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Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
are listed at the end of the text.

The colour plate ENTOMOLOGY was originally the Frontispiece to the Volume.

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In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron"; [)e] "e breve"; [a:]
"a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above"; [n.] "n with dot below";
and so forth.

THE

NEW · GRESHAM

ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME · IV · PART · 2

[Illustration]

_The_ GRESHAM · PUBLISHING
COMPANY · _Limited_

66 CHANDOS STREET · STRAND
LONDON W.C.2.
1922

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LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS

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VOLUME IV PART 2

EBERT to ESTREMADURA

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PLATES

                                                                  Page

  ELECTRICAL MACHINERY                                            200
  ENTOMOLOGY (_coloured_)                                         267

MAPS IN COLOUR


  ENGLAND AND WALES                                               242

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KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

       *       *       *       *       *

The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--

VOWELS

[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.

ä, as in _a_lms, Fr. _â_me, Ger. B_a_hn = á of Indian names.

[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.

a, as in f_a_t.

[a:], as in f_a_ll.

_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
in Indian names.

[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.

e, as in m_e_t.

[.e], as in h_e_r.

[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.

i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
French and Italian words.

_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eû_ne = Ger. long _ö_, as in S_ö_hne,
G_ö_the (Goethe).

eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _ö_ short.

[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.

o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.

ö, as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.

[=u] as in t_u_be.

u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.

[u:], as in b_u_ll.

ü, as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _û_ as in d_û_, Ger. _ü_ long as in gr_ü_n,
B_ü_hne.

[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
M_ü_ller.

oi, as in _oi_l.

ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.

CONSONANTS

Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
explanation are the following:--

ch is always as in ri_ch_.

_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.

g is always hard, as in _g_o.

_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
similar gutturals.

[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.

r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
much more strongly trilled.

s, always as in _s_o.

th, as _th_ in _th_in.

_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.

w always consonantal, as in _w_e.

x = ks, which are used instead.

y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
l[=e]ny).

zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.

       *       *       *       *       *

EBERT, Fritz, first President of the new German Republic, born at
Heidelberg in 1870, the son of a tailor. Having received an elementary
education in his youth, he first worked in his father's shop, and was then
apprenticed to a saddler. He spent his spare time in reading and acquiring
knowledge, entered journalism, and in 1892 became editor of the _Bremer
Bürgerzeitung_. In 1908 he was elected to the Reichstag, and in 1916 became
president of the Socialist group of this Assembly. He appealed for peace in
the Reichstag in Sept., 1918, and having thus become rather prominent, he
succeeded Prince Max of Baden as Chancellor of the Empire. The office was
suppressed a few days later, and Ebert became Provisional President of
Germany. He crushed the efforts made by the Spartacus group to prevent the
elections for the National Assembly, and altogether showed tact and energy
in those critical days. The National Assembly met at Weimar, and elected
Ebert as first President of the Reich on 11th Feb., 1919.

E´BIONITES (Heb. _ebyonim_, poor), a sect of the first century, so called
from their leader, Ebion. Irenæus described them as Jewish Christians. They
held several dogmas in common with the Nazarenes, united the ceremonies of
the Mosaic institution with the precepts of the gospel, and observed both
the Jewish Sabbath and Christian Sunday. They denied the divinity of Christ
and rejected many parts of the New Testament.

EBLIS, or IBLIS, in Mohammedan mythology, the chief of the evil spirits;
also the name given to the prince of darkness, or Satan.

EB´OLI, a city of Campania, Southern Italy, a few miles from the Gulf of
Salerno. Pop. 12,741.

EB´ONY, the popular name of various plants of different genera, agreeing in
having wood of a dark colour. The best-known ebony is derived from plants
of the genus Diospyros, nat. ord. Ebenaceæ. The most valuable is the
heart-wood of _D. Eb[)e]num_, which grows in great abundance in the flat
parts of Ceylon, and is of such size that logs of its heart-wood 2 feet in
diameter and from 10 to 15 feet long are easily procured. Other varieties
of valuable ebony are obtained from _D. melanoxylon_ of Coromandel, _D.
tesseleria_ of Mauritius, and other species. Ebony is hard, heavy, and
durable, and admits of a fine polish or gloss. The most usual colour is
black, red, or green. The best is jet black, free from veins, very heavy,
astringent, and of an acrid pungent taste. On burning coals it yields an
agreeable perfume, and when green it readily takes fire from its abundance
of fat. It is wrought into toys, and used for mosaic and inlaid work.

EBONY LORE. In ancient times ebony was a sacred wood. The Indians carved
from it images of gods and drinking-cups. It was first used by the ancient
Egyptians, who called it _heben_, and imported it from 'God-land' (Punt).
The Hebrew name is _hobn[=i]m_, the Greek _ebenos_, the Hindi
_[=a]ban[=u]sa_. Ezekiel (xxvii, 15) connects ebony with Tyre. The ebony
displayed in Rome by Pompey in his triumph over Mithridates came, according
to Solinus, from India. The Chinese call it _Wu-men_ ('black-streaked
wood'), and anciently imported it from India and Indo-China.

E´BRO (Lat. _Ib[=e]rus_), one of the largest rivers in Spain, which has its
source in the province of Santander, about 25 miles S. of the Bay of
Biscay, and after a south-easterly course of about 500 miles enters the
Mediterranean. Its navigation is much interrupted by rapids and shoals, to
avoid which a canal about 100 miles long has been constructed nearly
parallel to its course. Saragossa is the principal town on the river.

ÉCARTÉ ([=a]-kär´t[=a]), a card-game for two players, is played with
thirty-two cards, the smaller ones, from two to six inclusive, not being
used. The remaining cards rank as follows: king (highest), queen, knave,
ace, ten, &c. In the English mode of playing, the players cut for the deal,
which is decided by the lowest card. The dealer gives five cards to either
player, three and two at a time, and turns up the eleventh card for trump.
If he turns up a king he scores one; and if a king occurs in the hand of
either player, the holder may score one by announcing it before the first
trick. The non-dealer leads; trumps take all other suits, but the players
must follow suit if they can. Three tricks count one point, five tricks two
points; five points make game. Before play begins, the non-dealer may claim
to discard (écarter) any of the cards in his hand, and to replace them by
fresh ones from the pack. This claim the dealer may or may not allow.
Should he allow it, he can himself discard as many cards as he pleases.
Sometimes only one discard is allowed, sometimes more. Cf. Cavendish, _The
Laws of Écarté adopted by the Turf Club_.

ECBAT´ANA, the chief city or ancient metropolis of Media, the summer
residence of the Median and Persian and afterwards of the Parthian kings.
It was a place of great splendour at an early period. Its site can no
longer be fixed with certainty, though many explorers agree in identifying
it with the modern Hamadan.

ECCE HOMO (ek´s[=e]; Lat., 'Behold the man!'), a name often given to
crucifixes and pictures which represent Christ bound and crowned with
thorns. The most celebrated of these paintings are by Sodoma, Correggio (in
the National Gallery), Titian, Tintoretto, Guido Reni, and Murillo. The
expression is derived from the words spoken by Pilate when he showed Christ
to the multitude before he was led forth to Crucifixion (_John_, xix, 5).

[Illustration: Eccentric and Rod

P, Pulley. M, Strap. N, Rod. O, Centre of shaft. E, Centre of eccentric. O,
E, Is the throw or radius of the eccentric.]

ECCEN´TRIC, a term in mechanics applied to contrivances for converting
circular into reciprocating (backwards and forwards) rectilinear motion,
consisting of circular discs attached to a revolving shaft, not centrally,
i.e. eccentrically.

ECCHYMOSIS is extravasation of blood into the tissues underlying the skin.
It is most frequently produced as the result of a bruise from injury, but
may be due to some pathological condition.

ECCLEFECHAN (ek-l-fe_h_´an), a Scottish village in Dumfriesshire, near the
Caledonian Railway main line, noteworthy as the birth-place and
burial-place of Thomas Carlyle. Pop. 670.

ECCLES, a town of England, in Lancashire, 4 miles from Manchester, of which
it may be considered a suburb. The town, engaged in textile industries, is
famous for its cakes. Since 1918 it returns one member to Parliament. Pop.
41,946.

ECCLESIAS´TES (-t[=e]z), the title by which the _Septuagint_ translators
rendered the Hebrew _Koheleth_ ('the gatherer of the people'), a symbolic
name explained by the design of the book and the dramatic position occupied
by Solomon in it, one of the canonical books of the Old Testament. The book
consists of 12 chapters, being a series of discourses on the vanity of
earthly things, and the tone, which is sceptical, is such as is found in
Omar Khayyám. According to Jewish tradition, it was written by Solomon; but
the best modern criticism has decided that its style and language, no less
than its thought, belong to a much later date.

ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONERS, in England, a body corporate, constituted in
1836, with extensive powers in regard to the organization of the Church,
the distribution of episcopal duties, and the formation of parishes. It
consists of all the bishops of England and Wales, five cabinet ministers,
four judges, and twelve others. Their decisions are ratified by orders in
council, and acquire the force of Acts of Parliament. The Commissioners
deal with an annual income of about 2 million pounds.

ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS, courts in which the canon law is administered and
which deal with ecclesiastical cases, affecting benefices and the like. In
England they are the _Archdeacon's Court_, _the Consistory Courts_, _the
Court of Arches_, _the Court of Peculiars_, _the Prerogative Courts of the
two archbishops_, _the Faculty Court_, and _the Privy Council_, which is
the court of appeal, though its jurisdiction may by Order in Council be
transferred to the new Court of Appeal. No separate ecclesiastical courts
existed in England before the Norman Conquest, but by a charter of William
I a distinction was made between courts civil and courts ecclesiastical. In
Scotland the ecclesiastical courts are the _Kirk-session_, _Presbytery_,
_Synod_, _General Assembly_ (which is the supreme tribunal as regards
doctrine and discipline), and the _Teind Court_, consisting of the judges
of the Court of Session, which has jurisdiction in all matters affecting
the teinds of a parish. In the Isle of Man ecclesiastical courts still
have, as formerly in England, jurisdiction in probate and matrimonial
cases.

ECCLESIASTICAL LAW may, in the broad sense of the term, be taken to include
the regulations existing in any Church or sect, however small, for the
formation of its own polity and for the control of its members. It is,
however, more generally applied to those legal bonds which exist between
Established Churches and the State. The Roman Catholic Church claims to be
the one and only true Church, regards her laws as being of universal
application, and herself as an equal with the State; nevertheless she has,
in non-Catholic countries, no higher legal standing than any small and
obscure dissenting congregation, and is in this respect a 'free' Church.
Protestant ecclesiastical law claims no such sovereign power, and in no way
interferes with the State law. In England the Convocations of York and
Canterbury have no authority to change the law, their power being limited
to the making of recommendations. All changes in Church law are made by
Parliament. Laymen can be, and often are, officials of the ecclesiastical
courts. The civil law is subject to the canon law, above which is the
common law, with, yet higher, statute law. Over all is the nominal
supremacy of the Crown. Ecclesiastical law deals with such affairs and
property of the Church of England as ecclesiastical parishes, churches, and
matters matrimonial; but only so far as these are not controlled by common
or statute law. It has long ceased to have any practical control of the
laity. In Ireland, ecclesiastical law disappeared with the disestablishment
of the Church.

ECCLESIAS´TICUS, a book placed by Protestants and Jews among the apocryphal
scriptures. The author calls himself Jesus the son of Sirach, Originally
written in Hebrew, it was translated into Greek by the author's grandson in
the second century B.C. In 1896 fragments of four MSS. in the Hebrew
original were discovered in the _Geniza_, or hiding-place for worn out
copies of biblical books, in the synagogue at Cairo. Another fragment was
discovered in Palestine by Mrs. Agnes Lewis.--Cf. Schechter and Taylor,
_The Wisdom of Ben Sira: Portions of the Book Ecclesiasticus_.

ÉCHELLES, LES (l[=a]-z[=a]-sh[=a]l; 'the Ladders'), a village, France,
department of Savoie, 12 miles south-west of Chambéry, in a valley from
which egress at one end was formerly by means of ladders, but now by a
tunnel. Pop. 798.

ÉCHELON (esh´e-lon), a formation of successive and parallel units facing in
the same direction, each on a flank and to the rear of the unit in front of
it.

ECHENEIS, the type genus of a small family (Echeneididæ) of aberrant
spiny-finned fishes, in which the first dorsal fin is modified into a
transversely ridged suctorial disc. See _Remora_.

ECHEVERIA (ech-e-v[=e]´ri-a), a genus of succulent plants, ord. Crassulaceæ
(house-leek), chiefly natives of Mexico, but now cultivated in European and
other gardens and greenhouses, some for their flowers, others for their
foliage.

ECHIDNA ([=e]-kid´na), a genus of Australian toothless mammals, in size and
general appearance resembling a large hedgehog, excepting that the spines
are longer and the muzzle is protracted and slender, with a small aperture
at the extremity for the protraction of a long flexible tongue. The habits
of the Echidna are nocturnal; it burrows, having short strong legs with
five toes, and feeds on insects, which it catches by protruding its long
sticky tongue. It is nearly allied to the Ornithorhynchus, the two forming
a peculiar class of animals, having in their structure some peculiarities
at once of mammals, birds, and reptiles. In 1884 it was found that, as
Geoffrey St. Hilaire had suspected, the Echidna, the closely related
Proechidna of New Guinea, and the Ornithorhynchus constitute the lowest
sub-class of mammals, the Prototheria or Monotremata, which present many
reptilian characters. They possess a cloaca into which the intestine and
urinogenital ducts open and are oviparous. During the breeding season a
temporary pouch is formed, and into this the milk-glands open, but there
are no teats. The egg when laid is put into the pouch by the mother, and is
there hatched in a very immature state. It feeds by licking up the milk in
the pouch. Later on, the mother digs a burrow, where she leaves the young
at night, returning during the day to suckle it. One species (_E.
hystrix_), from its appearance is popularly known as the _porcupine
ant-eater_.

ECHINOCACTUS (e-k[=i]´-), a genus of cactaceous plants inhabiting Mexico
and South America, and remarkable for their peculiar forms, being globular,
oblong, or cylindrical, and without leaves, fluted and ribbed, with stiff
spines clustered on woolly cushions. Some of them are very bulky. The
flowers are large and showy. See _Cactus_.

ECHINOCOCCUS, the very large compound cyst which forms the bladder-worm
stage in the life-history of a small tapeworm (_Tænia echinococcus_) living
in the intestine of the dog. The cysts are found in various abdominal
organs of herbivorous animals, and sometimes infest human beings,
especially in Iceland.

ECHINODERMATA (e-k[=i]-n[=o]-d[.e]r´ma-ta), a phylum or sub-kingdom of
invertebrate animals characterized by having a tough integument in which
lime is deposited in scattered plates (sea-cucumber), flexibly articulated
plates (star-fishes), or so as to form a rigid test or shell like that of
the sea-urchin; and by the radial arrangement of many of the parts of the
adult. Movable spines are commonly present. There is a system of tubes into
which seawater is admitted (ambulacral system), and commonly tube-feet,
that are put into use by being distended with fluid. Some of them, as the
encrinites or sea-lilies, are permanently fixed by a stalk when adult.
Their development is accompanied by metamorphosis, and the embryo shows a
distinctly bilateral aspect, though the radiate arrangement prevails in the
adult. By some they are classed with the Scolecida in the sub-kingdom
Annuloida. The phylum is divided into nine classes: Asteroidea
(star-fishes); Ophiuroidea (brittle-stars), Echinoidea (sea-urchins),
Holothuroidea (sea-cucumbers), Crinoidea (sea-lilies, feather-stars, the
latter free-moving), Thecoidea or Edrioasteroidea (extinct, stalkless but
fixed), Carpoidea (extinct, stalked), Cystoidea (extinct, stalked),
Blastoidea (extinct, stalked). All are marine.

ECHINOMYS, or SPINY RAT, a genus of South American rodent mammals
distinguished by the presence of spines among the coarse fur. The long tail
is covered by scales and hair intermixed, the ears are large, and all the
extremities possess five digits.

ECHINUS (e-k[=i]´nus), SEA-URCHIN, or SEA-EGG, a genus of marine animals,
the type of an order (Echinoidea) of the phylum Echinodermata (see above).
In this type the body is spheroidal and invested in a test or shell
composed of regularly arranged plates closely united together. It is
covered with movable spines articulated by ball-and-socket joints. The
mouth is situated in the centre of the under surface, and there is a
complicated masticatory apparatus (Aristotle's lantern) consisting of five
chisel-ended teeth supported by an elaborate framework. The anus is
similarly placed on the upper side, and is surrounded by a circlet of ten
plates (apical disc), one of which bears a furrowed tubercle (madreporite)
perforated by small holes through which water enters the water-vascular
system. Locomotion is effected by meridional rows of tube-feet, aided by
the spines. _E. esculentus_ and some other species are edible. See
_Sea-urchin_.

[Illustration: Echinus]

ECHINUS (e-k[=i]´nus), in architecture, the _ovolo_ or quarter-round convex
moulding, seen in capitals of the Doric order. It is especially frequently
found carved with the egg-and-dart ornament.

ECHO (ek´[=o]), the repetition of a sound caused by the reflection of
sound-waves from some surface, as the wall of a building. The echo may,
however, be very distinct when the reflecting surface is very irregular,
and it is probable that the resonance of the obstacles and the masses of
air which they enclose contribute in producing the echo. The waves of sound
on meeting the surface are turned back in their course according to the
same laws that hold for reflection of light. In order that the echo may
return to the place from which the sound proceeds, the reflection must be
direct, and not at an angle to the line of transmission, otherwise the echo
may be heard by others but not by the transmitter of the sound. This may be
effected either by a reflecting surface at right angles to the line of
transmission, or by several reflecting surfaces which in the end bring the
sound back to the point of issue. Sound travels about 1125 feet in a
second; consequently, an observer standing at half that distance from the
reflecting object would hear the echo a second later than the sound. Such
an echo would repeat as many words and syllables as could be heard in a
second. As the distance decreases, the echo repeats fewer syllables till it
becomes mono-syllabic. The most practised ear cannot distinguish in a
second more than from nine to twelve successive sounds, so that a distance
of not less than 60 feet is needed to enable an average ear to distinguish
between the echo and the original sounds. At a near distance the echo only
clouds the original sounds, and this often interferes with the hearing in
churches and other large buildings. Woods, rocks, and mountains produce
natural echoes in every variety, for which particular localities have
become famous.

ECHO, in Greek mythology, a mountain nymph (one of the Oreads). Legend
relates that by her talking she detained Hera, when the latter sought to
surprise Zeus among the mountain nymphs. To punish her the goddess deprived
her of speech, unless first spoken to. She subsequently fell in love with
Narcissus, and because he did not reciprocate her affection she pined away
until nothing was left but her voice.

ECHUCA (e-chö´ka), an Australian town, colony of Victoria, on the Murray,
over which is an iron railway and roadway bridge, connecting it with Moama
in New South Wales; trade (partly by the river) in timber and wool. Pop.
4137.

ÉCIJA ([=a]-th[=e]-_h_[.a]), an ancient town of Southern Spain, province of
Seville, on the Genil, with manufactures of textile fabrics and a good
trade. It is one of the hottest places in Spain. Pop. 23,217.

ECK, Johann Maier von, the celebrated opponent of Luther, born in 1486,
died in 1543. Having obtained a reputation for learning and skill in
disputation, he was made doctor of theology, canon in Eichstädt, and
pro-chancellor of the University of Ingolstadt. He went to Rome in 1520,
and returned with a Papal bull against Luther, in attempting to publish
which he met with violent popular opposition. In 1530, while at the Diet of
Augsburg, he made the remarkable admission that he could confute the
Augsburg Confession by the fathers but not by the Scriptures. Eck was
present also at the Diets of Worms (1540) and Ratisbon (1541).

ECK´ERMANN, Johann Peter, German writer, born in 1792, died in 1854. In
1813 he served in the army against the French, and was afterwards appointed
to a small governmental post. He finally settled in Weimar, where he became
private secretary to Goethe. After Goethe's death he published his
_Conversations with Goethe_, a book which has been translated into all
European languages.

ECKMÜHL (ek´mül), a village of Bavaria, circle of Lower Bavaria, on the
Gross Laber, 13 miles S.S.E. of Ratisbon, the scene of a sanguinary battle
between the French and Austrians on 22nd April, 1809, in which the latter
were defeated.

ECLAMP´SIA, a medical term applied to convulsions that seem to be of an
epileptic character, but differ from true epilepsy as being due to some
special poison. The use of the term is now practically restricted to
puerperal eclampsia, convulsions occurring in pregnant women, generally
those suffering from kidney disease.

ECLEC´TICS (Gr. _eklektikos_, select) is a name given to all those
philosophers who do not follow one system entirely, but select what they
think the best parts of all systems. The system is called _eclecticism_. In
ancient philosophy Cicero was the most conspicuous representative of
eclecticism, and in modern times the eclectic method found a notable
supporter in the French philosopher Victor Cousin.

ECLIPSE (ek-lips´; Gr. _ekleipsis_, a failing, _ekleip[=o]_, I fail), an
interception or obscuration of the light of the sun, moon, or other
heavenly body by the intervention of another and non-luminous body. A star
or planet may be hidden by the moon; in this case the phenomenon is called
an occultation.

[Illustration: Diagrams illustrating the Theory of Eclipses]

_An Eclipse of the Moon_ is an obscuration of the light of the moon
occasioned by an interposition of the earth between the sun and the moon;
consequently, all eclipses of the moon happen at full moon. Further, the
moon's direction from the earth must make only a very small angle with the
axis of the earth's shadow, or line joining centres of sun and earth
produced. But as the moon's orbit makes an angle of more than 5° with the
plane of the ecliptic, it frequently happens that though the moon is in
opposition it does not come within the shadow of the earth. The theory of
lunar eclipses will be understood from fig. 1, where S represents the sun,
E the earth, and M the moon. If the sun were a point of light, there would
be a sharp outlined shadow or _umbra_ only, but since the luminous surface
is so large there is always a region in which the light of the sun is only
partially cut off by the earth, which region is known as the _penumbra_ (P
P). Hence during a lunar eclipse the moon first enters the penumbra, then
is totally or partially immersed in the umbra, then emerges through the
penumbra again.

_An Eclipse of the Sun_ is an obscuration of the whole or part of the face
of the sun, occasioned by an interposition of the moon between the earth
and the sun; thus all eclipses of the sun happen at the time of new moon.
Fig. 2 is a diagram showing the cause of a solar eclipse. The dark or
central part of the moon's shadow, where the sun's rays are wholly
intercepted, is here the _umbra_, and the light part, where they are only
partially intercepted, is the _penumbra_; and it is evident that if a
spectator be situated on that part of the earth where the umbra falls,
there will be a total eclipse of the sun at that place; in the penumbra
there will be a partial eclipse, and beyond the penumbra there will be no
eclipse. As the moon is not always at the same distance from the earth, and
as the moon is a comparatively small body, if an eclipse should happen when
the moon is so far from the earth that her shadow falls short of the earth,
a spectator situated on the earth in a direct line with the centres of the
sun and moon would see a ring of light round the dark body of the moon.
Such an eclipse is called _annular_, as shown in fig. 3; when this happens,
there can be no total eclipse anywhere. An eclipse can never be annular
longer than 12 minutes 24 seconds, nor total longer than 7 minutes 58
seconds. The longest possible entire duration of an eclipse of the sun is a
little over 4 hours.

An eclipse of the sun begins on the western side of his disc and ends on
the eastern; and an eclipse of the moon begins on the eastern side of her
disc and ends on the western. The largest possible number of eclipses in a
year is seven, four of the sun and three of the moon, or five of the sun
and two of the moon. The smallest is two, both of the sun. But a solar
eclipse affects only a limited area of the earth, while a lunar eclipse is
visible from more than a terrestrial hemisphere, as the earth rotates
during its progress. Therefore at any given place eclipses of the moon are
more frequently visible than those of the sun.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Buchanan,
_The Theory of Eclipses_; W. T. Lynn, _Remarkable Eclipses_.

ECLIP´TIC, the sun's path, the great circle of the celestial sphere, in
which the sun appears to describe his annual course from west to
east--really corresponding to the path which the earth describes. (See
_Earth_.) The Greeks observed that eclipses of the sun and moon took place
near this circle; whence they called it the _ecliptic_. The ecliptic has
been divided into twelve equal parts, each of which contains 30°, and which
are occupied by the twelve celestial signs, viz.:

  [Aries] Aries (the Ram), 21st March.
  [Taurus] Taurus (the Bull), 20th April.
  [Gemini] Gemini (the Twins), 21st May.
  [Cancer] Cancer (the Crab), 21st June.
  [Leo] Leo (the Lion), 23rd July.
  [Virgo] Virgo (the Virgin), 23rd Aug.
  [Libra] Libra (the Balance), 23rd Sept.
  [Scorpio] Scorpio (the Scorpion), 23rd Oct.
  [Sagittarius] Sagittarius (the Archer), 22nd Nov.
  [Capricornus] Capricornus (the Goat), 22nd Dec.
  [Aquarius] Aquarius (the Water-carrier), 20th Jan.
  [Pisces] Pisces (the Fishes), 19th Feb.

These are also called signs of the _zodiac_, the zodiac being a belt of the
heavens extending 9° on each side of the ecliptic. The days of the month
annexed show when the sun, in its annual revolution, enters each of the
signs of the zodiac. From the First Point of Aries, or the place of the sun
at the vernal equinox, the degrees of the ecliptic are counted from west to
east. The plane of the ecliptic is that by which the position of the
planets and the latitude and longitude of the stars are reckoned. The axis
of the earth is not fixed in direction in space, but performs a slow
conical motion about the pole of the ecliptic in about 26,000 years. In
consequence of this the points at which the equator intersects the
ecliptic, viz. the First Point of Aries and First Point of Libra, recede
westwards upon the ecliptic at the rate of about 50 seconds a year. The
signs of the zodiac, therefore, do not now coincide, as they did some 2000
years ago, with the constellations of the same names, and the First Point
of Aries has now regressed through the greater part of the constellation
Pisces. The angle at which the ecliptic and equator are mutually inclined
is also variable, and has been diminishing for about 4000 years at the rate
of about 50 seconds in a century. Laplace gave a theory to show that this
variation has certain fixed limits, and that after a certain time the angle
will begin to increase again. See _Precession_ and _Nutation_.

ECLOGUE (ek´log), a term usually applied to what Theocritus called
_idyls_--short, highly finished poems, principally of a descriptive or
pastoral kind, and in which the loves of shepherds and shepherdesses are
described. Eclogues flourished among the ancients (_Bucolics_ of Virgil),
and, under the name of pastorals, were fashionable in the sixteenth
century, Spenser's _Shepherds' Calendar_ being a good example. They were
revived in the eighteenth century by Pope.

ÉCOLE DES BEAUX ARTS ('School of Fine Arts'), the French Government school
of fine arts at Paris, founded by Mazarin in 1648, and provided with an
extensive staff of teachers. The competitions for the _grands prix de Rome_
take place at this school. All artists between the ages of fifteen and
twenty-five, whether pupils of this school or not, may compete, after
passing two preliminary examinations. The successful competitors receive an
annual allowance from the State for three or four years, two of which must
be passed at Rome. The Palais des Beaux Arts, the home of the École, was
begun in 1820 and finished in 1863.

ÉCOLE NORMALE SUPÉRIEURE ('Superior Normal School'), a school at Paris for
the training of those teachers who have the charge of the secondary
education in France, founded by decree of the Convention in 1794,
reorganized by Napoleon in 1808, and again in 1830 by the Government of
Louis-Philippe. By the decree of 1903 the school forms part of the
University of Paris. It maintains a hundred students and has a course of
three years' duration.

ÉCOLE POLYTECHNIQUE ('Polytechnic School'), a school in Paris established
with the purpose of giving instruction in matters connected with the
various branches of the public service, such as mines, roads and bridges,
engineering, the army and the navy, and Government manufactures. It was
founded in 1794, and is under the direction of the Minister of War.
Candidates are admitted only by competitive examination, and have to pay
for their board 1000 francs a year. The pupils who pass satisfactory
examinations at the end of their course are admitted to that branch of
public service which they select.

ECOLOGY, or OECOLOGY, the study of the relations of plants to their
surroundings, a branch of plant geography.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Horwood, _British
Wild-flowers_; Tansley, _Types of British Vegetation_; Warming, _Oecology_.

ECONOMICS is the name applied, in substitution for the older one of
political economy, to the scientific study of men in relation to the
production, exchange, distribution, and consumption of wealth. The origin
of both names lies in the analogy between provision for the needs of a
household and for those of a State. To the former the term 'economy' was
originally applied, as in Xenophon's treatise on the subject. But it was
soon adopted to describe that branch of the art of government which dealt
with public revenue and expenditure, and a matter intimately connected
therewith, the enrichment of the community as a whole.

This conception of economics inspired all economic writings until late in
the eighteenth century, a typical example being Thomas Mun's _England's
Treasure by Foreign Trade_ (1664), containing an exposition of the
mercantile system which sought to increase natural wealth by regulation of
the balance of trade. The treatment of economics as a science had its
origin in the writings of the Physiocrats, a group of French philosophers
of whom Quesnay (1694-1774) was the most prominent, and with whom Turgot
(1727-81), the great minister of Louis XVI, held many doctrines in common.
The Physiocrats argued that the wealth of the community was raised to the
maximum, not by State regulation, but by entire freedom in the economic
sphere. But the chief importance of the Physiocrats lay in their paving the
way for Adam Smith (1723-90), who in 1776 published _The Wealth of
Nations_, a book which has exercised profound and widespread influence on
thought and action, and is still a leading authority on the subject. Adam
Smith definitely retained the conception of economics as part of the art of
government. "Political economy", he says, "proposes two distinct objects:
first, to provide a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people ... and
secondly, to supply the State or Commonweal with a revenue sufficient for
the public service. It proposes to enrich both the people and the
sovereign." But the book is also largely occupied with an investigation of
the production, distribution, and exchange of wealth when free from all
regulation and restriction, together with a powerful indictment of such
regulation. This doctrine of non-interference by the State came to be known
as the _laissez-faire_ doctrine, from a phrase used by Gournay, one of the
Physiocrats. Mainly through Adam Smith's influence, it became the orthodox
view of the State's relation to trade and industry. This meant that the
aims of economics, in its older sense, were best achieved without State
action at all; and, consequently, economics came to mean simply the study
of what are in fact men's activities in relation to wealth. This conception
is clearly expressed in such writers as Ricardo (1772-1823), whose
_Principles of Political Economy and Taxation_ enunciates the theory of
rent which has formed the basis of all subsequent reasoning on the subject,
and states a theory of wages which gave colour to Karl Marx's doctrine of
the exploitation of wage-earners by capitalists. It is also evident in the
work of Nassau Senior (1790-1864), in the important _Principles of
Political Economy_ of John Stuart Mill (1806-73), and is most fully
expressed by J. E. Cairnes (1823-78).

This conception has formed the basis of all modern economics, despite
important differences in the method of treating material. The modern view
of the matter is well stated by Dr. Alfred Marshall in his _Principles of
Economics_, a most important contribution to the subject, which has
exercised much influence. Economics he defines as "a study of mankind in
the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and
social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with
the rise of material requisites of well-being". The separation between
economics and the investigation of social phenomena in general is not so
rigidly maintained to-day as in the past. It is realized that men's
activities in relation to wealth are affected by other than purely economic
considerations, and that political, moral, religious, and æsthetic forces
must be taken into account. At the same time, the science deals only with
what is, and not with what ought to be done; and is therefore distinct from
_Ethics_, which is concerned with moral judgments. Of late years, interest
in the application of ethical considerations to economic problems has
increased considerably, using the conclusions of economic science as its
material, mainly in connection with problems of distribution, especially
wages. One of the most important of modern political movements, Socialism,
makes a just distribution of wealth the keynote of its doctrines. In so far
as man's conduct is studied in economics, the science is concerned with
psychological considerations; but it is distinct from _psychology_, taking
the principles thereof as data rather than establishing them as
conclusions. The traditional arrangement of the subject matter of economics
into the production, exchange, and distribution of wealth is still
maintained; but in recent years consumption, the end of almost all man's
productive activity, has received much attention, notably from W. S. Jevons
(1835-82) and Marshall. Important conceptions in this connection are those
of the _diminishing utility_ to an individual or group of individuals of
each successive increment of any commodity received beyond a certain point;
and of _consumer's surplus_, measured by the difference between the price a
person pays for a thing and what he would pay rather than go without it.
Any rigid distinction between the different branches of economics is,
however, impossible. For example, all processes of exchange may be
considered as part either of distribution or of production.

The central problem of economics is really that of how the exchange value
of commodities and services is determined; since in this determination all
the forces regulating production, distribution, and consumption are brought
to a focus, and their action and interaction can be investigated. The study
of value covers that of all forces affecting either the demand for or the
supply of a commodity, including its cost of production. On the side of
production, technical processes are not studied in detail, though some
knowledge of them is indispensable; but matters common to all production
are dealt with, such as the so-called _laws of increasing and diminishing_
return, which are statements of the relation between the amounts of labour,
land, and capital used in production, and the amount of product. Other
questions considered are transport, markets of all kinds, banking,
currency, finance, and trusts and combinations. The study of distribution
includes the methods by which wages, interest and profits, and rent are
determined; and since each of these is payment for a service (of labour,
capital, and land respectively) it is really an aspect of the study of
value. Distribution also covers such subjects as trade unionism,
co-operation, and labour disputes. Economics also deals with public finance
(including taxation), treating of the effects of different methods of
collecting and expending the State revenue. In considering the
above-mentioned subjects, the method of economics is strictly that of a
science, in that it aims partly at a descriptive analysis of material, and
partly at a statement of cause and effect. The laws of economics are, like
other scientific laws, statements of tendencies. They are not laws such as
the commands or prohibitions of the State, though they are often loosely
referred to in this way. That economics should be able to generalize and to
predict about the action of men is due to its dealing not with individuals,
but with large groups, so that individual peculiarities can be neglected
and the general characteristics of the group ascertained. It is in this
connection that considerable controversy has arisen. The older writers on
economics were mainly deductive in method, i.e. they took a few general
principles, such as that every man follows his own interest and knows where
that interest lies, and made certain assumptions, such as the existence of
free competition; and on this basis worked out a group of principles which
were sometimes quite unrelated to actual facts. This method is undoubtedly
a most powerful one, and of great value provided that the original
assumptions are kept clearly in mind, and variations from them in a
particular case allowed for in applying conclusions. But the unreality of
some of its results produced a reaction, of which an early instance is the
famous _Essay on the Principle of Population_ by T. R. Malthus, published
in 1798. This book inaugurated the rise of a school of economists who
treated their subject from an inductive and historical point of view. The
historians, who have been especially prominent in Germany, and of whom
representatives are Roscher (1817-94), de Laveleye (1822-92), and Cliffe
Leslie (1825-82), hold that economics should in the main be descriptive,
and not attempt to formulate laws. The inductive school, of whom J. S. Mill
is an important member, base their work upon more extensive investigation
than the older writers, and constantly test their conclusions by reference
to facts. Another important reaction against the early economists arose
from the identification of the latter with the doctrine of _laissez-faire_.
Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804) and Friedrich List (1789-1840) argued in
favour of an extension of State activity, especially for the purpose of
protecting industry against foreign competition, and may be considered the
fathers of modern protectionist doctrine. In most modern treatment of
economics, the deductive and inductive methods are employed side by side.
The study of economic history has developed as a separate branch, but
economists recognize that it provides them with much valuable material.
Important recent developments in method are the increased use of
statistics, made possible by their more widespread and careful compilation,
and the application of mathematical methods to economic data. It is
recognized that, with due care, many conceptions which are with difficulty
expressed in words can be treated on mathematical lines to yield results of
great service. In this work the researches of Italian writers, such as
Pantaleoni and Pareto, are of conspicuous importance.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. C.
Pigou, _Wealth and Welfare_; _Preferential and Protective Import Duties_;
E. Cannan, _Wealth_; J. N. Keynes, _Scope and Method of Political Economy_;
G. Cassel, _Nature and Necessity of Interest_; W. Smart, _Distribution of
Income_; C. R. Fay, _Co-operation_; A. Andreades, _History of the Bank of
England_; H. Levy, _Monopoly and Competition_; C. F. Bastable, _Public
Finance_.

ÉCRASEUR is a wire loop or chain for amputating a growth suitably situated
for such an instrument. The chain is passed round the base or pedicle of
the growth, and gradually tightened by a screw till the growth falls off.
Its application in surgery is limited.

ECTOCARPACEÆ, a family of Brown Algæ, section Phæosporeæ. The typical genus
is Ectocarpus, comprising small, branched, filamentous plants of salt or
brackish water. According to the species, growth of the filaments may be
apical, intercalary, or common to all cells, whereas among the more
advanced members of the Brown Algæ either apical or intercalary growth is
characteristic of entire families. The gametes show every gradation from
complete similarity (isogamy) to a condition like that of Cutleria.

ECUADOR (ek-w[.a]-d[=o]r´) (_Republica Del Ecuador_), a republic of South
America, situated under the equator, whence it takes its name, between Peru
and Colombia. It is of triangular shape, its base resting on the Pacific,
but the boundaries between it and its neighbours are not very definitely
fixed; estimated area, about 116,000 sq. miles. The state has still a
boundary dispute with Peru, that with Colombia having been settled by
treaty in 1917. The country is divided into fifteen provinces, one
territory--'El Oriente'--and the Archipelago of Galapagos, officially
called 'Colon'. It falls, as regards the surface, into three sections: the
comparatively narrow and low-lying coast regions, the mountain region, and
the extensive plains on the east. The mountain region is formed by a double
range of snow-clad mountains--several of them active volcanoes--which
enclose a longitudinal valley or tableland, with a breadth of 20 to 40
miles, and varying in elevation from 8500 to 13,900 feet. The most elevated
of these mountains are, in the western range, Chimborazo, Pichincha, and
Cotacachi, Chimborazo being 20,703 feet high. In the eastern range are
Cayambe, Antisana, and Cotopaxi (19,500 feet). The cultivated land and the
population of Ecuador lie chiefly in this elevated region, which extends
along between the summits of the Cordillera, and may be considered as
divided by transverse ridges or dikes into the valleys of Quito, Hambato,
and Cuenca. The chief towns here are Quito, the capital, with a pop. of
70,000, Riobamba, and Cuenca, all situated at a height of 9000 feet or more
above the sea. The chief ports of Ecuador are Guayaquil and Esmeraldas. The
most considerable rivers, the Tigre, Napo, Pastaza, &c., belong to the
basin of the Amazon; and some of them, notably the Napo, are navigable for
long distances. On the western slope of the Andes the chief rivers are the
Esmeraldas and the Guayaquil. Ecuador is comparatively poor in Mammalia;
although various kinds of deer as well as tapirs and peccaries are found in
the forests. Parrots and humming-birds are also numerous, but perhaps the
most remarkable of the birds in Ecuador is the condor, which dwells on the
slopes of the Andes. Reptiles, including serpents, are numerous. The
forests yield cinchona bark, caoutchouc, sarsaparilla, and vegetable ivory.
The climate on the plains, both in the east and the west, is moist, hot,
and unhealthy. In the higher regions the climate is rough and cold, but in
great part the elevated valleys, as that of Quito, enjoy a delightful
climate. Here the chief productions are potatoes, barley, wheat, and
European fruits. In the lower regions are grown all the food-products of
tropical climates, cocoa, coffee, and sugar. The foreign commerce is not
large, the exports and imports being annually about £2,700,000 and
£1,670,000 respectively. In 1919 the imports from Ecuador to the United
Kingdom amounted to £1,257,350, and the exports to Ecuador to £373,346.
Cocoa forms three-fourths (or more) of the whole export; the remainder is
made up of tagua or ivory-nuts, rubber, straw hats, coffee, and gold. A
little gold is mined, and Panama hats are made. The State recognizes no
religion, but grants freedom of worship to all. A system of education was
organized in 1897 and improved in 1912. There are three universities: the
Central University, at Quito; the Guayas University, in Guayaquil; and the
Azuay University, in Cuenca. There are schools for higher education and
primary schools. The executive government is vested in a President elected
for four years, who is assisted by a Council of State. The Congress is the
legislative body, and consists of two Houses, one formed of Senators, two
for each province, the other of Deputies, one for every 30,000 inhabitants,
both elected by universal suffrage. The Congress has extensive privileges,
and cannot be dissolved by the President. The seat of government is Quito.
In 1920 both the revenue and expenditure amounted to nearly £2,000,000. The
debt amounts to about £5,620,000. The monetary standard is gold, the gold
_condor_ of ten _sucres_ being equivalent to a sovereign. The metric system
of weights and measures is the legal one. Railways and telegraphs have made
little progress.--Ecuador at the time of the conquest of Peru by the
Spaniards formed part of the great empire of the Incas. As the Presidency
of Quito it was long included in the Vice-Royalty of Peru. From 1710 it
became part of the Presidency of New Granada (or Santa Fé de Bogotá). In
the revolutionary war against Spain, Ecuador, along with the neighbouring
territories, secured its independence (1822), and was ultimately erected
into a separate Republic in 1831. The present Constitution of the Republic
was promulgated on 6th May, 1906. Of the present population, the aboriginal
red race form more than half; the rest are negroes, mulattoes, mestizoes, a
degenerate breed of mixed negro and Indian blood, and Spanish Creoles or
whites. The last-named are the chief possessors of the land, but are
deficient in energy. Pop. (estimated) 2,000,000.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F.
Garcia-Calderon, _Latin America: its Rise and Progress_; C. R. Enock,
_Ecuador_; T. H. Stabler, _Travels in Ecuador_.

ECUMENICAL COUNCIL, a general ecclesiastical council regarded as
representing the whole Christian world or the universal Church; specially
applied to the general councils of the early Christian Church, beginning
with that of Nicæa in 325, and later to those of the Roman Catholic Church,
of which the most recent was the Vatican Council at Rome in 1870.

EC´ZEMA is a skin eruption marked by the appearance of papules or vesicles
and accompanied by irritation of the affected part, frequently very severe.
The characteristic watery discharge of the disease is produced by the
bursting of the vesicles. There is difference of opinion among
dermatologists as to whether or not it is primarily caused by germs.
Various predisposing causes, like digestive disturbances, anæmia, and
nervous disorders are important factors in determining the course of the
disease. Eczema may affect practically any part of the skin, but is most
frequently seen on the scalp, ears, face, hands, nipples, armpits, and the
genital regions.

ED´AM, a town of North Holland, near the Zuider Zee, 12 miles N.N.E. of
Amsterdam, noted for its cheese markets; but 'Edam cheese' is mostly made
elsewhere. Pop. 6623.

EDDA (meaning 'great-grandmother'), the name given to two ancient
collections of Icelandic literature, the one consisting of mythological
poems, the other being mainly in prose. The first of these collections,
called the _Elder_ or _Poetic Edda_, was compiled in the thirteenth
century, and discovered in 1643 by Brynjulf Sveinsson, an Icelandic bishop.
For a long time an earlier date was given, the compiler being erroneously
believed to have been Sæmund Sigfusson, a learned Icelandic clergyman, who
lived from about 1056 to 1133. It consists of thirty-three pieces, written
in alliterative verse, and comprising epic tales of the Scandinavian gods
and goddesses, and narratives dealing with the Scandinavian heroes. These
poems are now assigned to a period extending from the ninth to the eleventh
century. The _Prose Edda_, or _Younger Edda_, presents a kind of prose
synopsis of the Northern mythology; a treatise on the Scaldic poetry and
versification, with rules and examples; and lastly a poem (with a
commentary) in honour of Haco of Norway (died 1263). In its earliest forms
this collection is ascribed to Snorri Sturlason, who was born in Iceland in
1178, and was assassinated there in 1241 on his return from Norway, where
he had been scald or court poet. Cf. S. Bugge, _Home of the Eddic Poems_.

EDDY, Mary Baker, founder of Christian Science (q.v.), born at Bow, New
Hampshire, United States, 16th July, 1821, died 3rd Dec., 1910. She was
married three times, to Mr. Glover, Mr. Patterson, and Mr. Asa Gilbert
Eddy, all of whom she survived. She began to teach her system of
psychotherapeutics in 1866, and founded the first Christian Science Church
in Boston in 1879. In 1881 she established the Metaphysical College at
Massachusetts. Her works, besides _Science and Health with Key to the
Scriptures_, include: _Unity of God_, _No and Yes_, _Pulpit and Press_,
_The First Church of Christ_, _Christian Science versus Pantheism_.--Cf. G.
Milmine, _Life of M. B. G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science_.

EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, a lighthouse in the English Channel, erected to mark
a group of rocks lying in the fair-way from the Start to the Lizard. The
rocks are covered only at the flood. The first lighthouse was of wood, and
built by Henry Winstanley in 1696. It was carried away in the storm of
1703. Another lighthouse, also of wood, was built in 1709 by Rudyerd, but
was burned down in 1755. It was succeeded by one built by Smeaton between
1757 and 1759, a circular tower 85 feet high; but, as the foundations on
which it stood became much weakened, a new structure, designed by Sir J. N.
Douglass, was built between 1879 and 1882 on the neighbouring reef. Its
light is visible 17½ miles.

EDELWEISS ([=a]-d[.e]l-v[=i]s; Ger., 'noble white'), _Leontopodium
alp[=i]num_, a composite plant inhabiting the Alps, and often growing in
the most inaccessible places. Its flower-heads are surrounded by a
spreading foliaceous woolly involucre, and its foliage is also of the same
woolly character. It is not difficult to cultivate, but is apt to lose its
peculiar woolly appearance.

E´DEN (Heb. _eden_, delight), the original abode of the first human pair.
It is said to have had a garden in the eastern part of it, and we are told
that a river went out of Eden to water this garden, and from thence it was
parted into four heads, which were called respectively Pison, Gihon,
Hiddekel, and Euphrates (Phrat), but this does not enable us to identify
the locality. It was not the whole of Eden that was assigned to man for his
first habitation, but the part towards the east, to which the translators
of the Authorized Version have given the name of the Garden of Eden, and
which Milton, in _Paradise Lost_, calls Paradise, that word (originally
Persian) having in its Greek form (_paradeisos_) been applied to the Garden
of Eden by the translators of the _Septuagint_.

EDEN, a river in England, in Westmorland and Cumberland, falling into the
Solway Firth after a course of 65 miles.--Also, a river in Fifeshire,
Scotland.

EDENTA´TA ([=e]-), or TOOTHLESS ANIMALS, the name applied to a primitive
order of mammals mostly native to the neotropical region, but also
represented in South Africa and South Asia. The body is often covered by
horny scales or bony plates, the digits are clawed, and the teeth either
imperfect or absent altogether. I. New World forms.--(1) _Ant-eaters._
Toothless, with long narrow snout, and protrusible tongue. Covered with
dense fur. The great ant-eater (_Myrmecoph[)a]ga jubata_) lives on the
ground; the much smaller Tamandua and Cycloturus are arboreal. (2)
_Sloths._ Toothed arboreal leaf-eaters, covered by coarse fur, and provided
with very strong curved claws, by which they hang upside down from
branches. The three-toed sloth (Bradypus) has three digits in the
fore-limb, the two-toed sloth (Cholæpus) only two. (3) _Armadillos._
Burrowing forms protected by a strong carapace of bony plates, and
possessing numerous imperfect teeth. (4) _Extinct types._ The so-called
ground sloths were of large size, Megatherium being nearly as large as an
elephant, and Mylodon not much smaller. Glossodon, allied to the latter,
survived into the human period. Glyptodon resembled a gigantic armadillo.
II. Old World forms.--(1) The _aard-vark_ (Orycteropus) is a burrowing
African form about the size of a pig, covered with coarse hair; long ears
and snout; 20 imperfect grinding teeth. (2) _Scaly ant-eaters_ or
_pangolins_ (Manis), native to South Africa and South Asia, are toothless
forms not unlike the American ant-eaters in build, but the body is covered
dorsally and laterally by large overlapping scales.

EDES´SA, the name of two ancient cities.--1. The ancient capital of
Macedonia, and the burial-place of its kings, now _Vodhena_. It is probably
the same as the still more ancient Aegæ. Philip II was murdered at Edessa
in 336 B.C.--2. An important city in the north of Mesopotamia, which,
subsequent to the establishment of Christianity, became celebrated for its
theological schools. In 1098, in the first Crusade, Edessa came into the
hands of Baldwin, but ultimately became part of the Turkish Empire. It is
thought to be the modern Urfah or Orfa.

EDFU, or EDFOO´ (ancient APOLLINOPOLIS), a village in Upper Egypt, province
of Assouan, on the left bank of the Nile, with manufactures of cottons and
pottery. Its ancient magnificence is attested by several remains,
especially a temple, founded by Ptolemy Philopator (181-145 B.C.), the
largest in Egypt after those of Karnak and Luxor. Pop. 12,594.

ED´GAR (_the Peaceful_), one of the most distinguished of the Saxon Kings
of England, was the son of King Edmund I. He succeeded to the throne in
959, and managed the civil and military affairs of his kingdom with great
vigour and success. In ecclesiastical affairs he was guided by Dunstan,
Archbishop of Canterbury, and he was a great patron of the monks. He died
in 975, and was succeeded by his son Edward the Martyr.

EDGAR ATHELING, grandson of Edmund Ironside and son of Edward the Outlaw,
was born in Hungary, where his father had been conveyed in infancy to
escape the designs of Canute. After the battle of Hastings, Edgar (who had
been brought to England in 1057) was proclaimed King of England by the
Saxons, but made peace with William and accepted the earldom of Oxford.
Having been engaged in some conspiracy against the king, he was forced to
seek refuge in Scotland, where his sister Margaret became the wife of
Malcolm Canmore. Edgar subsequently was reconciled to William and was
allowed to live at Rouen, where a pension was assigned to him. In 1097,
with the sanction of William Rufus, he undertook an expedition to Scotland
for the purpose of displacing the usurper Donald Bane, in favour of his
nephew Edgar, son of Malcolm Canmore, and in this object he succeeded. He
afterwards took part in Duke Robert's unsuccessful struggle with Henry I,
but was allowed to spend the remainder of his life quietly in England.

EDGEHILL, a ridge in Warwickshire, England, 7 miles north-west of Banbury,
where was fought a fierce but indecisive battle on 23rd Oct., 1642, between
the Royalists under Charles I and the forces of the Parliament under the
Earl of Essex.

EDGEWORTH, Maria, Irish novelist, born at Black Bourton, Oxfordshire, 1st
Jan., 1767, died 22nd May, 1849, at Edgeworthstown. She was the daughter of
Richard Lovell Edgeworth (1744-1817) of Edgeworthstown, County Longford,
Ireland. Her first novel, _Castle Rackrent_, a tale of Irish life,
published in 1800, immediately established her reputation. Her later works
include: _Belinda_, _Moral Tales_, _Leonora_, _Popular Tales_, _Tales of
Fashionable Life_, _Patronage_, _Harrington_, _Ormond_, and _Helen_,
besides an _Essay on Irish Bulls_, and a work on _Practical Education_,
largely based on Rousseau's _Émile_. Miss Edgeworth's characteristics are a
simple and lucid style and considerable power of observation, but she was
not a great creative artist.

ED´INBURGH, the metropolis of Scotland, and one of the finest as well as
most ancient cities in the British Empire, lies within 2 miles of the south
shore of the Firth of Forth. It is picturesquely situated, being built on
three eminences which run in a direction from east to west, and surrounded
on all sides by lofty hills except on the north, where the ground slopes
gently towards the Firth of Forth. The central ridge, which constituted the
site of the ancient city, is terminated by the castle on the west, situated
on a high rock, and by Holyrood House on the east, not far from which rise
the lofty elevations of Salisbury Crags, Arthur's Seat (822 feet high), and
the Calton Hill overlooking the city. The valley to the north, once the
North Loch, but now drained and traversed by the North British Railway,
leads to the New Town on the rising ground beyond, a splendid assemblage of
streets, squares, and gardens. The houses here, all built of a beautiful
white freestone found in the neighbourhood, are comparatively modern and
remarkably handsome. The principal streets of the New Town are Princes
Street, George Street, and Queen Street. From Princes Street, which is
lined by fine gardens adorned with Sir W. Scott's monument and other
notable buildings, a magnificent view of the Old Town with its picturesque
outline may be obtained. The principal street of the Old Town is that which
occupies the crest of the ridge on which the latter is built, and which
bears at different points the names of Canongate, High Street, Lawnmarket,
and Castle Hill. This ancient and very remarkable street is upwards of one
mile in length, rising gradually with a regular incline from a small plain
at the east end of the town, on which stands the palace of Holyrood, and
terminating in the huge rock on which the castle is built, 437 feet above
sea-level. The houses are lofty and of antique appearance. Amongst the
notable buildings are the ancient Parliament House, since the Union the
seat of the supreme courts of Scotland; St. Giles' Church or Cathedral, an
imposing edifice in the later Gothic style, dating from the fourteenth
century and carefully restored between 1879 and 1883; the Tron Church;
Victoria Hall (where the General Assembly of the Established Church meets),
with a fine spire; and also John Knox's House, besides some of the old
family houses of the Scottish nobility and other buildings of antiquarian
interest. From this main street descend laterally in regular rows numerous
narrow lanes called _closes_, many of them extremely steep, and very few at
their entrances more than 6 feet wide; those which are broader, and admit
of the passage of carriages, are called _wynds_. In these and the adjacent
streets the houses are frequently more than 120 feet in height, and divided
into from six to ten stories, or _flats_, the communication between which
is maintained by broad stone stairs, winding from the lowest part of the
building to the top. In the Old Town the most remarkable public building is
the castle, an extensive mass, of which the oldest portion--and the oldest
building in the city--is St. Margaret's Chapel, the private oratory of the
Saxon princess Margaret, queen of Malcolm Canmore; another portion being a
lofty range of old buildings, in a small apartment of which Queen Mary gave
birth to James VI in 1566; while in an adjoining apartment are kept the
ancient regalia of Scotland. Here is also the old Parliament Hall, restored
during 1888 and 1889. The castle as a fortress contains accommodation for
2000 soldiers, and the armoury space for 30,000 stand of arms. An old piece
of ordnance built of staves of malleable iron, cask fashion, and known as
_Mons Meg_, stands conspicuous in an open area. The palace of Holyrood, or
Holyrood House as it is more generally called, stands, as already
mentioned, at the lower or eastern extremity of the street leading to the
castle. No part of the present palace is older than the time of James V
(1528), while the greater portion of it dates only from the time of Charles
II. In the north-west angle of the building are the apartments which were
occupied by Queen Mary, nearly in the same state in which they were left by
that unfortunate princess. Adjoining the palace are the ruins of the chapel
belonging to the Abbey of Holyrood, founded in 1128 by David I. On the
south side of the Old Town, and separated from it also by a hollow crossed
by two bridges (the South Bridge and George IV Bridge), stands the
remaining portion of the city, which, with the exception of a few
unimportant streets, is mostly modern. Besides the buildings already
noticed, Edinburgh possesses a large number of important edifices and
institutions, chief amongst which are the Royal Institution (accommodating
the Royal Society and other bodies), a beautiful Grecian building; the
National (Picture) Gallery, another fine building in the Greek style, the
two buildings standing on a conspicuous site between East and West Princes
Street Gardens; the National Portrait Gallery, a building due to private
munificence and accommodating also the National Museum of Antiquities; the
Museum of Science and Art; the Episcopal Cathedral of St. Mary's, one of
the largest religious edifices of modern times; the university buildings,
including those of the medical department, standing apart from the others;
the infirmary buildings; the high school, register office, and others.
Amongst the more prominent educational institutions are the university, the
high school, the academy, the United Free Church New College, the Edinburgh
School of Medicine (connected with the Royal College of Physicians and the
Royal College of Surgeons), Medical College for Women, College of
Agriculture, the Edinburgh Veterinary College, Fettes College, the
Heriot-Watt College, normal schools, technical, commercial, and other
institutions, and endowed secondary schools. The Advocates' Library, the
largest in Scotland, contains upwards of 550,000 printed volumes and 3000
MSS.; the university library, 200,000; the library of Writers to the
Signet, 100,000. There is also a rate-supported public library in a
building erected at the expense of the late Andrew Carnegie. Printing,
bookbinding, coach-building, type-founding, machine-making, the making of
rubber goods, furniture-making, ale-brewing on a very large scale, and
distilling are the principal industries. Edinburgh is the head-quarters of
the book trade in Scotland, and the seat of the chief Government
departments. It is a great resort of tourists and other travellers. On
account of its picturesque and commanding situation and its literary fame,
Edinburgh is often called the 'Modern Athens'. The origin of Edinburgh is
uncertain. Its name is by many thought to be derived from Eadwinsburh, the
Burgh of Edwin, a powerful Northumbrian king of the early seventh century,
who absorbed the Lothians in his rule. The town was made a royal burgh in
the time of David I; but it was not till the fifteenth century that it
became the recognized capital of Scotland, and from that time it was the
scene of many important events in Scottish history. The city is now
governed by a council, which elects from its members a Lord Provost, a city
treasurer, and seven bailies. It returns five members to Parliament, and
within the municipal boundaries are included Portobello, Granton, Liberton,
Duddingston, and since 1920 also the port of Leith. Pop.
420,281.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. B. Gillies, _Edinburgh, Past and Present_; M. O.
Oliphant, _Royal Edinburgh, Her Saints, Kings, Prophets, and Poets_;
W. H. O. Smeaton, _Edinburgh and its Story_; H. E. Maxwell, _Edinburgh: a
Historical Study_.

EDINBURGH, COUNTY OF, or MIDLOTHIAN, is bounded north by the Firth of
Forth, along which it extends 11 or 12 miles; and by the counties of
Linlithgow, Haddington, Berwick, Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, and Roxburgh;
area, 234,926 acres, over half of which is arable or under permanent
pasture. The south-south-east and south-west parts of the county are
diversified with hills, of which the two principal ranges are the Pentlands
and Moorfoots, the former stretching across the county to within 4 miles of
Edinburgh. The principal rivers are the North and South Esks and the Water
of Leith, all running into the Forth. The lowlands towards the Forth are
the most fertile; the farms are of considerable size, and the most approved
methods of agriculture are in use. The hilly parts are chiefly under
pasturage and dairy farming. The chief crops are oats, barley, turnips, and
potatoes. The manufactures are comparatively limited, but include ale,
whisky, gunpowder, paper, and tiles. The fisheries are valuable. The chief
towns are: Edinburgh, Dalkeith, and Musselburgh. Midlothian and Peebles
return two members to Parliament. Pop. 506,378.

EDINBURGH, DUKE OF, H.R.H. Prince Alfred Ernest Albert, K.G., K.T., K.P.,
&c., Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the second son of Queen Victoria, was born
at Windsor Castle, 6th Aug., 1844, died in 1900. At the age of fourteen he
joined the navy as naval cadet, and served on various foreign stations. In
1862 he declined the offer of the throne of Greece. On his majority he
received £15,000 a year from Parliament, and was created Duke of Edinburgh,
Earl of Kent, and Earl of Ulster. In 1867 he was appointed to the command
of the frigate _Galatea_, in which he visited Australia, Japan, China, and
India. In 1873 he received an additional annuity of £10,000, and next year
he married the Grand-Duchess Marie, only daughter of the Emperor of Russia.
In 1882 he was made a vice-admiral, and subsequently held important
commands. In 1898 he succeeded his uncle as ruler of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and
resigned £15,000 of his annuity and his other privileges as an English
prince, but retained his rank of admiral. He had one son (who predeceased
him) and four daughters. He was succeeded as Duke of Saxe-Coburg by his
nephew, Leopold Charles, Duke of Albany.

EDINBURGH REVIEW, THE, a quarterly review established in 1802. It had an
immediate and striking success, the brilliancy and vigour of its articles
being much above the standard of the periodical literature of that time. In
politics it was Whig, and did good service to the party. The _Review_ was
founded by a knot of young men living in Edinburgh, the more prominent of
whom were Brougham, Jeffrey, Sydney Smith, and Francis Horner. It was
edited from 1803 to 1829 by Jeffrey, under whom it was very successful. In
reply to his criticisms Byron wrote his _English Bards and Scotch
Reviewers_. Among the famous contributors to the _Review_ were Lord
Macaulay, Lord John Russell, and John Stuart Mill.

EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY, the latest of the Scottish universities, was founded
in 1582 by a charter granted by James VI. The number of professors and
other teachers is now over 240. The university is a corporation consisting
of a chancellor, rector, principal, professors, registered graduates and
alumni, and matriculated students. Its government is administered by the
University Court, the Senatus Academicus, and the General Council, as in
the other Scottish universities, in all of which new ordinances have been
introduced under the Universities (Scotland) Act of 1889. The University
Court, which is the supreme governing body of the university, consists of
the rector, who is president, the principal, the Lord Provost of Edinburgh,
and eleven assessors. The Senatus superintends the teaching and discipline
of the university, and consists of the principal and professors. The
General Council consists of the chancellor, who is president, the members
of the University Court and Senatus, and the graduates of the university.
It takes cognizance of matters generally affecting the well-being of the
university. The chancellor is the official head of the university, and it
is through him or his deputy, the vice-chancellor, that degrees are
conferred. He is elected for life by the General Council. The principal is
the resident head of the university and president of the Senatus, and is
appointed for life (at Edinburgh by a body called the 'Curators', elsewhere
by the Crown). The lord rector is elected for three years by the
matriculated students. There are six faculties in the university, viz.
arts, science, divinity, law, medicine, and music. Some of the professors
are appointed by the Crown, others by special electors, and a considerable
number by the curators, who represent the university court and the town
council. The number of students in 1919-20 was over 4300. Candidates for
degrees in the different faculties must now pass an entrance examination
before attendance upon classes. Women are admitted to all courses and
degrees, equally with men, except in the faculty of divinity. Those
desirous of taking the degree of Master of Arts (M.A.) must attend classes
and pass examinations in at least seven subjects, selected from four
departments, viz. language and literature, mental philosophy, science,
history and law, the course of study extending over three academic years at
least. There is a considerable restriction in choice of subjects, since
four of them must be (_a_) Latin or Greek; (_b_) English or a Modern
Language; (_c_) Logic or Moral Philosophy; (_d_) Mathematics or Natural
Philosophy; and the whole subjects must include both of (_a_) or both of
(_c_), or two out of the three--mathematics, natural philosophy, and
chemistry. Four medical degrees are conferred: Bachelor of Medicine (M.B.),
Bachelor of Surgery (Ch.B.), Master of Surgery (Ch.M.), and Doctor of
Medicine (M.D.). Before any of these degrees can be obtained the candidate
must have been engaged in medical study for at least five years. The
degrees in law are Bachelor of the Law (B.L.), Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.),
and Doctor of Laws (LL.D.), the last being purely honorary. In divinity the
degrees are Bachelor and Doctor of Divinity (B.D. and D.D.), the latter
being honorary. In science the degrees are likewise Bachelor and Doctor
(B.Sc. and D.Sc.), both conferred in the three departments of pure science,
engineering, and public health. There is also a B.Sc. in agriculture. The
degree of Doctor of Philosophy (D.Phil.) is conferred for proficiency in
mental science, and that of Doctor of Letters (D.Litt.) for proficiency in
literary, philological, and linguistic studies. The degrees of Bachelor and
Doctor of Music (Mus.B. and Mus.D.) are also conferred. There is a joint
board of examiners for the four Scottish universities, having the control
and supervision of the preliminary examinations. The university has
splendid laboratories and museums. The foundation stone of a new science
laboratory was laid by King George on 6th July, 1920. The library contains
200,000 volumes. There are bursaries, scholarships, and fellowships,
amounting annually to about £12,500. Since 1918 the University of Edinburgh
unites with the other Scottish universities in returning three members to
Parliament. The constituency consists of the General
Council.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Kerr, _Scottish Education, School and
University, from Early Times to 1908_; _University Calendar_; Sir Alex.
Grant, _The Story of the University of Edinburgh from Early Times to 1908_.

ED´ISON, Thomas Alva, an American inventor, born in Ohio in 1847. He was
poorly educated, became a newsboy on the Grand Trunk Railway, and
afterwards, having obtained some type, issued a small sheet of his own
known as the _Grand Trunk Herald_, printing it in a freight car. He then
set himself to learn telegraph work, and in a short time became an expert
operator. In 1863, while at Indianopolis, he invented an automatic
telegraph repeater. This was the first of a long series of improvements and
inventions. He opened an extensive establishment at Newark for the
manufacture of electrical, printing, automatic, and other apparatus. In
1876, his health breaking down, he gave up manufacturing and devoted
himself to investigation and invention. Amongst his numerous inventions are
the quadruplex and sextuplex telegraph, the carbon telephone transmitter,
the 'Edison system' of lighting, the electric fire-alarm, the 'Edison
electric railway', the phonograph, and the megaphone. His improvements in
the cinematograph made it practicable, though he did not originate the idea
of it.

ED´MONTON, an urban district and parliamentary borough in England, county
of Middlesex, 7½ miles north of London, with an extensive trade in timber,
carried on by the Lea River navigation. The 'Bell at Edmonton' has become
famous by association with the adventures of Cowper's _John Gilpin_. The
borough returns one member to Parliament. Pop. 64,820.

EDMONTON, a town of North-Western Canada, on the North Saskatchewan (here
navigable). Since 1905 it is the capital of the province of Alberta, and
has grown considerably in recent years. It is an important station on the
Canadian Pacific, Grand Trunk Pacific, and Canadian Northern railway
systems, and is the distributing centre of an immense area, being also the
centre of an excellent farming district. Easily-mined coal is worked here.
Pop, 61,000.

ED´MUND, ST., King of the East Angles, began to reign in 855, died in 870.
He was revered by his subjects for his justice and piety. In 870 his
kingdom was invaded, and he himself slain, by the Danes. The Church made
him a martyr, and a town (Bury St. Edmunds) grew up round the place where
he was buried.

EDMUND I, King of England, an able and spirited prince, succeeded his
brother Athelstan in 940. He conquered Cumbria, which he bestowed on
Malcolm, King of Scotland, on condition of doing homage for it to himself.
He was slain at a banquet 26th May, 946.

EDMUND II, surnamed _Ironside_, King of England, the eldest son of Ethelred
II, was born in 989. He was chosen king in 1016, Canute having been already
elected king by another party. He won several victories over Canute, but
was defeated at Assandun in Essex, and forced to surrender the midland and
northern counties to Canute. He died after a reign of only seven months.

EDOM, in the New Testament _Idumæa_, in ancient times a country lying to
the south of Palestine. The Edomites are said in _Genesis_ to be the
descendants of Esau, who was also called Edom (a word signifying 'red'),
and who dwelt in Mount Seir, the mountain range now called _Jebel Shera_,
stretching between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Akabah. Edom is frequently
mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions. The Edomites were subdued by King
David, and after the separation of the ten tribes remained subject to the
Kingdom of Judah until the reign of Jehoram, when they revolted and secured
their independence for a time. They were again subdued about half a century
later by Amaziah, and again, in the reign of Ahaz, recovered their
independence, which they maintained till the time of the invasion of Judea
by Nebuchadnezzar. They fell under the rule of the Persians, and afterwards
their fortunes were merged in those of Arabia. The chief city in this
region was Petra, which now presents remarkable ruins, as well as several
rock-cut temples.

EDRED, King of England, son of Edward the Elder, succeeded to the throne on
the murder of his brother, Edmund I, in May, 946. He quelled a rebellion of
the Northumbrian Danes, and died in 955.

[Illustration: Edriophthalmata

1, Fresh-water shrimp (_Gammarus pulex_). _a_, Single eye. 2, Head of
Cymothoa. _b_, Clusters of simple eyes.]

EDRIOPHTHAL´MATA, one of the great divisions of the Crustacea, including
all those genera which have their eyes sessile, or embedded in the head,
and not fixed on a peduncle or stalk as in the crabs, lobsters, &c. It is
divided into two orders. (1) Amphipoda, laterally flattened, as in the
marine sandhopper (Talitrus), and the fresh-water shrimp (Gammarus). (2)
Isopoda, flattened from above downwards. Sea-slaters or wood-lice (Ligia
and Idothea); fish parasites (Cymothoa); fresh-water wood-lice (Asellus);
land wood-lice (Oniscus, Porcellio, Armadillidium, which can roll up).

EDRI´SI, Abu-Abdallah Mohammed, a famous Arabian geographer, a descendant
of the ancient princely family of the Edrisites, born about A.D. 1100, died
about 1180. He studied at the Moorish university of Cordova, after which he
travelled through various countries. At the request of King Roger II of
Sicily he constructed a globe with a map of the earth, which represented
all the geographical knowledge of the age. He accompanied this with a
descriptive treatise completed about 1154, and still extant. The work was
published at Rome in Arabic (1592), and in 1619 a Latin translation of it,
under the title of _Geographia Nubiensis_, appeared in Paris.

EDUCATION is the name applied to the systematic instruction given by each
succeeding generation to the young of the race to fit them for the work of
life. The word itself is derived from the Latin verb _educare_, which means
to rear, to nourish, to bring up, and also to educate. Long before the dawn
of civilization men saw that the young had to be prepared for the battle of
life; had to learn how to make and how to use the offensive and defensive
weapons employed against their enemies; how to form or build shelters to
protect themselves against the weather and against their foes; how to make
traps or snares for the wild things on which they fed; how, in fact, to use
their powers of mind and body in such a way as to secure for themselves the
fullest and most satisfactory life possible under the circumstances in
which they found themselves.

While education thus understood would be the story of man on the earth, an
account of his more or less satisfactory, but always continuous, efforts to
perfect the relations between his desires and his environment, it would
have to embrace also an account of the conflict between the demands of
communities and the rights of individuals. Education, however, as we
understand it, is more limited in its scope. It is the instrument employed
by the State for the training of its citizens.

The Greeks were the first Europeans to treat education as a science. The
results they obtained were good, and have to a certain extent determined
the course taken by European education ever since. Plato defined the aim of
the education of which he gives us an account in the _Republic_, to be the
"development in the body and in the soul of all the perfection which it is
possible for them to attain". This was the Greek ideal of what education
should aim at; a high ideal indeed; but one that omits an element of
immense importance which we find introduced in Milton's definition of the
'end of learning', that is, the aim of education. Milton boldly declares
this to be: "To repair the ruin of our first parents by regaining to know
God aright, and out of that knowledge to love Him, as we may the nearest by
possessing our souls of true virtue, which being united to the heavenly
grace of faith makes up the highest perfection". Perfection is the end
sought in both cases, and which seems the nobler it is unnecessary to say.
This impression is deepened when he proceeds to declare that as "Our
understanding cannot ... arrive so clearly to the knowledge of God and
things invisible, as by orderly conning over the visible and inferior
creatures, the same method is necessarily to be followed in all discreet
teaching".

By Aristotle the order of education was: first, education of the body, the
just and proportionate development of its powers. The instrument employed
for this purpose was gymnastics; not the gymnastics employed in training
professional athletes, but more moderate exercises; for, as the philosopher
insists, too strenuous bodily exertion is apt to spoil the child, because
body and mind must not be hard worked at the same time. Music, according to
him, had various aims: education proper, the training of the affections,
and the occupation of leisure. Drawing was taught as a branch of music for
the purpose of developing the child's sense of beauty, mathematics were
taught to cultivate his intellect, and dialectic (logic and philosophy) to
prepare the pupil for a scientific training.

To the idealistic philosopher Plato, the whole life of man, at least the
whole of what we may call the active life, was educative. Education was
State-controlled, and at the end of the first six years, spent by the child
in the seclusion of family life, the State took charge. The aim of the
education proposed by Plato was to develop in the child the cardinal
virtues--honour to parents, love of fellow-citizens, courage, truthfulness,
and self-control. From the seventh to the tenth year the training was
mainly in gymnastics; from the tenth to the thirteenth the child learned to
read and to write; from the thirteenth to the sixteenth his affections and
his sense of the beautiful were cultivated through learning poetry and
studying music; from the seventeenth to the twentieth year he applied
himself mainly to athletics, so that he might be qualified to take his
share in the defence of the State. At twenty men were called upon to choose
their occupation; to turn their minds to the study of the sciences; and to
shape by practical military and other services to the State that character
which it was the aim of education to form. From thirty to thirty-five Plato
supposes the citizens of his ideal republic to devote themselves to the
study of _Dialectics_, the method of purely intellectual knowledge, by
which reason, using hypothesis, arrives at the first principles of things.
From thirty-five to fifty the life of the citizen was to be given up to
public service, that is, to the promotion in the position for which he was
best fitted of the general well-being.

The training set forth by the Greek philosophers was the training thought
necessary to fit a man to be a ruler. As the Greek city states were slave
states, and most of the manual work was performed by slaves, that necessary
part of the training of the youth of the community is ignored. This fact
has had, undoubtedly, an enormous influence on the ideas of education put
forward since. The preliminary training demanded by the Greeks included,
besides gymnastics, grammar and music. At a later time these were
understood to include the seven arts: Grammar, Rhetoric, Dialectic
(_Trivium_), and Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, and Astronomy (_Quadrivium_).
To the Greeks, myths were the instruments of the earliest education, the
aim of which was the development of a character in the citizen which would
lead him to give his best and most loyal services to the State.

The aim of Greek education was the formation of the philosophic thinker,
the man fitted by nature and training to guide and direct the energies of
the man of action. Roman education, on the other hand, directed its efforts
mainly to the moulding of the man of action himself. The Romans adopted the
form rather than the spirit of Greek education. The aim of Roman education
was to make a man who could do things; a practical man, a man full of
energy, who was ever ready to sacrifice himself in the interests of the
State; a man who knew the laws and who regulated his conduct by them; who
reverenced his father and his country's gods; and found his chief pleasure
in the complete overthrow and utter destruction of his country's foes. He
could discourse eloquently and not unphilosophically; and he spared neither
himself nor others in his effort to maintain the freedom of his country,
and to bring destruction on the enemies of Rome. Roman education began in
the home, and during the earlier years was largely directed by the mother.
Later the preparation of the boy for life was taken over by the father; but
it is probable that, from very early times many, if not most, Romans boys
were sent to school, where, under the _magister literarius_ (elementary
teacher), the _grammaticus_ (advanced teacher), and the _rhetor_
(professor), they acquired the knowledge and accomplishments it was needful
for them to obtain.

The Roman schools, elementary and secondary, seem to have been conducted in
a verandah, and boys and girls seem to have been taught in the same school.
The chief Roman writers on education are Cicero, Seneca, and Quintilian.
Quintilian tells us that Cato also wrote a treatise on the subject, but
that that work had been lost. The oratorical training of which Quintilian
was the expositor seems to have been largely out of connection with real
life; and, though he claims that the orator must be a widely cultured,
wise, and honourable man, seems to have developed a tendency to the
bombastic abuse of ornate and stilted speech. The practical effects, too,
of the corruption of family education were far from satisfactory. Moral
degradation followed, and humanity seems to have been rescued only by the
introduction of a new ideal of life, which substituted for the pagan
self-reliance, self-control, moderation, and proportion, self-denial,
self-forgetfulness, and humility; which made the last, indeed, the chief
virtue, and looked on pride and self-confidence as spiritual sins.

The introduction of Christianity was followed by the inroads into the Roman
Empire of barbarous tribes from the north and east. Before these attacks
the Western Roman Empire collapsed, and with it to a greater or less extent
the educational system of the time.

It must be remembered that between three and four hundred years elapsed
between the downfall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginnings of the
Holy Roman Empire under Charlemagne. Classical or pagan culture, as profane
learning, was at a discount, and the aim of the monasticism which grew out
of the introduction of Christianity was mystic absorption in the
contemplation of God.

This interval was followed by the efforts of Charlemagne to revive Roman
culture, and to establish schools throughout Western Europe. In this he was
aided by Alcuin and other scholars from England, where in the comparative
quiet that followed the conquest of Britain there had grown up a system of
education. Throughout his dominions three classes of schools were
established by Charlemagne, the Palace School, the Bishop's School, and the
Monastery School. These were intended to take the place of the splendid
system of public schools that had grown up under the Roman Empire. The
course of studies established in these mediæval schools, following the
practice of Greece and Rome, was divided into two parts: the _Trivium_,
including Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric; and the _Quadrivium_, which
embraced Geometry, Arithmetic, Music, and Astronomy. Education in the
palace or castle schools had a different aim. It sought to develop the
bodily powers, and to awake in the pupils that respect for the weak which
was shown in the worship of women, and that love of justice, and belief in
its supremacy, which characterized the _chivalry_ of the Middle Ages.

The scholastic education of this time laid special stress on formal logic
and metaphysics. Latin was taught, was, indeed, the universal language of
the period. Questions about the nature of the unseen and the spiritual
occupied much of men's minds; while their time was taken up in discussing
the character of universals, the true realities which lay behind the
individual manifestations of experience. As a rule, the physical world was
ignored, and human intelligence disregarded; but there were notable
exceptions, among which the teachings of Bishop Grosseteste (died 1253) and
of Roger Bacon (1214 to 1294) take a prominent place.

It was during the period of scholasticism that universities, in imitation
of the trade guilds of the time, sprung up in different parts of Europe,
particularly in Spain, Italy, France, and England. To the famous schools
both in England and on the Continent scholars flocked from all parts, and
their instruction presented little difficulty, as Latin, the language in
which the instruction was given, was the common language of scholars in
Western Europe. The establishment of universities in different countries
was a sign rather than a cause or result of that intellectual and spiritual
awakening which, after nearly a thousand years of almost complete
stagnation, manifested itself among the peoples of Europe.

It is usual to date the Renaissance from 1453, the fall of Constantinople;
but it must not be forgotten that owing to the clash between East and West,
the struggle between Christianity and Mohammedanism (the Crusades, as these
religious wars were called), there had from the end of the eleventh century
been a considerable change of outlook among the nations of Western Europe.
This was specially the case in Italy, where city states, not unlike those
of Greece in their character, had sprung up, and where, as in Greece in the
time of Pericles, there had been the great outburst of literary activity
which is associated with the names of Boccaccio, Dante, and Petrarch. In
Northern and Western Europe the intelligence stimulated by the new learning
was directed towards the improvement of the method of study. All study was
linguistic. Latin was the instrument of common intercourse; Greek and
Hebrew were sacred as the tongues in which the Scriptures had been
conveyed; it was no wonder, therefore, that the humanistic education was
almost entirely confined to the study of languages. Sturm (1507 to 1589)
drew up a scheme of studies which had long a great influence on the school
courses of instruction throughout Europe.

The reaction against authority which marked the Reformation period was
specially noted for the reaction against the purely verbal education given
to the young, whose education, as we learn from Locke, was calculated to
teach them "not to believe, but to dispute", and to fit them "for the
university, not for the world". On the Continent Rabelais (1483 to 1533)
led this realistic movement, which was continued by Montaigne (1533 to
1592) in France, and under the influence of Bacon by Brinsley and Hoole in
England, and Ratke and Comenius on the Continent. Up to this time the chief
English writers on the subject of education had been Sir Thomas Elyot in
his _Governour_, Roger Ascham in his _Scholemaster_, and Richard Mulcaster
in his _Positions_.

The intellectual activity which marked in England the closing decades of
the sixteenth and the first part of the seventeenth century saw the issue
of Milton's _Tractate_, one of the most famous books on education ever
produced. The _Tractate_ discusses only the kind of education that should
be given to gentlemen's sons between the ages of twelve and twenty-one, so
that it is strictly limited in its application, as it does not deal with
the education of the people, nor with the education of women. The ideal
which Milton put before him as the aim of "a complete and generous
education" was "to fit a man to perform justly, skilfully, and
magnanimously all the offices both private and public of peace and war".
Milton in his _Tractate_ discusses studies, exercise, and diet, showing
that he clearly understood that education was concerned with the body as
well as the mind and spirit.

Towards the close of the seventeenth century Locke, an English physician
and philosopher, published (1693) his _Thoughts concerning Education_, a
book which influenced immensely the character and direction of future
educational studies. As he informs his readers in his letter to Edward
Clarke, he counsels everyone "after having well examined and distinguished
what fancy, custom, or reason advises in the case ... to promote everywhere
that way of training up youth ... which is the easiest, shortest, and
likeliest to produce virtuous, useful, and able men in their distinct
callings". He begins his essay with the statement, "A sound mind in a sound
body is a short but full description of a happy state in this world", and
the suggestions he makes as to the physical, moral, and intellectual
training of the young are for the most part sound. He decried a too severe
discipline, maintaining that "If the mind be curbed and humbled too much in
children, ... they lose all their vigour and industry". On the other hand,
he held that if you "Remove hope and fear, there is an end of all
discipline"; and he held that, as far as possible, "Childish actions are to
be left perfectly free and unrestrained". He applied the science of
psychology to the study of child nature, and of the methods to be employed
in training it; and so prepared the way for the modern methods of
education. "Interest is the secret of Herbart", according to one of his
devoted admirers. Locke seems to have anticipated this when he declares
that "None of the things they are to learn should ever be made a burden to
them, or imposed on them as a task".

Though his attitude towards the universe was utterly opposed to the
attitude of Locke, Rousseau drew almost all that was practical in his
scheme for the education of the young from the English writer. Rousseau's
work, though largely inspired by Locke, was essentially of a revolutionary
kind. It held that man is the great corrupter; that "Everything is good as
it comes from the hands of the Creator; and that man's handling makes
everything worse". In effect he said, leave the child as much as possible
alone. An attempt constantly to direct him can only result in stupefying
him. It is true we receive our education from nature, from men, and from
things; but nature must be our guide in determining the use of the other
two. As few restraints as possible must be imposed on the child, and the
use of books should be prohibited. For the child there should be "no other
book but the world", and "no other instruction but facts". The child's
education he divides into four stages, infancy, childhood, boyhood, and
youth. The first two stages last till the beginning of the thirteenth year,
when the boy is supposed to be fit for instruction. From such instruction
the teaching of words must disappear, and the teaching of things must take
its place. The subjects most suitable for instruction were, Rousseau
declared, measuring, drawing, geometry, speaking, and singing. Books, he
declares, are useless, are, indeed, altogether harmful. The method he
advocates is the method of self-teaching and the use of the senses, which
Rousseau held would work to the profit of the intelligence. The child's
knowledge should rest on his own observation, and not on belief in
authority, and each child should be taught a manual trade.

At fifteen, according to Rousseau, real education begins; and it is the
duty of the teacher to study the subject he has to act upon, in other
words, to discover the nature of the pupil, which must in all cases
determine the means and the method employed in his education. Two things
must be taught. These are the true relations, racial and individual, that
exist among men; and how to direct and control the emotions aroused by the
environment so that the best results may arise. Here he finds occasion for
the use of moral teaching and for instruction in religion. The facts of
history must be placed before him; but he must be left to form his own
judgment. He is now to be taught religion as a help to the regulation of
the passions; but not the religion of any particular sect. His time is to
be given up largely to reading and to the acquirement of taste; to the
study of history and eloquence; and to attendance at the theatre.

The revolutionary doctrines preached by Rousseau in his _Émile_ and in his
other educational works had an immense effect on the Continent, and
particularly on the work of one of his most ardent admirers, the Swiss
farmer and schoolmaster Pestalozzi, an eccentric, dubbed by his
schoolfellows "Harry Oddity of Fools-town". Thinking the education demanded
for Émile by Rousseau vastly superior to that which he himself received, he
very early became an ardent admirer of the system advocated by the French
philosopher, and an eager reformer. _Émile_ and the _Contrat Social_ were
condemned by the magistrates of Zurich, and Pestalozzi and some of his
fellow-students were imprisoned for the _Memorial_ in which they defended
these works. Later Pestalozzi determined to be a farmer. He was married at
the age of twenty-three, and started growing madder and vegetables on some
poor land near Zurich. On the land he built for himself a house, the
_Neuhof_.

In the winter of 1774 he hit upon the expedient of taking into his house
some twenty poor children of the neighbourhood, whom he treated as his own.
They worked with him in summer in the fields, and in winter in the house.
Improved health for the children, increased intelligence, and a manifest
devotion to their benefactor were some of the results speedily displayed,
and the experiment drew much attention to itself. Urged on by his love for
the children, Pestalozzi took in a larger number, and in a very short time
found himself bankrupt. In this period of seeming disaster Pestalozzi
turned author. The books which he produced were greedily read on the
Continent, and aroused the greatest interest. After some work at Stanz and
at Burgdorf, Pestalozzi settled to work in the castle of Yverdun on Lake
Neuchâtel, which became in the early years of the nineteenth century a
place of pilgrimage for European students and lovers of education. Forced
to leave Yverdun in 1815, he continued his work at Clindy till 1824.

Friedrich Froebel spent the years 1807 to 1809 at Yverdun, and so fitted
himself to carry on the work Pestalozzi had to some extent made popular.
His name, however, is specially associated with the schools for very young
children to which he gave the name of _Kindergarten_, that is, 'gardens of
children', places where young children, like young plants, were properly
watched and tended. For the children in these schools their employment was
to be play, play from which and by which they acquired clear notions
regarding themselves and their environment. "Education", he asserted,
"should lead and guide man to clearness concerning himself and in himself,
to peace with nature, and to unity with God." He held that powers were
developed by exercise; that failure to use any part of the body or mind led
to the shrinkage of the part, and sometimes even to its complete loss. He
held that if we wish to develop the body we must exercise the body, and
that, similarly, if we wish to develop the intellect or the emotions they
must be exercised. He insists that teachers must be careful to interfere as
little as possible; must remember at all times that the aim of teaching is
"to bring ever more and more out of man rather than to put more and more
into him". He based his system on action; agreed with Montaigne that
"children's games were their most serious occupations"; and with Locke that
"All the plays and diversions of children should be directed towards good
and useful habits". Froebel was not the founder of infant schools. These
were first established on the Continent and in Britain with the object of
helping mothers. In Britain their establishment is associated with the
names of the educational enthusiasts James Buchanan and Samuel Wilderspin.

Nearly ten years before Froebel's stay with Pestalozzi at Yverdun, Herbart,
next to Kant and Hegel the most influential of German philosophers, visited
the inspired educationist at Burgdorf, and found him employing methods
based on the principles which he himself had worked out in his psychology.
To both it was clear that there is a definite order in which subjects
should be taught to the children, and that this order is determined, not
merely by the relation of the subjects to each other, but by their power of
satisfying the growing wants and capacities of the child. Pestalozzi had
arrived intuitively at a method, and had practically applied it, which
Herbart had scientifically worked out as applicable to the whole
educational field. Three years later Herbart published pamphlets on
Pestalozzi's best-known book, _How Gertrude teaches her Children_, and on
_The A.B.C. of Sense-perception_, and in these showed what weight he
attached to observation as an instrument of education. Two years later he
published one of his most notable works on education, _The Æsthetic
Revelation of the World_, and in 1806 _General Pedagogy_. In 1809 he was
appointed professor of philosophy at Königsberg, where he remained till
1833, and where his services to the cause of education, both by his
writings and by his establishment of normal schools and experimental
schools, cannot be exaggerated. He warns teachers not to educate too much;
to be careful not to destroy the individuality of the child, such
individuality being that which characterizes individuals of the same class.
He lays the greatest stress on the importance to the teacher of child
study, maintaining that he will be unable to teach unless he knows the
child as he is. For Herbart the aim of education is summed up in morality,
"the highest aim of humanity and consequently of education", itself. "I
have no conception", he writes, "of education without instruction, just as
I do not acknowledge any instruction that does not educate." "Instruction",
he says elsewhere, "will form the circle of thought, and education the
character; the last is nothing without the first." A great deal, according
to Herbart, depends upon the pupil himself, who "grasps rightly what is
natural to him", and who must be saved from the tendency to one-sidedness
in which following his bent would result, by the cultivation in him of
many-sidedness. This cultivation involves the control of the pupil's mental
activity, and the instrument for this control is interest, which causes the
pupil's complete absorption in its object. For the attainment of this
Herbart proposes certain formal steps of instruction. These steps are
usually set forth as (1) Preparation, (2) Presentation, (3) Comparison, (4)
Generalization, (5) Application.

The nineteenth century was a period of continuously increasing interest in
education, and of a generally growing belief in its utility. It was taken
up by the Governments of the different countries, and ordered and regulated
almost out of existence. Seven years before the death of Pestalozzi the
first public grant for education was made by the British Parliament, and
from that time up to the present the Government has continued to extend its
power over the education of the country. For a long time the Government in
Britain was satisfied to subsidize elementary education; but later it
insisted on hard-and-fast lines of instruction. So thoroughly were these
regulated in most countries that a French Minister of Education could boast
he was able to say what work every child in France was engaged in at that
particular moment.

In Britain it was only bit by bit, and with very considerable reluctance,
that the Government took upon itself the responsibility for the education
of the country. In Scotland a national system of general education,
constituted in 1560, remained in force until reconstructed by the
_Education Act_ of 1872. (See _Scotland_.) Compulsory education was
introduced into England in 1870, together with what was described as
payment by results; and, for some time, the aim which the teacher had to
keep before him was the production at the annual examination of the largest
number of pupils who could satisfy the tests in Reading, Writing, and
Arithmetic, or, as they were called, the 'three R's', and so earn the
Government grant. For between thirty and forty years this unnatural and
mechanical system remained in force. From 1864 onwards Commission after
Commission sought to reduce English secondary education to order. The most
notable of these was The Bryce Commission of Enquiry into Secondary
Education, 1894-5, whose recommendations have since been put into force by
legislation. One of the results of the increasing interest in education
throughout England was the founding, early in the latter half of last
century, of great day schools, like the City of London, St. Paul's, and
Merchant Taylors, in London and other large cities; and, after the passing
of the Education Act of 1902, the establishment everywhere of Council
Secondary Schools.

Of the immense number of works on education issued during the last half of
the nineteenth century, perhaps the best known are those of Herbert Spencer
and of Professor Bain. The former seeks to explain education from the
Darwinian standpoint, and the latter to determine from psychology the
intellectual value of the various subjects taught in school, and the
average age at which they should be taught to children. Of practical
English educators during the nineteenth century, the most outstanding names
are undoubtedly those of Arnold of Rugby, Thring of Uppingham, and Abbott
of the City of London School.

In recent times the advances made in the theoretical and practical studies
of the sciences of anthropology, physiology, and psychology have exercised
an enormous influence on educational theories and practices. Careful
observations of young children by scientific observers like Darwin,
Dearborn, and Preyer have added greatly to our knowledge of child-nature;
and helped to suggest new methods of studying it and developing it. The
result has been the promulgation within the present century of a number of
educational methods, some of which, in contrast to the older practices,
must seem almost revolutionary. Among these must be remembered the
'Heuristic Method' of teaching science put forward by Professor H. E.
Armstrong. The object of the method is to put the student as completely as
may be in the position of an original investigator; and it has been classed
by writers on education as being, like so many other modern methods, a
'play method'. Froebel in his kindergarten was one of the first to
introduce successfully the play method in education, and the 'gifts' by
which the plan was carried through were of his own devising; but such
cannot be said of Dr. Montessori, whose method of education engrosses so
much attention at the present time. The Montessori apparatus was originally
devised by Dr. Seguin for the instruction of mental defectives. Dr.
Montessori used the apparatus first for the training of young children; but
the cardinal feature of the Montessori system is the determined effort to
make the child entirely responsible for his own education, and to interfere
as little as possible with his development. The apparatus is so contrived
that it can only be used in one way if the problem is to be solved; so the
child is forced to attend to the differences in size and shape and
carefully to compare the different pieces. In addition, the Montessori
system attempts to cultivate the social virtues; teaches the children to
live and to work and play with others, and so to learn to be well-mannered.
The teacher in this system retires into the background, and the children
are left to go their own way, to choose their own tasks, and to be their
own critics. Great attention is also given to the physical development of
the children.

Experimental education has been attempted both in Germany, where the need
for it was first put forward by Kant, and in England; but it is in the
United States of America that the chief advances in this direction have
been made. There the Binet attempt to measure the intelligence of the
child, to fix in fact a metric scale of intelligence, has been elaborated,
and the Binet-Simon system of tests devised, and later modified by L. M.
Terman. There, too, schools have been established which have tried the
working out of what may be described as the non-interference with the pupil
principle. Among these may be mentioned the 'George Junior Republic' and
the Gary Schools. The latter, we are told by their founder, were "not
instituted to turn out good workers for the steel company, but for the
educational value of the work they involved". To this must be added the
'Dalton Laboratory Plan', tried lately as an experiment by Miss Helen
Parkhurst in a public secondary day school in Dalton. By this plan, the
time-table is abolished, the child undertakes to get up a certain amount of
work each month in each particular subject, and is left free to distribute
his time as he chooses, so that he can devote more time to those subjects
in which he is backward. The school is divided into departments
(laboratories) each under a specialist who gives the help needed, but
leaves the pupil to himself as much as possible.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bartley,
_The Schools for the People_; Norwood and Hope, _Higher Education of Boys
in England_; Quick, _Essays on Educational Reformers_; Browning, _An
Introduction to the History of Education Theories_; Sleight, _Educational
Values and Methods_; Nunn, _Education: Its Data and First Principles_;
Wilton, _What do we mean by Education?_ _The New Teaching_, edited by
Adams; Kerr, _Scottish Education_; Morrison, _Education Authorities'
Handbook_; Dewey, _Schools of To-morrow_; Rusk, _Introduction to
Experimental Education_; Montessori, _The Montessori Method_ and _The
Advanced Montessori Method_.

EDUCATION ACT, the name given to several Acts dealing with education in
Great Britain. Among the principal Education Acts are: (1) that of 1870,
which introduced compulsory education; (2) that of 1891, which reduced, or
in some cases abolished, school fees; (3) that of 1902, which authorized
the levying of an education rate; and (4) that of 1918, which raised the
age for leaving school, and made education compulsory up to the age of
eighteen by means of continuation schools. Pupils must attend these schools
for 320 hours each year.

EDWARD, known as _the Elder_, King of England, son of Alfred the Great,
born about 870, died in 925. He succeeded his father in 901, and his reign
was distinguished by successes over the Danes. He fortified many inland
towns, acquired dominion over Northumbria and East Anglia, and subdued
several of the Welsh tribes.

EDWARD, surnamed _the Martyr_, King of England, succeeded his father,
Edgar, at the age of fifteen, in 975. His reign of four years was chiefly
distinguished by ecclesiastical disputes. He was treacherously slain in 979
by a servant of his stepmother, at her residence, Corfe Castle. The pity
caused by his innocence and misfortune induced the people to regard him as
a martyr.

EDWARD, King of England, surnamed _the Confessor_, was the son of Ethelred
II, and was born at Islip, in Oxfordshire, about 1004. On the death of his
maternal brother, Hardicanute the Dane, in 1041, he was called to the
throne, and thus renewed the Saxon line. Edward was a weak and
superstitious, but well-intentioned prince, who acquired the love of his
subjects by his monkish sanctity and care in the administration of justice.
His queen was the daughter of Godwin, Earl of Kent. He died in 1066, and
was succeeded by Harold, the son of Godwin. Edward caused a body of laws to
be compiled from those of Ethelbert, Ina, and Alfred, to which the nation
was long fondly attached. He was canonized by Pope Alexander III in 1161.

EDWARD, Prince of Wales, surnamed _the Black Prince_, born 15th June, 1330,
the eldest son of Edward III and Philippa of Hainault. In 1346 he commanded
part of the forces at the battle of Crécy, and earned the praise of his
warlike father. It was on this occasion that he adopted the motto _Ich
dien_ (I serve), used by all succeeding Princes of Wales. In 1355 he
commanded the army which invaded France from Gascony, and distinguished
himself the following year at the great battle of Poitiers. By the Peace of
Brétigny the provinces of Poictou, Saintonge, Périgord, and Limousin were
annexed to Guienne and formed into a sovereignty for the prince under the
title of the Principality of Aquitaine. A campaign in Castile, on behalf of
Pedro the Cruel, and the heavy taxes laid on Aquitaine to meet the
expenses, caused a rebellion, and ultimately involved him in a war with the
French king. His own health did not allow him to take the field, and having
seen his generals defeated he withdrew into England, and after lingering
some time died (1376), leaving an only son, afterwards Richard II.

EDWARD I (of the Norman line), King of England, son of Henry III, was born
at Winchester in 1239, died 7th July, 1307. The contests between his father
and the barons called him early into active life, and he finally quelled
all resistance to the royal authority by the decisive defeat of Leicester
at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. He then proceeded to Palestine, where he
showed signal proofs of valour, although no conquest of any importance was
achieved. His father's death in 1272 gave him the crown. On his return home
he showed great vigour as well as a degree of severity in his
administration. He commenced a war with Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, which
ended in the annexation of that Principality to the English Crown in 1283.
Edward's ambition was to gain possession of Scotland, but the death of
Margaret, the Maid of Norway, who was to have been married to Edward's son,
for a time frustrated the king's designs. But on 26th Dec., 1292, John
Baliol was induced to do homage for his crown to Edward at Newcastle.
Baliol was forced by the indignation of the Scottish people into war with
England. Edward entered Scotland in 1296, devastated it with fire and
sword, and placed the administration of the country in the hands of
officers of his own. Next summer a new rising took place under William
Wallace. Wallace's successes recalled Edward to Scotland with an army of
100,000 men. Wallace was at length betrayed into his hands and executed as
a traitor. All Edward's efforts, however, to reduce the country to
obedience were unavailing, and with the flight of Robert Bruce, Earl of
Carrick, to Scotland, the banner of Scottish independence was again
unfurled. Edward assembled another army and marched against Bruce, but only
lived to reach Burgh-on-Sands, a village near Carlisle, where he died.
Edward I was wise in council and vigorous in action. During his reign great
progress was made in the establishment of law and order throughout the
land.

EDWARD II, King of England, born at Carnarvon Castle in 1284, and the first
English Prince of Wales, succeeded his father, Edward I, in 1307. He was of
an agreeable figure and mild disposition, but indolent and fond of
pleasure. After marching as far as Cumnock, in Ayrshire, with the army
collected by his father, he returned, dismissed his troops, and abandoned
himself entirely to amusements. His weakness for a clever but dissolute
young Gascon, Piers Gaveston, on whom he heaped honours without limit,
roused the nobles to rebellion. Gaveston was captured in Scarborough
Castle, and executed as a public enemy on 19th June, 1312. Two years after
this, Edward assembled an immense army to check the progress of Robert
Bruce, but was completely defeated at Bannockburn. In 1322 he made another
expedition against Scotland, but without achieving anything important. The
king's fondness for another favourite, Hugh le Despenser, had made a number
of malcontents, and Queen Isabella, making a visit to France, entered into
a correspondence with the exiles there, and formed an association of all
hostile to the king. Aided by a force from the Count of Hainault, she
landed in Suffolk in 1326. Her army was completely successful. The
Despensers, father and son, were captured and executed, and the king was
taken prisoner and confined in Kenilworth, and ultimately in Berkeley
Castle, where he was murdered 21st Sept., 1327.

EDWARD III, King of England, son of Edward II by Isabella of France, was
born in 1312, died 21st June, 1377. On his father's deposition in 1327 he
was proclaimed king under a council of regency, while his mother's lover,
Mortimer, really possessed the principal power in the State. The pride and
oppression of Mortimer led to a general confederacy against him, and to his
seizure and execution (10th Oct., 1330). Edward now turned his attention to
Scotland, and, having levied a well-appointed army, defeated the regent,
Douglas, at Halidon Hill, in July, 1333. This victory produced the
restoration of Edward Baliol, who was, however, again expelled, and again
restored, until the ambition of the English king was diverted by the
prospect of succeeding to the throne of France. Collecting an army and
accompanied by the Black Prince, he crossed over to France. The memorable
battle of Crécy followed, 25th Aug., 1346, which was succeeded by the siege
of Calais. In the meantime David II, having recovered the throne of
Scotland, invaded England with a large army, but was defeated and taken
prisoner by a much inferior force under Lord Percy. In 1348 a truce was
concluded with France; but on the death of King Philip, in 1350, Edward
again invaded France, plundering and devastating. Recalled home by a
Scottish inroad, he retaliated by carrying fire and sword from Berwick to
Edinburgh. In the meantime the Black Prince had penetrated from Guienne to
the heart of France, fought the famous battle of Poitiers, and taken King
John prisoner. A truce was then made, at the expiration of which (1359)
Edward again crossed over to France and laid waste the provinces of Picardy
and Champagne, but at length consented to a peace. This confirmed him in
the possession of several provinces and districts of France which were
entrusted to the Prince of Wales (the Black Prince), but gradually all the
English possessions in France, with the exception of Bordeaux, Bayonne, and
Calais, were lost.

EDWARD IV, King of England, was born in 1442, died in April, 1483. His
father, Richard, Duke of York, was grandson of Edmund, Earl of Cambridge
and Duke of York, fourth son of Edward III, while the rival line of
Lancaster descended from John of Gaunt, the third son. The York line had
intermarried with the female descendants of Lionel, the second son, which
gave it the preferable right to the Crown. Edward, on the defeat and death
of his father at the battle of Wakefield, assumed his title, and, having
entered London after his splendid victory over the troops of Henry VI and
Queen Margaret at Mortimer's Cross, in Feb. 1461, was declared king by
acclamation. The victory of Towton, soon after his accession, confirmed his
title, and three years after this, on 4th May, 1464, the battle of Hexham
completely overthrew the party of Henry VI. The king now made an imprudent
marriage with Elizabeth, widow of Sir John Grey, at the very time when he
had dispatched the Earl of Warwick to negotiate a marriage for him with the
sister of the French king. He thus alienated powerful friends, and Warwick,
passing over to the Lancastrian cause, gathered a large army, and compelled
Edward to fly (in Sept. 1470). Henry's title was once more recognized by
Parliament. But in 1471 Edward, at the head of a small force given him by
the Duke of Burgundy, landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire, and his army, being
quickly increased by partisans, marched swiftly on London and took the
unfortunate Henry prisoner. Warwick now advanced with an army to Barnet,
where a battle was fought, 4th April, 1471, which ended in the death of
Warwick and a decisive victory for Edward. Shortly afterwards Edward also
met and defeated a Lancastrian army, headed by Queen Margaret and her son
Edward, at Tewkesbury. The prince was murdered, and the queen was thrown
into the Tower, where Henry VI soon after died. Edward was preparing for an
expedition against France when he died.

EDWARD V, King of England, the eldest son of Edward IV, was in his
thirteenth year when he succeeded his father in 1483. His uncle, the Duke
of Gloucester, soon made himself king as Richard III, and caused the young
king and his brother to be sent to the Tower, where he had them smothered
by ruffians.

EDWARD VI, King of England, son of Henry VIII by Jane Seymour, was born in
1537, died in July, 1553. At his father's death he was only nine years of
age. His education was entrusted to men of the first character for
learning, under whose training he made great progress, and grew up with a
rooted zeal for the doctrines of the Reformation. His reign was, on the
whole, tumultuous and unsettled. In Oct., 1551, the Protector Somerset, who
had hitherto governed the kingdom with energy and ability, was deposed by
the intrigues of Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, who became all-powerful.
He induced the dying Edward to set aside the succession of his sisters,
Mary and Elizabeth, and settle the crown upon Lady Jane Grey, to whom he
had married his son Lord Guildford Dudley. Edward VI restored many of the
grammar schools suppressed by Henry VIII, and these schools are still known
as King Edward's schools.

EDWARD VII, King of Great Britain and Ireland and Emperor of India, eldest
son of Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort, was born at Buckingham Palace
on 9th Nov., 1841, died 6th May, 1910. In Dec., 1841, he was created Prince
of Wales. He was educated under private tutors and at Edinburgh, Oxford,
and Cambridge; visited Canada and the United States in 1860; and underwent
military training at the Curragh camp in 1861. Promoted to the rank of
general in 1862, he visited Palestine and the East, and next year took his
seat in the House of Lords. On 10th March, 1863, he was married in St.
George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, to Princess Alexandra, eldest daughter of
Christian IX of Denmark, and from this time onwards he discharged many
public ceremonial functions. Attacked by typhoid fever in the winter of
1871, his life was for a time despaired of, but he recovered early in 1872,
his recovery being made the occasion of a thanksgiving service in St.
Paul's Cathedral. During 1875 and 1876 he visited India. He was a member of
the Poor Law Commission of 1893. He promoted the establishment of the
Imperial Institute as a memorial of Queen Victoria's jubilee (1887), and he
commemorated her diamond jubilee (1897) by founding the Prince of Wales's
(now King's) Hospital Fund for the better financial support of the London
hospitals. On the death of Queen Victoria on 22nd Jan., 1901, he succeeded
to the throne, and was crowned on 9th Aug., 1902. King Edward did much to
promote friendly relations with foreign powers, especially with France and
the United States. It was through his personal influence that the Entente
Cordiale with France was brought about. To him and Queen Alexandra were
born: Albert Victor Christian Edward, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, born
1864, died 1892; George Frederick Ernest Albert, who succeeded his father
as George V, born 1865, married 1893, to Princess Victoria Mary of Teck;
Princess Louise, now Princess Royal, born 1867, married 1889, to the Duke
of Fife, who died 29th Jan., 1912; Princess Victoria, born 1868; and
Princess Maud, born 1869, married 1896, to Prince Charles of Denmark, now
King of Norway as Haakon VII.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Life of the King_, by 'One of
His Majesty's Servants'; Holt-White, _The People's King_; E. Legge, _King
Edward in his true Colours_; J. P. Brodhurst, _The Life and Times of Edward
VII_; W. H. Wilkins, _Edward the Peacemaker_.

EDWARD, Thomas, a Scottish naturalist, born 1814, died 1886. The son of
poor parents, he was apprenticed to a shoemaker and worked at his trade
till nearly the end of his life, but succeeded in acquiring much knowledge
of natural history and some fame as a naturalist. An interesting biography
of Edward (_Life of a Scottish Naturalist_), written by Samuel Smiles,
appeared in 1876, and a pension of £50 a year was shortly afterwards
conferred on him by Queen Victoria.

EDWARDS, Amelia Blandford, English novelist and Egyptologist, born in
London in 1831, died in 1892. She gave early evidence of great literary
ability by her contributions to periodicals, and attracted attention by her
novel _My Brother's Wife_ (1855). Among her best-known novels are: _Hand
and Glove_ (1859), _Barbara's History_ (1864), _Half a Million of Money_
(1865), _Debenham's Vow_ (1870), and _Lord Brackenbury_ (1880). Miss
Edwards wrote also ballads and books of travel, and in 1882 founded the
Egypt Exploration Fund and devoted herself to Egyptology, leaving funds to
found a chair of Egyptology in University College, London.

EDWARDS, Bryan, English writer, born in Wiltshire in 1743, died in 1800. He
inherited a large fortune from an uncle in Jamaica, where he long resided.
His _History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in the West
Indies_ appeared in 1793.

EDWARDS, John Passmore, British philanthropist and journalist, born at
Blackwater, Cornwall, in March, 1823, died on 22nd April, 1911. Trained as
a journalist, he became representative of the paper _The Sentinel_, and was
opposed to the Corn Laws. In 1862 he bought _The Building News_, and in
1876 the London _Echo_, of which he was director for twenty years. Although
somewhat unpopular on account of his opposition to the Boer War, he is
remembered as a public benefactor, having founded numerous Passmore Edwards
institutions, public libraries, and settlements, and contributed largely to
hospitals. He was a delegate to the peace congresses at Brussels, Paris,
and Frankfort (1848-50), and twice refused a knighthood.

EDWARDS, Jonathan, American theologian and metaphysician, born 5th Oct.,
1703, died 22nd March, 1758. He entered Yale College in 1716, and studied
till 1722, when he received a licence as preacher. In 1723 he was elected a
tutor in Yale College, but resigned in 1726 to be ordained as minister at
Northampton (Mass.). After more than twenty-three years of zealous service
here, he was dismissed by the congregation owing to the severity with which
he sought to exercise church discipline. He then went as a missionary among
the Indians at Stockbridge, in Massachusetts. Here he composed his famous
work on the _Freedom of the Will_, which appeared in 1754. In 1757 he was
chosen president of the college at Princeton, New Jersey, but died shortly
afterwards.

EDWY, King of England, son of Edmund I, succeeded his uncle Edred in 955.
Taking part with the secular clergy against the monks, he incurred the
confirmed enmity of the latter. The Papal party, headed by Dunstan, was
strong enough to excite a rebellion, by which Edwy was driven from the
throne to make way for his brother Edgar. He died in 959, being probably
not more than eighteen or nineteen years old.

EECLOO ([=a]k-l[=o]´), a town, Belgium, province of East Flanders, 11 miles
north-west of Ghent, the seat of textile manufactures. Pop. 13,536.

[Illustration: Eel-bucks on the Thames]

EEL, the popular name of fishes belonging to the teleostean sub-order
Apodes. The common eel (_Anguilla vulgaris_) is the type of a special
family (Anguillidæ) and has a very wide distribution in the fresh waters of
the globe. It is snake-shaped, devoid of ventral fins, and the minute
scales are embedded in the slimy skin. When five or six years old it
migrates to the deep sea for spawning, after which it probably dies.
Curious flattened larvæ (Leptocephalus) hatch out from the floating eggs,
and undergo a metamorphosis to become young eels or elvers, which when a
year old ascend rivers in vast numbers as 'eel fare'. Eels are esteemed as
an article of food, and even elvers are compressed into a sort of cake. In
England river eels are caught in great numbers by means of eel-bucks or
eelpots, traps consisting of a kind of basket with a funnel-shaped entrance
composed of willow rods converging towards a point, so that the eels can
easily force their way in but cannot return. A stocking or tube of coarse
cloth hanging from an aperture of a box down into the interior is also
used. In England a kind of trident called an _eel-spear_ is used also for
taking them. A fisherman wades to the shallows, and, as he strikes his
spear in the mud in every direction around him, the eels reposing on the
bottom are caught between the prongs. They are also taken by hooks and
lines and in other ways. See _Conger-eel_; _Muræna_. Electric eels belong
to another group. See _Electrical Fishes_.

EFFEN´DI, a Turkish title which signifies lord or master. It is
particularly applied to the civil, as _aga_ is to the military officers of
the Sultan. Thus the Sultan's first physician is called _Hakim effendi_,
and the priest in the seraglio _Imam effendi_.

EFFERVES´CENCE, the rapid escape of a gas from a liquid, producing a
turbulent motion in it, and causing it to boil up. It, is produced by the
actual formation of a gas in the liquid, as in fermentation, or by the
liberation of a gas which has been forced into it, as in aerated beverages.

EFFICIENCY, in mechanics and engineering, the ratio of the useful energy
given out by a machine to the energy supplied to it. Energy cannot be
created or destroyed, but it may assume various forms, and, within limits,
can be changed from any one of these forms to any other. A machine or
engine is an apparatus for converting energy in some given form into energy
in another assigned form. In practice it is found impossible to convert the
whole of the given energy into the form wanted, there being always a
residue which is not of the right kind, and is, therefore, counted as
useless. The smaller the residue, the more efficient is the machine. In the
machines of elementary mechanics, such as the lever or the screw, the
energy supplied is work done by the power or effort, and the energy wanted
is work done on the load. If E is the effort, and W the load, then if there
were no friction we would have E = Wr, where r is the velocity ratio, or
ratio of the velocities of the points of application of load and effort.
The relation found by experiment, however, is usually of the type E = Wr +
C, where C is a constant. The efficiency is the fraction Wr/E or 1 - C/E,
so that it increases with the load. In _heat engines_, energy in the form
of heat is converted into mechanical energy. Heat is taken in at the
source, part of it is changed into mechanical energy, and the remainder is
rejected to the condenser. According to the second law of thermodynamics,
the efficiency of such an engine has a definite upper limit which it cannot
exceed, this being the ratio of the difference of the temperatures of the
source and the condenser to the temperature of the source, these
temperatures being measured on the absolute scale, that is, from -273° C.
reckoned as the zero. The efficiency of a steam-engine is usually compared
with that of an ideal engine working between the same temperatures, and
going through a definite periodic set of operations called the Rankine
cycle. If the thermal efficiency of an actual engine is 27 per cent, and
that of an ideal engine working on the Rankine cycle is 30 per cent,
obviously the important figure is the ratio of 27 to 30, or 90 per cent.

The performance of a steam-engine depends, not only on its _thermal
efficiency_, but also on its _boiler efficiency_ and its _mechanical
efficiency_. The boiler efficiency is the percentage of the heat obtainable
from the fuel consumed which is actually used in the engine; in a good
boiler it may be 75 per cent. The mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the
work given out at the crank-shaft to the work done on the piston; in other
words, it is the ratio of brake horse-power to indicated horse-power. It
may perhaps be 80 per cent. To arrive at the over-all efficiency, the
various partial or component efficiencies must be multiplied together. In
comparing one type of engine with another, what is important is obviously
this over-all efficiency, or ratio of energy output to the theoretical
energy value of the fuel employed. Thus, to take the case of marine
engines, the Diesel oil-engine is inferior to the turbine and to the
reciprocator in point both of thermal and of mechanical efficiency. But
when the efficiency of the boilers is taken into account, the Diesel comes
out very decidedly ahead of the others. Taking coal at 10,000 British
thermal units per pound, and Diesel oil at 18,000 British thermal units per
pound, Mr. T. R. Wollaston has given the following figures for the number
of British thermal units consumed per brake horse-power hour: steam-engine
19,000; steam turbine 21,000; gas-engine 15,000; Diesel engine 9000.
Electrical plant in general reaches a high standard of efficiency. Some
figures are: transmission lines 85 to 95 per cent; motors and generators at
full load 70 to 80 per cent from 1 to 5 h.p., 80 to 90 per cent from 5 to
50 h.p., and 95 per cent for large sizes. Electrical transformers are the
most efficient of all machines. Their efficiency ranges from about 90 per
cent in small sizes, up to perhaps 98.5 per cent for large machines at full
load. See _Energy_; _Internal-combustion Engines_; _Steam-engines_;
_Thermodynamics_.

EFFLORES´CENCE, the property which certain hydrated salts have of losing
water when exposed to air. Thus washing-soda, Na_2CO_3, 10H_2O, if left in
air becomes opaque, loses its crystalline appearance, and finally falls to
a powder by loss of water. The term is also applied in botany to the
process of flowering.

EFFLUENTS, a general term applying to liquids, on being discharged, after
undergoing some form of treatment. The term is more particularly applied to
the purified liquid discharged into rivers and streams from sewage-works,
the crude sewage having been freed of the grosser solids, and rendered
clear and innocuous to animal and vegetable life.

EFFODIEN´TIA, the name proposed for a new order of mammals to include
pangolins and aard-varks. See _Edentata_.

ÉGALITÉ, Philippe. See _Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph_.

EGBERT, considered the first king of all England, was of the royal family
of Wessex. He succeeded Brihtric in 802 as King of Wessex. He reduced the
other kingdoms and rendered them dependent on him in 829, thus becoming
their overlord. He died in 839.

EGEDE, Hans ([=a]´ge-d[=a]), the apostle of Greenland, born in 1686 in
Norway, died in 1758. In 1721 Egede set sail for Greenland with the
intention of converting the natives to Christianity, and for fifteen years
performed the most arduous duties as missionary, winning by his persevering
kindness the confidence of the natives. In 1736 he returned to Copenhagen,
where he was made a bishop and director of the Greenland Missions.

EGER ([=a]´g[.e]r), a town of Bohemia, Czecho-Slovakia, on a rocky eminence
above the Eger, 91 miles west of Prague; once an important fortress, though
now quite dismantled. It has manufactures of woollens, cottons, leather,
and soap. Wallenstein was assassinated there (1634). Pop. 26,620.

EGE´RIA, a nymph who received divine honours among the Romans. Numa is said
to have received from her the laws which he gave to the Romans.

EGERSUND ([=a]´g[.e]r-s[u:]nd), a seaport on the south-west coast of
Norway, some distance south of Stavanger, and connected with it by railway,
has a large pottery-work, fishing and shipping trade. Pop. 3500.

EGERTON, Francis. See _Bridgewater, Duke of_.

[Illustration: Section of Hen's Egg

A, White or albumen. B, Vitelline membrane. C, Chalaza. D, White yolk. E,
Germinal disc. F, Shell. G, Air space. H, Shell membrane. K, Yellow yolk.]

EGG, (1) in the narrower sense, the female reproductive or germ-cell, which
after impregnation or fertilization by a male germ-cell (spermatozoon or
sperm) develops into an embryo. (See _Ovum_.) (2) The term is applied, more
broadly, to a more complicated reproductive body that consists of an ovum
together with supplementary parts. The egg of a bird, for example, includes
the fertilized and developing ovum (yolk), nutritive white (albumen), and
protective double egg membrane covered by a porous calcareous shell. The
eggs of animals lower than the birds have usually only three parts, viz.
the germinal spot or dot, the germinal vesicle, and the vitellus or yolk;
the first being contained in the vesicle, and that again in the yolk. The
common domestic fowl, the turkey, the pea-hen, and the common duck produce
the eggs which are commonest in the market. The eggs of the green plover
(_Vanellus cristatus_) are esteemed as a delicacy. The hard roes of fishes
are the ovaries, containing innumerable eggs (over nine millions in the
cod). The salted hard roes of the sturgeon are known as caviare. A hen's
egg of good size weighs about 1000 grams, of which the white constitutes
600, the yolk 300, and the shell 100. When the white of an egg is warmed it
coagulates to a firm opaque mass. Eggs form an important article in British
commerce; the number imported in 1919 amounted to the value of £8,613,000,
mainly from Russia, Denmark, Austria, France, and Italy.

EGG, an island of Scotland. See _Eigg_.

EGGA, a town of N. Nigeria, on the right bank of the Niger, about 70 miles
above the junction of the Binue. Pop. 10,000.

EGGAR, or EGGER, a name given to moths of the family Lasiocampidæ.
_Lasiocampa trifolii_, a well-known British moth, is called the
grass-egger, and the _L. quercus_ the oak-egger, from the food of their
caterpillars.

EGG-BIRD, or SOOTY TERN (_Sterna fuliginosa_), a bird of considerable
commercial importance in the West Indies, as its eggs, in common with those
of two other species of tern, form an object of profitable adventure to the
crews of numerous small vessels.

EGGLESTON, Edward, American novelist and miscellaneous writer, born in
1837, died in 1902. He entered the ministry of the Methodist Church, was
engaged in pastoral work for some years, afterwards as pastor of an
independent church founded by himself. He wrote and edited much, among his
books being: _The Hoosier Schoolmaster_ (1871), which first appeared in
_Hearth and Home_; _The End of the World_: _A Love Story_; _Roxy_, a highly
popular novel (1878); _The Hoosier Schoolboy_; _The Graysons_; _Household
History of the United States_; _The Faith Doctor_. His novels are marked by
abundance of incident, skilful handling of dialect, and realistic
portraiture.

EGG-PLANT, or BRINJAL (_Sol[=a]num melong[)e]na_), nat. ord. Solanaceæ, an
herbaceous plant, from 1 foot to 18 inches high, with large white or
purplish flowers. The fruit is about the size of a goose's egg, and
generally yellow, white, or violet, and when boiled or stewed is used as an
article of food. It is cultivated in India, the United States, &c., and in
European hothouses. There are several other species of egg-plants, as _S.
indicum_ and _S. sodomeum_.

EGHAM, an urban district of England, county of Surrey, on the Thames
opposite Staines, about 21 miles from London, with the Royal Holloway
College for women, and the Holloway Sanatorium. Near it is Runnymede, where
King John signed Magna Charta.

EGIL SKALLAGRIM, an Icelandic bard or poet of the tenth century, who
distinguished himself by his warlike exploits in predatory invasions of
Scotland and Northumberland. Having fallen into the hands of a hostile
Norwegian prince, he procured his freedom by the composition and recitation
of a poem called _Egil's Ransom_, which is still extant.

EGINHARD, or EINHARD, friend and biographer of Charles the Great
(Charlemagne), born in Maingau (East Franconia) about 770, died in 840. He
was educated in the monastery at Fulda, and his capacity attracted the
attention of Charles, who made him superintendent of public buildings, and
of whom he became the constant companion. He also enjoyed the favour of his
son Louis the Pious. His later years were passed at Mühlheim-on-the-Main,
where he founded a monastery. His _Vita Caroli Magni_ is a work of great
value, and his letters are also important.

EG´LANTINE, one of the names of the sweetbrier (_Rosa rubiginosa_), a kind
of wild rose. The name has sometimes been erroneously used for other
species of the rose and for the honeysuckle.

EG´MONT, Lamoral, Count, Prince of Gavre, was born in 1522, of an
illustrious family of Holland. He adopted a military career, accompanied
Charles V in his African expeditions, and distinguished himself under
Philip II in the battles of St. Quentin (1557) and Gravelines (1558).
Philip having gone to Spain, Egmont soon became involved in the political
and religious disputes which arose between the Netherlands and their
Spanish rulers. He tried to adjust the difficulties between both parties,
and in 1565 went to Spain to arrange matters with Philip. He was well
received, sent back with honour, but quite deceived as to the king's real
intentions. In 1567 the Duke of Alva was sent with an army to the
Netherlands to reduce the insurgents. One of his first measures was to
seize Count Egmont and Count Horn. After a trial before a tribunal
instituted by Alva himself they were executed at Brussels 5th June, 1568. A
well-known drama of Goethe's is founded on the story of Egmont.

E´GOISM, as a philosophical doctrine, the view that the elements of all
knowledge and the reality of the things known are dependent on the personal
existence of the knower. This theory is also called Subjective Idealism or
Solipsism. It maintains that his individual ego is the only being that a
man can logically assert to exist. As an ethical theory (practical egoism)
it is the opposite of altruism. It maintains that the governing principle
of conduct for the individual is his own good on the whole, and that
self-interest is the basis of morality. Egoism is to be distinguished from
egotism, which denotes the practice of putting forward or dwelling upon
oneself, of thinking, talking, or writing about oneself.

EGREMONT, a town of England, in Cumberland, in the valley of the Ehen, 3
miles from the sea, giving name to a parliamentary division. It has ruins
of an ancient (twelfth century) castle associated with a legend that served
Wordsworth as the subject of a poem. Iron-ore and limestone are worked.
Pop. 6300.

[Illustration: Little Egret (_Ard[)e]a garzetta_)]

EG´RET, a name given to those species of white herons which have the
feathers of the lower part of the back elongated and their webs disunited,
reaching to the tail or beyond it at certain seasons of the year. Their
forms are more graceful than those of common herons. The American egret
(_Ard[)e]a egretta_) is about 37 inches long to the end of the tail;
plumage soft and blended; head not crested; wings moderate; the tail short,
of twelve weak feathers. The European egret (_A. alba_) is about 40 inches
long, of a pure white plumage; the bill is black or dark brown, yellow at
the base and about the nostrils, and the legs are almost black. The little
egret (_A. garzetta_) is about 22 inches long from bill to end of tail, the
plumage is white. The term egret is used in the feather trade for a bunch
of the loose plumes, valued as an ornament.

[Illustration: Diagrammatic Section across Egypt from Farafra Oasis to
Sinai]

EGYPT (from Gr. _Aiguptos_) is, as Herodotus has said, "the gift of the
Nile". This great river, about 4000 miles in length, rises as the White
Nile, three degrees south of the equator, drawing its waters from the
Central African lakes. To the south of Khartoum, and 1350 miles from the
sea, it is joined by the Blue Nile, which rises in the mountains of
Abyssinia, and about 140 miles farther on it is fed by the Atbara, its last
tributary. On the tableland of Nubian sandstone between Khartoum and
Elephantine the river forms two great loops, and is intercepted by shallows
or cataracts, of which there are six in all. The 'first cataract'--the last
on the journey northward--is at Assouan, where a ridge of intercepting
granite crops up. At Edfu, about 68 miles farther north, the limestone
formation is entered, and the Nile then flows uninterrupted between
flanking hills that here and there attain the height of 1000 feet. Egypt
proper extends from Assouan to the Mediterranean. At a distance of about
100 miles from the sea the Nile divides into the branches forming the
Delta. To the south of Cairo it sends out the Bahr Yusuf, a branch about
200 miles long, which flows into the fertile Fayum. The narrow valley, the
average breadth of which is 10 miles, is 'the land of Egypt'. Its
cultivable area is not so large as Belgium, being under 10,000 sq. miles in
extent. Rain falls to the north of Cairo, but in Upper Egypt there are
showers only once in every three or four years. The fertility of the
country is due to the Nile. Each year the great river rises in flood when
the equatorial lakes are suddenly swollen by heavy tropical rains and the
snow melts in the Abyssinian mountains. The mean summer heat is 83° F. in
the Delta and 122° F. in the valley. It is a dry heat, not so oppressive as
that of India, and malaria is practically unknown. The most trying part of
the year is during the period of 'Low Nile'. Before the surplus waters were
stored in the Assouan Dam, the river shrank so low that its flow seemed
uncertain. For about two months the hot and blistering 'hanseen' (or
'sand-wind') keeps blowing. A new season is ushered in by the cool north
wind--the Etesian wind of the Greeks--which clears the accumulated dust
from vegetation. It is lauded in ancient texts by priestly poets and
Pharaohs. About the same time the conspicuous star Sirius makes its
appearance. It was anciently regarded as a form of the Mother Goddess. On
the 'Night of the Drop', in June, a fertilizing tear was supposed to fall
from this star, and thereafter the 'new Nile' was born. For about four days
(before the Assouan Dam was constructed) the rising river flowed green, the
slimy matter on the marshes of Upper Egypt being pushed forward by the 'new
water'. This was the 'Green Nile'. Then the Nile turned blood-red with
Abyssinian clay. This was the 'Red Nile'. As soon as the fertilizing 'new
water' touched the parched sands, Egypt awoke to new life. Countless
insects appeared, new grass and flowers sprang up, and trees and shrubs
broke into brilliant blossoms that filled the air with sweet perfume.
Bursting over its banks, the steadily rising river flooded the valley
generously and refreshingly. According to the Coptic Calendar, the
inundation season lasted from June till September, the seed-time from
October till January, and the harvest began in February.

[Illustration: Part of the Hieroglyphic Legend of Heru-Behutet and the
Winged Disk, cut on the Walls of the Temple of Edfû in Upper Egypt

Translation: In the three hundred and sixty-third year of R[=a]-Heru-Khuti,
who liveth for ever and for ever, His Majesty was in TA-KENS, and his
soldiers were with him; (the enemy) did not conspire (auu) against their
lord, and the land (is called) UAUATET unto this day. And R[=a] set out on
an expedition in his boat, and his followers were with him, and he arrived
at UTHES-HERU, (which lay to) the west of this nome, and to the east of the
canal PAKHENNU, which is called ( ... to this day). And Heru-Behutet was in
the boat of R[=a], and he said unto his father R[=a]-Heru-Khuti (i.e.
R[=a]-Harmachis), "I see that the enemies are conspiring against their
lord; let thy fiery serpent gain the mastery ... over them."--Reproduced by
permission from Vol. XXXII of _Books on Egypt and Chaldæa_, by Sir E. A.
Wallis Budge.]

_Early Religion and Civilization._--In its earliest phases the religion of
ancient Egypt reflected the natural phenomena of the Nile Valley in their
relation to the needs, experiences, and achievements of mankind. The flood
was an annual 'miracle of mercy', and the early people tried to account for
it. They concluded it was a gift of the gods. It ensured the food-supply;
it brought health and relief from the oppressive heat endured when the
sand-wind prevailed and the river was low. The new water was 'the water of
life'; it fertilized the parched soil and caused barley and millet (which
grew wild in the Delta) to spring up, trees to yield fruit, and curative
herbs to appear on the river banks. In the prehistoric period the Nile was
identified with Osiris, who, according to the traditions of the Delta
people, once reigned as their king, and introduced the agricultural mode of
life which made it possible for large and growing communities to dwell in
the narrow valley. In the Pyramid Texts (_c._ 2700 B.C.) Osiris is the
controller of the Nile, the principle of life in the Nile, and the Nile
itself. In one of his phases the god is the 'Green One'--the Green Nile. A
Pyramid Text reads: "Horus comes! He beholds his father in thee, Green One,
in thy name of Water of Greenness". The soul-substance (literally 'the
seed') of Osiris was the vital principle in the green or new water. Osiris
was the serpent-soul in the water, and the serpent (leviathan) of the ocean
which 'encircled the netherworld'. The god is addressed in a Pyramid Text:
"Thou art great, thou art green in thy name of Great Green" (Mediterranean
Sea). Osiris was slain by Set, and his life-blood was the Red Nile, which
entered the soil and vegetation. Osiris was not regarded as the Green One
because vegetation is green; the ancient Egyptians appear to have
attributed the greenness of vegetation to the Green Nile, the
soul-substance of Osiris. The sap of shrubs and trees was 'Blood'--the
blood of the god. Osiris continued to live after death. On earth he was in
barley, fruit, &c., and in the fertilized soil. He was in the other world
Judge and King of the Dead. In his underworld Paradise the souls of the
dead grew corn and cultivated fruit-trees--the 'food of life'. The Osirian
cult had origin in the Delta of Lower Egypt. In Upper Egypt a solar cult
exalted Horus, the falcon god, as chief deity. Their heaven was beyond the
sky 'to the east'. In the Pyramid Texts there is clear evidence that the
solar cult believed the souls of the dead went eastward, while the Osirian
cult believed they went westward. Osiris was called 'First of the
Westerners'. The 'Easterners' of the south (Upper Egypt) conquered the
'Westerners' of the north (Lower Egypt), and Egypt was united into a single
kingdom by the traditional King Mena, with whom begins the dynastic history
of Egypt. This conquest appears to have been due to the introduction of
copper weapons.

The idea that the Horites were invaders from Arabia or Mesopotamia has been
abandoned. Copper was anciently found in the wadis of Upper Egypt and on
the shores of the Red Sea. After boat-building and navigation were well
advanced copper was mined in Sinai. According to Egyptian evidence, Edfu
was the centre of the early copper industry and of the Horus cult. As
Egyptian copper is naturally hard, it required no amalgam. Egypt,
therefore, never had a Bronze Age, nor had it a Neolithic Age. The copper
artifacts were imitations of Palæolithic forms of the Solutrian type. After
the conquest there occurred fusions of religious cults. Local pantheons
reflected local politics. But although the sun-cult of Heliopolis exalted
Ra [Illustration: Painted inner wooden coffin of Pen-Amen-Neb-Nest-Taui, a
prophet of the God Amen and of the Goddess Bast at Thebes.] [Illustration:
Types of Columns from Egyptian Temples.] (or Re) as King of the Gods, the
belief that all that existed originated in water persisted till the end.
The water-mother was Hathor, who gave birth to Osiris. As the Nile was
supposed to come from heaven, she was the sky-goddess; her animal was the
primeval cow of a pre-dynastic cult, and she was the shell-spirit of water
as well--the Egyptian Aphrodite. The shell, pearl, cow, sky, sun, moon, and
stars were connected with Hathor as Nut. Ra, the sun-god, was, like Osiris,
regarded as her son. Her attributes were in time absorbed by Isis. At the
dawn of the Dynastic Age the religious beliefs of the Egyptian peoples were
already well developed, the agricultural mode of life was established in
the Nile Valley and in the Delta area, the calendar had been introduced,
while copper weapons and implements were in use. The subsequent history of
the official religion has a political aspect. Local cults rose into
prominence as a city-state or ruling family achieved political ascendancy.
Memphite theology and the Memphite god Ptah (the god of artisans) assumed
importance when the city of Memphis became the capital of the united
kingdom. Heliopolis ('the city of the sun') was the northern centre of the
solar cult, which, during the fourth and fifth dynasties (_c._ 2900-2625
B.C.), became influential enough to impose its theology on the court. The
popular Osirian faith was absorbed. Pharaohs were 'Sons of Ra', the
sun-god, and Ra supplanted the southern sun-god Horus. Before the Pyramid
Age the Osirian and Horite cults had been blended, and Horus became the son
of Osiris. Although the living Pharaoh, however, was the son of Ra, he was
also a Horus; after death he became an Osiris. The culture-blending process
introduced many complexities. During the twelfth dynasty (2000-1788 B.C.)
the name of the Theban god Amon entered into royal names. But the permanent
political ascendancy of Amon of Thebes really followed upon the expulsion
of the Hyksos military aristocracy about 1580 B.C. By this time the
northern sun cult's influence had become sufficiently strong to have Ra
blended with the Theban deity who was subsequently known as Amon-Ra. Before
the close of the eighteenth dynasty (_c._ 1350 B.C.) a royal sun cult,
promoted by Pharaoh Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV), exalted Aton, the sun-disc,
as sole god of Egypt and the rest of the world. The Amon-Ra cult regained
its political ascendancy with the rise of the nineteenth dynasty. In later
times the chief gods of the reigning families were blended forms of Amon,
Ra, Ptah, and Osiris. Not only the gods, but the rival Paradises, were
blended. Osiris's under-world Paradise was transferred to the mythical
other world beyond the horizon, and the sun-barque of the sun-god, which
carried the soul of the Pharaoh, was supposed to touch at 'the port of
Paradise'. It went westward and passed through the under-world, and emerged
again next morning at dawn in the east. The contradictions in the Egyptian
religious texts are believed to be mainly due to the blending of beliefs
regarding the fate of man which were originally fundamentally different.
Local deities were embraced in the official theology, but at their centres
remained prominent and influential. But these, too, were in time so
strongly influenced by the solar and Osirian faiths that they suffered in
no small degree loss of identity except in name. The religious beliefs of
Egypt as a whole were never completely systematized. There were no heresies
because there were no orthodox beliefs. Any religious cult was tolerated,
so long as it acknowledged the supremacy of the god or pantheon of the
ruling family. In the later period the cult of Serapis (Asar Hapi), the
bull form of Osiris, was popular.

[Illustration: Egyptian Pottery-making

From a wall-painting in the tombs of Beni-Hassan.]

_Arts and Crafts._--Art developed in ancient Egypt under religious
patronage. The earliest use made of Nubian gold was in manufacturing
imitation luck-shells worn by the pre-dynastic peoples. Gold thus acquired
a religious significance; at an early period it was associated with the
sun-deity--the mother-goddess in her solar aspect was called 'Golden
Hathor'. The hieroglyph for gold (_nub_) is a collar of beads. Exquisite
gold ornaments in symbolic shapes were produced during the early dynasties.
No finer gold ornaments have ever been produced anywhere than those of the
twelfth dynasty (_c._ 2000 B.C.). These include chased gold pectoral
ornaments and coronets and crowns inlaid with stones. When copper was first
introduced it was used like gold. After implements were made of copper,
vases of alabaster, diorite, &c., were worked with increasing skill and
taste. The hardest stone was hewn and dressed for building purposes. No
people have ever shown greater skill than the Egyptians in their stonework.
The sculptors set themselves, when constructing temples, to imitate in
stone the lashed palm-sticks, reeds, and papyrus stems used in the earliest
shrines to stiffen the mud walls. Massive temple pillars were decorated
with lotus petals, rose petals, &c. The early artists, who carved ivory,
began to work in stone after copper implements were invented, and produced
low reliefs in temples and tomb-chapels. Statuary in limestone, wood, and
copper in the early dynastic period was vigorous and realistic. The
sculptors were using the hardest material by the time of the Pyramid Age
(_c._ 2700 B.C.). A great tomb-statue of Pharaoh-Khafra, in diorite,
preserved in the Cairo Museum, is one of the triumphs of Egyptian
sculpture. The Empire-period sculpture reached a high level of excellence.
It was to provide 'soul-bodies' for dead Pharaohs that these great works of
art were produced. A great advance in the manufacture of pottery was
achieved during the Pyramid Age, when the potter's wheel was invented. To
Egypt the ancient world owed this notable contrivance. It was introduced in
time into Babylonia, Iran, India, China, Crete, Greece, and Western Europe.
Shipbuilding is another Egyptian industry which promoted progress. Cretan
and Phoenician vessels were of Egyptian design. In all histories of
shipping and navigation the ancient Egyptians are credited with being the
pioneers of maritime enterprise. The custom of mummification arose in
Egypt, and promoted the study of anatomy. Surgery had its origin in
mummification, as astronomy had in astrology, and chemistry had in alchemy.
Connected with each temple were architects, artists and sculptors,
metal-workers and dyers. Ships were constructed to obtain wood for temples
and to import pearls, precious stones, herbs, incense-bearing shrubs and
trees, &c., for religious purposes. In the history of early civilization
the Egyptian priests play a prominent part as patrons of the arts and
crafts.

[Illustration: Nefert, a royal princess of the Old Kingdom period

From a limestone statue in the Cairo Museum.]

_History._--In the hot, dry sands of Upper Egypt, which preserve the dead
from decay, have been found the bodies of large numbers of pre-dynastic
Egyptians. They were of the type known as the 'Mediterranean race'. The
contents of their stomachs have yielded husks of barley and millet and
fragments of mammalian and fish bones. Circumcision was practised, and some
men shaved. These people used malachite as an eyelid paint. When they
discovered that copper could be extracted from malachite, it was used at
first like gold, as has been stated. The production of copper implements
and weapons was followed by the conquest of Lower Egypt by the copper-using
Upper Egyptians. After the latter moved north, they found that the bodies
of their dead decayed, and the practice of mummification was introduced.
Before 3000 B.C. the broad-headed, long-bearded Armenoid type began to
filter into Lower Egypt. The blending of Armenoids and Arabians in Syria
produced 'the hybrid race of Semites'. In Egypt the ethnic fusion was most
marked at the commercial capital, Memphis, and especially during the time
of the pyramid builders (_c._ 2900-2750 B.C.). The spread of 'copper
culture', and the importation into Egypt of timber from Lebanon, apparently
brought the ancient races into close contact. Withal, shipbuilding and the
art of navigation had advanced by leaps and bounds. Before the Pyramid Age
there were sea-traders on the Mediterranean, and the Egyptians imported
copper from Sinai across the Red Sea. The legendary Pharaoh who united
Upper and Lower Egypt was Mena or Menes. From his time (_c._ 3400 B.C.)
till the close of the sixth dynasty (_c._ 2475 B.C.) the capital was
Memphis. This period is known as that of the 'Old Kingdom'. Among its
outstanding monarchs were Khufu, Khafra, and Menkure of the fourth dynasty,
the builders of the largest pyramids. Herodotus refers to them as _Cheops_,
_Chephren_, and _Mykerinos_. The 'Middle Kingdom' begins with the rise of
Thebes in Upper Egypt as the centre of political power. During this period
the nobility became so influential that the Pharaohs had to recognize their
rights and privileges. In the period of the famous twelfth dynasty (_c._
2000-1788 B.C.) the Theban monarchs established a uniform control of Egypt.
The later kings of this dynasty were unable, however, to withstand the
inroads of Asiatics, and the Middle Kingdom came to an end with the Hyksos
invasion. Of the Hyksos, the so-called 'Shepherd Kings', little is known.
They were civilized Asiatics, and during their overlordship of Egypt, which
embraced the thirteenth till the seventeenth dynasties (_c._ 1800-1575
B.C.), the horse and chariot were introduced into Egypt. A Theban royal
house rose into prominence during the latter part of their sway, and the
Hyksos were finally expelled by Pharaoh Aahmes, who founded the eighteenth
dynasty. The Empire period was then inaugurated. Egypt's greatest emperor,
Thothmes III (1515-1461 B.C.), extended his conquests to the borders of
Asia Minor, and received tribute from the Hittites, and even from Cyprus
and Crete. During the reign of Akhenaton, the Hittites and their allies,
the Amorites, seized the Egyptian sphere of influence in Syria and Northern
Palestine.

In the nineteenth dynasty (1350-1205 B.C.) much of the lost territory was
recovered. Rameses II (1325-1258 B.C.) fought his Waterloo at Kadesh, but
found it necessary about 1300 B.C. to conclude a treaty of peace with the
Hittites, the Assyrian Power at the time becoming very powerful and
aggressive. Rameses III of the twentieth dynasty was the last great Pharaoh
of the Empire period. He successfully resisted the threatened invasions of
naval and military peoples from Greece and Anatolia in 1200 B.C. It is
believed that the Trojan War (1194-1184 B.C.) was waged by the same
confederacy which had attempted to invade the Delta region. No fewer than
nine Pharaohs named Rameses ruled in Egypt after Rameses III. Most of these
were priest-kings. A Libyan dynasty held sway for about two centuries
(950-750 B.C.). One of its Pharaoh-Sheshhonks was the 'Shishak' who was an
ally of Solomon; after the death of that monarch he invaded Palestine. The
Ethiopians of Nubia (Sudan) subsequently overran Egypt. One of its
Pharaohs, Shabaka, was the ally of King Hosea of Israel against Assyria; he
was defeated at Raphia by Sargon in 720 B.C. The last Ethiopian Pharaoh,
Taharka, was in 662 B.C. overcome by the invading army of the Assyrian
Emperor, Ashur-banipal. The northern royal family of Sais then came into
power, and the twenty-sixth dynasty, which lasted for about 130 years
(662-525 B.C.), was inaugurated by Psamtik I. Pharaoh-Necho, referred to in
the Bible, was the second ruler. It was during Necho's reign that his
Phoenician mariners circumnavigated Africa. Egyptian culture was at the
time spreading far and wide along sea and land routes. Trade was
flourishing. The greatest world-power at the time, however, was Persia, and
in 525 B.C. Egypt was conquered by Cambyses and became a Persian province,
with short interruptions of weak native dynasties (the twenty-eighth to
thirtieth), until in 332 B.C. Alexander the Great seized it and founded
Alexandria. The Ptolemaic dynasty afterwards held sway for about three
centuries. During this period learning and the arts flourished. Alexandria
was not only a commercial town, but a centre of culture and the capital of
Egypt. Osiris was worshipped there in the form of Serapis. During the
latter part of the dynasty the native Egyptians were using Greek and
Græcized names, and the whole country was more or less Hellenized. The
fifteenth Ptolemy was the younger brother of the famous Cleopatra, the
seventh of her name. He vanished, and was succeeded by Cleopatra's son,
Cæsarion--Ptolemy XVI--whose father was Julius Cæsar. Both Cleopatra and
her son perished when Egypt became a Roman province in 30 B.C. A daughter
of Cleopatra and Antony became the wife of Juba, King of Morocco.

[Illustration: Queen Ahmes (wife of Thothmes I)

From a relief on the wall of the temple at Der-el-Bahari. The face is of
Mediterranean type. She represents the royal line which soon afterwards
fused with a foreign strain, so that the facial type changed.]

[Illustration: Head of Rameses II

From the mummy]

The Romans drew vast quantities of gold from the mines of Nubia (_nub_
means 'gold') and made Egypt their 'granary'. Egyptian religious beliefs
and customs were perpetuated by the Roman emperors. Tiberius and Vespasian
restored ancient Nilotic temples. The worship of Isis spread to Rome.
Hadrian had to give a decision in a dispute between Memphis and Heliopolis
regarding the sacred bull. But Egyptian native learning was decaying, and
the knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was dying out. Christianity was
introduced during the Roman period, and the Coptic Church established. In
A.D. 642 the Romans finally abandoned Egypt, which, till 868, became a
province of the successive Mohammedan caliphates of Medina, of Damascus,
and Baghdad. The Turkish soldiery dominated Egypt for a period. The Shia
heretics afterwards became powerful, and the Christians were well treated.
In 1250 the Mamelukes (descendants of slaves) came into power. Their
pomp-loving sultans and emirs lived in great splendour. They came under
Turkish sway early in the sixteenth century, but when Napoleon conquered
Egypt in the eighteenth century they were again semi-independent. The
British drove the French out of Egypt. Mehemet Ali, an Albanian officer in
a Turko-Albanian force, had himself declared Sultan of Egypt, but when he
overran Syria and threatened to march to Constantinople, Russia intervened.
Britain and France afterwards prevailed on Mehemet Ali to rule Egypt as the
viceroy of the Sultan of Turkey. His successor and grandson, Abbas I, built
the first railway in Egypt. The next viceroy, Said Pasha, son of Mehemet
Ali, granted to a French company the right to construct the Suez Canal.
Egypt became bankrupt under his successor, Ismail Pasha, the first Khedive
(Prince), during whose reign the Suez Canal was opened. He was deposed when
the British and French took over the control of Egyptian finance. During
the term of his successor, Tewfik Pasha, the Arabi Pasha rebellion took
place. The military occupation of Egypt by British troops was followed by
peace and good government. But trouble broke out in the Sudan. Mohammed
Ahmed declared himself the Mahdi (Messiah) of the Mohammedans, and
conquered a great part of the Sudan. In Nov., 1883, General Hicks ('Hicks
Pasha') led an army of 10,000 Egyptians against the false prophet, but
while marching across the driest part of the Sudan, misled by spies who
acted as guides, his thirst-stricken army was entirely destroyed by the
Mahdi's force. This victory gave the false prophet great prestige. In Jan.,
1884, General Gordon was sent to Khartoum as Governor-General of the Sudan,
but was completely isolated there. Khartoum was captured and the gallant
general slain on 26th Jan., 1885, before a relieving force could reach him.
The Mahdi died in June, 1885, and was succeeded by Abdullah the Khalifa.
After a period of reorganization and preparation in Egypt, the reconquest
of the Sudan was begun. Lord (then Sir Herbert) Kitchener was Sirdar, or
Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian army, and his expeditionary force was
strengthened by British regiments. In April, 1898, the Khalifa's army was
defeated on the banks of the Atbara, and on 2nd Sept. Kitchener won a great
victory near Omdurman. The Khalifa escaped, but was rounded up by Sir
Reginald Wingate's force, and slain with his emirs at Umme Dubraykat on
24th Nov., 1899. Thereafter the Sudan came under the control of a
British-Egyptian _condominium_, which appointed a Governor-General.

[Illustration: The Great Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx

Built by Cheops (Khufu) and Cephron (Khafra) as their future tombs, in
order to secure immortality by the preservation of the mummy.]

At the time of the outbreak of the Great War, in the autumn of 1914, the
Khedive of Egypt was in Constantinople. He sided with the Central Powers.
He was consequently deposed by Britain, and Prince Hussein Kamil was
declared Sultan of Egypt; the suzerainty of Turkey terminated at the same
time. The new ruler of Egypt was the uncle of the deposed Khedive, Abbas
Pasha Hilmi (second son of the first Khedive, Ismail Pasha, and brother of
Tewfik Pasha, the second Khedive). Hussein Kamil died in 1917 and was
succeeded by Ahmed Fuad Pasha. Under the Peace Treaty, Egypt is recognized
as an independent kingdom protected by Great Britain. The capital of modern
Egypt is Cairo, situated near the site of ancient Memphis. Thebes is
represented by Luxor and Karnak.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: (Religion) Breasted,
_Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_; Renouf, _Book of
the Dead_; Budge, _Gods of the Egyptians_; Wiedemann, _Religion of the
Ancient Egyptians_; Sayce, _Religion of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia_; G.
Elliot Smith, _The Migrations of Early Culture_; (History)--G. Elliot
Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_; Breasted, _A History of Egypt_; Flinders
Petrie, _A History of Egypt_; King and Hall, _Egypt and Western Asia in the
Light of Recent Discoveries_; H. R. Hall, _The Ancient History of the Near
East_; Sir A. Colvin, _The Making of Modern Egypt_; Lord Cromer, _Modern
Egypt_.

EGYPTIAN BLUE, a brilliant and very permanent pigment used by the Romans in
the early centuries of the Christian era. It has been found in ancient
frescoes in the Vatican, and also at Pompeii. The chemist Fouqué proved by
analysis that it is a double silicate of calcium and copper.

EGYPTIAN VULTURE (_Neophron perenopt[)e]rus_), a bird that frequents both
shores of the Mediterranean, but rarely passes farther north, though it has
been found in the British islands. It is one of the smaller vultures, about
the size of a raven. The general colour is white, the quill feathers of the
wing being dark brown. It frequents the streets of Eastern towns, where it
is protected on account of its services as a scavenger. This vulture is
sometimes known as Pharaoh's Hen, on account of its frequent representation
in Egyptian hieroglyphics. In Spain it is called the _quebranta-huesos_
(bone-smasher) in reference to its supposed habit of breaking up bones left
by other vultures.

EHRENBERG ([=a]´r[.e]n-ber_h_), Christian Gottfried, a German scientist,
born in 1795, died in 1876. After studying theology, medicine, and natural
history, he joined in 1820 an expedition to Palestine, Egypt, and
Abyssinia, returning to Berlin in 1825. In 1829 he accompanied Humboldt to
the Ural and Altai ranges and to Central Siberia. His great work on
Infusoria appeared in 1838, and was at once recognized as the highest
authority on the subject. It was followed in 1854 by his _Microgeology_.

EHRENBREITSTEIN ([=a]´ren-br[=i]t-st[=i]n), a dismantled Prussian fortress
formerly of great strength and situated opposite the confluence of the
Moselle with the Rhine, on a precipitous rock 387 feet above the river, and
inaccessible on three sides. It is connected with Coblentz on the opposite
shore by a bridge of boats. The fortifications, which were erected between
1816 and 1820 at a cost of £1,200,000, could accommodate a garrison of
14,000 men, and possessed room for stores to last an army of 60,000 for a
year.

EHRLICH, Paul, German physician, born in Silesia in 1854, died in 1915.
Educated at Breslau, Strasburg, and Leipzig, he became _privat-dozent_ at
the University of Berlin in 1889, and in 1896 was appointed director of the
Royal Institute for Serum Research at Steglitz, which was transferred to
Frankfurt in 1899, and became the Royal Institute for Experimental
Therapeutics. His studies in the histology of blood are very important, but
his claim to fame is based upon his discovery of _salvarsan_ (606) and of
_neosalvarsan_ (614), arsenic compounds which are very efficacious in the
treatment of syphilis. He delivered the Croonian lectures in 1900 and the
Harben lectures in 1907, received honorary degrees from the universities of
Oxford and Chicago, and in 1908 shared the Nobel prize for medicine with
Metchnikoff of the Institut Pasteur in Paris. His works include: _Beiträge
zu Histologie und Klinik des Blutes_, _Anæmie_, _Abhandlungen über
Salvarsan_, &c.

EIBENSTOCK ([=i]´ben-stok), a town in the south-east of Saxony, with
important manufactures of lace. Pop. 9528.

EICHHORN ([=i]_h_´horn), Johann Gottfried, German Orientalist, historian,
&c., born in 1752, died in 1827. He became professor of Oriental languages
at Jena, and then at Göttingen. Amongst his works are: _The Hebrew
Prophets_, _History of Literature_, _History of the Last Three Centuries_,
_Introductions to the Old and New Testaments and to the Apocrypha_.

EICHSTÄTT ([=i]_h_´stet), an old town, Bavaria, in a deep valley of the
Altmühl, 67 miles N.N.W. of Munich. Its principal edifice is a fine Gothic
cathedral, founded in 1259. Pop. 8029.

EIDER ([=i]´d[.e]r), a river of Schleswig-Holstein, rises 8 miles S. of
Kiel, and after a winding course falls into the North Sea at Tönning;
length, 112 miles. By means of a canal it long gave communication between
the North Sea and Baltic, but the new ship canal here has superseded this
route.

[Illustration: Eider Duck (_Somateria molliss[)i]ma_), female]

EIDER DUCK (_Somateria molliss[)i]ma_), a species of duck found from 45°
north to the highest latitudes yet visited, both in Europe and America. Its
favourite haunts are solitary rocky shores and islands. In Greenland and
Iceland they occur in great numbers, and also breed on the western islands
of Scotland. The eider duck is about twice the size of the common duck,
being about 2 feet 3 inches in length, 3 feet in breadth of wing, and from
6 to 7 lb. in weight. The male is black, head and back white, with a black
crown. The female is reddish drab spotted with black, and with two white
bands on the wings. They feed largely on shell-fish and crustaceans. Their
nests are usually formed of drift grass or dry seaweed, lined with a large
quantity of down, which the female plucks from her own breast. In this soft
bed she lays five eggs, which she covers over with a layer of down. If
this, with the eggs, is removed, the bird repeats the process. One female
generally furnishes about ½ lb. of down, but the quantity is reduced by
cleaning. This down, from its superior warmth, lightness, and elasticity,
is in great demand for beds and coverlets; and the districts in Norway and
Iceland where these birds abound are guarded with the greatest vigilance as
a most valuable property. As found in commerce this down is in balls of the
size of a man's fist, and weighing from 3 to 4 lb. It is so fine and
elastic that 5 lb. of the best quality is sufficient for a whole bed. The
down from dead birds is little esteemed, having lost its elasticity. The
king eider duck (_Somateria spectabílis_) is another species resembling the
preceding and inhabiting the same coasts.--Cf. J. G. Millais, _British
Diving Ducks_.

EIFFEL ([=a]-fel), Alexandre Gustave, French engineer, born in 1832;
attended, from 1852 to 1855, the École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures at
Paris, and devoted himself chiefly to the designing of large structures in
iron, especially bridges and viaducts, the great bridge over the Douro
being one of his works. His name is best known, however, from the lofty
iron tower erected by him in connection with the Paris Exhibition of 1889,
rising to the height of 985 feet on the Champ de Mars. He was condemned in
1893 to two years' imprisonment and a fine of 20,000 francs for
misappropriation of funds belonging to the Panama Canal Company, but the
judgment was set aside on technical grounds. In 1913 he published a work
entitled _Resistance of the Air_. See next article.

EIFFEL TOWER, a structure named after the originator, one of the sights of
Paris, is by far the loftiest structure in existence, surpassing the
Washington Obelisk, the next highest (555 feet), by 430 feet. It cost about
£260,000, and was erected partly at the cost of the State, partly by funds
provided by Eiffel himself, who formed a company for the purpose. The
company derived its profits from the fees which visitors had to pay, but
the tower became the property of the State in 1909. The top may be reached
by stairs and lifts. The first stage or platform is at the height of 189
feet, and forms a quadrilateral 213 feet square, fitted up as a restaurant.
The next platform is at the height of about 380 feet, and is 98 feet
square. The third platform is at the height of 906 feet, and is large
enough to accommodate a good number of persons, affording a magnificent
view. The lantern higher up is supplied with powerful electric
searchlights, and on the very summit is a small area utilized chiefly for
scientific observations. The tower has been utilized in experiments
connected with the fall of bodies, vibration of the pendulum, and pressure
of the air. In recent years the tower has become an important wireless
telegraphy station.

EIGG (eg), an island on the west coast of Scotland, county of Inverness,
about 10 miles from the mainland, and 5 miles long by about 3 broad. It has
bold, rocky shores, and terminates to the south in a lofty promontory
called the Scuir of Eigg, with a peak of columnar pitchstone porphyry 1339
feet above the sea, and on one side perpendicular as a wall. It is the
scene of the massacre, towards the end of the sixteenth century, of 200
Macdonalds by the Macleods of Skye, who suffocated them in a cave where
they had taken refuge. Pop. 211.

EIGHT-HOUR DAY. The eight-hour day was proposed in England as early as
1833, and in 1869 the Trade Union Congress of Birmingham formulated the
demand that this ideal working day should be adopted throughout the United
Kingdom. The Trade Unions and the Socialists sought to secure the
establishment of the eight-hour day through legislation, and it gradually
came into force not only in coal-mining, but in various trades and
industries. The agitation in favour of an eight-hour day became very strong
in Europe towards the end of the nineteenth and at the beginning of the
twentieth centuries, and in England it was granted to miners in 1908, and
to railway employees in 1919. Since the European War the movement has made
great headway, and it now forms part of the programme of the Labour parties
in almost all European countries.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hedfield and Gibbins, _A
Shorter Working Day_; Robertson, _The Eight Hour Question_.

EIGHTY CLUB, THE, a club formed in 1879 by a number of prominent English
Liberals with a view to the promotion of the success of Liberalism at the
general election of 1880, whence its name. The members lecture on political
subjects and address Liberal associations throughout the country. Women
were first admitted to membership in 1920.

EIKON BASILIK[=E] ([=i]´kon ba-sil´i-k[=e]; Gr., 'the royal image'), the
name of a book published shortly after the execution of Charles I in Jan.,
1649, and supposed by some to have been written by the king himself. At the
Restoration Gauden, afterwards Bishop of Worcester, laid claim to the
authorship, and a memorandum in the copy of the Earl of Anglesea, Lord
Privy Seal under Charles II, affirms his claim with the authority of
Charles II and the Duke of York. The Royalist Clarendon, author of the
_History of the Rebellion_, accepted this statement, but others refused to
credit Gauden with the authorship. Within a year of its publication, 48,000
copies of the book were sold, and the republicans put forward Milton to
answer it, his _Eikonoklastes_ (that is 'image-breaker') appearing the same
year, by order of Parliament. The _Eikon Basilik[=e]_ professes to be a
sort of private journal of the king, written in an affectedly dignified
strain, and containing numerous assertions of love for his misguided and
ungrateful people.--Cf. Almack, _Bibliography of the King's Book, or Eikon
Basilik[=e]_.

EILDON HILLS ([=e]l´don), a picturesque hill-mass with three summits, south
of Melrose, Roxburghshire, Scotland, reaching a height of nearly 1400 feet,
fabled to have been cleft in three by Michael Scott.

EILEITHYIA ([=i]-l[=i]-th[=i]´ya), the Greek name of the ancient Egyptian
city Nekheb (the modern El-Kab), on the Nile, some distance above Esneh.
Important remains have been obtained from rock-tombs in the neighbourhood,
and there are several ruined temples.

EILENBURG ([=i]´l[.e]n-b[u:]r_h_), a town, Prussian Saxony, 26 miles N.N.E.
of Merseburg, on an island of the Mulde. It has manufactures of calico.
Pop. 17,400.

EIMBECK ([=i]m´bek), or EINBECK, a town of Prussia, province of Hanover, 40
miles south of Hanover, once famous for its beer (_Eimbecker Bier_, whence
_Bock_). Pop. 9430.

EINSIEDELN ([=i]n´z[=e]-d[.e]ln), a village and district, Switzerland, in
the canton and 9 miles north by east of Schwyz, 3000 feet above the sea,
celebrated for its Benedictine abbey. An image of the Virgin, alleged to
possess miraculous powers, annually attracts immense numbers of pilgrims.
Pop. 8438.

EINSTEIN, Albert (1879- ), physicist, was born at Ulm, Würtemberg, Germany,
of German-Jewish parents. He was educated at the Gymnasium in Munich, and,
on leaving school in his sixteenth year, accompanied his parents to Milan.
Six months later, he enrolled at the Technical High School in Zurich, where
he studied from 1896 to 1900. He held a post in the Swiss Patent Office
from 1902 to 1909, then various professorships in Zurich till 1914, when he
received a call to the Prussian Academy of Science, Berlin, as successor to
van't Hoff. Einstein has been twice married. He has become famous as the
author of the Theory of Relativity (q.v.). The 'special theory', which
deals chiefly with electrodynamics and optics, was published in 1905, and
the 'general theory' or theory of gravitation, about ten years later. His
name became popularly known in 1919, after observations made during the
solar eclipse of that year had verified his prediction of the bending of
rays of light coming from a star and passing close to the sun. He has made
other valuable contributions to Theoretical Physics, among these being a
theory of the Brownian movements and various important applications of the
modern quantum theory of energy. In 1921 he visited the United States and
Britain, and delivered many lectures on Relativity.

EISENACH ([=i]´z[.e]n-[=a]_h_), a town of Germany, in the former
grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar, near the mountains of Thuringia, at the
junction of the Nesse and Hörsel. It is an attractive town, and contains a
palace erected in 1742. It has manufactures of pottery, leather, woollen
yarn, &c. Sebastian Bach was born there in 1685. Near it lies the Wartburg,
where Luther was kept for safety during 1521 and 1522. Pop. 38,362.

EISENBERG ([=i]´z[.e]n-ber_h_), a town of Germany, former duchy of
Saxe-Altenburg, with a palace and various manufactures. Pop. 10,750.

EISLEBEN ([=i]s´l[=a]-b[.e]n), a town, Prussian Saxony, 25 miles north-west
of Merseburg, celebrated as the place where Luther was born and where he
died. There are many memorials of Luther, and also a bronze statue of the
reformer erected in 1883. Copper is extensively worked in the
neighbourhood. Pop. 24,630.

EISNER, Kurt, Bavarian revolutionary leader, born in 1867 at Berlin, of a
Jewish family. He studied at the University of Marburg, and early acquired
a vast erudition. Entering journalism, he contributed to the _Frankfurter
Zeitung_, where he published an article attacking the Kaiser. For this he
was condemned to nine months' imprisonment. He then wrote for the Socialist
press and eventually became editor-in-chief of the _Vorwärts_. In 1907 he
published a work entitled _The Fall of the Empire_ which attracted much
attention, and in 1910 he attacked Prussian ascendancy in the _Munich
Post_. Eisner took an active part in the Revolution of 1918, and was
appointed Prime Minister of Bavaria. A revolutionary and a Socialist, he
was, however, opposed to Bolshevism, which he did not hesitate to criticize
violently. But his policy of separation, his aim of liberating the South
German States, and his constant attacks upon the Kaiser and the whole
military caste of Germany, brought him many enemies. Whilst on his way from
his house to the Foreign Office he was shot at and killed by Count Arco
Valley on 21st Feb., 1919.

EISTEDDFOD ([=i]-steth´v[=o]d; W. _eistedd_, to sit, and _bod_, to be; pl.
_eisteddfodau_), an ancient assembly of Welsh bards for the purpose of
musical and poetical contests, the judges being originally appointed by
commissions from the native princes, and after the conquest from the
English kings. There are two kinds of eisteddfodau, the national or
general, and the provincial gatherings which take place in many parts of
Wales. The last commission was issued by Queen Elizabeth in 1568, but the
eisteddfod fell into abeyance during the seventeenth century. In 1798 the
ancient custom was revived by the Gwynnedigion Society, and on a more
elaborate scale by the Cambrian Society, which grew out of the
Gwynnedigion. Eisteddfodau are now held annually in North and South Wales
alternately, and are attended by many thousands of people. The festivals of
1919 and 1920 were held at Corwen and at Barry, Glamorgan,
respectively.--Cf. Rhys and Brynmor Jones, _The Welsh People_.

EJECT´MENT, in law, an action wherein the title to lands and tenements may
be tried and the possession recovered. It is commenced by a writ addressed
to the tenant in possession and all entitled to defend the possession,
bearing that the plaintiff lays claim to the property in question, and
calling upon all interested to appear within a certain time to defend their
rights. In its older form the action was remarkable for the curious
fictions on which procedure was based. The names of John Doe, an imaginary
plaintiff, and of Richard Roe, an imaginary defendant, were familiar in
cases of this kind in the English courts until 1852, when the Common Law
Procedure Act abolished these fictitious suitors.

EJECTOR, in mechanical engineering, an appliance for ejecting gases,
vapours, or liquids from closed spaces by the use of another gas, vapour,
or liquid at a higher pressure. For instance, the air may be extracted from
a condenser by an ejector. A jet of steam is directed along a short
specially-shaped pipe leading from the condenser to the outside atmosphere.
The velocity of the steam when it leaves the jet in the pipe is very high,
and it blows out into the atmosphere in spite of the atmospheric pressure
against it. In blowing out into the atmosphere it sucks the air in the
condenser along with it, and after it has been in operation some time
practically the whole of the air is sucked out of the condenser. The
appliance works on the principle of momentum. The active jet mixes with the
material to be ejected and imparts a common momentum to the mixture, which
is sufficient to enable it to pass outside the vessel from which the
ejection is taking place. The same principle is used in the mercury
air-pump (see _Air-pump_).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. E. Dalby, _Steam Power_;
_Modern Mechanical Engineering_ (The Gresham Publishing Company).

EKAT´ERINBURG, a town, Russia, in the government and 170 miles S.E. of
Perm, founded in 1723 by Peter the Great. It is the mining and metallurgy
centre of the Ural regions; and gem-cutting, the making of machinery,
cloth, and candles are industries. Pop. 70,000.

EKAT´ERINODAR, a town of Russia in the Caucasus, chief town of the Kuban
territory, on the River Kuban, a poorly-built place with a considerable
trade. Pop. 107,360.

EKAT´ERINOSLAV, a town of the Ukraine, capital of a government of the same
name, on the right bank of the Dnieper, 250 miles N.E. of Odessa. Founded
in 1787, it is a manufacturing centre, producing iron, machinery, tobacco,
and beer. Pop. 220,100.--The government, which is intersected by the
Dnieper and reaches the Sea of Azov, has great mineral wealth, especially
in coal (Donetz basin), iron, manganese, and rock-salt; and its fertile
black-earth soil produces abundant crops of wheat and other grains. Area,
24,478 sq. miles; pop. 3,537,300.

ELÆAGNA´CEÆ, the oleaster family of plants, a small nat. ord. of apetalous
dicotyledons scattered over the northern regions. The only British member
is the sea-buckthorn (_Hippophaë rhamnoides_).

ELA´IN, the oily principle of fat obtained by submitting fat to the action
of boiling alcohol, allowing the stearin to crystallize, and then
evaporating the alcoholic solution. It is not unlike vegetable oil in its
appearance and its properties, and forms soaps with alkalies.

E´LAM, the ancient name of a country on the eastern border of Babylonia.
Its civilization dates back beyond 3000 B.C. Before 2000 B.C. it was strong
enough to subdue part of Babylonia. Its power was finally broken by the
last Assyrian monarchs. The capital was Susa, which became prominent again
after the rise of Cyrus. Its splendour during the Persian period is
reflected in the _Book of Esther_, in which it is referred to as 'Shushan'.

[Illustration: Eland (_Oreas canna_)]

E´LAND, _Oreas_ (_Orias_) _canna_, a species of antelope inhabiting Africa,
the largest of all its kind, being about the size of an ox. Its flesh,
especially that of the thighs, which are dried and used in this state, is
highly prized. It is now almost extinct south of the Limpopo, but it is
plentiful in the Kalahari. The colour is a light or greyish brown, and it
possesses a short mane. The horns, which are about 18 inches long and
nearly straight, are spirally keeled.

EL´ANUS, the name of certain species of raptorial birds of the genus
El[=a]nus, belonging to the kites. The type species is the black-winged
kite (_E. cæruleus_) of Africa and South Asia, which strays to South-West
Europe. A very similar form (_E. leucurus_) is native to tropical and
subtropical America, and other species (_E. scriptus_ and _E. axillaris_)
are Australian.

ELAPHOMYCES, a genus of Ascomycetous fungi, section Plectascineæ, with
closed, subterranean ascus-fruits resembling those of the genuine truffles
(Tuberineæ), but not closely allied to that family. _E. cervinus_ (Hart's
truffle) is not infrequent in Britain; it forms 'mycorhiza' with roots of
oak, beech, and various conifers.

E´LAPS, a genus of poisonous American snakes, the type of the family
Elapidæ, to which belongs the cobra de capello.

EL-ARISH, Egyptian city on the Mediterranean, on the Wadi el-Arish, and
chief city of the territory bearing the same name. It was taken by the
French under Kléber in 1799, but abandoned the same year. Pop. about 5000.

ELASMOBRANCHII (-brang´ki-i), a sub-class of fishes, including sharks,
dog-fishes, rays (skates); and also Chimæra (q.v.) and its allies. They are
predaceous forms, in which the mouth is a transverse slit on the under side
of the head, the numerous simple teeth are in several rows (except in
chimæroids), the short intestine possesses a spiral valve and opens into a
cloaca. The tail is asymmetrical (heterocercal), and numerous placoid
scales (dermal denticles) are embedded in the skin. The skeleton is
cartilaginous; the heart possesses a muscular conus arteriosus with
numerous rows of pocket-valves; and there are five (sometimes six or seven)
pairs of gill-pouches opening by slits to the exterior, these not being
covered by an external flap (operculum) except in chimæroids. Fertilization
is internal, and the male is provided with a pair of copulatory organs
(claspers) projecting backwards from the pelvic fins. The eggs sometimes
develop within the body of the mother, but are usually laid in horny
pouches (mermaids' purses). The group is of great antiquity, and many
extinct fossil types are known.

ELASMOTHE´RIUM, an extinct genus of Mammalia, found in the post-Pliocene
strata of Europe, comprising animals of great size allied to the
rhinoceros, and having probably one large horn and a smaller nasal horn.

ELASTIC BITUMEN, ELATERITE, or MINERAL CAOUTCHOUC, an elastic mineral
bitumen of a blackish-brown colour, and subtranslucent. It has been found
at Castleton, in Derbyshire.

ELASTICITY, the property in virtue of which bodies resist change of volume
or of shape, and tend to regain their original bulk or shape when the
deforming forces are removed. Solids possess elasticity of volume and of
shape. Liquids and gases have elasticity of volume; they resist
compression, but offer only a transient resistance to change of shape (see
_Viscosity_). The elasticity of a gas is measured by the pressure to which
the gas is subjected, if there is no change of temperature. When a gas is
compressed suddenly, it has a greater elasticity on account of the rise of
temperature which takes place. Liquids are less compressible than gases;
water is compressed by about 1 part in 20,000 when the pressure on it is
increased by one atmosphere. A knowledge of the elastic properties of
solids is of importance in all branches of applied mechanics. Homogeneous
solids offer definite resistance to compression, twisting, stretching, and
bending, and this resistance is expressed by a number called a modulus. Let
the deforming force be reckoned per unit of area, e.g. a pressure in tons
per square inch; this is called the stress. The unital deformation produced
by the stress is called the strain, for example, compression per unit of
volume. The modulus is obtained by dividing the stress by the strain; if
this is done with the above example, the ratio will give the bulk modulus.
When the applied forces cause change of shape without change of volume, the
ratio of stress to strain is called the shape modulus or the rigidity of
the material. This property is brought into play when mechanical power is
transmitted by means of shafting. Young's modulus is employed in the cases
of stretching and bending. It is given by the ratio stretching force per
unit area to stretch per unit length. In 1678 Hooke stated the law that
stress is proportional to the strain which it causes. This law is found in
practice to be true for metals within a certain range of stress which lies
below the elastic limit. If the stress is increased beyond this limit, the
material begins to give way, and permanent change of shape or volume takes
place. In the processes of riveting and wire-drawing, the material is
purposely strained beyond the elastic limit, whilst the correct working of
a spring balance requires that the spring should never be overstrained.
When metals are subjected to frequently repeated stresses, they undergo a
weakening and are said to become fatigued, and are liable to give way under
a smaller stress than would otherwise cause fracture. The speed with which
sound waves are transmitted through a material depends on the elasticity of
the material; such compressional waves in water have been employed by the
Roumanian engineer, Constantinescu, to transmit power by means of
water-pipes.

_Mathematical Theory._--Consider an elastic body at rest and free from
strain. Let the body be subjected to forces, fulfilling the ordinary
statical conditions of equilibrium, and therefore not tending to give the
body any motion of translation or rotation as a whole. The particles of the
body will move very slightly relative to each other; in other words, a
system of strain will be set up in the body. To maintain this strain a
definite system of stress is necessary. The problem for the mathematical
theory is to determine the state of strain and stress at every point of the
body when the applied forces are given. These applied forces may either be
body forces (of which practically the only example is weight), or surface
forces; the latter are pressures or tractions, and are defined by their
directions and amounts per unit area. It is first of all necessary to show
how strain and stress can be specified mathematically.

_Strains._--If x, y, z are the co-ordinates of a point in the unstrained
body, and if this point is displaced to (x + u, y + v, z + w) when the
straining forces are applied, then u, v, w, which are supposed to be very
small, are called the component displacements at (x, y, z). It is clear
that if u, v, w were constant, the body would simply be displaced without
strain. The state of strain can in fact be shown to depend on the first
derivatives of u, v, w with respect to x, y, z. The strain round any given
point consists simply of three stretches parallel to a certain set of three
mutually perpendicular directions. These directions vary from point to
point, so that this specification of the strain is inconvenient for
calculations. A suitable method depends on the fact that the strain is
known round a point when we know the values of the six quantities

  du/dx, dv/dy, dw/dz, dw/dy + dv/dz, du/dz + dw/dx, dv/dx + du/dy,

at the point. These are called the components of strain at (x, y, z). The
first three are _stretches_ parallel to the axes, the other three are
_shearing_ strains. We may get an idea of the nature of these strains from
two simple typical cases. 1. Let u = ex, v = 0, w = 0. This makes du/dx =
e, and the other five strains zero. But we see that the displacement of
every particle is perpendicular to the yz plane, and proportional to its
distance from that plane. Every line parallel to the axis of x is therefore
elongated by a definite fraction of its original length, the value of this
fraction being e, which is du/dx. The strains du/dx, dv/dy, dw/dz are
therefore _stretches_ parallel to the axes. 2. Let u = 0, v = cz, w = 0.
This gives dv/dz + du/dy = c, and the other five strains zero. The
displacement of every particle is parallel to the axis of y, and
proportional to its distance from the plane xy. The strain is therefore a
slide, or _shear_ of planes parallel to xy in the direction of the axis of
y.

_Stresses._--To specify the stress round a point (x, y, z), consider a
small plane area through the point. The material on one side of this acts
on the material on the other side with a certain force whose components
parallel to the axes are F, G, H, say, per unit area. If we know F, G, H
for every orientation of the small plane area, the state of stress round
(x, y, z) is defined. But it is easy to show, as below, that we can find F,
G, H for every area if we know them for areas parallel to the co-ordinate
planes. We are thus led to the specification of the stress round (x, y, z)
by the six _components of stress_, [=xx], [=yy], [=zz], [=xy], [=xz],
[=yz]; where [=xy], for example, means the force per unit area _parallel_
to Ox exerted on a plane _perpendicular_ to Oy by the material on the
positive side of that plane on the material on its negative side. Thus e.g.
the components of the force per unit area exerted across the yz plane
through (x, y, z) by the material on the positive side of that plane are
[=xx], [=xy], [=xz]. It is important to note that [=xy] = [=yx]. This is
easily proved by considering the equilibrium of a small rectangular volume
of the material round (x, y, z) as centre, with its edges parallel to the
axes; if [=xy] were not equal to [=yx], there would be a residual couple in
the plane xy.

_Relations between the Strains and the Stresses._--When the strains are
known, the stresses can be found from a generalized Hooke's law, which can
be deduced from the principle of energy, combined with consideration of
symmetry. If the solid is isotropic, i.e. is symmetrical in its elastic
properties in all directions round a point, the relations between stress
and strain are of the form

  [=xx] = [lambda](du/dx + dv/dy + dw/dz) + 2[mu]du/dx,

  [=yz] = [mu](dw/dy + dv/dz);

the values of the other four components of strain can be written down from
symmetry. Here [lambda] and [mu] are constants, each being a _modulus_ of
elasticity. In particular [mu] is the _shape modulus_ or the _rigidity_,
already referred to. The Young's modulus and the bulk modulus can easily be
found in terms of [lambda] and [mu].

_Equations of Equilibrium in Terms of the Stresses._--A rectangular element
dx, dy, dz, of the body is held in equilibrium by the body force, and the
tractions on its faces arising from the stress. The tractions per unit
area, parallel to the axis of x, on the six faces, are: on the plane x,
-[=xx]; on the plane x + dx, [=xx] + (d/dx [=xx])dx; on the plane y,
-[=xy]; on the plane y + dy, [=xy] + (d/dy [=xy])dy; and similarly for the
plane z. Let the force acting on the mass of the body, such as its weight,
be (X, Y, Z) per unit mass, and let [rho] be the density. By equating the
sum of the x components of all the forces to zero, we get

            d[=xx]/dx + d[=xy]/dy + d[=xz]/dz + [rho]X = 0;

  Similarly d[=xy]/dx + d[=yy]/dy + d[=yz]/dz + [rho]Y = 0,

        and d[=xz]/dx + d[=yz]/dy + d[=zz]/dz + [rho]Z = 0.

_The Surface Tractions in Terms of the Stresses._--Draw a small tetrahedron
round (x, y, z) with its faces perpendicular to the axes and to the
direction (l, m, n), and consider the equilibrium of this small body. Let
F, G, H be the components per unit area of the force on the plane whose
direction cosines, _drawn outwards_, are l, m, n. If A be the area of the
face perpendicular to (l, m, n), we get, by resolving parallel to Ox,

              F·A = [=xx]·lA + [=xy]·mA + [=xz]·nA.

          Hence F = l[=xx] + m[=xy] + n[=xz],

  and similarly G = l[=xy] + m[=yy] + n[=yz],

                H = l[=xz] + m[=yz] + n[=zz].

If (x, y, z) is a point at the surface of the body, and l, m, n are the
direction cosines of the outward normal at that point, these values of F,
G, H are the component of the force that must be applied from outside to
the surface at (x, y, z) to maintain the state of stress.

_The Equations connecting the Displacements and the Applied Forces._--By
using, in the equations of equilibrium, the values of the stresses in terms
of the strains, we find the body equations of equilibrium in terms of
displacements,

  [mu](d^2u/dx^2 + d^2u/dy^2 + d^2u/dz^2) + ([lambda] + [mu])d/dx(du/dx +
      dv/dy + dw/dz)
  + X[rho] = 0,

with two similar equations.

The surface equations of equilibrium can also be written down at once by
substituting the values of stresses in terms of strains in the expressions
for F, G, H given above.

_The Problem of Equilibrium._--To find the strain under given forces we
have to solve the body and surface equations of equilibrium, when X, Y, Z
and F, G, H are given. This problem has not been completely solved except
in a few cases. It was solved by Lamé and Lord Kelvin for a solid or hollow
sphere; it has also been solved for an infinite solid bounded by two
parallel planes, or by a circular cylinder. Many particular solutions,
however, are known for bodies of other shapes. Some of these solutions are
of great practical value, e.g. St. Venant's solutions for the torsion and
flexure of prisms. For bodies in which one or two dimensions are small,
i.e. for thin plates and shells, and for thin rods, approximate theories
have been given, which are partly deduced from the above exact equations,
and partly from plausible hypotheses, a complete treatment based on the
exact equations being in most cases impracticable.

_The Problem of Vibrations._--When a body is vibrating, the mass
acceleration parallel to Ox of the particle at (x, y, z) is [rho] dx dy dz
d^2u/dt^2. The equations of vibration are therefore found by writing -
d^2u/dt^2 instead of X, in the first body equation of equilibrium, and
similarly with the others. The surface conditions will usually be that F,
G, H are zero. The problem has been completely solved by H. Lamb for a
solid or hollow sphere. For the elastic solid theory of the luminiferous
ether, see _Ether_; for some practical solutions of the general equations
of equilibrium, see _Strength of Materials_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. E. H. Love,
_Mathematical Theory of Elasticity_; Lord Kelvin and Tait, _Natural
Philosophy_; Todhunter and Pearson, _History of Elasticity and Strength of
Materials_.

EL´ATERIDÆ, the name of a family of beetles, remarkable for their ability
to throw themselves to a considerable height in the air, when placed on
their back, by a vigorous muscular movement. Hence their names of
springing-beetles, click-beetles, skip-jacks, &c. When alarmed, the elater
counterfeits death. Flowers, grass, and decaying wood are the habitations
of these animals, which are almost always found singly. The larvæ are often
very injurious to vegetation, especially those which devour the roots of
herbaceous plants (as in the genus Agri[=o]tes), and are known from then
slenderness and hardness as wire-worms. The fireflies of America belong to
the family. In these a pair of luminous organs is found on the thorax,
while there is a third on the under side of the base of the abdomen. The
_Pyroph[)o]rus noctil[=u]cus_, called _cucujos_ in Brazil, is used as a
personal ornament by ladies. The largest species of the genus Elater, the
_Elater flabellicornis_, is 2½ inches in length.

ELATE´RIUM, a substance obtained from the fruit of the squirting or wild
cucumber (_Ecballium agreste_). The juice of the unripe fruit, when
expressed and allowed to stand, deposits elaterium as a green sediment with
an acrid taste, a faint odour, and powerful cathartic properties. It is a
violent purgative, and is poisonous, but its action is not constant. The
active principle in it is called _elaterin_.

ELBA (Lat. _Ilva_), a small island in the Mediterranean, in the province of
Livorno (Leghorn), Italy, separated from the mainland by the Strait of
Piombino, about 6 miles wide. The island is 18 miles long and from 2½ to
10½ miles broad, and is traversed by mountains rising to a height of over
3000 feet. It is rich in iron, marble, granite, salt, &c.; and iron ore is
exported. Excellent wine and fruits are produced. It has two
seaports--Porto-Ferrajo (the capital) and Porto-Longone. The Treaty of
Paris in 1814 erected Elba into a sovereignty for Napoleon, who resided in
it from 4th May, 1814, to 26th Feb., 1815, when he escaped and landed at
Cannes on 1st March. After Napoleon's departure the island was restored to
Tuscany, which became part of Italy in 1860. Pop. 30,450.

ELBE (elb; Ger., pronounced el´be; Lat. _Albis_; Bohem. _Labe_), an
important river in Central Europe. It rises on the south-west slopes of the
Schneekoppe or Snowcap, one of the Riesengebirge, between Bohemia and
Silesia. From this point it flows nearly due south into Bohemia for about
50 miles, when it turns to the west, and after about 40 miles takes a
general north-north-west direction till it falls into the North Sea,
intersecting Saxony and a considerable portion of Prussia. The finest
scenery of its valley is in the Saxon Switzerland. Its length is 725 miles;
drainage area, 56,865 sq. miles. The principal affluents are: on the right,
the Iser, Schwarz-Elster, and Havel; on the left, the Alder, Moldau, Eger,
Mulde, and Saale. In the lower part of its course the river divides into
several arms, which unite again about 5 miles below Hamburg. It is more or
less navigable for about 525 miles, but its estuary is much encumbered with
sand-banks. In 1870 its navigation was declared free from Hamburg to Melnik
in Bohemia. The North Sea and Baltic ship canal connects its estuary with
Kiel Bay, and there are other important connected canals. It is well
stocked with fish.

ELBERFELD (el´b[.e]r-felt), a town of Rhenish Prussia, in the government of
and 15 miles east of Düsseldorf, on both sides of the Wupper, enclosed by
lofty hills. Taken with Barmen it stretches along the Wupper valley for
about 7 miles. The old streets are narrow and irregular, but the newer
quarters are well built. It is a great seat of manufacturing industry,
among its leading products being cottons, woollens, silks, velvet, mixed
textile goods, buttons, ribbons, lace, yarns, thread, carpets, aniline
dyes, iron and steel, machinery, pianofortes, and paper. Calico-printing,
dyeing, and bleaching are very extensively carried on. It has given its
name to a system of poor relief, combining organized voluntary effort and
individual treatment. Pop. 170,195.

ELBEUF (el-beuf), a town of France, department of Seine-Inférieure, 11
miles S.S.W. of Rouen, in a valley on the left bank of the Seine, connected
by two bridges with St. Aubin on the opposite side of the river. It is an
important centre for the production of woollen manufactures, chiefly of
lighter cloths and fancy goods, and is also an entrepôt for the finer and
heavier cloths of Louviers and Sedan. It communicates by steamers with
Paris, Rouen, and Havre. Pop. 19,240.

ELBING, a seaport town of West Prussia, on the Elbing, near its entrance
into the Frische-Haff. It was once a flourishing Hanse town, and is still a
place of considerable industry and trade, the manufactures including iron
goods, machinery, brass and tinplate goods. It has also shipbuilding yards.
Pop. 58,636.

ELBURZ, a lofty mountain range extending over Northern Persia, parallel
with and overlooking the Caspian. Highest peak, Mt. Demavend, 19,400 feet;
average height, 6000 to 8000 feet.

ELCESAITES (el-ses´a-[=i]ts), a sect of Gnostics which arose in the reign
of Trajan about the beginning of the second century. They were a branch of
the Essenes, and resembled the Ebionites. A Jew, named Elxai, or Elkesai,
is their reputed founder.

ELCHE (el´ch[=a]), a town of Spain, in the province and 14 miles W.S.W. of
Alicante, on the left bank of the Vinalopo, surrounded by palm trees. It
contains various Roman remains, a fine church, and a town house of the
fifteenth century. Chief industry, the culture of dates. Each summer, from
the 13th to the 15th of August, an interesting fête is held at Elche, and a
fourteenth century liturgical drama (_The Representation of the Assumption
of Our Lady St. Mary_) is performed. Pop. 27,620.

ELCHINGEN (el´_h_ing-en), OBER and UNTER, two villages of Bavaria, on the
left bank of the Danube, about 3 miles apart and 8 miles north-east of Ulm.
In 1805 Marshal Ney defeated the Austrians at Ober Elchingen, and won for
himself the title of Duke of Elchingen.

[Illustration: Common Elder: Foliage, Inflorescence, and Fruit]

ELDER, a name given to different species of the genus Samb[=u]cus, nat.
ord. Caprifoliaceæ. These are small trees or shrubs, with opposite and
pinnated leaves, bearing small white flowers in large and conspicuous
corymbs, small berries of a black or red colour, and bitter and nauseous
leaves possessing purgative and emetic properties. The wood of the young
shoots contains a very large proportion of pith. The common elder of
Britain (_S. nigra_) is a wild shrub or small tree, distinguishable by its
winged leaves, its clusters of small, cream-white flowers, and the small
black berries by which these are succeeded, and from which a kind of wine
is sometimes made. The dwarf elder or danewort (_S. Ebulus_) is also found
in many parts of Britain, and was popularly supposed to have sprung from
the blood of the Danes. Two species inhabit North America: _S. canadensis_,
a common plant from the 49th to the 30th parallel of latitude, the berries
of which are black and have a sweet taste; and _S. pubescens_, which bears
red berries, and inhabits Canada, the northern parts of New England, and
the Alleghany Mountains. Elder wood is yellow, and in old trees becomes so
hard that it is often substituted for box-wood. Its toughness, also, is
such that it is made into skewers and tops for fishing-rods. The light pith
is utilized for balls for electric experiments, and various ointments,
drinks, and medicinal decoctions are made from the bark, leaves, flowers,
and berries.

ELDERS, persons who, on account of their age, experience, and wisdom, are
selected for office, as, among the Jews, the seventy men associated with
Moses in the government of the people. In the modern Presbyterian Churches
elders are officers who, with the pastors or ministers, compose the
consistories or kirk-sessions, with authority to inspect and regulate
matters of religion and discipline in the congregation. As a member of the
kirk-session the elder has an equal vote with his minister, and as a member
of the higher Church courts, when delegated thereto, he has a right to
discuss and vote on all matters under discussion in the same manner as the
clergy themselves. In the Mormon Church the elder is an officer whose duty
it is "to preach and baptize, to ordain other elders, to bless children,
and to take the lead at all meetings". Among the Shakers there are four
elders, two men and two women, in each congregation.

ELDON, John Scott, Earl of, Lord Chancellor of England, born in 1751 at
Newcastle-on-Tyne, died in London, 13th Jan., 1838. His father was a
coal-dealer and public-house keeper of means, and John was educated with
his brother William (afterwards Lord Stowell) at Newcastle, and at Oxford,
where he obtained a fellowship. He was called to the Bar in 1776, and in
1782 was made King's Counsel. Next year he entered Parliament, supported
Pitt, and was made Solicitor-General, and knighted. In 1792 he purchased
the estate of Eldon. In 1793 he became Attorney-General, and in 1799 was
created Chief Justice of the Court of Common Pleas, and raised to the
peerage and the House of Lords by the title of Baron Eldon. On the
accession of the Addington ministry he became Lord Chancellor (1801), and
retained this post under the subsequent administration of Pitt until the
death of the latter in 1806. A year later, however, he resumed the
chancellorship under Liverpool, and held it without break for twenty years.
In 1821 he was created an earl by George IV. On the accession of the
Canning ministry in 1827 he resigned the chancellorship, and never again
held office. As a lawyer he was a master of English jurisprudence; as a
politician he was opposed to reform, and by no means free from the charge
of servility and intrigue.

EL DORA´DO, a country that Orellana, the lieutenant of Pizarro, pretended
he had discovered in South America, between the Orinoco and Amazon Rivers;
and which he named thus on account of the immense quantities of gold and
precious metals which, he asserted, he had seen in Manoa, the capital of
the country. The term El Dorado was first applied to a South American
tribal king who was said to cover his body annually with gold-dust. It now
designates any place abounding in gold, or offering opportunities for the
acquisition of sudden wealth.

ELEANOR CROSSES (el´i-nor), memorial crosses erected on the spots where the
bier of Eleanor, the wife of Edward I, rested on its way from Grantham to
Westminster. Twelve were erected, but only three, those of Northampton,
Geddington, and Waltham, remain.

ELEAT´IC SCHOOL, a Grecian philosophical sect, so called because it
originated in Elea (Lat. _Velia_), a town of Magna Græcia (Southern Italy),
of which also three of its most celebrated teachers, Parmenides, Zeno, and
Leucippus, were natives. The founder was Xenophanes of Colophon, who came
to Elea late in life, bringing with him the physical theories of the Ionian
school, to which he added a metaphysic. The two schools soon drifted widely
apart, especially in respect of method. In opposition to the physical
philosophy of the Ionian school, and also the doctrine of Heraclitus, who
taught that everything is flux, the Eleatic philosophers asserted that
change and difference are only empty illusions, and that the only true
reality is changeless being. Starting from the observation of external
nature, the Ionians endeavoured to discover some elementary principle, as
water, air, fire, or a combination of elements, by the action of which the
phenomena they observed might be accounted for. The Eleans made the
abstract idea of Being or God, deduced from the contemplation of the
Universe as a whole, their starting-point. Their reasonings sometimes led
them to deny the reality of external phenomena altogether.

ELECAMPANE (el-i-kam-p[=a]n´; _In[)u]la Hel[=e]nium_), a plant of the nat.
ord. Compositæ, found in Britain and other parts of Europe, and in Asia. It
is 3 or 4 feet high; the radical leaves are often 2 feet and more in
length; the flowers are large and yellow; the root, which is perennial,
possesses a bitter camphor-like taste. It was formerly much used as a
stimulant for all the secreting organs, and in tuberculosis on account of
the germicidal action of the bitter principle (helenin) which it contains.

ELECTION, in theology, the doctrine that God has from the beginning elected
a portion of mankind to eternal life, passing by the remainder. It is
founded on the literal sense of certain passages of Scripture, and has been
amplified by the labours of systematic theologians into a complete and
logical system. It dates in ecclesiastical history from the time of
Augustine; but Calvin has stated it so strongly and clearly in his
_Institutes_ that it is generally associated with his name.

ELECTION, in politics, the selection by voting of a person or persons to
occupy some post or office. The most important elections are those of the
members of the legislative assemblies of the different countries, and as to
the manner in which these are carried out strict laws are in force. In such
elections voting by ballot is now general. The chief forms of election in
Britain are parliamentary and municipal elections, in both of which the
basis of the suffrage (or right of voting) is the payment of poor rates.
Members of Parliament formerly required a property qualification in England
and Ireland; but this restriction, which never existed in Scotland, has
been abolished. In both parliamentary and municipal elections the ballot
has been in operation since 1872. For the prevention of bribery and corrupt
practices many Acts have been passed, of which that now in operation came
into force in Oct., 1883, and has been annually renewed. By it persons
convicted of treating, bribery, personation, and undue influence are liable
to imprisonment with hard labour, and to disqualification in respect of the
franchise and public offices. It also imposes many limitations with regard
to the number of assistants and committee-rooms, and the use of
conveyances. By the Reform Act of 1918, the maximum expenditure for
campaign purposes during parliamentary elections is to be sevenpence per
elector in county constituencies, and fivepence per elector in boroughs. By
this Act the cost of registration is paid half out of local rates, and half
by the State. At election times the returning officer's expenses are to be
paid by the Treasury. Under the provisions of the Ballot Act the returning
officer is required, in the case of a county election, to give notice of an
election within two days after that on which he receives the writ; or in
the case of a borough election, to give notice on the day on which he
receives the writ, or at the latest on the day following. In county or
district borough elections the nomination must take place within ten days
of the receipt of the writ, at least three clear days, however, being
allowed to elapse between the first public notice and the day of
nomination. In ordinary borough elections the candidate must be nominated
not earlier than the third day after public notice, and not later than the
fourth day after that on which the writ is received. A candidate is
nominated in writing, with the signatures of a proposer, seconder, and
eight other electors, all registered in the constituency to be represented.
In the event of there being more candidates than vacancies, the returning
officer adjourns the election for the purpose of taking a poll. The polling
must take place not less than two or more than six clear days after the day
of nomination, if it be a county or district borough election; in the case
of an ordinary borough, it must take place not more than three clear days
after nomination, Sundays, Christmas Day, &c., not being counted as days.
Where the votes for rival candidates are equal, the returning officer, if
registered in the constituency, may give the casting-vote. If he decline to
do so, a scrutiny is demanded, which usually results in certain deductions
on the ground of spoiled papers, disqualified voters, &c., sufficient to
give one candidate priority. In elections for the school boards the
cumulative system of voting is employed (see _Cumulative Vote_).--Cf. C.
Seymour and D. P. Frary, _How the World Votes_.

ELECTOR (Ger. _Kurfürst_, 'electoral prince'), the title of certain princes
of the Holy Roman Empire, who had the right of electing the emperors. In
the reign of Conrad I, King of Germany (912-918), the dukes and counts
became gradually independent of the sovereign, and assumed the right of
choosing future monarchs. In the thirteenth century the number of these
electors was seven--the Archbishops of Mainz, Cologne, and Trèves, the King
of Bohemia, the Count Palatine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of
Brandenburg. In 1648 an eighth electorate was created to make room for
Bavaria, and Hanover was added as a ninth in 1692. The votes of the
Palatinate and of Bavaria were merged in one in 1777. In 1802 the two
ecclesiastical electors of Cologne and Trèves were set aside, and Baden,
Würtemberg, Hesse-Cassel, and Salzburg declared electorates; so that there
were ten electors in 1806 when the old German Empire was dissolved.--Cf.
Viscount Bryce, _The Holy Roman Empire_.

ELECTRICAL FISHES, a name given to fishes possessing the property of
communicating an electric shock when touched with the hand or any electric
conductor. One of the best known is the electric eel (_Gymn[=o]tus
electricus_), a native of South America. It is of nearly equal thickness
throughout; head and tail obtuse; ordinary length, 3½ to 4 feet. The seat
of the four electrical organs is along the under side of the tail, and they
are said to possess the power of knocking down a man, and of painfully
numbing the affected limb for several hours after the shock. After a few
discharges, however, the faculty of producing a shock is impaired, and an
interval of rest is required for a new storage of force. Similar but
less-marked powers are possessed by an African cat-fish (_Malapterurus
electricus_), in which the electric organ invests the entire body as a sort
of jacket under the skin. Still feebler in this respect are the electric
rays, of which the best known (species of Torpedo) are native to the
Mediterranean, Red Sea, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans. Here the electric
organ consists of a large mass on each side of the front part of the body.

ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS, the name given to instruments which
measure electric power, energy, voltage, or current. The majority of such
instruments are current-operated. Thus, with the exception of electrostatic
voltmeters, all voltmeters are really current measuring instruments; but
since this current is made to be proportional to the P.D. between the
voltmeter terminals, the scale reading is proportional to the voltage being
measured. One and the same instrument may be used as an ammeter or as a
voltmeter, by providing it with shunts for use as an ammeter, and series
resistances for use as a voltmeter. If the current to be measured is large,
the _shunt_ will have a very _low_ resistance compared with that of the
instrument, so that only a small fraction of the total current passes
through the instrument. Similarly, when a large P.D. is being measured, the
_series resistance_ will have a very _high_ value, so that the current
through the instrument may not exceed that which gives full-scale reading.
By using shunts or series resistances of different values, different ranges
can be given to the instruments.

In addition to the types already described (see _Ammeter_), there is a
class depending on the mutual action of current-carrying conductors placed
near one another. This type is largely used in alternating-current work. It
is also specially suitable for power measurements, and practically all
_wattmeters_ work on this principle. The Siemens Dynamometer was the first
instrument of this type.

The Kelvin Standard Balance is a special form of dynamometer, in which the
mechanical turning-moment due to weights on a beam is balanced by the
electrical turning-moment due to currents in fixed coils and in coils
attached to the ends of the beam. The electrostatic voltmeter mentioned
above is the only instrument which is operated by a P.D. instead of a
current. In it a moving vane is attracted into a fixed pair of quadrants;
or a set of vanes is attracted into a set of quadrant cells.

The majority of electricity meters are of the motor type, i.e. a disc is
driven by motor action at a speed which is proportional to the power
passing through the meter. The disc spindle engages with gearing which
drives the pointers on a set of dials recording the energy units. There are
also meters depending on electrolytic action (Wright meter); or on the
difference in period between two pendulums, one of which is controlled by
the load current (Aron meter).

ELECTRIC BATTERY, a group of primary or secondary cells, suitably arranged
for the purpose of producing an electric current. Primary batteries
consisting of a few cells are commonly used for intermittent work where a
relatively small current is required, e.g. for electric bells. If a larger
current is necessary, especially if it has to be maintained over a
considerable period, a battery of secondary cells is used. Such batteries
are commonly used for country house lighting. Very large batteries, used
either alone or in conjunction with automatic reversible boosters, are
frequently employed in public electric supply systems.

The name _electric battery_ was originally given to an arrangement of
Leyden jars (see _Leyden Jar_), but is now applied only to cells, the
Leyden-jar arrangement being called a Leyden-jar battery.

ELECTRICITY, the name given to the ultimate cause of electrical phenomena.
The laws governing these phenomena are well known, but the actual nature of
electricity has not yet been fully revealed, although much light has been
thrown on the subject by recent researches. (See _Electron_.) Although the
practical applications of electrical phenomena have all been developed
within the last fifty years, the production of an electric charge by
friction, as demonstrated by the power of rubbed amber to attract light
bodies, was observed by a Greek philosopher as long ago as 600 B.C. The
Greek name for amber, [Greek: êlektron] (electron), is the root from which
our word electricity is derived. Friction was the only artificial source of
electricity known until Galvani, near the close of the eighteenth century,
accidently obtained it by the contact of two metals with the limbs of a
frog; and Volta, developing Galvani's discovery, invented the first
galvanic or voltaic battery.

The discovery by Faraday in 1831 of the principle of the production of an
electromotive force by the motion of a conductor in a magnetic field, laid
the foundation for the development of the electric generator (q.v.), and
thus of modern electric power supply.

The study of electrical phenomena is conveniently divided into two
branches, one dealing with stationary charges of electricity
(_electrostatics_), the other with electric currents (_current
electricity_).

_Electrostatics._--If a pair of ebonite rods be electrified by friction
with flannel, then by suspending the one rod and presenting the other to
it, it is easily demonstrated that a mutual mechanical force of repulsion
exists between them. If now a glass rod be electrified by friction with
silk, it will be found that it attracts the suspended electrified ebonite
rod. These experiments reveal the facts that electric charges may be of two
opposite kinds, and that like charges repel one another, while unlike
charges attract one another.

The charge produced on glass by friction with silk is called _positive_;
that produced on ebonite by friction with flannel is called _negative_. The
kind of charge produced depends not merely on the material rubbed, but also
on the material of the rubber. Thus a warm dry glass rod becomes
_negatively_ electrified when rubbed with fur. The rubber always becomes
electrified with a charge of the _opposite_ kind to that produced on the
material rubbed, and these two charges are _equal in amount_. All bodies
may be electrified by friction, but those which allow a free movement of
the charge over them (such bodies are called _conductors_, to distinguish
them from _insulators_, which do not allow this free movement) must be held
by an insulating handle, or else the charge will be removed as quickly as
it is produced.

Coulomb proved that the magnitude of the mutual mechanical force exerted
between two charged bodies depends on the amounts of the charges and the
distance between them. Faraday called attention to the influence of the
medium in which the charges are placed. Thus if two charges of q_1 and q_2
units respectively are placed d centimetres apart in a given medium, the
mechanical force f in dynes exerted between them is given by the equation f
= (q_1q_2)/(Kd^2), provided the dimensions of the bodies on which the
charges are concentrated are small in comparison with d. The coefficient K
is called the _dielectric constant_ of the medium, and its value is taken
as unity for air.

In accordance with this relationship, _unit charge_ is defined as that
charge which repels an equal and similar charge placed at a distance of 1
centimetre in air, with a force of 1 dyne.

If the medium surrounding a charged body be explored with a unit charge, a
mechanical force varying in magnitude and direction from point to point
will be found to act on the unit charge. In such a case, an _electric
field_ is said to exist in the medium.

The _strength of the electric field_ at any point is defined as numerically
equal to the mechanical force which would act on a unit charge placed in
air (or more strictly in a vacuum) at that point. The _direction_ of the
electric field at any point is defined to be the direction of the
mechanical force acting on a unit _positive_ charge placed at that point.

It should be noted that the strength of the electric field and the
mechanical force are numerically equal only when the dielectric constant of
the medium is unity. Thus if F is the field strength, K the dielectric
constant, and U the mechanical force acting on a unit charge, F = KU.

It is very convenient to represent an electric field by means of what are
called _lines of electric force_. If lines are drawn, starting from a
positive charge and ending on a negative charge, such that the tangent to
the line at any point is the direction of the electric force at that point,
these lines are called lines of electric force. They can be drawn in such a
way that the strength of the electric field at any point is numerically
equal to the number of lines of electric force passing through unit area
surrounding that point (and taken at right angles to the direction of the
force). The lines of electric force will thus completely represent the
electric field.

Further, if the following properties are attributed to the lines of
electric force, viz. (_a_) that a line of electric force tends to shorten
itself as far as possible; (_b_) that lines of electric force mutually
repel one another; then all the phenomena due to the presence of an
electric field may be interpreted by the behaviour of the lines of electric
force.

Figs. 1 and 2 show the lines of electric force in the space surrounding two
charged spheres. Fig. 1 shows the case where the charges are opposite, fig.
2 the case where they are similar. In fig. 1 the attraction between the
spheres may be thought of as due to the tendency of the lines of force to
shorten themselves. Similarly, the mutual repulsion of the spheres in fig.
2 may be regarded as a consequence of the mutual repulsion of the lines of
force.

[Illustration: Fig. 1]

[Illustration: Fig. 2]

The distribution of a charge upon an insulated conductor isolated in space
depends upon the shape of the conductor. If the conductor is spherical, the
charge is uniformly distributed. If the curvature varies from point to
point, the quantity of charge per unit area, or the _electric surface
density_, will vary from point to point. The sharper the curvature is, the
greater the surface density will be. In fig. 3 the distance of the dotted
lines from the surface of the conductors is proportional to the surface
density. These lines, therefore, give a graphical representation of the
distribution of charge. In sharply pointed conductors nearly the whole
charge will be concentrated at the pointed end. Owing to the large charge
per unit area at the pointed part, particles of dust, water-vapour, &c.,
will be powerfully attracted, will become charged by conduction, and will
then be powerfully repelled. In this way the original charge will be
rapidly dissipated. This effect may be shown by keeping a sharply pointed
conductor powerfully charged by an electric machine. The streaming of the
particles from the point produces a wind which is sufficient to blow out
the flame of a candle.

[Illustration: Fig. 3]

Conductors which are intended to retain their charge for a long period must
be smooth and polished, and the maximum curvature must be as small as
possible. In lightning-conductors practical advantage is taken of this
'power of points' to dissipate a charge rapidly.

The distribution of the charge on a conductor is influenced by the presence
of other conductors, whether charged or not. This is due to what is called
_electrostatic induction_. If an uncharged insulated conductor B is brought
near a charged conductor A, a charge of the _opposite_ kind is induced on
the parts of B nearer to A, and a charge of the _same_ kind on the parts
farther away from A. Since B was originally uncharged, these induced
charges are equal in amount.

If B is now removed to a distance, the induced charges neutralize one
another, and B returns to its original uncharged state.

While B is near A, let the induced charge of the _same_ kind as the charge
on A be neutralized by touching B with an earth-connected conductor, say
the finger. On removing B to a distance, it will no longer be uncharged as
before, but will have a charge of the _opposite_ kind from that on A. B is
now said to have been _charged by induction_.

It is instructive to view these phenomena in the light of the conception of
lines of electric force. When B is brought up towards A, some of the lines
of force associated with the charge on A, and originally linked to
surrounding objects, will now, owing to the tendency of the lines to
shorten themselves, be linked to B. At the same time an equal number of
lines (of opposite direction relative to B) will link B to the nearest
surrounding objects.

Since by definition a line of force starts from a positive charge and ends
on a negative charge, the charge on the parts of B nearer to A will be of
the _opposite_ kind to that on A, but the charge on the part farther from A
will be of the _same_ kind as that on A. When the earth-connected conductor
is brought near B, the lines formerly linking B to surrounding objects will
link B to the earth-connected conductor. Finally, when the latter touches
B, these lines shorten themselves indefinitely and disappear.

The attraction of light particles to a charged body is explained by
electrostatic induction. The charge of opposite kind induced on the
particle being nearer than that of the same kind, the particle is
attracted. When it touches the charged body, the charge of opposite kind is
neutralized, and the charge of like kind now left on the particle causes
repulsion to take place. If the electrified body is an insulator, the
neutralization of the charges only takes place slowly, and consequently it
may be some time before the particle is repelled.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Induction, and Lines (or tubes) of Force]

If two charged conductors be connected by a wire, in general it will be
found that a flow of electricity from one to the other will take place.
This flow is said to be due to a _difference of electric potential_ between
the two conductors. If no flow takes place, then the difference of
potential is zero. Electric potential difference (the contraction P.D. is
commonly used) is numerically equal to the work done in carrying a unit
charge from the one conductor to the other. If the work is done _against_
the electric forces, in moving a unit positive charge from A to B, then B
is said to be at a higher potential than A. Although actually it is with
_differences_ of potential that we have always to deal, it is convenient in
many cases to refer these differences to a zero, and speak of _the
potential_ at a point. The ideal zero of potential would be the potential
at a point infinitely far removed from all electrified bodies. In practice
it is convenient to regard the potential of the earth as zero. The
potential at a point is then numerically equal to the work done in carrying
a unit positive charge from earth to the point. The potential at every
point on a conductor is obviously the same, for if it were not so, a flow
of charge would take place and equalize the potential. If an insulated
uncharged conductor be connected by a wire to a charged conductor, a flow
of charge will take place until every point on both conductors is at the
same potential. The quantity of charge which each conductor will then have
depends on what is called the _capacity_ of the conductor.

The _capacity of a conductor_ is defined as the quantity of electricity
with which it must be charged in order to raise its potential from zero to
unity. Thus if Q be the quantity, V the potential, and C the capacity, we
have C = Q/V. The potential of a conductor is, therefore, directly
proportional to the charge upon the conductor, and inversely proportional
to the capacity of the conductor.

The capacity of a conductor may be increased by placing close to it another
conductor which is kept at zero potential. Such an arrangement is called a
condenser. The Leyden jar (see _Leyden Jar_) is a well-known example of a
condenser. The capacity depends not merely on the dimensions of the
conductors and the distance between them, but also upon the nature of the
dielectric separating them. The ratio of the capacity of a condenser with a
given dielectric to the capacity it would have with an air dielectric, is
called the _specific inductive capacity_ of the dielectric. Numerically the
specific inductive capacity of a dielectric is equal to the dielectric
constant already mentioned.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Electrophorus]

[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Wimshurst Machine]

In the experimental investigation of electrostatic phenomena it is
convenient to have appliances which will supply charges as they are
required. The simplest appliance of this kind is the electrophorus, which
consists of a disc of ebonite or other suitable material with a metallic
base, and a metal disc of slightly smaller diameter having an insulating
handle attached at right angles to its surface (see fig. 5). To use the
electrophorus, the ebonite is given a negative charge by striking it with
fur or flannel. The metal disc is then placed on top of the ebonite plate.
Since the ebonite is an insulator, no general neutralization of the
positive induced charge on the lower side of the metal disc can take place.
The negative charge on the upper surface of the metal disc is then
neutralized by touching with the finger. The disc is thus left positively
charged. The disc is then lifted by the insulating handle, and the charge
utilized as required. Theoretically speaking, this process may be repeated
continuously without affecting the original charge on the ebonite plate,
but in practice the ebonite has to be re-excited from time to time on
account of the loss of charge by leakage. More elaborate appliances of many
different forms have been used, but the only one of these _electric
machines_, as they are called, which is now commonly employed is the
_Wimshurst machine_. This machine consists of two circular plates of glass
or ebonite carrying equal even numbers of tinfoil sectors symmetrically
placed on their outer surfaces. A pair of brass arms carrying wire brushes,
which simultaneously make contact with diametrically opposite sectors on
each plate, is so arranged as to lie at an angle of about 45° to the
horizontal, and to be at right angles to one another. A pair of combs is
placed at each end of the horizontal diameter of the plates, so that the
sectors pass close to the teeth of these combs. The combs serve as
collectors, and are connected one pair to the positive pole, and the other
pair to the negative pole of the machine. The general appearance of the
machine is shown in fig. 6. The machine acts on the induction principle,
and if kept warm and dry is self-exciting.

The _electroscope_ is a simple piece of apparatus for detecting the
presence of an electric charge, determining its sign (positive or
negative), and making a very rough comparative estimate of its potential.
It consists of a pair of strips of gold-leaf attached to a brass rod
terminating in a brass cap. The whole is enclosed in a glass case, or a
case having glass sides. The base is made of conducting material. The sides
of the case are coated internally with tinfoil (or two rods connected to
the base project upwards to the level of the gold-leaf strips). The general
appearance of one form of electroscope is shown in fig. 7. The gold-leaf
strips, the brass rod, and the cap must be carefully insulated. When a
charged body is brought near the electroscope the leaves become charged
similarly by induction. The repulsion due to the similar charges causes the
leaves to diverge.

If the cap be touched with the finger, the charge on the leaves is
neutralized, and the leaves collapse. On removing the charged body the
leaves diverge again, owing to the spreading of the charge on the cap,
which was held by the inducing charge, over the whole conductor, including
the leaves. The electroscope is thus charged by induction. It may also be
charged by conduction, i.e. by the direct transfer of a charge to the
electroscope. When we know the kind of charge, positive or negative, which
has been given to the electroscope, an unknown charge can be tested. If the
approach of the unknown charge causes a further divergence of the leaves,
then it is of the same kind as that with which the electroscope is charged.

[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Electroscope]

When accurate quantitative measurements have to be made, an instrument
called an _electrometer_ is used. This instrument, the development of which
is due chiefly to Lord Kelvin, is capable of making accurate measurements
of electrostatic potential differences down to quite low values.

Essentially an electrometer consists of a light suspended conductor which
moves within four fixed quadrants. Opposite pairs of these quadrants are
connected together, one pair to one terminal, and the other pair to the
other terminal of the instrument. The P.D. to be measured is applied at
these terminals. The suspended conductor or 'needle' is charged to a
definite high potential, and the deflection produced is observed from the
movement of a spot of light reflected from a mirror attached to the
suspending fibre. In this case the deflection is proportional to the P.D.
between the quadrants. For measuring a high P.D., the needle may be
connected to one pair of quadrants. With such an arrangement the instrument
is less sensitive, and the deflection is proportional to the square of the
P.D. between the quadrants.

_Current Electricity._ The phenomena connected with the flow of electricity
through a conductor come under this heading. Such a flow of electricity
will take place if by some means the ends of the conductor are maintained
at different potentials. An _electric current_ is then said to exist in the
conductor. The difference of potential may be maintained by chemical action
(see _Daniell's Cell_; _Electric Battery_), by electro-dynamic action (see
_Generator_), or by heat action (see _Thermo-electricity_). The magnitude
of the current which will flow when a steady P.D. is maintained between the
ends of the conductor is determined by what is called the electrical
_resistance_ of the conductor. The resistance R is defined as the ratio of
the applied potential difference V to the current I produced, i.e. R = V/I.
This is a partial expression of Ohm's Law for the Electric Circuit, which
in its most general form states that the current which flows at any instant
in an electric circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the electromotive
forces existing in the circuit at that instant, divided by the total
resistance in the circuit at that instant (see _Electromotive Force_).

For the particular case where the algebraic sum E of the electromotive
forces is steady, and the total resistance R is not varying, we have I =
E/R. This is the form which applies to steady direct currents. If the
current is changing (whether alternating or merely varying in value),
varying E.M.F.'s, in addition to the applied E.M.F., exist in the circuit,
and the above expression no longer holds good.

The resistance of a conductor depends on its material, and varies directly
as the length, and inversely as the cross-section of the conductor. Thus R
= [rho](l/A), where [rho] is the specific resistance of the material, l the
length of the conductor, and A the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
The _specific resistance_ is the resistance between opposite faces of a
unit cube of the material at a definite temperature (usually 0° C.). The
resistance of a conductor varies to a greater or less extent with variation
of temperature.

For pure metals the resistance increases considerably with increase of
temperature. With certain alloys the change is so slight as to be
negligible. In some alloys, and in carbon and insulating materials, the
resistance falls with increase of temperature.

_Measurement of Resistance._--Low resistances can most conveniently be
measured by a fall of potential method, based on the relationship R = V/I.
The current may be read by an ammeter, and the potential difference by a
low-reading voltmeter (see _Electrical Measuring Instruments_). Where
greater accuracy is required, a constant current is sent through the
resistance to be measured, and also through a known standard resistance of
about the same value. A sensitive galvanometer (see _Galvanometer_) is used
to compare the P.D. across the unknown resistance with that across the
standard. Since the current is the same through both, the resistances will
be proportional to the galvanometer deflections, and from the known value
of the standard resistance the value of the unknown resistance can be
calculated. Resistances of moderate value are best measured by a Wheatstone
Bridge, or one of its modifications (see _Wheatstone Bridge_).

A substitution method is more suitable for high resistances. A galvanometer
is connected in series with a standard high resistance and a steady source
of E.M.F. The deflection is noted. The unknown resistance is now
substituted for the standard, and the new deflection noted. Provided the
resistance of the galvanometer and other parts of the circuit is negligible
in comparison with the resistance to be measured, the resistances are
inversely as the deflections. The unknown resistance is, therefore, equal
to the ratio of the first to the second deflection multiplied by the value
of the standard resistance. For insulation tests on installations,
direct-reading instruments are frequently used (see _Ohmmeter_).

_Effects of an Electric Current._--When a current flows in a conductor, the
temperature of the conductor is raised. This is due to the power dissipated
on account of the resistance of the conductor. The power dissipated is
equal to I^2R watts, and by giving suitable values to I and R any required
amount of heat per second can be obtained. This _heating effect_ of the
current is made use of in electric lighting, electric heating and cooking,
in electric furnaces, and in certain electro-medical appliances.

If a magnetic needle is brought near a conductor carrying a current, it
will be found to be deflected. This is due to the magnetic field, which is
always associated with an electric current. This _electro-magnetic effect_
is of the utmost practical importance (see _Electro-magnetism_;
_Generator_; _Electric Motors_).

When a current is passed through a conducting liquid, such as a solution of
a metallic salt or a salt in a fused state, chemical action takes place.
The behaviour of such a conductor is entirely different from that of a
metallic conductor, since a current can flow in it only if chemical
dissociation takes place (see _Electrolysis_).

Practical use of electrolysis is made in electroplating, the production of
electrotype blocks for printing, the refining of copper, and the production
of metallic sodium and potassium. Electrolysis is also used as a means of
storing electrical energy in a chemical form (see _Secondary Cell_).

An electric current may be constant in direction (_direct current_), or may
alternate in direction with a certain frequency (_alternating current_).
Alternating currents have advantages for the transmission of large amounts
of power over considerable distances (see _Electric Power Transmission and
Distribution_), and may be used for electric lighting and the operation of
electro-dynamic machines and apparatus (see _Electric Motors_).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. Kolbe, _Introduction to Electricity_; S. P. Thompson,
_Elementary Lessons in Electricity_; Starling, _Electricity and Magnetism_;
Poynting and Thomson, _Electricity_; W. E. Ayrton, _Practical Electricity_;
C. R. Gibson, _Electricity of To-day_; Clerk-Maxwell, _Electricity and
Magnetism_; E. E. Brooks and A. W. Poyser, _Magnetism and Electricity_.

ELECTRIC LIGHT, a light obtained by the conversion of electric energy into
light energy. The usual method is to heat some material to incandescence by
passing an electric current through it. The material may be carbon (arc
lamps), tungsten wire (all modern incandescent lamps), mercury vapour
(mercury vapour lamps), or volatilized metallic salts (flame arc lamps).
Other materials have been used, such as zirconium, yttrium, and thorium
oxides, and osmium and tantalum among the metals, but they have been
displaced entirely by the materials mentioned above.

Ordinary arc lamps, and even flame arc lamps, are being displaced by the
modern high-candle-power gas-filled tungsten lamp. Flame arc lamps have a
high efficiency, and are still largely used for street lighting, but the
cost of the frequent trimming required, even in lamps of the magazine type,
gives the gas-filled lamp an advantage over them. Lamps of the mercury
vapour class have a high efficiency, and the light has a high actinic value
which is valuable for certain photographic processes, but the absence of
the red and orange part of the spectrum gives the light a
characteristically ghastly effect which limits the use of this type of
lamp.

_The Carbon Arc._--Although the arc lamp has fallen into disuse, the carbon
arc is still extensively employed for projection work, as in cinema
projectors and in searchlights. The action of the carbon arc is as follows:
If a potential difference of about 50 volts is maintained between a pair of
carbon rods, and the tips of the rods are momentarily brought into contact
and then separated by a short distance, then the current is maintained by
an arc across the gap. The temperature of the positive tip rises to about
4000° C., and the tip itself soon becomes hollowed, forming what is called
the _positive crater_.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Positive and Negative Carbons]

The illustration below represents the two carbons of the arc light as they
appear when cold, the positive carbon being marked + and the negative -.
The central figure is a magnified representation such as can be obtained by
throwing an image of the burning carbons on a screen by means of a lens. In
fig. 1 the upper rod is the positive one, and the hollowed shape of the tip
is clearly shown. The negative tip becomes roughly pointed in shape, and
its temperature is about half that of the positive crater.

The positive crater has an extremely high intrinsic brilliancy, and nearly
the whole of the light is emitted from its surface, the negative tip and
the arc itself contributing very little. In order to stabilize the arc, a
series resistance of a few ohms is necessary. The carbons gradually burn
away, the rate of consumption of the positive carbon being about twice that
of the negative. It is, therefore, necessary to 'feed' the carbons towards
one another. This may be done automatically by the action of a pair of
solenoids, one carrying the current which passes through the arc, the other
carrying a current proportional to the potential difference across the arc.
These solenoids, by means of a suitable mechanism, act in opposition, the
current solenoid separating the carbons, and the potential difference
solenoid bringing them closer together. The actions balance one another
when the arc is of the correct length.

Such an arrangement also serves to strike the arc when the supply is
switched on. In order to prevent the arc from wandering round the carbons,
the positive carbon is cored, and sometimes the negative carbon also. The
core consists of purer softer carbon of lower resistance, and the arc
remains centrally placed.

_Flame Arc Lamps._--The carbon arc principle is modified in these lamps, so
that the arc itself supplies nearly the whole of the light. The arc is made
highly luminous by impregnating the carbons with metallic salts, which are
volatilized and become incandescent in the arc. Their presence also lowers
the resistance of the arc, so that its length can be greatly increased.

The tendency of the arc to wander is also increased, so that cored carbons
are essential, and their diameter must be made as small as possible. These
thin carbons burn away quickly, so that they must be made proportionately
longer for the same time of burning. In order to reduce their resistance a
soft-metal inner core is used. The carbons, instead of being placed one
above the other, are inclined at a small angle with the arc between their
lower ends. The arc is made as large as possible by the action of a small
electromagnet placed just above the gap.

The feeding mechanism is similar in principle to that used for ordinary
carbon arcs. For street lighting, lamps of the magazine type are used. In
these lamps a number of pairs of carbons is placed in the magazine, and as
each carbon is used up, a new one automatically takes its place.

_Mercury Vapour Lamps._--In these lamps the light is obtained from
incandescent mercury vapour in a tube from which the air has been
exhausted. The positive terminal is connected to a small iron electrode at
one end of the tube. At the other end there is a small bulb, which contains
a little pool of mercury, which is connected to the negative terminal. To
start the lamp, the tube has to be tilted, so that a stream of mercury
flows along it and makes contact with the iron electrode. The current which
then flows vaporizes some of the mercury, and when the tube is tilted back
to its original position, the discharge is maintained through the mercury
vapour. A small series resistance is required in order to make the
operation of the lamp stable. For small lamps a glass tube is used, but
owing to the higher temperature reached in lamps consuming considerable
power, it is necessary to use a quartz tube for large lamps. Quartz is
transparent to ultra-violet light, and to avoid harmful effects the tube is
usually enclosed in a larger one of flint glass, which stops the
ultra-violet rays.

_Incandescent Lamps._--This is the name commonly given to the type of lamp
in which the light is produced by an incandescent filament. The filament is
enclosed in a glass bulb, which is either exhausted to a high vacuum, or
else contains an inert gas under pressure. The filament is heated to
incandescence by the current passing through it.

[Illustration: Stages in the Manufacture of an Incandescent Lamp

1, Bulb as received from furnace. 2, Stem attached for exhausting. 3,
Filament sealed in. 4, Lamp exhausted of air. 5, Finished lamp.]

The first lamp of this type to come into general use was the carbon
filament lamp. This has now been ousted by the much more efficient tungsten
filament lamp. The earlier tungsten lamps were very fragile, owing to the
brittleness of the filament. Later, a process was discovered whereby
tungsten could be made malleable. The manufacture of drawn-wire filaments
thus became possible, and the tungsten filament lamps which are now
produced will stand a considerable amount of rough handling. This type of
lamp is now in universal use for house lighting.

The limit of temperature at which the filament can be worked is set by the
disintegration of the filament, which blackens the bulb and weakens the
filament till it breaks. Recent research has revealed that this is due to a
double chemical action between traces of water vapour and the incandescent
metal. No method of entirely removing water vapour from the bulb has been
found, but further research has brought to light the important fact that if
the bulb is filled with an inert gas under pressure, the action is reduced
to a minimum. This allows the filament to be worked at a much higher
temperature, and since the light emitted increases with temperature much
more rapidly than the power consumption does, the efficiency of the lamp
can be greatly increased. These discoveries have led to the development of
the modern _gas-filled lamp_. Owing to the high intrinsic brilliancy of the
filament, high candle-power lamps of this type can be made which are not
unduly bulky. For this reason, and because of their high efficiency and the
absence of the need for any adjustment or attention, gas-filled lamps are
coming into extensive use for street lighting and for factory and workshop
lighting. Smaller lamps of this type are also being widely adopted for the
illumination of shop windows.

ELECTRIC MOTORS, the name given to that division of dynamo-electric
machinery in which electrical power is converted into mechanical power.

Electric motors are classified as _direct-current motors_ or
_alternating-current motors_, according as the electric power taken by the
motor is in the form of a direct current or an alternating current. Further
subdivisions of each class are made on the basis of differences in the
operating characteristics of the various types.

_Direct-current Motors._--The motor consists of a fixed magnetic field
system with a rotating armature, which carries the conductors through which
the supply current is passed. The magnetic field, produced in the air-gap
between the poles and the armature, reacts with the current-carrying
conductors of the armature and produces the _mechanical turning-moment_ or
_torque_.

At the same time the motion of the conductors through the magnetic field
generates an E.M.F. in the conductors. This E.M.F. is in the opposite
direction to the applied E.M.F., and is, therefore, called the _back
E.M.F._ of the motor. The current taken by the motor is equal to the
difference between the applied and back E.M.F.'s divided by the resistance
of the armature winding. Since the armature resistance is always low, and
the back E.M.F. is zero at starting, some form of starter is necessary in
order to limit the current to a safe value. Essentially the starter
consists of a suitable resistance connected in series with the armature. As
the motor gains speed this resistance is gradually reduced to zero.

The speed at which a D.C. motor runs varies inversely as the air-gap flux
per pole, and very approximately, directly as the applied E.M.F. (directly
as the back E.M.F. actually).

The torque produced is proportional to the product of the air-gap flux per
pole and the armature current. The torque and speed characteristics of a
D.C. motor, therefore, depend on the manner in which the air-gap flux per
pole varies with the load current.

_Series Motor._--In this type the field magnet windings are connected in
series with the armature winding, i.e. the same current flows in both
windings. The air-gap flux per pole, therefore, depends on the current
taken by the motor. Consequently, at light loads the speed of the motor is
very high, and there is a very large fall in speed as the load increases.
The torque increases rapidly with load for the same reason. At starting, a
large torque is obtained at a low speed. These characteristics are
specially suitable for traction purposes, for crane motors, and for the
motors for certain machine tools.

[Illustration: Diagram of a Simple Motor

C, Conductor on surface of iron core A, which is free to rotate between the
poles N S of an electro-magnet.]

_Shunt Motor._--In this case the field magnet windings are connected as a
shunt to the armature windings, i.e. the current in the field coils depends
upon the applied voltage, and is, therefore, constant in normal operation.
Apart from the slight effect of the armature magneto-motive force, the
air-gap flux per pole, therefore, remains almost constant at all loads.
This means that the speed is practically constant at all loads (a very
slight fall in speed with load occurs), and the torque, therefore, is
almost directly proportional to the load current. The shunt motor is,
therefore, suitable for all cases where an approximately constant speed at
all loads is required.

_Alternating-current Motors._--There are wide differences between the
various types, both in construction and operation. The type most commonly
used is the polyphase _induction motor_. In this motor both the field
system and the armature consist of a slotted core built up of iron
laminations. The field system is called the _stator_, and the armature the
_rotor_. Both carry conductors in their slots, and these conductors in each
case form a polyphase winding. Current is supplied to the stator winding
only. The currents in the rotor winding are _induced_ by the action of the
rotating magnetic field set up by the stator currents. Hence the name
induction motor. For starting, a polyphase resistance completes the
circuits of the rotor winding. This resistance is gradually reduced to zero
as the motor attains its full speed.

The rotor circuits are, therefore, closed upon themselves in normal
operation. In many motors (especially small ones which are started
unloaded) the rotor winding consists of a series of copper bars brazed to
solid end-rings at each end of the core, thus forming a permanently
short-circuited winding. Such a rotor is known as a _squirrel-cage rotor_.

The speed characteristic of the induction motor closely resembles that of
the shunt D.C. motor, and induction motors are suitable for similar
purposes. The induction motor gives its maximum torque at a speed only
slightly below the synchronous speed (corresponding to the number of poles
in the stator winding and the frequency of the supply); and the torque
decreases very rapidly as the speed rises towards synchronism. The maximum
torque has a definite value for a given motor, and if the load demands a
greater torque than this, the motor slows down and stops.

_Synchronous motors_ are seldom used except for special purposes. They are
exactly similar to the ordinary synchronous generator or alternator in
construction, and the field system is almost invariably the rotating part.
As their name implies, these motors have the characteristic of running at
synchronous speed at all loads. If through overloading, or for any other
reason, the motor is unable to maintain its synchronous speed, it
immediately falls out of step and stops.

_Alternating-current Commutator Motors._--These motors are in general
appearance similar to the induction motor, but the rotor is fitted with a
commutator. According to the electrical connections, these motors may be
given characteristics similar to direct-current series or shunt motors.
Single-phase commutator motors with series characteristics are used on the
L.B. & S.C.R. electric trains.

[Illustration]

ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION. In the public supply of
electric power in this country, the usual practice is to use
alternating-current generators in the power stations, and to transmit the
power at a high voltage to substations. The substation plant reduces the
pressure to a value suitable to the consumer, and in many instances also
converts the alternating current into direct current. From the substations
the power is distributed to the consumers.

For a given amount of power transmitted the cross-section of the cables
required varies inversely as the square of the voltage. In order to reduce
the outlay on cables, it is important that the transmission voltage should
be as high as the circumstances permit. Naturally this becomes more and
more important as the distance over which the power has to be transmitted
increases. In America, where large amounts of power are transmitted over
very great distances, the pressure used is in some cases 150,000 volts, and
the tendency is to raise this till further, as switch gear, insulators, and
other apparatus capable of withstanding this high pressure are becoming
available. For high-tension underground cables, the pressure now coming
into common use is 20,000 volts.

The nature of the low-voltage distribution from the substations, whether
alternating current or direct current, depends largely on the requirements
of the consumers.

There are certain advantages in the use of direct current, and in this
country it is more commonly employed than alternating current, but the
substation plant is more costly and requires skilled attendance. If the
circumstances are such that these advantages are not important, the lower
initial cost and running expenses of an alternating-current distribution
would lead to its adoption.

In the Thury system of power transmission high-voltage direct current is
used throughout. Only one supply in this country is of this kind, but
several are in operation on the Continent. Pressures up to 100,000 volts
are used.

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. See _Telegraph_.

ELECTRIC TRACTION and ELECTRIC TRAMWAY. In electric traction the mechanical
power required for the propulsion of the vehicle is obtained from electric
motors. These motors are usually _series direct-current motors_, but for
railway work single-phase and three-phase A.C. motors have also been
successfully employed (see _Electric Motors_). Up to the present, electric
traction on railways has only been employed for suburban traffic in this
country. In one instance (L.B. & S.C.R. electrification) single-phase
alternating current is used. In all the others the power supply is direct
current (see _Railways, Electrification of_).

In electric tramways, except in some few instances where there are
objections to the use of an overhead construction, the current is conveyed
to the motors through a trolley pole carrying a wheel running on an
overhead bare copper wire. A hand-operated drum controller, directly
controlling the driving and electric braking of the motors, is used. A
hand-brake, and commonly a separate electro-magnetic brake, are provided.

Except in very small tramway systems, the power is generated as
high-tension alternating current, and transformed and converted at
substations suitably placed in the area covered by the tramway (see
_Electric Power Transmission and Distribution_). The low-tension D.C. power
is distributed from the substations to the trolley wire. The car rails are
earthed, and provide a return path for the current. In order to minimize
the flow of current to other conductors in the vicinity of the car rails,
copper cables returning directly to the substation are connected to the
rails at suitable intervals. These earth-return cables are connected in
series with special low-voltage dynamos (called _negative boosters_) at the
substation. This arrangement automatically keeps the P.D. between the most
distant point of the car rails and the substation within a prescribed
maximum, and effectively prevents the corrosion of pipes laid near the car
rails.

ELEC´TRODE (Gr. _hodos_, a way), a term introduced by Faraday to denote the
wires or other terminals by which electricity either enters or leaves a
body which is undergoing electrolytic decomposition. He called the
electrode at which the current enters the _anode_ (_ana_, upwards), and the
electrode at which the current leaves the electrolyte the _cathode_
(_kata_, downwards). (See _Electrolysis_; _Electro-metallurgy_.) The word
is now commonly used in a wider sense to denote the conductor by which
contact is made with a medium. In this way electrodes are spoken of in
connection with electric furnaces, electric welding appliances, vacuum
tubes, and mercury vapour lamps, although the actions are not electrolytic.

ELECTROL´YSIS (Gr. _lysis_, loosening) is the name give to the
decomposition of fused salts or solutions of salts, &c., by means of the
electric current, and is thus a branch of electro-chemistry. The substance
through which the current is passed is termed the _electrolyte_, and must
be either an acid, base, or salt in a fused state or in solution. The
current enters the electrolyte by an electrode called the _anode_, or the
positive terminal. The electrode by means of which the the current leaves
the electrolyte is termed the _cathode_, or negative terminal.

During the passage of the current the electrolyte is decomposed, and the
products of decomposition are released at the electrodes or terminals.
According to the modern theory of electrolysis, all electrolytes contain a
greater or smaller number of free _ions_. These ions are chemical radicles
carrying a definite electric charge. The kind of charge, positive or
negative, depends on the nature of the radicle. The ions exhibit none of
the chemical properties of the uncharged radicle.

Thus, for example, in an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid, free ions of
hydrogen H_2 carrying a positive charge, and free ions of SO_4 carrying a
negative charge, exist. An _uncharged_ SO_4 radicle would react with the
water present, and sulphuric acid would be formed and oxygen liberated. The
_ion_ SO_4, however, is incapable of doing this. Owing to the nature of
their charges, the hydrogen ions will move towards the negative electrode,
and the SO_4 ions towards the positive electrode. On reaching the
electrodes the ions give up their charges, and immediately exhibit their
ordinary chemical properties. Hydrogen is given off at the negative
electrode, while at the positive electrode the uncharged SO_4 radicle
reacts with the water present, and oxygen is released.

This is an example of a secondary chemical reaction. This occurs in many
cases, and where it occurs the final product is different from that first
produced by the electrolytic action. Fresh ions are formed or _dissociated_
in the electrolyte as fast as the original ions give up their charges at
the electrodes. If this were not so, the electrolytic action would soon
cease, since there would be no ions left to move towards the electrodes.
The stream of ions carrying their positive and negative charges constitutes
the current flowing through the electrolyte. Since the ions carry definite
charges, it follows that the amounts of the initial products of an
electrolytic action are in the ratio of their chemical equivalents. Thus,
if fused silver chloride be electrolysed, for every 108 grammes of silver
deposited at one side of the vessel 35.5 grammes of chlorine are given off
at the other side (see _Electrode_; _Electro-metallurgy_).

_The electrolytic action of the current is the same at all parts of the
circuit._ If the current is made to traverse several vessels, each
containing the same substance, all _in series_ (that is, the current that
leaves the first entering the second, and so on), it will be found that in
each of the cells precisely the same amount of decomposition goes on. There
will be the same weight of silver deposited at one side, and a
corresponding weight of chlorine set free at the other.

_The same quantity of electricity decomposes chemically equivalent
quantities of different electrolytes._ If we pass the current through a
series of cells containing different electrolytes, for example, dilute
sulphuric acid, chloride of silver, sulphate of copper, and collect the
products of decomposition, we find that the quantities of hydrogen, silver,
and copper set free are strictly proportional to the chemical equivalents
of these bodies.

_The quantity of the electrolyte decomposed in a given time is proportional
to the strength of the current._ This fact is made use of in measuring
electric currents for standardization purposes, and the practical unit of
current (the ampere) is defined, "with sufficient accuracy for all
practical purposes", as being "that steady and unvarying current which
deposits silver from a specified solution of silver nitrate at the rate of
0.001118 grammes per second".

The practical applications of electrolysis include the refining of copper,
the electro-deposition of metals, electroplating, electrotyping, and the
production of metallic sodium and potassium (see _Electro-metallurgy_).
Electrolytic action is also made use of in the storage of electric energy
in secondary batteries (see _Secondary Cell_).

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM, that branch of science which deals with the mutual
relations between electric and magnetic fields (see _Electricity_;
_Magnetism_).

It may readily be shown that when an electric current flows in a conductor,
a magnetic field is produced around that conductor, i.e. that a magnetic
field is produced by the motion of an electric field. Similarly, if a
magnetic field is moved at right angles to a conductor, a potential
difference is established between the ends of the conductor, i.e. an
electric field is produced by the motion of a magnetic field.

[Illustration: Fig. 1]

If a conductor is placed in a magnetic field so that its length is at right
angles to the lines of magnetic force (see fig. 1), and a current is passed
through the conductor, a mechanical force will act on the conductor, and
this force will be at right angles both to the conductor and to the
original magnetic field.

[Illustration: Fig. 2]

From the point of view of lines of magnetic force, the magnetic field
produced by the current in the conductor (shown by the concentric circles
in fig. 1) will react with the original magnetic field (shown by the
horizontal straight lines in fig. 1), and the actual resultant magnetic
field will have the form shown in fig. 2. The tendency of lines of force to
shorten themselves and repel one another laterally results in a force
tending to force the conductor vertically downwards. This force is, of
course, mutual, and tends to move the original magnetic field in the
opposite direction.

All the phenomena of electro-magnetic action have their basis in these
three effects, viz. (1) the production of a magnetic field by an electric
current; (2) the production of an E.M.F. or P.D. by the relative motion of
a magnetic field and a conductor; and (3) the mutual mechanical action
between a current-carrying conductor and a magnetic field system.

The strength of the magnetic field produced by the current may be increased
by winding the conductor in the form of a helix or solenoid consisting of a
number of turns. The effect can be very greatly increased by providing the
solenoid with a soft-iron core. The iron is strongly magnetized as long as
the current flows. Such an arrangement is called an _electromagnet_.
Electromagnets specially designed to produce a very intense magnetic field
are used commercially in handling scrap-iron, pig-iron, &c. The
electromagnet takes the place of the crane-hook in an ordinary crane. When
the current is switched on, the pieces of iron are attracted and held
firmly until the current is switched off again.

Electromagnets are also used for extracting fragments of iron or steel from
the eye, and for many laboratory purposes. The most important practical use
is the production of the magnetic field required in dynamo-electric
machinery (see _Generator_; _Electric Motors_). The magnetic field produced
within a coil in which a current flows is made use of to give the
deflecting couple in certain types of galvanometers and measuring
instruments (see _Galvanometer_; _Electrical Measuring Instruments_).

The absolute C.G.S. unit of current is defined in terms of the magnetic
field strength produced by it, viz. "when one absolute C.G.S. unit of
current flows in a circular loop of one centimetre radius, the magnetic
force produced at the centre of the loop is 2[pi] dynes".

The principle of the electromagnetic generation of an E.M.F. is dealt with
under the article _Electro-motive Force_. The mechanical force produced
when a current flows in a conductor placed in a magnetic field forms the
basis of the action of electric motors, and certain types of galvanometers
and measuring instruments. The mechanical force is a mutual one, and tends
to move the conductor and the field system in opposite directions. The
magnitude of the force varies as the magnetic field strength, the length of
the conductor, and the intensity of the current, and also as the sine of
the angle between the field and the conductor. Thus when the direction of
the lines of magnetic force is parallel to the conductor, the force is
zero; and when their direction is at right angles to the conductor, the
force is a maximum. The direction of the force is always at right angles
both to the conductor and the direction of the lines of magnetic force. In
an electric motor the forces acting on the conductors produce the
mechanical output of the machine. In a generator these mechanical forces
come into existence as soon as current is taken from the machine. In this
case they produce a torque which is opposite in direction to the mechanical
torque which is applied to the shaft of the generator in order to drive it.

ELECTRO-MEDICAL APPARATUS. Electrical apparatus is now widely used in the
treatment and diagnosis of disease. The action of the heart may be very
accurately observed by means of the electric cardiograph. The cardiograph
itself consists of a very sensitive 'string' galvanometer (see
_Galvanometer_) and an arrangement whereby the spot of light is focused on
a moving photographic plate. In this way a photographic record of the
movements of the galvanometer mirror is obtained. The galvanometer
terminals are connected to two different parts of the body of the patient
(say to a hand and a foot placed in separate brine baths), and the
variations of potential differences which occur during a heart-beat cause a
movement of the galvanometer mirror.

The X-ray apparatus has recently been adapted for taking instantaneous
photographs of the heart. A single powerful discharge from a static
transformer takes place through the tube, and a photograph of the position
of the heart at that instant is obtained. The X-ray apparatus is very well
known from its use in locating fractures, foreign bodies, diseases of the
bone, &c.

The X-ray discharge is used as a treatment for certain skin diseases
(especially ring-worm), rodent ulcer, and cancer. Very high-frequency
alternating currents may be passed through the body without producing the
muscular contractions which are a feature of the passage of low-frequency
currents through the tissues. Currents of considerable magnitude of very
high frequency may thus be passed through the body without inconvenience to
the patient. In this way general or local heating of the body may be
obtained. This process is known as diathermy. The heating locally may be
made sufficiently great to cause coagulation of the tissues, or even actual
burning. This method is used in the treatment of tumours and other growths.

Another important electro-medical treatment consists of the local
introduction of a drug, into the affected part, by electrolytic action.
Thus in the treatment of rodent ulcer, a pad of lint saturated with a 5 per
cent solution of zinc sulphate is placed over the ulcer. A zinc electrode
is placed on the pad and connected to the positive pole of the supply. The
negative pole is connected to a basin of brine in which the patient's hand
is placed. The current is made as large as can conveniently be borne (say
30 to 60 milliamperes), and is maintained for about thirty minutes and then
gradually reduced to zero. By this means zinc ions are carried into the
ulcer. A number of diseases may be treated in this way, the ion used
depending on the nature of the case.

Low-frequency intermittent currents from induction coils are frequently
used where nerve stimulation or muscular contractions are required. Static
electricity is also used for similar purposes. Large Wimshurst machines are
used for the treatment of sciatica, and also for neurasthenia. In the
latter case a brush discharge is used, and the patient experiences very
little physical sensation. The high-frequency apparatus already referred to
in connection with diathermy is valuable for the treatment of rheumatism in
its earlier stages, and for the stimulation of the scalp in hair treatment.
Suitable electrodes are passed backwards and forwards over the affected
parts, a bluish brush discharge taking place between the patient and the
electrode.

ELECTRO-METALLURGY is that branch of metallurgy which uses electrical
energy, wholly or in part, for the extraction or treatment of metals. The
energy may be converted into heat and used for processes in which high
temperatures are necessary, or it may be used for the decomposition of a
compound by electrolysis, which may proceed in a fused bath at a
comparatively high temperature, or in a solution bath containing a compound
of the metal dissolved in a suitable solvent.

The former method of utilizing the energy embraces electrothermal
processes, and the latter method, electrolytic processes.

In electrothermal processes, the heat developed by the electric current has
been used in a number of industries, including welding, annealing, heat
treatment, smelting, refining, &c. Laboratory apparatus, such as tubes,
muffles, and crucibles, are also frequently heated by means of an electric
current.

For the electric welding of metals there are two systems in use: resistance
welding, in which the portions to be welded are pressed together and heated
by the resistance they offer to the passage of a current; and arc welding,
in which portions of metal of the same composition as that to be welded are
fused on by striking an arc from a suitable electrode. In the electrical
annealing of metals, case-hardened steel plates are locally softened where
rivet-holes, &c., are required by passing an electric current through
copper poles placed 1 or 2 inches apart on the smooth surface. Metallic
wire is frequently heated to the annealing temperature between drawing
operations, and various types of annealing furnaces are also electrically
heated.

In electric smelting, the high temperature of the arc (3600° C.) may be
used for the reduction of certain metallic oxides, which at the lower
temperature of furnaces heated by coal, coke, gas, &c. (2000° C.), will not
give up their oxygen to carbon; other ores are also sometimes smelted by
electrical means, especially in localities where current is cheap and fuels
are dear. The production of refined steel, special alloy steels, and
certain non-ferrous alloys is also carried out in electric furnaces of
various types.

The electric arc was first applied to fusion by Siemens in 1879; he fitted,
into the bottom of a crucible to receive the charge, a water-cooled copper
casing to form the positive pole, and suspended a carbon rod centrally in
the crucible to form the negative pole. The current crosses the air-gap
between the metal and the negative pole, forms an arc, and rapidly fuses
the metal. In 1885 the Cowles Brothers, of Cleveland, Ohio, began to
produce aluminium-copper and aluminium-iron alloys by arc smelting, and
later produced other metals, difficult to reduce, by the same means. More
recently, the development of electric smelting has made rapid strides.
Electric furnaces not only yield higher temperature, but have other
advantages over furnaces heated by carbon. They develop the heat in a small
space, just where it is required for the operation, so that the furnace can
be smaller, and less heat is lost by radiation; the charge can be kept free
from gaseous products of combustion; the temperature and the whole
operation is under better control; and the expense of running the furnace
is limited to the time the current is used for doing useful work.

Electric furnaces are now used in the production of pig-iron, steel,
ferro-alloys, brass, zinc, &c., and in the heat treatment of various
metals. Classifying them according to the manner in which the electrical
energy is converted into heat, we have:--

1. Direct resistance furnaces, in which the heat effect is produced within
the metal itself by the resistance offered to the passage of the current
through it. This type is used in the refining of steel.

2. Indirect resistance furnaces, to which class belong the various tube and
crucible furnaces used in laboratories. The vessels to be heated are wound
with wire or ribbon of high resistance, such as platinum, nickel-chrome
alloys, &c., and a suitable current passed. Heat-treatment furnaces on a
fairly large scale also use this method, a nickel-chrome alloy ribbon being
wound on a suitable framework; the heating element in these furnaces,
however, generally consists of granular carbon confined in carborundum
fire-sand troughs.

3. Induction furnaces, in which a primary coil of copper wire is used, the
secondary being formed by the metal charge itself, contained in a suitable
annular groove. In this furnace the current passes through the primary and
induces a current in the charge, thus melting it. This type of furnace has
been largely used in the refining of steel, and to some extent in the
melting of non-ferrous metals and alloys.

4. Direct arc-heating furnaces, as exemplified in the Siemens crucible
furnace mentioned above.

5. Indirect arc-heating is used in the Stassano furnace, in which the heat
is obtained by radiation from the arc, and by reflection from the roof and
sides of the furnace. This furnace has been used in the production of steel
from scrap, and also direct from ore. There are three electrodes, which
nearly meet in the centre of the furnace.

6. Combined resistance and arc furnaces are very largely used for the
production of ferrous alloys, such as ferro-silicon, ferro-chrome, and
ferro-manganese; for the production of steel from scrap, and for the final
refining of steel produced by other processes. In these furnaces the heat
is generated largely by the arc, and to a smaller extent by the resistance
offered by the whole or a portion of the furnace charge to a powerful
electric current. There are several well-known commercial furnaces working
on this principle, the best known probably being the Héroult. This furnace
is designed for tilting, and is lined with basic material, and large
electrodes pass through the roof. An alternating current of 4000 amperes at
110 volts is used for a 3-ton furnace, and the intensity of the current
passing through the bath is regulated by raising or lowering the
electrodes.

The effect of the European War has been enormous on the development of the
electric furnace in this country, for prior to the war in 1914, although
the use of the electric furnace for steel-making was increasing, there were
only 5 furnaces in operation in Sheffield, and two or three more in other
parts of the country, producing in all about 15,000 tons per annum. Soon
after the commencement of the war, it became necessary to deal with the
rapidly accumulating quantity of shell turnings, to make substitutes for
Swedish iron and steel, which could not be imported, and to make large
quantities of special alloy steel for various war purposes. As a result of
these demands, within four years the number of electric furnaces increased
to over 100, the steel produced being over 200,000 tons per annum. Since
1918 the number of furnaces has further increased, and probably reached 150
of various sizes and makes in 1920. In America a similar development has
taken place, the number of furnaces increasing from 7 in 1907 to 363 in
1920, the output of electric steel in 1918 amounting to over 500,000 tons.
In France, also, great strides have been made, and owing to the shortage of
pig-iron, synthetic processes for its production from iron and steel scrap
and ore were developed in open-pit arc-resistance furnaces, yielding
220,000 tons in 1916-8.

_Electrolytic Processes._--The application of electrolysis for the
production of metals from a fused electrolyte is most important in the case
of aluminium. This metal cannot be produced by direct electrolysis in
aqueous solution, but is deposited electrolytically from a fused bath of
cryolite, containing alumina in solution. As the metallic aluminium is
extracted from the molten bath, further quantities of purified oxide are
added. The anodes consist of carbon blocks suspended in the molten bath,
and the cathode consists of the carbon lining of the furnace. Calcium,
cerium, lithium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and strontium are obtained
by the electrolysis of fused chlorides, sodium being also obtained from
fused hydroxide and fused nitrate.

Metallic magnesium was obtained by the electrolysis of the fused chloride
by Bunsen in 1852, but the application of electrolysis as a means of
recovering metals from ores by means of aqueous solutions dates back to
1836, in which year Becquerel obtained copper from sulphide ores by first
extracting the copper as sulphate or chloride, and then recovering the
copper by the electrolysis of the solutions, using insoluble anodes. The
method has since chiefly been applied to the treatment of copper ores and
products, but has also been used for the recovery of nickel, gold, zinc,
&c. The production of electrolytic zinc from solutions has been encouraged
as a result of the shortage of pure zinc for war purposes, and several
processes have been developed. In these processes the solution used
consists either of zinc sulphate or of zinc chloride, the anodes consisting
of metallic lead or of carbon, and the cathodes of pure zinc sheets.

It is in connection with the refining of metals that electrolytic processes
become of prime importance. Elkington, in 1865, was the first to refine
impure metallic copper electrolytically and recover the silver contained in
it. Pure copper is now commonly obtained from impure copper anodes in an
electrolyte of copper sulphate containing free sulphuric acid, a current
density of 12 to 15 amperes per square foot being used at 0.34 to 0.44
volt. Gold is also refined by a similar process, the electrolyte used
consisting of gold chloride solution containing free hydrochloric acid. In
this case a current density of 100 amperes at 1 volt is used. Silver is
likewise refined in a silver nitrate bath, iron by the electrolysis of
sulphate or chloride solution, and lead in a solution of lead fluosilicate
containing free hydrofluoric acid.

In all the above-mentioned processes the anode is cast from the impure
metal to be refined, and the cathode consists of a sheet or plate on which
the pure metal is deposited.

It will be seen that these refining processes are very similar to
electroplating methods.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, the name given to the force tending to produce a flow
of electricity in an electric circuit. The electromotive force, or E.M.F.,
is measured in terms of the work done in carrying unit quantity of
electricity once round the circuit.

Thus unit electromotive force (absolute) is said to exist in a circuit if 1
erg of work is done in carrying 1 coulomb of electricity once round the
circuit. The potential difference, or P.D. (in electromagnetic units),
between two points in an electric circuit is similarly defined in terms of
the work done in carrying 1 coulomb of electricity from the one point to
the other.

_Production of an Electromotive Force._--There are several sources of
E.M.F., e.g. (_a_) chemical action, as in primary and secondary cells;
(_b_) thermo-electric action, as in the thermopile; (_c_) electro-magnetic
action, as in generators, motors, transformers, and induction coils.

The electromotive force due to chemical action depends on the material of
the electrodes and the nature of the electrolyte, and also to a slight
extent on the temperature. Thus, for any given pair of materials (say zinc
and copper) immersed in a certain electrolyte of given strength (say dilute
sulphuric acid), the E.M.F. produced at a given temperature has a definite
value. For a discussion of the electromotive force produced by
thermo-electric action, see _Thermo-electricity_.

The principle of the electromagnetic generation of an E.M.F. may be stated
in its most general form as follows: If lines of magnetic force are
interlinked with an electric circuit, and if by any means the number of
interlinkages of the lines of magnetic force with the circuit is made to
change, then an E.M.F. will be generated in the circuit, the magnitude of
this E.M.F. being proportional to the time rate of change of the
interlinkages. Thus, if the interlinkages are changing at the rate of one
per second, one absolute unit of E.M.F. will be generated; or if the
interlinkages are changing at the rate of a hundred million per second, an
E.M.F. of 1 volt will be generated. It is immaterial in what manner the
change of interlinkages is brought about.

A permanent magnet may be moved so as to vary the lines of magnetic force
linked with an electric circuit, as in magneto-generators; or the circuit
may be moved through a magnetic field (see _Generator_; _Electric Motors_);
or the magnetic field produced by a current in one coil linked with a
second coil may be varied by varying the current in the first coil, as in
static transformers and induction coils.

The electromagnetic generation of an E.M.F. is the fundamental principle
which has made possible the generation and utilization of electrical energy
on a large scale.

ELECTRON, the atom of electricity, more especially of negative electricity.
The first light on the question of the structure of electricity came from
the laws of electrolysis (q.v.), established by Faraday. These laws are
explained very naturally if we make the assumption that electricity, like
matter, is atomic, the atom being the charge carried by the hydrogen ion.
Clerk Maxwell even proposed to call this charge 'one molecule' of
electricity, but added the remark that "it is extremely improbable that
when we come to understand the true nature of electrolysis we shall retain
in any form the theory of molecular charges, for then we shall have
obtained a secure basis on which to form a true theory of electric
currents, and so become independent of these provisional hypotheses".
To-day, however, so far are we from discarding the hypothesis of the atomic
nature of electricity that we find ourselves compelled by the pressure of
experimental facts to interpret all electrical phenomena, in metals as well
as in electrolytes, in terms of this very hypothesis. Any statical charge
is supposed to be made up of a very great number of electrons, just as a
material body is composed of atoms of matter. A metallic conductor is
supposed to contain many free electrons, which normally bear much the same
relation to the material molecules as a saturated vapour bears to the
liquid in equilibrium with it. When an electromotive force is applied, it
causes a drift of the electrons in the opposite direction to the force, the
charge on the electrons being negative. It is this drift of electrons which
constitutes an electric current.

The striking advances that have been made in our knowledge of the nature of
electricity since the last years of the nineteenth century have been due
chiefly to the study of the electric discharge in gases. Hittorf in 1869
and Crookes in 1879 examined the rays, now called the cathode rays, which
stream from cathode to anode in a tube containing gas of very low pressure.
The phenomena suggested to Crookes that the rays consist of material
particles carrying a negative charge and moving at a high speed; but many
physicists rejected this explanation, holding that the rays were due to
some form of wave motion in the ether. About 1897 it was conclusively shown
by Perrin, Wiechert, and Sir J. J. Thomson that Crookes's view was the
correct one. Sir J. J. Thomson measured the velocity of the particles, and
also the ratio of the charge e, to the mass m of each. His method was to
subject a fine beam to the action of two fields of force, one magnetic, the
other electric, and both perpendicular to the line of motion and also to
each other. The electric field being X, and the magnetic field H, the
forces on a particle were in the same direction, and equal to eX, evH.
Either field by itself deflected a fine beam, as was shown by the motion of
a spot of light where the beam struck a fluorescent screen. The value of X
was adjusted till there was no deflection in the combined fields. Hence X =
vH, and v was found from the measured values of X and H. The deflections
under the two fields acting separately were also observed. Either of these
deflections, when v is known, gives the value of the ratio e/m. The values
of the velocity v were found to depend on the E.M.F. between the terminals
of the discharge-tube. They varied from 1/30 to 1/3 of the velocity of
light. The fraction e/m, however, had always the same negative value, no
matter how the material of the cathode and the nature and pressure of the
gas were varied.

Many other ways of obtaining these negatively charged particles, or
electrons, are now known. The [beta]-rays from radio-active substances (see
_Radio-activity_) are simply electrons moving with great speeds,
approaching sometimes within 2 or 3 per cent of the velocity of light. Hot
metals give off electrons copiously: this property is used in the
construction of the Coolidge X-ray tube and of the thermionic valve (q.v.).
A metal plate illuminated by ultra-violet light, from an electric arc or
spark, for instance, gives off electrons moving at all velocities below a
certain maximum (see _Photo-electric Effect_). From whatever source the
electrons are derived, their properties are found to be the same.

The determination of e and m separately is a much more difficult matter
than the determination of their ratio. The first attempt to measure e
directly was made by Townsend, and published in 1897. Townsend obtained his
ions in the hydrogen and oxygen given off when caustic potash is
electrolyzed. The charged gases when bubbled through water formed a cloud.
This cloud could be completely removed by bubbling through concentrated
sulphuric acid, but reappeared when the gas came out again into the
atmosphere, owing to the condensation of water-vapour on the ions. Townsend
determined the weight of the cloud and its total charge. He also found the
average weight of the minute spherical drops forming the cloud by observing
their rate of fall under gravity, and calculating their radius from a
theoretical formula known as Stokes's law, viz. v = 2/9ga^2[rho]/[eta],
where a is the radius, [rho] the density, v the velocity of the drop, and
[eta] is the viscosity of air. The weight of the cloud divided by the
weight of a drop gave the number of drops, which was presumably the same as
the number of ions. Finally, dividing the total charge by the number of
ions, Townsend found e, the average charge carried by an ion. His value
came out about three-fifths of the value accepted now.

This pioneer method of Townsend's has been improved and modified in various
ways by C. T. R. Wilson, Sir J. J. Thomson, H. A. Wilson, and notably by
Millikan, of Chicago. Millikan's charge carriers were minute oil drops,
which were given elementary charges by means of ionizing rays from radium.
Observations were made of the equilibrium and motion of these charges under
the combined influence of gravity and a strong vertical electric field, the
intensity of which could be varied at will. A single drop could be kept in
view for several minutes at a time, and note was taken of the effect of
each new charge as it was picked up by the drop. On calculation, the charge
was found in all cases to have very approximately the same value. It so
happened, as a consequence of the method of producing the drops, that they
carried a small frictional charge, and incidentally Millikan was able to
verify that this was always an integral multiple of the electronic charge
e. Millikan's result, which is most probably the best yet found, is that e
= 4.774 × 10^{-10} absolute electrostatic units, or 1.591 × 10^{-20}
absolute electromagnetic units.

An indirect but very interesting method of determining e was devised
independently by Regener and by Rutherford and Geiger. The special feature
of this method is the actual counting of the number of [alpha]-particles
(see _Radio-activity_) shot out per second through a given solid angle by a
small speck of radium. Each [alpha]-particle produces a scintillation on a
sensitive screen placed in its path, and these scintillations are counted
one by one by the observer. The total quantity of electricity carried by
the [alpha]-particles emitted in one second is measured independently. The
charge on each particle is then found by simple division. This charge is
found to be almost exactly twice Millikan's value for e, as it ought to be,
as it is practically certain that the [alpha]-particle is an atom of helium
which has lost two electrons.

The value of e/m, as determined by Thomson's method described above, is
1.76 × 10^7 e.m.u. per gramme, or 5.29 × 10^{17} e.s.u. per gramme. Taking
this with Millikan's value for _e_, we find n = 0.902 × 10^{-27} grammes.
The exact determination of e has made it possible to assign precise values
to several other important physical constants, which formerly were only
known roughly from data depending on the Kinetic Theory of Gases. Thus
Avogadro's constant N, or the number of molecules in one gramme-molecule
(molecular weight in grammes) of any gas can be connected with e by the
exact measurements of electrolysis, which give Ne = 9650 e.m.u. It follows
that N = 6.06 × 10^{23}, and that the number of gas molecules per cubic
centimetre at 0° C and 76 centimetres pressure is 2.70 × 10^{19}. We find
at once also the mass of the hydrogen atom as 1.66 × 10^{-24} grammes, the
density of hydrogen being known to be .0899 grammes per litre. The mass of
the electron is therefore about 1/1840 of the mass of the hydrogen atom,
which till the isolation of the electron was the smallest mass known.

It is necessary, however, to scrutinize with some care the meaning of the
word mass as applied to an electron. The determination of the mass of the
hydrogen atom ultimately depends on weighing, that is, on finding its
gravitational inertia. We cannot weigh an electron, but must determine its
mass by experiments involving its motion, the word mass here meaning the
ratio of the force acting on the electron to the acceleration produced, and
the force being calculated from the charge and velocity of the electron on
the principles of electrodynamics. An electron being entirely different in
its physical nature from ordinary matter, the question arises whether its
mass, as calculated in this way, is actually a definite constant, as it is
for a material particle, according to the accepted principles of Newtonian
dynamics. It can even be shown, as was first done by Sir J. J. Thomson,
that a moving charged body possesses inertia in virtue of the mere fact
that it carries a charge. The value of this inertia, or electromagnetic
mass, when the velocity is small compared with that of light is, in a
vacuum, for a small sphere of radius a, 2/3e^2/a, where e is the charge. If
the velocity is greater than, say, 1/10 the velocity of light, the formula
for the electromagnetic mass is more complicated, and, indeed, cannot be
calculated without some assumption as to the internal distribution of
charge in the electron itself. Two formulæ for the mass have been given,
one by Abraham, the other by H. A. Lorentz. Abraham started from the
supposition that the electron is a rigid sphere carrying a uniform surface
charge. Lorentz showed that a simpler theory could be obtained by the
hypothesis that the electron contracts, in the direction of its motion, by
a certain definite amount depending on its velocity. On both theories the
value found for the mass depends on the relation between the direction of
the force and the direction of the motion. On Lorentz's theory the
longitudinal mass, or mass when the force is in the direction of the
motion, is m_0/(1-[beta]^2)^{3/2}; and the transverse mass, or mass when
the force is perpendicular to the velocity, is m_0/(1-[beta]^2)^½; where
m_0 is the mass for very small speeds, and [beta] is v/c, the ratio of the
velocity of the electron to the velocity of light. The two theories have
been tested by various experimenters, with somewhat conflicting results. On
the evidence of experiments by Bucherer, however, Lorentz's theory of the
contractile electron is now generally accepted, and it is regarded as
highly probable that electrons are devoid of all mass except the
electromagnetic mass due to their charge of negative electricity.

No fundamental positive electron has been isolated which at all corresponds
to the negative electron, or corpuscle, as it is called by Sir J. J.
Thomson. The nearest approach to a positive electron is the nucleus of the
hydrogen atom, which carries a positive charge of the same magnitude as the
charge on an electron. Practically the whole mass of the atom resides in
this nucleus. According to the modern theory of the structure of matter,
the neutral atom of any element is built up of a comparatively small number
of electrons and an equal number of these positive nuclei. Electrons being
present everywhere, and their action influencing all natural phenomena,
their properties will naturally come up for consideration from various
points of view in other articles. See _Ionization_; _Isotopes_; _Matter_;
_Radio-activity_; _Rays_, _Electric._--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Crowther, _Ions,
Electrons, and Ionizing Radiations_; R. A. Millikan, _The Electron_; N. R.
Campbell, _Modern Electrical Theory_; O. W. Richardson, _The Electron
Theory of Matter_; H. A. Lorentz, _Theory of Electrons_.

ELECTRO-PLATING, the process of depositing a coating of some selected metal
on a given surface by means of electrolysis (q.v.). The most important
classes of electro-plating commonly carried out are nickel-plating, used
very largely for a variety of articles made of iron, steel, &c.;
copper-plating, used for facing printing-blocks and as a first coating to
non-metallic substances prior to silver- or gold-plating; silver-plating,
for imitation silverware and for cutlery, &c.; gold-plating, for ornamental
ware, jewellery, &c. Previous to plating it is necessary to remove all
grease, dirt, oxide, &c., from the surface, this cleansing of the articles
being the first step in the operations necessary. The exact procedure for
cleansing varies with the nature of the articles to be plated, but for the
removal of grease a strong caustic alkali bath is generally used. To remove
oxide and dirt, scratch-brushing is used, also scouring with pumice-stone.
Acid-dipping baths are also employed, muriatic acid or sulphuric acid for
iron or steel articles, dipping-acid, which is a mixture of sulphuric acid
and nitric acid, for brass. For the actual deposition an electrolytic cell
is prepared, containing a solution of a suitable salt of the metal to be
deposited, with an anode, generally consisting of a plate of the same
metal, attached to the positive pole of the battery used, the article to be
treated being connected with the negative pole and thus forming the
cathode. When a current of electricity is passed through the solution, a
thin coating of metal is deposited on the article forming the cathode, and
an equivalent portion is carried into solution from the anode. In the case
of nickel-plating, the solution used is made from the double chloride or
sulphate of nickel and ammonium, to which salt, sal-ammoniac, &c., may be
added. The bath is used at a temperature of 100° F., and cast-nickel plates
are used as anodes. For copper-plating the bath used generally consists of
an acid solution of sulphate or acetate of copper, cyanide of potash also
being added; in case the article is made of zinc, an alkaline bath is used.
The bath may be used cold, but is sometimes kept at about 120° F. For iron
simple dipping is sometimes used, as copper is readily deposited on iron
without the use of an electric current. For electroplating of copper,
anodes of metallic copper, having a surface equal to that of the articles
to be coated, are used. For silver-plating the solution consists of the
double cyanide of silver and potash, and may be used either hot or cold. An
article to be silver-plated is often prepared by a preliminary dip in a
solution of nitrate of mercury, which causes a slight amalgamation with
mercury. After this preliminary treatment it is placed in the bath and a
slight deposit of silver obtained, after which it is removed, well brushed,
washed, and replaced in the bath. A silver plate is used as an anode. A
density of 1¼ to 1½ ounces of silver to the square foot gives an excellent
plate about the thickness of common writing-paper. In gold-plating baths, a
hot solution of the double cyanide of gold and potash is used at 170° F.,
and for the anode platinum foil is frequently used, the strength of the
bath being maintained by the addition of fresh quantities of chloride of
gold. After all kinds of plating as described above, the goods are
thoroughly washed in water, and dried by means of saw-dust or in a
drying-chamber. In ordinary circumstances the deposited metal presents a
dead or matted appearance, and if a bright polished effect is desired, it
is burnished and buff-polished. Certain chemicals added to the solution
will cause the original deposit to have a metallic lustre.

ELECTROTYPE. The production of copper facsimiles by the electric current is
called _electrotype_, and is the oldest branch of electro-metallurgy. One
of its most important applications is the copying of type set up for
printing, and of wood blocks for wood-cuts. A mould is first obtained in
gutta-percha or some similar material. This, being a non-conductor, is
brushed over with plumbago in its interior, so as to give it a conducting
surface to receive the deposit. After several hours the deposit is detached
from the mould and backed by pouring in melted solder, the surface being
first moistened with chloride of zinc to make the solder adhere. In the
copying of steel engravings the mould is obtained by electro-deposition of
copper on the steel, the surface of which must first be specially prepared
to prevent adhesion; and a second electro-deposition of copper, on the
mould thus obtained, gives the required copy, from which impressions can be
printed.

ELEC´TRUM (Gr. _[=e]lektron_), in antiquity, a term applied to native gold,
which frequently contains notable quantities of silver, copper, and other
metals. According to Pliny, the term electron was applied to native gold
containing at least 20 per cent of silver. The term was afterwards
transferred from this native alloy to the artificial alloy of gold and
silver on account of its colour and inferior lustre. The word originally
meant 'amber', and was given to impure gold on account of a supposed
resemblance. Electrum was used since the eighth or seventh century B.C.

ELEC´TUARY, or CONFECTION, is a pharmacopoeial preparation. It is solid,
but of soft consistence, and contains sugar or honey, impregnated with some
more active body. The best known is the confection of senna.

ELE´GIT, in English law, a writ by which a creditor who has obtained a
judgment against a debtor, and is hence called the _judgment-creditor_, may
be put in possession of the lands and tenements of the person against whom
the judgment is obtained, called the _judgment-debtor_, until the debt is
fully paid. The writ is addressed to the sheriff, who enforces it. The writ
of elegit was first authorized by the Statute of Westminster the Second,
which gave the _judgment-creditor_ the right to choose between a writ
against the debtor's land, and until 1883 his goods also, and an execution
by writ against the latter's person or chattels. The new writ, representing
the choice of the creditor, was therefore called an elegit, Lat., he has
chosen. See _Fieri Facias_.

EL´EGY (Gr. _elegos_, mourning, song), a mournful and plaintive poem or
funeral song, or any serious poem of a melancholy contemplative kind. In
classic poetry what is known as _elegiac verse_ is composed of couplets
consisting of alternate hexameter and pentameter lines. In English we
generally understand by elegies lyric poems which are laments over the
dead, such as Milton's _Lycidas_, or Shelley's _Adonais_.

ELEMEN´TAL SPIRITS, according to a belief common in the Middle Ages,
spirits proper to and partaking of the four so-called elements, viz.
salamanders or fire spirits, sylphs or aerial spirits, gnomes or earth
spirits, and undines or water spirits.

EL´EMENTS, the simplest constituent principles or parts of anything; in a
special sense, the ultimate indecomposable constituents of any kind of
matter. In ancient philosophies the term was applied to fire, air, earth,
and water. The mediæval chemists, however, absorbed in the study of metals
and mineral substances, supposed that the metals consisted of an elemental
sulphur and an elemental mercury mixed together more or less perfectly and
in different proportions. To these were subsequently added salt and some
others, so that about the middle of the seventeenth century the first
principles amounted to five, divided into two classes; the active,
consisting of mercury or spirit, sulphur or oil, and salt; and the passive,
consisting of water or phlegm, and earth or the terrestrial part. The names
remained, not so much as denoting substances or ultimate principles as
gradually coming to denote functions; the first great modification being
the expansion of the idea of elemental sulphur into phlogiston by Stahl, as
the result of which the adherents of the phlogistic theory applied the term
phlogiston to the gases then discovered, the mineral, vegetable, and animal
acids, the alkalies, earths, and metallic calces, oil, alcohol, and water.
The substances considered as simple naturally changed with the change of
theory introduced by Lavoisier, who considered as elements, oxygen,
nitrogen, hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon, the metals and the
earths, and, as Boyle had already suggested, practically defined an element
as a body not yet decomposed, the definition now commonly adopted. For list
of known elements see _Chemistry_.

EL´EMI, the fragrant resinous exudation from various trees, such as the
_Canarium commune_, from which the Eastern or Manila elemi is obtained; the
_Ic[=i]ca Ic[=i]car[=i]ba_, the source of the American or Brazilian elemi;
and the _Elaphrium elemif[)e]rum_, from which the Mexican elemi comes. It
is a regular constituent of spirit varnishes, and is used in medicine,
mixed with simple ointment, as a plaster.

[Illustration: Head of African Elephant (_Elephas afric[=a]nus_)]

[Illustration: Head of Indian Elephant (_Elephas indicus_)]

EL´EPHANT, the popular name of a genus, family, or sub-order of five-toed
proboscidian mammals, usually regarded as comprehending two species, the
Asiatic (_Elephas indicus_) and the African (_E. afric[=a]nus_). From a
difference in the teeth, however, the two species are sometimes referred to
distinct genera (Euelephas and Loxodon). The so-called white elephants are
merely albinos. The African elephant is distinguished from the Asiatic
species by its greater height, its larger ears, its less elevated head and
bulging or convex forehead, the closer approximation of the roots of the
tusks, and the greater density of the bone. It has also only three external
hoofs on the hind-feet, while the Asiatic has four. All elephants are
remarkable for their large, heavy, short bodies supported on columnar
limbs, a very short neck, a skull with lofty crown and short face-bones,
with the exception of the premaxillaries, which are enlarged to form
tusk-sockets. To compensate for the short neck, they have the long
proboscis, often 4 or 5 feet in length, produced by the union and
development of the nose and upper lip. It is made up of muscular and
fibrous tissue. The trunk is of great strength and sensibility, and serves
alike for respiration, smell, taste, suction, touch, and prehension. The
tusks, which are enormously developed upper incisor teeth, are not visible
in young animals, but in a state of maturity they project in some instances
7 or 8 feet. The largest on record (undoubtedly that of an extinct species)
weighed 350 lb. Elephants sometimes attain the height of 12 feet or more,
but their general height is about 9 or 10 feet. Their weight ranges from
4000 to 9000 lb. The period of gestation is twenty months, and the female
seldom produces more than one calf at a birth: this, when first born, is
about 3 feet high, and continues to grow till it is sixteen or eighteen
years of age. It is said that they live to the age of 150 years. They feed
on vegetables, the young shoots of trees, grain, and fruit. They are
polygamous, associating in herds of a considerable size under the guidance
of a single leader. An elephant leaving or driven from a herd is not
allowed to join another, but leads a lonely, morose, and destructive life.
Such solitary elephants are known as 'rogues'. Elephants are caught either
singly or in herds. In the former case it is necessary to catch adroitly
one of the elephant's legs in the noose of a strong rope, which is then
quickly attached to a tree; another leg is then caught, until all are
securely fastened. His captors then encamp beside him, until under their
treatment he becomes tractable. When a herd is to be caught a strong
enclosure is constructed, and into this the elephants are gradually driven
by fires, noise, &c. With the aid of tame elephants the wild ones are tied
to trees and subjected to the taming process. The domesticated elephant
requires much care, and a plentiful supply of food, being liable to many
ailments. The daily consumption of a working elephant is, according to Sir
J. E. Tennent, 2 cwt. of green food, about half a bushel of grain, and
about 40 gallons of water. Their enormous strength, docility, and sagacity
make them of great value in the East for road-making, building, and
transport. They are used by the great on occasions of pomp and show, being
often richly caparisoned, and bearing on their back a howdah containing one
or more riders, besides the mahout or driver sitting on the animal's neck.
Tiger-shooting is often practised from an elephant's back. Several extinct
species are known, the most notable being the mammoth (_E. primigenius_), a
contemporary of prehistoric man. The allied genus Mastodon was of very wide
distribution, and the Tertiary deposits of the Fayum (Egypt) have yielded
the remains of types that bridge over the gap between elephants and more
typical quadrupeds. See _Mammoth_; _Mastodon_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Andersson,
_The Lion and the Elephant_; Sir. J. E. Tennent, _The Wild Elephant in
Ceylon_; Sanderson, _Wild Beasts of India_; R. Lydekker, _The Game Animals
of Africa_.

ELEPHAN´TA ISLE, or GHARAPURI, a small island in the Bay of Bombay, between
Bombay and the mainland, 6 miles north-east of the former; circumference
about 5 miles. It consists of two long hills chiefly overgrown with wood. A
city is supposed to have flourished on the island between the third and
tenth centuries, but now it has only a few inhabitants, who rear sheep and
poultry for the Bombay market. It is celebrated for its rock temples or
caves, the chief of which is a cave-temple supposed by Fergusson to belong
to the tenth century, 130 feet long, 123 broad, and 18 high. It is
supported by pillars cut out of the rock, and containing a colossal figure
of the trimurti or Hindu Trinity: Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. The temple is
still used by the Bania caste for the Sawa at certain festivals.

ELEPHANT-FISH (_Callorhynchus antarcticus_), a fish of the sub-class
Elasmobranchii (rays and sharks), so named from a proboscis-like structure
on the nose: called also Southern Chimæra. It inhabits the Antarctic seas,
and is palatable eating.

ELEPHANTIASIS is a disease characterized by progressive enlargement of a
limb, or portion of the body, and occurs most frequently in the legs. The
enlargement begins below the knee and gradually involves the entire limb.
The onset may be slow and painless, or sudden with fever and rapid
swelling. The disease is common in all countries in which the Filariæ
prevail. No drug destroys the embryos in the blood, and in infected
districts the drinking-water should be boiled or filtered. In rapid cases
rest, liquid diet, purgation, and firm bandaging of the legs are indicated.
Surgical treatment for removal of adult Filariæ in enlarged glands has met
with some success.

ELEPHANTI´NE, the Greek name of a small island of Egypt, in the Nile, just
below the First Cataract and opposite Assouan (Syene). It is partly covered
with ruins of various origins--Egyptian, Roman, Saracen, and Arabic, the
most important being a gateway of the time of Alexander, a small temple
dedicated to Khnum and founded by Amenophis III, and the ancient Nilometer
mentioned by Strabo. The latter was restored in 1870 by the Khedive Ismail
Pasha. The northern part is low, the southern elevated and rocky.

ELEPHANT LORE. The cult of the elephant is found among many nations in Asia
and Africa. It exists in Indo-China, Cambodia, Abyssinia, Siam, and
Sumatra. The Aryo-Indian god Indra rides on an elephant. Buddha had a white
elephant form. One of the Sanskrit names for the elephant is _Naga_, which
connects the animal with the sacred snake, possibly on account of its
trunk; another name is _Hastin_, 'having a hand'. The Wambuwegs believe the
elephant to be the abode of the souls of their ancestors. It is a bad omen,
according to the _Talmud_, to dream of an elephant.

ELEPHANT RIVER, a river of Cape Colony, running into the Atlantic after a
course of 140 miles,

[Illustration: Elephant-seal]

ELEPHANT-SEAL, the Proboscis Seal, or Sea-elephant, the largest of the seal
family (Phocidæ). There are probably two species, one (_Macrorhinus
angustirostris_) found only on the coast of California and Western Mexico,
the other (_Macrorhinus leoninus_) found in Patagonia, Kerguelen Island,
Heard's Island, and other parts of the Southern Seas. They vary in length
from 12 to 30 feet, and in girth at the chest from 8 to 18 feet. The
proboscis of the male is about a foot long when the creature is at rest,
but elongates under excitement. The females have no proboscis and are
considerably smaller than the male. Both species are becoming rare owing to
the wholesale slaughter of them which takes place.

ELEPHANT'S-FOOT, the popular name of _Testudinaria elephantipes_, a plant
of the nat. ord. Dioscoreaceæ (yams, &c.), distinguished by the shape of
its rootstock, which forms a nearly hemispherical mass rising a little
above the ground, covered with a thick corky bark. It has a slender
climbing stem growing to a length of 30 or 40 feet, with small heart-shaped
leaves and greenish-yellow flowers. It is known in the Cape Province as
Hottentots' Bread.

ELEUSI´NE, a genus of grasses, several of which, e.g. _E. coracana_, are
cultivated as grain plants in India, Japan, and Tibet.

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES, the sacred rites anciently observed in Greece at the
annual festival of D[=e]m[=e]t[=e]r or Ceres, so named from their original
seat Eleusis. According to the Homeric hymn to D[=e]m[=e]t[=e]r, the
goddess, while wandering in search of Persephone, came to Eleusis, where
she was hospitably received by King Celeus. He directed the establishment
of a temple in her honour, and showed the use of grain to Triptolemus and
other princes. As a preparation for the greater mysteries celebrated at
Athens and Eleusis, lesser Eleusinia were celebrated at Agræ on the
Ilissus. The greater Eleusinia were celebrated in the month Boedromion
(September-October), beginning on the 15th of the month and lasting nine
days. The celebrations, which were varied each day, consisted of
processions between Athens and Eleusis, torch-bearing and mystic ceremonies
attended with oaths of secrecy. They appear to have symbolized the old
conceptions of death and reproduction, and to have been allied to the
orgiastic worship of Dionysus (Bacchus). They are supposed to have
continued down to the time of Theodosius I.

ELEU´SIS, in ancient geography, a small city of Attica, about 14 miles from
Athens, near the shore opposite the Island of Salamis. Its temple of
D[=e]m[=e]t[=e]r was one of the most beautiful buildings of Greece. The
sacred buildings were destroyed by Alaric in A.D. 396. In 1882 the Greek
Archæological Society undertook excavations, and numerous remains have been
unearthed. There is now a large straggling village here.

ELEU´THERA, one of the largest of the Bahama Islands. It is of very
irregular shape, its length being about 70 miles, and its breadth in
general from 2 to 4 miles, though in one part 10. Pop. 6533.

ELEVATION. In astronomy, the elevation of an object above the horizon is
measured by the arc intercepted between the horizon and the object on the
circle which passes through the object and the zenith. In geometry, solids
can be represented by means of two projections; one on a horizontal plane,
and the other on a plane perpendicular to the horizontal. The former is
called the plan, and the latter the elevation.

ELEVATION OF THE HOST (Lat. _hostia_, a victim), in the ritual of the Mass,
is the lifting up of the elements immediately after consecration, to be
worshipped by the people. It was introduced into the Latin Church in the
eleventh century, in consequence of the denial by Berengarius of the real
presence in the sacrament. The Council of Trent ordered that the host
should be worshipped with the highest adoration, that of _latria_, which is
offered to God only.

EL´EVATOR, (1) a mechanical contrivance consisting of a series of boxes or
buckets attached to a belt travelling round two drums, one above and one
below, for hoisting grain, meal, coal, coke, &c. In America large buildings
which contain such contrivances, and in which grain is stored, receive the
same name. (2) An apparatus for raising or lowering persons or goods to or
from different levels in warehouses, hotels, &c., consisting usually of a
cage or movable platform worked by hydraulic power: also called a _lift_ or
_hoist_.

ELF-ARROWS, ELF-BOLTS, or ELF-SHOT, popular names in Europe for stone
arrow-heads and axes. They were worn as charms against lightning; cattle
and men are said to have been struck and wounded by them. In the Far East
they are 'thunder-stones'.

ELGAR, Sir Edward, English composer, was born at Broadheath,
Worcestershire, 2nd June, 1857. For some time he acted as conductor of the
Worcester Instrumental Society, and as organist at St. George's, Worcester,
but when later he turned to composition he resigned both these positions.
In 1892 he produced _The Black Knight_, and this was followed by several
oratorios, cantatas, and other works, including _The Light of Life_, a
short oratorio (Worcester Festival, 1896); _King Olaf_, a cantata (North
Staffordshire Festival, 1896); _Imperial March_ (1897); _Te Deum_ (Hereford
Festival, 1897); _Caractacus_ (Leeds Festival, 1898); and _Orchestral
Variations_ (1899). In 1900 his famous sacred cantata, _The Dream of
Gerontius_, was produced at the Birmingham Festival (repeated at Düsseldorf
in 1901 and at the Niederrheinische Musik Fest in 1902), and added
immensely to his already considerable reputation. In 1902 the _Coronation
Ode_ proved extremely popular, and in 1903 the Birmingham Festival
introduced _The Apostles_, a fine oratorio, which, like the _Gerontius_,
was honoured at the Niederrheinische Musik Fest the following year. In
March, 1904, an 'Elgar Festival', lasting three days, was held at Covent
Garden, London, at which, in addition to _The Dream of Gerontius_, _The
Apostles_, and other compositions by Dr. Elgar, was produced _Alassio_, a
new concert overture, the outcome of a visit to Italy. In 1904 Dr. Elgar
was knighted. From 1905 to 1908 he was professor of music at Birmingham
University. He has received musical and other degrees from Oxford,
Cambridge, and Yale.

ELGIN, James Bruce, eighth Earl of, and twelfth Earl of Kincardine,
Governor-General of India, born in 1811, died in 1863. Educated at Eton and
Christ Church, he entered Parliament in 1841 as member for Southampton, and
in the same year succeeded to the earldom. He was appointed
Governor-General of Jamaica in 1842, and in 1846 Governor-General of
Canada. In 1849 he was raised to the British peerage as Baron Elgin of
Elgin. In 1857 he went as special ambassador to China, and concluded the
Treaty of Tientsin (1858). In 1859 he became Postmaster-General in
Palmerston's Cabinet, in 1860 was sent on a special mission to Pekin, and
in 1861 became Governor-General of India.--Victor Alexander Bruce, ninth
Earl of Elgin, son of the preceding, born 1849, died 1917, was also
Governor-General of India (1894-9), and Colonial Secretary in the
Campbell-Bannerman Ministry from Dec., 1905, to April, 1908.

ELGIN (el´gin), a royal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland, capital of
Elgin County, situated on the Lossie, about 5 miles from its influx into
the Moray Firth, 70 miles N.W. of Aberdeen. The town largely consists of
mansions and villas. The most interesting edifice is the cathedral, now in
ruins, which was once the most magnificent in Scotland. It was founded by
Bishop Andrew Moray in 1224; plundered and burned in 1390 by the 'Wolf of
Badenoch', and again in 1402 by Alexander, third son of the Lord of the
Isles; restored 1390 to 1424; and again plundered in 1568. Until 1918 the
Elgin Burghs sent one member to the House of Commons. Pop. 8656.--_Elgin_,
county of, also called Morayshire, is a maritime county, bounded by the
Moray Firth, Banffshire, Inverness-shire, and Nairnshire; area, 340,000
acres. Along the sea-coast, which extends for more than 30 miles, the
surface is flat, but inland it rises into hills of moderate elevation,
intersected by fine and fertile valleys. The chief rivers are the Spey,
Lossie, and Findhorn, the Spey and Findhorn having excellent salmon
fishing. Inexhaustible quarries of freestone (rich in fossils) are worked.
The climate is noted for its general mildness, dryness, and salubrity. The
lower tracts of land are fertile and highly cultivated, the principal crops
being wheat, oats, potatoes, and turnips. The great majority of farms are
small. A portion of the surface is still covered with native forests. The
county unites with Nairnshire in returning one member to the House of
Commons, Pop. 43,427.

ELGIN, a town of the United States, in Illinois, on Fox River, 36 miles
N.W. of Chicago. It has a watch-factory and various flourishing industries.
Pop. 25,976.

ELGIN MARBLES, the splendid collection of antique sculptures brought
chiefly from the Parthenon of Athens to England by the seventh Earl of
Elgin (1766-1841) in 1814, and afterwards purchased by Parliament for the
British Museum at the cost of £35,000. They consist of figures in low and
high relief and in the round, representing gods, goddesses, and heroes; the
combats of the Centaurs and Lapithæ; the Panathenaic procession, &c. They
exhibit Greek sculpture at its highest stage, and were partly the work of
Phidias. The historical and artistic value of the Elgin marbles was at
first doubted, and Lord Elgin himself was not spared. His act in removing
the marbles was denounced as vandalism.

EL HASA, a fertile district of Eastern Arabia, on the Persian Gulf. It
produces dates, wheat, millet, and rice. Pop. estimated at 175,000.

ELI, one of the Hebrew judges, the predecessor of Samuel. He was
high-priest and judge for forty years, but was less successful as head of
his own household. His two sons having been slain, and the ark taken in
battle by the Philistines, the news proved so severe a shock that he fell
and broke his neck, at the age of ninety-eight. Little is really known of
the history of Eli, since he is only shown to us in the weakness of old
age, unable to control his sons Hophni and Phinehas, whose wickedness
disgusted and alienated the people.

ELI´JAH, the most distinguished of the prophets of Israel, flourished in
the ninth century B.C., during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah, and until
the beginning of the reign of Jehoram, his special function being to
denounce vengeance on the kings of Israel for their apostasy. He incurred
the anger of Jezebel, wife of Ahab, for slaying the prophets of Baal, but
escaped to Horeb, afterwards returning to Samaria to denounce Ahab for the
murder of Naboth. Elijah at length ascended to heaven in a chariot of fire,
Elisha, his successor, being witness. See _1 Kings_, xvii to xxi, and _2
Kings_, i and ii.

ELIMINATION, in mathematics, the process of treating a given set of
equations so as to deduce from them an equation free from a selected
letter, or from several selected letters. For instance, if the system of
equations

  a_1x + b_1y + c_1z = 0,
  a_2x + b_2y + c_2z = 0,
  a_3x + b_3y + c_3z = 0,

has a solution in which one at least of x, y, z is different from zero,
then

  | a_1, b_1, c_1 |
  | a_2, b_2, c_2 | = 0.
  | a_3, b_3, c_3 |

(See _Determinant_.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Burnside and Panton, _Theory of
Equations_; Salmon, _Higher Algebra_.

EL´IOT, George, the assumed literary name of Mary Ann, or, as she preferred
to write the name in later years, Marian Evans, English novelist. She was
the daughter of a Warwickshire land-agent and surveyor, was born at Griff,
near Nuneaton, on 22nd Nov., 1820, and died on 22nd Dec., 1880. She
received at Coventry an excellent education, comprising the classical and
modern languages, and shortly after her twenty-first year became a convert
to Rationalism. Her first literary undertaking was the completion of Mrs.
Hennell's translation of Strauss's _Life of Jesus_ (1846). Towards the end
of her task she seems, however, to have wearied of it, and when the work
appeared she declared herself 'Strauss-sick'. After spending two years
abroad, she boarded at the house of John Chapman, editor of the
_Westminster Review_, of which she became sub-editor. It was not, however,
until January, 1857, that she came prominently into public notice, when the
first of a series of tales entitled _Scenes from Clerical Life_ appeared in
_Blackwood's Magazine_. The series came to an end in Nov., 1857, and in the
following year the publication of _Adam Bede_ placed her in the first rank
of writers of fiction. It was succeeded by _The Mill on the Floss_ (1860),
_Silas Marner_ (1861), _Romola_ (1863), _Felix Holt_ (1866), _Middlemarch_
(1872), and _Daniel Deronda_ (1876). In addition to those prose works she
published three volumes of poems, _The Spanish Gypsy_ (1868), _Agatha_
(1869), and _The Legend of Jubal_ (1874). Her last work published during
her life was the series of essays entitled _The Impressions of Theophrastus
Such_ (1879), but a volume of mixed essays was issued posthumously. For
many years she was happily associated both in life and work with George
Henry Lewes, though a legal union was impossible during the lifetime of
Mrs. Lewes. In May, 1880, after Lewes's death, she married Mr. John Cross,
but did not survive the marriage many months, dying rather suddenly at
Chelsea.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Haton, _George Eliot in Derbyshire_; J. W. Cross
(editor), _George Eliot's Life as Related in Her Letters and Journals_ (3
vols.); O. Browning, _Life of George Eliot_; Deakin, _The Early Life of
George Eliot_; Sir Leslie Stephen, _George Eliot_ (in English Men of
Letters Series).

ELIOT, Sir John, one of the ablest of the popular leaders of Charles I's
reign, of an old Cornwall family, born in 1592, died in 1632. He entered
Parliament in 1614 as member for St. Germans, winning immediate reputation
as an orator. As vice-admiral of Devon he was energetic in suppressing
piracy. In the three Parliaments of 1623, 1625, 1626, he made his way to
the front of the constitutional party, joined Hampden and the rest in
refusing contributions to the forced loan, and took a prominent share in
drawing up the Remonstrance and Petition of Right. He was imprisoned in the
Tower in 1629, and died in confinement. During his imprisonment he wrote a
work on constitutional monarchy entitled _The Monarchie of Man_. Among his
other works are: _An Apology for Socrates_, and _Negotium Posterorum_ (an
account of the Parliament of 1625).

E´LIS, a maritime state of ancient Greece in the west of the Peloponnesus,
bordering on Achaia, Arcadia, and Messenia, and watered by the Rivers
Alph[=e]us and Pen[=e]us. Of its capital Elis (now Kaloskopi) there are few
traces. Olympia, where the famous games were held, was near the Alpheus.
Since 1899 Elis forms a nomarchy of Greece.

ELI´SHA, a Hebrew prophet, the disciple and successor of Elijah. Many
miracles of prediction and cure, and even of raising the dead, are ascribed
to him, but his figure is less original and heroic than that of his master.
He held the office of prophet for fully sixty-five years, from the reign of
Ahab to that of Joash (latter half of ninth century B.C.).

ELIX´IR, a word of Arabic origin (_al iksir_, the philosopher's stone),
applied by the alchemists to a number of solutions employed in attempting
the transmutation of metals into gold, and also to a potion, the _elixir
vitæ_, or elixir of life, supposed to confer immortality. It is still used
for various popular remedies, for the most part composed of various
aromatic and stimulative substances held in solution by alcohol.

ELIZABETH (_Carmen Sylva_), Dowager Queen of Roumania, born at Neuwied,
principality of Wied, in 1843, died at Bucharest, 2nd March, 1916. In 1869
she was married to Prince Charles of Hohenzollern, who became King of
Roumania in 1881. Queen Elizabeth, or, as she was generally known, Carmen
Sylva (her pen-name), was not only a patron of Roumanian writers and
artists, but herself a distinguished author. Among her works, which were
all, with the exception of one, written in German, are: _The Bard of the
Dimbovitza_, _Pilgrim Sorrow_, _A Real Queen's Fairy Tales_, and _From
Memory's Shrine_. In 1914 she was made an honorary fellow of the Royal
Society of Literature of Great Britain.

ELIZABETH, Queen of England, daughter of Henry VIII and of Anne Boleyn, was
born at Greenwich, 7th Sept., 1533, and almost immediately declared heiress
to the crown. After her mother had been beheaded (1536) both she and her
sister Mary were declared bastards, and she was finally placed after Prince
Edward and the Lady Mary in the order of succession. On the accession of
Edward VI Elizabeth was committed to the care of the Queen-Dowager
Catherine; and after the death of Catherine and execution of her consort
Thomas Seymour she was closely watched at Hatfield, where she received a
classical education under William Grindal and Roger Ascham. At the death of
Edward Elizabeth vigorously supported the title of Mary against the
pretensions of Lady Jane Grey, but continued throughout the whole reign an
object of suspicion and surveillance. In self-defence she made every
demonstration of zealous adherence to the Roman Catholic faith, but her
inclinations were well known. On 17th Nov., 1558, Mary died, and Elizabeth
was immediately recognized queen by Parliament. The accuracy of her
judgment showed itself in her choice of advisers, Parker, a moderate divine
(Archbishop of Canterbury 1559), aiding her in ecclesiastical policy; while
William Cecil, Lord Burleigh, assisted her in foreign affairs.

The first great object of her reign was the settlement of religion, to
effect which a Parliament was called on 25th Jan., and dissolved on the 8th
May, its object having been accomplished. The nation was prepared for a
return to the Reformed faith, and the Parliament was at the bidding of the
Court. The ecclesiastical system devised in her father's reign was
re-established, the royal supremacy asserted, and the revised Prayer Book
enforced by the Act of Uniformity. While, however, the formal establishment
of the reformed religion was easily completed, the security and defence of
the settlement was the main object of the policy and the chief source of
all the struggles and contentions of her reign. Freed from the tyranny of
Mary's reign, the Puritans began to claim predominance for their own
dogmas, while the supporters of the Established Church were unwilling to
grant them even liberty of worship. The Puritans, therefore, like the
Catholics, became irreconcilable enemies of the existing order, and
increasingly stringent measures were adopted against them. But the struggle
against the Catholics was the more severe, chiefly because they were
supported by foreign powers; so that while their religion was wholly
prohibited, even exile was forbidden them, in order to prevent their
intrigues abroad. Many Catholics, particularly priests, suffered death
during this reign; but simple nonconformity, from whatever cause, was
pursued with the severest penalties, and many more clergymen were driven
out of the Church, by differences about the position of altars, the wearing
of caps, and such like matters, than were forced to resign by the change
from Rome to Reformation.

Elizabeth's first Parliament approached her on a subject which, next to
religion, was the chief trouble of her reign, the succession to the Crown.
They requested her to marry, but she declared her intention to live and die
a virgin; and she consistently declined in the course of her life such
suitors as the Duc d'Alençon, Prince Erik of Sweden, the Archduke Charles
of Austria, and Philip of Spain. While, however, she felt that she could
best maintain her power by remaining unmarried, she knew how to temporize
with suitors for political ends, and showed the greatest jealousy of all
pretenders to the English succession. With the unfortunate Mary, Queen of
Scots, were connected many of the political events of Elizabeth's reign. On
her accession the country was at war with France. Peace was easily
concluded (1559); but the assumption by Francis and Mary of the royal arms
and titles of England led to an immediate interference on the part of
Elizabeth in the affairs of Scotland. She entered into a league with the
Lords of the Congregation, or leaders of the Reformed party; and throughout
her reign this party was frequently serviceable in furthering her policy.
She also gave early support to the Huguenot party in France, and to the
Protestants in the Netherlands, so that throughout Europe she was looked on
as the head of the Protestant party. This policy roused the implacable
resentment of Philip, who strove in turn to excite the Catholics against
her both in her own dominions and in Scotland. The detention of Mary in
England (1568-87), whither she fled to the protection of Elizabeth, led to
a series of conspiracies, beginning with that under the Earls of
Northumberland and Westmorland, and ending with the plot of Babington,
which finally determined Elizabeth to make away with her captive. The
execution of Queen Mary (1587), though it has stained her name to
posterity, tended to confirm her power among her contemporaries. The state
of France consequent on the accession of Henry IV, who was assisted by
Elizabeth, obviated any danger from the indignation which the deed had
caused in that country; and the awe in which King James stood of Elizabeth
and his dread of interfering with his own right of succession to England
made him powerless. But Philip of Spain was not to be so appeased, the
execution of Mary lending edge to other grievances. The fleets of Elizabeth
had galled him in the West Indies, her arms and subsidies had helped to
deprive him of the Netherlands; the Armada was already in preparation.
Accordingly he called the Queen of England a murderess, and refused to be
satisfied even with the sacrifice she seemed prepared to make of her Dutch
allies. The Armada sailed on 29th May, 1588. The war with Spain dragged on
till the close of Elizabeth's long reign.

During her reign the splendour of her government at home and abroad was
sustained by such men as Burleigh, Bacon, Walsingham, and Throgmorton; but
she had personal favourites of less merit who were often more brilliantly
rewarded. Chief of these were Dudley, whom she created Earl of Leicester,
and whom she was disposed to marry, and Essex, whose violent passions
brought about his ruin. He was beheaded in 1601, but Elizabeth never
forgave herself his death. Her own health soon after gave way, and she died
on 24th March, 1603, naming James VI of Scotland as her
successor.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. A. S. Hume (editor), _Calendar of State
Papers_ (Spanish Series); J. Bruce (editor), _Letters of Elizabeth and
James VI_; W. Camden, _History of Queen Elizabeth_; J. A. Froude, _History
of England_; M. Creighton, _Queen Elizabeth_; E. S. Beesley, _Queen
Elizabeth_.

ELIZABETH, a city of New Jersey, United States, 14 miles S.W. of New York,
with which it has ample communication by railway and steamer. It is a
favourite residence of New York business men. The Singer Sewing-machine
Company has a large factory here, and there are also foundries and
oil-cloth factories. Pop. 73,409.

ELIZABETH, ST., of Thuringia, daughter of Andreas II, King of Hungary, was
born at Pressburg 1207, and in 1221 married to Louis IV, land-grave of
Thuringia. She erected hospitals, fed a multitude of poor from her own
table, and wandered about in a humble dress, relieving the wretched. Louis
died on a crusade, and her own life terminated 19th Nov., 1231, in a
hospital which she had herself established. The church over her tomb at
Marburg is one of the most splendid Gothic edifices in Germany.

[Illustration: Elizabethan Architecture. Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire]

[Illustration: Elizabethan Architecture: an Interior

Reconstruction in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.]

ELIZ´ABETHAN ARCHITECTURE, a style of architecture which prevailed in
England during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. It succeeded to the
Tudor style, properly so called, with which it is sometimes confounded. The
Elizabethan is a mixture of inferior Gothic and debased Italian, producing
a singular heterogeneousness in detail, with, however, wonderful
picturesqueness in general effect, and domestic accommodation more in
accordance with the wants of an advancing civilization than was afforded by
the styles which preceded it. The chief characteristics of Elizabethan
architecture are: windows of great size both in the plane of the wall and
deeply embayed, ceilings very richly decorated in relief, galleries of
great length, very tall and highly-decorated chimneys, as well as a profuse
use of ornamental strapwork in the parapets, window-heads, &c. The
Elizabethan style is the last stage of the Tudor or Perpendicular, and from
its corresponding in point of period with the Renaissance of the Continent
has sometimes been called the English Renaissance. The epithet Jacobean has
sometimes been given to the very latest stage of the Elizabethan, differing
from the Elizabethan proper in showing a greater admixture of debased
Italian forms. The princely houses which arose during the reign of
Elizabeth are numerous, and many even yet remain to attest the splendour of
the time. Of these may be mentioned Burghley House, Hardwick Hall, and
Bramhall Hall.--Cf. Gotch and Brown, _Architecture of the Renaissance in
England_.

ELIZABETH FARNESE (f[.a]r-n[=a]´z[=a]), Queen of Spain, daughter of Edward
II, Prince of Parma, born 1692, died in 1776. On becoming the second wife
of Philip V she surprised those who had counselled the marriage by assuming
the practical headship of the kingdom, and her ambition and that of her
minister Alberoni disturbed the whole of Europe. Carlyle calls her a
"termagant tenacious woman".

ELIZABETHGRAD, a town of the Ukraine, on the Ingul, with an imperial
palace, a theatre, manufactures of soap and candles, and several great
fairs. Pop. 75,800.

ELIZABETH ISLANDS, a group of sixteen American islands south of Cape Cod,
with a permanent population of about 150.

ELIZABETH OF VALOIS, or ISABELLA, Queen of Spain, was born in 1545, died in
1568. She was the daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici.
By the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis she was destined to be the wife of the
Infante, Don Carlos, but his father, Philip II, being left a widower,
became fascinated and married her himself. The stories of a romantic
relationship existing between Elizabeth and Don Carlos are entirely
groundless, but have furnished tragic subjects to Otway, Campistron,
Chénier, Schiller, and Alfieri.

ELIZABETH PETROVNA, Empress of Russia, daughter of Peter the Great and
Catherine, born in 1709 or 1710, died in 1762. She ascended the throne on
7th Dec., 1741, as the result of a conspiracy, in which Ivan VI, a minor,
was deposed. Elizabeth is said to have rivalled her mother in beauty, and
to have surpassed her in her love of pleasure, and her government was
largely conducted by favourites. She was a patron of literature, founded
the University of Moscow, and corresponded with Voltaire. A war with
Sweden, in 1743, was advantageously concluded by the peace of Åbo. In 1748
she sent an army to assist Maria Theresa in the War of the Succession, and
joined in the Seven Years' War against Prussia. She died before this war
was concluded.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nisbet Bain. _The Daughter of Peter the
Great_; A. S. Rappoport, _The Fair Ladies of the Winter Palace_.

ELIZABETHPOL, a town of Russia, in the Caucasus, capital of the government
of same name, covering a great space of ground from the gardens and open
areas it contains, but very unhealthy. Pop. 18,505.--The government has an
area of 17,000 sq. miles, a pop. of 636,310. It is partly mountainous,
partly steppes, and produces grain, cotton, tobacco, and wine.

ELIZABETH STUART, Queen of Bohemia, daughter of James I of England and VI
of Scotland, born in Falkland Palace, Fifeshire, 1596, died on 13th Feb.,
1662. Her marriage with the Palatine Frederick was celebrated at Whitehall
in 1613. Her husband, then at the head of the Protestant interest in
Germany, accepted in 1619 the Crown of Bohemia offered to him by the
revolted Protestants of that country. After his defeat, however, by the
imperalists at the battle of Prague in 1620, he and his wife were obliged
to flee, first to Breslau and Berlin, and then to the Hague. Elizabeth
returned to England at the Restoration with her nephew Charles II, but
mingled very little in society. Elizabeth had thirteen children, of whom
Charles Louis, the eldest surviving, was reinstated in the Palatinate by
the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. By her daughters, Elizabeth Charlotte and
Sophia, she was the ancestress of Louis Philippe and of George I, and her
sons, Rupert and Maurice, became famous Cavalier leaders.

[Illustration: Elk (_Alces Machlis_)]

ELK, MOOSE, or MOOSE DEER (_Alces Machlis_), the largest of the deer
family, a native of Northern Europe, Asia, and America. The American form
(to which the name moose is usually given) is sometimes separated from the
European as _Alces americ[=a]nus_, but most naturalists find no specific
difference between them. The elk or moose has a short compact body,
standing about 6 feet in height at the shoulders, a thick neck, large
clumsy head, and horns which flatten out almost from the base into a broad
palmate form with numerous snags. In colour the elk is greyish brown, the
limbs, sides of head, and coarse mane being, however, of a lighter hue. Its
flesh resembles beef rather than venison. For the most part elks are
inoffensive, and so exceedingly wary that they are approached only with
difficulty. In America the Indians and half-breeds are the most skilful
moose-hunters. By trampling down a restricted area of ground (moose-yard)
and browsing on the edge of this, the moose is able to protect itself
efficiently against the attacks of wolves. The moose has a wide range in
Canada, extending from the Arctic Ocean and British Columbia to New
Brunswick and Nova Scotia; and it is found also in Maine. It feeds largely
on the shoots of trees or shrubs, such as the willow and maple, and on
bark, &c. In Sweden its destruction is illegal, and in Norway there are
many restrictions upon the hunting of it.

[Illustration: Antlers and Skull of Irish Elk]

ELK, IRISH (_Megac[)e]ros hibern[)i]cus_, or _Cervus giganteus_), a large
deer found in the Pleistocene strata, and distinguished by its enormous
antlers, the tips of which are sometimes 11 feet apart. Though a true deer,
its antlers differ from those of living species in that the beam is
flattened into a palm. To sustain the great weight, unusually large and
strong limbs and neck vertebræ were required. Its remains are found not
only in Ireland but in Scotland and England, and on the Continent, where
they occur in bogs, lacustrine deposits, brick-clay, and ossiferous caves.

EL KHARGEH. See _Khargeh_.

ELK´HART, a town of Indiana, United States, on Elkhart River, with railroad
works and paper-mills. Pop. 19,282.

ELL (Lat. _ulna_, Gr. _[=o]len[=e]_, forearm), an old measure whereby
cloths, stuffs, &c., are sometimes measured. The ell English is 5 quarters
(45 inches), the ell Flemish 3 quarters (27 inches). In Scotland an ell
contained 37.2 inches English.

ELL´AND, a town of England, W. Riding of Yorkshire, between Halifax and
Huddersfield, with an old church and town-hall, manufactures of cottons and
woollens, and quarries. It gives its name to a parliamentary division. Pop.
10,676.

ELLENBOROUGH, Edward Law, Lord, English lawyer, Lord Chief Justice of the
King's Bench, born in 1750 at Great Salkeld, Cumberland, died in 1818. He
was educated at the Charterhouse and at Peterhouse, Cambridge, and called
to the Bar in 1780. Not long afterwards he took silk, and at the trial of
Warren Hastings, in 1785, acted as leading counsel. The defence did not
come on until the fifth year of the trial, but after eight years Hastings
was acquitted and Law's success assured. In 1801 he was made
Attorney-General, and in 1802 became Lord Chief Justice of the King's
Bench, and was created baron. He held the office of Chief Justice for
fifteen years, resigning in 1818.

ELLENBOROUGH, Edward Law, first Earl of, son of Lord Chief Justice
Ellenborough (see above), born in 1790, died in 1871. He was educated at
Eton and St. John's College, Cambridge, and in 1818, having succeeded his
father as second baron, he entered the House of Lords. In 1818 he took
office as Lord Privy Seal, and was President of the Board of Control from
1828-30, and again in 1834. In 1841 he accepted the governor-generalship of
India, and arrived in Calcutta in 1842, in time to bring the Afghan War to
a successful issue. The annexation of Seinde in 1843 was followed by the
conquest of Gwalior, but the conduct of the Governor-General gave
dissatisfaction at home, and he was recalled early in 1844. On his return,
however, he was defended by Wellington, and received the thanks of
Parliament, an earldom, and the Grand Cross of the Bath. He then held the
post of First Lord of the Admiralty (1845-6), and was President of the
Board of Control from Feb. to June, 1858. His dispatch censuring the policy
of Lord Canning as Governor-General of India led to his resignation, and he
never resumed office.

ELL´ICE ISLANDS, or LAGOON ISLANDS, a group of coral islands annexed to
Britain in 1892, lying north of Fiji, and extending for 360 miles
north-west to south-east. The islands were discovered by Maurelle in 1781.
The inhabitants are of Samoan race and language, have long been Christians,
and support themselves chiefly by the coco-nut. Pop. 3084.

ELLICHPUR (el-ich-pör´), a town of India, in Ellichpur district, Berar,
once a large and prosperous town. There is a military cantonment within two
miles. Pop. 27,500.

EL´LICOTT, Right Rev. Charles John, English divine, born 1819, died in
1905. Educated at Cambridge, he was professor of divinity in King's
College, London, Hulsean lecturer and Hulsean professor of divinity at
Cambridge, and Dean of Exeter, and in 1863 was appointed Bishop of
Gloucester and Bristol. He was for eleven years chairman of the scholars
engaged on the revision of the New Testament translation, and published
commentaries on the Old and the New Testaments, as well as sermons,
addresses, and lectures.

ELLIOTT, Ebenezer, English poet, known as the 'Corn-law Rhymer', born in
1781 near Rotherham, Yorkshire, died in 1849. At the age of seventeen he
published his first poem, _The Vernal Walk_, which was soon followed by
others. In 1829 _The Village Patriarch_, the best of Elliott's longer
pieces, was published. From 1831 to 1837 he carried on business as an iron
merchant in Sheffield. His _Corn-law Rhymes_, periodically contributed to a
local paper devoted to the repeal of these laws, attracted attention, and
were afterwards collected and published with a longer poem entitled _The
Ranter_. Commercial losses compelled him in 1837 to contract his business,
and in 1841 he retired from it altogether. In 1850 two posthumous volumes
appeared, entitled _More Prose and Verse by the Corn-law Rhymer_.

[Illustration: Ellipse]

ELLIPSE´, one of the conic sections. The curve generated by a point which
moves so that its distance from a fixed point bears a constant ratio (less
than unity) to its distance from a fixed straight line. Kepler discovered
that the paths described by the planets in their revolutions round the sun
are ellipses, the sun being placed in one of the foci. To describe an
ellipse: At a given distance on the surface on which the ellipse is to be
described fix two pins, A and B, and pass a looped string round them. Keep
the string stretched by a pencil, C, and move the pencil round, keeping the
string at the same tension, then the ellipse EGFH will be described. A and
B are the _foci_, D the centre, EF the major axis, GH the minor axis, and
the fraction DA/DE the _eccentricity_ of the ellipse. A line drawn from any
point in the curve perpendicularly to the axis is an ordinate to the axis.
Any straight line drawn through the centre and terminated both ways by the
curve is called a diameter.

_Ellipsoid_, a surface bearing the same sort of relation to a spherical
surface as an ellipse bears to a circle. The name is also given to the
solid bounded by such a surface.

The equation of an ellipsoid, referred to its principal axes, is

  x^2/a^2 + y^2/b^2 + z^2/c^2 = 1.

Here a, b, c, are the lengths of the principal semi-axes. A plane section
is an ellipse, but there are two particular directions of the section for
which the ellipse reduces to a circle.

The ellipsoid has important applications in dynamics, as a means of
interpreting algebraic formulæ for physical quantities; examples are the
ellipsoids of strain and of gyration, and Poinsot's momental ellipsoid.

Two ellipsoids in which the principal sections lie in the same planes, and
have the same foci, are called _confocal_.

_Ellipsoidal Harmonics_ are mathematical functions by means of which
certain physical problems in heat and electricity relating to ellipsoidal
surfaces can be solved. For ellipsoids of revolution, see _Spheroid_.

ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS are generalizations of the circular functions _sine_,
_cosine_, &c. If

  u = integral from 0 to x of the function {dx}/sqrt(1-x^2) = sin^{-1}x,

we have x = sin u. Similarly, if

  u = integral from 0 to x of the function {dx}/sqrt{(1-x^2)(1-k^2x^2)},

we may write x = sn u, [sqrt](1 - x^2) = cn u, [sqrt](1 - k^2x^2) = dn u.
These are Jacobi's elliptic functions. They obviously reduce to sin u, cos
u, 1, when k is 0. The circular functions have the period 2[pi]; the
elliptic functions are _doubly_ periodic, having both a real and a pure
imaginary period when k^2 is real and less than 1. Like the functions
_sine_ and _cosine_, the elliptic functions have _addition theorems_, e.g.

  sn(u + v) = {sn u cn v dn v + sn v cn u dn u}/{1 - k^2sn^2u sn^2v}.

Another method and notation has been introduced by Weierstrass, and is now
much used. The functions are needed for the solution of many physical
problems, such as those of the motion of a top and of a
pendulum.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. G. Greenhill, _Elliptic Functions_; Appell and
Lacour, _Fonctions Elliptiques_; Whittaker and Watson, _Modern Analysis_.

ELLIS, Alexander John, English philologist, born 1814 (name originally
Sharpe), died in 1890. He was a distinguished graduate of Trinity College,
Cambridge, was elected to the Royal Society in 1864, and was long a
prominent member of the Philological Society, being more than once its
president. Though phonetics was the subject in which he most highly
distinguished himself, he was equally at home in mathematical and musical
subjects. His chief published work is _Early English Pronunciation_ (in
five parts), between 1869 and 1889; but his publications in the form of
books, pamphlets, papers, and articles on phonetics, music, and mathematics
are numerous.

ELLIS, George, English man of letters, born in 1753, died in 1815. Educated
at Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge, he became one of the
junta of wits concerned in the well-known political satire, _The Rolliad_,
and contributed to the _Anti-Jacobin_. He also wrote a preface, notes, and
appendix to Way's translation of Le Grand's _Fabliaux_, and published
_Specimens of the Early English Poets, with an Historical Sketch_ (1790),
and _Specimens of Early English Metrical Romances_ (1805). He was an
intimate friend of Sir Walter Scott.

ELLIS, William, English missionary, born 1794, died 1872. He was sent out
to the South Sea Islands in 1816 by the London Missionary Society, and
returned in 1825, one result of his labours being _Polynesian Researches_
(1829). From 1830 to 1844 he was secretary to the society, and afterwards
on its behalf made several visits to Madagascar, the longest being from
1861 to 1865. These visits led him to publish _Three Visits to Madagascar_
(1858), _Madagascar Revisited_ (1867), and the _Martyr Church of
Madagascar_ (1870).

ELLIS ISLAND, a small island in the upper New York Bay. Sold by the New
York State to the United States, in 1808, it was for a long time used as a
powder magazine, but in 1891 was made an immigrant station.

ELLO´RA, or ELO´RA, a ruined village, Hindustan, Deccan, Nizam's Dominions,
13 miles north-west of Aurangabad, famous for its rock and cave temples
excavated in the crescent-shaped scarp of a large plateau. They run from
north to south for about a mile and a quarter, and consist of five Jain
caves towards the north, seventeen Brahmanical caves at the centre, and
towards the south twelve Buddhistic caves. Of the temples some are cut down
through the rock, and left open above like isolated buildings, others are
excavated under the hill in the manner of caves properly so called. The
interior walls are often richly carved with mythological designs. The most
magnificent of the whole is the Hindu temple called Kailasa or Cailasa, the
central portion of which forms an isolated excavated mass or immense block
500 feet in circumference and 100 feet high. It is surrounded by galleries
or colonnades at the distance of 150 feet, in which the whole Hindu
pantheon is cut in the perpendicular rock. Another fine temple, much
smaller, but cut under the hill, is the Buddhist cave of Visvakarma, the
only one excavated with a curved roof. The date of the caves is not
certainly known, but they were probably the work of the reigning families
at the neighbouring Deoghir, now Daulatabad, which, prior to the Mohammedan
conquest, A.D. 1293, was the capital of a powerful Hindu principality.--Cf.
Fergusson and Burgess, _The Cave Temples of India_.

ELLORE, a town of India, Godavari district, Madras presidency, once the
capital of the Northern Circars. Pop. 29,500.

ELLWOOD, Thomas, an early writer among the Quakers, born in 1639, died in
1713. About 1660 he was induced to join the Society of Friends, and soon
after published _An Alarm to the Priests_. He was imprisoned on account of
his religion, but subsequently became reader to Milton, and upon reading
the MS. of _Paradise Lost_ is said to have suggested to the poet the idea
of writing the _Paradise Regained_. In 1705 and 1709 he published the two
parts of his _Sacred History_. His works include a poetical life of King
David, the _Davideis_, _Forgery no Christianity_, and an autobiography,
_The History of the Life of Thomas Ellwood: written by his own hand._

[Illustration: Common Elm (_Ulmus campestris_)

Fruit, flowers, and leaves.]

ELM, a genus of trees (Ulmus; nat. ord., Ulmaceæ), consisting of eighteen
species, natives of the northern temperate zone and mountains of Tropical
Asia. They have bisexual flowers with a campanulate calyx, as many stamens
as there are divisions in the limb of the calyx, and two styles. Two
species are common in Britain, _Ulmus campestris_ and _Ulmus mont[=a]na_,
with many varieties. The _Ulmus campestris_, or common elm, is a fine tree,
of rapid and erect growth, and yielding a tall stem, remarkable for the
uniformity of its diameter throughout. It is very common as a timber tree
in England; but as it rarely produces seed it is questionable whether it is
indigenous. It is a native of the south and middle of Europe, and the west
of Asia. The average height of a mature tree is 70 or 80 feet, but some
reach a height of 150 feet. The wood is brown, hard, of fine grain, not apt
to crack, and is used for many purposes. The tree generally attains
maturity in seventy or eighty years. _Ulmus mont[=a]na_ (the mountain or
wych elm), a native of Scotland, grows to a less height than the English
elm, is of slower growth, and yields a much shorter bole, but it is far
bolder in its ramification and more hardy. It usually attains to the height
of about 50 feet. It does not produce suckers, like the English elm, but
yields seed freely. The timber is strong and elastic, and the tree often
yields large protuberances of gnarled wood, finely knotted and veined, and
much esteemed for veneering. _Ulmus glabra_, the smooth-leaved elm, is a
variety common in some parts of Britain. It first appeared about the middle
of the eighteenth century. The most ornamental tree of the genus is _Ulmus
mont[=a]na_, variety _pend[)u]la_, the weeping elm. The American or white
elm (_Ulmus americ[=a]na_) is abundant in the Western States, attaining its
loftiest stature between lat. 42° and 46°; here it reaches the height of
100 feet, with a trunk 4 or 5 feet in diameter, rising sometimes 60 or 70
feet before it separates into a few primary limbs. Its wood is not much
esteemed. The red or slippery elm (_Ulmus fulva_) is found throughout a
great extent of country in Canada, Missouri, and as far south as lat. 31°;
it attains the height of 50 or 60 feet, with a trunk 15 or 20 inches in
diameter; the wood is of better quality than that of the white elm. The
leaves and bark yield an abundant mucilage. The wahoo (_Ulmus al[=a]ta_),
inhabiting from lat. 37° to Florida, Louisiana, and Arkansas, is a small
tree, 30 feet high. The branches are furnished on two opposite sides with
wings of cork 2 or 3 lines wide; the wood is fine-grained and heavy.

ELMI´NA, a British town and seaport on the west coast of Africa, 8 miles
west of Cape Coast Castle. It was acquired by Britain in 1872 with the
other Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast, when it was claimed by the King
of Ashanti, the result being the Ashanti Wars of 1873-4. Pop. 12,500.

ELMI´RA, a town of the United States, N. York, on the Chemung River; with a
college for women, founded in 1855, the State reformatory, and a fine
court-house. Its industrial establishments comprise rolling-mill,
blast-furnace, foundries, and machine-works. Pop. 37,176.

ELMO'S FIRE, ST., a meteoric appearance often seen playing about the masts
and rigging of ships. If two flames are visible (Castor and Pollux) the
sailors consider it a good omen; if only one (Helena), they regard it as a
bad one. The name is derived from St. Elmo, or St. Erasmus, who was broken
on the wheel A.D. 304.

ELMSHORN, a town in Schleswig-Holstein, 20 miles north-west of Hamburg, on
the Krückau, a navigable stream. Pop. 14,790.

ELMSLEY, Peter, D.D., English scholar, born in 1773, died in 1825. Educated
at Oxford, he was one of the original contributors to the _Edinburgh
Review_, and wrote occasionally, at a subsequent period, in the
_Quarterly_. He finally settled at Oxford, on obtaining the headship of St.
Alban's Hall and the Camden professorship of ancient history in 1823. He
published editions of the _Oedipus Tyrannus_ (1811), _Heraclidæ_ (1815),
_Medea_ (1818), _Bacchæ_ (1821), and _Oedipus Coloneus_ (1823).

EL OBEID. See _Obeïd_.

ELODEA, a genus of submerged water-plants, nat. ord. Hydrocharitaceæ. _E.
canadensis_, the Canadian water-weed, was accidentally introduced into
Britain about 1840, and spread throughout Europe with extraordinary
rapidity, and entirely by vegetative reproduction, as only the [female]
plant exists on this side of the Atlantic. The plant is much used for
physiological experiments, e.g. for showing the movements of protoplasm.

ELO´HIM (plural of _Eloah_), one of the Hebrew names for God, of frequent
occurrence in the Bible. Elohim is used in speaking both of the true God
and of false gods, while Jehovah is confined to the true God. The plural
form of Elohim has caused a good deal of controversy, some considering it
as containing an allusion to the doctrine of the Trinity, others regarding
it as the plural of excellence, others holding it as establishing the fact
of a primitive polytheism. The Elohistic passages in the _Pentateuch_, or,
in other words, the passages in which the Almighty is always spoken of as
Elohim, are supposed to have been written at an earlier period than those
in which he is spoken of as Jehovah. The Elohistic passages are simpler and
more primitive in character than the Jehovistic; thus _Gen._ i, 27 is
Elohistic; _Gen._ ii, 21-4 is Jehovistic.

EL PASO ('the pass' or crossing), a town of the United States, in Texas, at
an important ford or crossing of the Rio Grande del Norte, where there is
now a railway bridge, with extensive railway connections and large trade
with Mexico, the smaller Mexican town of same name being on the opposite
bank of the river. Pop. (including suburbs), 39,280.

ELPHINSTONE. Hon. Mountstuart, Indian administrator, son of the eleventh
Lord Elphinstone, born in Scotland in 1778, died in 1859. He joined the
Bengal Civil Service in 1795, was Ambassador to the Afghan Court in 1808,
Resident at the Court of Poonah from 1810 to 1817, and British commissioner
to that province from 1817 to 1819, when he became Governor of Bombay.
During a government of seven years he established a code of laws, lightened
taxes, and paid great attention to schools and public institutions. He
resigned in 1827. A college established by the natives was called after him
Elphinstone College. He was the author of an _Account of the Kingdom of
Cabul and its Dependencies_ (1815), and a _History of India_ (1841). He was
offered the governor-generalship of India in 1835, and afterwards that of
Canada, both of which he declined.

ELPHINSTONE, William, a Scottish prelate, founder of King's College and
University, Aberdeen, born at Glasgow in 1431, died in 1514. He was
educated at Glasgow College, and served four years as priest of St.
Michael's in that city. He then went to France and became professor of law,
first at Paris and subsequently at Orleans, but before 1474 he returned
home at the request of Muirhead, Bishop of Glasgow, who made him commissary
of the diocese. In 1478 he was made commissary of the Lothians, and in 1479
Archdeacon of Argyle. Soon after he was made Bishop of Ross; and in 1483
was transferred to the see of Aberdeen. In 1484 and 1486 he was
commissioned to negotiate truces with England, and in 1488 was Lord
High-Chancellor of the kingdom for several months. He was next sent on a
mission to Germany, and after his return held the office of Lord Privy Seal
till his death in 1514. In 1494 he obtained a papal bull for the erection
of the university of King's College at Aberdeen.

ELSINORE´ (Dan. _Helsingör_), a seaport of Denmark, in the Island of
Seeland, at the narrowest part of the Sound, here only 3½ miles broad, 24
miles north by east of Copenhagen, opposite Helsingborg in Sweden, and
connected with it by train-ferry. Near Elsinore is the castle of Kronberg,
built by Frederick II of Denmark about 1580, and commanding the Sound. The
castle, now chiefly used as barracks, is associated with Shakespeare's
_Hamlet_. Before the abolition of the Sound dues in 1857 all merchant ships
passing through were bound to pay toll here. Pop. 13,990.

ELSTER two German rivers, the White or Great Elster, a tributary of the
Saale; the Black Elster, a tributary of the Elbe.

ELSWICK (els´ik), a suburb of Newcastle, England, containing the great
ordnance-works of Armstrong, Mitchell, & Co. Pop. 58,352.

ELTON, Charles Isaac, English jurist and archæologist, born 1839, died
1900. He was educated at Cheltenham and Oxford, became a barrister and a
member of Parliament, and wrote various works on legal and other subjects,
the most important being _Origins of English History_. In this work he
traces the development of England and its inhabitants, from the earliest
times regarding which we have any knowledge, to the acceptance of
Christianity by the Anglo-Saxons, the investigation of the evidence
furnished by Greek and Roman writers, and the discussion of prehistoric
ethnology and archæology being especially thorough. Other works are:
_Commons and Waste Lands_, and _W. Shakespeare: His Family and Friends_.

ELU´TRIATION (Lat. _elutriare_, to wash out), the process of separating the
finer particles of a clay, earth, or similar mass, from the coarser,
consisting in stirring up the substance in water, letting the coarser
particles subside, running off the liquid containing the finer particles,
and then waiting till they subside.

ELVAS, a fortified city of Portugal, province of Alemtejo, near the Spanish
frontier, 12 miles north-west of Badajoz, on a height flanked by two
others, each crowned by a castle. It has a cathedral, partly Moorish and
partly Gothic, and a Moorish aqueduct, a magnificent work which brings
water from a distance of 15 miles. Pop. 10,645.

ELY ([=e]´li), an episcopal city of England, in the county of Cambridge, on
an eminence on the left bank of the Ouse. The ecclesiastical structures
comprise the cathedral, one of the largest in England, and the churches of
St. Mary, and the Holy Trinity, the last belonging to the time of Edward
II, and one of the most perfect buildings of that age. The superb cathedral
occupies the site of a monastery founded about the year 673 by Etheldreda,
daughter of the King of East Anglia. Its entire length, east to west, is
517 feet, and its west tower is 270 feet high. The whole structure
comprises an almost unbroken series of the various styles of architecture
which prevailed in England from the Conquest to the Reformation, yet with
no loss of impressiveness as a whole. It was begun in 1083, completed in
1534, and since 1847 has undergone extensive additions and restoration. A
fine gateway, built in the reign of Richard II, forms the principal
entrance to the cathedral precincts. There are a few manufactures, but most
of the inhabitants are engaged in agricultural labour. Pop. 7917.

ELY, ISLE OF, a portion of the county of Cambridge, separated by the Ouse
from the rest of the county, and forming itself a sort of county. It is
about 28 miles long by 25 miles broad; area, 239,259 acres. The name is
also given to a smaller tract, about 7 miles long by 4 miles broad. The
soil is very fertile. Pop. 69,752.

ELYMUS, a genus of grasses, natives chiefly of the north temperate zone.
The British species, _E. arenarius_ (lyme grass) is a good sand-binder.

ELYS´IUM, or ELYSIAN FIELDS, among the Greeks and Romans the regions
inhabited by the blessed after death. They are placed by Homer at the
extremities of the earth, by Plato at the antipodes, and by others in the
Fortunate Islands (the Canaries). They were at last supposed to be in the
interior of the earth, where Virgil described them as being. The happiness
of the blessed consisted in a life of tranquil enjoyment in a perfect
summer land, where the heroes, freed from all care and infirmities, renewed
their favourite sports.

ELY´TRA, the horny cases into which the front wings of beetles are
modified, and which meet in a straight line down the middle of the back.
The membranous hind-wings are here the organs of flight, and when not in
use are folded longitudinally and transversely, and tucked away under the
elytra.

ELZE (el´tse), Karl, German writer, distinguished for his studies in
English literature, born 1821, died 1889. He studied in Leipzig and Berlin,
was long a teacher in the gymnasium of his birth-place, Dessau, and in 1875
was appointed to the chair of English language and literature at Halle.
Among his writings were valuable biographies of Sir Walter Scott and Lord
Byron (the latter translated into English), and a biographical and critical
work on Shakespeare, also translated into English (1888).

EL´ZEVIR, or ELZEVIER, the name of a family of publishers and printers,
residing at Amsterdam and Leyden, celebrated for the beauty of the editions
of various works published by them, principally between 1595 and 1680.
Louis, the founder of the family (born 1540, died 1617), settled in Leyden,
and between 1583 and his death produced about 150 works. Five of his seven
sons followed his business:--Matthæus at Leyden; Louis (II) at the Hague;
Gilles at the Hague and afterwards at Leyden; Joost in Utrecht; and
Bonaventure, who in 1626 associated himself with Abraham, the son of
Matthæus. From the press of Abraham and Bonaventure issued the exquisite
editions of the classics which have made the name of Elzevir famous. Of
these the _Livy_ and _Tacitus_ of 1634, the _Pliny_ of 1635, the _Virgil_
of 1636, and the _Cicero_ of 1642 are perhaps the most beautiful. The
Elzevir books are distinguished by the types and the choice of the paper
rather than by the critical preparation of their texts.

EMANATION, in a specific sense, an idea at the centre of many philosophic
systems which seek to explain the universe as an eternal efflux or
emanation from the Supreme Being, comparable with the efflux of light from
the sun. The idea of emanation came from the East, and traces of the
doctrine are found in the system of Zoroaster. It had a powerful influence
on the ancient Egyptian philosophy, as also on that of the Greeks, as may
be seen in Pythagoras. It was subsequently developed by Plotinus,the
Gnostics, Manicheans, Pantheists, and other sects.

EMAN´UEL THE GREAT, King of Portugal, born in 1469, died in 1521. He
ascended the throne in 1495, and during his reign were performed the
voyages of discovery of Vasco da Gama, of Cabral, of Americus Vespucius,
and the heroic exploits of Albuquerque, by whose exertions a passage was
found to the East Indies, the Portuguese dominion in Goa was established,
and the Brazils and Moluccas were discovered. The commerce of Portugal,
under Emanuel, was more prosperous than at any former period. The treasures
of America flowed into Lisbon, and the reign of Emanuel was justly called
'the golden age of Portugal'. He died at the age of fifty-two, deeply
lamented by his subjects, but hated by the Moors and the Jews, whom he had
expelled from the country. He was a patron of learned men, and himself left
memoirs on the Indies. He married three times: in 1497 Isabella, daughter
of Ferdinand and Isabella, heiress of Castile; in 1500 her sister Maria;
and in 1519 Eleonora of Austria, sister of Charles V.

EMBALMING (em-bäm´ing; Gr. _balsamon_, balm), the process of so treating
dead bodies with aromatic and antiseptic substances as to preserve them
from corruption and decomposition. The ancient Egyptians employed this art
on a great scale, embalming not only human corpses, but also the bodies of
cats, ibises, crocodiles, and other animals held sacred. The mummy of King
Mer-en-r[=e], who lived about 2500 years before our era, found in 1880, was
in an excellent state of preservation. Other peoples, such as the Assyrians
and Persians, also followed the practice, though hardly equalling Egyptian
methods. The abdomen was emptied through an incision, and the brains drawn
through the nostrils by means of a special instrument. The ancient
Peruvians appear to have injected and washed the corpses with a fluid that
flows from imperfectly burned wood, in which pyroligneous acid, creosote,
and other antiseptics are present. Pliny alludes to the use of a similar
fluid by the Egyptians. In more recent times bodies have been preserved for
centuries by embalming, especially when they have remained at a low and
uniform temperature and have been protected from the air. The corpse of
Edward I, buried in Westminster Abbey in 1307, was found entire in 1770.
Canute died in 1036, and his body was discovered very fresh in Winchester
Cathedral in 1776. The bodies of William the Conqueror and of his wife
Matilda were found entire at Caen in the sixteenth century. Of the various
modern artificial means of preserving bodies, impregnation with corrosive
sublimate appears to be one of the most effective, next to immersion in
spirits. An injection of sulphate of zinc into the blood-vessels is also
stated to be satisfactory; while natron, various spices, and other aromatic
compounds are sometimes employed. The original reason for embalming was
most probably the preservation of the body to await a resurrection and a
future life.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Budge, _The Mummy_; G. Elliot Smith, _A
Contribution to the Study of Mummification in Egypt_; Myers, _Textbook of
Embalming_.

EMBANK´MENT, a mound of earth, &c., thrown up either for the purpose of
forming a roadway at a level different from that of the natural surface of
the ground, or for keeping a large body of water within certain limits.
When constructed wholly of earth or clay, it is triangular in
cross-section, with the apex cut off parallel to the base line, the angle
of the sloping sides varying with the nature of the material used. Thus the
slope of loose rubble, chalk, stone, loamy sand, or gravel requires about
1½ base to 1 vertical; dry, loose, and ordinary clay, 2 horizontal to 1
vertical, while some clays require a much wider base. To prevent subsidence
on marshy or peaty soils, either the weight of the heart of the embankment
is diminished, as in Holland, by introducing layers of reeds or fascines,
or artificial foundations are prepared. The embankment may be prevented
from slipping laterally by forming steps in the earth of the subsoil, or by
cutting deep trenches at the feet of the slopes. In cases where embankments
are raised for the storage of water, a 'puddle-dike', that is, a
water-tight wall, must be inserted through the whole depth of the bank down
to the impermeable strata beneath. To resist the action of wind and rain,
or of the waters of a slow-flowing stream, the banks should in all possible
cases be covered with turf. Among the largest embankments hitherto executed
are those on the banks of the Po, the Meuse, the Scheldt; on the shores of
the Netherlands; the Oberhäuser embankment on the Augsburg and Lindau
Railway, the Gadelbach cutting on the Ulm and Augsburg line, and the Tring
cutting on the London and North-Western Railway.

EMBAR´GO, in commerce, an arrest on ships or merchandise by public
authority; or a prohibition of State, commonly on foreign ships, in time of
war, to prevent their going out of or coming into port. A breach of
embargo, under knowledge of the insured, discharges the underwriters of all
liability.

EM´BASSY, in its strict sense, signifies a mission presided over by an
ambassador, as distinguished from a legation or mission entrusted to an
envoy. An ambassador, as the representative of the person of his sovereign,
can demand a private audience of the sovereign to whom he is accredited,
while an envoy must communicate with the Minister for Foreign Affairs.

EMBER-DAYS, in the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches, fast-days
occurring at the times in the year appointed for ordinations. As now
observed they are the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday after the first
Sunday in Lent, after the feast of Pentecost or Whitsunday, after the
festival of the Holy Cross (14th Sept.), and after the festival of St.
Lucia (13th Dec.). The weeks in which these days fall are called
_Ember-weeks_.

EMBER-GOOSE (_Colymbus septentrionalis_), an aquatic bird, known also as
the great northern diver and loon. The latter name, however, is also
applied to the great crested grebe.

EMBERIZ[=I]´DÆ, a family of small perching birds, typical genus
Ember[=i]za. It includes the buntings, the snow-flake, the yellow-hammer,
and reed sparrow. The ortolan belongs to this family. By some naturalists
it is classified as a sub-family of the finches.

EMBEZ´ZLEMENT is the appropriation, by a clerk or servant, to himself, of
money or property put into his hands in trust. In English law it is a
felony punishable by penal servitude for not more than fourteen years, or
by imprisonment; and in the case of a male under the age of sixteen, by
whipping in addition to the imprisonment.

EM´BLEMENTS (Fr. _emblaver_, to sow with grain), in law, the crops actually
growing at any time upon land. They are considered in law as personal
property, and pass as such to the executor or administrator of the
occupier, if the latter die before he has actually cut, or reaped, or
gathered the same.

EM´BOLISM is the obstruction of a blood-vessel by an embolus, the name
given to a blood-clot or other body carried by the blood-stream, and
obstructing the circulation at the point of lodgment. An embolism in a
vital organ gives rise to serious symptoms which may cause death in a short
time, or more remotely by the production of gangrene or pyæmia.

EMBOS´SING, the art of producing raised figures upon plane surfaces, such
as on leather for bookbinding; on paper for envelopes; on wood or bronze,
in architecture or sculpture. Embossing in needlework is effected by
embroidery over figures padded with wool felt.

EMBRA´CERY, an attempt to corrupt or influence a jury by money, promises,
letters, entertainments, persuasions, or the like.

EMBRA´SURE, in fortification, an opening in the breastwork or parapet of a
battery or fortress, to admit of a gun being fired through it.

EMBROI´DERY (O. Fr. _embroder_, from _bord_, border), figured work in gold,
or silver, or silk thread, wrought by the needle, upon cloths, stuffs, or
muslins. In embroidering stuffs a kind of stretching-frame is used, because
the more the piece is stretched the easier it is worked. The art was common
in the East in very ancient times. The Jews appear to have acquired it from
the Egyptians; Homer makes frequent allusion to it; and Phrygia was
celebrated for its embroidery, which was in great demand at Rome. The
Nineveh mural reliefs in the British Museum show Assyrian robes with floral
ornaments, and a relief (now in the Louvre, Paris) from the palace of
Darius I shows Persian robes with embroidery. The Anglo-Saxons had a
Continental reputation, and from the eleventh to the sixteenth century the
art of pictorial needlework was of the highest importance both as a
recreation and as an industry. Embroidery is commonly divided into two
classes: white embroidery applied to dress and furniture, in which the
French and the Swiss excel; and embroidery in silk, gold, and silver,
chiefly in demand for ecclesiastical vestments. The Chinese, Hindus,
Persians, and Turks excel in such work.--Cf. Christie, _Embroidery and
Tapestry Weaving_.

EMBRUN ([.a]n-br[.u]n), a picturesque walled town, France, department
Hautes-Alpes, on a rocky eminence on the Durance. It was sacked
successively by Vandals, Huns, Saxons, and Moors, by the Protestants in
1573, and by the Duke of Savoy in 1692. It has a fine cathedral. Pop. 3556.

EM´BRY, an immature organism, especially in the earlier stages of
development from the fertilized ovum onwards. The embryo of a mammal
(except in the egg-laying duck-bill and spiny ant-eater), which develops
internally, is known as a _foetus_. The dormant plantlet in a seed is also
known as an embryo.

EMBRYOL´OGY, the branch of biology concerned with the fertilization of the
ovum and its development into the adult. Aristotle and Galen made some
observations on the subject, as regards animals, while Harvey and his
successors considerably advanced our knowledge, but as a distinct and
important subject embryology only dates from the nineteenth century. In the
course of its development an organism repeats the evolution of its group in
an abbreviated fashion, thus furnishing a clue to its actual affinities.
The subject also throws light on the problems of heredity.

[Illustration: Almost Ripe Embryo-sac of Lilium Martagon

A, Antipodals. P, Polar nuclei. E, Egg-cell. S, Synergidæ.]

EMBRYO-SAC, the name given to the megaspore of seed-plants. In Angiosperms
the ripe embryo-sac is typically a large ovoid sac enclosed in a thin
membrane and lined by cytoplasm; it contains seven or sometimes eight
nuclei with associated masses of cytoplasm, distributed in a characteristic
manner. At the apical end, next the micropyle, is the egg-apparatus,
comprising the egg-cell or ovum flanked by the two synergidæ or
helping-cells, while the basal or chalazal end is occupied by the three
antipodal 'cells'. The cavity of the sac is filled with cell-sap traversed
by stout protoplasmic strands, suspended in which, near the centre, are two
polar nuclei, or a single fusion-nucleus formed by the union of these. A
characteristic feature of Angiosperms is the process of 'double
fertilization'. The pollen-tube contains two male gametes, both functional;
one fertilizes the egg-cell, the resulting zygote or oospore giving rise by
cell-division and growth to the embryo; the other unites with the
fusion-nucleus (or the two polar nuclei), and the product is the origin of
the special nutritive tissue or endosperm, which is used up by the embryo,
either during ripening of the seed (exalbuminous seeds), or at germination
(albuminous seeds). See _Gymnosperms_; _Ovule_.

EM´DEN, a town of Prussia, province of Hanover, near the mouth of the Ems,
occupying a low flat intersected by numerous canals. It was raised to the
rank of a free Imperial city in 1595, was made a free port in 1751, was
incorporated with the kingdom of Hanover in 1815, and in 1866 was united to
Prussia. The principal building is the great church, built in 1455. The
harbours admit large vessels, and several canals run inland. It exports
grain, dairy produce, and gin, and has shipbuilding yards, and manufactures
hosiery and leather. Pop. 24,000.

EM'ERALD, a variety of beryl, a well-known gem of pure green colour,
somewhat harder than quartz; specific gravity, 2.67 to 2.73. It is a
silicate of aluminium and the rare element glucinum or beryllium, which was
detected in it by Vauquelin after it had been discovered by the same
chemist in the beryl. Its colour is due to the presence of chromium, of
which there may be 0.2 to 0.3 per cent present. Its natural form is either
rounded or that of a short six-sided prism. It is one of the softest of the
precious stones, but is not acted on by acids. Emeralds of large size and
at the same time free from flaws are rare and more valuable than diamonds
or rubies; the largest on record is said to have been possessed by the
inhabitants of the valley of Manta in Peru when the Spaniards first arrived
there. It was as big as an ostrich egg, and was worshipped as _the mother
of emeralds_. The ancients, who valued them, especially for engraving, are
said to have procured them from Ethiopia and Egypt. The finest are now
obtained from Colombia. The Oriental emerald is a variety of the ruby, of a
green colour, and is an extremely rare gem.

EMERALD GREEN, a vivid light-green pigment, an aceto-arsenite of copper,
used both in oil and water-colour painting. It is extremely poisonous.
Hydrated chromium sesquioxide is another mineral emerald green. There is
also an aniline dye of this name.

EMERALD LORE The emerald as a sacred stone was anciently believed to blind
a serpent which gazed at it, but to strengthen human eyes, and was,
according to Theophrastus, worn as a ring-stone on account of this
property. It was confused with 'false emerald', a kind of malachite. This
fact explains the reference to ancient kings presenting blocks of emerald 1
or 2 cubits long to temples. The Babylonian name was _barraktu_, the
Sanskrit _marakata_, the Hebrew _bareket_ or _barkat_, the Greek _maragdos_
or _smaragdos_.

EMERGENCES, in botany. See _Hairs of Plants_.

EM´ERSON, Ralph Waldo, an American poet and prose writer, born at Boston,
25th May, 1803, died 27th April, 1882. He graduated at Harvard in 1821, for
five years taught in a school, and in 1829 became minister of a Unitarian
Church in Boston, but in 1832 resigned his charge. He spent the greater
part of 1833 in Europe, and on his return began his career as a lecturer on
various subjects, in which capacity he acted for a long series of years. In
1835 he took up his permanent residence at Concord, Mass., and in 1836
published a small volume called _Nature_. He was one of the original
editors of _The Dial_, a transcendental magazine begun in 1840. Two volumes
of his essays were published, in 1841 and 1844, and his poems in 1846. His
miscellaneous addresses had been published in England in 1844, and on
visiting Great Britain in 1847 he was welcomed by a large circle of
admirers. In 1850 he published _Representative Men_; in 1856, _English
Traits_; in 1860, _The Conduct of Life_; in 1869, _May Day and Other
Poems_, and _Society and Solitude_; in 1871, _Parnassus_, a collection of
poems; in 1876, _Letters and Social Aims_. Emerson showed certain
similarities with Carlyle, of whom he was a friend and correspondent. Their
correspondence appeared in 1883. He was not only one of the most original
and influential writers that the United States have produced, but also one
of the most helpful and influential ethical teachers of the nineteenth
century. His gospel of self-reliance, his insistence on the duty of
self-respect, and the obligation to listen to the voice of one's own soul,
have exerted a wide influence which has grown steadily.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
J. E. Cabot, Emerson's Complete Works (11 vols.); G. W. Cooke, _Ralph Waldo
Emerson: his Life, Writings and Philosophy_; J. Elliott Cabot, _A Memoir of
Ralph Waldo Emerson_; R. Garnett, _Life of Ralph Waldo Emerson_; G. S.
Woodberry, _Ralph Waldo Emerson_; J. A. Hill, _Emerson and his Philosophy_.

EM´ERY (formerly _emeril_, from O. Fr. _emeril_; Gr. _smiris_, emery), an
impure variety of corundum, of blackish or bluish-grey colour, chiefly
found in shapeless masses and mixed with other minerals. It contains about
82 per cent of alumina, and a small portion of iron; is very hard; is
practically infusible, and is not attacked by acids. The best emery is
brought from the Levant, chiefly from the Island of Naxos. It is employed
in cutting and polishing precious stones; in smoothing the surface of the
finer kinds of lenses preparatory to their being polished; in the polishing
of marble; by cutlers, locksmiths, glaziers, and other artisans. For all
these purposes it is pulverized in large iron mortars or in steel mills,
and the powder, which is rough and sharp, is carefully washed and sifted
into eight or ten different degrees of fineness. Emery-paper and
emery-cloth are made by laying a thin coat of glue upon the fabric, and
dusting the emery from a sieve of the required size.

EMET´IC is a substance given to produce vomiting, either acting directly on
the nerves of the stomach, or indirectly through the bloodstream on the
vomiting centre in the brain. In the first group are common salt, mustard,
ipecacuanha, and sulphate of zinc; and apomorphine, which is given
hypodermically, is an example of the second. Emetics are not now so widely
used, as in many cases the stomach can be more effectively emptied and then
washed out by the passage of the stomach-tube.

EM´ETINE is an alkaloid present in ipecacuanha. It is a powerful emetic,
and whether given by the mouth or hypodermically produces vomiting with
nausea and depression. It acts chiefly as a local irritant to the lining of
the stomach. In minute doses it stimulates expectoration from the lungs.

[Illustration: Emeu or Emu (_Dromæus novæ-hollandiæ_)]

EMEU, or EMU, a large flightless running bird (_Dromæus novæ-hollandiæ_,
and _D. irroratus_), formerly dispersed over the whole Australian
continent, but now almost extinct in many districts. It is allied to the
cassowary, but is distinguished by the absence of a 'helmet' on the top of
the head. It nearly equals the ostrich in bulk, being thicker in the body,
though its legs and neck are shorter. Its feet are three-toed (the ostrich
has two toes), and its feathers, which are double, are of a dull
sooty-brown colour, those about the neck and head being of a hairy texture.
The wings are small and useless for flight, but the bird can run with great
speed. The flesh of the young emeu is by some considered a delicacy. The
emeu is a bird of the plain, the cassowary of the forest. It is easily
tamed, and may be kept out of doors in temperate climates. It feeds on
vegetable matter, fruits, and roots.

EMEU WREN (_Stipit[=u]rus malach[=u]rus_), a small Australian bird allied
to the warblers, somewhat similar to a wren, but having the tail-feathers
long, soft, and thinly barbed, similar to emeu feathers.

EMIGRATION, the movement of individuals or groups from one state or country
to a colony or another country, to be distinguished from _migration_, which
describes the movement of peoples or races from one geographical area to
another, and from _colonization_, which implies the foundation of a new
state or extension of the sway of the colonists' state of origin. Thus the
term does not strictly apply to the migrations of prehistoric times; nor to
the movements of the Indo-European races (to which reference occurs in the
Old Testament) which took place before the state as a territorial
conception had developed; nor does it describe the great barbarian
invasions of the early Christian era. There was comparatively little
emigration among the Greeks and Romans, movement among the former being
usually for the foundation of colonies or new states, and among the latter
as a means of consolidating conquests. In Europe up to the seventeenth
century, emigration was sporadic, notable instances being the movement from
Flanders to England in the fourteenth century, and of Protestants from
France to England in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In the
seventeenth century, with the growth of European colonies in America and
the East, there was much emigration to those places, notably from Spain,
Portugal, and Great Britain to America, and from the Netherlands to the
East. In the eighteenth century the movement slackened, but in the
nineteenth century, largely as the result of the industrial revolution and
the decay of agriculture, the great era of emigration began, especially
from the United Kingdom. During the nineteenth century the main stream has
flowed westward into America from Europe. Particularly important have been
the emigration of Irish to the United States, and of Germans to South
America. There has also been considerable movement from Russia into the
United Kingdom, in many cases as a half-way house to the United States. In
the East, emigration from China and Japan to the United States and
Australia, and from India to British tropical colonies, has been important.
It is noticeable that the Latin and Yellow races as a rule emigrate with
the idea of returning ultimately to their native country; with the
Anglo-Saxon, Teutonic, and Slav races the aim of a permanent domicile is
predominant.

The most important causes of emigration are love of adventure, political or
religious difficulties, and economic pressure. Forced emigration, in the
shape of transportation, was formerly of some importance, especially in the
case of America and Australia, but is now negligible; and before the
European War, emigration from Russia was chiefly for political or religious
reasons. To-day economic forces are the most powerful. The direction of the
flow of emigration is partly determined by its causes. When these are
political or religious, emigrants go where they expect to find freedom, as
with the Huguenots in the seventeenth century. When economic forces are at
work, emigration takes place towards newer and less developed countries,
where pressure on the means of subsistence is less marked than elsewhere.
Assistance given to emigrants, such as grants of land, loans of capital,
and passages at reduced rates also has an influence, likewise the
regulations of the countries concerned regarding emigration and
immigration. In Australia and the United States, regulations forbidding the
entrance of Yellow races have checked the movement of Chinese and Japanese
to those countries; and the Government of India discourages emigration save
under adequate safeguard for proper pay and treatment.

The results of emigration vary with the economic and other circumstances of
the countries concerned. The country from which the movement takes place
loses intellectual and physical labour power which the other country gains;
but may benefit by relief given to a congested labour market. This was the
case with the Netherlands in the seventeenth century, and the United
Kingdom in the early nineteenth century. The general tendency is for
emigration to benefit the world as a whole by enabling labour to go where
it can be most productively employed. This increases world production,
opens up new markets, and so indirectly benefits the older countries.
Sometimes, however, emigration may cause an industry merely to be
transferred from one country to another, as in the case of the
fourteenth-century Flemish emigration to England. The importance of these
results of emigration in any particular case depends on the class of people
who emigrate, and on the volume of emigration. Deportation of criminals
obviously benefited only the deporting country. Emigration on political or
religious grounds has frequently deprived one country of, and given to
another, a vigorous and industrious stock, as in the case of the French
Huguenots driven from France to England in the late seventeenth century by
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Economic pressure tends to send
abroad agricultural and other unskilled labour. The majority of emigrants
from Great Britain in the nineteenth century belonged to this class. Youth
and adaptability, however, are more important qualities for an emigrant
than a high level of skill in any trade; and it is probable, therefore,
that on the whole emigration has relieved Europe of labour whose supply was
in excess of the demand for it, and has never given newer countries the
material they require. The political consequences of emigration may also be
important. Some writers claim that it has assisted the spread of democracy.
Whether this is an advantage is a matter for individual judgment. But
emigration may certainly have much influence in creating and maintaining
friendly relations between States; or, as shown by Irish influence in the
United States, it may embitter the feeling between them.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Mayo-Smith, _Emigration and Immigration_; S. C. Johnson, _History of
Emigration from the United Kingdom to North America, 1763-1912_.

ÉMIGRÉS ([=a]-mi-gr[=a]s), a name given more particularly to those persons
who left France during the Revolution of 1789. At the head of these
emigrants stood the royal princes of Condé, Provence, and Artois, the first
of whom collected a part of the fugitives to co-operate with the allied
armies in Germany for the restoration of the monarchy. At Coblentz a
particular court of justice was established to settle causes relating to
the French _émigrés_. The corps of Condé was finally taken into the Russian
service, and was disbanded in the Russian-Austrian campaign of 1799. When
Napoleon became emperor he granted permission to all but a few of the
emigrants to return to their country; but many declined to return until
after his downfall. By the Charter of 1814 they were shut out from the
recovery of their estates and privileges; and though, by a law of 27th
April, 1825, some compensation was decreed to them, the grant was withdrawn
again after the July revolution.

EMILIAN PROVINCES, a term applied to certain Italian provinces annexed to
the kingdom of Sardinia in 1860. They comprised the northern part of the
States of the Church (Romagna) and the Duchies of Modena and Parma.

EM´INENCE, an honorary title formerly applied to the Emperor and higher
officials of the Empire, but restricted in 1630 by Pope Urban VIII to
cardinals. Up to that time they had been called _illustrissimi_ and
_reverendissimi_.

EMIR (em´[=e]r), the title given by Mohammedans to independent chiefs or
princes, _Amir_ or _Ameer_ being the same word (the _Amir_ of Afghanistan).
When associated with other words it may designate various dignitaries. Thus
the caliphs styled themselves _Emir-al-Mumenin_, Prince of the Faithful;
_Emir-al-Omrah_, Prince of Princes, was the title of governors of certain
provinces. The title is also given in Turkey to all the real or supposed
descendants of Mohammed, through his daughter Fatimah.

EMMERICH (em´e-ri_h_), a town, Rhenish Prussia, on the right bank of the
Rhine, 5 miles N.E. of Cleves. It joined the Hanseatic League in 1407. It
carries on an active trade chiefly with Holland. Pop. 13,418.

EM´MET, Robert, an Irish rebel, born at Cork in 1778. He was expelled from
Trinity College, Dublin, in 1798, on the ground of exciting disaffection
and rebellion, and having become an object of suspicion to the Government,
quitted Ireland. He returned there on the repeal of the suspension of the
Habeas Corpus Act, and became a member of the Society of United Irishmen
for the establishment of the independence of Ireland. In July, 1803, he was
the ringleader in the foolish rebellion in which Lord Kilwarden and others
perished. He was arrested a few days afterwards, tried, and executed. His
fate excited special interest from his attachment to Sarah Curran, daughter
of the celebrated barrister. Their sad fates were commemorated by his
college friend, Moore, in _Oh, Breathe Not his Name_, and _She is Far from
the Land where her Young Hero Sleeps_.

EMOTION, a term variously used by psychologists; sometimes as one of the
divisions of feeling, the other being sensation; sometimes as opposed to
feeling when the latter is identified with sensation, and sometimes as
distinct from both sensation and feeling, when the last term is rigidly
confined to the sense of pleasure or pain. In any of these uses, however,
emotions are distinguished from sensations in that sensations are primary
forms of consciousness arising by external excitation, are comparatively
simple and immediately presentative phenomena, and are definite in
character and capable of localization; while emotions are secondary or
derived forms of consciousness, are complex and representative, and are
vague and diffused. Sensations are said to be 'peripherally initiated',
while emotions are centrally initiated. When, in addition to its being
distinguished from sensation, it is also distinguished from feeling,
emotion is applied to the whole physical condition accompanying the sense
of pleasure or pain (feeling). The muscles of the body and the organic
functions of the system are often considerably influenced by emotion, which
naturally seeks an outward expression unless held in check by what Darwin
has called serviceable associated habits.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Bain, _The
Emotions and the Will_; J. McCosh, _The Emotions_.

EMPED´OCLES (-kl[=e]z), a Greek philosopher of Agrigentum, in Sicily, born
about 490 B.C. He is said to have introduced the democratic form of
government into his native city, and the Agrigentines regarded him with the
highest veneration as public benefactor, poet, orator, physician, prophet,
and magician. Aristotle states that he died in obscurity, at the age of
sixty years, in the Peloponnesus; but he is also said to have thrown
himself into the crater of Mount Etna, in order to make it be believed, by
his sudden disappearance, that he was of divine origin, and had been
translated to heaven alive (cf. Matthew Arnold's _Empedocles on Etna_).
According to Lucian, however, his sandals were thrown out from the volcano,
and the manner of his death revealed. Empedocles held earth, water, fire,
air, as the four fundamental and indestructible elements from whose union
and separation everything that exists is formed. To these material elements
are added the two moving or operative principles of love and hatred, or
attraction and repulsion. He wrote his philosophy in verse; of his chief
work, _On Nature_, about 400 lines out of the original 5000 are preserved.

EM´PEROR (from the Lat. _imper[=a]tor_; in Ger. _Kaiser_, from _Cæsar_),
the title of the highest rank of sovereigns. The word _imperator_, from
_imper[=a]re_, to command, in its most general sense signified the
commander of an army. After the overthrow of the Roman republic _imperator_
became the title of the rulers or emperors, and indicated their supreme
power. Victorious generals were still, however, sometimes saluted with the
title _imperator_, in its original sense. With the fall of Rome the title
was lost in the West, but was kept up in the Eastern or Byzantine Empire
for nearly ten centuries. In 800 it was renewed in the West when
Charlemagne was crowned, by Leo III, as 'Carolus Augustus, the God-sent,
pious, and great emperor of Rome'. It was, however, for many centuries
considered necessary to be crowned at Rome, in order to be formally
invested with the title of _emperor_. The imperial dignity became extinct
in the East after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, but the title was
adopted by Peter I of Russia in 1721. Napoleon I adopted the old idea of an
empire as a general union of states under the protection, or at least
political preponderance, of one powerful state; and he was followed in this
by his nephew, Napoleon III. In 1806 the first German Empire, 1000 years
old, became extinct, and the German Emperor, Francis II, adopted the title
of Francis I, Emperor of Austria. In Dec., 1870, the second German Empire
was formed, King William of Prussia having accepted the imperial office and
title offered him at Versailles. This empire came to an end in Nov. 1918.
Britain is considered as an empire, the crown as imperial, and the
Parliament is styled the _Imperial Parliament of Great Britain and
Ireland_. Queen Victoria assumed the title of _Empress of India_ in 1876,
but the British sovereign has not the imperial title in reference to the
home dominions. The sovereigns of Japan and Morocco are often, though with
little propriety, called _emperors_.--Cf. Articles _Imperator_ and
_Princeps_ in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_.

EMPEROR MOTH (_Saturnia pavonia_) a British moth belonging to a family
Saturniidæ, of which some Indian species produce tussore silk. The colour
is greyish-brown, with a faint purple tinge. The wings are about 3 inches
in expanse, and in the centre of each is a large eye-like spot. The larva
is of a bright-green colour, and studded with large rose-coloured or yellow
tubercles.

EMPETRA´CEÆ, a small nat. ord. of heath-like Dicotyledons, of which the
type is the crow-berry.

EM´PHASIS, in rhetoric, a special stress or force given to some syllable,
word, or words in speaking, in order to impress the hearers in some desired
manner, thus differing from _accent_, the position of which is fixed.

EMPHYSE´MA is a distention of the tissues with air or other gases. Several
forms are recognized: _pulmonary emphysema_, due to dilatation of the
minute air-passages with loss of elasticity of the lung tissues; _surgical
emphysema_, due to distention of the subcutaneous tissues by air, seen in
certain wounds and injuries; _atrophic emphysema_, due to a senile
condition of the lung tissues.

EMPIRE DAY, a British imperial celebration which is held annually on the
24th of May, the birthday of Queen Victoria. The celebration was officially
held for the first time in 1904, and has since gained wide recognition,
mainly owing to the unremitting efforts of the twelfth Earl of Meath.

EMPIR´IC (Gr. _empeiria_, experience) was used in medical history to denote
one of a sect of physicians who held that observation and experience were
the basis of medicine. The modern use of the term, medically, is restricted
to one who practises medicine without any professional education or
training.

EMPIRICISM (Gr. _empeiria_, experience), the philosophical theory according
to which sense-experience is the source of all knowledge, i.e. that we can
investigate the world only through the experience of our senses. It denies
the existence of any _a priori_ possibility of knowledge, and maintains
that the mind is at first a _tabula rasa_, a clean slate, upon which all
the characters are inscribed by experience. The term empiricism is,
however, now applied to any philosophical system which finds all its
material in experience. The philosophy of empiricism has been particularly
developed by English writers of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth
centuries, such as Locke, Hume, and J. S. Mill. John Locke was the first to
express the view in a systematic form. Among more modern empiricists are
William James and John Dewey.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Green, _Prolegomena to
Ethics_; James, _Essays in Radical Empiricism_.

EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY ACT, a British Act of Parliament passed in 1880, by
which, within certain limits, an injured workman or, in event of his death,
his relatives or representatives may claim from the employer compensation
for injuries received in his service. The law on this subject was improved
by the Workmen's Compensation Act (1897) and its amending Act (1900). These
applied to those employed on, in, or about railways, factories, mines,
quarries, engineering works, buildings, and to agricultural labourers. An
Act of 1906 added other classes of workers, including domestic servants.
The maximum compensation on death is three years' earnings or £150,
whichever is larger, but not more than £300. Contracting-out is carefully
safeguarded. The maximum weekly benefit was raised from £1 to £1, 5s. in
1917, and £1, 15s. in 1920, in cases of total incapacity. Recommendations
by the Board of Trade Departmental Committee were made public in July,
1920. These suggest greater powers of Government control, compulsory
insurance, and greatly increased compensation in cases of death and total
incapacity.

EMPLOYMENT BUREAUS were first established on a considerable scale in the
United Kingdom by the Labour Exchanges Act, 1909. They were to some extent
based upon the German public labour exchanges, which came into being after
1893 in most large towns, and were either municipal or maintained by
voluntary associations and supported by the municipality. Their chief
object was to put employers and work-people into touch with a view to
employment. Before 1909 a few public employment bureaus had been
established in Great Britain. An Act of 1905 established distress
committees in boroughs and urban districts, which were given power to
establish labour exchanges. These powers were in some cases exercised,
either by taking over existing bureaus or establishing new ones. Only in
London was the system of importance. The 1909 Act gave the Board of Trade
power to establish labour exchanges; and, by regulations under the Act, the
United Kingdom has been divided into divisions in each of which are a
number of exchanges of different grades. The system is industrial and not
eleemosynary, aiming solely at providing a recognized market-place for
labour. No fees are charged, and use of the exchanges is voluntary.
Work-people may register at an exchange between certain hours, and, when a
suitable vacancy occurs, the applicant is sent to the employer.
Applications for work-people are generally received by telephone, and are
recorded if no suitable applicant is available. An important part of the
work of the labour exchange is in connection with Unemployed Insurance,
under Part II, National Insurance Act, 1911. This provided for payment of
unemployed benefit in a limited number of occupations. Subsequent Acts
(notably that of 1920) have extended the system to cover the majority of
occupations. The scheme is contributory, but the State shares the cost with
employers and work-people.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. H. Beveridge, _Unemployment_;
F. A. Keller, _Out of Work: a study of unemployment_.

EM´POLI, a town in North Italy, on the left bank of the Arno, 16 miles
W.S.W. of Florence; it has an old collegiate church with good paintings,
and manufactures of straw-bonnets. Pop. 21,500.

EMPO´RIA, a town of the United States, in Kansas, on the Neosho River, with
a normal school, and a good trade in grain and cattle. Pop. 9050.

EMPYREU´MA, the smell arising from organic matter when subjected to the
action of fire, but not enough to carbonize it entirely. The products of
imperfect combustion, as from wood heated in heaps or distilled in close
vessels, are frequently distinguished as empyreumatic.

EMS, or BAD EMS, a beautiful watering-place in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau, on the River Lahn, not far from its confluence with the
Rhine. Its mineral waters are warm--from 70° to 118° F.,--contain large
quantities of carbonic acid gas, and are used in chronic catarrhs,
pulmonary complaints, diseases of the stomach, gout, and some diseases of
the urinary vessels. There are about 8000 visitors each season. Pop. 6850.

EMS, a river of North-West Germany, which flows north-west through Rhenish
Prussia and Hanover, and falls into the Dollart Estuary near Emden; length
230 miles.

EMU. See _Emeu_.

EMUL´SINE, or SYNAPTASE, originally the name given to the mixture of
enzymes in bitter and sweet almonds. Emulsine has the property of being
able to hydrolyse the glucoside amygdalin to glucose, benzaldehyde, and
hydrocyanic acid.

E´MYS, a genus of water-tortoises native to Europe and North America, and
belonging to the family Testudinidæ, which includes most reptiles of the
tortoise kind.

ENALIOSAU´RIANS ('sea-lizards'), a group of gigantic Mesozoic reptiles of
which the ichthyosaurus and plesiosaurus were the chief.

[Illustration: Alfred's Jewel

A jewel of blue enamel enclosed in a setting of gold, with the words round
it: "Ælfred had me wrought", found at Athelney, Somersetshire, in the
seventeenth century.]

ENAM´EL, a vitreous glaze coloured with metallic oxides, and, when first
introduced, made to adhere by fusion on metals, &c. The ancient Babylonians
enamelled bricks. No finer enamelling on bronze was done than that done in
early Britain. The ancient Britons achieved great skill in decorating
bronze shields, armlets, chariot pieces, helmets, &c., with red, blue, and
white enamels during the Late Celtic (Early Iron Age) period and later.
Indeed it is believed that the _champlevé_ process of excavating hollows
for enamel on metal in various flowing and artistic designs of symbolic
character was developed in pre-Roman Britain. Philostratus, a third-century
classical writer, referring to the enamelled trappings of horses, remarks
that "the barbarians who reside in Ocean pour these colours on heated
bronze, so that they adhere and become hard as stone". Beautiful specimens
of enamelled bronze found in England, Scotland, and Ireland, preserved in
the British Museum, include the Battersea and Witham shields, bridle-bits
from Dumfries, and Rise, near Hull, and an enamelled 'terret' from the
Fayum, Egypt, whither, archæologists believed, it was taken by some Roman
soldier. Enamelling on bronze and iron was practised in Central Europe and
at Koban in the Caucasus at an earlier date than in Italy and Egypt.
Byzantine enamels on gold date from the tenth century. M. Salomon Reinach
was the first to point out that red enamels were used as substitutes for
coral, which, by the way, had a religious value as a 'life giver' and
'protector'. The later blue enamel may have been a substitute for
lapis-lazuli, and other enamels, white, violet, green, and yellow, for
other sacred stones. The ancient enamels are more or less opaque.
Transparent enamels were favoured in the thirteenth century by Italian
goldsmiths. A favourite method of applying enamel is known as _cloisonné_,
which means inlaid between partitions. The design is outlined in bent-wire
fillets, which are fastened to the plate by means of silver solder or the
enamel itself. In _champlevé_ work the plate itself is scooped out into
channels for the enamel. The distinction between _cloisonné_ and
_champlevé_ work, therefore, is something like the distinction between a
breastwork and a trench. Enamelled glass is really deeply coloured glass.
Bicycle enamel is made of asphalt or resin dissolved in oil, each coat
being hardened by heat. Enamel paint is made by mixing copal varnish, &c.,
with metallic oxides. A special preparation is applied to leather which is
afterwards heated--this is 'patent leather'. Enamel painting dates back to
the sixteenth century and is used nowadays chiefly for street signs and
advertisements. The term 'enamel' is applied to the hard protective coating
of teeth.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Molinier, _Dictionnaire des émailleurs_; H.
Cunynghame, _Art of Enamelling_; A. Fisher, _The Art of Enamelling upon
Metal_; H. M. Chapin, _How to Enamel_.

ENA´RA, a lake in the north of Finland, about 50 miles long by 30 miles
broad. It is studded by innumerable islets, receives several streams, and
is connected by the Patsjoki with the Arctic Ocean. At its south-west
extremity is a small fishing-town of the same name, with an annual fair.

ENARE´A, a region belonging to the country of the Gallas, south of
Abyssinia. Sakha is the principal town. Coffee and ivory are the chief
exports. The inhabitants are the most civilized of the Gallas.

[Illustration: Encarpus, from Palazzo Niccolini, Rome]

ENCAR´PUS, in architecture, a sculptured ornament in imitation of a garland
of fruits, leaves, or flowers, suspended between two points. The garland is
widest in the middle, and diminishes gradually to the points of suspension,
from which the ends generally hang down. The encarpus is sometimes composed
of an imitation of drapery similarly disposed, and sometimes of an
assemblage of musical instruments, implements of war or of the chase.

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, a kind of painting practised by the ancients, for the
perfecting of which heating or burning-in was required. Pliny distinguishes
three species, in all of which wax was used with colours, and applied
either with bronze instruments (cauteria), a sharp-pointed tool (cestrum),
or brushes. The art has been revived in modern times, but has not been
greatly employed. As the chief aim in encaustic painting was the securing
of permanence and durability by the application of heat, the word
_encaustic_ has been applied to other and widely different processes. Thus
it has been used for painting on earthen vessels, for painting on porcelain
and work in enamel; and in the same way it was given to the painting on
glass of the Middle Ages.--Cf. A. P. Laurie, _Greek and Roman Methods of
Painting_.

ENCAUSTIC TILES, ornamental paving-tiles of baked pottery, much used during
the Middle Ages in the pavements of churches and other ecclesiastical
buildings. The encaustic tile, strictly so-called, was decorated with
patterns formed by different coloured clays inlaid in the tile and fired
with it. The art appears to have originated in the latter part of the
twelfth century, to have attained its highest perfection during the
thirteenth, and to have sunk into disuse in the fifteenth. During the whole
of this period it was principally carried on in England and Normandy. After
a long lapse the art was revived in England in 1830 by Wright, a Shelton
potter. In modern manufacture two methods are employed, the 'plastic' and
the 'semi-dry' or 'dust' method. The first is, in all essentials, that used
in the Middle Ages, except, perhaps, in the perfection of modern moulding
appliances; the second consists in ramming pulverized clay with a minimum
of moisture into metal dies, the subsequent firing of tiles thus
consolidated being attended with less risk from shrinkage.

ENCE´NIA, festivals anciently commemorative of the founding of a city or
the dedication of a church; and in later times periodical ceremonies, as at
Oxford, in commemoration of founders and benefactors.

ENCEPHALARTOS, a genus of Cyeads, natives of Africa. Meal (Kaffir-bread) is
made from the pith by the natives.

ENCHANTER'S NIGHTSHADE, a name common to plants of the genus Circæa, nat.
ord. Onagraceæ, of which there are two British species, _C. luteti[=a]na_
and _C. alp[=i]na_. The former is about a foot and a half high, and has
delicate ovate leaves, small white flowers tinged with pink, and small
roundish fruits covered with hooked bristles. It abounds in shady woods.
_C. alp[=i]na_, which is similar, but smaller and more delicate, is found
in Scotland and north of England. They have no affinity with the
nightshades.

ENCHORIAL (en-k[=o]´ri-al) WRITING, the form of writing used by the old
Egyptians for the common purposes of life, as distinct from the
hieroglyphic and hieratic (used by the priests). It is also called
_Demotic_.

ENCKE (en´ke), Johann Franz, German astronomer, born at Hamburg in 1791,
died in 1865. He studied under the astronomer Gauss at Göttingen. During
the War of Liberation (1813-5) he served as artillerist in the German army,
and after the peace became assistant in the observatory of Seeberg, near
Gotha. Here he calculated the orbit of the comet observed by Mechain, Miss
Herschel, and Pons, predicted its return, and detected a gradual
acceleration of movement, ascribed by him to the presence of a resisting
medium. The comet is now known as Encke's comet. The fame of his works _Die
Entfernung der Sonne_ (The Distance of the Sun) and _Der Venusdurchgang von
1769_ (Transit of Venus of 1769) led to his appointment as director of the
Berlin Observatory (1825), a position which he held till his death. From
1830 he edited the _Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch_.

ENCKE'S COMET. This object was seen in 1786, and at some subsequent
returns, before it was discovered by Encke in 1819 to be a periodic comet.
It has since been observed at numerous returns. It revolves round the sun
in about three and one-third years, having the shortest period of any comet
known. It has exhibited very prominently the feature, shown by many comets,
of a contraction of the head or coma on approaching the sun. Encke's comet
long manifested the most remarkable feature of a shortening of its period
by about two and a half hours in each revolution. The suggestion was made
that this was due to resistance by a rare medium generally diffused in the
solar system, which had the effect of reducing its aphelion distance and
diminishing its orbit. This, however, is improbable, as other comets show
no similar effect. The cause remains undiscovered, and a further
extraordinary fact is that the shortening of period is found since 1868 to
have been only half of its previous amount.

ENCLAVE ([.a]n-kl[=a]v), a term used in German and French to denote a place
or country which is entirely surrounded by the territories of another
power.

[Illustration: Fossil Encrinites

Group of Pear-encrinites, much reduced, on left, and part of a
Pear-encrinite, reduced, on right.]

EN´CRINITE, or CRINOIDEA (Gr. _krinon_, lily, and _eidos_, form), a name
often applied to all the marine animals of the class Crinoidea or
stone-lilies, phylum Echinodermata, except feather-stars; but more
specifically restricted to the genera having rounded, smooth stems attached
to the bottom, and supporting the body of the animal, which has numerous
jointed arms radiating from a central disc, in which the mouth is situated.
Encrinites were exceedingly numerous in past ages of the world's history;
of those still existing our knowledge has been greatly increased of recent
years through deep-sea dredging. Some of these forms are very graceful and
interesting. See _Crinoidea_; _Echinodermata_.

ENCY´CLICAL, a sort of circular letter or manifesto issued by a pope, and
directed to the Roman Catholic clergy generally or to those of a certain
country or area, giving instructions as to conduct to be observed at
certain conjunctures, condemning erroneous doctrines, &c. The encyclical,
which is a somewhat less formal document than a bull, was especially
favoured by Pope Pius IX and Leo XIII. Pope Pius IX issued one in 1864,
wherein he condemned eighty alleged errors in modern ideas of religion and
civilization, and Pius X issued another in 1907, wherein he condemned
modernism. A number of encyclicals was issued by Pope Leo XIII on Bible
Study, Socialism, Capital and Labour.

ENCYCLOPEDIA (Gr. _en_, in, _kyklos_, a circle, and _paideia_,
instruction), a systematic view of the whole extent of human knowledge or
of particular departments of it, with the subjects arranged generally in
alphabetic order. Varro and Pliny the elder, among the Romans, attempted
works of an encyclopedic nature, the latter in his well-known _Historia
Naturalis_, or _Natural History_. Other ancient encyclopedic works were
those of Stobæus and Suidas, and especially of Marcianus Capella. In the
thirteenth century a work on a regular plan was compiled by the Dominican
Vincent of Beauvais (died 1264), in which was exhibited the whole sum of
the knowledge of the Middle Ages. His work was entitled _Speculum
Historiale, Naturale, Doctrinale_, to which an anonymous author added, some
years later, a _Speculum Morale_. Roger Bacon's _Opus Majus_ also belonged
to the encyclopedic class. An exceedingly popular work was the _De
Proprietatibus Rerum_ of Bartholomeus de Glanvilla, an English Franciscan
friar, which maintained its reputation from 1360 to the middle of the
sixteenth century. In the seventeenth century various encyclopedic works
were compiled, such as the Latin one of Johann Heinrich Alsted (in 7 vols.,
Herborn, 1620). In 1674 appeared the first edition of Moreri's _Le Grand
Dictionnaire Historique_; in 1677 Johann Jacob Hoffmann published at Basel
his _Lexicon Universale_; and in 1697 appeared Bayle's famous _Dictionnaire
Historique et Critique_, which is still of great value. The first English
alphabetical encyclopædia was the _Lexicon Technicum_, published in 1704.
Among the chief English works of this kind are: 1. Ephraim Chambers's
_Cyclopædia, or A Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences_, published in
1728 in 2 vols. folio. 2. _The Encyclopædia Britannica_, published in
Edinburgh, in nine editions--the first in 1788, the ninth in 1875-88 (24
vols. 4to, with supplement, 11 vols., 1902-3). The tenth edition was
published in 1902, and the eleventh issued in 1910-11 by the University
Press, Cambridge. 3. Rees' _Cyclopædia_, 39 vols. 4to, illustrated,
1802-20. 4. _Edinburgh Encyclopædia_, 1810-30, 18 vols. 4to, conducted by
Sir David (then Dr.) Brewster. 5. _Encyclopædia Metropolitana_, London, 29
vols. 4to, and containing some valuable complete treatises. 6. _The London
Encyclopædia_, by Thomas Curtis, 22 vols. 4to; London, 1829. 7. _The Penny
Cyclopædia_, in 28 vols. small folio, 1833-43; since recast under the name
of the _English Cyclopædia_. 8. _Chambers's Encyclopædia_, in 10 vols. 9.
_The Popular Encyclopædia_, issued in 14 vols. 10. Harmsworth's _Universal
Encyclopedia_. 11. Nelson's _The New Age Encyclopædia_. 12. _The New
Gresham Encyclopedia_, 12 vols. (one being index). The chief American
encyclopædias are the _Encyclopædia Americana_, in 13 vols.; the _New
American Cyclopædia_, in 16 vols.; _Johnson's Universal Cyclopedia_, 8
vols.; _The New International Encyclopædia_, 25 vols. Of the French
cyclopædias the most famous is the great _Dictionnaire Encyclopédique_, by
Diderot and D'Alembert (see next article); the _Encyclopédie Méthodique, ou
par Ordre des Matières_, Paris, 1781-1832, in 201 vols. 4to, of which 47
are plates; the _Encyclopédie Moderne_, 1824-32, 26 vols.; the
_Encyclopédie des Gens du Monde_, 1835-44, 22 vols.; the _Dictionnaire de
la Conversation et de la Lecture_, 1851-58; the excellent _Grande
Encyclopédie_, 31 vols.; and the large and valuable _Grand Dictionnaire
Universel du XIX^e Siècle_, published by Larousse, 16 vols. folio (with
supplementary vols.); _The Nouveau Larousse Illustré_, 7 vols. Numerous
works of this kind have been published in Germany, the most popular being
the _Conversations-Lexikon_ of Brockhaus; Meyer's _Konversations-Lexicon_;
Pierer's _Konversations-Lexikon_; and that issued by Spamer. The most
comprehensive is the _Allgemeine Encyklopädie_, originally edited by
Professors Ersch and Gruber, begun in 1818, and not yet completed. _The
Rousskiy Entsiklopeditsheskiy Slovarj_, the best Russian encyclopedia, in
43 vols, was published between 1905 and 1908.

ENCYCLOPÉDIE ([.a]n-sik-lo-p[=a]-d[=e]), THE FRENCH, one of the most
important literary enterprises of the eighteenth century, originated in a
French translation of Ephraim Chambers's _Cyclopædia_. Diderot was
appointed to edit it, and enlisted the ablest men of the time as
contributors. D'Alembert (who wrote the famous _Discours préliminaire_)
edited the mathematics; Rousseau wrote the musical articles; Daubenton,
those connected with natural history; the Abbé Yvon, those on logic,
metaphysics, and ethics; Toussaint, those on jurisprudence; Buffon
contributed the article _Nature_; and Montesquieu, Voltaire, Euler,
Marmontel, D'Holbach, Turgot, Grimm, and Condorcet took some share in the
great work. Diderot himself was a prolific contributor on a wide variety of
topics. The prospectus appeared in Nov., 1750, and the first volume in
1751, the whole being completed, despite fierce opposition, in 1765. The
contributors to the _Encyclopédie_, the majority of whom held unorthodox
views on religious, political, and social subjects, are known as the
_Encyclopédistes_.

ENDEM´IC (Gr. _en_ and _demos_, people) is a term applied to diseases
peculiar to people of a particular district or of a nation or country. The
cause of this may be due to the physical characters of the place, or to the
mode of living, habits, &c., of the people. Diseases endemic in one region
may appear elsewhere when similar influences arise.

EN´DERBY LAND, an island in the Antarctic Ocean, long. 50° E., crossed by
the Antarctic Circle. It was discovered by John Biscoe in 1831.

EN´DIVE. See _Chicory_.

ENDLESS SCREW, a mechanical contrivance, consisting of a screw the thread
of which gears into a wheel with skew teeth, the obliquity corresponding to
the angle of pitch of the screw. It is generally employed as a means of
producing slow motion in the adjustments of machines, rather than as
transmitter of any great amount of power.

ENDLICHER (end´li-h[.e]r), Stephen Ladislaus, Hungarian botanist, born at
Presburg in 1804. He was successively court-librarian at Vienna, and keeper
of the natural history museum; and in 1840 was appointed professor of
botany in the University of Vienna, and director of the botanic garden,
which he immediately began to reorganize. He took part on the popular side
in the German revolution of 1848, and died by his own hand in 1849. Among
his chief botanical works are his _Genera Plantarum_, a systematic treatise
on botany; and his _Enchiridion Botanicum_, or _Manual of Botany_.

ENDOCARDI´TIS, is inflammation of the endocardium, which is the lining
membrane of the internal surface of the heart.

ENDODERMIS, the innermost layer of the cortex. It acts as a 'physiological
barrier' between the vascular tissues and the cortex, its structure being
such as to compel all interchange of water and other materials between the
two to pass through the living protoplasm of the endodermal cells. Sec
_Tissues of Plants_.

ENDOG´AMY (Gr. _endon_, within, _gamos_, marriage), a custom among some
savage peoples of marrying only within their own tribe: opposite to
_exogamy_.

ENDOGENOUS PLANTS, old name for monocotyledons (q.v.).

ENDOGENOUS STRUCTURES, in botany, are those which arise in the interior of
the parent organ. Lateral roots furnish the best example. Opposed to
exogenous structures (see also _Branching_ and _Root_).

EN´DOMORPH, a term applied to crystals of minerals enclosed in those of
other minerals.

EN´DOPARASITE (Gr. _endon_, within), a parasite living within, and at the
expense of, another organism, as opposed to an _ectoparasite_, which
attacks its host from the exterior.

EN´DOSKELETON, in anatomy, a term applied to the internal bony structure of
man and other animals (Gr. _endon_, within), in contradistinction to
_exoskeleton_, which is the outer and hardened covering of such animals as
the crab and lobster.

EN´DOSMOSE, or ENDOSMO´SIS, the transmission of liquids or gases through
porous septa or partitions from the exterior to the interior of a vessel.
When two different liquids or gases are separated by a porous vessel, the
two fluids pass through the walls of the vessel at different rates, causing
a change of volume and of pressure inside and outside the vessel. Endosmose
is the name applied to the flow towards the fluid which is increasing in
volume. When the transfer of liquid across the porous partition takes place
in a cell through which an electric current is flowing the effect is called
electrical endosmose.

EN´DOSPERM, the tissue surrounding the embryo in many seeds and contained
with it within the testa. It forms a supply of food for the germinating
embryo, and is also called albumen.

ENDYM´ION, in Greek mythology, a huntsman, a shepherd, or a king of Elis,
who is said to have asked of Zeus, or to have received as a punishment,
eternal sleep. Others relate that Sel[=e]n[=e] or Diana (the moon) conveyed
him to Mount Latmos in Caria, and threw him into a perpetual sleep in order
that she might enjoy his society whenever she pleased. Endymion is also
supposed to be a personification of the sun, or of the plunge of the
setting sun into the sea.--Cf. Keats, _Endymion_.

ENERGY, PHYSICAL, is the capacity which a body or system of bodies has for
doing work. Work is done when a force is overcome, and it is measured by
the product of the force and the distance through which it is overcome. A
quantity of energy is therefore expressed in terms of the same units as
work, e.g. the foot-pound and the erg. Energy exists in two forms.
Potential energy is that which a body possesses in virtue of its position.
For instance, by winding up a clock weight it is given a certain amount of
potential energy, which it slowly expends in driving the clock; a bent
spring and a mass of compressed air also possess energy in the potential
form. This kind may also be noted in the voltaic cell and the charged
condenser, and in a chemical form in coal and gunpowder. Kinetic energy is
possessed by bodies in virtue of their motion. Thus a moving bullet and a
falling hammer contain kinetic energy; bodies which are in a state of
vibration are also sources of this form of energy, which is diffused from
the body through the surrounding medium in the form of waves, whether of
sound, heat, light, or the ether waves of radio-telegraphy. Energy may thus
exist in any of the following forms: mechanical (potential, kinetic),
sound, heat, light, magnetic, electrostatic, electromagnetic, chemical.

Energy may be transformed from one kind into another. When a pendulum is
vibrating, there is a continual transformation of potential into kinetic
energy, and vice versa. By rubbing the hands together we convert mechanical
energy into heat. In an electric tramway system we may note a whole series
of transformations. The chemical energy of the fuel is turned into heat in
the furnace and boiler; this, again, into kinetic energy of the turbine and
dynamo; the latter gives out electric current, the energy of which, after
suffering slight losses as heat in the overhead wire, and as light and
sound in the spark at the trolley, passes into the motor, to reappear as
kinetic energy of the car.

The transformation of energy takes place according to a definite law. The
principle of the conservation of energy states that the total amount of
energy in a self-contained finite system is constant. This implies that
energy cannot be destroyed, and that when a certain amount of energy
disappears, an equal amount appears in another form. This principle is
apparently contradicted in many cases of transformation, since it is
impossible to transform energy by natural process, or by the use of
mechanism, without doing work in overcoming frictional or resisting forces.
In all such cases the energy spent is converted into heat, which is less
available as useful energy. The experiments of Rumford, Davy, and Joule
were instrumental in establishing the equivalence of mechanical energy and
heat. Rumford showed that water could be boiled by means of the heat
produced by rotating a blunt boring-tool within a cannon, and pointed out
that the heat liberated was, in another form, the energy spent in driving
the blunt drill. Davy caused two pieces of ice to be rubbed together within
a vacuum at a temperature below zero, and melted the ice, thus showing
that, since ice has to absorb heat in order to melt, the supply of heat
could not have come from the ice itself, but must have resulted from the
work done in rubbing. It has to be remembered that, in the time of Rumford
and Davy, the belief was prevalent that heat or caloric was a material
substance, and not a form of motion.

A further and most important step was made by Dr. J. P. Joule, of
Manchester, who measured the amount of mechanical work which is spent in
producing one unit of heat. This is known as the mechanical equivalent of
heat, or Joule's equivalent. Two hanging weights were geared to a set of
paddles which could rotate within a cylindrical copper vessel filled with
water, and supplied with fixed vanes. The weights were released, and in
descending a measured distance caused the paddles to churn the water in the
vessel, and thus the water was slightly warmed. This operation was repeated
several times, and the rise of temperature of the water was measured by
means of a delicate thermometer. When corrections for friction, cooling,
and other losses had been applied, Joule calculated that 772 foot-pounds of
work were expended in raising 1 lb. of water 1° F. The experiment has been
repeated in various forms, and the value now accepted for Joule's
equivalent is 777.

Although energy cannot be destroyed, nor, it may be added, created, it may
be rendered less available for use. The various forms of energy may be
classified according to their availability, and in this respect mechanical
energy is one of the most available, and low-temperature heat is one of the
least available. The latter is therefore classed as a lower form of energy,
and when energy is converted from a more available to a less available
form, it is said to be dissipated or degraded. Now, during any
transformation of energy, a part of the energy is spent in overcoming
friction forces, and is thus degraded.

The problem of economizing our stores of energy is one which is now
attracting more attention than it did formerly. With the greater scarcity
of coal, and the future prospect of its complete absence, other natural
sources of energy are being investigated. Oil has been discovered in this
country, but not in large quantities. Waterfalls have long been employed
for driving mills wherever this type of power could be obtained cheaply and
conveniently; the resources of the Highlands in this respect have not been
utilized to any great extent. At Kinlochleven, where the valley has been
dammed across to obtain sufficient water-power, an aluminium industry has
sprung up. There is a scheme on foot at the present time to make use of the
tidal energy of the Severn. Here and there windmills may be seen which
drive water-pumps employed for draining purposes. On the Severn, near
Ironbridge, a ferry is in use which employs the force of the river current
to propel the ferryboat across the river. In warmer countries batteries of
mirrors have been employed to concentrate the sun's heat for use in the
absence of fuel. In large towns the presence of unconsumed carbon (soot) in
the atmosphere raises the question not only of fuel economy but also of
public health.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kelvin and Tait, _Natural Philosophy_;
Balfour Stewart, _Conservation of Energy_; Deschanel, _Heat, Light, &c._;
E. Buckingham, _Thermodynamics_.

ENFANTIN ([.a][n.]-f[.a][n.]-ta[n.]), Barthélemy Prosper, one of the chief
founders of St. Simonism; born at Paris 1796, died in 1864. In 1825 he
became acquainted with St. Simon, who in dying confided to him the task of
continuing the work. This he did with success until after the Revolution of
1830, when, as the representative of the social and religious theories of
the school, he quarrelled with Bazard, the representative of its political
ideas. Enfantin organized model communities, which quickly fell to pieces;
the new organ of the sect, _Le Globe_, was a failure; their convent at
Ménilmontant, of which Enfantin was 'supreme father', was broken up by the
Government (1832). He himself was imprisoned as an offender against public
morality (being an advocate of free love), and on his release attempted to
found a model colony in Egypt, which was broken up in the second year. He
then retired to Tain (Drôme), where he lived for some time as a farmer. In
1841 he was sent as member of a commission to explore the industrial
resources of Algiers, and on his return published a work on the
_Colonization of Algiers_ (1848). On the Revolution of 1848 he started a
new journal, _Le Crédit Public_, but after two years withdrew from public
notice. He afterwards held a post on the Lyons and Mediterranean Railway
until his death. Among his works are: _Doctrine de St. Simon_, _La Religion
St. Simonienne_.

EN´FIELD, a town, England, county Middlesex, 9 miles N. by E. London. It is
the seat of the Government manufactory of rifles and small-arms. It gives
its name to the British rifle (Lee-Enfield), which helped to win the
European War. Pop. 56,338.

ENFILADE FIRE, fire directed down the length of a trench or a line of
troops from a point at right angles to their front. Its moral effect is
very great, as it usually comes from an unexpected direction, and the
target presented to it is generally more vulnerable. Trenches give much
less protection against oblique or enfilade fire than they do against
frontal fire, although the main purpose of 'bays' is to lessen the effect
of enfilading.

EN´GADINE, a beautiful valley in Switzerland, in the Grisons, on the banks
of the Inn, bordering on the Tyrol, about 50 miles long, but in some parts
very narrow, divided into Upper and Lower. The pop. of the whole valley
amounts to about 12,000. The language generally spoken is the Ladin, a
branch of the Romanic tongue. The cold, dry climate and mineral springs
have made the valley a favourite resort for invalids.

ENGAGED COLUMN, in architecture, a column attached to a wall so that part
of it (usually less than half) is concealed.

ENGELS, FRIEDRICH, German Socialist, born at Barmen in 1820, died 1895. He
was the son of a rich cotton-spinner, and although destined for a
commercial career, he began to collaborate on the _Deutsch-Franzosische
Jahrbücher_ issued in Paris by Karl Marx and Arnold Ruge. He helped Marx to
organize the Communist League in 1846, and took part in the Revolution of
1848 at Baden. From 1850 to 1869 he lived at Manchester as manufacturer. An
intimate friend of Marx, he helped the latter to spread social democratic
ideas, and was part author, of the _Communist Manifesto_. After the death
of Marx he edited the second and third volumes of _Das Kapital_. Engel's
own works include: _The Condition of the Working Classes in England in
1844_; _The Origin of the Family_; _Private Property and the State_; and
_Socialism, Utopian and Scientific_.--Cf. Karl Kautsky, _Friedrich Engels:
his Life, his Work, and his Writings_.

ENGHIEN ([.a][n.]-gi-[.a][n.]), or _Enguien_, a town in Hainault, Belgium,
between Brussels and Tournai. It has a superb castle, and gave the title of
duke to a prince of the house of Bourbon Condé in memory of the victory
gained here by the great Condé. Pop. 4540.

ENGHIEN ([.a][n.]-gi-[.a][n.]), Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, Duke of,
born at Chantilly in 1772; son of Louis Henry Joseph Condé, Duke of
Bourbon. On the outbreak of the Revolution he quitted France, travelled
through various parts of Europe, and went in 1792 to Flanders to join his
grandfather, the Prince of Condé, in the campaign against France. From 1796
to 1799 he commanded with distinguished merit the vanguard of Condé's army,
which was disbanded at the Peace of Lunéville (1801). He then took up
residence as a private citizen at Ettenheim in Baden, where he married the
Princess Charlotte de Rohan Rochefort. He was generally looked upon as the
leader of the _émigrés_ (q.v.), and was suspected by the Bonapartists of
complicity in the attempt of Cadoudal to assassinate the first consul. An
armed force was sent to seize him in Baden in violation of all territorial
rights, and he was brought to Vincennes on the 20th March, 1804. A trial,
which was a mere form, was held the same night; and on the following
morning he was shot in the ditch outside the walls. It was this event which
drew from Fouché the comment, since become proverbial: "C'est plus qu'un
crime, c'est une faute" ("It is worse than a crime, it is a blunder").

EN´GINE. See _Internal Combustion Engines_; _Steam-engines_.

ENGINEERING, the profession concerned in applying the forces of nature to
the service of man. It is divided into two groups, civil engineering and
military engineering. This grouping of the profession of engineering is
adopted in the Charter of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Army
engineers are organized as Royal Engineers. Candidates intending to become
Royal Engineer officers have to pass the Army Entrance Examination to gain
admission to Woolwich. At Woolwich they receive a course of technical
instruction, and then proceed to military engineering duties in the Royal
Engineers. Naval engineers enter the service as naval cadets. The education
of all naval cadets is the same, no matter in what branch of the service
they may ultimately specialize, up to the rank of sub-lieutenant, when
specialization begins. The engineering lieutenants undergo a special course
of engineering training at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, and then go
to sea. Naval engineers are called upon to undergo a severe medical
examination, as the conditions of service call for robust men.

In the ordinary way the term _civil engineering_ is not used in the
technical sense explained above, but is the name given to one of the
sections into which the whole group is divided. The 'civil' engineer
undertakes the design and erection of constructional works, such as
harbours, docks, railways, buildings, bridges, &c. A person entering the
profession of civil engineering usually receives a technical education at a
technical school, or at a university, and then enters the office of a
practising civil engineer. He will spend a part of his time at the
drawing-board, learning the details of design, and a part of his time
actually in the field or on works, assisting in the supervision of the
work. The other departments of the group of 'civil engineers'--as distinct
from military engineers--are mechanical engineers, electrical engineers,
motor engineers, telegraph engineers, radio engineers, mining engineers,
aeronautical engineers, &c. With the exception of mining, the courses of
training in these sections are very much the same, and consist of a
technical course in a college or a university, followed by a practical
training as a pupil in a works. The prior technical education is now being
insisted upon by most of the large engineering firms, and, in many of the
best works, special courses of instruction are given to apprentices as part
of their training by the most experienced engineers of the company. In
mining, the orthodox training consists of a technical course in one of the
mining schools, followed by practical work in a mine. In this country every
mining engineer who intends to take a position of responsibility must
qualify by passing a Board of Trade examination. Sea-going marine
engineering officers have, in addition to undergoing the usual training, to
pass the sea-going engineers' examination of the Board of Trade. It will be
seen from the above remarks that the courses of training for engineers
depend entirely upon the particular branch of engineering which is to be
entered. As this point is often not finally settled till fairly late in a
young man's career, it is possibly unwise for him to take his initial
training in too narrow a groove. A sound, general technical education,
combined with three or four years' experience in a general engineering
works, will fit him for specializing in very many sections of engineering,
whereas if he intends to enter the mining or the civil engineering
professions, a sound technical course, followed by a few years' experience
in civil or mining engineering work abroad will usually fit him for a
specialized post later on.

ENGINEERS, ROYAL. Military engineers in one form or another, and under
various names, have existed in England since the eleventh century. In those
early days men of some education--often monks--were appointed as
Ingeniatores Regis to undertake the manufacture of the king's engines of
war, and to build his castles. In later years they became known as
Attilators, and when, with the gradual introduction of gunpowder for
military purposes, a combined train was formed, are considered to have
given their name to what we now call artillery. In the early seventeenth
century this train, composed of engineers and artillery, was merely a
temporary corps raised for a particular war and disbanded on its
conclusion; but in 1698, when the expediency of maintaining a standing army
had been to some extent recognized, the first permanent train was raised.
In 1716 a separate body of engineers was formed, but without military rank,
and it was not till 1782 that military titles were conferred on the
officers of engineers. In 1787 the Corps of Engineers became by Royal
Warrant the Corps of Royal Engineers, with the mottoes _Ubique_ and _Quo
fas et gloria ducunt_, which are also borne by the Royal Regiment of
Artillery. For a considerable period the rank and file of the corps were
known as the 'Royal Sappers and Pioneers', and the term 'Sapper' is still
used to denote a private of the corps. Among the present-day peace-time
duties of the Royal Engineers are the construction and maintenance of
barracks and military works generally, while for war purposes the corps is
organized into mobile units known as field squadrons and companies for
general field-work, and into more highly specialized units for mining,
heavy bridging, and railway work. The corps is recruited almost entirely
from among artisans and tradesmen, and a field company of a total strength
of 184 all ranks has representatives of no fewer than nineteen trades in
it.

[Illustration]

ENGLAND, including _Wales_, the southern and larger portion of the Island
of Great Britain, is situated between 50° and 55° 46' N. lat., and 1° 46'
E. and 5° 42' W. long. On the north it is bounded by Scotland; on all other
sides it is washed by the sea: on the east by the North Sea; on the south
by the English Channel; and on the west by St. George's Channel and the
Irish Sea. Its figure is, roughly speaking, triangular, but with many
windings and indentations, the coast-line measuring not less than 2765
miles. The length of the country, measured on a meridian from Berwick
nearly to St. Alban's Head, is 365 miles. Its breadth, measured on a
parallel of latitude, attains its maximum between St. David's Head, in
South Wales, and the Naze, in Essex, where it amounts to 280 miles. The
area is 37,340,388 acres or 58,310 sq. miles, of which 32,559,868 acres or
50,874 sq. miles are in England, and 4,780,470 acres or 7466 sq. miles in
Wales. This is exclusive of the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man, which
together would add 193,647 acres or 302 sq. miles more to the area. The
subdivision of England into shires or counties does not appear to have
assumed a definite form till the time of Alfred. The existing division was
first completed under Henry VIII. There are now 'administrative counties'
and 'registration counties', differing in area from the old counties;
London being now a county. The figures in the table (p. 241) refer to the
old counties.

The capital of England and of the British Empire is London. The cities next
in size (in order of population) are: Liverpool, Manchester and Salford,
Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, Bradford, Nottingham, and Hull.

_Physical Features._--The chief indentations are: on the east, the Humber,
the Wash, and the Thames estuary: on the west, the Solway Firth, Morecambe
Bay, Cardigan Bay, and the Bristol Channel; those on the south are less
prominent, though including some useful harbours. The greater part of the
coast consists of cliffs, in some places clayey, in others rocky, and
sometimes jutting out, as at Whitby and Flamborough Head on the east,
Beachy Head, the Isle of Portland, the Lizard and Land's End on the south
and south-west, St. David's Head and St. Bees Head on the west, into bold,
lofty, and precipitous headlands. The most extensive stretches of flat
coast are on the east, in the county of Lincoln, and from the southern part
of Suffolk to the South Foreland in Kent, and in Sussex and Hants on the
south coast. The chief islands are: Holy Island, the Farne Islands,
Sheppey, and Thanet on the east coast; the Isle of Wight on the south; the
Scilly Isles at the south-west extremity; and Lundy Island, Anglesey, Holy
Island, and Walney on the west.

[Illustration]

The loftiest heights of England and Wales are situated at no great distance
from its western shores, and consist not so much of a continuous chain as
of a succession of mountains and hills stretching, with some interruptions,
from north to south, and throwing out numerous branches on both sides, but
particularly to the west, where all the culminating summits are found. The
northern portion of this range has received the name of the Pennine chain.
It is properly a continuation of the Cheviot Hills, and, commencing at the
Scottish border, proceeds south for about 270 miles till, in the counties
of Derby and Stafford, it assumes the form of an elevated moorland plateau.
In Derbyshire The Peak rises to the height of 2080 feet. By far the most
important of its offsets are those of the west, more especially if we
include in them the lofty mountain masses in North-Western England
sometimes classed separately as the Cumbrian range. Amidst these mountains
lie the celebrated English lakes, of which the most important are
Windermere, Derwent Water, Coniston Lake, and Ullswater. Here also is the
highest summit of Northern England, Scawfell (3210 feet). The Pennine
chain, with its appended Cumbrian range, is succeeded by one which
surpasses both these in loftiness and extent, but has its great nucleus
much farther to the west, where it covers the greater part of Wales,
deriving from this its name, the Cambrian range. Its principal ridge
stretches through Carnarvonshire from N.N.E to S.S.W., with Snowdon (3571
feet) as the culminating point of South Britain. Across the Bristol Channel
from Wales is the Devonian range. It may be considered as commencing in the
Mendip Hills of Somerset, and then pursuing a south-westerly direction
through that county and the counties of Devon and Cornwall to the Land's
End, the wild and desolate tract of Dartmoor forming one of its most
remarkable features (highest summit, Yes Tor, 2050 feet). Other ranges are
the Cotswold Hills proceeding in a north-easterly direction from near the
Mendip Hills; the Chiltern Hills taking a similar direction farther to the
east; and the North and South Downs running eastward, the latter reaching
the south coast near Beachy Head, the former reaching the south-east coast
at Folkestone.


  Column Headings:

    A - Area in Statute Acres, 1921 (Land and Inland Water). Counties,
        including County Boroughs,
    B - _Census Population._   Counties, including County Boroughs, 1911.
    C - _Census Population._   Counties, including County Boroughs, 1921.

  +--------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
  |                          |      A      |      B      |      C      |
  +--------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
  |      ENGLAND.            |             |             |             |
  | Bedfordshire             |    302,942  |    194,588  |    206,478  |
  | Berkshire                |    463,830  |    280,794  |    294,807  |
  | Buckinghamshire          |    479,360  |    219,551  |    236,209  |
  | Cambridgeshire           |    315,168  |    128,322  |    129,594  |
  |   Isle of Ely            |    238,073  |     69,752  |     73,778  |
  | Cheshire                 |    657,950  |    954,779  |  1,025,423  |
  | Cornwall                 |    868,167  |    328,098  |    320,559  |
  | Cumberland               |    973,086  |    265,746  |    273,037  |
  | Derbyshire               |    650,369  |    683,423  |    714,539  |
  | Devonshire               |  1,671,364  |    699,703  |    709,488  |
  | Dorsetshire              |    625,612  |    223,266  |    228,258  |
  | Durham                   |    649,244  |  1,369,860  |  1,478,506  |
  | Essex                    |    979,532  |  1,350,881  |  1,468,341  |
  | Gloucestershire          |    805,842  |    736,097  |    757,668  |
  | Herefordshire            |    538,924  |    114,269  |    113,118  |
  | Hertfordshire            |    404,523  |    311,284  |    333,236  |
  | Huntingdonshire          |    233,985  |     55,577  |     54,748  |
  | Kent                     |    975,965  |  1,045,591  |  1,141,867  |
  | Lancashire               |  1,194,555  |  4,767,832  |  4,928,359  |
  | Leicestershire           |    532,779  |    476,553  |    494,522  |
  | Lincolnshire             |             |             |             |
  |   The parts of Holland   |    263,355  |     82,849  |     85,225  |
  |   The parts of Kesteven  |    469,142  |    111,324  |    108,237  |
  |   The parts of Lindsey   |    972,796  |    369,787  |    408,643  |
  | London                   |     74,850  |  4,521,685  |  4,483,249  |
  | Middlesex                |    148,692  |  1,126,465  |  1,253,164  |
  | Monmouthshire            |    349,552  |    395,719  |    450,700  |
  | Norfolk                  |  1,315,064  |    499,116  |    504,277  |
  | Northamptonshire         |    585,148  |    303,797  |    302,430  |
  |   Soke of Peterborough   |     53,464  |     44,718  |     46,954  |
  | Northumberland           |  1,291,515  |    696,893  |    746,138  |
  | Nottinghamshire          |    540,123  |    604,098  |    641,134  |
  | Oxfordshire              |    479,220  |    189,484  |    189,558  |
  | Rutlandshire             |     97,273  |     20,346  |     18,368  |
  | Shropshire               |    861,800  |    246,307  |    242,959  |
  | Somersetshire            |  1,037,594  |    458,025  |    465,682  |
  | Southampton              |    958,896  |    862,393  |    910,333  |
  |   Isle of Wight          |     94,146  |     88,186  |     94,697  |
  | Staffordshire            |    741,318  |  1,279,649  |  1,349,225  |
  | Suffolk, East            |    557,353  |    277,155  |    291,006  |
  | Suffolk, West            |    390,916  |    116,905  |    108,982  |
  | Surrey                   |    461,833  |    845,578  |    930,377  |
  | Sussex, East             |    530,555  |    487,070  |    532,206  |
  | Sussex, West             |    401,916  |    176,308  |    195,795  |
  | Warwickshire             |    605,275  |  1,247,418  |  1,390,092  |
  | Westmoreland             |    504,917  |     63,575  |     65,740  |
  | Wiltshire                |    864,101  |    286,822  |    292,213  |
  | Worcestershire           |    458,352  |    387,688  |    405,876  |
  | Yorkshire, East Riding   |    750,115  |    432,759  |    460,717  |
  |     "      North Riding  |  1,362,058  |    419,546  |    456,312  |
  |     "      West Riding   |  1,773,529  |  3,045,377  |  3,181,654  |
  |                          +-------------+-------------+-------------+
  |             Totals       | 32,559,868  | 34,045,290  | 35,678,530  |
  |                          |             |             |             |
  |     WALES.               |             |             |             |
  | Anglesey                 |    176,630  |     50,928  |     51,695  |
  | Brecknockshire           |    469,281  |     59,287  |     61,257  |
  | Cardiganshire            |    443,189  |     59,879  |     61,292  |
  | Carmarthenshire          |    588,472  |    160,406  |    175,069  |
  | Carnarvonshire           |    366,005  |    125,043  |    131,034  |
  | Denbighshire             |    426,080  |    144,783  |    154,847  |
  | Flintshire               |    163,707  |     92,705  |    106,466  |
  | Glamorganshire           |    520,456  |  1,120,910  |  1,252,701  |
  | Merionethshire           |    422,372  |     45,565  |     45,450  |
  | Montgomeryshire          |    510,110  |     53,146  |     51,317  |
  | Pembrokeshire            |    393,003  |     89,960  |     92,056  |
  | Radnorshire              |    301,165  |     22,590  |     23,528  |
  |                          +-------------+-------------+-------------+
  |   Totals, Wales          |             |             |             |
  |     (12 counties)        |  4,780,470  |  2,025,202  |  2,206,712  |
  |                          |             |             |             |
  |   Totals, England        |             |             |             |
  |     and Wales            | 37,340,338  | 36,070,492  | 37,885,242  |
  +--------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

A large part of the surface of England consists of wide valleys and plains.
Beginning in the north, the first valleys on the east side are those of the
Coquet, Tyne, and Tees; on the west the beautiful valley of the Eden,
which, at first hemmed in between the Cumbrian range and Pennine chain,
gradually widens out into a plain of about 470 sq. miles, with the town of
Carlisle in its centre. The most important of the northern plains is the
Vale of York, which has an area of nearly 1000 sq. miles. Properly speaking
it is still the same plain which stretches, with scarcely a single
interruption, across the counties of Lincoln, Suffolk, and Essex, to the
mouth of the Thames, and to a considerable distance inland, comprising the
Central Plain and the region of the Fens. On the west side of the island,
in South Lancashire and Cheshire, is the fertile Cheshire Plain. In Wales
there are no extensive plains, the valleys generally having a narrow rugged
form favourable to romantic beauty, but not compatible with great
fertility. Wales, however, by giving rise to the Severn, can justly claim
part in the vale, or series of almost unrivalled vales, along which it
pursues its romantic course through the counties of Montgomery, Salop,
Worcester, and Gloucester. South-east of the Cotswold Hills is Salisbury
Plain, but it is only in name that it can be classed with the other plains
and level lands of England, being a large elevated plateau, of an oval
shape, with a thin chalky soil only suitable for pasture. In the south-west
the only vales deserving of notice are those of Taunton in Somerset and
Exeter in Devon. A large portion of the south-east may be regarded as a
continuous plain, consisting of what are called the Wealds of Sussex,
Surrey, and Kent, between the North and South Downs, and containing an area
of about 1000 sq. miles. The south-east angle of this district is occupied
by the Romney Marsh, an extensive level tract composed for the most part of
a rich marine deposit. Extensive tracts of a similar nature are situated on
the east coast, in Yorkshire and Lincoln, where they are washed by the
Humber; and in the counties which either border the Wash, or, like
Northampton, Bedford, Huntingdon, and Cambridge, send their drainage into
it by the Nene and the Ouse. Many of these lands are naturally the richest
in the kingdom, but have been utilized only by means of drainage.

England is well supplied with rivers, many of them of great importance to
industry and commerce. Most of them carry their waters to the North Sea. If
we consider the drainage as a whole, four principal river basins may be
distinguished, those of the Thames, Wash, and Humber belonging to the North
Sea; and the Severn belonging to the Atlantic. The basin of the Thames has
its greatest length from east to west, 130 miles, and its average breadth
about 50 miles, area 6160 sq. miles. The river itself, which is the chief
of English rivers, has a length of 215 miles. The basin of the Wash
consists of the subordinate basins of the Great Ouse, Nene, Welland, and
Witham, which all empty themselves into that estuary, and has an area
computed at 5850 sq. miles. The basin of the Severn consists of two
distinct portions, that on the right bank, of an irregularly oval shape,
and having for its principal tributaries the Teme and the Wye; and that on
the left, of which the Upper Avon is the principal tributary stream. The
area of the whole basin is 8580 sq. miles. The next basin, that of the
Humber, the largest of all, consists of the three basins of the Humber
proper, the Ouse, and the Trent, and its area is 9550 sq. miles, being
about one-sixth of the whole area of England and Wales. Other rivers
unconnected with these systems are the Tyne, Wear, and Tees in the
north-east; the Eden, Ribble, Mersey, and Dee in the north-west. The
south-coast streams are very unimportant except for their estuaries.

For the minerals, climate, agriculture, manufactures, &c., of England, see
the article _Britain_.

[Illustration]

_Civil History._--The history of England proper begins when it ceased to be
a Roman possession. (See _Britain_.) On the withdrawal of the Roman forces,
about the beginning of the fifth century A.D., the South Britons, or
inhabitants of what is now called England, were no longer able to withstand
the attacks of their ferocious northern neighbours, the Scots and Picts.
They applied for assistance to Aëtius, but the Roman general was too much
occupied in the struggle with Attila to attend to their petition. In their
distress they appear to have sought the aid of the Saxons; and according to
the Anglo-Saxon narratives three ships, containing 1600 men, were
dispatched to their help under the command of the brothers Hengist and
Horsa. Vortigern, a duke or prince of the Britons, assigned them the Isle
of Thanet for habitation, and, marching against the northern foe, they
obtained a complete victory. The date assigned to these events by the later
Anglo-Saxon chronicles is A.D. 449, the narratives asserting further that
the Saxons, finding the land desirable, turned their arms against the
Britons, and, reinforced by new bands, conquered first Kent and ultimately
the larger part of the island. Whatever the credibility of the story of
Vortigern, it is certain that in the middle of the fifth century the
occasional Teutonic incursions gave place to persistent invasion with a
view to settlement. These Teutonic invaders were Low German tribes from the
country about the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, the three most
prominent being the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. Of these the Jutes
were the first to form a settlement, taking possession of part of Kent and
the Isle of Wight; but the larger conquests of the Saxons in the south and
the Angles in the north gave to these tribes the leading place in the
kingdom. The struggle continued 150 years, and at the end of that period
the whole southern part of Britain, with the exception of Strathclyde,
Wales, and West Wales (Cornwall), was in the hands of the Teutonic tribes.
This conquered territory was divided among a number of small states or
petty chieftaincies, seven of the most conspicuous of which are often
spoken of as the _Heptarchy_. These were: 1. The kingdom of Kent; founded
by Hengist in 455; ended in 823. 2. Kingdom of South Saxons, containing
Sussex and Surrey; founded by Ella in 477; ended in 689. 3. Kingdom of East
Angles, containing Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely (Isle of); founded by
Uffa in 571 or 575; ended in 792. 4. Kingdom of West Saxons, containing
Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Wilts, Hants, Berks, and part of Cornwall; founded
by Cerdic 519; swallowed up the rest in 827. 5. Kingdom of Northumbria,
containing York, Durham, Cumberland, Westmorland, Northumberland, and the
east coast of Scotland to the Firth of Forth; founded by Ida 547; absorbed
by Wessex in 827. 6. Kingdom of East Saxons, containing Essex, Middlesex,
Hertford (part); founded by Erchew in 527: ended in 823. 7. Kingdom of
Mercia, containing Gloucester, Hereford, Worcester, Warwick, Leicester,
Rutland, Northampton, Lincoln, Huntingdon, Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford,
Stafford, Derby, Salop, Nottingham, Chester, Hertford (part); founded by
Cridda about 584; absorbed by Wessex in 827. Each state was, in its turn,
annexed to more powerful neighbours; and at length, in 827, Egbert, by his
valour and superior capacity, united in his own person the sovereignty of
what had formerly been seven kingdoms, and the whole came to be called
England, that is Angle-land.

[Illustration]

While this work of conquest and of intertribal strife had been in progress
towards the establishment of a united kingdom, certain important changes
had occurred. The conquest had been the slow expulsion of a Christian race
by a purely heathen race, and the country had returned to something of its
old isolation with regard to the rest of Europe. But before the close of
the sixth century Christianity had secured a footing in the south-east of
the island. Ethelberht, King of Kent and suzerain over the kingdoms south
of the Humber, married a Christian wife, Bertha, daughter of Charibert of
Soissons, and this event indirectly led to the coming of St. Augustine. The
conversion of Kent, Essex, and East Anglia was followed by that of
Northumberland and then by that of Mercia, of Wessex, of Sussex, and lastly
of Wight, the contest between the two religions being at its height in the
seventh century. The legal and political changes immediately consequent
upon the adoption of Christianity were not great, but there resulted a more
intimate relation with Europe and the older civilizations, the introduction
of new learning and culture, the formation of a written literature, and the
fusion of the tribes and petty kingdoms into a closer and more lasting
unity than that which could have been otherwise secured.

The kingdom, however, was still kept in a state of disturbance by the
attacks of the Danes, who had made repeated incursions during the whole of
the Saxon period, and about half a century after the unification of the
kingdom became for the moment masters of nearly the whole of England. But
the genius of Alfred the Great, who had ascended the throne in 871,
speedily reversed matters by the defeat of the Danes at Ethandune (878).
Guthrum, their king, embraced Christianity, became the vassal of the Saxon
king, and retired to a strip of land on the east coast including
Northumbria and called the Danelagh. The two immediate successors of
Alfred, Edward (901-925) and Athelstan (925-940), the son and the grandson
of Alfred, both vigorous and able rulers, had each in turn to direct his
arms against these settlers of the Danelagh. The reigns of the next five
kings, Edmund, Edred, Edwy, Edgar, and Edward the Martyr, are chiefly
remarkable on account of the conspicuous place occupied in them by Dunstan,
who was counsellor to Edmund, minister of Edred, treasurer under Edwy, and
supreme during the reigns of Edgar and his successor. It was possibly due
to his policy that from the time of Athelstan till after the death of
Edward the Martyr (978 or 979) the country had comparative rest from the
Danes. During the tenth century many changes had taken place in the
Teutonic constitution. Feudalism was already taking root; the king's
authority had increased; the folkland was being taken over as the king's
personal property; the nobles by birth, or ealdormen, were becoming of less
importance in administration than the nobility of thegns, the officers of
the king's court. Ethelred (978-1016), who succeeded Edward, was a minor,
the government was feebly conducted, and no united action being taken
against the Danes, their incursions became more frequent and destructive.
Animosities between the English and the Danes who had settled among them
became daily more violent, and a general massacre of the latter took place
in 1002. The following year Sweyn invaded the kingdom with a powerful army
and assumed the crown of England. Ethelred was compelled to take refuge in
Normandy; and though he afterwards returned, he found in Canute an
adversary no less formidable than Sweyn. Ethelred left his kingdom in 1016
to his son Edmund, who displayed great valour, but was compelled to divide
his kingdom with Canute; and when he was assassinated in 1017 the Danes
succeeded the sovereignty of the whole.

[Illustration]

Canute (Knut), who espoused the widow of Ethelred, that he might reconcile
his new subjects, obtained the name of Great, not only on account of his
personal qualities, but from the extent of his dominions, being master of
Denmark and Norway as well as England. In 1035 he died, and was followed in
England by two other Danish kings, Harold and Hardicanute, whose joint
reigns lasted till 1042, after which the English line was again restored in
the person of Edward the Confessor. Edward was a weak prince, and in the
latter years of his reign had far less real power than his brother-in-law
Harold, son of the great Earl Godwin. On Edward's death in 1066 Harold
accordingly obtained the crown. He found, however, a formidable opponent in
the second-cousin of Edward, William of Normandy, who instigated the Danes
to invade the northern counties, while he, with 60,000 men, landed in the
south. Harold vanquished the Danes, and hastening southwards met the
Normans near Hastings, at Senlac, afterwards called Battle. Harold and his
two brothers fell (14th Oct., 1066), and William (1066-87) immediately
claimed the government as lawful King of England, being subsequently known
as William I, the Conqueror. For some time he conducted the government with
great moderation; but being obliged to reward those who had assisted him,
he bestowed the chief offices of government upon Normans, and divided among
them a great part of the country. The revolts of the native English which
followed were quickly crushed, Continental feudalism in a modified form was
established, and the English Church reorganized under Lanfranc as
Archbishop of Canterbury.

At his death, in 1087, William II, commonly known by the name of Rufus, the
Conqueror's second son, obtained the crown, Robert, the eldest son,
receiving the duchy of Normandy. In 1100, when William II was accidentally
killed in the New Forest, Robert was again cheated of his throne by his
younger brother Henry (Henry I), who in 1106 even wrested from him the
duchy of Normandy. Henry's power being secured, he entered into a dispute
with Anselm the Primate, and with the Pope, concerning the right of
granting investure to the clergy. He supported his quarrel with firmness,
and brought it to a not unfavourable issue. His reign was also marked by
the suppression of the greater Norman nobles in England, whose power (like
that of many Continental feudatories) threatened to overshadow that of the
king, and by the substitution of a class of lesser nobles. In 1135 he died
in Normandy, leaving behind him only a daughter, Matilda.

By the will of Henry I his daughter Maud or Matilda, wife of Geoffrey
Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, and frequently styled the Empress Matilda,
because she had first been married to Henry V, Emperor of Germany, was
declared his successor. But Stephen, son of the Count of Blois, and of
Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror, raised an army in Normandy,
landed in England, and declared himself king. After years of civil war and
bloodshed an amicable arrangement was brought about, by which it was agreed
that Stephen should continue to reign during the remainder of his life, but
that he should be succeeded by Henry, son of Matilda and the Count of
Anjou. Stephen died in 1154, and Henry Plantagenet ascended the throne with
the title of Henry II, being the first of the Plantagenet or Angevin kings.
A larger dominion was united under his sway than had been held by any
previous sovereign of England, for at the time when he became King of
England he was already in the possession of Anjou, Normandy, and Aquitaine.

Henry II found far less difficulty in restraining the licence of his barons
than in abridging the exorbitant privileges of the clergy, who claimed
exemption not only from the taxes of the State, but also from its penal
enactments, and who were supported in their demands by the Primate Becket.
The king's wishes were formulated in the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164),
which were at first accepted and then repudiated by the Primate. The
assassination of Becket, however, placed the king at a disadvantage in the
struggle, and after his conquest of Ireland (1171) he submitted to the
Church, and did penance at Becket's tomb. Henry was the first who placed
the common people of England in a situation which led to their having a
share in the Government. The system of frank-pledge was revived, trial by
jury was instituted by the Assize of Clarendon, and the Eyre courts were
made permanent by the Assize of Nottingham. To curb the power of the nobles
he granted charters to towns, freeing them from all subjection to any but
himself, thus laying the foundation of a new order in society.

Richard I, called Coeur de Lion, who in 1189 succeeded to his father, Henry
II, spent most of his reign away from England. Having gone to Palestine to
join in the third crusade, he proved himself an intrepid soldier. Returning
homewards in disguise through Germany, he was made prisoner by Leopold,
Duke of Austria, but was ransomed by his subjects. In the meantime John,
his brother, had aspired to the crown, and hoped, by the assistance of the
French, to exclude Richard from his right. Richard's presence for a time
restored matters to some appearance of order; but having undertaken an
expedition against France, he received a mortal wound at the siege of
Châlons, in 1199.

John was at once recognized as King of England, and secured possession of
Normandy; but Anjou, Maine, and Touraine acknowledged the claim of Arthur,
son of Geoffrey, second son of Henry II. On the death of Arthur, while in
John's power, these four French provinces were at once lost to England.
John's opposition to the Pope in electing a successor to the see of
Canterbury in 1205 led to the kingdom being placed under an _Interdict_;
and, the nation being in a disturbed condition, he was at last compelled to
receive Stephen Langton as archbishop, and to accept his kingdom as a fief
of the papacy (1213). His exactions and misgovernment had equally embroiled
him with the nobles. In 1213 they refused to follow him to France, and, on
his return defeated, they at once took measures to secure their own
privileges and abridge the perogatives of the Crown. King and barons met at
Runnymede, and on 15th June, 1215, the Great Charter (Magna Charta) was
signed. It was speedily declared null and void by the Pope and war broke
out between John and the barons, who were aided by the French king. In
1216, however, John died, and his turbulent reign was succeeded by the
almost equally turbulent reign of his son Henry III.

During the first years of the reign of Henry III the abilities of the Earl
of Pembroke, who was regent until 1219, retained the kingdom in
tranquillity; but when, in 1227, Henry assumed the reins of government he
showed himself incapable of managing them. The Charter was three times
reissued in a modified form, and new privileges were added to it, but the
king took no pains to observe its provisions. The struggle, long maintained
in the Great Council (henceforward called Parliament) over money grants and
other grievances, reached an acute stage in 1263, when civil war broke out.
Simon de Montfort, who had laid the foundations of the House of Commons by
summoning representatives of the shire communities to the Mad Parliament of
1258, had by this time engrossed the sole power. He defeated the king and
his son Edward at Lewes in 1264, and in his famous Parliament of 1265 still
further widened the privileges of the people by summoning to it burgesses
as well as knights of the shire. The escape of Prince Edward, however, was
followed by the battle of Evesham (1265), at which Earl Simon was defeated
and slain, and the rest of the reign was undisturbed.

On the death of Henry III, in 1272, Edward I succeeded without opposition.
From 1276 to 1284 he was largely occupied in the conquest and annexation of
Wales, which had become practically independent during the barons' wars. In
1292 Baliol, whom Edward had decided to be rightful heir to the Scottish
throne, did homage for the fief to the English king; but when, in 1294, war
broke out with France, Scotland also declared war. The Scots were defeated
at Dunbar (1296), and the country placed under an English regent; but the
revolt under Wallace (1297) was followed by that of Bruce (1306), and the
Scots remained unsubdued. The reign of Edward was distinguished by many
legal and legislative reforms, such as the separation of the old king's
court into the Court of Exchequer, Court of King's Bench, and Court of
Common Pleas, and the passage of the Statute of Mortmain. In 1295 the first
perfect Parliament was summoned, the clergy and barons by special writ, the
commons by writ to the sheriffs directing the election of two knights from
each shire, two citizens from each city, two burghers from each borough.
Two years later the imposition of taxation without consent of Parliament
was forbidden by a special Act (De Tallagio non Concedendo). The great aim
of Edward, however, to include England, Scotland, and Wales in one kingdom
proved a failure, and he died in 1307 marching against Robert Bruce.

The reign of his son Edward II was unfortunate to himself and to his
kingdom. He made a feeble attempt to carry out his father's last and
earnest request to prosecute the war with Scotland, but the English were
almost constantly unfortunate; and at length, at Bannockburn (1314), they
were defeated by Robert Bruce, which ensured the independence of Scotland.
The king soon proved incapable of regulating the lawless conduct of his
barons; and his wife, a woman of a bold, intriguing disposition, joined in
the confederacy against him, which resulted in his imprisonment and death
in 1327.

The reign of Edward III was as brilliant as that of his father had been the
reverse. The main projects of the third Edward were directed against
France, the crown of which he claimed in 1328 in virtue of his mother, the
daughter of King Philip. The victory won by the Black Prince at Crécy
(1346), the capture of Calais (1347), and the victory of Poitiers (1356),
ultimately led to the Peace of Brétigny in 1360, by which Edward III
received all the west of France on condition of renouncing his claim to the
French throne. (See _Brétigny_.) Before the close of his reign, however,
these advantages were all lost again, save a few principal towns on the
coast.

Edward III was succeeded in 1377 by his grandson Richard II, son of Edward
the Black Prince. The people of England now began to show, though in a
turbulent manner, that they had acquired just notions of government. In
1380 an unjust and oppressive poll-tax brought their grievances to a head,
and 100,000 men, under Wat Tyler, marched towards London (1381). Wat Tyler
was killed while conferring with the king, and the prudence and courage of
Richard appeased the insurgents. Despite his conduct on this occasion,
Richard was deficient in the vigour necessary to curb the lawlessness of
the nobles. In 1398 he banished his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke; and on the
death of the latter's father, the Duke of Lancaster, unjustly appropriated
his cousin's patrimony. To avenge the injustice Bolingbroke landed in
England during the king's absence in Ireland, and at the head of 60,000
malcontents compelled Richard to surrender. He was confined in the Tower,
and despite the superior claims of Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, Henry
was appointed king (1399), the first of the House of Lancaster. Richard
was, in all probability, murdered early in 1400.

The manner in which the Duke of Lancaster, now Henry IV, acquired the crown
rendered his reign extremely turbulent, but the vigour of his
administration quelled every insurrection. The most important--that of the
Percies of Northumberland, Owen Glendower, and Douglas of Scotland--was
crushed by the battle of Shrewsbury (1403). During the reign of Henry IV
the clergy of England first began the practice of burning heretics under
the Act _de haeretico comburendo_, passed in the second year of his reign.
The Act was chiefly directed against the Lollards, as the followers of
Wycliffe now came to be called. Henry died in 1413, leaving his crown to
his son, Henry V, who revived the claim of Edward III to the throne of
France in 1415, and invaded that country at the head of 30,000 men. The
disjointed councils of the French rendered their country an easy prey; the
victory of Agincourt was gained in 1415; and after a second campaign a
peace was concluded at Troyes in 1420, by which Henry received the hand of
Katherine, daughter of Charles VI, was appointed regent of France during
the reign of his father-in-law, and declared heir to the throne on his
death. The two kings, however, died within a few weeks of each other in
1422, and the infant son of Henry thus became King of England (as Henry VI)
and France at the age of nine months.

England, during the reign of Henry VI, was subjected, in the first place,
to all the confusion incident to a long minority, and afterwards to all the
misery of a civil war. Henry allowed himself to be managed by anyone who
had the courage to assume the conduct of his affairs, and the influence of
his wife, Margaret of Anjou, a woman of uncommon capacity, was of no
advantage either to himself or the realm. In France (1422-53) the English
forces lost ground, and were finally expelled by the celebrated Joan of
Arc, Calais alone being retained. The rebellion of Jack Cade in 1450 was
suppressed, only to be succeeded by more serious trouble. In that year
Richard, Duke of York, the father of Edward, afterwards Edward IV, began to
advance his pretensions to the throne, which had been so long usurped by
the House of Lancaster. His claim was founded on his descent from the third
son of Edward III, Lionel, Duke of Clarence, who was his
great-great-grandfather on the mother's side, while Henry was the
great-grandson on the father's side of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster,
the fourth son of Edward III. Richard of York was also grandson on the
father's side of Edmund, fifth son of Edward III. The wars which resulted,
called the Wars of the Roses, from the fact that a red rose was the badge
of the House of Lancaster and a white one that of the House of York, lasted
for thirty years, from the first battle of St. Albans, 22nd May, 1455, to
the battle of Bosworth, 22nd Aug., 1485. Henry VI was twice driven from the
throne (in 1461 and 1471) by Edward of York, whose father had previously
been killed in battle in 1460. Edward of York reigned as Edward IV from
1461 till his death in 1483, with a brief interval in 1471; and was
succeeded by two other sovereigns of the House of York, first his son
Edward V, who reigned for eleven weeks in 1483; and then by his brother
Richard III, who reigned from 1483 till 1485, when he was defeated and
slain on Bosworth field by Henry Tudor, of the House of Lancaster, who then
became Henry VII.

Henry VII was at this time the representative of the House of Lancaster,
and in order at once to strengthen his own title, and to put an end to the
rivalry between the Houses of York and Lancaster, he married, in 1486,
Elizabeth, the sister of Edward V and heiress of the House of York. His
reign was disturbed by insurrections attending the impostures of Lambert
Simnel (1487), who pretended to be a son of the Duke of Clarence, brother
of Edward IV, and of Perkin Warbeck (1488), who affirmed that he was the
Duke of York, younger brother of Edward V; but neither of these attained
any magnitude. The king's worst fault was the avarice which led him to
employ in schemes of extortion such instruments as Empson and Dudley. His
administration throughout did much to increase the royal power and to
establish order and prosperity. He died in 1509.

The authority of the English Crown, which had been so much extended by
Henry VII, was by his son Henry VIII exerted in a tyrannical and capricious
manner. The most important event of the reign was undoubtedly the
Reformation; though it had its origin rather in Henry's caprice and in the
casual situation of his private affairs than in his conviction of the
necessity of a reformation in religion, or in the solidity of reasoning
employed by the reformers. Henry had been espoused to Catherine of Spain,
who was first married to his elder brother Arthur, a prince who died young.
Henry became disgusted with his queen, and enamoured of one of her maids of
honour, Anne Boleyn. He had recourse, therefore, to the Pope to dissolve a
marriage which had at first been rendered legal only by a dispensation from
the Pontiff; but, failing in his desires, he broke away entirely from the
Holy See, and in 1534 got himself recognized by Act of Parliament as the
head of the English Church. He died in 1547. He was married six times, and
left three children, each of whom reigned in turn. These were: Mary, by his
first wife, Catherine of Aragon; Elizabeth, by his second wife, Anne
Boleyn; and Edward, by his third wife, Jane Seymour.

Edward, who reigned first, with the title of Edward VI, was nine years of
age at the time of his succession, and died in 1553, when he was only
sixteen. His short reign, or rather the reign of the Earl of Hertford,
afterwards Duke of Somerset, who was appointed regent, was distinguished
chiefly by the success which attended the measures of the reformers, who
acquired great part of the power formerly engrossed by the Catholics. The
intrigues of Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, during the reign of Edward,
caused Lady Jane Grey to be declared his successor; but her reign, if it
could be called such, lasted only a few days. Mary, daughter of Henry VIII,
was placed upon the throne, and Lady Jane Grey and her husband were both
executed. Mary, a bigoted Catholic, seems to have wished for the crown only
for the purpose of re-establishing the Roman Catholic faith. Political
motives had induced Philip of Spain to accept of her as a spouse; but she
could never prevail on her subjects to allow him any share of power. She
died in 1558.

Elizabeth, who succeeded her sister Mary, was attached to the Protestant
faith, and found little difficulty in establishing it in England. Having
concluded peace with France (1559), Elizabeth set herself to promote the
confusion which prevailed in Scotland, to which her cousin Mary had
returned from France as queen in 1561. In this she was so far successful
that Mary placed herself in her power (1568), and after many years
imprisonment was sent to the scaffold (1587). As the most powerful
Protestant nation, and as a rival to Spain in the New World, it was natural
that England should become involved in difficulties with that country. The
dispersion of the Armada by the English fleet under Howard, Drake, and
Hawkins was the most brilliant event of a struggle which abounded in minor
feats of valour. In Elizabeth's reign London became the centre of the
world's trade, the extension of British commercial enterprise being
coincident with the ruin of Antwerp in 1585. The Parliament was increased
by the creation of sixty-two new boroughs, and its members were exempted
from arrest. In literature not less than in politics and in commerce the
same full life displayed itself, and England began definitely to assume the
characteristics which distinguish her from the other European nations of
to-day.

To Elizabeth succeeded (in 1603) James VI of Scotland and I of England, son
of Mary Queen of Scots and Darnley. His accession to the crown of England
in addition to that of Scotland did much to unite the two nations, though a
certain smouldering animosity still lingered. His dissimulation, however,
ended in his satisfying neither of the contending ecclesiastical
parties--the Puritans or the Catholics; and his absurd insistence on his
divine right made his reign a continuous struggle between the prerogative
of the Crown and the freedom of the people. His extravagance kept him in
constant disputes with the Parliament, who would not grant him the sums he
demanded, and compelled him to resort to monopolies, loans, benevolences,
and other illegal methods. The nation at large, however, continued to
prosper through the whole of his reign. His son Charles I, who succeeded
him in 1625, inherited the same exalted ideas of royal prerogative, and his
marriage with a Catholic, his arbitrary rule, and illegal methods of
raising money provoked bitter hostility. Under the guidance of Laud and
Strafford things went from bad to worse. Civil war broke out in 1642
between the king's party and that of the Parliament, and the latter proving
victorious, in 1649 the king was beheaded.

A Commonwealth or republican government was now established, in which the
most prominent figure was Oliver Cromwell. Mutinies in the army among
Fifth-monarchists and Levellers were subdued by Cromwell and Fairfax, and
Cromwell, in a series of masterly movements, subjugated Ireland and gained
the important victories of Dunbar and Worcester. At sea Blake had destroyed
the Royalist fleet under Rupert, and was engaged in an honourable struggle
with the Dutch under van Tromp. But within the governing body matters had
come to a deadlock. A dissolution was necessary, yet Parliament shrank from
dissolving itself, and in the meantime the reform of the law, a settlement
with regard to the Church, and other important matters remained untouched.
In April, 1653, Cromwell cut the knot by forcibly ejecting the members and
putting the keys of the House in his pocket. From this time he was
practically head of the Government, which was vested in a council of
thirteen. A Parliament--the Little or Barebones Parliament--was summoned,
and in the December of the same year Cromwell was installed Lord Protector
of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. With more than the
power of a king, he succeeded in dominating the confusion at home, and made
the country feared throughout the whole of Europe. Cromwell died in 1658,
and the brief and feeble protectorate of his son Richard followed.

There was now a widespread feeling that the country would be better under
the old form of government, and Charles II, son of Charles I, was called to
the throne by the Restoration of 1660. He took complete advantage of the
popular reaction from the narrowness and intolerance of Puritanism, and
even endeavoured to carry it to the extreme of establishing the Catholic
religion. The promises of religious freedom made by him before the
Restoration in the Declaration Breda were broken by the Test and
Corporation Acts, and by the Act of Uniformity, which drove two thousand
clergymen from the Church and created the great dissenting movement of
modern times. The Conventicle and Five-mile Acts followed, and the 'Drunken
Parliament' restored Episcopacy in Scotland. At one time even civil war
seemed again imminent. The abolition of the censorship of the press (1679)
and the reaffirmation of the Habeas Corpus principle are the most
praiseworthy incidents of the reign.

[Illustration]

As Charles II left no legitimate issue, his brother the Duke of York
succeeded him as James II (1685-8). An invasion by an illegitimate son of
Charles, the Duke of Monmouth who claimed the throne, was suppressed, and
the king's arbitrary rule was supported by the wholesale butcheries of such
instruments as Kirke and Jeffreys. The king's zealous countenance of Roman
Catholicism and his attempts to force the Church and the universities to
submission provoked a storm of opposition. Seven prelates were brought to
trial for seditious libel, but were acquitted amidst general rejoicings.
The whole nation was prepared to welcome any deliverance, and in 1688
William of Orange, husband of James's daughter Mary, landed in Torbay.
James fled to France, and a convention summoned by William settled the
crown upon him, he thus becoming William III. Annexed to this settlement
was a Declaration of Rights circumscribing the royal prerogative by
depriving him of the right to exercise dispensing power, or to exact money,
or maintain an army without the assent of Parliament. This placed
henceforward the right of the British sovereign to the throne upon a purely
statutory basis. The Toleration Act, passed in 1689, released dissent from
many penalties. An armed opposition to William lasted for a short time in
Scotland, but ceased with the fall of Viscount Dundee, the leader of
James's adherents; and though the struggle was prolonged in Ireland, it was
brought to a close before the end of 1691. The following year saw the
origination of the national debt, the exchequer having been drained by the
heavy military expenditure. A Bill for triennial Parliaments was passed in
1694, the year in which Queen Mary died. For a moment after her death
William's popularity was in danger, but his successes at Namur and
elsewhere, and the obvious exhaustion of France, once more confirmed his
power. The Treaty of Ryswick followed in 1697, and the death of James II in
exile in 1701 removed a not unimportant source of danger. Early in the
following year William also died, and by the Act of Settlement Anne
succeeded him.

The closing act of William's reign had been the formation of the grand
alliance between England, Holland, and the German Empire, and the new
queen's rule opened with the brilliant successes of Marlborough at Blenheim
(1704) and Ramilies (1706). Throughout the earlier part of her reign the
Marlboroughs practically ruled the kingdom, the duke's wife, Sarah
Jennings, being the queen's most intimate friend and adviser. In 1707 the
history of England becomes the history of Britain, the Act of Union passed
in that year binding the Parliaments and Realms of England and Scotland
into a single and more powerful whole. See _Britain_.

_Ecclesiastical History._--The first religion of the Celts of England was
Druidism. It has been conjectured that Christianity may have reached
Britain by way of France (Gaul) before the conclusion of the first, or not
long after the commencement of the second century, but the period and
manner of its introduction are uncertain. It had, however, made
considerable progress in the island previous to the time of Constantine the
Great (306-337). Several bishops from Britain sat in the Councils of Nice
(325), Sardica (347), and Ariminum, in Italy (359); and in 519 an
ecclesiastical synod of all the British clergy was held by St. David,
Archbishop of Caerleon, for extirpating the remains of the Pelagian heresy.

A period of almost total eclipse followed the inroad of the pagan Saxons,
and it was not till A.D. 570 that signs of change showed themselves in the
new nationality. On the coming of Austin, or St. Augustine, sent over in
596 by Gregory the Great, a residence at Canterbury was assigned to him,
and Ethelberht, King of Kent, and most of his subjects, adopted
Christianity. Other missionaries followed; East Saxons were soon after
converted by Mellitus; and a bishop's see was established at London, their
capital, early in the seventh century. The Northumbrians were next
converted, an event accelerated by the marriage of their king, Edwin, with
a daughter of Ethelberht, and by the labours of the missionary Paulinus.
The influence of Edwin and Paulinus also secured the conversion of
Carpwald, King of the East Angles; and, as a reward to Paulinus, Edwin
erected a see at York, and obtained an archbishop's pall for him from Pope
Honorius I, who sent one at the same time to Canterbury. The conversion of
the other kingdoms followed in the course of the seventh century.

As Kent and Wessex received Christianity from Roman and Frankish
missionaries, and Mercia and Northumberland through the Scottish St. Aidan
(for Northumbria had apostatized after the death of its first Christian
king, and received Christianity anew from a Scottish source), there were
certain differences between the Churches, especially concerning the time of
keeping Easter. To promote the union of the Churches thus founded in
England with the Church of Rome, a grand council was summoned by Theodore
of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury, at Hertford, A.D. 673, when uniformity
was secured among all the English Churches, and the see of Canterbury made
supreme.

The clergy in course of time attained, particularly after the Norman
Conquest, to such a height of domination as to form an _imperium in
imperio_. Under Anselm (1093-1109) the Church was practically emancipated
from the control of the State, and the power of the Pope became supreme.
The result was a considerable increase of monasticism in England, and the
prevalence of the greatest abuses under the cloak of Church privilege.
Several monarchs showed themselves restive under the Papal control, but
without shaking off the yoke; and though Henry II succeeded in abating some
evils, yet the severity of the penance exacted from him for the murder of
Becket is a striking proof of the power that the Church then had in
punishing offences committed against itself. The reaction set in during the
reign of Henry III, when the vigorous independence of Robert Grosseteste
did much to stimulate the individual life of the English Church. With the
reign of Edward I the new system of Parliaments came as an effective rival
of the Church Synods, and various Acts restrained the power of the clergy.
In the fourteenth century the teaching of Wycliffe promised to produce a
thorough revolt from Rome; but the difficulties of the House of
Lancaster--which drove its members to propitiate the Church--and the Wars
of the Roses, prevented matters coming to a head.

A steady decay of vital power set in, however, and when Henry VIII resolved
to recast the English Church there was no effective protest. In 1531 the
convocation of the clergy addressed a petition to Henry VIII as the chief
protector and only and supreme lord of the English Church. Not very long
after, the Parliament abolished appeals to the see of Rome, dispensations,
licences, bulls of institution for bishoprics and archbishoprics, the
payment of Peter's-pence, and the annates. In 1534 the Papal authority was
set aside by Act of Parliament, and by another Act of Parliament, passed in
1535, Henry assumed the title of supreme head of the Church of England.
These Acts, although they severed the connection between the English Church
and the Holy See, did not alter the religious faith of the Church. But
under Edward VI the Duke of Somerset, the protector of the realm during the
minority of the king, caused a more thorough reform of the doctrines and
ceremonies of the Church to be made. At his instigation Parliament in 1547
repealed the statute of the six articles promulgated by Henry VIII, and in
1551 a new confession of faith was embodied in forty-two articles, denying
the infallibility of councils, keeping only two sacraments, baptism and the
Lord's Supper, and rejecting the real presence, the invocation of saints,
prayer for the dead, purgatory, and the celibacy of the clergy. At the same
time a new liturgy was composed, in which English was substituted for
Latin.

[Illustration: Consecration of a Saxon Church

From an ancient manuscript of Cædmon's poems.]

With the reign of Mary the old religion was re-established; and it was not
till that of Elizabeth that the Church of England was finally instituted in
its present form. The doctrines of the Church were again modified, and the
Forty-two Articles were reduced to thirty-nine by the convocation of the
clergy in 1563. As no change was made in the episcopal form of government,
and some rites and ceremonies were retained which many of the reformed
considered as superstitious, this circumstance gave rise to many future
dissensions. In 1559, before the close of the first year of Elizabeth's
reign, the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity were passed with the object of
bringing about the entire subjection of the Church and the people in
religious matters to the royal authority.

From James I some relief was anticipated by Puritans and Nonconformists,
but they were disappointed. Under Charles I the attempt was made, through
the instrumentality of Laud, to place all the Churches of Great Britain
under the jurisdiction of bishops. But after the death of Laud the
Parliament abolished the episcopal government, and condemned everything
contrary to the doctrine, worship, and discipline of the Church of Geneva.
As soon as Charles II was restored, the ancient forms of ecclesiastical
government and public worship were re-established, and three severe
measures were passed against nonconformity, namely, the Corporation Act of
1661, the Act of Uniformity, passed in 1662, and the Test Act, passed in
1673 (see _Act of Uniformity, Corporation and Test Acts_). In the reign of
William III, and particularly in 1689, the divisions among the friends of
Episcopacy gave rise to the two parties called the _high-churchmen_ or
_non-jurors_, and _low-churchmen_. The former maintained the doctrine of
passive obedience to the sovereign; that the hereditary succession to the
throne is of divine institution; and that the Church is subject to the
jurisdiction of God alone. The gradual progress of civil and religious
liberty since that time has settled practically all such controversies. The
measures of relief granted to those outside the Established Church include
the repeal of the Corporation and Test Acts (1828), Catholic emancipation
(1829), and the opening of the old universities to Dissenters (1871).

The Established Church of England has always adhered to Episcopacy. Under
the sovereign as supreme head, the Church is governed by three archbishops
and forty bishops, of Canterbury, York, and Wales. The Archbishop of
Canterbury is styled the _Primate of all England_, and to him belongs the
privilege of crowning the kings and queens of England. The province of
Canterbury comprehends 30 bishoprics; in the province of the Archbishop of
York, who is styled _Primate of England_, there are 12 bishoprics, the
province comprising Cheshire, Lancashire, Yorkshire, and the other northern
counties. Wales has now been formed into a separate archbishopric. An Act
was passed in 1914 disestablishing and disendowing the Church in Wales and
Monmouthshire. The Act, suspended during the European War, came into force
on 31st March, 1920. Archbishops and bishops are appointed by the sovereign
by what is called a_congé d'élire_ or leave to elect, naming the person to
be chosen and sent to the Dean and Chapter. The National Assembly of the
Church of England (Powers) Act of 1919 instituted a National Assembly in
England consisting of the House of Bishops, a House of Clergy, and a House
of Laymen, which has power to legislate in Church matters. The archbishops
and bishops, to the number of 24, have seats in the House of Lords, and are
styled Lords Spiritual. The following are the bishops' sees: London,
Winchester, Bangor, Bath and Wells, Birmingham, Bradford, Bristol,
Chelmsford, Chichester, Coventry, Ely, Exeter, Gloucester, Hereford,
Ipswich, Lichfield, Lincoln, Llandaff, Norwich, Oxford, Peterborough,
Rochester, St. Albans, St. Asaph, St. David's, Salisbury, Southwark,
Southwell, Truro, Worcester, Durham, Carlisle, Chester, Liverpool,
Manchester, Newcastle, Ripon, Sheffield, Wakefield, Sodor and Man. To every
cathedral belong several prebendaries and a dean; these together, spoken of
as 'the Dean and Chapter', form the council of the bishop. The bishops are
aided in their work by 36 suffragan and assistant bishops in England and
Wales. The ordinary clergy are the _priests_, whether curates, vicars, or
rectors. A _parson_ is a priest in full possession of all the rights of a
parish church; if the great tithes are _impropriated_, the priest is called
a vicar; if not, a rector; a _curate_ (in popular speech) is one who
exercises the spiritual office under a rector or vicar. The _deacons_ form
the third order of ordained clergy. The doctrines of the Church are
contained in the Thirty-nine Articles; the form of worship is directed by
the _Book of Common Prayer_. The revenue of the Church from endowments is
over £6,000,000 annually. The clergy number about 27,000.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Wakeman, _Introduction to the History of the Church of England_; Newbolt
and Stone, _Church of England_.

_English Art._--As regards _architecture_ little can be said with regard to
the style prevalent between the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman
Conquest, from the fact that the remains of buildings erected in England
before the Conquest are few and insignificant. The Norman style was
introduced in the reign of Edward the Confessor, though the workmen, both
then and after the Conquest, being English, the earlier work preserved many
native characteristics. The Norman period proper extends from about 1090 to
1150, some of the best examples being parts of the cathedrals of Rochester,
Winchester, Durham, and Canterbury. In the brief period 1160 to 1195 a
marked change took place in the adoption of the pointed arch and what is
known as the _Early English style_. Improved methods of construction led to
the use of lighter walls and pillars instead of the heavy masses employed
in the Norman style. Narrow lancet-shaped windows took the place of the
round arch; bold projecting buttresses were introduced; and the roofs and
spires became more lofty and more pointed, while in the interiors pointed
arches rested on lofty clustered pillars. The best Early English type is
Salisbury Cathedral. The Early English style has been regarded as lasting
from 1190 to 1270, when the _Decorated style_ of Gothic began to prevail.
The transition to the Decorated style was gradual, but it may be considered
as lasting to 1377. Exeter Cathedral is an excellent example of the
earliest Decorated style. Between 1360 and 1399 the Decorated style gave
place to the _Perpendicular_, which prevailed from 1377 to 1547, and was an
exclusively English style. Gothic architecture, though it lingered on in
many districts, practically came to an end in England in the reign of Henry
VIII. The _Elizabethan_ and _Jacobean styles_, which followed, were
transitions from the Gothic to the Italian, with which these styles were
more or less freely mixed. Many palatial mansions were built in these
styles. In the reign of Charles I Inigo Jones designed, among other
buildings, Whitehall Palace and Greenwich Hospital in a purely classic
style. After the great fire in London (1666) Sir Christopher Wren designed
an immense number of churches and other buildings in Classic style,
particularly St. Paul's Cathedral, the Sheldonian Theatre of Oxford, and
Chelsea Hospital. Various phases of Classic or Renaissance continued to
prevail during the eighteenth and earlier part of the nineteenth century.
About 1836 the Gothic revival commenced, and that style has been employed
with considerable success in the churches erected in recent times. The
Houses of Parliament, erected between 1840 and 1860 in the Tudor style, the
Law Courts of Salford, St. Pancras railway station, and the Law Courts of
London (opened 1882) in the Gothic served to sustain an impetus that had
been given to the use of that style. At the present day Gothic is much
employed for ecclesiastical and collegiate buildings, and a modified type
of Renaissance for civil buildings. Of late years a style that has received
the name of 'Queen Anne' is much in vogue for private residences. It is
very mixed, but withal highly picturesque. The most striking novelties in
the nineteenth century have been induced by the extensive use of iron and
glass, as exemplified in the Exhibition building of 1851, the Crystal
Palace, Sydenham, and the great railway stations.

Very little is known of the state of the art of _painting_ among the
Anglo-Saxons; but in the ninth century Alfred the Great caused numerous
MSS. to be adorned with miniatures, and about the end of the tenth century
Archbishop Dunstan won reputation as a miniature painter. Under William the
Conqueror and his two sons the painting of large pictures began to be
studied, and Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, adorned the vault of his
church with paintings. Numerous miniatures of the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries have come down to us, rude in execution, but not without
originality. From this period down to the eighteenth century a succession
of foreign painters resided in England, of whom the chief were Mabuse, Hans
Holbein, Federigo Zucchero, Cornelius Jansen, Van Dyck, Lely, and Kneller.
Of native artists few are of importance prior to that original genius
William Hogarth (1697-1764). Throughout the eighteenth century English
artists attained higher eminence in portrait painting than in other
departments, and it culminated in Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-92), Thomas
Gainsborough (1727-88), and Romney (1734-1802). These were followed by
Raeburn (1756-1823) and Lawrence (1769-1830). Barry (1741-1806), West
(1738-1820), and Copley (1737-1815) gained distinction in historical
compositions, especially in pictures of battles. Landscape painting was
represented by Richard Wilson (1714-82), who painted classical scenes with
figures from heathen mythology, and by Gainsborough, already mentioned, who
painted scenes of English nature and humble life. The Royal Academy of
Arts, of which Reynolds was the first president, was established in London
in 1769. Sir David Wilkie (1785-1841), in what is known abroad as genre
painting, gained a European reputation that is unsurpassed. In the same
class of art C. R. Leslie (1794-1859), Newton (1795-1835), Collins
(1788-1847), and Mulready (1786-1863) gained great distinction. In
landscape the reputation of Turner (1775-1857) stands alone. Other
distinguished landscape painters are Clarkson Stanfield (1798-1867); David
Roberts (1796-1864), who greatly excelled in picturesque architecture; Wm.
Müller (1812-45); and John Constable (1776-1837), whose works exercised
great influence in France; and Calcott (1799-1844). In historical painting
Hilton (1786-1839), Eastlake (1793-1865), Etty (1787-1849), E. M. Ward
(1816-79), C. W. Cope (1811-90), and D. Maclise (1811-70) attained
celebrity. John Philip (1817-67) greatly distinguished himself by his
scenes from Spanish life and by his mastery in colour. Landseer (1802-73)
stands by himself as a painter of animals.

In 1824 the nucleus of the National Gallery was formed by the purchase of
the Angerstein collection, and in 1832 the vote was passed for the erection
of the National Gallery building. The competitions held in Westminster Hall
in 1843, 1844, and 1847, with a view to the decoration of the Houses of
Parliament, exercised great influence on art. Up to this time English
pictures were rather distinguished for colour and effect of light and shade
than for carefulness of modelling and exactness of drawing. In aiding to
bring about a more accurate and careful style of work, the Pre-Raphaelites
(1840-60), while seeking to restore in their practice an early phase of
Italian art, exercised a beneficial influence, while they themselves
ultimately abandoned the style to which at the first they had been devoted.

The modern group of British painters may be held to date from about 1850.
Prominent among these the following may be named: In historical painting
Leighton, Alma-Tadema, Watts, Poynter, Long, Goodall, Holman Hunt, Noel
Paton, Burne-Jones, and Madox Brown, as also W. P. Frith, whose _Derby Day_
and _Railway Station_, so descriptive of modern life, may well be classed
as historical. In figure painting or genre T. Faed, Erskine Nicol, Fildes,
Orchardson, Herkomer, Millais, and Pettie. In portraiture Millais, Frank
Holl, Ouless, and Richmond. In landscape Linnell, Hook, W. J. Müller, Peter
Graham, John Brett, Vicat Cole, H. Moore, Keeley Halswelle. In
water-colours the most eminent artists have been Girtin (1773-1802), Cotman
(1782-1842), Liverseege (1803-32), Stothard (1755-1834), Turner, David Cox
(1788-1859), De Wint (1784-1849), Copley Fielding (1787-1855), Samuel Prout
(1783-1852), W. H. Hunt (1790-1864), Louis Haghe (1806-85), W. L. Leitch
(1804-83), Sam Bough (1822-78), John Gilbert (1817-97).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R.
Muther, _History of Modern Painting_; S. Reinach, _Apollo_.

English _sculpture_ was long merely an accessory to architecture, and few
English sculptors are known by name till comparatively modern times. During
the Renaissance period Torregiano came from Italy and executed two
masterpieces in England, the tomb of the mother of Henry VII, and that of
Henry himself at Westminster. The troubles of the reign of Charles I and
the Commonwealth produced a stagnation in the art, and were the cause of
the destruction of many valuable works. After the Restoration two sculptors
of some note appeared, Grinling Gibbons, a wood-carver, and Caius Gabriel
Cibber. During the eighteenth century there was no English sculptor of
great eminence till John Flaxman (1755-1826). He had for rival and
successor Sir Francis Chantrey (1781-1841), who acquired renown by the
busts and statues which he made of many of the eminent men of his time.
John Carew, Sir Richard Westmacott (1775-1856), E. H. Baily (1788-1867),
John Gibson (1790-1866), P. MacDowell (1799-1870), H. Weekes (1807-77),
J. H. Foley (1818-74), J. Edgar Boehm (1834-90), and Thomas Woolner
(1825-92) are a few of the eminent sculptors of the nineteenth century.
W. H. Thorneycroft, E. Onslow Ford, C. B. Birch, Alfred Gilbert, G. F.
Watts, Henry H. Armstead, G. Simons, Sir Thomas Brock, Harry Bates, and Sir
George Frampton are among the foremost sculptors of the present time. The
sculptures of the English school in general are characterized by a sort of
romantic grace which is their distinguishing mark, and by extraordinary
delicacy and finish in detail; but they frequently exhibit weakness in
their treatment of the nude.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wilhelm Lübke, _History of
Sculpture_; E. H. Short, _History of Sculpture_.

_English Language._--The language spoken in England from the settlement of
the Anglo-Saxons to the Norman Conquest (say 500-1066) is popularly known
as Anglo-Saxon, though simply the earliest form of English. (See
_Anglo-Saxons_.) It was a highly inflected and purely Teutonic tongue
presenting several dialects. The Conquest introduced the Norman-French, and
from 1066 to about 1250 two languages were spoken, the native English
speaking their own language, the intruders speaking French. During this
period the grammatical structure of the native language was greatly broken
up, inflexions fell away, or were assimilated to each other; and towards
the end of the period we find a few words written in a language resembling
the English of our own day in grammar, but differing from it by being
purely Saxon or Teutonic in vocabulary. Finally, the two languages began to
mingle, and form one intelligible to the whole population, Normans as well
as English, this change being marked by a great infusion of Norman-French
words, and English proper being the result. English is thus, in its
vocabulary, a composite language, deriving part of its stock of words from
a Teutonic source and part from a Latin source, Norman-French being in the
main merely a modified form of Latin. In its grammatical structure and
general character, however, English is entirely Teutonic, and is classed
with Dutch and Gothic among the Low German tongues. If we divide the
history of the English language into periods, we shall find three most
distinctly marked: first, the Old English or Anglo-Saxon, extending down to
about 1100; second, the Middle English, 1100-1400 (to this period belong
Chaucer, Wycliffe, Langland); third, Modern English. A more detailed
subdivision would give transition periods connecting the main ones. The
chief change which the language has experienced during the modern period
consists in its absorbing new words from all quarters in obedience to the
requirements of advancing science, more complicated social relations, and
increased subtlety of thought. At the present time the rapid growth of the
sciences already existing, and the creation of new ones, have caused whole
groups of words to be introduced, chiefly from the Greek, though
unfortunately not a few are hybrid words, coined by some scientist who had
small Latin and less Greek.--Cf. H. Sweet, _New English Grammar, Logical
and Historical_.

_English Literature._--Before any English literature, in the strict sense
of the term, existed, four literatures had arisen in England--the Celtic,
Latin, Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Norman. The first includes such names as
those of Taliesin, Llywarch Hen, Aneurin, and Merlin or Merddhin. The Latin
literature prior to the Conquest presents those of Aldhelm, Bede, Alcuin,
Asser, Ethelwerd, and Nennius. For Anglo-Saxon literature, see the article
_Anglo-Saxons_. With the coming of the Normans, although the _Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle_ was continued until 1154, the native language practically ceased
for a time to be employed in literature, Latin being used in law, history,
and philosophy, French in the lighter forms of literature. The Norman
_trouvère_ displaced the Saxon _scop_, or gleeman, introducing the
_Fabliau_ and the Romance. By the _Fabliau_ the literature was not greatly
influenced until the time of Chaucer; but the Romance attained an early and
striking development in the Arthurian cycle, founded upon the legends of
Geoffrey of Monmouth's Latin _History of the Britons_ (1147), by Geoffrey
Gaimar, Wace, Walter Map, and other writers of the twelfth century. The
Latin literature included important contributions to the Scholastic
philosophy by Alexander Hales (died 1245), Duns Scotus (died 1308) and
William of Occam (died 1347); the philosophic works of Roger Bacon
(1214-92); the Golias poems of Walter Map; and a long list of chronicles or
histories, either in prose or verse, by Eadmer (died 1124); Ordericus
Vitalis (died 1142), William of Malmesbury (died 1143), Geoffrey of
Monmouth (died 1154), Henry of Huntingdon (died after 1154), Joseph of
Exeter (died 1195), Gervase of Tilbury (twelfth century), Roger of Wendover
(died 1237), Roger de Hoveden (twelfth and thirteenth centuries), Giraldus
Cambrensis (died 1222), Joscelin de Brakelonde (twelfth and thirteenth
centuries), and Matthew Paris (died 1259).

Apart from a few brief fragments, the first English writings after the
Conquest are the _Brut_ of Layamon (about 1200), based on the _Brut_ of
Wace; and the _Ormulum_, a collection of metrical homilies attributed to
Orm or Ormin, an Augustine monk. Next in importance come the rhyming
chroniclers Robert of Gloucester (time of Henry III, Edward I) and Robert
of Brunne or Mannyng (died 1340), other writers being Dan Michel of
Northgate (_Ayenbite of Inwyt_, 1340); Richard Rolle of Hampole (_Pricke of
Conscience_, 1340); Laurence Minot (author of eleven military ballads; died
1352); and several works of uncertain authorship, including the _Ancren
Riwle_ (? Richard Poor, died 1237), _The Owl and the Nightingale_ (?
Nicholas of Guildford), _The Land of Cockayne_ (? Michael of Kildare), the
song against the King of Almaigne, and a dialogue between the Body and the
Soul. To this pre-Chaucerian period belong also several English
translations of French romances--_Horn_, _Tristrem_, _Alisaunder_,
_Havelok_, and others. Between the beginning and middle of the fourteenth
century the English speech had entered upon a new phase of development in
the absorption of Norman-French words. A rapid expansion of the literature
followed, having as the foremost figure that of Chaucer (1340-1400), who,
writing at first under French influences, and then under Italian, became in
the end the most representative English writer of the time. Contemporary
with him was the satirist William Langland or Langley (1332-1400), the
indefatigable John Gower (1325-1408), and the Scot John Barbour (1316-95).
In prose the name of John Wycliffe (1324-84) is pre-eminent, the English
version of Mandeville's _Travels_ being apparently of later date.

The period from the time of Chaucer to the appearance of Spenser, that is,
from the end of the fourteenth to near the end of the sixteenth century, is
a very barren one in English literature, in part probably owing to foreign
and domestic wars, the struggle of the people towards political power, and
the religious controversies preceding and attending the Reformation. The
immediate successors of Chaucer, Occleve (1370-1454) and Lydgate (died
1460), were neither men of genius, and the centre of poetic creation was
for the time transferred to Scotland, where James I (1394-1437) headed the
list which comprises Andrew de Wyntoun (fifteenth century), Henry the
Minstrel or Blind Harry (died after 1492), Robert Henryson (died before
1508), William Dunbar (1460-1520), Gavin Douglas (1474-1522), and Sir David
Lyndsay (1490-1557). In England the literature was chiefly polemical, the
only noteworthy prose prior to that of More being that of Reginald Pecock
(1390-1460); Sir John Fortescue (1395-1485); the _Paston Letters_
(1422-1505), which are, however, much more interesting for their subject
matter than their style; and Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_ (completed 1469-70);
the only noteworthy verse, that of John Skelton (1460-1529).

It was now that several events of European importance combined to stimulate
life and enlarge the mental horizon--the invention of printing, or rather
of movable types, the promulgation of the Copernican system of astronomy,
the discovery of America, the Renaissance, and the Reformation. The
Renaissance spread from Florence to England by means of such men as Colet,
Linacre, Erasmus, and Sir Thomas More (1480-1535), the last noteworthy as
at the head of a new race of historians. Important contributions to the
prose of the time were the Tyndale _New Testament_, printed in 1525, and
the Coverdale _Bible_ (1535). The first signs of an artistic advance in
poetic literature are to be found in Wyatt (1503-42) and Surrey (1516-47),
who nationalized the sonnet; Surrey was also a pioneer in the use of blank
verse. The drama, too, had by this time reached a fairly high stage of
development. The mystery and miracle plays, after the adoption of the
vernacular in the fourteenth century, passed from the hands of the clergy
into those of the laity, and both stage and drama underwent a rapid
secularization. The morality began to embody matters of religious and
political controversy, historical characters mingled with the
personification of abstract qualities, real characters from contemporary
life were introduced, and at length farces on the French model were
constructed, the _Interludes_ of John Heywood (died 1565) being the most
important examples. To Nicholas Udall (1504-56) the first genuine comedy,
_Ralph Roister Doister_, was due, this being shortly afterwards followed by
John Still's _Gammer Gurton's Needle_ (1566). The first tragedy, the
_Ferrex and Porrex_, or _Gorboduc_ of Sackville (died 1608) and Norton
(died 1600), was performed in 1561, and the first prose play, the
_Supposes_ of Gascoigne (died 1577) in 1566. Gascoigne and Sackville were
noteworthy amongst the earlier Elizabethans apart from their plays; but the
figures which bulk most largely are those of Sidney (1554-86) and Spenser
(1552-99). In drama Lyly, Peele, Greene, Nash, and Marlowe (1564-93) are
the chief immediate precursors of Shakespeare (1564-1616), Marlowe alone,
however, being at all comparable with the great master. Contemporary and
later dramatic writers were Ben Jonson (1573-1637), the second great
Elizabethan dramatist, Middleton (died 1627), Marston (better known as a
satirist), Chapman (1557-1634), Thomas Heywood, Dekker (died 1639), Webster
(seventeenth century), Ford (1586-1639), Beaumont (1586-1616) and Fletcher
(1576-1625), and Massinger (1584-1640). The minor poets include Michael
Drayton (1563-1631), Samuel Daniel (1562-1619), John Davies (1570-1626),
John Donne (1573-1631), Giles Fletcher (1580-1623), and Phineas Fletcher
(1584-1650), Drummond of Hawthornden (1585-1649). In Elizabethan prose the
prominent names are those of Roger Ascham (1515-68), John Lyly (1553-1606),
Hooker (1554-1600), Raleigh (1552-1618), Bacon (1561-1626), the founder in
some regards of modern scientific method, Burton (1576-1640), Herbert of
Cherbury (1581-1648), and Selden (1584-1654), with Overbury, Knolles,
Holinshed, Stowe, Camden, Florio, and North. The issue of the Authorized
Version of the Bible in 1611 may be said to close the prose list of the
period, as it represents the finest flower of English prose.

After the death of James I the course of literature breaks up into three
stages, the first from 1625 to 1640, in which the survivals from the
Elizabethan Age slowly die away. The 'metaphysical poets', Cowley, Wither,
Herbert, Crashaw, Habbington, and Quarles, and the cavalier poets,
Suckling, Carew, Denham, all published poems before the close of this
period, in which also Milton's early poems were composed, and the _Comus_
and _Lycidas_ published. The second stage (1640-60) was almost wholly given
up to controversial prose, the Puritan revolution checking the production
of pure literature. In this controversial prose of the time Milton was
easily chief. With the Restoration a third stage was begun. Milton turned
his new leisure to the composition of his great poems; the drama was
revived, and Davenant and Dryden, with Otway, Southerne, Etherege,
Wycherley, Congreve, Vanbrugh, and Farquhar in their first plays, and minor
playwrights, are the most representative writers of the period. Butler
established a genre in satire, and Marvell as a satirist in some respects
anticipated Swift; Roscommon, Rochester, and Dorset contributed to the
little poetry; while in prose we have Hobbes, Clarendon, Fuller, Sir Thomas
Browne, Walton, Cotton, Pepys and Evelyn, John Bunyan, Locke, Sir William
Temple, Owen Feltham, Sir Henry Wotton, James Harrington, and a crowd of
theological writers, of whom the best known are Jeremy Taylor, Richard
Baxter, Robert Barclay, William Penn, George Fox, Isaac Barrow, John
Tillotson, Stillingfleet, Bishop Pearson, Sherlock, South, Sprat, Cudworth,
and Burnet. Other features of the last part of the seventeenth century were
the immense advance in physical science under Boyle, Isaac Newton, Harvey,
and others, and the rise of the newspaper press.

Dryden's death in 1700 marks the commencement of the so-called Augustan Age
in English literature. During it, however, no greater poet appeared than
Pope (1688-1744), in whom sagacity, wit, and fancy take the place of the
highest poetic faculty, but who was a supreme artist within the formal
limits of his conception of the art of poetry. Against these formal limits
signs of reaction are apparent in the verse of Thomson (1700-48), Gray
(1716-71), Collins (1720-59), Goldsmith (1728-74), and in the productions
of Macpherson and Chatterton. The poets Prior (1664-1721), Gay (1688-1732),
and Ambrose Phillips (1671-1749) inherit from the later seventeenth
century, Gay being memorable in connection with English opera; and there
are many minor poets--Garth, John Philips, Blackmore, Parnell, Dyer,
Somerville, Green, Shenstone, Blair, Akenside, Falconer, Anstey, Beattie,
Allan Ramsay, and Robert Fergusson. It is in prose that the chief
development of the eighteenth century is to be found. Defoe (1661-1731) and
Swift (1667-1745) led the way in fiction and prose satire; Steele
(1672-1729) and Addison (1672-1719), working on a suggestion of Defoe,
established the periodical essay; Richardson (1689-1761), Fielding
(1707-54), Smollett (1721-71), and Sterne raised the novel to sudden
perfection. Goldsmith also falls into the fictional group as well as into
that of the poets and of the essayists. Johnson (1709-84) exercised during
the latter part of his life the power of a literary dictator, with Boswell
(1740-95) as his 'Secretary of State'. The other chief prose writers were
Bishop Berkeley (1685-1753), Arbuthnot (1675-1735), Shaftesbury
(1671-1713), Bolingbroke (1678-1751), Burke, the historians David Hume
(1711-76), William Robertson (1721-93), Edward Gibbon (1737-94); the
political writers Wilkes and 'Junius', the economist and moral philosopher
Adam Smith (1723-90); the philosophical writers Hume, Bentham (1749-1832),
and Dugald Stewart (1753-1828); the scholars Bentley (1662-1742), Sir
William Jones (1746-94), and Richard Porson (1759-1808); the theologians
Atterbury, Butler (1692-1752), Warburton, and Paley; and some playwrights,
of whom the most important was Sheridan, but who also included Rowe, John
Home, Colley Cibber, Colman the elder, and Foote.

With the French Revolution, or a few years earlier, the modern movement in
literature may be said to have commenced. The departure from the old
traditions, traceable in Gray and Collins, was more clearly exhibited in
the last years of the century in Cowper (1731-1800) and Burns (1759-96),
and was developed and perfected in the hands of Blake (1757-1828), Bowles
(1762-1850), and the 'Lake poets' Wordsworth (1770-1850), Coleridge
(1772-1834), and Southey (1774-1843); but there were at first many
survivals from the poetic manner of the seventeenth century, such as
Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), Dr. John Wolcot (1738-1819), and Samuel Rogers
(1763-1855). Amongst the earlier poets of the nineteenth century, also,
were George Crabbe (1754-1832), Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832), Hogg
(1772-1835), Campbell (1777-1844), James Montgomery, Mrs. Hemans, Bryan
Waller Procter ('Barry Cornwall'), Joanna Baillie, Robert Montgomery. A
more important group was that of Byron (1788-1824), Shelley (1792-1822),
and Keats (1796-1821), with which may be associated the names of Leigh Hunt
(1784-1859), Thomas Moore (1779-1852), and Landor (1775-1864). Among the
earlier writers of fiction there were several women of note, such as Maria
Edgeworth (1767-1849) and Jane Austen (1775-1817). The greatest name in
fiction is unquestionably that of Scott. Other prose writers were Malthus,
Hallam, James Mill, Southey, Hannah More, Cobbett, William Hazlitt, Sydney
Smith, Francis Jeffrey, Lord Brougham. In the literature since 1830 poetry
has included as its chief names those of Praed, Hood, Sidney Dobell, Gerald
Massey, Charles Mackay, Philip James Bailey, William Allingham, Elizabeth
Barrett Browning, Coventry Patmore, the second Lord Lytton ('Owen
Meredith'), Arthur Hugh Clough, Matthew Arnold, Dante G. Rossetti, Robert
Buchanan, Wm. Morris, Lewis Morris, Jean Ingelow, Swinburne, and last and
greatest, Tennyson and Browning. Among more modern English poets are
Stephen Phillips (1868-1915), Francis Thompson (1860-1907), Sir William
Watson (born 1858), John Davidson (1857-1909), and R. Kipling (born 1865).
A brilliant list of nineteenth-century novelists includes Marryat, Michael
Scott, the first Lord Lytton, Ainsworth, Benjamin Disraeli (Earl of
Beaconsfield), Dickens, Thackeray, Charles Kingsley, Charlotte Brontë,
Lover, Lever, Wilkie Collins, Mayne Reid, Charles Reade, George Eliot,
Anthony Trollope, William Black, Thomas Hardy, R. D. Blackmore, George
Meredith, R. L. Stevenson, Miss Braddon, Mrs. Craik (Miss Mulock), Mrs.
Oliphant, Miss Yonge, and others. Towards the end of the nineteenth and at
the beginning of the twentieth century there was a deepening interest in
the drama, and the list of brilliant dramatists includes the names of
Barrie, H. A. Jones, G. B. Shaw, Pinero, Granville Barker, and others. The
tendency in the fiction of the twentieth century is a concrete and
imaginative presentation of the social, ethical, and sentimental problems
of the day. This tendency is clearly seen in the novels of John Galsworthy
and H. G. Wells. To the historical and biographical list of the nineteenth
century belong Macaulay, Buckle, Carlyle, Thirwall, Grote, Milman, Froude,
Lecky, S. R. Gardiner, Kinglake, John Richard Green, E. A. Freeman, Stubbs,
Dean Stanley, John Morley, Leslie Stephen. In science and philosophy among
the chief writers of the nineteenth century have been Whewell, Sir W.
Hamilton, Mansel, John Stuart Mill, Alexander Bain, Hugh Miller, Charles
Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall, Max Müller, Herbert Spencer, T. H.
Green.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Cambridge History of English Literature_; Taine,
_History of English Literature_; Saintsbury, _Short History of English
Literature_; Chambers, _Cyclopædia of English Literature_.

ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE, ART, CHURCH, LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, &c. See _England_.

ENGLISH CHANNEL (Fr. _La Manche_, the sleeve), the arm of the sea which
separates England from France, extending, on the English side, from Dover
to Land's End; and on the French, from Calais to the Island of Ushant. On
the east it communicates with the North Sea by the Straits of Dover, 21
miles wide; and on the west it opens into the Atlantic by an entrance about
100 miles wide. At its greatest breadth it is about 150 miles. The pilchard
and mackerel fisheries are very important. The advantages of a railway
tunnel under the Channel at or near its narrowest part have been frequently
urged; and an English company, formed in 1887 for constructing a tunnel
from Dover, to meet a similar tunnel starting from near Calais, has pushed
an excavation under the sea for over 2000 yards. The plan, opposed by the
British Government for military reasons in 1907, has now been approved of.
Plans have also been put forward for a railway bridge across the Straits of
Dover.

ENGRAVING, the art of drawing or writing on metal, wood, precious stones,
&c., by means of incisions made with instruments variously adapted to the
substances operated upon and the description of work intended. The term is
also applied to the work so performed, and to impressions taken on paper or
similar material from the engraved work. Impressions from metal plates are
called engravings, prints, or plates; those printed from wood being termed
indifferently wood engravings or wood-cuts. While, however, these
impressions are not altogether dissimilar in appearance, the processes are
distinct. As a rule, in prints from metal the lines intended to print are
incised, and in order to take an impression the plate is daubed over with a
thick ink which fills all the lines. The surface is then wiped perfectly
clean, leaving only the incised lines filled with ink. A piece of damp
paper is then laid on the face of the plate, and both are passed through
the press, which causes the ink to pass from the plate to the paper. This
operation needs to be repeated for every impression. In the wood block, on
the contrary, the spaces between the lines of the drawing are cut out,
leaving the lines standing up like type, the printing being from the inked
surface of the raised lines, and effected much more rapidly than plate
printing. This process has also been used to a certain extent with metal.

Engraving on wood, intended for printing or impressing from, long preceded
engraving on metals. The art is of Eastern origin, and at least as early as
the tenth century engraving and printing from wood blocks was common in
China. We first hear of wood engraving being cultivated in Europe by the
Italians and Germans for impressing patterns on textiles, but no paper
impressions earlier than the fourteenth century are known. For a hundred
years there is small indication of the practice of the art, which was at
first confined to the production of block-books, playing-cards, and
religious prints. According to Vasari, the art of printing from engraved
plates was discovered in Florence by Maso Finiguerra about 1460, but
engravings of earlier date are known to exist. Engraving had long been used
as a means of decorating armour, metal vessels, &c., the engravers
generally securing duplicates of their works before laying in the niello (a
species of metallic enamel) by taking casts of them in sulphur, and rubbing
the lines with black. The discovery of the practicability of taking
impressions upon paper helped the development of engraving upon copper
plates for the purpose of printing from. The date of the earliest known
niello proof upon paper is 1452. The work of the Florentine engravers,
however, was almost at once surpassed in Venice and elsewhere in North
Italy by Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), Girolamo Mocetto, Jacopo de' Barbari,
and others. In Marc Antonio Raimondi (1475-1534), who wrought under the
guidance of Raphael, and reproduced many of his works, the art reached its
highest point of the earlier period, and Rome became the centre of a new
school, which included Marco da Ravenna (died 1527), Giulio Bonasone
(1531-72), and Agostino de Musis (flourished 1536). In the meantime, in
Germany the progress of the art had been not less rapid. Of the oldest
school the most important engraver is Martin Schongauer (1420-88). He was,
however, surpassed a generation later by Albert Dürer (1471-1528), who
excelled both in copper and wood engraving, especially in the latter, and
also etched a few plates. Among his most famous contemporaries and
successors were Burgkmair and Lucas Cranach. The Dutch and Flemish schools,
of which Dürer's contemporary Lucas van Leyden was the head, did much to
enlarge the scope of the art, either by paying increased attention to the
rendering of light and shade, and the expression of tone and surface
quality, as in the case of Cornelius Cort and Bloemart; or by developing
freedom and expression of line, as in the case of Goltzius and his pupils.
Rubens (1577-1640) influenced engraving through the two Bolswerts,
Vorstermann, Pontius, and P. de Jode, who engraved many of his works on a
large size. Towards the end of the seventeenth century etching, which had
before been rarely used, became more common, and was practised with supreme
mastery by Rembrandt (1607-69) and other painters of that period. In
France, Noel Garnier founded a school of engraving about the middle of the
sixteenth century; but it produced no work of any high distinction until
the reign of Louis XIV, when Robert Nanteuil, his follower Gerard Edelinck,
and Antoine Masson produced many fine portraits, and Gerard Audran engraved
works by Nicolas Poussin and Le Brun. Jacques Callot also produced some
admirable etchings. These were followed about the middle of the eighteenth
century by Wille (1717-1807), a German resident in Paris, who gave new
vitality to a waning art, and by the school of French illustrators. Before
the middle of the seventeenth century England produced little noteworthy
work, availing herself principally of the work of foreign engravers such as
Wenzel Hollar, of whom many took up temporary and even permanent residence.
The first English engraver of marked importance was William Hogarth
(1697-1764), whose works are distinguished for a power of vivid
characterization. Vivares (1712-82), a Frenchman by birth, laid the
foundation of the English school of landscape engraving, which was still
further developed by William Woollet (1735-85), who was also an excellent
engraver of the human figure. In historical engraving a not less remarkable
advance was made by Sir Robert Strange (1721-92); and Richard Earlom
(1743-1822), Valentine Green, and J. R. Smith produced some admirable works
in mezzotint. In succession to these came William Sharp (1746-1824), James
Bazire (1730-1802), Bartolozzi (1727-1815), who practised stipple
engraving, James Heath, Bromley, Raimbach, and others. The substitution of
steel for copper plates (1820-30) gave the power of producing a much larger
number of fine impressions, and opened new possibilities for highly
finished work. During the closing years of the eighteenth century, line
engraving attained a depth of colour and fullness of tone in which earlier
works are often deficient, and during the following century it reached a
perfectness of finish which it had not previously attained. A picture,
whether figure or landscape, came to be translated by line engraving with
all its depth of colour, delicacy of tone, and effect of light and shade;
the various textures, whether of naked flesh, silk, satin, woollen, or
velvet, were all successfully rendered by ingenious modes of laying the
lines and combinations of lines of varying strength, width, and depth. At
the same time, original work by engravers declined in quality. Among
engravers who have produced historical works of large size and in the line
manner the names of Raphael Morghen (1758-1833), Longhi (1766-1831),
Anderloni (1784-1849), Garavaglia (1790-1835), and Toschi, in Italy; of
Forster (1790-1872), Henriquel-Dupont (born 1797), Bridoux (born 1812), and
Blanchard (born 1819), in France; of John Burnet (1784-1868), J. H.
Robinson (1796-1871), Geo. T. Doo (1800-86), J. H. Watt (1799-1867), and
Lumb Stocks (1812-92), in England, stand pre-eminent. Among historical and
portrait engravers in the stipple or dotted manner the names of H. T.
Ryall, Henry Robinson, William Holl (1807-71), and Francis Holl may be
mentioned. In the period 1820-60 landscape engraving attained a perfection
in Great Britain which it had not attained in any other country, or at any
other time. In fact, most of the work was done by etching, details being
sharpened by the graver. Among landscape engravers the names of Geo. Cooke
(1781-1834), William Miller (1796-1882), E. Goodall (1795-1870), J. Cousen
(1804-80), R. Brandard (1805-62), and Wm. Forrest (born 1805) hold the
foremost places. Most of these were associated with the reproduction of
Turner's pictures, and owed much to his control and direction. In mezzotint
engraving Samuel Cousins (1801-87) and David Lucas, who was associated with
John Constable in the 'English Landscape' series, achieved considerable
success. In the period 1830-45 various publications called Annuals,
composed of light literature in prose and verse, and illustrated by highly
finished engravings in steel, were very popular. The engravings were
necessarily of small size, and are generally of great excellence. A number
of them, both figure and landscape, are executed with such finish and
completeness as to be esteemed perfect works. The illustrations of Rogers's
_Poems_ and Rogers's _Italy_ after Turner and Stothard belong to this
period. Many of the originals of the engravings in the Annuals were
finished pictures of large size. A great part of the difficulty in
engraving on a small scale from a large picture consists in determining
what details can be left out, and still preserve the full effect and
character of the original. The most noted engravers for work of this kind
are Charles Heath, Charles Rolls, W. Finden, E. Finden, E. Portbury, J.
Goodyear, F. Engleheart, Henry le Keux, E. Goodall, and W. Miller. Since
1870 many reproductions of paintings have been produced by means of
etching, a comparatively cheap and rapid process. Such works have been
fashionable and very popular with collectors. But while some of them have
been excellent of their kind, the process is of limited resource, and the
best works in this manner do not compare with the masterpieces of line
engraving. In original work, however, etching and dry-point (q.v.) have
produced some excellent work, notably in the hands of Charles Meryon, J. M.
Whistler, Sir Seymour Haden, and Anders Zorn. A revival of mezzotint owes
much to Sir Frank Short. Through lack of encouragement, change of fashion,
and the adoption of other methods of reproduction, line engraving on metal
has become almost a lost art in Great Britain, though a revival in wood
engraving has taken place of recent years.

_Line Engraving_, as implied by the term, is executed entirely in lines.
The tools are few and simple. They consist of the graver or _burin_, the
scraper, to remove the burr left by the graver, and the burnisher; an
oil-stone or hone, dividers, a parallel square, a magnifying lens; a bridge
on which to rest the hand; a blind or shade of tissue paper, to make the
light fall equally on the plate, callipers for levelling important
erasures, a small steel anvil, a small pointed hammer, and punches. In
etching, the following articles are required: a resinous mixture called
etching-ground, capable, when spread very thinly over the plate, of
resisting the action of the acids used; a dabber for laying the ground
equally; an etching needle; a hand-vice; some brushes of different sizes;
and bordering wax, made of burgundy-pitch, bees'-wax, and a little oil.

In _etching_, the plate, which is highly polished and must be free from all
scratches, is first prepared by spreading over it a thin layer of _ground_.
The surface is then smoked, and the outline of the picture transferred to
it by pressure from the paper on which it has been drawn in fine outlines
by a black-lead pencil. The picture is then drawn on the ground with the
etching-needle, which removes the ground in every form produced by it, and
leaves the bright metal exposed. Sometimes, however, the drawing is made
direct, without the use of tracing. A bank of wax is then put round the
plate and diluted acid poured on it, which eats out the metal from the
lines from which the ground has been removed, but leaves the rest of the
plate untouched. (See also _Dry-point_.) In landscape engraving, as
practised in England in the early nineteenth century, the plate is then
gone over with the graver, the etched lines clearly defined, broken lines
connected, new lines added, &c. Sometimes the plate is _rebitten_ more than
once, those parts which are sufficiently bitten in the first treatment
being _stopped_ with varnish, and only the selected parts exposed to
after-biting. Finally the burnisher is brought into play alternately with
the graver and point to give perfectness and finish. In engraving proper,
the lines are first drawn on the metal with a fine point and then cut in by
the graver, first making a fine line, and afterwards entering and
re-entering till the desired width and depth of lines is attained. Much of
the excellence of such engravings depends on the mode in which the lines
are laid, their relative thickness, and the manner in which they cross each
other. In this method of engraving etching is but little used, if at all,
and then only for accessories and the less important parts.

_Soft-ground Etching._--The ground, made by mixing lard with common
etching-ground, is laid on the plate and smoked as before, but its extreme
softness renders it very liable to injury. The outline of the subject is
drawn on a piece of paper larger than the plate. The paper is then damped,
and laid gently over the ground, face upwards, and the margins folded over
and pasted down on the back of the plate. When the paper is dry and tightly
stretched, a bridge is laid across, and with a hardish pencil and firm
pressure the drawing is completed in the usual manner. The pressure makes
the ground adhere to the back of the paper at all parts touched by the
pencil, and on the paper being lifted carefully off, these parts of the
ground are lifted with it, and the corresponding parts of the plate thus
left bare are exposed to the subsequent action of the acid. The granulated
surface of the paper, causing similar granulations in the touches on the
ground, gives the character of a chalk drawing. The biting-in is effected
in the same manner as already described, and the subject may be finished by
rebiting and dotting with the graver. See _Etching_.

_Stipple_, or _Chalk Engraving_, in its pure state, is exclusively composed
of dots, made with a special form of graver, varying in size and form as
the nature of the subject demands, but few stipple plates are now produced
without a large admixture of line in all parts, flesh excepted. Etching is
often used to put in the more important lines and tone masses.

The processes of _Aquatint_ and _Mezzotint_ will be found under their
respective heads, the latter differing from all other styles of engraving
in that the lights and gradations are scraped or burnished out of a plate
prepared so that it would print quite dark all over, instead of the forms
being corroded or cut into a plain surface.

The _Mixed Style_ is based on mezzotint, which, still forming the great
mass of shading, is in this method combined with etching in the darker, and
stipple in the more delicate parts. By this combination a plate will
produce a larger number of good impressions than it would if it were done
entirely in mezzotint.

_Engraving on Wood._--The wood best adapted for engraving is box. It is cut
across the grain in thickness equal to the height of type, these slices
being subjected to a lengthened process of seasoning, and then smoothed for
use. Every wood engraving is the representative of a finished drawing
previously made on the block, the unshaded parts being cut away, and the
lines giving form, shading, texture, &c., left standing in relief by
excavations of varied size and character, made between them by gravers of
different forms. Drawings on wood are made either with black-lead pencil
alone or with pencil and indian ink, the latter being employed for the
broader and darker masses. It is now much the practice to photograph
drawings made in black and white upon the wood instead of making the
drawing on the wood block. When the drawing is put on the wood by washes or
by photography, instead of being entirely done by pencil lines, the
engraver has to devise the width and style of lines to be employed instead
of cutting in facsimile, as is the case when the drawing is made entirely
in lines. The tools required for wood engraving are similar but more
numerous than those of the engraver on copper or steel. See also
_Die-sinking; Gems_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Y. Ottley, _Early History of
Engraving_; G. Duplessis, _History of Engraving in France_; P. G. Hamerton,
_Graphic Arts_; F. Wedmore, _Fine Prints_; A. M. Hind, _A Short History of
Engraving and Etching_; J. H. Slater, _Engravings and their Value_; H. C.
Levis, _Engraving and Collecting of Prints: Bibliography_.

ENGROSSING, FORESTALLING, and REGRATING, terms formerly in use for the
purchase of corn or other commodities in order to sell again at a higher
price, or in order to raise the market price of the same. The modern
equivalent is 'making a corner'. These practices were once regarded as
criminal, and positive statutes against them were passed in England in
1266-7, in 1350-2, in 1552, in 1562, and in 1570. The offence of
_engrossing_ was described by the statute of Edward III as the "getting
into one's possession, or buying up, large quantities of corn, or other
dead victuals, with intent to sell them again"; _forestalling_, as the
"buying or contracting for any cattle, merchandise, or victual, coming in
the way to the market, or dissuading persons from bringing their goods or
provisions there, or persuading them to enhance the price when there"; and
_regrating_, "the buying of corn or other dead victual in any market and
selling it again in the same market, or within 4 miles of the place". By
the statute of Edward VI the engrossing of corn, which included the buying
of it in one market to sell it in another, was made punishable by
imprisonment and pillory; and no one could carry corn from one part of the
kingdom to another without a licence. All the positive statutes against
these offences were repealed in 1772, but they were still found to be
punishable by common law, and it was not till 1844 that they entirely
ceased to rank among offences.

ENHARMON´IC, in music, is an epithet applied to intervals smaller than the
regular divisions of the scale, i.e. less than semitones. Enharmonic
intervals can be produced on stringed instruments, or on specially
constructed fixed-tone instruments having more than twelve divisions in the
octave.

ENKHUIZEN (engk´hoi-zn), a seaport of Holland, on a projection in the
Zuider Zee, 29 miles north-east of Amsterdam. It had formerly a pop. of
40,000, but the silting up of the harbour has caused its decay, and its
inhabitants number now about 7110.

ENLIST´MENT, the act of engaging oneself or another to perform any service.
In general, the use of the word is confined to engagements for the public
service, and more especially in the armed forces of the Crown. In earlier
days enlistment of soldiers was either for an indefinite period, as, for
instance, for a particular war or campaign, or for life. Up to the middle
of the seventeenth century enlistments were made to serve the officer
raising the force under a contract from the Crown; after this period all
enlistments were to serve the king. In both cases they were for a
particular regiment only. For the next hundred years troops continued to be
raised both in peace and war on the contract system, which by now implied
that the officer accepting the contract, in addition to having a
considerable say in the matter of allotting commissions to his friends,
received a lump sum to cover all expenses of recruiting, pay, and clothing,
out of which he and his officers made what they could. The objections to
such a system are palpable, and it was abolished in 1783, after which year
all duties with regard to the enlistment of troops were placed in the hands
of a Director of Recruiting and Organization. The contract system was last
used in war as late as the fifties of the last century during the Crimean
War. For some eighty years prior to 1847 the term of enlistment was
ordinarily for life, but from that year onward to 1870 various systems of
limited enlistment were in force. In 1870, with the idea of forming a
reserve, the principle of short service was introduced by the Army
Enlistment Act, and this principle has been continued by all succeeding
legislation. The existing law as to enlistment is to be found in Part II of
the Army Act, Sections 78 to 101; more detailed instructions are in the
Recruiting Regulations. The Army Act, brought into force annually by the
Army (Annual) Act, specifies the term of original enlistment to be twelve
years, which may be either entirely in army (colour) service, or partly in
colour service and partly in the reserve. In practice the normal terms are
seven years' colour service and five years' reserve service for the
infantry, with certain modifications in the case of other arms. Enlistment
may be made for general service or for a particular corps, and in the
latter case the recruit will be posted to that corps only, and will
ordinarily spend his whole service in it. A man desiring to enlist should
present himself at a recruiting office, where he will be given a notice
setting forth the terms of service. If, after reading the conditions, he
still desires to enlist, he will be directed to appear before a justice of
the peace (a recruiting officer is ex officio a justice of the peace for
this purpose) for attestation. Attestation consists in giving signed
answers to certain questions contained in the Form of Attestation, and in
taking the oath of allegiance. The completed form is then signed by the
justice, and the man becomes a properly enlisted and attested soldier. The
former practice of giving a shilling to every prospective recruit, and
thereafter considering him for some purposes a soldier, is no longer
recognized, and, at any time before signing the attestation paper, the man
may decline to complete his bargain without rendering himself liable to any
penalty. Should he, however, make a false answer to certain of the
questions contained in his attestation paper, he is liable to punishment on
conviction by court-martial.

ENNIS, a town (formerly a parliamentary borough) in Ireland, County Clare,
on the Fergus, 19 miles north-west of Limerick. It is irregularly built,
the streets being narrow and crooked. There are remains of a Franciscan
abbey founded in 1240. Some linen and flannel are manufactured, and there
is a trade in agricultural produce. Pop. 5472.

ENNISCOR´THY, a town in Ireland, County Wexford, on the River Slaney, 77
miles south of Dublin. An old castle erected by one of the early Norman
conquerors is in the centre of the town. Vinegar Hill in the immediate
vicinity was the scene of a skirmish in 1798, when the town was stormed and
burned by the rebels. Pop. 5495.

ENNISKIL´LEN, a town (formerly a parliamentary borough), Ireland, County
Fermanagh, 34 miles north-east of Sligo, on an island in the river which
connects the upper and lower sections of Lough Erne, with suburbs on both
sides of the adjoining mainland, with which it communicates by two bridges;
a well-built, clean, thriving town. Pop. 4847.

EN´NIUS, Quintus, the father of Latin poetry, was born at Rudiæ, in
Calabria, in 239 B.C., and died in 170 B.C. Like our own early poet Gower,
he was trilingual, speaking Greek, Oscan, and Latin. He was of good family,
and claimed descent from the legendary kings of Calabria. Little is known
of his life; he served in the Second Punic War, and held the rank of
centurion in 204 B.C.; at a later date he went to Rome, supported himself
by teaching, and was friendly with the greatest of his contemporaries. He
died of gout in his seventieth year. Ennius was a man of great versatility.
He held perhaps the foremost place among writers of tragedies at Rome. He
wrote good comedies. He wrote satires, and prepared the way for Lucilius.
He wrote didactic poetry, and prepared the way for Lucretius. Most
important of all, he wrote epic poetry--the _Annales_--and prepared the way
for Virgil. He was the first to transplant the hexameter into Italy. His
predecessors wrote in a rough kind of verse scanned by accent rather than
quantity, and known as 'Saturnian verse'. Ennius contemptuously called this
"the verse of fauns and soothsayers", and introduced the strong-winged
music of Homer into his verse. He also brought in the elegiac couplet,
which was to attain perfection at the hands of Propertius and Ovid. He left
a permanent impress on the language. He made a systematic study of
orthography, and invented a system of shorthand. He was fond of
philosophical speculations, and made the Romans acquainted with the
rationalism of Euripides and Euhemerus. He was, therefore, a remarkably
versatile and prolific writer. His translations from the Greek tragedians
were of the greatest importance in the history of Roman drama. His chief
fame, however, rests upon his _Annales_, a great epic in eighteen books.
Like all of the works of Ennius, it only survives in fragments quoted by
later writers. It was a great national epic, recording the history of the
Roman state from the landing of Æneas down to the poet's own time. The city
itself--_urbs quam dicunt Romam_--may be said to have been the central
figure of his poem, a nobler figure than the pious Æneas. The verse of
Ennius is sometimes crude and harsh, but it contains many fine lines and
grand passages. Some of these lines are world-famous, like those on Fabius
Maximus beginning with

  Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem,

or the great line

  Moribus antiquis res stat Romana virisque,

which sums up some of the qualities which placed Rome at the head of the
civilized world. In a famous simile Quintilian (_Inst. Or._ x, 1, 88)
compares Ennius to a sacred grove of ancient oaks, whose massive immemorial
trunks are awe-inspiring rather than beautiful. In his own epitaph Ennius
boasted that he still lived as he passed to and fro through the mouths of
men (_volito vivu' per ora virum_). Though his works are lost, this is
still true, for he inspired Virgil and influenced all Latin
literature.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Y. Sellar, _Roman Poets of the Republic_; L.
Müller, _Quintus Ennius_; J. W. Duff, _A Literary History of Rome_.

ENNS, a river in Austria, which rises in the Alps of Salzburg, flows N.,
then E.N.E., then N.N.W., entering Upper Austria (Ober der Enns), which for
15 miles it separates from Lower Austria (Unter der Enns), and finally
enters the Danube a little below the town of Enns (4438 inhabitants). Total
course about 150 miles.

ENOCH ([=e]´nok), (1) the eldest son of Cain, who called the city which he
built after his name (_Gen._ iv, 17). (2) One of the patriarchs, the father
of Methuselah. He "walked with God; and he was not; for God took him"
(_Gen._ v, 24) at the age of 365 years. The words quoted are generally
understood to mean that Enoch did not die a natural death, but was removed
as Elijah was.

ENOCH, BOOK OF, an apocryphal book of an assumedly prophetical character,
to which considerable importance has been attached, particularly on account
of St. Jude quoting it in the 14th and 15th verses of his _Epistle_. It is
referred to by many of the early Fathers; is of unknown authorship, but was
probably written by a Palestinian Jew in Hebrew or Aramaic, was translated
into Greek, and from the Greek the existing Ethiopic version was made in
the first or second century B.C. Till the end of the eighteenth century it
was known in Europe only by the references of early writers. On his return,
Bruce, the African traveller, brought with him from Abyssinia two
manuscripts containing the Ethiopic translation of it. In 1821 Archbishop
Laurence published a translation of the work, and in 1838 the Ethiopic text
followed. _The Book of Enoch_ has since been repeatedly published,
translated, and criticized.

E´NOS, a seaport in Thrace, 38 miles N.W. of Gallipoli, on the Ægean Sea,
in the Gulf of Enos. Pop. 6940.--The Gulf of Enos is 14 miles in length by
about 5 miles in breadth.

ENSCHEDE (ens´_h_e-d[=a]), a town of Holland, province of Overijssel, near
the Prussian frontier, the chief seat of cotton manufacture in Holland. It
has increased rapidly in recent years. Pop. 41,600.

ENSENA´DA (in Sp., a creek or natural harbour), a seaport of the Argentine
Republic, province of Buenos Ayres, the port of the town of La Plata, with
which it is connected by rail and tramway, with recently constructed
harbour works.--Another place of the same name is a rising port of Mexico,
in the northern part of the peninsula of California on the Pacific, in the
Bay of Todos los Santos, with gold- and copper-mines adjacent.

EN´SIGN, formerly, in the British army, the officer who carried the flag or
colours of an infantry regiment; for this title, second lieutenant has been
substituted since 1871. In naval language the ensign is the flag over the
poop or stern which distinguishes the ships of different nations. In the
Royal Navy of Britain it is a flag with a white field divided into quarters
by the red cross of St. George, and having the union (or Union Jack, as it
is commonly called) in the upper corner next the staff. A similar ensign
with a red field is flown by the merchant service.

EN´SILAGE, in agriculture, a mode of storing green fodder or vegetables in
receptacles called 'silos'. These are usually pits of quadrangular form,
lined with wood, brick, concrete, or stone. The fodder is cut and mixed,
placed in the silo, pressed down, and kept compressed by heavy weights
placed on a movable wooden covering. It undergoes a slight fermentation,
and attains a slightly acid taste and smell, which is particularly grateful
to cattle. The modern system of ensilage dates from about 1875, but the
practice was known to the ancient Romans, and the system has been common in
Mexico for centuries. Such advantages are claimed for it, as that in a wet
season grass can be made into ensilage instead of hay, and that there is
little loss of nutritive elements, while it has great feeding powers.
Successful experiments have shown that green fodder may be converted into
ensilage without a pit by simply piling up and consolidating by pressure.

ENTAB´LATURE (Lat. _in_, and _tabula_, a tablet), in architecture, the
horizontal, continuous work which rests upon a row of columns, and belongs
especially to classical architecture. It consists of three principal
divisions--the _architrave_ immediately above the abacus of the column,
next the _frieze_, and then the _cornice_. In large buildings projections
similar to and known also as entablatures are often carried round the whole
edifice, or along one front of it.

[Illustration: Entablature of Tuscan Column]

ENTA´DA, a genus of leguminous plants, subord. Mimoseæ, containing about a
dozen species of climbing tropical shrubs, remarkable for the great size of
their pods. _E. scandens_ has pods which measure from 6 to 8 feet in
length. They are sometimes carried from America to the coasts of Europe by
the Gulf Stream. The seeds have a hard, woody, and beautifully polished
shell, and are often made into snuff-boxes, scent-bottles, and other small
articles.

ENTAIL´, in law, the settlement of an estate by which a freehold is limited
to a person and the heirs of his body, with such particular restrictions as
the donor may specify. Entailed estates are divided into _general_ and
_special_, the former when the estate is given to the donee and the heirs
of his body without exception, the latter when the estate is limited to
certain heirs to the exclusion of others. By a Bill introduced into
Parliament in 1920 it is proposed that a tenant in tail should have power
of disposal by will.

EN´TASIS, in architecture, the delicate and almost imperceptible swelling
of the lower part of the shaft of a column, to be found in almost all the
Grecian examples, adopted to give a more pleasing effect to the eye.

ENTEL´LUS, an East Indian species of monkey, of the genus Semnopith[=e]cus
(_S. entellus_). It has yellowish fur, with a face of a violet tinge, and a
long and powerful tail, which, however, is not prehensile. It receives
divine honours from the natives of India, by whom it is termed _Hanuman_.
Costly temples are dedicated to these animals; hospitals are built for
their reception, and large fortunes are bequeathed for their support. The
entellus abounds in India; enters the houses and gardens of the natives,
plunders them of fruit and eatables, and the visit is even considered an
honour.

ENTENTE CORDIALE, a term applied in international politics to friendly
relations existing between different countries and statesmen. It is not a
formal alliance, but denotes the existing community of interests and
friendly sentiments between two countries. The term has been especially
applied to the friendly relations which existed between France and England
ever since the reign of Edward VII down to the formal alliance concluded at
the outbreak of the European War.

ENTERIC FEVER, or TYPHOID FEVER, is an acute infectious fever,
characterized by much general disturbance, and giving rise to ulceration in
the small intestine. The distinction between this fever and typhus fever
was only established in the middle of last century. It is due to a
bacillus, difficult to detect, but during an attack found in many of the
internal organs as well as in the stools, urine, and blood of the affected
person. Enteric fever occurs in all parts of the world, and in most
countries it is endemic, with occasional outbursts of epidemic prevalence.
In Great Britain it is most common in the autumn, but epidemics may appear
at any season. The great majority of cases occur between ten and
twenty-five years of age; less common in middle life, it is rare after
sixty. The most common source of infection is from the fæces and urine of
infected persons, hence the channels of infection are contaminated water,
milk, and food-stuffs. Much public interest has been roused by the
infection, through contaminated sewage-water, of watercress, celery,
oysters, and other shell-fish, and various outbreaks have arisen through
these agents. A further danger is the 'enteric carrier', a person who has
once had enteric fever, and who is harbouring the bacillus for many years
in his gall-bladder or elsewhere, and whose stools and urine may be
infectious for an indefinite period.

The incubation period is very variable, ranging from one to three weeks,
while the onset of the disease itself is usually insidious. The patient
complains of feeling out of sorts and of headache, soon followed by the
signs of chill, due to the rising temperature, and associated with
sleeplessness, occasionally severe head symptoms, and much digestive
disturbance.

Attacks vary much in intensity, but during the first three weeks so-called
mild cases may suddenly develop more severe symptoms. Convalescence is slow
and protracted, as in severe cases emaciation and debility are marked. The
chief complications during the acute stage of the illness are perforation
of an ulcer through the bowel, demanding immediate surgical interference,
and intestinal bleeding resulting from hæmorrhage from an ulcer. During
convalescence relapses are frequent, brought on by indiscretions of diet,
chill, and undue exposure, or some unknown cause. The most common _sequelæ_
arising from the disease are thrombosis of a vein, usually in the thigh;
bronchitis; one-sided parotitis; outbreaks of boils and superficial
abscesses; and more occasionally heart weakness and disease of bone.

In its early stages enteric fever is difficult to diagnose, and confusion
may arise between it and lobar- and broncho-pneumonia, influenza, diarrhoea
associated with septic infection, typhus fever, appendicitis, or
septicæmia.

In treatment, good nursing is of first importance. The patient must have
suitable nourishment and stimulation, and requires to have the greatest
care, whatever special form of treatment is being carried out, while
constant watch must be kept for the appearance of any complication. Great
differences in the treatment are observed in different countries and by
different schools of medicine.

ENTERI´TIS (Gr. _enteron_, intestine) is inflammation of the intestines. It
varies from a mild intestinal catarrh, causing slight symptoms, and
yielding to treatment in a few days, to cases of severe vomiting and
diarrhoea with extreme prostration. These severe forms are most frequently
seen in infants and young children during the summer months, and frequently
prove fatal. Removal of the cause of irritation and complete rest to the
intestines are to be aimed at, as far as possible, in the treatment of the
condition.

ENTEROMORPHA, a genus of Green Algæ, similar to Ulva, but with a tubular
thallus. _E. intestinalis_ is common in fresh and brackish waters.

ENTERTAINMENTS TAX, first imposed by the Finance (New Duties) Act, 1916, is
an _ad valorem_ duty on payments for admission of persons as spectators or
members of an audience to any entertainment. Entertainment is defined as
including any exhibition, performance, amusement, game, or sport to which
persons are admitted for payment. The tax is collected by means of stamped
tickets of admission, or (in respect of places of regular entertainment,
and in other cases on special cause shown) on the basis of returns
furnished to the Board of Customs and Excise by arrangement previously made
with the Board. Admission by complimentary ticket is not taxable if no
indirect payment is a condition of such admission.

Exemption from the tax may be claimed in respect of any entertainment (1)
where the gross receipts are entirely devoted to philanthropic or
charitable purposes; or (2) where the purpose is the amusement of children,
and the charge for admission does not exceed one penny per head; or (3)
which is provided by or on behalf of a school or other educational
institution for the furtherance of an object connected therewith, and at
which the performers are children under sixteen years of age who have been
or are in attendance thereat; or (4) which is wholly educational, or, being
partly educational and partly scientific, is conducted by an association
not established or carried on for profit, or, having for its aim the
revival of national pastimes, is provided by such an association founded
for that purpose.

Repayment of the tax may be claimed when the net proceeds of an
entertainment are devoted to philanthropic or charitable purposes, and the
total expenses met from the receipts do not exceed one-fifth of the
receipts.

When admission to an entertainment is dependent upon payment of a
contribution or subscription to a club, society, or association, tax is
payable thereon, and where such payment carries with it the right of
admission, the tax is due whether the right is exercised or not. If,
however, the payment confers the right to other privileges besides
admission to an entertainment, e.g. to the use of library, reading-room,
&c., only such proportion thereof as the Board determines to represent the
right of admission is taxable.

The amount yielded by the tax for the fiscal year 1916-7 was over
£3,000,000, for 1917-8 nearly £5,000,000, while for 1919-20 it was
approximately £10,485,000.

[Illustration: Diagram showing the Parts of Insects

_a_, Head. _b_, Thorax. _c_, Abdomen. _dd_, Front wings. _ee_, Hind wings.
_ff_, Antennæ.]

[Illustration: Biting Mouth Parts of an Insect

A, Upper lip. B, Mandibles. C, Maxillæ: _c_1_, palp; _c_2_, galea; _c_3_,
lacinia; _c_4_, stipes. D, Lower lip: _d_1_, submentum; _d_2_, mentum;
_d_3_, labial palp; _d_4_, glossa; _d_5_, paraglossa.]

ENTOMOL´OGY, the branch of zoology which treats of insects, the name being
from Gr. _ent[)o]ma_, animals 'cut in', the transverse division or
segmentation of the body being their most conspicuous feature. The true
insects are those animals of the phylum Arthropoda distinguished from the
other classes of the phylum by the fact that the three divisions of the
body--the head, thorax, and abdomen--are always distinct from one another.
There are never more than three pairs of legs in the perfect insect, and
these are all borne upon the thorax. Each leg consists of from six to nine
joints. The first of these is called the 'coxa', and is succeeded by a
short joint called the 'trochanter'. This is followed by a joint, often of
large size, called the 'femur', succeeded by the 'tibia', and this has
articulated to it the 'tarsus', which may be composed of from one to five
joints. Normally two pairs of wings are present, but one or other, or both,
may be wanting. The wings are expansions of the sides of the second and
third sections of the thorax, and are strengthened by narrow thickenings
called 'nervures'. In the beetles the anterior pair of wings becomes
hardened so as to form protective cases for the posterior membranous wings,
and are called in this condition 'elytra' or 'wing-cases'. The fore-wings
are similarly transformed in the Orthoptera, while in many of the Hemiptera
they are horny except at the tip. Respiration is effected by means of
air-tubes or tracheæ, which open on the surface of the body by lateral
apertures called 'stigmata' or 'spiracles', and ramify through every part
of the body. The head is composed of several segments amalgamated together,
and carries a pair of feelers or 'antennæ', a pair of eyes, usually
compound (and often simple eyes in addition), and the appendages of the
mouth. [Illustration: A, Sucking mouth of a Butterfly: _p_, proboscis; _l_,
labium; _l_1_, labial palps; _m_, mandibles. B, Piercing mouth of a
Mosquito: _a_, labial palps; _b_, labium epi-pharynx; _c_, labium; _d_ and
_e_, maxillæ; _f_, labrum; _g_, antennæ; _h_ and _i_, ocelli: _hy_,
hypopharynx; _j_, labial palp.] These last include an upper lip (labrum),
and three pairs of jaws (mandibles, first maxillæ, second maxillæ), the
third pair being more or less fused into a lower lip (labium). The thorax
is composed of three segments, also amalgamated but generally pretty easily
recognized. The abdominal segments are usually more or less freely movable
upon one another, and never carry locomotive limbs; but the extremity is
frequently furnished with appendages connected with generation, which in
some cases serve as offensive and defensive weapons (stings). The organs of
the mouth take collectively two typical forms, the masticatory and the
suctorial, the former exemplified by the beetles, the latter by the
butterflies, in which the mouth is purely for suction. The alimentary canal
consists of the oesophagus or gullet, a crop, a gizzard, a stomach, and an
intestine, terminating in a cloaca. There is no regular system of
blood-vessels; the most important organ of the circulation is a contractile
vessel situated dorsally and called the 'dorsal vessel'. The nervous system
consists of a pair of cerebral ganglia (brain) in the head, these being the
thickened upper part of a nerve-ring which encircles the gullet and passes
below into a double ventral nerve-cord dilated into ganglia at intervals.
The sexes are in different individuals, and most insects are oviparous.
Reproduction is generally sexual, but non-sexual reproduction also occurs.
(See _Parthenogenesis_.) Generally the young are very different from the
full-grown insect, and pass through a 'metamorphosis' before attaining the
mature stage. When this metamorphosis is complete, it exhibits three
stages--that of the larva, caterpillar, or grub, that of the pupa or
chrysalis, and that of the imago or perfect winged insect. Insects have
been divided into three sections--Ametab[)o]la, Hemimetab[)o]la, and
Holometab[)o]la, according as they undergo no metamorphosis, an incomplete
one, or a complete one. The young of the Ametab[)o]la differ from the adult
only in size. They are all destitute of wings; the eyes are simple and
sometimes wanting. The Hemimetab[)o]la undergo an incomplete metamorphosis,
the larva differing from the imago chiefly in the absence of wings and in
size. The pupa, here termed a nymph, is usually active, or, if quiescent,
capable of movement. In the Holometab[)o]la the metamorphosis is complete,
the larva, pupa, and imago differing greatly from one another in external
appearance and habits. The larva is worm-like and the pupa quiescent. The
section Ametab[)o]la includes the order Apt[)e]ra (tassel-tails and
spring-tails). The section Hemimetab[)o]la comprises the orders
Hemipt[)e]ra (cicadas, bugs, plant-lice, &c.), Orthopt[)e]ra (cockroaches,
crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, earwigs, &c.), and Neuropt[)e]ra
(dragon-flies, may-flies, white-ants, &c.). The Holometab[)o]la comprises
the orders Dipt[)e]ra (gnats, bot-flies, gad-flies, mosquitoes,
house-flies, fleas, &c.), Lepidopt[)e]ra (butterflies and moths),
Hymenopt[)e]ra (bees, wasps, and ants), and Coleopt[)e]ra (lady-birds,
glow-worms, cockchafers, weevils, and all of the beetle tribe). A division
is sometimes made into Mandibulate and Haustellate groups, the oral
apparatus of the former being adapted for mastication, the latter for
imbibition of liquid food. Both types are, however, sometimes modified, and
occasionally combined.

[Illustration: Structure of a Hexapod

A, Head: _a_, antennæ; _b_, compound eyes; _c_, occiput; _d_, ocelli; _e_,
palpi. B, Thorax: _f_, pronotum; _f_1_, prothoracic legs; _g_, mesonotum;
_g_1_, mesonotal leg; _h_, metathorax; _h_1_, metathoracic leg; _i_,
mesothoracic, and _j_, metathoracic, wings; _k_, coxa of leg; _l_,
trochanter; _m_, femur; _n_, tibia; _o_, tarsus; _p_, ungues. C, Abdomen:
_q_, body segments; _r_, genitalia.]

[Illustration]

ENTOMOPH´AGA ('insect eaters'), a term applied to (1) a group of
hymenopterous insects whose larvæ feed upon living insects; (2) a tribe of
marsupials, as the opossums, bandicoots, &c., which are insectivorous,
though not exclusively so; (3) a section of the edentates, as the ant-eater
and pangolin.

ENTOMOPHTHORINEÆ, a curious family of Fungi, group Zygomycetes, all
parasites on insects. The best known is _Empusa Muscæ_, which attacks the
common house-fly. After thoroughly permeating and finally killing the
infected fly, the fungus sends numerous hyphæ to the surface, from the ends
of which conidia are shot forth by an 'explosive' process, to spread the
infection if they alight on living flies. In autumn, flies killed by this
parasite may often be found adhering to window-panes, surrounded by a halo
of ejected conidia. It has been proposed to utilize this fungus in
combating the fly nuisance.

[Illustration: Entomostraca

Spiny-tailed water-flea (Daphnia) on left; Cyclops on right. Both
enlarged.]

ENTOMOS´TRACA, a sub-class of crustacea, including forms which are mostly
small, and comprising four orders: (1) Branchiopoda, brine-shrimps and
water-fleas; (2) Copepoda, including the freshwater Cyclops, and numerous
marine species contributing to the floating surface population (plankton);
(3) Cirripedia, barnacles; (4) Ostracoda, types such as Cypris enclosed in
a bivalve shell.

[Illustration: Entozoa magnified

1, _Coen[=u]rus cerebr[=a]lis_ (producing the staggers in sheep). _a_,
Heads (shown on the surface) separately.

2, _Cysticercus cellulosæ_ (causing the measles in pigs). _b_, Head.]

ENTOZO´A, a general name for the various parasitic worms that infest the
bodies of other animals. Some are found in the intestines, others in the
liver, brain, muscles, and other tissues. They pass through different
stages in their development, and at each stage may occupy a different organ
(or tissue), and usually a different animal. Thus the cystic or
bladder-worm, whose presence in the brain of sheep causes staggers, is the
immature form of a tapeworm of the dog, &c. The number of species is being
reduced as the relations of the different forms are studied. They belong to
the two phyla Platyhelminthes (flat-worms) and Nemathelminthes
(thread-worms, &c.). The former embraces flukes (Trematoda) and tapeworms
(Cestoda); while the latter includes thread-worms and round-worms
(Nematoda), and spiny-headed worms (Acanthocephala).

ENTRENCHMENTS. The employment of entrenchments, or earthworks, in
connection with military operations dates from the earliest times.
Entrenched camps, made by the Romans, are still to be seen in many parts of
the country. The primary object, in early designs, was to offer a material
obstacle to the assaulting enemy; the defenders manned a high parapet
overlooking a formidable ditch, and a hand-to-hand conflict decided the
issue. The development of fire-arms, and especially of artillery,
depreciated the value of entrenchments as affording material obstacles, but
gave them a gradually increasing value as a means of protecting the
defenders from missiles. The provision of cover, that is to say,
concealment from view or protection from fire, ultimately became the
dominant factor in the design of earthworks. Obstacles were still
necessary, but they had to be provided by other means. Successive
improvements in firearms altered the nature of the cover which it was
necessary and practicable to provide. A bullet-proof parapet has always
been an essential feature, but whereas a few inches of earth sufficed to
stop a musket-ball, the modern rifle-bullet will penetrate a thickness of
nearly four feet. The introduction, during last century, of shrapnel shell,
the bullets from which descend at a steep angle, was followed by the
adoption of overhead cover as a standard feature in trench design. This
persisted for several years, until the great increase in the power of
high-explosive shell made it impossible to construct any form of roof which
would withstand bombardment, even by the lighter artillery accompanying an
army in the field, and still permit of the defenders using their rifles
from below it. Modern fire-positions are made open, i.e. without overhead
cover.

All past wars have proved that victory can only be won as the result of
offensive action. Nevertheless, in any campaign it will not be possible to
attack at all times and in all places. The provision of the strongest
possible force at the vital point necessitates a defensive attitude on
other parts of the front. Although entrenchments presuppose a defensive
attitude locally, they play an important part in offensive operations. The
ultimate aim is that, by a skilful use of entrenchments, a commander may be
able to reduce to a minimum the strength of his force in actual combat with
the enemy, and thus to retain at his disposal a reserve of troops for
offensive action.

Entrenchments may be either hasty or deliberate. Hasty entrenchments are
those made on the actual field of battle: by the attackers, to secure the
ground won prior to another bound forward; by the defenders, to hold up the
attack pending fresh dispositions of troops in rear. The amount of digging
that can be done is necessarily small; existing cover must be utilized to
the utmost. This may consist of ditches, hedges, sunken roads, railway
embankments and cuttings, buildings, woods, shell-holes, &c. All of these
are readily convertible into strong defences. The test of battle has
proved, over and over again, that troops well trained in adapting natural
cover to defence are very difficult to dislodge, once they have dug
themselves in. Deliberate entrenchments are employed in the gradual
building up of a trench system when once the opportunity of manoeuvre has
ceased to exist; or in the preparation of a defensive position somewhat
remote from the scene of active operations.

The following are the salient features in the design of modern
entrenchments: (1) A parapet 18 inches high, and upwards of 5 feet thick,
in front of every fire-trench. (2) Longitudinal division of every trench,
either by projecting buttresses of earth or by bends, so that no straight
portion exceeds 10 yards in length. The effect of this is to give
protection against flanking or enfilade rifle-fire, and to localize the
burst of shell. (3) A parapet on the rear side (parados), to shield the
defenders from the back-blast of shell which burst beyond the trench. (4)
Wide trenches (6 feet at the top), to minimize the risk of men getting
buried during bombardment. (5) Accommodation, in dug-outs and other
refuges, for a proportion of the troops.

Arms of precision have, during the past twenty years, compelled careful
attention to the concealment of entrenchments. Although systems of trenches
cannot now be hidden from the eye of the aeroplane-camera, yet the enemy
can be kept in doubt, by correct design and careful siting of trenches, as
to the strength in which the various portions of a position are held. It is
for this reason that the deep fire-trench, with a low parapet in front, has
been universally adopted, despite the obvious objection that minor
undulations restrict the field of fire because the rifle is brought nearer
to the ground. Earthworks on a sky-line, or those seen by the enemy against
a distant background, violate the first principles of siting.

Modern entrenchments are arranged in depth. The 'lines' of Wellington's
time have given place to a broad belt of mutually supporting defences,
organized in three zones. These merge imperceptibly into one another, and
each zone extends upwards of a mile from front to rear. The foremost fringe
of the outpost zone is in contact with the enemy; it is the high-water mark
on which the troops advancing during the last action have come to a
standstill and dug themselves in. Very lightly manned, as befits an area
where heavy shelling is rife, this zone, nevertheless, plays an important
rôle. It harbours the forward artillery observation posts, which control
and direct the fire of the guns in rear. It furnishes a 'jumping-off' place
for attacks. It takes the first shock of a hostile attack, and, although
not strong enough to repulse a serious offensive, contributes to the
enemy's ultimate defeat by depriving his onslaught of momentum. The battle
zone is more elaborately organized, and capable of being very heavily
manned. Within this area the defence intend to bring to a standstill the
most determined offensive. It lies sufficiently far back from the fringe of
the outpost zone to be reasonably immune from destructive bombardment.
Lying still farther back is the third zone, which serves for the
accommodation of reserves of troops, and is also prepared for defence, as a
last resort, in case the enemy should penetrate the battle zone.

ENTREPÔT ([.a][n.]-tr-p[=o]; Fr.), a port where foreign merchandise which
cannot enter the interior of a country is deposited in magazines under the
surveillance of the custom-house officers till it is re-exported; also, any
place where goods are sent to be distributed wherever customers are found.

ENTRE RIOS (en´tre r[=e]´os; 'between rivers'), a province of the Argentine
Republic, lying between the Uruguay and the Paraná; area estimated at
29,240 sq. miles; pop. 425,370. The province is largely pastoral. Capital,
Paraná, with a pop. of 25,000

ENTRO´PION is the inversion or turning in of the eyelid. It may be
congenital, or arise as the result of some inflammatory process or burn of
the conjunctiva. Entropion affecting the lower lid appears also as the
result of extreme photophobia (intolerance to light).

ENTROPY, a term introduced into physics by Clausius as the name of one of
the two important thermodynamical properties of a substance which depend on
its 'state'. Suppose we have 1 lb. of water at atmospheric pressure and
212° F., say, and suppose we apply heat to the water and change it into 1
lb. of steam at 212° F. The temperature does not change during this
process, while the heat which must be added is the latent heat of the
steam, namely, about 960 British Thermal Units. The increase of entropy
from the first state to the second state is got by dividing the heat given
to the substance, namely, 960 B.Th.U., by the absolute temperature at which
that heat was given to the substance, namely, 461 + 212 = 673 degrees
absolute, i.e. the increase of entropy is 960/673 = 1.43 units. If the
temperature changes with the addition of heat, as it would usually do, we
have to imagine the heat to be supplied in small quantities, and to take
the average temperature of the body at which these tiny quantities of heat
are supplied. The quotient heat ÷ temperature is taken for each small
quantity of heat, and the results are added together. The summation is
defined as the increase in entropy between the initial and the final
states.

In mathematical language the increase in entropy between state A and state
B is given by ([phi]_B - [phi]_A) = Integral[dQ/T] from A to B, where [phi]
stands for the entropy, Q for the heat received by the body, and T for the
absolute temperature at which the heat is received. The importance of the
entropy function, namely, the integral Integral[dQ/T], in thermodynamics is
due to the fact that it is, like the internal energy of the substance, a
function of the state of the substance only, and consequently in any
temperature cyclic change in which the final state of the substance is the
same as its initial state A, the total change, either of its internal
energy or of its entropy, is zero. The fact that the total change in the
internal energy of the substance is zero is practically equivalent to the
_First Law of Thermodynamics_, while the fact that the total change of the
entropy of the substance is zero is equivalent to the _Second Law of
Thermodynamics_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. H. Poynting and J. J. Thomson, _Textbook
of Physics_ (vol. 3): _Heat._

EN´VELOPES, the paper covers that enclose letters or notes. They became
common shortly after the introduction of the penny postage system; were at
first made chiefly by hand, but are now not only shaped, but folded and
gummed, by machinery.

ENVER PASHA, Turkish soldier and politician, born at Constantinople in
1879. He entered the Turkish army in 1896, and in 1905 took part in the
Young Turk movement at Salonica. He joined the revolutionaries in 1908, was
for a short time military attaché in Berlin, but in 1909 returned to
Salonica, and assisted in the deposition of Sultan Abdul Hamid. He then
took part in the Tripoli War and the second Balkan War, and recaptured
Adrianople from the Bulgarians in July, 1913. After being Minister of War,
Enver subsequently became one of the leaders of the Committee of Union and
Progress. A staunch pro-German, he was to a great extent responsible for
Turkey's entry into the European War as an ally of Germany. After the
armistice of 1918, Enver Pasha fled to the Caucasus, and was active in
inciting his countrymen to resist the terms of the Peace Treaty of 1920.

ENVIRONMENT, in biology, the surroundings of an organism, including
non-living factors, such as climate and weather; and also other organisms.
Plants and animals are more or less adapted to their surroundings, a good
example being the mutual adaptations of flowers and insects, but there has
been much controversy as to the way in which such adaptations have come
about. Among all but unicellular organisms any individual consists of (1) a
general body (_soma_), by which the life of the individual is maintained,
and (2) germ cells, capable of becoming fresh individuals, and thus
providing for the continuance of the species. According to a school of
thought founded by some of the pre-Darwinian evolutionists, notably Buffon,
Lamarck, and Treviranus, modifications of the soma (acquired characters) of
an individual, brought about by the action of the environment (e.g.
thickening of parts of the skin as the result of constant pressure), or by
use and disuse (e.g. increased size of muscles; diminished wings of
poultry), can be inherited, leading to increasing alteration capable of
ending in the production of new species. Most living biologists, however,
hold with Weismann that only _germinal variations_, i.e. variations in the
substances of the germ-cells, are heritable. Much further research is
necessary before it is possible to pronounce with certainty on many of the
complex details involved in these theories. As to the part played by the
environment, cases are known where this acts directly on the germ-cells, so
as to influence their variation. But these are among some of the lower
animals, in which the eggs develop outside the body of the parent, and we
know hardly anything about the action of the environment on germs that
develop internally. It has been suggested that modifications of the soma
undoubtedly brought about by the influence of the surroundings may react
upon the germ-cells and cause these to vary, but of this no proof has so
far been forthcoming. Even if we admit that modifications of the soma are
not inherited, they may nevertheless play a part in evolution by aiding the
development of germinal variations that take the same direction. The whole
subject is one of more than academic interest, especially in regard to the
further evolution of human beings. Comparatively rapid advance, either in
desirable or undesirable directions, would be possible if modifications
acquired by the soma of an individual were capable of being inherited. So
far as we know at present, acquired improvements in physique and mentality
of individuals are not inherited by their offspring, which seems rather
disappointing, but, on the other hand, undesirable modifications, including
those due to disease, appear to be in the same case, and there is little
reason to think that the children of parents possessing undesirable
acquired characters are unduly handicapped from the very start. We must, of
course, exclude cases of antenatal infection by the microbes of certain
infectious or contagious diseases to which one or both parents have fallen
victims, and also those of direct poisoning of germ-cells as the result of
alcoholism.

EN´VOY, a person deputed by a Government to negotiate a treaty,or transact
other business, with a foreign Government. We usually apply the word to a
public minister sent for one particular purpose; hence an _envoy_ is
distinguished from an _ambassador_, and is of inferior rank.

ENZYMES. See _Fermentation_, _Physiological Chemistry_.

[Illustration: Map of Eocene System in England]

E´OCENE, in geology, a term applied to the lower division of the Tertiary
strata, from Gr. [=e][=o]s, dawn, and _kainos_, recent, because remains of
existing organic species first occur here. The Eocene beds are arranged in
two groups, termed the Lower and Upper Eocene; the strata formerly called
Upper Eocene being now known as Oligocene. They consist of marls,
limestones, clays, and sandstones, and are found in the Isle of Wight and
in the south-east of England and north-west of France, in Central Europe,
Western Asia, Northern Africa, and the Atlantic coast of North America.

ÉON DE BEAUMONT. See _D'Éon de Beaumont_.

E´OS, among the ancient Greeks the goddess of the dawn. See _Aurora_.

EÖTVÖS (eut´veush), Baron Joseph, a Hungarian statesman and author, born
1813, died 1871. He completed his studies at the University of Pesth in
1831. He had already, before leaving the university, produced three
dramas--_The Critics_, _The Wedding_, and _Revenge_--the last a tragedy,
all of which were well received. He became a friend of Kossuth, and
distinguished himself as a journalist and orator of the popular party. In
1848, after the revolution of 15th March, he was appointed Minister of
Public Instruction, resigned the same year, but was again appointed
Minister of Public Instruction in 1867, and filled this office until his
death. Among his works are the novels: _The Carthusian_, _The Village
Notary_ (translated into English), and _Hungary in 1514_--giving vivid
pictures of Hungarian life in modern and more remote epochs.

EOZO´IC ROCKS, the name given to the pre-Cambrian rocks, from their
containing the first or earliest traces of life in the stratified systems.

EOZO´ON, a supposed gigantic fossil foraminifer found in the limestone of
the pre-Cambrian rocks of Canada, whence the name _Eozoön canadense_. The
structure, however, which is recognized also in Bavaria and in County
Galway, has proved to be due to a zonal development of serpentine during
metamorphism of the ancient limestones concerned. A similar structure
occurs in limestone associated with the volcanic focus of Vesuvius.

EP´ACRIS, a genus of gamopetalous Dicotyledons, the typical genus of the
nat. ord. Epacridaceæ, distinguished by having a coloured calyx with many
bracts, a tubular corolla with smooth limb, stamens affixed to the corolla,
and a five-valved many-seeded capsule. The species are shrubby plants, with
axillary, white, red, or purple flowers, generally in leafy spikes. Among
those cultivated in Britain we may mention _E. grandifl[=o]ra_, which has
flowers nearly an inch in length, of a brilliant reddish purple at the base
and pure white at the apex. The order Epacridaceæ consists of plants allied
to the heaths, chiefly natives of Australia. The fruit of some species is
eaten under the name of Australian cranberry, and they are cultivated in
greenhouses for their flowers.

EP´ACT (Gr. _epaktos_, added), in chronology, the excess of the solar month
above the lunar synodical month, and of the solar year above the lunar year
of twelve synodical months. The epacts then are _annual_ and _menstrual_ or
_monthly_. Suppose the new moon to be on the 1st of January: the month of
January containing 31 days, and the lunar month only 29 days, 12 hours, 44
minutes, 3 seconds; the difference, 1 day, 11 hours, 15 minutes, 57
seconds, is the _menstrual epact_. The _annual epact_ is nearly 11 days;
the solar year being 365 days, and the lunar year 354. The epacts were once
of some importance in ecclesiastical chronology, being used for finding
when Easter would fall.

EPAMINON´DAS, an ancient Greek statesman and general, who, for a short
time, raised his country, Thebes, to the summit of power and prosperity. He
was born about 418 B.C., and killed at the battle of Mantinea, 362 B.C. He
took the leading part in the struggle during which Spartan supremacy in
Greece was destroyed, and the supremacy of Thebes temporarily secured. Four
times he successfully invaded the Peloponnesus at the head of the Thebans,
but after his death Thebes soon sank to her former secondary condition.
Throughout life Epaminondas was distinguished for the friendship subsisting
between him and Pelopidas, with whom he served in the Spartan campaign, 385
B.C. His character is one of the finest recorded in Greek history. and his
virtues have been praised by both Xenophon and Plutarch.

EPARCH (ep´ärk), in Greece, the governor or prefect of a provincial
division called an _eparchy_, a subdivision of a nomarchy or province of
the kingdom. In Russia, an eparchy is the diocese or arch-diocese of a
bishop or archbishop of the Greek Church.

EPAULEMENT (e-p[a:]l´ment: Fr. _épaule_, shoulder), in fortification, a
term for the mass of earth or other material which protects the guns in a
battery in front and on either flank.

EP´AULET, OR EP´AULETTE (Fr. _épaulette_, dim. of _épaule_, the shoulder),
an ornamental shoulder-piece belonging to a military or other dress.
Epaulettes were worn in the British army till 1855, and in the United
States as late as 1872, and are still worn in the navy by all officers of
and above the rank of lieutenant, and by some civil officers.

ÉPÉE ([.e]-p[=a]), Charles Michel, Abbé de l', French philanthropist, born
in 1712, died 1789. He had chosen the clerical profession, but had to leave
the Church on account of Jansenist opinions. The great object of his life
was the instruction of the deaf and dumb, upon whom he spent his whole
income, besides what was contributed by benevolent patrons. In 1770 he
founded at his own expense an institution for the deaf and dumb. He left
several works on his method of instruction, one of these being _Institution
des sourds et muets_ (1774).

ÉPÉHY, a town of France, department of Somme, about 13 miles S.E. of
Cambrai. It was the scene of fierce fighting during the European War, and
was captured by the British in Sept., 1918.

EPEIRA (e-p[=i]´ra), a genus of spiders, comprising the largest and
best-known British species. _E. diad[=e]ma_, the common garden spider, is a
handsomely marked species, which constructs a beautifully symmetrical
wheel-shaped web.

EPERIES (ep´er-y[=a]sh), a town of Czecho-Slovakia, formerly in Hungary, on
the Tarcza, the seat of a Greek Catholic bishop. Pop. 16,323.

ÉPERNAY (ep-er-n[=a]; ancient SPARNACUM, and the Roman AQUÆ PERENNES), a
town of North-Eastern France, department of Marne, on the Marne, the
central depot of the wine trade of Champagne. The vast wine-cellars of the
town form a labyrinth of galleries cut in the tufa or calcareous soil of
the district. Épernay was occupied for a short time by the Germans at the
beginning of the European War, and was one of the enemy's objectives in the
second battle of the Marne (July, 1918). Pop. 21,811.

E´PHAH, or BATH, a Hebrew measure of capacity, containing, according to one
estimate or calculation, 8.6696 gallons; according to another, only 4.4286
gallons.

EPHEDRA, the principal genus of the Gnetales family of Gymnosperms. The
species are shrubby switch-plants, natives of the warm temperate zone,
found especially on sandy soil. The ripe seeding cones have fleshy scales,
and those of _E. distachya_ are eaten in South Russia.

EPHEM´ERA, the typical genus of the neuropterous insects constituting the
family Ephemeridæ, so named from the extreme shortness of their lives in
the perfect state. They are known as _may-flies_ or _day-flies_, and are
characterized by the slenderness of their bodies; the delicacy of their
wings, which are erect and unequal, the anterior being much the larger; the
rudimentary condition of the mouth; and the termination of the abdomen in
three filiform appendages. In the state of larvæ and pupæ they are aquatic
and exist for years. When ready for their final change, they creep out of
the water, generally towards sunset of a fine summer evening, beginning to
be seen generally in May. They shed their whole skin shortly after leaving
the water, propagate their species, and die, taking no food in the perfect
state. The may-fly is well known to anglers, who imitate it for bait.

EPHE´SIANS, THE EPISTLE TO THE, a canonical epistle addressed by the
Apostle Paul to the Church which he had founded at Ephesus. It was written
during his first captivity at Rome, immediately after he had written the
_Epistle to the Colossians_ (A.D. 62); and was sent by the hands of
Tychicus, who also bore the message to the Church at Colossæ.

EPH´ESUS, an ancient Greek city of Lydia, in Asia Minor, one of the twelve
Ionian cities, on the south side of the Caystrus, near its mouth. It was at
one time the grand emporium of Western Asia, having a convenient and
spacious harbour. The Apostle Paul visited Ephesus and established a
Christian Church there, to which he dedicated one of his Epistles. It was
famous for its temple of Artemis (Diana), called _Artemision_, the largest
and most perfect model of Ionic architecture, and reckoned one of the seven
wonders of the world. The first great temple, begun about 650 B.C. and
finished after 120 years, was burnt by the notorious Herostratus in order
to perpetuate his name, 356 B.C. (the night of Alexander the Great's
birth). A second and more magnificent was then erected, which was burned by
the Goths in A.D. 262. Some interesting remains have been discovered by
excavation since 1896. Several Church councils were held here, especially
the Third Ecumenical Council of 431, at which Nestorius was condemned. The
site of the city is now desolate; near it is a poor village, Aiasoluk.

EPH´OD, a species of vestment worn by the Jewish high-priest over the
second tunic. It consisted of two main pieces, one covering the back, the
other the breast and upper part of the body, fastened together on the
shoulders by two onyx stones set in gold, on each of which were engraved
the names of six tribes according to their order. A girdle or band, of one
piece with the ephod, fastened it to the body. Just above the girdle, in
the middle of the ephod, and joined to it by little gold chains, rested the
square breastplate with the Urim and Thummim. The ephod was originally
intended to be worn by the high-priest exclusively, but a similar vestment
of an inferior material seems to have been in common use in later times
among the ordinary priests.

EPH´ORS, or EPH´ORI (Gr. _ephoroi_, overseers), magistrates common to many
Dorian communities of ancient Greece, of whom the most celebrated were the
Ephori of Sparta. They were five in number, were elected annually, and both
the judicial authority and the executive power were almost entirely in
their hands. Their power became an intolerable burden, especially to the
kings, and in 225 B.C. Cleomenes III murdered the whole college and
abolished the office.

E´PHRAEM SYRUS, that is, 'Ephraim the Syrian', writer of the Syrian Church,
born at Nisibis, in Mesopotamia, about A.D. 306, died at Edessa in 373 or
378. He wrote several commentaries on Scripture, numerous homilies, and
other works (as well as hymns), which have come down to us partly in
Syriac, partly in Greek, Latin, and Armenian translations. They were edited
by Assemani at Rome between 1732 and 1746, and by Overbeck at Oxford in
1865.

E´PHRAIM, the younger son of Joseph, and the founder of one of the twelve
tribes of Israel. When the Israelites left Egypt, the Ephraimites numbered
40,500, and their possessions in the very centre of Palestine included most
of what was afterwards called Samaria. Ephraim is also a town mentioned in
_John_, xi, 54, and to which Jesus retired after His raising of Lazarus,
when the Jewish authorities manifested their hostility against Him.

EP´IC, a poem of the narrative kind, dealing with a series of events or
actions of permanent interest. Some authorities restrict the term to
narrative poems written in a lofty style and describing the exploits of
heroes. Others widen the definition so as to include not only long
narrative poems of romantic or supernatural adventure, but also those of an
historical, legendary, mock-heroic, or humorous character. Epic poetry is
distinguished from drama in so far as the author frequently speaks in his
own person as narrator; and from lyrical poetry by making the predominant
feature the narration of action rather than the expression of emotion.
Among the more famous epics of the world's literature may be noted: Homer's
_Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, Virgil's _Æneid_, the German _Nibelungenlied_, the
Anglo-Saxon poem of _Beowulf_, the French _Song of Roland_, Dante's _Divina
Commedia_, Tasso's _Gerusalemme Liberata_, Ariosto's _Orlando Furioso_,
Milton's _Paradise Lost_, Spenser's _Faerie Queene_, Camoens' _Lusiads_
(Portuguese), and Firdusi's _Shah Namah_ (Persian). Hesiod's _Theogony_,
the _Elder Edda_, the Finnish _Kalevala_, and the Indian _Mahâbhârata_ may
be described as collections of epic legends. The historical epic has an
excellent representative in Barbour's _Bruce_; and specimens of the
mock-heroic and humorous epic are found in _The Battle of the Frogs and
Mice_, _Reynard the Fox_, Butler's _Hudibras_, and Pope's _Rape of the
Lock_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Chassang and Marcou, _Les Chefs-d'oeuvre épiques de
tous les peuples_; W. M. Dixon, _English Epic and Heroic Poetry_; A. Lang,
_Homer and the Epic_.

EPICHARMUS (ep-i-kär´mus), a Sicilian comic poet and philosopher of the
Pythagorean school, born in the Island of Cos about 540 B.C., died 450 B.C.
He removed to Syracuse, where at the court of Hieron he spent the remainder
of his life. He is credited with the invention of written comedy, and Plato
called him "a master of the comic type".

EPICTE´TUS, a Greek Stoic philosopher, born at Hierapolis, in Phrygia,
about A.D. 60. He lived long at Rome, where, in his youth, he was a slave.
Though nominally a Stoic, he was not interested in Stoicism as an
intellectual system; he adopted its terminology and its moral doctrines,
but in his discourses he appeared rather as a moral and religious teacher
than as a philosopher. His doctrines approach more nearly to Christianity
than those of any of the earlier Stoics, and although there is no trace in
what is recorded of them of his having been directly acquainted with
Christianity, it is at least probable that the ideas diffused by Christian
teachers may have indirectly influenced them. The excellence of his system
was universally acknowledged. When Domitian banished the philosophers from
Rome (A.D. 94), Epictetus retired to Epirus, where he is supposed to have
died. His disciple Arrian collected his opinions, which are preserved in
two treatises called the _Discourses of Epictetus_, and the _Manual or
Enchiridion_.

EPICU´RUS, a Greek philosopher, founder of the Epicurean school, was born
in the Island of Samos 342 B.C., died at Athens 270 B.C. He settled at
Athens 306 B.C., and purchased a garden in a favourable situation, where he
established a philosophical school. Here he spent the remainder of his
life, living in a simple manner and taking no part in public affairs. His
pupils were numerous and enthusiastically devoted to him. His theory of the
universe was based on the atomic theory of Democritus. The fundamental
principle of his ethical system was that pleasure and pain are the chief
good and evil, the attainment of the one and the avoidance of the other of
which are to be regarded as the end of philosophy. The term 'Epicurean' has
come to signify one who is indulging his sensual appetites without measure,
but this is really due to a misapprehension of the meaning of the word
pleasure as used by the philosopher. Epicurus himself was not an
'Epicurean' in this sense, for he endeavoured to give a moral tendency to
this doctrine. He exalted the pure and noble enjoyments derived from
virtue, to which he attributed an imperishable existence, as incalculably
superior to the passing pleasures which disturb the peace of mind, the
highest good, and are therefore detrimental to happiness. Peace of mind,
based on meditation, he considered as the origin of all good. It is,
however, easy to see that his use of the word 'pleasure' was calculated to
produce the mischievous results with which Epicureanism has been charged.
The philosophy of Epicurus has, therefore, been violently opposed and
frequently misrepresented; but while it is not open to the charges of gross
sensualism which have been brought against it, it cannot be considered as
much better than a refinement of sensualism. In ancient times his
philosophy appears to have been more popular in Greece than in Rome,
although his disciples were numerous in both, and the Latin poem of
Lucretius, _De Rerum Natura_, is a poetical exposition of his doctrines.
Epicureanism was resuscitated in France by Pierre Gassendi, and its
principles have been professed by De la Rochefoucauld, Rousseau, and
Voltaire. Epicurus was a very voluminous writer, but few of his writings
are extant, what we possess comprising only some fragments of a _Treatise
on Nature_, two letters, and detached passages. Lucretius, Cicero, Pliny,
and Diogenes Laertius are our chief authorities for his
doctrines.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lange, _History of Materialism_; W. Wallace,
_Epicureanism_; Guyau, _La Morale d'Epicure_; Taylor, _Epicurus_; W. Pater,
_Marius the Epicurean_.

EP´ICYCLE, a conception of the ancient astronomy used to explain the
irregular, and at times retrograde, motions of the planets. Corresponding
to each planet there was supposed to be a circle called a _deferent_, which
had the earth as its centre. Round this circle a point was imagined to
revolve with uniform motion. That point formed the centre of a second and
smaller circle, called an epicycle, and the actual planet was supposed to
revolve with uniform motion round the circumference of the epicycle.

EPICY´CLOID, in geometry, a curve generated by a point on the circumference
of a circle which rolls on the convex side of another fixed curve. The
curve generated by rolling on the concave side is called a 'hypocycloid'.
If the point is not on the circumference, the generated curves are called
'trochoids'.

[Illustration: Epicycloidal Wheel]

EPICYCLOI´DAL WHEEL, a wheel or ring fixed to a framework, toothed on its
inner side, and having in gear with it another toothed wheel of half the
diameter of the first, fitted so as to revolve about the centre of the
latter. It is used for converting circular into alternate motion, or
alternate into circular. While the revolution of the smaller wheel is
taking place, any point whatever on its circumference will describe a
straight line, or will pass and repass through a diameter of the circle,
once during each revolution. In practice, a piston-rod or other
reciprocating part may be attached to any point on the circumference of the
smaller wheel.

EPIDAU´RUS, a town and seaport of ancient Greece, situated in Argolis, in
the Peloponnesus, particularly celebrated for its magnificent temple of
Æsculapius, which stood on an eminence not far from the town. It had also
temples of Artemis, Dionysus, Aphrodite, and Hera, and a splendid theatre
still in fair preservation. The site is now occupied by the village
_Epidavro_, where a congress met in 1822 and promulgated the 'Constitution
of Epidaurus'.

EPIDEM´IC, or EPIDEMIC DISEASE (Gr. _epi_, upon, and _d[=e]mos_, people),
signifies a disease which attacks a people, suddenly spreading from one to
the other in all directions, prevailing a certain time and then dying away.
It usually travels from place to place in the direction of the
most-frequented lines of communication. The reason is that such diseases
are commonly due to some infective material capable of being conveyed from
one individual to another, and of being transported from place to place. In
Britain smallpox and cholera are occasionally epidemic, whilst scarlet
fever, measles, chickenpox, diphtheria, typhoid fever, &c., are almost
invariably so. Certain diseases which appear to be more mental than
physical sometimes occur so numerously as to assume an epidemic form, such
as St. Vitus's dance, convulsionary diseases, or suicidal mania.

EPIDEN´DRUM (Gr. _epi_, upon, and _dendron_, a tree), a large genus of
tropical American orchids, most of the species of which are epiphytic,
growing on trees. The flowers are very handsome, and a large number of the
species are in cultivation.

EPIDER´MIS, in anatomy, the cuticle or scarf-skin of the body; a thin
membrane covering the true skin of animals, consisting of two layers, an
inner or mucous layer, called the _rete mucosum_, composed of active cells
containing granules of colouring matter, and an outer or horny layer,
consisting of flattened scale-like cells, dry, inactive, and effete, which
are constantly being shed in the form of dust. Both layers are destitute of
blood-vessels or nerves.

[Illustration: Surface View of Epidermis

_st_, Stomata.]

EPIDERMIS, in botany, the superficial layer of cells covering leaves and
young stems. Its principal function is to restrict transpiration, for which
purpose its outer wall is more or less cutinized, i.e. chemically modified
so as to be very impervious to water and gases, especially the outermost
part thereof, the so-called _cuticle_. Naturally both cuticle and epidermis
as a whole are most strongly developed in drought-adapted plants or
xerophytes (q.v.); and conversely the epidermis of submerged plants is not
cutinized, nor is the superficial layer of ordinary roots. The epidermis
frequently bears hairs of various kinds. Stems which undergo secondary
growth in thickness soon cast off their epidermis, its rôle being assumed
by cork or bark. The water- and gas-proof covering provided by the
epidermis is not continuous, but is interrupted by numerous minute pores or
_stomata_, capable of opening and closing, through which accordingly a
regulated interchange of gases takes place.

EP´IDOTE, a mineral of a green or grey colour, vitreous lustre, and partial
transparency, a member of the garnet family. The primary form of the
crystals is a right rhomboidal prism. The crystals occur in Norway,
Siberia, Tyrol, and the United States.

EPIGÆA (-j[=e]´a), a genus of Ericaceous shrubs. _E. repens_, the trailing
arbutus, is the May-flower of North America.

EPIGLOTTIS is a cartilaginous plate behind the tongue, which covers the
glottis like a lid during the act of swallowing, and thus prevents foreign
bodies from entering the larynx. In its ordinary position during
respiration it is pointed upwards, but in the act of swallowing it is
pressed downwards and backwards by the drawing up of the windpipe beneath
the base of the tongue, and thus closes the entrance to the air-passages.
See _Larynx_.

EP´IGRAM (Gr. _epi_, upon, _graphein_, to write), in a restricted sense, a
short poem or piece in verse, which has only one subject, and finishes by a
witty or ingenious turn of thought; in a general sense, a pointed or witty
and antithetical saying. The term was originally given by the Greeks to a
poetical inscription placed upon a tomb or public monument, and was
afterwards extended to every little piece of verse expressing with
precision a delicate or ingenious thought, as the pieces in the _Greek
Anthology_. In Roman classical poetry the term was somewhat
indiscriminately used, but the epigrams of Martial contain a great number
with the modern epigrammatic character. Epigrams flourished in modern times
after the Revival of Learning period, and all the Elizabethan versifiers
tried their hand at them. Pope was a great master of the epigram, and the
art was practised by Clément Marot, Boileau, Voltaire, Schiller, Goethe,
Byron, and Moore, and more recently by Sir William Watson.--Cf. Dodd,
_Epigrammatists of Mediæval and Modern Times_.

EPIGRAPHY, a term used both for the study of inscriptions as a whole, and
for the science which deals with their classification and decipherment. The
attention of the epigraphist is given to inscriptions upon stone, brick,
metal, and other comparatively permanent material, as compared with
writings upon parchment, papyrus, or paper; but he excludes inscriptions
upon coins, which are in the department of the numismatist. The science of
epigraphy is of immense importance for a knowledge of the past, the subject
including inscriptions so far apart in point of time as Egyptian records of
the days of Mena (4700 B.C.), and the Greek hexameters that commemorate the
death in Westmorland of a young Syrian soldier in the army of Septimius
Severus. Of still more recent date are the Runic inscriptions discovered in
Greenland, which seem to place beyond a doubt the fact of Icelandic
explorers having reached that country in the eleventh or twelfth century.
The most important inscriptions are Egyptian, Cuneiform (Babylonian and
Assyrian), Semitic, Greek, Latin, Indian, and Runic. The inscribed writings
include epitaphs on the dead, records of important events, dedications of
public buildings, with such comparatively private matters as receipts,
contracts, and other business transactions. While inscriptions form a
valuable source of knowledge, they cannot be accepted as invariably
reliable. Reasons might in some cases exist for making a false or
misleading record, as in the case of a eulogistic tombstone, while mistakes
in spelling and other details may be due to a careless workman. The
literature which deals with the science of epigraphy is very large.

[Illustration: Vertical Section of an Epigynous Flower

R, Receptacle. K, Calyx. C, Corolla. A, Androecium. D, Disc. O, Ovule.]

EPIGYNOUS (e-pij´i-nus) FLOWERS, those in which the gynæcium is _inferior_,
i.e. embedded in, and adherent to, the hollowed-out receptacle, so that the
other parts of the flower appear to be inserted on the top of the ovary.

EP´ILEPSY (Gr. _epil[=e]psia_, literally, a seizure), a nervous disease,
the falling-sickness, so called because the patient falls suddenly to the
ground. It depends on various causes, often exceedingly complicated and
incapable of being removed; hence it is often an incurable periodical
disease, appearing in single paroxysms. In its fully developed form,
convulsions, attended by complete unconsciousness, are the prominent
feature. Among the different causes may be mentioned intense emotional
disturbance in early childhood, injury to the brain or its coverings at
birth or subsequently, or some irritation within the skull itself, such as
tumours, &c., developing later in life. Epileptiform fits due to the
last-mentioned cause differ from those of true epilepsy, and are known as
_Jacksonian epilepsy_ (cf. Sir W. K. Gowers, _The Borderland of Epilepsy_).
It is, for the most part, preceded by a tingling sensation, creeping up
from the foot or hand to the breast and head, or some other premonitory
symptom such as spectral illusions, headache, giddiness, confusion of
thought, sense of fear, &c.; but sometimes there are no precursive
symptoms. During the paroxysm all that is to be attended to is to prevent
the patient from injuring himself; and this is to be accomplished by
raising the head gently and loosening all tight parts of the dress. It is
advisable to protect the tongue from being bitten by introducing a piece of
india-rubber, cork, or soft wood between the teeth.

EPILO´BIUM, the willow-herbs, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Onagraceæ. The
species are herbs or under-shrubs with pink or purple, rarely yellow,
flowers, solitary in the axils of the leaves or in terminal leafy spikes.
The seeds are tipped with a pencil of silky hairs, and are contained in a
long four-celled capsule. There are more than fifty species scattered over
the arctic and temperate regions of the world, ten of them being natives of
Britain.

EPIMEN´IDES (-d[=e]z), an ancient Greek philosopher and poet, born in Crete
in the seventh century before Christ, he was held for an infallible
prophet, and by some is reckoned among the seven wise men, instead of
Periander. He is supposed to be the prophet referred to by St. Paul in
_Titus_, i, 12: "One of themselves, even a prophet of their own, said, The
Cretians are alway liars, evil beasts, slow bellies".

EPIMETHEUS (ep-i-m[=e]´th[=u]s), in Greek mythology, the son of Iapetus,
brother of Prometheus, and husband of Pandora. Epimetheus may be translated
'afterthought', as Prometheus 'forethought'.

ÉPINAL, a town of Eastern France, capital of the department of the Vosges,
on the Moselle. It is well built and has handsome quays, an ancient Gothic
church, a communal college, a public library of 30,000 volumes, a museum,
and extensive fortifications. The town was occupied by the Germans in the
Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and since that time a modern fortress has been
constructed. The manufactures consist of articles in metal, cottons,
linens, woollens, earthenware, and leather. The famous paper-mills of
Archettes are in the vicinity. Pop. 30,000.

ÉPINAY, Louise Florence Pétronille, Madame d', French authoress, born in
1726, died 1783. She became the wife of M. Delalive d'Épinay, who was
collector-general of taxes. In 1748 she became acquainted with Rousseau,
and gave him a cottage in which he passed many of his days. She was the
author of _Les Conversations d'Émilie_, a companion-volume to Rousseau's
_Émile; Lettres à mon Fils_; and _Mes Moments heureux_. She left
interesting memoirs and correspondence.

EPIPHA´NIUS, ST., was born in Palestine about 310, died 403. About 367 he
was consecrated Bishop of Salamis or Constantia, in Cyprus. A zealous
denouncer of heresy, he combated the opinions of Arius and Origen. His work
_Panarion_ gives the history, together with the refutation, of a great
number of heresies. His festival is on the 12th of May.

EPIPH´ANY (Gr. _epiphaneia_, a manifestation or showing forth), a festival,
otherwise called the _manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles_, observed on
the 6th of January in honour of the adoration of our Saviour by the three
Magi, or wise men, who came to adore him and bring him presents, led by the
star. As a separate festival it dates from 813.

EP´IPHYTE (Gr. _epi_, on, _phyton_, a plant), a plant which grows and
flourishes on the trunks and branches of trees, adhering to the bark, as a
moss, lichen, fern, &c., but which does not, like a parasite, derive any
nourishment from the plant on which it grows. Most orchids are epiphytes,
and so are many Bromeliaceæ and Cactaceæ. Epiphytic Angiosperms are
characteristic of humid tropical regions. Depending as they do entirely on
atmospheric moisture, they show many curious adaptations, and are nearly
always more or less xerophytic in structure.

EPI´RUS (Gr. _Epeiros_), a country of ancient Greece corresponding to
Southern Albania and the north-western division of modern Greece. The most
interesting locality in it was Dodona. The inhabitants were only in part
Greeks. The Molossians at last acquired the ascendancy, and the kings of
this tribe took the name of kings of Epirus. The most celebrated King of
Epirus was Pyrrhus, who made war upon the Romans. Epirus became a Roman
province in 168 B.C., and shared the fortunes of Rome till it was conquered
by the Turks. The population is about 250,000. In Nov., 1914, Greece, with
the consent of the Great Powers, occupied North Epirus, and formally took
possession of it in March, 1916. By the end of 1920, however, the
occupation had not yet been recognized.--Epirus is also the name of an
administrative province of Greece, formed after the Balkan campaigns
(1912-3) out of the territory acquired by the country.

EPISTEMOL´OGY (Gr. _epist[=e]m[=e]_, knowledge), that department of
metaphysics which investigates and explains the doctrine or theory of
knowing. It deals with the validity of knowledge rather than with the
analysis of the knowing mind, and is thus distinguished from _psychology_.
It is also distinguished from _ontology_, which investigates real existence
or the theory of being.

EPIS´TOLÆ OBSCURO´RUM VIRO´RUM (_Letters of Obscure Men_), the title of a
collection of satirical letters which appeared in Germany in 1515, and
professed to be the composition of certain ecclesiastics and professors in
Cologne and other places. It is considered as one of the most masterly
pieces of sarcasm in the history of literature, and its importance is
enhanced by the effect it had in promoting the cause of the Reformation.
The authorship of this satire has been a fertile subject of controversy,
and is yet apparently far from being settled. It was ascribed to Reuchlin,
and afterwards to Reuchlin, Erasmus, and Hutten. By a Papal bull the work
was placed on the Index of forbidden books.

EP´ITAPH (Gr. _epi_, upon, and _taphos_, tomb), an inscription upon a tomb
or monument in honour or memory of the dead. Epitaphs were in use both
among the Greeks and Romans. The Greeks distinguished by epitaphs only
their illustrious men. Among the Romans they became a family institution,
and private names were regularly recorded upon tombstones. The same
practice has generally prevailed in Christian countries. On Christian
tombstones epitaphs usually give brief facts of the deceased's life,
sometimes also the pious hopes of survivors in reference to the
resurrection or other doctrines of the Christian faith, &c. Many so-called
epitaphs are mere witty _jeux d'esprit_, which might be described as
epigrams, and which were never intended seriously for monumental
inscriptions. Dr. Johnson and William Wordsworth wrote essays on
epitaphs.--Cf. Andrews, _Curious Epitaphs_.

EPITHALAMIUM (Gr. _epi_, on, and _thalamos_, a chamber), a nuptial song or
poem in praise of a bride and bridegroom. Among the Greeks and Romans it
was sung by young men and maids at the door of the bridal chamber of a
newly-married couple. Epithalamia have been written by Spenser, Ben Jonson,
and Donne.

EPITHE´LIUM, in anatomy, the cellular layer which lines the internal
cavities and canals of the body, both closed and open, as the mouth, nose,
respiratory organs, blood-vessels, &c., and which is analogous to the
cuticle of the outer surface. There are several varieties of epithelium.
The epithelium lining the blood-vessels is called sometimes _endothelium_.

EPIZO´A, a term applied to those parasitic animals which live upon the
bodies of other animals, as lice, the itch-mite, &c.

EPIZOÖT´IC, or EPIZOÖTIC DISEASE, a disease that at some particular time
and place attacks great numbers of the lower animals just as an epidemic
attacks man. Pleuro-pneumonia is often an epizoötic, as is also the
rinderpest.

EPOCH, or ERA, is a fixed point of time, commonly selected on account of
some remarkable event by which it has been distinguished, and which is made
the beginning or determining point of a particular year from which all
other years, whether preceding or ensuing, are computed. The creation and
the birth of Christ are the most important of the historical epochs. The
creation has formed the foundation of various chronologies, the chief of
which are: (1) The epoch adopted by Bossuet, Ussher, and other Catholic and
Protestant divines, which places the creation in 4004 B.C. (2) The _Era of
Constantinople_ (adopted by Russia), which places it in 5508 B.C. (3) The
_Era of Antioch_, used till A.D. 284, placed the creation 5502 B.C. (4) The
_Era of Alexandria_, which made the creation 5492 B.C. This is also the
_Abyssinian Era_. (5) The _Jewish Era_, which places the creation in 3760
B.C. The Greeks computed their time by periods of four years, called
_Olympiads_, from the occurrence every fourth year of the Olympic games.
The first Olympiad, being the year in which Coroebus was victor in the
Olympic games, was in the year 776 B.C. The Romans dated from the supposed
era of the foundation of their city (Ab Urbe Condita, A.U.C.), the 21st of
April, in the third year of the sixth Olympiad, or 753 B.C. (according to
some authorities, 752 B.C.). The _Christian Era_, or mode of computing from
the birth of Christ as a starting-point, was first introduced in the sixth
century, and was generally adopted by the year 1000. This event is believed
to have taken place earlier, perhaps by four years, than the received date.
The Julian epoch, based on the coincidence of the solar, lunar, and
indictional periods, is fixed at 4713 B.C., and is the only epoch
established on an astronomical basis. The _Mohammedan Era_, or _Hej[)i]ra_,
commences on 16th July, 622, and the years are computed by lunar months.
The Chinese reckon their time by cycles of 60 years. Instead of numbering
them as we do, they give a different name to every year in the cycle.

EPPING, a village of England, in Essex (giving name to a parliamentary
division), 17 miles from London, in the midst of an ancient royal forest
which one time covered nearly the whole of Essex. The unenclosed portion
(5600 acres) was bought by the Corporation of London in 1882, and secured
to the public as a free place of recreation. Pop. 4253.

EPSOM, a town in the county of Surrey, England, 15 miles S.W. of London,
formerly celebrated for a mineral spring, from the water of which the
well-known Epsom salts were manufactured. The principal attraction Epsom
can now boast of is the grand race-meeting held on the Downs, the chief
races being the Derby and Oaks. Epsom gives name to one of the seven
parliamentary divisions of the county. Pop. 19,156.

EPSOM SALTS, sulphate of magnesium (MgSO_47H_2O), a cathartic salt which
appears in capillary fibres or acicular crystals. It is found covering
crevices of rocks, in mineral springs, &c.; but is commonly prepared by
artificial processes from magnesian limestone by treating it with sulphuric
acid, or by dissolving the mineral _kieserite_ (MgSO_4H_2O) in boiling
water, allowing the insoluble matter to settle, and crystallizing out the
Epsom salts from the clear solution. It is employed in medicine as a
purgative, and in the arts. The name is derived from its having been first
procured from the mineral waters at Epsom.

EPWORTH, a small town of N. Lincolnshire, 9 miles N. of Gainsborough, the
birth-place of John Wesley, the founder of Methodism. Pop. 1836.

EQUATION, in algebra, a statement that two expressions have the same
numerical value. An equation may be either identical or conditional. An
example of an _identical equation_, or _identity_, is (x + y)(x - y) = x^2
- y^2. The left side here can be transformed into the right side, simply by
applying the laws of algebra so as to carry out the operations indicated,
without taking account in any way of the numerical values of x and y. An
identical equation is, therefore, true for all values of the variables
which appear in it. A _conditional_ equation is not true unless certain
special values are assigned to the variables. Thus the equation 4x + 7 = 15
is not true for any value of x except 2. This value 2 is called a _root_,
or _solution_, of the equation. An equation may have more than one root,
e.g. x^2 + 6x = 7 has two roots, 1 and -7; and 2x^3 + 3x^2 = 2x + 3 has
three roots, 1, -1, -3/2.

_Rational Integral Equations_ (_one Variable_).--The three equations just
given are special cases of the class of rational integral algebraic
equations. The general form of these is ax^n + bx^{n-1} + ... + kx + l = 0,
where n is a positive integer, and a, b, ... k, l are given numbers. This
equation is said to be of degree n. The branch of mathematics called the
Theory of Equations is conventionally restricted to equations of this type.
The fundamental result in this subject is that every rational integral
equation has a root, a theorem which it is by no means easy to prove. It
follows without difficulty that an equation of degree n has exactly n
roots, real or imaginary. Two or more of the roots, however, may be equal
to each other. To _solve_ an equation is to find its roots. The general
equation of degree n can always be solved to any degree of approximation
desired, when the numerical values of the coefficients a, b, ... are
assigned. Graphical methods of solution are often the best (see _Graph_).
When the coefficients a, b, ... are arbitrary, the general equation can be
solved algebraically if n does not exceed 4, but not for greater values of
n. It is not that the algebraical solution, or algebraic formula for the
roots, when n is greater than 4, has not been discovered; it does not
exist. This was proved more than a hundred years ago by Abel and Galois,
two mathematicians of the highest distinction, who both died before they
were thirty. For n = 2, the roots of the _quadratic_ equation ax^2 + bx + c
= 0 are (-b ± [sqrt]( b^2 - 4ac))/2a. For n = 3, the _cubic_ equation ax^3
+ bx^2 + cx + d = 0 is reduced to the form z^3 + pz + q = 0 by putting x =
z - b/3a ; the solution of z^3 + pz + q = 0 can be verified to be z = u -
p/3u, where u is any one of the three cube roots of the quantity ½q +
[sqrt](¼q^2 + 1/27p^3). For n = 4, the _biquadratic_ equation is solved
with the help of the solution of the cubic. The cubic was first solved by
the Italian mathematician Tartaglia, who communicated the solution to
Cardan, after binding him to keep it a secret. Cardan, however, gave the
solution in his _Algebra_, published at Nürnberg in 1545.

_Equations with more than one Variable._--A solution of an equation which
contains more than one variable is a set of values of the variables making
the equation true. Thus the equation x^2 - y^2 = 9 has solutions (x = 5, y
= 4), (x = 3, y = 0), (x = 5, y = -4), and an unlimited number of others.
When several variables occur, there are usually also several _simultaneous_
equations connecting them; a solution of these is a set of values of the
variables making _all_ the equations true. When the number of equations is
equal to the number of variables, there is in general a limited number of
solutions of the system. Thus, e.g. the system of equations x^2 - y^2 = 9,
2x - y = 6 has two solutions (x = 3, y = 0) and (x = 5, y = 4), and no
others. A useful rule is that the number of solutions of a system of this
type is equal to the product of the degrees of the equations. Exceptions
may arise when two solutions coalesce, or when infinite values of the
variables occur.

Equations are of great importance in applied mathematics. The data of a
problem generally lead to an equation, or a set of equations, among the
quantities concerned. In practice a certain number of these quantities are
known in any given case; the unknown quantities are then found by the
solution of an equation or equations. Non-algebraic equations occur
frequently--equations involving trigonometrical functions, for example. For
a modern practical method of solving equations of many types, see
_Nomography_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. E. Layng, _Elementary Algebra_; C. Smith,
_Algebra_. More advanced works are: G. Chrystal, _Algebra_; W. S. Burnside
and A. W. Panton, _Theory of Equations_.

EQUATION, PERSONAL, the accustomed error, almost a constant quantity in the
case of a practised observer, in timing a celestial phenomenon.

EQUATION OF PAYMENTS, an arithmetical rule for the purpose of ascertaining
at what time it is equitable that a person should make payment of a whole
debt which is due in different parts, payable at different times.

EQUATION OF THE CENTRE, the difference between the actual heliocentric
longitude of a planet revolving in an elliptic orbit and that which it
would have at the same instant if it revolved in a circular orbit. It is
zero at perihelion and aphelion.

EQUATION OF TIME, the difference between mean and apparent time, or the
difference of time as given by a clock and as given by a sun-dial, arising
chiefly from the varying velocity of the earth in its orbit and the
eccentricity of the orbit. The sun and the clock agree four times in the
year; the greatest difference between them at the beginning of November is
fully sixteen minutes. See _Day_.

EQUA´TOR, that great circle of our globe every point of which is 90° from
the poles. All places which are on it have invariably equal days and
nights. Our earth is divided by it into the northern and southern
hemispheres. From this circle is reckoned the latitude of places both north
and south. There is also a corresponding celestial equator in the plane of
the terrestrial, an imaginary great circle in the heavens the plane of
which is perpendicular to the axis of the earth. It is everywhere 90°
distant from the celestial poles, which coincide with the extremities of
the earth's axis, supposed to be produced to meet the heavens. During his
apparent yearly course the sun is twice in the celestial, that is,
vertically over the terrestrial equator, on 21st March and 23rd September.
Then the day and night are equal all over the earth, whence the name
_equinox_.--The _magnetic equator_ is a line at every point of which the
vertical component of the earth's magnetic force is zero; that is to say, a
dipping needle carried along the magnetic equator remains horizontal. It is
hence also called the _aclinic line_. It has a slightly devious course, but
upon the whole keeps fairly near the geographical equator.

EQUATO´RIAL, an astronomical instrument contrived for the purpose of
directing a telescope upon any celestial object, and of keeping the object
in view for any length of time, notwithstanding the diurnal motion of the
earth. For these purposes a principal axis resting on firm supports is
mounted exactly parallel to the axis of the earth's rotation, and
consequently pointing to the poles of the heavens, being fixed so as to
turn on pivots at its extremities. To this there is attached a telescope
moving on an axis of its own in such a way that it may either be exactly
parallel to the other axis, or at any angle to it; when at right angles it
points to the celestial equator. The two axes carry graduated circles, with
the help of which, even during the day, the telescope can be pointed to any
star whose declination and right ascension are known. By means of clockwork
the instrument is given such a motion round its principal axis that the
star is kept stationary in the field of view.

EQ´UERRY, in Britain, the name of certain officers of the royal household,
in the department of the Master of the Horse, whose duties consist in
attendance when the sovereign rides abroad. Equerries also form part of the
establishments of the members of the royal family.

EQUESTRIAN ORDER, the order of 'Knights' in ancient Rome. The _equites_ or
knights originally formed the cavalry of the army. They are said by Livy to
have been instituted by Romulus, who selected 300 of them from the three
principal tribes. About the time of the Gracchi (123 B.C.) the equites
became a distinct order in the state, and the judges and the farmers of the
revenue were selected from their ranks. They held their position in virtue
of a certain property qualification, and towards the end of the Republic
they possessed much influence in the state. They had particular seats
assigned to them in the circus and theatre, and the insignia of their rank,
in addition to a horse, were a gold ring and a robe with a narrow purple
border (the _clavus angustus_). Under the later emperors the order grew
less influential, and finally disappeared.

EQ´UIDÆ, the horse family, a division of the odd-toed (perissodactyle)
Ungulates or hoofed mammals. There is but one existing genus, Equus,
distinguished by the possession of a mane; hard pads (callosities) on the
inner side of each fore-limb (and sometimes of the hind-limb); a single
functional digit (the third or middle one) terminating in a large curved
hoof; a simple stomach; 44 teeth, including 12 incisors with pitted crowns,
4 canines (tushes) reduced in the female, and 28 grinding teeth with broad
crowns, except the first (wolf tooth), which is rudimentary. The forms
included are horses, asses, and zebras; the first being distinguished from
the others by the presence of callosities ('chestnuts') on the hind-limbs
as well as the fore. The domesticated horse (_E. caballus_) has a large
flat tail abundantly hair-clad, and is not known with certainty in the wild
state, though possibly the tarpan of South Russia (Tartary) may represent
the original stock. Another candidate for this honour is the small wild
species (_E. przewalskii_) native to the deserts of Central Asia. The
domestic ass (_E. asinus_) is related to a number of wild species, such as
the onager (_E. onager_) of South Asia, the kiang (_E. hemionus_) of Tibet,
and two African species (_E. africanus_ and _E. somalicus_). The striped
zebras are purely African, and four species are generally recognized--the
common or mountain zebra (_E. zebra_), Burchell's zebra (_E. burchelli_),
Grevy's zebra (_E. grevyi_), and the quagga (_E. quagga_). The geological
record enables us to derive horses from a small plantigrade five-toed form
(Phenacodus), by gradual increase in size, complication of teeth, loss of
digits, and elongation of limbs, to the unguligrade condition.

EQUILIB´RIUM, in statics, the condition when a body is acted on by two or
more forces which balance one another. The body may be either at rest or
moving with uniform speed in a straight line. In the first case, when the
body, being slightly moved out of any position, always tends to return to
its position, that position is said to be one of _stable equilibrium_; when
the body, after a slight displacement, tends to move away from its previous
position, the body is in _unstable equilibrium_. If, after displacement,
the body tends to remain at rest, its state is one of _neutral
equilibrium_.

EQUINOC´TIAL, in astronomy, the circle in the heavens otherwise known as
the celestial equator. When the sun is on the equator, there is equal
length of day and night over all the earth: hence the name
_equinoctial_.--_Equinoctial gales_, storms which have been supposed to
take place about the time of the sun's crossing the equator, that is, at
the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, in March and September.--_Equinoctial
points_ are the two points wherein the celestial equator and ecliptic
intersect each other; the one, the first point of Aries, is called the
_vernal_ point; and the other, in Libra, the _autumnal_ point. These points
move backward or westward at the rate of 50" of arc in a year. This is
called the precession of the equinoxes.

EQ´UINOX, one of the equinoctial points. The term is also applied to the
dates at which the sun passes through them, viz. 21st March and 23rd
September, when day and night are of equal length all over the world. See
_Day_; _Earth_; _Equinoctial_; _Seasons_.

EQUISETALES, a group of Pteridophytes, represented at the present day only
by the genus Equisetum (q.v.). It was much more prominent in the
Carboniferous flora, in which large woody horse-tails (Calamites) played an
important part.

EQUISE´TUM, a genus of vascular cryptogamous plants with hollow jointed
stems, type of the group Equisetales, growing in wet places, and popularly
called _horse-tails_.

EQ´UITY (Lat. _aequus_, fair, equal), in English law, the system of
supplemental law administered in certain courts, founded upon defined
rules, recorded precedents, and established principles, the judges,
however, liberally expounding and developing them to meet new exigencies.
While it aims at assisting the defects of the common law, by extending
relief to those rights of property which the strict law does not recognize,
and by giving more ample and distributive redress than the ordinary
tribunals afford, equity by no means either controls, mitigates, or
supersedes the common law, but rather guides itself by its analogies, and
does not assume any power to subvert its doctrines. The Court of Chancery
was formerly in England the especial court of equity, but large powers were
by the Judicature Act of 1873 given to all the divisions of the Supreme
Court to administer equity, although many matters of equitable jurisdiction
are still left to the chancery division in the first
instance.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. T. White and O. O. Tudor, _Leading Cases in
Equity_; C. Thwaites, _Student's Guide to Equity_.

EQUITY OF REDEMPTION, in law, the advantage allowed to a mortgager of a
reasonable time to redeem an estate mortgaged, when it is of greater value
than the sum for which it is mortgaged.

EQUIV´ALENT, in chemistry, the number of parts by weight of an element
which will combine with or displace 8 parts by weight of oxygen or 1.008
parts by weight of hydrogen.

ERANTHIS. See _Winter Aconite_.

ÉRARD, Sébastien, a celebrated musical-instrument maker, born at Strasbourg
in 1752, died 1831. He went to Paris at the age of eighteen, and in concert
with his brother, Jean Baptiste, produced pianofortes superior to any that
had previously been made in France. He afterwards established a manufactory
in London, and made considerable improvements in the mechanism of the harp.

ERASIS´TRATUS, an ancient Greek physician and anatomist, said to have been
a grandson of Aristotle. He lived in the third century before the Christian
era, and was court physician of Seleucus Nicator, King of Syria. He was the
first who systematically dissected the human body, and his description of
the brain and nerves is much more exact than any given by his predecessors.
He classified the nerves into nerves of sensation and of locomotion, and,
it is said, almost stumbled upon the discovery of the circulation of the
blood. Of his works only the titles and some fragments remain.

ERAS´MUS, Desiderius, a Dutch scholar, one of the greatest of the
Renaissance and Reformation period, born at Rotterdam in 1467, died in
1536. His original name was Gerard, but this he changed according to a
fashion of the time. After the death of his parents, whom he lost in his
fourteenth year, his guardians compelled him to enter a monastery; and at
the age of seventeen he assumed the monastic habit. The Bishop of Cambrai
delivered him from this constraint. In 1492 he travelled to Paris to
perfect himself in theology and literature. He became the instructor of
several rich Englishmen (from one of whom--Lord Mountjoy--he received a
pension for life), and accompanied them to England in 1497, where he was
graciously received by the king. Returning soon after to the Continent, he
took his doctor's degree, was relieved from his monastic vows by
dispensation from the Pope, and published several of his works. In 1510 he
returned to England, wrote his _Praise of Folly_ while residing with Sir
Thomas More, and was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity and
Greek lecturer at Cambridge. In 1514 he returned to the Continent and lived
chiefly at Basel, where he died. To extensive learning Erasmus joined a
refined taste and a delicate wit, and rendered great and lasting service to
the cause of reviving scholarship. Although Erasmus took no direct part in
the Reformation, and was reproached by Luther for lukewarmness, he attacked
the disorders of monasticism and superstition, and everywhere promoted the
cause of truth. A humanist rather than a reformer or a theologian, he waged
war upon ignorance and superstition. He edited various classics, the first
edition of the Greek Testament from MSS. (with Latin translation), &c., but
his best-known books are the _Encomium Moriæ_ (Praise of Folly) and his
_Colloquies_. His letters are very valuable in reference to the history of
that period.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Knight, _Life of Erasmus_; C. Butler, _Life
of Erasmus_; E. F. H. Capey, _Life of Erasmus_; P. S. Allen, _The Age of
Erasmus_.

ERAS´TUS (Gr. _erastos_, lovely, translation of Ger. _Lieber_), the learned
name of Thomas Lieber, a Swiss physician, who maintained the opinions from
which the well-known epithet of _Erastian_, as now used, is derived. He was
born at Baden in 1523, and died at Basel 1584. He was successively
professor of medicine at Heidelberg, and of ethics at Basel. In his
writings he maintained the complete subordination of the ecclesiastical to
the secular power; and denied to the Church the right to exclude any one
from Church ordinances, or to inflict excommunication.

ER´ATO, in Greek mythology, one of the nine Muses, whose name signifies
loving or lovely. She presided over lyric and especially amatory poetry,
and is generally represented crowned with roses and myrtle, and with the
lyre in the left hand and the plectrum in the right in the act of playing.

ERATOS´THENES, an ancient Greek astronomer, born at Cyrene, in Africa, 276
B.C., died about 194 B.C. He was librarian at Alexandria, and gained his
greatest renown by his investigations of the size of the earth. He rendered
much service to the science of astronomy, and first observed the obliquity
of the ecliptic. Of the writings attributed to him one only remains
complete--_Katasterismoi_--which treats of the constellations.

ER´BIUM, a rare metal found along with yttrium, terbium, and other rare
elements in some rare minerals. Its properties are but little known. It was
discovered by Mosander in 1843.

ERCILLA Y ZUÑIGA (er-thil´y[.a] [=e] thö-ny[=e]´g[.a]), Don Alonso de,
Spanish soldier and poet, born 1533, died 1595. He became page to the
Infant Don Philip, accompanied him on his travels, and in 1554 went with
him to England, on the occasion of his marriage with Queen Mary. After this
he fought against the Araucanians of South America (Chile), and his epic
_La Araucana_ is based on the events of this war. It is written in
excellent Spanish, and occupies an honourable position in the national
literature. The first fifteen cantos were published in 1569, and the
continuations, thirty-seven cantos, appeared in 1578 and 1589.

ERCKMANN-CHATRIAN (sh[.a]t-ri-ä[n.]), the joint name of two French-Alsatian
writers of fiction. Émile Erckmann, born at Pfalzburg 1822, studied law at
Paris, and died in 1899. Alexandre Chatrian, born near Pfalzburg in 1826,
died in 1890, was for some time teacher in the Pfalzburg College. They
formed a literary partnership in 1847, but it was not till the appearance
of _L'Illustre Docteur Mathéus_ in 1859 that success attended them. Among
their most popular books are: _L'Ami Fritz_, _Madame Thérèse_, _Histoire
d'un Conscrit de 1813_, _L'Histoire d'un Paysan_, and _Waterloo_, most of
which have been translated into English. Their drama _Le Juif Polonais_ was
made famous by Sir Henry Irving under the name of _The Bells_.

ERDMANN, Johann Eduard, German philosopher, born 1805, died 1892. He
studied theology at Dorpat and Berlin; in 1829 became a clergyman, but in
1832 returned to Berlin and took his degree in philosophy. In 1836 he
became professor extraordinary of philosophy at Halle, being appointed
ordinary professor in 1839. He wrote numerous philosophical works, mostly
characterized by Hegelian tendencies, including: _Body and Soul_, _Nature
and Creation_, _Outlines of Psychology_, _Outlines of Logic and
Metaphysics_, _Psychological Letters_, and _Belief and Knowledge_. His
greatest work is his _Outlines of the History of Philosophy_, which has
been translated into English (3 vols., 1889).

ER´EBUS, in Greek mythology, the son of Chaos and Darkness, and father of
Æther and Hemera (day). The name Erebus was also given to the infernal
regions.

ER´EBUS, MOUNT, a volcano of the antarctic regions in S. Victoria Land;
height, 12,400 feet; discovered by Ross, 1841.

ERECHTHEUS (e-rek´th[=u]s), in Greek mythology, a mythical king of Athens
to whom a fine temple, the _Erechth[=e]um_, was built on the Acropolis. In
some representations of him he is depicted as half snake, so that he was
one of the autochthones, the earth-born ancestors of the Athenians.

ERECTION, LORDS OF, in Scots history, those private owners into whose hands
the ecclesiastical estates belonging to the clergy had passed during the
religious changes of the Reformation period.

ER´FURT (Lat. _Erfordia_, ford of Erpe, its legendary founder), an
important town in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the River Gera,
formerly a fortress with two citadels, now given up as such. It has a fine
cathedral dating from the thirteenth century and several handsome Gothic
churches. The university, founded in 1378 and suppressed in 1816, was long
an important institution. There is still an academy of science and a
library with 60,000 volumes. The monastery (now an orphanage) was the
residence of Luther from 1501 to 1508. Erfurt is a busy industrial town and
is in a very flourishing condition. The industries are varied, including
clothing, machinery, leather, shoes, ironmongery, and chemicals.
Flower-growing is extensively carried on in the neighbourhood, plants and
seed being produced for sale in great quantities. Pop. 123,550.

[Illustration: Ergot of Rye

1, Spanish ergot. 2, Russian ergot.]

ER´GOT, the altered grain of rye and other grasses caused by the attack of
an ascomycetous fungus called _Claviceps purpurea_. The grain is replaced
by a dense fungoid tissue (sclerotium) largely charged with an oily fluid.
In its perfect state this germinates and produces the Claviceps
fructification. When diseased rye of this kind is eaten in food for some
time, it sometimes causes death by a kind of mortification called dry
gangrene. Ergot is used in obstetric practice to promote the contraction of
the uterus.

ERICA (e-r[=i]´ka), the heaths, a large genus of branched rigid shrubs,
type of the nat. ord. Ericaceæ, most of which are natives of South Africa,
a few being found in Europe and Asia. The leaves are narrow and rigid; the
flowers are globose or tubular, and four-lobed. Five species are found in
Britain.

ERICACEÆ, a nat. ord. of gamopetalous Dicotyledons. Representative genera:
Calluna, Erica, Rhododendron.

ERICHSEN (er´ik-sen), Sir John Eric, surgeon, born 1818, died in 1890. He
was the son of a Copenhagen merchant, but spent nearly all his life in
England. He studied at University College, London, became a member of the
Royal College of Surgeons in 1839, a fellow in 1845, and in 1850 professor
of surgery and hospital surgeon at University College. In 1865 he succeeded
Quain as professor of clinical surgery in the same college, but retired in
1875. Appointed president of University College in 1887, he also held that
post till his death. He was chief surgeon extraordinary to Queen Victoria,
and in 1895 was made a baronet. His most important work was his _Science
and Art of Surgery_ (1853), which has gone through many editions, and has
been translated into several languages. He also published a volume on
_Concussion of the Spine_ (1875).

ER´ICSSON, John, engineer, born in Sweden 1803, died in 1889. He served for
a time in the Swedish army; removed to London in 1826, and to New York in
1839. He is identified with numerous inventions and improvements in steam
machinery and its applications. His chief inventions are his caloric
engine, the screw propeller (1836), which has revolutionized navigation,
and his turret-ships, the first of which, the _Monitor_, distinguished
itself in the American Civil War, and inaugurated a new era in naval
warfare. He afterwards devoted himself to studies of the earth's motion and
the intensity of solar heat.

ERIDANUS, the River Eridanus (modern Po), one of the constellations of the
ancient astronomy, in which Ptolemy catalogued thirty-four stars.
Appropriately to its name, it covers a large expanse of the heavens, its
northern portion, just to south-west of Orion, reaching the celestial
equator. The part visible in our latitudes does not contain bright stars,
but at the southern extremity is the first-magnitude Achernar, a
conspicuous object to southern observers.

ERIE ([=e]´ri), one of the great chain of North American lakes, between
Lakes Huron and Ontario, about 265 miles long, 63½ miles broad at its
centre, from 40 to 60 fathoms deep at the deepest part; area, 6900 sq.
miles. The whole of its southern shore is within the territory of the
United States, and its northern within that of Canada. It receives the
waters of the upper lakes by Detroit River at its south-western extremity,
and discharges its waters into Lake Ontario by the Niagara River at its
north-east end. The Welland Canal enables vessels to pass from it to Lake
Ontario. It is shallow compared with the other lakes of the series, and is
subject to violent storms. The principal harbours are those on the United
States side--Buffalo, Erie, and Cleveland.

ERIE, a city, Pennsylvania, United States, an important railway and
commercial centre on the southern shore of Lake Erie. There are numerous
ironworks (including foundries, rolling-mills, and blast-furnaces),
petroleum refineries, breweries, tanneries, and wood-working factories. The
harbour is one of the best on the lake. Pop. 76,600.

ERIE CANAL, the largest in the United States, serving to connect the great
lakes with the sea. It begins at Buffalo on Lake Erie, and extends to the
Hudson at Albany. It is 363 miles long; has in all 72 locks; a surface
width 70 feet, bottom width 42 feet, and depth 7 feet. It is carried over
several large streams on stone aqueducts; cost nearly £2,000,000, and was
opened in 1825. The navigation is free.

ERIGENA (e-rij´e-na), Joannes Scotus (_Scotus_, Scot, and _Erigena_,
Irish-born), an eminent mediæval scholar and metaphysician, probably born
of Scotch parentage in Ireland about 800-810, died in France about 875. He
spent a great part of his life at the court of Charles the Bald of France,
and was placed at the head of the school of the palace. The king further
imposed upon him the double task of translating into Latin the Greek works
of the pseudo Dionysius the Areopagite, and of composing a treatise against
Godeschale on _Predestination and Free-will_. This treatise, and another,
_De Divisione Naturæ_, contained many views in opposition to the teachings
of the Church. They were condemned by the Councils of Valencia in 855 and
of Langres in 859, and Pope Nicholas I demanded the immediate disgrace of
the culprit. His subsequent history is not known.--Cf. Gardner, _Studies in
John the Scot_.

ERIN´NA, a Greek poetess who lived about 600 B.C. She is said to have been
an intimate friend of Sappho, and died at the age of eighteen. She acquired
a high reputation for poetry, and her chief work was called _Elakat[=e]_
(The Distaff), of which nothing has come down to us. An epitaph or two
which are still extant, and believed by some to be hers, are by others
deemed spurious.

ERIODEN´DRON, the wool tree, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Malvaceæ
(mallows). There are eight species natives of America, but one belongs to
Asia and Africa. The species are noble plants, growing from 50 to 100 feet
high, having palmate leaves, and red or white flowers. The woolly coat of
the seeds of some of the species is used in different countries for
stuffing cushions and similar purposes.

ERIS, in Greek mythology, the goddess of discord, the sister of Ares, and,
according to Hesiod, daughter of Nyx (night). Not being invited to the
marriage of Peleus, she revenged herself by means of the _apple of
discord_.

ER´ITH, a town of England, in Kent, on the Thames, about 14 miles east of
London, a pleasant summer resort. Pop. 27,755.

ERITRE´A, or ERYTHRÆ´A (from Gr. _erythros_, red, referring to the Red
Sea), the official name of an Italian colonial possession stretching along
the African shore of the Red Sea, and between it and Abyssinia, from the
Egyptian coast territory to the French territory of Obok, at the Strait of
Bab-el-Mandeb. The coast-line is about 670 miles in length, the area of the
colony about 45,800 sq. miles. Pop., largely nomadic, about 450,000. The
chief town is Massowah.

ER´IVAN, a fortified city in Armenia, formerly the capital of a Russian
government of the same name in Transcaucasia, on the Sanga, north of Mount
Ararat. It has a citadel, barracks, a cannon foundry, and some
manufactures. The Armenian Republic of Erivan was constituted in May, 1918.
Pop. 34,000. The former Russian government of Erivan had an area of 10,725
sq. miles, and a pop. of 970,000.

ERLANG´EN, a town of Bavaria, 10 miles N.N.W. of Nürnberg. The Protestant
university, founded in 1743, is the chief institution. The industries
include cotton spinning and weaving, mirrors, hosiery, gloves, and combs.
Pop. 24,874.

ERLAU, or EGER, a town, Hungary, on the Eger, 65 miles E.N.E. of Budapest.
It has sundry manufactures; and the red wines of the district, esteemed the
best in Hungary, are largely exported. Pop. 28,050.

ERL-KING, the English form of the name given in German and Scandinavian
poetical mythology to a personified natural power which devises and works
mischief, especially to children. Goethe's celebrated poem _Der Erlkönig_
(literally 'elf-king') has rendered this malicious spirit universally
known.

[Illustration: Ermines (_Putorius ermineus_)]

ER´MINE, the stoat (_Putorius ermineus_), a mammal of the weasel family
widely distributed through the northern parts of both hemispheres, with a
considerable range to the south. It is not generally known that the ermine
and stoat are the same. In winter, in cold countries or severe seasons, the
fur changes from a reddish-brown to a yellowish-white, or almost pure
white, under which shade the animal is recognised as the ermine. In both
states the tip of the tail is black. Its fur is short, soft, and silky, the
best skins being brought from Russia, Sweden, and Norway. It is in great
request, and was formerly one of the insignia of royalty, and is still used
by judges. When used as linings of cloaks the black tuft from the tail is
sewed to the skin at irregular distances. Stoats are among the enemies of
the poultry-keeper, but by keeping down small rodents they benefit
agriculture to a considerable extent.--In heraldry, ermine is one of the
furs, represented with its peculiar spots black on a white ground.

[Illustration: Ermine]

ERNE ([.e]rn), the name often given to all the eagles of the genus
Haliaëtus, but more specifically to the white-tailed sea-eagle.

ERNE, LOUGH, a lake, Ireland, County Fermanagh, consisting of a north or
lower, and a south or upper lake (with the town of Enniskillen between),
connected by a narrow winding channel, and properly forming only expansions
of the River Erne. Its entire length is about 40 miles; average breadth, 6
miles. It contains numerous small islands, and is well stocked with
fish.--The River Erne rises in Lough Gowna, in the county of Longford,
flows through Loughs Oughter and Erne, and falls into Donegal Bay below
Ballyshannon. Length, 72 miles.

ERNEST AUGUSTUS, King of Hanover and Duke of Cumberland, the fifth son of
George III, born 1771, died 1851. In 1799 he was created Duke of
Cumberland, in England, and became a field-marshal in the British army. On
the death of William IV in 1837 he ascended the throne of Hanover, in
consequence of the succession to the sovereignty of that country being
limited to heirs male. He was succeeded by his son, George V, the last of
the Hanoverian kings.

EROS, an asteroid discovered in Aug., 1898. It completes its orbit in 642
days, and has a mean distance from the sun of 135½ million miles, or 6
million less than that of Mars, and was the first to be discovered of the
class of minor planets which come within the orbit of Mars. It can approach
at times to 13½ million miles from the earth. It is supposed to have a
diameter of 20 miles or less.

EROSION THEORY, in geology, the theory, now held by all geologists, that
valleys are, in the great majority of cases, due to the wearing influences
of subaerial agents, such as rivers and glaciers, as opposed to the theory
which regards them as the result of fissures in the earth's crusts produced
by strains during its upheaval.

EROT´IC (from the Gr. _er[=o]s_, love), relating to love.--_Erotic poetry_,
amatory poetry.--The name of _erotic_ writers has been applied, in Greek
literature, particularly to a class of romance writers, and to the writers
of the _Milesian Tales_.

ERRAT´ICS, OR ERRATIC BLOCKS, in geology, boulders or large masses of
angular rock which have been transported to a distance from their original
positions by the action of ice during a glacial period. Thus on the slopes
of the Jura Mountains immense blocks of granite are found which have
travelled 60 miles from their original situation. Similarly, masses of
Scottish and Lake-district granites and of Welsh rocks (some of which weigh
several tons) occur not uncommonly in the surface soil of the Midland
counties of England.

ERROMAN´GO, OR ERROMAN´GA, one of the more important of the New Hebrides
Islands, with an area of about 400 sq. miles, hilly and not very fertile,
but with spots well cultivated. Several missionaries have been murdered by
the natives--including the missionary John Williams--but perhaps half of
the 2500 natives are now Christians.

ERRORS OF OBSERVATION. In scientific measurements, objects and instruments
alike are so constituted that numerical results can only be approximate. We
have to find the value of some quantity, not exactly, but to so many
significant figures. Even so, when a number of measurements are made of the
same quantity, it regularly happens that different values are obtained, the
difference between a value as obtained and the true value being called an
_error of observation_. It remains to combine the various measurements in
such a way as to obtain the best result which they are capable of yielding.

The usual method is to take the arithmetic mean of the values obtained as
the correct value. It is also customary in careful work to state the
average deviation of the observed values from the mean. For example,
various experimenters found the following numbers for the charge on an
electron: 4.67, 4.77, 4.65, 4.79, 4.69. Here the _mean_ is 4.71, and the
average _deviation_ from the mean, taken without regard to algebraic sign,
is .05. The final result is stated as 4.71 ± .05. The ambiguous term ± .05
is sometimes called the probable error. The smaller the probable error, the
more reliable is the mean result.

A case of much practical importance occurs when the results obtained by two
distinct methods differ by greater amounts than can be accounted for by the
uncertainty of either result. In this case there must be a _constant error_
present in at least one of the sets of measurements. Recognition of a
constant error has occasionally led to an important discovery; for
instance, the hint which led to the detection of argon in the atmosphere
came from the observed discrepancy in the densities of atmospheric nitrogen
and nitrogen from ammonia.

In many measurements what is sought is not the value of a single quantity,
but the relation between the values of two variable quantities. In such
cases graphical methods are of great service. Corresponding values of the
two variables are found and plotted; and a smooth curve, or it may be a
straight line, is drawn to lie as evenly as possible among the plotted
points. Where great accuracy is wanted, analytical methods are also
available. See _Squares, Method of Least; Probability_.

ERSCH (ersh), John Samuel, German bibliographer, born 1766, died 1828. He
was principal librarian and professor of geography and statistics at Halle.
Among his publications are: a _Dictionary of French Writers_; a _Manual of
German Literature_; and, in connection with Gruber, the _Universal
Encyclopædia of Arts and Sciences_.

ERS´KINE, Ebenezer, the founder of the Secession Church in Scotland, born
1680, died 1754. He studied at Edinburgh, and was ordained minister of
Portmoak, in Fife, in 1703, in which situation he continued for
twenty-eight years, when he removed to Stirling. His attitude towards
patronage and other abuses in the Church led to his being deposed, when, in
conjunction with his brother and others, he founded the Secession Church.
Erskine was the leader of the Burghers (q.v.). He is the author of several
volumes of sermons.

ERSKINE, The Hon. Henry, Scottish barrister, was the third son of Henry
David, tenth Earl of Buchan: born at Edinburgh 1746, died 1817. After
studying at the Universities of St. Andrews, Edinburgh, and Glasgow, he
adopted the legal profession, and in 1768 was called to the Bar. He twice
held the office of Lord-Advocate, was for long the leader of the Scottish
Bar, and held a high reputation as a wit.

ERSKINE, John, of Carnock, afterwards of Cardross, Scottish jurist, born
1695, died 1768. He was called to the Scottish Bar in 1719, and was author
of _Principles of the Law of Scotland_, and the _Institutes of the Law of
Scotland_, both works of authority.

ERSKINE, Ralph, brother of Ebenezer Erskine, born 1685, died 1752. He was
ordained to the parish of Dunfermline in 1711, and in 1737 joined his
brother, who had seceded from the Established Church. His _Gospel Sonnets_
and other religious works were once very popular.

ERSKINE, Thomas, Lord Erskine, Scottish lawyer, the youngest son of the
tenth Earl of Buchan, was born in 1750, and died in 1823. He was educated
partly at the High School of Edinburgh, and partly at the University of St.
Andrews. After serving four years in the navy and seven in the army, he
commenced the study of law, and in 1778 both took his degree at Cambridge
and was called to the Bar. His success was immediate. In May, 1783, he took
silk, and the same year was elected member of Parliament for Portsmouth, a
seat he held (except from 1784-90, when he had no seat) till 1806, when he
was raised to the peerage. The rights of juries he firmly maintained on all
occasions, but particularly in the celebrated trial of the Dean of St.
Asaph for libel. In 1789 he defended Stockdale, a bookseller, for
publishing what was charged as a libellous pamphlet in favour of Warren
Hastings. In 1792, being employed to defend Thomas Paine, when prosecuted
for the second part of his work _The Rights of Man_, he declared that,
waiving all personal convictions, he deemed it right, as an English
advocate, to obey the call: by the maintenance of which principle he lost
his office of Attorney-General to the Prince of Wales. In the trials of
Hardy, Tooke, and others for high treason in 1794, which lasted for several
weeks, the ability displayed by Erskine was acknowledged by all parties. He
was a warm partisan of Fox, and a strenuous opposer of the war with France.
In 1802 the Prince of Wales not only restored him to his office of
Attorney-General, but made him Keeper of Seals for the Duchy of Cornwall.
On the death of Pitt, in 1806, Erskine was created a peer, and raised to
the dignity of Lord Chancellor. During his short tenure of office the Bill
for the abolition of slavery was passed. After he retired with the usual
pension, he took little part in politics.

ERUPTIVE ROCKS, in geology, those which, as lavas, have broken through
other rocks while in a molten state, and become eruptive at the surface.

ERVUM. See _Lentil_.

ERYNGIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the nat. ord. Umbelliferæ. There
are upwards of 100 species found in temperate and sub-tropical climates,
but chiefly in South America. _E. marit[)i]mum_, also called sea-holly, is
the only truly native British species. It frequents sandy shores, and is
distinguished by its rigid, spiny, glaucous, veined leaves, and its dense
heads of blue flowers. The roots are sometimes candied, and are reputed to
be stimulating and restorative, as well as to have aphrodisiac properties.
It is mentioned by Shakespeare, _Merry Wives_, v. 5, 23, as an aphrodisiac.

ERYSIP´ELAS, ROSE, or ST. ANTHONY'S FIRE, is a contagious disease of the
skin due to infection by a germ, the Streptococcus, and accompanied by
severe general disturbance. Cold, damp weather favours its appearance. It
rarely affects those under fifteen years, and is commoner in women than
men. The disease is characterized by sudden onset, with shivering,
headache, vomiting, and occasionally sore throat, followed by the
appearance of the typical erysipelatous flush on the skin of the affected
part, most usually the face. This part becomes deep red, and is much
swollen, with a glossy, tender surface. It is definitely raised, and has a
spreading edge merging into the normal parts around. In extreme cases there
is marked disfigurement. Local treatment to allay pain and prevent
spreading is by the application of lotions and ointments, and general
treatment in the form of stimulating foods is given to maintain strength.
Serum treatment has been used, but so far there have been very conflicting
results. The disease is not so common nor so fatal as previously.

ERYSIPHA´LES, an important family of ascomycetous Fungi, distinguished by
the presence of typical sexual organs and closed ascus-fruits
(_cleistocarps_) which bear characteristic appendages concerned with
dispersal; also by the fact that each segment of the septate mycelium
contains a single nucleus. They are all parasites, appearing on leaves,
stems, or fruits as white patches of mycelium ('mildew'). During summer
innumerable conidia are produced, which spread the disease rapidly; in
autumn the black ascus-fruits develop and carry the fungus through the
winter. Erysiphales are responsible for many important plant-diseases, e.g.
the mildew of hops (_Sphærotheca Castagnei_), vine (_Uncinula spiralis_),
wheat (_Erysiphe communis_), and the American gooseberry mildew
(_Sphærotheca Mors-uvæ_), a 'notifiable' disease in Britain.

ERYTHE´MA is redness of the skin, and in this sense is applied to a number
of general conditions which bring about redness of the skin, e.g. abscess,
oedema, scarlet fever, &c. Of late, in medicine, its use has been more
restricted, and refers only to an inflammation of part of the skin. This
disease is characterized by redness and tenderness, and may become
sufficiently severe to lead to the production of bullæ in the centre of the
affected part. Dermatologists recognize various types of erythema.

ERYTHRÆ´AN SEA, in ancient geography, a name given to what is now called
the Indian Ocean, but including the Persian and Arabian Gulfs. The name was
eventually restricted to the Arabian Gulf.

ERYTHRI´NA. See _Coral Tree_.

ERYTHRO´NIUM. See _Dog's Tooth Violet_.

ERYTHROPHLOE´UM, a genus of tropical trees, nat. ord. Leguminosæ,
containing three species, two found in Africa and the third in Australia.
The _E. guineense_ of Guinea has a poisonous juice, which is used by the
natives as a test of innocence and guilt, hence the name 'ordeal tree'.

ERYX, an ancient city and a mountain in the west of Sicily, about 2 miles
from the sea-coast. The mountain, now Monte San Giuliano, rises direct from
the plain to a height of 2184 feet. On the summit anciently stood a
celebrated temple of Venus. All traces of the ancient town of Eryx have now
disappeared, and its site is occupied by the modern town of San Giuliano.

ERZBERGER, Matthias, German politician, born at Buttenhausen in 1875.
Educated at Freiburg, where he studied political economy, he took an
interest in 1897 in the Christian Socialist movement, and entered the
Reichstag as a member of the Centre or Catholic party. He became prominent
in 1917, when he accused the German Government of misrepresenting the
military situation, and urged for a statement of Germany's peace aims.
Secretary of State in 1918, he became Minister of Finance in 1919 in
Bauer's Cabinet, but was compelled to resign in 1920. He was murdered on
26th Aug., 1921, by two young men of the militarist party.

ERZERUM, ERZEROUM, or ERZEROOM (er´ze-röm), a city of Armenia, formerly the
capital of a Turkish vilayet with an area of 27,000 sq. miles, and a pop.
of 582,745. The town is about 6000 feet above sea-level, and forms an
important strategical centre. It is irregularly built, its narrow dirty
streets, flanked by mean houses, being crowded together in the small space
enclosed by its lofty walls. The Moslem element prevails largely over the
Christian, although it is the metropolis of the Armenian Church in union
with Rome. In addition to important manufactures, especially in copper and
iron, it carries on an extensive trade, and is a chief halting-place for
Persian pilgrims on their way to Mecca. The town was captured by the
Russians in Feb., 1916, and recaptured by the Turks in March, 1918. Pop.
(before the European War), about 80,000.

ERZGEBIRGE (erts´ge-bir-ge; 'Ore Mountains'), a chain of European mountains
forming a natural boundary between Saxony and Bohemia, nearly 120 miles in
length and 25 miles broad. The highest summits, which are on the side of
Saxony, rise to 3800 or 3900 feet. The mountains are rich in silver, iron,
copper, lead, cobalt, and arsenic.

ESARHAD´DON (Assyr. _Asur-akhi-iddina_, Asur has given a brother), the son
of Sennacherib, and one of the most powerful of all the Assyrian monarchs.
He extended the empire on all sides, and is the only Assyrian monarch who
actually reigned at Babylon. He died about 667 B.C.

E´SAU, the eldest son of Isaac, and twin-brother of Jacob. His name (which
signifies rough, hairy) was due to his singular appearance at birth, being
"red, and all over like an hairy garment". The story of his losing the
paternal blessing through the craft of Rebekah and Jacob, with other facts,
is told in _Genesis_, xxvii. He was the progenitor of the Edomites.

ESBJERG, a Danish seaport in South-West Jutland, opposite the Island of
Fanö. Pop. 18,000.

ESCALLONIA, a genus of saxifragaceous shrubs and trees, natives chiefly of
the Andes. _E. rubra_ is a handsome evergreen shrub, with shiny, resinous,
aromatic leaves, and fine pink flowers; it is hardy in many parts of
Britain, and makes an excellent hedge, especially near the sea, where it
bears the salt-laden winds without damage.

[Illustration: 1, Dead-beat or repose escapement. The pallets are
concentric with the axis _a_, and thus while a tooth is against the pallet
the wheel is stationary.

2, Recoil escapement. The pallets are not concentric to the axis _a_, and
therefore a slight recoil of the wheel takes place after the escape of a
tooth (whence the name escapement). When the pallets leave a tooth, the
teeth slide along their surfaces, giving an impulse to the pendulum.
Lettering for 1 and 2: The anchor H L K is made to oscillate on the axis
_a_ by the pendulum. The teeth of the escapement-wheel A come alternately
against the outer surface of the pallet K and the inner surface of the
pallet H.

3, Chronometer escapement. As the balance rotates in the direction of the
arrow, the tooth V presses the spring against the lever, thus pressing
aside the lever and removing the detent from the tooth of the wheel. As the
balance returns, V presses aside and passes the spring without moving the
lever, which then rests against the stop E.]

ESCAPE´MENT, the general contrivance in a timepiece by which the pressure
of the wheels (which move always in one direction) and the vibratory motion
of the pendulum or balance-wheel are accommodated the one to the other. By
this contrivance the wheelwork is made to communicate an impulse to the
regulating power (which in a clock is the pendulum and in a watch the
balance-wheel), so as to restore to it the small portion of force which it
loses in every vibration, in consequence of friction and the resistance of
the air. The leading requisite of a good escapement is that the impulse
communicated to the pendulum or balance-wheel shall be invariable,
notwithstanding any irregularity or foulness in the train of wheels.
Various kinds of escapements have been contrived, some of which are shown
in the accompanying figure. See _Clock_; _Watch_.

ES´CAR, or ESKER, a geological formation in the superficial drift,
generally consisting of a long linear ridge of sand and gravel, sometimes
including blocks of considerable size. The materials are derived from the
waste of till or boulder-clay, and their arrangement took place probably in
water flowing in channels beneath ice-sheets, the escar becoming exposed as
the ice finally melted away. In Sweden escars have been formed, season by
season, at the mouths of glacier-tunnels as the ice shrank back, the
ice-front opening on a lake. See _Kames_.

ESCHAR (es´k[.a]r), a slough or portion of dead or disorganized tissue. The
name is commonly applied to the crust or scab occasioned on the skin by
burns or caustic applications.

ESCHATOL´OGY (es-ka-; Gr. _eschatos_, last, and _logia_, account), in
theology, the 'doctrine respecting the last things', which treats of the
millennium, the second advent of Christ, the resurrection, judgment,
conflagration of the world, and the final state of the dead.

ESCHEAT (es-ch[=e]t´), in law, a species of reversion arising from default
of heirs. Lands, if freehold, escheat to the king or other lord of the
manor; if copyhold, to the lord of the manor. By modern legislation there
can be no escheat on failure of the whole blood wherever there are persons
of the half-blood capable of inheriting.

ESCHENBACH (esh´en-b[.a]_h_), Wolfram von, German mediæval poet or
minnesinger, flourished in the first half of the thirteenth century. The
most esteemed of his numerous works are: _The Parzival_ (printed 1477);
_The Titurel_, or _The Guardian of the Graal_ (printed 1477); and _The
Willehalm_, a poem on the deeds of William of Orange, a contemporary of
Charlemagne.

ESCHSCHOLTZIA (esh-sholt´si-a), a small genus of glabrous whitish plants,
of the poppy order, natives of California and the neighbouring regions.
They have divided leaves, and yellow peduncled flowers. The sepals cohere
and fall off as the flower opens in the form of a cap. They are now common
in the gardens of Great Britain.

ESCHWEGE (esh´v[=a]-ge), a town of Prussia, province of Hesse-Nassau, on
the Werra, 26 miles E.S.E. of Cassel. Pop. 12,540.

ESCHWEILER (esh´v[=i]-l[.e]r), a town of Prussia, in the province of
Rheinland, 9 miles E.N.E. of Aix-la-Chapelle, on the Inde. It is the seat
of large and varied manufacturing industries, especially in iron, copper,
and zinc, and has coal-mines. Pop. 24,718.

ESCOBAR Y MENDOZA (es-ko-bär´ [=e] men-_d_o´-th[.a]), Antonio, a Spanish
casuist and Jesuit, born 1589, died 1669. His principal works are: _Summula
Casuum Conscientiæ_, and several scriptural commentaries. His casuistry was
severely criticized by Pascal in his _Lettres Provinciales_, and the
extreme laxity of his moral principles was ridiculed by Boileau, Molière,
and La Fontaine.

ESCROW´, a legal writing delivered to a third person to be delivered by him
to the person whom it purports to benefit, when some condition is
performed. Upon the performance of this condition it becomes an absolute
deed, but if the condition be not performed, it remains an _escrow_ or
scroll.

ESCU´RIAL (Sp. _el Escorial_), a remarkable building in Spain, comprising
at once a palace, a convent, a church, and a mausoleum. It is distant from
Madrid about 24 miles in a north-westerly direction, and situated on the
acclivity of the Sierra Guadarrama, the range of mountains which divides
New from Old Castile. It was built by Philip II, and dedicated to St.
Lawrence, in commemoration of the victory of St. Quentin, fought on the
festival of the saint in 1557. It is popularly considered to be built on
the plan of a gridiron, from the fact that St. Lawrence is said to have
been broiled alive on a sort of large gridiron. The building is a
rectangular parallelogram measuring 744 feet in length by 580 feet in
breadth. The interior is divided into courts, formerly inhabited by monks
and ecclesiastics, while a projection 460 feet in length (the handle of the
gridiron) contains the royal palace. It was begun in 1563 and finished in
1584. It is of moderate height, and its innumerable windows (said to be
11,000) give it (apart from the church) somewhat the aspect of a large mill
or barracks. The church is the finest portion of the whole building. The
dome is 60 feet in diameter, and its height at the centre is about 320
feet. Under it is the Pantheon or family vault of the Spanish sovereigns.
The library contains a valuable collection, including a rich store of
Arabic MSS. The Escurial was partly burned in 1671, when many MSS. were
destroyed, and was pillaged by the French in 1808 and 1813. It was restored
by Ferdinand VII, but the monks, with their revenues which supported it,
have long since disappeared. In 1872 it was fired by lightning, and
suffered serious damage.--Cf. A. F. Calvert, _The Escorial_.

ESDRAË´LON, PLAIN OF, a fertile plain in Northern Palestine, between the
Mediterranean and the Jordan, drained by the River Kishon, and now
traversed by the railway from Haifa to Damascus. This plain is celebrated
for four battles having been fought there. Sisera was defeated there;
Gideon and his three hundred won a battle there; Saul and Jonathan fought
there; and it was there that Josiah was killed, In the centre of the plain
is Megiddo (q.v.), identified with Armageddon (_Rev._ XVI, 16). Allenby won
a great victory here in Sept., 1918.

ESDRAS, BOOKS OF, two apocryphal books, which, in the _Vulgate_ and other
editions, are incorporated with the canonical books of Scripture. In the
_Vulgate_ the canonical books of _Ezra_ and _Nehemiah_ are called the first
and second, and the apocryphal books the third and fourth books of
_Esdras_. The _Geneva Bible_ (1560) first adopted the present nomenclature,
calling the two apocryphal books first and second _Esdras_. The subject of
the first book of Esdras is the same as that of _Ezra_ and _Nehemiah_, and
in general it appears to be copied from the canonical Scriptures. The
second book of _Esdras_ is supposed to have been either of much later date
or to have been interpolated by Christian writers.

E´SERIN, or PHYSOSTIGMIN, a drug obtained from Calabar-bean, the active
principle of this plant, used as a remedy in cases of tetanus (lockjaw). A
solution of eserin dropped in the eye causes contraction of the pupil, and
hence its use in some eye ailments, as, for instance, glaucoma.

ESHER, a village and parish of England, north-west Surrey. Here is
Claremont, built by Sir John Vanbrugh, in 1816 settled upon Princess
Charlotte and her husband, afterwards the residence of the Orleans family
when expelled from France. The so-called 'Wolsey's Tower' is the gatehouse
of a palace built by William Waynflete, Bishop of Winchester. Pop. 2609.

ESK (Celtic for water), the name of two small rivers in England--one in
Cumberland and the other in Yorkshire; and of several in Scotland, the
chief being the Esk in Dumfriesshire, the North Esk and South Esk in
Forfarshire, and the North Esk and South Esk in Edinburghshire.

ESKI-JUMNA, a town of Bulgaria, on the northern slope of the Binar-Dagh.
Pop. 10,000.

ESKILSTU´NA, a town of Sweden, on a river of the same name connecting Lake
Maelar with Lake Hjelmar, with ironworks and manufactures of steel goods
and weapons. It is named after St. Eskil, the English apostle of
Christianity in Södermanland. Pop. 28,500.

ES´KIMOS. See _Esquimaux_.

ESKI-SAGRA, or STARA-ZAGORA, a town of Bulgaria, on the south slope of the
Balkans, 50 miles N.E. of Philippopolis. In its vicinity are extensive
rose-gardens, orchards, and mineral springs. Pop. 28,480.

ESKI-SHEHR, a town of Asia Minor, 90 miles S.E. of the Sea of Marmora, with
warm baths and manufactures of meerschaum pipes. Fighting took place near
the town in 1921, between the Greeks and Turks. Pop. 20,000.

ESMARCH (es´mär_h_), Johannes Friedrich August von, German surgeon, born in
1823, died in 1908. He held high official positions during the
Schleswig-Holstein and Franco-German Wars, and was a great authority on
gunshot wounds. He also originated valuable improvements in
barrack-hospitals and ambulances, introduced the antiseptic treatment into
Germany, and was the author of several surgical works.

ES´NEH, a town of Upper Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile, 28 miles
S.S.W. of Thebes, on the site of the ancient Latopolis, now easily reached
by railway and river. Among the ruins there is a beautiful portico of
twenty-four lofty and massive columns, belonging to a temple of Kneph (the
only portion of the temple cleared out), and erected in the Ptolemaic and
Roman period, with a zodiac on the ceiling. Esneh has a caravan trade,
manufactures cottons and pottery, and is very healthy. There is an
irrigation barrage here. Pop. 15,800.

ESOC´IDÆ, the family of fishes to which the true pike (_Esox lucius_)
belongs, as also the much larger maskinongy (_E. nobilior_) of America.

ESPAL´IER, in gardening, a sort of trelliswork on which the branches of
fruit trees or bushes are extended horizontally, with the object of
securing for the plant a freer circulation of air as well as a full
exposure to the sun. Trees thus trained are not subjected to such marked
nor so rapid variations of temperature as wall trees.

ESPARTERO (es-p[.a]r-t[=a]´r[=o]), Baldomero, Duke of Vittoria, a Spanish
statesman, born 1792, died 1879. The son of a wheelwright, he was educated
for the priesthood, but joined the army as a volunteer in 1808. He took a
leading part in the conflict with the Carlists, and was one of the most
prominent men in Spain during several decades of the nineteenth century. He
was regent of the kingdom from 1841 to 1843, and again head of the
Government from 1854 to 1856. He was exiled to England for several years
(1843-7). In 1870 his name was vaguely put forward in the Cortes as a
candidate for the throne, but the proposal was not supported with any
enthusiasm, and the closing years of his life were spent in retirement.

[Illustration: Esparto or Alfa.]

ESPAR´TO, or ALFA, a plant growing in Spain and North Africa, long applied
to the manufacture of cordage and matting, and also extensively used for
paper-making. This plant, called by botanists _Stipa_ or _Macrochl[=o]a
tenacissima_, is a species of grass 2 to 4 feet high, covering large tracts
in its native regions, and also cultivated, especially in Spain.

ESPERANTO, an artificial language for international use invented by Dr.
Zamenhof of Warsaw, who first published an account of it in 1887. The
language was afterwards taken up for practical purposes in many countries,
its use being promoted by special societies and periodicals. Its structure
is so simple that the whole grammar can be completely mastered in an hour.
There are no exceptions to the rules, perfect regularity being a leading
feature of the language. The essential roots number only some 900,
including grammatical inflexions, prefixes, and suffixes, and these are
chosen from the principal European languages in such a way as to make their
mastery easy to any person of ordinary education. The alphabet consists of
twenty-eight letters, each with an invariable sound. There are no silent
letters. The accent is always on the penultimate syllable. All nouns end in
_-o_ in the singular, and all adjectives in _-a_. The plural of these is
formed by adding _-j_ (pronounced _y_). All derived adverbs end in _-e_.
The only case inflexion is _-n_ for the objective. The verbal endings are:
_-i_ for the infinitive; _-as_, _-is_, _-os_ for the present, past, and
future tenses respectively; _-us_ for the conditional; _-u_ for the
imperative; _-anta_, _-inta_, _-onta_ for the present, past, and future
participles active respectively; _-ata_, _-ita_, _-ota_ for the present,
past, and future participles passive respectively. The definite article is
_la_ in all cases and numbers, and there is no indefinite article. An
ingenious system of prefixes and suffixes enables all shades of meaning to
be expressed. Thus: _bona_, good, _malbona_, evil; _patro_, father,
_patrino_, mother; _gepatroj_, parents; _kudri_, to sew, _kudrilo_, needle;
_arbo_, tree, _arbaro_, forest; _bela_, beautiful, _beleco_, beauty;
_morti_, to die, _mortigi_, to kill. The following is the Lord's Prayer in
Esperanto: Patro Nia, kiu estas en la cielo, sankta estu Via nomo. Venu
regeco Via. Estu farata volo Via, kiel en la cielo, tiel anka[)u] sur la
tero. Panon nian ciutagan donu al ni hodia[)u], kaj pardonu al ni
[^s]uldojn niajn, kiel ni anka[)u] pardonas al niaj [^s]uldantoj. Ne
konduku nin en tenton; sed liberigu nin de la malbono: car Via estas la
regado, la forto, kaj la gloro eterne. Amen! The British Esperanto
Association was founded in the autumn of 1904; its official organ is _The
British Esperantist_. International Esperanto congresses have been held
since 1905, the last in 1920 at the Hague.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. O'Connor,
_Esperanto: the Student's Complete Text-Book_ (revised by Dr. Zamenhof);
Underhill, _Esperanto and its Availability for Scientific Writings_.

ESPIONAGE (from the French word _espion_, a spy) is the acquirement of
information by secret methods and by special agents, as opposed to its
acquirement openly by combatants in the ordinary course of military
operations. Espionage is recognized by international law under the Hague
Convention, Article 24 of the Annexe to which reads as follows: "Ruses of
war and the _employment of measures necessary for obtaining information_
about the enemy and the country are considered permissible". The right
given by this rule does not, however, extend to the employment of force to
extract information from enemy subjects as to their own armies, so that it
follows that methods of espionage must be of a persuasive, and, so to
speak, peaceful nature.

Espionage is carried on both in peace and war, but the conditions under
which secret service agents work differ to a very marked extent according
to the state of affairs between the two countries. In peace-time, though
many countries maintain secret service agents in other states, yet these
same agents can expect no assistance from their Governments in the event of
their being detected. In this case it is a diplomatic fiction that nothing
is known of them or of the reasons for their activities. The agent,
therefore, in consideration of a sufficient allowance, takes the risk of a
lengthy term of imprisonment if he is so unfortunate as to be found out.

In time of war the condition of non-interference naturally exists as a
matter of course, and the secret service agent or spy is liable to the
death penalty if discovered, and the fact that he has or has not obtained
and transmitted information does not affect the case. In time of peace
every nation of any importance maintains representatives in other states.
Among the recognized duties of these representatives is the obtaining and
transmitting of information about naval and military matters which may be
of interest to their Governments. This is not regarded as espionage
provided the information is obtained by the representative in his official
capacity; it becomes so when resort is had to disguise or dissimulation,
and, in fact, dissimulation is the essence of the offence. It follows,
therefore, that a spy--one who practises espionage--must act in a
clandestine manner in order to bring himself within the technical
definition of the offence (by international law).

The characteristics of the act of spying are laid down in Article 29 of the
Hague Convention, and the definition there given is as follows: "A person
can only be considered a spy when, acting clandestinely or on false
pretences, he obtains or endeavours to obtain information in the zone of
operations of a belligerent, with the intention of communicating it to the
hostile party...".

From this definition it appears that action in the 'zone of operations' is
a necessary concomitant of the offence, and that, therefore, persons
operating outside that zone cannot technically be charged with espionage;
and to a certain extent this is so. A person may be domiciled in a
belligerent country, and may, while pursuing his ordinary vocation, collect
and transmit openly information of value to his own country; in the absence
of dissimulation, such a person could not be charged with espionage, though
he could be with war-treason. As, by international law, war-treason is
punishable by death, the result is the same as if all the characteristics
of spying had been present.

Espionage has been brought to a fine art in many countries, and complex
organizations for its practice exist. Information may conceivably be
collected with comparative ease by trained agents, but it is when it comes
to disposing of that information that the troubles of the secret service
agent begin. A poison requires an antidote, and the system of
counter-espionage to a great extent provides this antidote. In accordance
with this system, steps are taken to mark down and know all secret-service
agents engaged in espionage work in the country concerned; their operations
are then followed and, to a certain extent, controlled till such time as
the psychological moment arrives when all, including the master-brain, are
drawn into the net and disposed of.

In a military sense a spy means a man, whether soldier or civilian, who
penetrates in disguise behind the enemy lines and brings back information
about his dispositions. By the customs of war the penalty inflicted on a
spy caught in the act is death after trial; but should a man known to have
acted as a spy on some former occasion be subsequently captured in the
course of military operations, he cannot be punished for his former act,
and must be treated as a prisoner of war.

The following examples may serve to show what can be considered spying and
what cannot. 'A', a soldier, in presence of the enemy, volunteers to obtain
exact information as to the strength of a certain hostile post. To this end
he, wearing his uniform and carrying a weapon of some kind, approaches the
post by stealth, and secretes himself in a convenient place for seeing and
hearing. If he is discovered, and attempts to escape, he may be shot in the
process; but if he is captured, he must be treated as a prisoner of war and
not as a spy. 'B', another soldier, speaking the enemy language, disguises
himself as an officer of the enemy forces, and in this disguise penetrates
behind the lines and mixes with the enemy troops. On discovery and capture
he may be tried as a spy and shot.

In the first case 'A' was acting as a combatant in the ordinary course of
military operations, and no disguise was present; in the second case 'B'
was acting clandestinely and under false pretences, i.e. was masquerading
as an officer of the enemy forces, and the necessary dissimulation was
present.

ESPIR´ITO-SANTO ('Holy Spirit'), one of the maritime states of Brazil,
bounded north by Bahia, south by Rio-de-Janeiro; length, about 260 miles;
breadth, about 120 miles; area, 17,310 sq. miles. Pop. 434,500.

ESPIR´ITU-SANTO, an island of the Pacific, the largest of the New Hebrides,
with some 20,000 inhabitants.

ESPRITS FORTS (FR., bold spirits), a term applied to the French school of
freethinkers, which included Voltaire, Diderot, Helvetius, D'Alembert, and
others. The Esprits Forts, are, however, distinguished from the English
free-thinkers. Whilst the latter were only aiming at freedom of religious
thought, the Esprits Forts were more radical and revolutionary, seeking to
bring about the abolition of the existing order and the substitution of a
system based upon pure reason and the supremacy of intellect.

ESQUIMAULT (es-kw[=i]´m[.a]lt), a harbour and naval station on the
south-east coast of Vancouver Island, about 3 miles from Victoria, the
capital of British Columbia. The harbour is almost landlocked, and, with
the 'Royal Roads' outside, is capable of giving safe anchorage to a fleet
of vessels of the largest size. It is the station of H.M. ships on the
Pacific coast, is a fortified naval arsenal, and since 1906 has been
garrisoned by Canadian troops.

ESQUIMAUX (es´ki-m[=o]z), or ESKIMOS, a race inhabiting the Arctic coasts
of North America, from Greenland to Behring's Strait, and extending into
Asia. They call themselves _Innuit_, 'the people', 'men'; their other name
is from an Algonquin word signifying eaters of raw flesh, and seems to have
been given them first by the Jesuit Father Biard in 1611. They consist of
three principal stocks--the Greenlanders; the Esquimaux proper, in
Labrador; and the Western Esquimaux, found along Hudson's Bay, the west
side of Baffin's Bay, the polar shores as far as the mouths of the
Coppermine and Mackenzie Rivers, and both on the American and Asiatic sides
of Behring's Strait. The entire Eskimo population is estimated at 27,000,
of which 15,600 live in North America and 11,000 in Greenland. Their
leading physical peculiarities are a stunted stature, flattened nose,
projecting cheek-bones, eyes often oblique, and yellow and brownish skin.
Seal-skins, reindeer and other furs are used as materials for dress,
according to the season, as well as skins of otters, foxes, and martens. In
summer they live in tents, covered with skins; in winter they may be said
to burrow beneath the snow. In Greenland houses built of stone and cemented
with turf are used as permanent habitations. Vegetation being extremely
stunted within the limits of their territories, their food consists of the
flesh of whales, seals, and walruses, often eaten raw; and they show
remarkable skill in fishing and hunting. Their weapons are bows and arrows,
spears or lances, generally pointed with bone, but sometimes with metal.
Their only domestic animal is the Esquimaux dog. In intellect they are by
no means deficient; in manners they are kind and hospitable. Their
religious ideas appear scanty, but success has attended the labours of the
Danish missionaries in teaching them the Christian religion.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
H. Rink, _Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo_; V. Stefansson, _My Life with
the Eskimo_.

ESQUIMAUX DOG, or ESKIMO DOG, a breed of dogs extensively spread over the
northern regions of America and of Eastern Asia. It is rather larger than
the English pointer, but appears smaller on account of the shortness of its
legs. It has oblique eyes, an elongated muzzle, and a bushy tail, which
give it a wolfish appearance. The colour is generally a deep dun, obscurely
barred and patched with darker colour. It is the only beast of burden in
these latitudes, and with a team of such dogs attached to his sledge the
Eskimo will cover 60 miles a day for several successive days.

ES´QUIRE (O.Fr. _escuyer_, from Lat. _scutum_, a shield); originally, a
shield-bearer or armour-bearer; an attendant on a knight; hence in modern
times a title of dignity next in degree below a knight. In England this
title is properly given to the younger sons of noblemen, to officers of the
king's courts and of the household, to counsellors at law, justices of the
peace while in commission, sheriffs, gentlemen who have held commissions in
the army and navy, &c. It is usually given to all professional and literary
men, and nowadays, in the addresses of letters, _esquire_ may be put as a
complimentary adjunct to almost any person's name. In heraldry the helmet
of an esquire is represented sideways, with the vizor closed.

ESQUIROS (es-k[=e]-ros), Henri Alphonse, French poet, romancist, and
miscellaneous writer, born at Paris 1812, died at Versailles 1876. His
first work, a volume of poetry, _Les Hirondelles_, appeared in 1834. This
was followed by numerous romances, and a commentary on the life of Christ
(_L'Évangile du Peuple_), for which he was prosecuted and imprisoned. He
then published _Les Chants d'un Prisonnier_, poems written in prison; _Les
Vierges Folles_; _Les Vierges Sages_; _L'Histoire des Montagnards_. Having
to leave France in 1851, he resided for years in England, and wrote a
series of essays for the _Revue des Deux Mondes_ on English life and
character, which were translated under the title of _The English at Home_,
and were very popular. He also wrote a similar work on the Dutch. Other
works are: _Religious Life in England_, and _Charlotte Corday_.

ESSAD TOPTANI, PASHA, Albanian soldier and national leader, born at Tirana
in 1856. He was a descendant of the Toptani family who had ruled in Albania
in the fifteenth century. Trained for the army, he served in Macedonia and
Anatolia, and in 1897 was rewarded with the title of Pasha for his services
in the war against Greece. Abdul Hamid, however, who feared the power of
the Toptani family, had the brother of Essad Pasha murdered, and the latter
became the mortal enemy of the Sultan. He nevertheless accepted the rank of
brigadier-general, and commanded the local troops at Janina. In 1908 he
joined the Young Turks, and was one of the deputation which brought the
news of his deposition to the Sultan. He was in command of the troops at
Scutari, when the powers declared in favour of the autonomy of Albania in
1912. Essad Pasha had hoped to be chosen ruler of the new state of Albania
created by the Treaty of London, but as the Prince of Wied had been
appointed _mbret_, he accepted the office of Minister of War and of the
Interior. Suspected by the _mbret_, he was compelled to flee from Durazzo.
After the departure of the Prince of Wied, at the outbreak of the European
War, he returned to Durazzo, and was appointed by the Senate (on 5th Oct.,
1914) President of the Provisional Government. In spite of Austrian
advances he declared war on the Central Powers, and escaped when the
Austrians entered Albania. He rendered valuable services to the Allies at
Salonica, but the Italians, who saw in the Pasha an enemy to their own
views upon Albania, refused to grant him permission to return to his
country. Essad Pasha, therefore, remained in Paris, where he was
assassinated by an Albanian student named Averic Rustem on 13th June, 1920.
The assassin was acquitted by a French jury in December of the same year,
prominent Albanians having pleaded in favour of the murderer, and
maintained that the Pasha was an ambitious adventurer and a traitor to his
country.

ES´SAY, a composition in which something is attempted to be proved or
illustrated, usually shorter and less methodical and finished than a
systematic or formal treatise; so that it may be a short disquisition on a
subject of taste, philosophy, or common life. The essay was the invention
of Montaigne in the sixteenth century, and Francis Bacon was another
illustrious author who employed the literary form of the essay. Caution or
modesty has induced many writers of note to give the title of essay to
their most elaborate productions: thus we have Locke's _Essay on the Human
Understanding_. There is a class of English writers to whom the descriptive
term _essayist_ is applied, the most illustrious being Addison, Steele,
Charles Lamb, Hazlitt, De Quincey, Macaulay, Carlyle, Froude, Matthew
Arnold, R. L. Stevenson, and Austin Dobson.

ESSEN, a town of Rhenish Prussia, situated between the Ruhr and the
Emscher, 18 miles north-east of Düsseldorf, founded in the ninth century,
and adorned with a fine church dating from 873. It increased with great
rapidity, and became celebrated for the steel and ironworks of Krupp, the
most extensive in Europe, employing till the end of the European War over
27,000 workmen. This great establishment was started in 1827 with only two
workmen. In March and April, 1920, heavy fighting took place at Essen
between the Government and the Communist troops. Pop. (1910), 294,629.

ESSENES (es-s[=e]nz´), or ESSÆANS, a sect among the Jews, the origin of
which is unknown, as well as the etymology of their name. The word may be a
derivation from the Syr. _hasya_, the pious ones, or _[=a]sy[=a]_,
physician. The Essenes appear to have sprung up in the course of the
century preceding the Christian era, and disappeared on the dispersion of
the Jews after the siege of Jerusalem. The sect appears to have been an
outcome of Jewish mysticism and asceticism, which gradually assumed the
form of a distinct organization. They were remarkable for their strictness
and abstinence, and had a rule of life analogous to that of a monastic
order. Property was owned in common.

ESSENTIAL OILS. An essential oil is distinguished from a fatty oil by its
characteristic odour, and by being slightly soluble in water and more
volatile. Most of the essential oils are decomposed by alkali, but they do
not yield soaps as do the fatty oils. An essential oil usually contains one
chief ingredient, which may be a compound of carbon and hydrogen, e.g.
_turpentine_, in which the characteristic odour is due to _pinene_
(C_{10}H_{16}); or a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, e.g. bitter
almond oil where the chief ingredient is _benzaldehyde_ (C_6H_5CHO); or
_cinnamon bark_, containing _cinnamic aldehyde_ (C_6H_5CH:CH·CHO). The
extraction of these oils from plants containing them is usually
accomplished by a process of distillation with water. In some cases this is
not practicable, as the oil may be decomposed by water, e.g. to obtain the
essential oil from violets the flowers are macerated with hot lard; the fat
absorbs the essential oil, which is then extracted from the lard by means
of alcohol. In other cases the oil is extracted by means of a solvent such
as petroleum spirit. Large quantities of essential oils are extracted
yearly for the preparation of perfumes, the preparation of various
flavourings (essences), and for use in the soap industry. Many essential
oils are now manufactured synthetically, e.g. oil of wintergreen owes its
fragrance to methyl salicylate, pineapple oil to ethylbutyrate, pear oil to
amylacetate.

ESSEQUIBO (es-se-k[=e]´b[=o]), a river of British Guiana, which flows into
the Atlantic by an estuary 20 miles in width after a course of about 450
miles. The district or division of Essequibo is well cultivated and
extremely fertile, producing coffee, cotton, cocoa, and sugar. It was the
subject of a discussion between the British and Venezuelan Governments,
settled by the Arbitration Treaty of 2nd Feb., 1897.

ESSEX, EARL OF. See _Cromwell, Thomas_.

ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, second Earl of, in the Devereux line, was born at
Netherwood, Herefordshire, in 1567. Having appeared at court, he soon
became a favourite of Queen Elizabeth, by whom he was kept in attendance
against his will during the defeat of the Armada. He served with more or
less distinction in expeditions to Portugal and France, the latter on
behalf of Henry of Navarre. In 1596 he was commander of the troops in an
expedition against Spain, and distinguished himself by the capture of
Cadiz. In an expedition next year he was less fortunate, and the queen,
with whom he was always quarrelling, received him coldly. Presuming on the
favour of Elizabeth, he behaved with rudeness to her at a Privy Council,
received a box on the ear, and was told to "go and be hanged". After some
months a reconciliation took place, and he was appointed Lord-Lieutenant of
Ireland (1599), which was then in a state of rebellion. He returned to
England in September, having been entirely unsuccessful in his government,
was made a prisoner in his own house, and foolishly tried to excite an
insurrection in London. After a skirmish with a party of soldiers he was
compelled to surrender, and sent to the Tower. Tried for treason on 19th
Feb., he was executed on 26th Feb., 1601.

ESSEX, a maritime county in the south-east of England, bounded by Suffolk,
the Thames, Hertford, and Middlesex; area, 979,532 acres. The surface is
generally level, except in the north-west, where it is undulating and
sometimes hilly. The soil is in general extremely fertile, and particularly
well adapted for the growth of wheat. Beans and pease also thrive
uncommonly well. The other principal productions are potatoes, barley,
oats, mangolds, turnips, tares, rape, mustard, and trefoil. The raising of
caraway, coriander, and teazel is almost peculiar to this county. It had
formerly a great extent of forest, the only survival of which is Epping
Forest. The principal rivers in the county are the Roding, Crouch, Chelmer,
Blackwater, and Colne. It has also the Thames, Lea, and Stour as boundary
rivers. On the coast are some valuable oyster-beds, the oysters from which
are exported in considerable quantities. The manufactures of the county are
not very extensive, the chief being crape, silks, and straw-plait. The
chief towns are: Chelmsford, the county town; West Ham, Colchester,
Southend, and Harwich. The county has eight parliamentary divisions, each
returning one member. Pop. 1,468,341 (1921).--Cf. _Victoria History of the
Counties of England_.

ESSLINGEN (es´ling-[.e]n), a town of Germany, in Würtemberg, on the Neckar,
7 miles E.S.E. of Stuttgart. It is of Roman origin, was long an imperial
free town, has walls flanked with towers, a castle, and an ancient Gothic
church, dating from the thirteenth century, with a tower 230 feet high. In
1488 the Swabian League was formed at Esslingen. It has manufactures of
machinery, articles of wood, cutlery, philosophical instruments, and
spinning and other mills. Pop. 32,364.

ESTABLISHED CHURCH, a Church having a form of doctrine and government
established by law in any country for the teaching of Christianity within
its boundaries, and usually endowed by the State. The upholders of the
establishment theory maintain that it is the duty of a State to provide for
the religious instruction of the people. On the other hand, it is argued
that the State has no right to endow or support any particular sect or
denomination, unless they assume that that denomination alone is possessed
of religious truth and worth. Regarding the established _Church of
England_, see _England_; for _Church of Scotland_, see _Scotland_.

ESTATE, the interest or quantity of interest a man has in lands, tenements,
or other effects. Estates are _real_ or _personal_. _Real estate_ comprises
lands, tenements, and hereditaments, held in freehold. _Personal estate_
comprises interests for terms of years in lands, tenements, and
hereditaments, and property of every other description. _Real_ estate
descends to heirs; _personal_ to executors or administrators. In ordinary
language, an estate is a piece of landed property, especially one of some
size. _Estate duty_, see _Death Duties_. In political history the term
estate is applied to a distinct order or class in society. The term
'fourth-estate' is often used to designate the Press.

ESTATES OF SCOTLAND, the name given to a body of similar constitution to
the English Parliament, but with important differences, the king himself,
as well as his officers, being responsible to the Estates for wrongs done.
They held the power of declaring war, or entering on a peace or treaty, and
with them rested the right of declaring, with or without the consent of the
king, resolutions of the assembly to be law. To prevent a Bill being
hurried through Parliament, it was submitted to and discussed by a
committee called the _Lords of the Articles_. If sanctioned by this
committee, the Bill was passed on to the whole House for approval. Another
committee appointed by the Estates was called the _Auditors of Complaints_,
whose duty was to hear appeals against the decisions of the king's judges,
and, if necessary, to reverse their sentences.

ESTATES OF THE REALM, in Britain, are the Lords Spiritual, the Lords
Temporal, and the Commons. From the circumstance that the Lords Spiritual
and Temporal meet in one House, and practically form one branch of the
legislature, the popular error has arisen that the sovereign forms one of
the three Estates of the Realm.

ESTE (es´t[=a]), a town of North Italy, 16 miles S.W. of Padua. It has a
castle, the cradle of the Este family. It has also manufactures of silk
goods, earthenware, and majolica; and numerous silk-mills and whetstone
quarries. Pop. 11,704.

ESTE (es´t[=a]), one of the most ancient and illustrious families of Italy.
In the eleventh century the House of Este became connected by marriage with
the German Welfs or Guelphs, and founded the German branch of the House of
Este, the Dukes of Brunswick and Hanover. The sovereigns of Ferrara and
Modena were of this family, several of them being famous as patrons of
letters. The lives of Boiardo, Ariosto, and Tasso were closely connected
with members of this House. The last male representative of the Estes died
in 1798. His daughter married a son of the German emperor Francis I, and
her grandson disappeared from the land of his fore-fathers at the
consummation of Italian unity in 1860.

ESTELLA (es-tel´y[.a]), a town of N.E. Spain, in Navarre, on the Ega, 24
miles south-west of Pampeluna. Pop. 5658.

ESTE´PA, a town of Southern Spain, province of Seville, 50 miles east by
south of Seville. It has a handsome Gothic church. Pop. 8234.

ESTEPO´NA, a seaport of Southern Spain, province of Malaga, 23 miles
north-east of Gibraltar. Pop. 9600.

ESTERHA´ZY, a family of Hungarian magnates whose authentic genealogy goes
back to the first half of the thirteenth century. They were zealous
partisans of the House of Habsburg, to whom, during the reigns of Frederick
II and Leopold I, they lent a powerful support. Among the more prominent
members of the family are: Paul IV, Prince Esterhazy, a general and
literary savant, 1635-1713. His grandson, Nicholas Joseph, a great patron
of arts and music, founder of the school in which Haydn and Pleyel, among
others, were formed, 1714-90. Nicholas, Prince Esterhazy, distinguished as
a field-marshal and foreign Ambassador, 1765-1833. Prince Paul Anthony, a
distinguished and able diplomatist, born 1786, died 1866; was successively
Austrian Ambassador at Dresden, Rome, and Britain. He was a supporter of
the national Hungarian movement.

ESTERS, or ETHEREAL SALTS, in chemistry, a general term for substances
formed by the union of an acid and an alcohol with elimination of water.
Thus ethyl acetate is formed from ethyl alcohol and acetic acid. Many of
them are volatile, pleasant-smelling substances.

ESTHER, a Jewess, who became the queen of Ahasuerus, King of Persia, and
whose story is told in the book of the Old Testament called by her name.
This book is supposed by some to be the composition of Mordecai himself,
the uncle of the heroine. Various opinions are held regarding the time and
truth of the story; but the feast of Purim, which commemorates the events
narrated, is still observed by the Jews during the month of Adar.

ESTHONIA, a new republic of North-Western Europe, formerly a dependency of
Imperial Russia, and one of the Baltic Provinces. It is situated south of
the Gulf of Finland, and is bounded by Russia, the Republic of Latvia, the
Gulf of Riga, and the Baltic. The Republic of Esthonia comprises the former
Russian government of Esthonia, the northern part of Livonia, and the
north-western portion of Pskov. The country is divided into nine districts.
It has an area of about 23,160 sq. miles, and a pop. of 1,750,000. It has
for the most part a flat or undulating surface. The whole of the north
side, however, rises considerably above the sea, and presents to it ranges
of cliffs. The Narva is the only river of any importance; but minor
streams, as well as small lakes, are very numerous. About a fourth of the
surface is covered with forests of pine, birch, and alder. The crops
include a little wheat, much barley and oats, and some flax, hops, and
tobacco. Cattle are reared, and active fisheries are carried on. The
peasantry are almost all of Finnish origin, and speak a Finnish dialect.
Five-sixths of the population are Lutherans. Elementary education is
compulsory, illiterates numbering about 3 per cent. There is a university
at Dorpat, now called Tartu, founded in 1632, and reopened as an Esthonian
university on 1st Dec., 1919. In the tenth and twelfth centuries Esthonia
belonged to Denmark; it was afterwards annexed by Sweden, and in 1710 was
seized by Russia. Esthonia is one of the new states formed in consequence
and as a result of the European War. On 24th Feb., 1918, Esthonia declared
her independence, and was recognized by Great Britain (3rd May, 1918),
France, Italy, Japan, Poland, and Sweden. On 31st Dec., 1919, Esthonia
concluded an armistice with the Bolshevik Government of Moscow, which
recognized the republic _de jure_. In 1921 the supreme power was vested in
a Constituent Assembly (elected 23rd April, 1919). Esthonia was admitted a
member of the League of Nations on 22nd Sept., 1921. Reval is the
capital.--Cf. M. Martna, _L'Esthonie_.

ESTON, a town of England, North Riding of Yorkshire, 4 miles S.E. of
Middlesbrough, with important steelworks and iron-mines. Pop. 30,634.

ESTOP´PEL (Fr. _étouper_; Lat. _stuppare_, to stuff with tow, to cram), in
law, anything done by a party himself, which puts a period to an action by
closing the ground of controversy. Estoppels are divided into three
classes: by Record; by Deed; and in Pais, or by Conduct.

ESTO´VERS (O.Fr. _estover_, need, necessity), in law, necessaries or
supplies. _Common of estovers_ is the liberty of taking the necessary wood
for a house or farm from another's estate.

ESTRAD´IOT, an Albanian dragoon or light-horseman, employed in the French
army in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. They sometimes fought on
foot as well as on horseback.

ESTREMADU´RA, a western division of Spain, consisting of the provinces of
Badajoz and Caceres. It is fertile, but not cultivated to its full extent.
The Tagus and Guadiana intersect it east to west. Immense flocks of sheep
graze on the rich plains. The area is about 16,000 sq. miles, and the pop.
990,990.

ESTREMADURA, a maritime province of Portugal, divided by the Tagus into two
nearly equal parts, of which the northern is the more mountainous. Wines
and olives are the principal produce. The principal city is Lisbon. Area,
6937 sq. miles. Pop. 1,438,726.

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CHANGES MADE AGAINST PRINTED ORIGINAL

Page 187. "It is important to note that": 'note than' in original.

Page 200. "Electric Power Transmission and Distribution": 'Distritribution'
in original.

Page 268. "This may consist of ditches": 'consists' in original.

Page 284. "In heraldry, ermine is one of the furs": 'heraldy' in original.