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THE FLAGS OF THE WORLD:

Their History, Blazonry, and Associations.

From the Banner of the Crusader to the Burgee of the Yachtsman;
Flags National, Colonial, Personal;
the Ensigns of Mighty Empires;
the Symbols of Lost Causes.

by

F. EDWARD HULME, F.L.S., F.S.A.,

Author of
"Familiar Wild Flowers," "History, Principles and Practice of Heraldry,"
"Birth and Development of Ornament," &c., &c.







London:
Frederick Warne & Co.,
and New York
[All rights reserved.]



{iii}

TABLE OF CONTENTS.



CHAPTER I.

The necessity of some special Sign to distinguish Individuals, Tribes, and
Nations--the Standards of Antiquity--Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Greek,
and Roman--the Vexillum--the Labarum of Constantine--Invocation of
Religion--the Flags of the Enemy--Early Flags of Religious Character--Flags
of Saints at Funeral Obsequies--Company and Guild Flags of the Mediæval
Period--Political Colours--Various kinds of Flags--the Banner--Rolls of
Arms--Roll of Karlaverok--The Flag called the Royal Standard is really the
Royal Banner--Main-sail Banners--Trumpet Banners--Ladies embroidering
Banners for the Cause--Knights' Banneret--Form of Investiture--the
Standard--the Percy Badges and Motto--Arctic Sledge-flags--the Rank
governing the size of the Standard--Standards at State Funerals--the
Pennon--Knights' Pennonciers--the Pennoncelle--Mr. Rolt as Chief
Mourner--Lord Mayor's Show--the Pennant--the Streamer--Tudor Badges--Livery
Colours--the Guidon--Bunting--Flag Devising a Branch of Heraldry--Colours
chiefly used in Flags--Flags bearing Inscriptions--Significance of the Red
Flag--of the Yellow--of the White--of the Black--Dipping the Flag--the
Sovereignty of the Sea--Right of Salute insisted on--Political changes
rendering Flags obsolete        1

CHAPTER II.

The Royal Standard--the Three Lions of England--the Lion Rampant of
Scotland--Scottish sensitiveness as to precedence--the Scottish
Tressure--the Harp of Ireland--Early Irish Flags--Brian Boru--the Royal
Standards from Richard I. to Victoria--Claim to the Fleurs-de-lys of
France--Quartering Hanover--the Union Flag--St. George for England--War
Cry--Observance of St. George's Day--the Cross of St. George--Early Naval
Flags--the London Trained Bands--the Cross of St. Andrew--the "Blue
Blanket"--Flags of the Covenanters--Relics of St. Andrew--Union of England
and Scotland--the First Union Flag--Importance of accuracy in
representations of it--the Union Jack--Flags of the Commonwealth and
Protectorate--Union of Great Britain and {iv} Ireland--the Cross of St.
Patrick--Labours of St. Patrick in Ireland--Proclamation of George III. as
to Flags, etc.--the Second Union Flag--Heraldic Difficulties in its
Construction--Suggestions by Critics--Regulations as to Fortress Flags--the
White Ensign of the Royal Navy--Saluting the Flag--the Navy the Safeguard
of Britain--the Blue Ensign--the Royal Naval Reserve--the Red Ensign of the
Mercantile Marine--Value of Flag-lore        29

CHAPTER III.

Army Flags--the Queen's Colour--the Regimental Colour--the Honours and
Devices--the Flag of the 24th Regiment--Facings--Flag of the King's Own
Borderers--What the Flag Symbolises--Colours of the Guards--the Assaye
Flag--Cavalry Flags--Presentation of Colours--Chelsea College Chapel--Flags
of the Buffs in Canterbury Cathedral--Flags of the Scottish Regiments in
St. Giles's Cathedral--Burning of Rebel Flags by the Hangman--Special Flags
for various Official Personages--Special Flags for different Government
Departments--the Lord High Admiral--the Mail Flag--White Ensign of the
Royal Yacht Squadron--Yacht Ensigns and Burgees--House or Company
Flags--How to express Colours with Lines--the Allan Tricolor--Port
Flags--the British Empire--the Colonial Blue Ensign and Pendant--the
Colonial Defence Act--Colonial Mercantile Flag--Admiralty Warrant--Flag of
the Governor of a Colony--the Green Garland--the Arms of the Dominion of
Canada--Badges of the various Colonies--Daniel Webster on the Might of
England--Bacon on the Command of the Ocean        61

CHAPTER IV.

The Flag of Columbus--Early Settlements in North America--the Birth of the
United States--Early Revolutionary and State Flags--the Pine-tree Flag--the
Rattle-snake Flag--the Stars and Stripes--Early Variations of it--the Arms
of Washington--Entry of New States into the Union--the Eagle--the Flag of
the President--Secession of the Southern States--State Flags again--the
Stars and Bars--the Southern Cross--the Birth of the German Empire--the
Influence of War Songs--Flags of the Empire--Flags of the smaller German
States--the Austro-Hungary Monarchy--the Flags of Russia--the Crosses of
St. Andrew and St. George again--the Flags of France--St. Martin--the
Oriflamme--the Fleurs-de-lys--Their Origin--the White Cross--the White Flag
of the Bourbons--the Tricolor--the Red {v} Flag--the Flags of Spain--of
Portugal--the Consummation of Italian Unity--the Arms of Savoy--the Flags
of Italy--of the Temporal Power of the Papacy--the Flag of Denmark--its
Celestial Origin--the Flags of Norway and Sweden--of Switzerland--Cantonal
Colours--the Geneva Convention--the Flags of Holland--of Belgium--of
Greece--the Crescent of Turkey--the Tughra--the Flags of Roumania, Servia,
and Bulgaria--Flags of Mexico, and of the States of Southern and Central
America--of Japan--the Rising Sun--the Chrysanthemum--the Flags of China,
Siam and Corea--of Sarawak--of the Orange Free State, Liberia, Congo State,
and the Transvaal Republic        86

CHAPTER V.

Flags as a Means of Signalling--Army Signalling--the Morse Alphabet--Navy
Signalling--First Attempts at Sea Signals--Old Signal Books in Library of
Royal United Service Institution--"England expects that every man will do
his duty"--Sinking Signal Codes on defeat--Present System of Signalling in
Royal Navy--Pilot Signals--Weather Signalling by Flags--the International
Signal Code--First Published in 1857--Seventy-eight Thousand Different
Signals possible--Why no Vowels used--Lloyd's Signal Stations        127

ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO TEXT        141

COLOURED PLATES        149



{1}

THE FLAGS OF THE WORLD.

CHAPTER I.

    The necessity of some special Sign to distinguish Individuals, Tribes,
    and Nations--the Standards of Antiquity--Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian,
    Greek, and Roman--the Vexillum--The Labarum of Constantine--Invocation
    of Religion--the Flags of the Enemy--Early Flags of Religious
    Character--Flags of Saints at Funeral Obsequies--Company and Guild
    Flags of the Mediæval Period--Political Colours--Various kinds of
    Flags--the Banner--Rolls of Arms--Roll of Karlaverok--The Flag called
    the Royal Standard is really the Royal Banner--Mainsail
    Banners--Trumpet Banners--Ladies embroidering Banners for the
    Cause--Knights' Banneret--Form of Investiture--the Standard--the Percy
    Badges and Motto--Arctic Sledge-flags--the Rank governing the size of
    the Standard--Standards at State Funerals--the
    Pennon--Knights-Pennonciers--the Pennoncelle--Mr. Rolt as Chief
    Mourner--Lord Mayor's Show--the Pennant--the Streamer--Tudor
    Badges--Livery Colours--the Guidon--Bunting--Flag Devising a Branch of
    Heraldry--Colours chiefly used in Flags--Flags bearing
    Inscriptions--Significance of the Red Flag--of the Yellow--of the
    White--of the Black--Dipping the Flag--the Sovereignty of the
    Sea--Right of Salute insisted on--Political Changes rendering Flags
    obsolete.

So soon as man passes from the lowest stage of barbarism the necessity for
some special sign, distinguishing man from man, tribe from tribe, nation
from nation, makes itself felt; and this prime necessity once met, around
the symbol chosen spirit-stirring memories quickly gather that endear it,
and make it the emblem of the power and dignity of those by whom it is
borne. The painted semblance of grizzly bear, or beaver, or rattlesnake on
the canvas walls of the tepi of the prairie Brave, the special chequering
of colours that compose the tartan[1] of the Highland clansman, are
examples of this; and as we pass from individual or local tribe to mighty
nations, the same influence is still at work, and the distinctive Union
Flag of Britain, the tricolor of France, the gold and scarlet bars of the
flag of Spain, all alike appeal with irresistible force to the patriotism
of those born beneath their folds, and speak to them of the glories and
greatness of the historic past, the duties of the present, and the hopes of
the future--inspiring those who gaze upon their proud blazonry with the
determination to be no unworthy sons of their fathers, but to live, and if
need be to die, for the dear home-land of which these are the symbol. {2}

The standards used by the nations of antiquity differed in nature from the
flags that in mediæval and modern days have taken their place. These
earlier symbols were ordinary devices wrought in metal, and carried at the
head of poles or spears. Thus the hosts of Egypt marched to war beneath the
shadow of the various sacred animals that typified their deities, or the
fan-like arrangement of feathers that symbolised the majesty of Pharoah,
while the Assyrian standards, to be readily seen represented on the slabs
from the palaces of Khorsabad and Kyonjik, in the British Museum and
elsewhere, were circular disks of metal containing various distinctive
devices. Both these and the Egyptian standards often have in addition a
small flag-like streamer attached to the staff immediately below the
device. The Greeks in like manner employed the Owl of Athene, and such-like
religious and patriotic symbols of the protection of the deities, though
Homer, it will be remembered, makes Agamemnon use a piece of purple cloth
as a rallying point for his followers. The sculptures of Persepolis show us
that the Persians adopted the figure of the Sun, the eagle, and the like.
In Rome a hand erect, or the figures of the horse, wolf, and other animals
were used, but at a later period the eagle alone was employed. Pliny tells
us that "Caius Marius in his second consulship ordained that the Roman
legions should only have the Eagle for their standard. For before that time
the Eagle marched foremost with four others, wolves, minatours, horses, and
bears--each one in its proper order. Not many years past the Eagle alone
began to be advanced in battle, and the rest were left behind in the camp.
But Marius rejected them altogether, and since this it is observed that
scarcely is there a camp of a Legion wintered at any time without having a
pair of Eagles." The eagle, we need scarcely stay to point out, obtained
this pre-eminence as being the bird of Jove. The Vexillum, or cavalry flag,
was, according to Livy, a square piece of cloth fixed to a cross bar at the
end of a spear; this was often richly fringed, and was either plain or bore
certain devices upon it, and was strictly and properly a flag. The ensigns
which distinguished the allied forces from the legions of the Romans were
also of this character. Examples of these vexilla may be seen on the
sculptured columns of Trajan and Antoninus, the arch of Titus, and upon
various coins and medals of ancient Rome.

The Imperial Standard or Labarum carried before Constantine and his
successors resembled the cavalry Vexillum.[2] It was of purple silk, richly
embroidered with gold, and though ordinarily {3} suspended from a
horizontal cross-bar, was occasionally displayed in accordance with our
modern usage by attachment by one of its sides to the staff.

The Roman standards were guarded with religious veneration in the temples
of the metropolis and of the chief cities of the Empire, and modern
practice has followed herein the ancient precedent. As in classic days the
protection of Jove was invoked, so in later days the blessing of Jehovah,
the Lord of Hosts, has been sought. At the presentation of colours to a
regiment a solemn service of prayer and praise is held, and when these
colours return in honour, shot-rent from victorious conflict, they are
reverently placed in stately abbey, venerable cathedral, or parish church,
never more to issue from the peace and rest of the home of God until by
lapse of years they crumble into indistinguishable dust.

The Israelites carried the sacred standard of the Maccabees, with the
initial letters of the Hebrew text, "Who is like unto Thee, O God, amongst
the gods?" The Emperor Constantine caused the sacred monogram of Christ to
be placed on the Labarum, and when the armies of Christendom went forth to
rescue the Holy Land from the infidel they received their cross-embroidered
standards from the foot of the altar. Pope Alexander II. sent a consecrated
white banner to Duke William previous to his expedition against Harold, and
we read in the "Beehive of the Romish Church," published in 1580, how "the
Spaniardes christen, conjure, and hallow their Ensignes, naming one
Barbara, another Katherine," after the names of saints whose aid they
invoked in the stress of battle. We may see this invocation again very well
in Figs. 147, 148: flags borne by the colonists of Massachusetts when they
arrayed themselves against the mercenaries of King George, and appealed to
the God of Battles in behalf of the freedom and justice denied by those who
bore rule over them.

This recognition of the King of kings has led also to the captured banners
of the enemy being solemnly suspended in gratitude and thanksgiving in the
house of God. Thus Speed tells us that on the dispersal and defeat of the
Armada, Queen Elizabeth commanded solemn thanksgiving to be celebrated at
the Cathedral Church of St. Paul's, in her chief city of London, which
accordingly was done upon Sunday, the 8th of September, when eleven of the
Spanish ensigns were hung, to the great joy of the beholders, as "psalmes
of praise" for England's deliverance from sore peril. Very appropriately,
too, in the Chapel of the Royal College at Chelsea, the home of the old
soldiers who helped to win them, hang the flags taken at Barrosa,
Martinique, Bhurtpore, Seringapatam, Salamanca, Waterloo, and many another
hard-fought struggle; {4} and thus, in like manner, is the tomb of Napoleon
I., in Paris, surrounded by trophies of captured flags. On March 30th,
1814, the evening before the entry of the Allies into Paris, about 1,500
flags--the victorious trophies of Napoleon--were burnt in the Court of the
Eglise des Invalides, to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy.

Early flags were almost purely of a religious character.[3] The first
notice of banners in England is in Bede's description of the interview
between the heathen King Ethelbert and Augustine, the missionary from Rome,
where the followers of the latter are described as bearing banners on which
were displayed silver crosses; and we need scarcely pause to point out that
in Roman Catholic countries, where the ritual is emotional and sensuous,
banners of this type are still largely employed to add to the pomp of
religious processions. Heraldic and political devices upon flags are of
later date, and even when these came freely into use their presence did not
supplant the ecclesiastical symbols. The national banner of England for
centuries--the ruddy cross of her patron Saint George (Fig. 91)--was a
religious one, and, whatever other banners were carried, this was ever
foremost in the field. The Royal banner of Great Britain and Ireland that
we see in Fig. 44, in its rich blazonry of the lions of England and
Scotland and the Irish harp, is a good example of the heraldic flag, while
our Union flag (Fig. 90), equally symbolizes the three nations of the
United Kingdom, but this time by the allied crosses of the three patron
saints, St. George, St. Andrew, and St. Patrick, and it is therefore a
lineal descendant and exemplar of the religious influence that was once
all-powerful.

The ecclesiastical flags were often purely pictorial in character, being
actual representations of the Persons of the Trinity, of the Virgin Mother,
or of divers saints. At other times the monasteries and other religious
houses bore banners of heraldic character; as the leading ecclesiastics
were both lords temporal and lords spiritual, taking their places in the
ranks of fighting men and leading on the field the body of dependants and
retainers that they were required to maintain in aid of the national
defence. In such case {5} the distinguishing banner of the contingent
conformed in character to the heraldic cognisances of the other nobles in
the host. Fig. 77, for instance, was the banner of St. Alban's Abbey. In a
poem on the capture of Rouen by the English, in the year 1418, written by
an eye-witness of the scenes described, we read how the English commander--

 "To the Castelle firste he rode
  And sythen the citie all abrode,
  Lengthe and brede he it mette
  And riche baneres up he sette
  Upon the Porte Seint Hillare
  A Baner of the Trynyte;
  And at Porte Kaux he sette evene
  A Baner of the Quene of Heven;
  And at Porte Martvile he upplyt
  Of Seint George a Baner breight."

and not until this recognition of Divine and saintly aid was made did

 "He sette upon the Castelle to stonde
  The armys of Fraunce and Englond."

Henry V., at Agincourt, in like manner displayed at his headquarters on the
field not only his own arms, but, in place of special honour and
prominence, the banners of the Trinity, of St. George, and of St. Edward.
These banners of religious significance were often borne from the
monasteries to the field of battle, while monks and priests in attendance
on them invoked the aid of Heaven during the strife. In an old statement of
accounts, still existing, we read that Edward I. made a payment of 8½d. a
day to a priest of Beverley for carrying throughout one of his campaigns a
banner bearing the figure of St. John. St. Wilfred's banner from Ripon,
together with this banner of St. John from Beverley, were brought on to the
field at Northallerton; the flag of St. Denis was carried in the armies of
St. Louis and of Philip le Bel, and the banner of St. Cuthbert of Durham
was borrowed by the Earl of Surrey in his expedition against Scotland in
the reign of Henry VIII. This banner had the valuable reputation of
securing victory to those who fought under it. It was suspended from a
horizontal bar below a spear head, and was a yard or so in breadth and a
little more than this in depth; the bottom edge had five deep indentations.
The banner was of red velvet sumptuously enriched with gold embroidery, and
in the centre was a piece of white velvet, half a yard square, having a
cross of red velvet upon it. This central portion covered and protected a
relic of the saint. The victory of Neville's Cross, October 17th, 1346, was
held to be largely {6} due to the presence of this sacred banner, and the
triumph at Flodden was also ascribed to it.

During the prevalence of Roman Catholicism in England, we find that banners
of religious type entered largely into the funeral obsequies of persons of
distinction: thus at the burial of Arthur, Prince of Wales, the eldest son
of Henry VII., we find a banner of the Trinity, another with the cross and
instruments of the Passion depicted upon it; another of the Virgin Mary,
and yet another with a representation of St. George. Such banners, as in
the present instance, were ordinarily four in number, and carried
immediately round the body at the four corners of the bier. Thus we read in
the diary of an old chronicler, Machyn, who lived in the reigns of Edward
VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, that at the burial of the Countess of Arundel,
October 27th, 1557, "cam iiij herroldes in ther cotes of armes, and bare
iiij baners of emages at the iiij corners." Again, on "Aprell xxix, 1554,
was bered my Lady Dudley in Saint Margarett in Westminster, with iiij
baners of emages." Another item deals with the funeral of the Duchess of
Northumberland, and here again "the iiij baners of ymages" again recur.
Anyone having the old records, church inventories, and the like before
them, would find it easy enough, as easy as needless, to multiply
illustrations of this funeral use of pictured banners. These "emages" or
"ymages" of old Machyn are of course not images in the sense of sculptured
or carved things, but are painted and embroidered representations of
various saints. Machyn, as a greatly interested looker-on at all the
spectacles of his day, is most entertaining, but his spelling, according to
the severer notions of the present day, is a little weak, as, for instance,
in the following words that we have culled at random from his
pages:--prossessyon, gaffelyns, fezyssyoun, dysquyet, neckclygens,
gorgyusle, berehyng, wypyd, pelere, artelere, and dyssys of spyssys. The
context ordinarily makes the meaning clear, but as our readers have not
that advantage, we give the same words according to modern
orthography--procession, javelins, physician, disquiet, negligence,
gorgeously, burying, whipped, pillory, artillery, dishes of spices.

The various companies and guilds of the mediæval period had their special
flags that came out, as do those of their successors of the present day, on
the various occasions of civic pageantry; and in many cases, as may be seen
in the illuminated MSS. in the British Museum and elsewhere, they were
carried to battle as the insignia of the companies of men provided at the
expense of those corporations. Thus in one example that has come under our
notice we see a banner bearing a chevron between hammer, trowels, and
builder's square; in another between an axe and two pairs of compasses,
while a third on its azure field bears a pair of golden {7} shears. In the
representation of a battle between Philip d'Artevelde and the Flemings
against the French, many of the flags therein introduced bear the most
extraordinary devices, boots and shoes, drinking-vessels, anvils, and the
like, that owe their presence there to the fact that various trade guilds
sent their contingents of men to the fight. In a French work on mediæval
guilds we find the candle-makers of Bayeux marching beneath a black banner
with three white candles on it, the locksmiths of La Rochelle having a
scarlet flag with four golden keys on it. The lawyers of Loudoun had a flag
with a large eye on it (a single eye to business being, we presume,
understood), while those of Laval had a blue banner with three golden
mouths thereon. In like manner the metal-workers of Laval carried a black
flag with a silver hammer and files depicted on it, those of Niort had a
red flag with a silver cup and a fork and spoon in gold on either side. The
metal-workers of Ypres also carried a red flag, and on this was represented
a golden flagon and two buckles of gold. Should some national stress this
year or next lead our City Companies, the Fishmongers, the Carpenters, the
Vintners, and others to contribute contingents to the defence of the
country, and to send them forth beneath the banners of the guilds, history
would but repeat itself.

In matters political the two great opposing parties have their distinctive
colours, and these have ordinarily been buff and blue, though the
association of buff with the Liberal party and "true blue" with the
Conservatives has been by no means so entirely a matter of course as
persons who have not looked into the matter might be disposed to imagine.
The local colours are often those that were once the livery colours of the
principal family in the district, and were assumed by its adherents for the
family's sake quite independently of its political creed. The notion of
livery is now an unpleasant one, but in mediæval days the colours of the
great houses were worn by the whole country-side, and the wearing carried
with it no suggestion either of toadyism or servitude. As this influence
was hereditary and at one time all-powerful, the colour of the Castle, or
Abbey, or Great House, became stereotyped in that district as the symbol of
the party of which these princely establishments were the local centre and
visible evidence, and the colour still often survives locally, though the
political and social system that originated it has passed away in these
days of democratic independence.

It would clearly be a great political gain if one colour were all over
Great Britain the definite emblem of one side, as many illiterate voters
are greatly influenced by the colours worn by the candidates for their
suffrages, and have sufficient sense of consistency of principle to vote
always for the flag that first claimed {8} their allegiance, though it may
very possibly be that if they move to another county it is the emblem of a
totally distinct party, and typifies opinions to which the voter has always
been opposed. At a late election a Yorkshire Conservative, who had acquired
a vote for Bournemouth, was told that he must "vote pink," but this he very
steadily refused to do. He declared that he would "never vote owt else but
th' old true blue," so the Liberal party secured his vote; and this sort of
thing at a General Election is going on all over the country. The town of
Royston, for instance, stands partly in Hertfordshire and partly in
Cambridgeshire, and in the former county the Conservatives and in the
latter the Liberals are the blue party; hence the significance of the
colour in one street of the little town is entirely different to that it
bears in another. At Horsham in Sussex we have observed that the
Conservative colour is pale pink, while in Richmond in Surrey it is a deep
orange. The orange was adopted by the Whigs out of compliment to William
III., who was Prince of Orange.

In the old chronicles and ballads reference is made to many forms of flags
now obsolete. The term flag is a generic one, and covers all the specific
kinds. It is suggested that the word is derived from the Anglo-Saxon verb
fleogan, to fly or float in the wind, or from the old German flackern, to
flutter. Ensign is an alternative word formed on the idea of the display of
insignia, badges, or devices, and was formerly much used where we should
now employ the word colours. The company officers in a regiment who were
until late years termed ensigns were at a still earlier period more
correctly termed ensign-bearers. Milton, it will be recalled, describes a
"Bannered host under spread ensigns marching." Sir Walter Scott greatly
enlarges our vocabulary when he writes in "Marmion" of where

 "A thousand streamers flaunted fair,
  Various in shape, device, and hue,
  Green, sanguine, purple, red, and blue,
  Broad, narrow, swallow-tailed, and square,
  Scroll, pennon, pensil, bandrol, there
  O'er the pavilions flew,"

while Milton again writes of

 "Ten thousand thousand ensigns high advanced
  Standards and gonfalons 'twixt van and rear
  Stream in the air, and for distinction serve
  Of hierarchies, orders, and degrees."

We have seen that the pomp of funeral display led to the use of pictorial
flags of religious type, and with these were associated others that dealt
with the mundane rank and position of the {9} deceased. Thus we find
Edmonson, in his book on Heraldry, writing as follows:--"The armorial
ensigns, as fixed by the officers of arms, and through long and continued
usage established as proper to be carried in funeral processions, are
pennons, guidons, cornets, standards, banners, and banner-rolls, having
thereon depicted the arms, quarterings, badges, crests, supporters, and
devices of the defunct: together with all such other trophies of honour as
in his lifetime he was entitled to display, carry, or wear in the field;
banners charged with the armorial ensigns of such dignities, titles,
offices, civil and military, as were possessed or enjoyed by the defunct at
the time of his decease, and banner-rolls of his own matches and lineal
descent both on the paternal and maternal side. In case the defunct was an
Archbishop, banner-rolls of the arms and insignia of the sees to which he
had been elected and translated, and if he was a merchant or eminent trader
pennons of the particular city, corporation, guild, fraternity, craft, or
company whereof he had been a member." However true the beautiful stanza of
Gray--

 "The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power,
    And all that beauty, all that wealth ere gave,
  Await at last the inevitable hour,
    The paths of glory lead but to the grave"--

the survivors of the deceased most naturally and most justly bore to their
rest those to whom honour was due with the full respect to which their
career on earth entitled them.

The names bestowed upon the different kinds of flags have varied from time
to time, the various authorities of mediæval and modern days not being
quite of one mind sometimes, so that while the more salient forms are
easily identifiable, some little element of doubt creeps in when we would
endeavour to bestow with absolute precision a name to a certain less common
form before us, or a definite form to a name that we encounter in some old
writer. Whatever looseness of nomenclature, however, may be encountered on
the fringe of our subject, the bestowal of the leading terms is
sufficiently definite, and it is to these we now turn our attention,
reflecting for our comfort that it is of far greater value to us to know
all about a form that is of frequent recurrence, and to which abundant
reference is made, than to be able to quite satisfactorily decide what
special name some abnormal form should carry, or what special form is meant
by a name that perhaps only occurs once or twice in the whole range of
literature, and even that perhaps by some poet or romance writer who has
thought more of the general effect of his description than of the technical
accuracy of the terms in which he has clothed it. {10}

The Banner first engages our attention. This was ordinarily, in the earlier
days of chivalry, a square flag, though in later examples it may be found
somewhat greater in length than in depth, and in some early examples it is
considerably greater in depth than in its degree of projection outwards
from the lance. In the technical language of the subject, the part of a
flag nearest the pole is called the hoist, and the outer part the fly. Fig.
37 is a good illustration of this elongated form. It has been suggested
that the shortness of the fly in such cases was in order that the greater
fluttering in the wind that such a form as Fig. 30 would produce might be
prevented, as this constant tugging at the lance-head would be disagreeable
to the holder, while it might, in the rush of the charge, prevent that
accuracy of aim that one would desire to give one's adversary the full
benefit of at such a crisis in his career. Pretty as this may be as a
theory, there is probably not much in it, or the form in those warlike days
of chivalry would have been more generally adopted. According to an ancient
authority the banner of an emperor should be six feet square; of a king,
five; of a prince or duke, four; and of an earl, marquis, viscount, or
baron three feet square. When we consider that the great function of the
banner was to bear upon its surface the coat-of-arms of its owner, and that
this coat was emblazoned upon it and filled up its entire surface in just
the same way that we find these charges represented upon his shield, it is
evident that no form that departed far either in length or breadth from the
square would be suitable for their display. Though heraldically it is
allowable to compress or extend any form from its normal proportions when
the exigencies of space demand it,[4] it is clearly better to escape this
when possible.[5] The arms depicted in Fig. 37 are certainly not the better
for the elongation to which they have been subjected, while _per contra_
the bearings on any of the banners in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
or 11, have had no despite done them, the square form being clearly
well-adapted for their due display.

The Rolls of Arms prepared on various occasions by the mediæval and later
heralds form an admirable storehouse of examples. Some of these have been
reproduced in facsimile, and are, therefore, more or less readily
accessible. We have before us as we write the roll of the arms of the
Sovereign and of the {11} spiritual and temporal peers who sat in
Parliament in the year 1515, and another excellent example that has been
reproduced is the roll of Karlaverok. This Karlaverok was a fortress on the
north side of Solway Frith, which it was necessary for Edward I. to reduce
on his invasion of Scotland in the year 1300, and this investiture and all
the details of the siege are minutely described by a contemporary writer,
who gives the arms and names of all the nobles there engaged. As soon as
the castle fell into Edward's hands he caused his banner and that of St.
Edmund (Fig. 17), and St. Edward (Fig. 19), to be displayed upon its
battlements. The roll is written in Norman French, of which the following
passage may be given as an example:--

 "La ont meinte riche garnement
  Brode sur cendeaus et samis
  Meint beau penon en lance mis
  Meint baniere desploie."

That is to say, there were--in modern English wording--many rich devices
embroidered on silk and satin, many a beautiful pennon fixed on lance, many
a banner displayed. The writer says:--"First, I will tell you of the names
and arms, especially of the banners, if you will listen how." Of these
numerous banners we give some few examples: Fig. 1 belongs to him "who with
a light heart, doing good to all, bore a yellow banner and pennon with a
black saltire engrailed, and is called John Botetourte." Fig. 2 is the
banner of Sire Ralph de Monthermer; Fig. 3 the devices of Touches, "a
knight of good-fame"; while Fig. 4, "the blue with crescents of brilliant
gold," was the flag of William de Ridre. "Sire John de Holderton, who at
all times appears well and promptly in arms," bore No. 6, the fretted
silver on the scarlet field; while Fig. 5 is the cognisance of "Hugh
Bardolph, a man of good appearance, rich, valiant, and courteous." Fig. 7
is the well-known lion of the Percys, and is here the banner of Henri de
Percy; we meet with it again in Fig. 14. Fig. 8 is "the banner of good Hugh
de Courtenay," while Fig. 9 is that of the valiant Aymer de Valence. Fig.
10 bears the barbels of John de Bar, while the last example we need give
(Fig. 11) is the banner of Sire William de Grandison. Of whom gallant,
courteous Englishmen as they were, we can now but say that "they are dust,
their swords are rust," and deny them not the pious hope "their souls are
with the saints, we trust."

The well-known flag (Fig. 44), that everyone recognises as the Royal
Standard, is nevertheless misnamed, as it should undoubtedly be called the
Royal Banner, since it bears the arms of the Sovereign in precisely the
same way that any of our preceding {12} examples bear the arms of the
knights with whom they were associated. A standard, as we shall see
presently, is an entirely different kind of flag; nevertheless, the term
Royal Standard is so firmly established that it is hopeless now to think of
altering it, and as it would be but pedantry to ignore it, and substitute
in its place, whenever we have occasion to refer to it, its proper
title--the Royal Banner--we must, having once made our protest, be content
to let the matter stand. Figs. 22, 43, 44, 194, 226, and 245 are all royal
or imperial banners, but popular usage insists that we shall call them
royal or imperial "standards," so, henceforth, rightly or wrongly, through
our pages standards they must be.

The banners of the Knights of the Garter, richly emblazoned with their
armorial bearings, are suspended over their stalls in St. George's Chapel,
Windsor, while those of the Knights of the Bath are similarly displayed in
the Chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey.

The whole of the great mainsail of a mediæval ship was often emblazoned
with arms, and formed one large banner. This usage may be very well seen in
the illuminations, seals, etc., of that period. As early as the year 1247
we find Otho, Count of Gueldres, represented as bearing on his seal a
square banner charged with his arms, a lion rampant; and in a window in the
Cathedral of Our Lady, at Chartres, is a figure of Simon de Montfort, Earl
of Leicester from 1236 to 1265. He is depicted as bearing in his right hand
a banner of red and white, as shown in Fig. 18.

References in the old writers to the banner are very numerous. Thus in the
"Story of Thebes" we read of "the fell beastes," that were "wrought and
bete upon their bannres displaied brode" when men went forth to war.
Lydgate, in the "Battle of Agincourt," writes:--

 "By myn baner sleyn will y be
  Or y will turne my backe or me yelde."

The same writer declares that at the siege of Harfleur by Henry V., in
September, 1415, the king--

 "Mustred his meyne faire before the town,
  And many other lordes, I dar will say,
  With baners bryghte and many penoun."

The trumpeters of the Life Guards and Horse Guards have the Royal Banner
attached to their instruments, a survival that recalls the lines of
Chaucer:--

 "On every trump hanging a brode bannere
  Of fine tartarium, full richly bete."

{13}

An interesting reference is found in a letter of Queen Katharine of Arragon
to Thomas Wolsey, dated Richmond, August 13th, 1513, while King Henry VIII.
was in France. Speaking of war with the Scots, her Majesty says: "My hert
is veray good to it, and I am horrible besy with making standards, banners,
and bagies."[6]

While the men are buckling on their armour for the coming strife, wives,
sisters, sweethearts, daughters, with proud hearts, give their aid, and
with busy fingers--despite the tear that will sometimes blur the vision of
the gay embroidery--swiftly and deftly labour with loving care on the
devices that will nerve the warriors to living steel in the shock of
battle. The Queen of England, so zealously busy in her task of love, is but
a type and exemplar of thousands of her sex before and since. The raven
standard of the Danish invaders of Northumbria was worked by the daughters
of Regnar Lodbrok, and in the great rebellion in the West of England many a
gentlewoman suffered sorely in the foul and Bloody Assize for her zealous
share in providing the insurgents with the standards around which they
rallied. The Covenanters of Scotland, the soldiers of Garibaldi freeing
Italy from the Bourbons, the levies of Kossuth in Hungary, the Poles in the
deadly grip of Russia, the armies of the Confederate States in America, the
Volunteers who would fain free Greece from the yoke of the Turk,[7] all
fought to the death beneath the banners that fair sympathisers with them,
and with their cause, placed in their hands. When two great nations, such
as France and Germany, fall to blows, the whole armament, weapons, flags,
and whatever else may be necessary, is supplied from the government stores
according to regulation pattern, but in the case of insurgents against
authority struggling--rightly or wrongly--to be free, the weapons may be
scythe blades or whatever else comes first to hand, while the standards
borne to the field will bear the most extraordinary devices upon them,
devices that appeal powerfully at the time to those fighting beneath their
folds, but which give a shudder to the purist in heraldic blazonry, as for
instance, to quote but one example, the rattle-snake flag with its motto
"Beware how you tread on me," adopted by the North American colonists in
their struggle against the troops of George III.

When a knight had performed on the field of battle some especially valiant
or meritorious act, it was open to the Sovereign to {14} mark his sense of
it by making him a knight-banneret. Thus, in the reign of Edward III., John
de Copeland was made a banneret for his service in taking prisoner David
Bruce, the King of Scotland, at the battle of Durham; Colonel John Smith,
having rescued the royal banner from the Parliamentarians at Edgehill, was
in like manner made a knight-banneret by Charles I. The title does not seem
to have been in existence before the reign of Edward I., and after this
bestowal by Charles I. we hear no more of it till 1743, when the title was
conferred upon several English officers by the king, George II., upon the
field of Dettingen. It was an essential condition that the rank should be
bestowed by the Sovereign on the actual field of battle and beneath the
royal banner. General Sir William Erskine was given this rank by George
III. on his return from the Continent in 1764, after the battle of
Emsdorff; but as the investiture took place beneath the standard of the
15th Light Dragoons and in Hyde Park, it was deemed hopelessly irregular,
and, the royal will and action notwithstanding, his rank was not generally
recognised.

The ceremony of investiture was in the earlier days a very simple one. The
flag of the ordinary knight was of the form known as the pennon--a small,
swallow-tailed flag like that borne by our lancer regiments, of which Fig.
30 is an illustration. On being summoned to the royal presence, the king
took from him his lance, and either cut or tore away the points of his
flag, until he had reduced it roughly to banner form, and then returned it
to him with such words of commendation as the occasion called for. What the
ceremony employed at so late a period as Dettingen was we have not been
able to trace. As the officers there honoured were lanceless and
pennonless, it is evident that the formula which served in the Middle Ages
was quite inapplicable, but it is equally evident that in the thronging
duties and responsibilities of the field of battle the ceremony must always
have been a very short and simple one.

The term Standard is appropriately applied to any flag of noble size that
answers in the main to the following conditions--that it should always have
the Cross of St. George placed next to the staff, that the rest of the flag
should be divided horizontally into two or more stripes of colours, these
being the prevailing colours in the arms of the bearers or their livery
colours, the edge of the standard richly fringed or bordered, the motto and
badges of the owner introduced, the length considerably in excess of the
breadth, the ends split and rounded off. We find such standards in use
chiefly during the fifteenth century, though some characteristic examples
of both earlier and later dates may be encountered. Figs. 14 and 15 are
very good typical illustrations. The {15} first of these (Fig. 14) is the
Percy standard. The blue lion, the crescent, and the fetterlock there seen
are all badges of the family, while the silver key betokens matrimonial
alliance with the Poynings,[8] the bugle-horn with the Bryans,[9] and the
falchion with the family of Fitzpayne. The ancient badge of the Percys was
the white lion statant. Our readers will doubtless be familiar with the
lines--

 "Who, in field or foray slack,
  Saw the blanch lion e'er give back?"

but Henry Percy, the fifth earl, 1489 to 1577, turned it into a blue one.
The silver crescent is the only badge of the family that has remained in
active and continuous use, and we find frequent references to it in the old
ballads--so full of interesting heraldic allusions--as, for instance, in
"The Rising of the North"--

 "Erle Percy there his ancyent spred,
  The halfe-moon shining all soe faire,"

and in Claxton's "Lament"--

 "Now the Percy's crescent is set in blood."

The motto is ordinarily a very important part of the standard, though it is
occasionally missing. Its less or greater length or its possible repetition
may cut up the surface of the flag into a varying number of spaces. The
first space after the cross is always occupied by the most important badge,
and in a few cases the spaces beyond are empty.

The motto of the Percys is of great historic interest. It is referred to by
Shakespeare, "Now Esperance! Percy! and set on," and we find in Drayton the
line, "As still the people cried, A Percy, Esperance!" In the "Mirror for
Magistrates" (1574) we read, "Add therefore this to Esperance, my word, who
causeth bloodshed shall not 'scape the sword." It was originally the
war-cry of the Percys, but it has undergone several modifications, and
these of a rather curious and interesting nature, since we see in the
sequence a steady advance from blatant egotism to an admission of a higher
power even than that of Percy. The war-cry of the first Earl was
originally, "Percy! Percy!" but he later substituted for it, "Esperance,
Percy." The second and third Earls took merely "Esperance," the fourth took
"Esperance, ma comfort," and, {16} later on, "Esperance en Dieu ma
comfort," and the fifth and succeeding Earls took the "Esperance en
Dieu."[10]

Fig. 15 is the standard of Sir Thomas de Swynnerton. The swine is an
example of the punning allusion to the bearer's name that is so often seen
in the charges of mediæval heraldry.

Figs. 14 and 15 are typical standards, having the cross of St. George, the
striping of colours, the oblique lines of motto, the elongated tapering
form, and all the other features that we have already quoted as belonging
to the ideal standard, though one or two of these may at times be absent.
Thus, though exceptions are rare, a standard is not necessarily
particoloured for example, and, as we have seen, the motto in other
examples may be missing. The Harleian MS. No. 2,358 lays down the rule that
"every Standard or guydhome is to hang in the Chiefe the Crosse of St.
George, to be slitte at the ende, and to conteyne the crest or supporter,
with the poesy, worde, and devise of the owner." That the Cross of St.
George, the national badge, must always be present and in the most
honourable position is full of significance, as it means that whatever else
of rank or family the bearer might be, he was first and foremost an
Englishman.

Figs. 13 and 16 are interesting modern examples of the Standard. They are
from a series of sledge-flags used during the Arctic Expedition of 1875-6,
the devices upon them being those of the officers in charge of each
detachment.

When in earlier days a man raised a regiment for national defence, he not
only commanded it, but its flag often bore his arms or device. Thus the
standard of the dragoons raised by Henry, Lord Cardross, in 1689 was of red
silk, on which was represented the Colonel's crest, a hand holding a
dagger, and the motto "Fortitudine," while in the upper corner next the
staff was the thistle of Scotland, surmounted by the crown.

Our readers should now have no difficulty in sketching out for themselves
as an exercise the following: The standard of Henry V., white and blue, a
white antelope standing between four red roses; the motto "Dieu et mon
droit," and in the interspaces more red {17} roses. The standard of Richard
II., white and green, a white hart couchant between four golden suns, the
motto "Dieu et mon droit," in the next space two golden suns, and in the
next, four. As further exercises, we may give the standard of Sir John
Awdeley, of gold and scarlet, having a Moor's head and three white
butterflies, the motto "Je le tiens," then two butterflies, then four; and
the standard of Frogmorton, of four stripes of red and white, having an
elephant's head in black, surrounded by golden crescents. While no one,
either monarch or noble, could have more than one banner, since this was
composed of his heraldic arms, a thing fixed and unchangeable, the same
individual might have two or three standards, since these were mainly made
up of badges that he could multiply at discretion, and a motto or poesy
that he might change every day if he chose. Hence, for instance, the
standards of Henry VII. were mostly green and white, since these were the
Tudor livery colours; but in one was "a red firye dragon," and in another
"was peinted a donne kowe," while yet another had a silver greyhound
between red roses. Stowe and other authorities tell us that the two first
of these were borne at Bosworth Field, and that after his victory there
over Richard III. these were borne by him in solemn state to St. Paul's
Cathedral, and there deposited on his triumphal entry into the metropolis.

The difference between the standard and the banner is very clearly seen in
the description of the flags borne at the funeral obsequies of Queen
Elizabeth--"the great embroidered banner of England" (Fig. 22), the banners
of Wales, Ireland, Chester, and Cornwall, and the standards of the dragon,
greyhound, and falcon. In like manner Stowe tells us that when King Henry
VII. took the field in 1513, he had with him the standard with the red
dragon and the banner of the arms of England, and Machyn tells that at the
funeral of Edward VI., "furst of all whent a grett company of chylderyn in
ther surples and clarkes syngyng and then ij harolds, and then a standard
with a dragon, and then a grett nombur of ye servants in blake, and then
anoder standard with a whyt greyhound." Later on in the procession came "ye
grett baner of armes in brodery and with dyvers odere baners."

Standards varied in size according to the rank of the person entitled to
them. A MS. of the time of Henry VII. gives the following dimensions:--For
that of the king, a length of eight yards; for a duke, seven; for an earl,
six; a marquis, six and a half; a viscount, five and a half; a baron, five;
a knight banneret, four and a half; and for a knight, four yards. In view
of these figures one can easily realise the derivation of the word
standard--a thing that is meant to stand; to be rather fastened in the
ground as a rallying point than carried, like a banner, about the field of
action. {18}

At the funeral of Nelson we find his banner of arms and standard borne in
the procession, while around his coffin are the bannerolls, square
banner-like flags bearing the various arms of his family lineage. We see
these latter again in an old print of the funeral procession of General
Monk, in 1670, and in a still older print of the burial of Sir Philip
Sydney, four of his near kindred carrying by the coffin these indications
of his descent. At the funeral of Queen Elizabeth we find six bannerolls of
alliances on the paternal side and six on the maternal. The standard of
Nelson bears his motto, "_Palmam qui meruit ferat_," but instead of the
Cross of St. George it has the union of the crosses of St. George, St.
Andrew, and St. Patrick, since in 1806, the year of his funeral, the
England of mediæval days had expanded into the Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland. In the imposing funeral procession of the great Duke of Wellington
we find again amongst the flags not only the national flag, regimental
colours, and other insignia, but the ten bannerolls of the Duke's pedigree
and descent, and his personal banner and standard.

Richard, Earl of Salisbury, in the year 1458, ordered that at his interment
"there be banners, standards, and other accoutrements, according as was
usual for a person of his degree" and what was then held fitting, remains,
in the case of State funerals, equally so at the present day.

The Pennon is a small, narrow flag, forked or swallow-tailed at its
extremity. This was carried on the lance. Our readers will recall the
knight in "Marmion," who

 "On high his forky pennon bore,
  Like swallow's tail in shape and hue."

We read in the Roll of Karlaverok, as early as the year 1300, of

 "Many a beautiful pennon fixed to a lance,
  And many a banner displayed;"

and of the knight in Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales," we hear that

 "By hys bannere borne is hys pennon
  Of golde full riche."

The pennon bore the arms of the knight, and they were in the earlier days
of chivalry so emblazoned upon it as to appear in their proper position not
when the lance was held erect but when held horizontally for the charge.
The earliest brass now extant, that of Sir John Daubernoun, at Stoke
d'Abernon Church, in Surrey, represents the knight as bearing a lance with
pennon. Its date is 1277, and the device is a golden chevron on a field of
azure. In {19} this example the pennon, instead of being forked, comes to a
single point.

The pennon was the ensign of those knights who were not bannerets, and the
bearers of it were therefore sometimes called pennonciers; the term is
derived from the Latin word for a feather, _penna_, from the narrow,
elongated form. The pennons of our lancer regiments (Fig. 30) give one a
good idea of the form, size, and general effect of the ancient knightly
pennon, though they do not bear distinctive charges upon them, and thus
fail in one notable essential to recall to our minds the brilliant blazonry
and variety of device that must have been so marked and effective a feature
when the knights of old took the field. In a drawing of the year 1813, of
the Royal Horse Artillery, we find the men armed with lances, and these
with pennons of blue and white, as we see in Fig. 31.[11]

Of the thirty-seven pennons borne on lances by various knights represented
in the Bayeux tapestry, twenty-eight have triple points, while others have
two, four, or five. The devices upon these pennons are very various and
distinctive, though the date is before the period of the definite
establishment of heraldry. Examples of these may be seen in Figs. 39, 40,
41, 42.

The pennoncelle, or pencel, is a diminutive of the pennon, small as that
itself is. Such flags were often supplied in large quantities at any
special time of rejoicing or of mourning. At the burial in the year 1554 of
"the nobull Duke of Norffok," we note amongst other items "a dosen of
banerolles of ys progene," a standard, a "baner of damaske, and xij dosen
penselles." At the burial of Sir William Goring we find "ther was viij
dosen of penselles," while at the Lord Mayor's procession in 1555 we read
that there were "ij goodly pennes [State barges] deckt with flages and
stremers and a m penselles." This "m," or thousand, we can perhaps scarcely
take literally, though in another instance we find "the cordes were hanged
with innumerable pencelles."[12]

The statement of the cost of the funeral of Oliver Cromwell is interesting,
as we see therein the divers kinds of flags that graced the ceremony. The
total cost of the affair was over £28,000, and the unhappy undertaker, a
Mr. Rolt, was paid very little, if any, of his bill. The items include "six
gret banners wrought on rich taffaty in oil, and gilt with fine gold," at
£6 each. Five large standards, similarly wrought, at a cost of £10 each;
six dozen {20} pennons, a yard long, at a sovereign each; forty trumpet
banners, at forty shillings apiece; thirty dozen of pennoncelles, a foot
long, at twenty shillings a dozen; and twenty dozen ditto at twelve
shillings the dozen. Poor Rolt!

In "the accompte and reckonyng" for the Lord Mayor's Show of 1617 we find
"payde to Jacob Challoner, painter, for a greate square banner, the
Prince's Armes, the somme of seven pounds." We also find, "More to him for
the new payntyng and guyldyng of ten trumpet banners, for payntyng and
guyldyng of two long pennons of the Lord Maior's armes on callicoe," and
many other items that we need not set down, the total cost of the flag
department being £67 15s. 10d., while for the Lord Mayor's Show of the year
1685 we find that the charge for this item was the handsome sum of £140.

The Pennant, or pendant, is a long narrow flag with pointed end, and
derives its name from the Latin word signifying to hang. Examples of it may
be seen in Figs. 20, 21, 23, 24, 36, 38, 100, 101, 102, and 103, and some
of the flags employed in ship-signalling are also of pennant form. It was
in Tudor times called the streamer. Though such a flag may at times be
found pressed into the service of city pageantry, it is more especially
adapted for use at sea, since the lofty mast, the open space far removed
from telegraph-wires, chimney-pots, and such-like hindrances to its free
course, and the crisp sea-breeze to boldly extend it to its full length,
are all essential to its due display. When we once begin to extend in
length, it is evident that almost anything is possible: the pendant of a
modern man-of-war is some twenty yards long, while its breadth is barely
six inches, and it is evident that such a flag as that would scarcely get a
fair chance in the general "survival of the fittest" in Cheapside. It is
charged at the head with the Cross of St. George. Figs. 26, 27, 74 are
Tudor examples of such pendants, while Fig. 140 is a portion at least of
the pendant flown by colonial vessels on war service, while under the same
necessarily abbreviated conditions may be seen in Fig. 151 the pendant of
the United States Navy, in 157 that of Chili, and in 173 that of Brazil.

In mediæval days many devices were introduced, the streamer being made of
sufficient width to allow of their display. Thus Dugdale gives an account
of the fitting up of the ship in which Beauchamp, fifth Earl of Warwick,
during the reign of Henry VI., went over to France. The original bill
between this nobleman and William Seburgh, "citizen and payntour of
London," is still extant, and we see from it that amongst other things
provided was "the grete stremour for the shippe xl yardes in length and
viij yardes in brede." These noble dimensions gave ample room for {21}
display of the badge of the Warwicks,[13] so we find it at the head adorned
with "a grete bere holding a ragged staffe," and the rest of its length
"powdrid full of raggid staves,"

             "A stately ship,
  With all her bravery on, and tackle trim,
  Sails filled, and streamers waving."

Machyn tells us in his diary for August 3rd, 1553, how "The Queen came
riding to London, and so on to the Tower, makyng her entry at Aldgate, and
a grett nombur of stremars hanging about the sayd gate, and all the strett
unto Leydenhalle and unto the Tower were layd with graffel, and all the
crafts of London stood with their banars and stremars hangyd over their
heds." In the picture by Volpe in the collection at Hampton Court of the
Embarkation of Henry VIII. from Dover in the year 1520, to meet Francis I.
at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, we find, very naturally, a great variety
and display of flags of all kinds. Figs. 20, 21, 23 are streamers therein
depicted, the portcullis, Tudor rose, and fleur-de-lys being devices of the
English king, while the particular ground upon which they are displayed is
in each case made up of green and white, the Tudor livery colours. We may
see these again in Fig. 71, where the national flag of the Cross of St.
George has its white field barred with the Tudor green. In the year 1554
even the naval uniform of England was white and green, both for officers
and mariners, and the City trained bands had white coats welted with green.
Queen Elizabeth, though of the Tudor race, took scarlet and black as her
livery colours; the House of Plantaganet white and red; of York, murrey and
blue; of Lancaster, white and blue; of Stuart, red and yellow. The great
nobles each also had their special liveries; thus in a grand review of
troops on Blackheath, on May 16th, 1552, we find that "the Yerle of
Pembroke and ys men of armes" had "cotes blake bordered with whyt," while
the retainers of the Lord Chamberlain were in red and white, those of the
Earl of Huntingdon in blue, and so forth.

In the description of one of the City pageants in honour of Henry VII. we
find among the "baggs" (_i.e._, badges), "a rede rose and a wyght in his
mydell, golde floures de luces, and portcullis also in golde," the "wallys"
of the Pavilion whereon these were displayed being "chekkyrs of whyte and
grene."

The only other flag form to which we need make any very definite reference
is the Guidon. The word is derived from the {22} French _guide-homme_, but
in the lax spelling of mediæval days it undergoes many perversions, such as
guydhome, guydon, gytton, geton, and such-like more or less barbarous
renderings. Guidon is the regulation name now applied to the small
standards borne by the squadrons of some of our cavalry regiments. The
Queen's guidon is borne by the first squadron; this is always of crimson
silk; the others are the colour of the regimental facings. The modern
cavalry guidon is square in form, and richly embroidered, fringed, and
tasselled. A mediæval writer on the subject lays down the law that "a
guydhome must be two and a half yardes or three yardes longe, and therein
shall be no armes putt, but only the man's crest, cognizance, and device,
and from that, from his standard or streamer a man may flee; but not from
his banner or pennon bearinge his armes." The guidon is largely employed at
State or ceremonious funeral processions; we see it borne, for instance, in
the illustrations of the funeral of Monk in 1670, of Nelson in 1806, of
Wellington in 1852. In all these cases it is rounded in form, as in Fig.
28. Like the standard, the guidon bears motto and device, but it is
smaller, and has not the elongated form, nor does it bear the Cross of St.
George.

In divers countries and periods very diverse forms may be encountered, and
to these various names have been assigned, but it is needless to pursue
their investigation at any length, as in some cases the forms are quite
obsolete; in other cases, while its form is known to us its name is lost,
while in yet other instances we have various old names of flags mentioned
by the chroniclers and poets to which we are unable now to assign any very
definite notion of their form. In some cases, again, the form we encounter
may be of some eccentric individuality that no man ever saw before, or ever
wants to see again, or, as in Fig. 33, so slightly divergent from ordinary
type as to scarcely need a distinctive name. One of the flags represented
in the Bayeux tapestry is semi-circular. Fig. 32 defies classification,
unless we regard it as a pennon that, by snipping, has travelled
three-quarters of the way towards being a banner. Fig. 35, sketched from a
MS. of the early part of the fourteenth century, in the British Museum, is
of somewhat curious and abnormal form. It is of religious type, and bears
the Agnus Dei. The original is in a letter of Philippe de Mezières,
pleading for peace and friendship between Charles VI. of France and Richard
II. of England.

Flags are nowadays ordinarily made of bunting, a woollen fabric which, from
the nature of its texture and its great toughness and durability, is
particularly fitted to stand wear and tear. It comes from the Yorkshire
mills in pieces of forty yards in length, while the width varies from four
to thirty-six inches. Flags are {23} only printed when of small size, and
when a sufficient number will be required to justify the expense of cutting
the blocks. Silk is also used, but only for special purposes.

Flag-devising is really a branch of heraldry, and should be in accordance
with its laws, both in the forms and the colours introduced. Yellow in
blazonry is the equivalent of gold, and white of silver, and it is one of
the requirements of heraldry that colour should not be placed upon colour,
nor metal on metal. Hence the red and blue in the French tricolour (Fig.
191) are separated by white; the black and red of Belgium (Fig. 236) by
yellow. Such unfortunate combinations as the yellow, blue, red, of
Venezuela (Fig. 170); the yellow, red, green of Bolivia (Fig. 171); the red
and blue of Hayti (Fig. 178); the white and yellow of Guatemala (Fig. 162),
are violations of the rule in countries far removed from the influence of
heraldic law. This latter instance is a peculiarly interesting one; it is
the flag of Guatemala in 1851, while in 1858 this was changed to that
represented in Fig. 163. In the first case the red and the blue are in
contact, and the white and the yellow; while in the second the same colours
are introduced, but with due regard to heraldic law, and certainly with far
more pleasing effect.

One sees the same obedience to this rule in the special flags used for
signalling, where great clearness of definition at considerable distances
is an essential. Such combinations as blue and black, red and blue, yellow
and white, carry their own condemnation with them, as anyone may test by
actual experiment; stripes of red and blue, for instance, at a little
distance blending into purple, while white and yellow are too much alike in
strength, and when the yellow has become a little faded and the white a
little dingy they appear almost identical. We have this latter combination
in Fig. 198, the flag of the now vanished Papal States. It is a very
uncommon juxtaposition, and only occurs in this case from a special
religious symbolism into which we need not here enter. The alternate red
and green stripes in Fig. 63 are another violation of the rule, and have a
very confusing effect.[14]

The colours of by far the greatest frequency of occurrence are red, white,
and blue; yellow also is not uncommon; orange is only found once, in Fig.
249, where it has a special significance, since this is the flag of the
Orange Free State. Green occurs sparingly. Italy (Fig. 197) is perhaps the
best known example. We also find it in the Brazilian flag (Fig. 169), the
Mexican (Fig. 172), in the Hungarian tricolor (Fig. 214), and in Figs. 199,
201, 209, the flags {24} of smaller German States, but it is more
especially associated with Mohammedan States, as in Figs. 58, 63, 64, 235.
Black is found but seldom, but as heraldic requirements necessitate that it
should be combined either with white or yellow, it is, when seen,
exceptionally brilliant and effective. We see it, for example, in the Royal
Standard of Spain, (Fig. 194), in Figs. 207 and 208, flags of the German
Empire, in Fig. 226, the Imperial Standard of Russia, and in Fig. 236, the
brilliant tricolor of the Belgians.[15]

In orthodox flags anything of the nature of an inscription is very seldom
seen. We find a reference to order and progress on the Brazilian flag (Fig.
169), while the Turkish Imperial Standard (Fig. 238) bears on its scarlet
folds the monogram of the Sultan; but these exceptions are rare.[16] We
have seen that, on the contrary, on the flags of insurgents and malcontents
the inscription often counts for much. On the alteration of the style in
the year 1752 this necessary change was made the subject of much ignorant
reproach of the government of the day, and was used as a weapon of party
warfare. An amusing instance of this feeling occurs in the first plate of
Hogarth's election series, where a malcontent, or perhaps only a man
anxious to earn a shilling, carries a big flag inscribed, "Give us back our
eleven days." The flags of the Covenanters often bore mottoes or texts.
Fig. 34 is a curious example: the flag hoisted by the crew of H.M.S.
_Niger_ when they opposed the mutineers in 1797 at Sheerness. It is
preserved in the Royal United Service Museum. It is, as we have seen,
ordinarily the insubordinate and rebellious who break out into inscriptions
of more or less piety or pungency, but we may conclude that the loyal
sailors fighting under the royal flag adopted this device in addition as
one means the more of fighting the rebels with their own weapons.

During the Civil War between the Royalists and Parliamentarians, we find a
great use made of flags inscribed with mottoes. Thus, on one we see five
hands stretching at a crown defended by an armed hand issuing from a cloud,
and the motto, "Reddite Cæsari." In another we see an angel with a flaming
sword treading a dragon underfoot, and the motto, "Quis ut Deus," while yet
another is inscribed, "Courage pour la Cause." On a fourth we find an
ermine, and the motto, "Malo mori quam foedari"--"It is better to die than
{25} to be sullied," in allusion to the old belief that the ermine would
die rather than soil its fur. Hence it is the emblem of purity and
stainless honour.

The blood-red flag is the symbol of mutiny and of revolution. As a sign of
disaffection it was twice, at the end of last century, displayed in the
Royal Navy. A mutiny broke out at Portsmouth in April, 1797, for an advance
of pay; an Act of Parliament was passed to sanction the increase of
expenditure, and all who were concerned in it received the royal pardon,
but in June of the same year, at Sheerness, the spirit of disaffection
broke out afresh, and on its suppression the ringleaders were executed. It
is characteristic that, aggrieved as these seamen were against the
authorities, when the King's birthday came round, on June 4th, though the
mutiny was then at its height, the red flags were lowered, the vessels
gaily dressed in the regulation bunting, and a royal salute was fired.
Having thus demonstrated their real loyalty to their sovereign, the red
flags were re-hoisted, and the dispute with the Admiralty resumed in all
its bitterness.

The white flag is the symbol of amity and of good will; of truce amidst
strife, and of surrender when the cause is lost. The yellow flag betokens
infectious illness, and is displayed when there is cholera, yellow fever,
or such like dangerous malady on board ship, and it is also hoisted on
quarantine stations. The black flag signifies mourning and death; one of
its best known uses in these later days is to serve as an indication after
an execution that the requirements of the law have been duly carried out.

Honour and respect are expressed by "dipping" the flag. At any parade of
troops before the sovereign the regimental flags are lowered as they pass
the saluting point, and at sea the colours are dipped by hauling them
smartly down from the mast-head and then promptly replacing them. They must
not be suffered to remain at all stationary when lowered, as a flag flying
half-mast high is a sign of mourning for death, for defeat, or for some
other national loss, and it is scarcely a mark of honour or respect to
imply that the arrival of the distinguished person is a cause of grief or
matter for regret.

In time of peace it is an insult to hoist the flag of one friendly nation
above another, so that each flag must be flown from its own staff.

Even as early as the reign of Alfred England claimed the sovereignty of the
seas. Edward III. is more identified with our early naval glories than any
other English king; he was styled "King of the Seas," a name of which he
appears to have been very proud, and in his coinage of gold nobles he
represented himself with shield and sword, and standing in a ship "full
royally {26} apparelled." He fought on the seas under many disadvantages of
numbers and ships: in one instance until his ship sank under him, and at
all times as a gallant Englishman.

If any commander of an English vessel met the ship of a foreigner, and the
latter refused to salute the English flag, it was enacted that such ship,
if taken, was the lawful prize of the captain. A very notable example of
this punctilious insistance on the respect to the flag arose in May, 1554,
when a Spanish fleet of one hundred and sixty sail, escorting the King on
his way to England to his marriage with Queen Mary, fell in with the
English fleet under the command of Lord Howard, Lord High Admiral. Philip
would have passed the English fleet without paying the customary honours,
but the signal was at once made by Howard for his twenty-eight ships to
prepare for action, and a round shot crashed into the side of the vessel of
the Spanish Admiral. The hint was promptly taken, and the whole Spanish
fleet struck their colours as homage to the English flag.

In the year 1635 the combined fleets of France and Holland determined to
dispute this claim of Great Britain, but on announcing their intention of
doing so an English fleet was at once dispatched, whereupon they returned
to their ports and decided that discretion was preferable even to valour.
In 1654, on the conclusion of peace between England and Holland, the Dutch
consented to acknowledge the English supremacy of the seas, the article in
the treaty declaring that "the ships of the Dutch--as well ships of war as
others--meeting any of the ships of war of the English, in the British
seas, shall strike their flags and lower their topsails in such manner as
hath ever been at any time heretofore practised." After another period of
conflict it was again formally yielded by the Dutch in 1673.

Political changes are responsible for many variations in flags, and the
wear and tear of Time soon renders many of the devices obsolete. On
turning, for instance, to Nories' "Maritime Flags of all Nations," a little
book published in 1848, many of the flags are at once seen to be now out of
date. The particular year was one of exceptional political agitation, and
the author evidently felt that his work was almost old-fashioned even on
its issue. "The accompanying illustrations," he says, "having been
completed prior to the recent revolutionary movements on the Continent of
Europe, it has been deemed expedient to issue the plate in its present
state, rather than adopt the various tri-coloured flags, which cannot be
regarded as permanently established in the present unsettled state of
political affairs." The Russian American Company's flag, Fig. 59, that of
the States of the Church, of the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Turkish Imperial
Standard, Fig. 64, and many others {27} that he gives, are all now
superseded. For Venice he gives two flags, that for war and that for the
merchant service. In each case the flag is scarlet, having a broad band of
blue, which we may take to typify the sea, near its lower edge. From this
rises in gold the winged lion of St. Mark, having in the war ensign a sword
in his right paw, and in the peaceful colours of commerce a cross. Of
thirty-five "flags of all nations," given as a supplement to the
_Illustrated London News_ in 1858, we note that eleven are now obsolete:
the East India Company, for instance, being now extinct, the Ionian Islands
ceded to Greece, Tuscany and Naples absorbed into Italy, and so forth.

In Figs. 52 and 53 we have examples of early Spanish flags, and in 54 and
55 of Portuguese, each and all being taken from a very quaint map of the
year 1502. This map may be said to be practically the countries lying round
the Atlantic Ocean, giving a good slice of Africa, a portion of the
Mediterranean basin, the British Isles, most of South America, a little of
North America, the West Indies,[17] etc., the object of the map being to
show the division that Pope Alexander VI. kindly made between those
faithful daughters of the Church--Spain and Portugal--of all the unclaimed
portions of the world. Figs. 52 and 53 are types of flags flying on various
Spanish possessions, while Figs. 54 and 55 are placed at different points
on the map where Portugal held sway. On one place in Africa we see that No.
54 is surmounted by a white flag bearing the Cross of St. George, so we may
conclude that--Pope Alexander notwithstanding--England captured it from the
Portuguese. At one African town we see the black men dancing round the
Portuguese flag, while a little way off three of their brethren are hanging
on a gallows, showing that civilization had set in with considerable
severity there. The next illustration on this plate (Fig. 56) is taken from
a sheet of flags published in 1735; it represents the "Guiny Company's
Ensign," a trading company, like the East India, Fig. 57, now no longer in
existence. Fig. 62 is the flag of Savoy, an ancient sovereignty that,
within the memory of many of our readers, has expanded into the kingdom of
Italy. The break up of the Napoleonic _régime_ in France, the crushing out
of the Confederate States in North America, the dismissal from the throne
of the Emperor of Brazil, have all, within comparatively recent years, led
to the superannuation and disestablishment of a goodly number of flags and
their final disappearance.

We propose now to deal with the flags of the various nationalities,
commencing, naturally, with those of our own country. {28} We were told by
a government official that the Universal Code of signals issued by England
had led to a good deal of heartburning, as it is prefaced by a plate of the
various national flags, the Union Flag of Great Britain and Ireland being
placed first. But until some means can be devised by which each nationality
can head the list, some sort of precedence seems inevitable. At first sight
it seems as though susceptibilities might be saved by adopting an
alphabetical arrangement, but this is soon found to be a mistake, as it
places such powerful States as Russia and the United States nearly at the
bottom of the list. A writer, Von Rosenfeld, who published a book on flags
in Vienna in 1853, very naturally adopted this arrangement, but the calls
of patriotism would not even then allow him to be quite consistent, since
he places his material as follows:--Austria, Annam, Argentine, Belgium,
Bolivia, and so forth, where it is evident Annam should lead the world and
Austria be content to come in third. Apart from the difficulty of asking
Spain, for instance, to admit that Bulgaria was so much in front of her, or
to expect Japan to allow China so great a precedence as the alphabetical
arrangement favours, a second obstacle is found in the fact that the names
of these various States as we Englishmen know them are not in many cases
those by which they know themselves or are known by others. Thus a
Frenchman would be quite content with the alphabetical arrangement that in
English places his beloved country before Germany, but the Teuton would at
once claim precedence, declaring that Deutschland must come before "la
belle France," and the Espagnol would not see why he should be banished to
the back row just because we choose to call him a Spaniard.

In the meantime, pending the Millenium, the flag that more than three
hundred millions of people, the wide world over, look up to as the symbol
of justice and liberty, will serve very well as a starting point, and then
the great Daughter across the Western Ocean, that sprung from the Old Home,
shall claim a worthy place next in our regard. The Continent of Europe must
clearly come next, and such American nationalities as lie outside the
United States, together with Asia and Africa, will bring up the rear.

       *       *       *       *       *

{29}

CHAPTER II.

    The Royal Standard--the Three Lions of England--the Lion Rampant of
    Scotland--Scottish sensitiveness as to precedence--the Scottish
    Tressure--the Harp of Ireland--Early Irish Flags--Brian Boru--the Royal
    Standards from Richard I. to Victoria--Claim to the Fleurs-de-Lys of
    France--Quartering Hanover--the Union Flag--St. George for England--War
    Cry--Observance of St. George's Day--the Cross of St. George--Early
    Naval Flags--the London Trained Bands--the Cross of St. Andrew--the
    "Blue Blanket"--Flags of the Covenanters--Relics of St. Andrew--Union
    of England and Scotland--the First Union Flag--Importance of accuracy
    in representations of it--the Union Jack--Flags of the Commonwealth and
    Protectorate--Union of Great Britain and Ireland--the Cross of St.
    Patrick--Labours of St. Patrick in Ireland--Proclamation of George III.
    as to Flags, etc.--the Second Union Flag--Heraldic Difficulties in its
    Construction--Suggestions by Critics--Regulations as to Fortress
    Flags--the White Ensign of the Royal Navy--Saluting the Flag--the Navy
    the Safeguard of Britain--the Blue Ensign--the Royal Naval Reserve--the
    Red Ensign of the Mercantile Marine--Value of Flag-lore.

Foremost amongst the flags of the British Empire the Royal Standard takes
its position as the symbol of the tie that unites all into one great State.
Its glowing blazonry of blue and scarlet and gold is brought before us in
Fig. 44. The three golden lions on the scarlet ground are the device of
England, the golden harp on the azure field is the device of Ireland, while
the ruddy lion rampant on the field of gold[18] stands for Scotland. It may
perhaps appear to some of our readers that the standard of the Empire
should not be confined to such narrow limits; that the great Dominion of
Canada, India, Australia, the ever-growing South Africa, might justly claim
a place. Precedent, too, might be urged, since in previous reigns, Nassau,
Hanover, and other States have found a resting-place in its folds, and
there is much to be said in favour of a wider representation of the greater
component parts of our world-wide Empire; but two great practical
difficulties arise: the first is that the grand simplicity of the flag
would be lost if eight or ten different devices were substituted for the
three; and secondly, it would very possibly give rise to a good deal of
jealousy and ill-feeling, since it would be impossible to introduce all. As
it at present stands, it represents the central home of the Empire, the
little historic seed-plot from whence all else has sprung, and to which all
turn their eyes as the {30} centre of the national life. All equally agree
to venerate the dear mother land, but it is perhaps a little too much to
expect that the people of Jamaica or Hong Kong would feel the same
veneration for the beaver and maple-leaves of Canada, the golden Sun of
India, or the Southern Cross of Australasia. As it must clearly be all or
none, it seems that only one solution of the problem, the present one, is
possible. In the same way the Union flag (Fig. 90) is literally but the
symbol of England, Scotland, and Ireland, but far and away outside its
primary significance, it floats on every sea the emblem of that Greater
Britain in which all its sons have equal pride, and where all share equal
honour as brethren of one family.

The earliest Royal Standard bore but the three lions of England, and we
shall see presently that in different reigns various modifications of its
blazonry arose, either the result of conquest or of dynastic possessions.
Thus Figs. 43 and 44, though they bear a superficial likeness, tell a very
different story; the first of these, that of George III., laying claim in
its fourth quartering to lordship over Hanover and other German States, and
in its second quarter to the entirely shadowy and obsolete claim over
France, as typified by the golden fleurs-de-lys on the field of azure.

How the three lions of England arose is by no means clear. Two lions were
assigned as the arms of William the Conqueror, but there is no real
evidence that he bore them. Heraldry had not then become a definite
science, and when it did a custom sprang up of assigning to those who lived
and died before its birth certain arms, the kindly theory being that such
persons, had they been then living, would undoubtedly have borne arms, and
that it was hard, therefore, that the mere accident of being born a hundred
years too soon should debar them from possessing such recognition of their
rank. Even so late as Henry II. the bearing is still traditional, and it is
said that on his marriage with Alianore, eldest daughter of William, Duke
of Aquitaine and Guienne, he incorporated with his own two lions the single
lion that (it is asserted) was the device of his father-in-law. All this,
however, is theory and surmise, and we do not really find ourselves on the
solid ground of fact until we come to the reign of Richard Coeur-de-Lion.
Upon his second Great Seal we have the three lions just as they are
represented in Figs. 22, 43, 44, and as they have been borne for centuries
by successive sovereigns on their arms, standards, and coinage, and as our
readers may see them this day on the Royal Standard and on much of the
money they may take out of their pockets. The date of this Great Seal of
King Richard is 1195 A.D., so we have, at all events, a period of over
seven hundred years, waiving a break during the Commonwealth, in which the
three golden lions on their scarlet field have typified the might of
England. {31}

The rampant lion within the tressure, the device of Scotland--seen in the
second quarter of our Royal Standard, Fig. 44--is first seen on the Great
Seal of King Alexander II., about A.D. 1230, and the same device, without
any modification of colour or form[19] was borne by all the Sovereigns of
Scotland, and on the accession of James to the throne of the United
Kingdom, in the year 1603, the ruddy lion ramping on the field of gold
became an integral part of the Standard.

The Scotch took considerable umbrage at their lion being placed in the
second place, while the lions of England were placed first, as they
asserted that Scotland was a more ancient kingdom than England, and that in
any case, on the death of Queen Elizabeth of England, the Scottish monarch
virtually annexed the Southern Kingdom to his own, and kindly undertook to
get the Southerners out of a dynastic difficulty by looking after the
interests of England as well as ruling Scotland. This feeling of jealousy
was so bitter and so potent that for many years after the Union, on all
seals peculiar to Scottish business and on the flags displayed north of the
Tweed, the arms of Scotland were placed in the first quarter. It was also
made a subject of complaint that in the Union Flag the cross of St. George
is placed over that of St. Andrew (see Figs. 90, 91, 92), and that the lion
of England acted as the dexter support of the royal shield instead of
giving place to the Scottish Unicorn. One can only be thankful that Irish
patriots have been too sensible or too indifferent to insist upon yet
another modification, requiring that whensoever and wheresoever the Royal
Standard be hoisted in the Emerald Isle the Irish harp should be placed in
the first quarter. While it is clearly impossible to place the device of
each nationality first, it is very desirable and, in fact, essential, that
the National Arms and the Royal Standard should be identical in arrangement
in all parts of the kingdom. The notion of unity would be very inadequately
carried out if we had a London version for Buckingham Palace, an Edinburgh
version for Holyrood, and presently found the Isle of Saints and "gallant
little Wales" insisting on two other variants, and the Isle of Man in
insurrection because it was not allowed precedence of all four.

Even so lately as the year 1853, on the issue of the florin, the old
jealousy blazed up again. A statement was drawn up and presented to Lord
Lyon, King of Arms, setting forth anew the old grievances of the lions in
the Standard and the crosses in the Flag of the Union, and adding that "the
new two-shilling {32} piece, called a florin, which has lately been issued,
bears upon the reverse four crowned shields, the first or uppermost being
the three lions passant of England; the second, or right hand proper, the
harp of Ireland; the third, or left hand proper, the lion rampant of
Scotland; the fourth, or lower, the three lions of England repeated. Your
petitioners beg to direct your Lordship's attention to the position
occupied by the arms of Scotland upon this coin, which are placed in the
third shield instead of the second, a preference being given to the arms of
Ireland over those of this kingdom." It is curious that this document
tacitly drops claim to the first place. Probably most of our
readers--Scotch, Irish, or English--feel but little sense of grievance in
the matter, and are quite willing, if the coin be an insult, to pocket it.

The border surrounding the lion is heraldically known as the tressure. The
date and the cause of its introduction are lost in antiquity. The mythical
story is that it was added by Achaius, King of Scotland, in the year 792,
in token of alliance with Charlemagne, but in all probability these princes
scarcely knew of the existence of each other. The French and the Scotch
have often been in alliance, and there can be little doubt but that the
fleurs-de-lys that adorn the tressure point to some such early association
of the two peoples; an ancient writer, Nisbet, takes the same view, as he
affirms that "the Tressure fleurie encompasses the lyon of Scotland to show
that he should defend the Flower-de-luses, and these to continue a defence
to the lyon." The first authentic illustration of the tressure in the arms
of Scotland dates from the year 1260. In the reign of James III., in the
year 1471 it was "ordaint that in tyme to cum thar suld be na double tresor
about his armys, but that he suld ber armys of the lyoun, without ony mur."
If this ever took effect it must have been for a very short time. We have
seen no example of it.

Ireland joined England and Scotland in political union on January 1st,
1801, but its device--the harp--was placed on the standard centuries before
by right of conquest. The first known suggestion for a real union on equal
terms was made in the year 1642 in a pamphlet entitled "The Generall Junto,
or the Councell of Union; chosen equally out of England, Scotland, and
Ireland for the better compacting of these nations into one monarchy. By H.
P." This H. P. was one Henry Parker. Fifty copies only of this tract were
issued, and those entirely for private circulation. "To persuade to union
and commend the benefit of it"--says the author--"will be unnecessary.
_Divide et impera_ (divide and rule) is a fit saying for one who aims at
the dissipation and perdition of his country. Honest counsellors have ever
given contrary advice. England and Ireland are inseparably knit; no
severance is possible {33} but such as shall be violent and injurious.
Ireland is an integral member of the Kingdom of England: both kingdoms are
coinvested and connexed, not more undivided than Wales or Cornwall."

The conquest of Ireland was entered upon in the year 1172, in the reign of
Henry II., but was scarcely completed until the surrender of Limerick in
1691. Until 1542 it was styled not the Kingdom but the Lordship of Ireland.

An early standard of Ireland has three golden crowns on a blue field, and
arranged over each other as we see the English lions placed; and a
commission appointed in the reign of Edward IV., to enquire what really
were the arms of Ireland, reported in favour of the three crowns. The early
Irish coinage bears these three crowns upon it, as on the coins of Henry V.
and his successors. Henry VIII. substituted the harp on the coins, but
neither crowns nor harps nor any other device for Ireland appear in the
Royal Standard until the year 1603, after which date the harp has remained
in continuous use till the present day.

In the Harleian MS., No. 304 in the British Museum, we find the statement
that "the armes of Irland is Gules iij old harpes gold, stringed argent"
(as in Fig. 87), and on the silver coinage for Ireland of Queen Elizabeth
the shield bears these three harps. At her funeral Ireland was represented
by a blue flag having a crowned harp of gold upon it, and James I. adopted
this, but without the crown, as a quartering in his standard: its first
appearance on the Royal Standard of England.

Why Henry VIII. substituted the harp for the three crowns is not really
known. Some would have us believe that the king was apprehensive that the
three crowns might be taken as symbolising the triple crown of the Pope;
while others suggest that Henry, being presented by the Pope with the
supposed harp of Brian Boru, was induced to change the arms of Ireland by
placing on her coins the representation of this relic of her most
celebrated native king. The Earl of Northampton, writing in the reign of
James I., suggests yet a third explanation. "The best reason," saith he,
"that I can observe for the bearing thereof is, it resembles that country
in being such an instrument that it requires more cost to keep it in tune
than it is worth."[20] {34}

The Royal Standard should only be hoisted when the Sovereign or some member
of the royal family is actually within the palace or castle, or at the
saluting point, or on board the vessel where we see it flying, though this
rule is by no means observed in practice. The only exception really
permitted to this is that on certain royal anniversaries it is hoisted at
some few fortresses at home and abroad that are specified in the Queen's
Regulations.

The Royal Standard of England was, we have seen, in its earliest form a
scarlet flag, having three golden lions upon it, and it was so borne by
Richard I., John, Henry III., Edward I., and Edward II. Edward III. also
bore it for the first thirteen years of his reign, so that this simple but
beautiful flag was the royal banner for over one hundred and fifty years.
Edward III., on his claim in the year 1340 to be King of France as well as
of England, quartered the golden fleurs-de-lys of that kingdom with the
lions of England.[21] This remained the Royal Standard throughout the rest
of his long reign. Throughout the reign of Richard II. (1377 to 1399) the
royal banner was divided in half by an upright line, all on the outer half
being like that of Edward III., while the half next the staff was the
golden cross and martlets on the blue ground, assigned to Edward the
Confessor, his patron saint, as shown in Fig. 19. On the accession of Henry
IV. to the throne, the cross and martlets disappeared, and he reverted to
the simple quartering of France and England.

Originally the fleurs-de-lys were scattered freely over the field, _semée_
or sown, as it is termed heraldically, so that besides several in the
centre that showed their complete form, others at the margin were more or
less imperfect. On turning to Fig. 188, an early French flag, we see this
disposition of them very clearly. Charles V. of France in the year 1365
reduced the number to three, as in Fig. 184, whereupon Henry IV. of England
followed suit; his Royal Standard is shown in Fig. 22. This remained the
Royal Standard throughout the reigns of Henry V., Henry VI., Edward IV.,
Edward V., Richard III., Henry VII., Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary and
Elizabeth--a period of two hundred years.

On the accession of the House of Stuart, the flag was rearranged. Its first
and fourth quarters were themselves quartered again, these small
quarterings being the French fleur-de-lys and the English lions; while the
second quarter was the lion of Scotland, and the third the Irish harp; the
first appearance of either of these latter kingdoms in the Royal Standard.
This form remained in use throughout the reigns of James I., Charles I.,
Charles II., and James II. The last semblance of dominion in France had
long {35} since passed away, but it will be seen that alike on coinage,
arms, and Standard the fiction was preserved, and Londoners may see at
Whitehall the statue still standing of James II., bearing on its pedestal
the inscription--"_Jacobus secundus Dei Gratia Angliæ, Scotiæ, Franciæ et
Hiberniæ Rex_."

During the Protectorate, both the Union Flag and the Standard underwent
several modifications, but the form that the personal Standard of Cromwell
finally assumed may be seen in Fig. 83, where the Cross of St. George for
England, St. Andrew for Scotland, and the harp for Ireland, symbolise the
three kingdoms, while over all, on a shield, are placed the personal arms
of the Protector--a silver lion rampant on a sable field.

William III., on his landing in England, displayed a standard which varied
in many respects from those of his royal predecessors, since it contained
not only the arms themselves, but these were represented as displayed on an
escutcheon, surmounted by the crown, and supported on either side by the
lion and unicorn. Above all this was the inscription "For the Protestant
Religion and the Liberties of England,"[22] while beneath it was "je
maintiendray." The arms on the shield are too complex for adequate
description without the aid of a diagram; suffice it to say that in
addition to the insignia of England, Scotland, Ireland, and France, were
eight others dealing with the devices of smaller Continental possessions
appertaining to the new monarch. When matters had settled down and his
throne was assured, the aggressive inscription, etc., disappeared, and the
Royal Standard of William and his Consort Mary, the daughter of King James,
reverted to the form used by the Stuart Sovereigns, plus in the centre a
small escutcheon bearing the arms of Nassau, these being a golden lion
rampant, surrounded by golden billets, upon a shield of azure.

The Royal Standard of Queen Anne bore the devices of England, Scotland,
Ireland, and France. On the accession of George I. the arms of Hanover were
added, and from 1714 to 1801 the flag was as shown in Fig. 43. The flag of
Anne was very similar to this, only instead of Hanover in the fourth
quarter, the arms of England and Scotland, as we see them in the first
quarter, were simply repeated in the fourth.

The Hanoverian quarter, Fig. 43, was made up as follows:--The two lions on
the red field are the device of Brunswick; the blue lion rampant,
surrounded by the red hearts, is the device of Lunenburg; the galloping
white horse is for Saxony; and over all is the golden crown of Charlemagne
as an indication of the claim set up of being the successor of that potent
Sovereign. The horse {36} of Saxony is said to have been borne sable by the
early kings, previous to the conversion to Christianity of Witekind, A.D.
785. Verstigan, however, tells us that the ensign of Hengist at the time of
the invasion of England by the Saxons was a leaping white horse on a red
ground. The white horse is still the county badge for Kent. The flag, as we
see it in Fig. 43, was that of George I. and George II., and remained in
use until the forty-second year of the reign of George III.

On January 2nd, 1801, the Fleurs-de-lys of France were at length removed,
and the flag had its four quarters as follows:--First and fourth England,
second Scotland, and third Ireland; the arms of Hanover being placed on a
shield in the centre of the flag. This remained the Royal Standard during
the rest of the reign of George III., and throughout the reigns of George
IV. and William IV. On the accession of Victoria the operation of the
Salique law severed the connexion of Hanover with England, and the present
Royal Standard is as shown in Fig. 44, being in its arrangement similar to
that of George IV. and William IV., except that the small central shield,
bearing the arms of Hanover, is now removed.[23]

We turn now to the National Flag. As the feudal constitution of the
fighting force passed away, the use of private banners disappeared, and
men, instead of coming to the field as the retainers of some great nobleman
and fighting under his leadership and beneath his flag, were welded into a
national army under the direct command of the king and such leaders as he
might appoint. The days when a great noble could change the fortunes of the
day by withdrawing his vassals or transferring himself and them, on the eve
of the fight, to the opposing party, were over, and men fought no longer in
the interests of Warwick or of Percy, but in the cause of England and
beneath the banner of St. George, the national Patron Saint.

 "Thou, amongst those saints whom thou dost see,
  Shall be a saint, and thine own nation's frend
  And patron: thou Saint George shalt called bee,
  Saint George of Mery England, the sign of victoree."[24]

{37}

At the siege of Antioch, according to Robertus Monachus, a Benedictine of
Rheims who flourished about the year 1120, and wrote a history of the
Crusade, "Our Souldiers being wearied with the long continuance of the
Battaile, and seeing that the number of enemies decreased not, began to
faint; when suddenly an infinite number of Heavenly Souldiers all in white
descended from the Mountains, the Standard-bearer and leaders of them being
Saint George, Saint Maurice, and Saint Demetrius, which when the Bishop of
Le Puy first beheld he cryed aloud unto his troopes, 'There are they (saith
he) the succours which in the name of God I promised to you.' The issue of
the miracle was this, that presently the enemies did turne their backs and
lost the field: these being slaine, 100,000 horse, beside foot innumerable,
and in their trenches such infinite store of victuals and munition found
that served not only to refresh the wearied Christians, but to confound the
enemy." This great victory at Antioch led to the recovery of Jerusalem. At
the Crusades England, Arragon, and Portugal all assumed St. George as their
patron saint.

Throughout the Middle Ages the war-cry of the English was the name of this
patron saint. "The blyssed and holy Martyr Saynt George is patron of this
realme of Englande, and the crye of men of warre," we read in the "Golden
Legend," and readers of Shakespeare will readily recall illustrations. Thus
in "King Richard II." we read:--

 "Sound drums and trumpets, boldly and cheerfully,
  God and St. George! Richard and victory."

or again in "King Henry V." where the king at the siege of Harfleur cries,

                     "The game's afoot,
  Follow your spirit, and upon this charge
  Cry, God for Harry, England, and St. George!"

while in "King Henry VI." we find the line,

 "Then strike up, drums--God and St. George for us!"[25]

At the battle of Poitiers, September 19th, 1356, upon the advance of the
English, the Constable of France threw himself, Lingard tells us, across
their path with the battle shout, "Mountjoy, St. Denis," which was at once
answered by "St. George, St. George," and in the onrush of the English the
Duke and the greater part of his {38} followers were swept away, and in a
few minutes slain. In an interesting old poem on the siege of Rouen in
1418, written by an eye-witness, we read that on the surrender of the city,

 "Whanne the gate was openyd there
  And thay weren ready in to fare,
  Trumpis blew ther bemys of bras,
  Pipis and clarionys forsoothe ther was.
  And as they entrid thay gaf a schowte
  With ther voyce that was full stowte,
  Seint George! Seint George! thay criden on height
  And seide, Welcome oure kynges righte!"

We have before us, as we write, "The story of that most blessed Saint and
Souldier of Christ Jesus, St. George of Cappadocia," as detailed by Peter
Heylyn, and published in 1633, and the temptation to quote at length from
it is great, as it is full of most interesting matter, but into the history
of St. George space forbids us to go at any length. The author of the
"Seven Champions of Christendom" makes St. George to be born of English
parentage at Coventry, but for this there is no authority whatever, and all
other writers make Cappadocia his birthplace. The history of St. George is
more obscure than that of any name of equal eminence in the Calendar.
According to the "Acta Sanctorum" he was the son of noble parents, became
famous as a soldier, and, embracing Christianity, was tortured to death at
Nicomedia in the year 303.

 "The hero won his well-earned place,
  Amid the Saints, in death's dread hour;
  And still the peasant seeks his grave,
  And, next to God, reveres his power.
  In many a Church his form is seen,
  With sword, and shield, and helmet sheen;
  Ye know him by his shield of pride,
  And by the dragon at his side."

As Patron Saint, the dragon vanquisher is still seen on our crowns and
sovereigns, and reference to such a book as Ruding's history of our coinage
will show that it has for centuries been a popular device.

In 1245, on St. George's Day, Frederic of Austria instituted an order of
knighthood and placed it under the guardianship of the soldier-saint, and
its white banner, bearing the ruddy cross, floated in battle alongside that
of the Empire. In like manner on St. George's Day, in the year 1350, Edward
III. of England instituted the order of the Garter with great solemnity.
{39}

St. George's Day, April 23rd, has too long been suffered to pass almost
unregarded. The annual festivals of St. Andrew, St. Patrick, and St. David
are never overlooked by the members of the various nationalities, and it
seems distinctly a thing to be regretted that the Englishman should allow
the name day of his Patron Saint to pass unnoticed.[26] Whatever conduces
to the recognition of national life is valuable, and anything that reminds
Englishmen of their common ties and common duties--and reminds them, too,
of their glorious heritage in the past--should scarcely be allowed to fall
into disuse. Butler, in his "Lives of the Fathers and Martyrs," tell us
that at the great National Council, held at Oxford in 1222, it was
commanded that the Feast of St. George should be kept. In the year 1415, by
the Constitutions of Archbishop Chichely, St. George's Day was made one of
the greater feasts and ordered to be observed the same as Christmas Day. In
1545 a special collect, epistle, and gospel were prepared, and at the
Reformation, when many of the Saints' Days were swept away, this was
preserved with all honour, and it was not till the sixth year of the reign
of Edward VI., when another revision was made, that in "The Catalogue of
such Festivals as are to be Observed" St. George's day was omitted.

The Cross of St. George was worn as a badge,[27] over the armour, by every
English soldier in the fourteenth and subsequent centuries, even if the
custom did not prevail at a much earlier period. The following extract from
the ordinances made for the government of the army with which Richard II.
invaded Scotland in 1386, is a good illustration of this, wherein it is
ordered "that everi man of what estate, condicion, or nation thei be of, so
that he be of owre partie, here a signe of the armes of Saint George,
large, bothe before and behynde, upon parell that yf he be slayne or
wounded to deth, he that hath so doon to hym shall not be putte to deth for
defaulte of the cross that he lacketh. And that non enemy do bere the same
token or crosse of Saint George, notwithstandyng if he be prisoner, upon
payne of deth." It was the flag of battle, and we see it represented in the
old prints and illuminations that deal with military operations both on
land and sea. Ordinarily it is the Cross of St. George, pure and simple, as
shown in Fig. 91, while at {40} other times, as in Figs. 66, 67, 68, it
forms a portion only of the flag. The red cross on the white field was the
flag under which the great seamen of Elizabeth's reign traded, explored, or
fought; the flag that Drake bore round the world--that Frobisher unfolded
amidst the Arctic solitudes--that gallant Englishmen, the wide world over,
bore at the call of duty and died beneath, if need be, for the honour of
the old home land; and to this day the flag of the English Admiral is the
same simple and beautiful device, and the white ensign of the British Navy,
Fig. 95, is similar, except that it bears, in addition, the Union; while
the Union flag itself, Fig. 90, bears conspicuously the ruddy cross of the
warrior Saint.

Figs. 26, 27, 74 and 140 are all sea-pennants bearing the Cross of St.
George. The first of these is from a painting of H.M.S. _Tiger_, painted by
Van de Velde, while Fig. 27 is flying from one of the ships represented in
the picture by Volpe of the embarkation of Henry VIII. from Dover on his
way to the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Fig. 74 is from a picture of H.M.S.
_Lion_, engaging the French ship _Elisabethe_, on July 9th, 1745, the
latter being fitted out to escort the Young Pretender to Scotland. Though
the red, white, and blue stripes suggest the French tricolor, their
employment in the pennant has, of course, no reference to France. The
_Lion_ had at the foremast the plain red streamer seen at Fig. 25. Fig. 140
is the pennant flown at the present day by all Colonial armed vessels,
while the pennant of the Royal Navy is purely white, with the exception of
the Cross of St. George. In a picture by Van de Velde, the property of the
Queen, representing a sea fight on August 11th, 1673, between the English,
French, and Dutch, we see some of the vessels with streamers similar to
Fig. 140, thus ante-dating the Colonial flag by over two hundred years.

As we have at the present time the white ensign, Fig. 95, the special flag
of the Royal Navy; the blue ensign, Fig. 96, the distinguishing flag of the
Royal Naval Reserve; and the red ensign, Fig. 97, the flag of the Merchant
Service, each with the Union in the upper corner next the mast, so in
earlier days we find the white flag, Fig. 65, the red flag, Fig. 66, and
the blue, each having in the upper corner the Cross of St. George. Fig. 69
becomes, by the addition of the blue, a curious modification of Fig. 66. It
is from a sea piece of the sixteenth century. It was displayed at the poop
of a vessel, while Fig. 79 is the Jack on the bowsprit.

A hundred years ago or so, we may see that there was a considerable variety
in the flags borne by our men-o'-war. Such galleries as those at Hampton
Court or Greenwich afford many examples of this in the pictures there
displayed. In a picture of a battle off Dominica, on April 12th, 1782, we
find, one of the English {41} ships has two great square flags on the
foremast, the upper one being plain red, and the lower one half blue and
half white in horizontal stripes, while the main mast is surmounted by the
Cross of St. George, and below it a tricolor of red, white, and blue in
horizontal stripes. Other ships show equally curious variations, though we
need not stop to detail them, except that in one case both fore and mizen
masts are surmounted by plain red flags. In a picture of Rodney's Action
off Cape St. Vincent, on January 16th, 1780, we meet with all these flags
again. In the representation of an action between an English and French
fleet on May 3rd, 1747, off Cape Finisterre, we notice that the English
ships have a blue ensign at the poop, and one of them has a great plain
blue flag at the foremast, and a great plain red flag at the main-mast
head. In a picture of the taking of Portobello, November 21st, 1739, we
notice the same thing again. These plain surfaces of blue or red are very
curious. It will naturally occur to the reader that these are signal flags,
but anyone seeing the pictures would scarcely continue to hold that view,
as their large size precludes the idea. In the picture of H.M.S. _Tiger_
that we have already referred to, the flag with five red stripes that we
have represented in Fig. 70 is at the poop, while from the bow is hoisted a
flag of four stripes, and from the three mastheads are flags, having three
red stripes. These striped red and white flags may often be seen.

Perhaps the most extraordinary grouping of flags may be seen in a picture
of a naval review in the reign of George I. It was on exhibition at the
Great Naval Exhibition at Chelsea, and is in private ownership. All the
vessels are dressed in immense flags, and these are of the most varied
description. It must be borne in mind that these are government bunting,
not the irresponsible vagaries of private eccentricity. Besides the
reasonable and orthodox flags, such as those represented in Figs. 65, 66,
and others of equal propriety, we find one striped all over in red, white,
blue, red, white, blue, in six horizontal stripes. Another, with a yellow
cross on a white ground; a third, a white eagle on a blue field; another, a
red flag inscribed--"For the Protestant Religion and the Liberty of
England"; while another is like Fig. 65, only instead of having a red cross
on white, it has a blue one instead. An altogether strange assortment.

Figs. 67, 68, 72, and 78 are flags of the London Trained Bands of the year
1643. The different regiments were known by the colour of their flags, thus
Fig. 67 is the flag of the blue regiment, Fig. 68 of the yellow, Fig. 72 of
the green, and Fig. 78 of the yellow regiment auxiliaries. Other flags were
as follows:--white, with red lozenges; green, with golden wavy rays;
orange, with white trefoils; in each case the Cross of St. George being in
the canton. {42} In a list before us of the Edinburgh Trained Bands for
1685 we find that the different bodies are similarly distinguished by
colours.[28]

On the union of the two crowns at the accession of James VI. of Scotland
and I. of England to the English throne, the Cross of St. Andrew, Fig. 92,
was combined with that of St. George.

The Cross of St. Andrew has been held in the same high esteem north of the
Tweed that the Southrons have bestowed on the ensign of St. George. It will
be seen that it is shaped like the letter X. Tradition hath it that the
Saint, deeming it far too great an honour to be crucified as was his Lord,
gained from his persecutors the concession of this variation. It is
legendarily asserted that this form of cross appeared in the sky to
Achaius, King of the Scots, the night before a great battle with
Athelstane, and, being victorious, he went barefoot to the church of St.
Andrew, and vowed to adopt his cross as the national device. The sacred
monogram that replaced the Roman eagles under Constantine, the cross on the
flag of Denmark, the visions of Joan of Arc, and many other suchlike
illustrations, readily occur to one's mind as indicative of the natural
desire to see the potent aid of Heaven visibly manifested in justification
of earthly ambitions, or a celestial support and encouragement in time of
national discomfiture.

Figs. 75 and 76 are examples of the Scottish red and blue ensigns. The
first of these is from a picture at Hampton Court, where a large Scottish
warship is represented as having a flag of this character at the main, and
smaller but similar colours at the other mastheads and on the bowsprit.

The famous banner, the historic "blue blanket," borne by the Scots in the
Crusades, was on its return deposited over the altar of St. Eloi in St.
Giles' Church, Edinburgh, and the queen of James II., we read, painted on
its field of azure the white Cross of St. Andrew, the crown, and the
thistle. St. Eloi was the patron saint of blacksmiths, and this craft was
made the guardian of the flag, and it became the symbol of the associated
trades of ancient Edinburgh. King James VI., when venting his indignation
against his too independent subjects, exclaimed, "The craftsmen think we
should be contented with their work, and if in anything they be controlled,
then up goes the blue blanket." The craftsmen were as independent and
difficult to manage as the London Trained Bands often proved, but King
James VI. found it expedient to confirm them in {43} all their privileges,
and ordered that the flag should at all times be known as the Standard of
the Crafts, and later Sovereigns found it impossible to take away these
privileges when they had once been granted. This flag was borne at Flodden
Field. Beside the cross, crown, and thistle it bore on a scroll on the
upper part of the flag the inscription, "Fear God and honor the king with a
long lyffe and prosperous reigne," and on the lower portion the words, "And
we that is trades shall ever pray to be faithfull for the defence of his
Sacred Majesties' persone till deathe," an inscription that scarcely seems
to harmonise with the turbulent spirit that scandalised this sovereign so
greatly.

The flags borne by the Covenanters in their struggle for liberty varied
much in their details, but in the great majority of cases bore upon them
the Cross of St. Andrew, often accompanied by the thistle, and in most
cases by some form of inscription. Several of these are still extant. In
one that was borne at Bothwell Brig, and now preserved in the Museum of the
Society of Antiquaries, Edinburgh, the four blue triangles (see Fig. 92 for
these) are filled with the words, "For Religion----Couenants----King----and
Kingdomes." The Avondale flag was a white one, having the cross, white on
blue, as in Fig. 75, in the corner. On the field of the flag was the
inscription, "Avondale for Religion, Covenant, and King,"[29] and beneath
this a thistle worked in the national green and crimson. A very interesting
Exhibition of Scottish national memorials was held at Glasgow in 1888, and
many of these old Covenant flags were there displayed. At the great
Heraldic Exhibition held in Edinburgh in 1891, one of the most interesting
things shown was the Cavers Standard. This is of sage green silk, twelve
feet by three. It bears the Cross of St. Andrew next the staff, and divers
other devices are scattered over the rest of the flag. It is in excellent
preservation, and its special interest lies in the fact that it is said to
have been the standard of James, second Earl of Douglas and Mar, and borne
by his son at the battle of Otterburn in the year 1388. If this be so it is
one of the oldest flags in existence.

On the signet-ring of Mary Queen of Scots the white Cross of St. Andrew is
not shown on its usual blue ground, but on a ground striped blue and
yellow, the royal colours; in the same way that the St. George's Cross is
shown in Fig. 71, not on a {44} white ground, but on a ground striped white
and green, the Tudor colours.

Why St. Andrew was selected to be the Patron Saint of Scotland has never
been satisfactorily settled.[30] Some uncharitable enquirer has hazarded
the explanation that it was because it was this Apostle who discovered the
lad who had the loaves and fishes. Others tell us that one Hungus, a
Pictish prince, dreamt that the Saint was to be his champion in a fight
just then pending with the men of Northumbria, and that a cross--the symbol
of the crucifixion of this Apostle--appeared in the sky, the celestial omen
strengthening the hearts and arms of the men of Hungus to such effect that
the Northumbrians were completely routed. Should neither of these
explanations appear sufficiently explanatory, we can offer yet a third. On
the martyrdom of St. Andrew, in the year 69, at Patræ, in Achaia, his
remains were carefully preserved as relics, but in the year 370, Regulus,
one of the Greek monks who had them in their keeping, was warned in a
vision that the Emperor Constantine was proposing to translate these
remains to Constantinople, and that he must at once visit the shrine and
remove thence an arm bone, three fingers of the right hand, and a tooth,
and carry them away over sea to the west. Regulus was much troubled at the
vision, but hastened to obey it, so putting the relics into a chest he set
sail with some half-dozen other ecclesiastics, to whom he confided the
celestial instructions that he had received. After a stormy voyage the
vessel was at last dashed upon a rock, and Regulus and his companions
landed on an unknown shore, and found themselves in a dense and gloomy
forest. Here they were presently discovered by the aborigines, whose leader
listened to their story and gave them land on which to build a church for
the glory of God and the enshrining of the relics. This inhospitable shore
proved to be that of "Caledonia, stern and wild," and the little forest
church and hamlet that sprang up around it were the nucleus that thence and
to the present day have been known as St. Andrews, a thriving, busy town in
Fife, and for centuries the seat of a bishopric. On July 5th, 1318, Robert
the Bruce repaired hither and testified his gratitude to God for the
victory vouchsafed to the Scots at Bannockburn by the intercession of St.
Andrew, guardian of the realm, when thirty thousand Scots defeated one
hundred thousand Englishmen. What St. George could have been doing to allow
this, seems a very legitimate question, but we can scarcely wonder that the
Scots should very gladly appoint so potent a protector their patron, and
look to him for succour in all their national difficulties.

On the blending of the two kingdoms into one under the {45} sovereignty of
King James,[31] it became necessary to devise a new flag that should typify
this union and blend together the emblems of the puissant St. George and
the no less honoured St. Andrew, and the flag represented in Fig. 73 was
the result--the flag of the United Kingdoms of England and Scotland,
henceforth to be known as Great Britain.

The Royal Ordinance[32] ran as follows:--"Whereas some difference hath
arisen between our subjects of South and North Britain, travelling by seas,
about the bearing of their flags,--for the avoiding of all such contentions
hereafter we have, with the advice of our Council, ordered that from
henceforth all our subjects of this isle and kingdom of Greater Britain,
and the members thereof, shall bear in their maintop the Red Cross,
commonly called St. George's Cross, and the White Cross, commonly called
St. Andrew's Cross, joined together, according to a form made by our
Heralds, and sent by us to our Admiral to be published to our said
subjects: and in their fore-top our subjects of South Britain shall wear
the Red Cross only, as they were wont, and our subjects of North Britain in
their fore-top the White Cross only, as they were accustomed. Wherefore we
will and command all our subjects to be comparable and obedient to this our
order, and that from henceforth they do not use or bear their flags in any
other sort, as they will answer the contrary at their peril."

Such a proclamation was sorely needed, as there was much ill-will and
jealousy between the sailors and others of the two nationalities, and the
Union flag itself, when "our heralds" produced it, did not by any means
please the North, and the right to carry in fore-top the St. Andrew's Cross
pure and simple was a concession that failed to conciliate them. The great
grievance was that, as we see in Fig. 73, the Cross of St. George was
placed in front of that of St. Andrew, and the Scottish Privy Council, in a
letter dated Edinburgh, August 7th, 1606, thus poured forth their
feelings:--"Most sacred Soverayne, a greate nomber of the maisteris of the
schippis of this your Majesties kingdome hes verie havelie complenit to
your Majesties Counsell, that the forme and patrone of the flagges of
schippis sent down heir and command it to be ressavit and used be the
subjectis of both kingdomes is verie prejudiciall to the fredome and
dignitie of this Estate, and wil gif occasioun of reprotche to this natioun
quhairevir the said flage sal happin to be worne beyond sea, {46} becaus,
as your Sacred Majestie may persave, the Scottis Croce, callit Sanctandrois
Croce, is twyse divydit, and the Inglishe Croce, callit Sanct George,
drawne through the Scottis Croce, which is thereby obscurit, and no token
nor mark to be seene of the Scottis armes. This will breid some heit and
miscontentment betwix your Majesties subjectis, and it is to be feirit that
some inconvenientis sall fall oute betwix thame, for our seyfaring men
cannot be inducit to resave that flage as it is set down. They have drawne
two new drauchtis and patrones as most indifferent for both kingdomes,
whiche they presentid to the Counsell, and craved our approbation of the
same, but we haif reserved that to your Majestie's princelie
determinatioun, as moir particularlie the Erll of Mar, who was present, and
herd their complaynt, and to whom we haif remittit the discourse and
delyverie of that mater, will informe your Majestie and let your Heynes see
the errour of the first patrone and the indifferencie of the two newe
drauchties." These draughts are not to be found, nor does it appear that
any notice was taken of the complaint.

The Scottish Union flag, as carefully depicted in a scarce little work
published in 1701, and entitled "The Ensigns, Colours, and Flags of the
Ships at Sea, belonging to the several Princes and States in the World,"
may be seen in Fig. 88. In it will be noted that the Cross of St. Andrew is
placed in front of that of St. George--anyone comparing Figs. 73 and 88
will readily see wherein they differ. Though its appearance in a book of
sea-flags would seem to imply that such a flag had been made, we know of no
other instance of it. Fig. 84 was also suggested as a solution of the
problem, but here we get false heraldry, the blue in contact with the red,
and in any case a rather weak-looking arrangement.

The painful truth is that when two persons ride the same animal they cannot
both be in front, and no amount of heraldic ingenuity will make two devices
on a flag to be of equal value. The position next the staff is accounted
more honourable than that remote from it, and the upper portion of the flag
is more honourable than the lower.[33] At first sight it might appear that
matters are impartially dealt out in Fig. 81, but the position next the
staff is given to St. George, and in the quartered arrangement, Fig. 85,
the same holds true. Both these were suggestions made at the time the
difficulty was felt, but both were discarded in favour of the arrangement
shown in Fig. 73.

This Union Flag is not very often met with. It occurrs on one of the great
seals of Charles II., and is seen also as a Jack on the {47} bowsprits of
ships in paintings of early naval battles. It may, by good fortune, be seen
also on the two colours of the 82nd regiment that in the year 1783 were
suspended in St. Giles', Edinburgh, and a very good illustration of it may
be seen in the National Gallery, where, in a battle scene by Copley,
representing the death of Major Peirson, at St. Helier, Jersey, on January
6th, 1781, this Union flag is conspicuous in the centre of the picture. We
have it again in Fig 57, the original flag of the East India Company; the
difference between this and the second Union Flag, made on the admission of
Ireland's Cross of St. Patrick, may be very well seen on a comparison of
Figs. 57 and 61. We have it again in Figs. 142 and 143, flags of the
revolting American Colonists before they had thrown off all allegiance to
the Old Country.

A knowledge of the history of the flag has not only interest, but is of
some little importance. We remember seeing a picture of the sailing of the
_Mayflower_, in which, by a curious lack of a little technical knowledge,
the flag depicted was the Union Flag of to-day, which did not come into
existence until the first year of the present century, whereas the historic
event represented in the picture took place in the year 1620. In a fresco
in the House of Lords, representing Charles II. landing in England,[34] the
artist has introduced a boat bearing the present Union Flag. In each of
these cases it is evident that it should have been the first Union--that of
England and Scotland--that the flag should have testified to.

Charles I. issued a proclamation on May 5th, 1634, forbidding any but the
Royal ships to carry the Union flag; all merchantmen, according to their
nationality, being required to show either the Cross of St. George or that
of St. Andrew. Queen Anne, on July 28th, 1707, required that merchant
vessels should fly a red flag "with a Union Jack described in a canton at
the upper corner thereof, next the staff," while the Union Flag, as before,
was reserved for the Royal Navy. This merchant flag, if we cut out the
inscription there shown, would be similar to Fig. 142. This is interesting,
because, after many changes, so lately as October 18th, 1864, it was
ordered that the red ensign once again should be the distinguishing flag of
the commercial marine; the present flag is given in Fig. 97. It is further
interesting because this proclamation of Queen Anne's is the first time
that the term Union Jack, so far as we are aware, is officially used.

Technically, our national banner should be called the Union Flag, though in
ordinary parlance it is always called the Union Jack. {48} The latter flag
is a diminutive of the former, and the term ought in strictness to be
confined to the small Union Flag flown from the Jack-staff on the bowsprit
of a ship. The Union Flag is, besides this, only used as the special
distinguishing flag of an Admiral of the Fleet, when it is hoisted at the
main top-gallant mast-head, and when the Sovereign is on board a vessel, in
which case the Royal Standard is flown at the main and the Union at the
mizen. With a white border round it, as in Fig. 104, it is the signal for a
pilot: hence this is called the Pilot Jack. The sea flags now in use are
the white, red, and blue ensigns, Figs. 95, 96, 97, to be hereafter
described, while the Union flag is devoted especially to land service,
being hoisted on fortresses and government offices, and borne by the
troops.

Why the flag should be called "Jack" at all has been the subject of much
controversy. It is ordinarily suggested that the derivation is from
Jacques, the French word for James, the Union Jack springing into existence
under his auspices. Why it should be given this French name does not seem
very clear, except that many of the terms used in blazonry are French in
their origin. It never seems to have been suggested that, granting the
reference to King James, the Latin Jacobus would be a more appropriate
explanation, as the Latin names of our kings have for centuries supplanted
the earlier Norman-French on their coins, seals, and documents. Several
other theories have been broached, of varying degrees of improbability; one
of these deriving it from the word "jaque"[35] (hence our modern jacket),
the surcoat worn over the armour in mediæval days. This, we have seen, had
the Cross of St. George always represented on it; but there is no proof
that the jaque was ever worn with the union of the two crosses upon it, so
that the derivation breaks down just at the critical point. The present
flag came into existence in the reign of King George, but no one ever
dreams on this account, or any other, of calling it the Union George.

On the death of Charles I., the partnership between England and Scotland
was dissolved, and the Union Flag, Fig. 73, therefore, was disestablished,
and was only restored in the general Restoration, when the Commonwealth and
Protectorate had run their course, and Charles II. ascended the throne of
his forefathers.

The earliest Commonwealth Flag was a simple reversion to the Cross of St.
George, Fig. 91. At a meeting of the Council of State, held on February
22nd, 1648-49, it was "ordered that the ships at sea in service of the
State shall onely beare the red Crosse {49} in a white flag. That the
engravings upon the Sterne of ye ships shall be the Armes of England and
Ireland in two Scutcheons, as is used in the Seals, and that a warrant be
issued to ye Commissioners of ye Navy to see it put in execution with all
speed." The communication thus ordered to be made to the Commissioners was
in form a letter from the President of the Council as follows:--"To ye
Commissioners of ye Navy.--Gentlemen,--There hath beene a report made to
the Councell by Sir Henry Mildmay of your desire to be informed what is to
be borne in the flaggs of those Ships that are in the Service of the State,
and what to be upon the Sterne in lieu of the Armes formerly thus engraven.
Upon the consideration of the Councell whereof, the Councell have resolved
that they shall beare the Red Crosse only in a white flagg, quite through
the flagg. And that upon the Sterne of the Shipps there shall be the Red
Crosse in one Escotcheon, and the Harpe in one other, being the Armes of
England and Ireland, both Escotcheons joyned according to the pattern
herewith sent unto you. And you are to take care that these Flaggs may be
provided with all expedition for the Shipps for the Summer Guard, and that
these engraveings may also be altered according to this direction with all
possible expedition.--Signed in ye name and by order of ye Councell of
State appointed by Authority of Parliament.--Ol. Cromwell, Derby House,
February 23rd, 1648."

In a Council meeting held on March 5th, considerably within a month of the
one we have just referred to, it is "ordered that the Flagg that is to be
borne by the Admiral, Vice-Admiral, and Rere-Admiral be that now presented,
viz., the Armes of England and Ireland in two severall Escotcheons in a Red
Flagg, within a compartment."[36] This arrangement may be seen in Fig. 82.
A Commonwealth flag that is still preserved at the dockyard, Chatham,
differs slightly from this. The ground of the flag is red, but the shields
are placed directly upon it without any intervening gold border, and around
them is placed a large wreath of palm and laurel in dark green colour.

In the year 1787 an interesting book called the "Respublica" was published;
the author, Sir John Prestwich, deriving much of his material from MSS.
left by an ancestor of his who lived during the Interregnum. In this the
reader may find full descriptions of many of the flags of the
Parliamentarians. One of these is much like the Chatham example already
referred to, except that the ground of the flag is blue, and that outside
the shields, but within the wreath, is found the inscription--"_Floreat
Respublica._" {50}

The flag of the Commonwealth was borne to victory at Dunbar, Worcester, and
many another hard-fought field, and under its folds Blake, Monk, and other
gallant leaders gained glorious victories over the Dutch and Spaniards, and
made the English name feared in every sea.

 "Of wind's and water's rage they fearful be,
  But much more fearful are your flags to see.
  Day, that to those who sail upon the deep,
  More wish'd for and more welcome is than sleep,
  They dreaded to behold, lest the sun's light
  With English streamers should salute their sight."[37]

It was not until the year 1651 that Scotland was brought under the sway of
the Commonwealth, and the ordinance for its full union with England and
Ireland was not promulgated until April 12th, 1654. Somewhat later an Order
of Council recognised the new necessities of the case, and decreed that the
Standard for the Protectorate be as shown in Fig. 83. England and Scotland
are here represented by their respective crosses, while Ireland, instead of
having the Cross of St. Patrick, is represented by the harp. In Fig. 80 all
three crosses are introduced, but there seems somewhat too much white in
this latter flag for an altogether successful effect, and the blue of the
Irish quarter, balancing the blue of the Scottish, is more pleasing. The
Union Flag underwent yet another modification, and instead of being like
Figs. 82 or 86, the Union Flag of James I., Fig. 73, was reverted to, and
in the centre of the flag was placed a golden harp--"the Armes of England
and Scotland united, according to the anncient form, with the addicion of
the harpe." On the restoration of Charles II. this harp was removed, and
Ireland does not appear again in the Union Flag, Fig. 73, until January
1st, 1801.

A pattern farthing of this period--preserved in the magnificent numismatic
collection in the British Museum--shows on its reverse a three-masted ship:
at the stern is a large flag divided vertically, like Fig. 86, into two
compartments, the Cross of St. George in one and the harp in the other; the
main and mizen masts are shown with flags containing St. George's Cross
only, as in Fig. 91, while the foremast bears a flag with St. Andrew's
Cross upon it, a flag similar to Fig. 92.

For nearly fifty years before its rise, and for nearly one hundred and
fifty years after the downfall of the Protectorate, that is to say from
1602 to 1649 and from 1659 to 1801, the Union Flag was as shown in Fig. 73,
but in 1801 the Legislative Union of Ireland with Great Britain was
effected, and a new Union Flag, the one now in {51} use, was devised. This
may be seen in Fig. 90, the noblest flag that flies under heaven.

Though the National Flag is primarily just so much silk or bunting, its
design and colouring are full of meaning: and though its prime cost may be
but a few shillings, its value is priceless, for the national honour is
enwrapped in its folds, and the history of centuries is figured in the
symbolism of its devices. It represents to us all that patriotism means. It
is the flag of freedom and of the greatest empire that the world has ever
known. Over three hundred millions of people--in quiet English shires, amid
Canadian snows, on the torrid plains of Hindustan, amidst the busy energy
of the great Australian group of colonies, or the tropical luxuriance of
our West Indian possessions--are to-day enjoying liberty and peace beneath
its shelter. Countless thousands have freely given their lives to preserve
its blazonry unstained from dishonour and defeat, and it rests with us now
to keep the glorious record as unsullied as of old; never to unfurl our
Union Flag in needless strife, but, when once given to the breeze, to
emulate the deeds of our forefathers, and to inscribe on its folds fresh
records of duty nobly done.

How the form known as St. Patrick's Cross, Fig. 93, became associated with
that worthy is not by any means clear. It is not found amongst the emblems
of Saints, and its use is in defiance of all ecclesiastical tradition and
custom, as St. Patrick never in the martyrological sense had a cross at
all, for though he endured much persecution he was not actually called upon
to lay down his life for the Faith. It has been suggested, and with much
appearance of probability, that the X-like form of cross, both of the Irish
and of the Scotch, is derived from the sacred monogram on the Labarum of
Constantine, where the X is the first letter of the Greek word for Christ.
This symbolic meaning of the form might readily be adopted in the early
Irish Church, and thence be carried by missionaries to Scotland.

A life of St. Patrick was written by Probus, who lived in the seventh
century, and another by Jocelin, a Cistercian monk of the twelfth century,
and this latter quotes freely from four other lives of the Saint that were
written by his disciples.

St. Patrick was born in Scotland, near where Glasgow now stands. The date
of his birth was somewhere near the close of the fourth century, but as to
the year authorities differ widely--372, 455, 464, and 493 being all given
by various biographers.[38] His father was of good family, and, while the
future saint was still under the paternal roof, God manifested to him by
divers visions that he was {52} destined for the great work of the
conversion of Ireland, at that time plunged in idolatry. Hence he resigned
his birthright and social position, and devoted himself entirely to the
salvation of these barbarians, suffering at their hands and for their sakes
much persecution. He was ordained deacon and priest, and was ultimately
made a bishop. He travelled over the whole of Ireland founding monasteries
and filling the country with churches and schools of piety and learning.
Animated by a spirit of perfect charity and humility, he demonstrated not
only the faith but the spirit of his Master, and the result of his forty
years of labour was to change Ireland from a land of barbarism into a seat
of learning and piety, so that it received the title of the Island of
Saints, and was for centuries a land of mental and spiritual light.

On the Union of the Kingdom of Great Britain with Ireland in the year 1801,
the following notice was issued by Royal Authority:--"Proclamation, George
R.--Whereas by the First Article of the Articles of Great Britain and
Ireland it was declared: That the said Kingdoms of Great Britain and
Ireland should upon this day, being the First Day of January, in the Year
of our Lord One Thousand Eight Hundred and One, for ever after be united
into One Kingdom, by the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland: and that the Royal Style and Titles appertaining to the Imperial
Crown of the said United Kingdom and its Dependencies, and also the Ensigns
Armorial, Flags, and Banners thereof, should be such as We, by our Royal
Proclamation under the Great Seal of the said United Kingdom should
appoint: We have thought fit, by and with the advice of our Privy Council,
to appoint and declare that our Royal Style and Titles shall henceforth be
accepted, taken, and used as the same set forth in Manner and Form
following: Georgius Tertius, Dei Gratia, Britannarium Rex, Fidei Defensor;
and in the English Tongue by these words: George the Third, by the Grace of
God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland King, Defender of
the Faith; and that the Arms or Ensigns Armorial of the said United Kingdom
shall be Quarterly: first and fourth, England: second, Scotland: third,
Ireland: and it is Our Will and Pleasure that there shall be borne thereon
on an escutcheon of pretence, the Arms of Our Domains in Germany, ensigned
with the Electoral Bonnet:[39] And that the Union Flag shall be Azure, the
Crosses Saltire of St. Andrew and St. Patrick Quarterly, per Saltire
counterchanged Argent and Gules: the latter fimbriated of the second,
surmounted by the Cross of St. George of the third, fimbriated as the
Saltire." {53}

The heralds who devised the new flag of the extended Union, Fig. 90, have
been subjected to a very considerable amount of adverse criticism,[40] but
no one has really been able to suggest a better plan than theirs. It will
be noted in the illustration and in every Union flag that is made, that the
red Cross of St. Patrick, Fig. 93, is not in the centre of the white Cross,
Fig. 92, of St. Andrew. The scarlet Cross of St. George is equally fringed
on either side by the white border or fimbriation that represents the
original white field, Fig. 91, on which it was placed, and on the addition
of the white cross or saltire of St. Andrew on its field of blue, Fig. 92,
it fitted in very happily. When, however, another X-like cross had to be
provided for, on the admission of Ireland to the Union, a difficulty at
once arose. As the Irish Cross would, according to all rule and fairness,
be of the same width on the joint flag as that of St. Andrew, the result of
placing the second or red X over the first white one would be to entirely
obliterate the latter. Even then the Irish Cross would not be rightly
rendered, as it should be on a white ground, and by this method it would be
on a blue one, while if we placed the Irish Cross on that of St. Andrew,
but left a thin line of white on either side, St. Andrew's Cross would
still be obliterated, as the thin fimbriation of white would be the just
due of St. Patrick, and would not stand for St. Andrew at all. Besides,
Scottish indignation would not unjustly be aroused at the idea that their
noble white cross should become a mere edging to the symbol of St. Patrick.
Hence the somewhat awkward-looking compromise that breaks the continuity of
direction of the arms of the red cross of Ireland by its portions being
thrown out of the centre of the white oblique bands, so that in each
portion the crosses of Ireland and Scotland are clearly distinguished from
each other. This compromise notwithstanding, no more effective or beautiful
flag unfolds itself the round world over than the Union flag of Great
Britain and Ireland.

The crosses might have been quartered as we see them in Fig. 80, but it is
clearly better to preserve the idea of the unity and blend all three
crosses into one composition. No criticism or objection has ever come from
Ireland as to the Union flag, but even so lately as 1853 the Scotch renewed
their grievance against the Cross of St. Andrew being placed behind that of
St. George, "and having a red stripe run through the arms thereof, for
which there is no precedent in law or heraldry." If ever an Irishman cared
to hunt up a grievance, surely here is one at last--the cross of his patron
saint "a red stripe"! {54}

When the Union flag is flown, it should always be as we have drawn it in
Fig. 90, with the broad white stripe nearest to the head of the flagstaff.
It would be quite possible, our readers will see, on a little study of the
matter, to turn it with the red stripe uppermost; but this, as we have
indicated, is incorrect; and, trivial as the matter may appear, there is a
right and a wrong in it, and the point must not be overlooked.

Many suggestions at the time of the Union were made by divers writers in
the public prints, such as the _Gentleman's Magazine_, and the like. One
version preserved the flag of the first Union, Fig. 73, but placed in the
centre a large green circle having within it the golden harp of the Emerald
Isle; but this is objectionable, as it brings green on red, which is
heraldically false, and as Ireland has a cross as well as England and
Scotland, it seems more reasonable to keep the whole arrangement in
harmony. Another version, and by no means a bad one, is shown in Fig. 89,
where each cross is distinct from the two others. This appeared in the
_Gentleman's Magazine_ for March 20th, 1803, and, like all the other
suggestions, good, bad, and indifferent, suffered from the fatal objection
that it saw the light when the whole matter was already settled and any
alteration scarcely possible.

In view of the changes from the simple Cross of St. George to its union
later on with that of St. Andrew, and later on still the union of both with
that of St. Patrick, it is sufficiently evident that Campbell's stirring
appeal to the mariners of England to defend the flag that for a thousand
years has braved the battle and the breeze, however excellent in spirit,
does not fit in with the literal facts, though we would not willingly
change it for such a version as

  Ye mariners of England,
    That guard our native seas:
  Whose flag has braved since eighteen-one,
    The battle and the breeze.

The "Queen's Regulations" are very precise as to the hoisting of the flag
at the various home and foreign stations and fortresses. Some few of these
have the Royal Standard for use on Royal Anniversaries and State occasions
only, and these flags are issued in two sizes--either twenty-four by twelve
feet, or twelve by six feet--according to the importance of the position;
thus Dover, Plymouth, and the Tower of London, for example, have the larger
size. In like manner the Union Flag is of two sizes: twelve by six feet, or
six by three feet. These flags at the various stations are either hoisted
on anniversaries only, or on Sundays in addition, or else daily; thus
Dover, besides its Standard, has a Union flag, twelve by six, for special
occasions, and another, six by three, {55} which is hoisted daily. Our
foreign stations, Bermuda, Cape of Good Hope, Cyprus, Gibraltar, Hong Kong,
Halifax, St. Helena, and so forth, are all equally rigidly provided for in
Regulations. There is no option anywhere in the matter. A particular
fortress has to fly a particular flag of a particular size on a particular
day.

The white ensign, Fig. 95, is the distinguishing flag of the Royal Navy. It
is hoisted at the peak of all vessels in commission, or in such other
conspicuous position of honour as their rig or (as in the case of some
ironclads) absence of rig will permit. It is a large white flag, having
upon it the Cross of St. George, the portion of the flag nearest the
mast-head being occupied by the Union.[41]

Until 1864 the Royal Navy was divided into the white, the blue, and the red
squadrons, distinguished by the flags shown in Figs. 95, 96, and 97, but
this arrangement, though it had lasted for over two hundred years,[42] was
found to have many inconveniences. It was very puzzling to foreigners, and
it was necessary that each vessel should have three sets of colours, so as
to be able to hoist the orthodox flag for the squadron in which, for the
time being, it might be placed. It was also a difficulty that peaceful
merchantmen were carrying a red ensign, Fig. 97, exactly similar to the war
flag of the vessels of the red squadron. It was inconvenient in action,
too; hence, Nelson at Trafalgar ordered the whole of his fleet to hoist the
white ensign. An Order of Council, dated October 18th, 1864, put an end to
this use of differing flags, declaring that henceforth the white ensign
alone should be the flag of the Royal Navy. In the old days the red was the
highest, the white the intermediate, and the blue the third in rank and
dignity.

Her Majesty's ships, when at anchor in home ports and roads, hoist their
colours at 8 o'clock in the morning from March 25th to September 20th, and
the rest of the year an hour later; and on foreign stations, at either of
these hours as the commanding officer shall direct; and either abroad or at
home they remain flying throughout the day until sunset.[43] When at sea,
on passing, meeting, {56} joining or parting from any other of Her
Majesty's ships or on falling in with any other ship the flag is hoisted,
and also when in sight of land, and especially when passing any fort,
battery, lighthouse, or town.

When salutes are fired on the occasion of a foreign national festival, such
as the birthday of the sovereign, the flag of the nation in question is
hoisted at the main during the salute and for such further time as the war
ships of such nation are be-flagged, but if none are present, then their
flag remains up till sunset. Should a British war vessel arrive at any
foreign fortified port, the flag of the foreign nation is hoisted at the
main during the exchange of salutes.

It is a rank offence for any vessel to fly any ensign or pendant similar to
those used in the Royal Navy. It will at once be boarded by any officer of
Her Majesty's Service, the offending colours seized, and the vessel
reported. The penalty for the offence is a very heavy one.

The admiral has as a flag the white flag with the Cross of St. George
thereon, Fig. 91, and this must be displayed at the main top-gallant
mast-head, since both the vice and rear-admirals are entitled to fly a
similar flag, but the former of these displays his from the fore, and the
latter from the mizen top-gallant mast-head; it being not the flag alone
but the position of it that is distinctive of rank. The commodore's broad
pendant is a very similar flag, but it tapers slightly, and is
swallow-tailed.

The "Naval Discipline Act," better known as "The Articles of War,"
commences with the true and noble words--"It is on the Navy, under the Good
Providence of God, that our Wealth, Prosperity, and Peace depend," and we
may trust that the glorious traditions of this great service may be
maintained to the full as effectually under the White Ensign as in any
former period for the defence of

 "This royal throne of kings, this scepter'd isle,
  This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,
  This other Eden, demi-paradise;
  This fortress built by nature for herself,
  Against infection, and the hand of war;
  This happy breed of men, this little world;
  This precious stone set in the silver sea,
  Which serves it in the office of a wall,
  Or as a moat defensive to a house,
  Against the envy of less happier lands;
  This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England."

The blue ensign, Fig. 96, is the flag of the Royal Naval Reserve, and may
be flown by any merchant vessels that comply with the {57} Admiralty
conditions respecting that service. Such vessels must be commanded by
officers of the Reserve, and at least one-third of their crew must belong
to it: they then, the structural conditions being satisfactory, receive a
Government subvention and an Admiralty Warrant to fly the blue ensign.
Officers commanding Her Majesty's ships, meeting with ships carrying the
blue ensign, are authorised to go on board them at any convenient
opportunity and see that these conditions are strictly carried out,
provided that they are of superior rank to the officers of the Royal Naval
Reserve. The men of the Reserve receive an annual retainer and drill pay.
The number of men in the Reserve, at the time we write these lines, is
10,600 in the first class and 10,800 in the second. The first class Reserve
is composed of the men on the long voyage ships, the second being the
fishermen and coasting crews. In addition to this there are some 3,000
engineers and stokers, and some 1,500 or so of officers, all equally
prepared to rally to the pennant and to take their place in the national
defence.

This utilisation of the faster vessels of the Mercantile Marine as cruisers
in war time has seriously engaged the attention of the Admiralty. The
Government gives an annual subsidy, and then claims the right to the vessel
at a fixed charge in case of emergency. Such vessels would be of immense
service in time of war in many ways: for scouting, for transporting troops,
and for engaging such of the enemy as she felt fairly a match for. When,
some few years ago, it seemed as though war with Russia was imminent, the
_Massilia_ and the _Rosetta_ of the Peninsula and Oriental Company's fleet
were put in commission by telegraph at Sydney and Hong Kong respectively.
These vessels were provided at once with warlike stores, and were at gun
practice off the ports referred to a few hours after the receipt of
instructions, and ready to go anywhere. This Company, during the Crimean
War, carried over sixty thousand men to the scene of operations, and during
the Indian Mutiny, the war in the Soudan, and all other possible occasions,
has rendered the greatest aid to the State. The _Teutonic_ and the
_Majestic_, of the White Star Line, each carry twelve Armstrong guns, and
could either of them land two thousand infantry at Halifax in five days, or
at Bombay in fourteen days, or at Hong Kong in twenty-one; and many other
armed cruisers of the Mercantile Marine, that we need not stay to
particularise, could do as much, and as effectively, flying the Blue Ensign
as worthily as those we have named.

 "Little England! Great in story!
    Mother of immortal men!
  Great in courage! Great in glory!
    Dear to Freedom's tongue and pen!
  {58}
  If the world combine to brave thee,
    English hearts will dare the fight,
  English hands will glow to save thee,
    Strong for England and the right!"[44]

The Red Ensign, represented in Fig. 97, is the special flag of the ordinary
merchantman. "The Red Ensign"--lays down the "Merchant Shipping (Colours)
Act"--"usually worn by merchant ships, without any defacement or
modification whatsoever, is hereby declared to be the proper national
colour of all ships and boats belonging to any subject of Her Majesty,
except in the case of Her Majesty's ships or boats, or in the case of any
other ship or boat for the time being allowed to wear any other national
colours, in pursuant of a Warrant from Her Majesty or from the Admiralty."

This Act goes on to say that any ship belonging to any subject of the Queen
shall, on a signal being made to her by one of Her Majesty's ships, or on
entering or leaving any foreign port, hoist the red ensign, and if of fifty
tons gross tonnage or upwards, on entering or leaving any British port
also, or incur a penalty not exceeding one hundred pounds. A merchantman
may also fly the Union Jack from the bowsprit, but if so the flag, as in
Fig. 104, must have a broad white border.

The earliest form of red ensign is seen in Fig. 66. In a picture at Hampton
Court, representing the embarkation of William of Orange for England, in
the year 1688, his ship is shown as wearing two flags, one a red one with
St. George's Cross in the canton, as in Fig. 66, while the other, also red,
has the Union Flag in the canton. We get, therefore, a regular sequence of
red ensigns: that with St. George's Cross alone in the corner next the
masthead; that with the Union of St. George and St. Andrew--this picture at
Hampton Court being the earliest example known of its use; and, thirdly,
that of to-day with the crosses of St. George, St. Andrew, and St. Patrick.

Some little degree of flag-lore is valuable not only to the soldier, the
seaman, or the traveller, but to everyone. For want of this knowledge,
ludicrous and serious mistakes are often made. Discussing these matters
with a man of good general knowledge, we found that he had a notion that
there were two kinds of "Union Jack," one, that had most red in it, being
the Army flag; while the other, in which blue preponderated, was the flag
of the Navy! Outside a large provincial theatre we saw a conspicuous notice
indicating that the piece then running was entitled "The Old Flag." To
emphasise this was a picture of a square of British linesmen surrounded by
{59} Zulus, while in the centre of the square rose the Royal Standard! As a
set-off to this we saw, not far off, a public house called the "Royal
Standard," flying from its roof the white Ensign! A friend of ours brought
home for his son a really capital toy model of an ironclad, with turrets,
ram, fighting tops, etc., and yet flying the red ensign of the harmless
merchantman!

At a church we occasionally pass, the living being in the gift of the
Queen, the Royal Standard is hoisted on such Church festivals as Christmas
Day, while at other times, for no apparent reason, the white Ensign is
substituted--the special flag of the War Navy. Anyone venturing to point
out to the authorities thereof that, as the old church could scarcely take
up its position as a unit in our fighting fleet--having, in fact, quite
another mission in the world--the special flag of the Royal Navy was not
the most appropriate, would probably derive from the interview the
impression that, after all, to the churchwardens a flag was a flag, and
that it was quite possible to make a mountain out of a molehill.

To one who knows anything about it, the eruption of silk bunting, and baser
fabrics innumerable that comes to the fore on any occasion of national
rejoicing, is a thing of horror, not merely in the festal disfigurements of
the patchwork counterpane or cotton pockethandkerchief type, seeing that to
some people any coloured piece of stuff that will blow out in the wind is a
valid decoration, but in the painful ignorance shown in the treatment of
recognised ensigns. Some little time ago, for instance, we found ourselves
in a town gaily beflagged and radiant in bunting on the occasion of a great
popular rejoicing. The Royal Standard, betokening the presence in the house
of some member of the Royal Family, was flying with a profusion that made
it impossible to believe that all the people displaying it could be
entertaining such distinguished guests. As a set-off, others were decking
their houses with red flags, the symbols of revolution and bloodshed, or
with yellow ones, leaving us to infer that such houses were to be avoided
as nests of yellow fever or such-like deadly infection. The Stars and
Stripes of the United States were, in almost every case, upside down, as
indeed were many others; a thing that, except for the ignorance that was
its excuse, might be considered as an insult to the various Foreign Powers,
while the repeated reversal of the red ensign implied a signal of distress.
The good folks really meant no harm to anybody, and they were quite happy
to believe, as they strolled in their thousands up the leading streets of
the town, that their decorations were a great success. At the same time, a
little more knowledge would have done them no harm. As it is an insult to
hoist one national flag below another, it is a rigid law that in all
official decorations national flags may not be so placed, but {60}
enthusiastic and irresponsible burgesses, in the depth of their ignorance,
ignore all such considerations of international courtesy, and in the length
of a short street commit sufficient indiscretion to give umbrage to all
mankind. It may be said that

 "Happiness too swiftly flies,
  Thought would destroy their Paradise"--

that "he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow," that

 "From ignorance our comfort flows,
  The only wretched are the wise"--

but despite all this philosophy, that "where ignorance is bliss 'tis folly
to be wise," no one is the worse for knowing something about the matter
with which he is dealing; and if proverbial philosophy is to count for
anything in the matter, a not inappropriate moral may be quoted as to the
rushing in of fools where their betters feel a judicious modesty. The
confidence of knowledge is better than the confidence of ignorance, and
would certainly, in street flagging, produce a more satisfactory result.

We have in Plate VI. some few examples of these vagaries from sketches that
we made at the time. Fig. 45, if it had not got the Union in the canton,
would nearly be the Danish flag, Fig. 225, but the addition of the canton
makes it sheer foolishness. Fig. 46 is a good example of the notion that
anything will do if it be only bright enough: it is a mere piece of
patchwork, not by any means the only one in evidence. Figs. 47 and 50
explain themselves; it is evident that in one case the decorator started
with a white ensign and in the other with a blue one, and then, feeling
that they were a little small and insignificant looking, tacked on a goodly
amount of red material to bring them up to their notion of what would be
sufficiently conspicuous in size. Fig. 48 is very quaint: there is a notion
of the white ensign hovering about it, but the Royal Standard employed as a
canton in one quarter is outside all the proprieties, and in any case all
the arm of the cross that one would expect to see below the canton is
absorbed by it. The addition of the two red tails to the Royal Standard in
Fig. 49 is not by any means legitimate, while in Fig. 51 the Royal Standard
is made the canton of a red ensign, and, as if this were not bad enough in
itself, the whole thing is flown upside down. Many of the so-called flags
had no semblance to anything, some were strange and abnormal tricolors;
others, chequers: one, we remember, was deep crimson, with a broad
bordering round three of its edges of light blue. Whatever opportunity of
going wrong seemed to be at all feasible appeared to be eagerly seized by
some well-meaning burgess, so that the result was a perfect museum of
examples of how not to do it, and therefore of immense interest.

       *       *       *       *       *

{61}

CHAPTER III.

    Army Flags--the Queen's Colour--the Regimental Colour--the Honours and
    Devices--the Flag of the 24th Regiment--Facings--Flag of the King's Own
    Borderers--What the Flag Symbolises--Colours of the Guards--the Assaye
    Flag--Cavalry Flags--Presentation of Colours--Chelsea College
    Chapel--Flags of the Buffs in Canterbury Cathedral--Flags of the
    Scottish Regiments in St. Giles's Cathedral--Burning of Rebel Flags by
    the Hangman--Special Flags for various Official Personages--Special
    Flags for different Government Departments--The Lord High Admiral--The
    Mail Flag--White Ensign of the Royal Yacht Squadron--Yacht Ensigns and
    Burgees--House or Company Flags--How to express Colours with Lines--the
    Allan Tricolor--Port Flags--the British Empire--the Colonial Blue
    Ensign and Pendant--the Colonial Defence Act--Colonial Mercantile
    Flag--Admiralty Warrant--Flag of the Governor of a Colony--the Green
    Garland--the Arms of the Dominion of Canada--Badges of the various
    Colonies--Daniel Webster on the Might of England--Bacon on the Command
    of the Ocean.

Having now dealt with the Union Flag and the Red and Blue Ensigns, we
proceed to see how these are modified by the addition of various devices
upon them.

The flags of the army claim the first place in our regard. Each infantry
regiment has two "colours," one being called the "Queen's Colour," and the
other the "Regimental Colour." On turning to Barret's "Theorike and
Practike of Modern Warres," a book published in the year 1598, we find the
following passage:--"We Englishmen do call them of late colours, by reason
of the variety of colours they be made of, whereby they be the better noted
and known." This we may doubtless accept as a sufficient explanation of the
word, and the passage is interesting, too, as approximately fixing a date
for the introduction of the term, and showing that it has been in use for
at least three hundred years.

The Queen's Colour in every regiment of the line is the flag of the Union,
Fig. 90, bearing in its centre the Imperial crown and the number of the
regiment beneath it in Roman figures worked in gold, and its territorial
designation.

The regimental Colour is of the colour of the facings of the regiment,
except when these are white, in which case the body of the flag is not
plain white all over, but bears upon it the Cross of St. George. Whatever
the colour, it bears in its upper corner the Union, and in the centre of
the flag the crown and title of {62} the regiment, and around it whatever
devices, or badges, or other distinctions have been specially conferred
upon it, together with the names of the actions in which the regiment has
taken part, the records of its gallant service in many a hard-fought
struggle in the Peninsula, on the sultry plains of India, beneath the
burning sun of Africa, or wherever else the call of honour and of duty has
added to its laurels. Thus the regimental flag of the 1st regiment of the
line bears the proud record--St. Lucia, Egmont-op-Zee, Egypt, Corunna,
Busaco, Salamanca, Vittoria, St. Sebastian, Nive, Peninsula, Niagara,
Waterloo, Nagpore, Maheidpore, Ava, Alma, Inkermann, Sebastopol, and
several other records of struggles in which they bore gallant share; and
many another regiment could show as fine a record of service.

In Fig. 94 we have a representation of the regimental colour of the 24th
Regiment. As the facings of this distinguished corps are green,[45] the
body of the flag is of that colour. Beneath its territorial designation
will be seen its special badge, the Sphinx, bestowed upon it for
distinguished service in Egypt, and around are grouped the names of famous
victories which it contributed to win.

The 24th Regiment, now in the territorial arrangement in vogue known as the
2nd Warwickshire, was first formed in the year 1689. In 1776 it embarked
for Canada and greatly distinguished itself in the American struggle. In
1801 we find it in Egypt, where by its gallantry it won the right to bear
the Sphinx.[46] From 1805 to 1810 it was fighting its way along at the Cape
of Good Hope, and then went on to India. In 1829 we find it sent off to
Canada again to suppress rebellion, and it did not return to England till
1841. In 1846 we see it in the thick of the Punjaub struggle, taking its
part right well in the brilliant engagements of Chillianwallah and
Goojerat, and in 1857 it is in the thick of the sanguinary Mutiny in India;
and, after fifteen years in India, lands in 1861 in England once more. In
1874 we find it again at the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1877-78 engaged in
the Kaffir war, and in all times and in all places taking a gallant share
in upholding the national cause.

In 1804 a second battalion was added to the regiment. This only existed ten
years, but in that time it earned by its distinguished {63} bravery the
names of the Peninsula battles for the flag,[47] and at the conclusion of
the struggle it was so weak in numbers that it was disembodied. In 1858 a
new second battalion was formed, and did good service in Burmah, South
Africa, etc. Both battalions were in Zululand in 1879, and with the
exception of one hundred men detailed for special duty, the regiment, save
nine men, was wiped out of existence in the fatal field of Isandhlwana.
Lieutenants Melville and Coghill tore the colours from their staffs and
wrapped them around their bodies, and after the fight was over and the
enemy had retired they were recovered. On the arrival of the colours in
England they were taken by Royal Command to Osborne, where the Queen
fastened to each a wreath of immortelles, and bestowed on the two dead
heroes the Victoria Cross as the highest acknowledgment then possible to
her of her deep appreciation of the sacrifice that these young gallant
officers had made for her, for England, and for the honour of the flag. The
colours, therefore, that we have represented in Fig. 94, in all their broad
blazon of gallant service, even in the hour of defeat never fell into the
hands of the enemy, to be hung in triumph in some Zulu kraal, but were
brought back in honour and proud rejoicing, since defeat so valiantly met
was no disgrace, and the honour of the flag and of the gallant 24th was
without stain.

As one more illustration of regimental colours we may instance those of the
25th Regiment, the King's Own Borderers. Here the groundwork of the flag is
blue, with, of course, the Union in the upper corner next the staff. In the
centre of the flag is a representation of Edinburgh Castle, and within a
band the words, "King's Own Borderers." Outside this we have a wreath of
rose, shamrock, and thistle, surmounted by the crown. Below this is a
sphinx for service in Egypt, and below this again the word "Martinique." On
either side is inscribed "Minden" and "Egmont op Zee," and above all,
"Afghanistan." In the upper outer angle of the flag is the lion on the
crown and the motto "_In veritate religionis confido_," and in the lower
outer angle the white horse of Hanover and the motto "_Nec aspera
terrent_."[48] This was originally known as the Edinburgh Regiment, as it
was raised in four hours in 1689 to defend that city; but George III., for
some reason more or less {64} satisfactory to himself, changed the name to
the one it has ever since borne--the King's Own Borderers.

In the year 1811 the Prince Regent, on behalf of the King, issued an order
to regulate the colours of the Army, and, amongst other things, sanctioned
the custom that had sprung up of inscribing the names of victories on the
flags. The custom of inscribing these honours, the names of the actions
fought, did not begin till the battle of Minden, so that the victories of
Marlborough and all other glorious achievements prior to the year 1759
would have gone unrecorded; but in July, 1881, sanction was given for the
Grenadiers and the 1st, 3rd, 8th, 10th, 15th, 16th, 18th, 21st, 23rd, 24th,
26th, and 27th Regiments of the Line to add Blenheim and Ramilies to their
colours. Oudenarde, Malplaquet, and Dettingen[49] were also added to the
colours of those regiments that were there engaged.

By the "Queen's Regulations" these colours are required to be of silk, and
to be three feet nine inches in length and three feet in breadth; the cords
and tassels are to be of mixed crimson and gold; the staff is to be eight
feet seven inches long, and surmounted by a golden crown on which stands a
lion. They are to be carried on parade by the two junior lieutenants, and
guarded by two sergeants and two privates. These form what is called "the
colour party." The distinguishing badge of the colour-sergeant consists of
crossed colours, embroidered on the sleeve above the chevrons of his rank.

It has taken something like a thousand years of time to build up the
British Empire, while the lavish outlay of toil and forethought of
statesmen, the ceaseless spending of blood and treasure, the brilliant
strategy by land and sea of a long line of distinguished commanders have
all contributed to its birth and proud maintenance; and of all this
devotion in the past and the determination to uphold it in the future, the
flag is the living concrete symbol. It is the flag beneath whose folds
Nelson and Wellington and countless heroes more were carried to their rest;
it waved in triumph on the Heights of Abraham, and its honour was safe with
Elliot at Gibraltar; it was unfurled on many a battlefield in the
Peninsula, and nerved the arms of those who scaled the heights of the Alma
and stood unconquerable in the stubborn fight of Inkerman; and it waved
triumphant in the breeze at Sebastopol. The sight of it was strength,
comfort, and hope in the dark days of Lucknow and Cawnpore. It floated, a
symbol of duty, over the heroes of the burning _Birkenhead_, and to Ross,
Parry, Franklin and McClure, in the icy wastes of the far North it was an
incentive to renewed {65} effort and a symbol of home. It was the flag of
Speke and Livingstone in savage Africa, of Burke and Wills in their
explorations in Australia; and for the honour of England that it symbolises
men have thought no sacrifice too great.

The Queen's Colour is a pledge of loyalty to the Sovereign, an emblem of
the unity of all, while the second colour deals with the honour that
specially appertains to each regiment--a subject of legitimate pride in the
past and an incentive to prove not unworthy in the future of those who
gained it such distinction.

For some recondite reason the Guards reverse the arrangement that holds in
the Line regiments, as with them the Queen's Colour is crimson and bears
the regimental devices and honours, while the Union Flag is the Regimental
Colour. William IV., in 1832, gave the Grenadier Guards a special flag of
crimson silk, bearing in its centre the royal cypher W.R., interlaced in
gold, and having grouped together in the four corners the rose, thistle,
and shamrock.

The Governor-General in India issued in the year 1803 a general order that
all the regiments engaged in Wellington's greatest Indian
victory--Assaye--should be entitled to the special distinction of a third
flag, and the Royal authority confirmed the honour. This flag, borne by the
74th Highlanders, the 78th or Ross-shire Buffs, and other distinguished
regiments, was of white silk, having in its centre an elephant, beneath
this the regimental number, and around it a wreath. On blue bands above and
below were inscribed in gold the words Assaye and Seringapatam. In the year
1830 the general use on parade of these flags was discontinued by order,
and they were reserved for very special occasions.

The number of colours borne by the different regiments was formerly very
irregular: sometimes it was one to a company, sometimes only one to a whole
regiment, now it is two to each battalion. During the eighteenth century
several regiments carried three colours, and the 5th, or Northumberland
Fusiliers, continued to do so until 1833. By an unfortunate accident these
were then all burnt, and when the question of granting new colours came
forward, the right to carry the third was objected to, and the claim had to
be surrendered. King Charles's Royal Regiment of Foot Guards lost eleven
out of thirteen colours at Edgehill.

The Standards carried by the Life Guards, Horse Guards, and Dragoon Guards
are of crimson silk, thirty inches by twenty-seven; and the guidons of the
dragoon regiments are forty-one inches by twenty-seven, are slit in the fly
and have the outer corners rounded off. The tassels and cords are of
crimson silk and gold, and each flag bears the Royal or other title of the
regiment in letters of gold in a circle, and beneath it the number of the
regiment, all being surmounted by the crown, surrounded by a {66} wreath of
rose, shamrock, and thistle, and the honours. Where a regiment has a
particular badge, such device will be placed in the centre, and the
territorial and numerical position placed outside; thus the Scots Greys
(the 2nd Royal Dragoons) bear as their badge the Imperial Eagle of France,
because at Waterloo this distinguished regiment captured the eagle of the
French 45th Regiment, on which were inscribed the words Jena, Austerlitz,
Wagram, Eylau, and Friedland.[50] The 3rd Dragoons have as their badge the
white horse of Hanover, and, as record of good service, Salamanca,
Vittoria, Toulouse, Peninsula, Cabool, Moodkee, Sobraon, Ferozeshah,
Punjaub, Chillianwallah, Goojerat. The Lancers and Hussars, like the Royal
Engineers, the Royal Artillery, and the Rifle Brigade, have no colours, and
therefore bear their badges, devices, etc., on their appointments. Thus,
for instance, King George II. ordered the 17th Light Dragoons (now the 17th
Lancers) to wear the device of the skull and cross-bones, and beneath it
the words "or glory" on the front of their caps and on the left breast.
This device the "Death or Glory Boys" still retain, like the famous
Pomeranian Horse and the Black Brunswickers, continental corps from whom
the Anglo-Hanoverian monarch doubtless derived the idea.[51]

The presentation of colours to a regiment is always an imposing ceremony,
as with prayer of consecration, martial music, and stirring address they
are delivered into its custody, but the bestowal of the old colours in some
honoured place of safe keeping is yet more impressive. In the one case
there are the hopes and dangers of the future, while in the other the hopes
have all been abundantly realised, the dangers triumphantly passed, as the
tattered colours--storm tossed, torn by shot and shell--are borne in honour
to their last resting place, where, strife for ever over, they rest in
peace in the Sanctuary of God, a memorial to all men, until their last
shreds fall to decay, of duty nobly and fully done.

Visitors to Canterbury Cathedral will scarcely fail to have noticed the
flags therein suspended. The colours of the 1st Battalion of the Buffs (the
East Kent Regiment) there find fitting resting place, and the last of these
were added so lately as October, 1892.[52] On their entrance, with imposing
military ceremony, into the {67} Cathedral, they were met by the clergy and
choir, and a hymn of thanksgiving for victory and of safe return from war
was sung, commencing--

 "Grateful, we bring from lands afar,
  Torn, shattered, but unstained,
  Banners that Thy servant blessed
  Ere the stern conflict came;
  Lord, let their fragments ever rest
  Where dwells Thy Holy name."

After a short service of prayer and praise the Dean of Canterbury addressed
the great congregation. It might be asked, he said, why they, who were the
Ministers of the Prince of Peace, should take such interest in these
military proceedings. It was because they recognised in them the greatest
force for peace that there was in our land, for it was through them that
this country of ours had not been trampled for centuries under the feet of
any foreign foe, it was through them that the _Pax Britannica_ prevailed,
and that everywhere where the British Flag was present it carried with it
peace, and tranquillity, and justice. It was through the help of the army
that the peaceful people of this country could carry on their avocations
and serve God and do His work in peace; and therefore the clergy gratefully
acknowledged their services, and hoped and prayed that everywhere the
colours of each regiment might still be not only unstained, but covered
with laurels in struggling for right and for justice.

Colonel Hobson then addressed the vast audience, reminding the younger
soldiers present that the regiment to which they had the honour to belong
was formed more than three hundred years ago, and was, therefore, the
oldest in the Army. It had won honour and renown in every part of the
world, and the colours which they were that day appropriately laying to
rest in the Warriors' Chapel of Canterbury Cathedral represented as
glorious a record as that of any regiment in the British Army. The earliest
existence of the regiment dated from the movement set on foot in this
country in the latter half of the sixteenth century, to assist the cause of
civil and religious liberty in the Netherlands. The dragon, which is on the
colours, was the crest of the City of London, from whose Trained Bands the
regiment was formed in 1572; and the regimental march, so familiar to them
all, was given them by Queen Elizabeth. After enumerating some few of the
services that the regiment had rendered, he concluded by saying:--"The few
words I have still to say I want you young soldiers especially to listen to
and to take to heart. The colours of a regiment are symbolical of what
ought to be the watchword of an army--duty; the Queen's Colours--duty to
{68} your Sovereign and to your country; the Regimental Colours--duty
towards the regiment. In these days the material side of the profession of
arms is much insisted upon, but I tell you that an army without something
higher than that, however well cared for in other respects, is a bad army,
and that when thoughtfulness and care for the good name of a regiment is
sacrificed for selfish, individual advancement, the regiment, as a whole,
will suffer. The spirit which animated the regiments of the British
Army--who placed those names, of which we are so proud to-day, on those
colours--was, duty first, self afterwards; and it will be a bad day for the
British Army if that spirit is ever allowed to depart from it. There was no
position in the army, however humble, in which men could not sustain the
credit and honour of their regiment and thus contribute to their country's
welfare."

The Dean thereupon solemnly accepted the care of the colours and pronounced
the Benediction, and the whole audience then joined heart and voice, with
thrilling effect, in singing the National Anthem.

It seems so natural to write of England and of Englishmen, so stilted to
put Great Britain and Ireland, that one may possibly forget that,
comprehensive as we intend the terms to be, we may, perhaps, wound the
susceptibilities of our fellow subjects and brother Britons across the
Tweed. Let us then turn to a companion picture, and see how, with equal
honour and devotion, the flags of our gallant Highlanders are borne to
their rest.

A movement was, some time ago, set on foot to gather in the old flags from
the various Scottish regiments and to place them all in the Cathedral
Church of Edinburgh. This was effected, and the perspective effect of
these, as they line the nave on either side, is very fine. The oldest
colours there are those of the 82nd, the Duke of Hamilton's regiment,
presented in the year 1782, and still in excellent preservation.

When on November 14th, 1883, the old colours borne by the various Scottish
regiments were deposited in St. Giles' Cathedral, they were escorted in all
honour and military pomp from the Castle; and says one who was there: "When
the colours came in sight, the multitude raised a shout and cheered, but
the impulse was but momentary, for at sight of the array of shattered rags
the noise of the tumult died away, and a half-suppressed sound was heard as
through the hearts of the people there flashed a thrill of mingled pride
and pain. Those who saw it will never forget the scene. In the centre the
tattered silk of the Colours, and on the fringe and in the background a
wonder-stricken crowd, as past uncovered heads, past dimmed eyes and
quivering lips, the old flags were carried."

When the flags had been received with service of prayer and {69} praise,
the meaning of it all was summed up in burning words of love, devotion, and
pride. "We have gathered to-day," said the speaker, "for a noble
purpose--to receive with all honour into this national church these flags,
which have been borne by our soldiers through many a hard fight and in many
a distant land. 'In the name of the Lord,' said the inspired Psalmist long
ago, 'we will set up our banners.' In the spirit in which he spoke, these
banners were first unfurled; and in that great Name they were blessed by
God's ministers ere they were committed to those who were to carry them, as
a testimony that, as a nation, we believe in God, and desire that He should
guide our destinies alike in war and in peace; and now, after the lapse of
years, they are brought back to rest in God's house as a testimony to the
same truth, that we acknowledge Him as the supreme source of all our
national success and greatness. 'Thine, O Lord, is the greatness and the
power, and the victory, and the majesty! Both riches and honour come of
Thee, and in Thine hand it is to make great and to give strength unto all.'
It is in this spirit that we place these emblems in Scotland's great
historic church. The associations that gather around these faded banners
are of the tenderest and most touching kind. They are such as cause the
heart to swell and the tear to come to the eye. Few, I feel sure, in this
vast assemblage have not felt in some degree their power. There are
soldiers here whom they carry back to old days, and to comrades with whom
they stood shoulder to shoulder in many a perilous hour. The old flag has
for the British soldier a meaning so deep and powerful that it is
impossible to put it into words. It is but a piece of silk, often faded and
tattered, and rent with shot: but it is a symbol, and symbols are amongst
the most sacred things on earth. It means for the soldier his Queen and his
country, and all the honour, loyalty, truth, and heroism they demand of
him. Therefore it is that men will follow their colours down into the
dreadful pit, and would be willing to die twice for them rather than let
them be taken by an enemy; and in the hour of defeat, like the heroes of
Isandlwhana, will fall pierced through with wounds, but with these precious
symbols, still untarnished, wrapped around them. And though to the peaceful
citizen these emblems can never mean all they stand for to those who have
served under them, even to him, as they hang here, they may speak of things
that it is good for him to remember. They may well tell him of the history
of his country, and the wonderful way by which God has led her, and of the
brave men He has raised up to fight for her. Nor can we help specially
remembering that these are the colours of our Scottish regiments. Scotland
is a poor country compared to the great neighbour with whom it is happily
united, but it possesses a distinct national life {70} of its own which all
true Scotchmen would not willingly let die. We are proud of our Scotch
regiments. We feel that they, of the whole army, belong especially to
ourselves; and they too, as they have swept on to battle with the cry,
'Scotland for ever!' feel, we believe, that they belong specially to us.
Providence, said Napoleon sneeringly, is generally on the side of the
strongest battalions. Be it so; but will anyone deny that the character of
the soldier has much to do with the strength of the battalion they form?
And was it not the character of our soldiers--a character fostered by the
traditions of their native land, fostered still more, perhaps, by the
religious teaching of their native church and parish school--that made them
strong on many a memorable day, and never more than on that memorable day
at Waterloo, when the great commander I have named generously exclaimed, as
he saw his own ranks yielding before the onslaught, 'Les braves Ecossais!'
May the sight of these banners inspire every soldier who looks on them,
whether Lowland or Highland, to echo the desire to hand down the name they
bear without a blemish! And should the day ever come when we as a people
are tempted to succumb to sloth and luxury, first to undervalue, and
finally to give up, national power and privileges which are an heritage
from God, and have been dearly purchased by those who went before us--may
these emblems, and the stirring memories that cling to them, help us in
some degree to wake up the last drop of blood left in our hearts, and nerve
us to bear ourselves like the children of our sires. 'We have heard with
our ears, O God, and our fathers have told us, what Thou didst in their
days in the times of old. For they got not the land in possession by their
own sword, neither did their own arm save them, but Thy right hand and
Thine arm, and the light of Thy countenance, because Thou hadst a favour
unto them. Through Thee will we push down our enemies; through Thy name
will we tread them under that rise up against us.'" This impressive and
imposing ceremony closed with the magnificent "Hallelujah Chorus" of
Handel, and the final Benediction.

That colours do not always perish in honour may be seen by the following
extract from the _Scots' Magazine_ of June, 1746, where the citizens of
Edinburgh assisted at a very different function to the one we have just
described. "Fourteen rebel colours," says the ancient newsman, "taken at
Culloden, were brought into Edinburgh on the 31st May, and lodged in the
castle. On Wednesday, the 4th of June, at noon, they were brought down to
the Cross, the Pretender's own standard carried by the hangman, and the
rest by chimney sweepers. The sheriffs, accompanied by the heralds,
pursuivants, trumpeters, city constables, etc., and escorted by the city
guard, walked to the Cross, where a proclamation was {71} made that the
colours belonging to the rebels were ordered by the Duke of Cumberland to
be burnt by the hands of the common hangman. The Pretender's standard was
then put on a fire that had been prepared, and afterwards all the rest one
by one--a herald always proclaiming to whom each belonged, the trumpets
sounding, and the populace, of which there was a great number assembled,
huzzaing."

Various government officials have their special flags. The flag of the
Union having been established by "Queen's Regulations" for the naval
service, as the distinguishing flag to be borne by the admiral of the
fleet, great inconvenience arose from the use of the same flag when
military authorities, diplomatic and consular agents were embarking in
boats or other vessels; so it became necessary to make some modification in
the flag. It is therefore now ordered that a general or other officer
commanding a military station shall have, in the centre of the Union, a
blue shield bearing the Royal initials, surmounted by a crown and
surrounded by a garland; those in the diplomatic service shall have, in the
centre of the Union, a white shield bearing the Royal Arms, and surrounded
by a garland; while consuls-general, consuls, or consular agents have the
Blue Ensign as their distinguishing flag, and in the centre thereof the
Royal Arms. The flag of the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland is the Union, and in
its centre, as we may see in Fig. 106, a blue shield bearing the golden
harp.

Different Government Departments have their special flags also. Thus the
Transport Service has the blue ensign with a golden anchor, placed
horizontally, in the fly, while the Victualling Department has the blue
ensign again, but this time as shown in Fig. 98, with two crossed anchors.
On the blue ensign of the Board of Trade is found in the fly a white
circle, and within this a ship in full sail (see Fig. 105). The Ordnance
Department flag, represented in Fig. 108, bears a shield with cannons and
cannon balls upon it, while vessels and boats employed on submarine mining
service are authorized to carry the blue ensign with--as its special
badge--a hand issuing from a mural crown, and grasping a thunderbolt. The
Telegraph branch of the Post-Office has a very striking device: a
representation of Father Time with his hour glass smashed by lightning. The
red ensign is employed by the Custom House and the Excise, in the first
case having, as we see in Fig. 107, a golden crown in the fly, and, in the
second, a crown and star. The flag of the Admiralty is a very striking one
(Fig. 99). This association of the anchor with the Admiralty is a very
natural one; we see it not only in our English flag, but in those of
France, Italy, Germany, Russia, etc. Our Admiralty flag is hoisted on any
ship when the Commissioners {72} of the Admiralty are on board,[53] and it
is also hoisted at the fore top-gallant mast of every ship on which the
Queen may be on board. Vessels carrying Her Majesty's mail fly on the
fore-mast a white burgee, having in its centre a crown, and on one side of
it the word "Royal" and on the other "Mail"; the words Royal Mail and the
crown being in red on the white field of the flag.

The White Ensign, Fig. 95, the special flag of Her Majesty's Navy, is, by
very exceptional privilege, allowed to be flown by the Royal Yacht
Squadron. This distinction was conferred on that Club in the year 1829, the
Club itself being established in 1812.[54] In the old days, when the Royal
Navy used the red, white, and blue ensigns, the red ensign was of the
highest dignity; and it was this from 1821 to 1829 that the Royal Yacht
Squadron flew, but, as the red ensign was also used by merchant vessels,
they adopted in 1829 the white ensign as being more distinctive. In 1842
the Admiralty drew up a Minute that no warrant should be issued to any
other yacht club to fly the white ensign, and that those privileged Clubs
that already had it must henceforth forego it. Copies of the minute were
accordingly sent to the Royal Western of England, Royal Thames, Royal
Southern, and some two or three other clubs, but, by some oversight, the
Royal Western of Ireland was overlooked, and that Club continued to use the
white ensign until the mistake was discovered by the Admiralty in the year
1857. Since that date the Royal Yacht Squadron, which has always been under
the special patronage of Royalty, has been alone in its use. Its value is
purely sentimental; it carries no substantial privilege. A rather marked
case arose, in fact, to the contrary in 1883, when Lord Annesley's yacht,
the _Seabird_, was detained by the Turkish authorities at the Dardanelles
in consequence of her bearing the white ensign. No foreign man-of-war is
allowed to pass the Dardanelles without special permission; and the white
{73} ensign of the Royal Navy brought her within that category. On account
of this, all yacht owners were warned that should they wish to pass the
Dardanelles under the white or blue ensign, the latter being also the flag
of the Royal Naval Reserve, they must first obtain an Imperial Iradé,
otherwise they were recommended to display the red ensign. Austria-Hungary,
Spain, Denmark, Italy, Sweden, Norway, and France have each, in like
manner, given to the leading club of the country the privilege of flying
the naval flag. In America and Russia a special ensign has been accorded to
all yacht clubs, and all take equal rank. Some years ago the Royal Cork
Yacht Club wished to adopt a green ensign, but the Admiralty refused to
sanction a new colour.

The Blue Ensign is conferred on certain Yacht Clubs by special Admiralty
warrant. The Royal Eastern, Royal Barrow, Royal Clyde, Royal Highland,
Royal Northern, Royal Western of England, Royal Cinque Ports, Royal Albert,
Royal Dorset, etc., fly the Blue Ensign pure and simple; others have a
distinguishing badge on the fly, thus the Royal Irish has a golden harp and
crown, the Royal Ulster a white shield with the red hand, the Royal
Cornwall the Prince of Wales' Feathers, the Royal Harwich a golden rampant
lion, and so forth. The clubs flying the Red Ensign change it slightly from
that flown by the Merchant Service; thus the Royal St. George, Royal
Victoria, and Royal Portsmouth have a golden crown in the centre of the
Union canton, while the Royal Yorkshire has a white rose and gold crown on
the fly, and the Royal Dart a golden dart and crown. Each club has also its
distinguishing burgee, and ordinarily of the same colour as its ensign;
thus, though the Royal Clyde and the Royal Highland both fly the plain blue
ensign, the Royal Clyde burgee has on it the yellow shield and red lion
rampant, while the Royal Highland has the white cross of St. Andrew. Fig.
100 is the burgee of the Ranelagh Club, Fig. 101 of the Yare, Fig. 102 of
the Royal Thames, Fig. 103 of the Dublin Bay Club.

Besides these club ensigns and burgees, each yacht bears its owner's
individual device, that is supposed to distinguish it from all others,
though one finds, in looking through a series of such flags, that some of
the simpler devices are borne by more than one yacht. Every yacht club has
its special burgee, which is flown by each yacht in the club at her truck,
but when the vessel is racing the individual flag takes its place. Many of
these flags, though simple in character, are very effective and striking.
The lower flags on Plate XII. are good typical examples. Fig. 121 is the
yacht flag of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales--the flag of the
well-known _Britannia_; and Figs. 122 and 123 are those respectively of the
equally-famed _Ailsa_ and _Valkyrie_. {74}

Merchant vessels are permitted to adopt any House or Company flag on
condition that it does not resemble any national flag. Its great use is
that it should be clearly distinctive; and many of the flags employed are
of strict heraldic propriety, and very attractive, while others are about
as unsatisfactory and bald as they well could be. It would clearly be a
painful and invidious thing to pick out any of these latter, so we can only
suggest that any of our readers who have an opportunity of visiting busy
ports, such as London, Southampton, Bristol, Liverpool, should collect
their own awful examples and paint them in the margin of this page.

We may point out, by the way, that anyone sketching flags would be greatly
assisted by knowing the symbols for the various colours, as it may well be
that anyone might have only a pencil in his pocket when desiring to make
such a memorandum. White is expressed by simply leaving the paper plain,
yellow by dotting the surface over, red by a series of upright lines, blue
by horizontal lines, green by sloping lines, and black by a series of
upright lines crossed by others at right angles to them. These are the
colours used in books on heraldry, and they are very easily remembered. On
some of our coins the colours of the arms in the shield are thus expressed,
and on heraldic book-plates and the like they may be also seen--wherever,
in fact, colour has to be expressed or notified without the actual use of
it. Our readers will find that if they will sketch out in black and white
some few of our examples they will soon gain a useful facility that may
stand them in good stead whenever for this or any other purpose they want
to make a colour memorandum, and have only a pencil or pen and ink to make
it with.

In the upper portion of Plate XII. we have several illustrations of Company
flags. Fig. 109 is the well-known ensign of Green's Blackwall Line, while
Fig. 110 is that of the Cunard. The Peninsular and Oriental flag (Fig. 111)
is divided by lines from corner to corner into four triangles, the upper
one white, the lower yellow, the hoist blue, and the fly red. This division
into triangles is a rather favourite one; we see it again in Fig. 112, the
Flag of the Australasian Steam Navigation Company. In the flag of the
Demerara and Berbice Steamship Company the upper and lower portions are
white, and the two side portions red; in the flag of the vessels belonging
to Galbraith, Pembroke and Co., the upper is red, the lower blue, and the
two sides white. In another company, that of Wesencraft of Newcastle, the
colours are the same as the P. and O. flag, though differently placed, the
blue being at the top, the red at the bottom, the yellow at the hoist, and
the white at the fly. Fig. 113 is the flag of the fleet of Devitt and
Moore, an Australian Line. Fig. 114 betokens the vessels of the {75}
Canadian Pacific Company, and Fig. 115 the ships of the Castle Line to
South Africa. Fig. 116 is the Company flag of the Union Steamship Company,
of Southampton, while Fig. 117 is the device of the Mediterranean and New
York Steamship Company. Our remaining illustrations are; Fig. 118, the flag
adopted by Messrs. Houlden Brothers; Fig. 119, that of the popular White
Star Line; and Fig. 120, that of the New Zealand Shipping Company. The
well-known Allan Line has as its house flag the three upright strips of
blue, white, and red that we see in the French tricolor, Fig. 191, plus a
plain red burgee that is always hoisted immediately above it. The Allan is
the largest private ship-owning company in the world; in the course of the
year there are some two hundred arrivals and departures of their vessels at
or from Glasgow, and some fifty thousand people are carried annually to or
from America. During the Crimean War many of the steamers of this line were
chartered by the French Government for the transport of their troops, and
it is in memory of this that the vessels of the Allan fleet adopt the
tricolor as their house flag.

That we have by no means exhausted this portion of our subject is patent
from the fact that in a book before us that is specially devoted to these
house flags seven hundred and eighty-two examples are given, wherein we
find not only stripes, crosses, and such-like simple arrangements, but
crescents, stars, anchors, lions, stags, thistles, castles, bells, keys,
crowns, tridents, and many other forms.

In earlier days merchant ships flew rather the flag of their port than of
their nation, so that a vessel was known to be of Plymouth, Marseilles,
Dantzic, or Bremen by the colours displayed. Thus the flag of Marseilles
was blue with a white cross upon it; Texel, a flag divided horizontally
into two equal strips, the upper being green and the lower black; Rotterdam
was indicated by a flag having six horizontal green stripes upon it, the
interspaces being white; Cherbourg, blue, white, blue, white, horizontally
arranged; Riga, a yellow cross on a blue ground.

The British Empire--the Greater Britain across the seas, some eighty times
larger in area than the home islands of its birth--must now engage our
attention. Its material greatness is amazing, far exceeding that of any
other empire the world has ever seen, and its moral greatness is equal to
its material. Wherever the flag of Britain flies, there is settled law,
property is protected, religion is free; it is no mere symbol of violence
or rapine, or even of conquest. It is what it is because it represents
everywhere peace, and civilization, and commerce. Protected by the _Pax
Britannica_ dwell four hundred millions out of every race under heaven, the
{76} Mother of Nations extending to Jew, Parsee, Arab, Chinese, Blackfoot,
Maori, the liberties that were won at Runnymead and in many another stern
fight for life and freedom. In every school-room in the United States hangs
the flag of their Union, the Stars and Stripes; and devotion to all that it
symbolises is an essential part of the teaching. We in turn might well in
our systems of education give a larger space to the history, laws, and
literature of our great Empire, taking a more comprehensive view than is
now ordinarily the case, studying the growth of the mighty States that have
sprung into existence through British energy, and attaching at least as
much importance to the lives of the men who have built up this goodly
heritage as to the culinary shortcomings of Alfred or the schemes of Perkin
Warbeck.

As regards the value of our Colonies to the Empire, the following extract
from a speech made by the Prince of Wales at the Royal Colonial Institute
may very aptly be quoted:--

"We regard the Colonies as integral parts of the Empire, and our warmest
sympathies are with our brethren beyond the seas, who are no less dear to
us than if they dwelt in Surrey or Kent. Mutual interests, as well as ties
of affection, unite us as one people, and so long as we hold together we
are unassailable from without. From a commercial point of view, the
Colonies and India are among the best customers for home manufacturers, it
being computed that no less than one-third of the total exports are
absorbed by them. They offer happy and prosperous homes to thousands who
are unable to gain a livelihood within the narrow limits of these islands,
owing to the pressure of over-population and consequent over-competition.
In transplanting themselves to our own Colonies, instead of to foreign
lands, they retain their privileges as citizens of this great Empire, and
live under the same flag as subjects of the same Sovereign. As Professor
Seeley remarks in his very interesting work, 'The Expansion of England,'
'Englishmen in all parts of the world remember that they are of one blood
and one religion; that they have one history, and one language and
literature.' We are, in fact, a vast English nation, and we should take
great care not to allow the emigrants who have gone forth from among us to
imagine that they have in the slightest degree ceased to belong to the same
community as ourselves."

Our statesmen and thinkers have never failed to recognise the brotherhood
of Greater Britain. Of this fact it would be easy enough to reproduce
illustrations by the score. We need, however, here but refer to the
sentiments of the Earl of Rosebery on the expansion of the Empire, where we
find him declaring-- {77}

"Since 1868 the Empire has been growing by leaps and bounds. That is,
perhaps, not a process which everybody witnesses with unmixed satisfaction.
It is not always viewed with unmixed satisfaction in circles outside these
islands. There are two schools who view with some apprehension the growth
of our Empire. The first is composed of those nations who, coming somewhat
late into the field, find that Great Britain has some of the best plots
already marked out. To those nations I will say that they must remember
that our Colonies were taken--to use a well-known expression--at prairie
value, and that we have made them what they are. We may claim that whatever
lands other nations may have touched and rejected, and we have cultivated
and improved, are fairly parts of our Empire, which we may claim to possess
by an indisputable title. But there is another ground on which the
extension of our Empire is greatly attacked, and the attack comes from a
quarter nearer home. It is said that our Empire is already large enough,
and does not need extension. That would be true enough if the world were
elastic, but, unfortunately, it is not elastic, and we are engaged at the
present moment, in the language of mining, in 'pegging out claims for the
future.' We have to consider not what we want now, but what we shall want
in the future. We have to consider what countries must be developed, either
by ourselves or some other nation, and we have to remember that it is part
of our responsibility and heritage to take care that the world, as far as
it can be moulded by us, shall receive an 'English-speaking' complexion,
and not that of another nation. We have to look forward beyond the chatter
of platforms, and the passions of party, to the future of the race of which
we are at present the trustees, and we should, in my opinion, grossly fail
in the task that has been laid upon us did we shrink from responsibilities,
and decline to take our share in a partition of the world which we have not
forced on, but which has been forced upon us."

Statistics of area of square miles, population, and so forth, can be
readily found by those who care to seek for them, and we need give them no
place here; but let us at least try and realise just by bare enumeration
something of what this Greater Britain is. In Europe it includes, besides
the home islands, Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus. In Asia--the great Indian
Empire, Ceylon, Aden, Hong-Kong, North Borneo, the Straits Settlements,
Perim, Socotra, Labuan. In America--the Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland,
Trinidad, Guiana, Honduras, Jamaica, the Bahamas, Bermudas, Barbadoes,
Falkland Isles, the Leeward and Windward Isles. In Australasia--New South
Wales, Victoria, Western Australia, Tasmania, Queensland, New Zealand,
Fiji, New Guinea. In Africa--the Cape Colony, Basutoland, Bechuanaland,
Zululand, Natal, {78} Gold Coast, Lagos, Sierra Leone, Gambia, Mauritius,
Seychelles, Ascension, St. Helena. Our list is by no means a complete one.

Newfoundland was the earliest British colony, the settlement being made
about the year 1500. Many of our colonies have been thus created by
peaceful settlement, while others have fallen to us in victorious fights
with France, Holland, Spain, and other Powers, or have been ceded by
treaty.

The flags of our colonies are those of the Empire, with, in some cases,
special modifications. In all our colonies, for instance, the Royal
Standard, as we see it in England, is displayed on the fortresses on the
anniversaries of the birth and coronation of the Sovereign.

The Blue Ensign is the flag borne by any vessel maintained by any colony
under the clauses of the Colonial Defence Act, 28 Vic., Cap. 14. The
"Queen's Regulations" state that "Any vessel provided and used, under the
third section of the said Act, shall wear the Blue Ensign, with the seal or
badge of the Colony in the fly thereof, and a blue pendant. All vessels
belonging to, or permanently in the service of, the Colony, but not
commissioned as vessels of war under the Act referred to, shall wear a
similar blue ensign, but not the pendant." In Figs. 127, 128, 130, and 135
we have the Government Ensigns of four of our great Colonies--Cape Colony,
Queensland, Canada, and Victoria--while in Fig. 140 we have the blue
pendant.

This Colonial Defence Act of 1865 is so important in its bearings on the
possibilities of Naval defence that it seems well to quote from it some of
its provisions. Its object is to enable the several Colonial possessions of
Her Majesty to make better provision for Naval defence, and, to that end,
to provide and man vessels of war; and also to raise a volunteer force to
form part of the Royal Naval Reserve, to be available for the general
defence of the Colony in case of need. This Act declares that "in any
Colony it shall be lawful for the proper Legislative Authority, with the
Approval of Her Majesty in Council, from Time to Time to make Provision for
effecting at the Expense of the Colony all or any of the Purposes
following:

    "For providing, maintaining, and using a Vessel or Vessels of War,
    subject to such Conditions and for such Purposes as Her Majesty in
    Council from Time to Time approves.

    "For raising and maintaining Seamen and others entered on the Terms of
    being bound to serve as ordered in any such Vessel. {79}

    "For raising and maintaining a Body of Volunteers entered on the Terms
    of being bound to general Service in the Royal Navy in Emergency, and,
    if in any Case the proper Legislative Authority so directs, on the
    further Terms of being bound to serve as ordered in any such Vessel as
    aforesaid:

    "For appointing Commissioned, Warrant, and other Officers to train and
    command or serve as Officers with any such Men ashore or afloat, on
    such Terms and subject to such Regulations as Her Majesty in Council
    from Time to Time approves:

    "For obtaining from the Admiralty the Services of Commissioned,
    Warrant, and other Officers and of Men of the Royal Navy for the
    last-mentioned Purposes:

    "For enforcing good Order and Discipline among the Men and Officers
    aforesaid while ashore or afloat within the Limits of the Colony:

    "For making the Men and Officers aforesaid, while ashore or afloat
    within the Limits of the Colony or elsewhere, subject to all Enactments
    and Regulations for the Time being in force for the Discipline of the
    Royal Navy.

"Volunteers raised as aforesaid in any Colony shall form Part of the Royal
Naval Reserve, in addition to the Volunteers who may be raised under the
Act of 1859, but, except as in this Act expressly provided, shall be
subject exclusively to the Provisions made as aforesaid by the proper
Legislative Authority of the Colony.

"It shall be lawful for Her Majesty in Council from Time to Time as
Occasion requires, and on such Conditions as seem fit, to authorize the
Admiralty to issue to any Officer of the Royal Navy volunteering for the
Purpose a Special Commission for Service in accordance with the Provisions
of this Act.

"It shall be lawful for Her Majesty in Council from Time to Time as
Occasion requires, and on such Conditions as seem fit, to authorize the
Admiralty to accept any Offer for the Time being made or to be made by the
Government of a Colony, to place at Her Majesty's Disposal any Vessel of
War provided by that Government and the Men and Officers from Time to Time
serving therein; and while any Vessel accepted by the Admiralty under such
Authority is at the Disposal of Her Majesty, such Vessel shall be deemed to
all Intents a Vessel of War of the Royal Navy, and {80} the Men and
Officers from Time to Time serving in such Vessels shall be deemed to all
Intents Men and Officers of the Royal Navy, and shall accordingly be
subject to all Enactments and Regulations for the Time being in force for
the Discipline of the Royal Navy.

"It shall be lawful for Her Majesty in Council from Time to Time as
Occasion requires, and on such Conditions as seem fit, to authorize the
Admiralty to accept any Offer for the Time being made or to be made by the
Government of a Colony, to place at Her Majesty's Disposal for general
Service in the Royal Navy the whole or any Part of the Body of Volunteers
with all or any of the Officers raised and appointed by that Government in
accordance with the Provisions of this Act; and when any such Offer is
accepted such of the Provisions of the Act of 1859 as relate to Men of the
Royal Naval Reserve raised in the United Kingdom when in actual Service
shall extend and apply to the Volunteers whose Services are so accepted."

As the Act winds up by saying that "nothing in this Act shall take away or
abridge any power vested in or exerciseable by the Legislature or
Government of any Colony," it is evident that the whole arrangement is a
purely voluntary one.

The vessels of the Mercantile Marine registered as belonging to any of the
Colonies, fly the red ensign without any distinguishing badge, so that a
Victorian or Canadian merchantman coming up the Thames or Mersey would
probably fly a flag in all respects similar (Fig. 97) to that of a merchant
vessel owned in the United Kingdom. There is, however, no objection to
colonial merchant vessels carrying distinctive flags with the badge of the
Colony thereon, in addition to the red ensign, provided that the Lords
Commissioners of the Admiralty give their warrant of authorization. The red
ensign differenced may be seen in Fig. 129, the merchant flag of
Canada,[55] and in Fig. 134 that of Victoria, the device on this latter
bearing the five stars, representing the constellation of the Southern
Cross--a simple, appropriate, and beautiful device. {81}

"Governors of Her Majesty's Dominions in foreign parts, and governors of
all ranks and denominations administering the governments of British
Colonies and Dependencies shall"--as set forth in "Queen's
Regulations"--"fly the Union Jack with the arms or badge of the Colony
emblazoned in the centre thereof." Figs. 139 and 141 are illustrations, the
first being the special flag of the Viceroy of India, and the second that
of the Governor of Western Australia. The Governor-General of Canada has in
the centre of his flag the arms of the Dominion, while the
Lieutenant-Governors of Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,
Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward's Island have in the centre
of their flags the arms of their province alone. These arms in each case
are placed on a shield within a white circle, and surrounded by a wreath.
The Admiralty requirements are that the Colonial badge on the governor's
flag should be placed within a "green garland," and this is understood to
be of laurel; but in 1870 Canada received the Imperial sanction to
substitute the leaves of the maple.[56]

Though the provinces that together make the Dominion of Canada are seven in
number, the Canadian shield only shows the arms of four--Ontario, Quebec,
Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick--an arrangement that can be scarcely
palatable to the other three.



The Queen's Warrant, published in the _Canadian Gazette_ of November 25th,
1869, is as follows:--

"VICTORIA, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith, &c.

"To Our Right Trusty and well-beloved Councillor, Edward George Fitzalan
Howard (commonly called Lord Edward George Fitzalan Howard), Deputy to Our
Right Trusty and Right entirely beloved cousin, Henry Duke of Norfolk, Earl
Marshal and Our Hereditary Marshal of England--greeting:--

"WHEREAS, by virtue of, and under the authority of an Act of Parliament,
passed in the Twenty-ninth year of Our Reign, entitled 'An Act for the
Union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, and the Government
thereof," we were empowered to declare after a certain day therein
appointed, that the said Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick
should {82} form one Dominion under the name of Canada. And it was provided
that on and after the day so appointed, Canada should be divided into four
Provinces, named, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick; that the
part of the then Province of Canada, which formerly constituted the
Province of Upper Canada, should constitute the Province of Ontario; and
the part which formerly constituted the Province of Lower Canada, should
constitute the Province of Quebec; and that the Provinces of Nova Scotia
and New Brunswick should have the same limits as at the passing of the said
Act. And whereas we did by Our Royal Proclamation, bearing date the
Twenty-second day of May last, declare, ordain, and command that, on and
after the first day of July, 1867, the said Provinces should form and be
one Dominion under the name of Canada accordingly.

"And forasmuch as it is Our Royal will and pleasure that, for the greater
honour and distinction of the said Provinces, certain Armorial Ensigns
should be assigned to them,

"KNOW YE, therefore, that We, of our Princely Grace and special favour,
have granted and assigned, and by these presents do grant and assign the
Armorial Ensigns following, that is to say:--

    "FOR THE PROVINCE OF ONTARIO:

"Vert, a sprig of three Leaves of Maple slipped, or, on a chief Argent the
Cross of St. George.

    "FOR THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC:

"Or, on a Fess Gules between two Fleurs de Lis in chief Azure, and a Sprig
of three Leaves of Maple slipped vert in base, a Lion passant guardant or.

    "FOR THE PROVINCE OF NOVA SCOTIA:

"Or, on a Fess Wavy Azure between three Thistles proper, a Salmon Naiant
Argent.

    "FOR THE PROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK:

Or, on waves a Lymphad, or Ancient Galley, with oars in action, proper, on
a chief Gules a Lion passant guardant or, as the same are severally
depicted in the margin hereof, to be borne for the said respective
Provinces on Seals, Shields, Banners, Flags, or otherwise according to the
Laws of Arms.

"And We are further pleased to declare that the said United Provinces of
Canada, being one Dominion under the name of {83} Canada, shall, upon all
occasions that may be required, use a common Seal, to be called the 'Great
Seal of Canada,' which said seal shall be composed of the Arms of the said
Four Provinces quarterly, all which armorial bearings are set forth in this
Our Royal Warrant."

This latter point is a somewhat important one, as owing to the
semi-official endorsement given in many colonial publications, it appears
to be a popular misconception that as many different arms as possible are
to be crowded in. In one example before us five are represented, the
additional one being Manitoba. In a handbook on the history, production,
and natural resources of Canada, prepared by the Minister of Agriculture
for the Colonial Exhibition, held in London in 1886, the arms of the seven
provinces are given separately, grouped around a central shield that
includes them all. The whole arrangement is styled "Arms of the Dominion
and of the Provinces of Canada."

When the Queen's Warrant was issued in 1869, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia,
and New Brunswick were the only members of the Confederation. Manitoba
entered it in 1870, British Columbia in 1871, and Prince Edward Island in
1873.

The Royal Canadian Yacht Club, the Royal Nova Scotia Yacht Squadron, and
the Royal Hamilton Yacht Club have the privilege of flying the blue ensign.

Canada, unlike Australia, supplies no contingent towards the Imperial Navy,
but she has spent on public works over forty million pounds sterling. By
her great trans-continental railway a valuable alternative route to the
East is furnished; she provides graving docks at Quebec, Halifax, and
Victoria; trains an annual contingent of forty thousand volunteers,
supports a military college at Kingston, of whose cadets between eighty and
ninety are now officers in the British Army; and in many other ways
contributes to the well-being of the Empire, that Greater Britain, which
has been not unaptly termed "a World-Venice, with the sea for streets."

The badges of the various Colonies of the Empire, as shown in the official
flag-book of the Admiralty, are very diverse in appearance; some pleasing
and others less charming, perhaps, than fantastic. It is needless to
particularise them all. Some, like those of Mauritius, Jamaica, and of Cape
Colony (Fig. 127) are heraldic in character, while others--as Barbadoes,
where Britannia rides the waves in a chariot drawn by sea-horses, or South
Australia, where Britannia lands on a rocky shore on which a black man is
seated--are symbolical. Queensland has the simple and pleasing device we
see in Fig. 128, the Maltese Cross, having a crown at its centre.
Newfoundland has a crown on a white disc and the {84} Latinised name _Terra
Nova_ beneath, and Fiji (Fig. 137) adopts a like simple device, the crown
and the word Fiji, while New Guinea does not get even so far as this, but
has the crown, and beneath it the letters N. G. The gnu appears as the
device of Natal; the black swan (Fig. 141) as the emblem of West Australia.
An elephant and palm-tree on a yellow ground stand for West Africa, and an
elephant and temple for Ceylon. British North Borneo (Fig. 132), on a
yellow disc has a red lion, and Tasmania (Fig. 133), on a white ground has
the same, though it will be noted that the action of the two royal beasts
is not quite the same. The Straits Settlements have the curious device seen
in Fig. 131. New Zealand (Fig. 136) has a cross of stars on a blue field.
Victoria we have already seen in Figs. 134 and 135, while New South Wales
has upon the white field the Cross of St. George, having in the centre one
of the lions of England, and on each arm a star--an arrangement shown in
Fig. 138. British East Africa has the crown, and beneath it the golden sun
shooting forth its rays, one of the simplest, most appropriate, and most
pleasing of all the Colonial devices; when placed in the centre of the
Governor's flag it is upon a white disc, and the sun has eight principal
rays. When for use on the red or blue ensigns, the sun has twelve principal
rays, and both golden sun and crown are placed directly upon the field of
the flag. St. Helena, Trinidad, Bermuda, British Guiana, Leeward Isles,
Labuan, Bahamas, and Hong Kong all have devices in which ships are a
leading feature--in the Bermuda device associated with the great floating
dock, in the Hong Kong with junks, and in the other cases variously
differentiated from each other, so that all are quite distinct in
character. In the device of the Leeward Isles, designed by Sir Benjamin
Pine, a large pine-apple is growing in the foreground, and three smaller
ones away to the right. It is jocularly assumed that the centre one was Sir
Benjamin himself, and the three subordinate ones his family.

With Great Britain the command of the ocean is all-important. By our
sea-power our great Empire has been built up, and by it alone can it
endure. "A power to which Rome in the height of her glory is not to be
compared--a power which has dotted over the surface of the whole globe her
possessions and military posts, whose morning drum-beat, following the sun,
and keeping company with the hours, circles the earth with one continuous
and unbroken strain of the martial airs of England." So spoke Daniel
Webster in 1834, and our ever-growing responsibilities have greatly
increased since the more than sixty years when those words were uttered.
Let us in conclusion turn to the "True Greatness of Kingdoms and Estates,"
written by Bacon, a great and patriotic Englishman, where we may read the
warning words:-- {85}

"We see the great effects of battles by sea; the Battle of Actium decided
the empire of the world; the Battle of Lepanto arrested the greatness of
the Turk.

"There be many examples where sea-fights have been final to the war; but
this is when princes or States have set up their rest upon the battles; but
this much is certain, that he who commands the sea is at great liberty, and
may take as much and as little of the war as he will, whereas those that be
strongest by land are many times, nevertheless, in great straits.

"Surely at this day, with us of Europe, the vantage of strength at sea
(which is one of the dowries of this kingdom of Great Britain) is great;
both because most of the kingdoms of Europe are not merely inland, but girt
with the sea most part of their compass, and because the wealth of both
Indies seems, in great part, but an accessory to the command of the seas."

We are the sons of the men who won us this goodly heritage, and it behoves
us in turn to hand it on to our descendants in undiminished dignity, a
world-wide domain beneath the glorious Union Flag that binds all in one
great brotherhood.

       *       *       *       *       *

{86}

CHAPTER IV.

    The Flag of Columbus--Early Settlements in North America--the Birth of
    the United States--Early Revolutionary and State Flags--the Pine-tree
    Flag--the Rattle-snake Flag--the Stars and Stripes--Early Variations of
    it--the Arms of Washington--Entry of New States into the Union--the
    Eagle--the Flag of the President--Secession of the Southern
    States--State Flags again--the Stars and Bars--the Southern Cross--the
    Birth of the German Empire--the Influence of War Songs--Flags of the
    Empire--Flags of the smaller German States--the Austro-Hungary
    Monarchy--The Flags of Russia--The Crosses of St. Andrew and St. George
    again--the Flags of France--St. Martin--The Oriflamme--the
    Fleurs-de-lys--Their Origin--the White Cross--the White Flag of the
    Bourbons--the Tricolor--the Red Flag--the Flags of Spain--of
    Portugal--the Consummation of Italian Unity--the Arms of Savoy--the
    Flags of Italy--of the Temporal Power of the Papacy--the Flag of
    Denmark--its Celestial Origin--the Flags of Norway and Sweden--of
    Switzerland--Cantonal Colours--the Geneva Convention--the Flags of
    Holland--of Belgium--of Greece--the Crescent of Turkey--the Tughra--the
    Flags of Roumania, Servia, and Bulgaria--Flags of Mexico and of the
    States of Southern and Central America--of Japan--the Rising Sun--the
    Chrysanthemum--the Flags of China, Siam, and Corea--of Sarawak--of the
    Orange Free State, Liberia, Congo State, and the Transvaal Republic.

The well-known Ensign (Fig. 146) of the United States of America is the
outcome of many changes; the last of a long series of National, State, and
local devices.

The first flag planted on American ground was borne thither by Christopher
Columbus, in the year 1497, and bore on its folds the arms of Leon and
Castile, a flag divided into four and having upon it, each twice repeated,
the lion of Leon and the Castle of Castile: the first red on white, the
second white on red. These arms form a portion of the present Spanish
Standard, and may be seen in the upper staff corner in Fig. 194. In this
same year--1497--Newfoundland was discovered, but the first English
settlement on the mainland was not made until Sir Walter Raleigh took
possession of a tract of country in 1584, naming it Virginia, after
Elizabeth, the Virgin-Queen he served, and hoisting the Standard of Her
Majesty, bearing in its rich blazonry (Fig. 22) the ruddy lions of England
quartered with the golden lilies of France. The Dutch established
themselves, in the year 1614, in what is now the State of New York; the
French, having already founded a colony in Canada in 1534, took possession
of Louisiana, so called after their King Louis, in 1718, while Florida, at
first French, became Spanish, and in 1763 was ceded to England. {87}

Three ships, bearing the earliest Pilgrim Fathers from England to America,
had already sailed from England in the year 1606, and these were followed
by the historic _Mayflower_ and the _Plymouth Rock_, in 1620. While these
exiles for conscience sake established for themselves a new England in the
west, a colony of Scotchmen in the year 1622 took possession of a tract of
land which they named Nova Scotia. Maryland, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New
Jersey, Carolina, Pennsylvania, and other colonies were successively formed
by parties of Englishmen--the final outcome of peaceful settlement, or the
arbitrament of the sword, being that the greater part of the eastern
seaboard, and the country beyond it, came under the sway of the English
Crown, until injudicious taxation and ill-advised repression led at length
to open discontent and disloyalty, and finally to revolution and the birth
of the great Republic of the West.

So long as the Colonists owed allegiance to the British crown, one would
naturally have taken for granted that they would have been found beneath
the national flag, but this was not altogether the case. In the early days
of New England the Puritans strongly objected to the red cross on the flag:
not from any disloyalty to the old country, but from a conscientious
objection to the use of a symbol which they deemed idolatrous. By the year
1700, though the Cross of St. George was still the leading device, the
different colonies began to employ special devices to distinguish their
vessels from those of England and of each other.[57] This, though it
indicated a certain jealousy and independence amongst the colonies
themselves, was no proof of any desire for separation from the old country,
and even when, later on, the dispute between King and Colonists became
acute, we find them parting from the old flag with great reluctance. Fig.
142 is a very good illustration of this; its date is 1775.

In the early stages of the Revolution each section adopted a flag of its
own, and it was only later on, when the desirability of union and
uniformity became evident, that the necessity for one common flag was felt.
Thus, the people of Massachusetts ranged themselves beneath banners bearing
pine trees; the men of South Carolina went in for rattle-snakes; the New
Yorkers adopted a white flag with a black beaver thereon; the Rhode
Islanders had a white flag with a blue anchor upon it; and, in like manner,
each contingent adopted its special device.

In Fig. 144, one of the flags of the insurgents at Bunker's Hill, {88} June
17th, 1775, we see that the Cross of St. George is still preserved, and it
might well fly in company with Fig. 67, a flag of the London Trained Bands,
except that in the corner we see the pine tree. In Fig. 145 the English
emblem has dropped out and the pine tree has become much more conspicuous,
and in Figs. 147 and 148 all suggestion of St. George or of the red or blue
Ensigns has disappeared. This arboreal device was not by any means a new
one to the men of Massachusetts. We find a mint established at Boston as
early as 1651, busily engaged in coining the silver captured from the
Spaniards by the Buccaneers. On one side was the date and value of the
coin, and, on the reverse, a tree in the centre and "In Massachusetts"
around it. It must be remembered that at the time there was no king to
resent this encroachment on the royal prerogative, and no notice was taken
of it by the Parliament or by Cromwell. There was a tacit allowance of it
afterwards, even by Charles II., for more than twenty years. It will be
remembered that on his enquiry into the matter he was told by some courtier
that the device was intended for the Royal Oak, and the question was
allowed to drop.

South Carolina adopted the rattle-snake flag at the suggestion of one
Gadsden, a delegate to the General Congress of the South Carolina
Convention in 1776. On a yellow ground was placed a rattlesnake, having
thirteen rattles; the reptile was coiled ready to strike, and beneath was
the warning motto, "Don't tread on me." The number thirteen had reference
to the thirteen revolted States, as it was originally proposed that this
flag should be the navy flag for all the States. As an accessory to a
portrait of Commodore Hopkins, "Commander-in-chief of the American fleet,"
we see a flag of thirteen alternate red and white stripes. It has no
canton, but undulating diagonally across the stripes is a rattlesnake. The
idea was not altogether a new one, as we find the _Pennsylvania Gazette_,
in commenting twenty-five years previously on the iniquity of the British
Government in sending its convicts to America, suggesting as a set off that
"a cargo of rattlesnakes should be distributed in St. James's Park, Spring
Gardens, and other places of pleasure." At the commencement of any great
struggle by a revolting people there is often a great variety of device,
and it is only after a while that such a multiplicity is found to be a
danger. Hence we find that prior to the yellow rattlesnake flag, South
Carolina had, with equal enthusiasm, adopted the blue flag with the
crescent moon that we have figured in No. 158.[58] {89}

In the year 1775 a committee was appointed to consider the question of a
single flag for the thirteen States. This ensign, though it went far
towards moulding these different sections into the United States, was a
curious illustration of that reluctance that we have already referred to,
to sever themselves finally from the Old Country, as the Committee
recommended the retention of the Union in the upper corner next the staff,
but substituted for the broad red field of the rest of the flag thirteen
horizontally disposed stripes, alternately red and white, the emblems of
the union into one of the thirteen colonies in their struggle against
oppression. We have this represented in Fig. 57. It was also the flag of
the East India Company.

On the final declaration of Independence, when the severance from the Old
Country was irrevocable, and the colonists became a nation, the question of
a national flag was one of the points awaiting solution; but it was not
till about a year afterwards that a decision was come to. The vessels
commissioned by Washington flew the flag we have figured in No. 147; this
was approved in April, 1776, and remained in use some little time, as did
also the one represented in Fig. 149. Sometimes we find the cross and
pine-tree removed and the whole flag nothing but the red and white stripes.
This flag composed of stripes alone was not peculiar to the American navy,
as a flag of similar design was for a long time a well-known signal in the
British fleet, being that used for the red division to form up into line of
battle.

Anyone looking over a collection of the common pottery made from about a
hundred and fifty years ago up to comparatively recent times will find that
stirring contemporary events are very freely introduced--sea-fights,
portraits of leading statesmen, generals, and so forth. These are often
caricatures, as, for example, the hundreds that may be seen in our various
museums and private collections derisive of "Boney," while others are as
historically correct as the potter's knowledge and skill could compass.
Anyone visiting the Corporation Museum at Brighton will find a jug bearing
the head of Zebulon M. Pike, an American general; trophies of flags are
grouped around this, but the only flag with any device upon it is a plain
striped one. Another that bears the head of Commodore Decatur, U.S.N., has
below it a cannon, on the left a trophy of flags and weapons, and on the
right a ship; and a very similar jug may be seen in honour of Commodore
Parry. In each of these cases the flags in the trophies and on the ships
are simply striped.

On August 14th, 1777, Congress resolved "that the flag of the United States
be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white, and that the Union be
thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing {90} a new
constellation."[59] This was the birth of the national flag, "the stars and
stripes," and it would appear at first sight to be a final settlement of
the device, though in practice the result did not work out at all
uniformly, the number of stripes being unequal. If we commence at the top
with a white one, we shall have seven white and six red, whereas if we
begin with a red stripe we shall get seven red and six white. Each of these
renderings was for some years in use, until it was authoritatively laid
down that the latter was the arrangement to be adopted. It seems a minor
point, but any of our readers who will re-draw Fig. 146 and transpose the
colours of the stripes, so that the upper and lower edges of the flag are
white instead of red, will be surprised to note how so apparently trivial a
change will affect the appearance of the flag.[60] In like manner the stars
were sometimes made with six points, and at others with five. Even so late
as 1779, we find such a striking variation as a flag bearing stars with
eight points, and its stripes alternately red, blue, and white. The coins
issued during the presidency of Washington had five-pointed stars on them,
but later on they had six points. Nobody seems now to know why this change
was made.

As nothing was said in this resolution of Congress as to the arrangement of
the stars on the blue field, a further opening for variety of treatment was
found. In some of the early flags they were arranged to represent the
letters U.S., in others they were all placed in a circle, in others again
they were dispersed irregularly, so as the better to suggest a
constellation; and it was finally ordered that they should be placed in
parallel horizontal rows, as we now see them.

Though the stars did not appear in the American flag until 1777, we find in
a poem in the _Massachusetts Spy_ of March 10th, 1774, on the outbreak of
the rebellion, the lines--

 "The American ensign now sparkles a star
  Which shall shortly flame wide through the skies."

{91}

This poetic and prophetic flight is the earliest suggestion of the stars in
the national flag of the United States.

It has been held that the American Eagle and the stars and stripes of the
national flag were suggested by the crest and arms of the Washington
family. This statement has been often made; hence we find an American
patriot writing:--"It is not a little curious that the poor, worn-out rag
of feudalism, as many would count it, should have expanded into the bright
and ample banner that now waves on every sea." But that it should be so
seems by no means an established fact. No reference is made to it in
Washington's correspondence, or in that of any of his contemporaries. The
arms of the Washington family are a white shield having two horizontal red
bars, and above these a row of three red stars; and this certainly bears
some little resemblance to the American flag, but how much is mere
coincidence, and how much is adaptation it is impossible to say. These arms
may be seen on a brass in Solgrave Church, Huntingdonshire, on the tomb of
Laurence Washington, the last lineal ancestor who was buried in England. He
was twice Mayor of Northampton, in 1533 and in 1546, and the first
President of the United States was his great-great-grandson. He was a man
of considerable influence, and on the dissolution of the monasteries Henry
gave him the Priory of St. Andrews, Northampton. In the troublous times
that succeeded, his son John went to America, and lived for some twenty
years on the banks of the Potomac.

Another theory that has been advanced is that the blue quarter was taken
from the blue banner of the Scotch Covenanters, and was therefore
significant of the Solemn League and Covenant of the United Colonies
against oppression, while the stripes were a blending of the red colours
used in the army with the white flags used in the navy. We give the theory
for what it is worth, which we venture to say is not very much; but as it
was advanced by an American writer, we give it place.

Should our readers care to consider yet another theory, they may learn that
the genesis of the star-spangled banner was very much less prosaic. Prose
has it that a Committee of Council, accompanied by General Washington,
called on Mrs. Ross, an upholstress of Arch Street, Philadelphia, and
engaged her to make a flag from a rough sketch that they brought with them,
that she in turn suggested one or two practical modifications, and that at
her wish Washington re-drew it there and then, that she at once set to work
on it, and in a few hours the first star-spangled flag was floating in the
breeze; but the poet ignores the services of Mrs. Ross altogether, and
declares that {92}

 "When Freedom from her mountain height
  Unfurled her standard to the air,
  She tore the azure robe of Night
  And set the stars of glory there.
  She mingled with its gorgeous dyes
  The milky baldric of the skies,
  And striped its pure celestial white
  With streakings of the morning light:
  Then from his mansion in the sun
  She called her eagle-bearer down
  And gave into his mighty hand
  The symbol of her chosen land."

This view was expressed by another great American in the words:--"As at the
early dawn the stars shine forth even while it grows light, and then, as
the sun advances, that light breaks out into banks and streaming lines of
colour, the glowing red and intense light striving together and ribbing the
horizon with bars effulgent, so on the American flag stars and beams of
light shine out together. Where this flag comes, and men behold it, they
see in its sacred emblazoning no ramping lions, and no fierce eagle, no
embattled castles, or insignia of imperial authority: they see the symbols
of light: it is the banner of dawn; it means Liberty!"

We have clearly now got a long way from the establishment in Arch Street.
This flag, which, after such glowing passages as the foregoing, we should
almost expect to find too sacred a thing for change or criticism, has
undergone some few modifications in its details, though the original broad
idea has remained untouched.

As the first conception was that each of the original thirteen States was
represented in the national flag by a star and a stripe, other States, as
they came into the Union, naturally expected the same consideration: hence
on the admission of Vermont in 1791, and Kentucky in 1792, an Act was
passed which increased the number of stars and stripes from thirteen to
fifteen. Later on came Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, and so forth, and the
flag was presently made to consist of twenty stars and stripes, but it was
found to be so objectionable to be thus continually altering it that it was
settled in the year 1818 to go back to the original thirteen stripes, but
to add a star for each new State. Hence the stripes show always the
original number of the States at the birth of the nation, while the stars
show the present number in the Union.

It is interesting to trace the growth of the country, Illinois being
enrolled in the Union in 1818, Alabama in 1819, Maine in 1820, Missouri in
1821, Arkansas in 1836, Michigan in 1837, and so on; but suffice it now to
say that by 1891 the original thirteen had {93} grown to forty-four, and it
was announced that on and after the 4th of July of that year the national
flag should bear this latter number of stars. As there are still several
territories awaiting promotion to the rank of States, the constellation is
even yet incomplete.

 "A song for our banner! The watchword recall
    Which gave the Republic her station;
  United we stand, divided we fall,
    It made, and preserves us, a nation!
  The union of lakes, the union of lands,
    The union of States none can sever;
  The union of hearts, the union of hands,
    And the flag of our Union for ever."

The most striking modification of the flag is seen in the Revenue Service.
We have still the silver stars on the azure field and the stripes of
alternate red and white, but in this special case the stripes, instead of
being disposed horizontally, are placed vertically, a slight enough
difference apparently, but one which makes a striking alteration in the
appearance of the flag.

The pendant of the United States Navy is shown in Fig. 151; the stars in
it, it will be seen, are reduced to the original thirteen, while the
narrowness of the flag permits but two of the stripes.

The American Jack is simply the blue and white portion of the National
flag, Fig. 146, made into a separate flag.

The Commodore's broad pendant is a swallow-tailed blue flag, with one white
star in the centre. The Admiral's flag, hoisted at the main, is shown in
Fig. 143; the Vice-Admiral's flag, hoisted at the fore, has three white
stars on the blue field; and the Rear-Admiral's flag, hoisted at mizen, has
two arranged vertically over each other.

While in some nationalities the flag of the war navy differs from that of
the mercantile marine--as in the case of Great Britain, Germany, and
Spain--in others the same flag is used. This is so in the United States,
France, etc.

The Chief of the State, whether he be called Emperor, King, President, or
Sultan, has his own flag--his personal Standard--and this special and
personal flag, in the case of the President of the United States, has on
its blue field an eagle, bearing on its breast a shield with the stars and
stripes, and beneath it the national motto, "_E pluribus unum_." As it has
been suggested that the employment of the eagle as a symbol of the State
was derived from the crest of Washington, it may not be inopportune to
state that the crest in question was not an eagle at all, but a raven. The
idea of the eagle, together with the word "Senate," and many such similar
{94} things, no doubt arose from their use in ancient Rome, and afforded an
illustration the more of the pseudo-classicalism that was raging in the
eighteenth century in France and elsewhere.

The eagle appears on many of the early flags of America. Fig. 150 is a
curious example of its use. In an old engraving we see a figure of Liberty
defended by Washington, and above them this flag. In another old print
before us we see Washington leaning on a cannon, and behind him a flag
bearing the stars and stripes, plus an eagle, that with outstretched wings
fills up much of the field, having in his beak a label with the "_E
pluribus unum_" upon it, with one foot grasping the thunderbolts of War,
and the other the olive-branch of Peace.

Both these eagle-bearing flags, it will be seen, are associated with the
President; but in many of these early examples there seems no necessary
connection. Thus in one instance we see a busy ship-building scene, and
while the ship in the foreground has at stern the stars and stripes, at the
bowsprit it bears a Jack that is identical with the blue and white portion
of Fig. 150.

In a Presidential Standard proposed in 1818 the flag is quartered. In the
first quarter are twenty white stars on a blue field; in the second quarter
is the eagle and thunderbolt; in the third a sitting figure emblematic of
Liberty; in the fourth, seven red horizontal stripes alternating with six
white ones. We found the flag figured in an old American book, but are
unable to say whether such a flag was ever actually made, proposition and
adoption not being altogether the same thing.

History repeated itself on the secession from the Union, in the year 1860,
of North and South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia,
Louisiana, Virginia, Texas, Arkansas, and Tennessee. There was the same
desire at first for individuality in the different flags adopted by the
seceding States, the same unwillingness to break wholly away from the old
flag, that we have seen as features in the first revolt.

Louisiana adopted the flag shown in Fig. 156; this was emblematic of the
origin and history of the State, Louisiana having been settled by Louis
Quatorze in 1718, ceded to Spain at the peace of 1763, restored to France
in 1802, sold by France to America in 1803, and admitted as a State of the
Union in 1812. The Spanish Flag, Fig. 192, is red and yellow, hence the
golden star on the ruddy field, while the stripes of red, white and blue
are the colours found in the flags of France and America.

On the election of President Lincoln in November, 1860, South Carolina, by
vote of Convention, proclaimed her resumption of independence as a
Sovereign State, and on the 17th of the month the new State Flag, having a
green Palmetto palm in the centre of a {95} field of white, was hoisted in
Charleston amidst the ringing of bells, a salute of one hundred guns, and
every possible sign of public rejoicing. In January, 1861, the flag shown
in Fig. 155 was substituted, the old crescent moon of the first rebellion,
1775, reappearing, but in the _Charleston Mercury_, of January 29th, 1861,
we read that "the Legislature last night again altered the design of the
State Flag. It now consists of a blue field with a white Palmetto palm tree
in the middle. The white crescent in the upper flagstaff corner remains as
before, but the horns pointing upwards. This may be regarded as final."
This flag is shown in Fig. 159. Fig. 160 is the flag of Texas--"the lone
star" State.

 "Hurrah for the Lone Star!
    Up, up to the mast
  With the honoured old bunting,
    And nail it there fast.
  The ship is in danger,
    And Texans will fight
 'Neath the flag of the Lone Star
    For God and their right."

When it became necessary, as it almost immediately did, to adopt one flag
as the common Ensign of all the Confederate States, a special committee was
appointed to consider the matter, and to study the numerous designs
submitted to them. On presenting their report the Chairman said--"A flag
should be simple, readily made, and capable of being made up in bunting; it
should be different from the flag of any other country, place, or people:
it should be significant: it should be readily distinguishable at a
distance: the colours should be well contrasted and durable: and lastly,
and not the least important point, it should be effective and handsome. The
Committee humbly think that the flag which they submit combines these
requirements. It is very easy to make; it is entirely different from any
other national flag. The three colours of which it is composed--red, white,
and blue--are the true Republican Colours; they are emblematic of the three
great virtues--valour, purity, and truth. Naval men assure us that it can
be recognised at a great distance. The colours contrast admirably, and are
lasting. In effect and appearance it must speak for itself." The flag, thus
highly and justly commended, was first hoisted on March 4th, 1861, at
Montgomery. It is represented in Fig. 152, and was quickly known as the
"Stars and Bars."[61] Even the _New York Herald_ admitted that "the design
of this flag is striking, and it has {96} the merit of originality as well
as of durability." The circle of white stars was intended to correspond in
number with the States in the Confederacy, but no great attention seems to
have been paid to this. The flag may be seen engraved on the paper money of
the different Southern States, and on other Government papers. In one
example before us the stars are seven in number, and in another nine are
shown, the number of seceding States being eleven.

While the "Stars and Bars," Fig. 152, was quite a different flag from Fig.
146, the "Stars and Stripes," it was found that, nevertheless, in the
stress of battle confusion arose; so the battle flag, Fig. 153, known as
the "Southern Cross," became largely adopted, though its use was never
actually legalised. Here, again, we find that though eleven should be the
proper number of the stars, they are in our illustration thirteen, while in
one example we have found seventeen. It would be found in practice very
difficult to make a pleasing arrangement of eleven stars; given a central
one, and two on either side of it in the arms of the cross, and we get nine
as a result, with three on either side it will total to thirteen, and with
four it must take seventeen. In a few instances it may be seen without the
red portions--a white flag with the blue cross and white stars. One great
objection to the Southern Cross was that it was not adapted for sea
service, since being alike in whatever way it was looked at, it could not
be reversed in case of distress. To obviate this difficulty, at a Congress
in Richmond in 1863 the form seen in Fig. 154 was adopted--a plain white
flag having the Southern Cross as its Union; but this, in turn, was
objected to as being too much like a flag of truce, so to meet this, in the
following year, it was ordered that the space between the Union and the
outer edge of the flag should be divided vertically in half, and that the
outer half should be red: an alteration that may have been necessary, but
which greatly spoiled the appearance of what was, before this, a handsome
and striking flag. As the struggle came to an end in the following year,
the "Stars and Bars" and the "Southern Cross" perished in the general
downfall of the Southern cause--the victories of Fredericksburg,
Chancellorsville, Shenandoah Valley, Chattanooga, and many another
hard-fought field, and the brilliant strategy of Lee, Beauregard,
Longstreet, Jackson, Early, Hood, and many another gallant commander, being
all in vain against the unlimited resources of the North. Over six hundred
and fifty thousand human lives, over seven hundred millions of pounds
sterling, were spent in what an American writer delicately calls "the late
unpleasantness."

The Americans, jealous of the honour of their flag, have sometimes, to our
insular notions, a rather odd way of showing it. Some {97} of our readers
will remember how an American, some time ago, undertook to carry the flag
of his country through England. Whatever visions he or his compatriots may
have had of his defending it gallantly against hostile attack were soon
proved to be baseless. Englishmen, _cela va sans dire_, have no hostility
to the Americans, and the populace--urban, suburban, and rural--everywhere
entered into the humour of the thing, and cheered the gallant sergeant and
his bunting wherever he appeared. All the risk and terror of the exploit
melted away in general acclamation and hearty welcome. An Englishman told
us that in descending a mountain in Norway he met an American carrying
something rolled up; he unfolded it, and displayed the Stars and Stripes,
and said that he had brought it to plant on the summit of the mountain. Why
he should do so is by no means apparent: but still, as it pleased him and
hurt no one else, it would be churlish, indeed, to demur to so innocent a
pastime. Our friend courteously raised his hat to the symbol of the great
daughter nation over the ocean, whereupon the American heartily
reciprocated, saying, "Thanks, stranger; and here's to the Union Jack."[62]

When the French declared war against Prussia, on July 16th, 1870, they were
entirely unprepared for the enthusiasm and unity with which the various
German States rallied together against the common opponent. It was thought
that the Southern and Catholic States would, at least, be neutral, if they
did not side with France against a Power that, during previous conflict
with Austria, had laid heavy hand on those that had then taken sides
against her. But this, after all, had been but a quarrel amongst
themselves; and the attempt of France to violate German soil was at once
the signal for Germans to stand shoulder to shoulder in one brotherhood
against the common foe. The separate interests and grievances of Bavarians,
Saxons, Hessians, Badeners, Brunswickers, Wurtemburgers, Hanoverians, were
at once put aside, and united Germany, in solid phalanx, rose in
irresistible might. In the great historic Palace of Versailles, in the hall
dedicated "to all the glories of France," the Confederate Princes of
Germany, headed by the King of Bavaria, {98} conferred on the King of
Prussia the title of Emperor of Germany, bestowing on him the duty of
representing all the German States in international questions, and
appointing him and his successors the Commander-in-chief of the German
forces. Thus, on January 17th, 1871, amid the acclamation of the allied
Sovereigns and the deep bass of the cannon in the trenches surrounding the
beleagured capital of the common enemy, the principle of German unity
received its seal and consummation.

The War Ensign of the Empire is represented in Fig. 207. The colours of
Prussia, black and white, and the Prussian Eagle enter largely into it, and
perhaps it may at first sight appear that these symbols of the Prussian
State are even a little too conspicuous, but it must be borne in mind that
it is to the Sovereign of this State the headship of all is given, and that
the vital interests of Prussia in the matter may be further illustrated by
the fact that while she has a population, in round numbers, of thirty
millions, Bavaria has but five, and Saxony three, while the Wurtemburgers
and Badeners between them make up about another three millions, and no
other State in the Empire comes at all near these figures. Prussia has over
130,000 square miles of territory to fight for, while Bavaria has but
29,292, and the next largest, Wurtemburg, has only an area of 7,531; in
every way, political, commercial, or what not, the interests of Prussia are
overwhelmingly predominant.

The flag of West Prussia is the black, white, black, shewn in Fig. 211,
while the East Prussian flag is made up of but two horizontal strips, the
upper black and the lower white. Hence the well-known war song, "Ich bin
ein Preussen,"[63] commences,

 "I am a Prussian! Know ye not my banner?
    Before me floats my flag of black and white!
  My fathers died for freedom, 'twas their manner,
    So say those colours floating in your sight."

{99}

The black, white, and red canton in the staff-head corner of the flag is
also made into an independent flag, as at Fig. 208, and used as a "Jack" in
the Imperial Navy, while this same flag, Fig. 208, minus the cross, is the
flag of the Mercantile Marine. On the 25th of October, 1867, on the
establishment of the North German Confederacy, at the conclusion of the
Austro-Prussian campaign, the King of Prussia sanctioned a proposal for a
flag common to all. We find in this decree that "the confederate flag
henceforth solely to bear the qualification of the national flag, and as
such to be exclusively on board the merchantmen of the Confederacy, shall
be composed of three equilateral stripes horizontally arranged: the colour
of the top one being black, the middle stripe white, and that of the bottom
stripe red." On the inclusion of the South German States on the formation
of the German Empire, the latter still more potent and august body retained
the Confederacy Flag for its mercantile marine. Up to the year 1867 no
German national flag had ever flown on the ocean, as the various States and
free cities had their special colours of merely local value.

The responsible Minister of the Crown, in a speech delivered in the Diet in
1867, stated to the members that the combination of colours was emblematic
of a junction of the black-white Prussian flag with the red-white ensign of
the Hanseatic League. This league of the sea-ports of Germany was organised
in 1164 for their mutual defence and for the interchange of commercial
advantages. As its strength and reputation increased, many other cities
sought to be admitted, but international jealousies disintegrated the
League, and by the year 1630 it was reduced from sixty-six cities to
three--Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. These three Hanse towns still retain
special privileges. The red and the white in the German flag represents the
commercial prosperity of the nation, while the black and white symbolises
the strong arm of the State prepared to protect and foster it. The flags of
these three cities still retain the old colours, Lubeck being half white
and half red, Bremen red and white stripes, and Hamburg a white castle on a
red field.

The arms of the Hohenzollerns are quarterly arranged. The first and fourth
quarters are themselves quartered, black and white for Zollern, while the
second and third quarters are azure with a golden stag for Sigmaringen.
Friedrich VI., the first of the Hohenzollerns, the Burggraf of Nürnberg,
became Friedrich I., Elector of Brandenburg, in 1417. There were twelve in
all, of these Hohenzollern Electors, and Friedrich III., the last of these,
became in 1701 the first King of Prussia. All the succeeding Sovereigns
have been of the same house, so that the black and {100} white in the flag
of to-day is the black and white that for over five hundred years has been
emblazoned in the arms of the Hohenzollerns.

The cross on the flag (Figs. 207 and 208)--the "iron cross" so highly
prized as the reward of fine service--is the cross of the Teutonic Order,
and dates from the close of the 12th century. The history of the Teutonic
Order, in its connexion with Prussia, is dealt with very fully in the first
volume of Carlyle's "Frederick the Great."

The Imperial Standard of Germany has the iron cross, black with white
border, on a yellow field, in the centre of all being a shield bearing the
arms of Prussia, surmounted by a crown and surrounded by the collar of the
Order of the Black Eagle. The yellow groundwork of the flag is diapered
over in each quarter with three black eagles and a crown. The arms of the
cross stretch out to the four edges of the flag.

The Admiral's flag in the Imperial German Navy is square, and consists of
the black cross on a white ground--the cross, as in the standard, extending
to the edges of the flag. The Vice-Admiral's flag is similar, but has in
the upper staff-space a black ball in addition, while the Rear-Admiral has
the same flag again, but with the addition of a black ball in each of the
quarters nearest the mast. The Chief of the Admiralty has a white flag
again with the cross in the centre, but in this case there is a
considerable margin of white all round, and four red anchors are placed so
that they extend in a sloping direction from the corners of the flag
towards the inner angles of the cross. We get the characteristic black and
white again in the burgee of the Imperial Yacht Club, which is thus
quartered, an upright line meeting a horizontal one in the centre of the
burgee, and thus giving a first and fourth black quarter and a second and
third white one. The signal for a pilot again is a white flag with a broad
border of black; if our readers will take a mourning envelope with a good
deep margin of black to it, they will see the effect exactly.

German vessels engaged in trade on the East African coast fly the black,
white, red, but in the centre of the white stripe is a blue anchor placed
erect, while the Imperial Governor in East Africa substitutes for the
anchor the black eagle. The German East Africa Company's flag is white cut
into quarters by a narrow and parallel-edged cross and a red canton with
five white stars on it in the quarter nearest the masthead.

While we find amongst the minor States of Germany Oldenburg, Fig. 204, with
a cross-bearing flag, the greater number are made up of stripes disposed
horizontally, and either two or three in number. Thus Fig. 199 is the
white-green of Saxony, Fig. 200 {101} the black-red-yellow of Waldeck, Fig.
202 the blue-white of Pomerania, Fig. 203 the black-red of Wurtemburg, Fig.
205 the red-yellow-blue of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Fig. 206 the blue-yellow
of Brunswick, Fig. 209 the green-white of Saxe-Coburg Gotha, Fig. 210 the
blue-red-white of Schomberg Lippe, Fig. 212 the red-white of Hesse. Others
that we have not figured are the red-yellow of Baden, the white-blue of
Bavaria, the yellow-white of Hanover, the yellow-red of Elsass, the
red-yellow of Lothringen.[64] To these, others might be added:
Sleswig-Holstein, Brandenburg, Posen, Silesia, etc., all agreeing in the
same general character.

The Imperial Standard of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is yellow, and has
in its centre the black double-headed eagle and a bordering all round
composed of equal-sided triangles turning alternately their apices inwards
and outwards; the first of these are alternately yellow and white, the
second alternately scarlet and black. On the displayed wings of the eagle
are the arms of the eleven provinces of the empire.

The war-ensign of the monarchy in represented in Fig. 213; it is composed
of three equal horizontal bands of red, white, red, and bears in its centre
beneath the Imperial crown a shield similarly divided. This flag originated
in 1786, when the Emperor Joseph II. decreed its introduction. This shield
was the heraldic device of the ancient Dukes of Austria, and is known to
have been in existence in the year 1191, as Duke Leopold Heldenthum bore
these arms at that date during the Crusades.

The "Oesterreich-Ungarische Monarchie," to give it its official title, is
under the command of one Sovereign, who is both Emperor of Austria and King
of Hungary, but each of these great States has its own Parliament,
Ministry, and Administration. Austria had long held the Hungarians in most
unwilling subjection, and the disastrous outcome for Austria of the war
with Prussia made it absolutely essential to make peace with Hungary, the
Magyars seeing in the humiliation of Austria the opportunity that they had
long been awaiting of becoming once again an independent State. A
compromise was effected in February, 1867, by which the Hungarians were
willing to remain under the rule of the Emperor of Austria, but only on
condition that he submitted to be crowned King of Hungary, and that in the
dual monarchy thus {102} created they should have absolutely the same
rights and freedom as the Austrians. The Austrian flag, as we have seen, is
red-white-red, while the Hungarian is red-white-green, and a commission
being appointed to consider how these two flags could be blended into one,
introduced on March 6th, 1869, as the result of its deliberations, the
Austro-Hungarian national flag that we have represented in Fig. 214.

The Austrian provinces have chiefly bi- or tri-color flags, the stripes
being arranged horizontally. Thus Bohemia is red-white; Tyrol is white-red;
Dalmatia is blue-yellow; Galicia is blue-red; Croatia is red-white-blue;
Istria yellow-red-blue.

We are so used in England to the idea that cheering is a spontaneous
product that it seems strange to find that the official welcome by the
Austrian fleet to their Emperor is a salute of twenty-one guns, followed by
fifteen hurrahs. Each rank has its special limit of honour; thus a minister
of State or field-marshal is saluted by nineteen guns and eleven hurrahs; a
general by thirteen and seven, while a commodore drops to eleven and three;
ambassadors, archbishops, consuls, all have their definite share of
gunpowder and such specified amount of shouting as is held to be befitting
to their position.

The Imperial Standard of the Czar of all the Russias is the brilliant
yellow and black flag represented in Fig. 226. The introduction of the
black two-headed eagle dates back from the year 1472, when Ivan the Great
married Sophia, a niece of Constantine Palæolagus, and thence assumed the
arms of the Greek Empire. On the breast of the eagle is an escutcheon
bearing on its red field in silver the figure of St. George slaying the
dragon, the whole being surrounded by the collar of the Order of St.
Andrew. On the displayed wings of the eagle are other shields, too small
for representation in our figure, bearing the arms of Kiow, a silver angel
on an azure field; of Novgorod, two black bears on a golden shield; of
Voldermirz, a golden lion rampant on a red shield; of Kasan, a black wyvern
on a silver ground, and so forth. The flag of the Czarina is similar,
except that it has a broad blue bordering to it.

A new Standard is made for each Czar. It was originally borne before him in
battle, but this custom has fallen into disuse, and it is now deposited
with the rest of the regalia. On the heavy gold brocade is embroidered the
black eagle, and around this the arms of the provinces of the Empire. From
the eagle that surmounts the staff are pendant the blue ribbons of the
Order of St. Andrew, embroidered in gold, with the dates of the foundation
of the Russian State in 862, the baptism by St. Vladimir in 986, the union
of all Russian possessions under the sceptre of John III. in 1497, and the
{103} proclamation of the Empire by Peter the Great. Its dedication is a
great religious function, and its sacred character and its appeal to a
lofty patriotism duly enforced. Thus we find the Imperial Chaplain
addressing the present Czar before the consecration of the standard as
follows:--

"Divine Providence has resolved, by the right of succession to the Throne,
to entrust to thee, as Supreme Head and Autocrat of the Peoples of the
Empire of all the Russias, this Sacred Banner, an emblem of its unity and
power.

"We pray the Heavenly Father for the union of all thy subjects in loyalty
and devotion to their Throne and Country, and in the unselfish fulfilment
of their patriotic duties.

"May this Banner inspire thy enemies with dread, may it be a sign to thee
of Divine Assistance, and in the name of God, of the Orthodox Faith, of
Right and of Justice; may it help thee, in spite of all obstacles, to lead
thy people to prosperity, greatness, and glory."

After the Benediction, holy water was sprinkled upon the standard, and the
Czar, as the embodiment of the Nation, was again addressed:--

"The Almighty has been pleased, in the course of the law of inheritance, to
enthrone you as the Sovereign Ruler of all the peoples of the Russian
nation; this sacred Standard is a token of unity and power. We pray it may
unite all thy subjects in unquestioning loyalty to the Throne and Country,
and in unselfish fulfilment of each duty of a subject. May it be to thee a
sign, terrible to the foes of Russia, of the help given by the Lord God to
the glory of His Holy Name, that, through Orthodox Faith, notwithstanding
all limitations, thy people may be led to prosperity, greatness, and glory;
so shall all nations know that God is on our side."

The Russians venerate St. Andrew as their patron Saint, believing that it
was he who carried the doctrines of Christianity into their midst. Origen
asserts that he preached in Scythia. Peter the Great instituted under his
name and protection, in the year 1698, the first and most noble order of
Knighthood of the Russian Empire as a reward for the valour of his officers
in the war against the Ottomans. The badge is the X-like cross of St.
Andrew displayed upon the Imperial Eagle and pendant from a broad blue
ribbon. We have already seen that St. Andrew is the Patron Saint of
Scotland also, but in Scotland the cross, Fig. 92, is white upon a field of
blue, while in Russia, Fig. 217, it is blue upon a field of white. This
flag, Fig. 217, is the war ensign, the flag of the Imperial Navy.

The creed of the Russian Church extols the worship of Saints, and amongst
the numerous subjects of veneration St. George takes {104} rank next to St.
Andrew himself. Hence we see his presentment on the Standard of the Czar,
and hence Catherine II., in 1762, instituted an order of knighthood in his
honour. The badge is a cross of gold, having in its centre a medallion with
a figure of the saint slaying the dragon; the ribbon being yellow and
black. St. George, we need scarcely remind our readers, is the great
warrior-Saint of England too, but while we place his scarlet cross, Fig.
91, on the field of white, the Russians reverse the arrangement and place
his white cross on scarlet.[65]

Fig. 215 is the Russian Union Jack that combines the crosses of St. Andrew
and St. George. Fig. 73 is the British Union Jack that deals with precisely
the same combination.

The flag of the Russian merchant service is represented in Fig. 218. This
was originally instead of being white, blue, red, a flag of blue, white,
red. Peter the Great borrowed this from the Dutch, amongst whom he learnt
ship-building. The Dutch flag, Fig. 237, it will be seen is a tricolor of
red, white, blue. Peter simply turned this upside down, and afterwards, for
greater distinction, charged the central white space with a small blue St.
Andrew's Cross, as we see in Fig. 219, which represents this early form of
flag. Later on, for still greater clearness of distinction, the blue and
the white strips changed places, and so we get the modern Russian
mercantile flag, as shown in Fig. 218. It was evidently undesirable that
the flag of the great Empire of Russia should be the same as that of a
reversed Dutch ensign--a signal of distress and disaster.

Based upon these two simple forms, the government Cross of St. Andrew, Fig.
217, and the commercial tricolor, Fig. 218, we get a great variety of
official flags. Thus Fig. 220 is a very happy blending of the two forms in
the flag of a Consul-General, since he is an official of the State, and at
the same time his duties deal largely with commercial interests; and much
the same ground may be taken as regards the blending of the two flags in
Fig. 221, the flag of a Russian Chargé d'Affaires. Fig. 223 is the ensign
of a Russian transport; if of the second division the field of the flag is
blue, and if of the third it is red, in each of these cases the crossed
anchors being white. The Russian signal for a pilot is the Jack shown in
Fig. 215, but with a broad white border to it. {105}

A Russian Ambassador or Minister Plenipotentiary flies the flag shown in
Fig. 222. In the Imperial Navy we find a considerable variety of flag
types. While the full Admiral flies the Imperial Naval Flag, Fig. 217, that
of the Vice-Admiral has along its bottom edge a horizontal strip of blue,
and that of the Rear-Admiral in the same position a strip of red. The flag
of the Minister of Marine is the official flag, Fig. 217, except that
instead of the four plain white spaces there seen these triangles hold each
of them a golden anchor, the fluke end outwards. There are many other
modifications that we need not here particularise.

Fig. 216 is the official flag of Poland; the device in the canton in the
upper corner, the white eagle on the scarlet field, is the ancient Polish
flag, when Poland was yet a nation.

The early history of the French flag is lost in obscurity, and it is not
always easy to trace the various modifications that it has undergone. At
the earliest date of which we have record we find the kings of the Franks
marshalling their forces under the plain blue flag known as the Chape de
St. Martin. Later on the red flag of St. Denis, known as the oriflamme,
came into use, and was held in great popular esteem, until by the tenth
century we find it accepted as the national flag, though the blue flag
still held its ground as a recognised flag. We may, in fact, assume that as
the Russians placed themselves beneath the protection both of St. George
and also of St. Andrew, so the French felt that a double claim on saintly
assistance would be by no means amiss.

The Chape de St. Martin was originally in the keeping of the monks of the
Abbey of Marmoutiers, and popular belief held it to be a portion of the
actual blue cloak that the legend affirms the Saint divided with the beggar
suppliant. The Counts of Anjou claimed the right to take this blue flag to
battle with them. We find it borne by Clovis in the year 507 against
Alaric, and again by Charlemagne at the battle of Narbonne; and time after
time it led the hosts of France to victory. When the kings of France
transferred the seat of government to Paris, the great local Saint, St.
Denis, was held in high honour, and the scarlet flag of the Abbey Church of
St. Denis gradually ousted the blue flag of St. Martin, and "St. Denis"
became the war-cry of France.[66] Fig. 179 is a representation of the
oriflamme from some ancient stained glass, but the authorities differ
somewhat; thus the "Chronique de Flandre" describes it as having three
points and tassels of green {106} silk attached thereto, while an English
authority says, "The celestial auriflamb, so by the French admired, was but
of one colour, a square redde banner." Du Cange gives no hint of its shape,
but affirms that it was simple, "sans portraiture d'autre affaire." All
therefore that seems quite definite is that it was a plain scarlet flag.
The last time that the sacred ensign was borne to battle was at Agincourt
on October 25th, 1415, when it certainly failed to justify the confidence
of its votaries.

The precise date when the golden fleurs-de-lys were added to the blue flag
is open to doubt, but we find the form at a very early date, and from the
first recognition of heraldic coats of arms this blazon was the accepted
cognizance of the kings of France. We see this represented in Fig. 184.
Originally the fleurs-de-lys were powdered, as in Fig. 188, over the whole
surface, but in the reign of Charles V., A.D. 1365, the number was reduced
to three.[67]

The meaning of the fleur-de-lys has given rise to much controversy; some
will tell us that it is a lily flower or an iris, while others affirm that
it is a lance-head. Some authorities see in it an arbitrary floral form
assumed by King Louis,[68] and therefore the fleur-de-Louis; while others
are so hard put to it that they tell us of a river Lys in Flanders that was
so notable for its profusion of yellow iris that the flower became known as
the fleur-de-Lys. The ancient chronicles gravely record that they were
lilies brought from Paradise by an angel to King Clovis in the year 496, on
the eve of a great battle fought near Cologne. Clovis made a vow that if he
were victorious he would embrace the Christian faith, and the angel
visitant and the celestial gift were a proof that his prayers were heard
and his vow accepted. As the belief that France was in an especial degree
under Divine protection was a very flattering one, the lilies were held for
centuries in great favour; and the fleur-de-lys did not finally disappear
from the flag of France until the downfall of Louis Philippe in the year
1848, a date within the recollection, doubtless, of some of our readers.
Finality, indeed, may not even yet have been reached in the matter. As the
bees of Napoleon I. reappeared in the arms of Napoleon III., so the
fleur-de-lys may yet again appear on the ensigns of France. By virtue of a
Napoleonic decree in 1852 against factious or treasonable emblems, it was
forbidden to introduce the fleur-de-lys in jewellery, tapestry, or any
other decorative way, lest its introduction might peril the position of a
{107} sovereign who rose to power by lavish bribery, and the free
outpouring of blood. Napoleon the First, and at least by contrast the
Great, when at Auch enquired the reason why many of the windows of the
cathedral were partially concealed by paper, and he was informed that it
was because it was feared that he would be offended at the sight of certain
ancient emblems there represented. "What!" he exclaimed, "the
fleurs-de-lys? Uncover them this moment. During eight centuries they guided
the French to glory, as my eagles do now, and they must always be dear to
France and held in reverence by her true children."

The white cross frequently appears on the early French flags. Fig. 188, the
flag of the French Guards in the year 1563, is a good example of this. We
find Favyn, in a book published in Paris in 1620, "Le Théâtre d'honneur et
de Chevalerie," writing: "Le grand estendard de satin bleu celeste en riche
broderie de fleurs de lys d'or a une grande croix plein de satin blanc, qui
est la croix de France." Figs. 180 and 181 are taken from a MS. executed in
the time of Louis XII., A.D. 1498, illustrating a battle scene; these two
flags are placed by the side of the fleur-de-lys flag, Fig. 184. When Louis
XI., in 1479, organised the national infantry we find him giving them as
the national ensign a scarlet flag with white cross on it; and some two
hundred years later we find the various provincial levies beneath flags of
various designs and colours, but all agreeing in having the white cross as
the leading feature. Fig. 182, for example, is that of the Soissonois.
Desjardins, in his excellent book on the French flag,[69] gives a great
many illustrations of these. In the Musée d'Artillerie in Paris we find a
very valuable collection of martial equipments from the time of
Charlemagne, and amongst these a fine series (original where possible, or,
failing this copies) of the flags of France from the year 1250.

The Huguenot party in France adopted the white flag, and when King Henry
III., 1574 to 1589, himself a Protestant, came to the throne, the white
flag became the royal ensign, and was fully adopted in the next reign, that
of Henry IV., the first king of the house of Bourbon, as the national flag.
The whole history of the flag prior to the Great Revolution, is somewhat
confused, and in the year 1669, which we may consider about the middle of
the Bourbon or white flag period,[70] we find the order given by the {108}
Minister of the Marine that "the ensigns are to be blue, powdered with
yellow fleurs-de-lys, with a large white cross in the middle." Merchant
ships were to wear the same flag as the ships of war except that in the
canton corner was to be placed the device of their province or town. Before
the end of the year a new order was issued to the effect that "the ensigns
at the stern are to be in all cases white," while the merchants were to fly
the white flag with the device of the port in the corner. The white flag
was sometimes plain, as in Fig. 183, and at other times provided with
yellow fleurs-de-lys. On the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814, after the
Republic, Consulate, and Empire, the white flag was again the flag of the
nation, and remained so until 1830, its last appearance in France, unless
or until the house of Bourbon again arises to the throne, when the
restoration of the _drapeau blanc_ would probably follow. The white flag
has therefore been the national ensign of France for over two hundred
years.

In a book in the library of the Science and Art Department, South
Kensington, we found the flag represented in Fig. 185 figured as the French
Standard, with Fig. 187 apparently as an alternative, while the National
flag of France is represented as the tricolor with bordering shown in Fig.
189, and the Admiral's flag is given as pure white. The book is entitled "A
Display of Naval Flags of all Nations." It was published in Liverpool; no
date is given, but we can arrive approximately at this, as the British
Standard is represented as including the arms of Hanover; this limits its
publication to between the years 1714 and 1837.

The well-known tricolor of France, Fig. 191, dates from the era of the
Revolution and came into existence in 1789. It has, with the exception of
the short Bourbon Restoration, been the flag of France for over a century,
and it remains so to this day, though it underwent some few modifications
ere it settled down to the present form. Thus, for instance, on October
24th 1790, it was decreed that the colour next the staff was to be red, the
central strip white and the outer blue, but on February 15th, 1794, it was
ordered that "the flag prescribed by the National Assembly be abolished.
The national flag shall be formed of the three national colours in equal
bands placed vertically, the hoist being blue, the centre white, and the
fly red." On the Revolution of 1848, the provisional government ordered on
March 5th that the colours were to run thus--blue, red, white, but the
opposition to this was so strong that only two days later the order was
cancelled. In 1790 the tricolor was made the Jack, and the ensign was as
shown in Fig. 190. This ensign was to be common to both the men-of-war and
the flags of the merchant navy, but the arrangement was not of long
continuance. The spirit of change that was felt in every department
affected the flags {109} likewise, and some little time elapsed before the
matter was satisfactorily settled.

The arms of Paris are a white galley on a red ground, and above this are
three golden fleurs-de-lys on a blue band or strip. On July 14th, 1789, it
was determined that a civic guard of forty thousand men should be raised,
and that its colours should be those of the city, the gules and azure of
the groundwork of the escutcheon, to which, on the proposal of Lafayette,
the white of the royal _drapeau blanc_ was added.

During the first and second Empire the Imperial Standard was still the
tricolor, but it bore in the centre of the white strip the eagle; and all
three strips were richly diapered over with the golden bees of the
Napoleons. The national flag was the tricolor pure and simple, both for the
Imperial and the Commercial Navy. As the flags of the army were borne on
staffs surmounted by a golden eagle, the term "eagle" was often applied to
these colours.[71]

On the outbreak of the second Republic in 1848, the people immediately on
its proclamation demanded the adoption of the ill-omened red flag.
Lamartine, the leading member of the provisional Government, closed an
impassioned address with the words: "Citizens, I will reject even to death
this banner of blood, and you should repudiate it still more than myself,
for this red flag you offer us has only made the circuit of the Champs de
Mars bathed in the blood of the people, while the tricolor has made the
circuit of the world, with the name, the glory, and the liberty of your
country." Louis Blanc and other members of the Government were in favour of
the red flag, and at last a compromise was effected and the tricolor was
accepted with the addition of a large red rosette. Louis Blanc, not
unreasonably, as a Republican, pointed out that Lafayette had in 1789
associated the white of the Bourbon flag with the red and blue of the arms
of the City, and that the tricolor flag was therefore the result of a
compromise between the king and the people, but that in 1848 the king
having abdicated, and monarchy done away with, there was no reason why any
suggestion of the kingly power should continue. Doubtless the suppression
of the flag of the barricades, the symbol of civil strife, {110} of anarchy
and bloodshed, and the retaining of the tricolor was the wiser and more
patriotic course, though it required no mean amount of courage and strong
personal influence to effect the change.

The Imperial Eagle, so long a symbol of victory, has now in these
Republican days[72] disappeared from the national colours. The flag of the
French army is now surmounted by a wreath of laurel traversed by a golden
dart with the letters R.F. and the regimental number, while on one face of
the flag itself is, in the middle, the inscription "Republique Française,
Honneur et Patrie," each corner being occupied by a golden wreath enclosing
the number of the regiment. The name of the regiment and its "honours"
occupy the other side.

The pendant of the French man-of-war is simply, Fig. 186, the tricolor
elongated. The Admiral flies a swallow-tailed tricolor, while the
Rear-Admiral and the Vice-Admiral have flags of the ordinary shape, like
Fig. 191, except that the former officer has two white stars on the blue
strip near the top of it, and the latter three. Maritime prefects have the
three white stars on the blue plus two crossed anchors in blue in the
centre of the white strip. The Governor of a French colony has such a
special and distinctive flag as Fig. 96 would be if, instead of the Union
canton on the blue, we placed in similar place the tricolor. There are
naturally a great many other official flags, but the requirements of our
space forbid our going into any further description of them.

The war and mercantile flags of Spain have undergone many changes, and
their early history is very difficult to unravel; but on May 28th, 1785,
the flags were adopted that have continued in use ever since. Fig. 192 is
the flag of the Spanish Navy; it consists, as will be seen, of three
stripes--a central yellow one, and a red one, somewhat narrower, above and
below. The original proportion was that the yellow should be equal in width
to the two red ones combined. This central stripe is charged, near the
hoist, with an escutcheon containing the arms of Castile and Leon, and
surmounted by the royal crown. The mercantile flag, Fig. 193, is also red
and yellow. The yellow stripe in the centre is without the escutcheon, and
in width it should be equal to one-third of the entire depth of the flag,
the remaining thirds above and below it being divided into two equal
strips, the one red and the other yellow. This simple striping of the two
colours was doubtless {111} suggested by the arms of Arragon, the vertical
red and yellow bars[73] of which may be seen also in the Spanish Royal
Standard, Fig. 194. Spain, like Italy, has grown into one monarchy by the
aggregation of minor States. In the year 1031 we have the Union of Navarre
and Castile; in 1037 we find Leon and Asturias joining this same growing
kingdom, and in the year 1474 Ferdinand II. of Arragon married Isabella of
Castile, and thus united nearly the whole of the Christian part of Spain
into one monarchy. In 1492 this same prince added to his dominions Moorish
Spain by the conquest of Granada.

Legend hath it that in the year 873 the Carlovingian Prince Charles the
Bold honoured Geoffrey, Count of Barcelona, by dipping his four fingers in
the blood from the Count's wounds after a battle in which they were allied,
and drawing them down the Count's golden shield, and that these ruddy bars
were then and there incorporated in the blazon. Barcelona was shortly
afterwards merged into the kingdom of Arragon, and its arms were adopted as
those of that kingdom. Its four upright strips of red, the marks of the
royal fingers, are just beyond the upper shield in Fig. 194.

The pendant of the Spanish Navy bears at its broad end a golden space in
which the arms and crown, as in Fig. 192, are placed; the rest of the
streamer is a broad strip of yellow, bordered, as in Fig. 192, by two
slightly narrower strips of red.

The Royal Standard of Spain, Fig. 194, is of very elaborate character, and
many of its bearings are as inappropriate to the historic facts of the
present day as the retention in the arms of Great Britain of the French
fleurs-de-lys centuries after all claim to its sovereignty had been lost.
In the upper left hand part of the flag we find quartered the lion of Leon
and the castle of Castile.[74] At the point we have marked "C" are the arms
of Arragon. "D" is the device of Sicily. The red and white stripes at "E"
are the arms of Austria; we have already encountered these in Fig. 213. The
flag of ancient Burgundy, oblique stripes of yellow and blue within a red
border, is placed at "F." The black lion on the golden ground at "G" is the
heraldic bearing of Flanders, while the red eagle "H" is the device of
Antwerp. At "I" we have the {112} golden lion of Brabant, and above it at
"J" the fleurs-de-lys and chequers of ancient Burgundy. The upper small
shield contains the arms of Portugal, and the lower contains the
fleurs-de-lys of France.[75]

The Portuguese were an independent nation until Philip II. of Spain overran
the country, and annexed it in the year 1580 to his own dominions, but in
the year 1640 they threw off the Spanish yoke, which had grown intolerable,
and raised John, Duke of Braganza, to the throne. The regal power has ever
since remained in this family.

The Royal Standard bears on its scarlet field the arms of Portugal,
surmounted by the regal crown. These arms were originally only the white
shield with the five smaller escutcheons that we see in the centre of the
present blazon. Would the scale of our illustration (Fig. 195) permit it,
each of these small escutcheons should bear upon its surface five white
circular spots. Portugal was invaded by the Moors in the year 713, and the
greater part of the country was held by them for over three centuries. In
the year 1139 Alphonso I. defeated an alliance of five great Moorish
princes at the Battle of Ourique, and the five escutcheons in the shield
represents the five-fold victory, while the five circles placed on each
escutcheon symbolise the five wounds of the Saviour in whose strength he
defeated the infidels. The scarlet border with its castles was added by
Alphonso III., after his marriage in 1252 with the daughter of Alphonso the
Wise, King of Castile, the arms of which province, as we have already seen
in discussing the Spanish Standard, are a golden castle on a red field.

In an English poem, written by an eye-witness of the Siege of Rouen in the
year 1418, we find an interesting reference to the arms of Portugal, where
we read of

 "The Kyngis herandis and pursiuantis,
  In cotis of armys arryauntis.
  The Englishe a beste, the Frensshe a floure
  Of Portyugale bothe castelle and toure,
  And other cotis of diversitie
  As lordis beren in ther degre."[76]

The Portuguese ensign for her vessels of war and also for the merchant
service bears the shield and crown, but instead of the {113} scarlet field
we find the groundwork of the flag half blue, and half white, as shown in
Fig. 196. The choice of these special colours, no doubt, arose from the
arms on the original shield, the five blue escutcheons on the white ground.
The Portuguese Jack has the national arms and royal crown in the centre of
a white field, the whole being surrounded by the broad border of blue.

Italy, for centuries a geographical expression, is now one and indivisible.
Within the recollection of many of our readers the peninsula was composed
of the Kingdom of the two Sicilies, the Pontifical States, the Grand Duchy
of Tuscany, the Duchies of Parma and Modena. There was also in the north
the Kingdom of Sardinia, while Lombardy and Venetia were in the grip of
Austria. It is somewhat beside our present purpose to go into the wonderful
story of how Victor Emmanuel of Savoy, aided by Cavour, Garibaldi, and many
another noble patriot, by diplomacy, by lives freely laid down on the
Tchernaya, on the fields of Magenta and Solferino, by the disaster at
Sedan, by bold audacity at one time, by patient waiting at another, was
finally installed in Rome, the Capital of United Italy, as king of a great
and free nation of over thirty millions of people. Suffice it now to say
that this Kingdom of Italy, as we now know it, did not achieve until the
year 1870 this full unity under one flag that had been for centuries the
dream of patriots who freely shed their blood on the battlefield or the
scaffold, or perished in the dungeons of Papal Rome, or Naples, or Austria
for this ideal.

On the downfall in 1861 of the Bourbon Government in the Kingdom of the two
Sicilies before the onslaught of the Volunteers of Garibaldi, the first
National Parliament met in Turin, and proclaimed Victor Emmanuel King of
Italy. The title was at once acknowledged by Great Britain, and, later on,
by the other Powers, and the capital of the rising State was transferred to
Florence. The Papal States were still under the protection of France, "the
eldest Son of the Church"; and the young Kingdom, unable to wrest Rome from
the French, had to wait with such patience as it could command for the
consummation of its hopes. The long-looked-for day at last arrived, when
amidst the tremendous defeats inflicted in 1870 by Germany on France, the
French garrison in Rome was withdrawn, and the Italians, after a short,
sharp conflict with the Papal troops, entered into possession of the
Eternal City, and at once made it the Capital of a State at last free
throughout its length and breadth--no longer a geographical expression, but
a potent factor to be reckoned with and fully recognised.

Napoleon I. formed Italy into one kingdom in the year 1805, but it was
ruled by himself and the Viceroy, Eugene Beauharnois, he appointed; and on
his overthrow this, like the various other political {114} arrangements he
devised, came to nought. The flag he bestowed was a tricolor of green,
white, and red, his idea being that, while giving the new Kingdom a flag of
its own, it should indicate by its near resemblance to that of France the
source to which it owed its existence. In 1848, the great revolutionary
period, this flag, which had passed out of existence on the downfall of
Napoleon, was reassumed by the Nationalists of the Peninsula, and accepted
by the King of Sardinia as the ensign of his own kingdom, and charged by
him with the arms of Savoy. This tricolor, so charged (see Fig. 197) was
the flag to which the eyes of all Italian patriots turned, and it is to-day
the flag of all Italy. The flag we have represented is the ensign of the
Merchant Service; the flag of the armed forces military and naval, is
similar, save that the shield in the centre is surmounted by the Royal
Crown. The Royal Standard, the personal flag of the King, has the arms of
Savoy in the centre, on a white ground, the whole having a broad bordering
of blue.

This shield of Savoy, the white cross on the red field, was the device of
the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, an order semi-religious,
semi-military, that owed its origin to the Crusades. In the year 1310 the
Knights captured Rhodes from the Saracens, but being hard pressed by the
infidels, Duke Amadeus IV., of Savoy, came to the rescue, and the Grand
Master of the Order conferred upon him the cross that has ever since been
borne in the arms of Savoy. The Jack or bowsprit flag of the Italian
man-of-war, Fig. 234, is simply this shield of the Knights of St. John
squared into suitable flag-like form.

The Minister of Marine has the tricolor, but on the green portion is placed
erect a golden anchor. The vessels carrying the Royal Mail fly a burgee of
green, white, red, having a large white "P" on the green; and there are
many other official flags, the insignia of various authorities or different
departments, but lack of space forbids our dwelling at greater length upon
them.

The war flag of the defunct temporal power of the Pope was white, and in
its centre stood figures of St. Peter and St. Paul, and above them the
cross keys and tiara. Fig. 198 was the flag of the merchant ships owned by
the subjects of the States of the Church. The combination of yellow and
white is very curious. In the banner borne by Godfrey, the Crusader King of
Jerusalem, the only tinctures introduced were the two metals, gold and
silver, five golden crosses being placed upon a silver field. This was done
of deliberate intention that it might be unlike all other devices, as it is
in all other cases deemed false heraldry to place metal on metal. The
theory that these metals were selected because of the reference in the
Psalms to the Holy City, may also be a very possible one--"Though ye have
lien amongst the pots, yet shall ye {115} be as the wings of a dove covered
with silver, and her feathers with yellow gold." However this may be, the
yellow and white of the arms of Jerusalem was adopted by the Papal
Government.

The Danish flag is the oldest now in existence. In the year 1219, King
Waldemar of Denmark in a critical moment in his stormy career, saw, or
thought he saw, or said he saw, a cross in the sky. He was then leading his
troops to battle against the Livonian pagans, and he gladly welcomed this
answer to his prayers for Divine succour, this assurance of celestial aid.
This sign from Heaven he forthwith adopted as the flag of his country, and
called it the Dannebrog, _i.e._, the strength of Denmark. As a definite
chronological fact, apart from all legend, this flag dates from the
thirteenth century. There was also an Order of Dannebrog instituted in
1219, in further commemoration and honour of the miracle; and the name is a
very popular one in the Danish Royal Navy, one man-of-war after another
succeeding to the appellation. One of these Dannebrogs was blown up by the
fire of Nelson's fleet in 1801.

The Danish Man-of-War Ensign is shown in Fig. 224. The Royal Standard, like
the Ensign, is swallow-tailed, but in the centre of the cross is placed a
white square, indicated in our illustration, Fig. 224, by dots. This
central, square space contains the Royal Arms, surrounded by the Collars of
the Orders of the Elephant and of the Dannebrog. The merchant flag, Fig.
225, is rectangular.

In the year 1397, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark all formed one kingdom under
the rule of the latter, but in 1414 the Swedes waged with more or less
success an arduous struggle for liberty, and their independence was
definitely acknowledged in the year 1523. The flag of Sweden is the yellow
cross on the blue ground shown in Fig. 231. The blue and yellow are the
colours of the Swedish arms,[77] and they were then doubtless chosen for
the flag as the colours of freedom and independence.

Norway had no separate political existence until the year 1814, but in that
year the Norwegians seceded from Denmark, and declared their independence.
Their first flag was still a red flag with a white cross on it, and the
arms of Norway in the upper corner next the flagstaff, but this being found
to too closely resemble the Danish flag, they substituted for it the device
seen in Fig. 230, which it will be noted is still the Danish flag, plus the
blue cross on the white one. The administration of Norway is entirely
distinct from Sweden, and it retains its own laws, but in 1814 the two
Kingdoms were united under one Sovereign. As a sign of the union there is
carried in the upper square, next to the flagstaff in the flags of both
countries, a union device, a combination of the Swedish {116} and Norwegian
National colours. After considerable dispute, the Union Jack shown in Fig.
229 was accepted as the symbol of the political relationship of the two
nations. It is a very neat arrangement, for if we look at the upper and
lower portions we see the flag (Fig. 230) of Norway, if we study the two
lateral portions we find they are the flag (Fig. 231) of Sweden. Both the
Swedish and Norwegian war flags are swallow-tailed, and have the outer limb
of the cross projecting; we may see this very clearly in Fig. 228, where
the main body of the flag is Norwegian. The merchant flag is with each
nationality rectangular; in Fig. 227 we have the flag of a Swedish merchant
vessel. Both in the Norwegian and Swedish flags, as we may note in Figs.
227 and 228, it will be noticed that the Union device is conspicuously
present. The Norwegian man-of-war flag, Fig. 228, would be that of a
Norwegian merchant if we cut off the points in the fly; the Swedish
merchant flag, Fig. 227, would be that of a Swedish man-of-war if instead
of the straight end we made it swallow-tailed. As Sovereign of Sweden, the
King places his arms in the centre of the large yellow cross; as Sovereign
of Norway, in the centre of the large blue cross; hence we get the Swedish
and Norwegian Royal Standards, the one for use in the one country, and the
other for service in the other, the Union device being present in the upper
corner in each case, and the outer portion of the flags swallow-tailed. The
Standard is, in fact, the war flag plus the royal arms. The Post Service
has in the centre of the flag a white square, with a golden horn and crown
in it; the Customs flag has a similar white square at the junction of the
arms of the cross, and in its centre is placed a crowned "T."

Fig. 232, on the same sheet as the flags of Norway and Sweden, is the
simple and beautiful flag of Switzerland. Like the crosses of St. George,
St. Andrew, St. Patrick, or that on the flag of Denmark, its device has a
religious significance. Gautier tells us that:--"La première fois qu'il en
est fait mention dans l'histoire écrite est dans la Chronique du Bearnois
Justinger. Il dit, après avoir fait l'énumération des forces des Suisses
quittant Berne pour marcher contre l'armée des nobles coalisés en 1339--'Et
tous étaient marqués au signe de la Sainte Croix, une croix blanche dans un
écusson rouge, par la raison que l'affranchissement de la nation était pour
eux une cause aussi sacrée que la délivrance des lieux saints.'"

Its twenty-two cantons are united by a Constitution, under one President
and one flag, but each canton has its own cantonal colours. Thus Basel is
half black and half white; St. Gallen, green and white; Geneva, red and
yellow; Aargau, black and blue; Glarus, red, black, and white; Uri, yellow
and black; Berne, black and red; Fribourg, black and white; Lucerne, blue
and white; {117} Tessin, red and blue; and so forth. In each case the
stripes of colour are disposed horizontally, and the one we have each time
mentioned first is the upper colour.

Within the walls of the City of Geneva was held, in 1863, an International
Conference, to consider how far the horrors of war could be mitigated by
aid to the sick and wounded. This Conference proposed that in time of war
the neutrality should be fully admitted of field and stationary hospitals,
and also recognised in the most complete manner by the belligerent Powers
in the case of all officials employed in sanitary work, volunteer nurses,
the inhabitants of the country who shall assist the wounded, and the
wounded themselves--that an identical distinctive sign should be adopted
for the medical corps of all armies, and that an identical flag should be
used for all hospitals and ambulances, and for all houses containing
wounded men. The distinctive mark of all such refuges is a white flag with
a red cross on it--the flag of Switzerland reversed in colouring--and all
medical stores, carriages, and the like, bear the same device upon them;
while the doctors, nurses, and assistants, have a white armlet with the red
cross upon it, the sacred badge that proclaims their mission of mercy. In
deference to the religious feelings of Turkey a red crescent may be
substituted for the cross in campaigns where that country is one of the
belligerents. These valuable proposals were confirmed by a treaty in
August, 1864, signed by the representatives of twelve Powers, and known as
the Geneva Convention. Since then all the civilised Powers in the world,
with the exception of the United States, have given in their adhesion to
it. In 1867 an International Conference was held at Paris for still further
developing and carrying out in a practical manner the principles of the
Geneva Conference, and another at Berlin in 1869 for the same object. One
notable feature of these two Conferences was the extension of the
principles accepted for land conflict to naval warfare.

Holland, as an Independent State, came into existence in the year 1579.
From 1299 we find the country under the rule of the Courts of Hainault, and
in 1436 it came into the hands of the Dukes of Burgundy, who in turn were
subjugated by the Spaniards. The tyranny and religious persecution to which
the Netherlanders were exposed by the Spaniards led to numerous revolts,
which at last developed into a War of Independence, under William, Prince
of Orange. The Hollanders adopted as their flag the colours of the House of
Orange--orange, white, and blue. At first there was great latitude of
treatment, the number of the bars of each colour and their order being very
variable, but in 1599 it was definitely fixed that the flag of the
Netherlands was to be orange, white, blue, in three horizontal stripes of
equal width. How the orange became {118} changed to red is very doubtful;
Fournier, writing in 1643, we see refers to the Dutch flag as a tricolor of
red, white, blue.

Fig. 237 represents the Royal Standard of Holland; the army and navy and
commercial flags are similar, except that the Royal Arms are not
introduced.

During the general effervescence caused by the French Revolution, the naval
flag of Holland had in the upper staff-corner a white canton, charged with
a figure of Liberty, but the innovation was not at all popular, as the
sailors preferred the old tricolor under which the great victories of
Reuter and Van Tromp were gained, and in 1806 it was deemed expedient to
revert to it.

The brilliant scarlet, yellow, and black tricolor represented in Fig. 236
is the flag of Belgium. The Standard has, in addition, the Royal Arms
placed in the centre of the yellow strip. The black, yellow, and red, are
the colours of the Duchy of Brabant, and these were adopted as the national
flag in 1831.

From 1477 onwards we find Belgium under Austrian domination, and in 1566 it
fell into the hands of Spain. In 1795, and for some years following, it was
held by France, and in 1814 was handed over to the Prince of Orange, but in
1830 the Belgians rose against the Hollanders, and before the end of the
year their independence was acknowledged by the Great Powers, and Leopold
of Coburg, in the following year, became first King of Belgium. Within a
month of his accession to the throne, the Dutch recommenced the struggle,
and it was only in 1839 that a final treaty of peace was signed in London
between Belgium and Holland, and its claims to independence frankly
recognised by the Dutch.

Greece, originally invaded by the Turks in the year 1350, remained for
nearly five hundred years under their oppressive yoke, rising from time to
time against their masters, only to expose their country, on the failure of
their attempts, to the greater tyranny and the most dreadful excesses. Over
ten thousand Greeks were slaughtered in Cyprus in 1821, while the
bombardment of Scio in 1822, and the horrible massacre on its capture,
stand out in lurid colours as one of the most atrocious deeds the world has
ever known: over forty thousand men, women, and children fell by the sword.
Seven thousand who had fled to the mountains were induced to surrender by a
promise of amnesty, and these, too, were murdered. The towns and villages
were fired, and the unfortunate inhabitants, hemmed in by the Turks,
perished in the flames or fell beneath the swords of their relentless foes
if they attempted to escape. Small wonder, then, that the heart of Europe
was stirred, and that Lord Byron and thousands more took up the cause of
Greek independence, by contributions of arms and money, by fiery
denunciation, and with strong right hand. Missolonghi, Navarino, {119} and
many another scene of struggle we cannot here dwell upon, suffice it to say
that at last the victory was won and Greece emerged, after a tremendous
struggle, from the bondage of the Turks, and took its place in Europe as a
free and independent nation, the Porte acknowledging the inexorable logic
of the _fait accompli_ on April 25th, 1830. After a short Presidency under
one of the Greek nobles, Otho of Bavaria was elected King of Greece in
1833, and the new Kingdom was fairly launched.

The Greeks adopted the blue and white, the colours of Bavaria, as a
delicate compliment to the Prince who accepted their invitation to ascend
the throne of Greece. The merchant flag of Greece is shown in Fig. 233. It
will be seen that it consists of nine stripes, alternately blue and white,
the canton being blue, with a white cross in it. The navy flag is similar,
except that in addition there is placed a golden crown in the centre of the
cross. The Royal Standard is blue with a white cross; the arms of the cross
are not, as in Fig. 233, of equal length, but the one next the staff is
shorter, as in the Danish flag, Fig. 225. In the open space at the crossing
of the arms is placed the Royal Arms.

The Turkish Empire has undergone many changes and vicissitudes, and has in
these latter days shrunk considerably. European Turkey now consists of
about seventy thousand square miles, while Turkey in Asia, Syria, Asia
Minor, Palestine, Armenia, etc., is over seven hundred thousand.[78]

The crescent moon and star, Figs. 239 and 240, were adopted by the Turks as
their device on the capture of Constantinople by Mahomet II., in 1453. They
were originally the symbol of Diana, the Patroness of Byzantium, and were
adopted by the Ottomans as a badge of triumph. Prior to that event, the
crescent was a very common charge in the armorial bearings of English
Knights, but it fell into considerable disuse when it became the special
device of the Mohamedans, though even so late as the year 1464 we find
René, Duke of Anjou, founding an Order of Knighthood having as its badge
the crescent moon, encircled by a motto signifying "praise by increasing."
Though the crescent was, as we have seen, originally a Pagan symbol, it
remained throughout the rise and development of the Greek Church the
special mark of Constantinople, and even now in Moscow and other Russian
cities the {120} crescent and the cross may be seen combined on the
churches, the object being to indicate the Byzantine origin of the Russian
Church.

The crescent may be seen on the coins and medals of Augustus, Trajan, and
other Emperors. The origin of the symbol was as follows: Philip, the father
of Alexander the Great, meeting with many unforeseen difficulties in
carrying on the siege of the city, set the soldiers to work one dark night
to undermine the walls, but the crescent moon appearing the design was
discovered and the scheme miscarried; and in acknowledgment the Byzantines
erected a statue to Diana, and made the crescent moon--the attribute of the
Goddess--the symbol of their city.

The War Flag of Turkey is the crescent and star on the scarlet field, as
shown in Fig. 239. The flag of the Merchant Service seems less definitely
fixed. In the Official Flag Book[79] of the English Admiralty, Fig. 239 is
given as both the man-of-war flag and the merchant flag for Turkey, Egypt,
and Tripoli, while in an excellent book on the subject, published at Vienna
in 1883, Fig. 235 is given as the flag of the commercial marine; and we
have also seen a plain red flag with a star in the upper corner of the
hoist, and another divided into three horizontal bands, the upper and lower
being red, and the central one green.

The Military and Naval Service of Tunis has the flag represented in Fig.
240, while the Tunisian commercial flag is simply red, without device of
any kind.

In a map bearing the date 1502 the Turkish Dominions are marked by a
scarlet flag having three points and bearing three black crescents, while
in a sheet of flags with the comparatively modern date of 1735, "Turk" is
represented by a blue flag with three crescents in white upon it.

The personal flag of the Sultan, corresponding to our Royal Standard, is
scarlet, and bears in its centre the device of the reigning sovereign:
hence it undergoes a change at each accession to the throne. This device,
known as the Tughra, is placed on the coinage, postal stamps, etc., as well
as on the Royal Flag, and consists of the name of the Sultan, the title
Khan, and the epithet _El muzaffar daima_, signifying the ever-victorious.
The history of the Tughra is curious: When Sultan Murad I. entered into a
treaty of peace with the Ragusans, he was not sufficiently scholarly to be
able to affix {121} his signature to the document, so he wetted his open
hand with ink and pressed it on the paper, the first, second, and third
fingers making smears in fairly close proximity, while the thumb and fourth
finger were apart on either side. Within the mark thus made, the Ottoman
Scribes wrote the name of Murad, his title, and the epithet that bore
testimony to his ever-victorious career. The Tughra remains the symbol of
this, the three upright forms being the three fingers of Murad, the rounded
line to the left the thumb, and the line to the right the little finger;
these leading forms do not vary, but the smaller characters change with the
change of sovereign. This Murad, sometimes called Amurath, ascended the
throne in the year 1362.[80]

The personal flag of the Khedive of Egypt is green, and has in its centre
the crescent and three white stars.

By the Treaty of Berlin, July 1878, the provinces of Moldavia and
Wallachia, formerly a portion of the Turkish Empire, and the territory of
the Dobrudscha, were recognised as an independent State, and were formed
into the kingdom of Roumania somewhat later, the sovereign who had
previously held the rank of prince being crowned king in March, 1881. The
flag of Roumania is the brilliant blue, yellow and red tricolor shown in
Fig. 242.

The flag of Servia, another small kingdom of Eastern Europe, is shown in
Fig. 243; the royal standard is similar, except that the arms are placed in
the centre of the blue stripe. It will be seen that the flag of Servia is
that of Russia, Fig. 218, reversed. By the Berlin Treaty of 1878, Servia
received a large increase of territory, and was created an independent
State, its princely ruler being crowned king in March, 1882.

The State of Bulgaria is another of the creations of the Berlin Treaty. It
is governed by a prince who is nominally under the suzerainty of Turkey.
Its war flag is shown in Fig. 241; the mercantile flag has no leonine
canton, but is simply a tricolor of white, green, and red.

Having already dealt with the United States, we propose now to turn our
attention to the other Governments of the New World. The simple and
effective ensign of Chili is represented in Fig. 161. This flag is used
both by the Chilian men-of-war and by the vessels of the mercantile marine.
Fig. 157 is so much of the pendant of a man-of-war as the limits of our
page will permit. The Chilian Jack is the blue canton and white star of
Fig. 161, treated as a distinct {122} flag, and the flags of the various
naval ranks are also blue with a varying number of white stars.

Fig. 164 is the merchant flag of New Granada; the Government ensign has in
addition the shield of arms in the centre of the blue stripe. It will be
observed that the colours in this tricolor are the same as those of
Roumania, Fig. 242, only differently disposed. New Granada is composed of
nine small States, and in 1863 these bound themselves into a closer
confederation, and changed their collective name from New Granada to that
of the United States of Colombia, and adopted a tricolor of yellow, blue,
and red, only disposed horizontally instead of as in Fig. 164, vertically.
This sounds identical with the flag of Venezuela, but in the centre of the
Colombian flag is placed a different device, and the yellow stripe takes up
half the space, the other two being only half its width. Fig. 165 is the
flag of Uruguay, a State that was formerly a province of Brazil, but
declared its independence in the year 1825. The next flag on our plate,
Fig. 166, is the war ensign of Guatemala: the shield in the centre bears a
scroll with the words "Libertad 15 de Setiembre, 1821," surmounted by a
parrot, surrounded by a wreath, and having behind it crossed rifles and
swords. The merchant flag is the plain blue, white, blue, without the
shield. In the year 1525 the country was conquered by Don Pedro de
Alvarado, one of the companions of Cortes, and it remained subject to Spain
until 1821, when it gained its independence, the "Libertad" of the scroll.
It then went in vigorously for several years of civil war, and the outcome
of this was that the country known under Spanish rule as Guatemala, a
country embracing all Central America, split up in 1839 into five
Republics, all absolutely independent of each other, viz., Guatemala, San
Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.

The next flag, Fig. 167, is the ensign of Costa Rica: the one represented
is that of the Merchant Service. The war ensign differs from it in having
in the centre the arms of the State, surrounded on either side by a trophy
of three flags, and beneath all a wreath. Fig. 168, the flag of Paraguay,
is very suggestive of the colours of Holland, though the device in the
centre serves to differentiate it. Paraguay is the only State in America
that has no sea-board, and therefore no Mercantile Marine.

Brazil, discovered by the Portuguese in 1500, remained in their possession
until a revolutionary struggle in the year 1821 ended in favour of the
Brazilians, when an Empire was shortly afterwards established. Compared to
the other States of South America, it has passed through long periods of
rest and prosperity, but of late years its political position has been one
of considerable uncertainty, the Emperor having been dismissed and the
rival {123} ambitions for the Presidentship leading to civil war. These
political changes have necessarily produced modifications in the flag. The
present flag, Fig. 169, is not altogether unlike that of the late Empire,
though in this latter case the yellow diamond on the green ground held a
shield and Imperial crown, flanked by sprays of coffee and tobacco. In the
present flag this yellow diamond has a blue sphere spotted over with stars
and a white band running across it, that bears in blue letters the legend
_Ordem e progresso_.[81] Fig. 173 is the upper portion of the man-of-war
pendant, a blue ground with white stars. Fig. 169 is the ensign, both of
the War and Merchant Navy of Brazil.

The yellow, blue, and red tricolor, Fig. 170, is the merchant ensign of
Venezuela; the war flag has the same stripes, and in addition the shield of
the arms of the State is placed on the yellow band at the staff corner.
When the Spaniards arrived off the coast in the year 1499, they found on
landing that some of the native Indians were living in huts built on piles,
hence they called the country Venezuela, or little Venice.

Bolivia, formerly comprised in the Spanish Vice-Royalty of Colombia,
derives its present name from Simon Bolivar, the leader of the revolution
that gained it its freedom. Its commercial flag is shown in Fig. 171; the
war flag only differs in having the arms of the State placed in the centre
of the red strip.

The familiar green, white, red of Italy is repeated in the flag of Mexico,
but instead of the cross of Savoy, we have the eagle and serpent. The
Mexican merchant ensign is the plain tricolor of green, white, red, the
central device we see in Fig. 172 marking it as the war flag. Mexico was
discovered in 1518, and conquered, with infamous cruelties, by Cortes.
After a lengthened revolutionary struggle, the yoke of Spain was finally
thrown off in 1829, and the independence of Mexico was recognised by all
the great European Powers.

Peru was discovered by the Spaniards in 1513, and was soon afterwards,
under the command of Pizarro, added to the dominions of the King of Spain.
Peru remained in subjection to the Spaniards (who murdered the Incas and
all their descendants, and committed the most frightful cruelties) until
1826, when the independence of the country, after a prolonged struggle, was
completely achieved. The Peruvian war ensign is given in Fig. 174, the
merchant flag being the plain red, white, red.

San Salvador, the smallest of the Central American Republics, {124}
established itself in 1839, on the break-up of the Spanish State of
Guatemala. Its flag is shown in Fig. 175.

The country now held by the Argentine Republic was discovered in 1517, and
settled by the Spaniards in 1553. The war ensign is represented in Fig.
176; the merchant ensign has the three stripes, but the golden sun is
missing.

The Government of Ecuador has Fig. 177 as its war flag, the merchant ensign
being without the ring of white stars. The last flag on the sheet (Fig.
178) is the merchant flag of Haiti; the Government flag has the blue and
red reduced to a broad border, the central portion of the flag being white.
In the centre of this white portion stands a palm tree, and below it a
trophy of arms and flags, flanked on either side by a cannon.

The flag of the Cuban national forces in conflict with Spain has at the
hoist a triangular portion of blue, one side of this triangle being the
depth of the flag itself, and on this blue field is a white, five-pointed
star. The rest of the flag is made up of the following horizontal and equal
stripes--red, white, red, white, red.

Japan--known to the Japanese as Niphon, derived from _Nitsu_, Sun, and
_Phon_, the rising--the Land of the Rising Sun,[82] has adopted this rising
sun as its emblem. Japan claims to possess a written history of over 2,500
years, but the fairly authentic portion begins with the year 660 B.C., when
the present hereditary succession of rulers commenced. English merchants
visited Japan in 1612, and the Portuguese almost a century before. By 1587
the converts of the Portuguese Jesuit Missions numbered some six hundred
thousand. At this time some Spanish Franciscans appeared on the scene, and
political and religious discord soon followed. The Japanese ruler took
alarm at the Papal claim to universal sovereignty, and the Buddhist
Priesthood and the English and Dutch Protestant traders fanned the flame of
suspicion and jealousy. This was done so effectually that the Japanese
Government banished all foreigners, and closed the country against them.
This state of things lasted for over two centuries, and it was only in the
year 1853 that Japan was re-opened to the outside world. The flag of Japan,
the rising sun, is represented in Fig. 244. The red ball without the rays
is used as a Jack, in which case it is placed in the centre of the white
field. Fig. 245 is the Standard of the Emperor. The chrysanthemum is the
emblem of Japan, and its golden flower, somewhat conventionally rendered it
must be admitted, is the form we see introduced in Fig. 245.[83] Figs. 246
and 248 are the transport flag and the guard flag respectively of the
Japanese war marine. {125}

The Imperial Standard of China is yellow with a blue dragon. The official
flag book of the Admiralty gives the flag of a Chinese Admiral as made up
of the following horizontal stripes: yellow, white, black, green, red, a
blue dragon on a white ground being the canton in the staff-head corner.
The merchant ensign is shown in Fig. 247. Amongst the Chinese flags
captured in 1841, and preserved in the Royal United Service Institution, is
one with a blue centre with an inscription in white upon it, and with a
broad notched border of white; another has its centre of a pale blue and a
darker blue dragon upon it, the whole being surrounded by a broad and
deeply-notched border of red.

The flag of Siam is scarlet with a white elephant thereon. Before Xacca,
the founder of the nation, was born his mother dreamt that she brought
forth a white elephant, and the Brahmins affirm that Xacca, after a
metempsychosis of eighty thousand changes, concluded his very varied
experiences as this white elephant, and thence was received into the
company of the Celestial Deities. On this account the white elephant is
held a sacred beast, and the Siamese rejoice to place themselves beneath so
potent a protector. The flag of Korea bears the tiger. In the
thickly-wooded glens of the interior, the royal tiger is found in
formidable numbers.

The flag of Sarawak, a territory of some forty thousand square miles, on
the north-west of Borneo, is shown in Fig. 252. The Government was obtained
in 1842 from the Sultan of Borneo by an Englishman, Sir James Brooke, and
it is still ruled by one of the family, a nephew of the first Rajah.

In Africa, the only flags that we need particularize are those of the
Orange Free State, Liberia, the Congo State, and the South African
Republic.

The Orange Free State was founded by Dutch emigrants from the Cape of Good
Hope. It was proclaimed British territory in 1848, but by a Convention
entered into in 1854, the inhabitants were declared to be "to all intents
and purposes, a free and independent people, and their Government to be
treated thenceforth as a free and independent Government." The flag, Fig.
249, is the only one that has orange in it, clearly in allusion to the name
of the State, while the canton of red, white, and blue, equally shows the
pride of the people in their Dutch origin.

The flag of the Independent Negro Republic of Liberia, is shown in Fig.
250. The population largely consists of freed slaves, emigrants from
America and their descendants, plus the aborigines. The flag, it will be
seen, even to the thirteen stripes, is largely based on that of the United
States, though one would have thought that that would have been about the
last thing they would have selected. {126}

The Congo Free State in Central Africa was established in 1885 by the King
of the Belgians; its flag is the golden star on the blue ground that we see
in Fig. 251, a device at once simple, expressive and pleasing.

In 1840, a number of Dutch Boers, dissatisfied with the Government of Cape
Colony, established themselves in Natal, where their treatment of the
natives was so unjustifiable that a general rising was imminent, and the
British Government was compelled to interfere, and itself take charge of
the district. This the Boers resented, so they crossed the Vaal and
established themselves afresh in the wilderness. In 1854, the British
Government recognised the Transvaal or South African Republic, and in 1881
a fresh Convention was agreed to by which the Boers were confirmed in full
possession of the land, subject to the recognition of the British
suzerainty. The flag of the Transvaal Government is shown in Fig. 253.

Now have we journeyed the whole world over and found in every land the
emblems of nationality and patriotism. Unfamiliar as many of these may
appear to us, they each represent a symbol endeared to thousands or
hundreds of thousands of hearts, and thus are they full of warm human
interest. For these various strips of gaily-coloured bunting, men have
given without hesitation their lives, have poured out blood and treasure
without stint or count of cost, and wherever they encounter them the wide
world over, the wanderers forget for a while the alien shore or waste of
ocean as their thoughts turn to the dear homeland.

       *       *       *       *       *

{127}

CHAPTER V.

    Flags as a Means of Signalling--Army Signalling--the Morse
    Alphabet--Navy Signalling--First Attempts at Sea Signals--Old Signal
    Books in Library of Royal United Service Institution--"England expects
    that every man will do his duty"--Sinking Signal Codes on
    defeat--Present System of Signalling in Royal Navy--Pilot
    Signals--Weather Signalling by Flags--the International Signal
    Code--First Published in 1857--Seventy-eight Thousand different Signals
    possible--Why no Vowels used--Lloyd's Signal Stations.

We propose in this, our final chapter, to deal with the use of flags as a
means of signalling; a branch of the subject by no means wanting either in
interest or in practical value.

The flags used for army signalling are only two in number if we consider
their design, though, as each of these is made in two sizes, the actual
outfit consists of four flags. The large size is three feet square, and the
smaller is two feet square; the larger sizes are clearly more visible, but
on the other hand the smaller save weight and consequently labour; and with
good manipulation and clear weather their messages can be followed by
observers, with ordinary service telescopes, up to a distance of twelve
miles or so. The poles are respectively five feet six inches long and three
feet six inches, and the flags themselves are either white with a blue
horizontal stripe across the centre, or wholly blue. Only one flag is used
at a time, the first being used when the background is dark and the second
when light, so as to ensure under all circumstances the greatest
visibility.

The person sending the signals should hold the flag pointing upwards to the
left, and with the pole making an angle of about 25°, with an imaginary
vertical line passing down the centre of his body. The signals are based
upon the dot and dash system of Morse. The dot or short stroke is made by
waving the flag from the normal position to the corresponding point on the
right hand, while for the dash or long stroke the flag is waved till the
head of the pole nearly touches the ground.

The Morse alphabet is so constructed that the letters of most frequent
occurrence are represented by the shortest symbols, and no letter requires
more than four of these for its expression, while figures are all
represented by five signs. {128}

The letters of the alphabet are thus represented:--

  A ·-
  A (æ) ·-·-
  B -···
  C -·-·
  D -··
  E ·
  F ··-·
  G --·
  H ····
  I ··
  J ·---
  K -·-
  L ·-··
  M --
  N -·
  O ---
  O (oe) ---·
  P ·--·
  Q --·-
  R ·-·
  S ···
  T -
  U ··-
  U (ue) ··--
  V ···-
  W ·--
  X -··-
  Y -·--
  Z --··
  Ch ----

The following code is adopted to represent figures:--

  1 ·----
  2 ··---
  3 ···--
  4 ····-
  5 ·····
  6 -····
  7 --···
  8 ---··
  9 ----·
  0 -----

A space about equal in length to the dash is left between each letter, and
a time interval of about three times the duration between each word. This
alphabet, once learned, it is evident can be utilized in many ways.
Steamers, by means of short and long whistles, can spell out messages to
each other; seamen, across a harbour, can communicate by waving their arms;
prisoners by opening and shutting their hands. It is also utilised in the
light-flashes of the heliograph, in telegraphy again, and in various other
directions.

Classes are held at the School of Army Signalling at Aldershot, and from
thence the knowledge permeates the Army and the Auxiliary Forces.[84] The
requirements are steadiness, intelligence, quickness of eye-sight and of
action, and the power to spell correctly; and it takes a man from fifteen
to twenty days, at five hours drill a day, to learn the alphabet and the
proper manipulation of the flags. The standard of efficiency is ten words a
minute with the large flag or sixteen with the small. If our readers will
take the trouble to count the letters in the first sixteen words in this
present sentence they {129} will find that they are sixty-nine in number,
and they will further find, if they take the additional trouble to
translate these letters into Morse, that it will take 105 dots and 60
dashes to do it. Our readers will probably then go on to conclude that as
it takes one hundred and sixty-five motions of the flag, plus sixty-eight
intervals between the letters to signal these sixteen words, a speed of ten
words a minute is a very creditable performance either for the sender to
work off or for the receiver to read.

Besides the ordinary spelling out of the words, various arbitrary signs are
used, thus a continued succession of dots ······ is used to call attention
to the fact that a message is going to be sent, and a series of dashes
------ means that it is finished. G means "go on," R is a request to "move
more to the right" and L to "shift a little to the left"; B means "use the
blue flag," and W "use the white flag," K.Q is "say when you are ready,"
F.I means that figures are coming, and F.F indicates that the figures are
finished. Those who have to receive the message may see that the background
behind the transmitter is not quite satisfactory for the due observation of
the flags, and they may then flash back H or O, meaning either "higher up"
or "lower down," as the case may be, and in case of any misunderstanding,
they will signal I.M.I, which means "please repeat," and as soon as all is
clear, they will signal R.T, meaning "all right."

As our man-of-war's-men are also instructed in this system of signalling,
communication can be established during an expedition between the ships and
the troops on shore. The signal for communication is a white pendant with
two black X.X on it. Should this special flag not be forthcoming, the X.X
-··--··- (see code of letters) is flashed at night or waved by the flag by
day, and as soon as the preparative dots ······ have been acknowledged, the
message is dispatched. When the message is of a general character, nothing
more need be done, but when it is intended for a particular vessel, the
communication is preceded by the special sign apportioned to that vessel.

Though the Morse system has its place, as we have seen, in the drill of our
blue-jackets, it does not altogether meet naval requirements. A man waving
flags on board ship would be a scarcely conspicuous enough object, and
intermediate vessels in a squadron would block out all view of him from
those farthest off, hence naval communications are ordinarily made by means
of flags exhibited from the mast head or other clearly visible position.
Instead of one flag being used, our men-of-war have over forty, and these
are all conspicuously distinct from each other. The messages are not spelt
out, as in land operations, but the flags are used in various combinations,
and the meaning of the signal is found by reference to a {130} code-book.
These flags, it is arithmetically evident, can be transposed and grouped in
some thousands of different ways, and the code-book contains questions and
answers to meet the very varied requirements of naval service, and the
special signal hoist for each.

The first real attempt at sea-signalling was made during the reign of
Charles II., when a series of signs of the most arbitrary character was
devised, consisting for the most part of flags hoisted in various parts of
the ship, and altering their significance as their locality was changed.
The system was a very cumbrous one, and in 1780 Kempenfeldt, the Commander
of the ill-fated _Royal George_, improved to some extent upon it, but even
then the result was not very brilliant. Lord Howe, in 1792, could only make
a total of one hundred and eighty-three signals. As yet, however, it had
never struck anybody how much simplicity and advantage would be gained by
employing numbered or lettered flags, and then using them in the thousands
of combinations that such a system rendered possible. It is stated by
various authorities--and even authorities have a way of copying from each
other--that flags were numbered for the first time about the year 1799, but
in the Library of the Royal United Service Institution may be seen "An
Essay on Signals, by an Officer of the British Navy," bearing the date
1788.[85] The flags were numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0, and
they are represented in our illustrations by Figs. 287, 288, 289, 290, 291,
292, 293, 294, 295, and 296. It will be seen that they are all of a very
clear and distinct character. When such a number as 444 was required, it
would appear to be necessary to have three flags like Fig. 290--the No. 4
of the series--but to avoid this multiplication of identical flags, a red
triangular flag called a decimal, a white triangular called a centenary,
and a blue triangular called a millenary, were used, and these were placed
as required before the unit to be repeated. By this plan 444 would be
expressed by the yellow flag, the No. 4, having below it the red and white
pennants. Sometimes these flags really meant numbers, and then the required
number was hoisted, plus a yellow swallow-tailed flag. Thus in answer to
"How many guns does she carry?" if the response should be fifty, the five
and the nought flags, Figs. 290 and 296, plus the swallowtail or cornet, as
it is technically called, would be hoisted, while the same five-nought
signal, without the cornet, would signify "whole fleet change course four
points to starboard."

If we want to find the English equivalent of some German word, we turn to
the German-English half of our dictionary, but if we {131} required the
German equivalent of our English word, we should refer to the
English-German part of the book, and signal codes are in like manner
divided into flag-message and message-flag. By the system we are at present
discussing, we should find by referring to the flag-message half of our
book, that the three flags 7, 3, 6, meant, "recall cruisers," while 8, 3,
6, signified "sprung a leak." On the other hand, if we wished ourselves to
send such an order we should turn to the message-flag half of our code
book, and under the heading of "Cruisers," find all the references that
could concern the management of such vessels until we presently found
"Cruisers, recall--7, 3, 6," and then at once proceed to hoist those
particular flags. Only fourteen flags, the ten numerals, the three
pennants, and the cornet, suffice for sending many hundreds of messages,
but the anonymous author adds, "exclusive of this arrangement, I would
propose to have the most current signals in battle made with one flag only,
and these should be used on the day of battle only. A similarity between
these and the flags used as the numerical signals ought as much as possible
to be avoided." Figs. 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, and 286, are
illustrations of some of these. The striking design of the rising sun
signifies "engage the enemy." Fig. 280 is an order for "close action." Fig.
281 is an instruction to "invert the line of battle by tacking," while Fig.
282 is a direction to "force the enemy's line." It is needless to
particularise them all, suffice it to say that each and all are of stirring
significance. Many minds were at work on the urgent problem of an adequate
system of sea-signalling, and numerous plans, therefore, were suggested. It
does not appear that the one we have just referred to as an example of
these endeavours to solve the difficulty was ever adopted.

The official "Signal Book for the Ships of War," compiled by the Admiralty
in 1799, and afterwards amplified in 1803 by Admiral Sir Hope Popham, is of
immense interest, as it was introduced into the Navy for the first time in
the fleet of Nelson, and it was therefore the code of Trafalgar. In the
copy preserved in the Library of the Royal United Service Museum is
written, "this is a copy of the signal book by means of which the battle of
Trafalgar was fought." All signals are by numbers. In the book in question,
those given have been pasted over others, but some of those underneath are
still visible: thus the flag that once represented one here stands for
five, and the flag that heretofore was three is now seven. "If the
Admiral"--an instruction in the book says--"should have reason to believe
that the enemy has got possession of these signals, he will make the signal
for changing the figures of the flags. The figure, which by the new
arrangement each flag is to represent, is to be immediately entered in
every ship's signal-book," and it is {132} evident that one of these
transpositions has been made here. The ten flags of the code are
represented in Figs. 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, and 278.
It is very difficult to say really how the flags were arranged for the
world-famed "England expects that every man will do his duty," as the
numerical significance of the ten flags was so often changed during the
exigencies of war. The book we have referred to makes Fig. 270 stand for 1,
Fig. 278 for 2, Fig. 275 for 3, Fig. 273 for 4, Fig. 269 for 5, etc.; and
while it declares that it was by this code Trafalgar was fought, we have no
evidence as to who wrote this statement. It may have been the authoritative
statement of some one at the time in full possession of the facts, or a
mere surmise added a dozen years afterwards by some irresponsible
scribbler. On turning to the "Naval History" of James, Vol. IV., p. 34, we
read "there is not, that we are aware of, a single publication which gives
this message precisely as it was delivered. The following is a minute of
the several flags, as noted down on board more than one ship in the fleet."
He then proceeds to give them, and the arrangement that he follows is that
of our illustration, his 1 being Fig. 269; 2, Fig. 270; 3, Fig. 271; 4,
Fig. 272; 5, Fig. 273; 6, Fig. 274; 7, Fig. 275; 8, Fig. 276; 9, Fig. 277;
and 0 Fig. 278. If he may be accepted as a reliable authority, "England"
was expressed by the flags 2, 5, and 3; "expects," by 2, 6, and 9; "that,"
by flags 8, 6, and 3; "every," by flags 2, 6, and 1; "man," by 4, 7, and 1;
"will," by 9, 5, and 8; "do," by 2, 2 and 0; and "his," by 3, 7, 0, those
being the code numbers assigned to those words in the vocabulary. This
necessitated eight distinct hoists, one group of flags for each word, but
singularly enough the code contained no signal for "duty," so that it was
necessary to spell this out letter by letter, making four hoists more, flag
4 being for "d"; 2 and 1 for "u"; 1 and 9 for "t"; and 2 and 5 for "y." As
given in one or two French historical works the signal is equally short and
expressive: "L'Angleterre compte que chacun fera son devoir." The story of
Nelson's signal is best told in the words of the _Victory's_ Signal
Lieutenant, Pasco, the officer who received Nelson's orders to make it.
"His Lordship," Lieutenant Pasco says, "came to me on the poop, and, after
ordering certain signals to be made, about a quarter to noon, said, 'Mr.
Pasco, I want to say to the fleet "England confides that every man will do
his duty."' He added, 'You must be quick,[86] for I have one more to add,
which is for "close action."'[87] I replied, 'If your Lordship will permit
me to substitute "expects" for "confides" the signal will soon be {133}
completed, because the word "expects" is in the vocabulary, and "confides"
must be spelt.'[88] His Lordship replied in haste, and with seeming
satisfaction, 'That will do, Pasco, make it directly.' As the last hoist
was hauled down, Nelson turned to Captain Blackwood, who was standing by
him, and said, 'Now I can do no more. We must trust to the Great Disposer
of all events, and the justice of our cause; I thank God for this great
opportunity of doing my duty.'" And Great Britain that day did not call
upon her sons in vain, nor was the appeal to the God of Battles unheard,
though the rejoicing of victory was turned into mourning at the loss of him
who had so nobly done his duty in the nation's service.

In the Royal Navy of the present day, a special code, requiring forty-five
different flags, is employed. Figs. 254 to 267 inclusive, are examples of
some of these.[89] This code, we need scarcely say, is of a confidential
nature, and is not published anywhere for all the world to study. The
Commercial code of International signals being now recognised by the
principal maritime States of the world, is, by Queen's regulations, made
use of by our men-of-war when communicating with foreign war-ships, or with
merchant vessels whether British or foreign. The signal codes of the Royal
Navy, when not actually in use, are kept in perforated metal cylinders, so
that in case of capture of the vessel they may at once be thrown overboard.
In the Library of the Royal United Service Institution may be seen the
Signal book of the U.S. frigate _Chesapeake_, with bullets attached to it
for the purpose of sinking it. In the confusion incidental to the capture
of the vessel by H.M.S. _Shannon_,[90] it fell into the hands of the
Britisher. Besides these regulation signals of the American Navy, a second
set, supplied to privateers, was also captured, marked "Strictly
confidential. The commanders of private armed vessels are to keep this
paper connected with a piece of lead or other weight, and to throw the
whole overboard before they shall strike their flag, that they may be
sunk." This also, instead of going to the bottom of the Atlantic, may be
seen within half a mile of Charing Cross.

Landsmen have a notion, remembering possibly that Nelson went into action
with the signal for close action flying, that when a signal is made it is
to be instantly obeyed, but the present system of signalling is on somewhat
different lines. The hoisting of a signal on the flag ship is preparative.
The ships leading the other columns repeat the signal, hoisting their
colours three-quarters of {134} the way up the mast. The other ships each
hoist their "answering pennants" to show that they have seen and understood
the order. Then when the repeating ships notice that all the other vessels
have answered, they hoist the signal right up as an intimation to the
Admiral that this is the case. Then it is that on the Admiral's ship the
signal is hauled down, thus giving the executive order for its purport to
be obeyed, so that the signal is cautionary of what is coming, and the
manoeuvre is only executed when to the eye no instructions at all are to be
seen. The answering pennant has vertical stripes--red, white, red, white,
red.

Fig. 268 is the flag used by any vessel that wishes to communicate with a
coastguard station, or hoisted when one coastguard station wants to send a
message to another. Thus when Beachy Head has any notification to make to
the neighbouring post away down at Burling Gap, the first thing to be done
is to hoist at the masthead Fig. 268. When the men on duty at Burling Gap
see this they hoist the answering pennant, meaning "all right, talk away,"
and then the arms of the Beachy Head semaphore work vigorously, or the gay
signal flags flutter in the breeze and send their message across the downs.

War vessels signal to each other at night by means of the Morse system of
short and long flashes,[91] and all the large steamship lines have night
signals peculiar to themselves, thus the night signal of the Orient Line is
red and blue lights burnt alternately. Any vessel seeing this, knows that
they are dealing with this special Line and similarly report themselves,
and after this due introduction proceed to dot and dash to their heart's
content.

The last two rows of flags on plate XXIII. are signals for pilots. These
are either the two flags standing for P. and T. in the International Signal
Code, a system we have yet to deal with, or it may be a single flag, the
special pilot flag of each nation. Fig. 297 is the pilot flag of the
Argentine Republic; Fig. 298, that of Brazil; Fig. 299, that of Ecuador.
Fig. 300 is the pilot flag of Greece; 301, that of Japan; and 304, that of
Spain. France, Mexico and Chili all adopt a flag like Fig. 278, a white
flag with broad blue border, while Great Britain, Fig. 104, Germany, Fig.
302, Belgium, Fig. 303, Denmark, Fig. 305, Holland, Fig. 306, Sweden,
Austria-Hungary, Italy, all fly the national flag of the country with a
broad white border to it. Russia takes the Jack, Fig. 215, for the same
purpose, and places this {135} white band around it, while the United
States of America takes the star-bestrewn azure canton from the national
flag, Fig. 146, and similarly surrounds it with the broad band of white.

Penalties are recoverable, as they clearly should be, if any ship uses or
displays signals which may be mistaken for either pilot calls or signals of
distress.

The United States uses flags for its weather signals at the various
meteorological stations. A violent storm is prognosticated by a red flag
with a black centre. A red pennant signifies "storm approaching station,"
while a yellow pennant signifies "call at station for special information."
A plain white flag betokens fine weather and a plain blue one rain or snow,
and there are various combinations of other flags that indicate direction,
intensity, velocity and so forth. It is evident that this employment of
flags could be made a very valuable one.

Another instance of its use with which we are acquainted, is at the London
office in St. Paul's Churchyard of the _Draper's Record_, one of the
largest in circulation of any trade paper in the world. The citizen of
London may see displayed from its roof by private enterprise the whole of
the forecasts issued by the Meteorological Office, viz., the 11 a.m., the
3.30 p.m., and the 8.30 p.m. for the South of England, which officially
includes St. Paul's Churchyard. A white flag is hoisted for clear weather,
a blue one for rain, while local showers are prognosticated by a flag half
blue and half white. Changeable weather is indicated by a flag like Fig.
267, and a coming fog by a yellow flag with black ball in its centre, like
Fig. 258. Snow is foretold by a flag like Fig. 278, and squally weather by
a swallow-tailed flag, having its upper half black, and the lower white. A
plain red triangular flag is used to indicate temperature; when this is
hoisted above other flags, it indicates rising temperature; when placed
below, falling temperature; and when omitted we are to conclude that things
are stationary. Thus the red flag, then below it the white one, and then
the blue hoisted together, would mean that we might expect warmer weather,
at first fair, but succeeded by rain, while the blue flag above the red
would indicate that wet weather was before us, and a fall of temperature.

At the 1894 meeting of the National Rifle Association at Bisley a system of
this kind was inaugurated, in order to give those in camp an idea of the
weather that might be expected for the ensuing twelve hours, the hoisting
of a blue flag indicating fine weather or moderate wind, a red one
foretelling stormy weather or strong wind; green, pointing to unsettled
weather or gusty wind, and a yellow flag indicating thunder or rain storms.
For shooting purposes a knowledge of the strength of the wind is very
valuable. {136}

The development of a code of flag signals seems to have exercised a great
fascination on many minds, and the result has been that until the general
adoption of the International code things had got into a somewhat chaotic
state. Some systems had many excellent points in them, while others broke
down under the strain of practical use. In some cases, too, the claims of
patriotism influenced the choice, it being difficult for an Englishman or
an American to believe that the scheme of a Frenchman or German could
possibly be better than the home-grown article.

The systems best known in this country are the Admiralty codes of 1808,
1816, and 1826, Lynn's in 1818, Squire's in 1820, Raper's in 1828,
Philipps' in 1836, Eardley Wilmot's in 1851, the code of Rogers, the
American, in 1854, the French code of Reynolds in 1855, and the system
devised by Marryat in 1856, all being superseded by that of the Board of
Trade.

The International code of signals was prepared and first published in
April, 1857, in accordance with the views and recommendations of a
Committee appointed by the Lords of the Privy Council. Three members,
Admiral Beechey, Captain Robert Fitzroy, and Mr. J. H. Brown, the
Registrar-General of Seamen, were named by the Board of Trade; one member,
Admiral Bethune, by the Admiralty; an elder brother, Captain Bax, was
appointed as a member by the Trinity House; Mr. W. C. Hammett and Captain
Halstead were the members named by Lloyds; while the Liverpool Shipowners'
Association, and the General Shipowners' Society, each, by the nomination
of a member, had a voice in the discussion.

After a deliberation of more than a year, the examination of the thirteen
then existing codes and due attention to any practical suggestion made to
them, a mature and valuable scheme was promulgated. Eighteen flags in all,
viz., one burgee, four pennants, and thirteen square flags, were employed,
and these represented the consonants of the alphabet. These are depicted in
the three upper rows on plate XXIV. Figs. 307 to 324, the letter it stands
for in the code being placed by each flag. These flags are combined in
various ways, either in twos, threes, or fours, and are always read
downwards, thus Fig. 325 must be read B.D.T.F; if we read it the reverse
way, as F.T.D.B, it would have an entirely different significance.

Of the two-flag signals we have three varieties. Should the burgee, Fig.
307, be uppermost it constitutes what is termed an attention signal; thus
the hoisting of B.D signifies, "What ship is that?" If the upper flag be a
pennant C.D.F. or G it is a compass signal; thus G.F means
west-north-west-half-west. If a square flag be uppermost it is an urgency
signal; thus, N.C signifies "am in distress," or N.J "am driving, no more
anchors to let go." {137}

Signals made with three flags are not classified according to the upper
flag; they relate to subjects of general inquiry or communication of news.
In the lower portion of Plate XXIV. we have given five examples of these.
Fig. 330, flags B.P.Q, asks "Do you wish to be reported?" while the
hoisting of P.D.S, see Fig. 332, replies, "Report me to Lloyds' Agent."
Fig. 333, H.V.F, asks, "Do you want assistance?" while Fig. 334, G.B.H,
enquires, "Has any accident happened?" Fig. 331, made up of flags V.K.C,
gives the reassuring answer to both enquiries--"All safe." As weather
signals, we find "barometer rising" indicated by G.F.W; "barometer falling"
by G.H.B; and "barometer standing," by G.H.C. Fine weather is
prognosticated by the group H.M.S; a breeze off sea is foretold in the
combination H.S.V; and a breeze off land by H.S.W.

Signals composed of four flags are divided into different sections again,
according to the form of the uppermost flag employed. If this upper flag be
either of the pennants C.D or F, it indicates that the signal is what is
called vocabulary. If the upper be the burgee--the letter B of the code--it
is a geographical signal; thus, any vessel beating up channel and seeing
Fig. 325, made up of B.D.T.F, hoisted from a lighthouse, would, even if
uncertain before, know their position, as this signal is the one specially
assigned to the Eddystone. Fig. 326, the letters B.D.P.Q, signifies that
the vessel flying it hails from the port of London, while B.F.Q.T. is
Edinburgh, and so on. All names of ships are expressed by four letters,
thus N.V.B.Q is the code signal (Fig. 327) of the steamship _Germanic_;
M.N.D.L (Fig. 328) that of the _Hesperus_; and Fig. 329, made up of
G.R.C.T, is the special grouping assigned to H.M.S. _Devastation_. All
these names are recorded in the Shipping List, so that two vessels passing
each other in mid-ocean are able at once to determine each others' names if
within sighting distance of the flags run up. Should we see a stately liner
coming to port, flying M.T.L.Q, we recognise that it is the _Australia_ of
the great Peninsula and Oriental Line, but if she runs up L.H.T.B then she
is the Orient Company's boat _Orotava_. Some names occur frequently, thus
other _Australias_, belonging to various owners, are distinguished by the
code signals R.L.H.V, J.T.G.K, M.P.F.C, M.Q.N.G, M.T.W.D, W.F.T.N, etc.,
etc. Figs. 355, 356, 357, 358, 359 are all code signals of various
_Australias_. While the Peninsular and Oriental Company has also a
_Victoria_, K.M.Q.F., they have no monopoly of the name. There are numerous
other boats of that popular designation, but even when vessels have the
same name no two vessels ever have the same code letters assigned to them.
Other _Victorias_, for example, are differentiated, as W.Q.M.N., L.S.H.R,
K.P.G.Q, M.K.C.H, M.S.P.B, M.Q.C.J, L.D.F.H, T.R.B.N, K.J.H.P, T.D.R.F,
etc., etc. Figs. 350, 351, 352, 353, {138} 354 are all _Victorias_; and
Figs. 360, 361, 362, 363, 364 are the flag-signals of various _Britannias_.
Our readers will see at once how distinctive they are. Figs. 335 to 349
inclusive are the special flags of well-known steamships of the Peninsular
and Oriental, the Orient Line, and the _Compagnie Générale
Transatlantique_.

Should the vessel be a yacht, it is the _Aline_ if she shows the flags
P.W.N.D; the _Star of the Sea_ if her signal is T.N.B.H; but if it is the
_Meteor_ we shall be aware of the fact from her hoisting the four flags
L.C.T.P. The flag signal of the _Valkyrie_ is L.F.M.G.

Applications for the allotment of a code-signal, for the purpose of making
ships' names known at sea, should be made, if of the United Kingdom, to the
Registrar General of Shipping, Custom House, and, if belonging to a Colony,
to the Registrar at the port to which the vessel belongs. If a ship to
which this International Code Signal has been alloted is reported wrecked,
lost, or sold to a foreigner, and her register is in consequence cancelled,
the signal letters allotted to her are also cancelled, so that if the ship
is afterwards recovered or re-purchased from foreigners, either in her
original or some other name, new signal letters will be necessary, and the
owner must make application anew for another allotment, as the signal
letters the vessel originally bore may have been in the interval
re-allotted.

The flags to be hoisted at one time never exceed four, and it is an
interesting arithmetical fact, that, with these eighteen flags, never using
more than four at a time, over seventy-eight thousand different
combinations can be made. With these flags, only using two at a time, 306
different arrangements can be made, while by using three at a time we get
4,896 possibilities, and by using four at a time, we can make 73,440
changes; a total in all of 78,642 variations made from these simple
elements. Marryat's code, prior to the introduction of the International,
being the one most in use, twelve out of its sixteen flags were, to save
expense, incorporated in the new code. Their significance was, however,
entirely changed. Marryat's flags, too, were numerals, while the
International code, as we have seen, has its flags named after the letters
of the alphabet.

Proposals are in the air to add eight new flags to the code, the X, Y, and
Z, and the five vowels, since it is held that even the great number of
combinations now possible may in time not suffice. The reason for the
absence of the vowels is a somewhat curious one. Directly vowels are
introduced we begin to spell words, and it was found that amongst the
thousands of combinations possible, would be presently included all the
profane, obscene, and otherwise objectionable four-letter words of the
whole world. To hoist D.B.M.N could offend no one's susceptibilities, but
to {139} run up the signal D.A.M.N in response to an enquiry is quite
another matter, and it must be remembered that as this code is used by all
civilised nations, a word that is merely meaningless in one country might
be most offensive in another. An English Captain might hoist as a necessary
signal J.A.L.P. or F.L.U.M. and see no possible objection to it, but "jalp"
or "flum" might to the people of some other nationality carry a most
atrocious significance.

It is a practical necessity that all connected with the sea should
understand the use of the International code, therefore, the Lords
Commissioners of the Admiralty require that all Royal Naval Reserve men who
act as Masters or Mates of ships should be instructed in its working, and
the Board of Trade makes like requirements from all candidates for Masters'
or Mates' Certificates. Its International character is a most valuable
feature, as by its use two captains, say a Dane and a Greek, or a Russian
and a Spaniard, who, on the quay, could not comprehend a word of each
other's language, can at sea, by this common flag-language, come to a
perfectly clear understanding of each other's need, or impart any
information required. It is the only code used at the signal stations
around our coasts. Lloyds' have thirty-three of these signal stations at
Dover, Beachy Head, Lundy Island, Dungeness, Flamborough Head, St.
Catherine's Point, North Foreland, and other conspicuous points on our line
of ocean traffic, and abroad again at Aden, Ascension, Gibraltar, Bermuda,
Honolulu, Suez, Perim, Malta, Teneriffe, and elsewhere, and here too, the
International is the only code recognised.

This "Lloyds," that we may see daily referred to in the newspapers, is a
Corporation that, amongst other marine business, distributes shipping
intelligence. A Mr. Edward Lloyd, in the seventeenth century, kept a coffee
house in Tower Street, which in time from the daily gathering there of
merchants, captains, and others interested in marine affairs, became a
centre for shipping and underwriting news and business. In the year 1692 it
was moved to Lombard Street, and in 1774 the coffee supplying part of the
business was abandoned and rooms were taken in the Royal Exchange. During
the wars with Napoleon, the Government was often indebted to the Committee
of Lloyds' for the earliest information of important events all over the
world. Lloyds' has its agents in every port, and by its complete
organisation and the potent aid of the telegraph, the shipping business of
the world is brought day by day before us. Vessels spoken far out on the
ocean are reported by the vessel that spoke them immediately on its arrival
at any port. Thus a sailing-vessel journeying from London to Vancouver may
be five months or more before it touches land, {140} but during that time
it is sighted by other vessels from time to time, and these report having
seen it, and that all was well on board. So the mother knows that her son,
who is parted from her by thousands of miles of ocean, has got thus far in
health and safety; and the owners of the vessel learn that their venture
has so far surmounted the perils of Cape Horn and the other dangers of the
deep. The good ship is drawing nearer at each report to the end of her long
voyage, and on arrival at last off Vancouver, as the land is sighted, the
signal flags run up once more to the masthead, the news of her coming is
flashed across continent and ocean, and the London newspaper of the next
morning contains the brief notification that far exceeds to anxious hearts
all else of interest its broad pages may contain.

Familiarity, though it may not necessarily breed contempt, dulls the sense
of the wonder of it all, and yet how marvellous it is! We have before us
the _Standard_, that came into our hands about seven o'clock this morning,
and we find from it that yesterday the _Glenshiel_ had arrived at Hong
Kong, that the _Arab_, from Cape Town, had just put in at Lisbon, that the
_Sardinian_, from Quebec, had reached Moville, that the _Circassian_ was
safely at New York, that the _Orizaba_, speeding on to Sydney, had at 2
a.m. passed the desolate shores of arid Perim, that the _Danube_, from
Southampton, had at 6 a.m. entered the harbour of Rio Janeiro. Of this, and
much else of the same tenor, may we read in a space of a quarter-column or
so of the paper as we sit at breakfast and see pass before us a panorama of
world-wide interest and extent; and to accomplish this result, the flags we
have figured have been a potent factor.



Though we have covered much ground, it must have been patent to all readers
who have thus far companioned us that much detail was necessarily omitted,
unless our book had to grow to the dimensions of an encyclopædia. It would
probably, for instance, take some fifty figures or so to give all the
distinctive flags of the various government departments, official ranks,
etc., of a single Great Power. We trust nevertheless that while our labours
have been by no means exhaustive, they have been instrumental in showing
that there is much of interest in flag-lore, and that an increased
knowledge and appreciation of our subject may be one result of our pleasant
labours, and prove full justification for our work.

       *       *       *       *       *

{141}

INDEX.

          A.
  Aargau, flag of   116
  "Acta Sanctorum," the   38
  Admiral's flag, R.N.   56
  Admiralty, flag of the   71, 72
  Agincourt, battle of   106
  Agincourt, flags at   5
  Agnus Dei, as device on flag   22
  _Ailsa_, flag of the yacht   73
  Allan Line, flag of the   75
  Allotment of code signals   138
  Ambulance flag   117
  Ancient Irish harp   33
  Anchor as badge   63, 71, 87, 100, 114
  Andrew, cross of St.   4, 35, 42, 43, 45, 53, 116
  Andrew, St., of Scotland   37, 42, 44
  Andrew, St., of Russia   103, 104
  Andrew, St., order of   102
  Anne, Standard of Queen   35
  Annunciation on flag   4
  Answering pennant   134
  Antelope as a device   16
  Antiquity, standards of   2
  Antwerp, device of city of   111
  Anvil as device on flag   7
  Argentine Republic, flag of   124
  Armada, defeat of the   3
  Arms of Canada   81, 82
  Arms of Washington   91
  Army, flags of the   61
  Army signalling   127, 128, 129
  Arragon, arms of   111
  Articles of War   56
  Assaye, special flag for   65
  Assyrian standards   2
  Athene, owl of   2
  Australian Steam Navigation Company's house flag   74
  Austro-Hungarian flags 101, 102
  Avondale flag   43
  Awdeley, standard of Sir John   17

          B.
  Bacon on sea-power   84, 85
  Baden, flag of   101
  Badge   9, 13, 15, 21, 62, 66, 67, 83, 84, 117
  Bahamas, Badge of the   84
  Balmoral tartan   1
  Banner, its nature   10
  Banneroll, kind of flag   18
  Bannockburn, battle of   44
  Barbadoes, badge of   83
  Barcelona, arms of   111
  Bar, banner of Sir John de   11
  Bardolph, banner of Sir Hugh   11
  Basel, flag of city of   116
  Bavaria, flag of   101, 119
  Bayeux tapestry, flags represented in   19, 22
  Bear as a device   1, 2
  Beau-seant of Knights Templars   24
  Beaver as a device   1, 30
  Bede on flags   4
  "Beehive of the Romish Church"   3
  Bees of the Napoleons   106, 109
  Belgium, flags of   23, 118
  Bermuda, badge of   84
  Berne, flag of   116
  Beverley, flag of   5
  Birkenhead, burning of the   64
  Black and white flag of Prussia   98
  Black as a flag colour   7, 24, 25
  Black Swan, device of the   84
  Blackwall line of shipping   74
  Black Watch, the   62
  Blenheim, battle of   64, 66
  Blue blanket of Edinburgh   42
  Blue ensign   40, 56, 73, 78, 83
  Board of Trade, flag of the   71
  Bohemia, flag of   102
  Bolivia, flag of   23, 123
  Bombardment of Scio   118
  Boots and shoes on a flag   7
  Bordered Jack   48, 58
  Botetourte, banner of Sir John   11
  Bourbon kings, the   107
  {142}
  Brabant, lion of   112
  Brass of Sir John Daubernoun   18
  Brazil, flag of   23, 24, 123
  Brazil, pendant of   20
  Bremen, flag of port of   99
  _Britannia_, flag of the yacht   73
  British East Africa, device of,  84
  British Guiana, badge of   84
  British North Borneo, badge of   84
  Broad pendant   56
  Brunswick, arms of   35
  Brunswick, flag of   101
  Buckles as device on flag   7
  Bugle-horn as a device   15
  Builder's square on flag   6
  Bulgaria, flag of   121
  Bunker's Hill, battle of   87
  Bunting as material for flags   22
  Burgee, variety of flag   19, 73
  Burgundy, flag of   111, 112
  Burning of rebel colours   70
  Butler's "Lives of the Fathers"   39
  Butterflies as a flag device   17

          C.
  Campbell on the national flag   54
  Canada, Dominion of   10
  Canada, flags of Dominion of   80
  Canadian Pacific steamship line   75
  Candlemakers' flag, the   7
  Canterbury Cathedral, flags in   66
  Cantonal colours   116
  Cape of St. Martin   105
  Cape St. Vincent, action off   41
  Castle Line, house flag of the   75
  Castle on flag as a device   111, 112
  Cavalry standards   65
  Cavers standard, the   43
  Ceylon, device of the Colony of   84
  Chapel of Royal College, Chelsea, flags in   3, 66
  Chaucer, quotation from   12, 18
  Cheering to order   102
  Cherbourg, flag of port of   75
  Chili, flag of   121
  Chili, pendant of   20
  Chinese flags   125
  Chrysanthemum flag of Japan   124
  Coastguard flag   134
  Codes for flag-signalling   136
  Coffee plant on flag   123
  Coins, devices on   2, 88, 90, 120
  Colombia, flag of United States of   122
  Colonial Defence Act   78, 79, 80
  Colonial flags   20, 40, 78
  Colonies, value of   76, 77
  Colour party   64
  Colours, Queen's   61, 65, 67
  Colours, regimental   61, 65, 67
  Colours used in flags   23
  Columbus, flag flown by   86, 111
  Commodore's broad pendant   56
  Commonwealth flags   48
  Company or house flags   74, 75
  Compasses as a device   6
  Compass signals   136
  Confederate States of America   27, 94, 95
  Congo Free State, flag of   126
  Conquest of Ireland   33
  Consecrated banner   3, 103
  Constantine, Labarum of   2, 3, 51
  Consular flag   71
  Consul-General, Russian, flag of   104
  Cornet, variety of flag   19, 130
  Costa Rica, flag of   122
  Courtenay, banner of Sir Hugh de   11
  Covenanter flags   24, 43, 91
  Crescent as device   11, 15, 88, 95, 119, 120
  Croatia, flag of   102
  Cromwell, arms of   35
  Cromwell, funeral of   19
  Cross of St. Andrew   4, 35, 42, 43, 45, 53, 116
  Cross of St. George   4, 10, 14, 16, 35, 39, 41, 45, 48, 53, 84, 87, 116
  Cross of St. Patrick   4, 51, 53, 116
  Crown of Charlemagne   35
  Crowns of Ireland   33
  Cuba, flag of   124
  Culloden, battle of   70
  Cunard Line, house flag of   74
  Customs Department, flag of   71
  Czarina, standard of the   102
  Czar, standard of the   102, 103

          D.
  Dalmatia, flag of   102
  Dannebrog, the   115
  Demerara and Berbice Steamship Company   74
  Denis, St., flag of   5
  {143}
  Denmark, flags of   115
  Derivation of word flag   8
  Desjardins on French flag   107
  Devitt and Moore house flag   74
  Diana, crescent of   119
  Diplomatic Service, flag of   71
  Dipping the flag   25
  Dragon as a device   17, 125
  Drayton, quotation from   15
  Durham, St. Cuthbert of   5

          E.
  Eagle as a device   41, 91, 93, 94, 98, 101, 102, 105, 109, 110
  Early Spanish flags   27
  East Africa Company, German   100
  East India Company, flag of   47, 89
  East Kent Regiment, flags of   66
  East Prussia, flag of   98
  Ecclesiastical flags often pictorial   4
  Ecuador, flag of   124
  Eddystone Light flag signal   137
  Edinburgh Cathedral, flags in   68
  Edinburgh Trained Bands   42
  Edmonson on flag usage   9
  Edward the Confessor, arms of   34
  Edward III., "King of the Seas"   25
  Edward VI., funeral of   17
  Egypt, ancient, standards of   2
  Egyptian flags, modern   120, 121
  Electoral bonnet   52
  Elephant as a device   65, 84, 125
  Elephant, order of the   115
  Elizabeth, funeral of Queen   17
  Elizabeth, thanksgiving service   3
  Elsass, flag of   101
  Emperor of Germany   98
  Ensign   8
  Ermine as a flag device   24
  Errors in flag-making   58, 59, 60
  Excise, flag of the   71
  Eye as a device on flag   7

          F.
  Facings of the regiment   62
  Falcon as a device   17
  Favyn "Le Théâtre d'honneur"   4, 107
  Fiji, badge of colony   84
  Files represented on trade flag   7
  Flag-book of the Admiralty   120
  Flag-lore valuable   58
  Flagons on trade flag   7
  Flag-signalling   127, _et seq._
  Flanders, badge of   111
  Flashing messages at night   134
  Fleur-de-lys   21, 34, 36, 106, 108, 109, 112
  Flodden, battle of   6
  Florida, settlement of   86
  Florin, arms on the   32
  Fly of a flag, the   10
  Fork and spoon on a flag   7
  Four-flag signals   137
  France, flags of   1, 21, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110
  Franco-German War of 1870   97
  Fribourg, flag of   116
  Frogmorton, standard of   17
  Funeral obsequies, flags at   6, 17, 18, 19, 22

          G.
  Garter, order of the   38
  Gautier on the Swiss flag   116
  Geneva Convention   117
  Geneva, flag of   116
  Geographical signals   137
  George, St., cross of   4, 10, 14, 16, 35, 39, 41, 45, 48, 53, 84, 87,
      116
  George, St., of England   36, 37, 116
  George, St., of Russia   102, 103
  German Unity   97, 98
  Germany, flags of   99, 100
  Globe on flag   63, 87
  Gnu as a flag device   84
  Golden Legend, the   37
  Gonfalon, kind of flag   8
  Government, departments, flags of   71
  Governor-General of Canada, flag of   81
  Governors of Colonies, flags of   81, 84
  Grandison, banner of Sir William de   11
  Gray, quotation from   9
  Greater Britain   77
  Great Seal of Canada   83
  Great Seal of Richard I.   30
  Greece, flag of   119
  Green and white of the Tudors   21
  Green as a flag colour   23, 43, 113, 123
  Greyhound as a device   17
  {144}
  Growth of the Italian State   113
  Guards, flags of the   65
  Guatemala, flag of   23, 122
  Guidon, form of flag   21
  Guild flags   6, 7
  Guinea Company's flag   27

          H.
  Half-mast high, flags at   25
  Hamburg, flag of city of   99
  Hammer represented on flag   6, 7
  Hand as a device   2
  Hanover, arms of   29, 35, 52
  Hanover, flag of   101
  Hanseatic League, flag of   99
  Harfleur, siege of   12
  Harleian MS. on flags   16, 21
  Harp of Ireland   4, 29, 32, 33, 34, 49, 54
  Hayti, flag of   23, 124
  Heavenly succour   37, 42, 44, 106, 115
  Henry V., standard of   16
  Henry VII., flags in chapel of   12
  Heraldic Exhibition, Edinburgh   43
  Heraldic requirements in flag devising   23, 54
  Hesse, flag of   101
  Highland tartans   1
  "History and principles of Heraldry"   10
  Hohenzollerns, arms of the   99
  Hoisting one flag over another   25
  Hoist of the flag, the   10
  Holderton, banner of Sir John de   11
  Holland, flags of   117, 118
  Hong Kong, badge of colony of   84
  Horse as a device   2
  Horsham, political colours at   8
  House flags   24, 74, 75
  House of Orange, flag of   117
  Hungary, flag of   23, 102

          I.
  Idolatrous emblem   87
  Illiterate voters, mistakes of   7, 8
  Imperial Eagle   66, 101, 102
  Inscriptions on flags   3, 4, 13, 15, 16, 24, 35, 41, 43, 49, 66, 88, 90,
      93, 122, 123
  International signal code   133, 136, 137, 138
  Investiture of knight-banneret   14
  Invocation of saints   3
  Ireland joined to Great Britain   32
  Iron cross of Germany   100
  Isandlwana, battle of   63, 69
  Istria, flag of   102
  Italy, flags of   23, 113, 114

          J.
  James II., statue of   35
  Japan, flags of   124
  Jerusalem, arms of city of   114, 115
  Jewish standards   3
  Joan of Arc, standard of   4
  Jove, Eagle of   2

          K.
  Karlaverok, siege of   11, 18
  Kasan, arms of province of   102
  Katharine of Arragon flag-making   13
  Kempenfeldt's signal code   130
  Key as a device on flag   15
  Khorsabad, slabs from   2
  Kingdom of Hungary   101
  King's Own Borderers   63
  Kiow, arms of province of   102
  Knights-banneret   14
  Knights of the Bath, banners of   12
  Knights of the Garter, banners of   12
  Knights Templars, banner of the   24
  Köbel, book on costume and flags   101
  Korea, flag of kingdom of   125

          L.
  Labarum of Constantine   2, 3, 51
  Labuan, badge of colony of   84
  La Haye's book on flags   87
  Lamartine on the red flag   109
  Lancer pennon   14, 19
  Landing of Charles II.   47
  Land of the rising sun   124
  Laurel wreath on flag   49, 81
  Lawyers, flag of the   7
  Leeward Isles, badge of the   84
  Leon and Castile, arms of   86, 110, 111
  Liberia, flag of   125
  Liberty, figure of   94, 118
  Lion of Scotland   4, 29, 31, 34
  Lions of England   4, 29, 30, 34
  {145}
  Livery colours   7, 14, 17, 21
  Livy on Vexillum   2
  Lloyd's signal stations   139
  Locksmiths, flag of the   7
  London, port of, flag signal   137
  London Trained Bands   41, 67
  Lone Star State, flag of the   95
  Lord Cardross, flag of   16
  Lord High Admiral of England   72, 80
  Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, flag of   71
  Lord Mayor's Show, flags at   19, 20
  Loss of colours at Edgehill   65
  Lothringen, flag of   101
  Louisiana, flag of State of   94
  Louisiana, settlement of   86
  Lozenges as a device on flag   41
  Lubeck, flag of city of   99
  Lucerne, flag of   116
  Lunenburg, arms of   35
  Lydgate, the duty of chivalry   12

          M.
  Maccabees, standard of the   3
  Machyn, diary of   6, 17, 21, 39, 111
  Mackay, extract from   57, 58
  Mail service flag   72
  Mainsail emblazoned  as banner   12
  Malplaquet, battle of   64
  Man-of-war pendant   20, 78, 93, 110, 111, 121, 129, 135
  Maple-leaf of Canada   30, 81
  Marmion, quotation from   8, 18
  Martin, description of Western Islands   1
  Marseillaise, the   98
  Marseilles, flag of port of   75
  Martlets on flag   34
  Massachusetts, flag of   3, 87
  _Mayflower_, sailing of the   87
  Mecklenburg-Strelitz, flag of   101
  Mediæval spelling   6, 22
  Mediterranean and New York Company   75
  Merchant flag, red ensign   40, 47, 58, 73, 80
  Merchant Shipping (Colours) Act   58
  Metal-workers, flag of the   7
  Meteorological signals   135
  Mexico, flag of   23, 123
  Milton, quotation from   8
  Minotaur as a device   2
  Minden, battle of   64
  "Mirror for Magistrates," quotation from   15
  Mohammedan flags often green   24
  Monasteries, flags of   5
  Monk, funeral of General   18, 22
  Monogram, sacred, on flag   3, 42, 51
  Monthermer, banner of Sir Ralph   11
  Morse alphabet for signalling   127, 128, 129
  Mottoes on flags   3, 4, 13, 15, 16, 24, 35, 41, 43, 49, 66, 88, 90, 93,
      122, 123
  Mutiny in the Royal Navy   25

          N.
  Napoleon, flags at tomb of   4
  Nassau, arms of   29, 35
  Natal, device of colony of   84
  Naval Discipline Act   56
  Naval Exhibition at Chelsea   41
  Navy signalling   129, _et seq._
  Nelson, funeral of   18, 22
  Neville's Cross, battle of   5
  New Brunswick, arms of province of   82
  Newfoundland, badge of colony of   83
  New Granada, flag of   122
  New Guinea, badge of colony of   84
  New South Wales, badge of colony of   84
  New Zealand, badge of   84
  New Zealand Shipping Company   24, 75
  Night signalling at sea   134
  Nisbet on the tressure   32
  Norie's "Flags of All Nations"   26
  Northallerton, sacred flags at   5
  North German Confederacy   99
  Norway, flag of   115
  Nova Scotia, arms of province of   82
  Nova Scotia, settlement of   87
  Novgorod, arms of province of   102

          O.
  Obsolete flags   8, 22, 26
  Ontario, arms of province of   82
  Orange flag   8
  Orange Free State, flag of   23, 125
  Order of Black Eagle   100
  {146}
  Ordnance Department flag   71
  Orient Steam Navigation Company   24, 134
  Oriflamme   105
  Oudenarde, battle of   64
  Owl of Athene   2

          P.
  Palmetto palm on flag   94, 95
  _Pamiot Azof_, flag of the   104
  Papal States, flag of the   23, 114, 115
  Paraguay, flag of   122
  Paris, arms of city of   109
  Passion symbols on flag   6
  Patrick, St., life of   51, 52
  Pendant or pennant,   20, 40, 78, 93, 110, 111, 121, 129, 135
  Peninsular and Oriental Company, flag of   74
  Pennoncelle or pencel   19
  Pennon, nature of the   14, 18, 19
  Pepys, extract from diary of   55
  Percy, banner of Sir Henri de   11
  Percy lion   11, 15
  Percy motto   15, 16
  Percy standard   15
  Persepolis, sculptures of   2
  Peruvian flag   123
  Pictorial flags   4
  Pilgrim Fathers, the   87
  Pilot flag   48, 100, 104, 134
  Pine-apple as a device   84
  Pine-tree flag   87, 88, 89
  Plantagenet livery colours   21
  Pliny on Roman standards   2
  Poland, flag of   105
  Political colours   7
  Political devices on flags   4
  Pomerania, flag of   101
  Popham's signal code   131
  Portcullis as a device   21
  Portobello, capture of   41
  Ports, flags of   75
  Portugal, flags of   112, 113
  Pottery, representation of flags on   89
  Precedence a difficulty   28
  Presentation of colours   3, 66
  President, U.S.A., flag of   93, 94
  Printed flags   23
  Protectorate flag, the   50
  Prussian eagle   98

          Q.
  Quarantine flag, the   25, 59
  Quebec, arms of province of   82
  Queen's colour   61, 65
  Queensland, badge of colony of   83
  Queen's Regulations   54, 55, 64, 71, 78, 81

          R.
  Ramilies, battle of   64
  Rattlesnake flag   1, 13, 87, 88
  Raven of the Danes   13
  Rebel colors burnt   70
  Red ensign   40, 47, 58, 73, 80
  Red flag of revolution   25, 59, 109
  Relics of saints worked into flag   5
  Religious character of early flags   4, 5, 22
  Religious service   3, 103
  Revenue flag, U.S.A.   93
  Rey on the French flag   107
  Rhode Island, flag of   87
  Richard II., standard of   17
  Ridre, standard of Sir William de   11
  Riga, flag of port of   75
  Ripon, St. Wilfrid's banner at   5
  Rolls of arms   10
  Rome, standards of ancient   2, 42
  Roses as a flag device   16, 21
  Rotterdam, flag of port of   75
  Rouen, capture of   5, 38, 112
  Roumania, flag of   121
  Royal Colonial Institute   76
  Royal Horse Artillery of 1813   19
  Royal Marines   63
  Royal Naval Reserve   40, 56, 57, 73, 79, 139
  Royal Navy, flag code of the   133
  Royal Oak on coins   88
  Royal Standard   11, 29, 34, 48, 54, 59, 78
  Royal United Service Museum   24, 125, 130, 131
  Royal Yacht Squadron, flag of the   72
  Royston, political colours at   8
  Russia, flags of   24, 102, 103, 104, 105
  Russian American Company's flag   26

          S.
  Sacred monogram on flag   3
  Salique law, operation of   36
  Salmon as a flag device   82
  Saluting the flag   26, 55, 56
  {147}
  San Salvador, flag of   124
  Sarawak, flag of   125
  Sardinia, flag of   26
  Savoy, flag of   27, 113, 123
  Saxe-Coburg Gotha, flag of   101
  Saxony, arms of   35
  Saxony, flag of   100
  Schomburg-Lippe, flag of   101
  School of Army Signalling   128
  "Scotland for ever"   70
  Scots Greys 66
  Scottish grievance as to arms   31, 45, 46, 53
  Scottish variation of Union flag   46
  Scott, quotation from   8, 29
  Servia, flag of   121
  Seven Champions of Christendom,  38
  Seventeenth Lancers   66
  Shakespeare, quotation from   15, 37
  _Shannon_ and _Chesapeake_ duel   90
  Shears as a device on trade flag   7
  Siam, flag of kingdom of   125
  Signal-book of _Chesapeake_   133
  Signalling by flags   20, 23, 127, _et seq._
  Simon de Montfort, banner of,  12
  Skull and cross-bones device   66
  Sledge flags of Arctic expedition   16
  South Australia, badge of   83
  South Carolina, flag of   87, 88, 94
  Southern Cross   30, 80, 96
  Sovereignty of the seas   25, 26
  Spain, flags of   1, 24, 110, 111, 112
  Spelling, mediæval liberty of   6, 22
  Spenser, quotation from   36
  Sphinx as a badge   62, 63
  Spoon and fork on trade flag   7
  Standard, nature of the   14
  St. Andrew, cross of   4, 35, 42, 43, 45, 53, 116
  Stars and bars, C.S.A.   95, 96
  Stars and stripes, U.S.A.   59
  St. Denis, flag of   105
  Stewart on tartans   1
  St. Gallen, flag of   116
  St. George, cross of   4, 10, 14, 16, 35, 39, 41, 45, 48, 53, 84, 87, 116
  St. Helena, badge of colony of   84
  Storm signals by flags   135
  "Story of Thebes," quotation from   12
  St. Patrick, cross of   4, 51, 53, 116
  Straits Settlement, device of   84
  Streamer, variety of flag   20, 21
  Strictly confidential signals   133
  Stuart, livery colours of house of   21
  Sun as a device   2, 17
  Swallow-tail flag   14, 18, 93, 110, 115, 116, 130
  Swan, black, of Western Australia   84
  Sweden, flag of   115
  Switzerland, flag of   116
  Swynnerton, standard of Sir Thomas de   16
  Sydney, Sir Philip, funeral of   18
  Sidney, Sir Philip, on war   19
  Symbols to express colours   74

          T.
  Tartans, Scottish   1
  Tasmania, device of colony of   84
  Telegraph Department, flag of   71
  Tessin, flag of Canton   117
  _Teutonic_, armament of the   57
  Teutonic order, cross of the   100
  Texas, flag of the State of   95
  Texel, flag of the port of   75
  "The late unpleasantness"   96
  "Theorike and Practike of Modern Warres"   61
  Third Dragoons   66
  Thistle as a flag device   42, 82
  Three-flag signals   137
  Tiger of Korea   125
  Titus, the arch of   2
  Tobacco plant on flag   123
  Torpedo practice flag   133
  Trafalgar, Nelson's famous signal   132, 133
  Trajan's column, standards on   2
  Transport service, flag of the   71, 104
  Transvaal, flag of the   126
  Trefoils as a device   41
  Tressure of Scotland, the   31, 32
  Tricolor of France   40, 108
  Trinidad, badge of colony of   84
  Trinity, banner of the   5, 6
  Trowel on guild flag   6
  Trumpet banners   12, 20
  Tudor flags   17
  Tughra device, the   120, 121
  {148}
  Tunisian flags   120
  Turkey, flags of   24, 119, 120
  Twenty-fourth regiment   62
  Tyrol, flag of the   102

          U.
  Union between England and Scotland 45
  Union between Great Britain and Ireland 50, 52
  Union flag   1, 4, 45, 47, 50, 54, 61
  Union flag of Sweden and Norway,  116
  Union Jack   47, 48
  Union Steamship Company's flag   75
  United Italy   113
  United States of America, flag of   86, 89, 90, 91
  Universal code for signalling   28
  Urgency flag signals   136
  Uri, flag of Canton of   116
  Uruguay, flag of   122
  Utilisation of liners as cruisers   57

          V.
  Valence, banner of Sir Aymer de   11
  _Valkyrie_, flag of the yacht   73
  Variation in size a sign of rank   17
  Venezuela, flag of   23, 122, 123
  Venice, obsolete flags of   27
  Versailles, palace of   97
  Vessels spoken at sea   139, 140
  Viceroy of India, flag of   65, 81
  Victoria Cross   63
  Victoria, flag of colony of   80
  Victualling Department, flag of   71
  Virginia, settlement of   86
  Virgin Mary on flag   6
  Vocabulary signals   137
  Voldermirz, arms of   102
  Vowel flags objectionable   138, 139

          W.
  Waldeck, flag of   101
  War cries   37
  War songs   95, 98
  Warriors' Chapel at Canterbury   66, 67
  Washington, arms of   91, 93
  "Watch upon the Rhine"   98
  Waterloo, battle of   70
  Weather signals   135, 137
  Wellington, funeral of Duke of   18, 22
  West Africa, device of   84
  Western Australia, device of   84
  Western Australia, governor's flag   81
  West Prussia, flag of   98
  White cross of France   107
  White elephant of Siam   125
  White ensign   40, 55, 59, 72
  White horse of Hanover   63, 66
  White horse of Kent   36
  White Star Line, house flag of 57, 75
  Why called "Jack"   48
  William III., standard of   35
  Wreath on flag   63, 66, 81
  Wolf as a device   2
  Wurtemburg, flag of   101

          Y.
  Yacht flags   100, 138
  Yellow flag, its significance   24, 59
  York, livery colours of house of   21

       *       *       *       *       *

{149}

COLOURED PLATES.

PLATE I.

1 Banner of Sir John Botetourte. 2 Banner of Sir Ralph de Monthermer. 3
Banner of Sir Hugh Touches. 4 Banner of Sir William de Ridre. 5 Banner of
Sir Hugh Bardolph. 6 Banner of Sir John de Holderton. 7 Banner of Sir Henri
de Percy. 8 Banner of Sir Hugh de Courtenay. 9 Banner of Sir Aymer de
Valence. 10 Banner of Sir John de Bar. 11 Banner of Sir William de
Grandison.

PLATE II.

12 Percy Flag, Crescent Badge. 13 Arctic Sledge-flag, Expedition of
1875-76. 14 The Percy Standard. 15 Standard of Sir Thomas de Swynnerton. 16
Arctic Sledge-flag, Expedition of 1875-76. 17 Banner of St. Edmund. 18
Banner of Simon de Montfort. 19 Banner of St. Edward.

PLATE III.

20 Streamer, Tudor Fleur-de-Lys Badge, 1520. 21 Streamer, Tudor Portcullis
Badge, 1520. 22 Standard of Henry VIII. 23 Streamer, Tudor Rose Badge,
1520. 24 Streamer, Tudor Red Dragon Badge, 1520. 25 Pendant of H.M.S.
_Lion_. 26 Pendant of H.M.S. _Tiger_. 27 Pendant of Warship of 1520.

PLATE IV.

28 Guidon form of Flag. 29 Abnormal form of Pennon. 30 Lancer Pennon of
present day. 31 Pennon, Royal Horse Artillery, 1813. 32 Flag from Early
German Book. 33 Modification of Pennon form. 34 Flag of H.M.S. _Niger_,
1797. 35 Ecclesiastical Flag, MS. British Museum. 36 Burgee, the Ducal
Shipping Line. 37 Early form of Banner, MS. British Museum. 38 Burgee,
McIver's Shipping Line. 39, 40, 41, 42 Examples from Bayeux Tapestry. 4
illus.

PLATE V.

43 The Royal Standard of King George III. 44 The Royal Standard of Queen
Victoria.

PLATE VI.

45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51 Illustrations of perverted ingenuity and crass
ignorance, taken from street decorations on occasions of general rejoicing.

PLATE VII.

52, 53 Flags from early Spanish Map in British Museum, 1502. 54, 55 Early
Portuguese Flags, British Museum. 56 The Guinea Company. 57 East India
Company. 58 Early form of Algerian Flag. 59 Russian-American Company. 60
Early English War Flag. 61 Heligoland Flag during British Possession. 62
The Flag of Savoy. 63 Flag of the Grand Seigneur. 64 Turkish Flag.

PLATE VIII.

{150} 65 Ship Flag, Reign of George I. 66 Early form of Red Ensign. 67
London Train Bands: The Blue Regiment, 1643. 68 London Train Bands: The
Yellow Regiment, 1643. 69 Flag of Warship, 16th Century. 70 Flag of H.M.S.
_Tiger_. 71 St. George, and Tudor Livery Colours. 72 London Train Bands:
The Green Regiment, 1643. 73 Flag of Union of England and Scotland. 74
Pendant of H.M.S. _Lion_, 1745. 75 Scottish Blue Ensign. 76 Scottish Red
Ensign. 77 Banner of St. Alban's Abbey. 78 Jack of Warship of the 16th
Century. 79 Suggested forms for Union Flag, 1801.

PLATE IX.

80 Early Union Flag, England and Scotland. 81 Commonwealth Flag, England
and Scotland. 82 Commonwealth Flag, England and Ireland. 83 Standard of
Cromwell. 84 Scotch suggestion for Union Flag, 1801. 85 Flag of
Commonwealth. 86 Commonwealth Flag of England and Ireland. 87 Early Form of
Irish Flag, MS. in British Museum. 88, 89 Suggested Forms for second Union
Jack.

PLATE X.

90 Union Flag of Great Britain and Ireland. 91 Cross of St. George of
England. 92 Cross of St. Andrew of Scotland. 93 Cross of St. Patrick of
Ireland. 94 Regimental Colours: 24th of the Line, the 2nd Warwickshire
Regiment.

PLATE XI.

95 The White Ensign, Man-of-War. 96 The Blue Ensign, Naval Reserve. 97 The
Red Ensign, Merchant Service. 98 Victualling Service. 99 Admiralty Flag.
100 Ranelagh Yacht Club. 101 Yare Yacht Club. 102 Royal Thames Yacht Club.
103 Dublin Bay Yacht Club. 104 Pilot Jack. 105 Board of Trade Flag. 106
Flag of Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. 107 Customs House Flag. 108 Ordnance
Flag.

PLATE XII.

109 Green's Blackwall Line. 110 Cunard Line, Liverpool. 111 Peninsular and
Oriental Company. 112 Australasian Naval Company. 113 Devitt & Moore,
London. 114 Canadian Pacific Company. 115 Donald Currie & Co., London. 116
Union Steamship Company, Southampton. 117 Mediterranean and New York
Shipping Company. 118 Houlder Brothers & Company, London. 119 White Star
Line, Liverpool. 120 New Zealand Shipping Company. 121 _Britannia_, H.R.H.
the Prince of Wales. 122 _Ailsa_, A. B. Walker, Esq. 123 _Valkyrie_, The
Earl of Dunraven. 124 _Hester_, Major W. H. Gretton. 125 _Dream_, W. H.
Jones, Esq. 126 _Carina_, Admiral Montague.

PLATE XIII.

127 Cape Colony, Government. 128 Queensland, Government. 129 Canada,
Commercial. 130 Canada, Government. 131 Badge of Straits Settlements. 132
Badge of British North Borneo. 133 Badge of Tasmania. 134 Victoria,
Commercial. 135 Victoria, Government. 136 Badge of New Zealand. {151} 137
Badge of Fiji. 138 Badge of New South Wales. 139 Flag of Viceroy of India.
140 Portion of Pendant, Government Colonial vessels. 141 Governors' Flag,
West Australia.

PLATE XIV.

142 American Insurgent Flag, 1775. 143 Admiral's Flag, U.S. Navy. 144 Flag
used at Bunker's Hill. 145 American Pine-tree Flag. 146 The Stars and
Stripes of the United States. 147 New England Navy Flag, 1776. 148
Massachusetts Flag, 1775. 149 Pine-tree and Stripes. 150 Early American
Flag. 151 Portion of Pendant, U.S.Navy.

PLATE XV.

152 Confederate States of America. 153 Confederate, the Southern Cross. 154
Southern Cross, modified. 155 South Carolina State Flag, 1861. 156
Louisiana State Flag. 157 Chili, portion of Pendant. 158 South Carolina,
1775. 159 South Carolina State Flag, 1861. 160 Texas State Flag. 161 Chili,
Commercial. 162 Guatemala, Flag of 1851. 163 Guatemala, Flag of 1858.

PLATE XVI.

164 Colombia (formerly New Granada), Commercial. 165 Uruguay, General
Service. 166 Guatemala, Government. 167 Costa Rica, Commercial. 168
Paraguay, Government. 169 Brazil, General Service. 170 Venezuela,
Commercial. 171 Bolivia, Commercial. 172 Mexico, Government. 173 Portion of
Pendant, Brazil. 174 Peru, Government. 175 San Salvador, General Service.
176 Argentine, Government. 177 Ecuador, Government. 178 Hayti, Commercial.

PLATE XVII.

179 Oriflamme. 180, 181 Early French forms of Flag. 182 Soissonois Flag.
183 Bourbon Flag. 184 Standard of Charles VI. 185 Standard, French. 186
Man-of-War Pendant. 187 Standard, French. 188 Flag of French Guards, 1563.
189 Flag of Republic, France. 190 Tricolor of 1790. 191 Modern French
Tricolor.

PLATE XVIII.

192 Spain, War. 193 Spain, Commercial. 194 Royal Standard of Spain. 195
Portugal, Royal Standard. 196 Portugal, General Service. 197 Italy,
Commercial. 198 Papal Merchant (obsolete).

PLATE XIX.

199 Saxony. 200 Waldeck. 201 Saxe Weimar. 202 Pomerania. 203 Wurtemburg.
204 Oldenburg. 205 Mecklenburg Strelitz. 206 Brunswick. 207 German Empire,
War Ensign. 208 German Empire, Jack. 209 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 210 Schomberg
Lippe. 211 West Prussia. 212 Hesse. 213 Austria, Government. 214
Austro-Hungarian, Commercial. 215 Russian Jack. 216 Poland.

PLATE XX.

217 Russian Man-of-War. 218 Russia, Commercial. 219 Early Form of Russian
Ensign. 220 Russia, Consul General. 221 Russia, Chargé d'Affaires. 222
Russia, Ambassador or Minister. 223 Russia, Transport Service. 224 Danish
Man-of-War. 225 Danish, Commercial. {152} 226 Russian Imperial Standard.
227 Swedish, Commercial. 228 Norwegian Man-of-War. 229 Union Flag of Sweden
and Norway. 230 Flag of Norway. 231 Flag of Sweden. 232 Switzerland.

PLATE XXI.

233 Greece, Commercial Flag. 234 Italian Jack. 235 Turkey, Commercial. 236
Belgium, Commercial. 237 Holland, Royal Standard. 238 Turkey, Standard. 239
Turkey, Government. 240 Tunis, Government.

PLATE XXII.

241 Bulgaria. 242 Roumania. 243 Servia. 244 Japanese Ensign. 245 Japanese
Imperial Standard. 246 Japanese Transport Flag. 247 Chinese Merchant Flag.
248 Japanese Guard Flag. 249 Orange Free State. 250 Liberia. 251 Congo
State. 252 Rajah of Sarawak. 253 South African Republic.

PLATE XXIII.

254 to 267 Fourteen Flags from the Signal Code of the Royal Navy. 268
Special Flag of the Coast Guard.

269 to 278 Code of Sir Hope Popham, used by Nelson at Trafalgar, &c. 10
illus.

279 to 286 Special Battle Signals, code suggested in 1788. 8 illus.

287 to 296 Numerical Code. Signal Code of 1788. 10 illus.

297 to 306 Pilot Signals of various Nationalities. 10 illus.

PLATE XXIV.

307 to 324 The Flags of the International Code. 18 illus. 325 The
Signal-hoist for the Eddystone Lighthouse, B.D.T.F. 326 Code-signal for the
Port of London, B.D.P.Q. 327 Code-signal of SS. _Germanic_, N.V.B.Q. 328
Code-signal of the _Hesperus_, M.N.D.L. 329 Code-signal of H.M.S.
_Devastation_, G.R.C.T. 330 "Do you wish to be reported?" B.P.Q. 331 "All
safe!" V.K.C. 332 "Report me to Lloyd's Agent." P.D.S. 333 "Do you want
assistance?" H.V.F. 334 "Has any accident happened?" B.G.H.

PLATE XXV.

335 to 339 Signal Flags of SS. _Australia_, _Arcadia_, _Massilia_,
_Victoria_, _Bengal_. (Are all Vessels in the P. & O.) 340 to 344 Signal
Flags of SS. _Oroya_, _Orient_, _Ophir_, _Orotava_, _Ormuz_. (Are all
Vessels of the Orient Line.) 345 to 349 Signal Flags of SS. _La Touraine_,
_Lafayette_, _Ville-de-Tanger_, _Amerique_, _Saint-Germain_. (Are all
Vessels of the Compagnie Generale Transatlantique.)

PLATE XXVI.

350 to 354 Flag-signals of some of the numerous _Victorias_ on the Shipping
List.

355 to 359 Flag-signals of some of the numerous _Australias_ on the
Shipping List.

360 to 364 Flag-signals of some of the numerous _Britannias_ on the
Shipping List.

_The Botolph Printing Works, Crosskey Square, Little Britain, E.C._

       *       *       *       *       *

NOTES

[1] "Every Isle differs from each other in their Fancy of making Plads, as
to the Stripes in Breadth and Colours. This Humour is as different through
the main Land of the Highlands in so far that they who have seen those
Places are able at the first View of a man's Plad to guess the Place of his
Residence."--Martin's "Description of the Western Islands," 1703. See also
"Old and Rare Scottish Tartans," by Donald Stewart, all illustrated by
actual pieces woven in silk to a reduced scale. The latest tartan, that of
Balmoral, was devised by Prince Albert in the year 1848.

[2] In mediæval days the pastoral staff or crook of the bishop often had a
small scarf attached to it. This was known as the vexillum, and was
supposed to be derived from the Labarum, or standard of the first Christian
emperor, Constantine the Great.

[3] In Favyn's book, "Le Théâtre d'honneur et de Chevalerie," published in
Paris some two hundred and fifty years ago, we read of "Le grand estendard
de satin bleu celeste double en riche broderie de fleurs de lys d'or de
Chypre à une grande croix plein de satin blanc, qui est la croix de France.

"Le grand estendard Saint Michel ange gardien de la France, de satin bleu
celeste de riche broderie d'or de Chypre, semé d'estoiles d'or.

"Le grand estendard de l'ordre du benoist Saint-Esprit, faict de double
satin verd à une columbe d'argent, rayonné d'or de riche broderie, le rest
semé de flammes d'or."

Joan of Arc had a white standard powdered over with gold fleurs-de-lys, and
in the centre a figure of Christ sitting on a rainbow, and holding a globe.
On either side an angel in the posture of adoration, and, underneath, the
words "Jhesu, Maria." On another she had the Annunciation, and the words
"Ave Maria." These were painted at Tours "par James Power, Ecossais,
Peintre du Roi."

[4] Thus the Cross of St. George would be normally represented as in Fig.
91, but we find it much elongated in Figs. 12 and 14, much widened out in
Figs 27 and 56, and yet more so on the shield of the arms of the Dominion
of Canada in Fig. 129.

[5] We do not pause to explain the meaning of any heraldic terms that we
are obliged to employ. Such terms may be readily found in any technical
book on blazonry, and we have ourselves, in "The History, Principles and
Practice of Heraldry," gone very thoroughly into the meaning and use of the
various forms that enter into the blazonry of shield or banner, and do not,
therefore, repeat these matters here.

[6] _i.e._, badges.

[7] "Lord Gordon has arrived at Nauplia. He has brought the Greeks a number
of ensigns, embroidered by Scotch ladies, and sent by them."--_Salisbury
and Winchester Journal_, December 27th, 1824.

[8] This crowned key may be seen as early as 1359 on the seal of Sir
Michael de Poynings.

[9] The bugle horn appears as the crest of Sir William de Bryan on his
brass, 1375.

[10] In an old pedigree of the family is inscribed the lines:--

 "Esperance en Dieu,
  Trust in hym, he is most true.
  En Dieu Esperance,
  In hym put thyne affiaunce.
  Esperance in the worlde? Nay,
  The worlde variethe every day.
  Esperance in riches? Nay, not so;
  Riches slidethe, and some will go.
  Esperance in exaltacion of honour?
  Nay, it widderethe away, lyke a flowre.
  Esperance en Dieu, in hym is all,
  Which is above Fortune's fall."

[11] The modern flag, known as the burgee, largely used in flag signalling,
is like a shortened pennon. It is sometimes also called a cornet.

[12] "Now the often changing fortune beganne also to channge the law of the
battels. For at the first, though it were terrible, yet Terror was deckt
and broachie with rich furniture, guilt swords, shining armours, pleasant
pensils, that the eye with delight had scarce time to be afraide; but now
all defiled with dust, blood, broken armour, mangled bodies, tooke away the
maske, and set forth Horror in his own horrible manner."--SIR PHILIP
SYDNEY.

[13] "A streamer shall stand in the toppe of a shippe, or in the
forecastle, and therein be putt no armes, but a man's conceit or device,
and may be of the lengthe of twenty, forty, or sixty yards."--Harleian MS.,
No. 2,358, dealing with "the Syze of Banners, Standardes, Pennons,
Guydhomes, Pencels, and Streamers."

[14] While thus severe in our judgment on misguided foreigners it is only
just to point out that England itself is responsible for a combination as
horrible as any in the green, red, white, of the special flag that she
bestowed on Heligoland, while it was yet a British possession. It may be
seen in Fig. 61.

[15] The famous banner of the Knights Templars, called the Beau-seant, had
its upper half black and lower white. The black symbolised the terror it
should be to the foe, and the white amity and goodwill to friends.

[16] The "house-flags" of the various shipping companies make a great use
of letters: thus the flag of the Orient Steam Navigation Company is white
and divided into four portions by a blue cross. In these four portions are
placed in red the letters O.S.N.C. In Fig. 120 we have the flag of the New
Zealand Shipping Company, where the N.Z.S. Co. are equally conspicuous. Any
reference to a good list of house-flags, such as that published by Griffin,
would reveal scores of illustrations of this feature.

[17] The map is freely embellished with illustrations. In South America,
for instance four immense crimson parrots about fill up Brazil, while in
Africa the parrots are green. Many of these figured details are very
quaint.

[18]

                 "The dazzling field,
  Where in proud Scotland's royal shield,
  The ruddy lion ramped in gold."--_Scott._

[19] With only one exception the Sovereigns of Scotland never quartered the
arms of any other kingdom with their own. The only exception was when Mary
Stuart claimed the arms of England and placed them upon her standard, and
thus gave irreparable provocation to Queen Elizabeth.

[20] Brian Boru, who was killed in battle with the Danes, did much to
civilise Ireland; and, amongst other things, introduced the harp. The
ancient Irish harp at Trinity College, Dublin, was long claimed as the
identical instrument of Boru, but it has been proved by the ornament upon
it that it cannot be later than the fourteenth century. The most primitive
representation of the harp in Ireland is in a rude sculpture in a church
near Kilkeny. This is known to date from the ninth century. Though the harp
has ever shone in the poetry of the Irish people, they have but little
claim to it. It has been by no means such a national instrument with the
Irish as with the Welsh. It is one of the most ancient of instruments,
figuring in the mural paintings of Egypt centuries before the Christian
era.

[21] As may be seen beautifully enamelled on his tomb in Westminster Abbey.

[22] Another flag was a plain scarlet one, having this inscription: "For
the Protestant Religion and the Liberty of England" in white upon it.

[23] The following summary may be taken as correct in its broad
facts:--From about 1195 to 1340, the Standard had the lions of England
alone on it. From 1340 to 1377, England and France together. 1377 to 1399,
England, France, and the arms of Edward the Confessor. 1399 to 1603,
England and France. 1603 to 1649, England, France, Scotland and Ireland.
1649 to 1659, Interregnum: a period of change and uncertainty, when divers
changes in the Standard were made that are scarcely worth detailing. 1659
to 1688, England, France, Scotland, and Ireland. 1688 to 1701, England,
France, Scotland, Ireland, and Nassau. 1701 to 1714, England, France,
Scotland, and Ireland. 1714 to 1801, England, France, Scotland, Ireland,
and Hanover. 1801 to 1837, England, Scotland, Ireland, and Hanover. From
1837, England, Scotland, and Ireland.

[24] Spenser.

[25] In the same way, we find the Scottish clansmen rushing to the fray to
the cry of "St. Andrew and our Right." In the ballad of Otterbourne we read
that the Scots

 "Uppon Sent Andrewe loude they crye,
  And thrysse they showte on hyght."

[26] One interesting exception to this is that, on St. George's Day, the
5th regiment (Northumberland Fusiliers) holds full-dress parade, all
wearing the rose, the national emblem, in their headgear, and the officers
on their sword-knots also. The colours, too, are festooned with roses.

[27] "The x day of January hevy news came to London that the French had won
Cales (Calais), the whyche was the hevest tydyngs to England that ever was
herd of.

"The xj day of January the Cete of London took up a thousand men, and mad
them whytt cotes and red crosses, and every ward of London found men.

"The xxj day of January came a new commandement to my Lord Mayre that he
shuld make men redy in harnes with whyt cotes weltyd with green, and red
crosses, by the xxiij day of the same moneythe to be at Leydenhalle to go
forward.

"The xviij day of May there was sent to the shyppes men in whyt cotes and
red crosses, and gones, to the Queen's shyppes."--MACHYN'S DIARY.

[28] Thus we have the white, the blue, the white and orange, the green and
red, the purple, the blue and white, the orange and green, the red and
yellow, the red and blue, the red and white, and divers others. The orange
company always took the lead. These companies were for a long time in
abeyance, and were superseded in 1798 by the formation of the Royal
Edinburgh Volunteers, but each year the Magistrates and Council still
appoint one of their number to be captain of the orange colours. His duty
is to take charge of the old colours and preserve them as an interesting
relic of a bygone institution.

[29] It is remarkable that none of the flags extant bear the motto which
the Parliament on July 5th, 1650, ordered "to be upoun haill culloris and
standardis," _i.e._, "For Covenant, Religion, King, and Kingdom." It is
characteristic that each body claimed independence even in this matter.
Thus the Fenwick flag bore "Phinegh for God, Country, and Covenanted work
of Reformations." Another flag has, "For Reformation in Church and State,
according to the Word of God and our Covenant," while yet another bears the
inscription, "For Christ and His truths, no quarters to ye active enemies
of ye Covenant."

[30] St. Andrew's day is November 30th.

[31] The question of the Union between England and Scotland was often
mooted. In the year 1291 Edward I., being victorious in the north, declared
the two countries united, but this did not last long. In 1363 Edward III.
opened negotiations for a union of the two crowns if King David of Scotland
died without issue. In the reign of Edward VI. the matter was again to the
fore, but it was left to Queen Elizabeth to take the decisive step.

[32] April 12th, 1605.

[33] Thus in the Royal Standard of Spain, Fig. 194, the arms of Leon and
Castile being In the upper corner next the staff take precedence of honour
over Arragon and all the other States therein introduced.

[34] In a picture in the collection at Hampton Court, representing the
embarkation of Charles II. from Holland, the ship has a large red flag
charged with the Stuart arms in the centre, but so soon as his position in
England was assured he reverted to the royal standard of his Stuart
predecessors and to the original form of the union flag, a form that during
the Protectorate was widely departed from.

[35] "Jaque, espece de petite casaque militaire qu'on portait au moyen age
sur les armes et sur la cuirasse."--BOUILLET, "Dict. Universel."

[36] A contemporary representation of this Long Parliament flag may be seen
on the medals bestowed on the victorious naval commanders, where the
principal ship in the sea-fight represented on the reverse of the medal
flies this flag at her masthead.

[37] Andrew Marvell on the victory of Blake at Santa Cruz.

[38] As the year of his birth is scarcely known within a century or so, it
is too much to expect the month or the day, but the day that is assigned to
St. Patrick in the calendar is March 17th.

[39] In the year 1816, in consequence of the Electorate of Hanover being
raised to the rank of a Kingdom, the Hanoverian Royal Crown was substituted
for the Electoral headgear in the royal arms on the shield and standard.

[40] A writer in the _Retrospective Review_ in the year 1847, thus relieves
his feelings:--"The banner of St. George, argent, and cross gules is still
borne as part of the English flag, though, from the disgraceful manner in
which it has been amalgamated with the Crosses of St. Andrew and St.
Patrick, it has not only lost all its purity, but presents a melancholy
example of the ignorance of heraldry and total want of patriotism and taste
which must have characterised those to whom we unfortunately owe its
arrangement."

[41] "All Her Majesty's Ships of War in Commission shall bear a white
ensign with the Red St. George Cross, and the Union in the upper Canton,
and when it shall be thought proper to do so, they may display the Union
Jack at the bowsprit end."--_Queen's Regulations._

[42] We read, for instance, in the Diary of Pepys that in the expedition of
the Duke of Buckingham, in the year 1627, against the Isle de Rhé that "the
Duke divided his fleet into squadrons. Himself, ye Admirall, and General in
chiefe, went in ye Triumphe, bearing the Standard of England in ye maine
topp, and Admirall particular of the bloody colours. The Earl of Lindsay
was Vice-Admirall to the Fleete in the Rainbowe, bearing the King's usual
colours in his foretopp, and a blew flag in his maine topp, and was
admirall of the blew colours. The Lord Harvey was Rear Admirall in ye
Repulse, bearing the King's usual colours in his mizen, and a white flag in
the main topp, and was Admirall of ye squadron of white colours."

[43] On the hoisting of the Ensign all work stops, and all ranks muster on
deck, standing with hand raised to the cap in salute, while the ship's band
plays the opening bars of the National Anthem.

[44] Charles Mackay.

[45] Other regiments with green facings are the 5th, 11th, 19th, 36th,
39th, 46th, 49th, 73rd, etc. Regiments with blue facings are the 1st, 4th,
6th, 7th, 13th, 18th, 21st, 23rd, 25th, etc., while buff is found in the
2nd, 3rd, 14th, 22nd, 27th, 31st, 40th, etc. Amongst the regiments with
yellow facings are the 9th, 10th, 12th, 15th, 16th, 20th, 26th, 28th, 29th,
30th, 34th, 37th, 38th, etc. White is met with in the 17th, 32nd, 41st,
43rd, 47th, 59th, 65th. Red is not so common, since the colour is that of
the tunic ordinarily, but we see it in the 33rd, 48th, and 76th. Black is
also less commonly used, but we find it in the facings of the 58th, 64th,
70th, and 89th Regiments.

[46] The "Black Watch," the gallant 42nd, and other regiments also bear the
Sphinx for their services in Egypt in 1801, where Napoleon received his
first serious check from British troops.

[47] When a regiment consists of two battalions the distinctions won by
each are common to both, and are, quite justly, the property of the whole
regiment.

[48] In like manner we find the Royal Marines bearing on their colours an
anchor, first granted to the corps as a badge in the year 1775. The lion
and crown was added to this in 1795. In 1802, in honour of the gallant
share taken by the Marines in the capture of Bellisle, a laurel wreath was
added to the other badges of honour, and in 1827 the motto "_Per Mare per
Terram_" and a globe, surmounted by the word "Gibraltar," was also placed
on their colours, as a testimony to the services of the Marines all over
the world, and notably at the taking of Gibraltar.

[49] Blenheim, August 2nd, 1704; Ramilies, May 23rd, 1706; Oudenarde, June
30th, 1708; Malplaquet, September 11th, 1709; Dettingen, June 16th, 1743;
Minden, August 1st, 1759.

[50] This, with many other interesting trophies of war, may be seen in the
Chapel of Chelsea College. The Blenheim Colours are now nearly all consumed
away with age: of one but the staff remains, and many others are now as
tender as tinder. French, Russian, American, Chinese, and many other flags
of former foes may there be seen quietly fading away, as the old national
animosities have likewise done.

[51] Amongst the various devices seen on the flags of the Parliamentarians,
was one of a skull surrounded by a laurel crown, accompanied by the words
"_Mors vel Victoria_."

[52] There are the colours of other regiments as well. Those that we
specially refer to above will be found in what is known as the Warriors'
Chapel. We deal with these especially, because, as being the flags of the
territorial regiment, they find, with particular appropriateness, their
resting place in Canterbury Cathedral.

[53] There is now no Lord High Admiral of Great Britain; his functions are
analogous to those of the Commander-in-Chief of the Army; the last Lord
High Admiral was William IV., who received this appointment when Prince of
Wales. The office is now said to be "in commission"--its functions are
performed by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, a board uniting the
dual control which is exercised over the land Forces by the War Office and
the Horse Guards. Commissions of Naval Officers are not signed by the
Queen, they are headed "By the Commissioners for executing the office of
Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom," etc.; and they are signed by two
of the Lords.

[54] We find the Royal Yacht Club, in 1815, and the Royal Thames Yacht
Club, in 1835, flying what would be a white ensign if it had but the great
Cross of St. George upon it; an entirely white flag having the Union in the
corner next the staff. One may get a fair notion of its effect by looking
at Fig. 154, but imagining the Union in the place of the device there seen.
The Royal Yacht Club burgee at this period was plain white, without any
device whatever. The burgee of the other Club we have named has undergone
many changes. In 1823 it is scarlet, with the letters T.Y.C. in white; in
1831 the prefix Royal has been gained, and the flag, still red, has the
crown and the R.T.Y.C. in white upon it; while in 1834 we still find the
crown and the same letters, but now, not white on red, but red on white.

[55] "BY THE COMMISSIONERS for executing the office of Lord High Admiral of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, &c.

"WHEREAS, we deem it expedient that Canadian registered vessels shall be
permitted to wear the Red Ensign of Her Majesty's Fleet, with the Canadian
Coat of Arms in the Fly thereof.

"We do therefore, by virtue of the power and authority vested in us, hereby
warrant and authorize the Red Ensign of Her Majesty's Fleet, with the
Canadian Coat of Arms in the Fly, to be used on board vessels registered in
the Dominion.

"Given under our hands and the seal of the Office of Admiralty, this second
day of February, 1892."

[56] The Maple is to Canada what the Rose is to England, or the Shamrock to
Ireland. Hence, we find it on the coinage, etc. In the Canadian Militia
List before us we find it on the accoutrements of many of the regiments,
enwreathing the motto or device; sometimes alone, and often in association
with the rose, thistle, and shamrock.

[57] Thus in a French book on flags (La Haye's), published in 1737, we see
a "pavillon de Nouvelle Angleterre en Amerique." This is a blue flag,
having on a white canton the Cross of St. George, and in the first quarter
of this canton a globe, in allusion to America, the new world.

[58] In September, 1775, Moultrie, the heroic defender of the fort which
still bears his name, devised this the first flag of the State of South
Carolina, the uniform of the South Carolina men being blue, and some of the
regiments having a silver crescent in their caps; but why they had the
silver crescent as a badge no record seems to inform us.

[59] It may be somewhat of an assistance to our readers if we give a few
chronological details: The obnoxious duty on tea and other articles imposed
by the British Parliament, June, 1767. Tea thrown overboard in Boston
harbour by the discontented populace, November, 1773. The Boston Port Bill,
by which that port was to be shut up until compensation made to the East
India Company for the tea destroyed, passed March, 1774. General Congress
of the colonists at Philadelphia, September, 1774. Revolution, first blood
shed at Lexington, April, 1775. Washington appointed Commander-in-Chief of
the American Armies, June, 1775. Thirteen colonies declare themselves
independent, July 4th, 1776. Independence of Colonies recognised by France
in March, 1778, by Holland in April, 1782, and by Great Britain in
September, 1783. John Adams received as ambassador from America by George
III. in June, 1785, and first ambassador sent from Great Britain to the
United States, in 1791.

[60] In an old print before us of the fight between the _Shannon_ and the
_Chesapeake_, we see that the latter hoists three American flags, all
having the top and bottom stripes white, and at the foremast a white flag
inscribed with the enigmatical motto, "Free Trade and Sailors' rights."

[61]

 "Forty flags with their silver stars,
  Forty flags with their crimson bars."
              WHITTIER, "Barbara Frietchie."

[62] At a banquet at the Mansion House, when many leading Englishmen and
eminent Colonists gathered together to celebrate St. George's Day, the
American Ambassador, an honoured guest, said that he was very conscious
that he was there at a gathering of the clans. "There was a tradition that
the mischievous boy was generally the favourite of the household. His
mother might confess it openly, his father secretly, but the rest of the
family said nothing about it. Now there was a mischievous boy who broke
away from home something more than a century ago, but let them not suppose
that because he left the home he or his descendants ever came back without
a strong feeling that it is the home." He went on to say that he never met
a body of representative Englishmen, British men, speaking the same
language that he did, without a sense of grave joy and pleasure: the sense
that they were his brethren in a great cause, and that he joined with them,
he and his people, in sustaining the best hopes and aspirations of the
world's civilization. Blood is thicker than water, and all right-minded
Englishmen will read his kindly words with pleasure, and give them
heartiest reciprocation.

[63] To the Germans, in their campaign against France, this and the "Watch
upon the Rhine" were worth many battalions as a spur and stimulus to heroic
deeds. During the American War both Federals and Confederates owed much to
the influence of stirring patriotic songs. There can be no doubt that the
songs of Dibdin contributed not a little to our own naval victories, and
every cause that is worth fighting for evokes like stirring strains.
Perhaps one of the most marked illustrations of this is the birth of that
grand war-song known as the "Marseillaise." Rouget de l'Isle, its author,
was a captain of French Engineers stationed in Strassbourg on the opening
of the campaign against Austria and Prussia in 1792. On the eve of the day
that the contingent from that city was going to join the main army of the
Rhine, a question arose as to what air should be played at their departure.
Several were suggested and rejected, and Rouget de l'Isle left the meeting
and retired to his own quarters, and before the gathering broke up had
written both words and music of "Le Chant de l'Armee du Rhin." On returning
to the meeting, still in consultation on the various details of the morrow,
he sang his composition, and it was at once welcomed with delight. It flew
like wildfire throughout France, and, owing to the Marseillaise troops
singing it on entering Paris, it derived the name by which it has ever
since been known. Its stirring words and the grand roll of the music
aroused the enthusiasm of the country, and at once made it the battle-song
of France, to be at times proscribed, but never forgotten.

[64] The book on German costume by Köbel, printed at Frankfort-on-the-Main
in 1545, should be referred to, if possible, by the reader. It is,
unfortunately, a very rare book. The first edition of this splendid volume
contains 144 large illustrations of standard-bearers; the figures are
admirably drawn and very varied in attitude, while the flags they carry are
replete with interest, many of course being now quite obsolete, while
others there represented have come down to us through the three centuries
intact.

[65] The _Pamiot Azof_, one of the most powerful ironclads of the Russian
Navy, flies at her mast-head the Cross of St. George (white on red), in
memory of the gallant service at Navarino in 1527 of her predecessor of
that name. The Czar Nicholas decreed that all future _Pamiot Azofs_ in the
navy should bear this distinguishing mark of honour. Peter the Great built
the first _Pamiot Azof_ as a memorial of the great siege of Azof, and the
name has been handed down ever since. The influence of that piece of
scarlet and white bunting will doubtless be such that no _Pamiot Azof_ will
ever fall short of the highest expectations that this exceptional honour
would suggest.

[66] "Clisson, assura sa Majesté du gain de la bataille, le roi lui
répondit: 'Connestable, Dieu le veeulte, nous irons donc avant au nom de
Dieu et de Sainct Denis.'"--_Vulson de la Colombière._

[67] In a miniature of Charles II., A.D. 869, in a book of prayers, the
royal sceptre terminates in a fleur-de-lys. The crown of Hugh Capet, A.D.
957, in St. Denis, is formed of fleur-de-lys, as is that of his successor,
Robert le Sage, A.D. 996, Henry I., 1031, and many others. To make the
matter more complicated, we find on the crown of Uffa, first king of the
East Angles, A. D. 575, true fleurs-de-lys.

[68] One old writer asserts that Louis VII., on setting out in the year
1137 for the Crusade chose the purple iris flower as his emblem.

[69] "Recherches sur les Drapeaux Français, Oriflamme, bannière de France,
Marques nationales, Couleurs du roi, drapeaux de l'armée, pavilions de la
Marine."--GUSTAVE DESJARDINS, Paris, 1874.

Another good book to see is the "Histoire du drapeau de la Monarchie
Française," by M. Rey.

[70] It may be helpful here to append for reference the chronology of the
earlier sovereigns of the House of Bourbon:--Henry IV., "the Great,"
ascended the throne in 1589; Louis XIII., "the Just," 1610; Louis XIV.,
"the Great," 1643; Louis XV., "the Well-beloved," 1715; Louis XVI., 1774,
guillotined in January, 1793.

[71] Thus, at a grand military _fête_, on May 10th, 1852, in the Champ de
Mars, on restoring this symbol, we find the Emperor addressing the
troops:--"The Roman eagle, adopted by the Emperor Napoleon at the
commencement of this century, was a brilliant symbol of the grandeur of
France. It disappeared amongst our calamities. It ought to return when
France, raised up again, should no more repudiate her high position.
Soldiers! Take again the eagles which have so often led our fathers to
glory." In 1855, in addressing a detachment of the Imperial Guard prior to
its departure for the Crimea, he exclaimed, "The Imperial Guard, the heroic
representative of military glory and honour, is here before me. Receive
then these eagles, which will lead you on to glory. Soon will you have
planted them on the walls of Sebastopol!"

[72] First Republic, 1792 to 1799. The Consulate, 1799 to 1804. The first
Empire, 1804 to 1814. The Restoration, Bourbon and Orleanist, 1814 to 1848,
the second Republic, 1848 to 1853, the second Empire, 1853 to 1870, the
third Republic from 1870.

[73] The diary of Henry Machyn, "Citizen and Merchant Tayler of London,"
from which we have already quoted, tells us how the writer saw the "Kyng's
grace and dyvers Spaneards," the said King being Philip of Spain, riding
through the city attired in red and yellow, the colours of Spain. In the
cavalcade, Machyn tells us, were "men with thrumpets in the same colors,
and drumes made of ketylles, and baners in the same colors."

[74] This quarter of the flag, the arms of Leon and Castile, was the entire
flag of the time of Columbus. Isabella gave the great explorer a personal
flag, a white swallow-tailed ensign having in its centre a green cross and
the letters F.Y. The quartered arms of Leon and Castile are sculptured upon
the monument in Westminster Abbey of Alianore, the daughter of Ferdinand
III., King of Leon and Castile, and the wife of Edward I. of England. The
date of the tomb is 1290.

[75] The following chronological items may prove of assistance. Crown of
Navarre passes to France, 1276. Ferdinand of Arragon re-conquers Navarre,
1512. Accession of House of Austria to throne of Spain, 1516. Spain annexed
Netherlands, 1556, and, shortly after Philip II., husband of our Queen
Mary, annexed Burgundy. Portugal united to Spain, 1580. Portugal lost,
1640. Philip V. invades Naples, 1714. Charles III., King of the Two
Sicilies, succeeds to Spanish crown, 1759.

[76] The various heralds and pursuivants in their tabards blazoned with the
lions of England, the fleurs-de-lys of France, or the castles of Portugal.

[77] Az. three crosses in pale or.

[78] The Turks, originally an Asiatic people, overran the provinces of the
Eastern, or Greek Empire, about the year 1300, but did not capture
Constantinople until 1453. Thirty years afterwards they obtained a footing
in Italy, and in 1516 Egypt was added to the Empire. The invading hosts
spread terror throughout Europe, and in 1529 and in 1683 we find them
besieging Vienna. Rhodes was captured from the Knights of St. John, Greece
subdued, Cyprus taken from the Venetians: but later on the tide of war
turned against them, and frequent hostilities with England, France, and
Russia led to the gradual weakening of the Turkish power.

[79] There is such a general impression that officials are so very much
bound up in highly-starched red tape that we gladly take this opportunity
of acknowledging the extreme consideration with which all our enquiries
have been met. The libraries of the Admiralty, the Royal United Service
Museum, the Guildhall, South Kensington, etc., have been placed
unreservedly at our service. The authorities of the Board of Trade, of
Lloyds, of the Royal Chelsea Hospital, of the Royal Naval Exhibition, the
Agents-General of the Colonies, have all most willingly given every
possible information, and we have received from all to whom we have applied
for information the greatest readiness to afford it, and the most courteous
responses.

[80] The position of Sultan, though one of great dignity, has its serious
drawbacks. This all-conquering Murad was, after all, assassinated; his son
and successor, Bajuzet, died in prison. Isa Belis the next holder of the
throne, Solyman who succeeded him, and Musa, who succeeded Solyman, were
all in turn murdered by their brothers or other relatives.

[81] "Order and progress." Not a very happily chosen motto, since, as a
Brazilian said to us, such a sentiment might equally be placed on the flags
of all civilized nations, order and progress not being features to take any
special credit for, but to be entirely taken for granted, and as a matter
of course.

[82] Our English name, Japan, for this land of the Far East, is a
corruption of the Chinese name for it, _Zipangn_, a word of the same
meaning, Land of the Rising Sun.

[83] There are four Orders of Distinction in Japan; the first is the Order
of the Chrysanthemum, and the second that of the Rising Sun.

[84] Each spring and summer our Volunteers have long-distance practices.
From the account of one of these now before us, we see that the line
extended from Reculvers on the north coast of Kent, to Aldershot, a
distance of over one hundred miles, messages from one point to the other
being rapidly and accurately transmitted by signalling parties on the
various eminences, such as Beacon Hill, Gravelly Hill, Box Hill, and St.
Martha's Hill, between the two extremities of the line.

[85] One may see here, too, the signal book of James, Duke of York, dating
about 1665, by means of which most of our sea-fights with the Dutch were
conducted, and also the code introduced by Kempenfeldt.

[86] The _Victory_ at this time was somewhat less than a mile and a half
from the enemy's line.

[87] The signal for "close action" was flags 1 and 6. All flag signals are
always read from above downwards; 6 and 1 would mean something entirely
different to 1 and 6.

[88] "Expects," it will be seen, is expressed by one hoist of flags, while
"confides" would have necessitated the pulling up and hauling down of eight
distinct sets.

[89] Special hoists are also used for special purposes, thus the display of
the yellow flag, with a black ball on it, is an intimation that torpedo
practice is going on.

[90] June 1st, 1813.

[91] This system was introduced by Captain Columb in 1862. On one occasion,
during heavy weather, from a steamer fifteen miles off shore he sent a
message through a station on the Isle of Wight across to Portsmouth, and
received his answer back in thirteen minutes! This was altogether too good
to be gainsaid or shelved, and the system was speedily adopted.




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Transcriber's note:

The following corrections were made to the printed original:

Table of Contents, Chapter V:--"England expects" printed as "Englands
expects" in original.

Page 5:--In "a priest of Beverley for carrying": "carrying" printed as
"carring" in original.

Page 10:--In "we find these charges represented": "charges" printed as
"changes" in original.

Page 126:--In "their thoughts turn to the dear homeland": "turn" printed as
"turns" in original.

Page 136:--In "thirteen then existing codes": "thirteen" printed as
"thirteeen" in original.

Page 138:--In "Our readers will see": "Our" printed as "Ours" in original.