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AESTHETIC POETRY+


WALTER HORATIO PATER


[213] THE "aesthetic" poetry is neither a mere reproduction of Greek
or medieval poetry, nor only an idealisation of modern life and
sentiment.  The atmosphere on which its effect depends belongs to no
simple form of poetry, no actual form of life.  Greek poetry,
medieval or modern poetry, projects, above the realities of its time,
a world in which the forms of things are transfigured.  Of that
transfigured world this new poetry takes possession, and sublimates
beyond it another still fainter and more spectral, which is literally
an artificial or "earthly paradise."  It is a finer ideal, extracted
from what in relation to any actual world is already an ideal.  Like
some strange second flowering after date, it renews on a more
delicate type the poetry of a past age, but must not be confounded
with it.  The secret of the enjoyment of it is that inversion of
home-sickness known to some, that incurable thirst for the sense of
escape, which no actual form of life [214] satisfies, no poetry even,
if it be merely simple and spontaneous.

The writings of the "romantic school," of which the aesthetic poetry
is an afterthought, mark a transition not so much from the pagan to
the medieval ideal, as from a lower to a higher degree of passion in
literature.  The end of the eighteenth century, swept by vast
disturbing currents, experienced an excitement of spirit of which one
note was a reaction against an outworn classicism severed not more
from nature than from the genuine motives of ancient art; and a
return to true Hellenism was as much a part of this reaction as the
sudden preoccupation with things medieval.  The medieval tendency is
in Goethe's Goetz von Berlichingen, the Hellenic in his Iphigenie.
At first this medievalism was superficial, or at least external.
Adventure, romance in the frankest sense, grotesque individualism--that
is one element in medieval poetry, and with it alone Scott and
Goethe dealt.  Beyond them were the two other elements of the
medieval spirit: its mystic religion at its apex in Dante and Saint
Louis, and its mystic passion, passing here and there into the great
romantic loves of rebellious flesh, of Lancelot and Abelard.  That
stricter, imaginative medievalism which re-creates the mind of the
Middle Age, so that the form, the presentment grows outward [215]
from within, came later with Victor Hugo in France, with Heine in
Germany.

In the Defence of Guenevere: and Other Poems, published by Mr.
William Morris now many years ago, the first typical specimen of
aesthetic poetry, we have a refinement upon this later, profounder
medievalism.  The poem which gives its name to the volume is a thing
tormented and awry with passion, like the body of Guenevere defending
herself from the charge of adultery, and the accent falls in strange,
unwonted places with the effect of a great cry.  In truth these
Arthurian legends, in their origin prior to Christianity, yield all
their sweetness only in a Christian atmosphere.  What is
characteristic in them is the strange suggestion of a deliberate
choice between Christ and a rival lover.  That religion, monastic
religion at any rate, has its sensuous side, a dangerously sensuous
side, has been often seen: it is the experience of Rousseau as well
as of the Christian mystics.  The Christianity of the Middle Age made
way among a people whose loss was in the life of the senses partly by
its aesthetic beauty, a thing so profoundly felt by the Latin
hymn-writers, who for one moral or spiritual sentiment have a hundred
sensuous images.  And so in those imaginative loves, in their highest
expression, the Provencal poetry, it is a rival religion with a [216]
new rival cultus that we see.  Coloured through and through with
Christian sentiment, they are rebels against it.  The rejection of
one worship for another is never lost sight of.  The jealousy of that
other lover, for whom these words and images and refined ways of
sentiment were first devised, is the secret here of a borrowed,
perhaps factitious colour and heat.  It is the mood of the cloister
taking a new direction, and winning so a later space of life it never
anticipated.

Hereon, as before in the cloister, so now in the chateau, the reign
of reverie set in.  The devotion of the cloister knew that mood
thoroughly, and had sounded all its stops.  For the object of this
devotion was absent or veiled, not limited to one supreme plastic
form like Zeus at Olympia or Athena in the Acropolis, but distracted,
as in a fever dream, into a thousand symbols and reflections.  But
then, the Church, that new Sibyl, had a thousand secrets to make the
absent near.  Into this kingdom of reverie, and with it into a
paradise of ambitious refinements, the earthly love enters, and
becomes a prolonged somnambulism.  Of religion it learns the art of
directing towards an unseen object sentiments whose natural direction
is towards objects of sense.  Hence a love defined by the absence of
the beloved, choosing to be without hope, protesting [217] against
all lower uses of love, barren, extravagant, antinomian.  It is the
love which is incompatible with marriage, for the chevalier who never
comes, of the serf for the chatelaine, of the rose for the
nightingale, of Rudel for the Lady of Tripoli.  Another element of
extravagance came in with the feudal spirit: Provencal love is full
of the very forms of vassalage.  To be the servant of love, to have
offended, to taste the subtle luxury of chastisement, of
reconciliation--the religious spirit, too, knows that, and meets just
there, as in Rousseau, the delicacies of the earthly love.  Here,
under this strange complex of conditions, as in some medicated air,
exotic flowers of sentiment expand, among people of a remote and
unaccustomed beauty, somnambulistic, frail, androgynous, the light
almost shining through them.  Surely, such loves were too fragile and
adventurous to last more than for a moment.

That monastic religion of the Middle Age was, in fact, in many of its
bearings, like a beautiful disease or disorder of the senses: and a
religion which is a disorder of the senses must always be subject to
illusions.  Reverie, illusion, delirium: they are the three stages of
a fatal descent both in the religion and the loves of the Middle Age.
Nowhere has the impression of this delirium been conveyed as by
Victor Hugo in Notre Dame de Paris.  The [218] strangest creations of
sleep seem here, by some appalling licence, to cross the limit of the
dawn.  The English poet too has learned the secret.  He has diffused
through King Arthur's Tomb the maddening white glare of the sun, and
tyranny of the moon, not tender and far-off, but close down--the
sorcerer's moon, large and feverish.  The colouring is intricate and
delirious, as of "scarlet lilies."  The influence of summer is like a
poison in one's blood, with a sudden bewildered sickening of life and
all things.  In Galahad: a Mystery, the frost of Christmas night on
the chapel stones acts as a strong narcotic: a sudden shrill ringing
pierces through the numbness: a voice proclaims that the Grail has
gone forth through the great forest.  It is in the Blue Closet that
this delirium reaches its height with a singular beauty, reserved
perhaps for the enjoyment of the few.

A passion of which the outlets are sealed, begets a tension of nerve,
in which the sensible world comes to one with a reinforced brilliancy
and relief--all redness is turned into blood, all water into tears.
Hence a wild, convulsed sensuousness in the poetry of the Middle Age,
in which the things of nature begin to play a strange delirious part.
Of the things of nature the medieval mind had a deep sense; but its
sense of them was not objective, no real escape [219] to the world
without us.  The aspects and motions of nature only reinforced its
prevailing mood, and were in conspiracy with one's own brain against
one.  A single sentiment invaded the world: everything was infused
with a motive drawn from the soul.  The amorous poetry of Provence,
making the starling and the swallow its messengers, illustrates the
whole attitude of nature in this electric atmosphere, bent as by
miracle or magic to the service of human passion.

The most popular and gracious form of Provencal poetry was the
nocturn, sung by the lover at night at the door or under the window
of his mistress.  These songs were of different kinds, according to
the hour at which they were intended to be sung.  Some were to be
sung at midnight--songs inviting to sleep, the serena, or serenade;
others at break of day--waking songs, the aube or aubade.*  This
waking-song is put sometimes into the mouth of a comrade of the
lover, who plays sentinel during the night, to watch for and announce
the dawn: sometimes into the mouth of one of the lovers, who are
about to separate.  A modification of it is familiar to us all in
Romeo and Juliet, where the lovers debate whether the song they hear
is of the nightingale or the lark; the aubade, with the two other
great forms of love-poetry then floating in the world, the sonnet and
the [220] epithalamium, being here refined, heightened, and inwoven
into the structure of the play.  Those, in whom what Rousseau calls
les frayeurs nocturnes are constitutional, know what splendour they
give to the things of the morning; and how there comes something of
relief from physical pain with the first white film in the sky.  The
Middle Age knew those terrors in all their forms; and these songs of
the morning win hence a strange tenderness and effect.  The crown of
the English poet's book is one of these appreciations of the dawn:--

     "Pray but one prayer for me 'twixt thy closed lips,
         Think but one thought of me up in the stars,
     The summer-night waneth, the morning light slips,
        Faint and gray 'twixt the leaves of the aspen,
             betwixt the cloud-bars,
     That are patiently waiting there for the dawn:
         Patient and colourless, though Heaven's gold
     Waits to float through them along with the sun.
     Far out in the meadows, above the young corn,
         The heavy elms wait, and restless and cold
     The uneasy wind rises; the roses are dun;
     Through the long twilight they pray for the dawn,
     Round the lone house in the midst of the corn.
         Speak but one word to me over the corn,
         Over the tender, bow'd locks of the corn."

It is the very soul of the bridegroom which goes forth to the bride:
inanimate things are longing with him: all the sweetness of the
imaginative loves [221] of the Middle Age, with a superadded
spirituality of touch all its own, is in that!

The Defence of Guenevere was published in 1858; the Life and Death of
Jason in 1867; to be followed by The Earthly Paradise; and the change
of manner wrought in the interval, entire, almost a revolt, is
characteristic of the aesthetic poetry.  Here there is no delirium or
illusion, no experiences of mere soul while the body and the bodily
senses sleep, or wake with convulsed intensity at the prompting of
imaginative love; but rather the great primary passions under broad
daylight as of the pagan Veronese.  This simplification interests us,
not merely for the sake of an individual poet--full of charm as he
is--but chiefly because it explains through him a transition which,
under many forms, is one law of the life of the human spirit, and of
which what we call the Renaissance is only a supreme instance.  Just
so the monk in his cloister, through the "open vision," open only to
the spirit, divined, aspired to, and at last apprehended, a better
daylight, but earthly, open only to the senses.  Complex and subtle
interests, which the mind spins for itself may occupy art and poetry
or our own spirits for a time; but sooner or later they come back
with a sharp rebound to the simple elementary passions--anger,
desire, regret, [222] pity, and fear: and what corresponds to them in
the sensuous world--bare, abstract fire, water, air, tears, sleep,
silence, and what De Quincey has called the "glory of motion."

This reaction from dreamlight to daylight gives, as always happens, a
strange power in dealing with morning and the things of the morning.
Not less is this Hellenist of the Middle Age master of dreams, of
sleep and the desire of sleep--sleep in which no one walks, restorer
of childhood to men--dreams, not like Galahad's or Guenevere's, but
full of happy, childish wonder as in the earlier world.  It is a
world in which the centaur and the ram with the fleece of gold are
conceivable.  The song sung always claims to be sung for the first
time.  There are hints at a language common to birds and beasts and
men.  Everywhere there is an impression of surprise, as of people
first waking from the golden age, at fire, snow, wine, the touch of
water as one swims, the salt taste of the sea.  And this simplicity
at first hand is a strange contrast to the sought-out simplicity of
Wordsworth.  Desire here is towards the body of nature for its own
sake, not because a soul is divined through it.

And yet it is one of the charming anachronisms of a poet, who, while
he handles an ancient subject, never becomes an antiquarian, but
animates his [223] subject by keeping it always close to himself,
that betweenwhiles we have a sense of English scenery as from an eye
well practised under Wordsworth's influence, as from "the casement
half opened on summer-nights," with the song of the brown bird among
the willows, the

        "Noise of bells, such as in moonlit lanes
     Rings from the grey team on the market night."

Nowhere but in England is there such a "paradise of birds," the
fern-owl, the water-hen, the thrush in a hundred sweet variations, the
ger-falcon, the kestrel, the starling, the pea-fowl; birds heard from
the field by the townsman down in the streets at dawn; doves
everywhere, pink-footed, grey-winged, flitting about the temple,
troubled by the temple incense, trapped in the snow.  The sea-touches
are not less sharp and firm, surest of effect in places where river
and sea, salt and fresh waves, conflict.

In handling a subject of Greek legend, anything in the way of an
actual revival must always be impossible.  Such vain antiquarianism
in a waste of the poet's power.  The composite experience of all the
ages is part of each one of us: to deduct from that experience, to
obliterate any part of it, to come face to face with the people of a
past age, as if the Middle Age, the Renaissance, the eighteenth
century had not been, is as impossible as to become a little [224]
child, or enter again into the womb and be born.  But though it is
not possible to repress a single phase of that humanity, which,
because we live and move and have our being in the life of humanity,
makes us what we are, it is possible to isolate such a phase, to
throw it into relief, to be divided against ourselves in zeal for it;
as we may hark back to some choice space of our own individual life.
We cannot truly conceive the age: we can conceive the element it has
contributed to our culture: we can treat the subjects of the age
bringing that into relief.  Such an attitude towards Greece, aspiring
to but never actually reaching its way of conceiving life, is what is
possible for art.

The modern poet or artist who treats in this way a classical story
comes very near, if not to the Hellenism of Homer, yet to the
Hellenism of Chaucer, the Hellenism of the Middle Age, or rather of
that exquisite first period of the Renaissance within it.  Afterwards
the Renaissance takes its side, becomes, perhaps, exaggerated or
facile.  But the choice life of the human spirit is always under
mixed lights, and in mixed situations, when it is not too sure of
itself, is still expectant, girt up to leap forward to the promise.
Such a situation there was in that earliest return from the
overwrought spiritualities of the Middle Age to the earlier, more
ancient life of the senses; and for us the most attractive form of
[225] classical story is the monk's conception of it, when he escapes
from the sombre atmosphere of his cloister to natural light.  The
fruits of this mood, which, divining more than it understands,
infuses into the scenery and figures of Christian history some subtle
reminiscence of older gods, or into the story of Cupid and Psyche
that passionate stress of spirit which the world owes to
Christianity, constitute a peculiar vein of interest in the art of
the fifteenth century.

And so, before we leave Jason and The Earthly Paradise, a word must
be said about their medievalisms, delicate inconsistencies, which,
coming in a poem of Greek subject, bring into this white dawn
thoughts of the delirious night just over and make one's sense of
relief deeper.  The opening of the fourth book of Jason describes the
embarkation of the Argonauts: as in a dream, the scene shifts and we
go down from Iolchos to the sea through a pageant of the Middle Age
in some French or Italian town.  The gilded vanes on the spires, the
bells ringing in the towers, the trellis of roses at the window, the
close planted with apple-trees, the grotesque undercroft with its
close-set pillars, change by a single touch the air of these Greek
cities and we are at Glastonbury by the tomb of Arthur.  The nymph in
furred raiment who seduces Hylas is conceived frankly in the spirit
of Teutonic romance; her song is of a garden [226] enclosed, such as
that with which the old church glass-stainer surrounds the mystic
bride of the song of songs.  Medea herself has a hundred touches of
the medieval sorceress, the sorceress of the Streckelberg or the
Blocksberg: her mystic changes are Christabel's.  It is precisely
this effect, this grace of Hellenism relieved against the sorrow of
the Middle Age, which forms the chief motives of The Earthly
Paradise: with an exquisite dexterity the two threads of sentiment
are here interwoven and contrasted.  A band of adventurers sets out
from Norway, most northerly of northern lands, where the plague is
raging--the bell continually ringing as they carry the Sacrament to
the sick.  Even in Mr. Morris's earliest poems snatches of the sweet
French tongue had always come with something of Hellenic blitheness
and grace.  And now it is below the very coast of France, through the
fleet of Edward the Third, among the gaily painted medieval sails,
that we pass to a reserved fragment of Greece, which by some divine
good fortune lingers on in the western sea into the Middle Age.
There the stories of The Earthly Paradise are told, Greek story and
romantic alternating; and for the crew of the Rose Garland, coming
across the sins of the earlier world with the sign of the cross, and
drinking Rhine-wine in Greece, the two worlds of sentiment are
confronted.

[227] One characteristic of the pagan spirit the aesthetic poetry
has, which is on its surface--the continual suggestion, pensive or
passionate, of the shortness of life.  This is contrasted with the
bloom of the world, and gives new seduction to it--the sense of death
and the desire of beauty: the desire of beauty quickened by the sense
of death.  But that complexion of sentiment is at its height in
another "aesthetic" poet of whom I have to speak next, Dante Gabriel
Rossetti.

1868.



NOTES

213. +This essay appeared only in the 1889 edition of Appreciations.

219. *Fauriel's Histoire de la Poesie Provencale, tome ii. ch. xviii.










End of Project Gutenberg's Aesthetic Poetry, by Walter Horatio Pater