upon this chalked surface and slightly moved
it is readily seen that the highest places on the wood will become
marked with the chalk and so indicate to the cabinet-maker what parts
are to be removed. By making several tests of this kind he is able to
plane to a good flat surface.

[Illustration: Winding sticks]

_Winding Sticks._--If the amateur's workshop is not provided with
a surface plate, a simple means of testing for a flat surface is
by means of two narrow straight edges or "winding" sticks, placing
them on their narrow edges across each end of the piece, as shown in
the illustration, and sighting across their upper edges. The slight
projections in the surfaces of the board can be determined in this way
and planed off until the two top edges of the sticks are found to be
level. These winding sticks are simply wooden strips, accurately made,
with opposite faces parallel. Their dimensions may be 1 × 2-1/2 × 30
inches.

_Importance of True Surfaces._--It may be well to add that all this
care to produce flat and parallel surfaces is not merely for the
purpose of giving a good appearance to these surfaces. True surfaces
are necessary for the good of the work as a whole, for they form the
basis from which other surfaces are gauged and other parts "trued
up"--_i. e._, made square or otherwise geometrically correct. When the
main surfaces of a piece of cabinet work are properly shaped, all the
framework and other parts may be brought into line without bending
or twisting. All such strains should be religiously avoided in good
cabinet work. The natural curves, twists, or projections of the stock
used should be removed by the use of the proper tools and never be
strained to force any of the parts into their proper places or shapes.
Such efforts produce strains which are transmitted to other parts,
displacing them, causing new defects or a general failure of the parts
to support each other.

_A Systematic Plan of Work._--When the cabinet-maker undertakes to make
either a single piece of furniture or several pieces, he goes about
it in a very systematic way. Consulting his working drawing he makes
an accurate list of the different pieces that will be required. For
example, if he is to make a Morris chair he notes the fact that he will
need four legs or posts 2-1/2 inches square by 22-3/4 inches long, a
front rail and a back rail each 7/8 × 2-1/4 × 22 inches, two side rails
7/8 × 2-1/4 × 24 inches, and so on until the list of necessary parts is
completed. With this list in hand he makes a careful selection of the
lumber and prepares the pieces in the rough, allowing economically for
the necessary working waste. Economy of time and labour is also secured
by keeping together all parts on which similar work is to be done.
Thus, if several parts are to be sawed to the same width or fashioned
to the same curves, it is generally the best plan to work these parts
out together while the machines and tools are set for this purpose.
Such a plan not only saves time but, partially at least, it obviates
the danger of mistakes. It is important also to follow a systematic
order of work. All sawing to rough dimensions should be done before the
pieces are dressed to drawing dimensions, and the latter operations
should generally all be completed before laying out and cutting the
joints. As the work progresses toward completion great saving of time
and much comfort will result from keeping the completed parts in good
condition and so arranged that they can be easily assembled.


GLUING

_Necessity of Good Joints._--After the selection and preparation of the
material for the stock, the next important general process that demands
attention is gluing; for good cabinet work implies good glue and a
knowledge of how to use it. Prepared glue, such as is sold in bottles,
is unsatisfactory for work of any consequence. A good woodworker
always has his own glue pot and sees to it that it may be made ready
for use on short notice. The glue should be fresh, thin, and hot. It
should be applied quickly in a warm room and the parts to which it is
applied clamped up quickly before the glue chills. It is the glue which
penetrates the wood that holds the parts together and not a layer of
glue between the joined edges or surfaces. It is therefore evident not
only that joints and surfaces should be well smeared with glue, hot
and thin enough to be quickly absorbed, but also that the parts should
be clamped up quickly while the glue is still hot so as to prevent any
surplus from remaining in the joint. This is an additional reason for
making close fits in all joints--in those which are to be glued up as
well as in those which are not. It is a common fault of beginners to
be satisfied with loose mortise and tenon joints, counting upon the
glue to fill up the spaces. Much of the furniture found in the markets
falls to pieces for the same reason. Such work should never be allowed
to pass. It is based upon an entirely mistaken notion of the true
office of glue and is nothing more nor less than a falsehood in wood.

[Illustration: Method of holding framing parts square while glue is
setting]

_Systematic Methods Required._--As in the preparation of stock and
working it up, so in gluing, system is all important. The hand screws
or clamps should be made ready and adjusted to the required width so
that they may be quickly placed in position as soon as the glue is
applied. The whole process must be managed as quickly as possible
because the joints must be tested before the glue has had time to
set. A carpenter's large square should be used for testing the right
angles, since it is more reliable than the small try squares. It will
frequently be found necessary to hold framing pieces square while the
glue is hardening. This can easily be done by nailing small strips
of waste stock across the parts, as shown in the drawing. A beginner
should be cautioned not to attempt to glue up too many joints at one
time. Two opposite corners of a framing piece should be glued up
separately and left to set before the attempt is made to glue the whole
rectangle together. The two remaining joints, however, should be glued
and clamped together at the same time.


PICTURE FRAMING

_Inexpensive Framing Stock._--Picture-frame stock can be easily
obtained of dealers in artists' supplies and in furniture stores in a
great variety of styles. Much of it is so well prepared and so nicely
finished that it leaves little to be desired. It is, therefore, often
best to secure the stock for frames in this way. It is, however,
somewhat expensive, so that, when economy is important, it behooves the
young woodworker to prepare his own framing stock.

Very satisfactory frames 2 inches in width or less may be made from
matched oak flooring, a section of which is here illustrated, by
planing off the tongue and cutting away one side of the groove to
furnish the inset for the glass. Wider flat frames of any thickness
can, of course, be cut out from the ordinary stock. A special tool
for cutting the inset is desirable but not necessary. A 1/4-inch
saw cut may be made with a circular saw or even with a hand saw and
the necessary removal of the wood accomplished by means of careful
chiselling.

[Illustration: Picture framing stock made from oak flooring]

[Illustration: The mitre joint]

_Mitres._--Frames may be joined at the corners in various ways. A
common way is by the mitre joint illustrated in the drawing. To secure
good joints of this kind it is necessary that the mitres be cut on an
angle of exactly 45 degrees and that the pieces for the corresponding
sides of the frame be precisely of the same length. Hand sawing is
generally not exact enough to produce angles of sufficient accuracy
even when an ordinary mitre box is used. Hand-sawed mitres, therefore,
will require a little truing with a small plane. Great care must be
exercised also in fitting the corners together. The common bench
square is not large enough to prove the work. A better way is to lay a
carpenter's framing square on the bench and fit the two pieces of the
frame against the sides of the square, testing each corner in that way.

[Illustration: Clamping mitre joints]

_Gluing the Joints._--If the corners are unusually well fitted, a
good joint can be made by first sizing the ends with glue and then
firmly pressing the pieces together upon a true surface, leaving them
undisturbed for four or five hours until the glue is hard. By sizing
the ends of the joints is meant thoroughly filling the end pores with
glue, rubbing it into the pores with another block. Generally speaking,
however, it is necessary to make use of a mitre-clamping device. If
a special clamping device is not available, one can be easily made
by gluing small soft wood blocks to the parts of the frame near the
corners, as shown in the accompanying drawing. In a half hour or so
these blocks will become firmly set so that the mitre joints may
be glued together, clamping them up with a hand screw. As already
explained under the general directions on gluing, it is good practice
for a beginner to glue up opposite corners and not attempt to glue up
the two remaining corners until the first two are well set. When the
first two corners are well set they should be nailed; and before the
two remaining corners are glued it is well to try the parts together
to see if they do not require a little correcting before gluing. These
joints also should have light nailing after the glue has been set. In
nailing, small holes should be made with a brad awl or drill in order
to avoid splitting the corners, and long finishing nails should be used.

_The Defect of Shrinking._--With proper tools the mitre joint is the
easiest one to make, but it has one unavoidable defect, especially
in wide frames. It is very difficult to get stock well seasoned and
almost impossible to get it perfectly seasoned, so that wide frames,
however well finished, must be expected to shrink a little after they
are joined together. As most of this shrinking is across the width of
the stock it is evident that it will tend to open the mitre joints on
the inside of the corners. This is what happens almost invariably with
joints made in this way from wide stock in picture framing. The same
defect is also frequently observed in the interior finishing around
windows and doors.

There are three other methods of joining the corners of picture
frames--_viz._, the halved lap joint, the mortise and tenon joint, and
the dowelled joint. A drawing is shown to illustrate these three kinds
of corner joints, and it is hardly necessary to say that no one of
them is open to the same objection that attaches to the mitre joint.
All these joints require accurate cutting and rather more of it than
the mitre joint requires, but they are more easily glued up. The halved
lap joint is easily clamped up with a common hand screw, even when the
frame is a very large one. But the other two require long clamps in
order to pull the joints up well.

[Illustration: Halved lap joint]

[Illustration: Mortise and tenon joint]

_Character of the Frame._--The kind of joint required depends upon the
general character of the frame--whether it is to be heavy or light,
wide or narrow, and whether made of picture frame moulding or of the
plain framing stock with round or flat face; and the character of the
frame is a matter of design, determined by the kind of picture, by
its setting, and by other considerations discussed in Chapter III.
How the plan for the construction of the frame for any given picture
is influenced by such considerations may be seen in the example which
follows:

[Illustration: Dowelled joint]


MAKING A FRAME FOR A LARGE PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTION

This photograph is 60 inches long by 16 inches wide. It is a copy in
brown tones of a classic painting by Otto Kneille--_The Education of
Athenian Youth_, the original of which hangs in the Royal Gymnasium in
Berlin. It represents a spacious hall or court showing three of the
large marble columns and a massive seat in which an old man reclines
while another old man is expounding some doctrine to him and to a
group of younger men gathered around. In the centre of the scene a boy
lies flat upon the pavement reading a manuscript. Near him several
youths under the direction of a master, are contending in feats of
strength. The composition is one that suggests weight and power. It
may appropriately hang in the hall or in the library over a wide, low
bookcase.

A picture of this character needs no mat and must have a wide, heavy
frame. The stock chosen was oak, 4 inches wide, 1-1/2 inches thick,
and flat faced. The size and weight of such a frame, including the
glass, demand firmness of construction as the first consideration.
The stock is too wide for successful mitring because shrinking would
naturally open and weaken such joints. It was therefore framed together
with mortise and tenon joints, well glued. A dowelled joint might
have sufficed, but it would not have the same strength. The mortises
were cut in the vertical ends and the tenons were left on the long
horizontal pieces. This was in conformity with the usual method of
joining framework--for example, door frames, window frames, panel
frames, and other interior woodwork; for the greatest possible length
is invariably given to the vertical parts.

The frame was given a dark brown finish, repeating the darkest tones of
the picture. Long screw eyes were fastened to the back 2 inches from
the top, so that the picture might hang nearly flat against the wall.
A strong braided wire about 75 inches long was run through the eyes
and securely looped at each end, so that a little more than an inch
of wire on each side passed through the eyes. Since the picture was to
have a prominent place on a certain wall, two nails 66 inches apart
allowing for the two widths of the frame as well as for the length of
the picture were driven into this wall, and the heavy photograph was
easily hung and balanced without exposing the wire to view.


TO MAKE A KNOCK-DOWN BOOKCASE

[Illustration: A knock-down bookcase]

_The Design._--The problem of design was to plan a simple, inexpensive
bookcase which could be easily transported and set up in a student's
room and which would hold approximately two hundred books. The drawings
show how these requirements were met in the design. When in use it is
held together by keyed shelves at the top and bottom. The necessary
stiffness is given to it by the base pieces which are fastened both
to the sides and to the bottom shelf by screws. Additional stiffness
is given by drawing up the three middle shelves to the sides by
means of screws. Upon removing the screws and the keys the bookcase
is easily taken apart so that it may be crated in compact form for
transportation. It is equally easy to set it up again. It has no back
and may therefore stand away from the wall as well as against it. Its
contour is plain, with few curves, giving a simplicity which will
harmonize with modest surroundings and yet not bar it from keeping
company with more pretentious furnishings.

The original of this design was actually made up in white wood, stained
and finished to harmonize with black walnut furniture; but it may
be made up in oak, ash, cherry, or any of the common woods used for
furniture. For one bookcase the stock required is as follows, the sizes
allowing for finishing to the dimensions as given in the drawing: For
the ends, two pieces 7/8 inch × 10-1/4 inches × 4 feet 2-1/2 inches;
for the short shelves, three pieces 7/8 inch × 10-1/4 inches × 3 feet
1 inch; for the long shelves, two pieces, 7/8 inch × 10-1/4 inches ×
3 feet 5 inches; for the base pieces, two pieces 7/8 inch × 6-3/4 ×
inches × 3 feet; for the keys, one piece 7/8 inch × 7/8 inch × 1 foot.
In addition to this there should be two dozen No. 10 round-headed
blued screws, and one half dozen 1-1/2 inch No. 10 flat headed blued
screws.

The tools needed are as follows: Rip saw, cross cut saw, back saw,
compass, jack-plane, smoothing plane, block plane, spokeshave, try
square, steel square, rule, knife, hammer, mallet, screw-driver, 3/4,
1/2, and 3/16 inch bits and bitstock, and 1/2 and 3/4 inch chisels,
gauges, and sand-paper.

[Illustration: Details and dimensions for a knock-down bookcase]

_Construction._--All the stock should be jointed, planed to width,
and smoothed with sand-paper. The two end pieces should be squared to
length, the top corners rounded, and the curve at the bottom cut as
shown in the drawing. Care should be exercised in sand-papering not
to round the edges. The correct spacing for the shelves should then
be marked off on the end pieces and squared across, care being taken
to have both ends spaced alike. To do this plane the ends together,
with their edges flush; and, beginning at the bottom, measure off each
of the spaces with correct allowance for the thickness of the shelf
and mark these spaces across the edge. Then, separate the end pieces
and with the marks on the edges as a guide, square across each of
the end pieces on the inside and mark with a knife. In allowing for
the thickness of the shelves it should be remembered that the stock,
though originally 7/8 of an inch in thickness, has been planed and
sand-papered, some of the shelves perhaps having been finished down
more than others. It will therefore be necessary to measure and allow
for the thickness of each shelf separately.

[Illustration: Method of gaining-in the shelves]

The three middle shelves are "gained" in--_i. e._, set into grooves in
the upright ends--1/4 of an inch deep, as shown in the sketch. It will
be better craftsmanship if the grooves are not carried across the full
width of the end pieces but stopped, say, one inch from the edge, the
shelves being cut to fit, as shown in the drawing. If this be done, the
grooves should be cut out carefully with a chisel. If the grooves be
carried across the full width of the end, they may be cut down with a
back saw and then chiselled out. To insure a good fit in either case
care should be exercised not to cut outside the knife lines. Chisel the
bottom of the grooves carefully so that they will be uniformly 1/4 of
an inch deep.

The next step is to cut the mortises for the top and bottom shelves.
The dimensions for these should first be laid off on the stock by
means of a gauge. They should then be bored well inside the marks and
carefully chiselled out. Before this chiselling is done, however,
knife lines should be marked on the outside of the end pieces exactly
opposite the gauge lines. In mortising, as in cutting the grooves, the
greatest care will need to be exercised that the chisel does not cut
outside the knife lines. In working for a close fit it is better to
err on the side of removing too little stock at first, if one must err
at all, since it is quite easy to remove a little more in the final
fitting. It is quite impossible to replace stock once removed.

In measuring for the length of the shelves it should not be overlooked
that the top and bottom shelves are to carry the tenons to be keyed
through the end pieces. These tenons should be cut out accurately with
a rip saw, and the stock between them removed with a chisel after
a deep knife line has been made. After fitting these tenons to the
mortises and finishing them, the mortises for the keys should be cut,
using a small chisel. It should not be overlooked that the outside
face of each key mortise is cut on an angle, as illustrated. The three
middle shelves are then cut to length, the ends squared by means of a
block plane, and corners cut out to fit the grooves.

[Illustration: Details of the keys]

The parts are now ready to be put together temporarily and squared up
in order to fit in the base pieces more perfectly than could be done by
mere measurement. It will add a pleasing detail to set back these base
pieces 1/4 of an inch from the front and back faces.

After all the parts are carefully fitted they should be assembled
and the key and screw fastenings inserted. When this is accomplished
the bookcase is ready for finishing. As this is a distinct part of
furniture making it is reserved for treatment in a later chapter.


A HANGING BOOK RACK

[Illustration: A hanging book rack]

_The Design._--It is designed to plan a light but strong book rack, to
be fastened to the wall of a chamber. Since it is intended to occupy
the space that might be given to pictures it is properly as simple in
construction as a picture frame, depending upon good proportions and
symmetry to give a pleasing effect. The straight lines of the design,
which is illustrated above, meet these requirements and also harmonize
with the general form and outline of books. Both shelves may be used
for books, if desired, but the design permits them to be confined to
the lower shelf, reserving the upper one as a suitable place for a bit
of pottery or two, or some other choice bit of bric-à-brac. The mortise
and tenon joints give the essential stiffness and strength without
requiring the use of heavy stock.

_Materials and Tools._--Since strength with lightness is an essential
feature to realize in the working out of this design, soft woods should
be avoided. Ash is probably the strongest of the light woods in common
use. Oak is much stronger but heavy and hard to work. White wood is
comparatively light and very strong. Gum wood is classified with ash
excepting that it is closer grained. Since this book rack is to be used
in a chamber in which the wood trim is in enamelled white and most of
the furniture of a mahogany finish, it will be equally appropriate to
make it of white wood, to be finished in enamelled white, or of bay
wood as a basis for mahogany finish. It was decided to adopt the latter
course.

The stock requirements for carrying out this design are as follows: 2
back posts, 1-1/4 inch × 1-1/4 inch × 24 inches; 2 front posts, 1-1/4
inch × 1-1/4 × 18 inches; 2 centre uprights, 5/8 × 1 × 18 inches; 1
back rail, 5/8 × 1-1/4 × 37 inches; 1 end rail, 1 × 1-1/4 × 44 inches;
and 2 shelves, 7/8 × 7 by 37 inches.

[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions for hanging book
rack (front)]

The tools needed are much like those required in the previous
problem--_i. e._, the same planes, saws, bitstock, squares, and the
gauge; but there will be needed a 3/8-inch bit, 3/8-inch and 3/4-inch
chisels, a knife rule, a rabbet plane, a mitre box, and a mallet.

_Construction._--The details of construction required are as follows:
Dressing the stock pieces, cutting the posts to length, cutting the
points on the posts, rabbeting the cross rails and cutting them to
length, cutting the mortise and tenons, halving on the end rails,
cutting and fitting the shelves, cutting, fitting, and fastening the
back rail, arranging the clamps and other appliances for gluing up, and
cleaning off the glue after hardening.

[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions for hanging book
rack (end)]

[Illustration: How the tenon is applied to the rail]

The stock pieces should be first "dressed" down to the drawing
dimensions. This means that they should be planed and sand-papered
preparatory to laying out the cutting dimensions. The front and back
posts should be cut to length in the mitre box, care being taken to
allow an extra 1/2 inch for the pointed ends at the top and bottom.
These pointed ends are cut in the mitre box by raising one end of the
post and sawing to lines squared around the post 1/4 inch from the
other end. The angle of the cut is made uniform by resting the raised
end of the post on a block lightly nailed on the inside of the mitre
box, thus giving the same elevation for all the posts. The 1-inch by
1-1/4-inch piece for rails is rabbeted out, using the plane designed
for that purpose, and afterward cut to length as called for. The blind
mortises should be made not more than 7/8 of an inch deep, and the
tenons 1/16 of an inch shorter in order not to strike the bottom of the
mortise. One of these rails should be accurately laid out with knife
lines and the rest marked from this as a pattern. The drawing shows the
location of the tenon with reference to the part of the rail on which
the shelf rests. This is the most convenient position for cutting the
tenon and it also gives greater strength. The centre uprights should
be halved on after the end rails are in position, being cut for this
purpose as illustrated in the drawing. They may be allowed to stand out
1/8 of an inch beyond the face of the end rail, and in making the joint
an equal amount of stock is to be taken from the rail and from the
upright. The shelves are then easily cut to length and the ends fitted
with the block plane and dropped into place, being lightly glued and
nailed with brads from the under side of the rabbet. Finally the top
back rail should be halved in, being left to the last in order that the
more important fitting of the shelves may be more easily accomplished.

[Illustration: How the centre uprights are halved on]

In gluing up the mortise and tenon joints care must be exercised to
set clamps out ready for use before the glue is applied so that the
parts may be promptly drawn up in position. After gluing they should be
allowed to remain about ten hours in order that the glue may properly
harden before the clamps are taken off. All the extra glue squeezed out
of the joints in clamping must be scraped off with a chisel, after the
glue has hardened a little; and any remaining spots of glue must be
carefully removed with fine sand-paper so as not to leave anything to
interfere with the filling and finishing.


AN UMBRELLA STAND

_The Design._--So far as the question of use is concerned, no problem
of design could be more definite than this one, since an umbrella
rack can have but one use. The only elements of beauty possible are
found in simplicity, proportion, and the general effectiveness of
the construction for meeting the demands of use. The drawing shows
four square, straight posts, squared at the ends, which are allowed
to project a little above the top to avoid a box-like effect. All the
joints are mortised except the division bars at the top. The cross
pieces at the base are made wider not only to conceal the drip pan but
to give a more stable appearance to the whole rack.

_Materials and Tools._--Oak is selected as perhaps the most appropriate
wood; but other woods, if the surroundings require it, may be used to
good advantage. Oak is one of the strongest and most durable of the
woods used for furniture and takes well a great variety of finish. It
is also quite easily obtained.

[Illustration: An umbrella stand]

The stock requirements are as follows: Four corner posts 1-1/4 × 1-1/4
× 27-1/2 inches; four top rails 1/2 × 1-1/4 × 9 inches; four base rails
7/8 × 3 × 9 inches; two division bars 1/4 × 1-1/4 × 9-1/4 inches; four
cleats 1/2 × 1/2 × 9 inches; and one board 1/2 × 7-1/2 × 7-1/2 inches
to support the pan.

The same tools in general will be required as in the previous
exercises, but it will be necessary to add a 1/4-inch bit, a 1/4 inch
chisel, a steel scraper, and two short clamps.

[Illustration: Details and dimensions for umbrella rack]

_Construction._--All the stock should be planed to size, scraped, and
sand-papered with the exception of the base board for the pan, since
that is hidden from view. The scraper corrects all slight unevenness of
surface and removes scratches and other blemishes. Care should be taken
in sand-papering to rub always with the grain of the wood and to avoid
rounding the corners. The corner posts should first be cut to proper
length and the tops and bottoms slightly chamfered. Mortises are then
to be located, bored, and chiselled up. The top and bottom rails should
be laid off and the tenons gauged and cut, care being taken not to have
them too long. The inside edges of the tenons have to be pared off
slightly, as illustrated in the drawing, to allow room for each when
they come together.

[Illustration: Top rail tenons]

[Illustration: Bottom rail tenons]

The next step is to assemble the parts, clamp them up, and test them
for accuracy. While these parts are in the clamps, measurements should
be taken for the cross pieces, which may then be made, allowing extra
length of 1/4 of an inch in each end for the tenons to enter the top
rails. These cross pieces are to be halved together at the centre, as
shown in the drawing. The base rails are designed to be thick enough
to take up all the space on the inside of the posts so as to hide the
corner, as illustrated in the sketch showing the bottom construction.

The next step is to assemble the parts for gluing. It is not necessary
to explain this process in detail, since it has already been thoroughly
explained in the general section on gluing. It is not necessary to glue
on the cleats on which the pan rests; they may be nailed in. When the
base is glued together measurements may be taken for the pan.


A MAGAZINE STAND

_The Design._--This problem calls for an attractive article of
furniture which should also be useful as a receptacle for magazines and
current newspapers. An enclosed portion between two of the shelves is
desired to conceal from view and preserve for a time the more valuable
papers, parts of magazines, or clippings, as may be found convenient.
The perspective sketch on this same page shows how these simple
requirements are met. The overhanging top adds character and strength
to what might otherwise seem too light for the load it is intended to
carry.

[Illustration: A magazine stand]

_Materials and Tools._--Oak is selected as a suitable wood because of
its strength and durability; for this stand is likely to be in almost
constant use. A light wood, delicately finished, would soon show wear.

The stock list, according to the drawing, may be itemized as follows:
4 corner posts 1-3/4 × 1-3/4 × 36 inches; 4 upright slats 5/8 × 1 ×
34 inches; four shelves 7/8 × 10-1/2 × 17 inches; one piece for the
top 7/8 × 14 × 21 inches; 2 top rails 1 × 1-3/4 × 12 inches; 1 piece
for the door 7/8 × 8 × 15-1/2 inches for the ends and the back of the
closet 1 piece 5/8 × 8 × 36 inches; 1 pair 1-1/4-inch brass butts with
screws for the hinges, and one brass knob or catch.

The tools needed are a jointer, a block plane, a smoothing plane, steel
square, try square, knife gauge, fine cross cut saw, 1/2-inch bit and
bit stock, key-hole saw, 1/2-inch chisel, mallet, nail set, hammer,
screw-driver, and steel scraper.

The principal operations are as follows: Planing to size; scraping and
sand-papering stock; squaring ends and smoothing them to the required
length; laying out gains at corner posts; making mortises for top
rails; making the rails; assembling the main parts; fitting ends and
sides of the closets; hanging the door and putting on the fixtures.

[Illustration: Details and dimensions for magazine stand]

_The Construction._--Smoothing with the plane and scraping are very
important and they should be completed before any sand-papering is done
because particles of sand (silica), adhering to the wood, will dull
the steel tools. All three operations are needed to remove the marks
of the machine tools of the factory, in order to give a good finish in
the end. The scraper follows the plane, removing the unevenness which
the latter leaves on board surfaces. Sand-papering gives the finishing
touches.

[Illustration: Method of mortising]

After the stock is well smoothed, the top and the shelves should be
squared off, cut to length, and block planed. The posts should then be
cut and accurately trimmed to dimensions. They may be marked with a
knife line for the gains into which the corners of the shelves are to
be fastened. Since the posts are perfectly square, no attention will
have to be given to their exact location in marking or cutting the
gains; but when the mortising for the rails is laid out, care must be
exercised to mark them so that the mortises will come on the proper
faces for assembling. In mortising for the top rail it is well not to
work up to the end of the post but to cut back, say 3/4 of an inch, as
shown in one of the details. The rails may now be laid off and the
tenons cut and fitted. It is exactly 8-1/2 inches between the shoulders
of the rails. Since the shelves are 10-1/2 inches wide, one inch is
thus left on each side to be gained into the posts.

The parts are now ready for the first assembling. To do this it is
convenient to have a clear bench top on which the posts may be laid on
one side, face down. The rails and shelves may then be slipped into
place, the other two posts placed on top, and the whole clamped firmly
together. This is the preliminary assembling for the purpose of testing
the accuracy of the work. If it be found all right, it should be taken
apart again, and, after glue has been applied to the tenons and to
the ends of the shelves, the parts should be quickly re-assembled
and clamped up as before, with the angles kept true. Before the glue
hardens the shelves should be nailed into the posts, as indicated in
the drawing. In this case it is the nail that is the main stay. The
glue is accessory, adding much to the stiffness of the construction.

[Illustration: Method of fastening shelf]

The top may now be set on and fastened by screws or by brads driven
through into the posts and well set so that they may be concealed
by putty, coloured to match the stain used. The end slats should be
fastened on in the same way. The back and ends of the closet are next
cut to size and bradded in. The door is then fitted and, to break the
surface a little, an ornamental design is cut in the centre. Still
further relief is given by setting in the door 1/4 of an inch from the
edge of the shelf and ends of the closet. The door is now hung on brass
hinges, the stop and catch added, and the stand is ready for staining
and finishing.

[Illustration: Method of fastening posts to the top]


A LIGHT LIBRARY TABLE

_The Design._--This is to be a table designed on simple lines and of
good proportions. It is to have no drawer but as much shelf room as
conveniently possible. The under shelf is designed to be cut out to
allow a chair to be drawn up on either side. The end shelves may be
regarded as designed to combine a bookcase with the table, thus adding
much to its usefulness.

_Materials and Tools._--For a table of this kind oak is very
appropriate. The following list gives the stock required for one table.
The widths and the thickness are as called for in the drawing, but the
lengths are given a little long to allow for cutting. A board not less
than 9 inches wide and 10 feet long will be needed as stock for the
top, the dimensions of which are 7/8 × 26 × 39 inches. A 10-inch board,
4-1/2 feet in length, will also be required for the shelves. There will
also be needed four legs 1-3/4 × 1-3/4 × 30 inches; eight slats 1/2 ×
1-1/2 × 18 inches; two back pieces 1/2 × 2 × 20-1/2 inches; two rails
7/8 × 3 × 32 inches; and two rails 7/8 × 3 × 20 inches.

[Illustration: A light library table]

The same tools will be required as in the foregoing problems excepting
that a 1/2-inch bit and a 1/2-inch chisel will be required for
mortising, and two 3-foot clamps.

_Construction._--The first step in the construction is to dress the
stock, smoothing, scraping, and sand-papering it, and working the
various parts to size. The lengths, however, of all parts excepting
the legs are not cut accurately until, in the process of construction,
these parts are needed. The legs are at once cut to length and the
mortises laid out, bored, and cut. A gain should also be cut in each
leg, into which the bottom shelf is to be fitted, glued, and bradded
from the under side. The end and side rails may then be laid off for
shoulders and tenons, and cut. In this case the tenons should be made
1/2 of an inch wide.

[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions (a) front; (b) end]

In gluing up, the top should receive attention first, in order to allow
the longest possible time for testing the work under the inevitable
changes due to continued seasoning. Great care must always be exercised
in making the glued joints. It is often necessary to make them over
on account of the development of cracks. Proper care, however, will
prevent this. The general directions for gluing, given at the beginning
of this chapter, will be of service.

As soon as the top has been glued the four short side pieces may be
glued to the shelf, taking pains to make good joints before applying
the glue. It should be noted that the inside ends of these short
pieces are to be 15 inches apart, and it is important that the ends
on opposite sides should be exactly squared across, as indicated in
the drawings. This may be accomplished by first locating the centre
of the shelf, at the intersection of lines, marked c in the drawing,
and measuring 7-1/2 inches each way to the line of the back pieces,
which are to run across the whole bottom shelf. As soon as the glue is
hardened the ends should be squared and made true to set into the gains
when the table is assembled. Finally, the legs, the rails, and the
shelf may be assembled, glued, squared up, clamped, and set aside to
harden before the clamps are removed.

It is a good plan to brad the shelf in from the under side before
the glue hardens. After standing a few hours the table will be ready
for the 1/2-inch strip which forms the back of the shelf. This is to
be fitted and bradded in. Then the slats may be cut to length. They
project slightly below the shelf, and are fastened in position by
screws. The top may be cut to length and its ends smoothed, after which
it may be fastened on the frame by means of screws and buttons, as
already described in the early part of this chapter.


A HEAVY LIBRARY TABLE

_The Design._--This table, as the illustration shows, is designed to be
of simple style, without a drawer or side shelves, and with the bottom
shelf keyed into the base rail. Heavy, square legs, and mortise and
tenon joints are called for.

[Illustration: A heavy library table]

_Materials and Tools._--The mission type of furniture, to which this
design belongs, suggests oak as the fitting wood. The stock for the
top, the dimensions of which are to be 7/8 × 28 × 44 inches, may be
cut in three pieces from a 10-inch board, 12 feet long. For the shelf
a board 7/8 × 12 × 43 inches is required. There are needed also four
legs 2-3/4 × 2-3/4 × 30 inches; two side rails 7/8 × 4 × 36 inches; two
end top-rails 7/8 × 4 × 22 inches; two end bottom rails 1-1/2 × 4 × 22
inches; and for keys a strip 1 × 2 × 28 inches.

[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions (front)]

The same tools are required as were needed in the foregoing problem.

_Construction._--Since this table has a larger top than the light
library table, even greater pains must be taken than in the case of the
smaller table to join the boards for gluing up. All like parts should
be laid off together and the necessary mortises and tenons cut and
fitted, as in the previous case. The two end rails may be glued into
the legs first and clamped, leaving the side rails to be put in place
last, when the bottom shelf may also be fastened in without gluing by
means of the tenons and keys. The latter should be cut somewhat longer
than is really needed so that they may appear to be as effective as
they really are; and they should be tapered at least 1/2 of an inch in
order to drive up well. A small brad may be driven in to keep them from
getting loose when the work shrinks.

[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions (end)]


A BOOKCASE WITH GLAZED DOORS

_The Design._--This is to be an upright bookcase, with five shelves
and an overhanging top. Some variety of surface is afforded by the
arrangement of the sash, as indicated in the drawing. The shelves are
made to be adjustable, and not fixed as in other problems.

_Materials and Tools._--The stock required for one bookcase of this
pattern is as follows: two end pieces 7/8 × 11-1/2 × 48-1/2 inches; for
the top and bottom, two pieces 7/8 × 12 × 40 inches; four shelves 7/8
× 11 × 40 inches; for the sides of the doors, four pieces 7/8 × 2 × 45
inches; for the top and bottom rails of the doors, four pieces 7/8 ×
2-1/2 × 18 inches; for the middle rail, one piece 7/8 × 2 × 18 inches;
for the sash, one piece 7/8 × 1/2 inch × 6 feet; for the back, enough
1/2 inch stock to cover the space 38 × 46 inches. In addition to this
there will be required four hinges, two catches, a lock, and glass for
the sash as dimensioned in the drawing. It is not necessary, however,
to cut the small lights. One large pane of glass may be set in the full
width of the door so that the small sash divisions may be apparent
rather than real.

[Illustration: Bookcase with glazed doors]

The tools for this problem are the same as those used in previous
problems with the addition of a 1/4-inch bit and 1/4-inch chisel, and a
rabbet plane, or a universal plane for cutting out the rabbet for the
glass.

[Illustration: Details and dimensions for bookcase]

It is not necessary to give directions for the treatment of the
stock, since it is practically the same as that employed in preceding
problems. The details for cutting dimensions are given in the
accompanying drawings. It would be well for the young woodworker to
study these carefully and make out a working plan of procedure similar
to that which has been outlined in other problems.

_Construction._--The first thing to do is to erect the bookcase--_i.e._,
to cut the sides, the top, the bottom, and the back pieces to proper
form and dimensions, bring them into position, and fasten them. It will
be noticed that the sides and top are rabbeted out, as indicated in one
of the small drawings, so that the edge of the back will not show when
it is nailed in position. The bottom shelf is also made narrow enough
to allow the back boards to be brought down over it and nailed to the
edge.

[Illustration: Method of concealing ends of back boards]

After the case is erected the doors should be laid out according to
the drawing for mortises and tenons, and the inside edges rabbeted to
give an inset for the glass. If it is decided to use one large light
at the top of the door instead of six small ones, the sash effect for
this light will have to be made of pieces thin enough to allow this
arrangement. When the doors are ready for setting the glass it may
be held in place by small 1/4 round strips, bradded in behind it.
Great care should, of course, be exercised in gluing up the doors to
avoid strains which might give them such a twist that they could not
be fitted to the case. Careful fitting of all the mortises and tenons
and the usual assembling of the parts of each door before gluing is
attempted is a wise precaution. It will also be wise to allow a little
stock for trimming off, both on the sides and on the ends, when the
doors are finally fitted in.


A ROUND CENTRE TABLE

[Illustration: Details and dimensions for round centre table]

[Illustration: Detail of top mortise]

[Illustration: Details and dimensions for round centre table]

_The Design._--This problem calls for a table of mission style with
square legs set into the circumference of the table flush with the
top and having tenons exposed on the face of the legs. Simplicity of
form combined with strength characterizes the design.

_Materials and Tools._--Quartered oak is recommended for a table of
this design. The stock required for one table is as follows: four legs
2-3/4 × 2-3/4 × 27 inches; two cross rails 1-1/4 × 3 × 29 inches; one
piece of 3 × 12 × 20 inches for the curved rails; and stock enough to
make a round top 1-1/8 inches thick and 27 inches in diameter.

The only tools desirable to provide, in addition to those previously
used, are a trammel and spokeshave or a circle plane.

_Construction._--The first step is to join up and glue the top so
that it may have ample time to harden and dry while the other work is
being accomplished. The stock for the legs may then be dressed and the
bottom mortises marked and cut through the posts. Care must be taken
to transfer the marks to the opposite side so that the mortises may be
accurately outlined on the face. Care must also be taken in cutting the
mortises, in order to make good, clean joints. A dimensioned detail of
the top mortises, which are to receive the tenons of the curved rail,
shown on page 180, should be consulted before laying out this work.
It should be noticed that the legs project 1-1/4 inches above the top
rail. After the top mortises are cut the cross bottom rails should be
halved together and the tenons laid off and cut. It will be noticed
that the projecting end of the tenons is to be bevelled off, but this
should not be done until the fitting is completed.

In laying out the plan of work for the construction of the curved rails
the trammel comes into use. With this, mark off carefully the inside
and outside curves on a thin piece of board and, with a large steel
square, draw straight lines from the centre or pivot point, making an
exact quarter circle. This is shown in one of the drawings on page
180. Then, parallel with each straight line and on the inside, mark
off other lines one half the thickness of the leg. This locates the
shoulder of the tenon. The pattern should then be carefully cut out
of the thin board and used as a template for marking out on the stock
the form of the curved rails. After these rails are band sawed and
smoothed, the tenons may be cut.

When the framing parts of the table have all been cut and fitted they
may be assembled and glued. Finally the top is placed face down on
a bench top or on horses, and the inverted frame laid over it and
centred to give the correct position of the insets for the legs. These
should be laid off with great care, the outline reproduced exactly on
the opposite side, and the stock cut out. The top and frame should then
be fastened together from the under side. After a few finishing touches
have been given to the projecting ends and exposed surfaces, the table
will be ready for the filling and varnishing.


A LIBRARY DESK

This is the most ambitious of the special problems in furniture making
here suggested. Details are given in the drawings on the opposite page.
If the young woodworker can give sufficient time to it and can command
the services of a few machine tools it will not be an unreasonable task
to undertake. Most of the operations required in its construction have
already been carefully explained and need not be repeated as detailed
directions. There are, however, one or two principles of cabinet-making
called for in this problem which were not required in the others. They
will therefore need explanation.

[Illustration: A library desk]

_Panelling._--To avoid the difficulties which would result from the
swelling, shrinking, and warping of wide surfaces in furniture it is
common practice to make use of the panel. The design of the panel is
easily understood. It consists of a framework of ordinary thickness,
put together usually with mortise and tenon joints. The inside edges of
this framework are grooved, and into the groove is fitted a piece of
stock generally thinner than the frame which fills the space between
the sides of the frame. The panel board may be in one piece of wide
stock or it may be glued up. It may be of very thin stock inset on
both sides of the panel, or it may be of thicker stock inset only on
one side, and perhaps not inset on either side, in which case only the
edges of the board are made thin enough to run in the groove of the
panel frame. In this problem the panel board is to be made of 1/2-inch
stock, flat on the outside, and inset 1/4 of an inch. The back of the
panel board is flush with the frame and is chamfered off to give the
necessary tongue all around to run in the groove. The narrow stock
of the framework is not likely to swell or shrink appreciably and,
if well constructed, cannot become warped or twisted. The panel, on
account of its greater width, may and generally does swell and shrink
considerably; but it should be fitted to move easily in the grooves so
that its changes may not be noticeable. Should it be desired to finish
the panels with a moulding this should be nailed to the rails, not to
the panel board.

_Danger in the Power Saw._--The panel frame may be constructed by hand,
but if a circular saw be available it will be found of great service.
Beginners, however, should employ the services of an expert sawyer and
not assume the great risk involved in the use of a circular saw or even
a band saw, especially if these saws are without guards. The necessary
operations should be carefully laid out on the partially finished
stock, with a good square and gauge. A combination plane is quite
essential for cutting the grooves; and this carries its own gauge. Care
should be taken to make all measurements from the centre of the piece,
and gauge and square always from the face sides and from the face edges
of the joints. The cuts that it is necessary to make for the joints are
indicated in the drawing. In gluing up, the directions already given in
the section on gluing should be followed.

_Sand-papering._--There is a legitimate use for sand-paper in the
finishing stages of the work on this desk, as there is, in fact, in
almost every kind of fine woodwork. Its use has already been advised
in the directions for furniture making. In furniture manufactories
sand-papering machines are among the most expensive machines to be
found in the shops; and their high cost is of course justified by
their productive value. It is quite impossible to work down large
pieces to a good surface by the process of planing. If a sand-papering
machine is within easy reach of the amateur cabinet-maker, it will
be very desirable for him to send all large pieces like the tops of
tables and panel boards to the factory in order to have them run
through the machine. The expense is very slight. In sand-papering by
hand considerable pressure should be applied as evenly as possible
and always along the grain. Any movements directly across the grain
or at an angle are sure to show through the finish. The process is
facilitated by wrapping the sand-paper around a block of wood about 2
× 4 inches in diameter or, better still, a block of cork of the same
dimensions.


A MORRIS CHAIR

_History of the Design._--Among furniture designs the Morris chair has
become a classic. It takes its name for its originator, William Morris,
the great English designer and reformer, to whom, perhaps more than to
any other person, we are indebted for sane and honest work in furniture
design and in all forms of household decoration, not only in England
but in other European countries and in America. And probably no one of
his creations has done more to teach the lesson of simplicity, comfort,
and utility in furniture than the Morris chair.

[Illustration: A Morris chair]

[Illustration: Details and dimensions of Morris chair (front)]

[Illustration: Details and dimensions for Morris chair (side)]

It may be well to add, however, that like many other famous works
of art, the original design of William Morris has suffered much in
countless imitations. The furniture shops display carved and otherwise
embellished monstrosities under the name of Morris chairs which are
nothing less than an insult to the great name they bear. But the life
of all imitations of original and really great ideas is bound to be
short. Only the good and true, which are the original, survive. The
really valuable features of the original Morris chair design, combining
beauty of material with simplicity of form and construction, have taken
a lasting hold upon the hearts of all people who have found solid
comfort in these chairs. The chairs contemplated in this problem are
illustrated on page 50, chapter II. Both are in quartered oak. The one
on the right is stained in dark brown and has a box cushion for the
seat and a pillow cushion for the back, in medium brown leather. The
one on the left is in light fumed oak with cushions of mahogany velour.
On account of its smaller dimensions it is somewhat lighter in weight
than the one on the right, and the dimensions of the smaller one will
be followed in this problem. This chair is an exact copy of one in
ash which, with a centre table and stool, were designed and made for a
college girl's room; and a large part of the work of constructing the
three pieces of furniture was done by the girl herself.

By careful examination of the dimensioned drawing shown on the
preceding page the young woodworker who undertakes this problem should
select his stock according to the following list: 4 legs 2-1/2 × 2-1/2
× 24 inches; two arms 3 × 5-1/2 × 38 inches; two bottom side rails
1-1/8 × 6 × 26 inches; two top side rails 5/8 × 2-1/4 × 26 inches;
two bottom rails (front and back) 1-1/8 × 6 × 24 inches; one top rail
(back) 5/8 × 2-1/4 × 24 inches; two back uprights 1-1/8 × 1-7/8 × 25
inches; three cross pieces for back (lower) 3/4 × 2-5/8 × 20 inches;
one cross piece for back (top) 3/4 × 6 × 20 inches; one bracket 1 × 3 ×
18 inches; four pins 4-1/2 × 4-1/4 inches square.

[Illustration: Detail of Morris chair arm]

[Illustration: Detail of pins]

In sawing up the stock, allowance should be made of course, for
necessary waste in working down to the drawing dimensions. The arms
are drawn with a curve and may be fashioned by band sawing them out
of 3-inch stock. There will be a considerable saving in material and
labour, of course, if the arms are made flat; but the effect of the
curve is very pleasing. The back slats may be sawed to a slight curve,
which is another attractive feature; but flat slats are easier to make
and just as serviceable.

The process of construction does not differ in general from that
already described in some of the foregoing problems, and need not
be repeated here in detail. The method of finishing this and all
other furniture referred to in the problems will be explained in the
following chapter.

Since the Morris chair is a heavy piece of furniture, it will be
necessary to provide casters for it. The Acme Pin caster, so-called,
was used in the chair referred to in this problem. It makes use of a
steel ball turning upon ball bearings, and is set up into the legs so
as to leave only about 1/4 of an inch of the ball exposed.


A HALL CLOCK


[Illustration: A hall clock

NOTE.--The original of the hall clock was designed and made by Mr.
Egbert E. MacNary.]

_Design._--This clock was designed and built to conform to the
requirements of the space allotted to it. The lines of the case are
all straight; there are no spires or gables or fantastic curves on the
top. A hall clock is indoors, and the top should be horizontal; for all
the other lines such as tops of window casings, picture moulding, etc.,
are horizontal. If the clock stood out of doors under the stars, then
the top might be spired or pointed.

[Illustration: Construction detail of a hall clock]

The construction, as indicated in the sketches, is simple and
substantial. The long sides extend the entire height of the clock,
being firmly joined into the base and head. The works are supported
between these sides. The wood is 3/4-inch quartered oak, hand dressed,
and stained a warm brown. The dial, hinges, catches, pendulum, and
weight are of brass.

_Cutting Glass with a Wheel Cutter._--The long door has a panel of
transparent leaded glass. This leaded glass work is a most fascinating
process. The lead strips required for it were purchased of a dealer in
lead specialties. Stained glass window concerns are usually willing
to sell this lead. A full-size drawing was made of the design for
the glass panel and the glass cut in pieces to match the pattern. A
ten-cent wheel glass cutter was used. One caution, kept in mind, will
enable one to use a wheel cutter of this kind without injuring it. _It
should never be used twice in the same cut._ One stroke of a few inches
over a cut previously made will ruin the wheel; but if the wheel is
not abused by tracing over a cut, it will last a long time. The glass
should be laid on a level table and the cutter used with a firm hand,
making a continuous cut against a straight edge.

_Soldering._--The long lines of the design are in one piece; and
there is a strip around the entire outside edge. To solder the pieces
together, the glass and lead strips are laid in position on a board,
and brads (about 1 inch long) are driven part way into the board close
against the outside strips, so as to hold the pieces in position.
A small bead of soldering paste is placed on each joint. A small
soldering "iron" (which is really copper) and wire solder are used. The
copper may be "tinned" by filing the point bright, heating it, dipping
it in the soldering paste, and then quickly touching it to the solder
wire. The point will become coated with the solder, or, as we say,
"tinned." The iron will need frequent heating. A quick, light touch of
the iron and solder wire to the joints will give the best result.

[Illustration: Method of holding glass and lead strips for soldering]

The two rings in the brass dial were "raised" by driving the brass
into a groove in a piece of oak with a hard wood wedge. The piece of
oak was revolved around the dial by means of a nail driven through the
centre of the dial into the oak piece. When a short arc of the ring had
been raised, the grooved piece was swung around about 1 inch and the
groove continued.

[Illustration: Method of raising the dial rings]

The length of the pendulum depends upon the number of teeth in the
escape wheel. It was necessary in the case of this clock to take out
the escape wheel, which had 32 teeth, and substitute one of 22 teeth to
accommodate the length of pendulum desired.

[Illustration: Dimensioned dial piece of clock before edges are turned]


OUTDOOR FURNITURE

The greatest charm of home life in the summer season is rarely found
within the house. This is especially true in the village or in the
country, where nature is at her best; but even in city homes that
are fortunate enough to include in their surroundings a small yard, a
bit of garden, or any means of connecting the home with "God's great
out-of-doors," though it be but a sheltered balcony or a window garden,
the touch of nature is not lost. It is possible, however, for art to
assist nature; and in many cases her assistance is very much needed.
It is certainly true that nature cannot be left wholly to herself in
the neighbourhood of the village or city home. If there be a garden,
as much forethought must be exercised in planning it and as much pains
taken in developing and caring for it as is called for in working out
any form of interior decoration. There are problems of design and
construction suggested by the need of suitable chairs and settles for
the piazza, comfortable hammocks and couches for the balcony, awnings
for the windows on the sunny side, and the right furniture, perhaps,
for an out-door dining-room. The more decorative features are found in
the rose arbours, the trellises, the garden screens, the lawn tent, the
pergola, and the garden gate; and all these offer problems that easily
come within the reach of enterprising and capable young craftsmen.

_General Types._--In the designing of out-door furniture there are
two suggestions from nature that may appropriately find expression.
On the one hand large masses, as seen in the hills and rocks, suggest
solidity, weight, and permanence. This idea is embodied in walls of
masonry, stone posts, iron gates, stone or concrete pedestals, or
in some other kind of heavy construction. On the other hand, there
are the suggestions of lightness, delicacy, and growth, seen in the
growing vines, shrubbery, and small trees, which are carried out in the
so-called rustic furniture, trellises, arbours, and garden screens.

_An Example of Heavy Furniture in Wood._--A settle designed for
comparatively permanent use in some cool or retired corner of the
garden may be made of native pine, white wood, or spruce, well
protected by several coats of paint. A suggestion is here given for
such a design, laid out on substantial lines. Ordinary 4 × 4 spruce,
planed, may be used for the posts, pine or white wood for the rest
of the construction, 2-inch stock being used for the back pieces and
arms, and 7/8-inch boards for the rails and seat. Mortise and tenon
joints should be used in the framing. The illustration shows also a
simple design cut in the back pieces and repeated in the two front
posts. It is a decorative feature which seems to counteract, somewhat
successfully, the general severity of the lines on which the settle is
designed to be built.

[Illustration: A garden settle]

_Concrete Furniture._--Still more substantial out-door furniture
may be made of concrete cement. This material has come into use for
sidewalks and pavements and as a substitute for brick and stone masonry
in retaining walls, bridge abutments, and in a great variety of heavy
building construction. Concrete is, in fact, an artificial stone, made
by mixing Portland cement with sand or pulverized rock in the right
proportions, thoroughly wetting the mixture with water, and allowing it
to harden. It is so commonly associated with heavy, crude work that it
is not easy to believe that it may be also fashioned into anything of
an artistic or decorative character; and yet it is capable of a wide
range of out-door decorative uses. Gate posts, pedestals, fountains,
window boxes, urns, and other forms of garden pottery in great variety,
tables, and garden seats, have been successfully moulded in this
material. Its natural stone gray colour and surface are well suited to
many of these uses; but it may be given a variety of colour effects in
bold design if occasion requires it. In weight and durability it leaves
nothing to be desired.

_The Wire Form._--Concrete cement cannot be modelled like clay. In
its formative state it is too soft for such manipulation. It must be
supported in some way while it is being worked into the desired shape
and until it has hardened. In general there are two methods of giving
the necessary support: _viz._, by employing an interior framework or
skeleton, generally of wire lath, which is permanently encased in the
cement; or by using a plaster or wooden mould into which the material
in a soft and plastic state is poured and from which it is removed when
hardened. The latter method has been elaborated quite extensively for
commercial purposes, because it readily yields an indefinite number
of marketable results from the same moulds. The simpler wooden moulds
may be easily made by a clever boy; and after a little experience
he can soon learn how to mix the cement properly and mould a form
successfully. For single pieces of concrete work, however, the wire
forms are to be preferred. A suggestive illustration of this method is
found in the following problem:


A CYLINDRICAL GARDEN VASE

The dimensions called for in this design are a diameter of 10 inches
and a height of 8 inches. The wire form must therefore be made to
approximate quite closely to these dimensions. A good material for
the form is galvanized wire lath of 1/2-inch mesh. This problem will
require a piece about 8 inches wide and 34 inches long for the convex
side, and a piece about 10 inches square for the base. From the square
piece a circle 10 inches in diameter should be cut out. A strong pair
of tinners' shears will be needed for this purpose. In bending the long
piece into the cylindrical form it is well to proceed slowly in order
to produce an evenly curved surface--_i. e._, one free from angular
bends. A good way to accomplish this result is to lay the piece down on
a bench top and bend it up over a cylindrical wooden block. If nothing
better is available a rolling pin will serve this purpose. When the
bending is nearly complete, the two ends of the piece should be brought
together, lapped over about an inch, and bound together with free ends
of the strands of wire. A pair of pliers will be of great assistance.
If this part of the process has been carefully done, there will result
a cylindrical form 10 inches in diameter. The circular piece should now
be attached to one end of this form by means of the free ends of the
strands found there, bending the projecting wires over and clinching
them at convenient points on the circumference of the circular piece
where there are uncut meshes of the wire. The form is now ready for
covering with the cement.

[Illustration: A garden vase]

The first step is the mixing of the cement for what is known as the
scratch coat. This is made by mixing Portland cement with fine, clean
sand in the proportion of one part cement to two of sand. These
ingredients should be thoroughly mixed together in the dry state, and
then there should be added a small quantity of goats' hair, well picked
apart. For the problem at hand about five pounds of cement will be
needed and as much goats' hair as can be held in the hand. The whole
should be thoroughly wet down with just the right amount of water. It
is important that the mixture should not be made too soft. A scratch
coat should be given a consistency that will enable it to be easily
spread over the wire form and, at the same time, to hang well together.

When a sufficient amount of the right mixture has been obtained, it
should be spread upon the wire form by means of a small mason's trowel
or a large knife. It is well to begin at the bottom of the convex side
of the cylinder, working upward, taking no pains to make this first
coat smooth, since roughness is desirable, and paying no attention
whatever to the inside of the cylinder, excepting to see that the
cement is forced well through the meshes so that the whole mass will
be held together firmly when dry. The inside is given a smooth coat
as a part of the later finishing process. When the convex surface has
been well covered, the form should be turned bottom up and the cement
spread upon the base of the cylinder in the same way. After the wire
has been completely covered, the form, which is likely to be somewhat
distorted, should be corrected by careful manipulation till a true
cylinder has been obtained. This is allowed to stand for about five
hours until the cement has thoroughly hardened. It is then ready for
the finishing coat.

The next step in the process is to make the cement for the finishing
coat. Considerable variety is possible here, depending upon the colour
and other surface effects that are desired. In this design a light,
sparkling surface when finished is required. To produce this effect a
mixture of one part Portland cement and two parts marble dust will be
needed. This should be mixed without hair to a consistency like that
used for the scratch coat.

Before applying the finishing coat the surfaces should be thoroughly
moistened by means of a brush well filled with water. There are various
methods of applying this coat. The simplest is carefully spreading it
on with a trowel and smoothing it with the moistened hand. When the
surface has hardened sufficiently it is sometimes possible to improve
the finish by the judicious use of sand-paper or a coarse file. It is
not possible to produce perfectly even surfaces in this way; and yet
the method has the characteristic freedom of handwork in general, and
yields very satisfactory results.

[Illustration: A vase with blocked rim]

_The Decoration._--A great variety of decorative effects may be
obtained in concrete pottery and in other articles made of this
material for out-door use. In pottery these decorations may take the
form of raised figures or ornaments, of borders or designs cut in the
surface, and of inlays in colour. Whatever the form of design, the
necessary cutting for it is best made when the cement has become well
set but not very hard--_i. e._, from 6 to 10 hours after the finishing
coat is applied. A stout, sharp, pointed knife blade is all the tool
that will be required. A narrow chisel, however, may be found desirable
for deepening the cuts. The knife should be guided by means of a ruler,
which should be flexible if used on curved surfaces; and the depth
of the cut will depend somewhat upon the size of the piece. In work
similar to that described in the problem just given, a depth of 3/16
or 1/4 of an inch is sufficient. This cutting, of course can be made
after the cement has hardened, by the use of hammer and chisel; but it
will be much more difficult.

[Illustration: A square form]

_The Colours._--Colour cement for inlaid designs is made by using the
best quality of white Portland cement as a base, colouring it with dry
mineral pigments which are sold by dealers under the name of lime or
cement-proof colours. Among the pigments suitable for this purpose are
red oxide of iron, which produces a red; oxide of cobalt, which gives
a good blue; chromate of lead, which produces yellow; carbonate of
copper, which gives a good dark green; and burnt umber, which yields
a good brown. These come as dry powders and should be mixed with the
dry cement and marble dust, making a mixture of uniform colour, before
the water is applied. In order to determine the right colour it is
well to experiment with a small quantity of the various ingredients
until a satisfactory shade has been found. Then with this as a guide a
sufficiently large quantity should be mixed, in the same proportions,
to the consistency of a thick paste, and applied to the design, which
has been previously cut in the surface to be decorated. To insure
thorough adhesion of the paste to the concrete, the cutting should be
well moistened with a wet brush. A number of suggestive designs are
shown in the accompanying drawings.

_Rustic Furniture._--The lighter out-door furniture can be easily made
up in a great variety of designs. The form of rustic settles and chairs
is determined largely by the material which is available. Very useful
and ornamental effects are produced by using sticks cut from the tops
or from branches of small trees. Birch saplings, easily found in the
second growth of some wood lots, afford a good supply of material.
It is not necessary that the sticks be straight; the natural crooks
and notches are often very useful in bracing the framework. Chairs,
settles, tables, standards for flower boxes, and other articles of
furniture may be made out of this rough and unfinished material.

[Illustration: A garden screen]

_Lattice Work._--Trellises and garden screens have been made in an
almost endless variety of forms. Among the most satisfactory is the
plain lattice work in squares and rectangles. Its simplicity and
evident durability are points in its favour. Experience proves also
that vines and other plants needing support are readily adjusted
to this form of trellis. The size of the stock required in making
the right-angled lattice work depends upon the uses to be made of
it. For a garden screen the uprights need to be of 2 × 2 inch stock
and of any convenient length. End posts of 3 × 3 inch stock will be
required, to give necessary stiffness; and, if the screen be a long
one, intermediate posts of the same size should be placed at intervals
of ten or twelve feet. The horizontal pieces may be strips of 7/8-inch
stock, 2 inches wide, set their full thickness into the uprights.
Spruce furring, which lumber dealers supply in 2-inch widths, is
suitable for the small rails; but if chestnut be used for the uprights
it is well to use the same wood for the rest of the construction. The
top and bottom rails should be of heavier stock, not less than 2 by 3
inches. The best foundation is a line of concrete posts, firmly set
into the ground at intervals of 6 feet, to which the bottom rail or
the uprights are fastened by means of irons set into the cement when
the posts are formed. Two coats of dull green paint will protect the
wood and properly subordinate the lattice work to the trailing branches
which it supports.




VIII

FINISHING AND RE-FINISHING

'Tis toil's reward that sweetens industry--_Ebenezer Elliot_


In the commercial production of furniture the cabinet-maker has nothing
to do with the finishing of his work. This essential part of furniture
making is turned over to artisans who are finishers by trade. In a
separate part of the factory they attend to the cleaning and filling of
the wood and to whatever finish is applied to the work of the joiner.
It is hardly necessary to add that the finishing of all kinds of
woodwork is quite as important as any other feature in its production;
for, however good the lines of design may be and however thoroughly the
design may be carried out in the construction of any piece of furniture
or other woodwork, it may be and often is spoiled as a work of art in
the finishing.

[Illustration: Finishing a Library Table. Plate VI]

But the amateur cabinet-maker should be his own finisher. He should
familiarize himself with the various kinds of finish that may be
applied to the different woods. He should know the object of filling
wood and how it is done. He should understand the processes of fuming,
staining, and varnishing so well that he can produce with certainty the
results desired.


CLEANING, SURFACING, AND FILLING

_First Steps in Finishing._--The first step in finishing woodwork is
to clean it up and prepare it for the filler. Too great care cannot
be taken in examining all surfaces for slight oversights that have
occurred in the joinery work or for blemishes that have been acquired
in any part of the process of construction. Light planing, chiselling,
or scraping, and perhaps a little sand-papering, always with the grain,
may be needed to remove these faults and blemishes. The most serious
of these generally result from gluing. All surplus glue should be
carefully removed, even to the film that soaks into the surface of the
wood. The slightest spot of glue remaining will keep the filler out of
the wood and show through any kind of finish.

_Importance of Filling._--As soon as the furniture is thoroughly
cleaned, if it is to be finished in the natural color, the grain of the
wood must be filled with a light, transparent, semi-liquid substance,
known as the filler, which, after standing from five to seven minutes,
should be thoroughly rubbed off with a piece of coarse cloth or a
handful of shavings. This process, as its name indicates, fills the
pores of the wood and protects them against the absorption of moisture
and the consequent swelling. But this is by no means its chief purpose.
Strictly speaking, filling is the ground-work of all subsequent
finishing processes and, for that reason, it may be said to be the most
important operation connected with wood finishing. If improperly done,
no amount of good work with the varnish brush will remove the fault. In
fact, good work is impossible after a bad beginning. Good varnishing or
good finishing of any kind requires that, before the final finishing
processes begin, the surface should be made perfectly level and smooth,
free from all unevenness or roughness or minute openings of any kind
that might allow the varnish or other finishing material to penetrate
the wood. If the filling has not been so thorough that no part of the
subsequent finishing material can be absorbed by the wood, a rough
surface will be sure to follow. This may, of course, be rubbed down and
re-finished, but never with that perfection of result which is assured
by laying a good foundation in correct filling. It may be set down as
a fundamental principle of wood finishing that the best result is
obtained when the filling or surfacing has been so thoroughly done that
the thinnest of finishing coats, few in number, are required to produce
the desired result.

_Liquid Fillers or Surfaces._--There are many kinds of fillers in
common use, but they may all be considered as belonging to one or the
other of two classes. They are either liquid fillers or paste fillers.
Woods differ greatly in the coarseness or fineness of their grain. The
coarse or open-grained woods require a filler with body enough to close
up the pores of the wood and give that perfectly even surface necessary
as a foundation for good finishing. The close-grained woods, on the
other hand, do not present the same filling problem. They could not
absorb a paste filler. In fact, it is hardly too much to say that the
fine, close-grained woods, like maple, gum wood, and birch, do not need
a filler at all; and there are some coarse-grained woods, like southern
or hard pine and cypress, the pores of which are naturally filled with
gummy or resinous substances and will not absorb an artificial filler.
But all such woods _do_ need to be given a finishing surface which will
prevent the finishing coats from soaking into the fibre of the wood.
This is the office of the so-called liquid fillers, which are very
properly called "first coaters" or "surfacers."

_How to Make a Liquid Filler._--A standard formula for the preparation
of a liquid filler is as follows: Mix four parts by weight of carbonate
of soda with six parts of china clay, and grind this mixture in about
eight parts of japan, thinning the product with turpentine or benzine
to the consistency of linseed oil. Laundry starch may be used in place
of china clay, giving a filler which is somewhat easier of application
than the clay filler because it does not settle. It lacks in
durability, however, especially if it is not well covered. The finest
grained woods do not require the addition of any material to the filler
to give body. A great variety of liquids may be easily obtained which,
without being mixed with anything, will give the necessary surface.

Glue size, water glass, and the cheaper grades of varnish, thinned if
necessary with benzine or turpentine, are often used for this purpose.
But these are all inferior to the standard surfacers and never should
be used on the best grades of woodwork. Shellac is always preferred
as a first coater for hard pine, as it keeps the resinous sap in the
pores of the wood and preserves the natural colour of the grain. If
oil is applied to hard pine without first applying this protecting
coat of shellac, the wood blackens with age. Shellac is an excellent
first coater for other woods also. It is commonly used in house
finishing as the surfacer for the interior trims. But it dries rapidly,
and generally with a rough surface. The first coating of shellac,
therefore, requires careful sand-papering before the varnish is put on.

_Time Needed for a Shellac Coat to Dry._--It may be well to caution
the amateur finisher as to the time required for the thorough drying
of shellac. While it may be truly said to dry very rapidly, the first
drying is necessarily upon the outer surface, forming a hard coating
which delays somewhat the drying throughout, so that a shellac filling
is not really dry enough to sand-paper a half hour or so after it has
been applied, though it may appear to be. It is a good rule to allow at
least twenty-four hours for thorough drying; and it may be well to add
that all methods of filling, rubbing off, etc., require for the best
results more time than energetic workers sometimes allow.

_Cost of Surfacing._--A practical question that the amateur finisher
will ask is, how can one know in advance how much filler is needed for
given pieces of work, and what will be its cost? For a good quality
of liquid filler it is safe to say that one pint will cover eight
square yards with one coat. The cost varies greatly, depending upon
the quality of the filler and whether it is home-made or obtained of a
dealer. A good commercial filler or surfacer can be bought for $1.50
per gallon, making the cost per square yard of one-coat surfacing about
2-1/2 cents. A small can costs 15 cents. Good work cannot be done with
the cheaper grades of filler. Shellac, which is, all in all, the best
of surfacers, can be bought for $1.85 a gallon, which would make the
cost of surfacing somewhat under 3 cents a square yard.

_How to Make a Paste Filler._--A good paste filler, such as is required
for the open-grained woods like oak, ash, baywood, and poplar or
white wood, may be made from pulverized and floated silica as a base,
thoroughly mixed with raw linseed oil, turpentine, and japan in equal
parts, with enough silica added to the liquid mixture to form a good
paste of a consistency somewhat thicker than paper-hangers' paste.
If the mixture should prove to be a little too thick, it may easily
be thinned with turpentine. The final mixing of this filler requires
grinding in a hand mill. Unless a considerable quantity of it is needed
it is quite as well to purchase a can of the paste filler of a dealer
in painters' or finishers' supplies, though commercial fillers are
not generally quite so good as a one made on this formula. They often
contain wax and whiting and other materials as a base which are not so
satisfactory in the long run as the floated silica.

_How a Paste Filler is Applied._--Paste fillers should be spread on the
surface to be filled very liberally with a wide, stiff brush, allowed
to stand from five to seven minutes, and then rubbed off with a piece
of burlap or a handful of fine shavings or excelsior. But it must not
all be rubbed off or drawn out of the grain. This is an easy mistake
for an inexperienced worker to make. The thing to do is to rub it in
and at the same time leave the surfaces smooth. The surfaces should
then be allowed to dry for about twenty-four hours before receiving the
final finishing coats.


VARNISHING

The importance of a good foundation surface--even, smooth, and free
from unsealed pores that would absorb and thus undermine the first coat
of varnish--has been explained in the section on filling and surfacing.
If this foundation has been well laid, the amateur finisher may enter
upon the varnishing stage of his work with confidence; but he will
soon learn that there is much call for skill in order to produce the
desired results in this part of the finishing process. The selection,
preparation, and application of varnish is a special calling, and great
skill comes only as the result of experience; but certain main facts
and principles are easily learned.

_How a Good Varnish is Recognized._--It is hardly necessary to say
that a superior varnish must be clear, transparent, and brilliant.
These qualities are always associated with this kind of finish. But
durability is also a necessary quality. An expert will, with his eyes
shut, recognize a high-grade varnish by its peculiar odour, which is
to him an agreeable one. He will at once detect inferior grades by the
rank, sharp odour of resin and benzine used in their manufacture. The
range of quality and cost in varnishes is probably greater and more
varied than in any other finishing material. For fine, artistic work
only the best varnish is allowable; and this may be bought for $3.00 a
gallon.

_"Sag" and How Corrected._--A good varnish flows easily from the brush,
spreads evenly, and dries slowly, thus allowing plenty of time for its
proper distribution over the surface. And time enough should be taken
to apply an even coat which will not dry unequally and lead to cracking
due to irregular contraction in the process of hardening. It is of
the utmost importance that each coat be spread evenly over the surface
when first applied. Great care should be taken not to brush long in
one place. Re-brushing after a brief interval leaves brush marks which
are objectionable. Unequal spreading on broad surfaces often causes
the varnish to run or "sag." A tendency to sag may be brushed out if
attended to promptly. But, if it is not noticed until the varnish has
begun to set, the only way to prevent a bad blemish is to absorb the
thickening parts of the coat by means of a partly dried brush; and this
must not be attempted three or four minutes after the varnish has been
put on. By that time it will have become quite well set and a sag will
be beyond repairing by any simple means.

_Time Required Between Varnish Coats._--The best varnishes, as has
been stated, dry quite slowly, and they seem to dry and harden not, as
shellac does, on the top first, but from the under surface outward.
This peculiarity emphasizes the need of allowing sufficient time
between coats. And it should be added that mere drying is not all
that is required. Each coat must harden; and during the process of
hardening slight movements take place throughout the mass of the coat
until it becomes permanently set or hardened. The time required for
this permanent setting or seasoning, as it may be called, varies with
the character of the under coat, with the temperature of the room in
which the finishing is done, and with the thickness of the varnish coat
itself. Five days is usually thought to be a short seasoning period.
As many weeks would not be too long for the best results. It is folly
to attempt to hurry up a job of varnishing. In the nature of the case
it cannot be hurried without yielding disastrous results. There is no
other kind of work in which "haste makes waste" with the certainty that
it does in varnishing. Great pains must be taken with each coat. Least
of all should the under coats be slighted, for solidity and depth in
the appearance of the finished surfaces depend upon there being plenty
of evenly laid and well hardened varnish before the final or finish
coat is applied. All this work should be done in a well-lighted room,
free from dust, and with a good supply of fresh air, kept at an even
temperature, of about 70 degrees--certainly not colder than this, since
a lower temperature prevents varnish from spreading evenly.

_Number of Coats Needed._--The number of coats of varnish required vary
with the character of the work. What is known as piano finish requires
from three to seven under coats of good elastic rubbing varnish, each
well hardened and rubbed down to give under surfaces more even than the
best brushing can give. In addition to these under coats a final finish
coat is needed to give brilliancy and lustre.

_How to Rub Down Varnish._--Rubbing down varnish is a unique and
important part in the process of finishing. The beginning of the
operation consists of long and persistent rubbing with pulverized
pumice stone mixed with oil or with water, if the work is such that
water would have no chance to soak into the pores of the wood.
Whichever liquid is used, a rubbing pad will be found necessary.
This is a block about 4 inches square, made of thick, loose cloth
like felt or hair cloth. In use it is first moistened in the oil or
water and then dipped into a box containing a quantity of powdered
pumice. With this the varnished surface is rubbed vigorously, giving
a circular movement to the pad in rubbing down the broad surfaces. As
the smoothing progresses, less and less of the pumice powder is used.
Near the end of the process enough will be found on the surface or
adhering to the rubbing pad. What remains on the surface is finally
all wiped off carefully with chamois skin, when it will be found that
the surface has been levelled down but that it is covered with fine
scratches due to the grains of the pumice. These are removed by a
second rubbing in rotten stone and oil or water.

_Dull Finish and Flat Varnish._--For many purposes good finishing
requires but one under coat rubbed down and covered with a finish
coat; and this finish coat is often not allowed to retain its natural
lustre. For furniture a dull finish is much to be preferred. It is more
durable, it harmonizes better with its surroundings, and it is more
in keeping with the idea of simplicity and usefulness. In working for
a dull finish it is not so essential to secure depth and evenness of
surface as it is when a high lustre is required, and therefore fewer
coats are necessary. In fact, a dull finish may be given to furniture
without any varnish at all. Two or three coats of shellac, each well
rubbed down, give a very satisfactory result. Wax finish, to be
described later, gives beautiful effects. There are varnishes known as
flat varnishes which give a dull finish without rubbing. They are made
by dissolving beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two ounces of
the solid to a pint of the liquid, using moderate heat and mixing the
wax solution while warm with four times the quantity of warm varnish.
What is known as the old Dutch finish is obtained by using over the
proper stain one coat of wax varnish. But there is no kind of dull
finish so durable as that given by several coats of high-grade varnish,
each well rubbed down.


WAX FINISH

_How to Prepare and Apply Finishing Wax._--The simplest and at the
same time one of the most attractive methods of finishing woodwork is
rubbing it with finishing wax. This is one of the old processes which
has of late years been revived by the arts and crafts societies and
is becoming deservedly popular. Finishing wax may be purchased ready
for use or it may be made by dissolving yellow beeswax in turpentine
in the proportion of two parts wax and one of turpentine. To do this
the wax should be cut into small pieces or shavings, placed in a dish,
and covered with the liquid. The solution may be hastened by heating
in a water bath; but, if a gas flame be used for heating the water,
care should be exercised to extinguish the flame before bringing the
turpentine near, on account of the inflammable character of turpentine
vapor. This mixture, which is too thick to spread with a brush, may
be applied either hot or cold by means of a piece of soft cloth. Soft
cloths, like clean cheese cloth, should be used also in rubbing. The
rubbing should be continued for a considerable time, but it is by no
means so tedious a process as the rubbing down of the several coats of
varnish. Less rubbing is required if the wax is applied hot. One of the
greatest advantages of the wax finish is that it may be quickly applied
and immediately rubbed down, after which the furniture is ready for
use. Filling and finishing are accomplished together. It is also easy
to apply a fresh coat of wax at any time. In fact, it is desirable to
re-finish new pieces of furniture in this way several times during the
first few months of their use, and after that about once a year.


STAINING

_Object of Staining._--Up to this point the processes of finishing
considered have assumed that the wood treated is to retain its natural
colour, excepting that it may darken with age. But it is often
desirable to give artificial colours to woodwork--_i. e._, to dye or
stain it. This is done for a variety of purposes--to reduce to one tone
the different shades of the natural colour often found in the same kind
of wood, to bring out the natural beauty of the grain and texture, to
give an entirely new colour to the cheaper kinds of wood in imitation
of the more expensive kinds, and to produce tones that will harmonize
with various colour schemes. To accomplish this great variety of
results, scores of different kind of wood dyes or stains have been put
upon the market in almost countless shades and tints, but they are all
easily classified under three heads. They are oil stains, water stains,
or alcohol stains.

_A Perfect Stain._--A perfect stain, if it could be obtained, would
be a clear, limpid liquid, free from all solid particles or specks of
colouring matter that might clog the pores of the wood and interfere
with the absorption of the filler--so clear and transparent that it
would in no way obscure the grain of the wood, which in many varieties
is the chief element of beauty--so limpid that it would easily soak
deep into the pores of the wood, carrying to a considerable depth below
the surface an artificial colour which will not fade on exposure.

_Water, Alcohol, and Oil Stains Compared._--The water and alcohol
stains on the whole meet these requirements better than the oil stains
do. They are clear, and without body, and they have great penetration.
But they are not free from faults. Many of the water stains are made
from aniline dyes which are not durable. The alcohol stains, however,
are generally permanent. Both the water stains and the alcohol stains
raise the grain of the wood and are liable to show darker in corners
and on end grains and to show laps from re-brushing. The oil stains,
on the other hand, are free from these faults. They spread easily and
evenly, they do not raise the grain, they do not double up or show
laps or streaks, and they do not fade; but they have a few defects
which overbalance these good qualities. They have considerable body
which prevents them from penetrating equally all parts of the surface,
so that they do not carry in the colouring as either the water or
the alcohol stains do. Their oily nature causes them partly to close
up the filaments of the wood and thus interfere with the subsequent
process of filling. This is so bad a defect that oil stains are not
to be recommended for open-grained woods, the fine finish of which
depends so much on correct filling. They are more successful with the
close-grained woods, which need only to be surfaced with shellac or the
ordinary liquid filler.

_How Stain is Applied._--If furniture or any kind of woodwork is to
be artificially coloured, staining is the first of the finishing
operations to be attended to. The stain should be spread upon
well-cleaned surfaces by means of a brush, a cloth, or a sponge, and
allowed to stand for a few minutes so that it may penetrate well into
the wood. The surfaces should then be carefully wiped off with clean,
soft cloths or cotton waste to remove any stain that may not have
soaked into the wood, and thus prevent a streaked or painted effect.
After the stained surface is thoroughly dry, a filler, coloured to
match the stain, should be applied and rubbed well into the pores, as
already explained in the section on natural finish. The beginner will
need to be cautioned again and again not to rub the filler all off or
draw it out of the grain, but to rub it in as much as possible. He
will also need to be on his guard against the presence of moisture or
grease, which will interfere with good results.

Excellent prepared stains in great variety may be easily obtained of
dealers in painters' supplies. They will not always produce the effects
claimed for them, but with a little experimenting it is possible to
find prepared stains that will give almost any desired result. They are
somewhat expensive, however, and the amateur finisher may prefer to
develop his own stain. Following are some suggestions along this line:

_Asphaltum and Golden Oak Stain._--A good chocolate brown stain may
be produced on almost any light-coloured wood by a very thin varnish
made by colouring turpentine with asphaltum and applying with a brush.
A considerable quantity of asphaltum should be used, but not enough
to make a sticky liquid. This will need to be finished with shellac
or finishing varnish. When applied to quartered oak it produces the
beautiful effect known as golden oak. It may also be used on white wood
to give an imitation of black walnut; and Georgia pine under this stain
takes on a very attractive tone without obscuring the natural figure of
the wood.

_Mahogany._--A clever imitation of mahogany may be made by staining
birch of the right grain with logwood stain. The stain is made by
boiling together equal parts of logwood chips and water for about three
hours. While the mixture is hot, chloride of tin is added gradually
until the right shade of colour is produced. The stain should be
allowed to cool before it is applied, and then several coats may be
needed to secure the right depth of shade. The filler used should be
coloured with burnt umber and sienna. The finish may be a brilliant or
a flat varnish, or wax.

_Baywood as Mahogany._--Mahogany stain is also applied to baywood,
resulting in what commonly passes for real mahogany. The genuine
article, however, is an imported wood coming from South America,
Mexico, and Africa in several varieties; and it is a much harder wood
than the American baywood imitation. Both the birch and the baywood
imitations of mahogany may be so well stained and finished that it is
difficult to distinguish them from the imported varieties.

_Flemish Oak._--The various oak stains are worthy of special mention.
Flemish oak finish is very dark, almost black. It is prepared by first
applying a stain made of bichromate of potash dissolved in water in
the proportion of one half pound of bichromate to a gallon of water.
The solution should be strained and applied with a stiff brush. After
drying, the surface is well sand-papered and a coat of thin black stain
is applied, made by dissolving japan drop-black in turpentine. This is
allowed to stand a few minutes, then wiped off, and when the surface
is thoroughly dry a coat of thin shellac is applied. After a thorough
drying and hardening the surface is smoothed down with fine sand-paper
and finished with wax.

_Mission Oak._--The so-called mission oak finish may be in several
colours, but as a rule it is of a dull gray with the flakes slightly
reddish. The stain is made from drop-black in oil, tinged with a
little rose pink, and thinned with japan and turpentine. The mixture
should be strained through cheese cloth and applied with a staining
brush. Wax finish is invariably used for mission oak.

_Forest Green Oak._--Forest green oak is among the best of the green
effects in this wood. The stain is made by mixing two parts of chrome
green with one part of chrome yellow for the colouring material.
This is added to a mixture of three parts turpentine and one of raw
linseed oil, with a little white japan. The resulting stain should be
somewhat thinner than linseed oil. After this has been applied to the
oak surface, rubbed in and dried, it is given a coat of thin shellac
coloured with tumeric and a very little green aniline. This should have
a wax finish.

_Gray Oak._--A gray stain may be given to oak by a solution of iron
sulphate, made by dissolving a small quantity of chemically pure
crystals in water, and giving the solution a strongly acid quality by
adding a little sulphuric acid. This solution is most conveniently
used by placing it in a box tank large enough to contain the pieces of
wood to be stained, as they must soak in the solution until they are
thoroughly saturated. The pieces may be kept separate by stout cords
tied around them, and they may be held under the solution by means of
weights. When taken out they should be allowed to dry before they are
rubbed down.

_Weathered Oak._--Weathered oak stain is made by taking two ounces
of copperas and the same quantity of dry tannin, dissolving them
separately in about a quart of water, and when thoroughly dissolved
mixing them together. When applied to oak it gives it the natural
weathered tone with a slight bluish cast. It may then be oiled,
shellaced and finished with a flat varnish or wax.

_Fumed Oak and Chestnut._--But the most satisfactory method of giving
a brown tone to furniture or other woodwork, is without question, by
fuming with ammonia, though this process is limited to two woods,
viz., white oak and chestnut. All other woods, including red oak, are
deficient in tannic acid, the essential element to combine with the
ammonia gas in the production of the stain. This method requires a
fuming box of sufficient dimensions to contain the article of furniture
to be fumed. It must be carefully constructed with all its joints
made vapour proof by pasting over them strips of paper and covering
them with shellac. The top or one side of the box should be fastened
with screws, so that it may be vapour proof when the box is in use
and yet easily removed. The operation of fuming consists simply in
placing the furniture in the box with one or more shallow pans filled
with the strongest ammonia--not the household ammonia, which is too
weak--screwing the top or cover on, and allowing the apparatus to stand
from 12 to 24 hours, according to the shade desired. If the fuming box
be provided with small glass windows in its adjacent corners, a good
light will be thrown across the furniture so that the development of
colour may be observed without opening the box. When the desired shade
has been obtained and the furniture removed, it is best to give it a
good wax finish which will develop a beautiful velvety texture.

_Peculiarities of Fumed Finish._--It will be observed that the toning
of quartered oak by the fuming process develops the beauty of the grain
far better than any other process of staining; and there should also
be noted the still more remarkable fact that the contrasts of tone are
the reverse of those given by staining; _i. e._, the parts that appear
lighter in the one case are the darker parts in the other. This gives
a certain distinction to the fumed finish and furnishes a means of
detecting that which is not genuine.


WHITE ENAMEL

A vivid and very effective finish for furniture as well as for the
trim of some rooms is white enamel. It is used on new work and also
in re-finishing old furniture and other woodwork. In the latter
case the old finish, whatever it may be, must be removed and the
surfaces thoroughly sand-papered. But whether the wood be old or
not, a satisfactory enamel finish cannot be produced by using the
white varnish alone, since, like all other varnishes, it is somewhat
transparent. It is necessary, first, to coat the wood with flat
white--a paint made of white lead with some zinc oxide for hardening
and thinned with turpentine. Oil should not be used in any part of
the process. Three coats of this paint will generally be needed to
produce the right surface for the final finish. Each of these coats
should be allowed to dry and become well hardened. Two or three days,
better still a week, should be allowed for hardening between coats,
since insufficient hardening leads to cracks in the subsequent coats
and develops a tendency to chip off. When a surface is ready for the
enamel, only one coat of it should be applied, and that should be given
not less than one week to harden before it is exposed to wear. Enamel
is simply a good varnish coloured with zinc oxide ground in varnish. It
may be thinned, if necessary, with turpentine, and it is applied with a
brush like any other varnish.


PROBLEMS

Problems in filling and finishing were developed in the series of
furniture making problems in Chapter VII. It is only necessary
to bring forward the unfinished work there described and apply to it
the finishing methods outlined in this chapter. Our problems are,
therefore, the following:

_The Knock-down Bookcase._--If made up in white wood it may, like its
original, be stained in imitation of black walnut and waxed. It may,
however, be of oak, ash, or cherry, and finished to harmonize with the
furniture with which it is to be used.

_The Hanging Book Rack._--In the design for this rack it was suggested
that it might be made of white wood and given a white enamel finish, or
of baywood with a mahogany stain and varnish.

_The Umbrella Stand._--Oak was advised for this piece of furniture. It
needs to be treated with a paste filler and given two coats of varnish,
well rubbed down.

_The Magazine Stand._--Oak was suggested for this stand. The color will
depend upon the surroundings. Filling and varnishing will be required
if it be given a liquid stain, and wax finish if it be fumed.

_The Light Library Table._--Oak was mentioned as a very appropriate
wood for this table, but some lighter wood like ash may be used. It
will be remembered that all open-grained woods require treatment with a
paste filler before they are finished.

_The Heavy Library Table._--As this was designed in the mission style,
oak was chosen as the most suitable wood. It may be given the so-called
mission oak stain and a wax finish.

_The Round Centre Table._--This may be made in any of the woods
commonly used for furniture, but quartered oak was mentioned. A golden
oak finish will be found very satisfactory.

_The Bookcase with Glazed Doors._--This may be made up in ash, in
quartered oak, or in gum wood. The finish will depend upon the kind of
wood used and the furniture with which it is to be associated.

_The Library Desk and the Morris Chair._--The originals were made in
quartered oak, fumed, and waxed.

_The Hall Clock._--This may be made in quartered oak and given a
weathered oak stain and wax finish.


RE-FINISHING OLD FURNITURE

There is nothing that affords more satisfaction to one looking for
pleasing effects in household fittings than the occasional piece of
genuine old furniture repaired and re-finished. Some of the rare old
colonial designs are of exceptional merit. This is proved by the high
prices which they often command. These designs originated in the days
of the genuine hand crafts, before the invention of machine-made,
cheap furniture. The work of the older designers was characterized
by a certain individuality which gave it artistic value; and the
craftsmen who worked out these designs did their work with such care
and thoroughness that what they produced has had a lasting quality. It
is for these reasons that we find it still in existence and so much
desired.

_Caution as to Repairs._--In the work of renovating old furniture,
problems are met which are very different from those which have to be
considered in the production of new work. All questions of design are
settled. There is generally enough of the original article to show what
the design was. The problem is one of restoration; we must supply
the missing parts and re-finish the whole. The first thing to do,
therefore, with any piece of genuine antique furniture is to look it
over carefully from the point of view of the cabinet-maker, note its
defects, supply the missing or loosened parts, and mend the breaks. It
will be found that the wood is generally exceedingly dry and brittle on
account of its age, and that it will therefore need to be handled more
carefully than new wood; and, in matching up, it will often be found
desirable to make use of parts of other old pieces rather than to add
new wood to the old. This is especially true of veneering, which cannot
be well matched in any other way. Old bits of veneer, on the other
hand, may be so deftly fitted into the spaces where they are needed
that the grafting is entirely obscured by subsequent finishing.

_Scraping._--After the necessary repairs have been made, the next
thing to be done is to remove the old finish. If the varnish is dry
and brittle and somewhat cracked, it may be removed by means of a
well-sharpened scraper, great care being taken, however, not to
injure the wood surface, especially at the corners and edges. If the
scraper does not take off the varnish well at certain points, fine
sand-papering may be resorted to. It is generally wise, also, to give
the entire surface a light sand-papering before it is cleaned up for
finishing.

_The Varnish Remover._--It often happens, however, that the scraper
will not accomplish the desired result. In that case the liquid varnish
remover is necessary. This may be found at the paint stores. The best
formulas for producing these varnish and paint removers are known only
to the manufacturers. It is therefore not wise for the young finisher
to attempt to make his own remover. He should provide himself with a
can of it and a bristle brush with which to apply it to the furniture.
After putting on a good coat he should let it remain a few minutes
and then try to scrape off the softened finish with a putty knife.
If it doesn't come off readily, it should stand a little longer. The
amount of time required depends entirely upon the hardness of the old
finish. But in due time it will become soft and can be very quickly and
effectually removed. A putty knife, however, will not remove it all.
After scraping off as much as possible from the plain surfaces and from
the corners, a careful washing with turpentine or benzine will clean
off what remains. It is of the greatest importance that none of the old
varnish nor any of the varnish remover should be permitted to remain.
Either of them will show through the finish as stains on the broad
surfaces and collect in the corners when the new finish is put on.

_Re-finishing._--The re-finishing process is much like that described
for new work, the chief exception being that there is generally no need
of filling unless it has been found necessary to add new wood in making
the repairs. Generally speaking, the re-finishing begins with the
surfacing, which may be done with thin shellac coloured to match the
stain of the furniture. This is sand-papered lightly before receiving
the one or more coats of finishing varnish necessary to produce the
desired effect. Very often all that is needed is a well rubbed down wax
finish.


PROBLEM: RE-FINISHING AN ANTIQUE MAHOGANY TABLE

The table with which this problem deals was found in an old furniture
shop among a large number of pieces probably of equal antiquity but
of poor design; for all old furniture was not conceived on beautiful
lines. Much of it was quite as ugly as some of the modern furniture.
This table, however, when separated from the rubbish which almost
concealed it, was found to have good proportions, with simple but
graceful elements designed to make it useful as well as attractive. It
was a drop-leaf table, the leaves being cut in with a double curve at
each of the four corners. The legs were of turned stock and fluted,
terminating in brass thimbles with casters. One leg was broken off, one
of the leaves had broken away entirely from its hinges and the other
was partly broken, the table top had received some hard knocks, and
the entire surface was so begrimed with dust and dirt that it was with
difficulty that one could tell the kind of wood of which the table was
made. It took some imagination to conceive the possibilities which lay
in this much abused and dilapidated old relic.

The first thing to do was to wipe off the dust and dirt as well as
possible with a damp sponge. The part of the top that remained on the
frame was then removed so that the repairs could be easily made. The
broken leg was replaced by boring each of the broken parts and setting
them together with a 3/4-inch dowel, glued in. The brass tips and
casters were removed and set aside to be burnished. The missing parts
of the top were replaced by new pieces of baywood, fitted in, glued,
and stained to match the original wood. After the necessary repairs had
been made the entire table was treated with varnish remover and the
old finish scraped off with a putty knife. This part of the process
was completed by washing all the surfaces thoroughly with turpentine,
carefully picking out with a pointed knife from corners, cracks, and
openings of any kind, all remnants of the old finish and of the varnish
remover. After carefully wiping off the results of this treatment with
clean cheese cloth all the broad surfaces were then smoothed off with
fine sand-paper. It was found that the wood was well filled, so that
all it now needed was a final finishing with wax. The transformation
from the begrimed old table found in the shop to a graceful and
beautiful article of antique furniture was complete.




IX

HAND WEAVING

    And Aphrodite came to comfort them
    With incense, luscious honey, and fragrant wine;
    And Heré gave them beauty of face and soul
    Beyond all women; purest Artemis
    Endowed them with her stature and white grace;
    And Pallas taught their hands to flash along
    Her famous looms.

     The "Daughters of Pandarus" (from the "Odyssey," Lib. XX).
     Translation by Mrs. Browning.


Among the home industries which the arts and crafts societies have
lately revived, perhaps none invite more interest or deserve greater
honour than weaving with the hand loom. Weaving is an ancient art. If
we were to seek its origin we should have to go back to the time when
men adopted homespun clothing in place of rude coverings made from the
skins of animals. That was a great change, for it meant the beginning
not only of the textile industries but of civilization itself. It is no
wonder that the distaff and the loom were highly honoured in ancient
mythologies. Not less honour is due the spinning wheels and looms
of our grandmothers, which played an important part in the early
beginnings of our own history. The New England colonists spoke with
pride of communities which showed progress in the weaving of cloth;
and this was then largely a home industry in the hands of honourable
women. It was a work of necessity, but not without love and devotion.
Many evidences remain in beautiful coverlets or bedspreads, in towels
of homespun flax, in durable linen sheets and table-cloths--examples
of unfailing patience, great ingenuity, and marvellous skill--handed
down from generation to generation to their present fortunate and proud
possessors.

[Illustration: Weaving a Rug. Plate VII]

_The Primitive Loom._--In the Orient, where our choicest rugs are made,
two trees growing near each other, some strings and pieces of bamboo,
and a few simple accessories, are all the worker requires. This is a
primitive loom. The modern hand loom is the same in principle; and the
looms of our factories do not differ from it essentially. While it is
true that their productive power has been enormously multiplied, this
great improvement, which was actually one of the chief causes of a
great industrial revolution, was due mainly to the inventive genius of
two men who harnessed the motive powers of nature to the English hand
looms.

[Illustration: Shuttle and bobbin]

_Warp and Woof._--The fundamental process in all weaving is essentially
the same; and it is exceedingly simple. It consists in passing one set
of threads between two other sets of threads which cross each other
alternately and are moved first up and then down to allow the passage
of the shuttle with its bobbin and thread. The set of threads which
cross each other and which, by being moved up and down, interlock the
thread which is passed between them, is known as the _warp_. The thread
which the shuttle carries across and between the warp threads is called
the _woof_. By careful selection of materials, by skilful design in the
dyeing and arrangement of these materials, and by proper management of
the warp and woof to express the design, the most beautiful Oriental
rugs are fashioned; and, though we may not be able to reproduce these
in our homes, very beautiful and very useful things may be made upon
the hand loom by those who have the necessary enthusiasm and patience.

[Illustration: The hand loom]

[Illustration: The reed]

_What the Hand Loom is._--The hand loom consists of four uprights or
posts, joined on two sides at the top and bottom by cross pieces.
Attached to the lower cross piece are two other uprights, one on each
side of the loom, bolted in such a manner as to give free play back
and forth. This is the beater. These cross pieces are grooved on their
inner edges, and into this groove is slipped the reed, which is a frame
divided into sections by short, stiff wires, making from 10 to 25 or
more sections to the inch. It is called a reed because it was formerly
made from reeds. The sections of the reed are called dents, and through
each one is to be threaded a single strand of the warp. From the upper
cross pieces extend two other uprights, one on each side, to a height
of about two feet above the general framework. They are united at
the top by a round piece called the roll, over which, near each end,
are passed cords attached to pulleys which in turn carry other cords
fastened by means of screw eyes to inch-wide sticks extending across
the width of the loom. These sticks are in pairs and carry cords or
wires of uniform length through the centre of each of which a thread
of the warp is passed by means of an eye in each wire, as through the
dent of the reed. This is called the harness. There must be at least
two of them, and there may be more. Two are necessary for the simplest
weaving of a plain surface, and more than two if the work is to be more
complex, as is required for scarfs with fancy borders, cushions, or
any figured products of the loom. Near each end of the loom are two
rollers to which the two ends of the warp threads are attached when the
loom is set up for weaving. These rollers are called beams. Over one of
them the woven product passes as the loom is operated, while the other
holds the unwoven warp. At the back of the loom is still another cross
piece, underneath which pedals are fastened. These pedals connect by
chains with the harnesses in such a manner that when the foot is placed
on one of them the cords attached to it play over the pulleys, throwing
the harness and the warp threads which it carries below the level of
the other set or sets of warp threads. An ingenious device of cogs at
the side of the loom holds the work taut and enables the worker to let
out fresh warp and also to roll up completed work.


THE PROCESS

_Preparing the Warp._--When the essential parts of the hand loom and
their uses are understood, the amateur weaver is prepared to make ready
the warp and attach it to the machine. The thread or warp is taken
from spools or cones, four threads at one time, which constitute what
is called a bout. After determining how many threads will be required,
allowing so many threads to form one inch of the woven cloth, the
operator must decide how wide her warp is to be and how long. With the
width, the length, and the number of threads to the inch in mind, she
proceeds to wind upon her warping bars or frame the requisite amount
until she has it all in one great skein. In putting this upon the bars
or frames she should be very careful to cross each bout--_i. e._, each
four threads--so that one bout shall go above and one below, in order
to allow the introduction of a pair of sticks, called lease-sticks or
leash-sticks. These attachments keep the order of the threads so that
they may be drawn into the harness in the same order in which they are
wound on the beam.

_Warping the Loom._--To warp the loom the operator loosens one end of
the skein and, passing it from the warping bars to the loom, attaches
it to the roller or beam at the back of the loom, after carefully
dividing it so that it may be evenly distributed. At this point an
attachment called a rake is firmly fastened to the loom by cords and a
certain number of threads placed in each division. By the aid of the
lease-sticks, which are inserted, and with the assistance of a second
person to hold the skein firm, the threads are wound upon the beam. The
rake is now removed and the worker proceeds to set up the piece.

[Illustration: Warping hook]

_Drawing in the Warp._--As has already been explained, two harnesses
only will need to be used for simple weaving. Taking the first bout
of four threads, the weaver draws the first thread through the centre
of the first loop in the first harness, or the one to which the
right-hand pedal is attached. The next thread is put through the centre
of the first loop of the second harness, or the one attached to the
left-hand pedal. The third is drawn through the second loop of the
harness connected with the right-hand pedal, and the fourth, in turn,
through the second loop of the harness attached to the left-hand pedal.
Great care must be exercised that no mistakes are made; for a single
misplaced thread means that the work of drawing in must be all done
over again. A special kind of hook is used to assist in drawing in the
warp. When the drawing in is completed properly, the operator begins
at the right-hand side of the loom and, measuring the reed, allows
one half the width of web from the centre of the reed and draws each
thread through each dent in regular order. When this is done it is only
necessary to connect the warp threads to the canvas of the beam by
means of heavier threads which hold the warp out in the loom, test the
work, and proceed joyously with the weaving.

_Beating Up the Woof._--The weaver presses the right-hand pedal, and
every alternate thread separates from the other, leaving a space
between the two sets of warp threads for the shuttle to be thrown from
right to left, carrying the woof threads through. The operator then
draws this thread up at the side to make a good selvedge and brings
home the beater, thus pressing the woof into the warp. A sheer fabric
requires a light stroke of the beater, while firm cloth requires more
force. Releasing the right pedal, the operator presses the left, which
causes the warp threads to cross, holding more firmly the woof threads
just thrown. The shuttle now passes from left to right, carrying
through another woof thread which, in turn, is beaten up as before. So
the work goes merrily on with the throws of the shuttle alternating
from right to left and from left to right, interspersed with the
strokes of the beater.

[Illustration: Hand-Made Towels. Plate VIII]


PROBLEM: MAKING A RUG

_The Design._--This problem, like all others in house decoration,
involves in its initial stages questions of design. Before
planning the rug it is necessary to know what use the rug is to
have--whether it is to be for a hall, a living room, a dining-room,
or a chamber, and whether it is to be used upon hard wood floors or
with a carpet. This is a question of colours, and of materials; for
the designer must avoid too sharp contrasts in colour, not only in
the rug itself but in its relation to the other colours with which
it should harmonize, and the materials used must not display glaring
inconsistencies of texture. Unless the beginner has special talent as
a colourist it is not wise to attempt the introduction of too many
colours in one piece of work. If the warp is dark it is usually better
to use light or medium woof. If several shades are used in the body of
the rug, better results are obtained by using for the border or end
decoration one or more plain colours which match or readily blend with
the principal colours of the body of the rug.

[Illustration: Hand-Made Rugs. Plate IX]

_Materials: Denim._--There are many materials suitable for rug making.
Denim in moss or forest green makes a rug fit for a queen. This should
be woven on a blue or green warp thread of carpet size. In preparing
the woof it will be necessary to cut the denim on a true bias into
strips from 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch wide. The latter width is better.
In cutting, the best method is to fold back one corner of a square cut
end along the selvedge, forming a fold across the cloth at an angle of
45 degrees. Crease this fold carefully and make the first cut along
the fold. With a yardstick or a straight edge of some kind rule off
lightly with a piece of chalk or soft pencil strips of the proper width
for the succeeding cuts, taking great pains to maintain a true bias.
When a sufficient amount has been cut, the pieces should be ravelled
or fringed on each edge by drawing them quickly through a button
hook. There is a certain knack in this, but it is soon acquired. The
fringed strips should then be fastened together at the ends by means
of overhand stitching, trimming off neatly all projecting corners. The
moss-like effect when woven is improved if the woof, as soon as it is
prepared, is not rolled into balls but left in suitable lengths for
filling the shuttle. A special form of shuttle without a bobbin or
spool is used for carrying the woof cloth for rug weaving. Its simple
construction is shown in the illustration. The woof is wound endwise
and unwound in weaving by turning the shuttle.

[Illustration: Shuttle for woof cloth]

Another good material for rug making is found in various kinds of
woollen cloth. Warm, durable, and handsome effects may be obtained by
using a gray wool with catawba or some other warm shade of red as the
end decoration, with set figures for the body of the rug. Geometric
designs, arrows, swastika, the pine tree, and many other forms are
possible. Very dainty colours also may be combined in rugs for chamber
use. Materials for these may be obtained from worn lawn dresses,
discarded silkaleen and mull, which work up beautifully with one or two
plain colours reserved for use in the borders.

_Combination of Blue and White._--Blue and white is always a happy
combination; and exceedingly dainty creations may be woven, to be
placed perhaps in the guest chamber, by using a woof of old blue with
a white warp, combined with white borders and a white knotted fringe.
A vine-like effect may be obtained in the border by twisting blue and
white together in opposite ways and weaving in a plain thread of white
or blue between the two. Another happy combination of blue and white
results from weaving on a blue warp a woof of white outing flannel, cut
and fringed as described for the moss rug of denim, with a border of
old blue and figures of the same colour. For a chamber or for a bath
room in white such a rug as this will leave nothing to be desired.

_A Weaving Design._--It has just been said that design in rug making is
a question of colours and of materials. It is already apparent that it
is more than that. It is largely a question of procedure in the process
of weaving. That this is so may be shown in the following account of
the making of a blue and white rug. The thought was to produce a rug
with five stripes of blue running lengthwise, with white figures at
regular intervals through the middle of the rug. To accomplish this
result two threads of white warp were removed from the reed and harness
every two inches for a space of ten inches on each side, thus making
what may be called a weaving design; for the blue stripes, it will be
easily seen, had to appear to the number of five on each side when the
rug was woven. The white figures were formed by first throwing the
blue cloth or woof through the warp by the usual throw of the shuttle
and, before beating it up, threading into the warp white cloth in the
desired pattern, after which the woof and pattern were beaten up
together. For the pattern five threads or pieces of white cloth were
used, two of which were 6 inches in length and three 2 inches, the two
longer ones being placed between the shorter ones as illustrated. A
space of 7 inches was left between the white figures, the location of
which was carefully determined by counting the threads, both of warp
and of woof, so that in weaving the figures should appear at the right
place. The result of this weaving design was a very beautiful rug.

[Illustration: White figure in blue rug]

_Another Example of Weaving Design._--This feature of rug designing
is capable of indefinite expansion. Perhaps one more example may be
given. The object was to produce a rug of medium dark centre with an
8-inch border all around of a darker colour. This effect was produced
by first weaving 8 inches of the dark end border, which was of mixed
goods showing several dark colours contrasting happily. Having reached
the place where the medium centre was to begin, a woof thread of this
medium colour and of the right length was joined each time to short
pieces of woof of the border colour so that, as the weaving progressed
along the length of the centre, not only the centre colour appeared
in its proper place but 8 inches of border on each side. When the
proper length of the centre had been woven, the rug was finished by
weaving another 8 inches of the border colour. The result was a rug of
individuality and charm.

_Great Variety of Material._--Endless combinations will occur to any
one who becomes interested in this captivating art. The field for
colour design is almost without limit. No material is so old and
useless as to be despised by the clever rug maker. Old bed ticking
with its blue and white stripes cut on the bias makes a very desirable
combination when woven on a blue warp with a plain blue border. A
charming mottled effect in one instance was produced by a yarn which
was ravelled from an old raw silk portière of a mahogany shade and
wound into balls with finely cut strips of tan cloth, the balls being
rewound several times. This was used as the woof for the centre of
the rug. The border was made of a weaving thread of the unravelled
mahogany yarn, doubled several times to give thread of a size equal
to that of the tan cloth. Discarded clothing in which the prevailing
colours are red, when made up into woof threads and woven on a white
warp, gives a charming effect which may be strengthened or toned down
by a border combination as desired. Dyes may, of course, be used if the
colours of the weaving threads made up from old cloths and discarded
clothing are not suited to the design that is to be worked out.

_Weaving the Rug._--When the design for the rug has been thoroughly
worked out, determining the colours, materials to be used, and
the method of procedure, the warp and the woof threads should be
prepared and the warp attached to the loom, as already explained in
the discussion of the general process of weaving. Further details of
procedure are not needed here. The thing to do is to weave a rug as
designed. The next thing to do is to design and weave another rug, and
then another and so on. As in most crafts so in weaving, experience
is the great teacher--a teacher who demands faithful work, who finds
lessons of value in every failure and abundant satisfaction in every
success. Some of these successes were found in the rugs illustrated
opposite page 252.

Rug weaving is probably the simplest of all weaving and therefore
a good problem with which to begin. After serving a satisfactory
apprenticeship in this field the amateur will have acquired sufficient
knowledge of design and sufficient skill in the art to pass to more
difficult problems. This will take her out into a large field of
opportunity. Portières, window draperies, table scarfs, bedspreads,
and covers for pillows and cushions in endless variety will suggest
themselves to the ambitious worker. In all these, as has been seen in
the case of rug making, design is all important. The management of the
loom is much the same in all plain weaving. What differences there
are will be found, for the most part, in the weaving designs. In the
following problems are described some of the special features involved
in the other forms of weaving.


PROBLEM: PORTIÈRES AND COUCH COVERS

_Suggestions for the Design._--If the loom is wide enough these may
be woven in one piece; but usually it is necessary to weave them in
sections or breadths. In this case, of course, they must be afterward
neatly joined. The possibilities in colour design are naturally varied.
They may be woven with a woof of plain colour contrasting with the
colour of the warp, in stripes, or with plain centres with striped
ends. Harmony of colour effects is always to be sought. Depth and
richness may sometimes be obtained to a highly satisfactory degree by a
generous use of black. Materials may be yarns, bits of silk or velvet,
or pieces of fine, soft woollen goods. The warp may be silk or linen
or mercerized cotton. Beautiful portières have been woven by leaving
out two threads of warp at regular intervals, giving a loose and fluffy
effect. Silk and wool pieces may be used in the woof, alternating
with one or more threads of wool yarn of any desired shade; and, if
of the same colour as the warp used, they will impart a very decided
tone to the whole product. In portières, the general appearance is
much improved if the woof is not beaten up hard into the warp. The
soft beating gives a resulting texture that is more pliable and more
suitable for hanging in easy folds such as is demanded in portières.
Couch covers, however, which will have to resist more wear and tear,
should be beaten up harder. In preparing the silk and wool pieces the
cloth should be cut into very fine strips, joined by carefully lapping
the ends, and, by cutting away a part of the cloth, making the joint
uniform in size. If the material is cloth of ordinary thickness 1/2
an inch is quite wide enough for strips. The length of the pieces used
may vary greatly, though they may be somewhat different in colour. They
may vary all the way from a few inches to a length long enough to weave
an inch in the portière or cover. This makes it very easy to secure
a source of supply for the material in saving old garments and short
pieces of cloth for the specific purpose of making up the woof threads
for these products of the loom. Almost any household will be able to
save enough in a short time to furnish the material for a beautiful
pair of portières or a couch cover which will be durable in quality,
easy to clean, attractive in colour, and satisfactory from every point
of view.


PROBLEM: WINDOW DRAPERIES AND CURTAINS

_The Design._--Curtains of one colour or of several are woven on the
simple loom with two harnesses. They may be of the soft cream tint,
the material for which is easily obtained and the effect of which, in
softening the light passing through them, leaves little to be desired.
But if a little colour be required, the weaving design may be easily
changed to secure this result. One may, for example, weave at first 7
inches of the plain cream. This will give woven material enough for
a 2-inch hem at the bottom of the curtain and 5 inches before the
beginning of a coloured border. The border may consist of two threads
of colour alternating with two threads of the cream, thus making a
stripe of about 7 inches in width. Following this may come 8 to 10
inches of the plain cream, followed in turn by a narrow stripe of the
same colour as the border, 3 inches wide, in turn followed by another
10 inches of the plain cream and another narrow stripe, and so on,
alternately, until the required length of the curtain has been woven.
If desired, a top border may be woven in, though it is well to make it
somewhat narrower than the one at the bottom--say about 5 inches--and
it must be added so that it will show below the hem. In any case the
top of the curtain should be woven plain, allowing for hemming, and
also for shirring if a rod is to be inserted for hanging the curtain.
Vertical stripes are often desirable in curtains, especially if the
room is so low studded as to invite the employment of every possible
means for making it seem higher. Such stripes may be made by using two
colours for the warp--as, for example, blue and white or green and
white--with one of these colours as woof.

[Illustration: An Alcove With Window Draperies, Pillow Covers, Window
Seat Cover, Chair Seat and Moss Green Rug. All Hand Woven]

_Importance of Selecting Good Warp._--The successful working out
of this problem depends very largely upon the proper selection of
materials. While many things may be used for warp with a certain
degree of success, there are fine points to be observed in weaving as
in all the art-crafts, and the real beauty of the result depends upon
giving due attention to these points. It is always well to remember
that in all weaving the warp plays a most important part. Mercerized
cotton warp works out effectively with silk or linen woof or with a
combination of both, and retains its beauty after being laundered many
times. In the soft cream shade it has almost the appearance of silk,
at a much less cost. But silk may often be obtained at a low price
if the weaver lives in the neighbourhood of a silk mill. Bargains in
small lots of unsalable colours may be secured with which the weaver
may do wonders; and if the colours are not good the silk may be dyed
at small expense. Our grandmothers saved their tea grounds for a week
or more, boiled them, and made a dye which gave a beautiful gray warp.
They were, in fact, very particular about their warping threads. Not
everything would suit them. They learned from experience that the
wearing quality of goods is improved by having the warp stronger and
harder twisted than the filling. It was common for them to spin a
certain thread for this purpose. Exquisite results follow the use of
a fine linen warp in white or natural colour with linen or silk for
filling. Striking and beautiful also, in its way, is the very coarse
linen warp.

_Variety in Woof Threads._--A very pleasing effect in sash curtains
or in full length window draperies is produced by weaving heavy
threads alternately with fine threads, using two shuttles or bobbins,
one holding the heavy thread and the other the fine one. Two or more
threads may be alternated in this way as the fancy of the designer
prompts; and this style of weaving may be confined to borders, leaving
the body of the fabric plain, or the borders may be woven of the solid,
heavy threads and the body of the curtains or draperies ribbed with the
alternate coarse and fine threads. Such curtains are very beautiful in
cream white; but colour may be used if the colours are fast so that the
curtains may be successfully laundered.


PATTERN WEAVING

Before undertaking more difficult problems in weaving it will be
necessary to explain in general two important processes. The first
one is the process of pattern weaving; the second, dyeing. Among the
heirlooms treasured by many families are the beautiful blue and white
coverlets or bedspreads and the hand-woven table-cloths and towels. No
one with strong domestic tastes who has been fortunate enough to see
these products of home industry can have failed to be charmed with the
wonderfully wrought designs and with the quaint names by which they
were once well known; for our grandmothers designated these designs by
such names as Spring Flowers, Governor's Garden, the Path of the Roses,
Flowers of Lebanon, Ladies' Delight, Fairies Ring, and doubtless by
many more names which have been lost. This work in pattern design is
wrought by the use not of two pedals and harnesses, right and left, as
used in the first three problems, but by the use of several additional
harnesses.

_To Be Learned by Experimenting._--If the beginner in weaving has
mastered the use of the simple loom with two harnesses it is possible
to extend her knowledge and skill to the successful operation of a
pattern weaving loom. But the procedure is too technical and too varied
to be described in detail as directions for a practical problem for
amateurs. It is far better to experiment with a loom of this kind
under the guidance of some person competent to point out the way step
by step. Nor will it be possible, in a brief description of this
somewhat intricate subject, to suggest ideas for original weaving
designs to ambitious beginners who wish to take up pattern weaving.
Copies of the traditional designs may be obtained as material for study
and practice. After a little it will be possible to make variations and
so lead to the delight of originating simple and perhaps more elaborate
new patterns.

[Illustration: Hand Woven Window Draperies, Couch Cover, Slumber Robe
and Pillow Covers. Plate X]

[Illustration: A written pattern with a variety of figures woven from
it]

_How Patterns Are Written._--Complete working directions for pattern
weaving will therefore not be attempted in this chapter; but it may be
possible to point out a few leading facts and principles which will be
of assistance to the experimenter who ventures to take up by herself
this interesting application of the art of weaving. Patterns for this
work are plainly written out from right to left on cross section
paper, as shown in the upper part of the accompanying illustration,
each horizontal section of which corresponds to one of the harnesses
of the loom and the pedal attached to it. If we have a four-harness
loom, as would be required for working the pattern and weaving the
figures illustrated, the right-hand pedal and the harness connected
with it, which is the one farthest from the operator, are designated
by the number 1, and correspond to that harness number in the pattern.
Following in order, the next three pedals and connected harnesses
are numbered 2, 3, and 4 to correspond with the same numbers in the
pattern. Turning now to the vertical sections of the pattern, we shall
find that each one corresponds to a certain warp thread, so that when
the pattern is "drawn in"--_i. e._, when the warp for weaving the
pattern is attached to the loom--we shall find the thread of the warp
which is to be drawn through the first loop or wire indicated by a mark
on the section of the pattern corresponding to that warp thread and to
the number of the harness through which it is drawn. Thus, according to
the pattern shown in the illustration, the first thread is to be drawn
into the 3d harness, the 2d thread into the 4th harness, and 3d thread
into the 3d harness, and so on alternately until we reach the 8th
thread, which is drawn into the 2d harness; the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th,
and 12th threads are drawn alternately into the 2d and 3d harnesses,
and the 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, and 17th are drawn alternately into the
1st and 2d harnesses. This process is now continued, as will be clearly
understood by reference to the pattern, up to and including the 42d
thread, when one drawing in of the pattern will have been completed.
A further study of the pattern shows that the marks on lines 3 and 4
form a continuously alternating series; and similarly that those on
2 and 3, 1 and 2, and 1 and 4 form also a continuously alternating
series. But these numbers, however paired, correspond to the harnesses
into which the warp threads, indicated by the numbers 1 to 42, are
drawn. It thus appears that after we have drawn in as many warp threads
as the pattern calls for once around in the order indicated in the
pattern, we have prepared the loom for weaving one of these patterns.
We must therefore draw in the rest of the warp threads in the same
order as those already drawn in, thus repeating the drawing in of the
pattern as many times as required for the width of the piece to be
woven. The illustration shows two "repeats" of the pattern.

_Operation of the Harnesses._--Having explained the method of drawing
in the pattern, we may now study the movement of the harnesses
necessary to guide the warp properly for the weaving of the pattern. It
has been noted that, with the pattern under consideration, harnesses
1 and 3 hold a continuous line of alternating warp threads, leaving
harnesses 2 and 4 to take up all the intervening warp threads. If
then the operator should throw down pedals 1 and 3 together, and
alternately 2 and 4 also together, the warp threads would be crossed
exactly as in plain weaving. Bringing out a pattern in weaving must,
of course, require a variation of the pedal movement from that used
in plain weaving. Now, upon reference to the illustration it will
also be noted that in writing the pattern, or in drawing it in, no
two threads have ever come together on the same harness. If the 1st
thread has been drawn into the 3d harness, and the 2d thread into the
4th harness, as shown in the pattern illustrated, the operator begins
the weaving of the pattern by throwing down the 3d and 4th pedals
together and throwing the shuttle which carries the pattern thread.
This operation is what weavers call a "pick." Each pick of the pattern
thread is represented in the diagram (page 268) by a broken black line
running across the pattern. Thus the diagram of the first design shown
indicates that there are 6 throws of the shuttle alternately over and
back, or 6 picks of the pattern thread, for each corresponding section
of this design. But between every two picks of the pattern thread there
must be a pick of the plain weave, requiring, as has already been
explained, the pressing down of either the 1st and 3d pair of pedals
together when the shuttle is thrown from the right side, or of the 2d
and 4th if thrown from the left side. It is evident, then, that there
must be two shuttles prepared for carrying the woof threads. One of
these is to be used for the plain weave and the other for the pattern
weave. The shuttle used for the plain weave is usually threaded with a
fine thread of linen, though this, of course, is subject to variation
according to the design of the weaver. The pattern weaving shuttle
should carry a coarser thread, which may be of silk, linen, wool, or
mercerized cotton.

_Variations in Pattern._--From the fact that a carefully written
pattern is necessary in preparing a four-harness loom for pattern
weaving, one would naturally infer that the pattern must be closely
followed in the weaving process. And so it must if the pattern be woven
as written; but, after the drawing in, it is by no means necessary to
follow the written pattern. As the weaving progresses it is easy to
see many variations in pattern which may be woven upon one drawing
in--patterns so varied as to seem to hold very little relation to each
other. In fact, one of the delights of weaving with a pattern loom is
to devise ways of modifying simple patterns, elaborating them into
new weaving designs, producing unique and sometimes very interesting
original figures. We have only to remember that patterns are made by
the order and number of the overshots--_i. e._, the throws of the
shuttle carrying the pattern threads--and that the overshots in the
same horizontal and vertical lines are produced by the same pair. In
the pattern illustrated the overshots are made by 2 and 3, by 1 and
2, by 1 and 4, or by 3 and 4, not counting 1 and 3 and 2 and 4, which
are the pairs for plain weaves. We should also remember that the last
end in one overshot is usually the first one in the next. Examples of
two variations in design that may be woven from the original written
pattern, to which we have already referred, are illustrated in the
diagram and probably at least a dozen more variations are possible.


PROBLEM: A BORDERED TABLE SCARF

This problem will require the use of the four-harness loom. The first
thing to do is to procure the written pattern for the border and draw
it in. When the drawing in is completed and the weaving is begun, the
first step in the process is to weave a few inches of the plain cloth.
In doing this, however, we shall, of course, find that the pressing
of the right-hand and left-hand pedals as in simple weaving will not
accomplish the desired result; for it has already been explained that
the pedals of a four-harness loom must be worked in certain pairs to
produce a plain weave. It will be remembered that to do plain weaving
with the warp drawn in as required by the pattern illustrated on page
268, it is necessary to press pedals 1 and 3 together alternately with
2 and 4--_i. e._, both pedals of each pair must be pressed at the same
time to produce the same effect as that produced by the alternate
movements of the right and left pedals in simple weaving.

When a sufficient length of plain cloth has been woven, the written
pattern for the weaving of the border design must be faithfully
consulted and the right pairs of pedals pressed down in proper order
for the weaving of the pattern. The second or weaving shuttle carries
the bobbin, which is filled with the colour required in the pattern.
Any changes of colour required by the design are easily produced by
inserting a new bobbin filled with the desired colour.

_The Design._--A great variety of design is possible in table scarfs.
It is common to weave in a narrow beading of whatever colour may have
been chosen, following this by a few threads of white, and this in
turn by a narrow band of the colour of the border with some slight
suggestion of the pattern, then more of the plain white and finally
the full pattern of the border. The centre of the table scarf is simply
a matter of plain weaving in white or possibly in some solid colour,
while the other end of the scarf must be woven with the same border and
bands as were woven at first, but in the reverse order.

_Variations in Design._--One pleasing style of decoration is found
in repeating the border several times with inch-wide spaces between.
Another variety requires a heavy border at the ends, with narrow ones
at short intervals throughout the length. Shadow borders, so-called,
are also common, and may alternate with borders of colour or may
constitute the entire decoration. Shadow borders are heavy borders
woven in the cream or body colour of the scarf instead of being in a
contrasting shade. In order to make them stand out well it is necessary
to use a coarser thread than is required for the colour borders. A gray
linen plain weave is often embellished in white with delicate effect.
There is also a heavy linen thread which is good for scarf borders. It
is obtainable in dainty colours, and the heavy thread seems to bring
out the patterns in greater perfection. Darning silks in fast colours
are also employed, but these should be woven double in order to obtain
the best effect. They are found in the market in short lengths and in
such attractive colours as Delft blue, reseda green, pink, and catawba.
The last two colours, used with linen in the natural shade, make a
happy combination.

Scarfs should be woven from 20 to 24 inches wide and about 1-1/2 yards
long, unless some special use requires that they should be of different
length. Not only do they make pleasing table covers, but they are
useful as tray cloths, and from them charming sewing or embroidery
aprons may be fashioned by folding one end over, tying it with ribbons,
and arranging pockets to hold the work. One scarf will make two aprons.
Fancy bags are also woven on the same general lines as scarfs, but
the width needs to be only 8 or 10 inches. These may be woven of the
pattern throughout, or they may be striped with bands or borders.
Lined with silk and finished with ribbons or cords, they are very much
admired for embroidery and other fancy work.


DYEING

In the discussion of the problem of hand weaving, frequent reference
has been made to the use of coloured materials. While it is possible to
obtain many good colours in the market, it is much more satisfactory
to make these colours at home by the use of the dye pot. In former
times, when hand weaving was general, there was no other way; and,
in fact, dyeing and weaving may well be considered now, as they were
then, sister arts. When the wool was washed, carded into rolls, spun
into yarn, and again doubled and twisted, it was, generally speaking,
still necessary to treat the yarn with some permanent dye before
weaving it into cloth. One notable exception was found in the natural
gray homespun, which was of yarn spun from the wool of both the black
and the white sheep carded together. The modern worker with the hand
loom will find almost the same necessity as our grandmothers did for a
knowledge of the art of dyeing. Seldom will she find at hand just the
shade or colour required by the design of the piece to be woven. Much
of the material that is worked up for the woof of rugs, for example,
will be found to be so faded or spotted that it would poorly repay one
for the labour of weaving it up in that condition. And even the new
material, which it is often necessary to procure for plain weaving, for
pattern weaving, and for use in borders, will often need a bath in the
dye pot in order to furnish the tone of colour needed.

_Some Good Points in Dyeing._--Good results in dyeing are obtained by
using the prepared dyes of the markets, mixing together more than
one colour often, after some experimenting, in order to produce the
desired shade. Instead of mixing the dye one may, if she chooses, dye
first in one colour and top off with another. A fine permanent green
is obtained by dyeing thread or cloth a good yellow and topping with a
blue bath. Green and blue dye used together give neither green nor blue
but a blending of both colours, which is exceedingly pleasing. In all
cases it is better to make the dye bath weak, leaving the article to be
dyed in the bath a long time rather than to keep it a shorter time in
a stronger dye. The advantage is not only greater permanency of colour
but also greater certainty in the result; for one can watch the process
of dyeing more easily and guard against the colours becoming too dark.
The material which remains in the dye bath until it takes practically
all the colour from it may generally be depended upon neither to fade
nor crock.

_Some Common Dyes._--The dull, soft colours, made generations ago
from barks and teas with alum as a mordant, had artistic qualities
and were generally permanent. It is well worth while to experiment in
this direction. Straw colour may be made from the old-fashioned herb
saffron; orange comes from madder and fustic; yellow is obtained
from powdered dock root; rusty nails boiled in vinegar with a bit of
copperas give a good black dye, useful also in freshening black yarns
that have acquired a dull or faded colour. White maple bark boiled
in water makes a fine medium brown which may be made fast by first
treating the cloth or yarn to be dyed in it with a solution of alum. A
permanent and fine nankeen colour may be made from a pail of lye with a
piece of copperas half the size of an egg boiled in it. In fact, nearly
everything which possesses colour may be considered a dye. Vegetable
substances are generally in themselves more permanent, but most dyes
need to be fixed or "set" by the use of some mordant. All this will
mean much experimenting, of course, unless one is fortunate enough to
possess an old receipt book with its quaint allusions to mordants,
kettles of brass, and vessels of pewter. The use of the prepared dyes,
which may be easily obtained with explicit directions, is generally
satisfactory and of course somewhat easier; and yet the interest which
inspires one to cultivate the art of hand weaving leads to a desire
to master all of the arts intimately associated with this ancient and
fascinating home industry.




X

POTTERY

To watch a potter thumping his wet clay--_Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam_


The boy who makes his mud pie, baking it in the sun, and the Indian
who, ages ago, coiled clay in a basket which he burned away, are but
two widely separated links in a continuous chain; for men of all time
have found a fascination in the wet clay that is so easily moulded
and fashioned into all manner of things of beauty and of use. And,
beside the joy of exercising the creative faculty, there has also
been the spur of a common need to inspire men of different races,
independently of each other, to develop the primitive household arts,
like pottery and rug making, by the use of methods no less remarkable
for their similarity than for their cleverness. The impressions
that the primitive man received from his natural surroundings were
easily expressed in the plastic mud, and it was probably not long
before he discovered that fire made them permanent and practically
indestructible. Improvement was bound to come in due time. By
washing the grosser impurities from the clay mud through a process in
which the heavier particles settled, leaving the silt or finer clay to
be poured off, some artist of a very early time found a material that
became one of his most valuable helps in adding to the furnishings of
his tribal household. First it was simply burned clay; but in due time
enamel or glazed work found its use in tiles for building purposes, in
grain jars, in wine jugs, in many kinds of table ware; for the uses of
ancient terra cotta and porcelain were numerous.

[Illustration: Girls at Work on Pottery. Plate XI]

The primitive arts, however, were not confined to objects of necessary
use. We find, buried with the ruins of ancient cities, many evidences
of the potter's craft, and among them articles for decorating the
home, for personal adornment, and for religious use, like the rings
and scarabs of Egypt. And in modern decorative art, as applied in the
household, the one final touch which gives that indescribable charm,
which it is the aim of all art to give, is perhaps to be found in a
few--a very few--choice bits of pottery.

All of this use of clay, from the rude art of prehistoric times to the
finest product of modern skill, is based on a plain scientific fact,
_viz._, that a small quantity of water in the clay, not removable by
any ordinary means of drying, can be driven out by intense heat so as
to cause a permanent change in the character of the clay. This water is
called the water of combination. If the clay is not heated more than
enough to dry it, a later mixing with water restores it to its former
plastic state; but clay once burned has lost its water of combination
and never can return to its original condition.

Most beginners in clay modelling will expect, perhaps in the early
stages of their work, to be made acquainted with the potter's wheel;
for who has not heard of this interesting device? It is of interest
chiefly because of its practical utility in the manufacture of pottery;
and yet no one can forget the potter's song with which Longfellow
begins his beautiful poem Keramos, making it a text for a sermon on the
philosophy of life:

    "Turn, turn, my wheel! Turn round and round
    Without a pause, without a sound;
        So spins the flying world away!
    This clay, well mixed with marl and sand,
    Follows the motion of my hand;
    For some must follow, and some command,
        Though all are made of clay!"

_Potter's Wheel Unnecessary._--The potter's wheel was used in
comparatively early times and has been intimately associated with the
art ever since. But it requires much physical strength and considerable
skill to use it effectively; and its use has been by no means
universal. We find the Indians of our own time and people of other
races, expert in building pottery by hand, using the method of coiling.
It seems best, therefore, to advise beginners to adopt the simpler
method and to forego the use of the potter's wheel. The comparative
inexpensiveness of the hand method of building is another point in its
favour. The tools required are few and simple. Inexpensive and easy
methods are favourable to the experimental stage; and it is well for
the amateur to have every encouragement to experiment freely both with
methods for building and with designs for his ware, keeping in mind
always that the beautiful is generally the simple and strong, not the
fantastic and complicated.

_The Method of Coiling._--It will be understood, therefore, that in
general the process to be followed consists in building up the bowl or
jar or whatever the design may be by using coils of clay of the right
consistency, welding and shaping them together, and scraping them down,
if necessary, until they are ready to receive the first firing. After
this they may receive a coating of glaze and be fired again. At first
the beginner will find his chief interest simply in experimenting with
the building up process.


MATERIALS AND TOOLS

The materials and tools needed are as follows: Clay; oil-cloth, 18
inches square; cotton cloth or flannelette, 18 inches square; a few
simple modelling tools; a soft pencil; drawing paper; card-board, 6
ply; a plaster of paris "bat," or a piece of slate.

_Clays._--It will be necessary to add a word of explanation in order
that these materials and tools may be well selected. There is a
great variety in clays, ranging from a very coarse red clay used for
flower pots to the finest white clay used for porcelain. The latter
is called kaolin and is very pure. A good modelling clay may be
obtained from dealers in school supplies or from potteries. In some
localities, especially in the neighbourhood of brick-yards or other
clay industries, a satisfactory clay may be easily found. But, however
obtained, some experimenting will be necessary to test its suitability.
The modelling clay is probably the least liable to yield disappointing
results.

The cotton cloth or flannelette is to be moistened and used to wrap
up the clay in order to keep it from drying too rapidly during the
intervals when it is set aside. This will not be necessary during the
early part of the process, for then it is desirable for the clay to
stiffen as rapidly as possible by natural means.

[Illustration: Simple tools used in pottery]

Of the modelling tools needed some can be whittled from hard wood.
They are not expensive, however, and the beginner will perhaps find it
well to obtain most of them from a dealer in artists' materials. The
accompanying illustration shows some of these, among them a very useful
tool (F) with brass wire loops which are in turn wound with finer
wire. F and C are especially useful for scraping clay too soft to be
easily managed with smooth edges. The thumb-like tool A is perhaps the
most generally useful of those shown here.

In this connection it is well to emphasize the fact that _the greatest
of all tools is the human thumb_. Cultivate its use. Most modelling and
building can be managed with the thumb, assisted by the fingers.

_The Bat and How Made._--A plaster of paris bat will be found
exceedingly useful. A sheet of thin, unsized paper serves well,
however, for a surface on which to build; but the dry plaster of
the bat absorbs the moisture of the clay at the bottom and hastens
the stiffening process. This bat can be easily made. Take a small
quantity of water (a half pint or more according to the size of
the bat required), sift into this from the hand an equal amount of
plaster of paris, and stir it in until a little dry plaster appears
at the surface. After a little more vigorous stirring let it rest a
few minutes and then pour it into tin pans which are 4 or 5 inches in
diameter by 1 inch deep. The pans should be previously coated on the
inside with a thick soap solution, made by dissolving soap in hot water
to the consistency of a thick cream. The bats will harden in 10 or 15
minutes and may be easily removed from the pan, ready for use.


PROBLEM: A BOWL FOR FLOWERS

This problem naturally divides itself into six important steps, as
follows: The design or profile; building and shaping; decoration, if
any; firing (bisque); glazing; and firing the glaze.

[Illustration: Variety in dimensions]

_The Design or Profile._--As in all problems of decoration the first
step is found in design. For present purposes we may consider a bowl
as having a diameter as great as or greater than the height. The bowl
will be more interesting from the standpoint of variety if there is
a difference between its height and its greatest diameter, and also
between its diameters at the top and at the bottom. The accompanying
drawing shows such differences.

[Illustration: Suggestive profiles]

Another example of the value of variety is to be found in the curve
of the profile. A line that is simple but constantly changing in its
degree of curvature--as, for example, an elliptical curve--is more
pleasing than an arc of a circle, which is sometimes called the curve
of limitation. It should be noted that a curved form, in order to be
forceful, should have some dominant curve in combination with others
which are subordinate. The profiles illustrated in the following
drawings have this dominant element and are in no case composed of arcs
of circles. These varied, interesting, yet simple lines--live lines
as they are sometimes called--consisting in each case of only two or
three elements, are given here merely as suggestive material. A little
experimenting will show unsuspected possibilities in strong, forceful
curves, and the young student is advised to make many experiments in
the effort to discover such possibilities. An example of profiles to
be avoided is given in Problem II, on page 309. That these are
vase forms and not bowl contours is immaterial. _A_ is commonplace
because the two parts of the curve are too much alike. _B_ is unrestful
in its three curves of nearly equal size. If the suggestive profiles
illustrated in the foregoing drawing be turned upside down it will be
noted that very few of them seem as pleasing as before. It will be
found also that a different ratio of height to diameter will give very
different effects with the same profile. A bowl having top and bottom
alike may, so far as design is concerned, be classed with the pill
box. We don't know which is the top until we have spilled the pills.
If attractive pieces of pottery are found with the top and bottom of
equal diameter and with curves in themselves objectionable, it will
invariably be found that the attractiveness consists in some beauty of
glaze, colour, or decoration which is prominent enough to conceal the
defects of form.

_Natural Forms._--It may be well to add a word here in regard to the
imitation of natural forms in designing the general shape of any piece
of pottery; and that word is a very brief one. Avoid them. Nature is a
great teacher in all branches of art; but in pottery her suggestions
are to be used as decorative elements rather than for fundamental
shapes. A fish with a flower in its mouth does not seem appropriate;
but a bowl for water-lilies, while it may not take the form of a fish,
might reasonably have a fish as an element of its decoration.

_Testing Profiles._--A good way to study the effect of the profile of
both sides of the bowl is to fold the paper on which the profile is
drawn vertically through the centre and transfer the line reversed
by rubbing the back of the paper, thus giving the other half of the
drawing in exact symmetry. When the general shape of the profile has
been tested in this way one side should be redrawn carefully; then,
with the paper folded along the centre line, so that the pencil line
falls outside, the whole form may be cut out; and then it may be
unfolded. The next step is to begin to build up the design in clay.

_The Building._--Roll out a coil of clay a little thicker than the
bottom of the bowl is to be; perhaps 3/8 or 1/2 of an inch will serve,
since the bottom is to be hollowed slightly by scraping. The roll
should be uniform in diameter and rolled as little as possible, in
order that it may not become too dry. Upon the piece of paper or the
plaster bat start to coil the roll from the centre until the desired
size is reached, then smear the rolls together, working toward the
centre. Turn the coil over and work the other side together, truing up
the circle and making the bottom of uniform thickness. Avoid the use
of water in smoothing the coils together. It may seem to make the work
easier, but it softens the clay and invites careless work.

[Illustration: Manipulating the coil]

With another coil begin to build up the sides, making a complete
circle, and, having pinched off the ends where they meet, join them
carefully. Lay two or three coils in this fashion, pressing each coil
firmly into place as it is laid, and smooth them together as in the
base. The process is illustrated in the drawing. If the clay is very
soft, the work may be set aside to harden a little, while a beginning
is made upon other pieces. It is well to have two or three pieces in
the process of construction at the same time.

_Testing the Work._--A template or gauge will be needed to test the
work as it progresses from the first rough stages to the finish. This
is made of card-board by cutting out an exact copy of the profile,
leaving at the bottom sufficient width to insure rigidity when the
template is held upright on the table or bat.

[Illustration: A template]

As the work goes on, if the design requires that the form should be
"brought in" toward the top, the coil must be laid a little inside of
the profile desired, as the smoothing tends to increase the diameter
slightly. In all the building, allowance should be made for this
enlargement. When the coil is high enough and of the shape desired,
it should be allowed to stiffen until it is rigid enough to handle.
With the various modelling tools the surface should then be scraped
wherever it is necessary to remove the hardened clay in order to give a
symmetrical shape to the desired profile.

[Illustration: Scraping a square form]

A drawing is shown to illustrate the process of scraping. The surface
should be left smooth and even; and this may be accomplished without
water or sponge. The flat sides of the scraping tool may be used to
polish the clay as soon as it becomes leather hard--_i. e._, hard and
stiff, but before it begins to whiten and dry.

The lip or top of the bowl will require special attention. It will
probably need to be thinned down and have all sharp edges removed. Then
the bowl should be turned upside down and the bottom hollowed out to
a depth of 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch, leaving a "foot" or rim around the
outside of the circle to give it steadiness.

_The Decoration._--After the bowl is complete as to its general form,
the problem of its decoration, if there is to be any, must be solved.
This may be studied during the intervals when it is necessary to set
the bowl aside to harden. If the form and colour are good, the bowl may
possess a charm that will not be improved by decoration. On the whole,
less decoration, rather than more, should be the aim. The three vases
illustrated at the top of a following page are examples of pottery
without decoration. (See page 308.)

[Illustration: Bowls. Plate XII]

Generally speaking, bowls like the one we are building may be decorated
by one of three methods: By sinking lines or channels in its surface by
means of a sharpened, chisel-like stick (D, page 285); by modelling or
carving the surface; or by painting the surface with coloured "slip" or
with coloured glaze. It should be explained that "slip" is a mixture
of clay and water of the consistency of cream; it may be coloured
or uncoloured. A combination of two or more of these methods is, of
course, possible. Examples of the first two methods are shown in the
illustrations of bowls, vases, and tiles. A combination of the first
and third methods was used in decorating the tiles of the middle row
shown in Plate XIV opposite page 316.

[Illustration: Spacing in decoration]

_Classes of Decoration._--The _form_ of the decoration is simply a
matter of space division, as illustrated by two examples shown below.
It is evident, too, that decoration, so far as form is concerned,
divides itself naturally into three general classes: (a) The horizontal
band; (b) the vertical division; (c) a combination of these two. The
last will prove to be the most common of the three. It should be noted
that an all-over pattern, which has been left out of consideration as
tending to monotony, would commonly be a combination of both horizontal
and vertical methods of division. It should be noted also that the
presence of other than vertical and horizontal lines in pottery
decoration does not affect the main classification. Typical examples
of these divisions are illustrated in both bowls and vases, as well
as in the cuts A and B. It will be seen in each case that one scheme
or the other predominates and that there are possibilities for great
variation in treatment.

Analyzing the patterns shown in all these illustrations, we find that
the band or horizontal scheme offers a succession of large and small
spaces, giving variety and rhythm. In many of those patterns showing
the combination type there is a concentration or "knotting" of the line
at regular intervals, frequently at the intersection of both horizontal
and vertical elements. This is well illustrated by the left-hand bowl
of the middle row shown in this plate opposite page 294. When
the method of painted decoration is employed the concentration point is
composed of mass instead of line. All this serves to give emphasis and
rhythm.

For subject matter in decoration natural forms may be used as shown in
the vase at the left of the top row illustrated in Plate XIII,
opposite page 312. Or an abstract arrangement of lines may be employed,
as shown in its nearest neighbour, which may or may not have had its
origin in a very much conventionalized natural motif. The essential
thing to remember is that the divisions of spaces must be varied and
rhythmic and the decoration suited to the method of application.

_How the Design is Applied to the Clay._--After the design has been
studied as much as possible on paper it should be planned out on the
bowl with a soft pencil, allowing sufficient space for the incised
line or channel to be made. The clay should be leather-hard--_i. e._,
stiff but not dry. The spacing around the circumference should be made
exact, deviating somewhat, if necessary, from the spacing of the paper
drawing. A good way to manage this important step in the process is to
measure the circumference at the point of greatest width with a narrow
strip of paper and then to divide this circumference by folding the
paper evenly into the number of units desired. By wrapping the paper
around the bowl again the points of division may be transferred to the
clay and then projected upward or downward vertically to the belt that
it is desired to meet. It is necessary to make sure that the vertical
lines are true "meridians" and do not swerve to the right or the left.
In order to test the horizontal lines, measurements may be made from
top or bottom. All of this work is best done free-hand; for, aside from
the value of the eye training derived, hand-built pottery is seldom
exact enough to permit of a more mechanical method of planning its
decoration.

The drawing on the clay having been completed, the next point is to
choose the tool best fitted for the work and carefully make the cuts,
deepening them from time to time as the work progresses. If the design
is to be worked out in line, a chisel, like that illustrated in D (page
285), may be whittled from a pine stick. It is held nearly
upright and used as a scraper to cut out at first a shallow channel.
Reserve should be exercised in cutting, because, generally speaking,
there is danger of making the design too insistent. Some of the best
designs are very subtle and quiet. Care should be taken, however, to
allow for a slight filling in of the hollow by the glaze when it is
applied.

_Modelling a Decoration._--If the decoration is to be modelled it would
seem wise to do it, in whole or in part, as the work is built up; but
in this case great care will be needed to keep a firm hold on the
relief and unity of the decoration. It will be easy to over-model the
work.

_How Under-glaze is Applied._--For decoration with under glaze the
colours given under the head of glazing (page 304) are mixed
in different proportions with dry powdered clay and water to form a
colour paste. This is painted on the "green" or moist clay, forming
a smooth and even surface. Experience will teach the proportions of
colour to be mixed with the clay. These proportions vary greatly with
different colours. A very strong colour like cobalt will give a deep
blue if mixed in the ratio of one part by weight of cobalt to ten parts
of clay. Colours like the oxides of iron and copper are of medium
strength, and antimony is quite weak.

Before the work is left to dry it would be well to make sure that
all corners and rough edges are smoothed off as they will show light
and rough through the glaze. The use of sand-paper, however, is not
advised, though it may occasionally be used in the emergency of an
accidental roughness remaining after the piece is dry. The aim should
be to have all clay work show something of the plastic nature of the
material out of which it is made.

_Firing._--Pottery must be "bone" dry before it is fired. A very
satisfactory portable kiln for firing may be purchased for from $34 to
$175, according to the size. The smallest size, which is illustrated in
the next drawing, will be ample for the needs of one or two persons.
If, however, the amateur does not care to go to the expense of
purchasing a kiln, it is generally possible to find a pottery factory
in the vicinity that will undertake the firing and perhaps the glazing.

[Illustration: A portable kiln]

_Temperature Required._--Pottery is fired at a temperature varying,
according to the clay and the glaze used, from approximately 1800
to 2000 degrees Fahrenheit. Modelling clay fires at 1958 degrees
Fahrenheit, or what is called "cone 04." This term comes from the fact
that the heat is gauged by pyrometric cones, which can be seen through
a spy hole attached to the kiln. These cones are graded compositions
of various materials and possess different degrees of resistance to
heat. They are usually set up in clay in groups of three or more. When
one of them melts it bends over, as illustrated in the accompanying
drawing, which shows cone 05--the most fusible one--completely "down,"
and 04 at a point indicating that it is time to shut off the heat from
the kiln. This must be done gradually and the kiln must be allowed to
cool completely before it is opened. This is especially necessary when
firing the glazes described in the following section, which require
the same temperature as modelling clay. Further details about firing
and caring for the kiln may, of course, be learned from descriptions
accompanying the apparatus. Pottery comes out of the first firing in
the kiln a dull porous ware and in colour either cream, buff, or red,
according to the amount of iron in the clay. In this state it is called
"bisque" or "biscuit."

[Illustration: Pyrometric cones]

_Glazing._--It is necessary to bring the pottery up to the condition of
bisque before it can be glazed; or, to speak more accurately, before
it can be over-glazed; for it has already been shown how the so-called
under-glaze is put on before the first firing. The subject is somewhat
technical, and it will not be possible in a single chapter to take up
the details extensively. Briefly speaking, the glazes most used for
this class of work are the lead glazes--combinations of "white lead" or
carbonate of lead as a flux with kaolin, flint, whiting, feldspar, and
other ingredients. These are supplied in powdered form and are ground
together in water by means of a mill or a large mortar and pestle; a
mortar 8 inches in diameter will serve.

_Grinding the Glaze._--The grinding should continue about an hour. It
should be said, however, that there is such a thing as grinding too
fine. After the glaze has been properly ground a small quantity of gum
tragacanth, dissolved in water, is to be added as a binder to prevent
flaking and rubbing off in handling. It is also a good plan, though
not always necessary, to strain the glaze, as soon as it is ground,
through fine muslin. The tools and materials needed for this work may
be itemized as follows: Lead carbonate, whiting, Canadian feldspar,
Florida kaolin, French flint, white oxide of zinc, and various other
oxides and colours noted in the text; earthenware bowls, 10 or 12
inches in diameter, for holding the glaze; large spoons, preferably
aluminum; agate mortar and pestle, 8 inches in diameter.

_Example of Matt Glaze and Bright Glaze Mixes._--Two mixes are given
below calculated to fuse at cone 04. One has a "matt" or dull velvety
surface, and the other has a "bright" or shiny surface. The matt will
be found more desirable for general work because it harmonizes better
with flowers and foliage. The figures given below refer to units of
weight. Metric weights (grams) are most convenient to use, but any
units will serve so long as the same one is used throughout. The matt
glaze should be of the consistency of thick cream, the bright glaze
somewhat thinner.


  MATT BASE
  Lead carbonate       154
  Whiting               25
  Canadian feldspar     83
  Florida kaolin        51


  BRIGHT BASE
  Lead carbonate       142
  Whiting               20
  Canadian feldspar     84
  Florida kaolin         8
  White oxide of zinc    8
  French flint          44

The bases itemized above are colourless and there must be added to
them from 3 to 6 per cent. of colouring material that will stand
heat. A list of materials with their colours when fired is given on
page 304, together with a few typical combinations of colours in
quantity suitable to be added to the glaze bases given above. The
following lists are by no means complete, and it is expected that the
young decorator will make use of these colour mixtures simply as an
introduction to quite extensive experimenting:


  COLOUR MATERIALS

  Black oxide of cobalt         Blue
  Black oxide of copper         Blue green
  Green oxide of chromium       Yellow green
  White oxide of antimony       Lemon yellow
  Red oxide of iron             Yellowish brown
  Green oxide of nickel         Dirty gray (for neutralizing)
  White oxide of tin            Makes glaze opaque
  Black oxide of manganese      Purplish brown
  Yellow ochre                  Yellow
  Burnt umber                   Brown


  COLOUR COMBINATIONS

  Olive green
    Iron oxide           5
    Cobalt oxide        .5

  Dark brown
    Iron oxide           3
    Nickel oxide         2
    Manganese oxide      5

  Light gray-blue
    Tin oxide            5
    Cobalt oxide        .5
    Copper oxide       1.7

  Blue-green
    Cobalt oxide         1
    Copper oxide         7
    Yellow ochre         4

  Dark gray-blue
    Nickel oxide         5
    Yellow ochre         3
    Cobalt oxide         2
    Copper oxide         1

_Applying the Glaze._--Before applying the glaze to the piece of
pottery or bisque, the latter should be soaked in clear water for
about five minutes or until the air is expelled from the pores. When
this has been accomplished it should be removed from the water and all
moisture should be wiped from its surface. The piece is then ready to
be dipped into the glaze, or to have the glaze poured over it, if the
size and shape of the piece make it more convenient to apply the glaze
in this way. It is usually best to glaze the inside first, shaking out
all the superfluous glaze before applying the glaze to the outside.
During this process the piece must be held firmly but by as few points
of contact as possible. These points of contact will generally need to
be touched up before it is ready for firing.

It is sometimes necessary to glaze large pieces with a brush, putting
on several coats in order to cover the surface with an even thickness.
The matt glaze requires a greater thickness than the bright glaze
in order to develop its characteristic velvety texture. The greater
thickness may be easily secured, because it flows more slowly than
the thinner bright glaze and is less likely to drip from the sides of
the piece to which it is being applied; but, on the other hand, it
is at a disadvantage in that it does not, in flowing slowly, correct
inequalities of thickness so readily as the more mobile bright glaze
does. A certain thickness, however, is essential; and if, after firing,
it is found that the glaze was put on too thin, a second coat may be
applied and the article again fired.

_Firing the Glaze._--Before the glazed piece is fired the glaze should
be dried and what runs down and collects about the bottom or foot
should be scraped off. It should then be set in the kiln on a kind of
pointed tripod of hard burned clay, called the "stilt," which prevents
the glaze from sticking to the floor or shelves of the kiln. All glazed
ware should be placed in the kiln with at least 1/2 an inch of space
between the pieces to prevent them from sticking together during the
fusing state of the glaze, when it is apt to bubble or "boil."

The firing of glaze is a process very similar to that employed in the
production of bisque, already described. Greater care, however, must
be taken in controlling the increase in temperature so that it shall
be even and steady--free from all sudden flashes of heat. The cooling
also should be very gradual and, as in bisque firing, the kiln should
be allowed to get cool before it is opened. With this second firing the
pottery is finished unless it should happen that a second coat of glaze
is found to be necessary. If only a few spots need attention, this
second coat is best applied with a brush.


PROBLEM: A VASE FOR LONG STEMMED FLOWERS

The tools required for making this vase are the same as those used
for the bowl, and the process of building is much the same. The chief
difference is that it is more difficult to preserve the profile in
building because the added height and the greater weight tend to
bulge the lower part. To meet this difficulty it will be necessary to
set the work aside quite often in order to let the lower part harden
sufficiently to support the upper part.

_The Profile._--In preparing the profile the same rules hold as were
applied in working up the problem of the bowl. It will be well to
remember, however, that the curves of a vase must be treated with
greater reserve as to their lateral projection than was necessary in
the case of the bowl--_i. e._, the curve of a vase should be enclosed
within a rectangle narrower in comparison with its height than is the
case with the curve of a bowl. The reason for this, of course, is found
in the greater height of a vase in comparison with its diameter. The
following figure shows three typical vase forms. If these curves be
compared with those shown on page 288, illustrating bowl contours,
it will be observed how the height of the vase is emphasised in the
greater restraint and subtlety of its curves. In the next illustration
we have two "horrible" examples to which attention has already been
called in the suggestions for the design of bowls. The dotted lines in
the illustration show how these curves may be improved if, in either A
or B, one element of the compound curve be made dominant at the expense
of the other. If at the same time the diameter be made smaller in
comparison with its height the attractiveness of the contours will be
still more improved. Indeed, it will be a transformation from a profile
that is positively bad to one that is very good.

[Illustration: Typical vase forms]

[Illustration: Profile to be avoided]

_Decoration._--The problem of decoration is not very different from
that of the bowl. Here again, however, the added height seems to call
for greater accent by means of vertical or panel divisions. Unless this
be understood there is some danger that the larger vertical spaces will
seem to offer simply more room for horizontal bands, resulting in a
barber pole effect.

_Handles._--If handles or buttresses are desired, care should be taken
that they are designed as an integral part of the vase--_i. e._, that
they continue or reinforce its lines. Two suggestions for the treatment
of the problem of handles are given in the accompanying drawing.
It will be noted how sympathetically these handles conform to the
lines of the vases to which they are attached. Handles that give the
impression of being made for another vase should be avoided.

[Illustration: Suggestions for handles]


PROBLEM: THE FERN DISH

The process of building the fern dish is not essentially different from
that employed in making the bowl described in the first problem. If the
fern dish is to be round, the coiling method may be used; but if the
dish is to be square or rectangular it is not necessary to use this
method. In place of it the process of "piecing on" may be
employed--_i. e._, one piece of soft clay may be added to another and
the different pieces welded together as the work proceeds.

[Illustration: Development of the fern dish]

_The Lining._--The fern dish requires a separate inner dish or lining
with a hole in the bottom of it like that in the ordinary flower
pot. This feature forms the unique part of the problem. Generally
speaking, the presence of this lining seems to call for a little closer
approach to the vertical in the sides of the outer bowl; and yet some
latitude is allowable, as is shown in the right hand dish illustrated
in Plate XIII following, which is somewhat similar in profile
to that illustrated in the accompanying drawing. This drawing shows
the development of the problem as applied to a round fern dish. Much
freedom, however, may be used in the plan as either the round or the
rectangular fern dish seems to give satisfaction. The half section
in the drawing shows a very narrow space between the inner and outer
bowls at the top edges. This adds greatly to the good appearance of the
completed fern dish. The sides of the inner dish are made vertical,
since it is necessary for it to be easily removed.

_Decoration._--The problem of decoration differs very little from
that discussed under the problem of the bowl. Either the fern itself
or its woodland neighbours may easily furnish the motif. Sometimes
there is occasion for designing similar dishes not for ferns but for
other plants. Thus the smaller square dish, illustrated in Plate XIII
opposite, was designed and made for the familiar "bluets," and
the subject matter for its design was found in that flower.

_Glazing._--The rules already given for glazing apply in this case, but
it will be necessary to glaze the outside fern dish only. It is well,
however, to glaze a narrow strip along the upper edge of the inner
dish; but the rest of it should be left unglazed. It hardly needs to
be added that in firing it is necessary to keep the inner and outer
dishes separate.

[Illustration: Vases and Fern Dishes. Plate XIII]


PROBLEM: THE CANDLESTICK

_The Design._--This problem introduces several points in design that
need to be especially emphasized. The candlestick should be of such
size that it will easily support the average candle without putting the
user to great inconvenience in fitting it by paring it off or melting
it down. It is necessary to provide a lip to catch the stray drops
of wax that will run down the sides of the candle; and it will be a
convenience to have this supplemented by a slight dishing of the base
if the candlestick is to be carried about. If a handle is to be added
it should seem to be a natural outgrowth of the candlestick itself, as
was explained in the discussion of handles for vases; and it should,
at the same time, offer a place for a firm and comfortable grasp. The
accompanying drawing shows how handles may be designed really to form a
part of the candlestick and at the same time, by means of a sharp bend
or elbow at the top, to provide a natural place for the thumb to assist
in grasping the handle.

Whether the candlestick is to be high or low depends entirely upon
the use intended for it or upon the preference of the user. Generally
speaking, a low candlestick is better for carrying about and a high
one more desirable for standing in a cabinet or on shelf or table. It
is well for some definite idea of utility to manifest itself in the
form chosen. Merely planning a tube and a handle upon a base, without
carefully relating these three different elements according to the
requirements of use, can hardly be called designing a candlestick.

[Illustration: Suggestive designs for candlesticks]

The building of the candlestick is started, like the bowl in the
first problem, by coiling from the centre, and the rim may be added
in the same way. Care should be taken, however, to attach the central
tube firmly. This may be coiled or simply modelled from a single lump
of clay. If there is to be a handle it is well to build it at the
time the central tube is built, as it is then easier to make a firm
attachment.


PROBLEM: TILES

The varied and extensive uses of tiles make it difficult to limit
the scope of this problem. Tiles are used for paving, wall facings,
ceilings, coverings for stoves, linings and facings for fireplaces,
rests for flower pots and teapots, and for various other purposes.
Tiles figure very prominently in the history of art. They are objects
of interest and study in many public buildings and museums throughout
the civilized world. But this problem will confine itself to two of the
many varieties of tiles, _viz._, tiles designed for bowls or teapots
and tiles used for the facing of fireplaces.

[Illustration: A tile frame]

_The Tile Frame._--In building tiles a frame is used measuring about 6
inches square by 5/8 of an inch thick. The strips forming the frame
may be 1 inch wide, lightly nailed together at the corners so that,
if necessary, the frame can be easily taken apart while the clay is
moist. This frame is placed on a plaster bat or piece of paper and
the clay forced firmly into its corners and sides, working toward the
centre, until the frame is completely filled. It is then turned over
in order to make sure that the under side of the clay is thoroughly
welded together. Care should be taken to use sufficient clay to bring
both surfaces well up to the surface of the frame, scraping off the
surplus clay with a straight edge. While the clay is moist, one side
is chosen for the back, and this is hollowed out to prevent warping.
The hollowing may take the form shown in the right-hand tile at the
top of Plate XIV, or it may be in the shape of channels 3/4 of an inch
or more in width, separated by ridges 1/2 of an inch wide running
across the back of the tile. Whichever method is used, the depth should
be about 3/16 of an inch and not over 1/4 of an inch. Even when the
utmost precaution is taken, the tile is very liable to warp. It should
therefore be dried slowly and with the greatest possible evenness of
exposure on both sides. The greatest help of all is found in the use of
the so-called "grog." This is made by grinding to a powder clay that
has been fired once and shrunk, but not glazed. It is used by mixing it
with the clay before it is moulded, in the proportion of one part grog
to three of the clay. It may be added here that grog will be found of
great assistance not only in making tiles but in making other ware. It
will not be necessary, however, to burn clay for the express purpose of
making grog. The occasional failures which develop at the first firing
of every batch of pottery will furnish an adequate supply.

[Illustration: Tiles. Plate XIV]

_Decoration._--When the tile is dried and shrunk a little it may be
easily taken from the frame, but it should be allowed to get quite
stiff before decoration is applied. While the hardening process is
going on the decoration may be studied. The three general methods
of decoration considered under the flower bowl--_viz._, the sunken
line, the modelled surface, and the painting with under-glaze or
over-glaze--are all available for use with the tile. If it is to be
a tea tile the modelled surface must be treated with considerable
caution, otherwise there may result an uneven surface for the teapot to
rest upon.

_Firing._--In giving the tile its first firing it is safer to stand
it on one edge in the kiln, but not on the floor of the kiln, as the
intense heat of the floor would be liable to shrink that side more
than the others. It may be supported on two stilts or it may be placed
on one of the shelves. For the glaze firing the tile should be placed
flat on the stilt.

_Tea Tiles._--The tiles illustrated at the top and bottom of Plate
XIV were designed and made to serve as rests for a teapot, a bowl,
or a vase. It will be noticed that the centre is left free with one
exception, which is given as an interesting variation from the general
rule. The free space is an advantage in giving relief to the design
and in furnishing an even surface for the teapot or bowl to rest upon.
In the decoration of rectangular tile forms the general principles as
to variety of measure or shape in space divisions hold true. Emphasis
should be concentrated at the corners in order to strengthen the design.

_Fireplace Tiles._--Some of the tiles illustrated in Plate XIV would
be entirely appropriate for facing a border around the opening of a
fireplace. This is especially true of the middle design shown at the
top of the plate, on account of the lines which project through the
corner design nearly to the edges of the tile. This makes it especially
adapted to repetition in a facing or border.

[Illustration: Pottery, Designed and Made by Schoolgirls. Plate XV]

_Decoration of Tiles._--It is in the field of painted
decoration, however, that the most attractive possibilities in
fireplace tile designs are found. The framed tile illustrated in Plate
XV opposite--an example of over-glaze painting--is intended for
use as a colour accent for the wall. This tile is painted in matt glaze
between raised outlines. Three similar tiles are illustrated in the
middle row in Plate XIV. The right-hand one, like the framed
tile of Plate XV, is a matt over-glaze, but the outline instead
of being raised was slightly depressed. The other two are examples of
under-glaze painting. They were painted on moist clay, as described in
the problem of the bowl, and afterwards covered with a bright glaze.
In this case the glaze was itself coloured, thus adding richness to
the colour scheme. The repetition in a tile facing of landscapes,
designed to be complete or nearly so, would be tiresome. It is better
so to design the entire facing that it will be made up of a series of
very simple landscape motifs, each fairly complete in itself, but all
so related to each other as to form, when joined, a larger, somewhat
conventionalized, landscape. A treatment of this kind lends itself to
many other decorative schemes.

The fireplace offers a great opportunity for design, not only in
itself, but as related to the decorative scheme of the room in which
it is placed. It should not be forgotten that it is, in a sense, the
focal centre of the room. This fact, together with its comparatively
small size, makes it possible to give it a strong and rich note of
colour, accenting the prevailing colour scheme of the room. Tiles,
properly designed and applied, offer a rich and varied field for
charming effects in colour and texture.




XI

DECORATIVE WORK IN LEATHER, COPPER, AND OTHER MATERIALS

     To become an artist in dealing with tools and materials is not
     a matter of choice or privilege; it is a moral necessity; for
     a man's heart must be in his skill and a man's soul in his
     craftsmanship--_Hamilton Wright Mabie_


LEATHER WORK

Leather work, like weaving and pottery, is of very ancient origin.
The New Testament text concerning "new wine in old bottles" referred
to bottles of leather, or wine skins. We read of leather as having
been used in still earlier times for shields, saddles, harnesses,
parts of chariots, and as an accessory to clothing. In the middle ages
the "gentle craft of leather" was not confined to the shoemakers'
useful productions but included much ornamental work. There were wall
coverings of leather with designs carved, or modelled, or stamped with
hot tools; seats were upholstered and books were covered with tooled
leather. Some of this work was richly adorned with painted and gilt
figures like the celebrated Spanish leather.

_Why Leather is Suited to Decoration._--Leather seems, therefore,
to have won the right to a high place among the materials suited to
decoration. Its beautiful texture, the rich brown tones of its natural
colour, the ease with which it takes dyes, and the readiness with
which under proper treatment, it receives and retains the marks of the
modelling tool, qualify it to minister to the artistic sense no less
than its durability enables it to serve the more common uses.

_Limited Decoration Desirable._--The tooling of leather is based upon
the fact that, when wet, the fibre yields readily to compression and
receives impressions that are retained after the leather is dry. But
the beauty of design depends upon the colour and texture of the surface
quite as much as upon the figured impressions upon it. It is therefore
a good point in design not to cover the surface so completely that the
peculiar beauty of the material itself be lost. The decorations should
be bold and rich, but the tooling should be confined to a small part of
the surface. Calf skin and cowhide are well suited to tooling. They are
supplied in two general forms, _viz._, the smooth, generally as Russia
calf, and the rough or split cowhides, known as ooze. Leather may be
stained a variety of colours by aniline dyes; but since the natural
colour of leather is brown, brownish tones are more satisfactory than
the blues, greens, violets, grays, etc., because they seem more sincere.

[Illustration: Leather-working tools]

_Tools._--The simple tools required for tooling leather may be
purchased at small cost, or they may be made from cheap nut picks
by filing these to shape, polishing them, and buffing them. The
illustrations show two different tools, each double pointed. A and
B are different views of the first tool; C is the second tool. The
narrow pointed end of the first tool is for outlining and working into
corners. The broad, flat end is for smoothing down and for general use;
the broad tool should be used whenever possible. The round point on
the left end of C is used for outlining and transfering the design to
leather. The right hand end of C is known as the background tool. It is
cupped out like a nail set, as indicated by the lengthwise section just
above and by the end view at the extreme right; in fact, a nail set may
be used for the same purpose. The background tool, however, is to be
used sparingly. If used to excess, especially on large surfaces, the
result is likely to have a mechanical and "shoppy" appearance.


PROBLEMS

TO DESIGN AND TOOL A BELT

The sizes given in the illustration on page 325 are typical, but it is
expected that in this and other problems, dimensions will be varied to
suit conditions. When the size has been determined the leather should
be cut a little longer and wider than the final dimensions are to be,
to allow for attaching the belt pin or buckle. The strip of leather
should be thoroughly soaked in _cold water_ and then rolled in dry
cloth until the leather is dry enough for tooling. It is essential
that there should be absolute uniformity of moisture. If on applying
the tool, water follows pressure, the leather is still too wet. If it
should get too dry to retain the mark of the tool it may be sponged on
the back. There is danger of water stains, however, if the entire back
is not wet.

[Illustration: Two belt designs]

_The Design._--The illustration shows two treatments. An interlaced
pattern is shown in A which concentrates the interest at the ends and
in the middle of the back. The pattern shown is tooled solid and the
background is left untooled. If the pattern be tooled in outline it is
well to shade these outlines out into the background in order to give
relief to the interlaced bands.

Modelled natural forms are shown in B. In this the background is tooled
down, but is heaviest at the ends or in the spaces against the raised
forms. This gives the background a richer appearance than it has when
tooled absolutely flat. Both patterns here shown are straight with
parallel sides. Other shapes are possible--for example, those wider in
the middle and tapering toward the ends.

When a satisfactory design has been worked out and drawn it is
transferred to thin bond paper. The greatest care should be taken not
to have any pencil marks on the back of this paper, for they leave a
dirty gray stain on the leather which is difficult to remove. It may
be added here that whenever it is desired to mark the leather for any
purpose a tool should be used, not a pencil.

_The Process._--As soon as the leather has dried just enough to retain
the marks, the pattern should be placed upon it, pencilled side up,
allowance being made for trimming to the desired width. The paper may
be held in position by thumb tacks, which must not, however, pass
through the leather inside the part that is to be cut off. The pattern
may now be traced through the paper, over the lines of the drawing,
with the round pointed tool. Care will have to be exercised to make
sure that the pattern is completely transferred to the leather. When
this is accomplished the pattern should be removed and the lines,
which will be found somewhat dimly traced on the leather, should be
immediately deepened by going over them with the same tool.

[Illustration: Method of using the broad tool]

The next step is to tool down the design; and in doing this the work
should be turned under the tool rather than the tool itself on the
work, in order that the pressure of the tool may be applied at the edge
of the pattern farthest from the hand. This not only insures a correct
and convenient position of the tool, but allows a perfect view of the
work. In this part of the process the broad tool should be used, moved
sidewise, as shown by the direction of the arrow in the accompanying
cut. In working up into corners the narrow tool may be used if
necessary. The movement may be described as "ironing the leather down."
The surface should not be roughed up or cut up into "shoulders." It
is a process requiring time. One should not try to get the full depth
with the first pressure of the tool. One should coax the surface and
add pressure with each succeeding stroke, taking care that the tool
does not scrape. It should glide; and yet, on the other hand, beginners
will perhaps need to be cautioned not to wear out the surface by feeble
scratching and patting. A firm, even gliding pressure does the work.
As the leather dries it will be seen that the tooling has given it a
dark, glossy surface. When the process is completed the belt may be
trimmed down with a firm, sure cut of the knife, using a straight edge
wherever straight lines are desired.


TO DESIGN AND TOOL A MAT

[Illustration: Supported and unsupported circles]

_The Design and the Process._--The purpose for which a mat is used
requires as one condition of design that there should be a plain
surface in the middle. If the general form be square the design at the
corners should be strengthened. If circular, the design should be so
arranged that it will lend support to the perfect curves of the circle
rather than weaken them. In the three outlines given below, C shows
a form supporting the circle; D and E show forms tending to weaken
the circle. Conditions determining size are more variable in this
problem than in others, because of the great variety of uses which a
mat may serve. In a design like that shown in A of the accompanying
illustration, the portions left untooled--_i. e._, the leaves and
fruit--may be raised still more by pressing out the leather from the
back by means of a tool. To do this the leather should be placed face
down in the palm of the hand or on modelling wax, which has been
covered with a piece of chamois or sheepskin. Then by gently forcing
the leather down with a round, blunt tool such as the blunt end of a
nut pick the desired relief in the figure may be obtained. After this
is done it will probably be necessary to turn the mat over and correct
the modelling. In order to preserve the higher relief it is well to
back it up with cotton batting, soaked in paste, and finally to cover
the entire back with a lining of silk or leather.

[Illustration: Two mat designs]


TO DESIGN AND TOOL A PEN WIPER

A pen wiper consists of a cover, which in this case must be made of
leather suitable for tooling, and several leaves of soft material like
sheepskin or chamois, which should match the cover in colour. The
process of tooling the pen wiper does not differ essentially from that
already employed in the foregoing problems. It should, of course, be
carried through to completion before the book is made up. These parts
are to be tied together with knots of sheepskin thongs of the same
colour.

[Illustration: Steps in tying a knot]

The series of cuts given below show the progressive steps in forming
the knot, which should finally take the shape of Figure 5. After it has
been formed the thongs are passed through holes punched in the cover
and leaves of the pen wiper, and secured by a second knot formed on the
back, resembling Figure 4 with the ends cut as close as will leave
them securely tied.

[Illustration: Two designs for pen wipers]

Another illustration gives two suggestions for the design: A, a
rectangular pen wiper tied with two knots at the end; B, a circular pen
wiper tied with one knot in the middle. In these designs, and indeed
in all others, decoration should recognize (not antagonize!) the outer
form of the article to which it is applied. This point is made in the
illustration.


TO MAKE A SLIP COVER FOR A NOTE-BOOK FILLER

[Illustration: Design for slip cover]

_Planning the Cover._--The object in this problem is to make a
permanent protection for fillers. It is well known that the fillers
themselves may be purchased for a trifling sum and that they are
provided with a backing of stiff paper which is designed to be slipped
into a pocket in the back of a leather cover and thus form a neat
pocket note-book. It is evident that the dimensions of the filler
determine the size of the cover; but, in planning the cover, care
should be exercised to allow sufficient play for width, length, and
thickness after all the cutting and sewing are done. This means that
the stock for the cover and lining should be cut a little larger than
called for in the final size. The design illustrated shows both the
outside (A) and the inside (B) of the cover. As it is planned the cover
is to be lined with sheepskin of harmonizing colour; but this may be
left out if desired, though it, of course, gives a much better finish
to put it in.

_Assembling the Parts._--The first step after cutting out the leather
for the cover is to prepare the leather and tool it, if it is to have
any decoration. A piece of leather should be cut for the pocket, and
the edge (C) shaped. The edges of the lining and the pocket should
next be lightly pasted and pressed on the cover. A line is then to be
ruled with a leather tool (not with pencil) on the outside to serve as
a guide for stitching. A machine stitch may be employed or it may be
done by hand. If by the latter method it will be necessary to pierce
the leather at equal distances along the tooled line. Hand stitches may
safely be a little longer than the machine stitches.

[Illustration: Stitching with two needles]

_Stitching._--A good way to secure equally spaced stitches by hand
sewing is to make use of bow springs or spacing dividers set to the
required distance. A more rapid way to accomplish the same thing is
possible by making use of a tracing wheel, if one is available of
suitable size and of the right spacing between the teeth. The hand
stitching may be done either with one needle or with two. If with
one it is best to sew a running stitch once around the seam and then
return, covering the alternate spaces left on the first round. It is
better, however, to use two needles, one on each end of one thread,
selected long enough to finish the sewing without piecing it, and to
proceed as illustrated in A and B, _i. e._, to draw one needle with its
thread through to the middle of the thread, as shown in A, and then
the other through the next hole, and so on alternately from opposite
directions, producing a stitch like that illustrated in B. It will,
of course, be understood that, in the illustration, the length of the
stitch is exaggerated in order to show the process plainly.

_Trimming and Finishing._--When the sewing is finished the thread is
fastened by doubling over one or two of the stitches and drawing the
ends inside between the cover and lining. Then a line should be tooled
on the cover about 1/16 of an inch outside of the stitching, and on
this line the cover, lining and pocket are trimmed together. The raw
edges may be treated with water colour to give them a finish. Finally
the cover is moistened a little and folded back with firm pressure in
order to establish an even and permanent bend in the leather.


TO DESIGN AND MAKE A DESK PAD

_The Design._--The problem of design in this case is, first of all,
to determine the dimensions of the pad, which depend, of course, upon
the use to be made of it. Then a dimensioned sketch should be drawn in
outline, including the spacing for the corners as illustrated in the
drawing (A). The only detail that will need elaboration is the corner.
The shape and decoration of one of the corners should be carefully
laid out on thin paper, from which in due time it may be transferred to
the leather and tooled as in other problems.

[Illustration: Detail of the leather corner]

[Illustration: Outline of desk pad]

_Material and the Process._--For making the pad it will be necessary
to secure a piece of binders' board--_i. e._, heavy pulp or straw
board--of the required size. The medium weight is the best, and it may
generally be obtained at the bookbinder's. If this cannot be obtained,
two sheets of 10-ply card-board may be used instead. The size given in
the drawing will carry a half sheet of commercial blotting paper. The
edges of the paper board should be bound with passe-partout binding
of a colour to harmonize with the leather that is to be used; the
strips of binding should be long enough to extend under the leather
corners but they need not reach up to the corners of the board. After
the binding has been put on, the top of the board should be covered
with paper also harmonizing in colour with the leather, and the paper
should be cut of such size as to lap over the edge of the binding and
yet leave a suitable width of the binding. The so-called "cover papers"
will be found satisfactory.

_Making the Corners._--The next step in the process is to lay out and
cut the leather corners according to the original design. The form in
which the leather is to be cut and the dimensions are shown in the
illustration B. The little flap at _x_ should be noted. It is designed
to tuck under and close the corner. The edges of leather at _x_ should
be "skived" or thinned down so as to add to the neat appearance of the
work. Further improvement will result from skiving down the edges S R
S and T V T of the large flaps, which are to be folded over underneath
and pasted down to the back of the board. The ordinary photographers'
paste is satisfactory for this work. When the leather corners are
placed in position for pasting, two or three thicknesses of blotting
paper should be used at each corner, in order to secure the necessary
space for the reception of the blotters when the board is in use. After
the corners are pasted on, the back of the board should be covered with
paper in the same way as the front, care being taken to leave a portion
of the binding and leather exposed. Finally a number of blotters of
full size should be inserted in position under the corners to keep them
in shape and the whole placed under light pressure until dry.


TO DESIGN AND MAKE A CARD-CASE

_The Design._--In the illustration (A), showing a card-case unfolded,
the dimensions give the finished size. The same card-case is
illustrated in B somewhat reduced in scale and with the flaps turned
in. The design on A is a rectangle broken at the corners. In this case,
as it may be with all similar forms, the design is treated as a sort
of binding, extending across the middle fold. C shows an alternative
design which is treated as a panel and may be placed on one or on both
sides of the card-case. The question of which is the top and bottom in
such a design as that in C can be determined only by the owner's habit
of holding a case. Sometimes a monogram is placed in one of the inner
flaps, as illustrated in A, or on one of the outer surfaces.

[Illustration: Design for a card-case]

_The Process._--In cutting the leather for a card-case it is necessary
to provide a piece a little larger than the finished dimensions in
order to allow for trimming. The design should be transferred, the
line of stitching determined, and the tooling done, according to the
description already given for the other problems.

_The Lining._--A card-case may be lined either with silk or with
sheepskin, in a colour to harmonize with the outside. If lined with
silk it must be trimmed down to size accurately after tooling, great
care being exercised to have the sides parallel and the corners true
and square. Then the silk is to be turned in at the edges and lightly
pasted along the edges to a width of 1/8 of an inch, care being taken,
however, not to paste those portions of the edges that will be visible
when the flaps of the cover are turned in, _i. e._, the middle of the
fold B. This precaution should be taken because the paste may strike
through and spot the lining. The flaps should then be moistened a
little and folded down with firm pressure; but before stitching they
should be fastened down with a little paste to form pockets. This takes
the place of basting and is followed by stitching as described in
the problem of the note-book. If lined with sheepskin, the ooze side
showing, the cover need not be trimmed down until after the stitching;
then both may be trimmed at once.


TO MAKE A LEATHER PURSE

_The Design._--The details of design and construction are shown in
the accompanying illustrations. In A the outer flap is shown tooled.
It will be noticed that the cap of the snap fastener is taken as the
central point in design. The tooling is done as directed in the other
examples of this class of work.

[Illustration: Design for a purse]

The purse is lined throughout with leather. It has bellows ends, as
shown in the perspective at C and in the end view at B. The pattern of
the bellows end shown in D is intended to fold in the middle, bringing
both ends of the leather together and thus giving an end of double
thickness. With thin leather, such as is used in the present instance,
this pattern is practicable. If thicker leather be used the bellows
must be made of single thickness. In this case the pattern would simply
be like that shown in the lower half of D.

_The Process._--After the lining is pasted to the cover a snap
fastener should be attached. Proper care, of course, should be taken
to see that the fastener comes in the right place so that the purse
will fold properly. The cover and lining should then be trimmed and the
leather surface ruled for stitching. It is well to fold the inner flap
of the purse while it is moist from pasting. Finally a little paste
is applied along the edges of the bellows ends and they are placed in
position.

Stitching is started at the point E shown in the perspective. Hand
stitching is the most practicable. The direction is down one side,
up the other, and around the outside flap to the other bellows end,
stopping at the point F. When the stitching is completed the inside
flap should be folded down.


TO MAKE A LIMP LEATHER BOOK COVER

_The Design._--The first step is to choose the book to be bound. For
the sake of simplicity, as perhaps the first piece of bookbinding
undertaken, it should be a folio or "section." And it should be _worth
binding in leather_. The subject, the paper, and the typography should
be worthy of the distinction.

[Illustration: Typical arrangements suitable for tooled leather covers
of books. Details of tooling, relief, etc., worked out as in other
problems.]

_The Process._--If the book selected is already bound or "cased" it
is necessary first to remove the binding or casing. Then at least
three fly leaves should be added, made up to match the other leaves of
the folio. A piece of bookbinders' linen or buckram is now cut to the
size of the open folio, placed upon it like a cover, and, with the fly
leaves and the folio itself, stitched through the back with silk of a
colour to harmonize with the leather.

The next step is to prepare the leather cover. To do this, first place
the leather in position on the closed folio and, allowing 1/4 of an
inch at the top and bottom and 3/8 of an inch at the fore edge, mark
and cut out the stock for the cover. The decoration, if there is to be
any, may now be tooled on. If the design is heavy enough in relief to
need a backing, it may be at once filled with cotton batting, pasted in
as directed in the problem of the mat, and covered with thin paper.

Stock for the end papers is now selected. They may be of cover paper,
or of silk, and they should harmonize in colour with the leather. They
are formed of two thicknesses of the material chosen, by folding it
over to fit into the part between the linen and the first fly leaf. If
of paper they are to be cut to the length of the folio leaves, but the
width is to be left with an allowance for adjustment after the linen
is pasted in. If the end leaves are to be of silk, an allowance of 1/4
of an inch must be left for turning in at the top, the bottom and the
fore edge.

We are now ready to paste the linen to the leather. Strong paste,
with perhaps a little thin glue added, is needed for this part of the
process. Now paste the outside end leaves to the linen on the inside of
the cover; and, if silk has been used for these leaves, paste the other
two to the outer fly leaves. Finally, the book should be placed under
very gentle pressure and kept in this condition until dry. Care should
be exercised to adjust this pressure to the character of the tooling,
if there is any, so as not to crush it.


COPPER WORK

There is a limited field for metal work in home decoration; but
there are some things of metal that combine beauty and utility to
a remarkable degree and, in their making, introduce us to most
interesting operations. Beginning with the gate, which may be of
wrought iron, or with the door knocker, which may be of antique brass,
we may find in every home problems of design involving work in metals.
Ornamental hinges, key escutcheons, fastenings of various kinds,
andirons, and other accessories of the hearth, lamp holders, card
trays, crumb trays, bon bon dishes, and many other useful things that
may be made in attractive forms readily suggest themselves. How some of
these may be made is suggested in the following simple problems:


TO MAKE A LETTER RACK

This is an easy problem. Only four constructive operations are
required, _viz._, cutting out the stock, sawing the design, bending,
and finishing. The illustration shows the form and the dimensions and
suggests a simple design. The material required is 18-gauge soft copper.

[Illustration: Design for a letter rack]

The first step in the process is to cut out a strip of copper 8 inches
long and 4 inches wide. If necessary the edges may be trimmed even and
then the round corners should be cut. The design is traced on strong,
thin paper and securely pasted on the copper in the proper position
by using cold liquid glue. A hole is drilled through each unit of the
design by means of a hand drill, a jewellers' saw inserted, and the
design cut. Time and patience will be required for this operation. Saws
are easily broken, and new ones must be attached to the saw frame and
again applied to the work. After sawing the design it is necessary to
give the edges a smooth finish. This is done with a file. The surface
which is to form the inside of the rack is then thoroughly cleaned and
polished with water and pumice.

The copper is now ready to be bent to the required shape. To do this
prepare a block of hard wood 8 inches long and 2 inches wide, grip it
in a bench vise, and clamp the strip of copper squarely across the
block in such a position that the sides may be bent over the edges of
the block. When this has been done it only remains to clean the outside
surface and finish it on the felt buffing wheel. If a fine polish is
desired, the buffing should be preceded by careful grinding with a
Scotch water stone and water.


TO MAKE A LETTER OPENER

This requires the same kind of material as the letter rack and the same
operations, with the addition of riveting. After the stock is cut out,
trimmed and trued up at the edges, an outline of the design is pasted
on, as in the previous problem, and the design cut out. The top is
then bent over and riveted with a copper tack, having shaped the head
of the tack in the vise before inserting it. While the tack is being
riveted the finished head should be protected by placing it on a lead
block. Finally the edge should be filed to the shape shown in the cross
section, and the whole cleaned and polished.

[Illustration: Design for a letter opener]


TO MAKE A HAT PIN

For this problem 12-gauge copper will be needed. The operations
required are cutting out, sawing, and soft soldering. After the
necessary stock has been cut to the required shape and the edges filed,
the design is outlined, pasted on, sawed, and finished as before. It is
desirable to grind with the Scotch stone and water to a good polish.
The head will then be ready to be attached to the pin.

[Illustration: The hat pin]

Carefully scrape with a knife the portions of the surface where the pin
is to be attached (shown in the drawing), select a steel pin of desired
length, scrape the surface of the little disk attached to one end of
it, apply to this disk a little soldering paste by means of a small
stick, and then, with a gas (or alcohol) blowpipe, melt on a bit of
soft solder, which should cover the whole disk. Now place the copper,
outside face down, on an asbestos pad, applying the soldering paste
to the central portion, place the disk with its bit of solder on this
portion of the copper, and fuse as before.

When the copper has cooled, clean off the oxide, which will have
formed, by dipping in diluted sulphuric acid, and polish on the buffing
wheel.


TO MAKE A BELT PIN

[Illustration: The belt pin]

Eighteen-gauge copper is required for this problem. The operations are
like those for the hat pin except that hard soldering is necessary. The
slight bending of the copper, required in this case, is done by means
of a horn mallet and a sand pad. For hard soldering, the surface must
be scraped as before and covered with a little borax ground in water
and applied with a small brush. The belt plate should then be placed
on the asbestos pad, with its convex face down, and blocked up so that
the end where the soldering is to be done is horizontal. The catch
should then be placed in position with a small piece of silver solder
at the base. The solder should be melted as before by means of a mouth
blowpipe and gas or alcohol flame. The hinge is soldered on in the same
way, and finally the pin is cleaned and polished for use.


TO MAKE A SET OF BOOK ENDS

This problem is much like the first one described under metal work.
Sixteen-gauge copper is required. It may be bent by placing it between
two hard wood blocks in a vise and hammering it with a rawhide mallet.

[Illustration: Design for book ends]


TO MAKE A TEAPOT STAND

[Illustration: Design for a teapot stand]

Twenty-gauge copper is required for this problem. The operations are
similar to those already described; but the cutting and bending are
much more difficult. After determining the design it will be necessary
to make a drawing showing fully developed surfaces, as illustrated
in the detail of the corner. The four corners must be marked and cut
exactly as shown in the drawing. A piece of hard wood is then cut to
the size of the top, 5 inches square in this case, to be used as a form
on which to bend down the sides and turn the flanges. If the corners
are correctly cut the parts will fall naturally into place, to be bored
and riveted, as the drawing plainly shows. In order to protect the
tablecloth, the under side of the rivet holes should be countersunk so
that the ends of the rivets may be finished smooth and flush with the
under surface. As an additional protection, a felt mat may be glued on
the bottom.

[Illustration: Detail of a corner]


TO MAKE A WATCH FOB

This problem introduces engraving and enamelling, two interesting but
somewhat difficult operations. The process to be carried out is as
follows: Using 12-gauge copper, saw the outline, and apply the design
for the part to be enamelled to the copper by sketching it with a
pencil or transferring it by means of carbon paper. Then strengthen the
pencil or carbon lines by scratching lightly with a scratch awl. Imbed
this fob in pitch, either in a pitch bowl or in a small quantity of
pitch placed on a piece of board clamped to the bench or table. Using
an engraving tool, remove the copper from the spot to be enamelled to
the depth of 1/32 of an inch. It is well to have the bottom of the spot
reasonably level but not necessarily smooth and the sides slightly
undercut. Before applying the flux, clean, by pouring a small quantity
of concentrated nitric acid over the cut and immediately rinsing it off
under the water tap. Flux should be kept in a closed jar under water
after grinding, and taken out as needed on the tip of a small strip of
copper previously cleaned with acid. Enough flux should be applied to
cover the bottom of the spot to be enamelled; but the depth of the spot
must not be filled up.

[Illustration: Design for a watch fob]

Now place the fob on a piece of wire gauze on an iron tripod, and apply
the flame of the blowpipe to the under side. Heat very slowly until all
the water is driven off, then force the heat until the flux is fused.
Allow it to cool slowly, then remove any flux that may have adhered to
the surface of the fob by grinding with Scotch stone. Clean with acid
as before, fill the spot with enamel in the same manner as the flux was
applied, and fuse again. After fusing, the surface should be stoned
again to remove inequalities and again fused, cleaned with water and
buffed on the wheel.

If it is desired to apply enamel to sterling silver the flux may be
omitted and the enamel applied directly, but the silver should be
cleaned with sulphuric acid instead of nitric acid, and great care
should be used in heating as the fusing point of silver is but little
above that of enamel. The depth of the engraving on the silver need not
be as great as on the copper.


TO MAKE A CARD TRAY

Eighteen-gauge copper should be used for this problem, and two new
operations, _viz._, raising and chasing, are introduced. After cutting
out a circular piece of copper to the diameter indicated, allowing one
half an inch extra for raising, it is annealed by heating it to red
heat under the blowpipe flame and cooling by dipping in a sulphuric
acid pickle bath. A circle indicating the inner edge of the rim is
lightly scratched, and a hard wood block is cut on the end grain to the
shape indicated in the sketch, and placed in a vise. Now holding the
copper on the block, it is raised to shape with the round end of the
roughing hammer. It is well to anneal frequently.

[Illustration: Design for a card tray]

After shaping, the design may be applied by means of transfer paper
and the lines lightly scratched on the surface. Then imbed the tray
in pitch and outline the design by following the lines with a narrow
chasing tool. Reverse the tray on the pitch and, with a chasing tool
of suitable shape, raise the body of the design to the height desired.
Reverse on the pitch again and with a flat tool true the outlines and
smooth the background. Remove from the pitch, trim the edge of the tray
if it is forced out of line, clean with pumice stone and buff.

[Illustration: Method of shaping with the hammer]

All the foregoing articles may be agreeably coloured by painting them
with, or immersing them in, a weak solution (boiling) of liver of
sulphur. If soft solder has not been used, another pleasing finish
may be secured by applying a thin coat of lubricating oil and heating
gently until the oil is volatilized. An antique green or verdigris
finish may be obtained by painting with a mixture of acetic acid and
copper carbonate. Several coats may be necessary; and it is desirable
to lacquer the surface to ensure permanency.


WORK IN OTHER MATERIALS


A CANDLE SHADE

The materials and tools for this problem are six ply card-board in dull
shades of gray, brown or green, and with mat surface; Japanese paper
of average thickness; passe-partout binding a little darker than the
card-board and of harmonizing colour; paste; a penknife with a thin
blade; and a water colour outfit.

Of the drawings included in the group on the opposite page one shows a
development of the surface of the candle shade which is the subject of
this problem. Referring to the elevation it will be seen that if the
edges AE and DH be continued until they meet at O, OE and OH are really
equal to the radii of the outer arc of the development shown in the
upper part of the group, and OA and OD, to the radii of the inner arc.
This upper developed surface really forms the pattern of the candle
shade.

[Illustration: Details of candle shade]

The decoration consists of openings cut through the card-board
segments. These are covered with Japanese paper, thus allowing light to
pass through, but adding the effect of colour. A margin of 3/8 of an
inch is allowed along the openings, the remaining spaces being divided
by partitions of card-board, as shown in the different typical designs
at the right of the illustration. It will be noticed that the group of
openings forming the decoration of one side conforms in the main to the
shape of that side. It will also be noticed that there is a variety of
size and shape in the openings, but that they all show a certain unity
and harmony of space division.

The openings are cut with a penknife, care being taken to make as
clean a cut as possible. Japanese paper, of pale green, orange, or
some suitable light colour, is pasted under the openings. The process
of pasting is one that requires some care. It is well to paste only a
portion of the pasteboard at a time taking care not to use more paste
than necessary and not to let any get over the edges of the openings.
The paper should be pressed on while the paste is still moist, and the
paper itself should, of course, not be pasted at all. It should be
placed with colour side next to the openings.

When the paste is dry the card-board should be lightly scored on the
lines AE, BF, etc., and bent on these lines, bringing the sectors
together into the form of the shade and fastening them at the top and
bottom temporarily with a bit of passe-partout binding. If the binding
is of the ordinary width (7/8 of an inch), it should be cut lengthwise
into two strips of equal width, to be used for mounting the edges. No
attempt should be made to run the binding along more than one edge. The
separated strips should then be cut the exact length for each top and
bottom edge and applied one at a time. Then the side edges are bound,
with the apex of the angle at the middle of the binding. When the
binding is firmly fastened it is carefully trimmed off at the top and
bottom.


ELECTRIC LIGHT PENDANTS

[Illustration: A seven-light fixture]

Two designs for such pendants are illustrated in the accompanying
drawings. They were derived from suggestions in the _Craftsman_, and
were successfully worked out in remodelling a house. The seven-light
fixture consists of a circular pendant-board about 30 inches in
diameter, made from 2-inch plain oak stock, cut into 60-degree segments
and, with splined joints, glued up to form a circular piece which was
turned up on a large lathe. An open space 7 inches in diameter was left
in the larger circle, which was covered by a cup-shaped cap turned
from plain oak stock and attached to the larger circle by screws. The
considerable opening covered by this cap contained the cut out and
the wiring necessary for connecting with each of the seven lights.
Seven medium-sized hooks of composition metal were procured which had
large, coarse threaded screws. A 3/16-inch hole was drilled lengthwise
through the shanks of these hooks. Holes were bored near the centre of
the arc of each segment in the board circle to receive these hooks.
When the fixture was assembled the wires for each light were carried
from the cut out across a channel made for that purpose on the upper
surface of the board, passed down through the hole in the shank of
the hook, woven into the links of the chain pendant and connected with
the corresponding bulb socket after passing through another hook, like
those described above, which linked the socket to the chain. As a
finish around the hooks shallow cups of beaten copper were fashioned
over a wooden form, turned for the purpose, and oxidized to a tone
somewhat darker than the brown of the oak board. Copper cups in a
conventional petal design were made to place over each of the bulbs.
The chains were also oxidized to conform with the other metal work. The
entire combination was satisfactory.

[Illustration: A five-light fixture]

Another design for the dining-room of the same house and much easier to
construct is also illustrated. It will be observed that the square form
instead of the circle is carried out consistently in the woodwork and
metal caps. These caps and the chains are in natural brass of a dull
finish. The shades are of ground glass, decorated with a flower design
in heavy black lines. The central light has a larger shade than the
others, wholly enclosed. In this one is placed a red incandescent bulb
for use whenever such decorative effect is desired.


DECORATIVE FORGINGS

In the story of the designing and building of the model house reference
was made to contributions from the forge shop. Among these were the
andirons, door knocker, lantern bracket, and other articles shown in
the accompanying illustrations.

It should be understood that all wrought iron work that has any reality
in it requires an equipment especially adapted to its production. There
must be a good forge and fire, an anvil, and proper tools, all in the
hands of a workman of some experience and skill. Successful forge
work can hardly be considered among the handicrafts easily adapted
to the needs of the amateur working without instruction and with
poor equipment. But with good tools, proper equipment, and a little
experience any clever boy will be able to design and fashion many
useful articles for the home which have real artistic merit.

[Illustration: Decorative Forgings. Plate XVI]

For the fireplace, in addition to andirons, there may be made the
shovel, poker, and tongs, and possibly the old-fashioned crane and pot
hooks. Other fixtures that may be made are ceiling hooks, lantern
brackets for the wall or for lantern posts, standards for the newel
post, the hall lantern or the porch lantern, the latch and the knocker
for the door, and, if the architectural design permits, hinges, plates,
and bolts for the door. This list by no means exhausts the uses of
wrought iron in house decoration. It may be extended to include
draw pulls, key escutcheons, furniture handles and hinges of great
variety, nails with ornamental heads for use with heavy construction,
and many small articles such as trivets for steam kettles, toasting
forks, candle holders, and many other useful articles which have also
decorative value.




XII

CONCLUDING SUGGESTIONS

COUNTRY HOMES

     To know what you prefer, instead of humbly saying amen to what the
     world tells you you ought to prefer, is to have kept your soul
     alive.--_Robert Louis Stevenson_


Keen observers of American customs, who have studied the development
of our taste in house designing and furnishing, tell us that the
best expression of our art in architecture and home decoration is to
be found in our country homes. They do not overlook, of course, a
beautiful public building in this city or that, perhaps ten altogether,
or an occasional private residence on Millionaire Avenue, which are
monuments to the genius of the men who created them and of which any
country may be proud. What they mean is that as a people we seek and
secure the right combination of utility and beauty in our homes more
frequently in the country than in the city.

At first thought such a criticism may seem to be an exaggeration.
Is it reasonable, we ask, that people of good sense, such as most
Americans are, really succeed better in planning, building, and
decorating the houses which they are to occupy but a few weeks in the
summer than they do in developing their city homes? We are told that it
is true and that there are good reasons for it.

_Simplicity of Country Life._--It is the life in the country and at the
seashore that is the simple life, the natural life, the life that sets
us free from the accumulated burden of mere "things." Here we come to
forget for a time the many and find pleasure in the few. Here we are
to feel the joy of living. Nature is all about us, and she gives of
her bounty freely. Our wants are few because we are so well satisfied
with the free gifts. What wants we have keep step with our needs here
as they do nowhere else. We care less for what others have; we are more
individual, more rational. Here we generally demand what we really
need and we more frequently obtain it. And this is true whether it be
something that appeals to the æsthetic side of our natures or whether
it be that which ministers to our material needs. In seeking the
beautiful for the simple home in the country we do not so often forget
the useful; for here, away from the world of museums and studios
and collections, we learn that art is possible without paintings and
statuary. In the exterior form and colouring of the shingled cottage,
set like a gem on the hillside or by the sea, in the harmonious
arrangement of its interiors, with every article of furniture chosen
only for use and comfort and placed where needed, and with decorations,
cheerful but restrained and subordinate, suggestive of more glorious
colours and more interesting things in the world without--in such
surroundings we have beauty and utility combined. Here we have the time
and the opportunity to realize the truth that all art is one and that
it may find in the problems of decoration in the country home, if not
its highest mission, its most open field for giving to appreciative
people the pleasure of seeing and enjoying the beautiful.

_Opportunities for Constructive Art._--If it be true that there is a
more universal recognition of the true principles of art in the better
class of our country homes than in our city homes, it is proof, if
proof be needed, that the elements of art expression are found in the
simple, natural materials of every-day life. It may be that in the
development of art amid simple surroundings "necessity is the mother
of invention," and that, more or less naturally, simplicity is thrust
upon us. The general habit of our time is to extend the vacation
period in the country or at the seashore to the point of making a home
there for every summer season. But only a few can carry wealth and
elegance with them. A great majority must be satisfied with simple and
inexpensive homes. At first we accept them as the only thing possible,
and then we discover that in their very simplicity they offer the best
of opportunities for true æsthetic expression. And this opportunity
is largely for the younger members of the family--for the boys and
girls whose vacation period is more extended, whose interest in the
summer home is perhaps the more vital and whose imagination is the
more susceptible to the art suggestions of nature. We have seen that
it is possible for boys and girls to build and furnish a house under
the exacting requirements of city life. How much easier it must be to
build a cottage for the summer season, decorating and furnishing it in
harmony with the simple needs of a vacation home.

If such a suggestion meet with acceptance, those who undertake the
work will find much practical help in the problems outlined in the
foregoing chapters. It is not expected, of course, that the directions
there given will always be exactly followed. In the furniture problems,
for example, soft woods like pine and spruce may be substituted for
the harder woods specified. Very attractive as well as very useful
simple furniture has been made in this way at a merely nominal
expense. Staining and finishing may easily bring it into harmony with
colour schemes; but the bright, fresh colour of new pine and spruce
is in itself by no means unattractive. The smooth, exposed beams
of the ceilings and walls, if of well chosen stock, may be stained
a beautiful gray green or a soft brown. A good colour suggestion
may be found in the weathered gray of the hewn timbers of very old
buildings. The effect of a ceiled-up wall or of a dado may be easily
obtained by stretching burlap or denim over the studding or over a
backing of inexpensive sheathing. These materials are very durable and
inexpensive, and they may be found in a great variety of beautiful
shades. They make excellent portières. A lighter, thinner material like
scrim is better for window draperies. All these fabrics afford good
surfaces for decoration by stencilling. Stained or painted soft wood
floors, covered with grass cloth rugs or the more dainty hand woven
rugs like those described in the chapter on weaving, with simple,
useful furniture, a picture or two, and a few choice pieces of pottery,
complete the equipment for a charming living room. If it all be the
product of home industry, the cash outlay for the material need not
be over forty dollars, though an outlay of ten times that amount for
better materials would not in the least interfere with such a room
being decorated and furnished by the unaided labours of the amateur
artists and craftsmen of the family.

[Illustration: A fireplace in field rock]

The chief expense would naturally be for the living room, dining-room,
and kitchen. The dining-room, however, may well be simply a corner or
alcove of a large living room. Such an arrangement greatly increases
the value of a single fireplace, which will be required to give the
summer home the sense of perfect comfort. This may be of rough field
rock and should be large enough to take one-cut fireplace wood. The
chamber furnishings may be very simple indeed. Furniture dealers make
a point of supplying beds, bureaus, chairs, and cabinets of simple
design, unfinished, so that the purchaser may stain them to harmonize
with any desired colour scheme. But such furniture, or good substitutes
for it, can be made very inexpensively. For example, the stock for
a good bed will not cost over seventy-five cents. Cases provided
with shelves and curtains in place of drawers, made at a cash outlay
possibly of one dollar, will serve for bureaus. The cost of materials
for building an eight-room cottage in every way satisfactory need not
exceed five hundred dollars; and such a cottage could be beautifully
furnished by clever boys and girls at an expense for materials of one
hundred and fifty or perhaps two hundred dollars.

[Illustration: An inexpensive bed]

In the exterior finishing of summer cottages nature generally needs
very little assistance. No colours harmonize so well with the gray
rocks, sere fields and marshes, and the evergreen trees by the
seashore, as the weathered grays of the shingled cottage. The window
frames, door frames and facings, painted to preserve them, may be
of the same colour or in dull green or brown, plainly marking the
outlines of the house but without unpleasant contrasts. A stained roof
in slate gray or creosote brown is also in keeping. The underpinning
and outside chimneys in the field rock of the locality are eminently
fitting. The house among the hills will stand more colour because the
colours of nature are richer, especially in the autumn season. But
wherever the house may be, it should repeat in its larger surfaces the
prevailing colour tones of its natural setting. It should seem to fit
into its surroundings as if it belonged there and would always remain
there, a part of the simple, natural beauty all around it.

[Illustration: A country house]


THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y.

[Transcriber's Notes:
  Spelling is the same mix of US/UK as others in series (eg color/colour)
  Corrected obvious typos:
    tell -> tells
    arrrangement -> arrangement
    CROHETED -> CROCHETED
    STENCILING -> STENCILLING
    on account -> on account of
    will be be -> will be
    retain -> and retains
    expecially -> especially
  Portières/Portieres found with and w/o accent in equal parts
  (left as in text in each case)
  Hyphenation made consistent:
    wood-work -> woodwork
    outdoor -> out-door
]