Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
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Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
are listed at the end of the text.

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In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron"; [)e] "e breve"; [a:]
"a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above"; [n.] "n with dot below";
and so forth.

THE

NEW · GRESHAM

ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME · IV · PART · 1

[Illustration]

_The_ GRESHAM · PUBLISHING
COMPANY · _Limited_

66 CHANDOS STREET · STRAND
LONDON W.C.2.
1922

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LIST OF PLATES

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VOLUME IV PART 1

DEPOSITION to EBERSWALDE

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PLATES

                                                                  Page

  DIAMONDS                                                         18
  DOGS                                                             62

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CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME IV

ADOLPHE ABRAHAMS, O.B.E., B.A., M.D., late Major, R.A.M.C.

GEORGE E. ALLAN, D.Sc., Lecturer in Electricity, University of Glasgow.

C. O. BANNISTER, F.I.C., Assoc. R.S.N., Professor of Metallurgy, University
of Liverpool.

F. F. P. BISACRE, O.B.E., M.A., B.SC., A.M.Inst.C.E.

R. N. RUDMOSE BROWN, D.SC.

A. Y. CATTO, O.B.E., Lieutenant, R.N.

GRENVILLE A. J. COLE, F.R.S., Professor of Geology, Royal College of
Science, Ireland.

W. G. CONSTABLE, M.A., Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge.

ARTHUR O. COOKE, Author of _A Book of Dovecotes_.

J. R. AINSWORTH DAVIS, M.A., F.C.P., former Principal of The Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester.

JOHN DOUGALL, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Gold Medallist of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh.

MONTAGU DRUMMOND, M.A., Director of Research, Scottish Station for Research
in Plant Breeding.

S. L. ETHERTON, B.Sc.

REV. WILLIAM FULTON, D.D., B.Sc., Professor of Systematic Theology,
University of Aberdeen.

R. N. HAYGARTH, B.A., B.Sc., Queens' College, Cambridge.

W. A. HISLOP, M.B., late Captain, R.A.M.C.

D. J. MACKELLOR, B.Sc., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering, Royal Technical
College, Glasgow.

DONALD A. MACKENZIE, Folklorist; Author of _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, &c.

MAGNUS MACLEAN, M.A., D.Sc., M.Inst.E.E., M.Inst.C.E., Editor of _Modern
Electrical Engineering_, &c.

F. A. MUMBY, Editor of _The Great World War_.

D. G. OGILVY, LL.B.

R. F. PATTERSON, M.A., formerly Foundation Scholar of St. John's College,
Cambridge, and Charles Oldham (University) Shakespeare Scholar.

ANGELO S. RAPPOPORT, Ph.D., B. ès L.

JAMES RITCHIE, M.A., M.D., Professor of Bacteriology, University of
Edinburgh.

JOHN J. ROSS, M.A., F.R.A.S.

G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy, University of
London.

C. S. STOCKS, D.S.O., Major, Indian Army; Instructor in Military
Organization, Royal Military College, Sandhurst.

M. M. J. SUTHERLAND, D.Sc., F.I.C.

ALAN C. THOMSON, D.S.O., A.M.Inst.C.E., late Lieutenant-Colonel, R.E.

G. E. TOULMIN, B.A., King's College, Cambridge.

THOMAS WOODHOUSE, Head of the Weaving and Designing Department, Dundee
Technical College and School of Art.

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KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

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The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--

VOWELS

[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.

ä, as in _a_lms, Fr. _â_me, Ger. B_a_hn = á of Indian names.

[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.

a, as in f_a_t.

[a:], as in f_a_ll.

_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
in Indian names.

[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.

e, as in m_e_t.

[.e], as in h_e_r.

[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.

i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
French and Italian words.

_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eû_ne = Ger. long _ö_, as in S_ö_hne,
G_ö_the (Goethe).

eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _ö_ short.

[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.

o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.

ö, as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.

[=u] as in t_u_be.

u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.

[u:], as in b_u_ll.

ü, as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _û_ as in d_û_, Ger. _ü_ long as in gr_ü_n,
B_ü_hne.

[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
M_ü_ller.

oi, as in _oi_l.

ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.

CONSONANTS

Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
explanation are the following:--

ch is always as in ri_ch_.

_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.

g is always hard, as in _g_o.

_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
similar gutturals.

[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.

r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
much more strongly trilled.

s, always as in _s_o.

th, as _th_ in _th_in.

_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.

w always consonantal, as in _w_e.

x = ks, which are used instead.

y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
l[=e]ny).

zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.

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THE NEW
GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME IV

DEPOSITION OF A CLERGYMAN, the degradation of a clergyman from office,
divesting him (in churches which do not, like the Church of Rome, hold the
indelible nature of orders) of all clerical character.

DÉPÔT (d[=a]'po or dep'[=o]), a French word in general use as a term for a
place where goods are received and stored; hence, in military matters, a
magazine where arms and ammunition are kept. The term is now usually
applied to a military station situated in the centre of the recruiting
district of a regiment, where recruits for this regiment are received and
where they undergo preliminary training before joining their unit. In
America it is the common term for a railway station.

DEPRIVATION, the removing of a clergyman from his benefice on account of
heresy or misconduct. It entails, of course, loss of all emoluments, but
not the loss of clerical character.

DE PROFUNDIS, in the liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church, one of the seven
penitential psalms, the 130th of the _Psalms_ of David, which in the
_Vulgate_ begins with these words, signifying 'Out of the depths'. It is
sung when the bodies of the dead are committed to the grave.

DEPTFORD (det'ford), a parliamentary and municipal borough, England, in the
counties of Kent and Surrey, on the right bank of the Thames, now forming
part of London. It has some manufactures of pottery, chemicals, and soap.
The old naval dockyard was shut up in 1869, but the royal victualling yard
is still the largest establishment of its kind. Deptford sends one member
to Parliament. Pop. 109,496.

DEPUTIES, CHAMBER OF, the lower of the two legislative chambers in France
and in Italy, elected by popular suffrage, and corresponding in some
respects to the House of Commons in Britain.

DE QUINCEY, Thomas, English author, was the son of a Manchester merchant,
and born at Greenhay, near Manchester, on 15th Aug., 1785, died at
Edinburgh, 8th Dec., 1859. In 1793 his father died, leaving the family a
fortune of £30,000. After attending some time the Bath and Manchester
grammar schools, where he showed precocious ability, especially in
classical studies, he importuned his guardian to send him to Oxford
University, and on being refused he ran away from school, ultimately
arriving in London in an absolutely destitute condition. His sufferings at
this time he has described in his _Confessions of an English Opium Eater_.
At length, in 1803, he matriculated at Oxford, and it was in the second
year of his course here that he began to take opium in order to alleviate
severe neuralgic pains. On leaving college he settled at Grasmere,
Westmoreland, in the vicinity of Wordsworth and Southey, and devoted
himself to literary work. Here or in London he remained till 1828, reading
voraciously, and writing for the _London Magazine_, _Knight's Quarterly
Magazine_, and _Blackwood's Magazine_. From 1828 to 1840 he lived in
Edinburgh, then removed with his family to Lasswade, which continued to be
his head-quarters. His writings, nearly all contributions to magazines, are
distinguished by power of expression, subtle thought, and an encyclopædic
abundance of curious information. His work belongs to that class of
literature which he himself called "the literature of power", as
distinguished from "the literature of knowledge". He was eccentric in his
habits, incapable of managing money matters, but amiable and
polite.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. H. Japp, _Thomas De Quincey: his Life and
Writings_; H. S. Salt, _De Quincey_; J. Hogg, _De Quincey and His Friends_;
Sir L. Stephen, _Hours in a Library_; Arvede Barine, _Poètes et Névrosés_.

DERA GHAZI KHAN, a district and town in the Punjab, Hindustan. The former,
which is in Derajat division, has an area of 5606 sq. miles, and a
population of 445,000. The town has a population of 18,466, half Hindus and
half Mohammedans. It has extensive manufactures of silk, cotton, and coarse
cutlery.

DERA ISMAIL KHAN, a town in Hindustan, in the North-West Frontier Province,
several miles to the west of the Indus, which is here crossed by
boat-bridges, or boats, connecting the town with the Indus Valley railway.
Dera Ismail Khan is a staple place for cotton goods, has a cantonment, and
carries on a trade with Afghanistan. It is well laid out, has several
schools and a large bazaar. Pop. 35,131.

DERAJAT (-jät´), a commissionership of Hindustan, in the west of the
Punjab, occupying part of the valley of the Indus. It is well watered and
fertile, and contains numerous towns and villages. Pop. 1,800,000, mostly
Mohammedans.

DERBEND´, or DERBENT´, a fortified town in Daghestan, Transcaucasia, on the
west shore of the Caspian, an ancient place formerly belonging to Persia.
The manufactures consist of woollen stuffs, copper- and iron-ware, and
rose-water; and there is some trade in saffron, largely grown in the
vicinity. Pop. 32,718.

DERBY, Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, fourteenth Earl of, an English
statesman, born at Knowsley Park, Lancashire, 29th March, 1799, died there,
23rd Oct., 1869. In 1820 he was returned to the House of Commons as member
for Stockbridge. At first inclining to the Whig party, he joined Canning's
ministry in 1827, and in 1830 became Chief Secretary for Ireland in Lord
Grey's Government, greatly distinguishing himself by his speeches in favour
of the Reform Bill in 1831-2. The opposition led by O'Connell in the House
of Commons was powerful and violent, but Stanley, while supporting a Bill
for the reform of the Irish Church and the reduction of ecclesiastical
taxation, was successful in totally defeating the agitation for the repeal
of the Union. He warmly advocated the abolition of slavery, and passed the
Act for this purpose in 1833; but in the following year a difference of
opinion with his party as to the diversion of the surplus revenue of the
Irish Church led him to join the Tories. In 1841 he became Colonial
Secretary under Sir Robert Peel, but resigned on Peel's motion for repeal
of the corn laws. In 1851 and 1858 he formed ministries which held office
only for a short period; and again in 1860, when his administration
signalized itself by the reform of the government in India, the conduct of
the Abyssinian War, and the passing of a Bill for electoral reform (1867).
Early in 1868, owing to failing health, he resigned office, recommending
Disraeli as his successor. Lord Derby joined to great ability as a
statesman, and brilliant oratorical powers, a high degree of scholarly
culture and literary ability. Among other works he published a successful
translation of Homer's _Iliad_ in 1864.--Cf. T. E. Kebbel, _English
Statesmen Since the Peace of 1815: Derby_.

DERBY, Edward George Villiers Stanley, seventeenth Earl of, British
politician, born in April, 1865. He served for some years in the Grenadier
Guards, and entered the House of Commons in 1892. In 1895 he became a Lord
of the Treasury, in 1900 Financial Secretary to the War Office, and in 1903
Postmaster-General. He succeeded to the earldom in 1908. Lord Derby became
quite famous as the originator of the _Derby Scheme_, when he was
Director-General of Recruiting in 1915. Under-Secretary for War in 1916, he
succeeded Lloyd George as Secretary when the latter became Premier. In 1918
he was appointed British Ambassador in Paris, but resigned his position in
Sept., 1920, and left Paris in Nov., greatly to the regret of the French
people, to whom he had proved a staunch friend.

DERBY, a municipal, parliamentary, and county borough in England, capital
of Derbyshire, on the Derwent, here crossed by a graceful bridge of three
arches, 115 miles N.N.W. of London. It is pleasantly situated in a wide and
fertile valley open to the south, and is well and regularly built in the
modern quarter. It has some fine public buildings, amongst which are the
churches of All Saints, St. Alkmund, and St. Werburgh, the county hall,
school of arts, and infirmary. There is also a very handsome free library
and museum. The manufactures include silk, cotton, hosiery, lace, articles
in Derbyshire spar, iron castings, and porcelain; and the principal
engineering works of the Midland Railway are here. Derby is one of the
oldest towns in the kingdom, and is supposed to owe its origin to a Roman
station, Derventio. Under the Danes it took the name of Deoraby.
Richardson, the novelist, and Herbert Spencer were natives. It returns two
members to Parliament. Pop. 123,930 (1919).--The county of _Derby_, in the
centre of the kingdom, is about 55 miles long and from 15 to 30 miles
broad; area, 650,369 acres, five-sixths being arable or in permanent
pasture. It exhibits much varied and romantic scenery, the southern and
eastern parts having a fertile soil, while the north-western portion is
bleak, with a rocky and irregular surface. Here is the loftiest range of
the English Midlands, the mountains of the Peak. The Peak itself is 2000
feet high. The principal rivers are the Derwent, the Trent, the Wye, the
Erwash, the Dove, and the Rother. Oats and turnips are important crops, and
dairy-husbandry is carried on to a large extent. Coal is abundant in
various parts of the county, iron-ore is also plentiful, and lead, gypsum,
zinc, fluor-spar, and other minerals are obtained. The manufactures are
very considerable, especially of silk, cotton, and lace, machinery, and
agricultural implements. The county is divided into eight parliamentary
divisions, each with one member. Pop. 683,423.--Cf. J. C. Cox,
_Derbyshire_.

DERBY-DAY, the great annual London holiday, on which is run the horse-race
for the stakes instituted by Lord Derby in 1780. It always takes place on a
Wednesday, being the second day of the grand race-meeting which falls in
the week after Trinity Sunday. The race is run on Epsom Downs, an extensive
Surrey course 15 miles from London. The course is 1½ miles, and the time
usually about 2 minutes, 42 seconds. The entry money of each subscriber is
fifty guineas, and the stakes are run for by three-year-old colts and
fillies entered when yearlings. In the first year of the Derby there were
only thirty-six entries, but they are now very numerous, and the value of
the winner's prize is at least £5000. The race is the most popular of
British sporting events. The Ascot races are patronized by royalty; the
world of fashion is to be found at Goodwood; but Derby-day draws to Epsom a
vast crowd of every class. During the European War the race was suspended,
but a substitute Derby was run at Newmarket from 1915 to 1918. In 1919 the
Derby was again run at Epsom, and was won by Lord Glanely's _Grand Parade_.
In 1920 it was won by Loder's _Spion Kop_, and in 1921 by Joel's
_Humorist_.

DERBY SCHEME, a scheme produced by Lord Derby in 1915 with a view to making
a final effort on behalf of voluntary recruiting. The National Register
(q.v.), taken in August, 1915, of all persons between the ages of fifteen
and sixty-five, had shown that over five million men of military age had
not 'joined up'. As the number of recruits each week fell short of the
number required by Lord Kitchener, Lord Derby, appointed Director of
Recruiting, produced a scheme in which men were divided into 46 groups.
Groups 1 to 23 were for single men, and groups 24 to 46 for married men.
Thus a married man of eighteen was in group 24, whilst a single man of
forty-one was in group 23. The scheme ensured that single men would be
called up first, whilst men who had 'attested' could appeal to a tribunal
and claim temporary or permanent exemption. Two and a half millions offered
themselves in consequence of the Derby Scheme, and two millions were
accepted.

DEREHAM (d[=e]r´am), EAST, a town in England, nearly in the centre of the
county of Norfolk, with manufactures of agricultural implements,
iron-foundries, and a brisk trade. The poet Cowper was buried in the church
there, and George Borrow was born there in 1803. Pop. 5524.

DER´ELICT, a vessel or anything relinquished or abandoned at sea, but most
commonly applied to a ship abandoned by the crew and left floating about.

DERG, LOUGH: (1) a lake, Ireland, county of Donegal, about 3 miles long by
2½ miles broad at the broadest part, and studded with islets, one of which,
called Station Island, is a great resort of Roman Catholic pilgrims; (2) an
expansion of the River Shannon between County Tipperary and Counties Clare
and Galway, about 24 miles long and averaging 2 miles in breadth.

DERHAM, William, English philosopher and divine, born in 1657, died 1735.
He was long rector of Upminster in Essex. In 1696 he published his
_Artificial Clockmaker_. His best-known works are entitled
_Physico-Theology_, _Astro-Theology_, and _Christo-Theology_.

DERMA, or DERMIS, is the true skin lying under the epidermis (cuticle),
which is known in contrast as the scarf-skin.

DERMES´TES, a genus of beetles, one species of which (_D. lardarius_) is
known by the name of bacon-beetle, and is often found in ill-kept ham or
pork shops.

DERMOT MAC MURRAGH, the last Irish King of Leinster, attained the throne in
1140. Having carried off the wife of O'Ruare, Prince of Leitrim, he was
attacked by the latter, and after a contest of some years driven out of
Ireland (1167). He then did homage to the English king, and with the help
of Richard, Earl of Pembroke, recovered his kingdom, but died in the same
year (1170), and was succeeded by Pembroke, who had married his daughter.

DERNBURG, Bernhard, German financier and administrator, born in Darmstadt
in 1865. His father was an editor of the _Berliner Tageblatt_. At the age
of nineteen he came to New York to study banking methods, stayed there for
several years, and on his return to Germany became director of a financial
company. In 1906 he succeeded Prince von Hohenlohe Langenburg as Colonial
Secretary. During his administration the condition of German colonies, and
especially of German East Africa, was greatly improved. From 1914 to 1915
he was a zealous organizer of German propaganda in the United States, but
was subsequently compelled to leave the country.

DÉROULÈDE, Paul, French poet, politician, and agitator, born in Paris in
1846, died there in 1914. Called to the Bar in 1870, he served in the
Franco-Prussian War, and afterwards carried on an active and passionate
agitation for a war of revenge against Germany. He founded the Ligue des
Patriotes, which was suppressed by the Government in 1889, was an ardent
supporter of General Boulanger, and one of the leaders of the reactionary
forces during the Dreyfus case. He sat in the Chamber of Deputies from 1893
to 1895 and from 1898 to 1899. In 1900 he plotted against the Republic, and
sought to bring about a nationalist _coup d'état_ with a view to
overthrowing the parliamentary constitution. Found guilty, he was sentenced
to ten years' exile, but was allowed to return in 1905, under the law of
amnesty. His works include: _Chants de Soldat_ (1872); _Nouveaux Chants de
Soldat_ (1875); _Chants du paysan_ (1894); _Poésies Militaires_ (1896); _La
Moäbite_, a religious drama (1880), forbidden by the Censor; and
_L'Helman_, a patriotic play (1877).

DERRICK, a simple kind of crane, chiefly used on board ship, consisting of
a stout pole swung from a mast, and carrying hoisting-tackle at its upper
end. The name is derived from that of a celebrated hangman.

DERRINGER, a small pocket pistol with a short barrel and a large calibre
(usually .41), very effective at short range. It is named after its
inventor, a gun-smith in the United States of America, and would seem to
have been first used in about 1850. It is a single-shot weapon, and so has
largely been superseded by revolvers and automatic pistols.

DER´VISH, or DERVISE (Pers., 'seeking doors' or beggar, and equivalent to
the Ar. _fakir_), a Mohammedan devotee, distinguished by austerity of life
and the observance of strict forms. There are many different orders of
dervishes, the underlying idea of most of them being the revival and
increase of the Moslem faith. Some live in monasteries, others lead an
itinerant life, others devote themselves to menial or arduous occupations.
They are respected by the common people, and the mendicants among them
carry a wooden bowl into which the pious cast alms. One of their forms of
devotion is dancing or whirling about, another is shouting or howling,
uttering the name _Allah_, accompanied by violent motions of the body, till
they work themselves into a frenzy and sometimes fall down foaming at the
mouth. They are credited with miraculous powers, and are consulted for the
interpretation of dreams and the cure of diseases. See
_Mohammedanism._--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. W. Lane, _Modern Egyptians_; J. P.
Brown, _The Dervishes, or Oriental Spiritualism_; S. M. Zwemer, _Arabia,
the Cradle of Islam_.

DER´WENT, the name of four rivers in England, in Derbyshire, Yorkshire,
Durham, and Cumberland respectively, the last draining Derwentwater Lake.
Also a river in Tasmania.

DERWENTWATER, James Radcliffe, third and last Earl of, one of the leaders
in the rebellion of 1715, born in London 28th June, 1689. The standard of
revolt having been raised in Scotland, Lord Derwentwater commenced the
movement in England on 6th Oct., 1715, but was forced, along with the other
Jacobite nobles, to surrender at discretion on 13th of Nov. He was executed
on Tower Hill 24th Feb., 1716, his estates being confiscated, and in 1735
granted to Greenwich Hospital.

DER´WENTWATER, or KESWICK LAKE, a beautiful lake in Cumberland, England, in
the vale of Keswick. It is about 3 miles in length and 1½ miles in breadth,
and stretches from Skiddaw on the north to the hills of Borrowdale. Near
the south-east corner is the celebrated cascade of Lodore. Its waters are
carried to the sea by the Derwent.

DERZHAVIN (der-zhä´vin), Gabriel Romanovitsh, a Russian lyric poet, born in
1743, died in 1816. He entered the army as a private soldier, distinguished
himself highly, and was eventually transferred to the Civil Service, in
which he obtained the highest offices. In 1803 he retired from public life
and devoted himself entirely to poetry. One of his most beautiful poems is
_Oda Bog_, or _The Address to the Deity_.

DESAGUADERO (des-[.a]-gw[.a]-d[=a]´r[=o]), a river of Bolivia, in a valley
of the same name, issuing from Lake Titicaca, and carrying its waters into
Lake Aullagas. Also a river in the Argentine Confederation flowing into
Lake Bevedero Grande, and separating the provinces of San Juan and Mendoza.
Desaguadero signifies in Spanish 'a channel of outlet'.

DESAIX DE VEYGOUX (d[.e]-s[=a] d[.e] v[=a]-gö), Louis Charles Antoine, a
distinguished French general, born in 1768 at St. Hilaire d'Ayat, in
Auvergne, died 1800. He was of noble family, and entered the army as a
sub-lieutenant. He distinguished himself greatly in 1794 under Pichegru,
and two years later with the army of the Rhine under Moreau. In 1797 he
accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt, and was very successful in reducing Upper
Egypt. After the Treaty of El Arish he followed Bonaparte to Italy, took
command of the corps of reserve, and, arriving on the field of Marengo at a
critical moment, decided the victory by a brilliant charge, 14th June,
1800. He himself fell, mortally wounded by a musket bullet.

DESAULT (d[.e]-sö), Pierre Joseph, one of the most celebrated surgeons of
France, was born in 1744, and died in 1795. After some experience in the
military hospital at Béfort, he went to Paris in 1764, studied under Petit,
and two years afterwards became a lecturer on his own account. His
reputation soon increased, and he became principal surgeon in the Hospital
de la Charité, and in 1788 was put at the head of the great Hôtel Dieu in
Paris. Here he founded a surgical school, in which many of the most eminent
surgeons of Europe were educated. A digest of his surgical works was
published by Bichat in 1798 (_Oeuvres chirurgicales de Desault_).

DES´CANT, in music, an addition of a part or parts to a subject or melody,
a branch of musical composition which preceded the more modern counterpoint
and harmony, coming into existence at the end of the eleventh or beginning
of the twelfth century.

DESCARTES (d[=a]-kärt), René, a great French philosopher and mathematician,
with whom the modern or new philosophy is often considered as commencing.
He was born 31st March, 1596, at La Haye, in Touraine, died 11th Feb.,
1650. Educated at the Jesuit College of La Flèche, where he showed great
talent, he entered the military profession and served in Holland and in
Bavaria. In 1621 he left the army, and after a variety of travels finally
settled in Holland, and devoted himself to philosophical inquiries.
Descartes, seeing the errors and inconsistencies in which other
philosophers had involved themselves, determined to build up a system anew
for himself, divesting himself first of all of the beliefs he had acquired
by education or otherwise, and resolving to accept as true only what could
stand the test of reason. Proceeding in this way, he found (_Meditationes
de Prima Philosophia_) that there was one thing that he could not doubt or
divest himself of the belief of, and that was the existence of himself as a
thinking being, and this ultimate certainty he expressed in the celebrated
phrase "_Cogito, ergo sum_" (I think, therefore I am). Here, then, he
believed he had found the test of truth. Starting from this point Descartes
found the same kind of certainty in such propositions as these: that the
thinking being or soul differs from the body (whose existence consists in
space and extension) by its simplicity and immateriality and by the freedom
that pertains to it; that every perception of the soul is not distinct;
that it is so far an imperfect finite being; that this imperfection of its
own leads it to the idea of an absolutely perfect being; and from this last
idea he deduces all further knowledge of truth. Descartes has been rightly
called the father of modern philosophy, for in him the modern spirit came
into existence. In an age of unrest and ferment his work was that of a
great systematizer. He also contributed greatly to the advancement of
mathematics and physics, the method of co-ordinates, which has
revolutionized geometry, and is of fundamental importance in modern
mathematical physics, being due to him. His system of the universe
attracted great attention in his time. One of his fundamental doctrines was
that the universe is full of matter, there being no such thing as empty
space. On this basis he developed the hypothesis of celestial _vortices_,
immense currents of ethereal matter, by which he accounted for the motion
of the planets (_Principia Philosophiæ_, 1644). His works effected a great
revolution in the principles and methods of philosophy. In 1647 the French
court granted him a pension of 3000 livres, and two years later, on the
invitation of Christina of Sweden, he went to Stockholm, where he
died.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. P. Mahaffy, _Descartes_; A. Fouillée,
_Descartes_; E. Boutroux, _L'Imagination et les mathématiques selon
Descartes_; N. Smith, _Studies in Cartesian Philosophy_; E. S. Haldane,
_Descartes: his Life and Times_.

DESCENT´, in law, is the transmission of the right and title to lands to
the heir, on the decease of the proprietor, by the mere operation of law.
The rule determining to whom an estate belongs, on the decease of the
proprietor, is that of consanguinity, or relationship by blood, though with
some exceptions, as in the case of the portion, or the use of a portion, of
a man's property given by the laws of Britain to his widow. The rules of
descent, designating what relations shall inherit, and their respective
shares, will be determined by the genius and policy of the Government and
institutions. Hence the practice of entailments in the feudal system. And
wherever the Government is founded in family privileges, or very intimately
connected with them, as is the case in all Governments where the
hereditarily aristocratical part of the community has a great
preponderance, the sustaining of families will very probably be a
characteristic feature in the code of laws. Thus, in Britain, all the lands
of the father, unless otherwise directed by will, go to the eldest son. (In
England, however, this privilege may shortly be abolished, or the
succession to real estate assimilated to the succession to personal
estate.) In the United States of America this distinction in favour of the
eldest son has been abolished, and the laws there are founded upon the
principle of equal distribution both of real and personal estate among
heirs of the nearest surviving degree. Kindred in blood are divided into
three general classes, viz. 1, descendants; 2, ancestors; 3, collateral
relatives, that is, those who have descended from the same common ancestor.
The civil law computes the degrees by counting the generations up to the
common ancestor, as father, grandfather, great-grandfather; or mother,
grandmother, great-grandmother; and from him or her down to the collateral
relative, as brother, cousin, &c., making the degree of relationship the
sum of these two series of generations. Every person has two sets of
ancestors, the paternal and maternal, and therefore two sets of collateral
relatives. There is also a distinction of collateral kindred, into those of
the whole blood and those of the half blood.--Cf. Pollock and Maitland,
_History of English Law_.

DESCHANEL, Paul Eugène Louis, French statesman and tenth President of the
French Republic, born at Brussels on 13th Feb., 1856, where his father was
in exile for opposition to Napoleon III. Educated at the Collège Sainte
Barbe and the Lycée Condorcet, Paris, he was private secretary first to De
Marcère, the Home Secretary, in 1876, and then to the Premier, Jules Simon,
in 1877. Sub-prefect at Dreux, Brest, and Meaux, he was elected to the
Chamber of Deputies in Oct., 1885, for Nogent le Rotrou. In the Chamber of
Deputies he soon displayed his power of eloquence, and eventually became
the leader of the Progressive Republicans and exponent of the separation of
Church and State. His authority, which he owed not only to his eloquence
but also to his great tact and correct and dignified conduct during
debates, gradually increased in the Chamber of Deputies, and even his
political enemies admired his courage and his superiority of intellect. He
was consequently elected Vice-President of the Chamber in 1896 and in 1897,
and succeeded Henri Brisson as President of the Chamber in 1898, retaining
his office till 1902, when M. Léon Bourgeois became President of the
Chamber. Re-elected President of the Chamber in 1912, and withdrawing his
candidature to the presidency of the Republic in favour of Poincaré in
1913, Deschanel retained his post until 1920, when he was elected President
of the Republic by 734 votes. In the meantime, however, his health had
given way, and on 23rd May, 1920, he fell out of a moving train, an
accident resulting in a prolonged illness. A prompt recovery was at first
expected, but this hope soon proved vain. Unable to attend to the duties of
his office, he resigned on 16th Sept., and was succeeded by Alexandre
Millerand. He was elected to the Académie Française on 18th May, 1899, and
his works include: _La Question du Tonkin_ (1883), _La Politique Française
en Océanie_ (1884), _Orateurs et Hommes d'État_ (1888), _Figures des
Femmes_ (1889), _Figures Littéraires_ (1889), _La Question Sociale_ (1898),
_Quatre ans de Présidence_ (1902), _Politique Intérieure et étrangère_
(1906), _Paroles Françaises_ (1911), _La France Victorieuse_ (1919), and
_Gambetta_ (1920).

DESEADA (de-se-ä´d[.a]), or DÉSIRADE, one of the Leeward Islands, belonging
to the French, in the Caribbean Sea, about 10 miles long and hardly 5 miles
broad. The soil is in some places black and good, in others sandy and
unproductive. Pop. about 1500.

DESER´TION. In the military sense this implies the act of an officer or
soldier who, either with the intention of not returning at all or of
returning when by reason of his absence it has become impossible for him to
perform a given duty, absents himself from His Majesty's service. The
essence of the offence is intention, and this must be proved to the
satisfaction of the court martial by which the offender is tried. The
distance travelled is no criterion, and a man arrested while leaving the
barracks in disguise may be tried for attempted desertion. In this
connection it should be noted that an attempt to desert, or an attempt to
procure another person to desert, is also an offence, and is punishable
under Section 12 of the Army Act equally with the completed act. As far
back as the middle of the fifteenth century the crime of desertion by a
soldier was made a felony triable by the ordinary law of the land, and with
certain interludes death remained the maximum penalty for desertion for
some 200 years. The present existing Army Act recognizes two degrees of
desertion, i.e. that committed on active service or when under orders for
active service, and that committed under other circumstances. Under the
former heading the maximum punishment is death; under the latter,
imprisonment or penal servitude, according to the number of times the
offence has been committed. A soldier convicted of desertion forfeits the
whole of his service prior to conviction.

DESERTION, in law, the term applied to the act by which a man abandons his
wife or a wife her husband. Such desertion without due cause is, in
England, ground for a judicial separation. Property a wife may have
acquired since desertion is protected against her husband, and he may be
forced to provide for her maintenance. By Scottish law, where either the
husband or wife has deserted and remained separate without due cause for
four years, divorce may be obtained.

DESHOULIÈRES (d[=a]-söl-y[=a]r), Antoinette du Ligier de Lagarde, a French
woman of much literary reputation in the seventeenth century, born 1638,
died 1694. She was the centre of attraction in the best circles of the
period, and was elected a member of several learned societies. She wrote in
the _Mercure Galant_ under the name of Amaryllis, and Boileau has described
her in his tenth _Satire_. Among her works are odes, eclogues, idyls, and a
tragedy (_Genseric_).

DESICCATION, a process of dispelling moisture by the use of air, heat, or
chemical agents such as chloride of calcium, quicklime, oil of vitriol, and
fused carbonate of potash.--_Desiccation cracks_, in geology, are the
fissures caused in clayey beds by the sun's heat, and seen in various rock
strata.

DESIGN, thought, arrangement, or grouping, imagination or invention in
works of art. A design is a composition or invention, pictorial,
architectural, or decorative. It may be simply an imperfect sketch, as a
record of a first thought; or it may be a fully matured work, as a cartoon
in preparation for fresco painting, or a drawing to illustrate a book.

DESMIDIA´CEÆ, or DESMIDIE´Æ, a family of microscopic, fresh-water Green
Algæ, group Conjugatæ. They are green gelatinous plants composed of
variously formed cells having a bilateral symmetry, which are either free,
or in linear series, or collected into bundles or into star-like groups,
and embedded in a common gelatinous coat. Desmidiaceæ differ from
Diatomaceæ in their green colour and absence of silica.

DESMO´DIUM, a large genus of leguminous plants, sub-ord. Papilionaceæ,
natives of tropical and sub-tropical countries. _D. gyrans_ is the
telegraph plant, so called from the curious movements performed by the two
small lateral leaflets of each leaf, which, at high temperatures, wave up
and down like the arms of a semaphore.

DES MOINES (d[.e] moin), a city of the United States, capital of the state
of Iowa and of Polk County, on the Des Moines River, about 350 miles west
of Chicago. Among its chief buildings are the new State house, the State
arsenal, university, and opera-houses. There are coal-mines in the
vicinity, and the manufactures and other industries are varied and rapidly
increasing. Pop. 104,052 (1917).

DES MOINES, the largest river in the state of Iowa, rises in the S.W. of
Minnesota, and flows in a south-easterly direction till it falls into the
Mississippi about 4 miles below Keokuk, after a course of 300 miles.

DESMONCUS, a genus of tropical American climbing palms, scrambling by means
of stout hooks which are modified leaflets.

DESMOULINS (d[=a]-mö-lan), Benoît Camille, born in 1760, was conspicuous
during the first period of the French Revolution. He was amongst the most
notable of the pamphleteers and orators who urged the multitude forward in
the path of revolution. He, along with others, prepared the plan for the
taking of the Bastille (July, 1789), was one of the founders of the club of
Cordeliers, and the promoter of the assembly in the Champ de Mars. In 1789
he began his career as a journalist by the issue of a weekly publication
(_Les Révolutions de France et de Brabant_). In 1793 he gave his vote for
the death of the king. Having become closely connected with Danton and the
party of opposition to Robespierre, and inveighing against the reign of
blood and terror, he was arrested on the order of the latter on 30th March,
1794, tried on the 2nd April, and executed on the 5th. He met his fate in
an agony of despair.--Cf. F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Législative et
de la Convention_.

DESNA, a river in the Ukraine, which rises in the government of, and about
50 miles east of the town of Smolensk, flows through the governments of
Orel and Tshernigov till it joins the Dnieper near Kiev. It is 500 miles in
length and navigable nearly throughout.

DE SOTO, Hernando, a Spanish explorer and discoverer of the Mississippi,
born about 1496, died in 1542. He accompanied expeditions to the New World
under Davila and Pizarro, and played a distinguished part in the conquest
of Peru. In 1536 he led an expedition to Florida, whence after many
difficulties he penetrated to the Mississippi, where he was attacked with
fever and died.--The name De Soto has been given to a county in the N.W. of
Mississippi, and to several places in the United States.

DES´POT (Gr. _despot[=e]s_), originally a master, a lord; at a later period
it became an honorary title which the Greek emperors gave to their sons and
sons-in-law when governors of provinces. At present _despot_ means an
absolute ruler, and in a narrower sense a tyrannous one.

DESSALINES (d[=a]-s[.a]-l[=e]n), Jean Jacques, Emperor of Hayti, born in
Africa about 1760. He was a slave in 1791, when the insurrection of the
blacks occurred in that island, but was set free along with the other
slaves in St. Domingo in 1794. His talents for war, his courage, and
unscrupulous conduct raised him to command in the insurrections of the
coloured people, and after the deportation of Toussaint-L'Ouverture, and
the subsequent evacuation of the island by the French, Dessalines was
appointed Governor-General for life with absolute power; and the year
following (1804) was declared Emperor with the title of Jacques I. But his
rule was savage and oppressive, and both the troops and the people, sick of
his atrocities, entered into a conspiracy against him, and on 17th Oct.,
1806, he was slain by one of his soldiers.

DESSAU (des´ou), a town in Germany, capital of the former Duchy of Anhalt,
in a beautiful valley on the left bank of the Mulde, mostly well built,
with fine squares and many handsome buildings. The manufactures consist of
woollens, woollen yarn, carpets, machinery, and tobacco. The former ducal
palace has a picture-gallery and interesting relics and antiquities. Pop.
56,606.

DE STENDHAL. See _Beyle, Marie-Henri_.

DESTER´RO, now FLORIANOPOLIS, a seaport of Brazil, capital of the state of
Santa-Catharina. The harbour, next to Rio de Janeiro, is the best in
Brazil. Pop. 9000.

DESTRUCTORS, REFUSE, the apparatus or plant used in the cremation of house
and factory refuse. Formerly refuse from large towns and populous areas was
either disposed of for manurial purposes or spread over waste land, where
its presence speedily became a nuisance. The consequent danger to the
public health, coupled with the increasing difficulty and cost of its
disposal, led to attempts being made to deal with it by more sanitary
methods. The first attempts to cremate it in a closed furnace on a large
scale, made in London in 1870, were not successful, primarily owing to the
unscientific design of the furnace. In 1877, however, there was built in
Manchester the forerunner of the modern destructor, to the designs of the
late Mr. Alfred Fryer. This consisted of two simple cells, the primary
feature of the design being 'the charging of the refuse into the back of
the furnace, and drawing out the resulting clinker from the front'. With
certain modifications, this design is in general use at the present time.
The basic principles underlying their scientific design may be summed up in
the following points: (_a_) Charging at regular intervals, the refuse being
dumped into a hopper, and fed into the back of the furnace as a charge,
means being taken to prevent undue escape of gases. The moisture having
evaporated, the material may then be raked forward onto the fire-bars,
where combustion takes place. (_b_) To avoid nuisance, the resulting gases
must be inodorous, which requires a temperature of about 2000°F. This is
obtained by passing the products of combustion over the hottest portion of
the fire, prior to their passage into the main flue. (_c_) Removal of the
fine dust and particles in suspension in the flue gases by means of spiral
chambers at the base of chimney. (_d_) Provision of forced draught. A
well-designed plant should show little, if any, suspended matter in the
gases on emission from the chimney. Formerly no use was made of the heat
generated, but modern installations now invariably have steam-raising plant
incorporated in the design. This power is commonly used to generate
electricity. Some portion may be utilized in crushing and screening the
clinker, which is frequently used in making slab-paving, or ground fine and
used as a substitute for sand in mortar. The following data may be found of
service: (_a_) 60 per cent of the average refuse is combustible. (_b_) The
calorific value may be taken as being one-seventh that of good steam-coal.
(_c_) 100 electrical units may be obtained from each ton of refuse
consumed. (_d_) With forced draught, as much as 100 lb. of refuse has been
burnt per square foot of grate area per hour. (_e_) 250 tons of refuse per
annum per 1000 of population may be estimated for.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. H.
Maxwell, _Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse_; Kempe, _Engineer's Year
Book_.

DESTUTT DE TRACY, Antoine Louis Claude, French philosophical writer, born
in 1754 of a family of Scottish extraction, died in 1836. As a philosopher
he belonged to the Sensationalist school, and considered all our knowledge
to be derived originally from sensation. He has been called the logician
and metaphysician of the school of Condillac. Among his chief works are:
_Idéologie_ (1801), _Logique_ (1805), and _Traité de la Volonté _(1815).

DETER´MINANT, a mathematical expression which appears in the solution of a
system of equations of the first degree.

The solution of the equations

    a_1x + b_1y = c_1,
    a_2x + b_2y = c_2,

is given by

    x(a_1b_2 - a_2b_1) = c_1b_2 - c_2b_1,
    y(a_1b_2 - a_2b_1) = a_1c_2 - a_2c_1.

Here x and y have the same coefficient a_1b_2 - a_2b_1. This is called a
determinant of the second order, and is written

    |a_1, b_1|
    |a_2, b_2|.

We may now write

     |a_1, b_1|   |c_1, b_1|
    x|        | = |        |
     |a_2, b_2|   |c_2, b_2|.

Similarly with three equations,

    a_1x + b_1y + c_1z = d_1,
    a_2x + b_2y + c_2z = d_2,
    a_3x + b_3y + c_3z = d_3,

we find

    x{a_1(b_2c_3 - b_3c_2) + a_2(b_3c_1 - b_1c_3) + a_3(b_1c_2 - b_2c_1)}
    = d_1(b_2c_3 - b_3c_2) + d_2(b_3c_1 - b_1c_3) + d_3(b_1c_2 - b_2c_1)

The coefficient of x, and the right-hand member, are here determinants of
the third order, and the result is written

     |a_1, b_1, c_1|   |d_1, b_1, c_1|
    x|a_2, b_2, c_2| = |d_2, b_2, c_2|
     |a_3, b_3, c_3|   |d_3, b_3, c_3|.

When the coefficient of x is expanded fully, it consists of six terms, half
of them positive and half negative, each term being the product of three
letters, one from each row and one from each column. Thus in every term,
such as the leading term a_1b_2c_3, the three letters a, b, c, and the
three suffixes 1, 2, 3, all occur once and once only. With regard to the
signs, we note that if the letters a, b, c are always kept in this order,
an interchange of two suffixes changes the sign. Thus, e.g. we may start
from + a_1b_2c_3, interchange the suffixes 2 and 3, and thus find -
a_1b_3c_2. Again, if in the latter term - a_1b_3c_2 we interchange the
suffixes 1 and 3, we find + a_3b_1c_2. It is easy to verify that after any
number of interchanges of this kind a particular term will always come up
with the same sign.

Thus the interchange of two rows (and similarly of two columns) changes the
sign of the determinant. It follows that if two rows (or two columns) are
identical, the determinant is zero. It is now easy to define functions of
n^2 letters, arranged in a square array of n rows and n columns, with
similar properties to those observed above in the case of determinants of
the third order. Determinants are very extensively used in higher algebra,
co-ordinate geometry, and other branches of mathematics. See also
_Elimination_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Smith, _Algebra_; T. Muir, _Theory of
Determinants_.

DETERMINANTS, in biology, the name applied by Weismann to hypothetical
particles contained in the nuclei of germ-cells, which determine the
existence and nature of the various parts of the body of the embryo. The
theory of determinants is part of an elaborate attempt to explain the facts
of heredity on a mechanical basis. Although it may serve as a working
hypothesis, it is regarded with disfavour by many experts, and may be
regarded as an elaboration of the 'provisional theory of pangenesis'
advanced by Darwin.

DETER´MINISM, a term employed by recent writers, especially since J. Stuart
Mill, to denote a philosophical theory which holds that the will is not
free, but is invincibly determined either--according to the older form of
the theory--by a motive furnished by Providence, or--according to the
modern form--by the aggregation of inherited qualities and tendencies.
Biological determinism maintains that each of our voluntary acts finds its
sufficient and complete cause in the physiological conditions of the
organism. Psychological determinism ascribes efficiency to the psychical
antecedents. Opposed to determinism is the doctrine of indeterminism or
indifferentism. See _Free-will_.

DET´INUE, in law, the form of action whereby a plaintiff seeks to recover a
chattel personal unlawfully detained.

DET´MOLD, a town, Germany, capital of Lippe-Detmold, on the left bank of
the Werra, 50 miles south-west of Hanover, with a new and an old palace (or
castle), good public library, and museum. In the vicinity a colossal statue
has been erected to the Hermann or Arminius who overthrew the Roman general
Varus and his legions in a battle which was fought near this place. The
Senner race of horses is bred near Detmold. Pop. 14,295.

DET´ONATING POWDERS, certain chemical compounds which, on being exposed to
heat or suddenly struck, explode with a loud report, owing to one or more
of the constituent parts suddenly assuming the gaseous state. The chloride
and iodide of nitrogen are very powerful detonating substances. Mercuric
fulminate or fulminating mercury (C_2HgN_2O_2) explodes violently when
forcibly struck or when heated to 180°F. It is used for making percussion
caps, and in detonators for exploding guncotton and nitroglycerin
preparations. Silver fulminate (C_2Ag_2N_2O_2) explodes even more
violently.

DETONATING TUBE, a species of eudiometer, being a stout glass tube used in
chemical analysis for detonating gaseous bodies. It is generally graduated
into centesimal parts, and perforated by two opposed wires for the purpose
of passing an electric spark through the gases which are introduced into
it, and which are confined within it over mercury and water.

DETROIT (de-troit´; Fr. _détroit_, a strait or channel), a flourishing port
and city of the United States, the largest town in Michigan, situated on
the Detroit River, connecting Lakes Erie and St. Clair. The site rises
gradually from the river, and the city is generally well built. Among the
chief edifices are the city hall, the house of correction, post office, and
opera-house. Detroit has increased very rapidly, a fact which is due to its
admirable position for trade, and to its connections with a region into
which a constant tide of emigration is flowing. Among the industrial
establishments are saw-mills, flour-mills, building-yards for ships and
boats, foundries, tanneries, blast-furnaces, pork-packing establishments,
tobacco and cigar manufactories, and locomotive works. The harbour is one
of the finest in the United States, and has a depth of water sufficient for
the largest vessels. Detroit owes its origin to the French, who visited the
site in 1648 and erected the Fort Pontchartrain in 1701. Pop. 688,028
(1919).

DETROIT RIVER, or STRAIT OF ST. CLAIR, a river or strait of North America
which runs from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie. It is 28 miles long, and of
sufficient depth for the navigation of large vessels. It is about ¾ mile
wide opposite Detroit and enlarges as it descends.

DETTINGEN (det´ing-en), the name of several places in Germany, amongst
which is a village of Bavaria, on the right bank of the Main, famous for
the victory gained by the English and Austrians under George II of England
over the French in 1743.

DEUCA´LION, in Greek mythology, the son of Prometheus and father of Hellen,
ancestor of the Hellenes. According to tradition he saved himself and his
wife, Pyrrha, from a deluge which Zeus had sent upon the earth, by building
a ship which rested upon Mount Parnassus. To repair the loss of mankind
they were directed by an oracle to throw stones behind them; the stones
thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown by Pyrrha women.

DEUS EX MACHINÂ (mak´i-na; Lat., 'a god out of the machine'), a phrase used
to designate the resorting to supernatural causes to explain phenomena that
one is not able to account for by natural means. The phrase is taken from
the practice on the classical stage of introducing a god from above by
means of some mechanical contrivance in order to effect a speedy
_dénouement_ of the plot.

DEUTERONOMY (Gr. _deuteronomion_, the second law), the name of the fifth
book of the _Pentateuch_ (q.v.). Until the seventeenth century it was
believed to have been written by Moses, but now it is generally held to be
a compilation, the bulk of it having been written in the reign of Manasseh,
or according to other scholars in the reign of Josiah. At any rate the book
was discovered or rediscovered while Josiah was king (_2 Kings_, xxii). It
represents the latest phase in the development of the teaching of Moses.
Its chief aim is to combat idolatry, and to concentrate the religious life
of the country at Jerusalem. It has a lofty moral tone. Of one passage (vi,
4 and 5) Christ said: "On these two commandments hang all the law and the
prophets" (_Matt._ xxii, 40), and all His answers to the Tempter in the
Wilderness are taken from the book of _Deuteronomy_.

DEUTZ (doits), a town in Prussia, on the right bank of the River Rhine,
opposite the city of Cologne, with which it communicates by a bridge. It is
strongly fortified as part of the defences of Cologne, in which it is now
incorporated. There are some manufactories of porcelain and glass, also an
iron-foundry and machine-works. Pop. 17,060.

DEUT´ZIA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Saxifragaceæ, containing seven or
eight species, all of which are interesting from the beauty of their
flowers, some of them favourite garden and greenhouse plants. They are
small shrubs indigenous to China and Japan, and Northern India.

DE VALERA, Eamon, Irish Republican, born at New York in 1883, his father
being a Spaniard, and his mother an Irishwoman. Educated at the Royal
University of Ireland, he early became known for his revolutionary
activities. In 1917 he was elected president of the Gaelic League and was
arrested as an agitator. Elected to Parliament in 1918, while he was in
prison, he refused to take his seat. He was elected 'President' of the
so-called 'Irish Republic' soon afterwards, and in Feb., 1919, escaped from
prison and reached New York, where he started an active propaganda and
began to raise funds for the Irish cause. He returned to Ireland in 1921.

DEV´ENTER, an old town in Holland, province of Overijssel, 8 miles north
from Zutphen, at the confluence of the Schipbeek and Ijssel. Its industries
embrace carpets, cast-iron goods, printed cottons, hosiery, and a kind of
cake called _Deventer Koek_. It has a large export trade in butter. Pop.
32,483 (1918).

DEV´ERON, a river of Scotland belonging to Aberdeenshire and Banffshire, 60
miles long. It flows into the Moray Firth at Banff.

DEVIATION OF THE COMPASS, the deflection of a ship's compass needle from
the magnetic meridian, caused by adjacent iron. Hard iron is very retentive
of a magnetic state, and is specially liable to become magnetized during a
hammering process, as in the building of the ship. Soft iron easily
receives or loses magnetism, and its magnetic state varies with every
shifting of the ship's head. The effect of the former can be counteracted
by magnets suitably placed near the compass, that of the latter by spheres
of soft iron. The ship is swung, and the compass errors found in the
various positions. The effects of the several contributing causes can then
be separated, and the nature of the correctors necessary inferred with
considerable accuracy. When these have been provided, the small residual
errors for different positions of the ship are determined, and a table is
constructed from which the navigator may read the slight correction to
apply to the indication of his compass in steering any desired course.

DEVICE´, a name common to all figures, ciphers, characters, rebuses, and
mottoes which are adopted by a person or a family by way of badge or
distinctive emblem, often a representation of some natural body, with a
motto or sentence applied in a figurative sense.

DEVIL (Gr., _diabolos_, a slanderer or accuser), in theology, the name
given to a fallen angel, who is the instigator of evil, and the ruler of
darkness. Most of the old religions of the East acknowledge a host of
devils. The doctrine of Zoroaster, who adopted an evil principle called
Ahriman, opposed to the good principle and served by several orders of
inferior spirits, spread the belief in such spirits among the people. The
Greek mythology did not distinguish with the same precision between good
and bad spirits. With the Mohammedans _Eblis_, or the devil, was an
archangel whom God employed to destroy a pre-Adamite race of _jinns_, or
genii, and who was so filled with pride at his victory that he refused to
obey God. The Satan of the New Testament is also a rebel against God. He
uses his intellect to entangle men in sin and to obtain power over them.
But he is not an independent self-existent principle like the evil
principle of Zoroaster, but a creature subject to omnipotent control. The
doctrine of Scripture on this subject soon became blended with numerous
fictions of human imagination, with the various superstitions of different
countries, and the mythology of the pagans. The excited imaginations of
hermits in their lonely retreats, sunk as they were in ignorance and unable
to account for natural appearances, frequently led them to suppose Satan
visibly present; and innumerable stories were told of his appearance, and
his attributes--the horns, the tail, the cloven foot,--distinctly
described. Theology has always treated the devil from a psychological or
ethical standpoint. From the New Testament we hardly learn more regarding
the devil than that he has a distinct personality; that he is a spirit or
angel who in some way fell; that he is devoid of truth and of all moral
goodness, always warring against the soul of man and leading him towards
evil; that he has demons, spirits, or angels under him who work his will,
and enter into or 'possess' men; but of his or their origin, original
state, or fall, we really learn nothing.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mayer, _Historia
Diaboli_; Lecanu, _Histoire de Satan, sa chute, son culte, ses
manifestations, ses oeuvres_; Carus, _History of the Devil_.

DEVIL-FISH, the popular name of various fishes, one of them being the
angler. Among others the name is given to several large species of ray
(especially _Ceratoptera Vampyrus_ which attains the breadth of 20 feet)
occasionally captured on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of America, and
much dreaded by divers, whom they are said to devour after enveloping them
in their vast wings. During gales of wind or owing to strong currents these
immense fish are driven into shoal water, and, being unable to extricate
themselves, fall an easy prey to the fishermen, who obtain considerable
quantities of oil from their livers. The name is also applied to the larger
eight-armed cephalopod molluscs belonging to _Octopus_ and allied genera. A
combat with one of these is described in Victor Hugo's _Toilers of the
Sea_.

DEVIL'S BIT, the common name of a British species of scabious (_Scabi[=o]sa
succ[=i]sa_), nat. ord. Dipsaceæ. It has heads of blue flowers nearly
globular, and a fleshy root, which is, as it were, cut or bitten off
abruptly. It flowers from June to October, and is common in meadows and
pastures.

DEVIL'S BRIDGE, a name for several bridges in wild situations; one being in
Cardiganshire, spanning a gorge of the Mynach; another in Switzerland, over
which the St. Gothard Railway crosses the Reuss.

DEVIL'S PARLIAMENT, the name given to a Parliament convened by Henry VI,
which met at Coventry in 1459 and unjustly accused the Duke of York of high
treason.

DEVIL'S PUNCH-BOWL, a small lake of Ireland, near the Lakes of Killarney,
between 2000 and 3000 feet above the sea, supposed to be the crater of an
ancient volcano. The name is also given to Highcomb Bottom, a glen in
Surrey.

DEVIL'S WALL, in the south of Germany, a structure which was originally a
Roman rampart, intended to protect the Roman settlements on the left bank
of the Danube and on the right bank of the Rhine against the inroads of the
Teutonic and other tribes. Remains of it are found from the Danube, in
Bavaria, to Bonn, on the Rhine.

DEVIL-WORSHIP, the worship paid to the devil, an evil spirit, a malignant
deity, or the personified evil principle in nature, by many of the
primitive tribes of Asia, Africa, and America, under the assumption that
the good deity does not trouble himself about the world; or that the powers
of evil are as mighty as the powers of good, and have in consequence to be
bribed and reconciled. There is a sect called devil-worshippers inhabiting
Armenia and the valley of the Tigris, who pay respect to the devil, to
Christ, and to Allah or the supreme being, and also worship the sun.

DEVISE, in law, usually the disposition of real estate by will, but also
sometimes applied to any gift by will, whether of real or personal estate.

DEVITRIFICATION. Glass which has been kept for a considerable time at a
temperature just below its fusion-point gradually becomes opaque or
crystalline in appearance; this phenomenon is spoken of as
_devitrification_. Poor glass, badly prepared window-glass, and glass which
has been subjected to strain tend to devitrify on exposure to air, some of
the ingredients separating in a crystalline form.

DEVI´ZES, a town in England, county of Wilts, giving name to a
parliamentary division, finely situated on a commanding eminence, 82 miles
west by south of London. The name is derived from the Lat. _divisæ_
(_terræ_, divided lands), because the ancient castle of Devizes was built
at the meeting-place of three different manors. Agricultural engines and
implements are made, and malting is carried on. Pop. 6740.

DEVON, or DEVONSHIRE, a maritime county in the s.w. of England, its
northern coast being on the Bristol Channel and its southern on the English
Channel; area, 1,671,364 acres, the county being the third largest of
England. Its principal rivers are the Torridge and the Taw, flowing north
into the Bristol Channel; and the Exe, Axe, Teign, Dart, and Tamar, flowing
into the English Channel. From Exeter to the confines of Cornwall extends
the wide and barren tract called Dartmoor; but the vale of Exeter,
comprising from 120,000 to 130,000 acres, and the south extremity of the
county called _South Hams_, limited by a line drawn from Torbay to Plymouth
Sound, are amongst the most fertile districts of England. Tin, lead, iron,
copper, manganese, granite, and the clay used by potters and pipe-makers
are the chief mineral products. The geological formation of the Old Red
Sandstone is so largely developed that the term Devonian has to some extent
become its synonym. Agriculture is in a somewhat backward state, owing,
probably, to the general preference given to dairy husbandry, for which the
extent and richness of its grass-lands make the county most suitable.
Wheat, barley, beans, pease, and potatoes are the principal crops. About
three-fourths of the county is under crops or in pasture. There is a large
trade in butter, cheese, and live-stock, and the 'clotted' cream and cider
of Devonshire are well known as specialities of the county. There are seven
parliamentary divisions, each with one member. Pop. 699,703.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
_Victoria County History, Devonshire_; F. J. Snell, _Devonshire,
Historical, Descriptive, and Biographical_.

DEVO´NIAN SYSTEM, in geology, a name originally given to rocks in
Devonshire and Cornwall, intermediate between the Silurian and
Carboniferous strata, and consisting of sandstones, calcareous slates and
limestones, &c. They are divided into lower, middle, and upper series, the
middle most abounding in fossils, including corals, crinoids, brachiopods,
and molluscs. Devonian rocks occupy a large area in Central Europe, as well
as in the United States, Eastern Canada, and Nova Scotia. The terrestrial
and lacustrine equivalents are known as the Old Red Sandstone.

DEV´ONPORT, formerly a county borough and port of England, county of Devon,
contiguous to Plymouth. It is the seat of one of the royal dockyards, and
an important naval and military station. A bastioned wall and fosse defend
the town on the north-east and south sides, while the sea entrance is
protected by heavy batteries on Mount Wise. Connected with the dockyards
and fortifications are the gun wharf, foundries, machine-works, rope-walks,
store-houses, and naval and military barracks. It has no special trade
beyond that connected with the dockyards and Government works. Formerly a
parliamentary borough, returning two members to Parliament, Devonport now
gives its name to a parliamentary division of Plymouth, with which it is
amalgamated since Nov., 1914. Pop. 84,370.

DEVONSHIRE, Spencer Compton Cavendish, eighth Duke of, long known as
Marquess of Hartington, born in 1833, died 1908. He was the eldest
surviving son of the seventh Duke of Devonshire, whom he succeeded in the
dukedom in 1891. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he
graduated as M.A. in 1854. He was attached in 1856 to Earl Granville's
Russian mission, and in 1857 was elected as a Liberal one of the members
for North Lancashire. In 1863 he was for a short time a Lord of the
Admiralty, and he then became Under-Secretary for War, being raised to
Cabinet rank as War Secretary in 1866. In 1868 he lost his seat for North
Lancashire, but became Postmaster-General under Gladstone, and was returned
for the Radnor boroughs. In 1871 he was appointed Chief Secretary for
Ireland. He went out with the Gladstone ministry in 1874, and on
Gladstone's retirement he became the leader of the Liberal party. On the
fall of the Conservative Government in 1880 he was elected for North-East
Lancashire, and became Secretary for India under Gladstone, being
transferred to the War Office in 1882. In the general election of 1885 he
was returned for the Rossendale division of Lancashire. He strenuously
opposed Gladstone's Home Rule Scheme of 1886, and became the leader of the
Liberal Unionists, but long declined to take office in the Cabinet. In
1895, however, he became Lord President of the Council, and from 1900 to
1902 he was President of the newly-instituted Board of Education. In 1903
he withdrew from co-operating with Mr. Balfour as Premier, mainly because
he disliked the fiscal changes proposed by Chamberlain. He then accepted
the position of head of the Free-Trade Unionists.

DEW is the name given to the minute drops of water which at certain times
appear by night upon grass, flowers, foliage, and other surfaces which
readily radiate heat. The first attempts at a scientific explanation of dew
were made early in the nineteenth century, when Dr. Wells propounded his
theory on the subject. According to this, the origin is to be found in the
moisture previously contained in a vaporous state in the atmosphere. During
the day the earth both absorbs and emits heat, but by night its supply of
warmth is cut off, while it continues, under favouring circumstances, to
lose heat by radiation into surrounding space. For any given state of the
atmosphere, in respect of the amount of aqueous vapour it contains in a
specified volume, there is a certain temperature at which it can hold just
that amount and no more in suspension. If it be cooled to that temperature,
it begins to deposit its moisture in the liquid form, and if the cooling
proceeds further, more and more is deposited. This particular temperature
is the _dew-point_ appropriate to the given state of humidity of the air.
If the dew-point is below 32°F., the vapour will, when the dew-point is
reached, pass directly into the solid form and be deposited as hoar-frost.
While there is a certain amount of truth in the foregoing theory, it does
not contain the whole facts of the case. Dr. John Aitken, of Falkirk,
Stirlingshire, established by experiments that in most cases probably the
dew found on plants does not come mainly from the atmosphere. To some
extent it exudes from the plants themselves. They derive moisture from the
soil, and in the process of supplying their tissues it passes to their
outer surfaces, whence in the daytime it is evaporated into the air. By
night the fall of temperature checks evaporation of this moisture, and when
it reaches their surfaces, it may remain there in the form of dew-drops.
Also, moisture is condensed out of the atmosphere upon the cooler plant
surfaces, but even this has more often been yielded not long before to the
atmosphere through the medium of the plant tissues, so that upon the whole
the plants play a much more important part in the process than had been
supposed. Dew is most copiously produced when there is a large difference
between the day and night temperatures. Hence it is favoured by the absence
of clouds, which would throw back much of the heat radiated from the earth.
Other favouring circumstances are a still condition of the atmosphere, good
radiating surfaces, and an abundant supply of moisture in the soil.

DEWAR (d[=u]´[.a]r), Sir James, scientist, born at Kincardine-on-Forth,
1842, educated at Dollar Academy, Edinburgh University--where he was
assistant to Lord Playfair when professor of chemistry--and Ghent. In 1873
he was elected Jacksonian professor of experimental philosophy at
Cambridge, an office which he still holds, and in 1879 a professorial
fellow of St. Peter's College. In the latter year he also became Fullerian
professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution, London. He is a fellow of
the Royal Society, has been awarded several medals and prizes for his
scientific researches, including the Rumford medal in 1894 for his
investigations into the properties of matter at its lowest temperatures,
this branch of science, with which the liquefaction of air and gases is
connected, being peculiarly his own. He was the first to reduce hydrogen
gas to the liquid and solid form. Together with Sir F. Abel, he was the
discoverer of cordite. He is an honorary graduate of several universities,
a late president of the Chemical Society and vice-president of the Royal
Society, and was president of the British Association in 1902. He has
contributed numerous papers to the proceedings of the learned societies of
Great Britain, and was knighted in 1904. His collected papers on
spectroscopy appeared in 1915.

DEWAR FLASK, a flask devised by Dewar for the examination of liquefied
gases. It consists of an inner vessel surrounded by a vacuum, which much
reduces loss or gain of heat by the liquid. The principle now finds
practical application in the 'Thermos Flask'.

DEWÁS, a native state of Central India consisting of two combined states
with two chiefs. Total pop. 250,000. Dewás, the chief town, has a pop. of
5200.

DEWBERRY (_Rubus coesius_), a European plant belonging to the ord. of the
Rosaceæ, and to the same genus as the bramble, from which it is
distinguished by its smaller berries, with fewer grains, and by the bloom,
resembling dew, with which they are covered, and from which the plant
derives its name. It is common in some parts of England. The Canadian
dewberry (_R. procumbens_) yields a much superior fruit.

DE WET, Christian Rudolf, Boer general, born 1854 in the Orange Free State.
His father removing into the Transvaal, he fought as a field-cornet at
Majuba. As member of the Volksraad (1889-97) he helped to draw the two
Dutch republics together, and in the South African War commanded first in
Natal, and then in the west under Cronje, whose rescue at Paardeberg he
attempted, but unsuccessfully. After March, 1900, he distinguished himself
by his attacks on the British lines of communication, and by his skill in
evading capture. He became commander-in-chief of the Free State forces, and
was the only undefeated Boer general at the end of the war, after which he,
with Louis Botha and Delarey, came to Europe to collect funds for his
countrymen. A member of the Legislative Assembly and Minister of
Agriculture, Orange Free State, from 1907 to 1914, he joined the rebellion
at the outbreak of the European War. Captured at Waterburg on 1st Dec., he
was sentenced to a fine of £2000 and six years' imprisonment, but was soon
released. He published _The Three Years' War_ in 1902.

DEWEY, George, American naval officer, born at Montpellier, Vermont, 26th
Dec., 1837, died 16th Jan., 1917. He began active service in the
Mediterranean squadron, and in 1862, under Farragut, he was present at the
passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip. Lieutenant-commander in 1865,
commander in 1872, he was in command of the Asiatic squadron in 1898, when
he destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila on 1st May. He was made Admiral of
the Navy and was thanked by Congress. From 1900 till his death he was
President of the General Board of the Navy.

DEWEY, John, American philosopher and psychologist, born at Burlington,
Vermont, 20th Oct., 1859. Educated at the University of Vermont, he
received his Ph.D. degree from Johns Hopkins University. Professor of
philosophy at the Universities of Minnesota, Michigan, and Chicago, where
he was also director of the School of Education, he became professor of
philosophy at Columbia University in 1904. He is one of the two (William
James being the other) American leaders of _pragmatism_, a philosophical
conception according to which questions that have no bearing on experience
and on life have no significance whatever, and are meaningless. (See
_Pragmatism._) His works include: _Outlines of a Critical Theory of Ethics_
(1881), _Study of Ethics_ (1894), _My Pedagogical Creed_ (1897), _The
School and Society_ (1900), _Studies in Logical Theory_ (1903), _How we
Think_ (1909), _Interest and Effort in Education_ (1913), _Democracy and
Education_ (1916), _Letters from China and Japan_ (1920).

DE WINT, Peter, English landscape painter in water-colours, born 1784, died
1849. He studied in the schools of the Royal Academy, where he occasionally
exhibited; but most of his pictures were shown in the exhibitions of the
Water-colour Society. English scenery was his favourite subject. He
occasionally painted in oil with marked success. Several of his pictures
are in the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum.

DE WITT, Jan, Grand-Pensionary of Holland, celebrated as a statesman and
for his tragical end, was the son of Jacob de Witt, burgomaster of Dort,
and was born in 1625. He became the leader of the political party opposed
to the Prince of Orange, and in 1652, two years after the death of William
II, was made Grand-Pensionary. In 1665 the war with England was renewed,
and conducted by De Witt with great ability till its termination in 1665.
In 1672 Louis XIV invaded the Spanish Netherlands and involved Holland in
war. De Witt's popularity, already on the decline, suffered still further
in the troubles thus occasioned, and he felt it necessary to resign his
office of Grand-Pensionary. At this time his brother Cornelius, who had
been tried and put to torture for conspiring against the life of the young
Prince of Orange, lay in prison. Jan de Witt went to visit him, when a
tumult suddenly arose amongst the people, and both brothers were murdered,
20th Aug., 1672. De Witt was a man of high character, simple and modest in
all his relations.--Cf. Motley, _History of the United Netherlands._

DEW-POINT, the temperature at which the air is saturated with the
water-vapour which it contains. If the temperature of the air falls to the
dew-point, dew is deposited. The dew-point is determined by means of an
instrument called a hygrometer. When the air is 'dry', the dew-point is
low, and evaporation proceeds rapidly, whilst a 'moist' atmosphere is one
whose temperature is near the dew-point, and in which evaporation takes
place slowly.

DEWSBURY, a town, England, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, and 30 miles
south-west of the town of York, chiefly engaged in the manufacture of heavy
woollen cloths, including blankets, carpets, rugs, flannels, and baizes. In
1862 it was made a municipal borough; in 1867 a parliamentary borough,
returning one member. Pop. of municipal borough, 53,351.

[Illustration: A, Dexter chief point.]

DEXTER, a term meaning on the right-hand side, chiefly used in heraldry.
The _dexter chief point_ is a point in the right-hand upper corner of the
shield, being in the dexter extremity of the chief.

DEX´TRINE, or BRITISH GUM, (C_6H_{10}O_5)_x_, a generic name applied to
soluble gummy substances intermediate between starch and glucose. They are
prepared from starch by the aid of dilute mineral acids or of enzymes, and
are usually named according to the colour they give with iodine, e.g.
erythro-dextrine, &c. When heated with dilute acids, they are transformed
into glucose. They are white, odourless substances, and are good
substitutes for gum-arabic. Dextrine is used in calico printing for
thickening colours; for the preparation of gums, and for stiffening cloth.

DEXTRO-COMPOUNDS, bodies which cause the plane of a ray of polarized light
to rotate to the right. Dextrine itself, dextro-glucose, naturally
occurring tartaric acid, malic acid, cinchonine, and many other bodies have
this property; while others, which have the opposite effect, of causing the
plane to rotate to the left, are called _lævo-compounds_.

DEY, an honorary title formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men, and
assumed by the rulers (under the Turkish Sultan) of Algiers, Tripoli, and
Tunis.

DHALAK (dh[.a]-l[.a]k´), an archipelago of the Red Sea, belonging to the
Italian territory of Eritrea. It consists of nearly 100 islets, mostly
uninhabited, clustering round the Island of Dhalak-el-Kebir, which is about
35 miles long by 30 miles broad. This island possesses a pearl-fishery.

DHAR (dhär), a small native state in Central India, with an area of about
1740 sq. miles. The soil is fertile, and yields wheat, rice, and opium.
Pop. 169,474.--The capital is of the same name, is surrounded by a mud
wall, and has some striking buildings. Pop. 19,000.

DHÁRANGAON, a town of Hindustan, in Khandesh district, Bombay. Pop. 15,000.

DHARMSÁLA, a hill station with military cantonments, in Kangra district,
Punjab, India. Pop. 6170.

DHARWAR, the chief town of Dharwar district, in the Bombay Presidency,
Hindustan, a straggling place with some trade. There is a fort well planned
and strongly situated, but now falling into ruins, and military cantonments
at 2 miles' distance. Pop. 32,000.--The Dharwar district has an area of
4535 sq. miles; pop. 1,051,314.

DHAWALA´GIRI, or DHAULÁGIRI, one of the highest peaks of the Himalayas, in
Nepál; height, 26,828 feet.

DHOLE (d[=o]l), the Cingalese name for the wild dog of India (_Cyon
dukhunensis_). It is distinguished from the genus Canis or dog proper by
its having one molar fewer in either side of the lower jaw. It is of a
fox-red or rufous-fawn colour, in size between a wolf and a jackal, and
hunts always in packs.

DHOLERA (dh[=o]-l[=a]´r_a_), a town of Hindustan, Bombay Presidency, on a
stream entering the Gulf of Cambay, an important cotton-mart. Pop. 10,190.

DHOLKA, a town of Hindustan, Bombay Presidency, probably one of the oldest
towns in Gujarat. Pop. 16,700.

DHOLPUR, native state of Central India, Rájputána; area, 1155 sq. miles;
pop. 263,188.--The capital is also called Dholpur. Pop. 9750.

[Illustration: Arab Dhow]

DHOW (dou), an Arab sea-going vessel, ranging from a comparatively small
size up to 200 tons burden, with one mast and a large triangular (_lateen_)
sail. It is used for merchandise and is often employed in carrying slaves
from the east coast of Africa to Arabia.

DHÚLIÁ, a town of Hindustan, Khandesh district, Bombay Presidency. Pop.
22,000.

DIABASE, originally an equivalent of diorite; then used for chloritic
igneous rocks of the Intermediate series of various grain; and now usually
for a type of dolerite in which the felspar is embedded in augite.

DIABE´TES is a disease characterized by great thirst, a voracious appetite,
and the passage of large quantities of saccharine urine, while there is
usually marked emaciation and debility. As a rule the skin is dry and the
patient does not perspire. Skin irritations (pruritus) of an intense type
occur frequently and cause much discomfort. Constipation is the rule, but
the digestion usually remains good, and enormous quantities of food are
taken without causing disturbance.

Acute and chronic forms are recognized, but there is no essential
difference, except that in the former the patients are younger, the course
more rapid, and the emaciation more marked. Beyond the large quantity, the
outstanding feature of the urine is the presence of sugar, varying from 2
per cent in mild cases to 10 per cent in severe cases.

The disease is due to disturbance in the carbohydrate metabolism, with the
result that these carbohydrates are not properly assimilated, but passed as
sugar in the urine. Much research has been undertaken to find what organ or
organs of the body cause this defect in metabolism, and recent work in
connection with the pancreas has established a definite relationship
between cells in that organ and the disease.

In treatment the main consideration is to reduce the carbohydrates in the
dietary, and many diets have been produced for this purpose.

Diabetic patients may take:--liquids: clear soups, lemonade, coffee, tea,
cocoa (without sugar), soda-water, and such like waters or milk (in
moderation); animal foods: fish of all sorts, fresh meat, poultry, game,
eggs, butter, cream-cheese; vegetables: lettuce, tomatoes, spinach,
radishes, asparagus, water-cress, cucumbers, chicory, mustard; fruits:
lemons, oranges, and in moderation currants, plums, cherries, pears, apples
(tart), melons, raspberries, strawberries, nuts: bread: gluten bread,
almond or coco-nut biscuits. A substitute for bread is one of the greatest
difficulties, as many gluten foods are very unpalatable.

Further, it is important to observe strict personal hygiene and to take
moderate exercise, lead a regular, quiet life in an equable climate, and
above all to avoid worries of any sort. In acute cases the disease may run
a very rapid course, coma frequently supervening a few days before death,
but chronic cases may live for ten to twenty years.

DIABETIC SUGAR. Sugar is present in normal urine in very small amount--so
small that it cannot be detected by the ordinary tests. In diabetes the
percentage of sugar in the urine may rise, in mild cases, to 1½ to 2 per
cent, and in severe cases it may reach to 10 per cent.

DIABLERETS (d[=e]-[.a]b-l[.e]-r[=a]), LES, a mountain group of the Bernese
Alps, Switzerland, between the cantons Vaud and Valais. The highest peak
has a height of 10,620 feet.

DIACHYLON (d[=i]-ak´i-lon), a substance prepared by heating together oxide
of lead or litharge, olive-oil, and water, until the combination is
complete, and replacing the water as it evaporates. It is used for curing
ulcers, and is the basis of many plasters.

DI´ADEM (Gr. _diadein_, to bind round), an ancient ornament of royalty. It
was originally a head-band or fillet made of silk, linen, or wool, worn
round the temples and forehead, the ends being tied behind and let fall on
the neck, as seen in old representations of the diadem of the Indian
Bacchus. In later times it was usually set with pearls and other precious
stones. The term is also used as equivalent to crown or coronet.

DIÆ´RESIS, a separation of one syllable into two, also the mark (¨) by
which this separation is distinguished, as in _aërial_.

DIAGNO´SIS, in medicine, the recognition of diseases by their distinctive
signs or symptoms; the discovery of the true nature and seat of a disease.

[Illustration: Diagonal Scale]

DIAG´ONAL SCALE, a scale which consists of a set of parallel lines drawn on
a ruler, with lines crossing them at right angles and at equal distances.
One of these equal divisions, namely, that at the extremity of the ruler,
is subdivided into a number of equal parts, and lines are drawn through the
points of division obliquely across the parallels. With the help of the
compasses such a scale facilitates the laying down of lines of any required
length to the 200th part of an inch. The length 1·67 inches, for example,
is given by EF in the figure. Similarly AB = ·91 inch, CD = ·84 inch.

DIAG´ORAS, ancient Greek poet and philosopher, born in Melos, an island of
the Cyclades, and flourished about 425 B.C. He spent a great part of his
life in Athens. Like his teacher, Democritus, he attacked the prevailing
polytheism, and sought to substitute the active powers of nature for the
divinities of the Greeks. On this account he had to leave Athens.

DI´AGRAM (Gr. _diagraphein_, to describe), a figure or geometrical
delineation applied to the illustration or solution of geometrical
problems, or any illustrative figure in which outlines are chiefly
presented, and the details more or less omitted.

[Illustration: Sun-dial]

DIAL, or SUN-DIAL, an instrument for showing the hour of the day from the
shadow thrown by a _stile_ or _gnomon_ upon a graduated surface while the
sun is shining. This instrument was known from the earliest times amongst
Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Hebrews. From those Eastern nations it came to
the Greeks. It was introduced into Rome during the first Punic War. Dials
are of various construction, horizontal, inclined, or upright, the
principle in every case being to show the sun's distance from the meridian
by means of the shadow cast by the stile or gnomon. The stile is made
parallel with the earth's axis, and may be considered as coinciding with
the axis of the sun's apparent diurnal motion. Consequently, as the sun
moves westwards the shadow of the stile moves round opposite to it, in the
same direction, falling successively on lines drawn to represent the hours
of the day. The dial, of course, gives true solar or _apparent_ time,
which, except on four days of the year, is somewhat different from _mean_
time. Dials are now rather articles of curiosity or ornament than of
use.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Leybourn, _The Art of Dialling_; Dawbarn, _The
Sun-dial_.

DI´ALECT, the language of a part of a country, or a distant colony,
deviating either in its grammar, vocabulary, or pronunciation, from the
language of that part of the common country whose idiom has been adopted as
the literary language, and the medium of intercourse between well-educated
people. Although the use of provincial dialects becomes inconvenient after
a language has acquired a fixed literary standard, the study of such
dialects is always valuable to the philologist for the light they throw on
the history of the language. The diffusion of education and of printed
books has much relaxed the hold which the provincial dialects of various
countries once had on the people, and in general it may be said that the
educated classes of any country now speak each of them a uniform language.

DIALEC´TICS (Gr. _dialektice_, from _dialektos_, discourse, dialogue), a
philosophic term originally signifying _investigation by dialogue_. It was
first used by Plato to designate the Socratic method. Afterwards it came to
denote the art of inference or argument, and in this sense was synonymous
with _logic_. The term is used in Kant's philosophy to mean the logic of
appearance, or that logic which treats of inevitable tendencies towards
error and illusion in the very nature of reason.

DI´ALLAGE, an altered form of the mineral augite, with a lamellar
structure, and a submetallic lustre on its planes of separation.
Schillerstein, or schiller spar is a similar product of the allied but
rhombic mineral hypersthene. It forms diallage rock, and enters into
serpentine rock.

DIALLING, the art, of making sundials; also the art and practice of
mine-surveying, in which the theodolite and magnetic needle are employed.

DI´ALOGUE, a conversation or discourse between two or more persons. The
word is used more particularly for a formal conversation in theatrical
performances, and for a written conversation or composition, in which two
or more persons carry on a discourse. This form was much in favour amongst
the ancient philosophers as a medium for expressing their thoughts on
subjects. The _Dialogues_ of Plato are the finest example. Many of the
great French and Italian writers have used this form. In the seventeenth
century Fontenelle and Fénelon both wrote _Dialogues des Morts_, a title
borrowed from Lucian. Landor's _Imaginary Conversations_ (1821-8) is the
best production of this kind in English.

DIAL´YSIS, the process by means of which a crystalline substance may be
separated from a colloidal body. Certain substances are capable of passing
through parchment, others are not, e.g. a solution containing sugar and
silicic acid may be separated by placing the solution in a parchment-paper
tube suspended in water; the silicic acid remains in the parchment tube,
and the sugar passes through into the surrounding water. The solution is
said to be dialyzed.

DIAMAGNET´IC, a term applied to substances which, when under the influence
of magnetism and freely suspended, take a position at right angles to the
lines of magnetic force. From the experiments of Faraday it appears that
all matter is subject to the magnetic force as universally as it is to the
gravitating force, arranging itself into three divisions, the
_ferromagnetic_, _paramagnetic_, and _diamagnetic_. Among the former are
iron, nickel, cobalt, magnetic oxide of iron, and Heusler's alloy. The more
feebly magnetic bodies are classed as paramagnetics, and those which behave
as described above are called diamagnetic substances. Among the latter are
bismuth, antimony, cadmium, copper, gold, lead, mercury, silver, tin, zinc,
and most solid, liquid, and gaseous substances. A diamagnetic body is one
which is not so magnetic as the medium in which it is suspended. The action
of bismuth, the strongest diamagnetic substance, is weak when compared with
the magnetic action of iron.

DIAMANTI´NA, a town, Brazil, in the diamond-mining district in the state of
Minas Geraes, the inhabitants of which are almost all engaged in the gold
and diamond trade. Pop. about 14,000.

[Illustration: Diameter]

DIAM´ETER (Gr. _dia_, through, and _metron_, measure), the straight line
drawn through the centre of a circle and terminated by the circumference.
It thus divides the circle into two equal parts, and is the greatest chord.
The length of the diameter is to the length of the circumference of the
circle as 1 to 3.14159265..., the latter number being an interminable
decimal. The name is also given to any chord of a conic which passes
through its centre.

[Illustration: Diamonds, rough and variously cut]

DI´AMOND, the hardest and one of the most valuable of gems, and the purest
form in which the element carbon is found. (See _Carbon_.) It crystallizes
in forms belonging to the regular or cubic system, the most common being
the regular octahedron and rhombic dodecahedron (twelve faces). The finest
diamonds are colourless, perfectly clear, and pellucid. Such are said to be
of the finest _water_. But diamonds are often blue, pink, green, or yellow,
and such are highly prized if of a decided and equal tint throughout. The
hardness of the diamond is such that nothing will scratch it, nor can it be
cut but by itself. The value of a diamond is much enhanced by cutting
facets upon it inclined at certain angles to each other so as to produce
the greatest possible play of colour and lustre. What is called the
_brilliant_ cut best brings out the beauty of the stone. Its upper or
principal face is octagonal, surrounded by many facets. But this form of
cutting requires an originally well-shaped stone. For other diamonds the
_rose_ cut is used. In this form six triangles are cut on the top so that
their apices meet in a point called the summit. Round this are disposed
other facets. Stones which are too thin to cut as rose-diamonds are cut as
_table_-diamonds, which have a very slight play of colour. In the cut, fig.
1 is the diamond in its rough state; fig. 2 is the vertical, and fig. 3 the
lateral appearance of a brilliant; fig. 4 the vertical, and fig. 5 the
lateral appearance of a rose-cut diamond; in fig. 6 the flat portion _a_ in
a cut stone is called the _table_; the part _a b b_, which projects from
the setting, is the _front_, the part _b b c_, sunk in the setting, is the
_back_ or _culasse_, while the line _b b_ is the _girdle_. The art of
cutting and polishing the diamond was unknown in Europe till the fifteenth
century, and the stone itself was not nearly so highly valued in the Middle
Ages as the ruby. Diamonds are valuable for many purposes. Their powder is
the best for the lapidary, and they are used for jewelling watches, and in
the cutting of window- and plate-glass. When used as a glazier's tool the
diamond must be uncut. Inferior kinds of diamonds are also extensively used
by engineers in rock-boring, and by copperplate engravers as
etching-points. Diamonds are obtained from deposits of various kinds,
mostly alluvial (sands, clays, &c.), being separated by washing. They have
been found in India, Borneo, and other parts of the East; sometimes in N.
America and Australia; Brazil has produced large numbers; but the chief
diamond-field of to-day is in Cape Province, the centre being Kimberley.
Diamonds were discovered here in 1867, and since then the output has
amounted to over £183,000,000 in value. The diamonds are no longer obtained
by mere surface workings, but the excavations have been carried down to a
depth of 2000 feet. 'River diggings' are also carried on on the banks of
some of the rivers. Some of the S. African diamonds are very large. One of
them, the Cullinan diamond, discovered in 1905, is a monster of 3025
carats, of very good colour, being by far the largest diamond known. A
celebrated diamond is the Koh-i-noor (Mountain of Light), an Indian stone
belonging to the British crown. Its history extends over five or six
centuries. It weighed at one time 280 carats, but by cutting has been
reduced to about 106 carats. The Orlov diamond, which belonged to the
Emperor of Russia, weighed 194 carats; the Pitt diamond, among the French
crown jewels, weighs 136½ carats.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Jeffries, _A Treatise
on Diamonds and Pearls_; H. Emanuel, _Diamonds and Precious Stones_; E. W.
Streeter, _Precious Stones and Gems_; _idem_, _The Great Diamonds of the
World_; G. F. H. Smith, _Gem-Stones_; P. A. Wagner, _The Diamond Fields of
Southern Africa_.

[Illustration]

DIAMOND-BEETLE, _Entimus imperialis_, a handsome South American insect
belonging to the family Curculionidæ or weevils. It is spangled with
golden-green on a black background.

DIAMOND HARBOUR, a port on the left bank of the Hugli River, about 38 miles
by the railway from Calcutta, formerly much used as an anchorage for ships
waiting for the tide.

[Illustration: Diana. From a statue in the British Museum]

DIAMOND LORE. In Hellenic, Arabian, Chinese, and other literature the
diamond is connected with the eagle and snakes. Diamonds, according to
ancient belief, lie in deep valleys infested by snakes, or entirely
surrounded by straight, high cliffs. Pieces of flesh are thrown down and
eagles seize them. The birds are followed to their nests, where the
diamonds that adhered to the flesh are found. Mixed with this legend is the
older one regarding the 'eagle stone', which assists parturition. It was
believed a woman was easily delivered if the 'eagle stone' were placed on
her abdomen. The Chinese legend was imported with the diamond from Fu-lin
(Syria). Indian diamond lore is mixed with pearl lore. According to the
Buddha birth stories, diamonds are found in the sea. The ancients asserted
that the diamond could not be injured by iron, fire, or smoke. Before it
could be broken it had to be steeped in ram's blood. The alchemists used
lead as a substitute for ram's blood. In Chinese lore diamonds are rulers
of gold and have their origin in gold. A similar belief prevailed in
mediæval Europe, adamantine gold being credited with the same virtues as
the diamond. Both gold and the diamond were sacred. The diamond is a
mediæval symbol of Christ; in the Far East it is connected with Buddha. The
association of the diamond with snakes gave origin to the belief that it
was poisonous, the saliva of the snakes clinging to it. Diamond dust is
regarded in India as a deadly poison. Like the sacred pearl, the diamond
has been credited with nocturnal luminosity. Certain varieties of diamonds
when heated, rubbed, or exposed in bright sunshine emit slight rays of
light for a short time in darkness. The belief in 'night shining gems',
however, had origin in pearl lore, the pearl having been connected with the
moon ('the pearl of heaven'). Coral, rhinoceros-horn, fern seed, the
mandrake, &c., were likewise connected with the moon-goddess and credited
with nocturnal luminosity.

DIAMOND NECKLACE, an affair of some note in French history immediately
preceding the Revolution. See _Marie Antoinette_; _La Motte_; and _Rohan,
Louis_.

DIAN´A, in Roman mythology, an ancient Italian goddess, in later times
identified with the Greek Art[)e]mis, with whom she had various attributes
in common, being the virgin goddess of the moon, and of the chase, and
having as attributes the crescent moon, bow, arrows, and quiver. The name
is a feminine form of Janus. She seems to have been originally the patron
divinity of the Sabines and Latins. She was worshipped especially by women,
as presiding over births, no man being allowed to enter her temple.

DIANA-MONKEY (_Cercopith[=e]cus Diana_), a species of monkey found in West
Africa, and so named from the crescent-shaped band on the forehead
resembling the crescent moon, which was the symbol of Diana. Another
characteristic feature is the possession of a pointed white beard.

DIANA OF POITIERS, Duchess of Valentinois, born in 1499. She was the
mistress of King Henry II of France, and descended from the noble family of
Poitiers, in Dauphiny. At an early age she married the Grand-Seneschal of
Normandy, Louis de Brézé, became a widow at thirty-one, and some time after
the mistress of the young Duke of Orleans. On his accession to the throne
in 1547, as Henry II, Diana continued to exercise an absolute empire over
him till his death in 1559. After that event she retired to her castle of
Anet, where she died in 1566.--Cf. Capefigue, _Diane de Poitiers_.

DIAPA´SON, in music, the concord of the first and last notes of an octave.
The word is also used for the most important foundation-stops of an organ.
They are of several kinds, as _open diapason_, _stopped diapason_, _double
diapason_. The French use the term as equivalent to pitch in music.

[Illustration: Diaper Ornamentation. Westminster Abbey]

DI´APER, a kind of textile fabric much used for towels and napkins, and
formed either of linen or cotton, or a mixture of the two, upon the surface
of which a flowered or figured pattern is produced by a peculiar mode of
twilling.--As a term in ornamentation diaper is applied to a surface
covered with a flowered pattern sculptured in low relief, or to a similar
pattern in painting or gilding covering a panel or flat surface.

DIAPHANOSCOPE, (1) an apparatus by means of which transparent positive
photographs may be viewed. The name is also given to (2) an instrument
employed in obstetrical surgery; electric light, contained in a glass tube
or bulb, is introduced into the female internal organs, and, thus
illumined, their condition can be examined through the translucent walls of
the abdomen.

DIAPHORET´ICS (Gr. _diaphorein_, to carry through) are agents used in
medical practice to produce perspiration. The Turkish bath, hydropathic
treatment, diluent drinks, &c., are employed for this purpose. The degree
of perspiration produced is more than normal, but less than in sweating.
See _Sudorifics_.

DIAPHRAGM (d[=i]´a-fram), in anatomy, a muscular membrane placed
transversely in the trunk, and dividing the chest from the abdominal
cavity. In its natural situation the diaphragm is convex on the upper side
and concave on its lower, but when the lungs are filled with air it becomes
almost flat. It is the principal agent in respiration, particularly in
inspiration. A complete diaphragm is found only in Mammalia.

DIARBEK´IR, a town in Armenia, formerly in Asiatic Turkey, capital of the
vilayet of same name, on a high bank overlooking the Tigris, and surrounded
by a lofty massive wall. It has manufactures of iron- and copper-ware,
leather, silk, woollen, and cotton goods, and a considerable trade. Pop.
about 38,000.--The province of Diarbekir has an area of 14,480 sq. miles,
and a pop. of 471,500.

DIARRHOE´A is morbidly frequent evacuation of the bowels. Several forms are
recognized. _Choleraic diarrhoea_; this form is acute, and is marked by
great frequency, with serous stools, and accompanied by vomiting and
collapse. _Critical diarrhoea_ occurs at the crisis of a disease.
_Lienteric diarrhoea_ is marked by the passage of fluid stools containing
scraps of undigested food. _Mucous diarrhoea_ is marked by the presence of
mucous in the stools. _Summer diarrhoea_ occurs chiefly among young
children and infants, most frequently in late summer. It is usually acute
in type and associated with marked prostration. In epidemic form it may
give rise to a high mortality in crowded districts and in institutions.
_Nervous diarrhoea_ is produced by some emotional cause. The treatment,
whatever the type, is to get rid of the cause of the irritation, and to
avoid further irritation in the intestinal tract. For this purpose
purgatives are given, and all solid food forbidden. This is followed by
gastro-intestinal sedatives and a gradual return to normal diet--substances
causing least digestive difficulty being first given.

DIASTASE is an unorganized ferment or enzyme produced in the germination of
barley, oats, &c. It is soluble in water, and the solution has the property
of inducing fermentation or hydrolysis of starch into dextrine and glucose.
To prepare diastase, barley is allowed to germinate; germination is then
interrupted by raising the temperature, and the grain is treated with a
mixture of water and alcohol under pressure, and filtered. Diastase, being
soluble, is obtained in the filtrate.

DIATHER´MANCY, the property that is possessed in various degrees by
different substances, of transmitting radiant heat. Bodies that are equally
transparent, that is, bodies which have equal power of transmitting rays of
light, are very different in their power of transmitting heat-rays. Thus a
thin plate of glass and a thin plate of rock-salt may be nearly equally
transparent, but the plate of rock-salt has far superior power of
transmitting rays of heat. The latter, it has been found, allows 92 per
cent of the total heat from most sources to pass; glass and other
substances transmit a much smaller proportion, and the amount varies with
the source. Rock-salt is diathermanous to heat from nearly all sources. It
has been shown that rock-salt is extremely opaque or athermanous to the
radiations from a piece of heated rock-salt. The diathermancy of the plates
in every case decreases very rapidly as their thickness is increased. See
_Radiation_.

DIATH´ESIS is the term given in medicine to a constitutional predisposition
to a disease; thus uratic diathesis is a tendency to gout; aneurysmal
diathesis is an inherent predisposition to aneurysms.

DIATOMA´CEÆ, a family of Algæ, consisting of microscopic unicellular plants
with brown chromatophores found in fresh, brackish, and salt water, and on
damp ground. The cell wall contains a very large quantity of silica, and is
formed in each cell into three portions, viz. two generally symmetrical
valves and a connecting hoop. The species consist of single free cells, or
the cells remain connected so as to form usually linear colonies, sometimes
enclosed in a transparent gelatinous sheath. The ordinary method of
increase is by cell division. A sexual process resembling that of the
conjugatæ also occurs. Diatoms constitute an important source of food for
the lower marine animals, and thus indirectly for the food-fishes.
Diatomaceæ are found fossil, forming considerable deposits of tertiary age,
as at Bilin, Richmond in the United States, &c. Fossil polishing-powders,
as tripoli and bergmehl, are composed of them; also kieselguhr, which,
impregnated with nitroglycerine, forms dynamite. They are abundant in
guano.

DIAT´OMITE (Ger. _kieselguhr_), a diatomaceous earth (see _Diatomaceæ_)
generally found underlying peat. In Skye, at Loch Quire, it is found about
18 inches below the surface, and extends downward for about 7 feet, and in
some places to a much greater depth. Another important area is north of
Toome Bridge in the county of Antrim. Diatomite is principally used for the
manufacture of dynamite on account of its value as an absorbent. It is
described also as extremely well adapted for the manufacture of silicate
paints, siliceous glazings, porcelain, boiler-coatings, and for isolating
felt and bricks for cold-storage buildings.

DIATON´IC, a term originally applied by the Greeks to one of their three
genera of music. In modern music it is applied to the natural scale, and to
the intervals, chords, melodies, or harmony characteristic of it. A
diatonic chord is a chord having no note chromatically altered. A diatonic
interval is an interval formed by two notes of the diatonic scale unaltered
by accidentals. A diatonic melody is a melody composed of notes belonging
to one scale only.

DIAZ, Bartolommeo, a celebrated Portuguese navigator of the fifteenth
century, named in 1486 commander of one of that long succession of
exploratory expeditions which the Portuguese court had during this century
become distinguished for promoting. The two vessels composing the
expedition sailed along the African coast till they reached Cape Negro
(lat. 15° 50' S.), where Diego Cam, a previous explorer, had stopped. At
29° S. they anchored at a point to which they gave the name of Angra das
Voltas (Bay of Detours). In sailing south from this point they doubled the
Cape of Good Hope without knowing it, and landed at a bay on the east
coast. Diaz now wished to continue his voyage in order to discover the
country of Prester John, but the sailors refused to accompany him. In again
doubling the Cape he gave it the name of Cabo Tormentoso (Cape of Storms),
which the king changed to its present designation. In 1500 Diaz had command
of a vessel in the expedition of Cabral which discovered Brazil. In
returning home the vessel which he commanded was lost, 29th May, 1500.

DIAZO COMPOUNDS, or DIAZONIUM COMPOUNDS, a name given to substances
containing the chemical group - N:N -; thus diazo-benzene chloride, C_6H_5
- N:N·Cl, or diazo-toluene sulphate, C_6H_4(CH_3) - N:NH·SO_4, &c.

These substances are formed from the aromatic amines by treatment with
nitrous acid at low temperatures. Primary amines all react with nitrous
acid at moderate temperatures when the amino group (NH_2) is replaced by a
hydroxyl group (OH); thus ethylamine (C_2H_5NH_2) reacts with nitrous acid
(HNO_2), yielding alcohol (C_2H_5OH), C_2H_5NH_2 + HNO_2 - C_2H_5OH + N_2 +
H_2O. The aromatic amines, however, if treated below 0° C. with nitrous
acid, yield diazo compounds, and not hydroxy compounds, e.g. aniline
treated with nitrous acid in hydrochloric acid solution yields
diazo-benzene chloride, C_6H_5NH_2·HCl + HONO = C_6H_5 - N:N·Cl + 2(H_2O).
Diazo salts are crystalline compounds soluble in water, sparingly soluble
in alcohol, and are unstable, decomposing explosively if struck or suddenly
heated. In solution in water they decompose as the temperature rises,
liberating nitrogen, and forming hydroxy compounds, C_6H_5N:NCl + H_2O =
C_6H_5OH + N_2 + HCl. Diazo salts are valuable in the synthesis of
different classes of compounds, as the - N:N - group reacts readily with
other groups. For this purpose it is usually only necessary to prepare a
solution containing the diazo compound. In the preparation of the azo dyes
the starting-point is a primary amine; the amino group is 'diazotized',
i.e. treated with a solution of sodium nitrite and dilute mineral acid at
low temperature. A diazo salt is formed, and is then made to react in
solution with a hydroxy compound or an amino compound, &c., with the
formation of a highly coloured azo compound. The diazo compound is then
said to be coupled. Diazo compounds are therefore important intermediate
substances in the manufacture of azo dyes.

The diazo group may also be exchanged for the hydroxyl group by warming the
solution with water, or for the cyanogen group by warming with a solution
of potassium cyanide, e.g. diazo-benzene chloride warmed with potassium
cyanide solution is converted into the nitrile of benzoic acid, C_6H_5 -
N:NCl + KCN = C_6H_5CN + KCl + N_2; or transformed into halogen derivatives
of hydrocarbons by warming with cuprous chloride, e.g. diazo-benzene
chloride is transformed into chlorobenzene, C_6H_5 - N:NCl + Cu_2Cl_2 =
C_6H_5Cl + N_2 + Cu_2Cl_2. These reactions, where nitrogen is eliminated
from the compound, and a group or element replaces the two atoms of
nitrogen, afford a means of synthesizing a variety of compounds.

DIB´DIN, Charles, an English dramatic manager and poet, composer and actor,
born in 1745, died in 1814. At the age of fifteen he made his appearance on
the stage, and was early distinguished as a composer. He invented a new
kind of entertainment, consisting of music, songs, and public declamations,
which he wrote, sang, composed, and performed himself, and by this means
succeeded in amusing the public for twenty years. In 1769 he composed some
of the music for the Shakespeare jubilee at Stratford-on-Avon. His
patriotic songs were very popular, and his sea-songs, amongst which are
_Tom Bowling_, _Poor Jack_, and _The Trim-built Wherry_, are still
favourites in the British navy. He also wrote a _History of the Stage_, and
the novels _The Devil_ and _Hannah Hewitt_.--His son, Charles Dibdin,
composed and wrote many small pieces and occasional songs.--Another son,
Thomas, early displayed the same dramatic tastes as his father, was
connected with various theatres, and wrote a great many songs and a number
of dramas.

DIBDIN, Thomas Frognall, an English bibliographer, born in 1776, died in
1847, was the son of the elder brother of Charles Dibdin the celebrated
naval song-writer. After studying law and practising as a provincial
counsel, he took orders and became a popular preacher in London. Here his
bibliographical tastes developed themselves, and the Roxburghe Club being
established in 1812, he became its first vice-president. Among his numerous
writings may be noted: _Bibliomania_, _Bibliographical Decameron_,
_Typographical Antiquities of Great Britain_, and _The Library Companion_.

DIBRANCHIA´TA. See _Cephalopoda_.

DICE, cubical pieces of bone or ivory, marked with dots on each of their
six faces, from one to six, according to the number of faces. They are
shaken in a small box and then thrown on the table. Dice are often loaded
or falsified in some way so as to make the high or the low sides turn down.
The origin of dice is ascribed to Palamedes of Greece (1244 B.C.), although
Herodotus attributes the invention of knuckle-bones and of dice to the
Lydians. Dice were well known amongst the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, and
are still very popular in Japan, China, India, and other Asiatic countries.

DICEN´TRA. See _Diëlytra_.

DICHASIUM. See _Cyme_.

DICHLAMYDEOUS (d[=i]-klam-id´i-us), in botany, said of plants that have
both calyx and corolla.

DICHOGAMY, in flowers, the condition in which anthers and stigmas ripen at
different times, whereby self-pollination is effectually prevented. If the
anthers ripen first, as in borage, columbine, crocus, Caryophyllaceæ,
Compositæ, Labiatæ, &c., the flower is said to be protandrous; protogynous
flowers, with stigmas ripening and withering before the pollen is shed,
occur, e.g. in Christmas rose, Colchicum, horse-chestnut, and in the
majority of wind-pollinated plants.

DICHOTOMY (d[=i]-kot´o-mi), a cutting in two; a division by pairs. Hence,
in botany, a mode of branching by constant forking, each branch dividing
into two others. See _Branching_.

DICHROIC, or more generally PLEOCHROIC, CRYSTALS (d[=i]-kr[=o]´ik),
crystals that have the property of exhibiting different colours, according
to the direction in which they are traversed by rays of light. When
polarized light is passed through a transparent plate of a pleochroic
mineral, the colour will vary with the direction in which the
light-vibrations take place. Hence, _face-pleochroism_, the colour of the
plate, may be distinguished from the colours given by _axis-pleochroism_,
the colours given by light vibrating parallel with certain optical
directions in the crystal.

DICHROITE (d[=i]´kro-[=i]t), or IOLITE, a mineral, a silicate of magnesium,
iron, and aluminium, which readily undergoes modifications and passes into
hydrous silicate. It exhibits marked pleochroism, whence the name.

DICK, Thomas, LL.D., a Scottish author of popular scientific works, born at
Dundee in 1774, died 29th July, 1857. He was for many years a teacher at
Perth, but subsequently resided at Broughty-Ferry, where he devoted himself
to astronomical science, especially in its relations to religion. Some
years before his death a small pension was granted to him by the
Government. Amongst his works are: _The Christian Philosopher_ (1823), _The
Philosophy of Religion_ (1825), _The Philosophy of a Future State (1828)_,
and _Celestial Scenery_ (1838).

DICKENS, Charles, one of the greatest English novelists, born 7th Feb.,
1812, at Landport, Portsmouth, died 9th June, 1870. His father, John
Dickens, was then in the employment of the Navy Pay Department, but
subsequently became a newspaper reporter in London. Young Dickens received
a somewhat scanty education, was for a time a mere drudge in a blacking
warehouse, and subsequently a clerk in an attorney's office. Having
perfected himself in shorthand, however, he became a newspaper critic and
reporter, was engaged on _The Mirror of Parliament_, and _The True Sun_,
and in 1835 on _The Morning Chronicle_. For some time previously he had
been contributing humorous pieces to _The Monthly Magazine_; but at length,
in 1835, appeared in _The Morning Chronicle_ the first of that series of
_Sketches by Boz_ which brought Dickens into fame. It was followed in quick
succession by a pamphlet entitled _Sunday under Three Heads, by Timothy
Spark_ (1836); _The Tuggs at Ramsgate_ (1836); _The Village Coquette_, a
comic opera (1836); and a farce called _The Strange Gentleman_ (1836). In
the same year Chapman & Hall engaged the new writer to prepare the
letterpress for a series of comic sketches on sporting subjects by Seymour,
an artist who had already achieved fame, and suggested as a subject the
adventures of an eccentric club. Seymour committed suicide soon after, and
H. K. Browne joined Dickens as illustrator, the result being the immortal
_Pickwick Papers_. The great characteristics of Dickens's genius were now
fully apparent, and his fame rose at once to the highest point it was
possible for a writer of fiction to reach. A new class of characters,
eccentric indeed, but vital representations of the humours and oddities of
life, such as Mr. Pickwick, Sam Weller and his father, Mr. Winkle, and
others, was made familiar to the public. Under the name of _The Posthumous
Papers of the Pickwick Club_ this work was published in 2 vols. 8vo, in
1837. In the same year Dickens was engaged as editor of _Bentley's
Magazine_, to which he contributed _Oliver Twist_, a work which opened up
that vein of philanthropic pathos and indignant satire upon institutions
which became a distinguishing feature of his works. Before the completion
of _Oliver Twist_, _Nicholas Nickleby_ was begun, being issued complete in
1839. As the special object of _Oliver Twist_ was to expose the conduct of
workhouses, that of _Nicholas Nickleby_ was to denounce the management of
cheap boarding-schools. _Master Humphrey's Clock_, issued in weekly
numbers, contained among other matter two other leading tales, _The Old
Curiosity Shop_ and _Barnaby Rudge_, the latter a historical tale, going
back to the times of the Gordon riots. It was published complete between
1840 and 1841. In 1841 Dickens visited America, and on his return he wrote
_American Notes for General Circulation_ (1842). His next novel, _Martin
Chuzzlewit_ (1844), dwelt again on his American experiences. This work also
added a number of typical figures--Mr. Pecksniff, Mark Tapley, Sarah Gamp,
and others--to English literature. The series of _Christmas Tales_, in
which a new element of his genius, the power of handling the weird
machinery of ghostly legend in subordination to his own peculiar humour,
excited a new sensation of wonder and delight. These, enumerated
consecutively, were: _A Christmas Carol_ (1843), _The Chimes_ (1844), _The
Cricket on the Hearth_ (1845), _The Battle of Life_ (1846), _The Haunted
Man_ and _The Ghost's Bargain_ (1847). The extraordinary popularity of
these tales created for a time a new department in literature, that of the
sensational tale for the Christmas season. In 1845 Dickens went to Italy,
and on his return _The Daily News_, started on 1st Jan., 1846, was
entrusted to his editorial management; but, despite his early training,
this was an occupation uncongenial to his mind, and in a few months the
experiment was abandoned. His _Pictures from Italy_ were published the same
year. Next followed his novel of _Dombey and Son_ (1848), and _David
Copperfield_, a work which has a strong autobiographical element in it
(1849-50). In 1850 Dickens became editor of the weekly serial _Household
Words_, in which various original contributions from his own pen appeared.
In 1853 his _Bleak House_ came out. _A Child's History of England_,
commenced in _Household Words_, was published between 1852 and 1854. _Hard
Times_ appeared in _Household Words_, and was published in 1854. _Little
Dorrit_, commenced in 1856, dealt with imprisonment for debt, the contrasts
of character developed by wealth and poverty, and executive imbecility,
idealized in the Circumlocution Office. In 1859, in consequence of a
disagreement with his publishers, _All the Year Round_ superseded
_Household Words_; and in the first number of this periodical, 28th May,
was begun _A Tale of Two Cities_. _Great Expectations_ followed in the same
paper, on 1st Dec., 1860. In _All the Year Round_ also appeared a series of
disconnected sketches called _The Uncommercial Traveller_, published in
1868. _Our Mutual Friend_, completed in 1865, and published in the usual
monthly numbers, with illustrations by Marcus Stone, was the last great
serial work which Dickens lived to finish. It contained some studies of
characters of a breadth and depth unusual with Dickens, and is
distinguished among his works by its elaborate plot. The first number of
his last work, _The Mystery of Edwin Drood_, was issued on 1st April, 1870,
and only three numbers had appeared when he died somewhat suddenly, at his
residence, Gad's Hill Place, near Rochester, on 9th June. He had
considerably overtaxed his strength during his later years, more especially
by his successive series of public readings from his own works, one series
being delivered in America between 1867 and 1868. He was buried in
Westminster Abbey. Dickens's work as a novelist is firmly based upon a wide
and keen observation of men. The essence of his art was caricature, and for
comic effect he, therefore, often exaggerated the abuses he attacked. His
characters exhibit little more than one trait or quality, but the single
trait or quality which they embody is truly conceived, and exhibited with
great vitality and humour. His creative power was immense, and his great
humour is admitted by all, even by those who consider his pathos as
overdrawn. In spite, therefore, of all that is grotesque and overstrained
in his work, he has been rightly placed amongst the great
artists.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Forster, _Life of Charles Dickens_; George
Gissing, _Charles Dickens: a Critical Study_; G. K. Chesterton, _Charles
Dickens_; R. H. Shepherd, _The Bibliography of Dickens_; Sir F. T.
Marzials, _Life of Charles Dickens_; E. Pugh, _The Charles Dickens
Originals_; P. H. Fitzgerald, _Memoirs of Charles Dickens_.

DICKSONIA, a genus of Leptosporangiate ferns, section Gradatæ, mostly large
tree-ferns, such as _D. antarctica_, a native of Australia and New Zealand,
often grown in greenhouses.

[Illustration: Portion of a Four-year-old Dicotyledonous Woody Stem cut in
Winter

B, Bast. B.K., Bark external to the first periderm layer, corresponding to
the primary cortex. C, Cambium ring. E, Early wood. J, J, J, Junction of
the wood of successive years. L, Late wood. M, Medulla. M.R., Medullary
rays, various views. P, Protoxylem. 1, 2, 3, 4, The four successive annual
rings.]

DICOTYLEDON (d[=i]-kot-i-le´don), a plant whose seeds are readily
recognized by the embryo containing a pair of cotyledons or seed-leaves,
which are always opposite to each other. Dicotyledons are further
characterized by their netted-veined leaves and their 'open' vascular
bundles containing a cambium; the parts of the flower are commonly in fours
or fives. In Bentham and Hooker's system the class is divided into four
subclasses--Thalamifloræ, Calycifloræ, Corollifloræ, and Monochlamydeæ.
Engler's system recognizes only two subclasses, viz. Archichlamydeæ and
Sympetalæ.

DICTAPHONE, an adaptation of the gramophone, in which the principle of that
invention is applied to the requirements of modern business. Letters or
memoranda are spoken into the machine, which 'records' them on waxen
cylinders. The machine is then passed on to a shorthand writer or typist
(or the cylinder may be transferred to a duplicate machine), and the
recorded matter is dictated. The motive power is electricity; the speed of
dictation is capable of adjustment to that of the writer; and by means of
an accessory machine the records can be scraped and re-used.

DICTA´TOR, an extraordinary magistrate of the Roman Republic, first
instituted B.C. 501. The power of naming a dictator, when an emergency
arose requiring a concentration of the powers of the State in a single
superior officer, was vested by a resolution of the Senate in one of the
Consuls. The dictatorship was limited to six months, and the person who
held it could not go out of Italy. This rule was laid aside during the
first Punic War. The dictator was also forbidden to appear in Rome on
horseback without the permission of the people, and he had no control over
the public funds without the permission of the Senate. He had the power of
life and death, and could punish without appeal to the Senate or people.
All the other magistrates were under his orders. Originally the dictator
was a patrician, but in 356 B.C. the plebeian Marcius Rutilus was called
upon to fill the office of dictator. The term is now often applied to
rulers enjoying or exercising extra-constitutional power.--Cf. A. H. J.
Greenidge, _Roman Public Life_.

DICTIONARY (from the Lat., _dictio_, a saying, expression, word), a book
containing the words, or subjects, which it treats, arranged in
alphabetical order. It may be either a vocabulary, or collection of the
words in a language, with their definitions; or a special work on one or
more branches of science or art prepared on the principle of alphabetical
arrangement, such as dictionaries of biography, law, music, medicine,
history, or philosophy. Amongst dictionaries of the English language, the
earliest seem to have been those of Bullokar (1616) and Cockeram (1623).
That of Dr. Johnson, published in 1755, made an epoch in this department of
literature. Previous to this the chief English dictionary was that of
Bailey, a useful work in its way. An enlarged edition of Johnson's
dictionary, by the Rev. H. J. Todd, appeared in 1818; and this, again
enlarged and modified, was issued under the editorship of Dr. R. G. Latham
(1864-72). The best-known American dictionary of the English language is
that by Noah Webster, published in 1828, and since entirely recast.
Richardson's dictionary, published during 1836 and 1837, was valuable
chiefly for its quotations. Ogilvie's _Imperial English Dictionary_, based
on Webster, and first published between 1847 and 1850, has been issued in a
remodelled and greatly enlarged form (4 vols. 1881-2 and subsequently,
Charles Annandale, LL.D., editor). It is one of the encyclopædic
dictionaries. Cassell's _Encyclopædic Dictionary_ is another extensive work
(1879-88). The largest completed English dictionary is the _Century
Dictionary_ (New York, 1889-91, 6 vols. quarto). _The Standard Dictionary_
is another American work. A new English dictionary 'on historical
principles', first edited by Sir J. A. H. Murray, LL.D., with the
assistance of many scholars, and now edited by Dr. Henry Bradley, is being
published at the Clarendon Press since 1884. Among foreign dictionaries are
the polyglot dictionary of Calepino (1502), the Latin and Greek _Thesaurus_
of Robert and Henry Stephanus, the Italian _Vocabulario della Crusca_
(1612), &c. The chief etymological dictionary of English words is that by
Professor Skeat (1882). Among French dictionaries (for French people) the
chief is that of Littré; among German, the dictionary begun by the brothers
Grimm.

DICTYOTACEÆ, a family of Brown Algæ, section Cyclosporeæ. _Dictyota
dichotoma_, with a delicate, flattened, repeatedly forked thallus, is not
uncommon in sandy pools on our coasts. The plants are of three kinds, viz.
[male], bearing antheridia; [female], bearing oogonia; and neuter,
producing tetraspores. The oospores give rise to neuter plants, the
tetraspores to [male] or [female] plants. This is one of the best instances
of 'homologous' alternation of generations, i.e. that type in which the
different generations are identical in form, differing only in their
reproductive organs and in the number of chromosomes in their nuclei.
Another genus is Padina.

DIDACTIC POETRY, that kind of poetry which professes to give a kind of
systematized instruction on a definite subject or range of subjects. Thus
the _Georgics_ of Virgil and the _De Rerum Natura_ of Lucretius profess to
give, the one a complete account of agriculture and kindred arts, the other
a philosophical explanation of the world. Other examples of purely didactic
poetry are Horace's _Ars Poetica_, and Pope's _Essay on Criticism_. In a
larger sense of the word most great poems might be called didactic, since
they contain a didactic element in the shape of history or moral teaching,
Dante's _Divina Commedia_, Milton's _Paradise Lost_, or Goethe's _Faust_,
for example. The difference may be said to be this, that in the one case
the materials are limited and controlled by nothing but the creative fancy
of the poet, while in the other they are much more determined by the actual
nature of the subject treated of.

DIDEL´PHIA, one of the three subclasses of the Mammalia (the others being
Monodelphia and Ornithodelphia), comprising only one order, that of
Marsupials or pouched mammals.

DIDEROT (d[=e]d-r[=o]), Denis, a French writer and philosopher, born in
1713, at Langres, in Champagne, died in 1784. He was educated in the school
of the Jesuits, and afterwards at Paris, at the College of Harcourt, but
declined to study law, preferring to earn his living by teaching
mathematics. His first works were the _Essai sur le Mérite et la Vertu_
(1745); and the _Pensées Philosophiques_ (1746), a pamphlet against the
Christian religion. His _Lettre sur les Aveugles à l'Usage de Ceux qui
Voyent_ is in the same strain. These heterodox publications cost him an
imprisonment for some time at Vincennes. Diderot now tried writing for the
stage, but his pieces were failures. In 1749 he had begun, along with
D'Alembert and some others, the _Encyclopædia_. At first it was intended to
be mainly a translation of one already published in English by Chambers.
Diderot and D'Alembert, however, enlarged upon this project, and made the
new _Encyclopædia_ a magnificently comprehensive and bold account of all
the thought and science of the time. Diderot, besides revising the whole,
undertook at first the mechanical arts, and subsequently made contributions
in history, philosophy, and art criticism. But the profits of all his
labour were small, and it was only the liberality of the Empress Catherine,
who purchased his library for 50,000 livres and made him a yearly allowance
of 1000 livres, that saved Diderot from indigence. In 1773 he visited St.
Petersburg to thank his benefactress and was received with great honour. On
his return to France he lived in retirement, passing the last ten years of
his life in writing and conversations, wherein, as Marmontel said, he was
at his best. Besides his articles in the _Encyclopædia_ he wrote numerous
works, some of which were published after his death. Among the best known
are _Le Neveu de Rameau_, a kind of philosophical dialogue which Goethe
thought worthy of translation; _Essai sur la Peinture_, and _Paradoxe sur
le Comédien_, suggestive essays on the principles of painting and acting;
two lively tales, _La Religieuse_ and _Jacques le Fataliste_. On account of
his great interest in almost every branch of human knowledge, Voltaire
nicknamed him 'Pantophile Diderot'.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Carlyle, _Essay on
Diderot_; F. Brunetière, _Études Critiques_; R. L. Cru, _Diderot as a
Disciple of English Thought_.

DIDO, or ELISSA, the reputed founder of Carthage. She was the daughter of a
king of Tyre, called by some Belus, by others Metten or Matgenus. After her
father's death, her brother Pygmalion murdered her husband Sicharbas, or as
Virgil calls him Sychæus, with the view of obtaining his wealth. But Dido,
accompanied by many Tyrians of her party, fled with all the treasure over
sea, and, landing on the coast of Africa, founded Carthage about 860 B.C.
The story is told by Virgil, with many inventions of his own, in the
_Æneid_ (Books i and ii).

DIDOT (d[=e]-d[=o]), a famous house of printers, booksellers, and
typefounders at Paris. The founder was _François Didot_, born in 1689, died
1757. Of his sons _François-Ambroise_ (born 1720, died 1804) and
_Pierre-François_ (born 1732, died 1795) the first distinguished himself in
the type-founding art as an inventor of new processes and machines, the
second was equally eminent for his bibliographical knowledge, and
contributed much also to the advancement of printing.--_Pierre_ (born 1761,
died 1853) succeeded his father François-Ambroise in the printing business.
He made himself famous by his magnificent editions of classic authors in
folio, amongst which his Virgil (1798) and his Racine (1801) may be
particularly mentioned. He did much also for the improvement of types. He
is known also as an author.--_Firmin_ (born 1764, died 1836), the brother
of Pierre, took charge of the type-founding, was the inventor of a new sort
of script, and an improver of the stereotype process.--_Ambroise-Firmin_
(born 1790, died 1876), and _Hyacinthe-Firmin_ (born 1794, died 1880)
occupied a distinguished position amongst the publishers of Paris. The
former left a collection of MSS. which was worth, at the time of his death,
about two million francs. The house has now extended its trade into
everything connected with bookselling, paper-making, and bookbinding.

DIDSBURY, a district of Manchester, on the Midland Railway, 4 miles south
by east of Manchester, a place of residence of many Manchester business
men. There is an important Wesleyan Training College there. Pop. 9234.

[Illustration: Didunculus strigirostris]

DIDUN´CULUS, a genus of birds allied to the pigeons, and comprising only
the one species, _D. strigirostris_, native to some of the Samoan Islands.
This bird is of special interest as being the nearest living ally of the
extinct dodo. It has a length of about 14 inches, with a glossy plumage
verging from a velvety black on the back to greenish black on the head,
breast, and abdomen. The large beak, which is nearly as long as the head,
is greatly arched on the upper half, while the lower is furnished with two
or three tooth-like indentations.

DIDYM´IUM, a rare metallic element, occurring along with _lanthanum_ in the
mineral cerite as discovered by Mosander in 1842. It has been resolved into
two new elements: _Praseodymium_ (Pr, 140.9) and _Neodymium_ (Nd, 144.3).

DIE, a metallic stamp for impressing a design or figure upon coins or other
metallic objects. See _Dies_ and _Die-sinking_.

DIE (d[=e]), an ancient town, France, department of Drôme, 26 miles
south-east of Valence; with an ancient cathedral and Roman remains. Pop.
4000.

DIÉ (di-[=a]), ST., a town, France, department of Vosges, on the Meurthe,
25 miles E.N.E. of Epinal. Both iron and copper are worked; there are
marble quarries; and numerous manufactures are carried on. Pop. 19,029.

DIEBITSCH-SABALKANSKI, Hans Karl, a Russian general, born at Grossleippe,
in Silesia, in 1785, died 9th June, 1831. He was educated at the military
school of Berlin, but in 1801 quitted the Prussian service for that of
Russia. He was present at the battles of Austerlitz and Friedland, served
with distinction in the campaign of 1812, took part in the battles of
Dresden and Leipzig, and was made lieutenant-general at the age of
twenty-eight. He had the chief command in the Turkish War of 1828-9,
stormed Varna, and made the famous passage of the Balkans, for which the
surname of Sabalkanski was conferred on him. In 1830 he commanded the army
sent against the revolted Poles, but did not distinguish himself in this
service.--Cf. Bantych-Kamenski, _Biographies of Russian Field-marshals_.

DIEFFENBACH (d[=e]´fen-b[.a]_h_), Johann Friedrich, German surgeon, born at
Königsberg in 1792, died in 1847. After having studied at Bonn and Paris,
he settled in Berlin, where his talent as an operator soon attracted
notice. Surgery is particularly indebted to him for new methods of forming
artificial noses, eyelids, and lips, and curing squinting and stammering.

DIEGO GARCIA. See _Chagos_.

DI´ELECTRIC, in electricity, a name applied by Faraday to any medium
through or across which electrostatic induction can take place. See
_Electricity_ (Electrostatics). Faraday first showed that electrostatic
induction was not action at a distance, but took place by means of the
insulating medium separating the two conductors. The medium he named a
_dielectric_, and measured its specific inductive capacity by taking that
of common air as unity.

DIËLY´TRA, or DICENTRA, a genus of plants, of the nat. ord. Fumariaceæ or
Fumitories. The best known is _D. spectabilis_, a native of Northern China
and Siberia, now common in European and other gardens. It blossoms in April
and May, and its long drooping racemes of purplish-red blossoms present a
very graceful appearance. It grows freely in the open air. It is sometimes
called bleeding heart or virgin's heart from the shape of the blossoms.

DIEMEN (d[=e]´men), Anton van, Dutch administrator, was born in 1593, died
in 1645. Having gone to India, he speedily rose to the highest dignities,
and was at length, in 1636, made Governor-General. He administered the
government with much ability, and contributed much to the establishment of
the Dutch commerce in India. Abel Tasman, whom he sent with a vessel to the
South Seas in 1642, gave the name of _Van Diemen's Land_ to the island now
called Tasmania.

DIEPPE (d[=e]-ep´), a seaport town, France, department of Seine-Inférieure,
on the English Channel, at the embouchure of the Arques, 93 miles N.N.W. of
Paris. Almost the only public edifices worth special notice are the two
Gothic churches, St. Jacques, begun in the thirteenth century, and St.
Rémi, founded in 1522, and the old castle (1433), now a barracks. To the
west of Dieppe proper is the suburb La Barre; and on the opposite side of
the harbour Le Pollet, inhabited chiefly by sailors and fishermen. The old
port is spacious, but a new channel with its own harbour system has been
added, and vessels of 20-foot draft can now enter. Dieppe is one of the
chief watering-places of France, and is much frequented by visitors in
summer and autumn. The great bathing establishment forms a luxurious
retreat for bathers and invalids, and includes a ballroom. The manufactures
include works in ivory, horn, and bone, lace-making, sugar-refining, and
shipbuilding. There is a busy fishery, and the foreign trade is still
considerable. There is constant steam intercourse between this port and
Newhaven. In early times Dieppe was the chief port of France, but its
prosperity diminished after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685).
During the European War Dieppe was an important Allied base. Pop. 23,973.

DIERX, LÉON, French poet, born in the Island of Réunion in 1838. Educated
in Paris, he became one of the foremost of the Parnassians. His works
include: _Aspirations_, _Poèmes et Poésies_, _La rencontre_, and _Les
Amants_. His collected poems (1889-90) were crowned by the Académie. He
died in Paris, 11th June, 1912.

DIES AND DIE-SINKING. Die-sinking is the art of preparing dies, a die being
a plate or block, usually of metal, so cut or shaped as to be capable, by
means of stamping or pressure, of transferring a given design to some
article which is to be manufactured in quantity. The pressure may be
applied by any sort of power, from hand to hydraulic.

The steel for the manufacture of steel dies is carefully selected, forged
at a high heat into the rough die, softened by careful annealing, and then
handed over to the engraver. After the engraver has worked out the design
in intaglio, the die is put through the operation of hardening, after
which, being cleaned and polished, it is called a _matrix_. This is not,
however, generally employed in multiplying impressions, but is used for
making a _punch_ or steel impression for relief. For this purpose another
block of steel of the same quality is selected, and, being carefully
annealed or softened, is compressed by proper machinery upon the matrix
till it receives the impression. When this process is complete, the
impression is retouched by the engraver, and hardened and collared like the
matrix. Any number of dies may now be made from this punch by impressing
upon it plugs of soft steel.

There is hardly any article which does not in the course of its manufacture
require the use of a die of some kind. For all sorts of metal-work, seals,
rings, silverware, moulds and shapes of sheet steel or tin, dies are
employed. For this class of work they are usually of steel. For embossing
articles of leather, wood, celluloid, rubber, cloth, or clay, dies of brass
and phosphor-bronze are commonly used, these being easier media to work in
and yet sufficiently strong. The dies for letter headings and company seals
are cut, in reverse to the design required, in steel; those for sealing-wax
seals in steel or brass; the lettering being usually punched in by hand by
separate letter punches, which themselves have been cut in relief on steel.
Designs which are unusually ornate may be engraved by hand. Dies for
embossing designs on leather, catalogue covers, cardboard articles, cards,
and soft materials are usually modelled in brass. The design in reverse is
cut out to a depth corresponding to the relief wanted. These dies are
usually worked up by hand by the engraver. Dies for the reproduction of
rubber stamps for printing on clay are cut in phosphor-bronze or hard brass
in relief and reverse, and with an extreme bevel. The dies or blocks are
then struck deeply into lead, and melted rubber is poured into the moulds
so formed. When set, the rubber is removed and mounted as a hand-stamp
ready to impress the clay in ink. Dies for wallpapers are cut on rollers.
Steel dies for flower-shapes have a cutting edge, so that they can stamp
out and emboss in one action. Of late years machinery has come much into
use for relieving the engraver of some of his labour, but the designs are
generally kept secret. One machine, called the pantograph or engraving
machine, reproduces engravings in all metals and many shapes from patterns.
Many of the stamp-duty steel dies made and issued by the Royal Mint are
reproduced from this machine in reductions from brass
patterns.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lucas, _Dies and Die-making_; J. V. Woodworth,
_Dies: their Construction and Use_.

DIESEL, Rudolph, German inventor, born in Paris in 1858, died in 1913.
Educated in England and at Munich, he proposed in 1893 to utilize directly
the energy created by the combustion of fuel, a proposal which led to his
invention of the Diesel engine. (See _Internal Combustion Engines_.) In
1913 he was called to England to consult with the Admiralty on the
application of his motor, but was drowned in crossing the Channel. In 1894
he published a monograph entitled _Theory and Construction of a Rational
Heat Motor_.

DIES FASTI ET NEFASTI, a Roman division of days, with reference to judicial
business, into working-days and holidays. A _dies fastus_ was a day on
which courts and assemblies could be held and judgments pronounced; a _dies
nefastus_, a day on which courts could not be held nor judgments
pronounced.

DIES IRÆ (d[=i]'es [=i]'r[=e]), one of the great Latin hymns of the
Mediæval Church, generally used as part of the requiem or mass for the
souls of the dead. It describes, as its name ('the day of wrath') denotes,
the Last Judgment of the world, and seems to have been suggested by the
description in _Zephaniah_, i, 15 and 16. It is supposed to have been
written by Thomas da Celano, a Franciscan friar of the thirteenth century.
It was translated by Crashaw and Dryden in the seventeenth century, and by
Macaulay and others in the nineteenth, but none of these translations
conveys the solemn force of the original.

DIEST (d[=e]st), a town, Belgium, province of Brabant, 32 miles E.N.E. of
Brussels. It has some manufactures, but the chief products of the place are
beer and gin, the former being largely exported. The town was occupied by
the Germans in 1914, and re-entered by the Belgians in 1918. Pop. 8800.

DIESTERWEG, Friedrich Adolf Wilhelm, German educator, born in 1790, died in
1866. In 1820 he became director of the new Teachers' Seminary at Mörs, and
soon gained a reputation as teacher and educator. He was a follower of
Pestalozzi, and aimed at making every subject of instruction a means of
education. In 1827 he founded the _Rheinische Blätter für Erziehung und
Unterricht_, wherein he advocated his pedagogical views.

DI'ET, a meeting of some body of men held for deliberation or other
purposes; a term especially applied to the legislative or administrative
assemblies of Austria, Germany, and Poland.

DIETET'ICS (Gr. _diaita_, daily regimen), that part of medicine which
relates to the regulation of diet. The ideal diet is clearly that which,
without burdening the viscera uselessly, furnishes all necessary nutritive
elements, with due consideration for special physiological conditions in
any given case. Under the head of _Aliment_ the physiological properties of
various foods have already been considered theoretically in respect of
their capacity to supply physical waste in nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous
matter. (See _Aliment_.) No single substance contains the elements needed
to replace this waste in their requisite proportions, and a mixed diet is
therefore necessary. For instance, to secure the required amount of carbon
a man would need to eat about 4 lb. of lean beef, while 1 lb. would yield
all the nitrogen required; thus, apart from the labour of digesting 4 lb.
of beef, the body would be compelled to get rid of the excess of nitrogen.
Bread, on the other hand, has carbon in abundance, but is deficient in
nitrogen; so that by uniting 2 lb. of bread with ¾ lb. of lean meat, the
due proportion of carbon and nitrogen is satisfactorily supplied. Milk and
oatmeal taken together also contain nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous
substances in nearly the required proportions. A certain proportion of
saline matter is also necessary. The nature of the food most suitable for a
healthy man is dependent in part upon general conditions, such as climate
and season, and in part upon special conditions of individual habit. The
inhabitants of the Arctic regions need large quantities of oleaginous food;
those of the Tropics live chiefly on starchy products. With increased
activity and exertion, as in training, an increase in the nitrogenous foods
becomes necessary. In a state of health we need not draw hairbreadth
distinctions as to the superior salubrity of the several sorts of diet, the
quantity rather than the quality of food being the main consideration.
Those persons who have been most remarkable for health and long life have
generally been contented with two moderate meals a day, which are certainly
quite sufficient during a state of health. In various countries the
breakfast generally consists of tea, coffee, or cocoa, with a certain
proportion of bread and butter; persons with delicate digestive powers, or
who lead a sedentary life, cannot with safety or comfort eat animal food
_constantly_ to breakfast. At dinner all made-dishes highly spiced, such as
curries, turtle-soup, &c., as provoking appetite, are hurtful; and the
custom of late dining is not to be commended. Stewed and boiled meats are
more difficult to digest than meat cooked by fire alone. The flesh of young
animals seems to be more difficult of digestion than that of old; and the
flesh of tame than that of wild animals. All sorts of fat meat must be
taken in smaller quantities. Hence, also, ham, bacon, and salted meats
cannot be eaten in such quantities as the tender flesh of poultry. Fish has
the advantage of being easily soluble. All boiled vegetables are in general
easy of digestion; raw vegetables and salads are rather more difficult.
Fruit should be taken in the forenoon rather than after a hearty meal. The
moderate use of fermented liquors is far from being invariably an evil, but
the smaller the quantity habitually used the better in the majority of
cases.

In all diseases attended with much fever or quickness of pulse the stomach
loathes animal food, and there is generally a great increase of thirst, to
quench which water, either quite cold, or iced, or tepid, or rendered acid,
may be freely indulged. Infusions, too, of barley, sage, balm, &c., may be
taken. In chronic diseases attended with hectic fever, milk is the most
proper diet. The best food for infants is, of course, their mother's milk;
but whenever they begin to cut teeth a little animal food, such as
soft-boiled eggs, beef-tea, and even chicken minced very fine, may be
given. Many infants suffer from having too much sugar given them in their
food.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. H. Chittenden, _Physiological Economy in
Nutrition_, and _Nutrition of Man_; Hutchison, _Food and Dietetics_; Lusk,
_The Science of Nutrition_.

DIETRICH (d[=e]´tri_h_), Christian Wilhelm Ernst, a German painter and
engraver, born in 1712, died in 1774. He studied under his father, and
afterwards under Alexander Thiele at Dresden, where he became court-painter
and professor in the academy. He adopted several different manners,
successfully imitating Raphael and Mieris, Correggio, and Ostade.

DIETRICH OF BERN (d[=e]´tri_h_), the name under which Theodoric the Great,
King of the Ostrogoths, appears in the old German legends. Bern stands for
Verona, his capital.

DIEU, or D'YEU (dy_eu_; ancient INSULA DEI), an island off the west coast
of France, department of Vendée. It is inaccessible on the west side, but
on the east has a tolerable harbour defended by batteries. The chief
industry is fishing. There are four lighthouses on the island. Pop. 3809.

DIEU ET MON DROIT (dy_eu_ e mo[n.] drwä; 'God and my right'), the
battle-cry of Richard I at the battle of Gisors (1198), signifying that he
was not subject to France, but owed his power to God alone. The battle-cry
was then adopted as the motto of the arms of England, and revived by Edward
III in 1340, when he claimed the crown of France. Except during the reigns
of Elizabeth and Anne, who used the motto _Semper eadem_, and of William
III, who personally used _Je maintiendray_, it has ever since been the
royal motto of England.

DIEZ (d[=e]ts), Friedrich Christian, German philologist of the Romance
languages, born in 1794, died in 1876. Having qualified himself as a
lecturer at Bonn, he was appointed professor of the Romance languages there
in 1830. His work stands in much the same relation to the Romance dialects
which the researches of Grimm occupy with respect to German dialects. In
addition to various works on the poetry of the Troubadours, he published a
very valuable _Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen_ (1836-42, translated
into English by Cayley in 1863), and an _Etymologisches Wörterbuch der
Romanischen Sprachen_ (1853).

DIFFERENCE, a stock-exchange term. When stock is bought or sold merely as a
speculation for the rise or fall, with no intention of the buyer to 'take
up' the stock, or of the seller to deliver it, the 'difference' is the
movement in price which may take place between the date of the transaction
and the following 'settling-day'. If the price falls, the buyer has to pay
the difference upon 'carrying over' his purchase to the next account; if it
rises, the seller is at the loss. Since the first weeks of the European War
all stock-exchange transactions have been made, in theory at least, for
cash, and speculative business of this nature has been consequently much
reduced.

DIFFERENCES, FINITE, a calculus much used in actuarial work, which deals
with a series of numbers by considering the differences of the successive
terms.

If u_1, u_2, u_3, ... are the terms of the series, then u_2 - u_1, u_3 -
u_2, u_4 - u_3,... form another series called the series of first
differences. The notation used is u_2 - u_1 = [Delta]u_1, u_3 - u_2 =
[Delta]u_2,...

These first differences may themselves be differenced, giving the second
differences [Delta]u_2 - [Delta]u_1, [Delta]u_3 - [Delta]u_2, ..., which
are written [Delta]^2u_1, [Delta]^2u_2,...

Similarly, we form the third differences [Delta]^3u_1 = [Delta]^2u_2 -
[Delta]^2u_1, and so on.

As an example, let the original series be the cubes of the natural numbers.

     1   8  27  64  125   216  /  343  512
     7  19  37  61   91  /  127   169
    12  18  24  30  /  36   42
     6   6   6  /  6    6
     0   0  /  0   0

Here we begin by writing down the series of cubes as far, say, as 216;
beneath these we write the first differences 8 - 1 = 7, 27 - 8 = 19, &c. We
thus obtain the part of the table to the left of the diagonal line.

We observe that the third differences are constant, each being 6. (It is
easy to prove generally that the nth differences of the series, 1^n, 2^n,
3^n,..., are constant.) Knowing the third differences, we can now extend
the table as far as we wish to the right of the diagonal line. We get first
6 + 30 = 36, 36 + 91 = 127, 127 + 216 = 343. We infer that 7^3 = 343.

Since u_1 - u_0 = [Delta]u_0, we have u_1 = u_0 + [Delta]u_0 = (1 +
[Delta])u_0.

Similarly, u_2 = (1 + [Delta])u_1 = (1 + [Delta])^2u_0; and, generally,

  u^x = (1 + [Delta])^xu_0
           = {1 + x[Delta] + (x(x-1)/(1×2)) × [Delta]^2 + ...}u_0
           = u_0 + x[Delta]u_0 + (x(x-1)/(1×2)) × [Delta]^2)u_0 + ...

a formula much used by calculators, and known as Newton's interpolation
formula.

The above symbolic method of proof only applies when x is a positive
integer, but the result is used in practice even for fractional values of
x, as in most cases the high differences become negligible.

If n is a positive integer, it is easy to prove that

  [Delta]^nu_x = u_{x+n} - nu_{x+n-1} + ((n(n-1))/(1×2))u_{x+n-2} - ...

If the nth differences vanish, or are negligible, this gives

  0 = u_{x+n} - nu_{x+n-1} + ((n(n-1))/(1×2))u_{x+n-2} -... +(-1)^nu_x,

another useful interpolation formula, by which we can calculate any missing
term of a series.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Boole, _Finite Differences; Textbook of
the Institute of Actuaries_.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION, an algebraical relation involving derivatives or
differentials. Examples:

  d^2z/dt^2 = g:  ydx + xdy + zdz = 0.

An _ordinary_ differential equation involves only one independent variable,
a _partial_ differential equation involves more than one. Examples of
ordinary equations:

  d^2y/dx^2 + (1/x)dy/dx + y = 0;  d^2x/dt^2 + a(dy/dt) + px + qy = 0.

Examples of partial differential equations:

  x(dz/dx) + y(dz/dy) = nz;  d^2u/dx^2 + d^2u/dy^2 + d^2u/dz^2 = 0.

Equations, whether ordinary or partial, can also be classified as _linear_
or _non-linear_. A linear equation is a rational integral equation of the
first degree in the dependent variable or variables and their derivatives.
The equation

  x^2 d^2y/dx^2 + x dy/dx + (x^4 + 1)y = 0

is linear, but

  (dy/dx)^2 = xy and y dy/dx = x^2

are non-linear. The _order_ of an equation is the order of the highest
derivative or differential which it contains. Of the three equations last
written, the first is _linear of the second order_, the other two are of
the _first order and second degree_. To _integrate_ a differential equation
or system of equations is to find a relation or relations among the
variables, equivalent to the given equation or equations. Thus the integral
of

  d^2z/dt^2 = g is z = ½gt^2 + At + B,

where A and B are _arbitrary constants_. An ordinary equation of the _n_th
order with one dependent variable has exactly _n_ arbitrary constants in
its complete integral, or solution. In a practical problem the arbitrary
constants are determined by the _initial_, or _boundary_, _conditions_. The
solution of d^2z/dt^2 = g, e.g. is completely determinate if the values of
z and dz/dt when t = 0 are given. The solution of _partial_ equations may
involve arbitrary _functions_, which become definite when proper initial or
boundary conditions are assigned. Thus the equation du/dx = du/dt has for
its complete solution u = [phi](x + t), where [phi] may be a function of
any form whatever; if now we are given that, when t = 0, u = a given
function f(x), we obtain f(x) = [phi](x), so that the solution required is
u = f(x + t). Certain ordinary linear equations of the second order are
specially important, both from the beauty of their theory and from their
usefulness in Mathematical Physics. Some of these equations are: Bessel's
equation, Legendre's equation, the hypergeometric equation, Mathieu's
equation, Lamé's equation. Linear partial equations of the second order are
fundamental in Physics. Such are: Laplace's equation,

  d^2V/dx^2 + d^2V/dy^2 + d^2V/dz^2= 0;

the wave equation,

  d^2V/dt^2 = c^2(d^2V/dx^2 + d^2V/dy^2 + d^2V/dz^2);

the equation of conduction of heat,

  dV/dt = k(d^2V/dx^2 + d^2V/dy^2 + d^2V/dz^2).

These involve one dependent variable only. Equations with several dependent
variables occur in Elasticity, Electrodynamics, and Hydrodynamics. A
notable feature of the hydrodynamical equations is that they are not
linear.

No general rules exist enabling us to deal with a differential equation
taken at random, and only a few types have been completely solved. Of
soluble equations, the most important are those which are _linear with
constant coefficients_.

_Example 1._ d^2x/dt^2 - 7dx/dt + 12 = 0. To solve this, try x = e^{mt}. We
find e^{mt}(m^2 - 7m + 12) = 0. Thus m = 3 or 4. It is now easy to show
that x = Ae^{3t} + Be^{4t} is a solution, where A and B are arbitrary
constants. This is the general solution. We can determine A and B if the
values of x and dx/dt are given for a definite value of t, say t = 0.

_Example 2._ d^2y/dt^2 = c^2 d^2y/dx^2. Try y = e^{lx + mt}. We find m^2 =
c^2l^2, or m = ±cl. Hence y = Ae^{l(x + ct)} + Be^{l(x - ct)} is a solution
for all values of A, B, l; so, also, is the sum of any number of terms of
similar forms. We may infer that the general solution is

  y = f(x + ct) + F(x - ct),

where f and F are arbitrary functions. It is only in exceptional cases that
an equation can be solved, as in these two examples, by an analytical
formula; indeed, differential equations are the most fertile source of new
functions in analysis. But, as in the analogous cases of algebraic
equations and definite integrals, it may be quite possible to find, by
methods of approximation, an arithmetical solution which is sufficient for
the purpose in hand.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. T. H. Piaggio, _Differential
Equations_; J. M. Page, _Ordinary Differential Equations_; A. R. Forsyth,
_A Treatise on Differential Equations_; E. T. Whittaker and G. N. Watson,
_Modern Analysis_.

DIFFRAC´TION, a term applied to the bending that rays of light undergo in
passing close to the edge of an opaque body. Thus when a beam of direct
sunlight is admitted into a dark room through a narrow slit, and falls upon
a screen placed to receive it, there appears a line of white light bordered
by coloured fringes; these fringes are produced by diffraction, and in the
case given it may be seen that the red or long-wave rays are diffracted
more than the blue rays. See _Interference_.

DIFFU´SION, the gradual mixing of gases, liquids, or solids when brought
into direct contact. When a block of lead is placed on a block of gold,
with their smooth surfaces in close contact, it is found that, after
several weeks, gold has diffused into the lead, and lead into the gold. In
the case of gases, when a jar of oxygen and a jar of hydrogen are connected
together by a tube or opening of any kind, they rapidly become mixed; and
their mixture does not depend on gravity, but takes place in opposition to
that force, as may be shown by placing the jar of hydrogen gas above the
other. Oxygen is sixteen times heavier than hydrogen, bulk for bulk, but
the heavier gas moves upwards and the lighter downwards, and the process of
intermixture, or _diffusion_, goes on till the two gases are apparently
equably distributed throughout the whole space. After that they have no
tendency whatever to separate. Similarly, if two vessels, one containing
oxygen and the other hydrogen, be connected by a tube which is stuffed with
a plug of porous material, such as plaster of Paris, the gases gradually
diffuse one into the other through the porous plug. The two gases, however,
do not pass through the porous separator at equal rates, but in _inverse
proportion to the square roots of the densities of the gases_. Thus in the
case of two vessels, one containing hydrogen and the other oxygen, which is
sixteen times as heavy as hydrogen, the hydrogen will pass towards the
oxygen jar four times as quickly as the oxygen will pass towards the
hydrogen jar. Kindred phenomena occur when two liquids that are capable of
mixing, such as alcohol and water, are put in contact, the two gradually
diffusing one into the other in spite of the action of gravity. In some
cases, however, as where ether and water are employed, the diffusion is
only partial, this result arising from the fact that these two liquids are
not miscible in all proportions. When solutions of various solid bodies are
placed in contact, interdiffusion also takes place. On the results of his
examination of the phenomena of diffusion of liquids and salts across
porous membranes or _septa_, Graham founded a method of separating
_colloid_ from _crystalloid_ bodies, which he called _dialysis_.

DIGAM´MA, a letter which once belonged to the Greek alphabet, and which
remained longest in use among the Æolians. It resembled our letter F, and
hence was called _digamma_, that is, double [Gamma]. It appears to have had
the force of _f_ or _v_. Its existence was first pointed out by Richard
Bentley.

DIGBY, Sir Everard, an English gentleman, born of a Roman Catholic family
in 1578. He enjoyed some consideration at the court of Elizabeth and James
I, by whom he was knighted. Having contributed money to the Guy Fawkes
conspiracy, he was tried and hanged in 1606.

DIGBY, Sir Kenelm, eldest son of the preceding, born in 1603, died in 1665.
He studied at Oxford, was knighted in 1623, and on the accession of Charles
I was created a gentleman of the bedchamber, a Commissioner of the Navy,
and a governor of Trinity House. He soon after fitted out at his own
expense a small but successful squadron against the French and Venetians.
In 1636 he became a Roman Catholic, and was imprisoned as a Royalist during
1642-3, when he was allowed to retire to the Continent. At the Restoration
he returned to England, became a member of the Royal Society, and was much
visited by men of science. He wrote numerous works: a _Treatise on the
Nature of Bodies_, a _Treatise on the Nature and Operation of the Soul_,
and _Of the Cure of Wounds by the Powder of Sympathy_.

DI´GEST, a name originally given to a collection or body of Roman laws,
digested or arranged under proper titles by order of the Emperor Justinian.
Hence applied to any somewhat similar collection.

DIGES´TER, a strong vessel of copper or iron, on which is screwed an
air-tight cover with a safety-valve, the object being to prevent loss of
heat by evaporation, and to enable boiling to take place at a high
pressure. Water may be thus heated to 400°F.; at which temperature its
solvent power is so greatly increased that bones are converted into a
jelly.

DIGES´TION is that process in the animal body by which the aliments are so
acted upon that the nutritive parts are prepared to enter the circulation,
and separated from those which cannot afford nourishment to the body. The
organs effecting this process are called the _digestive_ organs, and
consist of the stomach, the great and small intestines, &c. (see
_Intestine_, _Stomach_), the liver, and pancreas. When the aliments, after
being properly prepared and mixed with saliva by mastication, have reached
the stomach, they are intimately united with a liquid substance called the
_gastric juice_, by the motion of the stomach. By this motion the aliments
are mechanically separated into their smallest parts, penetrated by the
gastric juice, and transformed into a uniform pulpy or fluid mass. The
gastric juice acts upon the albuminous parts of the food, converting them
into peptones, which can pass through organic membranes and thus enter the
blood. This action is aided by the warmth of the stomach. The pulpy mass,
called _chyme_, proceeds from the stomach, through the pylorus, into that
part of the intestinal canal called the small intestine, where it is mixed
with the pancreatic juice, bile, and intestinal juice. The pancreatic juice
converts starch into sugar, albumins into peptones, and emulsionizes fats,
so that all these kinds of food are rendered capable of absorption. The
process is aided by the intestinal juice. The bile also acts upon fats, and
thus the food is formed into the _chyle_, which is absorbed into the system
by the capillary vessels called _lacteals_ (see _Chyle_; _Chyme_), while
the non-nutritious matters pass down the intestinal canal and are carried
off.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Hare, _Food Factor in Disease_; Taylor, _Digestion
and Metabolism_.

DIGIT (dij´it; Lat. _digitus_, a finger), in arithmetic, any one of the ten
numerals, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0. Digit is also a measure of a
finger's breadth, equal to ¾ inch.

DIGIT, in astronomy, is the measure by which we estimate the quantity of an
eclipse. The diameter of the sun or moon's disk is conceived to be divided
into twelve equal parts, called _digits_; and according to the number of
those parts or digits which are obscured, so many digits are said to be
eclipsed.

DIGITALIN (dij-i-t[=a]´lin), a vegetable alkaloid, the active principle of
the _Digit[=a]lis purpur[)e]a_ or foxglove. It has a bitter taste, and is a
strong poison, but is used medicinally, especially for the heart. See next
article.

DIGITA´LIS (dij-), a genus of plants, nat. ord. Scrophulariaceæ, containing
about twenty species of tall herbs, natives of Europe and Western Asia. The
purple foxglove (_D. purpur[)e]a_) is a common wild flower in Britain, and
several species are grown in gardens. Various preparations from the
foxglove receive this name, and are used in medicine, principally in cases
of heart disease.

DIGITIGRA´DA (_digitus_, finger, toe, and _gradi_, to walk), a section of
the Carnivora, so called from their walking on the ends of their toes; as
the dog, cat, and their allies. See _Plantigrade_.

DIGITO´RIUM, a small portable dumb instrument having a short keyboard with
five keys like those of a piano, used by piano-players for practice, to
give strength and flexibility to the fingers.

DIGNE (d[=e]ny), a town, France, capital of the department of Basses-Alpes,
picturesquely situated on a mountain slope, 60 miles north-east of
Marseilles. In 1629 a plague reduced the population from 20,000 to 1500.
Pop. 7317.

DIJON (d[=e]-zh[=o]n; Lat. _Castrum Divonense_), a town in Eastern France,
capital of the department of Côte-d'Or, in a fertile plain, at the foot of
a range of vine-clad slopes, formerly surrounded by ramparts, which now
furnish beautiful promenades. At some distance it is surrounded by a series
of forts. Some of the buildings belong to the period when Dijon was capital
of the dukedom of Burgundy, the chief being the cathedral of St. Bénigne, a
building of vast extent with a lofty wooden spire above 300 feet high; the
churches of Nôtre Dame and St. Michael; the ancient palace of the Dukes of
Burgundy, now used as the hôtel de ville and museum; and the _palais de
justice_, formerly the Parliament House of Burgundy. Dijon is the
birth-place of Bossuet. It has important educational institutions and a
valuable library. Industries: woollens, hosiery, candles, mustard, vinegar,
chemicals, paper-hangings, tanneries, foundries, machine factories, cotton-
and oil-mills. The trade is considerable, particularly in the wines of
Burgundy. Pop. 76,847.

DIKE, or DYKE (connected with the Gr. _teichos_, wall), a word variously
used in different localities to represent a ditch or trench, and also an
embankment, rampart, or wall. It is specially applied to an embankment
raised to oppose the incursions of the sea or of a river, the dikes of
Holland being notable examples of work of this kind. These are often raised
40 feet above the high-water mark, and are wide enough at the top for a
common roadway or canal, sometimes for both. The Helder Dike, one of the
largest, is about 6 miles in length and costly in upkeep. See _Embankment_.

DIKE, or DYKE, in geology, a term applied to intrusive igneous masses, such
as basalt, which fill up veins and fissures in the other rocks, and
sometimes project on the surface like walls through their superior
resistance to weathering.

DILAPIDATION, in English ecclesiastical law, is where an incumbent of a
church living suffers the parsonage-house or outhouses to fall down, or be
in decay for want of necessary repairs; or it is the pulling down or
destroying any of the houses or buildings belonging to a spiritual living,
or destroying of the woods, trees, &c., appertaining to the same. An
outgoing incumbent (or his heirs) is liable for dilapidation to his
successor. In general, the term is applied to the act of allowing or
causing any lands, houses, &c., to become waste or to decay.

DILEM´MA (from Gr. _di-_, double, and _l[=e]mma_, proposition, assumption),
in logic, a form of argument used to prove the falsehood or absurdity of
some assertion, as in the following instance: If he did so he must be
either foolish or wicked; but we know he is neither foolish nor wicked;
therefore he cannot have done so. The two suppositions, which are equally
untenable, are called the 'horns' of the dilemma.

DILETTANTE (di-let-t[.a]n´t[=a]), an Italian expression, signifying a lover
of the arts and sciences, who devotes his leisure to them as a means of
amusement and gratification, being thus nearly equivalent to _amateur_. It
is also used in reference to the trifler and dabbler in art and science. In
1734 a number of gentlemen founded in London a Dilettanti Society, which
published a splendid work on _Ionian Antiquities_, 1769, 1881 (4 vols.);
_Specimens of Ancient Sculpture_, 1809, 1835.

DILKE, Sir Charles Wentworth, English writer and politician, son and
grandson of men well known in their day, was born in 1843, died in 1911. He
graduated at Cambridge, and was called to the Bar. His first work, _Greater
Britain_, the result of a tour round the world from 1866 to 1867, became
very popular. In 1868 he was elected member of Parliament for Chelsea, and
he remained so up to 1885. After a few years' retirement (due to a divorce
case) he became member of Parliament for Forest of Dean. He was
Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs, President of the Local Government
Board, &c. He succeeded his father as owner of the _Athenæum_, and became
the proprietor of _Notes and Queries_. _The Present Position of European
Politics_, and _Problems of Greater Britain_, are among his works.

DILL, an umbelliferous plant, _An[=e]thum grave[)o]lens_, a native of the
southern countries of Europe, the fruits, commonly but erroneously called
seeds, of which are moderately warming, pungent, and aromatic, and are
employed medicinally as a carminative.

DILLENIA´CEÆ, an order of plants, chiefly fine trees, inhabiting the East
Indies, allied to Ranunculaceæ and Magnoliaceæ.

DILLINGEN (dil´ing-en), an old town, Bavaria, on the Danube, formerly the
seat of a Jesuit university. Pop. 6291.

DILLON, John, Irish politician and agitator, born in Dublin in 1851, the
son of John Blake Dillon (1816-66), a leader of the Young Ireland party.
Educated at the Catholic University of Dublin and at the Royal College of
Surgeons, he became a doctor of medicine. He identified himself with the
Parnellite movement, and entered Parliament for Tipperary in 1880. An
ardent Nationalist, not hesitating to incite his compatriots to
lawlessness, he was sent to prison in 1888. Without a seat in Parliament
from 1883 to 1885, he was returned in the latter year for East Mayo, which
he represented thereafter. In 1918, after the death of John Redmond, he was
elected chairman of the Irish Nationalist party, which, however, owing to
the rise of the Sinn Fein party, was a nominal distinction only.

DILMAN´, a town, Persia, province of Azerbijan, 75 miles west of Tabreez.
Pop. estimated at 15,000.

DILO´LO, a small lake in Angola, near the southern boundary of Belgian
Congo, lat. 11° 22' S.; long. 22° 34' E.: regarded as the source of the
Zambesi.

DIL´UENTS (Lat. _diluere_, to wash away), in medicine, are those substances
which are taken to increase the proportion of fluid in the blood. They
consist of water and watery liquors.

DILU´VIUM, the name formerly given by geologists to certain gravels and
comparatively recent deposits, which seemed to have been the result of a
rush of water or deluge.

DIME (Fr. _dîme_, Lat. _decimus_, tenth), the term for the tenth part of a
dollar or ten-cent piece in the United States of America, a silver coin
whose English equivalent is about 5d. Hence the phrases _dime novels_,
_dime museums_, &c.

DIMENSIONS, ALGEBRAICAL. There are three dimensions in space: length,
breadth, and height or depth. An area is said to be of two dimensions
because it has length and breadth only; a volume is of three dimensions. In
algebra terms like x^2, xy are said to be of two dimensions because there
are two letters multiplied together, and their product would measure an
area if each letter denoted a length. Similarly, x^3, xyz are said to be of
three dimensions, and the meaning is extended to cover the product of any
number of letters. An expression of more than one term is said to be of the
same degree as its term of highest dimensions. For example, 3x^2y^2z^2 +
5xyz + 6x^3 + 3x^2y^2 is said to be of the sixth degree because x^2y^2z^2 =
x × x × y × y × z × z is of six dimensions.

DIMENSIONS, PHYSICAL. One of the aims of physical science is to express all
its measurements in terms of the three fundamental units of length, mass,
and time. A velocity, for example, is specified by the number of units of
length traversed in the unit of time, so that we may write v = l ÷ t, or v
= lt^{-1}. On this account velocity is said to have the dimensions LT^{-1}.
Similarly, acceleration, being velocity added per unit time, has the
dimensions of velocity ÷ time, or LT^{-2}; and force, being proportional to
mass and acceleration jointly, has the dimensions MLT^{-2}.

When a physical law is expressed as an equation connecting the numbers of
units of the quantities involved, every term in this equation must be of
the same dimensions in any one of the fundamental units. This is the
_Principle of Dimensions_, first stated by Joseph Fourier, founder of the
theory of the conduction of heat. In order to see its truth, we have only
to observe that an equation containing terms of different dimensions would
give inconsistent results if the unit of length were varied. Suppose it to
be suggested, for example, that the period of vibration t of a simple
pendulum of length l is given by the formula t = 2[pi]l/g, where g denotes
the acceleration of a falling body. The dimensions of the expression on the
right are L ÷ (LT^{-2}), or T^2, whereas the term t on the left has
dimensions T^1. Suppose the unit of length is the foot and the unit of time
the second, so that g = 32, and let l = 3. We find in this case t =
6[pi]/32, so that the period is 3[pi]/16 seconds. But if we change the unit
of time to one minute, g becomes 32 × 60 × 60, and the formula gives t =
6[pi]/(32 × 60 × 60), so that the period is 3[pi]/(16 × 60 × 60) minutes.

The two results are obviously inconsistent. If, however, we take the
correct formula, namely t = 2[pi][sqrt](l/g), we find on trial that we
obtain the same value for the period however we change the unit of time or
the unit of length. Both sides are in this case of dimensions T^1.

The principle of dimensions provides therefore a useful check on the
accuracy of formulæ. But it does much more than this. It often gives very
valuable information about the relations of physical phenomena in cases
where these relations are far too complicated to be completely worked out
by mathematical analysis. To mention but one example, it is by the use of
this principle that modern naval architecture is able to predict the
behaviour of ocean-going ships from experiments in ponds on small-scale
models.

DIMIN´UTIVE, in grammar, a word having a special affix which conveys the
idea of littleness, and all other ideas connected with this, as tenderness,
affection, or contempt. The opposite of _diminutive_ is _augmentative_. In
Latin, diminutives almost always ended in _-lus_, _-la_, or _-lum_; as
_Tulliola, meum corculum_, little Tullia my dear, or little heart;
_homunculus_, a manikin. The Italian is particularly rich in diminutives
and augmentatives, such compound diminutives as _fratellinucciettinetto_ (a
diminutive of _frate_, brother) being sometimes employed. Among English
diminutive affixes are _-kin_, as in _manikin_, a little man; _pipkin_, a
little pipe; _-ling_, as in _gosling_, a little goose; darling, that is,
_dearling_, or little dear; and _-et_, as in _pocket_, from _poke_, a bag
or pouch; _tablet_, a little table. Diminutives are not confined to nouns,
and _dandle_, _scribble_, _tipple_, are examples of diminutive verbs, and
_greenish_, _whitish_, are diminutives of adjectives. Diminutives are also
formed, in colloquial and familiar language, by adding _-y_ or _-ie_ to the
names, as _Charley_, _Mousie_, &c.

DIM´ITY, a stout cotton fabric, ornamented in the loom either by raised
stripes or fancy figures. It is usually employed white, as for bed and
bedroom furniture.

DIMORPH´ISM, in crystallography, the crystallization of a body in forms
belonging to two different systems, or in incompatible forms of the same
system, a peculiarity exhibited by sulphur, carbon, &c.

DIMORPHISM, in botany. See _Heterostyly_.

DINAJPUR´, a town, Hindustan, Bengal, capital of a district of same name,
205 miles north of Calcutta; pop. 12,500.--The district covers an area of
about 4118 sq. miles; pop. 1,687,860.

DINAN (d[=e]-nän), a town, France, department of Côtes-du-Nord (Brittany),
on the Rance, 14 miles south of St. Malo. It was besieged and captured by
the English under the Duke of Lancaster in 1359, but retaken by Du
Guesclin. It stands on a steep hill nearly 200 feet above the river, is
surrounded by high old walls pierced with four gates, and is a picturesque
and interesting old place. In the cathedral of St. Sauveur the heart of
Bertrand du Guesclin is buried. Pop. 11,410.

DINANT (d[=e]-nän), a town, Belgium, in the province and 14 miles S. of
Namur; picturesquely and strongly situated on the Meuse; a place of antique
appearance. The town house was once the palace of the Princes of Liége. The
town was destroyed by the Germans in 1914. It is one of the most popular
Belgian summer resorts. Pop. 7690.

DINA´PUR, a town, Hindustan, Patna district, Bengal, on the right bank of
the Ganges, about 12 miles north-west of Patna, cantonment and military
head-quarters of the district, with extensive barracks. The environs are
studded with handsome bungalows. Pop. 31,025.

DINAR (Lat. _denarius_), formerly an Arab gold coin, also a Persian coin;
at present the chief Serbian coin, value one franc.

DI´NAS BRICKS, an infusible kind of brick made of a peculiar rock,
containing 98 per cent of silica, with a little alumina, which occurs at
Dinas, in the Vale of Neath, in Glamorganshire, S. Wales. The rock is
crushed, moistened with water, and moulded by a machine.

DINDIGUL, a town of India, Madura district, Madras, with a fort on a rocky
height; manufactures cigars. Pop. 21,000.

DINDINGS, THE, properly two small islands, also called PANGKOR ISLANDS, in
the Straits of Malacca, belonging to the Straits Settlements, off the coast
of Perak (British). The name now includes a strip of territory on the Malay
Peninsula opposite; total area about 265 sq. miles, two-thirds of which is
covered by dense forests. Coco-nuts, coffee, and pepper are grown with
success. Lumut, on the mainland, has a fine natural harbour.

DIN´DORF, Karl Wilhelm, German classical scholar, born 1802, lived most of
his life at Leipzig, and died 1883. His chief publications were editions of
the Greek dramatists (_Poetæ Scenici Græci_) and works elucidative of them
and other Greek writers.

[Illustration: _Dinornis maximus_ (the Moa)]

DINGO, the native wild dog of Australia (_Canis Dingo_), of a wolf-like
appearance and extremely fierce. The ears are short and erect, the head
elongated, the tail rather bushy, and the hair of a reddish-dun colour. In
habit the dingo is rather fox-like, usually lying concealed throughout the
day and making predatory expeditions at night. It is very destructive to
sheep, killing more than it eats. It was probably introduced by prehistoric
man.

DING´WALL, a royal and parliamentary burgh and seaport of Scotland, county
town of Ross and Cromarty, situated at the head of Cromarty Firth. This
town, erected into a royal burgh in 1227, unites with Wick and other places
in returning a member to Parliament. Pop. 2590.

DINO´CERAS (Gr. _deinos_, terrible, _keras_, a horn), a fossil mammal found
in the Eocene strata of North America, in some respects akin to the
elephant and of equal size, but without a proboscis. Its bones were very
massive; it had two vertical tusks in the upper jaw, three pairs of horns,
and the smallest brain, proportionally, of any known mammal.

DINOR´NIS (Gr. _deinos_, terrible, _ornis_, a bird), an extinct genus of
large wingless birds--classed with the small existing Apteryx. The bones of
several species have been found in New Zealand. The largest must have stood
12 feet in height, several of its bones being at least twice the size of
those of the ostrich. The body seems to have been even more bulky in
proportion, the tarsus being short and stout in order to sustain its
weight. They do not appear to have become extinct until the seventeenth or
eighteenth century, and are spoken of as _moas_ by the natives, who buried
the eggs (more than 1 foot long) with their dead as provision for their
journey to the other world.

[Illustration: _Diplodocus Carnegii_, a gigantic Dinosaur. Length, 84 feet
9 inches; height at middle of back, 11 feet 5 inches]

DINOSAU´RIA (Gr. _deinos_, terrible, and _sauros_, a lizard), a group of
extinct reptiles, allied in skeletal structure both to the lizards and the
birds. While some were only 3 feet long, a large number attained gigantic
size. Atlantosaurus being 115 feet long. Many were carnivorous, but some of
the large heavy forms were herbivorous, and protected by bony spines or
plates. The Dinosaurs were the dominant land animals of the Jurassic and
Cretaceous periods.

[Illustration: Skull of _Dinotherium giganteum_]

DINOTHE´RIUM (Gr. _deinos_, terrible, _th[=e]rion_, beast), a genus of
extinct gigantic proboscidean mammals, precursors of the elephants, the
remains of which occur in Miocene formations in several parts of Europe.
The type-species (_D. giganteum_) is calculated to have attained the length
of 18 feet. It had a proboscis and also two tusks placed at the anterior
extremity of the lower jaw, and curved downwards somewhat after the manner
of those in the upper jaw of the walrus. The skull is best known from that
found in 1835 at Eppelsheim; but the skeleton can now be pieced together
from remains in various localities. The vertebræ resemble those of
mastodon. Dinotherium may have inhabited rivers or estuaries.

DI´OCESE (Gr. _dioik[=e]sis_, administration), the circuit or extent of a
bishop's jurisdiction. Each English diocese is divided into archdeaconries,
each archdeaconry (nominally) into rural deaneries, and each deanery into
parishes. In the Eastern Churches the term _eparchy_ is used for diocese.
See _Bishop_.

DIOCLE´TIAN (Gaius Valerius Diocletianus, surnamed _Jovius_), a man of mean
birth, a native of Dalmatia, proclaimed Emperor of Rome by the army A.D.
284. He defeated Carinus in Moesia (286), conquered the Allemanni, and was
generally beloved for the goodness of his disposition, but was compelled by
the dangers threatening Rome to share the government with M. Aurelius
Valerius Maximian. In 292 Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were also raised
to a share in the empire, which was thus divided into four parts, of which
Diocletian administered Thrace, Egypt, Syria, and Asia. As the result of
his reconstitution of the empire there followed a period of brilliant
successes in which the barbarians were driven back from all the frontiers,
and Roman power restored from Britain to Egypt. In 305, in conjunction with
Maximian, he resigned the Imperial dignity at Nicomedia, and retired to
Salona, in Dalmatia, where he cultivated his garden in tranquillity until
his death in 313. In the latter part of his reign he was induced to
sanction a persecution of the Christians.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gibbon, _Decline
and Fall_; P. Allard, _La Persécution de Dioclétien_; A. J. Mason, _The
Persecution of Diocletian_.

DIODA´TI, Giovanni, Italian Protestant divine, born at Lucca, about 1576,
of a noble Catholic family. He was for some time professor, first of
Hebrew, then of theology, at Geneva, and in 1619 represented the Genevan
clergy at the Synod of Dort, and aided in drawing up the Belgic confession
of faith. He is most celebrated for a translation of the Bible into Italian
(1607), which is superior to his translation of it into French. He died at
Geneva in 1649.

DIODO´RUS of Agyrium, in Sicily, and therefore called SICULUS; a Greek
historian in the time of Julius Cæsar and Augustus. His universal history,
in the composition of which he travelled through a great part of Europe and
Asia, occupied him thirty years, and consisted of 40 books, but only books
1-5 and 11-20, with certain fragments, are now extant.

DIOECIOUS (Gr. _di_, double, _oikos_, a house), in botany, a term applied
to plants which have flowers with stamens on one individual and those with
pistils on another; as opposed to _monoecious_. The willow, the yew, the
poplar, &c., are dioecious.

DIOGENES LAËRTIUS, author of a sort of history of philosophy in Greek,
appears to have been born at Laerte, in Cilicia, and to have lived towards
the close of the second century after Christ; but no certain information
exists either as to his life, studies, or age. The work is divided into ten
books, and bears in MSS. the title, _On the Lives, Doctrines, and Apothegms
of those who have distinguished themselves in Philosophy_. It is full of
absurd and improbable anecdotes, but contains valuable information
regarding the private life of the Greeks, and many fragments of works now
lost. It was the foundation of the earlier modern histories of philosophy.
A translation of his work by C. D. Yonge was published in Bohn's Classical
Library.

DIOGENES (di-oj´[=e]-n[=e]z) OF APOLLONIA (Crete), known also as the
_Physicist_, a Greek philosopher of the fifth century B.C., who belonged to
the Ionian school, and considered air as the element of all things. He was
a pupil of Anaximenes and a contemporary of Anaxagoras.

DIOGENES OF SINOP[=E] (on the Black Sea), the most famous of the Cynic
philosophers, born about 412 B.C., died about 323 B.C. Having been banished
from his native place with his father, who had been accused of coining
false money, he went to Athens, and thrust himself upon Antisthenes as a
disciple. Like Antisthenes he despised all philosophical speculations, and
opposed the corrupt morals of his time; but while the stern austerity of
Antisthenes was repulsive, Diogenes exposed the follies of his
contemporaries with wit and good humour. As an exemplar of Cynic virtue he
satisfied his appetite with the coarsest food, practised the most rigid
temperance, walked through the streets of Athens barefoot, without any
coat, with a long beard, a stick in his hand, and a wallet on his
shoulders, and by night, according to the popular story, slept in a tub (or
large earthenware vessel). On a voyage to the Island of Ægina he fell into
the hands of pirates, who sold him as a slave to the Corinthian Xeniades.
The latter emancipated him, and entrusted him with the education of his
children. He attended to the duties of his new employment with the greatest
care, commonly living in summer at Corinth and in winter at Athens. It is
at Corinth that he is said to have had his famous interview with Alexander
the Great. The Macedonian conqueror was so struck with the philosopher's
self-possession that he went away remarking: "If I were not Alexander, I
should wish to be Diogenes". Of the many stories related of him the
majority are probably fictions; many, indeed, are chronologically
impossible. Concerned with practical wisdom, Diogenes established no system
of philosophy. To gain virtue, he maintained, man must avoid physical
pleasure, despise the conventions of society, and adopt a simple and
natural life. His enemies accused him of various scandalous offences, but
there is no ground for supposing him guilty of any worse fault than that of
elevating impertinence to the rank of a fine art. See _Cynics_.

DIOMEDES (d[=i]-o-m[=e]´d[=e]z), in Greek mythology, (1) the son of Mars
and Cyrene, and King of the Bist[)o]nes in Thrace, who fed his horses on
human flesh, and used to throw all strangers who entered his territories to
those animals to be devoured. He was killed by Hercules, who carried off
the horses. (2) One of the heroes at the siege of Troy, the son of Tydeus
and Deïpyle, and King of Argos, one of the suitors of Helen. After she was
carried off, Diomedes engaged in the expedition against Troy, in which his
courage and the protection of Pallas rendered him one of the most
distinguished heroes. He wounded Aphrodite and Ares, and thrice assailed
Apollo; and by carrying off the horses of Rhoesus from the enemies' tents,
and aiding Ulysses in the removal of Philoctetes from Lemnos, he fulfilled
two of the conditions on which alone Troy could be conquered. Finally he
was one of the heroes concealed in the wooden horse by which the capture of
Troy was at length accomplished. Different accounts were given of his
after-life. He is often called _Diomede_.

DIONÆ´A, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Droseraceæ. Only one species is
known, _D. muscip[)u]la_ (Venus's fly-trap), a native of the sandy savannas
of Carolina and Florida. It has a rosette of root-leaves, from which rises
a naked scape bearing a corymb of largish white flowers. The leaves have a
dilated petiole and a slightly stalked 2-lobed lamina, with three short
stiff bristles on each lobe. The bristles are remarkably irritable, and
when touched by a fly, or other insect, the lobes of the leaf suddenly
close on and capture the insect. It dissolves the food thus captured by
means of digestive fluid similar to ordinary gastric juice.

DION CASSIUS, or DIO CASSIUS, a Greek historian, born about A.D. 155 at
Nicæa, in Bithynia. After accompanying his father to Cilicia, of which he
held the administration, he came to Rome about 180, and obtained the rank
of a Roman Senator. On the accession of Pertinax Dion was appointed Prætor,
and in the reign of Caracalla he was one of the Senators whom it had become
customary to select to accompany the emperor in his expeditions, of which
he complains bitterly. In 219 he was raised to the consulship, and about
224 became Proconsul of Africa. In 229 he was again appointed Consul; but
feeling his life precarious under Alexander Severus, he obtained permission
to retire to his native town of Nicæa. The period of his death is unknown.
The most important of his writings, though only a small part is extant, is
a _History of Rome_, written in Greek and divided into eighty books, from
the arrival of Æneas in Italy and the foundation of Alba and Rome to A.D.
229.

DION CHRYSOSTOM, a Greek sophist and rhetorician and a favourite of Trajan;
born A.D. 50, died about A.D. 110. Eighty of his orations (in excellent
Attic) have been preserved.

DION OF SYRACUSE, in Greek history, a connection by marriage of the elder
and the younger Dionysius, tyrants of Syracuse, over whom he long exercised
great influence. He attempted to reform the younger Dionysius, but his
enemies succeeded in effecting his banishment. He afterwards returned and
made himself ruler of the city, but became unpopular, and in 353 B.C. one
of his followers, Callipus of Athens, caused him to be assassinated.

DIONYS´IA. See _Bacchanalia_.

DIONYS´IUS, ST., a disciple of Origen, and Patriarch of Alexandria in A.D.
248. He was driven from the city in 250, and in 257 was banished to Libya,
but was restored in 260. He died in A.D. 265.

DIONYSIUS OF HALICARNASSUS, in Caria, a Greek critic and teacher of
eloquence, born about 70 B.C. He went to Rome about 30 B.C., where he wrote
his _Roman Antiquities_, in twenty books, in which he relates (in Greek)
the early history of Rome and its government up to the times of the first
Punic War. We have the first nine books of this work entire, the tenth and
eleventh nearly so, and some fragments of the others. His rhetorical
writings are of greater value, especially his essays on the Greek orators.
He died about 6 B.C.--Cf. Sir J. E. Sandys, _A History of Classical
Scholarship_.

DIONYSIUS THE AREOPAGITE, that is, one of the judges of the Areopagus, at
Athens, a convert to Christianity by the Apostle Paul about the middle of
the first century, and the first Bishop of Athens, where he suffered
martyrdom. Certain writings formerly ascribed to him consist of obscurely
written treatises on mystical subjects. Scotus Erigena translated them into
Latin. In France, where a certain Dionysius (see _Denis, St._) established
the first Christian community at Paris in the third century, they were
readily received, this Dionysius being without further inquiry taken for
the Areopagite, because the origin of the Gallican Church could thus be
carried back to the first century; and France gained a patron who was a
martyr and the immediate disciple of an apostle.--Cf. article in Smith's
_Dictionary of Christian Biography_.

DIONYSIUS THE ELDER, in Greek history, tyrant or absolute ruler of
Syracuse, born about 430 B.C. of obscure parentage. He obtained the rank of
general, and afterwards of commander-in-chief; and, gaining the support of
the army, he seized the supreme power in Syracuse, though only twenty-five
years of age. He extended his rule over other cities in Sicily; and after
some successes and reverses in the struggle with the Carthaginians, he
gained a complete victory over them under the walls of Syracuse. In his
expeditions into Lower Italy he reduced the city of Rhegium by famine
(387). After another short war with Carthage he lived some time in peace,
occupied with writing poems and tragedies, with which he contended for the
Olympian prize. In 368 he commenced a new war against the Carthaginians,
but failed to drive them entirely out of Sicily. He is said to have died
from a potion administered at the instigation of his son Dionysius the
Younger (367 B.C.).

DIONYSIUS THE LITTLE (so called on account of his short stature), a
Scythian monk who was abbot of a monastery at Rome in the beginning of the
sixth century, and died about the year A.D. 530, according to others about
545, celebrated as the first to introduce the computation of time from the
Christian era. This mode of computation, however, was not publicly used
until the eighth century.

DIONYSIUS THE YOUNGER, a tyrant of Syracuse, who succeeded his father,
Dionysius the Elder, in 367 B.C. For the purpose of recalling him from the
excesses to which he was addicted, his kinsman Dion persuaded him to invite
Plato to his court, but the influence of the philosopher effected no
permanent change. Becoming suspicious of Dion, the tyrant banished him and
confiscated his property, but in 357 B.C. Dion made himself master of
Syracuse. Dionysius fled to Locri, but after the murder of Dion recovered
his power in Syracuse. His misfortunes, however, had rendered him more
cruel, and Timoleon, who came to Syracuse with aid from Corinth against the
Carthaginians, deposed him in 344 B.C. He was carried to Corinth, where he
is said to have gained a living by giving lessons in grammar, or as one of
the attendants on the rites of Cybele.

DIONY´SUS, the original Greek name of the god of wine, the name Bacchus, by
which he was also called both by the Greeks and the Romans, being at first
a mere epithet or surname.--Cf. R. Brown, _The Great Dionysiak Myth_.

DIOON, a genus of Cycads, natives of Mexico, where meal is prepared from
the starchy seeds.

DIOPHAN´TUS OF ALEXANDRIA, the first Greek writer on algebra, flourished,
according to some authorities, about the middle of the fourth century after
Christ. He is called the Father of Algebra, and left behind him thirteen
books of _Arithmetical Questions_, of which only six are extant; and a work
on _Polygonal Numbers_.

DIOP´SIDE, a calcium magnesium silicate, of the pyroxene series, occurring
in igneous rocks and altered limestones, with a vitreous lustre, and of a
pale-green, or a greenish- or yellowish-white colour.

DIOP´SIS, a genus of two-winged flies of which the species are native to
India and Africa. Each side of the head is drawn out into a long lateral
horn, which bears the eye and antenna at its extremity.

DI´OPTASE, emerald copper ore, hydrated silicate of copper, a translucent
mineral, occurring crystallized in six-sided prisms. It occurs in Siberia,
Hungary, and Chile. It has been used as a gem-stone, notably in Persia and
Russia.

DIOPTER, the unit in terms of which the power of a lens or curved mirror
can be expressed. It is obtained by taking the reciprocal of the focal
length of the lens or mirror in metres. Thus, a lens with focal length 1
metre has a power of 1 diopter. If the focal length is 2 metres, the power
is ½ diopter. The power may also be obtained by dividing 39.37 by the focal
length in inches. The unit is employed in classifying spectacle lenses.

DI´ORITE, a coarsely crystalline igneous rock, sometimes of a whitish
colour speckled with black or greenish-black, sometimes very dark in
colour, consisting of hornblende and calcium sodium felspar. Dark mica
sometimes takes the place of hornblende (mica-diorite). The 'greenstones'
of older authors are mostly diorites.

DIOSCOREACEÆ, a nat. ord. of monocotyledons, with alternate
reticulate-veined leaves, tuberous root-stocks, and twining stems. The
flowers are small and unisexual. There are 6 genera, with about 100
species. The typical genus is Dioscorea, which includes the yam. Black
bryony is the only British representative.

DIOSCOR´IDES, Pedanius, a Greek physician, born in Cilicia in the first
century of the Christian era. He was the author of a celebrated work on
_materia medica_, in five books, particularly valuable in regard to botany.

DIOSCU´RI. See _Castor and Pollux_.

DIOS´PYROS, a large genus of trees or shrubs, natives of the warmer regions
of the world, nat. ord. Ebenaceæ. The trees of this genus supply ebony
wood. That from Ceylon is the wood of _D. Eb[)e]num_; from India, of _D.
melanoxylon_ and other species; and that from Mauritius, _D. tesselaria_.
The Chinese date-plum (_D. kaki_) is an apple-like tree which produces
large red fruits resembling tomatoes. In China and Japan this tree is as
important as the apple is in Northern Europe.

DIP, of the horizon, the angle of depression of the visible horizon at sea
below the true horizontal direction, due to the height of the eye above the
level of the sea. The dip in minutes of arc is approximately equal to the
square root of the height in feet.--_Dip, magnetic_, or _Inclination_, is
the angle which a magnetic needle free to move in a vertical circle in the
magnetic meridian makes with the horizon. See _Dipping Needle_.

DIP, in geology, the inclination or angle at which strata slope or _dip_
downwards into the earth. The degree of inclination or amount of the dip,
which is easily measured by a _clinometer_, is the steepest angle made with
a horizontal plane by a line drawn in the surface of the stratum. The line
of dip is hence perpendicular to the intersection of the stratum with the
horizontal, which is called the _strike_.

DIP CIRCLE. See _Dipping Needle_.

DIPHTHE´RIA is an acute infectious disease characterized by the formation
of membrane in the throat and air-passages, and associated with severe
disturbances affecting especially the heart and nervous system. It is due
to a bacillus described by Koch in 1883. It is essentially a disease of the
early years of life, and the period between two and twelve years covers the
vast majority of cases. The commonest modes of infection are direct and
indirect contact, infected milk, and defective drains. Of late years, the
domestic cat has been held to be a source of infection. The disease runs a
rapid course, beginning with fever, headache, chilliness, lassitude, and
occasionally vomiting, while usually there is early complaint of sore
throat. The membrane, which appears on the side of the throat, is usually
of a dirty yellowish-white colour. It may be limited to a small area, but
usually, if untreated, it would spread extensively over the throat,
involving the palate and uvula. Diphtheria beginning in the larynx
(windpipe) is what is popularly called croup (q.v.). There is danger of
death in severe cases during the first few days from early heart failure,
and almost any time during convalescence late heart failure may occur. Late
heart failure is one of the forms of post-diphtheritic paralysis which
arise from disturbances of the nervous system. The other common varieties
are paralysis of the palate, of the pharynx, of the eye muscles, and of the
respiratory muscles. An effective treatment is found in diphtheric
antitoxin, which should be administered as early as possible in the
disease. It is given under the skin, and the dose is regulated by the
severity of the attack.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. F. Litchfield, _Diphtheria in
Practice_; W. R. Smith, _Harben Lectures_.

DIPHTHONG (Gr. _di-_, double, and _phthongos_, sound), a coalition or union
of two vowels pronounced in one syllable. In uttering a proper diphthong
both vowels are pronounced; the sound is not simple, but the two sounds are
so blended as to be considered as forming one syllable, as in _void_,
_bough_. The term improper diphthong is applied to the union in one
syllable of two or more vowels of which only one is sounded, as in _bean_.

DI´PHYODONT, a term applied to those animals which develop two sets of
teeth, a deciduous or milk set, and a permanent set--as distinct from the
monophyodonts, which develop only one set. The majority of mammals are
diphyodont, though the number of teeth replaced may vary: thus in man
twenty teeth of the adult are preceded by a milk set.

DIPLACAN´THUS, a genus of ganoid fishes, found only in the Old Red
Sandstone. They have small scales, a heterocercal tail, and two dorsal fins
with a strong spine in front.

DIPLEI´DOSCOPE, an instrument for indicating the passage of the sun or a
star over the meridian, by the coincidence of two images of the object, the
one formed by single and the other by double reflection. It consists of an
equilateral hollow prism, two of whose sides are silvered on the inside so
as to be mirrors, while the third is formed of glass. The prism is adjusted
so that one of the silvered sides shall be exactly in the plane of the
meridian, and the transparent side towards the object.

DIPLOID PHASE, in botany. See _Generations, Alternation of_.

DIPLO´MA (Gr. _dipl[=o]ma_, from _diplo[=o]_, to double or fold), literally
a document folded but once, and therefore divided into two parts. It is
used to signify a document signed and sealed, in which certain rights,
privileges, or dignities are conferred, especially a university degree.

DIPLO´MACY, the science or art of foreign politics. In a more restricted
sense the term denotes the science or art of conducting negotiations and
arranging treaties between states and nations; the branch of knowledge
which deals with the relations of independent states to one another; the
agency or management of envoys accredited to a foreign court; the forms of
international negotiations. The word, borrowed from the French, was first
used in England in 1796 by Burke. The Cardinal de Richelieu is generally
considered as the founder of that regular and uninterrupted intercourse
between Governments which exists at present between almost all the
Christian powers; though the instructions given by Machiavelli to one of
his friends, who was sent by the Florentine Republic to Charles V (Charles
I of Spain) show that Richelieu was not the first to conceive the
advantages that might be derived from the correspondence of an intelligent
agent accredited at the seat of a foreign Government. As a uniform system,
however, with a fixed international status, diplomacy was only established
in the nineteenth century at the Congresses of Vienna (1815) and
Aix-la-Chapelle (1818). Amongst the European powers it is agreed that of
ministers of the same rank he who arrives first shall have the precedence
over his colleagues.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. J. Hill, _History of Diplomacy in
the International Development of Europe_; E. C. Grenville-Murray,
_Embassies and Foreign Courts: a History of Diplomacy_; P. Pradier-Fodéré,
_Cours de droit diplomatique_; L. Oppenheim, _International Law_; D. P.
Heatley, _Diplomacy and the Study of International Relations_.

DIPLOMAT´ICS, originally the science of deciphering ancient MSS. It laid
down certain principles for the systematic examination of public documents,
and taught the forms and styles adopted in them, and the titles and rank of
public officers subscribing them. Among the earliest exponents of
diplomatics were Daniel van Papenbroeck, an Antwerp Jesuit (1675), and
Mabillon (_De Re Diplomatica_, 1681).

DIPLOMATIC SERVICE, THE, as now existing, may be said to have originated in
the Venetian Republic, which employed ambassadors as early as the
thirteenth century. At first these officials had a very brief term of
office, rarely remaining at their post in a foreign country for more than
two or three months. By the middle of the fifteenth century, however, a
permanent Milanese embassy had been established at Genoa, followed by one
at Paris in 1494; while two years later Venice was officially represented
at London. The clergy, who for the most part alone possessed the requisite
accomplishments for such work, were the usual ambassadors of the Middle
Ages; but by the sixteenth century lawyers, or not seldom merchants, were
employed. It was not till two hundred years later that the modern attachés,
junior officials of an embassy, came into being. The diplomatic service of
Great Britain, controlled by the Foreign Office, includes (1) ambassadors,
and (2) envoys and ministers plenipotentiary, both of which ranks represent
the person of their sovereign and enjoy numerous special privileges in the
country to which they are sent. Of lower standing are (3) ministers
resident and (4) chargés d'affaires; the last-named are accredited, not to
a sovereign, but to his foreign minister, and frequently act merely as
temporary substitutes for an ambassador. Secretaries of more than one
grade, with naval, military, and, of late years, commercial attachés, also
form members of an embassy. Candidates for the British diplomatic service
require a nomination from the Foreign Secretary, must be between the ages
of nineteen and twenty-five, are subjected to an examination, and are
almost invariably young men of good birth and position. The service is
distinguished and affords a pleasant, if to some extent an idle life; but
it does not offer any prospect of financial fortune. Lord Stratford de
Redcliffe (the 'Great Elchi') and Lord Lyons rank high among distinguished
British ambassadors. See _Civil Service_.

DIPLOZO´ON, a parasitic trematode worm which infests the gills of the
bream, and which appears to be formed of two distinct bodies united in the
middle, and resembling an [X] or St. Andrew's cross, two sexually mature
individuals being thus united.

DIP´NOI, mud-fishes or lung-fishes, an ancient order now represented by
three genera--Neoceratodus, Protopterus, and Lepidosiren. Like some adult
Amphibia they possess both gills and lungs, the latter corresponding to a
specialized swim-bladder. The heart has two auricles instead of one only,
as in all other fishes. The single species of Neoceratodus (_N. forsteri_)
is a large form with paddle-like fins and large overlapping cycloid scales.
It is native to the Burnett and Mary Rivers of Queensland. Protopterus is
represented by three African species, which inhabit rivers and swamps from
the Senegal to the Zambezi. It is smaller than Neoceratodus, somewhat
eel-shaped, with very narrow fins, and small cycloid scales embedded in the
skin. It spends the summer in a torpid condition, buried in the mud, and is
dug up by the natives as an article of food. Lepidosiren includes a single
South American species (_L. paradoxa_) ranging from the Amazon to Paraguay.
It is closely related to Protopterus, which it resembles in shape and the
character of the fins.

DIPPEL, Johann Conrad, German theologian and alchemist, born 1672, died
1734. He studied theology, defended the orthodox party against the
Pietists, led a turbulent life at Strasbourg, and then joined the Pietists
until an unfortunate tractate placed him in disfavour with both parties. He
then turned his attention to alchemy, and during a residence at Berlin
produced the oil called after him, from which indirectly followed the
discovery of Prussian or Berlin blue. After various adventures and
wanderings in Sweden, Denmark, and Germany, he died at Berleburg.

DIPPEL'S OIL, a pharmaceutical preparation obtained by the destructive
distillation of animal matter, such as horn, ivory, blood. The crude form
was refined by Dippel, and at one time was a good deal used in medicine as
a diaphoretic and hypnotic. It is a form of bone oil, a product obtained in
the manufacture of bone-black, or animal charcoal, by the distillation of
bones. Crude bone oil has a most offensive smell. It contains the carbonate
and other salts of ammonium, and a large variety of organic substances.

[Illustration: Dipper (_Cinclus aquaticus_)]

DIPPER, a bird of the genus Cinclus, allied to the wrens. The common
dipper, water-ouzel, or water-crow (_Cinclus aquaticus_), is a familiar
European bird; it is about 7 inches in length, with a very short tail,
small rounded wings, and large powerful feet; the bill is of moderate
length, straight, and slender. The male has the upper part of the body dark
brown, the throat and breast white, belly rusty. The dipper frequents
streams, and feeds largely on water-insects and larvæ. It can dive and walk
under water, effecting its progress by grasping the stones with its feet.
The song is sweet and lively. Other species are found in North Asia,
America, and North Africa.

DIPPING-NEEDLE, or INCLINATION COMPASS, an instrument for showing the
direction of the earth's magnetic force. In essentials the instrument
consists of a light magnetized steel bar supported on a horizontal axis
which passes, as nearly as possible, through the centre of inertia of the
bar. When a needle thus mounted is placed anywhere not in the magnetic
equator, it dips or points downward; and if the vertical plane, in which it
moves, coincides with the magnetic meridian the position of the needle
shows at once the direction of the magnetic force. The angle between the
magnetic axis of the dipping-needle and the horizontal is called the dip or
inclination. This varies from 90° at the magnetic poles to 0° at the
magnetic equator. The dip is 70° at Glasgow, and varies slowly with the
passage of time. In the northern hemisphere, the north-seeking pole of the
dipping-needle dips downwards, the reverse being the case south of the
magnetic equator.

DIPRO´TODON, a gigantic fossil marsupial from Pleistocene beds in
Australia, allied to the kangaroos. The skull is 3 feet long.

DIPSAS, a genus of tree-snakes of which the species are native to tropical
South America. Some of the hinder teeth in the upper jaw are grooved for
the conduction of poison, but this is not sufficiently deadly to be
dangerous to human beings. The related genus Dipsadomorphus includes a
number of Indian species.

DIPSOMA´NIA (Gr. _dipsa_, thirst, and _mania_, madness), a term used to
denote an insane craving for intoxicating liquors, when occurring in a
confirmed or habitual form. It is a form of acute alcoholism seen in
persons with a strong hereditary tendency to drink. The only remedy appears
to be seclusion, with enforced abstinence and healthy occupation. Homes for
this purpose have been established in Britain under the Habitual Drunkards
Act of 1879 and Inebriates Act of 1888. There are corresponding
institutions in the United States.

[Illustration: Diptera--Diagram of a two-winged insect--a Daddy-long-legs.
Appendages of left side omitted]

DIP´TERA, two-winged flies, an order of insects embracing a vast number of
species, of which about 40,000 have been named. The two transparent wings
correspond to the fore-wings of other insects, the hind-wings being often
represented by small club-shaped structures (halteres or balancers). See
diagram, p. 42. There are two large compound eyes, and the mouth-parts are
often modified for piercing and sucking. There is a well-marked
metamorphosis, the larvæ being usually limbless maggots. The Diptera
include many agricultural and horticultural pests, and a number are
notorious as disease carriers. See _Blow-fly_; _Bot-fly_; _Crane-fly_;
_Gnat_; _House-fly_; _Hover-fly_; _Midge_; _Mosquito_; _Tsetse-fly_.

DIPTERIS, a genus of Leptosporangiate ferns, section Mixtæ, formerly
included in Polypodium, but now recognized as the sole living genus of the
Dipteridineæ, a family which was largely developed in Mesozoic times. They
are Indo-Malayan ferns with creeping rhizomes and long-stalked, fan-shaped,
forked, leathery fronds.

DIPTEROCARPACEÆ, an important order of Asiatic dicotyledonous trees, allied
to the mallows (Malvaceæ). The different species produce a number of
resinous, oily, and other substances; one, a sort of camphor; another, a
fragrant resin used in temples; and others, varnishes; while some of the
commonest produce pitches, and sal (_Shorea robusta_) yields valuable
timber.

DIPTYCH (dip´tik), in Greek originally signified the same as _diploma_,
something folded; the double tablets of metal, ivory, &c., used by the
Greeks and Romans. Diptychs became important in the Christian Church, in
them being written the names of Popes, and other distinguished persons, who
had deserved well of the Church, to be mentioned in the church prayers.
Diptychs also often contained pictures of biblical scenes.--Cf. Sir W.
Smith, _A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_.

DIPYRE (d[=i]´p[=i]r), or MIZZONITE, a mineral--aluminium calcium sodium
silicate--of the scapolite series. Its name indicates the double effect of
fire upon it (Gr. _di_, double, _pyr_, fire) in producing first
phosphorescence, and then fusion.

DIRÆ, one of the names under which the Eumenides were known to the Romans.
See _Furies_.

DIRECTORS, persons elected to meet together at short fixed intervals and
consult about the affairs of corporations or joint-stock companies, and to
advise and assist the manager. These are termed _Ordinary Directors_, as in
many companies there is a body called _Extraordinary Directors_, who have
little or no business functions, and are chosen as a rule on account of
their social position imparting a degree of distinction to the concern.
Directors are appointed by a general meeting of the shareholders in the
undertaking, and a certain number of them, usually a third, retire every
year. Ordinary directors are granted a certain remuneration for their
services. The duties and responsibilities of directors are defined by the
constitution of the company, or by the various Acts of Parliament affecting
joint-stock and other companies.

DIREC´TORY, the name given to a body of five officers to whom the executive
authority in France was committed by the Constitution of the year III
(1795). The two legislative bodies, called the _councils_, elected the
members of the Directory: one member was obliged to retire yearly, and his
place was supplied by election. This body was invested with the authority
which, by the Constitution of 1791, had been granted to the king. By the
Revolution of the 18th Brumaire the Directory and the Constitution of the
year III were abolished. It was succeeded by the Consulate, with Napoleon
as First Consul.

[Illustration: Directrix of a Parabola]

DIREC´TRIX, a fixed line that is required for the description of a curve.
The term is chiefly used in connection with the parabola, ellipse, and
hyperbola, which are the loci of points that move so that their distances
from a fixed point (the focus) are in a constant ratio to their distances
from the directrix. The directrix of a parabola is a line perpendicular to
the axis produced, and at a distance from the vertex equal to the distance
of the vertex from the focus. Thus AB is the directrix of the parabola VED,
of which F is the focus.

DIRK, a kind of dagger formerly used as a weapon of offence by the
Highlanders of Scotland. Dirks are worn by midshipmen and cadets of the
Royal Navy, and still form part of the full Highland costume.

DIRK-HARTOG ISLAND, on the west coast of Australia, 45 miles long, north to
south, and 10 miles broad.

DIRT-BEDS, in geology, layers of ancient soil, such as those in the Oolitic
strata of the Isle of Purbeck (Dorset), which contain the stumps of trees
that once grew in them.

DISABILITY, in law, incapacity to do any legal act. It is either
_absolute_, which wholly disables the person, such as outlawry or
excommunication--or _partial_, such as infancy, coverture, insanity, or
drunkenness.

DISBARRING, or DISBARMENTS, expelling a barrister from the Bar, a
prerogative which, in England, is possessed by the benchers of each of the
four Inns of Court. The party disbarred may lodge an appeal with the judges
in their capacity of visitors.

DISC, or DISK, the central part of the capitulum of compositæ, surrounded
by the ray. Also a part of a flower, sometimes cup-shaped, at the base of
the stamens, consisting in some cases of rudimentary stamens, in others of
the modified receptacle.--In astronomy the term is applied to the visible
face or figure exhibited by the sun, moon, or a planet. In the case of the
moon and certain planets it may be of gibbous, semicircular, or crescent
form.

[Illustration: Discharging Arch]

DISCHARGING ARCH, an arch formed in the substance of a wall to relieve the
part which is below it from the superincumbent weight. Such arches are
commonly used over lintels and flat-headed openings.

DISCIPLINE, BOOKS OF, two books connected with the Church of Scotland. The
_First Book of Discipline_ was drawn up by John Knox and four other
ministers, and laid before the General Assembly in 1560. Though not
formally ratified by the Privy Council, it was secretly subscribed by the
greater part of the nobility and barons who were members of the Council.
Another similar document, the _Second Book of Discipline_, was prepared and
sanctioned by the General Assembly of 1578, and has from that time been
recognized as the authorized standard of the Church of Scotland in respect
of government and discipline.

DISCLAIM´ER, in its stricter legal sense, a plea containing renunciation or
a denial of some claim alleged to have been made by the party pleading.

DISCOMYCETES, a large section of the ascomycetous Fungi, distinguished by
the fact that the hymenium covers the surface of an open, disc-like or
cup-shaped fruit-body called an _apothecium_. It includes many important
genera, such as Dasyscypha, Peziza, and Sclerotinia.

DISCOPHO´RA, (1) a sub-class of the Hydrozoa, comprising most of the
organisms known as sea-jellies, jelly-fishes, and sea-nettles; (2) leeches
(q.v.).

DIS´COUNT, the charge made by a banker for interest of money advanced by
him on a bill or other document not presently due. In advancing money on
such a security the banker deducts the charge for interest on his advance
from the total amount represented on the security, pays the difference,
which is called the _proceeds_ of the bill, to the person parting with it,
and collects the full amount to reimburse himself for outlay and interest
at maturity. Popularly the term _discount_ is applied to any deduction from
the full amount of an account made by the party to whom it is paid,
especially on prompt or early payment. When a bill which has been
_discounted_ is paid by the acceptor before it is due, the discount allowed
for prepayment is called _rebate_.

DISCOV´ERY, in law, the act of revealing or making known any matter by a
defendant in his answer to a bill in chancery. The word is also used in
reference to the disclosure by a bankrupt of his property for the benefit
of his creditors, and to the right of a party to a lawsuit to obtain from
his adversary, on oath, full disclosure of the facts within his knowledge,
and production of the documents in his possession, pertinent to the action.

DISCUS, DISC, or DISK, among the Greeks and Romans a quoit of stone or
metal, convex on both its sides, sometimes perforated in the middle. The
players aimed at no mark, but simply tried to throw the quoit to the
greatest possible distance. It was sometimes furnished with a thong of
leather to assist in the throwing. The thrower of the discus was called
_discobolus_.

DISEASE, any morbid state of the body, or of any organ or part of the body.
Diseases are described as local or constitutional, epidemic, endemic,
contagious, acute, and chronic. As to their classification, see _Nosology_.
The influence of the parents on the organization of the child is so great
that not only peculiarities of external form, but the peculiar
constitution, the greater or less activity and development of the organs,
are found to pass from parent to child. As it is in the particular state of
the several tissues and functions that certain diseases have their
foundation, the liability to such affections is inherited with the organic
structure, and children are not infrequently attacked by ailments from
which one of their parents or grand-parents had previously suffered. In
spite of the emphasis that has recently been put on the facts of heredity,
the present tendency of preventive medicine holds out a larger hope by
impressing upon us the fact that in such affections, for example, as
tuberculosis and insanity, the individual's environment and personal
history are perhaps more potent than hereditary influence in the causation
or the prevention of disease.

DISEASES OF PLANTS. See _Plant Pathology_.

DISESTABLISHMENT, the severance of connection between Church and State,
with the resultant emancipation of the Church from civil control, is a
movement in which there has been considerable growth during the last
half-century. The Church of the West Indies was disestablished in 1868, and
all Colonial Churches, with the exception of the Church in India, are now
free from State authority. In 1869 an Act, taking effect two years later,
was passed for the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland, in which
country the mass of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics. In France all
recognition of Roman Catholicism as the State religion ceased in 1905, the
French Government now tolerating all religions. In 1914 was passed a Bill
for disestablishing the Church in Wales, though its effect was, owing to
the war, deferred till 1920 by the Suspensory Bill. The Church of Scotland
has been practically free from State control since 1874, in which year
patronage was abolished; and the presence of the Lord High Commissioner,
who represents the sovereign at the opening of the General Assembly, and
the precedence enjoyed by the Moderator during his term of office, are
little more than decorative courtesies. Among a section of the English
public there has been from time to time an agitation for the
disestablishment of the Church of England; and the movement is even said to
be viewed with favour by some advanced High Churchmen, who believe that it
would result in increased freedom for the adoption of their special views;
but, though a Disestablishment Society exists, there seems no immediate
prospect of a decisive step in this direction.

DISHONOUR OF A BILL, the refusal or neglect to accept or pay when due a
bill of exchange, or promissory note, or draft on a banker. It is
absolutely necessary that the holder of a dishonoured bill should give
immediate notice of the non-payment to the drawer or endorsers.

DISINFECTION, the means employed for killing the germs of infectious or
contagious disease by physical or chemical agencies. The former are the
more important, and consist in applying water or steam at the
boiling-point, or hot air at 160°C. Ten minutes' boiling, or half an hour
in hot air, kills all ordinary disease germs, but a longer exposure is
necessary to kill germs (especially those of putrefaction), which form
spores (see _Bacteria_). The most important chemical agents are chlorine,
iodine, carbolic acid, bleaching powder, Condy's red fluid (containing
permanganate of potash), perchloride of mercury, formalin, and flavine.
Carbolic acid is one of the most effective, needing, however, care in the
handling, as it is very poisonous and in strong solution causes severe
burns. It does not in its common form mix with water, but solutions can be
made by using hot water. A greater dilution than 1 part in 40 of water is
useless as a disinfectant. For application to the skin, tincture of iodine
is one of the readiest preparations. In cases of infectious disease the
most important points are the immediate disinfection of all the excretions
of the patient. Expectoration should be received into a sputum-cup
containing 1-20 carbolic acid, and all handkerchiefs when soiled should be
similarly treated. The personal linen and sheets of the patient should be
placed in carbolic acid (1-40) in a slop-pail, and should be boiled before
being sent to the laundry. All plates, spoons, &c., used for the patient's
food, should be boiled or scalded immediately after use. The excretions of
the bowels or kidneys should be treated with bleaching powder. Those in
attendance should wear an overall when in the sickroom, and should wash the
hands and face before coming into contact with anyone outside. They should
wash out the mouth frequently with Condy as strong as can be tolerated.
Their linen should be treated in the same way as that of the patient. At
the close of the illness all bedding should be baked in the hot-air oven
which most local authorities now provide for the purpose. Everything
washable in the sickroom should be washed with soft soap, and it is better
that the room should be repapered.

DISIN´TEGRATOR, a machine for pulverizing and sometimes for mixing various
materials, such as rock, asphalt, ore, artificial manures, sugars, corn,
and the ingredients of mortar.

DISLOCA´TION, a surgical term applied to cases in which the articulating
surfaces of the bones have been forced out of their proper places. The
particular dislocation takes its name either from the joint itself or its
farthest bone, and is called _compound_ when accompanied by an external
wound. The most common dislocations are those of the hip, shoulder, elbow,
knee, and ankle, and the chief obstacle to their reduction is the spasmodic
and violent contraction of the muscles consequent upon them, the
application of considerable force being often necessary to set the joint.
Chloroform is of great use, not only in preventing pain but in relaxing the
muscles. The most dangerous dislocations are those of the bones of the
spine.--In geology it signifies the displacement of parts of rocks or
portions of strata from the situations they originally occupied.

DISMAL SWAMP, a large tract of marshy land in America, beginning a little
south of Norfolk, in Virginia, and extending into North Carolina,
containing 150,000 acres; 30 miles long, from north to south, and 10 miles
broad. This tract was entirely covered with trees, with almost impervious
brushwood between them, but it has now in part been cleared and drained. In
the midst of the swamp is a lake, called _Drummond's Pond_, 7 miles in
length. A navigable canal through the swamp connects Chesapeake Bay and
Albemarle Sound.

DISPENSA´TION is the act by which an exception is made to the rigour of the
law in favour of some person. The Pope may release from all oaths or vows,
and may sanction a marriage within the prohibited degrees of the Mosaic
law, or exempt from obedience to the disciplinary enactments of the canon
law. In England the monarch claimed, in former times, a similar dispensing
power in civil law, but the prerogative was so much abused by James II that
it was abolished by the Bill of Rights. The power of commuting sentences in
capital cases is the only form in which the dispensing power of the Crown
still exists. In ecclesiastical matters a bishop may grant a dispensation
allowing a clergyman to hold more than one benefice, or to absent himself
from his parish.--Cf. F. W. Maitland, _Constitutional History of England_.

[Illustration: Winged Fruit

1, Ash. 2, Sycamore. 3, Hornbeam.]

[Illustration: Parachute Fruits

1, Ripe fruit of willow-herb, dehiscing. 2, Single fruit of clematis. 3,
Single fruit of dandelion.]

[Illustration: Hooked Seeds

1, Geum and single fruit. 2, Burdock.]

DISPERSAL OF SEEDS AND FRUITS serves (_a_) to scatter these reproductive
structures and so reduce internecine competition; (_b_) to bring the seeds
into new surroundings, which may be more favourable than those of the
parent plant. The chief agents of dispersal are wind and animals. Very
minute seeds, like those of orchids, are carried away by the gentlest
air-currents. Larger wind-borne seeds are _winged_, as in the pine, most
Bignoniaceæ, &c.; or provided with a tuft of hairs acting as a _parachute_,
as in willow, willow-herb, cotton, &c. Winged _fruits_ are exemplified by
ash, elm, sycamore, many docks, &c.; parachute _fruits_ by Compositæ,
Clematis, cotton-grass, &c. In the case of animal dispersal, the whole
fruit is usually involved, being either _edible_, with hard indigestible
seeds which are cast up or voided with excreta (fleshy fruits), or _hooked_
so as to adhere to fur or wool, as in bidens, cleavers, enchanters'
nightshade, and other 'burs'. A small number of fruits and seeds, such as
the coco-nut and the seeds of water-lilies, are adapted for water
transport. In certain cases seeds are scattered for short distances by an
'explosive' mechanism, as in wood-sorrel, impatiens, sand-box tree,
squirting cucumber, and other 'sling' fruits.

[Illustration: Explosive or Sling Fruits

1, _Ecbalium Elaterium_, flowers and fruit, one fruit detached from its
stalk and with its seeds squirting out. 2, _Oxalis Acetosella_, entire
plant, with one unripe fruit on a hooked stalk, and one ripe fruit on an
erect stalk ejecting its seeds. 3, Ripe fruit of _Oxalis Acetosella_
ejecting the seeds (enlarged).]

DISPERSION, in optics, the angular separation of light rays of different
colour, that is, of different wave-length. Dispersion may be caused either
by refraction or by diffraction. When a beam of composite light passes
obliquely from air into a second transparent medium, each constituent of
the light is bent or refracted through a different angle from the original
direction of the beam, with the result that the different colours are
separated fanwise, or dispersed at the surface of the second medium. In the
refraction spectrum of white light, when caused by passage through a glass
prism, the red rays are least deviated and the violet rays most deviated,
if we consider only the visible spectrum. The difference of the angles of
deviation for two selected rays measures their dispersion, and if this
angle is divided by the deviation of the mean ray, we obtain the dispersive
power of the prism. Transparent media vary in their dispersive powers; for
example, carbon disulphide has more than three times the dispersive power
of crown glass. The true nature of dispersion was first demonstrated by
Newton, who concluded that the colours of the spectrum were homogeneous and
caused by simple vibrations of definite wave-length, the different colours
being unequally refrangible. Newton was, however, led to the erroneous view
that the dispersion was proportional to the refraction. This was later
disproved by the construction of achromatic lenses, or lenses which caused
deviation without dispersion, and of direct-vision spectroscopes, or
instruments which caused dispersion with no deviation of the central part
of the spectrum. The dispersive power is not the same for all parts of a
refraction spectrum; besides, the same colours do not occupy the same
positions in spectra formed by prisms of different material. This arises
from the fact that there is no simple relation between the deviation of a
ray and its wave-length; consequently, such spectra are called irrational,
and the property is known as the irrationality of dispersion. In the
diffraction spectrum, the order of the colours is reversed, red undergoing
the greatest deviation; also, the deviation for a given colour is nearly
proportional to the wave-length. The diffraction spectrum is therefore
termed a normal spectrum.

All substances do not give the same order of colours in their spectra;
certain exceptions are known in which the usual order of the colours is
changed. Christiansen showed that an alcoholic solution of fuchsine gave a
spectrum containing only violet, red, and yellow; the violet is least
refracted, and the yellow most, and a dark band lies between the violet and
the red. This has been called anomalous dispersion, and similar effects
have been observed in iodine and sodium vapours, and in solutions of
colours derived from aniline which exhibit surface colour.

The theory of dispersion now generally accepted is that of Sellmeier, which
was published in 1871. Sellmeier assumed that when light waves pass through
a material substance, they set the particles of the substance in vibration,
and these resonant vibrations react in such a way as to modify the velocity
with which the waves are transmitted. Applying the dynamical principles of
wave motion to the case of an elastic solid in which heavy particles are
embedded, Sellmeier obtained an equation which connected the refractive
index of the substance with the wave-length of the incident light.
Equations of similar form were subsequently derived by Ketteler and
Helmholtz. The consideration of Sellmeier's equation leads to important
conclusions. If the period of vibration of the incident waves is very
short, as compared with those of the particles forming the solid, no
refraction will take place, and the rays will travel through the solid
without deviation and without change of velocity. This is verified in the
case of X-rays, which consist of extremely short waves and which are not
deviated on passing through light-opaque solids. Sellmeier's equation may
also be modified to apply to the case of anomalous dispersion. The
phenomenon is always associated with absorption of light of a particular
wave-length or range of wave-lengths, and the conclusion is drawn that the
medium will possess an abnormally high refractive index for waves slightly
longer than those which it absorbs, and an abnormally low index for waves
slightly shorter than those which it absorbs. This result has been verified
by various investigators. Rubens has determined the values of the constants
in Sellmeier's equation for rock-salt, sylvine, fluorspar, and quartz, and
has shown that the equation gives correct values for the refractive indices
of these substances over the entire range of wave-lengths to which they are
transparent.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Preston, _Theory of Light_; E. Edser, _Light
for Students_; P. Drude, _Theory of Optics_.

DISPLACEMENT. The position of a point in space is fixed by means of its
distances x, y, z, from three mutually rectangular planes. If the point
moves to another position, it is said to be displaced, and the rates of
displacement parallel to these planes measure the velocities dx/dy, dy/dt,
dz/dt parallel to these planes. If the acting forces be resolved in
directions parallel to these planes, relations may be found between the
forces, the accelerations parallel to the planes and the mass of the body.
These relations are called the equations of motion. In hydrostatics a body
immersed in a liquid displaces a certain volume of the liquid, and the
upthrust of the liquid in the body is, by the principle of Archimedes,
equal to the weight of liquid displaced. It follows that, in the case of a
floating ship, the weight of the ship is equal to the weight of water
displaced. This weight is called the displacement of the ship, and is
measured in tons.

DISPOSITION, in Scots law, is, in its general acceptation, a deed by which
a person provides for the general disposal of his property heritable and
movable, after his death, equivalent to a will or testament; also a
conveyance of property.

DISRAELI, Benjamin. See _Beaconsfield_.

D'ISRAELI (diz-r[=a]´e-li), Isaac, man of letters, and father of the
well-known statesman, was born at Enfield, Middlesex, in 1766, died in
1848. His father, Benjamin D'Israeli, a descendant of a family of Spanish
Jews which had settled at Venice in the fifteenth century to escape the
Inquisition, came over to England in 1748 and made a large fortune. Isaac
D'Israeli, however, showed a strong repugnance to commerce, and was finally
permitted to follow his literary bent. An anonymous reply to Peter Pindar,
entitled _On the Abuse of Satire_, was followed during 1791 to 1793 by the
appearance of his _Curiosities of Literature_, the success of which
determined much of his afterwork. His _Essay on the Literary Character_ was
published in 1795, and some time afterwards a volume of romantic tales,
_The Loves of Mejnoun and Leila_. Between 1812 and 1822 appeared his
_Calamities of Authors_, _Quarrels of Authors_, and _Inquiry into the
Literary and Political Character of James I_; the three being afterwards
published collectively under the title of _Miscellanies of Literature_. In
1828 appeared the commencement of his _Life and Reign of Charles I_, a work
completed in 1831. An affection of the eyes put an end to a projected _Life
of Pope_ and a _History of English Freethinkers_, but in 1841 he published
a selection from his MSS. under the title of _Amenities of Literature_. The
greater part of his life was passed in his library. For his son, see
_Beaconsfield_.

DISRUP´TION, the name commonly applied in Scotland to the act by which, in
1843, 474 ministers and professors of the Established Church gave up their
livings to vindicate principles which they held to be essential to the
purity of the Church, and in harmony with its earlier history. See _Free
Church_.

DISS, a town, England, Norfolk, on the slope of a hill 18 miles south by
west of Norwich. It was formerly noted for the manufacture of 'Suffolk
hempen cloth', worsted yarn, and knit hosiery. Pop. 3763.

DISSECTION, a word, derived from Latin, that is etymologically equivalent
to the word _anatomy_, derived from Greek. Its literal meaning is 'cutting
up', and it is used to define the technical procedures for acquiring a
practical knowledge of the anatomy or structure of the body. Dissection of
the human body is an essential part of the education of a medical
practitioner, for it is the only means whereby he can acquire a thorough
and practical familiarity with the geography of the territories in which
all his professional activities lie. Therefore the medical student is
required thoroughly to explore every part of the human body, to examine all
its constituent parts, to learn to recognize their properties, positions,
and relationships, and to train his eyes and fingers to appreciate their
distinctive qualities. This process of exploration usually occupies about
eighteen months or more of the student's time; but it represents the
foundation upon which all his professional knowledge and experience are
built up. For this purpose it is of the utmost importance that he be
provided with ample facilities for acquiring the training which is
essential to the medical practitioner. But the supply of subjects for
dissection is difficult to acquire. Until a century ago teachers in medical
schools, being unable to get an adequate supply of bodies for dissection by
legal means, were forced to deal with 'body snatchers' who plundered
cemeteries. Eventually the terrible scandals associated with the names of
Burke and Hare forced the Government to pass an Anatomy Act to make better
provision for this necessary part of medical education. Within recent years
the action of Boards of Guardians has so hampered the administration of the
Act that teachers in medical schools are threatened with the same dilemma
as their colleagues a century ago had to face. The Guardians of the Poor in
some localities prefer to bury the unclaimed bodies of the dead at the
ratepayers' expense rather than allow them to be used for the necessary
instruction of surgeons and physicians. Offers are repeatedly made by men
and women, often well-known and distinguished people like the late Miss
Florence Nightingale, to place their bodies at the service of medical
education; but in accordance with the law of the land such bequests are
invalid, because once a person is dead the corpse is not his property but
belongs to his relatives. Hence it is only the unclaimed bodies that are
legally available for dissection.

DISSEI´ZIN, or DISSEISIN, in law, is the dispossessing one of a freehold
estate, or interrupting his _seisin_. Of freeholds only can a seizin be
had, or a disseizin done. Whether an entry upon lands is or is not a
disseizin, will depend partly upon the circumstances of the entry, and
partly upon the intention of the party as made known by his words or acts.

DISSENT´ERS, the common name by which in Britain all Christian
denominations, excepting those of the Established Churches, are usually
designated, though in Acts of Parliament it generally includes only
Protestant dissenters, Roman Catholics being referred to under their
specific name. The most important bodies of English dissenters are the
different bodies of Methodists, the Congregationalists, and the Baptists;
and of Scottish dissenters, the United Free Church and the Free Church. The
Nonconformists were dissenters from the English Church, and the name is
sometimes used as meaning simply dissenters, though it has properly a wider
meaning.

DISSENTIS´, a Swiss town, canton of Grisons, 3800 feet above the sea, at
the junction of the Middle and Vorder Rhine, with a Benedictine abbey
established so long ago as A.D. 614. Pop. 1420.

DISSOCIATION. Certain substances tend to break down into simpler substances
with change of temperature; thus ammonium chloride on heating gives a
mixture of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and ammonia (NH_3), and on cooling these
substances recombine to give ammonium chloride (NH_4Cl) again. Dissociation
is therefore a particular case of decomposition, where the products of
decomposition recombine on obtaining the original conditions.

DIS´SONANCE, in music, that effect which, results from the union of two
sounds not in accord with each other. The ancients considered thirds and
sixths as dissonances; and, in fact, every chord except the perfect concord
is a dissonant chord. The old theories include an infinity of dissonances,
but the present received system reduces them to a comparatively small
number. The most common are those of the tonic against the second, the
fifth against the sixth, or (the most frequent of all) the fourth against
the fifth.

[Illustration: A, Distaff. It is shown held by the waist-belt of the
spinner. The spindle is revolving and twisting the wool.]

DIS´TAFF, the first instrument employed in spinning. It consisted of a
staff, on one end of which the wool or flax was rolled. The spinner held it
in the left hand, and drew out the fibres with the right, at the same time
twisting them. A small piece of wood called a spindle was attached to the
thread, the weight of which carried it down as it was formed. When the
spindle reached the ground, the thread which had been spun was wound round
it, and it was then again fastened near the beginning of the new thread. In
ancient and modern art the Fates are usually represented with the distaff,
engaged in spinning the thread of life.

DISTEMP´ER, a disease of the dog commonly considered as of a catarrhal
nature. In most cases a running from the nose and eyes is one of the first
and chief symptoms, the defluxion becoming after some time mucous and
purulent. The animal is subject to violent fits of coughing combined with
vomiting, loses its appetite, its flesh begins to waste, and if the disease
be virulent, symptoms of affection of the brain manifest themselves,
accompanied by fits, paralysis, or convulsive twitchings. In the first
stage of the disease laxatives, emetics, and occasional bleeding are the
principal remedies; diarrhoea should be checked by astringents, and to
reduce the violence of the fits warm bathing and antispasmodics should be
resorted to. The distemper is generally contagious, and occurs but once in
a lifetime.

DISTEMPER (It. _tempera_), in painting, a preparation of colour mixed with
size, yolk of egg or white of egg. Prepared with size, it is used chiefly
in scene painting and household decorations, but in other forms it is much
used for easel and mural paintings. Before the introduction of oil as a
medium in the fifteenth century, fresco and distemper were the principal
methods of painting. Distemper is usually but not necessarily applied to a
dry ground, fresco always to a wet.

DISTICH (dis´tik), a couplet of verses, especially one consisting of a
Latin or Greek hexameter and pentameter, making complete sense. Distichs
have been frequently made use of by the modern German poets.

[Illustration: Distillation of Alcohol

A, Emptying pipe. B, Wash inlet. C, Vacuum safety valve. D, Worm. E,
Cooling water inlet.]

DISTILLATION, the volatilization and subsequent condensation of a liquid in
an apparatus known as a _still_ and heated by a fire or flame. The
operation is performed by heating the crude liquid or mixture in a retort
or vessel known as the _body of the still_. This is made of various shapes
and materials, and is closed, with the exception of a slender neck which
opens into the condenser, a long tube through which the hot vapour from the
still is passed. The tube is kept at a sufficiently low temperature to
cause the vapour to condense, the common method of securing this being to
surround the tube with a constantly renewed stream of cold water. In some
cases ice or a freezing mixture may be required to effect condensation. In
a large-scale apparatus the condensing tube is coiled round and round in a
tub or box, and is known as a _worm_. From the end of it the vapour
condensed into a liquid drops into a receiver. The simplest case of
distillation is that of water containing solid matter in solution, the
solid matter remaining behind in the still or retort while the water
trickles pure into the receiver, through a worm made of block-tin, as most
other metals are attacked by distilled water. When the mixture to be
distilled consists of two or more liquids of different boiling-points, such
as alcohol and water, the more volatile comes off first, accompanied by a
certain proportion of the vapour of the other, so that it is hardly
possible completely to separate bodies by one distillation. This is
effected by repeated successive distillations of the liquid with or without
the addition of substances to retain the impurities. When the production of
one of the ingredients only is aimed at by this process, it is called
_rectification_, but when it is desired to separate and collect all the
liquids present, or to divide a mixture into portions which volatilize
within certain ranges of temperature, the process is called _fractional
distillation_. In the laboratory, distillation is employed for purifying
water, for recovering alcohol and ether, and for the preparation,
purification, and separation of a great number of bodies. Substances which
decompose at their boiling-points can be distilled under reduced pressure.
On the large scale distillation is employed in the preparation of
potassium, sodium, zinc, mercury; of sulphuric acid, ether, chloroform,
carbon bisulphide, essential oils and perfumes; in the purification of coal
and wood tar, and the products obtained from them; and on an extensive
scale in the manufacture of whisky, brandy, or other spirit. The
distillation of whisky has long been familiar in Britain, especially in
Scotland and Ireland, and, when performed by means of the old _pot-still_,
is a simple operation indeed, and one that even yet is practised
surreptitiously in out-of-the-way localities. On the large scale a more
elaborate apparatus is employed, and for alcohol of a cheap class Coffey's
or other patent still is much used. Copper is the metal that suits best as
the material for the stills used in distilling whisky. Sea-water is
distilled in many cases for drinking or cooking purposes. This water is, of
course, very pure, but its taste is far from agreeable. _Destructive
distillation_, or _dry distillation_, differs from the preceding in this
respect, that the original substance is not merely broken up into bodies by
the mixture of which it is formed, but is so treated that it is further
decomposed, and products are obtained which were not present uncombined in
the original material. (See _Coal-tar_.) The term is restricted to the
action of heat upon complex organic substances out of contact with the air.
The products of destructive distillation are numerous and varied. On the
manufacturing scale the process is conducted sometimes for the sake of one
part of the products, sometimes for the sake of another. Coal, for example,
may be distilled not solely for the gas, but also for ammoniacal water,
benzene, anthracene, as well as for the sake of the fixed carbon or coke,
the volatile portions being too often neglected and practically wasted. But
much more economical methods of making coke are now practised than
formerly. Wood is distilled partly for the sake of the pyroligneous acid
and the tar, partly for the charcoal. Bones are distilled for the sake of
the charcoal, though the oil is also collected. Shale is distilled both for
the oil and for the paraffin wax, ammonia, &c., obtained.

[Illustration: Distinguished Conduct Medal]

DISTINGUISHED CONDUCT MEDAL, a medal instituted in 1854 under the name of
the Meritorious Service Medal as "a mark of the Sovereign's sense of the
distinguished service and gallant conduct in the field of the army then
serving in the Crimea". The regulations concerning this medal were revised
in 1862, when it received its present name. It is given to
warrant-officers, non-commissioned officers, and privates. As from the 1st
Aug., 1918, the medal is awarded for services in action only. The medal is
silver, 1.4 inches in diameter; on the obverse is the Sovereign's head, and
on the reverse the inscription "For Distinguished Conduct in the Field". It
is suspended from a ribbon 1¼ inches wide, crimson, blue, and crimson, the
colours being of equal width. Bars may be awarded for additional deeds of
gallantry; in service uniform the possession of a bar is indicated by a
silver rosette worn on the ribbon. The letters D.C.M. are placed after the
name of the recipient, who receives either a gratuity of £20 on discharge,
or an increase in pay of 6d. a day.

[Illustration: On Left, Distinguished Flying Cross (obverse) On Right,
Distinguished Flying Medal (obverse)]

DISTINGUISHED FLYING CROSS, a decoration instituted during the European
War, and awarded to officers and warrant-officers of the Air Force for acts
of gallantry when flying in active operations against the enemy. The ribbon
is 1¼ inches wide, and has narrow purple and white alternate diagonal
stripes. The letters D.F.C. are placed after the name of the recipient. A
corresponding medal, the Distinguished Flying Medal, is awarded to
non-commissioned officers and men.

[Illustration: Distinguished Service Cross (obverse)]

DISTINGUISHED SERVICE CROSS, a naval decoration formerly known as the
Conspicuous Service Cross, and instituted in 1901. It is awarded to naval
officers below the rank of lieutenant-commander, and to warrant-officers,
for services before the enemy. The ribbon is dark-blue, white, and
dark-blue, in stripes of equal width. The letters D.S.C. are placed after
the name of the recipient.

[Illustration: Distinguished Service Order (obverse)]

DISTINGUISHED SERVICE ORDER, THE, was instituted by Royal Warrant on 6th
Sept., 1886. All commissioned officers of the Navy, Army, or Air Force are
eligible to be appointed Companions of this Order. It is conferred upon
officers who have been specially mentioned in dispatches for meritorious or
distinguished services. Towards the end of the European War (1st Aug.,
1918) it was decided that this decoration was only to be given for services
in action, i.e. (1) for service under fire, or (2) distinguished individual
service in connection with air-raids, bombardments, or other enemy action.
Bars may be awarded for additional deeds of gallantry; in undress uniform
the possession of a bar is indicated by a silver rosette worn on the
ribbon. The ribbon is red, edged with blue, and is 1 inch wide. It is the
same as the ribbon of the Waterloo and Peninsular medals, only narrower.
The badge of the order is a gold cross _patée_ enamelled white, edged gold,
having on one side thereof, in the centre, within a wreath of laurels
enamelled green, the Imperial Crown in gold, upon a red enamelled ground,
and on the reverse, within a similar wreath and on a similar red ground,
the Imperial and Royal cipher (G.R.I.) The letters D.S.O. are placed after
the name of the recipient, who ranks between Commanders of the Order of the
British Empire and Members of the Royal Victorian Order (4th class).

DIS´TOMUM, a genus of trematode or suctorial parasitic worms or flukes,
infesting various parts in different animals. _D. hepaticum_, the common
liver fluke, when adult inhabits the gall-bladder or ducts of the liver in
sheep, and is the cause of the disease known as the rot. It may also occur
in ox and man. In form it is ovate, flattened, and presents two suckers
(whence the name), of which the anterior is perforated by the aperture of
the mouth. The digestive tube divides into two branching halves, the
excretory organs consist of delicate branching tubes, and there is a
complex set of hermaphrodite reproductive organs. The minute larvæ live in
a small water-snail (_Limnæa truncatula_), from which they ultimately
escape to encyst on grass, &c., by which sheep may become infested. The
adults of other species of Distomum live within the bodies of various
fishes, amphibia, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

DISTRESS´ (Lat. _distringere_, pull asunder), in law, is the taking of a
personal chattel of a wrong-doer or a tenant, in order to obtain
satisfaction for the wrong done, or for rent or service due. If the party
whose goods are seized disputes the injury, service, duty, or rent, on
account of which the distress is taken, he may replevy the things taken,
giving bonds to return them or pay damage in case the party making the
distress shows that the wrong has been done, or the service or rent is due.
Wrongful distress is actionable. Another kind of distress is that of
_attachment_, to compel a party to appear before a court when summoned. The
distresses most frequently made are on account of rent and taxes and
_damage-feasance_.--Cf. Blackstone, _Commentaries on the Laws of England_.

DISTRIBUTION is that part of the subject-matter of economics which deals
with the division, among the individuals composing a community, of the
product of their labour and of land and capital at their command. It is the
most contentious part of economics, as well as that which has most social
interest and importance, for in it there is a sharper conflict than
anywhere else between economic considerations and ideals of social justice,
and the problem is to secure such a distribution as will satisfy social
justice, without abandoning the incentive to effort provided by the
possibility of a greater reward.

The present position is one of unresolved discord between the economic and
the equalitarian schools. The economic analysis in based upon a division of
the factors of production into three, viz. Labour, Capital, and Land. These
are represented as competing among themselves for employment, which is
given to each in accordance with the return which will be secured as a
result of an addition to the amount already employed; the rewards of each
fall roughly under the headings of Wages and Salaries, Interest and Rent,
respectively. The demarcation cannot be exact, as much that in common life
is regarded as interest on capital partakes really of the nature of wages,
as being earnings of management or reward for risk-taking, while certain
forms of capital, whose quantity is temporarily fixed, may receive a return
which is more of the nature of rent.

The fundamental assumption of the economists is that competitive
distribution is indispensable, both in order to secure a fruitful
distribution of the resources and efforts of society between the three
factors of production, and also owing to the need of an incentive to keep
individuals working hard enough to ensure a supply of goods sufficient to
maintain and improve the standard of life of the community. Economists do
not assume that men would not work at all if they were guaranteed a living
wage whether they did or not, but that men would not work enough, and would
be guided in the direction of their efforts by personal idiosyncrasy rather
than by the needs of the community. The only alternatives to a great
falling off in national wealth are, in their view, either competitive
distribution or enforcement of work by a rigid discipline, which would be
as hard as the present system, while being less adaptable.

Against this analysis idealist thinkers rebel, on the ground that it fails
to justify the great inequality in the distribution of wealth between
different individuals and classes of society. Their protest dates from the
harsh dogmatism of the economists who propounded the now discredited 'Iron
Law of Wages' and 'Wages Fund Theory', which both consigned wage-earners to
lives of unremitting toil for a reward inevitably limited to a very small
amount. Against these views appeal is made to justice and equality, and the
result is summed up in the phrase 'to each according to his needs, from
each according to his ability', i.e. the community should be so organized
that each member receives that which he needs, while giving in return work
according to the best of his ability. An alternative and cruder theory is
that which demands absolute equality in the distribution of wealth. The
economic basis for these theories is the claim that all production is the
result of labour, and that the workers are entitled to the 'whole produce
of their labour', interest and rent being 'surpluses' appropriated by the
capitalist owing to the exploited workers being kept at the level of
subsistence. The economic statement of the case is generally associated
with the name of Marx, who was, however, greatly influenced by English
writers; but the driving force of the movement is moral and emotional.

DISTRICT COURTS, an important series of courts in the United States, each
under a single judge, and having original jurisdiction in civil, criminal,
and admiralty causes. Generally there is one for each state. By the
Judiciary Code, enacted by Congress in 1911, the circuit courts, which had
hitherto shared original jurisdiction with the district courts, became only
appellate tribunals.

DISTRINGAS (Lat., that you distrain), a notice proceeding upon an affidavit
filed in the High Court by a party not the registered holder of shares or
stock but beneficially interested therein, and served upon the particular
company or public body, whereby it is precluded from registering any
transfer of the shares or stock or any mandate for payment of the dividends
without previous intimation to such party. The latter has thus the
opportunity, if desired, to apply for an interim injunction, and, should he
not do so within eight days from the date upon which the transfer or
mandate was lodged, the restraint flies off.

DITHYRAM´BUS, or DITH´YRAMB, in Greek literature, a poem sung in honour of
the god Bacchus or Dionysus, at his festivals. The choral portion of Greek
tragedy arose out of the dithyramb. It was composed in a lofty and often
inflated style: hence the term is applied to any poem of an impetuous and
irregular character.

DITMARSHES (Ger. _Dithmarschen_), a district of Holstein, in Germany,
consisting of a monotonous flat stretching along the North Sea, between the
mouths of the Elbe and the Eider, and so little raised above the sea as to
require the protection of strong embankments. Ditmarshes was incorporated
in Prussia in 1866. The area is 500 sq. miles, and the total pop. 96,373.

DIT´TANY, the popular name of the plants of the genus Dictamnus, an herb of
the rue family (Rutaceæ), found in the Mediterranean region. The leaves are
pinnate, the large white or rose-coloured flowers are in terminal racemes.
The whole plant is covered with oily glands, and the secreted oil is so
volatile that in hot weather the air round the plant becomes inflammable.
_D. Fraxinella_ and _D. albus_ are found in gardens.

DITTAY, in Scots law, a technical term signifying the matter of charge or
ground of indictment against a person accused of a crime; also, the charge
itself.

DIURET´ICS are agents used to increase the flow of urine. Many drugs are
used for this purpose: caffeine and theobromine, digitalis and squills,
potassium salts, carbonates, calomel and blue pill.

DIVAN´, a Persian word having several significations. It is used in Turkey
for the highest Council of State, the Turkish ministry; and for a large
hall for the reception of visitors. Low couches, covered with rich carpets
and cushions, are ranged along the walls of the room. Hence in Western
Europe the term is applied to a café, and to a kind of cushioned seat. In
India the term is applied to the Prime Minister of a native State. Among
several Oriental nations this name is given to certain collections of lyric
poems by one author. The _divans_ of Hafiz and Saadi, the Persian poets,
are among the most important.

DIVERGENT, in algebra, opposed to convergent, a term applied to an infinite
series which cannot be said to have a sum because there is no definite
limit towards which the sum of its terms tends as the number of terms is
increased indefinitely.

[Illustration: Red-throated Diver (_Colymbus septentrionalis_)]

DIVERS, birds remarkable for the habit of diving. The divers (Colymbidæ)
are a family of swimming birds, characterized by a strong, straight, rather
compressed pointed bill about as long as the head; a short and rounded
tail; short wings; thin, compressed legs, placed very far back, and the
toes completely webbed. They prey upon fish, which they pursue under water,
making use partly of their wings, but chiefly of their legs and webbed feet
in their subaqueous progression. The leading species are the great northern
diver (_Colymbus glaci[=a]lis_), the red-throated diver (_C.
septentrion[=a]lis_), and the black-throated diver (_C. arcticus_). These
birds inhabit the Arctic seas of the New and Old Worlds; they are abundant
in the Hebrides, Norway, Sweden, and Russia. The great northern diver,
loon, or ember goose is about 2¾ feet long, and is of handsome plumage.

DIV´IDEND, literally what is to be divided, a term used in arithmetic and
in reference to stocks. In the latter sense it is the interest or profit of
stocks divided among, and paid to, the proprietors. No dividend must be
paid except out of profit (Companies Act of 1862). The term also signifies
the payment made to creditors out of the estate of a bankrupt.

DIVIDING ENGINE, a machine for marking the divisions on the scales of
scientific, mathematical, or other instruments. Some of these perform work
of extraordinary fineness and accuracy. It may also be employed to measure
lengths accurately, or to divide a given length into any number of equal or
unequal parts. See _Graduation_.--Cf. Stewart and Gee, _Practical Physics_
(vol. i).

DIVIDING RANGE, GREAT, an Australian chain of mountains, forming the
watershed between the rivers flowing into the Pacific and those running
westward. It is situated at an average distance of 30 miles from the sea,
though in some places it recedes as much as 60 miles, and stretches from
Cape York on the north to Wilson's Promontory on the south. The culminating
point is Mount Townshend (7353 feet).

DIVI-DIVI, the pods of _Cæsalpinia coriaria_, a tree which grows in
tropical America, and a member of the family which yields sapan, brazil,
and other red woods. The pods are about 1 inch broad and 3 inches long, but
are generally bent or curled up; are excessively astringent, containing a
large proportion of tannic and gallic acid, for which reason they are used
by tanners and dyers.

DIVINATION, the act of divining; a foretelling future events, or
discovering things secret or obscure, by the aid of superior beings, or by
other than human means. Cicero divided it into two kinds, _natural_ and
_artificial_, or _intuitive_ and _inductive_. _Natural_ divination was
supposed to be effected by a kind of inspiration or divine afflatus; this
method of divination is familiar as represented by oracles; _artificial_
divination was effected by certain rites, experiments, or observations, as
by sacrifices, observation of entrails and flight of birds (ornithomancy),
of the behaviour of fishes (ichthyomancy), lots, omens, and position of the
stars. Among modes of divination were: _axinomancy_, by axes; _belomancy_,
by arrows; _bibliomancy_, by the Bible; _oneiromancy_, by dreams;
_pyromancy_, by fire; _hydromancy_, by water; _coscinomancy_, by observing
the results of the turning of a sieve hung on a thread. Cf.
Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité_.

DIVINE RIGHT, the claim set up by some sovereigns or their supporters to
the absolute obedience of subjects as ruling by appointment of God,
insomuch that, although they may themselves submit to restrictions on their
authority, yet subjects endeavouring to enforce those restrictions by
resistance to their sovereign's acts are considered guilty of a sin. This
doctrine, which came into general use in the seventeenth century, and is so
celebrated in English constitutional history, especially in the time of the
Stuarts, may now be considered to be exploded. Hobbes was one of the chief
supporters of the theory of Divine Right, whilst Milton was a strong
opponent. Cf. J. N. Figgis, _Theory of the Divine Right of Kings_.

DIVINE SERVICE, TENURE BY, a species of tenure, now obsolete, by which the
tenant held the land on condition of performing some divine service, such
as saying so many masses or distributing a certain amount in alms.

DIVING, the art or act of descending into the water to considerable depths,
and remaining there for a time. The uses of diving are important,
particularly in searching for pearls, corals, sponges, examining
foundations of bridges, salvage of wrecked ships, recovering valuables,
clearing propellers, valves, and cleaning bottoms of ships when no dry
docks are available. Without the aid of artificial appliances a skilful
diver may remain under water for two, or even three minutes; accounts of
longer periods are doubtful or absurd. Various methods have been proposed,
and engines contrived, to render diving more safe and easy. The great
object in all these is to furnish the diver with fresh air, without which
he must either make but a short stay under water or perish.

DIVING-BELL, a contrivance for the purpose of enabling persons to descend
and to remain below the surface of water for a length of time, for various
purposes, such as laying foundations of bridges, blasting rocks, and
recovering treasure from sunken ships. Diving-bells have been made of
various forms, more especially in that of a bell or hollow truncated cone,
with the smaller end closed, and the larger one, which is placed lowermost,
open. The air contained within these vessels prevents them from being
filled with water on submersion, so that the diver may descend in them and
breathe freely for a long time, provided he can be furnished with a new
supply of fresh air when the contained air becomes vitiated by respiration.
The diving-bell is usually made of cast iron, and weighted, and has several
strong convex lenses set in the sides or roof, to admit light to the
persons inside. It is suspended by chains from a barge or lighter, and can
be raised or lowered at pleasure upon signals being given by the persons
within, who are supplied with fresh air pumped into a flexible pipe by
means of force-pumps carried in the lighter, while the heated air escapes
by a cock in the upper part of the bell. Modern diving-bells are usually
rectangular in shape, and have a trunk or tube on top reaching to the
surface of the water, and fitted with an air-lock to enable men to go into
or out of the bell without moving it from the bottom; they are fitted with
telephones and electric lights. A constant flow of fresh air is kept up,
and all excess of air escapes from the lower part of the bell, the pressure
of the air being kept slightly above that of the water outside. The
diving-bell has long been found highly useful for carrying on work under
water, a steam-crane being usually employed for the movements required. A
form, called the _nautilus_, has been invented which enables the occupants,
and not the attendants above, to raise or lower the bell, move it about at
pleasure, or raise great weights with it and deposit them in any desired
spot.

[Illustration: Diving Dress

1. Ordinary diving-dress with (2) helmet. 3. Front view and (4) back view
of self-contained diving apparatus.

Reproduced by courtesy of Messrs. Siebe, Gorman, & Co]

DIVING-DRESS, a waterproof dress of india-rubber cloth used by professional
divers, and covering the entire body except the head. The dress has a
neck-piece or breastplate, fitted with a segmental screw bayonet joint, to
which the head-piece or helmet, the neck of which has a corresponding
screw, can be attached when wanted. The helmet has usually three eyeholes,
covered with strong glass, and protected with guards. Air is supplied by
means of a flexible air-pipe which screws on to a non-return valve on the
helmet, and is connected with an air-pump on the surface. To allow of the
escape of excess air a valve is fitted in the helmet, so constructed as to
prevent water getting in, though it lets the air out. It can be adjusted by
the diver to suit his convenience, no matter at what depth he may be.
Leaden weights are attached to the diver, and his boots are weighted, so
that he can descend a ladder and walk about on the bottom. Communication
can be carried on with those above by signals on the breast-rope between
the diver and his attendant, or he may converse with them through a
speaking-tube or by telephone, which is usually fitted in the breast-rope.
One form of diving-dress makes the diver independent of any connection with
persons above water except by breast-rope. It is elastic and hermetically
closed. A reservoir containing highly compressed air is fixed on the
diver's back. This supplies him with air by a self-regulating apparatus at
a pressure corresponding to his depth. When he wishes to ascend, he simply
inflates his dress from the reservoir. Another form, known as the Fleuss
dress, also makes the diver independent of exterior aid. The helmet
contains a supply of compressed oxygen, and the exhaled breath is passed
through a filter in the breast-piece which deprives it of its carbonic
acid, while the nitrogen goes back into the helmet to be mixed with the
oxygen, the supply of which is under the diver's own control, and to be
breathed over again. A diver has remained for an hour and a half under 35
feet of water in this dress. The safe limit for diving is 200 to 300 feet,
the deepest dive in this country being 210 feet; but great care must be
exercised in bringing the diver to the surface. Diving for pearls, sponges,
valuables, &c., is now to a great extent carried on by means of
diving-dresses.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. W. Domville-Fife, _Submarine Engineering
of To-day_; G. W. M. Boycott, _Compressed Air Work and Diving_.

DIVINING ROD, a rod, usually of hazel, with two forked branches, used by
persons who profess to discover minerals or water under ground. The rod, if
carried slowly along by the forked ends, dips and points downwards, it is
affirmed, when brought over the spot where the concealed mineral or water
is to be found. Divination by means of rods is of great antiquity, and has
been described by Cicero and Tacitus; their rods, however, were short bits
of stick, and the forked hazel twig does not seem to have come into use
before the early sixteenth century. Dr. H. Mayo gave a collection of
discoveries made by it in his work _On the Truth contained in Popular
Superstitions_ (1847-51). The use of the divining rod is still common in
many parts.--Cf. P. L. L. de Vallemont, _La Physique Occulte: ou Traité de
la baguette divinatoire_.

DIVISIBIL´ITY, that general property of bodies by which their parts or
component particles are capable of separation. The study of radioactivity
has shown that larger atoms may be broken up into smaller ones, and the old
conception of the atom as an absolutely indivisible unit is no longer
entertained by physicists. (See _Matter_.) Numerous examples of the
division of matter to a degree almost exceeding belief may be easily
instanced. Thus glass test-plates for microscopes have been ruled so fine
as to have 225,000 spaces to the inch. Cotton yarn has been spun so fine
that one pound of it extended upwards of 1000 miles, and a Manchester
spinner is said to have attained such a marvellous fineness that one pound
would extend 4770 miles. One grain of gold has been beaten out to a surface
of 52 sq. inches, and leaves have been made 367,500 of which would go to
the inch of thickness. Iron has been reduced to wonderfully thin sheets.
Fine tissue paper is about the 1200th part of an inch in thickness, but
sheets of iron have been rolled much thinner than this, and as fine as the
4800th part of an inch in thickness. Wires of platinum have been drawn out
so fine as to be only the 30,000th part of an inch in diameter. Human hair
varies in thickness from the 250th to the 600th part of an inch. The fibre
of the coarsest wool is about the 500th part of an inch in diameter, and
that of the finest only the 1500th part. The silk line, as spun by the
worm, is about the 5000th part of an inch thick; but a spider's line is
only the 30,000th part of an inch in diameter; insomuch that a single pound
of this attenuated substance might be sufficient to encompass our globe.
The trituration and levigation of powders, and the perennial abrasion and
waste of the surface of solid bodies, occasion a disintegration of
particles almost exceeding the powers of computation. The solutions of
certain saline bodies, and of other coloured substances, also exhibit a
prodigious subdivision of matter. A single grain of sulphate of copper, or
blue vitriol, will communicate a fine azure tint to five gallons of water.
In this case the sulphate must be attenuated at least 10,000,000 times.
Odours are capable of a much wider diffusion. A single grain of musk has
been known to perfume a large room for the space of twenty years. At the
lowest computation the musk had been subdivided into 320 quadrillions of
particles, each of them capable of affecting the olfactory organs.

DIVISION, in arithmetic, the dividing of a number or quantity into any
parts assigned; one of the four fundamental rules, the object of which is
to find how often one number is contained in another. The number to be
divided is the _dividend_, the number which divides is the _divisor_, and
the result of the division is the _quotient_. Division is the converse of
multiplication.

DIVISION, in the army, the smallest formation of troops which is a mixed
force. A division, besides three brigades of infantry, includes artillery,
engineers, and administrative troops. It is commanded by a major-general,
and if at full strength consists of about 20,000 men.

DIVISION, in Parliament, the mode of determining a question at the end of a
debate. In the House of Commons the Speaker puts the question, and declares
whether in his opinion the 'Ayes' or the 'Noes' have it. Should his opinion
not be acquiesced in by the minority, the House is cleared, and the 'Ayes'
directed to go into the right lobby and the 'Noes' into the left, where
they are counted by two tellers appointed for each party. In the House of
Lords the two sides in a division are called 'Contents' and 'Not-contents'.

DIVISION OF LABOUR, a method employed in productive undertakings for the
simplifying of the work to be done by each of the workmen engaged therein.
The separation of the process of production into a series of simple
operations means that less ability on the part of the workman is required
in order that he may acquire the necessary skill in performing any
particular operation, and saves much time, partly because practice leads to
each operation being more quickly performed, and partly by avoiding the
waste which takes place in workmen moving from one operation to another.
Owing to both of these causes, the cost of producing complicated articles
may be immensely reduced. By standardizing operations division of labour
tends to the invention of machinery; increases the skill and dexterity of
the individual workman in the particular operation in which he is engaged;
enables semi-skilled or unskilled labour to replace skilled; makes a more
continuous and economical use of capital possible; and conduces to the more
economical distribution of labour by classing work-people according to
their capacity. It has, however, a deteriorating effect on the labourer's
usefulness as an all-round workman, and is liable to kill his interest in
his work, thereby reducing the incentive to industry. What is called
division of labour in English economics has been sometimes termed
_co-operation_ by foreign economists.

DIVORCE (Lat. _divortium_, from _divertere_, to turn apart, separate), a
separation, by law, of husband and wife, which is either a divorce _a
vinculo matrimonii_, that is, a complete dissolution of the marriage bonds,
or a divorce _a mensâ et thoro_ (from bed and board), whereby the parties
are legally separated, but not unmarried. The causes admitted by different
codes of laws as grounds for the modification or entire dissolution of the
marriage contract, as well as the description of tribunal which has
jurisdiction of the proceedings, and the form of the proceedings, are
various. Divorce was permitted by the law of Moses, but forbidden in the
New Testament, except for adultery. The early laws of Rome permitted the
husband to divorce his wife for adultery and many other alleged offences.
The facility of divorce continued, without restriction, under the Roman
emperors, but as the modern nations of Europe emerged from the ruins of the
Roman Empire, they adopted the doctrine of the New Testament. Marriage,
under the Roman Church, instead of a civil contract, came to be considered
a sacrament of the Church, which it was unlawful to dissolve. The
ecclesiastical courts could indeed annul a marriage, but only for a cause
that existed at the time the marriage was contracted, such as prior
contracts or impotency. For any cause arising after marriage they could
only pronounce a divorce _a mensâ et thoro_, which did not leave either
party free to marry again, except by Papal dispensation. A divorce _a
vinculo matrimonii_, for any cause arising subsequent to marriage, could
formerly be obtained in England only by an Act of Parliament, and the
ecclesiastical courts must have previously pronounced a divorce _a mensâ et
thoro_. The Act passed in 1857, however, established a new court for trying
divorce causes, called the Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes, since
absorbed into the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty Division of the High
Court of Justice. According to present practice the husband may obtain a
divorce for simple adultery; but if the wife is the petitioner, she must
show that her husband has been guilty of certain kinds of adultery, or of
adultery coupled with desertion or gross cruelty. Either party may marry
again after divorce. A divorce cannot be obtained if it appear that the
petitioner has been guilty of the same offence, or has been accessory to or
has connived at the offence, or if there has been collusion between the
parties to obtain a divorce, or if they have condoned the offence by living
together as man and wife after discovery. The husband may claim damages
from the adulterer, and the court may also order the adulterer to pay the
costs of the proceedings, in whole or in part. The Act also abolished
divorces _a mensâ et thoro_, substituting, however, judicial separations.
(See _Judicial Separation_.) A decree for a divorce is always in the first
instance a _decree nisi_ (q.v.). A Matrimonial Causes Bill, introduced in
the House of Lords in 1920, proposes to abolish the legal disabilities of a
wife in this matter, and to grant divorce to husband or wife on any of the
following grounds: (_a_) adultery; (_b_) desertion for at least three
years; (_c_) cruelty; (_d_) incurable insanity coupled with at least five
years' confinement under the lunacy laws; (_e_) incurable habitual
drunkenness coupled with three years' separation under a temporary
separation order granted on the ground of habitual drunkenness; and (_f_)
imprisonment under a commuted death sentence. In Scotland, from the time of
the Reformation, divorce might be obtained by either party on the ground of
adultery, marriage being held to be only a civil contract, and as such
under the jurisdiction of the civil courts. Condonation, or connivance, or
collusion is sufficient to prevent a divorce from being obtained on the
ground of adultery, but not recrimination, that is, a counter charge of
adultery. Wilful desertion for at least four years is also held a valid
reason for divorce. The action is carried on before the Court of Session.
In other countries, including British colonies, the law relating to divorce
varies greatly. In the United States of America, marriage, though it may be
celebrated before clergymen as well as civil magistrates, is considered to
be a civil contract, and the laws as to divorce, and the facility or
difficulty of obtaining it, differ greatly in the several states. In France
divorce was legalized in 1884, with conditions, after having been
prohibited for many years.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lehr, _Le mariage, le divorce et
la séparation de corps dans les principaux peuples civilisés_; Stephen,
_Commentaries on the Laws of England_; Bryce, _Marriage and Divorce_.

DIXMUDE, a town of Belgium, in Flanders. It was the scene of severe
fighting during the European War. Captured by the Germans, it was retaken
by the Belgians on 29th Sept., 1918. Pop. 4040 (1911); 450 (1919).

DIXON, William Hepworth, miscellaneous writer, born at Manchester, 1821,
died in London, 1879. In 1849 he published a memoir of Howard the
philanthropist, which was followed by the _Life of William Penn_ (1851),
and by a work on Admiral Blake (1852). In 1853, after having been a
contributor, he became chief editor of _The Athenæum_, a post which he
retained till 1869. During this period he published several very popular
works, including the _Personal History of Lord Bacon, The Holy Land_, and
_New America_, the last being followed by _Spiritual Wives_. After his
retirement from _The Athenæum_, and in the last ten years of his life, he
gave to the world about twenty-five volumes of history, travel, and
fiction, among others, _Free Russia; Her Majesty's Tower; The Switzers;
History of Two Queens, Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn; Diana Lady
Lyle_, and _Ruby Grey_ (both novels); and his last work, _Royal Windsor_.

DIZFUL, a town of Persia, near the western boundary, on the River Dizful; a
place of great trade and manufactures. Pop. about 25,000.

DJAVID BEY, Hussein, a Turkish Jew, one of the leaders of the Committee of
Union and Progress, and Minister of Finance from 1914 to 1918. His advice
that Turkey should adhere to strict neutrality during the European War was,
unfortunately for his country, not followed by his colleagues, who decided
to join Germany.

DJEMAL PASHA, Turkish soldier and politician, and one of the leaders of the
Committee of Union and Progress. Minister of Marine in 1914, he commanded
the Turkish forces in Palestine from 1915 to 1917, and became notorious on
account of his oppression of and cruelties against the inhabitants of Syria
and Palestine, and by his hatred of Zionism. Accused in 1918 of various
crimes, such as misappropriation of funds, and compelled to flee from
Constantinople, he was condemned to death in his absence in 1919. He was
nevertheless one of the Turkish delegates who signed the Peace Treaty on
11th May, 1920.

DJOKDJOKARTA, a Dutch residency in the Island of Java, on the south coast,
with a capital of the same name. Its forests abound in teak. Its natural
fertility is great, and rice, coffee, and tobacco are extensively
cultivated. It is ruled by a sultan who is dependent on the Dutch. Pop.
441,800. The town is large and regular, and contains the sultan's
water-palace, and the seat of the Dutch Resident, which is a fort
commanding both the palace and the town. Pop. 97,058.

DNIEPER (n[=e]´p[.e]r; Russ. _Dnjepr_, dnyepr; anciently BORYSTH[)E]N[=E]S,
or DANAPRIS), a great river of Russia which rises in the government of
Smolensk, flows first south-west, then south-east, and again south-west to
the Black Sea. It begins to be navigable a little above Smolensk, and has a
total length, including windings, of 1230 miles. Among its tributaries are
the Beresina, the Pripet, the Desna, and the Psiol. In its lower course
there are important fisheries. The region watered by the river in its lower
course is famous for its great fertility, and is known as the _black-soil_.
Between Kiev and Alexandrovsk it forms a series of cataracts. Since 1838
there have been steamboats on the river, and the trade carried by it is
considerable. Through the Beresina Canal the Dnieper communicates with the
Baltic Sea.

DNIESTER (n[=e]s´t[.e]r; Russ. _Dnjestr_; ancient TYRAS), a large river of
Europe (Poland, Roumania, and Ukraine), which has its source in the
Carpathian Mountains, in Austrian Galicia, enters Russia at Chotin, and
empties itself into the Black Sea, after a course of about 750 miles. Its
navigation is difficult on account of frequent shallows and rapids.

DOAB´ (that is, _Two Waters_), a name in Hindustan applied indiscriminately
to any tract of country between two rivers, like the Greek _Mesopotamia_.
The tract between the Ganges and the Jumna is usually called _the_ Doab;
other similar tracts have their distinctive names, the Punjab being divided
into five districts of this kind.

DOBELL´, Sydney, English poet and man of letters, born in 1824, died 22nd
Aug., 1874. His first poem, _The Roman_, appeared in 1850, and was
favourably received by the critics. Among his other works are: _Balder_,
_Sonnets on the War_, and _England in Time of War_.

DÖBELN (d_eu_´beln), a town of Saxony, about 40 miles south-east of
Leipzig, with a great trade in grain, and manufactures of cloth, yarn,
leather, and lacquered wares. Pop. 17,920.

DÖBEREINER'S LAMP, a contrivance for producing an instantaneous light,
invented by Professor Döbereiner, of Jena, in 1824. The light is produced
by throwing a jet of hydrogen or a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases
upon recently prepared spongy platinum, when the metal instantly becomes
red-hot, and then sets fire to the gas. The action depends upon the
readiness with which spongy platinum absorbs both oxygen and hydrogen. The
intimate contact of the two gases leads to chemical combination with
evolution of heat. Coal-gas may be employed instead of hydrogen, and this
has led to the application of the principle to self-lighting devices for
igniting gas flames.

DOBRITCH, or BAZARJIK, a town in Roumania, was, till the end of the second
Balkan War, the chief town in Bulgarian Dobrudja. It is situated on a small
tributary of the Danube, and is on the Cernavoda-Constanza railway. At one
time it was famous for its panair or great annual fair, but it is now no
longer an important centre. Pop. 10,000.

DOBRUDJA, or DOBRUD´SCHA, THE (anciently SCYTHIA MINOR), a territory
forming part of the kingdom of Roumania, included between the Danube, which
forms its boundary on the west and north, the Black Sea on the east, and
Bulgaria (to which it belonged before 1878) on the south. Its area,
formerly 6000 sq. miles, was increased by the Treaty of Bucharest of 10th
Aug., 1913, and is now 8969 sq. miles. During the European War the Dobrudja
was invaded in 1916 by an army of Germans, Bulgarians, and Turks, under
General von Mackensen. In 1918 Roumania was compelled by the Treaty of
Bucharest to cede the Dobrudja to Bulgaria, but it was restored to her in
1919. There are some fertile spots, but on the whole it is marshy and
unhealthy. The population is of various nationalities, Roumanians, Bulgars,
Greeks, Turks, and Jews. The inhabitants engage in tillage and
stock-rearing. The principal towns are Kustendje and Tultcha. See
_Roumania_. Pop. 381,306.

[Illustration: Curly or Yellow Dock (_Rumex crispus_)]

DOBSON, Henry Austin, poet, born at Plymouth in 1840. He was educated at
Beaumaris, Coventry, and Strasbourg; in 1856 obtained a clerkship under the
Board of Trade, where he rose to be one of the officials known as
principals. His earliest verses first appeared in book form under the title
_Vignettes in Rhyme and Vers de Société_ (1873). His other volumes of verse
include: _Proverbs in Porcelain_ (1877); _Old World Idylls_ (1883); and _At
the Sign of the Lyre_ (1885), which _The Athenæum_ pronounced to be "of its
kind as nearly as possible perfect". Among his prose works may be mentioned
his lives of _Hogarth_, _Fielding_, _Steele_, _Goldsmith_, _Horace
Walpole_, _Richardson_, and _Fanny Burney_; _Thomas Bewick and his Pupils_;
_Four Frenchwomen_, a study on Charlotte Corday, the Princesse de Lamballe,
and Mesdames Roland and de Genlis; three series of _Eighteenth Century
Vignettes_; _A Paladin of Philanthropy_; _Sidewalk Studies_; _Old
Kensington Palace_; _At Prior Park_; _A Bookman's Budget_; and several
editions of standard works. His collected poems were published in one
volume in 1897. Many of Mr. Dobson's poems are written in various French
forms, such as the rondeau and ballade, and all are marked by gracefulness
and ease. He died in Sept., 1921.

DOCE´TÆ (from Gr. _dokein_, to seem or appear), the name given, in the
earlier ages of the Church, to those who denied the reality of the human
form of Christ, maintaining it to be merely a phantom or shadow. In the
sense of regarding Christ's body as a heavenly and ethereal, instead of a
human one, docetism had its partisans even among the orthodox.

DOCK, a name applied to different plants of the genus Rumex, belonging to
the rhubarb family (Polygonaceæ). These are large herbaceous plants, with
stout roots, alternate and often entire leaves, and bearing panicles of
small greenish flowers. They are very troublesome as weeds, but the roots
of some of them are used medicinally as astringents.

DOCKET, or DOCQUET (dok´et; from _dock_, to shorten; Icel. _dokr_, stumpy
tail), in law, a term variously used, as for a summary of a larger writing;
a small piece of paper or parchment containing the heads of a writing; an
alphabetical list of cases in a court, or a catalogue of the names of the
parties who have suits depending in a court.

DOCKS, are artificial enclosures for the reception of shipping, for the
purpose of loading, discharging, or repairs. They may be divided into four
types, viz. tidal docks or basins, wet docks, dry or graving docks, and
floating docks.

_Tidal Docks or Basins_ are open permanently to the main channel or river,
and the water-level therefore varies with the rise and fall of the tide.
This variation of level is a serious hindrance in the work of loading or
discharging cargo, unless the tidal range be small. It should be noted that
this form is more properly termed a tidal basin.

[Illustration: Dry Dock, Tilbury, Essex]

_Wet Docks_ have a water entrance normally closed by gates or caissons,
which permit the water-level of the enclosed area being maintained at
high-water level. This uniformity of level is of great service in dealing
with cargo, but this type has the disadvantage of only permitting traffic
in and out of the dock at high water. This disadvantage may be modified by
the provision of a lock at the dock entrance.

_Dry or Graving Docks_ are used for the purpose of examining and repairing
ships. The entrance is controlled by either gates or caissons. The ship
having entered, the gates are closed, and the water pumped out, allowing
the vessel to settle down gradually upon a row of keel blocks, running up
the centre line of the dock. The sides of the docks are built in the form
of large continuous steps or 'altars', which support the ends of the timber
shores which serve to keep the ship in an upright position. The floor is
graded to channels, leading to powerful pumps, usually of the centrifugal
type, and capable of emptying a large dock in one hour.

_Floating Docks_ fulfil the same functions as dry docks. In their modern
form, they consist of a hollow steel box or pontoon, carrying hollow
longitudinal walls at each side. These walls contain the pumps and
controlling machinery, the pontoon portion being capable of being filled
with or emptied of water, thus raising or sinking the dock. This lower
portion is subdivided into a great number of compartments, all of which may
be filled separately, so that errors of trim can be corrected. In making
use of this type the dock is lowered by flooding the lower compartments.
The ship is then floated into position and shored.

[Illustration: The Medway Floating Dock lifting H.M.S. _Lion_, 30,000 tons]

The initial cost of these two latter types is in favour of the floating
dock, the annual maintenance charges of which, however, may be five to ten
times those of an ordinary masonry dock. The mobility of a floating dock
may be considered an advantage, allowing it to be easily removed to another
locality to meet changing conditions, but this adaptability should not be
overvalued.

The average life of a steel dock may be assumed to be 40 years, whereas a
masonry dock may be said to last indefinitely, subject only to the fact
that it may outlive its usefulness.

The first wet docks constructed in England were those now called the
Commercial Docks, in London, which existed in a much less extensive form so
early as 1660. In 1800 the West India Docks were constructed, and were
followed by the East India Docks, Millwall Docks, London Docks, the St.
Katharine Docks, and the Victoria Docks, affording, together with those at
Tilbury, more than 600 acres of water accommodation, besides wharf and
warehouse grounds, where all kinds of appliances and machinery for the
speedy and convenient transfer of goods and cargoes are in use. Some of the
warehouses are extremely capacious, the tobacco warehouse of the London
Docks being itself nearly 5 acres in extent. Next after the London docks
come those of Liverpool, which extend more than 6 miles along the north
bank of the Mersey, and cover, together with the Birkenhead docks, nearly
as large a total acreage as those of London. The other important British
docks are those at Southampton, Bristol, Cardiff, Hull, Great Grimbsy,
Newcastle, Shields, Barrow, Leith, Glasgow, Dundee, &c. A floating dock at
Hamburg has a length of 728 feet, inside width of 123 feet, and a lifting
capacity of 46,000 tons.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Shields, _Principles and
Practice of Harbour Construction_; L. V. Harcourt, _Harbours and Docks_;
Kempe, _Engineer's Year Book_.

[Illustration: Plan of PRINCE'S DOCK, GLASGOW.]

DOCK-WARRANTS, orders for goods kept in the warehouses connected with a
dock. They are granted by the proper officer at the dock to the importer in
favour of any one that he may name. These warrants are held to be
negotiable, so that they may pass from one holder to another, the property
of them being always vested in the holder.

DOCK-YARDS, establishments supplied with all sorts of naval stores,
materials and conveniences for the construction, repairs, and equipment of
ships of war. In England the royal dock-yards are at Chatham, Sheerness,
Portsmouth, Devonport, and Pembroke, besides the Deptford and Woolwich
store-yards. There are also royal dock-yards or naval victualling yards at
Haulbowline in Cork Harbour, Rosyth, Invergordon, at the Cape of Good Hope,
Gibraltar, Malta, Bermuda, Bombay, Calcutta, Hong-Kong, Sydney, and
Wei-hai-wei. Others in the colonies have been given up. The dock-yards are
under the direct control of the Admiralty. The chief officer of the greater
or home dock-yards is generally an admiral, with a considerable staff of
officials under him, professional and other. Since the introduction of
steam the engineering department has become an important one in such
establishments.

DOCTOR, a term literally signifying teacher. In the Middle Ages, from the
twelfth century, it came into use as a title of honour for men of great
learning, such as Thomas Aquinas (Doctor Angelicus) and Duns Scotus (Doctor
Subtilis). It was first made an academical title by the University of
Bologna, and emperors and Popes soon afterwards assumed the right of
granting universities the power of conferring the degree in law. The
University of Paris followed in the footsteps of Bologna, and in 1145 the
title was bestowed on Peter Lombard. The faculties of theology and medicine
were soon included, but for a long time the faculty of arts retained the
older title of _Magister_, till the German universities substituted that of
Doctor. In England the Doctor's degree was introduced into the universities
during the reign of John or Henry III. The title of Doctor is in some cases
an honorary degree, and in other cases (as in medicine and science)
conferred after examination. The title of D.C.L. (Doctor of Civil Law), for
example, at the Universities of Oxford and Durham, is frequently an
honorary degree, and so also are those of D.D. (Doctor of Divinity) and
LL.D. (Doctor of Laws) at various universities. The Popes and the
Archbishops of Canterbury exercise the right of conferring the degree of
Doctor both in law and divinity. Oxford and Cambridge, and many other
universities, create doctors of music (Mus.D.).

DOCTORS' COMMONS was a college founded in 1567 for the Doctors of the Civil
Law in London, and was at one time the seat of the Court of Arches, the
Archdeacon's Court, and the Court of Admiralty. The practitioners in these
courts were called advocates and proctors. In 1857 an Act was passed
empowering the college to sell its property and dissolve, and making the
privileges of the proctors common to all solicitors.

DOCTORS OF THE CHURCH, a name given to four of the Greek Fathers
(Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom) and five of the
Latin Fathers (Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory the Great).
The Roman Catholic Church, however, recognizes eighteen 'Doctors of the
Church', including, besides those already mentioned, Chrysologus, Leo,
Isidore, Peter Damian, Anselm, Bernard of Clairvaux, Thomas Aquinas,
Bonaventura, and Alphonsus of Liguori. The title is conferred only after
death.

DOCTRINAIRES, a section of French politicians, represented by the Duc de
Broglie, Royer-Collard, Guizot, and others, who became prominent after the
Restoration in 1815. They favoured a constitutional monarchy similar to
that which then existed in Britain. In the Chambers they thus occupied a
place between Radicals and ultra-Royalists. They received the name of
_doctrinaires_ because they were looked upon more as theoretical
constitution-makers than practical politicians, and the term is now used
with a wider application to political theorists generally.

[Illustration: Dodder

1, Pistil. 2, Corolla.]

DODDER, the common name of the plants of the genus Cusc[)u]ta, a group of
slender, branched, twining, leafless pink or white annual parasites, nat.
ord. Convolvulaceæ. The seeds germinate on the ground, but the young plant
speedily attaches itself to some other plant, from which it derives all its
nourishment. Four species are common in England--_C. europæa_, found on
nettles and vetches; _C. Epithymum_, on furze, thyme, and heather (these
two being natives); _C. trifolii_, on clover; _C. Epil[=i]num_, on
cultivated flax (both introduced from abroad).

DODDRIDGE, Philip, D.D., an English Dissenting divine, born in London in
1702, died in 1751. He was an earnest pastor, and the author of many hymns
and devotional treatises. _The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul_
and _The Family Expositor_ are amongst his best known works. Many of his
hymns are still sung, such as _O God of Bethel, by whose hand_; and _O
happy day that fixed my choice_.

DODECANESE (Gr., twelve islands), a name applied since the Turko-Italian
War of 1912-3 to a group of islands lying off the south-west coast of Asia
Minor, the base of the Italian troops. The group, consisting of the
Southern Sporades, includes the Islands of Patmos, Cos, Lipsos, and others
near Rhodes. Italy agreed to restore the islands to Turkey, but was
prevented from carrying out the agreement by the breaking out of the Balkan
War. The Treaty of Peace with Turkey (11th May, 1920) allotted these
islands to Italy, who ceded them again to Greece (with the exception of
Rhodes).

DODGSON, Charles Lutwidge. See _Carroll, Lewis_.

[Illustration: Dodo, from painting in the Belvedere, Vienna]

DODO (_Didus ineptus_), an extinct genus of birds once abundant on the
Island of Mauritius, and assigned by naturalists to the ord. Columbæ or
pigeons, though an extreme modification of the type. It was a massive
clumsy bird, larger than a swan, covered with down instead of feathers,
with short ill-shaped legs, a strong bulky hooked beak, and wings and tail
so short as to be useless for flight. Its extinction was due to its
organization not being adapted to the new conditions which colonization and
cultivation introduced. It probably became extinct soon after 1681.

DODO´NA, a celebrated locality of ancient Greece, in Epirus, where was one
of the most ancient Greek oracles. It was a seat of Zeus (surnamed the
Pelasgian), whose communications were announced to the priestesses in the
rustling of the leaves on its oak tree, and the murmuring of water which
gushed forth from the earth.

DODS, Marcus, theologian, born at Belford, Northumberland, in 1834, his
father being minister of the Scottish Church there, died in 1909. He was
educated in Edinburgh, where he took his M.A. degree at the age of twenty.
In 1858 he was licensed as a minister of the Free Church of Scotland, and
eight years afterwards was ordained to Renfield Free Church, Glasgow, where
he remained until his appointment in 1889 to the chair of New Testament
Exegesis in New College, Edinburgh. Of his works some of the most important
are: _The Prayer that Teaches to Pray_ (1863, 6th edition, 1889); _Epistles
to the Seven Churches_ (1865); _Israel's Iron Age_ (1874); _Mohammed,
Buddha, and Christ_ (1877); _The Book of Genesis_ (1882); _Parables of Our
Lord_ (1883 and 1885); _How to become like Christ_ (1897); _Forerunners of
Dante_ (1903); _The Bible: its Origin and Nature_ (1905); and articles in
the _Encyclopædia Britannica_.

DODSLEY, Robert, English poet, dramatist, and publisher, born in 1703, died
in 1764. His first volume of verses, _The Muse in Livery_, appeared in
1732. _The Toy Shop_ was performed at Covent Garden in 1735. In 1737 his
_King and the Miller of Mansfield_ was performed at Drury Lane, and met
with an enthusiastic reception. He also wrote a tragedy, entitled _Cleone_,
which had an extraordinary success on the stage. A selection of _Fables in
Prose_, with an _Essay on Fables_ prefixed, was one of his latest
productions. He planned the _Annual Register_ (commenced in 1758); the
_Collection of Old Plays_ (12 vols. 12mo), which now chiefly sustains his
name as a publisher; and the _Collection of Poems by Different Hands_ (6
vols. 12mo).

DOE, John, and Richard Roe, two fictitious personages of the English law
who formerly appeared in a suit of ejectment. This fictitious form of
procedure was abolished in 1852.

[Illustration: Jaws of Dog

_m_, Molars. _pm_, Premolars. _cl_, Carnassial. _can_, Canines. _i_,
Incisors.]

DOG (_Canis familiaris_), a digitigrade, carnivorous animal, forming the
type of the genus Canis, which includes also the wolf, the jackal, and the
fox. The origin of the dog is a much-debated question. The original stock
is unknown, but various species of wolf and jackal have been suggested as
ancestors. Probably a number of wild types were domesticated by prehistoric
man, and there has been a good deal of crossing between these different
stocks. It is generally agreed that no trace of the dog is to be found in a
primitive state, the dhole of India and dingo of Australia being believed
to be wild descendants from domesticated ancestors. Several attempts to
make a systematic classification of the varieties of dogs have been made,
but without much success, it being difficult in many cases to determine
what are to be regarded as types, and what as merely mongrels and
cross-breeds. Colonel Hamilton Smith divides dogs into six groups as
follows: (1) _Wolf-dogs_, including the Newfoundland, Esquimaux, St.
Bernard, shepherd's dog, &c.; (2) _Watch-dogs and Cattle-dogs_, including
the German boar-hound, the Danish dog, the matin dog, &c.; (3)
_Greyhounds_, the lurcher, Irish hound, &c.; (4) _Hounds_, the bloodhound,
staghound, foxhound, setter, pointer, spaniel, cocker, poodle, &c.; (5)
_Terriers_ and their allies; (6) _Mastiffs_, including the different kinds
of mastiffs, bull-dog, pug-dog, &c. (See the different articles.) On each
side of the upper jaw are three incisors, one canine, four premolars, and
three or two molars: on each side of the lower jaw the same number, except
that the molars are four or three. The fore-feet have five toes, the
hind-feet four or five; the claws are strong, blunt, and formed for
digging, and are not retractile. The tail is generally long, and is curled
upwards. The female has six to ten mammæ; she goes with young nine weeks as
a rule. The young are born blind, their eyes opening in ten to twelve days;
their growth ceases at two years of age. The dog commonly lives about ten
or twelve years, at the most twenty. By English law it is prohibited to use
dogs for purposes of draught.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Youatt, _Training and
Management of the Dog_; R. B. Lee, _A History and Description of Modern
Dogs_; F. T. Barton, _Our Dogs and All about Them_; J. S. Turner and V.
Nicolas, _The Kennel Encyclopædia_.

[Illustration]

DOG-DAYS, the name applied by the ancients to a period of about forty days,
the hottest season of the year, at the time of the heliacal rising of
Sirius, the dog-star. The time of the rising is now, owing to the
precession of the equinoxes, different from what it was to the ancients
(1st July); and the dog-days are now counted from 3rd July to 11th Aug.,
that is, twenty days before and twenty days after the heliacal rising.

DOGE (d[=o]j: from Lat. _dux_, a leader, later a duke), formerly the title
of the first magistrates in the Italian Republics of Venice and Genoa. The
first doge of Venice elected for life was Paolo Anafesto, in 697; and in
Genoa, Simone Boccanera, in 1339. In 1437 the Doge of Venice obtained from
the emperor a diploma creating him 'Duke of Treviso, Feltre, Belluno,
Padua, Brescia, Bergamo, &c.'. In Venice the dignity was always held for
life; in Genoa, in later times, only for two years. In both cities the
office was abolished by the French in 1797. The title was re-established in
1802 for the Ligurian Republic, but was abolished in 1805.

[Illustration: Egg Capsule of Lesser Spotted Dog-fish]

DOG-FISH, a name given to several species of small shark, common around the
British Isles. The rough skin of one of the species (_Scyllium
canic[)u]la_), the lesser spotted dog-fish, is used by joiners and other
artificers in polishing various substances, particularly wood. This species
is rarely 3 feet long, _S. cat[)u]lus_, the greater spotted dog-fish, is in
length from 3 to 5 feet. It is blackish-brown in colour, marked with
numerous small dark spots. Both species are very voracious and destructive.
Their flesh is hard, dry, and unpalatable. The common or picked dog-fish
(_Acanthias vulg[=a]ris_) is common in British and N. American seas, and is
sometimes used as food. It is fierce and voracious. _S. profundorum_ has
been brought up from 816 fathoms in the North Atlantic. The tiger or
zebra-shark (_Stegostoma tigrinum_) is a handsome dog-fish native to the
Indian Ocean. It is marked with dark stripes on a yellow ground, and may
attain the length of 15 feet.

DOGGER, a Dutch vessel equipped with two masts and somewhat resembling a
ketch. It is used particularly in the North Sea for the cod and herring
fisheries.

DOGGER BANK, an extensive sand-bank, near the middle of the North Sea,
between Denmark on the east and England on the west, celebrated for its
cod-fishery. It commences about 36 miles east of Flamborough Head and
extends E.N.E. to within 60 miles of Jutland, in some places attaining a
breadth of about 60 miles, though it terminates merely in a point. Where
shallowest the water over it is 9 fathoms. In Oct., 1904, the Russian
Baltic Squadron fired upon a British fishing-fleet on the Dogger, killing
two men. The incident was settled by arbitration. During the European War a
naval battle was fought off the Dogger Bank on 24th Jan., 1915, in which
three powerful German cruisers were seriously injured by a British fleet
under Admiral Beatty, but made their escape to Heligoland.

DOGGETT'S COAT AND BADGE, the prize for a rowing-match which is held
annually on the 1st Aug., the course being on the Thames from London Bridge
to Chelsea. The match is open to six young watermen whose apprenticeship
ends the same year, and the prize is a waterman's red coat bearing a badge
which represents the white horse of Hanover. It was instituted--in
celebration of the accession of George I--by the actor Thomas Doggett, born
in Dublin; but though first rowed in 1716, its winners have only been
recorded since 1791. The match, like other events of the same kind,
suspended during the War, was held again on 3rd and 4th Aug., 1920, for the
years 1915 to 1920.

DOG-GODS. The dog was the first domesticated animal, and at an early period
was deified. In ancient Egypt the god Anubis, who guided souls to the
Otherworld, was dog-headed, as Herodotus says, or jackal-headed. Yama, the
Indian god of death, has a dog form, and in the _Mahábhárata_, as Dhárma,
god of justice (one of his forms), leads the Pandava brothers to Paradise
as a dog. Indra had a dog form, and the custom still prevails among
Northern Indian hill tribes of pouring hot oil in a dog's ear to bring
rain; The Big Dog (Indra) is supposed to hear the howl of the tortured dog.
The dog of Hades figures in Greek, Scandinavian, Celtic, and other
mythologies. Cuchullin slew the dog of Hades, and was called 'Hound (_cu_)
of Culann'. The widespread belief that dogs howl when a sudden death is
about to take place has a long history. Dog ancestors figure in American,
Javan, and other myths. In Japanese temples are images of 'Ama-Inu'
(Heavenly Dog). Red Indian myths refer to a Dog Creator and to the
eclipse-causing dog. Eskimos thrash dogs during an eclipse.

DOGMA (Gr. _dogma_, from _dokein_, to seem), an article of religious
belief, one of the doctrines of the Christian faith. The history of dogmas,
as a branch of theology, exhibits in a historical way the origin and the
changes of the various Christian systems of belief, showing what opinions
were received by the various sects in different ages of Christianity, the
sources of the different creeds, by what arguments they were attacked and
supported, what degrees of importance were attached to them in different
ages, the circumstances by which they were affected, and the mode in which
the dogmas were combined into systems. Lectures on this subject are common
in the German universities. In English dogma and dogmatism have come to be
frequently used for assertion without proof.

DOGMAT´ICS, a systematic arrangement of the articles of Christian faith
(dogmas), or the branch of theology that deals with them. The first attempt
to furnish a complete and coherent system of Christian dogmas was made by
Origen in the third century.

D[=O]GRA. The D[=o]gras are a race of Indian hillmen, descended from
Rajputs, who in almost prehistoric times overran the country to the east of
Jammu, in Southern Kashmir, and founded principalities. They are now found
in and recruited from the country comprised within a rough triangle having
Jammu, Simla, and Chamba at its angles; or more generally still, between
the upper waters of the Rivers Chenab and Sutlej, two of the five rivers
from which the Punjab takes its name. By religion the D[=o]gras are, as
becomes their descent, strict Hindus; indeed, their religion may be
considered Hinduism in its purer and more original form, uncontaminated by
outside influences. As is the case with other high-caste Hindus, the
D[=o]gra's life is largely governed by ceremonial observances, those
relating to birth, initiation, marriage, and death being the more
important. He is, however, rather less fastidious about ceremonial cooking
than either the sacerdotal Brahman or his distant Rajput cousin of the
plains.

The D[=o]gra is not a big man, his average height being barely 5 feet 5
inches, but he is sturdy, and develops well with training, and, being fond
of sport and games, makes an excellent soldier, especially in his native
hills. Being Rajputs by descent, they are essentially a race of soldiers,
and, enlisted in the Indian army, give excellent service as such, being
law-abiding, hardy and enduring, and quietly courageous. It has already
been said that D[=o]gras are not so ceremonious in their cooking
arrangements as either Brahmans or down-country Rajputs, who require
separate cooking-places for each man; the D[=o]gra, on the other hand,
though remaining very particular about his drinking-water utensils, will
yet agree to have his food prepared for him in messes of five to ten men;
this trait makes his value on service and under service conditions
considerably greater than that of either of the two above-mentioned
classes. In the Indian army there are three first-line battalions of
D[=o]gras: the 37th, 38th, and 41st. These are what are known as class
regiments; that is, they consist entirely of the one class. In addition to
the three regiments, D[=o]gras also enlist in the cavalry and in
class-company regiments, i.e. regiments enlisting a variety of classes
while keeping them separate inside the regiment.

DOG-ROSE, the _Rosa can[=i]na_, or wild brier, nat. ord. Rosaceæ. It is a
common British plant, growing in thickets and hedges. The fruit is known as
the hip.

[Illustration: Dog's Mercury (_Mercuri[=a]lis perennis_)

1, Male flower. 3, Same, enlarged. 2, Female flower.]

DOG'S-MERCURY, _Mercuri[=a]lis perennis_, nat. ord. Euphorbiaceæ, a
woodland herb common in Britain. It has poisonous properties, and may be
made to yield a fugitive blue dye.

DOG'S-TAIL GRASS (Cynos[=u]rus), a genus of grasses. _Cynos[=u]rus
crist[=a]tus_ is a perennial found wild all over Great Britain in pastures,
lawns, and parks. Its roots are long and wiry, and, descending deep into
the ground, ensure the herbage against suffering from drought. Its stem is
from 1 to 2 feet high, and its leaves are slightly hairy.

[Illustration: Dog's-tooth Ornaments. Early English Style]

DOG'S-TOOTH ORNAMENT, an architectural ornament or moulding consisting
usually of four leaves radiating from a raised point at the centre. It is
the characteristic decorated moulding of Early English architecture, as the
zigzag is of the Norman.

DOG-TOOTH SPAR, a form of mineral calcium carbonate or calc-spar found in
Derbyshire and other parts of England, and named from a supposed
resemblance of its pointed crystals to a dog's tooth.

DOG-WATCH, a nautical term distinguishing two watches of two hours each (4
to 6 p.m. and 6 to 8 p.m.). All the other watches count four hours each,
and without the introduction of the dog-watches the same hours would always
fall to be kept as watch by the same portion of the crew.

DOGWOOD, a common name of trees of the genus Cornus, but specifically
applied in Britain to _C. sanguinea_. It is a common shrub in copses and
hedges in England; the small cream-white flowers are borne in dense
roundish clusters. The branchlets and leaves become red in autumn. The wood
is used for skewers and for charcoal for gunpowder.

DOIT, an ancient Scottish coin, of which eight or twelve were equal to a
penny sterling. In the Netherlands and Lower Germany there was a coin of
similar name and value.

DOL, a town of France, department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 14 miles south-east
by east of St. Malo. The old cathedral of St. Samson mostly dates back to
the thirteenth century. To the north of the town stretches a salt-marsh,
protected from inroads of the sea by a twelfth-century dyke, and in the
centre of the marsh Mont-Dol rises to a height of 213 feet. Pop. 3540.

DOLCI (dol´ch[=e]), Carlo, celebrated painter of the Florentine school, was
born at Florence in 1616, and died there in 1686. His works, principally
heads of madonnas and saints, have a character of sweetness and melancholy.
Among his chief productions are: _Archduchess Claudia_, in the Uffizi
(Florence); _St. Cecilia at the Organ_ and _Herodias with the Head of John
the Baptist_, both in the Dresden Gallery; _Ecce Homo_ and _St. Andrew in
Prayer_, at the Pitti Gallery; and _Magdalene_, at Munich.

DOLCINITES, a Christian sect of Piedmont, so named from their leader
Dolcino. They arose in 1304 as a protest against Papacy, but were
suppressed by the troops of the Inquisition in 1307.

DOL´DRUMS, among seamen, the parts of the ocean near the equator that
abound in calms, squalls, and light baffling winds; otherwise known as the
horse-latitudes.

DÔLE, a town in France, Jura, 26 miles southeast of Dijon. It is of Roman
origin, was long the capital of Franche Comté, and has some interesting
antiquities. The manufactures are Prussian blue, hosiery, ironware, and
leather. Pop. 16,294.

DOL´ERITE, compact rock of the Basaltic series, but crystalline throughout,
composed of augite and labradorite with some titaniferous iron ore and
often olivine. It makes, when unaltered, an excellent road-metal.

DOLGEL´LY, a town of Wales, capital of Merionethshire, near the foot of
Cader Idris. It was there that Owen Glendower held his Parliament in 1404
and signed his treaty with Charles VI of France. It has manufactories of
woollens, flannels, and cloths. Pop. 2160.

DOLICHOCEPHALIC (dol-i-ko-se-fal´ik), long-headed: a term used in
anthropology to denote those skulls in which the diameter from side to side
is less in proportion to the longitudinal diameter (i.e. from front to
back) than 8 to 10.

DOL´ICHOS (-kos), a genus of leguminous plants, sub-ord. Papilionaceæ. They
are found in the tropical and temperate regions of Asia, Africa, and
America, and all produce edible legumes. _D. Lablab_ is one of the most
common kidney beans in India, and _D. biflorus_ (horse-gram) is used as
cattle-food in the same country. _D. Pachyrrhizus tuber[=o]sus_ of
Martinique has a fleshy tuberous root which is an article of food.

DOL´ICHOSAURUS ('long lizard'), an extinct snake-like reptile found in the
English chalk, whose remains indicate a creature of aquatic habits from 2
to 3 feet in length.

DOLLAR, a silver or gold coin of the United States, of the value of 100
cents, or rather above 4_s_. sterling. The same name is also given to coins
of the same general weight and value, though differing somewhat in
different countries, current in Mexico, a great part of South America,
Singapore, and the Philippine Islands. The name is from the Dutch (also
Danish and Swedish) _daler_, from Ger. _thaler_, so named from Ger. _thal_,
a dale, because first coined in Joachimsthal, in Bohemia, in 1518. By the
Act of 14th March, 1900, the gold dollar was declared to be the standard of
value in the United States, but no provision was made for the issue of a
coin corresponding to the unit.

DOLLAR, a town and police burgh, Scotland, Clackmannanshire, 10 miles E. by
N. of Stirling, noted for its academy, founded by John Macnab, who left
£90,000 for this purpose. The building, a handsome structure in the Grecian
style, was erected in 1819. The population of the village is 1497.

DOLLART, THE, a gulf of the North Sea, at the mouth of the Ems, between the
Dutch province of Groningen and Hanover. It was originally dry land, and
was formed by irruptions of the sea which took place in 1277 and 1530,
overwhelming thirty-four large villages and numerous hamlets.

DÖLLINGER (deul´ing-[.e]r), Johann Joseph Ignaz, a celebrated German
theologian and leader of the Old Catholic party, was born at Bamberg, in
Bavaria, in 1799, died in 1890. In 1822 he entered the Church, and soon
after published _The Doctrine of the Eucharist during the First Three
Centuries_, a work which won him the position of lecturer on Church history
at the University of Munich. In later years he took an active part in the
political struggles of the time as representative of the university in the
Bavarian Parliament, and as delegate at the Diet of Frankfurt voted for the
total separation of Church and State. In 1861 he delivered a course of
lectures, in which he attacked the temporal power of the Papacy. But it was
first at the Oecumenical Council of 1869-70 that Dr. Döllinger became
famous over Europe by his opposition to the doctrine of Papal
infallibility. In consequence of his opposition to the Vatican decrees, he
was excommunicated in 1871 by the Archbishop of Munich. A few months later
he was elected rector of the University of Munich, where he remained until
his death. When the sentence of his excommunication was pronounced, he
received honorary degrees from the Universities of Oxford and Edinburgh.
Among his numerous works are: _Origins of Christianity_, _A Sketch of
Luther_, _The Papacy_, _Lectures on the Reunion of the Churches_, and
_Papal Legends of the Middle Ages_.

DOL´LOND, John, an English optician of French descent, born in 1706, died
in 1761. He devoted his attention to the improvement of refracting
telescopes, and succeeded in constructing object-glasses in which the
refrangibility of the rays of light was corrected.

DOLLS, representing more or less realistically the human form, have, for
more than fifty centuries, been the common playthings of children, more
especially of girls, whose maternal instinct impels them to lavish upon
these often crude surrogates all the affection and devotion which their
elders display towards real babies. But in ancient times, and even in the
ritual of many modern religions, worship is not infrequently paid to human
images, which in ancient times, and among the less cultured modern peoples,
are hardly distinguishable from dolls, such as children regard as
playthings and their fancy endows with a crude animism. In the earliest
times in which members of our own species, _Homo sapiens_, are known to
have lived in Europe, i.e. at the latter part of the so-called Old Stone
(palæolithic) Age, it was the custom to make grotesque representations of
the female form as small figurines of clay or stone, which were regarded as
amulets identified with the Great Mother, the giver of birth or life to
mankind. As 'givers of life' such amulets were believed to be able to
protect their possessors against the risk of death, because they were
regarded in the most literal sense of the term as life-giving. But it was
not merely against the risk of death that such amulets were believed to be
potent: they could add 'vital substance' to the living and the dead,
rejuvenating and reinvigorating the former, and enhancing the chances of
continued existence and survival to the latter. Enormous respect was
naturally paid to figurines supposed to possess such far-reaching powers;
and when the Great Mother came to be identified with various animals, such
as the cow, pig, &c., the amulet was identified with these 'givers of life'
and sometimes represented in their shape. This is intimately associated
with the origin of _totemism_ (q.v.). It is probable that the modern doll
is in part at least the survivor of these primitive images of the deities
of early peoples. The fact that modern dolls are usually of the female sex
may also be due to the fact of the earliest prototype of the doll being an
amulet representing the Great Mother.

DOL´MAN, a long robe worn by the Turks as an upper garment. It is open in
front, and has narrow sleeves. It has given its name to a kind of loose
jacket worn by ladies, and to the jacket worn by hussars.

DOL´MEN, a Celtic name meaning 'table-stone'. Although some apply the name
to prehistoric stone chambers covered with more than one slab (really
'corridor tombs'), the Dolmen proper, whether round or square, has a single
cover-slab, and three, four, or even more stones supporting it. Some
authorities consider the name _dolmen_ as simply a French equivalent for
_cromlech_ (q.v.).

DOLOMIEU (dol-o-my_eu_), Déodat Guy Silvain Tancrède Gratet de, a French
geologist and mineralogist, born in 1750 at Dolomieu (Isère), died in 1801.
After some years of military service, he devoted himself to geological
researches. He accompanied the French expedition to Egypt, but was
shipwrecked on his return off the coast of Taranto, and imprisoned and
harshly treated by the Neapolitan Government. Among his works are: _Voyages
aux Îles de Lipari_ (1783), _Sur le Tremblement de Terre de la Calabre_
(1784), _Philosophie minéralogique_ (1802).

DOL´OMITE, a mineral, the main constituent of magnesian limestone. It is
composed of carbonate of calcium and carbonate of magnesium in equal
molecular quantities, and varies from grey or yellowish-white to
yellowish-brown. Dolomite is easily scratched with the knife, and is
semi-transparent. It effervesces only slightly in _cold_ hydrochloric acid.
Its rhombohedral crystals are sometimes called _bitter-spar_. A variety is
_pearl spar_, which has crystals with curvilinear faces and a pearly
lustre.

DOLOMITES, a group of European mountains, a division of the Alps, in the
Trentino, North Italy, and having the Piave and Rienz on the east, the
Adige and Eisack on the west. They are named from the prevalence of the
mineral dolomite, and present most interesting and picturesque scenery, the
peaks being endlessly varied in form. The highest summits are Palle di San
Martino (10,968 feet); Sorapiss (10,798 feet), and Monte Tofana (10,715
feet).

[Illustration: Common Dolphin (_Delph[=i]nus delphis_)]

DOLPHIN (_Delph[=i]nus_), a cetaceous animal, forming the type of a family
(Delphinidæ) which includes also the beluga or white whale (_Delphinapterus
leucas_), the narwhal (_Monodon_), porpoises (_Phocæna_), the ca'ing whale
(_Globicephalus melas_), and the killer whale or grampus (_Orca
gladiator_). Dolphins inhabit every sea from the equator to the poles; they
are gregarious, and swim with extraordinary velocity. The common dolphin
(_D. delphis_) measures from 6 to 10 feet in length, has a long, sharp
snout with numerous nearly conical teeth in both jaws; its flesh is coarse,
rank, and disagreeable, but is used by the Laplanders as food. It lives on
fish, molluscs, &c., and often may be seen in numbers round shoals of
herring. The animal has to come to the surface at short intervals to
breathe. The blow-hole is of a semilunar form, with a kind of valvular
apparatus, and opens on the vertex, nearly over the eyes. The structure of
the ear renders the sense of hearing very acute, and the animal is observed
to be attracted by regular or harmonious sounds. A single young one is
produced by the female, who suckles and watches it with great care and
anxiety, long after it has acquired considerable size. Dolphins are
associated with many legends, and they figure in armorial bearings.--The
name is also commonly but improperly given to fishes (species of Coryphæna)
belonging to the mackerel family. They abound within the tropics, are about
4 or 5 feet long, very swift in swimming, and are used as food, though said
sometimes to be poisonous. The corn aphis (_Siphonophora granaria_) is
locally known as the dolphin.

DOMAIN´, same as _Demesne_; also applied especially to Crown lands or
Government lands.--_Right of eminent domain_, the dominion of the sovereign
power over all the property within the State, by which it is entitled to
appropriate any part necessary to the public good, compensation being
given.

DOMBROWSKI (-brov´sk[=e]), Jan Henryk, a Polish general, distinguished in
the wars of Napoleon, born in 1755, died in 1818. He supported the rising
of the Poles under Kosciusko in 1794. In 1796 he entered the service of
France, and at the head of a Polish legion rendered signal services in
Italy from 1796 to 1801. He took a distinguished part in the invasion of
Russia in 1812, and also in the campaign of 1813. After Napoleon's
abdication he returned to Poland, and the year following was made a Polish
Senator by Alexander I.

[Illustration: Dome of St. Paul's

Section showing the inner and outer domes with the conical wall. Diameter
inside dome at base 102 feet.]

[Illustration: The Pantheon, Rome]

DOME, a vaulted roof of spherical or other curvature, covering a building
or part of it, and forming a common feature in Byzantine and also in
Renaissance architecture. Cupola is also used as a synonym, or is applied
to the interior, dome being applied to the exterior. (See _Cupola_.) Most
modern domes are semi-elliptical in vertical section, and are constructed
of timber; but the ancient domes were nearly hemispherical and constructed
of stone. Of domes the finest, without any comparison, ancient or modern,
is that of the Rotunda or Pantheon at Rome (142½ feet internal diameter and
143 feet internal height), erected in the reign of Augustus, and still
perfect. Among others the most noteworthy are St. Sophia at Constantinople
(104 × 201 feet), the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence (139 ×
310 feet), St. Peter's at Rome (139 × 330 feet), St. Paul's, London (112 ×
215 feet), the Hôtel des Invalides (80 × 173 feet) and the Panthéon
(formerly the church of St. Geneviève) at Paris (67 × 190 feet). The
figures represent the internal diameter and height in English feet. The
finest dome in America is that of the Capitol at Washington, built of cast
iron.

DOMENICHINO (d[=o]-men-i-k[=e]´n[=o]) (or DOMENICO) ZAMPIERI, a
distinguished Italian painter, of the Lombard school, born at Bologna on
21st Oct., 1581. He studied under Annibal Carracci, and afterwards went to
Rome, where he became painter to Pope Gregory XV. Among his best works are
the _Communion of St. Jerome_ in the Vatican Museum, the _History of
Apollo_, the _Martyrdom of St. Agnes_, and the _Triumph of David_. He died
at Naples, 15th April, 1641.

[Illustration: Domesday Book

From the original in the Public Record Office, London.]

DOMESDAY (or DOOMSDAY) BOOK, a book containing a survey of all the lands in
England, compiled in the reign and by the order of William the Conqueror.
The survey was made by commissioners, who collected the information in each
district from a sworn jury consisting of sheriffs, lords of manors,
presbyters, bailiffs, villeins--all the classes, in short, interested in
the matter. The extent, tenure, value, and proprietorship of the land in
each district, the state of culture, and in some cases the number of
tenants, villeins, serfs, &c., were the matters chiefly recorded. The
survey was completed within a year. Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, and
Westmoreland were not included in the survey, probably for the reason that
William's authority was not then (1086) settled in those parts. The
_Domesday Book_ first appeared in print in 1783 in two folios. In 1816 two
supplementary volumes were published. These contained four other records of
the same nature. It has been twice republished, the last time (1861-5) in
perfect facsimiles of the original.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _The Victoria County
History_; F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_; H. Ellis, _General
Introduction to Domesday Book_; Birch, _Domesday: a Popular Account_.

DOM´ICILE, in law, the place where a person has a home or established
residence. Domicile is often an important question in determining the
efficacy of legal citations, the validity of marriage, the right of
succession to property, &c. For some purposes what is called a temporary
domicile is sufficient, but in questions of marriage and succession it is
the permanent domicile that determines the decision. A permanent domicile
may be constituted by birth, by choice, or by operation of the law. To
constitute a domicile by choice both actual residence and the intention to
make it the permanent home are required. It is a legal principle that the
wife takes the domicile of her husband. As a general rule the old domicile,
and especially the domicile of origin, continues till a new one has been
acquired.

DOM´INANT, in music, the fifth tone of the diatonic scale. This tone
assumes the character of a key-note itself when there is a modulation into
the first sharp remove. Thus G is the dominant of the scale of C, and D the
dominant of the scale of G.--_Dominant chord_, in music, that which is
formed by grouping three tones, rising gradually by intervals of a third
from the dominant or fifth tone of the scale. It occurs almost invariably
immediately before the tonic chord which closes the perfect cadence.

DOM´INIC, SAINT, the founder of the order of the Dominicans, was born in
1170 at Calahorra, in Old Castile. He early distinguished himself by his
zeal for the reform of canonical life and by his success as a missionary
amongst the Mohammedans. His attention having been directed to the
Albigenses in the south of France, he organized a mission of preachers
against heresy in Languedoc. In 1215 he went to Rome to obtain the sanction
of Pope Innocent III to erect the mission into a new order of preaching
friars. His request was only partially granted, and it was the succeeding
Pope, Honorius III, who first recognized the importance of a preaching
order, and conferred full privileges on the Dominicans. He also appointed
Dominic Master of the Sacred Palace or court preacher to the Vatican, an
office which is still held by one of the order. Dominic died at Bologna in
1221, and was canonized in 1234 by Pope Gregory IX. St. Dominic is usually
considered the founder of the Inquisition, which is supposed to have
originated with his mission to the Albigenses; but his claim is denied, on
the ground that two Cistercian monks were appointed inquisitors in
1198.--Cf. A. T. Drane, _The Life of St. Dominic_.

DOMINICA (dom-i-n[=e]´k[.a]), a British West India island, so named because
discovered by Columbus on a Sunday (Sp. _dominica_), constituting a
presidency of the united colony of the Leeward Islands between Martinique
on the south, and Guadeloupe on the north. It is about 29 miles in length,
north to south, and 12 miles in breadth, east to west; area, 186,436 acres,
about 65,000 being under cultivation. It is rugged and mountainous, but it
contains many fertile valleys and is well watered. The shores are but
little indented, and are entirely without harbours; but on the west side
there are several good anchorages and bays. The principal exports consist
of sugar, molasses, cocoa, and lime-juice. The imports and exports amount
to about £160,000 and £120,000 annually. Dominica was ceded by France to
Great Britain in 1763. Roseau is the capital. Pop. 33,863 (including about
420 aboriginal Caribs).

DOMIN´ICAL LETTER, in chronology, properly called Sunday letter, one of the
seven letters of the alphabet, A B C D E F G, used in almanacs,
ephemerides, &c., to mark the first seven days of the year and all
consecutive sets of seven days to the end of the year, so that the letter
for Sunday will always be the same. If the number of days in the year were
divisible by seven without remainder, then the year would constantly begin
with the same day of the week; but as it is the year begins and ends on the
same day, and therefore the next year will begin on the day following, and
on leap years two days following, so that the same series is not repeated
till after four times seven or twenty-eight years.

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, or SAN DOMINGO. See _Santo Domingo_.

[Illustration: Dominican]

DOMIN´ICANS, called also _predicants_, or _preaching friars
(prædicatores)_, derived their name from their founder, St. Dominic. At
their origin (1215, at Toulouse) they were governed by the rule of St.
Augustine, perpetual silence, poverty, and fasting being enjoined upon
them; and the principal object of their institution was to preach against
heretics. Their distinctive dress consists of a white habit and scapular
with a large black mantle, and hence they have been commonly known as
_Black Friars_. They were almost from the first a mendicant order. They
spread rapidly not only in Europe, but in Asia, Africa, and America. In
England, where they founded their first house at Oxford, there were
fifty-eight Dominican houses at the dissolution of the monasteries, and the
Blackfriars locality in London took its name from one of their
establishments. Four Popes, Innocent V, Benedict XI, Pius V, and Benedict
XIII, were Dominicans, and the order produced some famous scholars, such as
Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. As fierce opponents and strenuous
combatants against any departure from the teaching of the Catholic Church,
the Dominicans were entrusted with the conduct of the Inquisition, and
became formidable as managers of this ecclesiastical institution, which was
committed exclusively to them in Spain, Portugal, and Italy. In 1425 they
obtained permission to receive donations, and ceased to belong to the
mendicant orders, paying more attention to politics and theological
science. With the Franciscans, their great rivals, they divided the honour
of ruling in Church and State till the sixteenth century, when the Jesuits
gradually superseded them in the schools and courts. They obtained new
importance in 1620 by being appointed to the censorship of books for the
Church. Amongst notable Dominicans we may mention Savonarola, Las Casas,
and Lacordaire, through whose efforts the order was revived in France in
the nineteenth century. There are still establishments of the Dominicans
both in England and Ireland, twenty-one houses for men and thirteen for
women.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Caro, _Saint Dominique et les Dominicains_; A. T.
Drane, _The Life of St. Dominic, with a Sketch of the Dominican Order_.

[Illustration: Dominoes.

Left, Priest wearing domino over surplice, from brass plate at Bury St.
Edmunds, 1514. Right, Lady wearing domino.]

DOM´INO, formerly a dress worn by priests in the winter, which, reaching no
lower than the shoulders, served to protect the face and head from the
weather. At present it is a masquerade dress worn by gentlemen and ladies,
consisting of a long silk mantle with wide sleeves and a masquing hood. The
name is also given to a half-mask formerly worn on the face by ladies when
travelling or at masquerades.

DOM´INOES, a game played with small flat rectangular pieces of ivory, about
twice as long as they are broad. They are marked with spots varying in
number. When one player leads by laying down a domino, the next must follow
by placing alongside of it another which has the same number of spots on
one of its sides. Thus if the first player lays down 6-4, the second may
reply with 4-8, or 6-7, &c.; in the former case he must turn in the 4,
placing it beside the 4 of the first domino, so that the numbers remaining
out will be 6-8; in the latter case he must turn in the 6 to the 6 in like
manner, leaving 4-7, to which his opponent must now respond. The player who
cannot follow suit loses his turn, and the object of the game is to get rid
of all the dominoes in hand, or to hold fewer spots than your opponent when
the game is exhausted by neither being able to play. The game was
introduced into Europe about the middle of the eighteenth century.

[Illustration: Domitian]

DOMITIAN, or in full Titus Flavius Domitianus Augustus, Roman emperor, son
of Vespasian, and younger brother of Titus, was born A.D. 51, and in 81
succeeded to the throne. At first he ruled with a show of moderation and
justice, but soon returned to the cruelty and excesses for which his youth
had been notorious. He was as vain as he was cruel, and after an
ineffective expedition against the Catti, carried a multitude of his
slaves, dressed like Germans, in triumph to the city. He executed great
numbers of the chief citizens, and assumed the titles of Lord and God. He
established the most stringent laws against high treason, which enabled
almost anything to be construed into this crime. At length a conspiracy, in
which his wife Domitia took part, was formed against him, and he was
assassinated in his bedroom A.D. 96.

DOMRÉMY LA PUCELLE (do[n.]-r[.e]-mi l[.a] p[.u]-s[=a]l), the birth-place of
Joan of Arc, a small French village, department of the Vosges, 7 miles N.
of Neufchâteau. The house is still shown here in which the heroine was
born, and in the neighbourhood is the monument erected to her memory.

DON (ancient TANAÏS), a river of Russia, which issues from Lake Ivan-Ozero,
in the government of Tula; and flows S.E. through the governments of
Riazan, Tambov, Voronej, and the Don Republic, to within 37 miles of the
Volga, where a railway connects the rivers. It now turns abruptly S.W. for
236 miles, and falls into the Sea of Azov; whole course nearly 900 miles.
The chief tributaries are: right bank, the Donetz and Voronej; left, the
Khoper and Manych. Although not admitting vessels of much draught, the Don
carries a large traffic, especially during the spring-floods, and a canal
connects it with the Volga system of navigation. It has productive
fisheries. The principal port is Rostov.

DON, a river, Scotland, Aberdeenshire, rising near the Banffshire border.
It flows tortuously east through the whole breadth of Aberdeenshire, and
falls into the North Sea a little to the north of Aberdeen, after a total
course of 82 miles. Its salmon fisheries are of considerable value.--Also,
a river of Yorkshire, England, which rises near Cheshire, and joins the
Ouse after a course of about 70 miles. It is navigable for small craft as
far as Sheffield.

DON (Lat. _dominus_, a lord or master), a Spanish title of honour,
originally given only to the highest nobility, afterwards to all the
nobles, and finally used indiscriminately as a title of courtesy. It
corresponds with the Portuguese Dom. During the Spanish occupation it was
introduced and became naturalized in some parts of Italy, and was
particularly applied to the priests.

DONAGHADEE (don-a_h_-a-d[=e]´), a seaport and market town, Ireland, County
Down, on the Irish Channel, 16 miles east by north of Belfast. Pop. 4878.

DON´ALDSON, Sir James, Scottish scholar, born in 1831 at Aberdeen, died in
1915. He was educated at Aberdeen University, and also at Manchester New
College, London, and Berlin University. After being rector of Stirling High
School, a classical master and rector of Edinburgh High School, he was
appointed in 1881 to the Chair of Humanity (Latin) in Aberdeen University.
In 1886 he became principal of the United College of St. Salvator and St.
Leonard in St. Andrews University, and in 1890 principal of the university.
He published a _Modern Greek Grammar for the use of Classical Students_
(1853); _Lyra Græca: Specimens of Greek Lyric Poets, with Introduction and
Notes_ (1854); _History of Christian Literature and Doctrine from the Death
of the Apostles to the Nicene Council_ (1864-6); _The Ante-Nicene Christian
Library_ (24 vols., 1867-72, edited jointly with Professor A. Roberts);
_The Apostolical Fathers_ (1874); _Lectures on the History of Education in
Prussia and England_ (1874); _The Westminster Confession of Faith_ (1905);
_Woman: her Position and Influence in Ancient Greece and Rome, and among
the Early Christians_ (1907); _Addresses Delivered in the University of St.
Andrews from 1886 to 1910_ (1911). He was knighted in 1907.

DONALDSON, John William, a distinguished English philologist, was born in
London in 1811, died in 1861. He studied at London University, and at
Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected a fellow in 1835. His
first work was _The Theatre of the Greeks_, a work showing much erudition.
In 1839 he published _The New Cratylus_, which was amongst the earliest
attempts to bring the philological literature of the Continent within the
reach of the English student. In 1844 appeared the first edition of
_Varronianus_, a work on Latin similar in scope to the _Cratylus_. Amongst
his other writings are: _Christian Orthodoxy_ (1855), _History of the
Literature of Ancient Greece_, and grammars of the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin
languages.

DONATELLO (properly, _Donato di Betto Bardi_), one of the revivers of the
art of sculpture in Italy, was born at Florence between 1382 and 1387, died
at Florence in 1466. His first great works in marble were statues of St.
Peter and St. Mark, in the church of St. Michael in his native town, in an
outside niche of which is also his famous statue of St. George. Along with
his friend Brunelleschi he made a journey to Rome to study its art
treasures. On his return he executed for his patrons, Cosmo and Lorenzo de'
Medici, a marble monument to their father and mother, which is of high
merit. Statues of St. John, St. George, Judith, David, John the Evangelist,
and St. Cecilia are amongst his leading works.

DONA´TI'S COMET, so called from the Italian astronomer Donati, who first
observed it on 2nd June, 1858. Next to the comet of 1811 it was the most
brilliant that appeared last century. It was nearest the earth on the 10th
Oct., 1858, and was seen until March, 1859. See _Comets_.

DON´ATISTS, one of a body of African schismatics of the fourth century, so
named from their founder Donatus, Bishop of Casæ Nigræ, in Numidia, who
taught that though Christ was of the same substance with the Father yet
that he was less than the Father, that the Catholic Church was not
infallible, but had erred in his time and become practically extinct, and
that he was to be the restorer of it. All joining the sect required to be
rebaptized, baptism by the impure Church being invalid.

DONA´TUS, Ælius, a Roman grammarian and commentator, born A.D. 333. He was
the preceptor of St. Jerome, wrote notes on Virgil and Terence, and a
grammar of the Latin language so universally used in the Middle Ages that
'Donat' became a common term for grammar or primer of instruction.

DONAUWÖRTH (don´ou-v_eu_rt), a town, Bavaria, at the confluence of the
Wörnitz and Danube. It was formerly a free Imperial town, and was stormed
by the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War, 1632. Pop.
5500.

DON BENI´TO, a town, Spain, province of Badajoz. It has manufactures of
woollens, and a trade in cattle, grain, and melons. Pop. 19,212.

DON´CASTER (_Danum_ of the Romans, and _Dona Ceaster_ of the Saxons), a
municipal borough and market town, England, West Riding of Yorkshire, on
the River Don, well built, with straight, broad streets. The parish church
with its tower 170 feet high, Christ Church, the town hall, the theatre,
are amongst the chief public buildings. It has railway workshops,
manufactures of ropes, canvas, and machinery. It has been long celebrated
for its annual races, begun in 1615, and held in September. Doncaster was
originally a Roman station on the line of Watling Street. Pop. 30,520. It
gives its name to a parliamentary division.

DONDRAH HEAD, the southern extremity of the Island of Ceylon. It was the
site of the Singhalese capital during part of the seventh century, numerous
remains of which are still to be found.

DON´EGAL (_Dun-na-n Gal_, Fort of the Stranger), a maritime county,
Ireland, province of Ulster, bounded north and west by the Atlantic Ocean;
area, 1,197,154 acres, of which about a fifth is under crops. The coast is
indented with numerous bays; the most remarkable being Lough Swilly. It is
the most mountainous county in Ireland, but has some fine fertile valleys.
Mount Errigal, the loftiest summit, is about 2460 feet high. The streams
and lakes are small, but numerous and abounding in fish. The climate is
moist, the subsoil chiefly granite, mica-slate, and limestone, and the
principal crops oats, potatoes, and flax. Agriculture generally is in a
very backward state. The manufactures are limited, and consist chiefly of
linen cloth, woollen stockings, and worked muslin. The fisheries are
extensive and valuable, and form the chief employment of the inhabitants of
the coast and islands. Grain, butter, and eggs are exported. The minerals
include marble, lead, and copper, but are not wrought to advantage. Donegal
returns four members to Parliament. Pop. 168,530.

DONETZ´, a Russian river which rises in the government of Kursk, flows
south and east, forming the boundary of several governments, and joins the
Don; length, 400 miles. Its basin is rich in coal.

DON´GOLA, a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan extending on both sides of
the Nile from about lat. 18° to lat. 20° N. After having belonged to Egypt,
the rebellion under the Mahdi caused its evacuation by the Egyptian
Government, leaving it in the hands of the dervishes, but the
Anglo-Egyptian forces under Lord Kitchener again occupied it in 1896. Its
chief products are dates, cotton, indigo, and maize. The population is a
mixture of Arabs and indigenous Nubians. Its chief town is New Dongola, or
El-Ordi, on the Nile. Pop. 20,000.

DONI, a clumsy kind of boat used on the coast of Coromandel and Ceylon;
sometimes decked, and occasionally furnished with an outrigger. The donis
are about 70 feet long, 20 feet broad, and 12 feet deep, have one mast and
a lug-sail, and are navigated in fine weather only.

DONIZET´TI, Gaetano, Italian composer, born in 1797 at Bergamo, died 8th
April, 1848. He studied music at Bologna under the distinguished Abbé
Mattei. His first opera, _Enrico di Borgogna_, was represented at Venice in
1818. In 1822 his _Zoraïde di Granata_ gained him the honour of being
crowned on the Capitol. In 1830 appeared his _Anna Bolena_, which first,
along with _Lucrezia Borgia_ and _Lucia di Lammermoor_--the latter his
masterpiece--acquired for him a European fame. In 1835 Donizetti was
appointed professor of counterpoint at the Royal College of Naples, but
removed in 1840 to Paris, bringing with him three new operas, _Les
Martyrs_, _La Favorita_, and _La Fille du Régiment_, of which the last two
are amongst his most popular productions. Of his other operas none except
_Linda di Chamounix_ (1842) and _Don Pasquale_ (1843) achieved any special
triumph. He wrote in all as many as seventy operas.

DONJON, the principal tower of a castle, situated in the innermost court or
bailey, which the garrison could make the last line of defence. Its lower
part was commonly used as a prison.

DON JUAN (Sp. pron. _h_[u:]-[.a]n´), the hero of a Spanish legend which
seems to have had some historical basis in the history of a member of the
noble family of Tenorio at Seville. According to the legend, Don Juan was a
libertine of the most reckless character. An attempt to seduce the daughter
of the Governor of Seville brought the indignant father and the profligate
don into deadly conflict, in which the former was slain. Don Juan
afterwards, in a spirit of wild mockery, goes to the grave of the murdered
man and invites the statue of him erected there to a revel. To the terror
of Don Juan the 'stony guest' actually appears at the table to bear him
away to the infernal world. The legend has furnished the subject for many
dramas and operas. The most famous of the latter is Mozart's _Don
Giovanni_, which has made the story familiar to everybody. Amongst the
former are _Burlador de Sevilla_ by Tellez, _Don Juan, ou Le Festin de
Pierre_ by Molière (1665), and _The Libertine_ by Shadwell. The _Don Juan_
of Byron bears no relation to the old story but in name and in the
libertine character of the hero. Among the modern authors who have made use
of the theme are: Prosper Mérimée, in _Les âmes du purgatoire_; A. Dumas,
in _Don Juan de Marana_; Bernard Shaw, in _Man and Superman_; and José
Zorilla, in _Don Juan Tenorio_.--Cf. Gendarme de Bévotte, _La Légende de
Don Juan_.

DONKEY-ENGINE, a small engine used in various operations where no great
power is required. Thus a donkey-engine is often stationed on the deck of a
ship to work a crane for loading and unloading.

DONNAY, Maurice Charles, French dramatist, born in Paris in 1859. His first
work, _Phryné_, was produced in 1891, and was followed by an adaptation of
Aristophanes' _Lysistrata_. His later works include: _Douloureuse_ (1897),
_Le Torrent_ (1898), _L'Affranchie_ (1898), _L'Autre Danger_ (1901), _Le
Retour de Jérusalem_ (1903), _Le Ménage de Molière_ (1912). He was elected
to the Académie Française in 1907.

DONNE, John, a celebrated poet and dean of St. Paul's, was the son of a
merchant of London, in which city he was born in 1573. He studied both at
Oxford and Cambridge. In his nineteenth year he abjured the Catholic
religion, and became secretary to the Lord Chancellor Ellesmere, but
finally lost his office by a clandestine marriage with his patron's niece,
a daughter of Sir George More. The young couple were in consequence reduced
to great distress, till his father-in-law relented so far as to give his
daughter a moderate portion. In 1610 he wrote for the king the
_Pseudo-Martyr_, and in 1612 he published a philosophical poem, _The
Progress of the Soul_. By the desire of King James, Donne took orders, and,
settling in London, was made preacher of Lincoln's Inn. In 1621 he was
appointed Dean of St. Paul's. He was chosen prolocutor to the Convocation
from 1623-4. He died in March, 1631, and was interred in St. Paul's. As a
poet, Donne stands extremely high, and may be deemed the founder of what
Dr. Johnson calls the _metaphysical_ class of poets. Abounding in thought,
this school generally neglected versification, and that of Dr. Donne was
peculiarly harsh and unmusical. His style is quaint and pedantic; but he
displays sound learning, deep thinking, and originality of manner. A
collection of his poems appeared in 1633, and they include: _The Storm_,
_The Calm_, _The Blossom_, and _Upon Parting with his Mistress_. He also
wrote _Letters, Sermons, Essays on Divinity_, and other pieces.--Cf. E.
Gosse, _Life and Letters of John Donne_.

DONNYBROOK, formerly a village, Ireland, now a suburb of Dublin. Its famous
fair, instituted under King John in 1204, and which seldom passed off
without riot and bloodshed, was abolished in 1855.

DON REPUBLIC, a republic in south-eastern Russia, formerly a government of
imperial Russia, and known as the Don Cossacks' Territory. The republic was
proclaimed in Jan., 1918; its capital is Novo-Tscherkask.

DOOMBOOK, a code of laws compiled by King Alfred from the West-Saxon
collection of his ancestor Ina, and comprising small portions of the
Mercian laws of Offa, and of the Kentish collection of Ethelbert. The code
begins with the words: "The Lord spake these words to Moses, and thus said:
I am the Lord thy God".--Cf. B. Thorpe, _Ancient Laws and Institutes of
England_.

DOON, a river in Ayrshire, Scotland, which issues from the long, narrow
Loch Doon, and falls into the Firth of Clyde; length, 27 miles.

DOPPLER'S PRINCIPLE, the principle by which the motions of heavenly bodies
in the line of sight can be determined spectroscopically. When the distance
between a body and the observer is being diminished, the number of waves of
light of any definite colour received from it per second is increased, just
as a swimmer meets more waves in the same time if he swims to meet them.
Each colour of light is, therefore, slightly shifted towards the violet end
of the spectrum. Thus any radiation or absorption lines seen are shifted
towards the violet. If the body's distance is increasing, they are shifted
towards the red. By investigation of such displacements, the motions of
stars, nebulæ, &c., in the line of sight can be measured, the dimensions of
the orbits of double-stars gauged, the motions of gases in the solar
atmosphere determined, and the rotational velocity of the sun's surface
found for latitudes where sun-spots are rarely or never visible. The speed
and direction of the sun's motion through space, viz. 12 miles per second
towards a point in the constellation Hercules, has also been determined by
this means.

DOR, or DORR, the black-beetle, _Geotr[=u]pes stercorarius_, one of the
most common British beetles, of a stout form, less than 1 inch long, black
with metallic reflections, not to be confounded with the cockroach,
commonly but erroneously called black-beetle. It may often be heard droning
through the air towards the close of the summer twilight.

DORA, the name of two rivers in Northern Italy, both tributaries of the Po.
The Dora Baltea rises on the southern slopes of the Mont Blanc group, and
falls, after a course of about 100 miles, into the Po below Chivasso; the
Dora Riparia, about 75 miles long, rises in the Cottian Alps, and joins the
Po below Turin.

DO´RAN, John, English writer, born 1807, died 1878. He began writing when a
mere youth, and produced a great number of books, among them being _Lives
of the Queens of England of the House of Hanover_, _Monarchs retired from
Business_, _History of Court Fools_, _The Book of the Princes of Wales_,
_Their Majesties' Servants_ (a history of the English stage from Betterton
to Kean), _Saints and Sinners_, _A Lady of the Last Century_ (Mrs.
Montague), _London in Jacobite Times_, and _Memories of Our Great Towns_.
_In and about Drury Lane_ was published after his death. He was editor of
_Notes and Queries_ at the time of his death.

DORCAS SOCIETY (from _Dorcas_ mentioned in _Acts_, ix, 36-42), an
association generally composed of ladies for supplying clothes to the poor.
Frequently the members of the society meet at stated times and work in
common. Partial payment is generally required from all recipients except
the very poor. Most of these societies are connected with churches of one
denomination or another.

DOR´CHESTER, a municipal borough of England, chief town of Dorsetshire, 118
miles S.W. of London. There are large cavalry and infantry barracks a
little to the west of the town. The trade consists chiefly in agricultural
produce. Dorchester was an important Roman station (Durnovaria), and many
interesting Roman remains, such as the 'Maumbury Rings' (a Roman
amphitheatre), are still to be found in the vicinity. It was a
parliamentary borough till 1885, when it was merged in the county. Pop.
9842.

DORDOGNE (dor-dony), a department of France, which includes the greater
part of the ancient province of Périgord, and small portions of Limousin,
Angoumois, and Saintonge. Area, 3544 sq. miles, of which about a third is
fit for the plough. The chief minerals are iron, which is abundant, slate,
limestone, marble, and other stone. Mining, iron manufacture, &c., are
carried on to a considerable extent, and there are a number of vineyards.
The climate is mild but somewhat changeable. Pop. 396,702.--The river
_Dordogne_, principal river of the department, rises on the flanks of the
Puy-de-Sancy, flows W.S.W., and, after a course of 290 miles, unites with
the Garonne in forming the Gironde.

DORDRECHT. See _Dort_.

DORÉ (d[=o]-r[=a]), Gustave Paul, a prolific French draughtsman and
painter, born at Strasbourg, 6th Jan., 1833, died 23rd June, 1883. He
studied at Paris, contributing, when only sixteen years of age, comic
sketches to the _Journal pour Rire_. He distinguished himself greatly as an
illustrator of books. His illustrations of Rabelais (_Rabelais Illustré_),
of Perrault's _Tales_, Sue's _Wandering Jew_, Dante's _Divina Commedia_,
and Cervantes' _Don Quixote_ displayed great fertility of invention, and
the fine fantasy of his landscapes and the dramatic effectiveness of his
groups acquired for him a European reputation. His illustrations of the
Bible, of Ariosto's _Orlando Furioso_, and Milton's _Paradise Lost_ are
also of high excellence. As a painter he has grandeur of conception and a
bold expressive style. Amongst his chief works are: _Christ leaving the
Prætorium_, _Paolo and Francesca di Rimini_, _The Flight into Egypt_, and
_Mont Blanc_. In later years Doré also won fame as a sculptor.

DORE´MA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Umbelliferæ. _D. ammoni[)a]cum_, a
Persian species, yields the ammoniacum of commerce, a milky juice that
exudes from punctures on the stem and dries in little 'tears'.

DORIA, one of the most powerful families of Genoa, became distinguished
about the beginning of the twelfth century, and shared with three other
leading families, the Fieschi, Grimaldi, and Spinola, the early government
of the Republic. Amongst the older heroes of this family are Oberto Doria,
who in 1284 commanded the Genoese fleet which at Meloria annihilated the
power of Pisa; Lamba Doria, who in 1298 defeated the Venetian Dandolo at
the naval battle of Curzola; Paganino Doria, who in the middle of the
fourteenth century distinguished himself by great victories over the
Venetians. But the greatest name of the Dorias is that of Andrea, born at
Oneglia in 1466, of a younger branch of the family. After serving some time
as a condottiere with the princes of Southern Italy, he was entrusted by
the Genoese with the reconstruction of their fleet. Disagreement with the
Genoese factions drove him to take service with Francis I of France, in
which he highly distinguished himself, and in 1527 he took Genoa in the
name of the French king. But being displeased with the projects of Francis
for reducing Genoa to a place of secondary importance, he went over to the
service of Charles V, carrying with him the whole influence and resources
of Genoa, and hastened the deliverance of Italy from French domination. He
entered Genoa in 1528, re-established order, reorganized the Government,
and, although refusing the title of doge, practically controlled its
affairs to the end of his life. The country bestowed on him the title of
_Father of Peace_. As Imperial Admiral he performed many services for
Charles, clearing the seas of Moorish pirates and assisting the emperor in
his expeditions to Tunis and Algiers. In 1547 his authority was threatened
by the conspiracy of Fieschi, and he narrowly escaped assassination in the
tumult. He died in 1560.

DORIANS, one of the three great branches of the Greek nation who migrated
from Thessaly southwards, settling for a time in the mountainous district
of Doris in Northern Greece and finally in Peloponnesus. Their migration to
the latter was said to have taken place in 1104 B.C.; and as among their
leaders were certain men reputed to be descendants of Hercules (or
Herakles), it was known as the return of the Heraclidæ. The Dorians ruled
in Sparta with great renown as a strong and warlike people, though less
cultivated than the other Greeks in arts and letters. Their laws were
severe and rigid, as typified in the codes of the great Doric legislators
Minos and Lycurgus.--The _Doric dialect_ was characterized by its broadness
and hardness, yet on account of its venerable and antique style was often
used in solemn odes and choruses.

[Illustration: Grecian Doric Order]

DORIC ORDER, in architecture, is the oldest, strongest, and simplest of the
three Grecian orders, and the one that is best represented among the
remains of ancient Greek architecture. The Doric column is distinguished by
its want of a base (in the more ancient examples, at least), by the small
number of its flutings, and by its massive proportions, the true Grecian
Doric having the height of its pillars six times that of the diameter. The
capital was small and simple, and the architrave, frieze, and cornice were
rather plain and massive.

DORIGNY (do-r[=e]-ny[=e]), the name of several French painters and
engravers. Michael, born in 1617, became professor in the Academy at Paris,
and died in 1665. Louis, son of the preceding, was born in 1654, settled in
Italy, and died in 1742. Sir Nicholas, brother of Louis, born in 1658 at
Paris, was the most celebrated of the three. He spent eight years in
engraving the famous cartoons of Raphael at Hampton Court, and was knighted
by George I. He died in 1746.

DORIS, anciently a small and mountainous region of Northern Greece, at one
time the abode of the Dorians. It now forms an eparchy in the nomarchy of
Phocis.

DORKING, a town of England, county of Surrey, 22 miles S.S.W. of London,
largely consisting of villa residences. Large numbers of fowls, known as
_Dorkings_, of an excellent breed, having five claws on the foot, are
reared here, and sent to the London markets. The breed was introduced both
into Gaul and Britain when those countries were subject to the Roman power.
Pop. (urban district), 7850.

DORMANT STATE, a state of torpidity in which certain animals pass a portion
of the year. In cold and temperate climates this period of long sleep takes
place during the winter months, and is properly called _hibernation_. It
commences when the food of the animal begins to get scarce, continues for a
longer or shorter period, and is deeper or lighter according to the habits
and constitution of the animal. Bats, bears, some animals of the rodent
order, such as the porcupine, the dormouse, and the squirrel, all the
animals belonging to the classes of Amphibia and Reptilia, such as
tortoises, lizards, and snakes (frogs, &c.), also many species of molluscs
and insects, hibernate more or less completely, retiring to suitable places
of concealment--the bat to dark caves, the hedgehog to fern-brakes, and
snakes to holes in trees. During hibernation there is a great decrease of
heat in the bodies of the animals, the temperature sometimes sinking to 40°
or even 20°F., or in general to a point a little above that of the
surrounding atmosphere. The respiration as well as the pulsation of the
heart is exceedingly slow, and the irritability of the animal often so low
that in some cases it can be awakened only by strong electric shocks. With
frogs and other amphibia the dormant state is very common, and if the
temperature is kept low by artificial means, they may remain dormant for
years. The term _æstivation_ has been used to describe a similar condition
into which certain animals, such as serpents and crocodiles, in tropical
countries pass during the hottest months of the year. Plants also present
many interesting examples of the dormant state, by which unfavourable
periods or conditions are tided over. A seed, for instance, contains a
dormant embryo or plantlet, which resumes growth (i.e. germinates) when the
temperature rises above a certain level, provided sufficient moisture and
air are present. Many lower forms, notably bacteria, are able to form
thick-walled cells (spores) that can retain their vitality for a
considerable time.

[Illustration: Dormer Window. Abbeville, Fifteenth Century]

DORMER WINDOWS (Fr. _dormir_, to sleep), are windows inserted in the
inclined plane of a sloping roof, on a frame rising vertically above the
rafters. They are named dormer windows because they are found chiefly in
attic bedrooms.

[Illustration: Dormouse (_Muscardinus avellanarius_)]

DORMOUSE, the popular name of small rodent mammals constituting a special
family (Gliridæ or Myoxidæ) allied to rats and mice. They inhabit temperate
and warm countries, and subsist entirely on vegetable food. Their pace is a
kind of leap, but they have not the activity of squirrels. Whilst feeding
they sit upright and carry the food to their mouths with their paws.
Dormice pass the winter in a lethargic or torpid state, reviving only for a
short time on a warm sunny day, when they take a little of their hoarded
stores and then relapse into the dormant state. The squirrel-tailed or
'fat' dormouse (_Myoxus glis_) of the continent was esteemed as an article
of diet by the ancient Romans. The common British dormouse (_Muscardinus
avellanarius_) is a graceful little creature about 3 inches in length, with
a tail 2½ inches long. It feeds on hazel-nuts, eggs, and insects, and
constructs a spherical nest. It is not known to occur in Scotland or
Ireland.

DORN´BIRN, a manufacturing town in Tyrol, about 6 miles from the Lake of
Constance. Pop. 28,550.

DORNICK, a kind of stout figured linen fabric used for table-cloths, and
generally chequered. It derives its name from Doornik, or Tournai, in the
Netherlands. The manufacture was brought into Norfolk by the Dutch.

DORNOCH (-no_h_), a seaport and royal burgh of Scotland, county of
Sutherland, at the entrance of the Dornoch Firth, the seat of the extinct
bishopric of Caithness. It is one of the Wick district of parliamentary
burghs. Pop. 740.--The _Firth_ runs inland for about 16 miles between
Ross-shire and Sutherlandshire.

DOR´OHOI, a town of Roumania in N.W. Moldavia, near the Austrian frontier.
Pop. 11,140.--The department of _Dorohoi_ has an area of 1090 sq. miles,
and a pop. of 189,789.

DOR´PAT (Tartu), a town, formerly in the Russian province of Livonia, now
belonging to the Republic of Esthonia. It is situated on the Embach, about
135 miles N.E. of Riga. Dorpat is chiefly remarkable for its university and
other educational establishments. It is an ancient town, and was once a
member of the Hanseatic Union. Captured by the Russians in 1559, it was
ceded to Poland in 1582, was subsequently taken by the Swedes, and in 1704
passed to the Russians, who called it _Yuryev_. The town was occupied by
the Germans on 18th Feb., 1918. The vernacular language is Esthonian, but
the upper classes speak German. Pop. 44,140.

D'ORSAY, Alfred, Count, a dilettante artist and man of fashion, born at
Paris 1801, died 1852. When a young man he visited England, and became
acquainted with Byron and other literary and fashionable celebrities. He
married a daughter of the Earl of Blessington, but after the earl's death a
separation took place, and D'Orsay became an inmate of Gore House, which
the Countess of Blessington had made the centre of a famous literary
coterie. A zealous Bonapartist, he followed Prince Louis Napoleon to Paris
in 1849, and enjoyed his favour till his death. Disraeli has described him
in his novel _Henrietta Temple_, under the name of 'Count Mirabel'.--Cf.
Richard Madden, _Life of Lady Blessington_.

DORSET, EARLS OF. See _Sackville_.

DORSET, or DORSETSHIRE, a maritime county in the south of England, having
on the south the English Channel; area, 627,265 acres, over 490,000 being
under crop. The general surface of the county is undulating; its principal
elevations being chalk hills known as the North and South Downs, upon which
immense flocks of sheep are pastured. On the south, on the borders of
Hampshire and along part of the sea-coast, is a heathy common. A great part
of the county is in grass, and dairy husbandry is extensively carried on.
Neither coal nor ores of any kind are found, but the quarries yield the
well-known Portland stone. Pipe-clay, plastic clay, and potter's clay also
abound. The principal manufactures are those of flax, canvas, duck, &c.,
also silk and woollens. The fish frequenting the coast are of various
kinds, but mackerel is the most abundant. Near the mouth of Poole harbour
is a prolific oyster bank. The principal rivers are the Stour, the Frome,
and the Piddle. The county has four parliamentary divisions, with a member
for each. Dorchester is the county town. Other towns are Bridport, Poole,
and Weymouth. Pop. 223,274.

DORSETSHIRE REGIMENT, THE, once known as the East Middlesex, dates from
1702, and is intimately associated with Gibraltar, which it twice defended
during siege (1727 and 1779-82). For its services in India under Clive it
bears the motto _Primus in Indis_. It later took part in the relief of
Ladysmith, and during the European War suffered heavily on the Western
front, being also represented at Kut and Ramadie.

DORSTE´NIA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Moraceæ, found in tropical
America. They have their naked flowers buried in a flat, fleshy, somewhat
concave receptacle. _D. Contrayerva_ and other species have a stimulant and
tonic rhizome, which is used medicinally under the name of _contrayerva_.

DORT, or DORDRECHT, a town, Holland, province of South Holland, 14 miles
S.E. of Rotterdam, on the Merwede, an arm or part of the Maas, and on an
island separated from the mainland by an inundation in 1421. It is an old
town, founded in 1018 by Count Dietrich III of Holland, with a fine Gothic
Church (Groote Kerk, 'Great Church'), a good town-house and museum. It was
formerly of more importance than now, but it still carries on an extensive
trade, being not only near the sea, but by the Rhine, the Maas, and other
water communications, connected with an immense extent of inland territory.
Pop. 47,300.

DORT, SYNOD OF, an assembly of Protestant divines convoked at Dort on 13th
Nov., 1618, dissolved on 9th May, 1619. Besides the Dutch and Walloon
divines, it included representatives from England, Scotland, Switzerland,
and part of Germany, in all about sixty-two native and twenty-four foreign
deputies. The Synod was convoked principally for the sake of crushing the
Arminian party, and extreme measures were taken to prevent that party being
represented in the assembly or having a free voice there. The result was
the condemnation of the Arminians and the dogmatic establishment of
Calvinism in the Reformed Church. The Synod also set on foot the Dutch
translation of the Bible known as the Dort Bible.

DORT´MUND, a city of Prussia, province of Westphalia, on the Emscher, 47
miles N.N.E. of Cologne, starting-point of an important canal to the lower
Ems. It has rapidly increased in recent years, being the centre of
important railway systems, having extensive coal-mines in the vicinity, and
active manufactures of iron, steel, machinery, and railway plant. There are
also a number of breweries, potteries, tobacco factories, and chemical
works. It was once a free Imperial Hanseatic town, and the seat of the
chief tribunal of the Vehme. Pop. 214,226.

[Illustration: Dory (_Zeus faber_)]

DORY, or JOHN DORY (_Zeus faber_), a bony fish which is the type of a
special family (Zeidæ), and is celebrated for the delicacy of its flesh. It
seldom exceeds 18 inches in length, and is yellowish-green in colour with a
blackish spot on each side, which, according to an old superstition, is the
mark of St. Peter's forefinger and thumb; another claimant for this honour
is the haddock. The dory is found on the Atlantic shores of Europe and in
the Mediterranean. The name John Dory is supposed to be derived from the
Fr. _jaune dorée_, golden yellow.

DOSITH´EANS, an ancient sect among the Samaritans, so called from their
founder Dositheus, who was a contemporary and associate of Simon Magus, and
lived in the first century of the Christian era. They rejected the
authority of the prophets, believed in the divine inspiration of their
founder, and had many superstitious practices.

DOSSO DOSSI, Giovanni di Lutero, Italian painter of the Ferrara school;
born 1479, died 1542. He was much honoured by Duke Alfonso of Ferrara, and
immortalized by Ariosto (whose portrait he executed in a masterly manner)
in his _Orlando_. Modena, Ferrara, and Dresden possess most of his works.
_Circe in the Woods_ is in the Borghese Gallery, and _St. Sebastian_ in the
Brera at Milan.

DOST MOHAMMED KHAN, born about 1790, a successful usurper who obtained
possession of the throne of Afghanistan after the flight of Mahmud Shah in
1818. He ruled with very great ability, and although driven from his throne
by a British army, was ultimately restored and became a steady supporter of
British power in the East. He died in 1863.

DOSTOIEV´SKY, Feodor Mikhailovitsh, a famous Russian novelist, born 1821,
died 1881. After serving as an officer of engineers he devoted himself to
literature, but becoming connected with the communistic schemes of
Petrashevsky, he was condemned to death. At the last moment, when
Dostoievsky was already on the scaffold, the sentence was commuted, and he
was banished to the mines of Siberia. Pardoned by Alexander II, he returned
in 1856 to resume his literary activity. His first novel, _Poor People_,
came out in 1846. Among his works that have appeared in English are: _Crime
and Punishment_; _Injury and Insult_; _The Friend of the Family_; _The
Gambler_; _The Idiot_; _Prison Life in Siberia_; _Uncle's Dream_; _The
Permanent Husband_; _The Brothers Karamzov_; _Letters from the Underworld
and Other Tales_. There is a complete edition of his novels by C. Garnett,
1912.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. T. Lloyd, _A Great Russian Realist_; J. M.
Murray, _F. Dostoievsky: a Critical Study_.

DOT´TEREL (_Eudromias morinellus_), a species of plover which breeds in the
north of Europe, and returns to the south for the winter. In Scotland it
appears in April and leaves in August, the young being hatched in July, but
comparatively few breed in the British Islands. It is found all over Europe
and Northern Asia. The dotterel is about 8 inches long. Contrary to the
general rule the hen is larger and more brightly coloured than the cock,
and the latter performs most of the duties of incubation.

DOUAI (dö-[=a]), town, France, department of Nord, on the Scarpe, 18 miles
south of Lille. It is one of the oldest towns in France, of which it became
part by the Treaty of Utrecht. It is strongly fortified, has a fine
town-house, several handsome churches, an academy of arts and law, a
lyceum, museum and public library, Benedictine college, and hospital; a
cannon foundry, linen manufactories, machine-works, and tanneries. There
was long here a college for British Roman Catholic priests, the most
celebrated of its kind, founded by Cardinal Allen in 1568. Douai was
captured by the Germans during the European War, and retaken by the Allies
in Oct., 1918. It received the Cross of the Legion of Honour in Sept.,
1919. Pop. 36,314.

DOUAI BIBLE, the English translation of the Bible used among
English-speaking Roman Catholics, and executed by divines connected with
the English College at Douai. The New Testament was published in 1582 at
Rheims, the Old during 1609-10 at Douai, the translation being based on the
_Vulgate_. Various revisions have since materially altered it.

DOUARNENEZ (d[u:]-[.a]r-n[.e]-n[=a]), a seaport, France, Finistère, on a
beautiful bay of the same name, 13 miles north-west of Quimper. It depends
chiefly on the sardine fishery. Pop. 13,753.

DOUBLE FERTILIZATION. See _Embryo-sac_.

DOUBLE-FLOWERING, the development, often by cultivation, of the stamens and
pistils of flowers into petals, by which the beauty of the flower is
enhanced and its reproductive powers sacrificed.

DOUBLE-INSURANCE, the effecting of two insurances upon the same goods. In
marine insurance it is lawful for a shipper to insure his goods twice, but
only to give an additional security in the event of the failure of the
first underwriters. In the event of a loss it is ultimately divided among
the underwriters in the ratio of the risks they have taken.

DOUBLE-STARS, or BINARY STARS, stars which are so close together that they
appear as one to the naked eye, but are seen to be double when viewed
through a telescope. One of these stars may revolve about the other, or,
more accurately speaking, both revolve round the common centre of gravity.

[Illustration: 1, Doublet, time of Edward IV. 2,3, Doublets, time of
Elizabeth. 4, Doublet, time of Charles I.]

DOUBLET, a close-fitting garment, covering the body from the neck to a
little below the waist. It was introduced from France into England in the
fourteenth century, and was worn by both sexes and all ranks until the time
of Charles II, when it was superseded, as far as men were concerned, by the
coat and waistcoat. The garment got its name from being originally lined or
wadded for defence.

DOUBLET, in lapidary work, a counterfeit stone composed of two pieces of
crystal, with a colour between them, so that they have the same appearance
as if the whole substance of the crystal were coloured.

DOUBLE-VAULT, in architecture, one vault built over another so that a space
is left between the two. It is used in domes or vaulted roofs when the
external and internal arrangements require vaults differing in size or
shape, the outer and upper vault being made to harmonize with the exterior
of the building, the inner or lower with the interior.

DOUBLOON´, a gold coin of Spain and of the Spanish American States,
originally double the value of the pistole. The doubloon of Spain was
subsequently equivalent to about a guinea sterling. The doubloon of Chile
was worth about 18s. 9d. sterling; that of Mexico, £3, 4s. 8d.

DOUBS (dö), a department of France, having Switzerland on its eastern
frontier. Its surface is traversed by four chains of the Jura. The
temperature is variable, and the climate somewhat rigorous. About a third
of the land is arable, but much the greater part is covered with forests.
Maize, potatoes, hemp, flax are the principal crops. Much dairy produce is
made into Gruyère cheese. The minerals include iron, lead, and marble. Pop.
284,975.--The River Doubs rises in the department to which it gives its
name, flows first north-east, then north-west till it joins the Saône at
Verdun-sur-Saône; length, 250 miles.

DOUCHE (dösh), a jet or current of water or vapour directed upon some part
of the body; employed in bathing establishments. When water is applied, it
is called the _liquid douche_, and when a current of vapour, the _vapour
douche_.

DOUGLAS (dug´las), a family distinguished in the annals of Scotland. Their
origin is unknown. They were already territorial magnates at the time when
Bruce and Baliol were competitors for the crown. As their estates lay on
the borders they early became guardians of the kingdom against the
encroachments of the English, and acquired in this way power, habits, and
experience which frequently made them formidable to the Crown. We notice in
chronological succession the most distinguished members of the family.
James, son of the William Douglas who had been a companion of Wallace, and
is commonly known as the Good Sir James, early joined Bruce, and was one of
his chief supporters throughout his career, and one of the most
distinguished leaders at the battle of Bannockburn. He was called 'Black
Douglas' from his swarthy complexion. He fell in battle with the Moors
while on his way to the Holy Land with the heart of his master, in
1331.--Archibald, youngest brother of Sir James, succeeded to the regency
of Scotland in the infancy of David. He was defeated and killed at Halidon
Hill by Edward III in 1333.--William, son of the preceding, was created
first earl in 1357. He recovered Douglasdale from the English, and was
frequently engaged in wars with them. He fought at the battle of Poitiers
and died in 1384.--James, the second earl, who, like his ancestors, was
constantly engaged in border warfare, was killed at the battle of Otterburn
in 1388. After his death the earldom passed to an illegitimate son of the
Good Sir James, Archibald the Grim, Lord of Galloway.--Archibald, son of
Archibald the Grim and fourth earl, was the Douglas who was defeated and
taken prisoner by Percy (Hotspur) at Homildon 14th Sept., 1402. He was also
taken prisoner at Shrewsbury 23rd July, 1403, and did not recover his
liberty till 1407. He was killed at the battle of Verneuil, in Normandy, in
1427. Charles VII created him Duke of Touraine, which title descended to
his successors. He was surnamed 'The Tyneman', or loser, on account of his
many misfortunes in battle.--William, sixth earl, born 1422, together with
his only brother David was assassinated by Crichton and Livingstone at a
banquet to which he had been invited in the name of the king, in Edinburgh
Castle, on 24th Nov., 1440. Jealousy of the great power which the Douglases
had acquired from their possessions in Scotland and France was the cause of
this deed.--William, the eighth earl, a descendant of the third earl,
restored the power of the Douglases by a marriage with his cousin, heiress
of another branch of the family; was appointed Lord-Lieutenant of the
kingdom, and defeated the English at Sark. Having entered into treasonous
league, he was invited by James II to Stirling and there murdered by the
king's own hand, 22nd Feb., 1452.--James, the ninth and last earl, brother
of the preceding, took up arms with his allies to avenge his death, but was
finally driven to England, where he continued an exile for nearly thirty
years. He entered Scotland on a raid in 1484, but was taken prisoner and
confined in the abbey of Lindores, where he died in 1488. His estates,
which had been forfeited in 1455, were bestowed on the fourth Earl of
Angus, the 'Red Douglas', the representative of a younger branch of the
Douglas family, which continued long after to flourish. The fifth Earl of
Angus, Archibald Douglas, was the celebrated 'Bell-the-Cat', one of whose
sons was Gawin Douglas the poet. He died in a monastery in 1514. Archibald,
the sixth earl, married Queen Margaret, widow of James IV, attained the
dignity of regent of the kingdom, and after various vicissitudes of
fortune, having at one time been attainted and forced to flee from the
kingdom, died about 1560. He left no son, and the title of Earl of Angus
passed to his nephew David. James Douglas, brother of David, married the
heiress of the Earl of Morton, which title he received on the death of his
father-in-law. His nephew, Archibald, eighth Earl of Angus and Earl of
Morton, died childless, and the earldom of Angus then passed to Sir William
Douglas of Glenbervie, his cousin, whose son William was raised to the rank
of Marquess of Douglas. Archibald, the great-grandson of William, was
raised in 1703 to the dignity of Duke of Douglas, but died unmarried in
1761, when the ducal title became extinct, and the marquessate passed to
the Duke of Hamilton, the descendant of a younger son of the first
marquess. The line of Angus or the Red Douglas is now represented by the
Houses of Hamilton and Home, who both claim the title of Earl of
Angus.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: David Hume of Godscroft, _A History of the House of
Douglas and Angus_; Sir H. Maxwell, _A History of the House of Douglas_.

DOUGLAS, Gawin, an early Scottish poet of eminence. He was the son of
Archibald, fifth Earl of Angus, and was born at Brechin about 1474. He
received a liberal education, commenced at home and completed at the
University of Paris. On returning to Scotland he took orders in the Church,
and ultimately became Bishop of Dunkeld, through the influence of his
nephew, the sixth Earl of Angus, who married Queen Margaret, widow of James
IV. He died of the plague in 1522 in London, where he had been obliged to
take refuge on account of political commotions. He translated Virgil's
_Æneid_ into verse with much spirit and elegance, prefixing original
prologues to the different books of the original. This was the first
poetical translation into English of any classical author. It was written
about 1512, and first published in 1553. He also wrote _The Palace of
Honour_ and _King Hart_, both allegorical poems.--Cf. J. H. Millar,
_Literary History of Scotland_.

DOUGLAS, Sir Howard, Baronet, G.C.B., a British general, born in 1776, the
son of Admiral Sir Charles Douglas. He served in Spain in the Peninsular
War, and acquired much reputation by his writings on military subjects,
especially by his _Military Bridges and the Passage of Rivers_ (1816), and
_Treatise on Naval Gunnery_ (1819). From 1823 to 1829 he was Governor of
New Brunswick, and from 1835 to 1840 Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian
Islands. He attained the rank of general in 1851, and died in Nov., 1861.

DOUGLAS, Stephen Arnold, American politician, born in Vermont, 1813, died
1861. Having gone to Jacksonville, Illinois, he became an attorney, was
appointed Attorney-General for the State, and in 1843 was elected a member
of the United States House of Representatives. In 1847 he was elected to
the Senate, and by re-election was a member of this body till his death. He
was especially prominent in connection with the question as to the
extension of slavery into new states and territories, which he maintained
was a matter to be settled by the people of the respective states or
territories, and not by Congress. He was a presidential candidate in 1860,
when Lincoln was elected.

DOUGLAS, Sir William Fettes, painter, born in Edinburgh 1822, died in 1891.
He was educated at the High School in that city, spent ten years in a bank
before finally deciding (in 1847) upon the artist's profession. In 1851 he
was elected an Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy, and three years
later a full member. In 1877 he became Curator of the National Gallery of
Scotland, resigning the post in 1882 on his election as president of the
Royal Scottish Academy. Among the finest of his early pictures are:
_Bibliomania_ (1852, in the National Gallery), _The Ruby Ring_ (1853), _The
Alchemist_ (1855), _Hudibras and Ralph visiting the Astrologer_ (1856), and
_The Rosicrucian_ (1856), many of these showing much of the Pre-Raphaelite
spirit, with abundance of detail. After 1870 he devoted himself rather to
landscape, and his _Stonehaven Harbour_ and _A Fishing Village_ (1874-5)
are perhaps his masterpieces. He was knighted in 1882.

DOUGLAS (dug´las), capital of the Isle of Man, is situated on the
south-east coast, on a beautiful semicircular bay. It is frequented by
immense numbers of visitors during the summer. Among the objects of
interest are the House of Keys, the custom-house, the extensive breakwater,
and the promenade. Pop. 21,192.

DOUGLASS, Frederick, American lecturer and journalist, was born at
Tuckahoe, in Maryland, about 1817. His father was a white man, but his
mother being a negro slave, he was, according to the law, reared as a
slave. In 1832 he was purchased by a Baltimore shipbuilder, but made his
escape in 1838. As he had taught himself to read and write, and showed
talent as an orator, he was employed by the Anti-slavery Society as one of
their lecturers. In 1845 he published his autobiography, and afterwards
made a successful lecturing tour in England. In 1870 he started a journal
entitled _The New National Era_; in 1871 he was appointed secretary of the
Commission to Santo Domingo; in 1877 Marshal for the district of Columbia,
then Commissioner of Deeds, and eventually Minister to Hayti. He died in
1895.

DOULTON (d[=o]l´tun), Sir Henry, 'the greatest potter of the nineteenth
century', born in Lambeth in 1820, died in 1897. On leaving University
College School, in 1835, he joined his father, who had carried on a small
pottery since 1815, and began by perfecting himself in all the mechanical
processes then used by potters. He scored his first distinct success in
1846 with glazed drain-pipes, and in 1851 and 1862 the firm obtained medals
for stoneware vessels and chemical apparatus. At the South Kensington
Exhibition in 1871 a striking display was made of the new Doulton artistic
ware. Doulton exhibited at Vienna in 1873, and at Paris five years later,
when he was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He then established a
school of artists in connection with his manufactory, with the object of
promoting originality in design. He received the Albert gold medal of the
Society of Arts in 1885, and was knighted at the Jubilee two years later.

[Illustration: Doum Palm (_Hyphæne thebaica_)]

DOUM PALM (d[=o]m), a palm tree, _Hyphæne thebaica_. It is remarkable, like
the other species of the genus, for having a repeatedly branched stem. Each
branch terminates in a tuft of large fan-shaped leaves. The fruit is about
the size of an apple; it has a fibrous mealy rind, which tastes like
gingerbread (whence the name _gingerbread tree_ sometimes applied to this
palm), and is eaten by the poorer inhabitants of Upper Egypt, where it
grows. An infusion of the rind is also used as a cooling beverage in
fevers. The seed is horny, and is made into small ornaments. Ropes are made
of the fibres of the leaf-stalks.

DOUNE (dön), a police borough in W. Perthshire, Scotland, on the River
Teith, 9 miles north-west of Stirling, once famous for its manufacture of
Highland pistols and sporrans. The old ruined castle--an imposing structure
now partially repaired--is described in Scott's _Waverley_. Pop. 890.

DOURO (dö´r[=o]), one of the largest rivers of the Spanish Peninsula,
which, flowing west, traverses about one-half of Spain and the whole of
Portugal, and, after a course of 500 miles, falls into the Atlantic 3 miles
below Oporto. It is navigable for small vessels for about 70 miles.

DOVE. See _Turtle-dove_ and _Pigeon_.

DOVE (d[=o]v), a river, England, Derbyshire, which, after a course of 39
miles through highly picturesque scenery, falls into the Trent.

DOVE-COTES. Pigeon-keeping to provide a food-supply is a practice of
considerable antiquity, and dove-cotes are found in many quarters of the
world. Those introduced into Britain by the Normans were modelled on the
Roman _columbarium_, a massive circular structure, lined with nest-holes,
and having a domed roof. A fine example of this type, built 1326, survives
at Garway, Herefordshire. Till towards the end of the sixteenth century,
these buildings, numbering some 26,000, formed items of manorial privilege
in England, and were long confined to Scottish baronies. About this period
square and octagonal forms became common, a fine brick specimen of the
latter style remaining at Whitehall, Shrewsbury. In Scotland typical
'doo'-cots' exist in the Edinburgh suburbs of Liberton and Corstorphine.
That at Liberton, a type common in Scotland but rare in England, is oblong,
with lean-to roof and two compartments--probably to avoid disturbing the
whole flock when 'squabs' were taken from the nests. Dove-cotes fell
generally into disuse when the introduction of 'roots' insured the winter
feeding of farm-stock and a consequent steady supply of fresh meat; but
their antiquarian interest and frequent beauty call for the careful
preservation of existing specimens.

DOVE DEITIES. The cult of the dove is of great antiquity. In Crete and at
Mycenæ, and in the area of Hittite control in Asia Minor, it was connected
with the Mother-goddess. The bird appears in archaic clay figurines from
Phoenicia, Rhodes, Delos, Athens, and Etruria. Whether or not the dove cult
originated in Crete or Asia Minor is uncertain. Some think it is of
Egyptian origin, but there is no trace of a dove goddess in Nilotic art. In
the love poems found in Egyptian tombs, however, the dove is referred to,
being in one case addressed by a lover, who asks it if love is to be denied
to her; she then tells the dove that she has found her chosen one and is
happy by his side. The pigeon was protected in Egypt, and is still regarded
as a 'luck bird', and it may have been connected with ancient folk
religion. In Babylonia and Assyria the dove was associated with the goddess
Ishtar, but not specially during the earlier periods. The Allatu bird is,
however, referred to in the Gilgamesh epic, and Pinches has translated the
suggestive reference in an Ishtar hymn, _Like a lonely dove I rest_. In
another hymn the worshipper moans like a dove. According to Diodorus, the
famous Assyrian Queen Semiramis, who was abandoned after birth, was
protected and fed by doves. In Crete two forms of the Great Mother-goddess,
who was an Aphrodite in one of her phases, were the snake goddess and the
dove goddess. Two doves appear on a model of a Mycenæan shrine. The dove is
associated with the Hittite goddess at Marash, Yarre, and Fraktin. It is
sometimes found with the nude Syrian goddess. Lucian states, in reference
to a Syrian cult, that the dove is the holiest bird (_De Dea Syria_,
chapter liv), and that there was a golden dove in the temple, but nothing
was known regarding its origin, some referring it to Dionysus, some to
Deukalion, and some to Semiramis (a name said to mean mountain dove)
(chapter xxxiii). Ælian tells that the dove was the sacred companion of
Astarte (_Hist. Nat._, iv, 2). Like the Egyptians, the Semites regarded the
pigeon with veneration. The Hebrews sacrificed it on special occasions
(_Num._ vi, 10; _Lev._ xiv, 4, 49). Noah sent out a dove from the ark
(_Gen._ viii, 8). A prophet mourns as a dove (_Is._ xxxviii, 14). The dove
is 'silly' (_Hos._ vii, 11). Doves were sold in the temple (_Mark_, xi,
15). The Spirit of God appears as a dove (_Matt._ iii, 16). According to
Herodotus, the Persians drove away white pigeons, connecting them with
leprosy (_Book I_, 139). At Dodona, the famous sanctuary in Epirus,
auguries were taken from the moaning of doves in the tree-tops, and the
priestesses of Zeus were called doves (_Peleiai_). Doves and pigeons were
mystical birds in the British Isles. In England it was believed that one
could not die on a bed of pigeon feathers, and the dying person had,
therefore, to be removed from one so that the suffering might not be
prolonged. The early Christian saints reverenced the dove. St. Gregory the
Great is shown with a dove on his shoulder, and the emblem of St. Remigius
is a dove with an oil-cruse in its beak. A snow-white dove with golden bill
was wont to sit on the head of St. Mungo, the patron saint of Glasgow.
Stories used to be told of sick persons recovering on seeing a white dove
on an altar. In the folk lore attached to the memory of Michael Scott, the
dove is connected with heaven, and the raven with hell. St. Columba's name
signifies 'Dove'. Dove-cotes were connected with old churches, especially
in England.

DO´VER, a municipal borough of England, county of Kent, 67 miles south-east
of London. It lies on the coast of the Straits of Dover, and is 21 miles
distant from Calais on the French coast. It is an important railway
terminus, and as a port for mail and packet service with the Continent has
a large passenger traffic. Ship-building, sail-making, and fisheries are
carried on. There are two docks and a tidal harbour; an outer harbour of 70
acres, enclosed by a new pier and the extended Admiralty Pier, completed in
1871. Very extensive harbour improvements, begun in 1893, were carried out
in subsequent years. The celebrated castle stands on a high chalk cliff.
Dover is the chief of the Cinque Ports, and has extensive barracks. A
parliamentary borough till 1918, Dover now gives its name to a
parliamentary division of Kent. Dover was frequently raided by German
aviators during the European War. Pop. 43,645.

DOVER, a city of the United States, in New Hampshire. It is situated on
both sides of the Cochecho, which has here a fall of over 30 feet,
affording abundant water-power for the large iron and cotton manufactories.
Pop. 13,247.

DOVER, STRAITS OF, the narrow channel between Dover and Calais which
separates Great Britain from the French coast. At the narrowest part it is
only 21 miles wide. The depth of the channel at a medium in the highest
spring-tides is about 25 fathoms. On both the French and English sides the
chalky cliffs show a correspondency of strata which leaves no room for
doubt that they were once united, a fact which is clearly shown by many
other proofs.

DOVER'S POWDER, a preparation frequently used in medical practice to
produce perspiration. It consists of 1 grain of opium, 1 of ipecacuanha,
and 8 of sulphate of potash in every 10 grains, which constitute a full
dose. It is named after Thomas Dover, an English physician of the
eighteenth century.

DOVRE-FJELD (d[=o]-vre-fyel), an assemblage of mountain masses in Norway,
forming the central part of the Scandinavian system, and extending as a
plateau 2000 feet high E.N.E. from lat. 62° N. to lat. 63°. It is generally
composed of gneiss and mica schist. One of the mountains belonging to it is
Snehaetta, 7620 feet.

DOW, Gerard, an eminent painter of the Dutch school, was the son of a
glazier, and born at Leyden in 1613. He studied under Rembrandt, and united
his master's manner in chiaroscuro with the most minute finish and
delicacy. Among his pictures, generally of small size and mostly scenes of
family life, are: _The Evening School_, _Young Mother_, _Woman Sick with
Dropsy_, and _The Bible Reader_. Dow died in 1675.

DOWDEN, Edward, English critic, historian, and educator, was born at Cork
in 1843, died in 1913. He studied at Queen's College, Cork, and Trinity
College, Dublin, where he gained great distinction, especially in English
and Philosophy; and in 1867 he was elected to the professorship of English
literature in the university. He was the first Taylorian lecturer at Oxford
University in 1889, and held the Clark lecturership in English literature
at Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1893 to 1896. Besides contributing to
periodicals, Professor Dowden published various works on literary subjects,
in particular: _Shakspere: his Mind and Art_ (1875); _Shakspere Primer_;
_Studies in Literature_; _Southey_; _Southey's Correspondence with Caroline
Bowles_; _Life of Shelley_ (2 vols., 1886), the chief authority on the
poet's life, being founded on papers in the possession of the Shelley
family; _Wordsworth's Poetical Works_ (1892-3); _Introduction to Shakspere_
(1893); _New Studies in Literature_ (1895); _The French Revolution and
English Literature_ (lectures delivered at Princeton College, New Jersey,
in 1896); _History of French Literature_ (1897); _Robert Browning_ (1904);
_Michel de Montaigne_ (1905); _Essays, Modern and Elizabethan_ (1910). A
volume of poems by him appeared in 1876, and his collected _Poetical Works
and Letters_ appeared in 1914.

DOWER (Fr. _douaire_, Lat. _dos_, dower), in English law, is the right
which a wife (not being an alien) has in the freehold lands and tenements
of which her husband dies possessed and undisposed of by will. By common
law this right amounts to one-third of his estate during her life; by local
custom it is frequently greater. Where the custom of _gavelkind_ prevails,
the widow's share is a half, and that of _free-bench_ gives her the whole
or a portion of a copyhold, according to the custom of the manor. The term
is also applied to the property which a woman brings to her husband in
marriage, but this is more correctly _dowry_.

DOWIE, John Alexander, religious impostor, born at Edinburgh in 1847, died
in 1907. Educated at the university of his native town, he joined his
family in Sydney, Australia, and entered the ministry as clergyman of the
Congregational denomination. In 1878 he started evangelistic work,
maintaining that it was wrong to take a minister's salary. In 1882 he
established a tabernacle at Melbourne, and began to practise faith-healing.
He then came to the United States, where he organized his own Church,
establishing it in 1901 at Zion City, 42 miles from Chicago, on the shore
of Lake Michigan. He styled himself 'Elijah II', and 'the First Apostle of
the Lord Jesus Christ, and General Overseer of the Catholic Apostolic
Church'. Suspended in 1906 by his congregation of Zion City, who accused
him of tyranny, polygamy, and misuse of funds, he died shortly afterwards.

DOWLAIS, a town of South Wales, Glamorganshire, included in the
parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil, from which it is distant 1½ miles
north-east, with important iron- and steelworks. Pop. 18,112.

DOWLAS, a kind of coarse linen formerly much used by working people for
shirts; this use of it is now generally superseded by calico.--Cf.
Shakespeare, _1st Henry IV_, iii, 3.

DOWLETABAD. See _Daulatabad_.

DOWN, a county of Ireland, in Ulster, bounded on the north by Belfast Lough
and on the east by the Irish Sea; area, 610,730 acres, of which over
five-sixths are productive. Down is copiously watered by the Rivers Bann,
Lagan, and Newry, and has numerous small lakes. The surface is very
irregular, and in parts mountainous, Slieve Donard, in the Mourne
Mountains, being 2796 feet high. Agriculture is in a flourishing condition,
oats, wheat, flax, turnips, and potatoes being the principal crops. The
native breed of sheep is small, but valued for the delicacy of its mutton
and the fine texture of its wool. The principal manufactures are linen and
muslin. The fisheries on the coast, principally cod, haddock, and herring,
are considerable. The county has five parliamentary divisions, each
returning a member. The county town is Downpatrick; others are Newry,
Newtownards, Bangor, and Banbridge. Pop. 204,303.

DOWNING COLLEGE, one of the colleges of the University of Cambridge,
chartered in 1800 and opened in 1821. Its founder was Sir George Downing, a
Cambridgeshire gentleman.

DOWNING STREET, a street in London, leading from Whitehall. The name is
used as a synonym for the British Government, the Foreign Office and
Colonial Office being located in it. No. 10 is the official residence of
the Prime Minister, and No. 11 that of the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

DOWNPAT´RICK, a market town of Ireland, county town of Down, 21 miles S.E.
of Belfast. It is the seat of the diocese of Down, Connor, and Dromore, has
a cathedral, and is celebrated as the supposed burial-place of St. Patrick.
Pop. 3200.

DOWNS, a term given to undulating grassy hills or uplands, specially
applied to two ranges of undulating chalk hills in England, extending
through Surrey, Kent, and Hampshire, known as the North and South Downs.
The word is sometimes used as equivalent to _dunes_ or sand-hills.

DOWNS, THE, a celebrated roadstead for ships, extending 6 miles along the
east coast of Kent in England, protected on the seaward side by the Goodwin
Sands.

DOWNTON, a town of England, in Wilts., on the Avon, 6½ miles S.S.E. of
Salisbury; an ancient place, with a large cruciform church in the Norman
and later styles, an old earthwork mound called 'the Moat', and an
agricultural college. Pop. 1933.

DOXOL´OGY (from Gr. _doxa_, praise, glory, and _logos_), a set form of
words giving glory to God, and especially a name given to two short hymns
distinguished by the title of _greater_ (Glory be to God on high, &c.) and
_lesser_ (Glory be to the Father, &c.). Both the doxologies have a place in
the Church of England liturgy, the latter being repeated after every psalm,
and the former used in the communion service.

DOYEN, Eugène Louis, famous French surgeon, born at Rheims in 1859, died at
Paris in 1916. He made numerous discoveries in gynæcological surgery, and
in 1895 established a private clinic, where many French and foreign
surgeons came to study under him. His surgical methods were adopted,
although his claim to have discovered the germ of cancer has been disputed.
In 1898 he received the degree of LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh,
where he introduced the method of teaching surgery by means of the
cinematograph. His works include: _La maladie et le médecin_ and _Le
Cancer_.

DOYLE, Sir Arthur Conan, English novelist, a nephew of Richard Doyle, born
at Edinburgh, 1859, studied medicine, and for some years practised, but
gave up the profession for that of literature. In 1887 he produced _A Study
in Scarlet_, in which he created the detective Sherlock Holmes. Among his
other books are: _Micah Clarke_, _The Sign of Four_, _The White Company_,
_The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes_, _Brigadier Gerard_, _The Great Boer
War_, _The Crime of the Congo_, _The Lost World_, _The Poison Belt_, _The
British Campaign in France and Flanders_, _The New Revelation_, and _The
Vital Message_.

DOYLE, Sir Francis Hastings Charles, English poet, born 21st Aug., 1810,
died 8th June, 1888, was the son of Major-General Sir Francis Hastings
Doyle, first baronet, succeeding his father in the title in 1839. Educated
at Eton and Oxford, he graduated with first-class honours in classics in
1832, and held a fellowship at All Souls' from 1835 to 1844. After some
years' work as a barrister, he became Receiver-General, and in 1869
Commissioner of Customs, having two years previously been elected professor
of poetry at Oxford in succession to Matthew Arnold, a position to which he
was re-elected for a second term five years later. He had already published
_Miscellaneous Verses_ (1840); _The Two Destinies_ (1844); _The Return of
the Guards and other Poems_ (1866); and subsequently printed his _Oxford
Lectures_ (1869 and 1877) and _Reminiscences and Opinions, 1813-85_ (1886).

DOYLE, Richard, an artist, born in London in 1824, died in 1883. He was
long well known as a constant contributor of satirical designs to _Punch_,
and also showed much talent in illustrations to Leigh Hunt's _Jar of
Honey_, Thackeray's _Newcomes_ and his _Rebecca and Rowena_, and Ruskin's
_King of the Golden River_. Afterwards he devoted himself to water-colour
painting.

DOZY (d[=o]´zi), Reinhart, Dutch Orientalist and historian, born 1820, died
1883. He was thoroughly versed in most of the Semitic tongues, and spoke
and wrote almost all the European languages with facility. Among his works
(sometimes in Dutch, sometimes in French) are: _Histoire des Musulmans
d'Espagne de 711-1110_, _Géographie d'Edrisi_, _De Israelieten te Mekka_,
_Het Islamisme_], _Supplements aux Dictionnaires Arabes_.

DRAA, or WADY DRAA, a river, or rather water-course, of Morocco, rising in
the Atlas Mountains and flowing generally south-east, until, after
penetrating the Anti-Atlas range and passing several oases, it suddenly
turns westwards, and forms the shallow lagoon El Debaia. From this point
until it enters the ocean it is a wady, and forms the southern boundary of
Morocco.

DRACÆ´NA, a genus of endogenous evergreen plants, nat. ord. Liliaceæ. It
includes the dragon tree of Teneriffe (_D. Draco_), celebrated for
producing the resin called dragon's blood. Several species of Dracæna are
cultivated in greenhouses for the beauty of their foliage, but many of the
fine plants known by this name belong strictly to other genera.

DRACHENFELS (drä´_h_en-fels; 'dragon rock'), "the castled crag of
Drachenfels", as Byron calls it, a hill in Rhenish Prussia, about 8 miles
south-east of Bonn, rising 900 feet above the Rhine, and crowned by the old
castle of Drachenfels.

DRACHMA (drak´ma), the unit of weight and of money among the ancient
Greeks. It was the principal Greek coin, was made of silver, and was worth
(the Attic drachma) about 9¾d. As a weight amongst the Greeks it was about
2 dwt. 7 grains troy. The monetary unit of modern Greece is also called a
drachma. Since 1867 its value has been equivalent to that of the franc of
the Latin Monetary Union. It is divided into 100 _lepta_.

DRACO, a legislator of Athens, about 620 B.C., whose name has become
proverbial as an inexorable and bloodthirsty lawgiver, and whose laws were
said to have been written in blood, not ink. Suidas says that he met his
death at Ægina, being unintentionally suffocated by the caps and cloaks
thrown at him by some of his enthusiastic supporters.

DRACO, the Dragon, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, consisting
of a long and straggling line of stars, coiled about Ursa Minor, the Lesser
Bear. The Pole of the Ecliptic, or earth's orbital plane, is in this
constellation, and round that point the Pole of the Equator, at present
close to [alpha] Ursæ Minoris (the 'Pole Star'), travels in a circle in
about 26,000 years. Some 4000 years ago [alpha] Draconis was pole-star.

DRAG, (1) a long coach or carriage, generally uncovered and seated round
the sides; (2) an apparatus for retarding or stopping the rotation of one
wheel or of several wheels, in carriages especially; (3) an apparatus,
consisting of a frame of iron with a bag-net attached, used to recover
articles lost in the water.

DRAG-NET, a net drawn along the bottom of a river or pond to catch fish.
The use of drag-nets is usually prohibited in rivers where fish breed, as
it takes all indiscriminately.

DRAGO DOCTRINE, a doctrine formulated by L. M. Drago, an Argentinian jurist
and Minister for Foreign Affairs, and asserting the principle that no power
had a right to impose itself by force of arms upon any of the Spanish
American nationalities. Drago first advanced his doctrine in 1902, when the
British, German, and Italian fleets were blockading the Venezuelan coast to
compel President Castro to pay certain claims made upon his government.

DRAGOMIROV, Mikhail Ivanovitch, Russian general, born in 1830, died in
1905. He became known as lecturer on military tactics, and was appointed
chief of the Russian general staff at Kiev. During the Russo-Turkish War he
distinguished himself at the crossing of the Danube at Sistova, and was
wounded at the Shipka Pass. Retired from active service, he was director of
the War Academy at St. Petersburg, Governor-General of Kiev from 1898 to
1902, and member of the Council of the Empire. His works include: _The
Austro-Prussian War_, _A Study on the Novel 'War and Peace'_, _The French
Soldier_, _War is an Inevitable Evil_, and _Duels_.

DRAGOMIROV, Vladimir, son of the former, was prominent as a commander
during the European War, and took part in the offensive in Galicia in 1916.
In 1919 he was president of General Denikin's Political Council, and
Governor of Kiev.

DRAGON (Gr. _drakon_, 'the seeing one', a serpent). This 'composite wonder
beast' is prominent not only in fairy lore and mediæval romances, but in
ancient religious systems. In the mythical history of the East the dragon
is the symbol of anarchy and destruction, and the idea was taken over by
Christianity, which looked upon the dragon as an emblem of the devil. In
Ancient Egypt certain of the deities had serpentine forms, as have still
some of the dragons of India, China, and Japan. The Egyptian 'fiery flying
serpent' is a dragon, as is also the Apep serpent of night and death,
through which the sun-barque of Ra was supposed to pass each night.
Biblical references to it as the 'worm' include: "Their worm shall not die"
(_Is._ lxvi, 24); "The worm shall eat them like wool" (_Is._ li, 8); "In
that day the Lord, with his sore, and great, and strong sword, shall punish
leviathan the piercing serpent," &c. (_Is._ xxvii, 1); "The great dragon
was cast out, that old serpent, he that is called the Devil and Satan"
(_Rev._ xii, 9). See also _Ps._ lxxxvii, 4, and lxxxix, 10; _Amos_, ix, 3;
and _Is._ li, 9. Osiris, as the Nile, was a dragon on which were human
heads. In the Pyramid Texts he is addressed as "the Great Green" (the
Mediterranean Sea), and the one who is "round as the Great Circle
(Okeanos)." On the sarcophagus of Seti I he is "Osiris encircling the
Nether World." Set, who slew him, had a 'roaring serpent' form and hid in a
hole; he resembled Typhon. The Babylonian dragon Tiamat was the Great
Mother of all the deities, and was slain by her descendant Marduk
(Merodach), who formed the earth and sky from her body; her blood ran as
the flooded rivers to the sea. In India the drought-demon is a water
confiner. When slain by Indra with the thunderbolt, the rainy season
ensues. The Naga serpent-gods are dragons who may assume human or
half-human, half-reptile forms. They guard treasure and chiefly pearls.
Early pearl-fishers believed that the shark was the owner and guardian of
pearls. Among the Chinese dragons is the lion-headed shark. All the Chinese
dragons have pearls in their mouths, and are supposed to spit out pearls.
Dragon deities are connected with the moon, which is 'the night-shining
pearl,' and in Mexico 'the pearl of heaven'. The Mexican dragon resembles
the Chinese, Indian, and Babylonian dragons. The Indian wonder-beast, the
_Makara_, the vehicle of the sea-god Varuna, is similar to the dragon of
the Babylonian mother-goddess Ishtar seen on the famous Ishtar gate of
Babylon. _Makara_ forms include the lion-headed dolphin, the
crocodile-headed fish, and the ram-headed fish so like the 'goat fish' or
'antelope fish' of the Babylonian sea-god Ea, and resembling the Greek
horse-headed, dog-headed, and man-headed fish (Tritons). Japanese dragons
are serpentine 'water fathers', which are prayed to in time of drought. The
Chinese dragons are rain-bringers which sleep during the winter (the season
of drought) in pools and rise to fight and thunder in spring. They are
hatched from stones as snakes, or from sea-plants, or are transformed fish,
or are born from aged pine trees. They are coloured according to their
attributes, and may assume human forms or be horse-headed with a snake's
tail. That the composite dragon-god is a mixture of several ancient
animal-gods is evident by the following description of one class of dragon
by a Chinese writer: "His horns resemble those of a stag, his head that of
a camel, his eyes those of a demon, his neck that of a snake, his belly
that of a clam, his scales those of a carp, his claws those of an eagle,
his soles those of a tiger, his ears those of a cow." Dragons may transform
themselves into fishes, snakes, crows, dogs, rats, cows, sharks, whales,
crocodiles, &c., as well as human beings. The 'will o' wisp' is the 'dragon
lantern', and the dragon pearl is the 'jewel that grants all desires' in
India, China, and Japan. Dragon herbs cure diseases and prolong life.
Dragons carry souls to the Celestial regions, or draw vehicles in which
souls stand. This Far Eastern belief existed in Ancient Crete too. On a
Cretan sarcophagus is a chariot drawn by two griffins (forms of the dragon)
in which stands a woman, probably a goddess, and a swathed pale figure, the
deceased. Shakespeare has interesting dragon references, including:

  The dragon wing of night o'erspreads the earth,...

  (_Troilus and Cressida_, V, 8, 17.)

  Swift, swift, you dragons of the night, that dawning
  May bare the raven's eye.

  (_Cymbeline_, ii, 2, 49.)

It is believed that the treasure-guarding dragon of the romances had origin
in mixed memories regarding the pearl-guarding shark, the fiery flying
serpent, and the ancient serpent and crocodile demons of destruction,
flood, darkness, and death. The whole idea of dragons may have originated
from traditions about the pterodactyls which lived in the Mesozoic period.

The dragon being a symbol of destruction and a power of evil, the slaying
of a dragon was considered a great achievement of mediæval heroes, such as
King Arthur, Beowulf, Siegmund, and Tristram.--Cf. G. Elliot Smith, _The
Evolution of the Dragon_; M. W. de Visser, _The Dragon in China and Japan_.

[Illustration: Dragon-fly

A, Larva of dragon-fly. B, Dragon-fly escaping from chrysalis. C, The
perfect insect.]

DRAGON, or DRAGON-LIZARD, a name for several species of lizards inhabiting
South-East Asia. The common flying lizard (_Draco volans_), the best type
of the genus, is about 10 or 12 inches in length, the tail being extremely
long in proportion to the body. The sides are furnished with peculiar
extensions of the skin, resembling wings, which help to support it in the
air as it springs from branch to branch. These wing-like processes are
borne by prolongations of five or six of the hindermost ribs, and can be
folded up. Its food consists almost exclusively of insects.

DRAG´ONET, the common name of small marine fishes constituting a special
family (Callionymidæ). The gemmeous dragonet (_Callionymus lyra_) is found
in the British seas. The female is dull brown and much smaller than the
male, which is brilliantly coloured with spots and bars of blue on a yellow
ground. His first dorsal fin is large and drawn out into a long filament.

DRAGON-FLY, the common name of members of a family (Odonata or Libellulidæ)
of neuropterous insects. They have a large head, large eyes, and strong
horny mandibles. They are beautiful in form and colour, and are of very
powerful flight. The great dragon-fly (_Æschna grandis_) is about 4 inches
long, and the largest of the British species. They live on insects, and are
remarkable for their voracity. The dragon-fly deposits its eggs in the
water, where the wingless nymphs live on aquatic insects. The nymph stage
lasts for a year. The family is of very wide distribution. The small blue
Agrion is a common European form, but the familiar Libellula is the most
extensively distributed. See _Demoiselle_.

DRAGONNADES, or DRAGONADES, the name given to the persecutions directed
against the Protestants, chiefly in the south of France, during the reign
of Louis XIV, shortly before the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685.
Bands of soldiers, headed by priests, marched through the villages, giving
the Protestant inhabitants the alternative of renouncing their faith or
being given over to the extortions and violence of the soldiery. The
dragoons were conspicuous in these expeditions, to which they gave their
name. The Dragonnades drove thousands of French Protestants out of
France.--Cf. Tylor, _The Huguenots in the Seventeenth Century._

DRAGON'S BLOOD, or GUM DRAGON, a resinous juice, usually obtained by
incision from various tropical plants, as _Cal[)a]mus Draco_, _Dracæna
Draco_, _Pterocarpus Draco_, &c. It varies in composition, and is often
much adulterated. It is opaque, of a reddish-brown colour, brittle, and has
a smooth shining conchoidal fracture. It is soluble in alcohol and oil, but
scarcely so in water. It is used for colouring varnishes, for staining
marble, leather, and wood, and for tooth tinctures.

[Illustration: Dragon Tree (_Dracæna Draco_)

1, Fruiting branchlet. 2, Flowers.]

DRAGON TREE (_Dracæna Draco_), a tree-like liliaceous plant, with a stem
simple or divided at top, and in old age often much branched. It is a
native of the Canaries, and yields the resin known as dragon's blood. It is
often grown in greenhouses.

DRAGOON´, a kind of mounted soldier, so called originally from his musket
(_dragon_) having on the muzzle of it the head of a dragon. At one time
dragoons served both as mounted and foot soldiers, but now only as the
former. In the British army there are _heavy_ and _light dragoons_. The
first dragoon regiment, the Scots Greys, was formed in 1681.

DRAGUIGNAN (dr[.a]-g[=e]-nyän),a town of Southern France since 1793,
capital of the department of Var, in a beautiful valley, 41 miles
north-east of Toulon. It has some interesting buildings, and manufactures
of silk, soap, and leather. Pop. 9974.

DRAINAGE. The term comprises the drainage of areas of country by rivers and
streams, the reclamation of areas from the sea, and country formerly
marshy, and the provision of culverts and pipe-drains to buildings and
towns.

The Fens in Lincolnshire are a notable example of a comprehensive system of
drainage by means of open ditches (locally called 'drains'), into which the
surplus water is lifted by means of wind- and steam-pumps.

Low-lying or flat country often requires a considerable amount of drainage,
which is carried out by means of a regular system of earthenware pipes,
laid 2 to 3 feet deep, and from 15 to 35 feet apart. These pipes are
porous, from 2 to 3 inches in diameter, laid with butt joints, and lead
into larger mains, and thence by open ditches to streams.

A method recently introduced consists in drawing a pointed cylindrical
tool, 2 inches in diameter, through the ground at the required depth. This
tool is dependent from a thin steel plate, which connects it with the
carriage above, so that it can be drawn underground in any desired
direction. This system is economical in first cost, but its useful life is
considerably less than that of a piped drain, and its use is obviously
confined to soils of the heavier variety.

In considering the provision of drainage to water-logged or low-lying land,
every care should first be taken to improve the existing natural means of
drainage, such as deepening and cleaning out streams and ditches, and
removing obstructions.

It should be borne in mind that the object of land drainage is not only to
remove the surplus water, but to promote a free and natural circulation of
water in the soil, and to allow the mineral constituents of the water to
reach the plant roots.

In the drainage of buildings, glazed socketed stoneware pipes are used,
varying in diameter from 3 to 9 inches, laid straight in plan and in
longitudinal section, and laid to falls, calculated to give a minimum
velocity of 3 feet per second when flowing half full. These are laid in
trenches, with inspection chambers at all changes in direction, and should
be laid on and surrounded with concrete. In bad ground, or under dwelling
houses, cast-iron pipes are employed, with special turned and bored joints.
In towns these drains lead into the public sewers, which are similar
stoneware pipes from 6 to 18 inches in diameter, larger sizes being
constructed in brickwork or concrete, and either circular or egg-shaped
form. In populous areas these sewers attain very large dimensions, the
northern outfall sewers of London consisting of five parallel sewers, each
9 feet in diameter. See _Draining_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. S. Mitchell,
_Handbook of Land Drainage_; Moore and Silcock, _Sanitary Engineering_;
Gilbert Thomson, _Modern Sanitary Engineering_.

DRAINAGE TUBES are fenestrated india-rubber tubes used in surgery to effect
the gradual removal of the contents of a suppurating cavity. The inner end
of the tube is in the cavity, and the outer end projects above the skin
surface, and is usually fixed by a stitch or safety-pin, and covered with
suitable dressings.

[Illustration: Covered Drain without Pipes]

[Illustration: Open Drain]

[Illustration: Stone-laid Drains]

DRAINING, in agriculture, a method of improving the soil by withdrawing the
superfluous water from it by means of channels that are generally covered
over. Plants cannot thrive unless there is free circulation of air and
water round their roots. The successful practice of draining in a great
measure depends on a proper knowledge of the superficial strata, of their
situation, relative degrees of porosity, &c. Some strata allow water to
pass through them, while others more impervious force it to run or filtrate
along their surfaces till it reaches more level ground below. In general,
where the grounds are in a great measure flat and the soils of materials
which retain the excess of moisture, they require artificial means of
drainage to render them capable of yielding good crops whether of grain or
grass. The wetness of land, which makes it inferior for agricultural
purposes, may appear not only as surface-water but as water which flows
through the lower strata, and to draw off these there are the two distinct
operations of surface-draining and under-draining. The rudest form of open
drains are the deep furrows lying between high-backed ridges, and meant to
carry off the surplus water after the soil is completely saturated, but in
doing so they generally carry off also much of the best of the soil and of
the manure which has been spread upon it. The ordinary ditch is a common
form of water-course useful in certain cases, as in hill pastures. But
covered drains at a depth of 4 feet or so are the common forms in draining
agricultural lands. They are generally either _stone-drains_ or
_tile-drains_. Stone-drains are either formed on the plan of open culverts
of various forms, or of small stones in sufficient quantity to permit a
free and speedy filtration of the water through them. The box-drain, for
instance, is formed of flat stones neatly arranged in the bottom of the
trench, the whole forming an open tube. In tile-drains, tiles or pipes of
burnt clay are used for forming the conduits. They possess all the
qualities which are required in the formation of drains, affording a free
ingress to water, while they effectually exclude earth, as well as other
injurious substances, and vermin. Drainage tiles and pipes have been made
in a great variety of forms, the earliest of which, since the introduction
of thorough draining, was the horse-shoe tile, so called from its shape.
These should always rest on soles, or flats of burned clay. Pipe tiles,
which combine the sole and cover in one piece, have been made of various
shapes, but the best form appears to be the cylinder. An important
department of draining is the draining off of the waters which are the
sources of springs. The judicious application of a few simple drains, made
to communicate with the watery layers, will often dry swamps of great
extent, where large sums of money, expended in forming open drains in the
swamp itself, would leave it but little improved. In the laying out of
drains the first point to be determined is the place of outfall, which
should always afford a free and clear outlet to the drains, and must
necessarily be at the lowest point of the land to be drained. The next
point to be determined is the position of the minor drains. In the laying
out of these the surface of each field must be regarded as being made up of
one or more planes, as the case may be, for each of which the drains should
be laid out separately. Level lines are to be set out a little below the
upper edge of each of these planes, and the drains must then be made to
cross these lines at right angles. By this means the drains will run in the
line of the greatest slope, no matter how distorted the surface of the
field may be. All the minor drains should be made to discharge obliquely
into mains or submains, and not directly into an open ditch or
water-course. As a general rule, there should be a main to receive the
waters of the minor drains from every 5 acres. The advantages of drainage
are obvious. In the first place it brings the soil into a more suitable
condition for the growth of plants, aiding in producing the finely divided
and porous state which allows the roots and rootlets to spread themselves
at will in order to obtain the needed supplies of food, air, and moisture.
It also allows the sun's rays to produce their full effect on the soil and
plants. In the presence of stagnant water a great part of this effect would
be lost. See _Drainage_.

[Illustration: Horse-shoe and Cylindrical Drain Tiles]

[Illustration: Drain-traps]

DRAIN-TRAP, a contrivance to prevent the escape of foul air from drains,
while allowing the passage of water into them. They are of various forms.
In the traps represented below it will be seen that there must always be a
certain quantity of water maintained to bar the way against the escape of
the gas from the drain or sewer. When additional liquid is conveyed to the
trap, there is, of course, an overflow into the drain. In older types of
drains the gas was prevented from escaping by a metal plate thrown
obliquely over the drain mouth and dipping into the water in the vessel
beyond it.

DRAKE, Sir Francis, an English navigator, born at Tavistock, in Devonshire,
in 1539, or according to some authorities in 1545. He served as a sailor in
a coasting vessel, and afterwards joined Sir John Hawkins in his last
expedition against the Spaniards (1567), losing nearly all he possessed in
that unfortunate enterprise. Having gathered a number of adventurers round
him, he contrived to fit out a vessel in which he made two successful
cruises to the West Indies in 1570 and 1571. Next year, with two small
ships, he again sailed for the Spanish Main, captured the cities of Nombre
de Dios and Vera Cruz, and took a rich booty which he brought safely home.
In 1577 Drake made another expedition to the Spanish Main, having this time
command of five ships. On this the most famous of his voyages Drake passed
the Straits of Magellan, plundered all along the coasts of Chile and Peru,
sacked several ports, and captured a galleon laden with silver, gold, and
jewels, to the value of perhaps £200,000. He then ran north as far as 48°
N. lat., seeking a passage to the Atlantic, but was compelled to return to
Port San Francisco on account of the cold. He then steered for the
Moluccas, and holding straight across the Indian Ocean doubled the Cape of
Good Hope, and arrived at Plymouth 3rd Nov., 1580, being thus the first of
the English circumnavigators. As there was no war between England and
Spain, the proceedings of Drake had a somewhat dubious character, but the
queen maintained that they were lawful reprisals for the action of the
Spaniards, and showed her favour to Drake by knighting him on board his own
ship. Five years afterwards Drake was again attacking the Spaniards in the
Cape Verde Islands and in the West Indies, and in 1588 particularly
distinguished himself as vice-admiral in the conflict with the Spanish
Armada. In 1593 he represented Plymouth in Parliament. His later
expeditions, that in 1595 against the Spanish West Indies and that to
Panama, were not so successful, and his death, which took place on 28th
Jan., 1596, at sea off Porto Bello, was hastened by
disappointment.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. S. Corbett, _Sir Francis Drake_
(English Men of Action Series), and _Drake and the Tudor Navy_.

DRAKENBERG MOUNTAINS, a range of South Africa forming the western frontier
of Natal, and rising to the height of 11,000 feet, a continuation of the
Quathlamba range.

DRAMA (Gr. _drama_, action, from _dr[=a]n_, to act or do), a form of art
which imitates action by introducing real persons to represent the
fictitious characters, and to carry on the story by means of action and
dialogue.

Man is naturally an imitative animal, and some crude form of drama must
have been in existence in very early times. We can see the origins of drama
in many of the games played by children, where important events such as
war, marriage, and sacrifice are represented in song and dance. In Greece,
the cradle of drama as of everything that is good, there must have been in
prehistoric times war-dances which formed the basis of tragedy, and rough
vintage revel dances which formed the basis of comedy.

_Greek Drama._--The Greek drama was religious in its origin. It arose from
the dithyrambs or songs composed in honour of Dionysus, the god of all
vegetation, though identified most closely with the vine. When vegetation
died in winter, this was considered to be the death of Dionysus; when it
bloomed anew in the spring, this was thought to be the god's resurrection.
The one event was celebrated with gloomy song and dance, and the other with
merry revels and crude indecency. The history of Greek drama is the history
of the decline and fall of the chorus. At first the chorus was the whole
play, and in the _Supplices_ of Æschylus, the earliest extant tragedy, the
chorus played a predominating part. According to tradition, Thespis (about
535 B.C.) introduced for the first time a masked actor, who carried on a
dialogue with the leader of the chorus. Æschylus introduced a second actor,
and Sophocles a third. It is thought that there never were more than three
actors, but, of course, duplication of parts was permitted. There were also
frequently mute characters (_k[=o]pha pros[=o]pa_) on the stage. Dialogue
became more important in the later plays of Æschylus, and chorus became
less important; Sophocles developed his dialogue in masterly style, though
his choruses are among the most beautiful things in all Greek poetry; in
Euripides the choruses, however lovely in themselves, are less an integral
part of the drama than they were in the plays of his predecessors. In fact
the chorus acted as a clog on the freedom of the dramatist, who wished to
develop exciting situations and depict realistic characters. In comedy the
same decline of the chorus is to be found; in the _Acharnians_, the
earliest comedy, the chorus is very prominent; in the _Plutus_, the last
comedy extant, it is comparatively unimportant. Sumptuary laws had
something to do with this, and there is a vast difference between the
magnificently apparelled chorus in the _Birds_, and the chorus in the
_Lysistrata_, which represented elderly Athenian men and women in their
everyday costume.

Greek tragedies were usually presented in the form of trilogies, that is,
in sets of three plays all dealing with the same subject. To these was
added, as a rule, a fourth play, known as a satyr-play. The _Cyclops_ of
Euripides is the only example extant of this kind of play. It is not very
amusing, though it contains a certain amount of horse-play and high
spirits. The satyr-play was intended to lighten the gloom of the three
preceding tragedies. We have one complete trilogy preserved--the
magnificent _Oresteia_ of Æschylus, consisting of the _Agamemnon_,
_Choephoroe_, and _Eumenides_--plays which are bracketed with _Lear_ and
_Othello_ as the highest and most majestic of all tragedies. In later times
the three plays of the trilogy dealt with different subjects. The tragedies
to be performed were carefully selected by some of the Athenian
magistrates, and at the festival prizes were given for the best tragedy, on
the recommendation of a carefully chosen jury. Comedies were presented one
at a time; prizes were offered for the best of them also. Greek tragic
actors wore long flowing robes, and added to their height by means of the
_cothurnus_ or thick-soled boot; it is believed that they wore masks with
some sort of speaking-trumpet in the mouth, so that their words would be
audible to the vast audience which assembled in the theatre, a huge
circular open-air amphitheatre.

Each of the three Greek tragic writers whose work has been preserved is
supreme in his own way. Æschylus's lyric dramas are among the greatest
writings of all time; the plays of Sophocles are masterpieces of deft
construction, of well-woven plot, and ironic dialogue; and his choruses are
lyrics of the greatest beauty. Æschylus is more titanic; Sophocles is more
humane. Euripides, the latest of the three, is a great poet and a champion
of the weak, such as women and slaves; moreover, he sees deeply into men's
hearts. He is really the founder of romantic drama, through the Roman
Seneca, who imitated him. Of Greek comic poets we only possess one, but he
is a host in himself. Aristophanes is a Gargantuan mirth-maker; he
bestrides the narrow world like a Colossus. He plays with a master's hand
upon every note in the whole comic gamut. His works, owing to the
conditions of the old comedy, were very frequently political and highly
personal in their tone. The later plays are less so. The _Birds_, _Clouds_,
and _Frogs_ are among the very greatest comic creations; only a little less
great is the _Lysistrata_, where a serious purpose is veiled by intense
indecency. The old comedy, however, was essentially the product of its own
age; it did not invite, or even permit, imitation. The new comedy, of which
Philemon, Menander, and Diphilus were the principal writers, gradually
supplanted it. Their plays were more or less romantic comedies with
carefully constructed plots. They are all lost, but we may gain some idea
of them from Plautus and Terence, and from the fragments which have been
found, some of them fairly recently.

[Illustration: A type of mask worn by the characters in a Roman play after
Terence's time. The audience knew from the mask the particular character
the actor represented.]

_Roman Drama._--Roman drama is not intrinsically good; it is in many
respects a weak imitation of Greek drama, but it has been very much more
important in its influence. Early English, French, and Italian dramatists
all turned to Seneca as a model for tragedy, and to Plautus and Terence as
models for comedy. This was partly due to the fact that though most of them
had small Latin, they had less Greek; but it was partly because the Latin
writers were easier to imitate. Italy had native farces, known as Atellan
Fables, which were not without their influence on the development of
comedy. These plays were broadly farcical, and dealt almost entirely with
country life. The two great Roman comedy writers, Plautus and Terence,
based their work, however, upon the new comedy of Greece, especially upon
the plays of Menander and Diphilus. Plautus is decidedly coarse at times,
and sometimes his fun is too much like that of a fourth-form boy at a
public school, but his work is wholesome and vigorous, and he is a more
creative and virile writer than Terence. Terence's plays are somewhat weak
dramatically, but are written in a style of great beauty. He was a careful
literary craftsman. Seneca, the only Roman tragic writer, had an immense
influence on later dramatists. It is hard to account for this. He based his
work upon Euripides, but he suppressed everything that makes Euripides
tender and human. Senecan tragedy abounded in bloodshed and horrors; the
speeches are full of pompous rant, and their metre is most monotonous. Some
of the choruses are good rhetorical writing, though scarcely great poetry.
Seneca's influence pervades all our early tragedy; it is clearly seen in
_Gorboduc_ and in Jonson's _Sejanus_ and _Catiline_; even Shakespeare is
not without traces of it. As the Roman Empire declined so did the Roman
stage; finally nothing was performed save pantomime, in the proper sense of
the word, where everything was done in dumb-show. This appeared to content
the populace of the Roman Empire, even as the cinema seems to satisfy the
citizens of a later and perhaps greater empire.

_Mediæval Drama._--There is no drama between the death of Seneca and the
Renaissance, unless we except the six curious 'comedies' of the nun
Hrosvitha of Gandersheim (born about A.D. 935). These plays are based upon
Terence, though they do not follow their model closely. They are, of
course, written in Latin. They have some vivid dramatic touches, and
frequent felicities of expression. They were probably intended for
recitation, not for representation on the stage. They must be regarded as
an isolated phenomenon. The Church for long discouraged drama, but ended by
adapting it to its own purposes. As in Greece, therefore, drama originated
in England from religion. The priests impressed certain events in sacred
history upon the minds of their congregation by means of dramatic
performances which at first took place actually in the church. Thus the
removal of the stone from the mouth of the sepulchre and the discovery of
the empty tomb was performed at Easter, and the finding of the Babe in the
manger by the three Magi was represented at Epiphany. It is easy to
understand how performances of this sort arose from the singing of suitable
anthems on festival days. The Oberammergau passion-play is a somewhat
sophisticated representative of these liturgical plays; it cannot be called
a survival, as it only dates back to 1633. These mystery-plays, so called
because they were produced by the trade-guilds (Lat. _ministerium_, a
trade), were eventually brought out into the market-place on wagons, and
were moved round to various 'stations' in the town, different plays being
performed at each station. A distinction is sometimes made between mystery-
and miracle-plays, the former being defined as dealing with gospel events
only, while the latter deal with incidents derived from the legends of the
saints. Several collections of these plays survive--the Wakefield, Chester,
and Coventry plays. They are written in a lively fashion, and are often
naively humorous, the most sacred Bible characters being introduced along
with English yokels and crudely comic persons. The next development of the
drama was the morality play or allegory; the well-known _Everyman_ is the
most finished specimen of this kind of play which we possess. Here
personifications of Virtues and Vices formed the dramatis personæ; the
Devil was usually included in the cast. Moralities were in ways less crude
than mysteries, as they consisted of an allegory worked out by means of a
more or less continuous plot, while mysteries consisted merely of a series
of isolated scenes. The interlude is another early species of drama; it
marks a still further advance. Interludes were both farcical and
theological in their subjects, and played an important part in the
controversies at the time of the Reformation. John Heywood (1497-1580) is
the most important writer of interludes, the controversial plays of John
Bale (1495-1563) serving to link the interlude to the regular drama, which
began gradually to spring up.

[Illustration: Elizabethan Drama

Interior of the Swan Theatre in 1596. From a sketch made by a Dutchman who
visited England at the time.]

_Elizabethan Drama._--The first English comedy, _Ralph Roister Doister_,
appeared in 1551. It is by Nicolas Udall, and is based upon the _Miles
Gloriosus_ of Plautus. _Gammer Gurton's Needle_, a more native production,
thought to have been by John Still, who was master of St. John's College,
Cambridge, and Bishop of Bath and Wells, appeared about 1566. Drama now
improved rapidly, and was soon to attain perfection in Shakespeare.
Marlowe, Kyd, Greene, Lyly, Nash, Lodge, and Peele all helped to prepare
the way. The greatest of these is Marlowe, who died at the age of
twenty-nine, leaving behind him the great plays _Tamburlaine_ (1588),
_Faustus_, and _Edward II_. In his development of blank verse he
contributed greatly to the success of the drama. The earliest tragedy,
_Gorboduc_ (1562), is incredibly stiff and wooden in its versification.
Marlowe made of blank verse an instrument that would sound any note of
pathos or sublimity. In the plays of Shakespeare (1564-1616) drama reached
its greatest height. In comedy, tragedy, history, in handling dramatic
situations, and in liquid perfection of verse, he is supreme. Like the very
greatest masters, he founded no school, and his contemporaries owe little
to him. While they are all put in the shade by his myriad-minded genius,
they are all partakers with him in the glory of their age, and are all
great in themselves. Jonson (1573-1637) is one of the most important, as he
to some extent founded a school and exercised considerable influence over
later writers. He was a scholarly and laborious playwright, who
over-elaborated some of his work, but who was a masterly adept at
constructing a play, and a vigorous realist. Chapman (1559-1634), Dekker
(1570-1641), and Marston (1575-1634) were all good workmanlike dramatists.
Beaumont and Fletcher produced between them a great body of work, some of
inferior quality, but all of great power. In some respects their work is
less unlike that of Shakespeare than the work of other Elizabethans.
Middleton, Webster, Tourneur, Thomas Heywood, and Massinger are all
excellent in their way, Massinger in particular being a master of
stage-craft. Shirley and Ford conclude the list of the great Jacobean
dramatists. The Puritans caused the theatres to be closed in 1642.

_Spanish and French Drama._--Meanwhile a similar outburst of dramatic
activity was taking place on the Continent. In Spain, Lope de Vega
(1562-1634) wrote a prodigious quantity of plays, and wrote them with much
brilliance. Calderon wrote some beautiful plays, several of which have been
translated by Edward Fitzgerald. Cervantes, though much better known as a
novelist, wrote many good plays. The Spanish school directly inspired
Corneille (1606-1684) to write his play _Le Cid_, and so begin the great
age of classical French tragedy. Racine (1639-1700) is the other great
name. French classical drama, though somewhat fettered by its observance of
laws that were wrongly considered essential, is extremely dignified and
beautiful. In Molière (1622-73) France possesses the greatest of all
writers of society comedies. He is as supreme in his kingdom as Shakespeare
is in his empire. He borrowed from his predecessors with all the licence of
genius, but he payed usurious interest on his borrowings.

_Restoration Drama._--When the theatres were reopened after the
Restoration, many dramatists began to write. Restoration comedy was largely
based on Molière, who was brutalized by Wycherley, and adapted but not
improved by Congreve. Congreve was, however, a master of sparkling
dialogue, and in one play, _The Way of the World_, he has shown himself not
unworthy of comparison with his master. Vanbrugh and Farquhar are the other
two important writers of comedies; all their comedies are more or less
disfigured by cynicism and immorality, the reaction after the Puritan
restraint. Restoration tragedy is much less important than Restoration
comedy. Otway, Lee, and Southerne are its chief exponents.

_Eighteenth Century Drama._--Some of these dramatists bring us into the
eighteenth century, which was not on the whole prolific in good plays.
Fielding wrote many amusing farces, but all were more or less hack-work. At
a later period Foote, Cumberland, and the two Colmans wrote good acting
plays, which have not lived. The two plays of Goldsmith and several of the
plays of Sheridan still hold the stage. Sheridan owed much to the
Restoration dramatists, especially Vanbrugh, but as he improved his
originals in many respects, and made them much more presentable in decent
society, he is entitled to most of the reputation he long enjoyed.

In France, Marivaux (1678-1763) wrote sentimental comedies, while
Beaumarchais, whose own life was more exciting and varied than most plays,
wrote comedies with brilliant plots. In Italy, Maffei, Goldoni, and Alfieri
are notable dramatists; the last named wrote propaganda in the disguise of
tragedy. In Germany, Lessing by precept and example inaugurated the
'romantic movement'; Schiller and Goethe are the two greatest names
associated with the stage. _Wallenstein_ in particular is a good
chronicle-play, while _Faust_ is considered one of the greatest of all
German plays.

_Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Drama._--Victor Hugo led the Romantic
movement in France, and wrote many great plays, such as _Hernani_ and _Ruy
Blas_. De Musset wrote his plays, which he called _proverbes_, under the
same influence, and later followers of this school are Rostand and the
Belgian M. Maurice Maeterlinck. The French dramatists Augier, Scribe, and
Sardou had an overwhelming influence on the English stage, not altogether
for its good. English drama was at a low ebb in the middle of the
nineteenth century. Lytton's plays, though sometimes performed still, are
extremely theatrical. Boucicault, who made a great success by dramatizing
'the pathos of Paddy', is not a great writer. H. J. Byron was an inveterate
punster and writer of burlesques of no value. One of his plays, _Our Boys_,
was acted for many years. Robertson is the most outstanding author of what
is known as 'the cup and saucer' school of comedy. His plays are very much
acting plays; they are not literature, and are quite removed from real
life. Gilbert was a man of great gifts, but though some of his farces and
comedies are good, he was not a master of drama as he was of _libretti_
writing. He did little to improve the drama of his day. Sir A. W. Pinero
began his career as a dramatist under the ægis of Robertson, but continued
it under that of Ibsen. Ibsen (1828-1906) exercised a not altogether
wholesome influence upon English drama for a considerable time. His plays
are extremely well-constructed, and he refused to tolerate many
conventions, such as asides and soliloquies. In many of his plays he
adopted the retrospective method, where the plot consists not so much in
anything being done as in the gradual discovery of what has been done long
before the rise of the curtain. Sophocles had done this most skilfully in
_Oedipus Tyrannus_, but Ibsen carried the method to perfection in _The Wild
Duck_ and _Rosmersholm_. All Ibsen's plays are more or less unpleasant, and
he did not make many of his characters sympathetic. Pinero, after writing
several farces, wrote _The Second Mrs. Tanqueray_ (1893), a masterpiece
after the style of Ibsen. _His House in Order_ is a cleverly constructed
example of the retrospective method. H. A. Jones (born 1851) has written
many excellent and extremely powerful plays, of which the best known are
_The Liars_ and _The Case of Rebellious Susan_. G. Bernard Shaw (born
1856), who combines some of the qualities of a Greek sophist with some of
the foibles of a modern Irishman, has written some amusing plays, though
others have been spoilt by his tendency to turn them into propaganda.
Galsworthy has written plays of great earnestness; in some he has neglected
the Aristotelian maxim that every play must have a beginning, a middle, and
an end. Sir James Barrie has accumulated a large fortune by means of his
plays, and in one at least, _Peter Pan_, he has made a bid for immortality.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S. H. Butcher, _Aristotle's_ _Theory of Poetry and Fine
Art_; A. E. Haigh, _The Attic Theatre_; E. K. Chambers, _The Mediæval
Stage_; A. W. Pollard, _English Miracle Plays_; F. S. Boas, _Shakespeare
and his Predecessors_; A. C. Bradley, _Shakespearean Tragedy_; Sir W.
Raleigh, _Shakespeare_ (English Men of Letters Series); Sir A. W. Ward,
_History of English Dramatic Literature_; K. Mantzius, _History of
Theatrical Art_; A. S. Rappoport, _The English Drama_ (Temple Primers);
T. H. Dickinson, _The Contemporary Drama of England_; F. Brunetière, _Les
Époques du théâtre français 1636-1850_; A. Filon, _The Modern French
Drama_; A. d'Ancona, _Origini del teatro italiano_; G. H. Lewes, _The
Spanish Drama_.

DRAMMEN, or DRAM, a seaport of Norway, in a valley on both sides of the
Drammen, at its mouth in the Drammenfiord, 25 miles S.S.W. of Christiania.
It has manufactures of leather, soap, ropes, sail-cloth, earthenware, and
tobacco; and is the second port in the kingdom for the export of timber.

DRAPER, John William, American chemist and physiologist, born at Liverpool
1811, died 1882. He went to America in 1833, and was successively professor
of physical science in Hampden-Sidney College, Virginia, and of natural
history, chemistry, and physiology in the University of New York. He made
many contributions to scientific literature, and devoted much attention to
the chemical action of light, in connection with which he effected some
discoveries. Among his chief works is his _History of the Intellectual
Development of Europe_ (2 vols., 1863). His son, Henry Draper (born 1837,
died 1882), chemist and astronomer, made some valuable researches on the
spectra of the heavenly bodies.

DRAUGHTS, a game resembling chess played on a board divided into sixty-four
checkered squares. Each of the two players is provided with twelve pieces
or 'men' placed on every alternate square at each end of the board. The men
are moved forward diagonally to the right or left one square at a time, the
object of each player being to capture all his opponent's men, or to hem
them in so that they cannot move. A piece can be captured only when the
square on the diagonal line behind it is unoccupied. When a player succeeds
in moving a piece to the farther end of the board (the crown-head), that
piece becomes a king, and has the power of moving or capturing diagonally
backwards or forwards. When it so happens that neither of the players has
sufficient advantage in force or position to enable him to win, the game is
drawn. _Checkers_ is the common American name of the game.

The game does not offer the same scope for brilliance and originality as
the sister game of chess, but still is much more profound than is generally
supposed. It has been cultivated in Britain, and especially in Scotland,
certainly for over two hundred years, and has served as a field of exercise
for some extremely able intellects, which but for it might hardly have been
exercised at all. Among famous players are: Andrew Anderson, of Carluke,
who published a celebrated work on the game in 1852; James Wyllie, the
'Herd Laddie', who travelled over the world playing exhibition matches, and
was for many years world's champion; Robert Martins, English champion about
1870, who played several matches with Wyllie; R. D. Yates, a young American
player, who defeated Wyllie for the championship, but shortly afterwards
gave up the game; James Ferrie, of Coatbridge, who in 1894 defeated Wyllie
and became champion, to be defeated in turn by Richard Jordan of Edinburgh
in 1896; Robert Stewart, of Fifeshire, many times Scottish champion, and
probably the strongest player now living.

The Scottish tourney, held annually in Glasgow since 1893, except for a few
years on account of the War, has done much to stimulate interest in the
game. The English Draughts Association also holds a biennial tourney.
Several international matches have taken place between Scotland and
England, the first in 1884. This, like nearly all the other matches, was
won by Scotland. In 1905 a very strong British team visited America and
decisively defeated a side representing the United States.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
James Lees, _A Guide to the Game of Draughts_. Early works by Payne,
Sturges, Drummond, Hay, Anderson, and Bowen are now very scarce. There are
several periodicals devoted to the game; and some newspapers, notably _The
Glasgow Weekly Herald_, give it a column weekly.

DRAVE, or DRAU (drä´ve, drou), a European river which rises in Tyrol, flows
E.S.E. across the north of Illyria and the south of Styria, and between
Hungary on the left and Croatia and Slavonia on the right, and, after a
course of nearly 400 miles, joins the Danube 14 miles east of Essek. It is
navigable for about 200 miles.

DRAVID´IAN, a term applied to the vernacular tongues of the great majority
of the inhabitants of Southern India, and to the people themselves who
inhabited India previous to the advent of the Aryans. The affinities of the
Dravidian languages are uncertain. The family consists of the Tamil,
Telugu, Canarese, Malayâlam, Tulu, Tuda, Gond, Rajmahal, Oraon, &c. Only
the first four mentioned have a literature, that of the Tamil being the
oldest and the most important. Originally the word Dravidian was a purely
philological term, but it is now used in an ethnological sense as
well.--Cf. R. Caldwell, _Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South
Indian Family of Languages_.

DRAWBACK, usually a certain amount of duties or customs dues paid back or
remitted to an importer when he exports goods that he has previously
imported and paid duty on, as, for instance, tobacco, &c.; or a certain
amount of excise paid back or allowed on the exportation of home
manufactures.

DRAWBRIDGE, a bridge with a lifting floor, such as was formerly used for
crossing the ditches of fortresses, or any movable bridge over a navigable
channel where the height of the roadway is insufficient to allow vessels to
pass underneath. Modern drawbridges across rivers, canals, the entrances of
docks, &c., are generally made to open horizontally, and the movable
portion is called a bascule, balance, or lifting bridge, a turning, swivel,
or swing bridge, or a rolling bridge, in accordance with the mode in which
it is made to open. Swing-bridges are usually divided into two parts
meeting in the middle, and each moved on pivots on the opposite sides of
the channel, or they may move as a whole on a pivot in the middle of the
channel. Rolling bridges are suspended from a structure high above the
water, and are propelled backwards and forwards by means of rollers.

DRAWING is the art of representing upon a flat surface the forms of
objects, and their positions in relation to each other. The idea of
nearness or distance is given by the aid of perspective, foreshortening,
and gradation, and in the same way the three-dimensional quality of objects
is expressed. The term drawing is sometimes limited to the representing of
the forms of objects in outline, with or without the shading necessary to
develop roundness or _modelling_. But the term has a wider significance.
Any arrangement of colours or tones which serve to express form, and the
relation of one form to another, is really drawing; and thus a painting may
show fine draughtsmanship without line being used at all. Drawing is not a
matter of the medium employed, but of the manner in which it is used. It
is, however, convenient to classify drawings according to mediums, each of
which produces its effect in a different way. Thus drawing may be divided
into (1) pen drawing; (2) chalk, pencil, or charcoal drawing; (3) crayon
and pastel drawing; (4) drawing shaded with the brush; (5) architectural or
mechanical drawing. _Pen drawings_ are often confined to pure outlines; an
appearance of _relief_ or projection being given by thickening or doubling
the lines on the shadow side, or they may be shaded by combination of
lines. _Chalk, pencil, and charcoal drawings_ may be in line or tone. When
the chalk is powdered and rubbed in with a stump, large masses and broad
effects can be produced with much rapidity. The best draughtsmen, however,
rarely use a stump. In _crayon and pastel drawings_ the colours of the
objects represented are more or less completely represented in the medium.
_Drawings shaded with the brush_ are outlined with the pencil or pen, the
shading being laid on or _washed in_ with the brush in tints of Indian ink,
sepia, or colour. This was the method of the early water-colour painters in
England. _Architectural and mechanical drawings_ are those in which the
proportions of a building, machine, &c., are accurately set out for the
guidance of the constructor; objects are, in general, delineated by
geometric or orthographic projection.

The great schools of painting all show excellent drawing, though differing
in character. In Italy the Florentine school combined study of the antique
with anatomical research, and produced many vigorous and expressive
draughtsmen, notably Michael Angelo and Leonardo da Vinci. The Roman
school, under the influence of Raphael, sacrificed vigour and
expressiveness to elegance and the representation of ideal form. In the
Lombard school a severe style of drawing is seen through harmonious
colouring, and in the Venetian school the drawing is often veiled in the
richness of the colour. The German and Dutch schools excel in a careful and
minute style of naturalistic drawing, combined with good colour. The French
school in the time of Poussin was very accurate in its drawing; at a later
period its style betrayed a tendency to mannerism. David introduced, again,
a purer taste in drawing and a close study of the antique, and these are
qualities which distinguish his school (the so-called Classical school), of
which Ingres is the leading representative, from the Romantic and Eclectic
schools of a later period. The drawing of the British school is
naturalistic rather than academic, but the work of Gainsborough and Alfred
Stevens is comparable with that of earlier masters.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ruskin,
_Elements of Drawing_; Spiers, _Architectural Drawing_; R. S. Bowers,
_Drawing and Design for Craftsmen_; J. H. Brown, _Sketching without a
Master_; Harold Speed, _Drawing_.

DRAWING-ROOM, a room appropriated for the reception of company; a room in
which distinguished personages hold levees, or private persons receive
parties. _Court drawing-rooms_ are those assemblies held from time to time
for the reception or presentation to the sovereign of such ladies as by
custom, right, or courtesy are admissible. Receptions at which men are
presented are known as _levees_. The sovereign sometimes deputes a member
of the royal family to receive, in which case presentations are equivalent
to those made to the sovereign in person.

DRAWINGS. The term 'drawings' is usually taken to mean drawings of an
architectural or engineering nature, such as the plans of a new building
prepared by an architect, or the designs for engineering works, or for
machinery produced by an engineer.

[Illustration: Isometric projection of a Brick 8¾ × 4¼ × 2¾]

[Illustration: Plan and Elevation of a Square Slab pierced by a square hole
obtained by orthographic projection]

Three methods are commonly made use of in preparing drawings. (1)
Orthographic, which represents the subject under consideration in one plane
only, and from which dimensions may be scaled off, and which is the normal
method of preparing an engineering drawing. (2) Perspective or radial
projection is made use of by an architect for displaying the elevations of
a building, and gives a truer appreciation of the actual appearance of the
building than can be obtained by orthographic projection. (3) Isometric
projection enables one to show the length, breadth, and thickness of an
object drawn to scale on the one drawing. Such a drawing is really composed
of three sets of parallel straight lines, and is not strictly a true
representation of the object as it would appear to the eye. It has the
great advantage, however, that measurements may be directly scaled from it,
and lines which are parallel in the object are also parallel in the
drawing.

DRAYTON, MICHAEL, an English poet, born in 1563, is said to have studied at
Oxford, and afterwards held a commission in the army. The poem by which his
name is chiefly remembered is his _Polyolbion_ (1622, reprinted in 1890), a
sort of topographical description of England. It is generally extremely
accurate in its details, with, at the same time, many passages of true
poetic fire and beauty. Other works are his _Nymphidia, the Court of
Fairy_; _The Barons' Wars_; _The Legend of Great Cromwell_; _The Battle of
Agincourt_; besides numerous legends, sonnets, and other pieces. He died in
1631, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.--Cf. O. Elton, _Michael Drayton:
a Critical Study_.

DRAYTON, MARKET, or DRAYTON-IN-HALES, a town, England, county Salop, 18
miles northeast of Shrewsbury. It has a church, supposed to have been
erected, with exception of the steeple, in the reign of William I. There
are paper and hair-cloth manufactories. Pop. 5167.

DREAMS, trains of ideas which present themselves to the mind during sleep.
The principal feature of the state of dreaming is the absence of conscious
control over the current of thought, so that all kinds of fantastic
notions, which in the waking state would at once be put aside, are woven
into the texture of the dream. The usual content of dreams consists of
aspirations or dreads, which the dreamer had recently entertained or
experienced, mixed up with incidents which excited intense emotion at some
earlier period of the individual's history, and especially in early
childhood. The memory of unpleasant experiences, such, for example, as the
horrors of trench warfare, which is repressed in the waking state, tends to
force itself on the individual's attention when the conscious control is
relaxed in sleep, and to give rise to disturbing dreams which may become so
intense as to interfere with sleep and cause insomnia. The only rational
remedy for this distressing trouble is to discover the painful incident and
persuade the patient frankly to face it and not 'try to forget'. In recent
years S. Freud has placed the study of dreams upon a scientific basis. He
maintains that dreams represent the fulfilment of wishes. There is usually
an utter want of coherency in the images that appear before the mental eye,
but this excites no surprise in the dreamer. Occasionally, however,
intellectual efforts are made during sleep which would be difficult to
surpass in the waking state. It is said that Condillac often brought to a
conclusion in his dreams reasonings on which he had been employed during
the day; and that Franklin believed that he had been often instructed in
his dreams concerning the issue of events which at that time occupied his
mind. Coleridge composed from 200 to 300 lines during a dream: the
beautiful fragment of _Kubla Khan_, which was all he was able to commit to
paper when he awoke, remains a specimen of that dream-poem. Dreams are
subjective phenomena dependent on natural causes. They are retrospective
and resultant instead of being prospective or prophetic. The latter opinion
has, however, prevailed in all ages and among all nations; and hence the
common practice of divination or prophesying by dreams, that is,
interpreting them as presages of coming events. Some authorities declare
that all our dreams take place when we are in process of going to sleep or
becoming awake, and that during deep sleep the mind is totally inactive.
This is denied by the majority of philosophers, and with apparent
reason.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Havelock Ellis, _The World of Dreams_; S. Freud,
_The Interpretation of Dreams_; W. H. R. Rivers, _Instinct and the
Unconscious_.

[Illustration: Plan and Elevation of an 800-ton Dredger

A, Shoot. B, Hoist-gear. C, Hopper. D, Sand-pump and its engines. E,
Engines. F, Overboard shoot. G, Suction-pipe. H, Bucket-well. J, Overboard
discharge.]

DREDGING, a term applied to the operation of removing mud, silt, and other
deposits from the bottom of harbours, canals, rivers, docks, &c. The most
simple dredging apparatus is the spoon apparatus, which consists of a
strong iron ring or hoop, properly formed for making an impression upon the
soft matter at the bottom, so as to scoop it into a large leather bag
attached to the ring and perforated with a number of small holes. The means
for working it is a long handle, a suspending rope, and a crane or
sweep-pole planted in a boat. Much more effective is the steam
dredging-machine now in common use. It has a succession of strong iron
buckets on an endless chain, which travels on a frame whose lower end is
vertically adjustable so as to regulate the depth at which it works. It is
worked by steam, and the buckets tear up the matter at the bottom, raise
it, and discharge it into punts or hoppers close to the dredging vessel.
Various forms of steam-pump dredgers, in which suction-pipes are the chief
features, are also used. The River Clyde, from being a shallow stream, has
been converted, mainly by dredging, into a waterway carrying large vessels
up to Glasgow. Dredging rivers for gold is now largely carried on; and the
gold-dredge may even be floated in water artificially supplied. The
operation of dragging the bottom of the sea for molluscs, plants, and other
objects, usually for scientific observation, is also called dredging. The
oyster-dredge is a light iron frame with a scraper like a narrow hoe on one
side, and a bag attached to receive the oysters. The dredges used by
naturalists are mostly modifications of or somewhat similar to the
oyster-dredge. Scientific dredging has of late assumed great importance as
making us acquainted with the life of deep-sea areas.

DREISENSSIA, a genus of bivalve mollusc allied to the mussels. One species
(_D. polymorpha_) is a native of the streams which flow into the Caspian,
but has been accidentally introduced into most rivers and estuaries of
Europe, including those of Britain, where it is now abundant.

DRELINCOURT (dr[.e]-la[n.]-kör), Charles, a French Calvinistic minister,
born at Sedan 1595, died at Paris 1669. He was the author of many
controversial works, and of _Consolations against_ _the fear of Death_. To
promote the sale of the English translation of this work, De Foe wrote his
_Apparition of Mrs. Veal_.

DRENTHE (dren´te), a province of Holland, bounded by Hanover, Overijssel,
Friesland, and Groningen; area, 948 sq. miles. It is in general more
elevated than the surrounding provinces, especially in the centre. The soil
is generally poor, and the surface largely consists of heath and morass,
but the province is famed for its horses and cattle. Drenthe is remarkable
for the great number of so-called 'giants' graves' or barrows scattered
over the country. Its capital is Assen. Pop. 200,951.

DRES´DEN, the capital of the Republic (former kingdom) of Saxony, is
situated in a beautiful valley on both sides of the River Elbe, which is
here spanned by four stone bridges and an iron railway bridge. It is first
mentioned in history in 1206, and has been the residence of the sovereigns
since 1485; was greatly extended and embellished by Augustus the Strong
(1694-1736), and rapidly increased during the nineteenth century. Among the
chief sights are the museum (joined on to an older range of buildings
called the Zwinger), a beautiful building containing a famous
picture-gallery and other treasures; the Japanese palace (Augusteum),
containing the royal library (founded by the Elector Augustus in the
sixteenth century) of 570,000 volumes, besides a rich collection of
manuscripts; the Johanneum, containing the collection of porcelain and the
historical museum, a valuable collection of arms, armour, and domestic
utensils, belonging to the Middle Ages. The palace, built about 1530,
restored and remodelled externally between 1890 and 1902, and until 1918
the residence of the kings of Saxony, has also a fine interior, and
contains (in what is called the Green Vault) a valuable collection of
curiosities, jewels, trinkets, and works of art. The theatre is one of the
finest structures of the kind in the world. The city is distinguished for
its excellent educational, literary, and artistic institutions, among which
are the Technical High School, much on the plan and scale of a university;
the Conservatory and School of Music; and the Academy of Fine Arts. The
manufactures are not unimportant, and are various in character; the china,
however, for which the city is famed, is made chiefly at Meissen, 14 miles
distant. The commerce is considerable, and has greatly increased since the
development of the railway system. The chief glory of Dresden is the
gallery of pictures, one of the finest in the world, which first became of
importance under Augustus II, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, but
owes its most valuable treasures to Augustus III, who purchased the greater
portion of the gallery of the Duke of Modena for £180,000. The pictures
number about 3000, and in particular comprise many fine specimens of the
Italian, Dutch, and Flemish schools. Besides this fine collection the
museum contains also engravings and drawings amounting to upwards of
350,000. There is also a sculpture-gallery, the Albertinum, where by casts
and otherwise the progress of sculpture is exemplified from the earliest
times, all the most important antiques being shown. Dresden, being thus
rich in treasures of art and favoured by a beautiful natural situation, is
the summer resort of many foreigners. It suffered severely in the Thirty
Years' War, and also in 1813, when it was the head-quarters of Napoleon's
army. It was occupied by the Prussians in 1866, but was evacuated in the
following spring. Pop. 548,308.

DRESDEN, BATTLE OF, a battle fought in 1813 (26-27th Aug.), between the
French under Napoleon and the Allies under Schwarzenberg. Napoleon had come
to the relief of the city, which was occupied by the French. The Allies
assaulted and bombarded the city, and soon after a great pitched battle was
fought (27th Aug.), the Allies being defeated.

[Illustration: Dresden China. Candelabrum]

DRESDEN CHINA, a delicate, semi-transparent, highly finished china made at
Meissen, 14 miles from Dresden. The manufacture resulted from an accidental
discovery made by Böttger, a young chemist, in 1710, and the vases,
statuettes, groups of figures, candelabra, and clocks, manufactured during
the eighteenth century are highly prized.

DREUX (dr_eu_; DUROCASSIS or DROCÆ of the Romans), a French town,
department of Eure-et-Loir, on the Blaise, near to where it joins the Eure,
20 miles N.N.W. of Chartres. It is built at the foot of a hill crowned by a
dilapidated castle, which contains a chapel, founded in 1142; to which has
been added the costly mausoleum of the Orleans family. A battle took place
near the town in 1562 between the Royalists under Montmorency and the
Huguenots under Condé, in which the latter were defeated. Pop. 10,692.

DREYFUS, Alfred, captain of artillery and general staff-officer in the
French army, was born of a Jewish family in Mulhouse, Alsace, in 1859. In
Oct., 1894, he was arrested on a charge of communicating military documents
to a foreign Government, supposed to be Germany; and at a secret
court-martial, which sat in December, he was condemned to public
degradation and lifelong imprisonment. Early in 1895 he was sent to the Île
du Diable (Devil's Island), near Cayenne, to undergo his sentence. About
the middle of the same year Colonel Picquart became head of the
Intelligence Department, and in the course of his official duties
discovered various circumstances tending to throw doubt on the correctness
of the court-martial's decision, and pointing to another officer, of the
name of Esterhazy, as the real traitor. Picquart was superseded by a
Colonel Henry in Nov., 1897, and in the following January Esterhazy,
charged by a brother of the condemned man with having written the
_bordereau_, or memorandum, which was the chief document relied on by the
prosecutors of Dreyfus, was acquitted by a court-martial. Two days later M.
Zola, the eminent novelist, in a letter headed _J'accuse_ published in the
_Aurore_, made serious charges against the general staff and the Government
in connection with the Esterhazy court-martial. He was prosecuted, and
condemned to pay a heavy fine and undergo a term of imprisonment. In June,
1898, M. Brisson succeeded M. Méline as Prime Minister, and next month M.
Cavaignac, his War Minister, read to the Chamber several documents which he
regarded as conclusive proof of the guilt of Dreyfus. The chief of these
was soon admitted by Colonel Henry to have been forged by him, and M.
Cavaignac at once resigned. In June, 1899, the Cour de Cassation ordered a
fresh court-martial. The court-martial, which sat at Rennes, found Dreyfus
guilty with extenuating circumstances. He was sentenced to ten years'
imprisonment, but was pardoned by President Loubet almost immediately. In
1906, when Clemenceau was Prime Minister, the sentence was annulled, and
Dreyfus was reinstated in the army (as major). He was shot at by a
reactionary journalist in 1908, but escaped without serious injury. In
Sept., 1919, Lieutenant-Colonel Dreyfus was publicly presented with the
insignia of an officer of the Legion of Honour. Several times during the
progress of the case France seemed on the verge of revolution.--Cf. J.
Reinach, _Histoire de l'affaire Dreyfus_.

DRIFFIELD, GREAT, a town, England, Yorkshire, at the head of a navigable
canal communicating with the Humber at Hull. It lies in a fertile district,
has an ancient parish church, and manufactures linseed-cake and manures.
Pop. 5676.

DRIFT, in geology, a term applied to earth and rocks which have been
conveyed by flood-action, glaciers, or floating ice and deposited over the
surface of a country. It is sometimes used in a wider sense to denote all
post-Pliocene sands, gravels, and clays, such as the superficial deposits
shown on the 'drift' maps of the Geological Survey.

DRIFT, in mining, a horizontal tunnel or passage excavated underground that
follows the course of a vein or stratum. Drift, in musketry, is the lateral
deviation of the bullet after it has left the barrel of the rifle; it is
due to the spin of the bullet and the resistance of the air.

DRIFT SAND, sand thrown up by the waves of the sea, and blown when dry some
distance inland until arrested by obstacles, round which it gradually
accumulates until the heaps attain considerable dimensions, often forming
dunes or sand-hills. Coast-land sometimes requires artificial protection
from encroachment by drift-sand.

DRILL, a tool used for boring holes in wood, metal, stone, ivory, &c. It
consists of a sharp spindle to which a circular motion is communicated by
various contrivances. Drills are of various designs. For rock-boring the
diamond rock-drill, an instrument with cutting edges made of bort or black
diamond, is now generally adopted. See _Boring_.--Cf. Dana and Saunders,
_Rock Drilling_.

DRILL is the A B C of all military movements. In the Training Manuals of
the British army the word is defined as "the training of the soldier to
perform certain movements as a second nature". It follows, therefore, that
drill is an essential part of the training of every soldier, more
especially in the early days of his training, in that without it, and
without the power of movement in obedience to the expressed will of a
superior given by it, a body of soldiers would be merely a collection of
armed men who, however willing individually, would be incapable of carrying
out collectively an order given for the general good. In the early days of
our history, when fighting was largely individual, and the whole duty of a
soldier was 'to do unto the other fellow as he would do unto you--and do it
first' (with a club), drill, as we know it, was unknown; each man armed
himself as he thought fit, and, beyond getting into some formation for the
actual purpose of the assault, a battle was largely a go-as-you-please
affair. In Saxon days the normal formation for the battle was the wedge;
that is two men at the point followed by three, and so on till the
available number was used up. This, of course, formed a solid pointed mass
with considerable weight, and was used both for attack and defence. But
once this formation was broken it was next to impossible to reform it. An
instance of this weakness occurred at the battle of Hastings. The English
were in this one and only wedge formation, officers and the better armed
men at the point, and the less skilful and more indifferently armed at the
base. Doubtless the troops had been got into this formation after much
exertion in the way of pushing and vituperation, and, once in it, had been
told on no account to break it. At a certain stage in the battle the
heavily armoured Normans pretended flight; this was too much for the
English, who broke their ranks and gave chase, each after his own
particular source of ransom. This ended the battle; the Normans turned,
and, owing to the entire inability of the English to re-form their ranks,
the wedge, and with it the English army, ceased to exist: the result of
want of discipline and absence of drill.

Drill and discipline are complementary to each other. In one of the battles
of the Peninsular War, the 28th (now the Gloucestershire Regiment) were
being hotly attacked in front by a French column. The regiment was firing
in two ranks--the front rank kneeling and the rear rank standing--when
suddenly a fresh attack developed from the rear. It was a matter of seconds
for the commanding officer of the 28th to order the rear rank to turn
about; drill and discipline did the rest, and the rear rank turned round,
knelt down, and beat off the new attack. Since then the 28th has worn its
badges both front and rear of its head-dresses.

Drill is an aid to discipline in that it teaches men that there is a right
and a wrong way of doing a thing. Drill and the spirit arising from it has
a great steadying effect on the nerves, as when in the European War the
Guards Division, after being almost decimated during a German 'push', was
brought out of the line and kept to steady drill for a week. To those who
did not understand this appeared harsh and futile; to those who did it
appeared, as it was, the best means of steadying men tried beyond
endurance, and of preparing them for further efforts. Our English drill has
passed through many phases in its time; but from the days when large bodies
of men performed complicated manoeuvres at the executive command of one
man, through the times when drill, perhaps, was considered to be the be-all
and end-all of the soldier, to modern days when it is recognized as a means
to an end, the guiding principle remains the same, viz. that one of the
first essentials for a soldier is that he shall be so trained by drill that
he shall know instinctively how to do the right thing at the right time and
in the right way. Even now, when drill movements are no longer performed in
face of an enemy, accuracy and attention to detail are insisted on in all
parade-ground movements as part of the education of the soldier and as an
aid to discipline. Drill for the soldier takes the place of the five-finger
exercises for the musician. Neither of them, in itself, is of any
particular value, but each adds to the efficiency of those who practise it.

DRILL (_Papio leucophæus_), a large variety of baboon, smaller and less
fierce than the mandrill, and like it a native of the coast of Guinea. The
face and ears are bare and of a glossy black colour, the palms of the hands
and soles of the feet are also naked and of a deep copper colour.

DRILLING, the plan of sowing in parallel rows as distinguished from sowing
broadcast. It was introduced into England by Jethro Tull, who invented the
first implement for drilling, and published a work on the subject in 1731.
The crops which are now generally drilled are turnips and flax. The first
form of drill was of very simple construction, and was only adapted for
potatoes, beans, peas, carrots, clover, cereals, sowing one row at a time,
but now a great variety of improved implements is in use, some of which
distribute artificial manure with the seed. Among the principal advantages
of drilling over broadcast sowing we may mention that a considerable saving
of seed is effected in the sowing of grain crops, but the great advantage
is that in the case of green crops it enables the farmer more readily to
clean the land both by the hand- and by the horse-hoe. To keep the soil
stirred and pulverized, which can only be properly done when the crops have
been drilled, favours the retention and absorption of the moisture.

[Illustration: Dripstone over window, decorated Gothic, mixed tracery. Two
different forms of termination.]

DRIPSTONE, a projecting tablet or moulding over the head of a Gothic
doorway, window, archway, or niche to throw off the rain. It is also called
a _weather moulding_, and _label_ when it is turned square. It is of
various forms; sometimes a head is used as a termination or support, in
others an ornament or simple moulding is adopted.

DRIVER, Rev. Samuel Rolles, D.D., professor of Hebrew and Biblical critic,
born at Southampton 2nd Oct., 1846, died in 1914. He was educated at
Winchester and at New College, Oxford, where he graduated with first-class
honours in classics in 1869. In 1866 he gained the Pusey and Ellerton
Hebrew Scholarship, and the Kennicott Scholarship (also for Hebrew) four
years later, besides prizes for Septuagint Greek and Syriac. He was for
some years a fellow and tutor of his college, and from 1876 to 1884 a
member of the Old Testament Revision Committee. In 1883, on the death of
Dr. Pusey, he became Regius professor of Hebrew at Oxford and (_ipso
facto_) a Canon of Christ Church. Of his numerous works we may mention: _A
Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew_ (1874); _Isaiah: his Life and
Times_ (1888); _Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament_
(1891), a work suited for popular reading, which has passed through many
editions; _Sermons on Subjects connected with the Old Testament_ (1892);
_The Parallel Psalter_ (1904); _Commentaries_ on various books of the
Bible; and articles in _Bible Dictionaries_ and in periodicals. He was a
joint editor of the new _Hebrew-English Lexicon of the Old Testament_
published by the Clarendon Press.

DROGHEDA (dro_h_´e-da), an ancient town and seaport, formerly a
parliamentary borough, Ireland, in the county of Louth, on both sides of
the Boyne, about 4 miles from the sea, 26 miles north of Dublin. The Boyne
is here crossed by a railway viaduct of 18 arches and 95 feet high. Flax-
and cotton-spinning are carried on; there are also salt-works, breweries,
and tanneries; and the fisheries are increasing. There is a good export
trade in cattle, sheep, grain, butter, and eggs. In 1412 a Parliament
assembled here which enacted Poynings' Law. The town was for a long time
strongly fortified, and was taken by Cromwell with great slaughter in 1649;
it surrendered to William III immediately after the battle of the Boyne.
Pop. 12,500.

DROHOBYCZ (dro´ho-bich), a Polish town in Galicia, formerly belonging to
Austria, 41 miles S.S.W. of Lemberg. Its Catholic church is one of the
handsomest in the country. It has an important trade, particularly in salt,
obtained from springs in the vicinity. Pop. 40,000.

DROIT D'AUBAINE (drwä-d[=o]-b[=a]n), an old rule in some European
countries, by which the property of a foreigner who died was claimed by the
State, unless the person had a special exemption. In France, where it was
not abolished till 1819, the Scots, Savoyards, Swiss, and Portuguese were
exempted.

DROITWICH (droit´ich), a town of England, in the county and 6 miles N.N.E.
of Worcester, on the Salwarp. It is famous for its brine springs, from
which salt has been manufactured for more than 1000 years. Pop. 4146.

DRÔME, a south-east department of France, covered almost throughout by
ramifications of the Alps, the average height of which, however, does not
exceed 4000 feet; area, 2508 sq. miles, of which about one-fourth is waste,
one-third under wood, and a great part of the remainder under tillage and
pasture. A considerable extent of the area is occupied by vineyards, and
several of the wines produced have a high reputation, especially Hermitage.
Olives, chestnuts, and silks are staple productions. Valence is the
capital. Pop. 263,509.

DROMEDARY. See _Camel_.

DROMORE´, an episcopal city, Ireland, County Down, on the Lagan, here
crossed by two bridges, 16 miles south-west of Belfast. Its cathedral
contains the tomb of Jeremy Taylor. Pop. 2307.

DROPSY (Oedema) is a condition usually marked by enlargement and swelling
of the affected parts, and due to an accumulation of serous fluid in the
tissue spaces and cavities of the body. Different names are given to such
accumulations in particular areas, thus _anasarca_ refers to accumulations
in the limbs and body generally; _ascites_ to an accumulation of fluid in
the peritoneal cavity (abdomen); _hydrothorax_ to an accumulation in the
pleural cavity (lungs); _hydrocephalus_ to an accumulation in the brain.
The commonest cause of dropsy is heart disease, where first the lower
limbs, and then the trunk, are affected. It also appears in diseases of the
kidneys and liver, and it may be produced in a limb by any obstruction of
the veins of the part.

[Illustration: Common Water Drop-wort (_Oenanthe fistul[=o]sa_)

_a_, Cluster of florets. _b_, Single floret.]

DROP-WORT (from the small tubers on the fibrous roots), _Spiræa
filipend[)u]la_, nat. ord. Rosaceæ, a British plant of the same genus as
queen-of-the-meadow, found in dry pastures. The hemlock drop-wort, or water
drop-wort, is _Oenanthe fistul[=o]sa_.

DROSERA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of polypetalous Dicotyledons, consisting of
insectivorous marsh herbs, whose leaves are usually covered with glands or
glandular hairs. It contains six genera, including the sundew (Dros[)e]ra),
and Venus's fly-trap (Dionæa). (See _Sundew_ and _Dionæa_.) They have no
known qualities except that they are slightly bitter. The leaves are
generally circinate in the bud, as in ferns.

[Illustration: Russian Droshky]

DROSHKY, a kind of light, four-wheeled carriage used by the Russians. It is
not covered, and in some types there is in the middle a sort of bench
placed lengthways on which the passengers ride as on a saddle; but the name
is now applied to various kinds of vehicles, as to the common cabs plying
in the streets of German cities.

DROUAIS (drö-[=a]), Jean Germain, French historical painter of considerable
repute, born at Paris in 1763, died at Rome 1788. His chief pictures are:
_The Canaanitish Woman at the Feet of Jesus_, _Dying Gladiator_, and
_Marius at Minturno_.

DROUET (drö-[=a]), Jean Baptiste, Comte d'Erlon, French general, born 1765,
died 1844. He served in the campaigns of the Moselle, Meuse, and Sambre
(1793-6), in the Peninsula, and at Waterloo, where he commanded the first
_corps d'armée_. In 1834-5 he was Governor-General of Algeria, and in 1843
was made a marshal.

DROUYN DE LHUYS (drö-a[n.] d[.e] lw[=e]s), Édouard, French statesman and
diplomatist, born 1805, died 1881. He entered the diplomatic service in
1831, and was chargé d'affaires at the Hague during the events which led to
the separation of Belgium from Holland. In 1840 he was head of the
commercial department under the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Opposition to
Guizot caused his dismissal in 1845. He became Minister for Foreign Affairs
in 1848, Ambassador to London in 1849; and again Foreign Minister in 1851,
and in 1863. On the fall of the empire he fled to Jersey, but subsequently
returned to France.

DROWNING means death by the air being prevented from entering the lungs
owing to the mouth and nostrils being immersed in a liquid, the liquid
being commonly water. Death may, therefore, occur by drowning in a small
quantity of water. Thus a child may fall head downwards into a tub and be
drowned, though the tub is not half full of water, sufficient to cover the
mouth and nostrils being all that is necessary, and a man overcome by a fit
or by drunkenness may fall on a road with his head in a ditch or pool of
water, and thus meet death. Death is thus due to suffocation, to the
stoppage of breathing, and to the entrance of water into the lungs. When
death has been caused by drowning, the skin presents the appearance called
goose-skin (_cutis anser[=i]na_), the face and surface of the body
generally are usually pale, a frothy liquid is found in the lungs and
air-passages, and about the lips and nostrils; water may be found in the
stomach, and clenched fingers, holding substances grasped at, may serve to
show that a struggle has taken place in the water, and that the body was
alive at the time of immersion. Complete insensibility arises, it is
probable, in from one or two minutes after submersion, recovery, however,
being still possible, and death occurs in from two to five minutes. So long
as the heart continues to beat, recovery is possible; after it has ceased
it is impossible. Newly-born children and young puppies stand submersion
longer than the more fully grown.

For the restoration of the apparently drowned several methods are
suggested. Those of Dr. Silvester, recommended by the English Humane
Society, and Dr. Benjamin Howard, of New York, will be described.

Whichever method is adopted, the following steps must first and immediately
be taken: Pull the body up on to dry ground. Send immediately for medical
assistance, warm blankets, dry clothing, brandy and hot water, if any one
is at hand to send. No delay must be permitted, however, in treating the
drowned, so that if only one person is on the spot he must begin to treat
the victim _instantly_, without seeking assistance. Remove all clothing
from the neck and chest. Fold the articles of dress removed so as to make a
firm pillow, which is to be placed under the shoulders, so that the upper
part of the body is slightly raised and the head slightly thrown back.
Cleanse the mouth and nostrils, open the mouth and pull forward the tongue.
If natural efforts to breathe are made, try to stimulate them by brisk
rubbing of the sides of the chest and of the face. If no effort to breathe
is made, proceed to produce the entrance and outflow of air from the lungs
by Silvester's or Howard's method.

Silvester's method: Stand or kneel behind the person's head, grasp each arm
at the elbow, draw both arms simultaneously upwards till they are extended
in line with the body, as a man places them when he stretches himself. Let
this movement occupy about two seconds. This enlarges the chest and causes
the entrance of air to the lungs. Without a pause carry the arms down to
the sides, making them overlap the chest a little, and firmly press them on
the chest. This movement should occupy other two seconds. It expels air
from the lungs. Repeat the movements, and maintain them steadily and
patiently at the rate of fifteen times a minute, until breathing has been
fully restored, or until medical aid arrives, or until death is certain. An
hour is not too long a time to persist, and so long as there seems the
least effort to breathe the movements must be persevered in.

[Illustration: Howard's Method for restoring the apparently Drowned]

Howard's method: Place the body on its face, with the roll of clothing
under the stomach; the head being supported on the hand as shown in fig. 1.
Pull the body over the roll of clothing to expel water from the chest. Then
turn the body on the back, the shoulders being supported as shown in fig.
2. Kneel over the body. Place both hands on the lower part of the chest, so
that the thumbs hook in under the lowest ribs and the fingers are spread
out on the chest. Steadily press forwards, raising the ribs, your own body
being thus thrown leaning forward. This enlarges the cavity of the chest
and causes air to enter. When the ribs have been raised to the utmost
extent, with a slight effort push yourself back to the more erect position,
allowing the ribs to recoil to their former position. This expels the air.
Repeat the process fifteen times a minute. One person will find it more
easy to maintain this method for a prolonged period than Silvester's,
especially if the patient be big and heavy.

Meanwhile, if other persons are present they should be occupied rubbing the
body and limbs (_always upwards_) with hands or warm flannel, applying hot
flannels, bottles, &c., to the limbs, feet, arm-pits, &c. As soon as the
person is sufficiently restored to be able to swallow, give small
quantities of hot brandy and water, hot wine and water, hot coffee, &c.,
and use every effort to restore and maintain warmth.

Drowning was formerly a mode of capital punishment in Europe. The last
person executed by drowning in Scotland suffered death in 1685. It survived
in Switzerland until 1652, and in Austria until 1776. In Russia the
punishment was abolished early in the eighteenth century.

DROYLSDEN, a town of England, Lancashire, 3½ miles E. of Manchester, of
which it is practically a suburb. Pop. 13,259.

DROZ (dr[=o]), François Xavier Joseph, French moralist and historian, born
at Besançon 1773, died 1850. In 1806 he published an _Essai sur l'Art
d'être Heureux_, which was very popular; and in 1823 _De la Philosophie
Morale, ou des Différents Systèmes sur la Science de la Vie_, which
procured his admission into the Academy. His reputation is, however,
founded chiefly on his _Histoire du Règne de Louis XVI_.

DRUGGET, a coarse kind of woollen felt or cloth, formerly used by the lower
classes for purposes of clothing, but now chiefly used as a covering for
carpets.

DRUIDS, the priests of the Celts of Gaul and Britain. According to Julius
Cæsar they possessed the greatest authority among the Celtic nations. They
had some knowledge of geometry, natural philosophy, &c., superintended the
affairs of religion and morality, and performed the office of judges. They
were also well versed in the knowledge of the mysterious powers of plants
and animals, and were adepts in the magic arts. They venerated the
mistletoe when growing on the oak, a tree which they likewise esteemed
sacred. They had a common superior, who was elected by a majority of votes
from their own number, and who was appointed for life. They took unusual
care to fence themselves round with mysteries, and it is probable that they
cherished doctrines unknown to the common people; but that they had a great
secret philosophy which was handed down by oral tradition is very unlikely.
Of their religious doctrines little is known.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Rhys,
_Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by Celtic
Heathenism_; D'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Druides et les dieux celtiques à
forme d'animaux_.

DRUIDS, ORDER OF, a secret organization, founded in London in 1781, for the
purpose of mutual aid and protection. Their rites somewhat resemble those
of freemasons; their lodges are known as 'groves'.

DRUM, a musical instrument of percussion, of Eastern origin, either
cylindrical or hemispherical in shape, with the end or ends covered with
tightened parchment, which is stretched or slackened at pleasure by means
of cords with sliding knots or screws. Drums are of three kinds: (1) the
long or bass drum played with stuffed-nob drumsticks, and used only in
large orchestras or military bands; (2) the side-drum, having two heads,
the upper one only being played upon by two sticks of wood; (3) the
kettle-drum, a hemisphere of brass or copper, the end of which is covered
with parchment, always used in pairs, one drum being tuned to the key-note,
and the other to the fifth of the key, the compass of the two together
being an octave. The use of drums was introduced into Europe either by the
Moors or the Crusaders.

DRUMCLOG´, a moorland tract in Lanarkshire, Scotland, 6 miles S.W. of
Strathaven, the scene of a skirmish between Claverhouse and the
Covenanters, in which the former was defeated (1679). A graphic description
of the battle is given by Scott in his _Old Mortality_.

DRUM-FISH, or DRUM, _Pogonias chromis_, and other species of the same
genus, fishes found on the Atlantic coast of N. America, and so named from
the deep drumming sound they make, by means of the swim-bladder and its
muscles, during the spawning season in April. It is the most powerful
sound-producing apparatus known among fishes. They often weigh about 20 lb.

DRUM-MAJOR, in the British army, a warrant or non-commissioned officer
whose duty it is to teach and direct the drummers. He marches at the head
of the band carrying the regimental baton.

DRUM´MOND, Professor Henry, was born at Stirling in 1851, died in 1897.
Educated at the Universities of Edinburgh and Tübingen, he entered the
ministry of the Free Church, and having devoted much attention to science,
in 1877 was appointed lecturer on natural science in the Free Church
College (or divinity hall), Glasgow, becoming professor in 1884. He
travelled much, and wrote a popular book on _Tropical Africa_ (1888). His
most remarkable work is _Natural Law in the Spiritual World_ (1883), which
has passed through many editions and been translated into various
languages. He is author, also, of _Travel Sketches in Our New
Protectorate_, _The Greatest Thing in the World_, and _The Ascent of Man_
(1894).

DRUMMOND, Rev. James, Unitarian theologian, was born at Dublin in 1835,
died 13th June, 1918. After receiving his early education at a private
school, he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated and obtained
the first gold medal for classics in 1855. In 1859 he became colleague of
the Rev. W. Gaskell in Cross Street Chapel, Manchester, and ten years later
was appointed professor of theology at Manchester New College, London, of
which institution (now known, since its removal to Oxford in 1889, simply
as Manchester College) he was principal from 1885 to 1906, when he retired
from his post. His works include: _Spiritual Religion: Sermons on Christian
Faith and Life_ (1870); _The Jewish Messiah: a Critical History of the
Messianic Idea among the Jews_ (1877); _Introduction to the Study of
Theology_ (1884); _Philo-Judæus_ (2 vols., 1888); _Via, Veritas, Vita_ (the
Hibbert lectures for 1894); _The Pauline Benediction_ (1897); _The Epistles
to the Thessalonians, &c._ (International Handbooks, 1899); _Some Thoughts
on Christology_ (1902); _The Character and Authorship of the Fourth Gospel_
(1904); _Johannine Thoughts_ (1909); _Paul: his Life and Teaching_ (1911).

DRUMMOND, William, of Hawthornden, a Scottish poet distinguished for the
elegance and tenderness of his verses, was born at Hawthornden House, 7
miles from Edinburgh, 1585, died 1649. He was educated at the University of
Edinburgh; after which he spent four years in foreign travels, residing for
a part of the time at Bourges, to study the civil law. On his return to
Scotland he retired to Hawthornden and gave himself up to the cultivation
of poetry and polite literature, and here he spent the most of his life. He
entertained Ben Jonson on the occasion of a visit which the English
dramatist made to Scotland in the winter of 1618-9, and took notes of
Jonson's conversation, first published in entirety in 1842 (_Notes of Ben
Jonson's Conversations with William Drummond_). He was the first Scottish
writer to abandon the native dialect for the language raised to supremacy
by the Elizabethan writers. His chief productions are: _The Cypress Grove_,
in prose, containing reflections upon death; _Flowers of Zion, or Spiritual
Poems_; _Tears on the Death of Moeliades_ (that is, Prince Henry); _Poems,
Amorous, Funeral, Divine, Pastoral, in Sonnets, Songs, Sextains,
Madrigals_; _The River Forth Feasting_ (on King James's visit to Scotland
in 1617); _Polemo-Middinia, or the Battle of the Dunghill: a Macaronic
Poem_; and _History of the Lives and Reigns of the Five Jameses, Kings of
Scotland_. As an historian he is chiefly remarkable for an ornate style,
and a strong attachment to the High Church principles of the Jacobites.

DRUMONT, Édouard, French journalist and anti-Semitic agitator, born at
Paris in 1844, died there in 1917. His work _Mon vieux Paris_ (1879) was
crowned by the Académie Française. In 1886 he published _La France Juive
devant l'opinion_. He thus began a violent campaign against the Jews which
he continued until his death, especially in his organ _La Libre Parole_,
founded in 1892. In 1898 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies,
retaining his seat till 1902. His other works include: _La fin d'un monde_
(1888), _Testament d'un Anti-Sémite_ (1891), _De l'or et de la boue du
Sang_ (1896), and _Les Juifs et l'affaire Dreyfus_ (1899).

DRUNKARDS, HABITUAL. The Habitual Drunkards Act of 1879 provided for the
licensing of retreats for receiving habitual drunkards, and for the regular
inspection of such retreats. An habitual drunkard desiring admission to a
retreat had to make a written application, accompanied by a declaration of
two persons that the applicant was an habitual drunkard, and attested by
two justices of the peace. No patient in a retreat was permitted to leave
before the expiration of the term stated in the application, such term not
to exceed one year. This Act was to expire in ten years; but another Act,
passed in 1888, made it permanent, with some modifications. The Inebriates
Act of 1898 introduced several important changes. It transferred the
licensing power in counties from justices of the peace to County Councils
and their committees, and in boroughs from magistrates to town councillors
or police commissioners. The maximum period of detention was extended to
two years, and the attestation of one justice was made sufficient for a
valid application. It also gave power to the Secretary of State to
establish State inebriate reformatories, or to grant certificates to
reformatories suitable for such a purpose. If an habitual drunkard, when
drunk, commit an offence punishable by imprisonment or penal servitude, the
court may, in addition to, or in substitution for, the ordinary sentence,
order him to be detained three years in a State or certified inebriate
reformatory. The proof that the accused is an habitual drunkard may consist
either in his own admission or in the jury's verdict after inquiry. The
Inebriates' Act of 1899 was very short, and made no important change in the
law. In Scotland habitual drunkenness is now a ground justifying judicial
separation of spouses, while under the Matrimonial Causes Bill, 1920, it is
proposed that in England, where one spouse has been granted a temporary
separation order on the ground of the incurable habitual drunkenness of the
other, and such order has been in force for at least three years, a divorce
should be granted.

DRUNKENNESS, the state of being drunk or overpowered by alcoholic liquor,
or the habit of indulging in intoxication. A similar condition may be
produced by numerous agents, but the term is always applied to the act or
habit of drinking alcoholics to excess. By the law of Britain drunkenness
is an offence against the public economy, and those found drunk are liable
to fine or imprisonment. Drunkenness is no excuse for any crime, but it
renders a contract invalid if either of the parties was in a state of
complete drunkenness when the contract was signed.

DRUNKEN PARLIAMENT, in Scottish history, a name given to the Privy Council
who, under their powers as representing the estates between sessions, met
at Glasgow and passed an Act (1st Oct., 1662) to remove the recusant
ministers from their parishes within a month. All the members were said to
have been drunk except Lockhart of Lee, who opposed the measure.

[Illustration: Longitudinal Section of Plum

S, Seed. E, Endocarp, or shell. M, Mesocarp, or intermediate layer. Ep,
Epicarp, or skin.]

DRUPE, in botany, a stone fruit; a fruit in which the outer part of the
pericarp becomes fleshy or softens like a berry while the inner hardens
like a nut, forming a stone with a kernel, as the plum, cherry, apricot,
and peach. The stone enclosing the kernel is called the _endocarp_, while
the pulpy or succulent part is called the _mesocarp_. In some fruits, as
those of the almond, the horse-chestnut, and coco-nut, the mesocarp is not
succulent, yet, from their possessing the other qualities of the drupe,
they receive the name. See _Berry_.

DRURY LANE THEATRE, one of the principal theatres in London, was
established by Thomas Killigrew in the reign of James I. In 1671 it was
burned down, and was rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren between 1672 and 1674,
but again destroyed by fire in 1809. On this occasion it was rebuilt by B.
Wyatt, and was reopened on 10th Oct., 1812, with an address composed by
Lord Byron. It was in connection with this opening that James and Horace
Smith wrote the _Rejected Addresses_. Nearly all the great English actors
from Betterton and Garrick have been more or less connected with Drury
Lane.--Cf. J. Doran, _In and About Drury Lane_.

DRUSES, a curious people of mixed Syrian and Arabian origin, inhabiting the
mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, and also the Hauran (south-west of
Damascus). In their faith are combined certain Jewish, Christian, and
Mohammedan doctrines. They describe themselves as followers of Khalif Hakim
Biamr-Allah, whom they regard as an incarnation of deity, the last prophet,
and the founder of the true religion. They are nearly all taught to read
and write. They maintain a semi-independence, and between 1840 and 1860
they engaged in bloody conflicts with their neighbours the Maronites. Their
total number is estimated at 100,000. They are very friendly to the
English, and some of them have been converted to Christianity. Cf. E. Sell,
_The Druses_.

DRUSUS, the name of several distinguished Romans, among whom were: _Marcus
Livius_, orator and politician; became tribune of the people in 122 B.C. He
opposed the policy of Gaius Gracchus, and became popular by planting
colonies.--_Marcus Livius_, son of the above, was early a strong champion
of the senate or aristocratic party, but showed great skill in manipulating
the mob. He rose to be tribune of the people, and was assassinated 91
B.C.--_Nero Claudius_, brother of the Emperor Tiberius, born 38 B.C. By a
series of brilliant campaigns he extended the Roman Empire to the German
Ocean and the River Elbe, and was hence called _Germanicus_. By his wife
Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, he had a daughter, Livia, and two sons,
Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom afterwards became emperor. He
died in 9 B.C.

DRY´ADS, wood nymphs, in the Greek mythology; supposed to be the tutelar
deities of trees. Each particular tree or wood was the habitation of its
own special dryad.

DRYAS. See _Mountain Avens_.

DRY´BURGH ABBEY, a monastic ruin in Scotland, consisting of the nave's
western gable, the gable of the south transept, and a fragment of choir and
north transept of an abbey founded in 1150 on the banks of the Tweed, about
5 miles E.S.E. of Melrose. It is celebrated as the burial-place of Sir
Walter Scott and his family.

DRY CELL, originally a cell of the Leclanché type, in which the solution of
sal-ammoniac was replaced by a paste containing this substance. The formulæ
or recipes from which dry cells are now made up are numerous, although the
electrodes, as a rule, remain the same as in the Leclanché cell. The E.M.F.
of the cell is about 1.5 volts, and three dry cells are used to light up a
small 'flash' lamp. A battery of dry cells forms a convenient and portable
means of supplying a small current at voltages up to 100.

DRY´DEN, John, English poet, was descended from an ancient family, his
grandfather being Sir Erasmus Dryden of Canons Ashby, Northamptonshire.
Born near Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire, in 1631, he was admitted a King's
scholar at Westminster under the celebrated Dr. Busby, whence he went to
Trinity College, Cambridge, being elected to a scholarship there. After
leaving the university, he went to London, where he acted as secretary to
his cousin Sir Gilbert Pickering, a favourite of Cromwell; and on the death
of the Protector he wrote his _Heroic Stanzas_ on that event. At the
Restoration, however, he hailed the return of Charles II in _Astræa Redux_,
and from that time his devotion to the Stuarts knew no decay. In 1661 he
produced his first play, _The Duke of Guise_; but the first that was
performed was _The Wild Gallant_, which appeared in 1663 and was not a
success. This was followed by _The Rival Ladies_, and _The Indian Queen_, a
tragedy on Montezuma in heroic verse, written in collaboration with Sir
Robert Howard, whose sister, Lady Elizabeth Howard, Dryden married in 1663.
He followed up _The Indian Queen_ with _The Indian Emperor_, which at once
raised Dryden to the highest pitch of public estimation, an elevation which
he retained till his death. The great fire of London put a stop for some
time to theatrical exhibitions. In the interval Dryden published the _Annus
Mirabilis_, an historical account of the events of the year 1666, one of
the most elaborate of his productions. In 1668 he also published his
celebrated _Essay on Dramatic Poesy_--the first attempt to regulate
dramatic writing. In 1668 _The Maiden Queen_, a tragi-comedy, was
represented. This was followed in 1670 by _The Tempest_, an alteration from
Shakespeare, in which he was assisted by Sir William Davenant. It was
received with general applause, notwithstanding the very questionable taste
and propriety of the added characters. Dryden was shortly afterwards
appointed to the offices of Historiographer Royal and Poet Laureate, with a
salary of £200 a year. He now became professionally a writer for the stage,
and produced many pieces, some of which have been strongly censured for
their licentiousness and want of good taste. The first of his political and
poetical satires, _Absalom and Achitophel_ (Monmouth and Shaftesbury), was
produced in 1681, and was followed by _The Medal_, a satire against
sedition; and _Mac Flecknoe_, a satire on the poet Shadwell. In 1682 he
published a poem called _Religio Laici_, wherein he maintained the
doctrines of the Church of England. On the accession of James in 1685
Dryden became a Roman Catholic, a conversion the sincerity of which has
been not unreasonably regarded with suspicion, considering the time at
which it occurred. At court the new convert was received with open arms, a
considerable addition was made to his pension, and he defended his new
religion at the expense of the old one in a poem, _The Hind and the
Panther_. Among his other services to the new king were a savage reply to
an attack by Stillingfleet, and panegyrics on Charles and James under the
title of _Britannia Rediviva_. At the Revolution Dryden was deprived of the
offices of Poet Laureate and Historiographer, and of the certain income
which these offices secured him. During the remaining ten years of his life
he produced some of his best work, including his admirable translations
from the classics. He published, in conjunction with Congreve, Creech, and
others, a translation of Juvenal, and one of Persius entirely by himself.
About a third part of Juvenal was translated by Dryden, who wrote an essay
on satire which was prefixed to the whole. His poetic translation of Virgil
appeared in 1697, and, soon after, the well-known lyric _Alexander's
Feast_, and his _Fables_. He died 1st May, 1700, in the sixty-ninth year of
his age, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Dryden is unequalled as a
satirist among English poets, and the best of his tragedies are unsurpassed
by any since written. His poetry as a whole is more remarkable for vigour
and energy than beauty, but he did much to improve English verse. He was
also an admirable prose writer. Personally he was modest and kindly. The
whole of his works, edited by Sir W. Scott, were published in 1818 (18
vols. 8vo); they were republished with additional notes, &c., by Professor
Saintsbury (1882-93).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Garnett, _Age of Dryden_; Sir A. W.
Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_; _Cambridge History of
English Literature_ (vol. viii).

DRYING-MACHINE, a machine consisting of any number of steam-heated
cylinders up to thirty or even more, each about 22 inches in diameter, and
used in bleachworks, dye-houses, and in cloth-finishing departments; used
as a separate machine to dry fabrics which contain a certain amount of
moisture left in at some previous operation, but often used in conjunction
with a starching-mangle or similar apparatus. All the cylinders are in a
horizontal plane, and usually in two rows, but such rows may be disposed
either in horizontal or vertical frames. Floor-space is economized in the
latter arrangement, and two or more groups of two rows per group may be
provided for. Each cylinder is provided with some type of safety air-valve,
which yields to allow air to enter in proportion as the steam is condensed
in the cylinder, and so prevents the latter from collapsing. The condensed
steam is withdrawn either by means of siphons or revolving scoops, so that
the interior may be as dry as possible. The long length of cloth, either
from the squeezing-rollers of the starch-mangle or from a loose or rolled
state of cloth from some other machine, is conducted over guide-rollers,
then under and over the two rows of steam-heated cylinders, and finally led
from the last cylinder to the roller of a plaiting-down apparatus, or
otherwise delivered. Both sides of the cloth thus come into direct contact
with half the number of cylinders as it is drawn through the machine, and
the dried cloth is ultimately delivered by the plaiting-down apparatus in
folds ready for the subsequent operations.

DRYING-OILS, linseed and other oils, which are the bases of many paints and
varnishes. When exposed to the air, they absorb oxygen, and are converted
into a transparent, tough, dry mass or varnish.

DRY-POINT, a method of engraving generally regarded as part of etching, but
more closely allied to line engraving. Instead of the copper being covered
with etching ground and the lines bitten with acid, a pointed instrument is
drawn across it, which incises a fine line with a more distinct burr on
each side than that raised by a graver. This burr helps to give a
characteristic quality to the line, but is rapidly worn away by printings.
Dry-point may be used by itself, but is frequently combined with etching
proper.

[Illustration: Dry-rot Fungus (_Merulius lacrymans_)]

DRY-ROT, a well-known disease affecting timber, occasioned by various
species of Fungi, the mycelium of which penetrates the timber, destroying
it. _Merulius lacrymans_, which is found chiefly in fir-wood, is the most
common and most formidable dry-rot fungus in Britain; while _Polyp[)o]rus
destructor_ is equally destructive in Germany. _P. vaporarius_ may also
cause dry-rot. Damp, unventilated situations are most favourable to the
development of dry-rot Fungi. Various methods have been proposed for the
prevention of dry-rot; that most in favour is thoroughly saturating the
wood with creosote, which makes the wood unfit for vegetation, but proper
ventilation is the surest safeguard.

DUAL, in grammar, that number which is used, in some languages, to
designate two things, whilst another number (the plural) exists to express
many. The Greek, Sanskrit, and Gothic among ancient languages, and the
Lithuanian and Arabic among modern, possess forms of the verb and noun in
which two persons or things are denoted, called the _dual_ numbers.

DU´ALISM, the philosophical exposition of the nature of things by the
hypothesis of two dissimilar primitive principles not derived from each
other. Dualism in religion is chiefly confined to the adoption of a belief
in two fundamental beings, a good and an evil one, as is done in some
Oriental religions, especially that of Zoroaster. In metaphysics, dualism
is the doctrine of those who maintain the existence of matter and form, or
mind and matter, as distinct substances, in opposition to idealism, which
maintains that we have no knowledge or assurance of the existence of
anything but our own ideas or sensations. Dualism may correspond with
realism in maintaining that our ideas of things are true transcripts of the
originals, or rather of the qualities inherent in them, the spirit acting
as a mirror and reflecting their true images; or it may hold that, although
produced by outward objects, we have no assurance that in reality these at
all correspond to our ideas of them, or even that they produce the same
idea in two different minds. Among modern philosophers Professor W.
McDougall and Bergson have defended the doctrine of dualism. See
_Monism_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Ward, _The Realm of Ends_; W. James, _Essays in
Radical Empiricism_; H. Bergson, _Matter and Memory_.

DUBAIL, Augustin Edmond, French general, born at Belfort 15th April, 1851.
He served in the Franco-Prussian War, and was for many years colonel of a
Zouave regiment in Algeria. Chief of the Staff of the French army in 1914,
he commanded the First Army operating in Alsace-Lorraine, and successfully
defended Nancy. Appointed Military Governor of Paris in 1915, he held this
post until June, 1918.

DU BARRY, Marie Jeanne Bécu, Comtesse, mistress of Louis XV, was born at
Vaucouleurs in 1743. She came young to Paris, and was presented to the king
in 1769, who had her married for form's sake to the Comte du Barry. She
exercised a powerful influence at court, and with some of her confidants
completely ruled the king. Important offices and privileges were in her
gift, and the courtiers abased themselves before her. After the death of
Louis she was dismissed from court and sent to live in a convent near
Meaux. She received a pension from Louis XVI. During the reign of terror
she was arrested as a Royalist and executed, Nov., 1793.--Cf. N. Williams,
_Madame du Barry_.

DUBIT´ZA, a fortified town of Bosnia, in Yugo-Slavia, on the right bank of
the Unna, about 10 miles from its confluence with the Save. In the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries it was a frequent point of contention
between Austria and Turkey. In 1878, with the rest of Bosnia, it passed
under Austrian administration. Pop. 3260.--_Dubitza_, in Croatia, on the
opposite bank of the Unna, has 6660 inhabitants.

DUB´LIN, the metropolis of Ireland, is situated in County Dublin, on the
east coast of the island, at the mouth of the Liffey, the banks of which
for more than 2 miles from the sea are lined with quays. The river, which
divides the city into two unequal parts, is crossed by numerous bridges. In
the old part of the city the streets are irregular, narrow, and filthy; in
the more modern and aristocratic quarters there are fine streets, squares,
and terraces, but with little pretension to architectural merit. The public
buildings, however, are especially numerous and handsome. The main
thoroughfare, east to west, is by the magnificent quays along the Liffey.
The principal street at right angles to the river is Sackville Street, a
splendid street 650 yards long and 40 yards wide, forming a thoroughfare
which is continued across the river by O'Connell Bridge, a magnificent
structure the same width as Sackville Street. The principal public secular
buildings are the castle, the official residence of the viceroy; the Bank
of Ireland, formerly the Irish Parliament House; Trinity College; the
custom-house, destroyed in 1921; the King's Inns; the post office; rotunda;
corn exchange; commercial buildings; the mansion house; and the city hall
or corporation buildings. The most important literary and scientific
institutions are Trinity College (Dublin University); the National
University of Ireland; the Royal College of Science; the Catholic
University; the College of Surgeons; the Royal Dublin Society; the Royal
Hibernian Academy of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture; the Royal Irish
Academy for Promoting the Study of Science, Literature, and Antiquities;
the Archæological Society; and the Royal Zoological Society. Dublin
contains two Protestant Episcopal cathedrals--St. Patrick's Cathedral,
erected in 1190, and thoroughly restored between 1860 and 1865, through the
munificence of Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness; and Christ's Church, built in
1038 and restored between 1870 and 1877, the restoration being carried out
at the expense of Henry Roe. The Roman Catholic Cathedral is a very large
edifice. The charitable institutions are numerous, and some of them possess
splendid buildings. There are several extensive military and constabulary
barracks in the city and vicinity. A little north-west of the city, up the
Liffey, is the Phoenix Park, with an area of 1759 acres. In it are the
Viceregal Lodge, the usual residence of the King's representative; the
Chief Secretary's and Under-Secretary's official residences; the Royal
Hibernian Military School; and the depot of the Royal Irish Constabulary;
as also the gardens of the Royal Zoological Society. The manufactures
carried on are of little note: poplins, for which Dublin has been long
celebrated, are still in some request, and brewing and distilling are
largely carried on. Since 1918 Dublin returns seven members to the House of
Commons. The Sinn Fein members, however, elected in 1918, never attended
the Imperial Parliament. Serious risings occurred in Dublin at Easter 1916,
in 1919, and 1920, and there were also disorders in May 1921. Dublin is an
ancient town, but its early history is obscure. It was held by the Danes
for more than three centuries from 836. Pop. 399,000 (1919). The county,
which is in the province of Leinster, on the east coast of the island, has
an area of 218,873 acres, about a third of it under crops of various kinds,
chiefly grass and clover. The surface on the whole is flat, but the ground
rises at its southern boundary into a range of hills, the highest of
which--Kippure--is 2473 feet above the sea. There is about 70 miles of
sea-coast, the chief indentation being Dublin Bay. The principal stream is
the Liffey, which intersects the county west to east. Important water
communications are the Royal and the Grand Canals, both centering in
Dublin, and uniting the Liffey with the Shannon. The manufactures are
unimportant, but the fisheries are extensive. Since 1918 the county returns
four members to the House of Commons. Pop. 172,394; Dublin (county
borough), 304,802.--Cf. D. A. Chart, _The Story of Dublin_.

DUBLIN, UNIVERSITY OF, an institution founded in 1591, when a charter, or
letters-patent, was granted by Queen Elizabeth for the incorporation of the
"College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity", the University and Trinity
College being practically the same. The corporation now consists of a
provost, seven senior fellows, twenty-six junior fellows, and seventy
foundation scholars. The Senate of the university consists of "the
chancellor of the university, or in his absence, of the vice-chancellor,
and such doctors or masters of the university as shall have and keep their
names on the books of Trinity College". The Senate possesses the right of
electing the chancellor of the university; it is also the body which grants
degrees. The fellows are appointed for life, after an examination. The
scholars are chosen from among the undergraduates, after an examination in
mathematics and logic, or in Greek, Latin, and logic. The scholarships are
tenable for five years, or till the degree of M.A. is attained. The course
of general instruction extends over four years. The academical year is
divided into three terms--Michaelmas, Hilary, and Trinity--and every
student must keep at least two terms in each year in order to obtain a
degree. The system of instruction is superintended by the fellows, both
junior and senior, together with a large staff of professors in the various
departments of science and literature. Eighteen of the junior fellows act
as tutors, and every student must place himself under one of these on
entering the college. The B.A. degree is given after examination in the
usual subjects, and may be a pass or honours degree; the M.A., as at Oxford
and Cambridge, is gained by the payment of a fee after a certain time has
elapsed. There are also a law school, a medical school, and a school of
engineering, and degrees are granted in these subjects, as well as in arts
and divinity. The college possesses a library of about 285,000 printed
volumes and 1700 manuscripts. It has also a botanic garden and museum. In
1613 James I granted to the university the right of returning two members
to Parliament. One was taken away at the Union, but was restored by the
Reform Bill of 1832. The number of students in 1920 was 1350.--Cf. _Dublin
University Calendar_.

DUBNO, a town of the Ukraine, government of Volhynia. It was a place of
some importance before the annexation of Western Poland by Russia. During
the European War it was recaptured in the Russian advance in June, 1916.
Pop. 14,000.

DUBOIS (d[.u]-bwä), Guillaume, a French cardinal, was the son of an
apothecary, born in 1656, died 1723. He became tutor to the Duke of
Chartres, afterwards Duke of Orleans and Regent, and maintained his
influence by pandering to the vices of his pupil. He became Privy
Councillor and overseer of the duke's household, and Minister for Foreign
Affairs under the regency. The archbishopric of Cambrai having become
vacant, Dubois ventured to request it of the regent, although he was not
even a priest. The regent was astonished at his boldness; but he obtained
the post, having in one morning received all the clerical orders, and, a
few days after, the archbishopric. By his consummate address he obtained a
cardinal's hat, and in 1721 was appointed Prime Minister. Dubois was an
avaricious, lying, licentious creature, yet clever and industrious, and
able to make himself very agreeable where it suited his interest.

DUBOIS (d[.u]-bwä), Paul, French sculptor, born 1829, died in 1905. He
first studied law, but from 1856 to 1858 gave himself up to sculpture under
Toussaint at Paris, and then went to Italy, where the sculptors of the
early Renaissance, Donatello and Luca Della Robbia, had a decided influence
upon him. Among his works are a _St. John_, a _Narcissus_, a _Madonna and
Child_, _Eve Awakening to Life_, a figure of _Song_ for the opera-house at
Paris, and numerous busts; but his greatest work is the monument of General
Lamoricière in the Cathedral of Nantes, with figures of _Military Courage_,
_Charity_, _Faith_, and _Meditation_, which rank among the best products of
French plastic art. He is also distinguished as a painter of portraits. He
was director of the École des Beaux Arts from 1878 until his death, and
received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour.

DU BOIS-REYMOND (d[.u] bwä-r[=a]-m[=o][n.]), Emil, German physiologist, and
an especial authority on animal electricity, born at Berlin 1818, died in
1896. He studied theology, geology, and afterwards anatomy and physiology,
and became professor of physiology in the University of Berlin in 1858. His
principal publication is _Researches in Animal Electricity_.

DUBOV´KA, a town of South Russia, government of Saratov, on the Volga; it
has an extensive river trade in wool, iron, oil, and grain. Pop. 16,530.

DUBUQUE (du-b[=u]k´), a city of Iowa, United States, on the right bank of
the Mississippi. It occupies an important commercial position as a railway
centre and entrepôt for the agricultural and mineral products of the
northern half of Iowa, and the timber of Wisconsin, and also from the
valuable lead-mines in its vicinity. Pop. 39,428.

DUCANGE (d[.u]-känzh), Charles Dufresne, Sieur, a French historian and
linguist, was born in 1610 near Amiens, died at Paris 1688. He studied in
the Jesuits' College at Amiens, afterwards at Orleans and Paris. At this
last place he became Parliamentary Advocate in 1631, and in 1645 Royal
Treasurer at Amiens, from which place he was driven by a pestilence, in
1668, to Paris. Here he devoted himself entirely to literature, and
published his great works, viz. his _Glossaries of the Greek and Latin
peculiar to the Middle Ages and the Moderns_, his _Historia Byzantina_, the
_Annals of Zonaras_, the _Numismatics of the Middle Ages_, and other
important works.

DUCAS, Michael, Byzantine historian, flourished in the fifteenth century.
His _Historia Byzantina_, which contains a reliable account of the siege
and sack of Constantinople, was largely used by Gibbon.

DUC´AT (Lat. _duc[=a]tus_, a duchy), a coin formerly common in several
European states. They were either of silver or gold: value of the former,
3s. to 4s., of the latter about 9s. 4d. They were named from being first
coined in one of the Italian duchies.

DUCATOON´, formerly a Dutch silver coin worth 3 gulden 3 stivers, or 5s.
3d. sterling. There were coins of the same name in Italy. In Tuscany its
value was about 5s. 5d., in Savoy slightly more, and in Venice about 4s.
9d.

DU CHAILLU (d[.u]-sh[=a]-yü), Paul Belloni, traveller, born in Paris 1835,
died 1903. He spent his youth in the French settlement at the Gaboon, on
the west coast of Africa, where his father was a merchant. In 1852 he went
to the United States, of which he afterwards became a naturalized citizen.
In 1855 he began his first journey through Western Africa, and stayed till
1859 alone among the different tribes, travelling on foot upwards of 8000
miles. He collected several gorillas, never before hunted, and rarely, if
ever, before seen by any European. An account of this journey,
_Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_, was published in 1861.
A second expedition was made in 1863, an account of which, under the title
_A Journey to Ashango Land_, appeared in 1867. _The Land of the Midnight
Sun_, an account of a tour in Northern Europe (1881), had a considerable
success. He published a number of books intended for boys, and based on his
travels. One of his works is _The Viking Age_ (1889), on the ancestors of
the English-speaking peoples.

DUCHESNE, or DU CHESNE (d[.u]-sh[=a]n), André, French historian, born in
1584, died in 1640. His most important works are his collection of French
historians--_Historiæ Francorum Scriptores_; _Historiæ Normanorum
Scriptores 838-1220_; _Histoire d'Angleterre, d'Écosse, et d'Irlande_;
_Histoire des Papes_.

DUCIS (dü-s[=e]s), Jean François, French dramatic writer, born at
Versailles 1733, died 1816. Of his original works, the tragedy _Abufar_ was
much admired; but he is now best known for his adaptations of Shakespeare
to the Parisian stage.

[Illustration: Mallard or Wild-duck]

DUCK, the name given to web-footed birds constituting the sub-family
Anatinæ of the family Anatidæ, which also includes swans and geese. The
ducks are very numerous as species, and are met with all over the world.
They are often migratory, going northward in summer to their
breeding-places. Their food is partly vegetable, partly animal. The common
mallard or wild-duck (_Anas boschas_) is the original of the domestic duck.
In its wild state the male is characterized by the deep green of the
plumage of the head and neck, by a white collar separating the green from
the dark chestnut of the lower part of the neck, and by having the four
middle feathers of the tail recurved. The wild-duck is taken in large
quantities by decoys and other means. Some tame ducks have nearly the same
plumage as the wild ones; others vary greatly, being generally duller or
pure white, but all the males have the four recurved tail-feathers. There
are several favourite varieties of the domestic duck, those of Normandy and
Picardy in France, and the Aylesbury ducks in England, being remarkable for
their great size and delicacy of flesh. Other species of the sub-family
are: shoveller (_Spatula clypeata_), garganey (_Querquedula circia_),
pintail or sea-pheasant (_Dafila acuta_), teal (_Nettion crecca_), widgeon
(_Mareca penelope_), gadwall (_Chaulelasmus streperus_), sheldrake
(_Tadorna cornuta_), tree-ducks (species of Dendrocygna). In a wider sense
the name 'duck' is applied to species of other sub-families of the Anatidæ
as follows: Merganettinæ: blue duck (_Hymenolæmus malacorhynchus_) of New
Zealand. Erismaturinæ: musk duck (_Biziura lobata_) of Tasmania and
Australia. Lake ducks (species of Erismatura). Fuligulinæ: eider duck
(_Somateria mollissima_), q.v.; scoter or black duck (_Oedemia nigra_);
harlequin duck (_Cosmonetta histrionica_); logger-head or steamer duck
(_Tachyeres cinereus_) of South America: scaup (_Fuligula marila_); canvas
back (_F. vallisneria_), q.v.; pochard (_Nyroca ferina_). Plectopterinæ:
summer duck (_Aix sponsa_) of N. America and Cuba; mandarin duck (_A.
galericulata_) of E. Asia; Muscovy or musk duck (_Cairina moschata_),
ranging from Mexico to the Argentine.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nourse, _Turkeys,
Ducks, and Geese_; Rankin, _Natural and Artificial Duck Culture_; J. G.
Millais, _British Diving Ducks_.

DUCKING-STOOL, a stool or chair in which common scolds were formerly tied
and plunged into water. They were of different forms, but that most
commonly in use consisted of an upright post and a transverse movable beam
on which the seat was fitted or from which it was suspended by a chain. The
ducking-stool is mentioned in _Domesday Book_ (Chester): it was extensively
in use throughout the country from the fifteenth till the beginning of the
eighteenth century, and in one case--at Leominster--was used as late as
1809.

DUCKWEED, the popular name of several species of Lemna, nat. ord. Lemnaceæ,
plants growing in ditches and shallow water, floating on the surface, and
serving as food for ducks and geese. Five species are known in Britain, and
others are common in America. They consist of small fronds bearing naked
unisexual flowers.

DUCKWORTH, Sir John Thomas, a British admiral, born in 1748, died 1817. He
joined the navy when eleven years of age; and was post-captain in 1780. In
1793, on the breaking out of the French war, he was appointed to the
command of the _Orion_, 74, forming part of the Channel fleet under Lord
Howe, and distinguished himself in 1794 in the great naval victory on 1st
June. In 1798 he aided in the capture of Minorca. From 1800 to 1806 he
rendered important services on the West India station, in particular
gaining a complete victory over a French squadron, for which he received a
pension of £1000 a year and the thanks of both Houses of Parliament. In
1807, having been ordered to Constantinople, he forced the passage of the
Dardanelles, but suffered severely from the Turkish batteries in returning.
From 1810 to 1814 he commanded the Newfoundland fleet, and in 1817 he was
appointed to the chief command at Plymouth. In 1813 he was created a
baronet.

DUCLOS (d[.u]-kl[=o]), Charles Pinot, a French novelist, writer of memoirs,
and grammarian, born in 1704 at Dinant, died at Paris 1772. He became
secretary of the French Academy, and on the resignation of Voltaire he was
appointed to the office of historiographer of France. His writings are
lively and satirical. Among the best are: _Confessions du Comte de * * *_
(1741), _Considérations sur les Moeurs de ce Siècle_, _Mémoires secrets sur
les Règnes de Louis XIV et XV_, and _Remarques sur la Grammaire générale de
Port-Royal_.

DUCTIL´ITY, the property of solid bodies, particularly metals, which
renders them capable of being extended by drawing, while their thickness or
diameter is diminished, without any actual fracture or separation of their
parts. The following is nearly the order of ductility of the metals which
possess the property in the highest degree, that of the first mentioned
being the greatest: gold, silver, platinum, iron, copper, nickel,
palladium, cadmium, zinc, tin, lead. Dr. Wollaston succeeded in obtaining a
wire of platinum only 1/30000th of an inch in diameter. The ductility of
glass at high temperatures seems to be unlimited, while its flexibility
increases in proportion to the fineness to which its threads are drawn.

DUDDON, an English river which flows 20 miles along the boundaries of
Cumberland and Lancashire to the Irish Sea, and is the subject of a series
of sonnets by Wordsworth, written in 1820.

DU DEFFAND, Madame. See _Deffand_.

DUDERSTADT (dö´d[.e]r-st[.a]t), an old German town, province of Hanover, 10
miles east of Göttingen, formerly a member of the Hanseatic League and a
place of some importance. Pop. 5380.

DUDEVANT, Madame. See _Sand, George_.

DUD´LEY, Sir Edmund, born 1462, executed 1510, noted in English history as
an instrument of Henry VII in the arbitrary acts of extortion by the
revival of obsolete statutes and other unjust measures practised during the
latter years of his reign. On the accession of Henry VIII he was arrested
for high treason, and perished on the scaffold with his associate Sir
Richard Empson.

DUDLEY, Lord Guildford, son of John, Duke of Northumberland, was married in
1553 to Lady Jane Grey, whose claim to the throne the duke intended to
assert on the death of Edward VI. On the failure of the plot Lord Guildford
was condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried into effect till
the insurrection of Wyatt induced Mary to order his immediate execution
(1554).

DUDLEY, John, Duke of Northumberland, son of Sir Edmund Dudley, minister of
Henry VII, was born in 1502, beheaded 1553. He was left by Henry VIII one
of the executors named in his will, as a kind of joint-regent during the
minority of Edward VI. Under that prince he manifested the most insatiable
ambition, and obtained vast accessions of honours, power, and emoluments.
The illness of the king, over whom he had gained complete ascendency,
aroused his fears, and he endeavoured to strengthen his interest by
marrying his son Lord Guildford Dudley to Lady Jane Grey, descended from
the younger sister of Henry VIII, and persuaded Edward to settle the crown
on his kinswoman by will, to the exclusion of his two sisters, the
Princesses Mary and Elizabeth. The attempt to place Lady Jane Grey on the
throne failed, and many of the conspirators were executed.

DUDLEY, Robert, Earl of Leicester. See _Leicester_.

DUDLEY, a town and parliamentary borough of England, in an isolated part of
Worcestershire enclosed by Staffordshire, 8 miles west by north of
Birmingham. It is situated in the midst of the 'black country', and has
extensive coal-mines, iron-mines, ironworks, and limestone quarries. It
produces nails, chain-cables, anchors, vices, boilers, fire-irons, and has
also glassworks, brickworks, and brass-foundries. There are the remains of
a castle, said to have been founded in the eighth century by a Saxon prince
called Dud, who has given the town its name. Dudley returns one member to
Parliament. Pop. of municipal borough, 51,079.

DUDLEY LIMESTONE, a highly fossiliferous limestone belonging to the
Silurian system, occurring near Dudley, and equivalent to the Wenlock
limestone. It abounds in beautiful masses of coral, shells, and trilobites.

DUEL (Lat. _duellum_, from _duo_, two), a premeditated and prearranged
combat between two persons with deadly weapons, for the purpose of deciding
some private difference or quarrel. The combat generally takes place in the
presence of witnesses called seconds, who make arrangements as to the mode
of fighting, place the weapons in the hands of the combatants, and see that
the laws they have laid down are carried out. The origin of the practice of
duelling is referred to the trial by 'wager of battle' which obtained in
early ages. This form of duel arose among the Germanic peoples, and a
judicial combat of the kind was authorized by Gundebald, King of the
Burgundians, as early as A.D. 501. When the judicial combat declined, the
modern duel arose, being probably to some extent an independent outcome of
the spirit and institutions of chivalry. France was the country in which it
arose, the sixteenth century being the time at which it first became
common, especially after the challenge of Francis I to Charles V in 1528.
Upon every insult or injury which seemed to touch his honour, a gentleman
thought himself entitled to draw his sword, and to call on his adversary to
give him satisfaction, and it is calculated that 6000 persons fell in duels
during ten years of the reign of Henri IV. His minister, Sully,
remonstrated against the practice; but the king connived at it, supposing
that it tended to maintain a military spirit among his people. In 1602,
however, he issued a decree against it, and declared it to be punishable
with death. Many subsequent prohibitions were issued, but they were all
powerless to stop the practice. During the minority of Louis XIV, more than
4000 nobles are said to have lost their lives in duels. The practice of
duelling was introduced into England from France in the reign of James I;
but it was never so common as in the latter country. Cromwell was an enemy
of the duel, and during the Protectorate there was a cessation of the
practice. It came again into vogue, however, after the Restoration, thanks
chiefly to the French ideas that then inundated the court. As society
became more polished duels became more frequent, and they were never more
numerous than in the reign of George III. Among the principals in the chief
duels of this period were Charles James Fox, Sheridan, Pitt, Canning,
Castlereagh, the Duke of York, the Duke of Richmond, and Lord Camelford.
The last mentioned was the most notorious duellist of his time, and was
himself killed in a duel in 1804. A duel was fought between the Duke of
Wellington and Lord Winchelsea in 1829, but the practice was dying out. It
lasted longest in the army. By English law fatal duelling is considered
murder, no matter how fair the combat may have been, and the seconds are
liable to the same penalty as the principals. In 1813 the principal and
seconds in a fatal duel were sentenced to death, though afterwards
pardoned. An officer in the army having anything to do with a duel renders
himself liable to be cashiered. In France duelling still prevails to a
certain extent; but the combats are usually very bloodless and ridiculous
affairs. In the German army until 1918 it was common, and was recognized by
law. The duels of German students, so often spoken of, seldom cause serious
bloodshed.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Millingen, _History of Duelling_; Steinmetz,
_Romance of Duelling_; G. Letainturier-Fradin, _Le duel à travers les
âges_; C. A. Thimm, _Bibliography of Fencing and Duelling_; A. Hutton, _The
Sword and the Centuries_.

DUEN´NA, the chief lady-in-waiting on the Queen of Spain. In a more general
sense, an elderly woman holding a middle station between a governess and
companion, appointed to take charge of the young daughters of Spanish and
Portuguese families.

DUFAURE (d[.u]-f[=o]r), Jules Armand Stanislas, French orator and
statesman, born 1798, died 1881. He practised law at Bordeaux; entered the
Chamber of Deputies in 1834, and became an influential leader of the
Liberal party. Under the Republic he was Minister of the Interior, but was
driven from the public service by the _coup d'état_ of 1851, and for the
next twenty years devoted himself closely to his Bar practice and pamphlet
writing. Under the Government of Thiers he acted as Minister of Justice;
and in 1876, and again from 1877 to 1879, he was head of the Cabinet.

DUFF, Alexander, Scottish missionary, born 1806, died 1878. Educated at St.
Andrews University, in 1829 he set out for India as the first Church of
Scotland missionary to that country, and reached Calcutta after being twice
shipwrecked. He opened a school in which he taught successfully the
doctrines of Christianity, as well as general knowledge, but on his
secession (along with the other missionaries of the Church) from the Church
of Scotland in 1843, he had to give up the school and begin again. In 1849
he visited Scotland, where he remained until 1856. He assisted in founding
the University of Calcutta, and, having been obliged to return home for
reasons of health, he raised £10,000 to endow a missionary chair in the New
College, Edinburgh, becoming himself its first occupant. His chief writings
are: _The Church of Scotland's India Mission_ (1835); _Vindication of the
Church of Scotland's India Mission_ (1837); _India and India Missions_
(1840); _The Jesuits_ (1845); and _The Indian Mutiny: its Causes and
Results_ (a series of letters published in 1858).

DUFF, Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant, writer on political and other
subjects, born in Aberdeenshire in 1829, died in 1906. He was educated at
Edinburgh Academy, The Grange, Bishop Wearmouth, and Balliol College,
Oxford, was called to the Bar at the Inner Temple in 1854, and in 1857
entered the House of Commons as Liberal member for the Elgin Burghs, which
constituency he continued to represent until 1881. He was Under-Secretary
for India in W. E. Gladstone's ministry from 1868 to 1874, and
Under-Secretary for the Colonies from 1880 to 1881, in which latter year he
was appointed Governor of Madras. His Indian administration was most
successful, and on his retirement in 1886 he was made a G.C.S.I. He was
president of the Royal Geographical Society from 1889 to 1893, and of the
Royal Historical Society from 1892 to 1899, and was also a trustee of the
British Museum. His published works include: _Studies in European Politics_
(1866); _A Political Survey_ (1868); _Elgin Speeches_ (1871); _Notes of an
Indian Journey_ (1876); _Miscellanies, Political and Literary_ (1879);
_Memoir of Sir H. S. Maine_ (1892); _Ernest Renan_ (1893); and _Notes from
a Diary_ (7 vols., 1897-1905).

DUFF´ERIN AND AVA, Frederick Temple Hamilton-Blackwood, Marquess of,
British statesman and author, son of the fourth Baron Dufferin and a
granddaughter of R. B. Sheridan, born at Florence 1826, died in 1902. He
began his public services in 1855, when he was attached to Earl Russell's
mission to Vienna. Subsequently he was sent as Commissioner to Syria in
connection with the massacre of the Christians (1860); was Under-Secretary
of State for India (1864-6); Under-Secretary for War (1866); Chancellor of
the Duchy of Lancaster (1868-72); Governor-General of Canada (1872-78);
Ambassador at St. Petersburg (1879-81); at Constantinople (1882); sent to
Cairo to settle the affairs of the country after Arabi Pasha's rebellion
(1882-3); Viceroy of India (1884-8); Ambassador to Italy (1889-91); to
France (1891-96). He was elected president of the Royal Geographical
Society in 1878, and Lord Rector of Glasgow University in 1891. Besides
being a noted diplomatist, he was also a popular author. In 1847 he
published _Narrative of a Journey from Oxford to Skibbereen during the year
of the Irish Famine_; in 1860, _Letters from High Latitudes_; also various
pamphlets on Irish questions. In 1888 he was made Marquess of Dufferin and
Ava.--Cf. Sir A. Lyall, _Life of the Marquess of Dufferin and Ava_.

DUFRÉNOY (d[.u]-fr[.e]-nwä) Pierre Armand, French geologist and
mineralogist, born in 1792, died in 1857. He became director of the school
of mines, and published a great variety of papers on geology and
mineralogy. In 1841 he published, in collaboration with Élie de Beaumont, a
great geological map of France with three volumes of text, and this was
followed by his _Traité de Minéralogie_. He introduced a new classification
of minerals, based on crystallography.

DUFRESNY (d[.u]-fr[=a]-n[=e]), Charles Rivière, a French comic poet, born
in 1648, died in 1724. He was clever and versatile, and had great skill as
a landscape-gardener and an architectural designer. Among his dramatic
pieces may be mentioned _L'Esprit de Contradiction_, _Le Mariage Fait et
Rompu_, and _Le Double Veuvage_. He also wrote _Amusements sérieux et
comiques d'un Siamois_, which suggested to Montesquieu his _Lettres
Persanes_.

DUG´DALE, Sir William, an English antiquary, born in 1605 of a good family
in Warwickshire, died 1686. He was made Chester herald in 1644; accompanied
Charles I through the civil war; and after the Restoration received
knighthood, and was appointed garter king-at-arms. In concert with Roger
Dodsworth he produced an important work on English monasteries entitled
_Monasticon Anglicanum_. Among his other works are: _Antiquities of
Warwickshire_; _The Baronage or Peerage of England_; _Origines Judiciales,
or Historical Memoirs of the English Law, Courts of Justice, &c._; a
_History of St. Paul's Cathedral_; and various minor writings. He also
completed and published the second volume of Spelman's _Concilia_.

[Illustration: Dugong (_Halic[)o]r[=e] dugong_)]

DU´GONG, a herbivorous mammal, the _Halic[)o]r[=e] dugong_, belonging to
the ord. Sirenia, which also includes the manatees. It is a native of the
Indian and Australian seas; possesses a tapering body ending in a
crescent-shaped fin, and is said sometimes to attain a length of 20 feet,
though generally it is about 7 or 8 feet in length. The fore-limbs are in
the form of flippers; hind-limbs are absent. The skin is thick and smooth,
with a few scattered bristles; the colour bluish above and white beneath.
Its food consists of marine plants; it yields little or no oil, but is
hunted by the Malays for its flesh, which resembles veal, and is tender and
palatable. It has been suggested that the appearance of this animal has
given rise to the legends of mermaids and mermen.

DUGUAY-TROUIN (dü-g[=a]-trö-an), René, a distinguished French seaman, born
at St. Malo in 1673, died at Paris 1736. As commander of a privateer he
took many prizes from the British between 1690 and 1697. He then entered
the royal marine as a captain, and signalized himself so much in the
Spanish War that the king granted him letters of nobility, in which it was
stated that he had captured more than 300 merchant ships and twenty ships
of war. By the capture of Rio de Janeiro (1711) he brought the Crown more
than 25,000,000 francs. Under Louis XV he rendered important services in
the Levant and the Mediterranean.

DU GUESCLIN (dü-g[=a]-klan), Bertrand, Constable of France, born about
1314, died 1380. Mainly to him must be attributed the expulsion of the
English from Normandy, Guienne, and Poitou. He was captured by Chandos at
the battle of Auray in 1364, and ransomed for 100,000 francs. While serving
in Spain against Peter the Cruel, he was made prisoner by the English Black
Prince, but was soon liberated. For his services in Spain he was made
Constable of Castile, Count of Trastamare, and Duke of Molinas; and in 1370
he was made Constable of France.

DUIKERBOK, species of Cephalophus, small South African antelopes with short
horns (none in the female), and a tuft of stiff hairs between them.

DUISBURG (dö´is-b[u:]r_h_), a flourishing town in Rhenish Prussia, 13 miles
north of Düsseldorf. It is an ancient place, believed to be of Roman
origin. It early rose to be a free town, and became a member of the
Hanseatic League. It possesses a beautiful church of the fifteenth century,
and has iron manufactories, engineering works, chemical works, and cotton
and woollen mills; and a large trade greatly facilitated by a canal
communicating with the Rhine, which is about 2 miles distant. Pop. 229,483.

DUJARDIN (d[.u]-zh[.a]r-da[n.]), Karel, a Dutch artist, who excelled in
painting landscapes, animals, and scenes in low life, born in 1640 at
Amsterdam, died at Venice 1678. His paintings are rare, and command high
prices. His masterpiece, _The Charlatans_ (1657), is in the Louvre.

DUKE (Fr. _duc_, Sp. _duque_, It. _duca_, all from Lat. _dux_, leader,
commander), a title belonging originally to a military leader. In Britain
it is the highest rank in the peerage. Royal dukes have a special status
and precedence. The first hereditary duke in England was the Black Prince,
created by his father, Edward III, in 1336. The duchy of Cornwall was
bestowed upon him, and was thenceforward attached to the eldest son of the
king, who is considered a duke by birth. The duchy of Lancaster was soon
after conferred on Edward's third son, John of Gaunt, and hence arose the
special privileges which these two duchies still in part retain. A duke in
the British peerage, not of royal rank, is styled 'your grace', or 'my Lord
Duke'; his wife is a duchess. (See _Address, Forms of_.) The coronet
consists of a richly-chased gold circle, having on its upper edge eight
golden leaves of a conventional type called strawberry leaves; the cap of
crimson velvet is closed at the top with a gold tassel, lined with
sarsenet, and turned up with ermine. (See _Coronet_.) At various periods
and in different continental countries the title duke (_Herzog_ in Germany)
was given to the actual sovereigns of small states. The titles 'grand-duke'
and 'grand-duchess', 'archduke' and 'archduchess', were in use also on the
European continent, especially in Russia and Austria until 1918. In the
Bible the word _dukes_ is used (_Gen._ xxxvi) for the _duces_ of the
_Vulgate_.

DUKHOBORZI (d[u:]_h_-o-bor´ts[=e]), a Russian sect of religious mystics
which arose in the eighteenth century. The name means 'spirit-fighters', as
the sect was accused by the orthodox priests of fighting against the spirit
of God. They reject the doctrine of the Trinity, of the deity of Christ,
hold property in common, and refuse oaths and military service, thus
resembling Quakers. In 1899 a body of several thousands emigrated to
Canada, where they received territory in Assiniboia and Saskatchewan.

DUKINFIELD, or DUCKINFIELD, a municipal borough, England, county Cheshire,
separated by the Tame from Ashton-under-Lyne, and mostly within Stalybridge
parliamentary borough. Collieries, cotton-factories, brickworks, and
tileworks give employment to the population. Pop. (municipal borough),
19,426.

DULCE (d[u:]l´s[=a]), a lake of Guatemala, on the east coast, communicating
with the Gulf of Honduras by the lakelet el Golfete. It is about 30 miles
long by 12 broad, and affords profitable turtle hunting.

DULCIGNO (d[u:]l-ch[=e]n´y[=o]), a small seaport town, formerly in Albania,
now in Montenegro, on the Adriatic, the seat of a Roman Catholic Bishop. It
was captured by the Austrians in 1916, and retaken by Italian troops in
1918. Pop. 5000.

[Illustration: Italian Dulcimer]

DUL´CIMER, one of the most ancient musical instruments, used in almost all
parts of the world. The modern instrument consists of a shallow
trapezium-shaped box without a top, across which runs a series of wires,
tuned by pegs at the sides, and played on by being struck by two
cork-headed hammers. It is in much less common use in Europe now than it
was a century or two ago, and is interesting chiefly as being the prototype
of the piano. It is still, however, occasionally to be met with on the
Continent at fairs in the country, and in England in the hands of street
musicians. It was known in Persia and Arabia under the name of _santir_,
and was introduced into Europe by the Crusaders. The Hebrew psaltery is
supposed to have been a variety of the dulcimer.

DUL´CINISTS, followers of Dulcinus, a layman of Lombardy, in the fourteenth
century, who preached the reign of the Holy Ghost, affirming that the
Father had reigned till Christ's incarnation, and that the Son's reign
terminated in 1300. He was followed by a great many people to the Alps,
where he and his wife were taken and burned by order of Clement IV.

DULCITOL, or DULCITE, is an alcohol closely allied to the sugars. It is
found in Madagascar manna, from which it is extracted by boiling water.

DULI´A (Gr. _douleia_, service, from _doulos_, a slave), an inferior kind
of worship or adoration, as that paid to saints and angels in the Roman
Catholic Church. The Catholics recognize different degrees of worship. The
lowest degree is the _dulia_, which is given to saints and angels.
_Hyperdulia_ is reserved for the Virgin alone; and _latria_ is given to God
and to each person of the Trinity.

DULSE, a red sea-weed, the _Rhodymenia palm[=a]ta_, used in some parts of
Scotland as an edible. It has a reddish-brown, or purple, leathery,
veinless frond, several inches long, and is found at low water adhering to
the rocks. It is an important plant to the Icelanders, and is stored by
them in casks to be eaten with fish. In Kamchatka a fermented liquor is
made from it. In the south of England the name is given to the _Iridæa
ed[=u]lis_, also an edible red sea-weed.

DULUTH (du-luth´), a town of the United States, capital of St. Louis
county, Minnesota, at the south-west extremity of Lake Superior. The
Northern Pacific and Lake Superior and Mississippi railways terminate here;
and extensive docks and other works have been constructed, affording a
convenient outlet for the surrounding wheat region. Pop. 97,077.

DULWICH (dul´ich), a suburb of London, in County Surrey, about 5 miles
south of London Bridge, giving name to a parliamentary division of the
borough of Camberwell; noticeable on account of its school, _Dulwich
College_, called the 'College of God's Gift,' founded as a charitable
institution in 1619 by the actor Edward Allen or Alleyn. Four parishes were
benefited by the charity: St. Luke's, Middlesex; St. Botolph's,
Bishopsgate; St. Saviour's, Southwark; and St. Giles', Camberwell. Having
outlived its usefulness, in 1857 an Act was passed by which the college was
reconstituted. It now consists of two branches, the educational and the
eleemosynary, between which the surplus revenue is divided in the
proportion of three-fourths to the former and one-fourth to the latter. The
educational branch comprises two schools, the upper and the lower; the
former giving boys a high-class education (lower fees for those of the
privileged parishes), and having a number of scholarships and exhibitions.
The eleemosynary branch maintains a certain number of resident and
non-resident poor people. The original revenues were only £800, but now
amount to £20,000. Dulwich College is celebrated for its pictures, many of
which were bequeathed by the founder; but the greater and more valuable
portion of them was the bequest of Sir Francis Bourgeois, a
landscape-painter, who died in 1810. The collection includes many fine
pictures of the Dutch school.

DUMA, or DOUMA, the Lower House of the former Russian Parliament, the Upper
House being the Council of the Empire. In 1905 Tsar Nicholas II granted his
country a Constitution, promising that responsible Government would be
established, and that no law would be made effective without the consent of
the Duma. The first Duma accordingly met in 1906, and was to have had the
power of a Parliament in Constitutional countries. The Legislative Assembly
could make new laws, modify existing ones, issue the national Budget, &c.,
but had no right to alter the fundamental laws of the empire. In spite of
the promises, however, given by the Tsar, the Imperial Government paid no
attention to the demands of the Assembly, and when the criticisms of the
Deputies became too loud, the first Duma was dissolved. A second Duma
assembled the next year, but its members, in consequence of governmental
restrictions on elections, were mostly Conservatives. In the opinion of the
Government, however, even the second Duma was too Liberal in its
tendencies, and it was promptly dissolved. The third Duma, which met in
1907, and whose members were mostly landed proprietors, retired officers,
and priests, was absolutely subservient to the autocratic Government, and,
from that date to the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in 1917, the power
and influence of the Russian Duma were almost nil. The Duma ceased to exist
on 7th Nov., 1917, when the Bolsheviks came into power, and the Government
of Commissaries of the People was set up.

DUMAS (d[.u]-mä), Alexandre (called _Dumas Père_), French novelist and
dramatist, born at Villers-Cotterets 1803, died at Puys, near Dieppe, 1870.
He was the son of a republican general, and grandson of the Marquis de la
Pailleterie and a negress, Tiennette Dumas. In 1823 he went to Paris, and
obtained an assistant-secretaryship from the Duke of Orleans, afterwards
Louis Philippe. He soon began to write for the stage, and in 1829 scored
his first success with his drama _Henri III et sa cour_. It was produced
when the battle between the Romanticists and the Classicists was at its
height, and hailed as a triumph by the former school. The same year
appeared his _Christine_, and in quick succession _Antony_, _Richard
d'Arlington_, _Térésa_, _La Tour de Nesle_, _Catharine Howard_, and _Mlle
de Belle-Isle_. Dumas had now become a noted Parisian character. The
critics fought over the merits of his pieces, and the scandal-mongers over
his prodigality and _galanteries_. Turning his attention to romance, he
produced a series of historical romances, among which may be mentioned: _Le
bâtard de Mauléon_; _Isabelle de Bavière_; _Les Deux Dianes_; _La Reine
Margot_; _Les Trois Mousquetaires_, with its continuations _Vingt Ans
Après_ and the later _Vicomte de Bragelonne_. His _Monte-Cristo_ and
several others are also well known to English readers through translations.
Several historical works were also written by him: _Louis XIV et son
Siècle_, _Le Regent et Louis XV_, _Le Drame de '93_, _Florence et les
Médicis_, &c. The works which bear his name amount to some 1200 volumes,
including about 60 dramas; but the only claim he could lay to a great
number of the productions issued under his name was that he either sketched
the plot or revised them before going to press. He earned vast sums of
money, but his recklessness and extravagance eventually reduced him to the
adoption of a shifty, scheming mode of living. His _Mémoires_, begun in
1852, present interesting sketches of literary life during the Restoration,
but display intense egotism. In 1860 he accompanied Garibaldi in the
expedition which freed Naples from the Bourbons. He died at the residence
of his son, and was buried in Villers-Cotterets in 1872. Dumas was
remarkable for his creative rather than for his artistic genius, and
although he frequently squandered his gifts, he was admired even by the
highly cultured, such as Thackeray and others.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Blaze de
Bury, _Alexandre Dumas: sa vie, son temps, son oeuvre_; A. B. Davidson,
_Alexandre Dumas père: his Life and Works_.

DUMAS, Alexandre, son of the above, born 1824, died in 1895, novelist and
dramatist. His works treat mostly of the relations between vice and morals.
His first novels, _La Dame aux Camélias_ and _Diane de Lys_, were very
successful, as were also the plays which were founded on them. His dramas,
which are much superior to his novels, deal satirically with the
characters, follies, and manners of French society. He was thus a pioneer
in the 'comedy of manners'. His plays, besides his dramatized novel _La
Dame aux Camélias_, which marked a date in the history of the French stage,
and which supplied Verdi with the plot for _La Traviata_, are: _Le
demi-monde_, _Le fils naturel_, _L'Ami des femmes_, _La princesse Georges_,
and _L'Étrangère_.

DUMAS, Matthieu, French soldier and military writer, born in 1753, died in
Paris 1837. He early entered the French cavalry, took part in the War of
American Independence, and was employed in the Levant and in Holland. At
the commencement of the Revolution he assisted Lafayette in organizing the
National Guard. On the triumph of the extreme party in 1797 Dumas was
proscribed, but made his escape to Holstein, where he wrote the first part
of his _Précis des Événements Militaires_, a valuable source for the
history of the period of which it treats (1798-1807). He was recalled from
exile by Napoleon, who had become First Consul. His first employment was to
organize the reserve for the army of Italy. In 1802 he was appointed State
Councillor; in 1805 he became general of division, and was shortly
afterwards Neapolitan minister in the service of Joseph Bonaparte. In 1808
he was actively employed in the arrangements for the war against Austria,
fought in the battles of Essling and Wagram, and arranged the terms of the
armistice of Znaim. He held the office of General Intendant of the army in
the campaign of 1812. After the Restoration Louis XVIII appointed him
Councillor of State, and gave him several important appointments connected
with the army. In 1830 he aided in bringing on the revolution of July, and
after the fall of Charles X he obtained the chief command of all the
national guards of France, together with a peerage. He published a
translation of Napier's _History of the Peninsular War_.

DU MAURIER (d[.u]-m[=o]´ri-[=a]), George Louis Palmella Busson, artist and
writer, was born in Paris 1834, died in 1896. He was the son of an English
mother and a Frenchman who had been naturalized as a British subject. At
the age of seventeen he took up the study of chemistry in London, but soon
adopted art as a profession. After studying in Belgium and France, he
returned to London, and soon began to contribute drawings to _Punch_, _Once
a Week_, _Cornhill Magazine_, &c. He succeeded Leech on _Punch_, and became
famous chiefly through his drawings for that publication. He also
illustrated various books, and wrote three novels, _Trilby_, _Peter
Ibbetson_, and _The Martian_. His elder son, Guy Du Maurier, born in 1865,
killed in France in 1915, was the author of _An Englishman's Home_ (1909).

DUMBA, Konstantin Theodor, Austro-Hungarian diplomatist, who became
conspicuous as an agent of German propaganda in the United States during
the European War. He went as Ambassador to the United States in 1913, and
at the outbreak of the war endeavoured to organize a vast conspiracy there,
with a view to hampering the productions of munitions for the Allies.
Abusing his position of Ambassador, he planned explosions and strikes in
American factories. On 1st Sept., 1915, J. F. J. Archibald, an American
newspaper correspondent, was arrested at Falmouth, and among the papers
found upon him was a letter from Dr. Dumba to Baron Burian, Austrian
Minister for Foreign Affairs, wherein the former suggested a plan of
crippling the munition factories in America by creating strikes. President
Wilson then demanded his recall, and he left the United States in Oct.,
1915, Great Britain granting him a safe conduct.

DUMBAR´TON, a royal and parliamentary burgh and seaport, Scotland, chief
town of Dumbarton county, stands on the Leven near its junction with the
Clyde, 16 miles W.N.W. of Glasgow. Shipbuilding is carried on to a great
extent, and there are foundries and engine-works. Dumbarton unites with
Port-Glasgow, Renfrew, Rutherglen, and Kilmarnock in sending a member to
Parliament. Originally it was called Alcluyd, and it was the chief town of
Cumbria or Strathclyde. Pop. 21,989. A little to the south is the famous
rock and castle of Dumbarton, rising above the Clyde. The rock, which is of
basalt, is 240 feet in height, and about 1 mile in circumference at the
base. It is one of the fortresses stipulated to be kept in repair by the
Act of Union, and the barracks contain accommodation for 150 men. There has
been a stronghold here from the earliest times, and the fortress of
Dumbarton occupied an important place in Scottish
history.--_Dumbartonshire_, the county of Dumbarton, is partly maritime,
partly inland, consisting of two detached portions, the larger and most
westerly lying between the Clyde, Loch Long, and Loch Lomond, and the far
smaller portion being about 4 miles east of the former, and comprising only
two parishes. More than half the area of the county is occupied by
mountains, some of them attaining a height of upwards of 3000 feet. The
lower lands are fertile, and in general well cultivated. More than one-half
of Loch Lomond and fully two-thirds of the islands in it belong to
Dumbartonshire. The Gareloch, an arm of the Firth of Clyde, forms a part of
the county into a peninsula. The principal rivers are the Leven, from Loch
Lomond, and the Kelvin, both belonging to the Clyde system. The chief
minerals are coal, limestone, ironstone, and slate, all of which are
wrought more or less. On the banks of the Leven and elsewhere are extensive
cotton printing and bleaching establishments; and there are extensive
shipbuilding yards along the Clyde. Besides Dumbarton, the chief town, the
county contains the towns of Helensburgh and Kirkintilloch, and the
manufacturing villages of Alexandria, Renton, and Bonhill. Vestiges of the
Roman wall of Antoninus still exist. The county returns one member to the
House of Commons. Pop. 139,831.

DUMB-CANE, a plant of the ord. Araceæ, the _Dieffenbachia seguina_, of the
West Indies, so called from its acridity causing swelling of the tongue
when chewed, and destroying the power of speech.

DUMDUM, a military village and extensive cantonment, Hindustan, province of
Bengal, 4½ miles E.N.E. of Calcutta. The village is famous as being the
scene of the first open manifestation of the sepoys against the greased
cartridges, which led to the mutiny of 1857. Pop. 12,000.

DUMDUM BULLET (so called from the arsenal at Dumdum, a small village 4½
miles from Calcutta), a hollow-nosed bullet which expands on impact, and so
causes an ugly wound. It was used in Indian frontier fighting to stop the
rushes of fanatical tribesmen. While the term 'Dumdum' bullet should
strictly only be applied to hollow-nosed bullets, it is popularly applied
to any kind of expanding bullet. Ordinary bullets can be converted into
expanding ones by means of filing the cupro-nickel envelope until the lead
core is exposed, by means of slitting the envelope at the shoulders, or
simply by reversing the bullet in its socket. Expanding bullets are
considered legitimate in big-game shooting, but in the Declaration signed
at the Hague, 29th July, 1899, Germany expressly promised not to use such
bullets in warfare. In spite of this the Germans freely used bullets of
this kind in the European War.

DUMFRIES (dum-fr[=e]s´), a river port, railway centre, and until 1918 a
parliamentary burgh, Scotland, capital of the county of same name, and the
chief place in the south of Scotland; situated on the left bank of the
Nith, about 6 miles from its junction with the Solway Firth. It is
connected with the suburb Maxwelltown (in Kirkcudbright) by three bridges,
one dating from the thirteenth century. It is a pleasing, well-built town,
with various handsome public edifices. There are iron-foundries, hosiery
and tweed factories, tanneries, and coach-building works. The River Nith is
navigable to the town for vessels of under 60 tons, but the port has
decreased in importance since the development of the railway system.
Dumfries is a place of great antiquity. The church of the Minorites which
once stood here was the scene of the murder of the Red Comyn by Bruce in
1306. Burns spent his closing years here, and the street in which he lived
now bears his name. His remains rest under a handsome mausoleum, and a
statue of him was erected in 1882. Dumfries was the head-quarters of the
Young Pretender in 1745. Until 1918 Dumfries united with Annan, Sanquhar,
Lochmaben, and Kirkcudbright (the Dumfries burghs) in sending a member to
Parliament. Pop. 19,076.--_Dumfriesshire_, the county of Dumfries, abuts on
the Solway Firth, having on its borders the counties of Lanark, Peebles,
Selkirk, Roxburgh, Ayr, and Kirkcudbright; area about 1100 sq. miles or
702,946 acres, of which about a third is under cultivation. The surface is
irregular, but for the most part mountainous, especially in the north and
north-west districts, where the hills attain a considerable elevation, some
of them exceeding 2000 feet. The dales of the Nith, Annan, and Esk, the
chief rivers of the county, contain fine pasture holms and good arable
land. Oats, potatoes, and turnips are the most common products. Good cattle
are reared, and are much in request for the English market. The sheep on
the hill pastures are mostly Cheviots; on the lower and arable lands the
Leicester breed prevails. The minerals most abundant are coal, lead, iron,
antimony, and gypsum. Coal and lead are worked to a small extent. Limestone
and freestone abound in various parts. There are no manufactures worth
mentioning. The county returns one member to the House of Commons. Its
principal towns are Dumfries, Annan, Sanquhar, Lockerbie, Moffat, Langholm,
and Lochmaben. Pop. 72,825.

DUMONT (d[.u]-m[=o]n), Pierre Étienne Louis, the friend and literary
assistant of Mirabeau and Jeremy Bentham, was born at Geneva in 1759, died
at Milan 1829. Ordained a minister of the Protestant Church in 1781, he
attached himself to the democratic party in Geneva, and when the opposite
party gained the ascendency he went to St. Petersburg, in 1782, where he
was appointed pastor of the French Reformed Church. Soon after he accepted
an offer to act as tutor to the sons of Lord Shelburne, afterwards Marquess
of Lansdowne, which brought him to London, where he became intimate with
Jeremy Bentham and Sir Samuel Romilly. Visiting Paris during the first
years of the Revolution, he gained the friendship of Mirabeau, whom he
assisted in the composition of speeches and reports, and of whom he wrote
some interesting _Recollections_. On his return to London he formed that
connection with Bentham which fixed his career as a writer; recasting,
popularizing, and editing Bentham's works in a form suitable for the
reading public. He returned to Geneva in 1814 and became a Senator.

DUMONT D'URVILLE (d[.u]-m[=o]n d[.u]r-v[=e]l), Jules Sebastien César,
French navigator, was born in 1790, killed in a railway accident between
Paris and Versailles 1842. After completing his studies at Caen, he entered
the French navy, in which he ultimately rose to be rear-admiral. From 1826
to 1829 he commanded the corvette _Astrolabe_, which was sent to obtain
tidings of La Pérouse, and to make hydrographic observations. He made
surveys of the coasts of Australia and New Zealand, and found remains of
the shipwreck of La Pérouse on one of the Pacific islands. The result of
this voyage was the publication of _Voyage de Découverte autour du Monde_.
In 1837 he sailed with the _Astrolabe_ and _Zélée_ on a voyage of Antarctic
discovery, and after many dangers, and having visited many parts of
Oceania, he returned in 1840. On his return he began the publication of
_Voyage au Pôle sud et dans l'Océanie_, which was finished by one of his
companions.

DUMOURIEZ (d[.u]-mö-ri-[=a]), Charles François Duperrier, a French general
of great military talent, was born at Cambrai in 1739 of a noble family of
Provence, died near Henley-on-Thames 1823. He served as an officer in the
Seven Years' War. In 1768 he went to Corsica as quartermaster-general of
the small army which was sent for the conquest of that island, and was
afterwards made colonel. In 1778 he was appointed Governor of Cherbourg. At
the Revolution he joined the Jacobins, and subsequently the Girondists, and
in 1792 he was Minister of Foreign Affairs. War breaking out between France
and Austria, he resigned in order to take command of the army; invaded
Flanders, and defeated the Austrians at Jemappes and conquered Belgium.
Instead of prosecuting the war vigorously, he now entered upon measures for
the overthrow of the Revolutionary Government, issued a proclamation, in
which he promised the restoration of the constitutional monarchy in the
person of the heir to the crown, but was attacked by the Versailles
volunteers, and compelled to flee (4th April, 1793). The Convention set a
price of 300,000 livres upon his head. At first he retired to Brussels, and
after various wanderings found a final refuge in England. His _Memoirs_,
written by himself, appeared in 1794; an enlarged edition in 1822. He was
also the author of a large number of political pamphlets.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J.
Holland Rose and A. M. Broadley, _Dumouriez and the Defence of England
against Napoleon_; H. Welschinger, _Le Roman de Dumouriez_.

DÜNA (dü'n[.a]), or WESTERN DVINA, a river of Russia, which rises in the
government of Tver, about 15 miles W. of the source of the Volga, falls
into the Gulf of Riga, has a course of about 650 miles, and waters the
seven governments of Tver, Pskov, Vitebsk, Mogilev, &c., draining an area
of about 65,000 sq. miles. It is navigable for a considerable distance, but
is frozen for about four months each year.

DÜNABURG (dü´na-b[u:]rg), DVINABURG, or DVINSK, a fortified town in Latvia,
formerly belonging to Russia, in the government of Vitebsk on the right
bank of the Düna, or Dvina, 112 miles south-east of Riga. It carries on
various industries, a considerable trade, and has three yearly fairs. The
official name is Dvinsk, or Daugavpils. It was captured by the Germans in
Feb., 1918. Pop. 110,912.

DÜNAMÜNDE (dü´na-m[.u]n-de; 'Dünamouth'), a fortress and port on the Gulf
of Riga, at the mouth of the Düna, having a large winter harbour for the
shipping of Riga. Pop. 2500.

DUNBAR´, William, the most eminent of all the old Scottish poets, was born,
probably in East Lothian, about 1460-5. In 1475 he went to St. Andrews,
where, in 1477, he took the degree of B.A., and two years later that of
M.A. After this he seems to have become a begging friar of the Franciscan
order, and made journeys in England and France, but he returned to Scotland
about 1490, and attached himself to the court of James IV, from whom he
received a pension of £10. On the marriage of James IV to Margaret of
England Dunbar celebrated the event in a poem of great beauty, entitled
_The Thrissil and the Rois_. His pension was ultimately raised to £80 a
year, and he was the recipient of various additional gratuities, though he
appears frequently to have addressed both the king and the queen for a
benefice, but always without success. After the defeat at Flodden his name
disappears from the royal accounts, and he probably died about 1520. His
works, which consist of elaborate allegories, satirical and grimly humorous
pieces, and poems full of brilliant description and luxuriant imagination,
first collected by David Laing (Edinburgh, 1834), were edited by John Small
and Æ. J. G. Mackay, for the Scottish Text Society, between 1884 and
1893.--Cf. _The Cambridge History of English Literature_ (vol. ii).

DUNBAR´ (Gael., Castle Point), a town of Scotland; a royal and municipal
(formerly parliamentary) burgh and seaport in Haddingtonshire, at the mouth
of the Firth of Forth. It is a place of great antiquity, having originated
in a castle, once of great strength and importance, which underwent several
memorable sieges, on one occasion being successfully defended (in 1338)
against the English for nineteen weeks by Black Agnes of Dunbar, Countess
of March. In 1650, at the 'Race of Dunbar', Cromwell totally defeated the
Scottish army under David Leslie near the town. The harbour is not very
commodious, but the town is an important fishing-station. Pop. 4830.

DUNBLANE´, an old episcopal city, Scotland, in Perthshire, 6 miles
north-east of Stirling, on the Allan. The ancient cathedral, partly in
ruins, dates from the twelfth century. The nave is 130 feet by 58 feet, and
the choir, now the parish church, is 80 feet by 30 feet. The building was
restored in 1893. Bishop Leighton held the see from 1662 to 1670. About two
miles from the town the indecisive battle of Sheriffmuir was fought in
1715, between the Royal forces under the Duke of Argyle, and the Jacobites
under the Earl of Mar. Pop. 4600.

DUN´CAN, Adam, Viscount, a British naval officer, was born in Dundee in
1731, died 1804. He went to sea when young, and was a post-captain in 1761.
In the following year he served at the taking of Havana; and in 1779 he
shared in the victory of Admiral Rodney over the Spaniards. In 1789 he
became rear-admiral of the blue, and in 1794 vice-admiral of the white
squadron. The following year he was appointed commander of the North Sea
fleet, and in Oct., 1797, won a brilliant victory over the Dutch fleet off
Camperdown, for which he was rewarded with the title of Viscount Duncan of
Camperdown and a pension of £2000 a year.

DUNCAN, Thomas, an eminent Scottish painter, was born in 1807, died at
Edinburgh 1845. He studied under Sir W. Allan, and was elected an associate
of the Royal Academy in 1843. His principal works were illustrative of
Scottish history and character. Among the best known of them are: _The
Abdication of Mary Queen of Scots_, _Anne Page and Slender_, _Prince
Charles Edward and the Highlanders entering Edinburgh after Prestonpans_,
_Charles Edward asleep in a Cave after Culloden_, and _The Martyrdom of
John Brown of Priesthill_.

DUN´CANSBY HEAD, a promontory in Caithness-shire, Scotland, forming the
N.E. extremity of the Scottish mainland, 1¾ miles E. of John o' Groat's
House, and 18½ miles N. by E. of Wick. Close by the promontory are two
rocks, of fantastic form and great height, called the Stacks of Duncansby,
which in spring and summer are covered with sea-fowl.

DUNDALK (dun-d[a:]k´), a seaport and former parliamentary borough, Ireland,
capital of the county of Louth, on Castletown River, about 2 miles above
its mouth in Dundalk Bay. It has railway workshops, tanyards, and a
spinning-mill; the trade, chiefly in cattle and agricultural produce, is
extensive. It was the seat of the court of Edward Bruce from 1315 to 1318.
In 1649 it was captured by Cromwell. Pop. 13,128.

DUNDAS´ OF ARNISTON, the name of a family several members of which held a
conspicuous place in the legal and political history of Scotland.--Sir
James Dundas, the first of Arniston, knighted by James VI, was the third
son of George Dundas of Dundas, a descendant of the Dunbars, Earls of
March.--His eldest son, Sir James, was member of Parliament for
Mid-Lothian, and was appointed one of the judges of the Court of Session
(1662).--His eldest son Robert was also raised to the bench of the Court of
Session, and filled that station for thirty-seven years. He died in
1727.--His eldest son Robert (1685-1753) was successively Solicitor-General
for Scotland, Lord-Advocate, member of Parliament for the county of
Edinburgh, and Dean of the Faculty of Advocates. In 1737 he was raised to
the bench, and on the death of Lord-President Forbes of Culloden, in 1748,
he was appointed his successor.--His eldest son Robert (1713-87) also
attained to the position of Lord-Advocate, and Lord-President of the Court
of Session.--His brother Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville, distinguished
statesman, was born in 1741 and died 1811. He obtained the post of
Solicitor-General in 1773, that of Lord-Advocate in 1775, and was made
joint keeper of the signet for Scotland in 1777. In 1782 he was appointed
Treasurer of the Navy and member of the Privy Council; and from that time
took a leading part in all the Pitt measures, and had supreme influence in
Scotland. Among other offices he held that of First Lord of the Admiralty;
and in 1805 he was impeached before the House of Lords of high crimes and
misdemeanours in his former office of Treasurer of the Navy, but was
finally acquitted. He was created Viscount Melville in 1801, a title still
borne by his direct descendant.

DUNDEE´, John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount. See _Graham_.

DUNDEE (Gael. _Dun Taw_, fort on the Tay), a city, royal and parliamentary
burgh, and seaport, Scotland, in the county of Forfar, on the north shore
of the Firth of Tay, about 8 miles from the open sea, 37 miles N.N.E. of
Edinburgh; in population the third town in Scotland. It stretches along the
Tay, or east to west, and of late years has been greatly extended in both
directions. The more recently made streets are spacious and handsome, but
most of those of more ancient date are narrow, and irregularly built. The
most conspicuous building is St. Mary's Tower, or the Old Steeple as it is
popularly called, 156 feet high, erected in the middle of the fourteenth
century. Three modern parochial churches have been built on to it in form
of a cathedral, the nave, choir, and transept respectively forming a
separate church. Among public buildings are: the town hall, several public
halls, the high school, exchange, infirmary, lunatic asylum, Albert
Institute and free library. University College, for men and women, was
opened in 1883, and affiliated to the University of St. Andrews in 1897. It
was founded by private munificence, receiving an endowment of £140,000, and
has ten professorships. Dundee has several public parks and recreation
grounds and a good supply of water. The town has long been celebrated for
its textile manufactures, particularly those of the coarser descriptions of
linen, and it is now the chief seat of the linen trade in Scotland and of
the jute trade in Great Britain, there being a great number of mills and
factories engaged in the spinning and weaving of flax, jute, and hemp.
Shipbuilding is extensively carried on, and there are large engineering
establishments. Another branch of business is the northern seal and whale
fishery. Dundee is also famous for its marmalade and other preserves and
confectionery. The shipping accommodation includes five large wet-docks,
with a connected tidal harbour and graving-docks. The chief foreign trade
is with the Baltic and Archangel in the importation of flax and hemp, with
Norway, Sweden, and Canada in timber, and with Calcutta in jute. The
railway facilities of Dundee were greatly increased in 1878 by the opening
of a bridge across the Tay; but on the 28th of Dec., 1879, the bridge was
destroyed by a violent storm, when about 100 people in a train in the act
of crossing lost their lives. A new bridge, to replace the one destroyed,
was opened for traffic in June, 1887; it is a very substantial structure
about 2 miles in length. Dundee was made a royal burgh by William the Lion
about 1200, was twice in the possession of the English under Edward I, and
was as often retaken by Wallace and Bruce. In 1645 it was besieged, taken,
and sacked by the Duke of Montrose; and six years afterwards it was stormed
by Monk, when a great number of its inhabitants were put to death. Since
1868 the town has returned two members to Parliament. In 1888 it was raised
by royal grant to the rank of a city. In 1914 the burgh of Broughty Ferry
was annexed to Dundee, increasing its area to 5964 acres. Pop. 176,062;
population in 1921, 168,217.

DUNDON´ALD, Thomas Cochrane, tenth Earl of, British admiral, was born in
Lanarkshire 1775, died 1860. At the age of eighteen he embarked with his
uncle, then Captain, and afterwards Sir Alexander Cochrane, in the _Hind_,
of twenty-eight guns, and soon distinguished himself by his daring and
gallantry. In 1800 he was appointed to the _Speedy_ sloop-of-war of
fourteen guns, and in the course of thirteen months captured over fifty
vessels, but was at last captured himself. In 1805, while in command of the
_Pallas_ frigate, he took some rich prizes, and for the next four years in
the _Impérieuse_ performed remarkable exploits in cutting out vessels,
storming batteries, and destroying signals. On his return to England he
entered Parliament, and by his attacks on the abuses of the naval
administration made himself obnoxious to the authorities. He gave further
offence by charging Lord Gambier, his superior officer, with neglect of
duty (which was true); by denouncing the abuses of the prize-court, and the
treatment of the prisoners of war. His enemies succeeded in 1814 in
convicting him on a charge--since proved to be false--of originating a
rumour, for speculative purposes, that Napoleon had abdicated. He was
expelled from Parliament, ignominiously ejected from the Order of the Bath,
imprisoned for a year, and fined £1000. The electors of Westminster
immediately paid his fine and re-elected him, but he had to remain in
prison till the expiration of his sentence. In 1818 he took service in the
Chilian navy, his exploits greatly aiding the national independence of that
country, as well as soon after of Brazil. In 1832 he was restored to his
rank in the British navy. In 1831, by the death of his father, he had
succeeded to the title of Earl of Dundonald; in 1841 he became vice-admiral
of the blue; in 1848 he was appointed commander-in-chief on the North
America and West India station; and in 1851 and 1854 respectively he became
vice-admiral of the white, and rear-admiral of the United Kingdom. He was
reinstated in the Order of the Bath (G.C.B.) on 25th May, 1847. He did much
to promote the adoption of steam and the screw propeller in war-ships. He
wrote an autobiography, which, though left incomplete, is a most
interesting work.--Cf. J. B. Atlay, _The Trial of Lord Cochrane before Lord
Ellenborough_.

DUNEDIN (dun-[=e]´din), capital of the provincial district of Otago, New
Zealand, and the most important commercial town in the colony, stands at
the upper extremity of an arm of the sea, about 9 miles from its port, Port
Chalmers, with which it is connected by railway. Though founded in 1848,
its more rapid progress dates only from 1861, when extensive gold-fields
discovered in Otago attracted a large influx of population. There are many
handsome buildings, both public and private: the municipal buildings, the
post office, hospital, lunatic asylum, Government offices, the university,
high schools (boys' and girls'), the new museum, several banks (especially
the Bank of New Zealand), the athenæum and mechanics' institute, the
freemasons' hall, and two theatres. Wool is the staple export. Several
woollen and other manufactories are now in existence. There is a regular
line of steamers between this port and Melbourne, and communication is
frequent with all parts of New Zealand. Through the opening of the new
Victoria Channel from Port Chalmers vessels drawing 16 feet can now ascend
to Dunedin at low water. Pop. 68,716.

DUNES, low hills of sand accumulated on the sea-coasts of Holland, Britain,
Spain, and other countries, in some places encroaching on and covering what
once was cultivated land, but in others serving as a natural barrier to
protect the country from the destructive encroachments of the sea.

DUNFERM´LINE, a royal and police burgh of Scotland, county of Fife, 3 miles
N. of the Firth of Forth, and 13 miles north-west of Edinburgh. The streets
though narrow are well built. Dunfermline was early a favourite residence
of the kings of Scotland, and at it were born David II, James I, Charles I,
and his sister Elizabeth. The Benedictine abbey founded by Malcolm Canmore
(1070) is now represented chiefly by the Abbey Church, in which are the
remains of Queen Margaret and Canmore, Alexander I and his Queen, David I,
Malcolm IV, and Robert Bruce. Dunfermline was made a royal burgh in 1588.
The town has greatly benefited through the munificence of the late Andrew
Carnegie, a native, who, besides other benefactions, settled on it the sum
of £500,000. In the manufacture of table-linen it is unrivalled by any town
in the kingdom. There are collieries adjacent. The Dunfermline burghs
return one member to Parliament. Pop. 28,103.

DUNGAN´NON, a town of Ireland, County Tyrone, 35 miles west by south of
Belfast. It has manufactures of linen and earthenware. Till 1885 it
returned a member to the House of Commons. Pop. 3830.

DUNGARPUR (dön-g_a_r-pör´), an Indian native state in Rájputána; area, 1000
sq. miles; pop. 153,381.--_Dungarpur_ is also the name of the chief town
and residence of the Maharawal of the state.

DUNGAR´VAN, a seaport of Ireland, County Waterford, on the Bay of
Dungarvan, much resorted to for sea-bathing. The harbour is shallow, and
the trade depends almost entirely on agricultural produce. Till 1885 it
returned a member to Parliament. Pop. 4977.

DUNG BEETLE, a name applied to a large number of lamellicorn beetles (in
which the antennæ terminate usually in lateral leaflets) from their habit
of burying their eggs in dung. The _Geotr[=u]pes stercorarius_, 'dor' or
'shard-borne' beetle, and the _Scarabæus sacer_, or sacred beetle of the
Egyptians, are examples.

DUNGENESS (dunj-nes´), a low headland on the S. coast of Kent, 102 miles
S.E. of Rye; has a lighthouse with fixed light.

DUNKELD´, a small town of Scotland, on the Tay, about 14 miles north by
west of Perth; pop. 613. It is a very ancient place, and from 850, when
Kenneth I removed the remains of St. Columba from Iona to a church which he
had built here, became the metropolitan see of Scotland, till supplanted by
St. Andrews. The choir of the ancient cathedral is still used as the parish
church. Near it is Dunkeld House, the seat of the Duke of Atholl, the
grounds of which are the finest and most extensive in Scotland.

DUNKERS, or TUNKERS, also called DIPPERS, a religious sect in America,
founded by Conrad Peysel, a German, in 1724, and which takes its name from
the Ger. _tunken_, to dip, from their mode of baptizing converts. They
reject infant baptism; use great plainness of dress and language; refuse to
take oaths or to fight; and anoint the sick with oil in order to hasten
their recovery, depending on this unction and prayer, and rejecting the use
of medicine. Every brother is allowed to speak in the congregation, and
their best speaker is usually set apart as their minister.

DUNKIRK´ (Fr. _Dunkerque_), a seaport town, France, department of Nord, at
the entrance of the Straits of Dover, surrounded by walls, and otherwise
defended by forts and outworks. It has several fine churches, a college, a
public library, and a gallery of paintings; manufactures of earthenware,
leather, soap, starch, ropes; sugar-refineries, breweries, and
distilleries, and a large trade. In 1658 Dunkirk was given up to the
English by Turenne, and continued with them till 1662, when Charles II sold
it to Louis XIV. It is one of the chief French torpedo stations, and during
the European War was a British base and frequently bombed by the enemy.
Pop. 38,891.

DUN´LIN, a British bird (_Tringa alpina_), a species of sandpiper,
occurring in vast flocks along sandy shores. It is about 8 inches in length
from the point of the bill to the extremity of the tail, and its plumage
undergoes marked variations in summer and winter, the back passing from
black with reddish edges to each feather, to an ashen grey, and the breast
from mottled black to pure white. During the winter it migrates to Asia,
Africa, the Canaries, West Indies, and California.

DUNMOW´, GREAT and LITTLE, two villages, England, county of Essex. The
latter is remarkable for the ancient custom, revived in 1855, of giving a
flitch of bacon to any couple who, a year and a day after their marriage,
could swear that they had neither quarrelled nor repented. The prize,
instituted in 1244 by Robert de Fitzwalter, was first claimed in 1445.

DUN´NAGE, faggots, boughs, or loose wood laid in the hold of a ship to
raise heavy goods above the bottom to prevent injury from water; also loose
articles wedged between parts of the cargo to hold them steady.

DUNNE, Finley Peter, American humorist, born in Chicago in 1867. After
serving as reporter on various papers, he became editor of the _Evening
Journal_ (1897-1900). Dunne first attracted attention by a series of
sketches in the _Times-Herald_, where he humorously commented upon all
sorts of subjects in the name of one Martin Dooley, publican of Archey
Road. His works include: _Mr. Dooley in Peace and War_ (1898), _Mr.
Dooley's Philosophy_ (1900), _Observations by Mr. Dooley_ (1902), and _Mr.
Dooley Says_ (1910).

DUNNET HEAD, a bold rock promontory in Caithness, with sandstone cliffs 100
to 300 feet high, the most northerly point of the mainland of Scotland,
crowned by a lighthouse visible at a distance of 25 miles.

DUNNOT´TAR CASTLE, an extensive ruin on the coast of Kincardineshire,
Scotland, on a precipitous rock rising from the sea. It dates from the
close of the fourteenth century, and was long the stronghold of the Keiths,
earls marischal. During the Commonwealth this castle was selected for the
preservation of the Scottish regalia; and in 1685 it was used as a State
prison for Covenanters. It was dismantled in 1720.

DUNOIS (d[.u]-nwä), Jean, Count of Orleans and of Longueville; a French
hero, natural son of Louis, Duke of Orleans, born 1402, died 1468. Dunois
made the name 'Bastard of Orleans' illustrious by his military exploits. He
began his career with the defeat of Warwick and Suffolk, whom he pursued to
Paris. Being besieged by the English, he defended Orleans until relieved by
the Maid of Orleans. In 1450 he had completely freed France from the
English, and was rewarded by the title of 'deliverer of his country', the
county of Longueville, and the dignity of High Chamberlain of France.

DUNOON´, a town, police burgh, and watering-place of Scotland, in
Argyleshire, on the shore of the Firth of Clyde, 27 miles by river from
Glasgow. It extends for about 3 miles S.S.W. from the Holy Loch, and
consists of Hunter's Quay to the N., Kirn and Dunoon proper to the S.; each
with its separate steamboat pier. On a green rocky knoll are remains of the
castle of Dunoon, once a residence of the family of Argyll. Pop. 9860.

DUNS, John, commonly called _Duns Scotus_, an eminent scholastic divine,
born 1265 or 1274, but whether in England, Scotland, or Ireland is
uncertain. He was admitted when young into an institution belonging to the
Franciscan friars at Newcastle, whence he was sent to Merton College,
Oxford. In 1301 he was appointed divinity professor at Oxford, and the fame
of his learning and talents drew crowds of scholars from all parts. In 1304
he went to Paris, and was appointed professor and regent in the theological
schools, in which situation he acquired the title of _Doctor Subtilis_,
'the subtle doctor'. He opposed Thomas Aquinas on the subject of grace and
free-will; and hence the _Scotists_ are opposed to the _Thomists_. Duns
Scotus was the apostle of _realism_, which was opposed to the systems of
_nominalism_ and _conceptualism_ promulgated by the other sections into
which the schoolmen were divided. He died, it is said, at Cologne in 1308,
leaving behind him numerous works. He was a genuine scholastic philosopher,
who worked out ideas taken from Aristotle, St. Augustine, and the preceding
scholastics.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. J. Townsend, _The Great Schoolmen_; C. R.
Hagenbach, _History of Doctrines_; E. Pluzanski, _Essai sur la philosophie
de Duns Scot_; and article in _Dictionary of National Biography_.

DUNS, or DUNSE (dunz, duns), police burgh and county town of Berwickshire,
Scotland, on the Whitadder; has manufactures of linen, and paper-mills.
Pop. 3040. On Duns Law (700 feet) are traces of a camp formed by Leslie's
Covenanters in 1639.

DUNSIN´ANE, a hill in Scotland, one of the Sidlaws, 1012 feet high, about 7
miles N.E. of Perth, with vestiges of a hill-fort locally called Macbeth's
Castle, and immortalized by Shakespeare in _Macbeth_.

DUN´STABLE, a town, England, county of Bedford, 32 miles north-west of
London. It was an important Roman station, and had a palace and a priory
founded by Henry I in 1131. Part of the latter is used as the parish
church. It has a grammar school, founded in 1715. Dunstable is famous for
its manufactures of straw-plait. Pop. 8057.

DUN´STAN, ST., an English archbishop and statesman, was born at Glastonbury
in 925, died at Canterbury 988. As a youth he was remarkable for his
learning and his skill in music, painting, carving, and working in metals.
He entered the Benedictine order, became an anchorite at Glastonbury, and
in 945 was made abbot by King Edmund. After the death of Edmund, Edred, the
next king, made him his Prime Minister and principal director in civil and
ecclesiastical affairs. In the reign of Edwy he was banished, but was
recalled by Edgar, and made Archbishop of Canterbury. He was again deprived
of power on the accession of Ethelred in 978, and devoted the last years of
his life to his diocese and the literary and artistic pursuits of his
earlier days. He did much to improve education and to raise the standing
and character of the priesthood. The old biographies of him have all a
large legendary element.--Cf. W. Stubbs (editor), _Memorials of St.
Dunstan_ (Rolls Series, 1874).

DUODECIMAL SYSTEM, in numeration, a system of numbers the scale of which is
twelve. _Duodecimals_ is a term applied to an arithmetical method of
ascertaining the number of square feet, &c., in a rectangular area or
surface, whose sides are given in feet, inches, and lines. The method is
similar to that of ordinary decimals, the scale being twelve instead of
ten.

DUODEC´IMO (often contracted 12_mo_) is that form of volume in which each
leaf forms a twelfth part of the sheet.

DUODE´NUM (Lat. _duodeni_, by twelves), the commencement of the intestinal
canal, the first of the smaller intestines, so called because its length is
about twelve fingers' breadth.

DUPANLOUP (d[.u]-pän-l[=o]), Félix Antoine Philibert, French prelate, born
at St. Félix, in Savoy, 1802; became a French subject by naturalization in
1838; died at Paris 1878. He was ordained in 1825, appointed professor of
theology at the Sorbonne in 1841, and Bishop of Orleans in 1849. From that
time he took a prominent part in all the political and religious
discussions in France. He belonged to the Gallican party, but submitted to
the decisions of the council of the Vatican; and was a strenuous advocate
of free education. He wrote: _La Pacification Réligieuse, De l'éducation_,
and _De la haute éducation_.

DUPLEIX (d[.u]-pl[=a]), Joseph, a French leader in India, born 1697, died
1763. He accumulated a fortune by commercial operations in India, and in
1742 was appointed Governor of Pondicherry for the French East India
Company. He formed the project of founding a French Empire in India, and
soon made himself master of the Carnatic partly by conquest and partly by
political intrigue. He was opposed by Clive, and a long string of British
successes caused the complete overthrow of all his plans. Recalled in 1753,
he died in want and obscurity in Paris.

DUPONT (d[.u]-p[=o]n), Pierre, French poet and song-writer, born at Lyons
1821, died at St. Étienne (Loire) 1870. He was educated by his godfather, a
priest, and began to write and compose songs at an early age. After issuing
a volume of poems in 1844, he went to Paris and obtained a place in the
office of the secretary of the Institute. Some of his songs, such as _Song
of Bread_ and _Song of the Workers_, had a Socialistic ring which proved
obnoxious to the Government which came into power in Dec., 1852. He was
arrested, imprisoned, and condemned to be banished for seven years; but his
release was soon procured. His poems have been collected under the titles
_Cahiers de Chansons_, _La Muse Populaire_, _Chants et Chansons_, _Poésie
et Musique_, and _Études Littéraires_.

DUPONT DE NEMOURS (d[.u]-p[=o]n d[.e] n[.e]-mör), Pierre Samuel, French
political economist, born at Paris, Dec., 1739; died in America 1817. He
early gained a reputation for his writings on commerce, and his exposition
of the theories of the physiocrats, and was employed by Turgot and
Vergennes in the public service. During the ministry of Calonne he became
Councillor of State, and in 1787 was secretary to the Assembly of the
Notables. He was twice president of the National Assembly. During the
Revolution he opposed the extreme republicans, and narrowly escaped the
guillotine at the downfall of Robespierre. From 1798 to 1802 he was in
America, and on his return to France he refused all public office. He
finally returned to America in 1815. Among his writings are: _Philosophie
de l'Univers_, _Vie de Turgot_, and a translation of Ariosto.

DÜPPEL (d[.u]p´l), a fortified village in Schleswig-Holstein, on the coast
of the Little Belt. The place is of considerable strategical importance,
and has been the scene of some severe struggles between the Danes, to whom
it formerly belonged, and the Germans. It was captured by the Prussians in
1864, after a siege and bombardment which lasted nearly two months.

DUPUY, Charles Alexander, French statesman, born at Le Puy, Haute-Loire, in
1851. Educated at the Lycée of Le Puy and the Lycée Charlemagne in Paris,
he was professor of philosophy at the colleges of Nantes and Aurillac, and
afterwards vice-rector of the Corsican College at Ajaccio. He entered the
Chamber of Deputies in 1885, was Minister of Public Instruction in 1889,
and succeeded Ribot as Premier in 1893, but resigned and became President
of the Chamber of Deputies. He was again Premier from 1894 to 1895, and
from 1898 to 1899, and was elected to the Senate in 1900. He was Minister
of Labour from 1912 to 1914.

DUPUYTREN (d[.u]-p[.u]-i-trän), Guillaume, Baron, French surgeon and
anatomist, born in 1777, died at Paris 1835. In 1812 he became professor of
surgery, and in 1815 first surgeon to the Hôtel Dieu, Paris. In 1823 he was
appointed first physician to Louis XVIII, and retained the same situation
under Charles X. He was considered the first French surgeon of his day,
made important discoveries in morbid anatomy, and invented several useful
surgical instruments.

DUQUESNE (d[.u]-k[=a]n), Abraham, French admiral, born 1610, died 1688. In
his seventeenth year he was in the sea-fight off Rochelle, and
distinguished himself during and after the year 1637 in the war against
Spain. In 1647 he commanded the expedition against Naples. In the Sicilian
War he thrice defeated the combined fleets of Holland and Spain, under the
renowned De Ruyter. After he had reduced Algiers and Genoa, Louis XIV
conferred upon him the fine estate of Bouchet, and made it a marquisate,
with the title of Duquesne. He was a Protestant, and the only person
exempted from the banishment of his sect, occasioned by the repeal of the
Edict of Nantes.

DURA´MEN, the name given by botanists to the central wood or heart-wood in
a tree trunk. It is harder than the newer wood that surrounds it, and is
often dark-coloured from being impregnated with tannin and other antiseptic
substances.

DURANCE (d[.u]-räns), a river of France, which rises in the Cottian Alps,
and, after a course of about 180 miles, joins the Rhone about 4 miles below
Avignon. Marseilles is supplied with water from the Durance.

DURAN´GO, a town in Mexico, capital of the state of Durango, about 500
miles N.W. of Mexico, on an elevation 6845 feet above the sea. It is well
built, has a cathedral, a mint, manufactures of cotton and woollen goods
and leather. Pop. 34,085.--The state (area, 42,272 sq. miles) is partly
mountainous and unproductive, but has valuable gold-, silver-, and
iron-mines, and also fertile tracts. Pop. 436,147 (1910); estimated pop. in
1919, 509,585.

DURANTE (dö-r[.a]n´t[=a]), Francesco, Italian musician, born 1684, died
1755. He attained a high degree of eminence in vocal church music, and he
trained the most celebrated musical masters of the eighteenth century in
Naples--Pergolese, Sacchini, Piccini, Guglielmi, and Jomelli.

DURAZZO (dö-rät´s[=o]; ancient DYRRHACHIUM, or EPIDAMNUS), a seaport of
Albania, on the Adriatic, 50 miles south by west of Scutari. It is
fortified, and has a good harbour. For four centuries the town remained
under Turkish rule and lost all importance, but in 1912, during the Balkan
War, it came again into prominence. It was occupied by the Serbians on 28th
Nov., 1912, and in 1913 was incorporated in the newly created Principality
of Albania. During the European War Durazzo was captured by the Austrians
in Feb., 1916, but was reoccupied by the Italians on 14th Oct., 1918. Pop.
5000.

DUR´BAN, chief port of Natal, on a land-locked bay (Port Natal). It is well
laid out, has a fine town hall, handsome churches, post office, hospital,
electric tramways, and parks and gardens, and is connected by railway with
Maritzburg and the interior. The harbour now admits large vessels. Founded
in 1834, it was named after a governor of the Cape. Pop. 48,475.

DURBAR (d[u:]r-bär´; Pers. _dar_, door, and _bar_, court, admittance), a
term signifying the court, council-chamber, or audience-room in the palaces
of the native princes of India; hence, a general reception by a ruler in
British India or by any officer of rank. Durbars were held on a ridge at
Delhi on the proclamation of Queen Victoria (1877), of King Edward VII
(1903), and of King George V (1911).

DÜREN (dü´ren), a town in the Rhine province, on the right bank of the
Roer, 16 miles E. by N. of Aix-la-Chapelle. It has important manufactures
of woollens, paper, leather, rails, and hardware, and an extensive trade.
Pop. 32,511.

DÜRER (dü´r[.e]r), Albrecht, German painter, designer, sculptor, and
engraver on wood and metal, born at Nürnberg 1471, died there 1528. His
father was a skilful goldsmith of Hungary. In 1486 he left his father's
trade and became an apprentice of Michael Wohlgemuth, then the best painter
in Nürnberg. Having finished his studies, he entered upon his
'wanderjahre', the usual course of travels of a German youth. On his return
to Nürnberg he married Agnes, the daughter of Hans Frey, a mechanic, who
has been falsely accused for centuries of embittering his life and bringing
him to his grave. In 1505 he went to Venice to improve himself in his art.
His abilities excited envy and admiration. He painted the _Martyrdom of
Bartholomew_ for St. Mark's church, which painting was purchased by the
Emperor Rudolph and removed to Prague. He also travelled to Bologna, to
improve his knowledge of perspective. On his return to Nürnberg his fame
spread far and wide. Maximilian I appointed him his court-painter, and
Charles V confirmed him in this office. All the artists and learned men of
his time honoured and loved him, and for many years he was one of the chief
burghers of his native town. Profound application and great facility in the
mechanical part of his art were the characteristics of Dürer, and enabled
him to exert a great influence on German art. He was the first in Germany
who taught the rules of perspective, and of the proportions of the human
figure. He not only made use of the burin, like his predecessors, but was
also among the first to practise etching. He also invented the method of
printing woodcuts in two colours. Among his masterpieces in painting are a
_Crucifixion_, _Adam and Eve_, an _Adoration of the Magi_, and portraits of
Raphael, Erasmus, and Melanchthon, who were his friends. Among his best
engravings on copper are his _Fortune_, _Melancholy_, _Adam and Eve in
Paradise_, _St. Hubert_, _St. Jerome_, and _The Smaller Passion_, in
sixteen plates. Among his best engravings on wood are _The Greater Passion_
(so called), in thirteen plates; _The Smaller Passion_, with the
frontispiece, thirtyseven pieces; _The Revelation of St. John_, with the
frontispiece, fifteen plates; _The Life of Mary_, two prints, with the
frontispiece. Dürer has also much merit as a writer, and published works on
_Human Proportion_, _Fortification_, and the _Use of the Compass and
Square_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Thausing, _Dürer, Geschichte seines Lebens und
seiner Kunst_ (2 vols.; English translation by F. A. Eaton); L. Cust,
_Albrecht Dürer: a Study of his Life and Works_; F. Nüchter, _Life and
Selection from Works_.

DU´RESS (Lat. _duritia_, severity, from _durus_, hard), in law, restraint
or compulsion, is of two kinds: _duress of imprisonment_, which is
imprisonment or restraint of personal liberty; and _duress_ by menaces or
threats (_per minas_), when a person is threatened with loss of life, or
with some kind of injury. An act done under duress is voidable or
excusable.

D'URFEY (dur´fi), Thomas, an English poet and wit, the grandson of a French
Protestant refugee, was born at Exeter in 1653, and died in 1723. He
abandoned law for literature, and wrote a large number of comedies of a
licentious character. His bombastic tragedy _The Siege of Memphis_ appeared
in 1676. D'Urfey's name is now principally remembered in connection with
his _Pills to Purge Melancholy_, a collection of songs and ballads, partly
his own, and many of them coarse or licentious. His society was generally
courted by the witty, and he enjoyed the favour of four successive
monarchs.

[Illustration: Durga]

DURGA (d[u:]r´gä), a Hindu divinity, one of the names given to the consort
of Siva. She is generally represented with ten arms. In one hand she holds
a spear, with which she is piercing Mahisha, the chief of the demons, the
killing of whom was her most famous exploit; in another a sword; in a third
the hair of the demon chief; and in others, the trident, discus, axe, club,
and shield. A great festival in her honour, the _Durga puja_, is celebrated
annually, lasting for ten days.

DURHAM, SIMEON OF, English chronicler of the twelfth century; wrote _Annals
of England to the Reign of Henry I_, particularly valuable for events
connected with the north of England. They were continued by John of Hexham.

DURHAM (du´ram), an ancient city, capital of the county of the same name,
on the River Wear, which is crossed here by four bridges, 14 miles S. of
Newcastle. The principal public buildings are the ancient castle--now
appropriated to the uses of the university--the cathedral and other
churches, the town hall, county prison, and grammar-school. The educational
institutions comprise the university, opened in 1833, the grammar-school, a
training-school for school-mistresses, and other schools. There are
manufactures of carpeting and mustard. The cathedral occupies a height
overlooking the Wear. The larger portion of it is Norman in style, with
insertions in all the English styles. Three magnificent and elaborately
ornamental towers spring up from the body of the building, one from the
centre 212 feet high, and two together from the west end each 143 feet
high; the entire length is 420 feet. It was founded by William de St.
Carilef, assisted by Malcolm, King of Scotland, in 1093. A parliamentary
borough until 1918, Durham returned two members to the House of Commons
from 1673 to 1885, and one member from 1885 to 1918. Pop. 17,500.

DURHAM BOOK, a Latin text of the gospels written by Bishop Eadfrith of
Lindisfarne, with an interlinear Saxon gloss, finished in the year 720; now
in the British Museum.

DURHAM, COUNTY OF, a county on the N.E. coast of England, having on the E.
the North Sea, on the N. Northumberland, from which it is divided by the
Rivers Tyne and Derwent, Cumberland on the W., and Yorkshire on the S., the
River Tees parting the two counties. Its area is 647,592 acres, of which
two-thirds are under cultivation. The western portion of the county is
hilly, enclosing fertile valleys, the eastern portion is more level, and
the centre contains extensive coal-fields. Durham is the chief coal county
in England, and also produces fire-clay. The chief crops are wheat, oats,
turnips, and potatoes. The cattle are esteemed both for the dairy and for
fattening. In connection with the commerce of the county may be noticed its
foundries, ironworks, potteries, glass-houses, iron-shipbuilding, engine
and machine works, and chemical works. For parliamentary purposes it is
divided into eleven divisions, each of which sends one member to the House
of Commons. It was formerly one of the three counties called counties
_palatine_. The chief towns besides Durham are Sunderland, Gateshead, South
Shields, Stockton, Darlington, and Hartlepool. Pop. 1,369,860.-- Cf.
_Victoria History of the County of Durham_.

DURHAM UNIVERSITY, founded in 1832, opened in 1833, incorporated by royal
charter in 1837. It is connected with the bishopric of Durham, the office
of warden being annexed to the deanery of Durham, and a canonry in the
cathedral being annexed to each of the professors of divinity and classical
literature. There are also professors of mathematics, Hebrew, medicine, &c.
The students mostly reside within the university buildings, but in 1870 a
regulation was passed dispensing with the necessity of residing in any
college, hall, or house connected with the university in order to be
admitted as a member. The management of the university is entrusted, under
the Bishop of Durham as visitor, to the dean and chapter of the cathedral
as governors, and to the warden, senate, and convocation, the last
including all persons regularly admitted since the opening of the
university to the degrees of Doctor in Divinity, Civil Law, and Medicine,
and to the degree of Master of Arts. The academical year is divided into
three terms--Michaelmas, Epiphany, and Easter. For the degree of B.A., or a
licence in theology, a residence of two years (of six months each) is
necessary. The M.A. degree may be obtained by a graduate who is of the
standing of nine terms since taking his degree of B.A. Armstrong College,
founded in 1874, and the College of Medicine, both at Newcastle-on-Tyne,
form part of the University of Durham.

[Illustration: Durian and Section of Fruit]

DURIAN, or DURION (_Durio zibeth[=i]nus_), a large and lofty tree growing
in the Malayan Archipelago. The largish flowers, of a yellow-green colour,
are produced on the stem or main branches, and are followed by the large
fetid fruit, which is of the size of a man's head, and is a favourite food
of the natives during the time (May and June) when it is in season. There
is usually a second crop in November. The smell is offensive, like putrid
animal matter, but with this is associated the most delicious flavour,
which places it, notwithstanding the odour, in the opinion of many, in the
foremost place among tropical fruits.

DÜRKHEIM (d[.u]rk´h[=i]m), an old town in Rhenish Bavaria (the Palatinate),
14 miles W.S.W. of Mannheim, well known for its mineral water. The town was
destroyed by the French in 1689. Pop. 6523.

DURKHEIM, Émile, French philosopher and sociologist, born at Les Vosges
15th April, 1858, died in Paris 15th Nov., 1917. Educated at the École
Normale Supérieure, he travelled in Germany, where he studied social
conditions. In 1887 he founded the first French chair in sociology at the
University of Bordeaux. Durkheim's merit consists in having separated
sociology from mere psychology, and in having made a distinction between
individual mental phenomena and Folk-psychology. In 1898 he founded and
published annually _L'Année Sociologique_. His other works include: _De la
division du travail social_ (1893); _Les règles de la méthode sociologique_
(1894); _Le Suicide_ (1897); _Les formes élémentaires de la vie réligieuse;
Sociologie et sciences sociales_ (1910); _Le système totémique en
Australie_ (1912); _La Sociologie_ (in _La Science Française_, 1915); _Qui
a voulu la guerre?; Les Origines de la guerre, d'après les documents
diplomatiques_ (1915).

DURLACH (d[u:]r´l[.a]_h_), a town in Baden, 4 miles E.S.E. of Carlsruhe, at
the foot of the Turmberg, with manufactures of machinery, chemicals, and
leather. Pop. 13,896.

DURMAST, a species of oak, _Quercus sessiliflora_, or according to some,
_Q. pubescens_, so closely allied to the common oak (_Q. robur_) as to be
reckoned only a variety of it. Its wood is, however, darker, heavier, and
more elastic, less easy to split, not so easy to break, yet not so
difficult to bend. It is highly valued, therefore, by the builder and
cabinet-maker.

DUROC (d[.u]-rok), Michel Géraud Christophe, Duke of Friuli, a
distinguished general under Bonaparte, born at Pont-à-Mousson in 1772,
killed, 1813, at the battle of Bautzen. He served as aide-de-camp to
Napoleon in the Italian and Egyptian campaigns. In 1805 he was made
grand-marshal of the palace; and was frequently employed in diplomatic
missions, though he still took his full share in the wars of France till
the time of his death. He was a great favourite of Napoleon, and was killed
by his side.

DURRA, or DHURRA, Indian millet, the seed of _Sorghum vulg[=a]re_, after
wheat the chief cereal crop of the Mediterranean region, and largely used
in those countries by the labouring classes for food. Varieties are grown
in many parts of Africa, one of them being known as Kaffir corn.

DÜRRENSTEIN (d[.u]r´en-st[=i]n), a village in Lower Austria, on the Danube,
41 miles west by north of Vienna. Here are the ruins of the castle in which
Leopold, Duke of Austria, imprisoned Richard Coeur-de-Lion on his return
from Palestine, 1192.

DURUY (d[.u]-r[.u]-[=e]), Victor, French historian and educationist, born
at Paris 1811, died in 1894. His father was a workman in the Gobelins
tapestry works, and the boy did not begin his education until he was grown
up. He was admitted to the École Normale Supérieure in 1830, graduated in
1833, and was appointed successively teacher of history in the Lycée Henri
IV, then at the Normal School and the Polytechnic School, inspector of the
Academy of Paris, inspector-general of secondary education, and Minister of
Public Instruction (1863-9). He is author of _Géographie Politique de la
République Romaine et de l'Empire_, _Géographie Historique du Moyen Age_,
_Histoire Romaine_, _Histoire de France_, _Histoire Grecque_, _Histoire
Populaire Contemporaine_, &c. Some of these are simply school-books, but
his _Histoire des Romains_ (translated into English) and his _Histoire de
la Grèce Ancienne_ (translated into English) are extensive and important
works, the former especially.

DUSE, Eleonora, Italian actress, born at Vigevano, near Venice, in 1859. At
the age of thirteen she made her first appearance on the stage, and in 1883
she acted at Rome, when she was recognized as one of the greatest Italian,
and even one of the greatest living actresses. From that time her career
was one of uninterrupted success, and she gained a world-wide reputation.
Duse is one of the dramatic artists who discard the customary mannerisms of
the stage, and all that is conventional but unreal in modern acting. Some
of d'Annunzio's best plays were specially written for her. Among her most
remarkable impersonations are those of Francesca da Rimini, Marguerite
Gautier in _La Dame aux Camélias_, Magda, La Tosca, Paula in _The Second
Mrs. Tanqueray_, and Nora in Ibsen's _A Doll's House_. She appeared for the
first time in London in 1897.

DÜSSELDORF (d[.u]s´sel-dorf), a town of Germany, in the Rhine province,
beautifully situated among villas and gardens on the right bank of the
Rhine, 22 miles N.N.W. of Cologne, one of the handsomest towns in the
valley of the Rhine. It is a great focus of railway and steamboat
communication, and has a number of handsome public buildings, and several
remarkable churches. Among the public institutions particular notice is due
to the Academy of Art, founded in 1767, by the Elector Theodore, and
afterwards directed by Cornelius, Schadow, and Bendemann. It has the honour
of having founded a school of painting, which takes the name of Düsseldorf,
and has had a large number of distinguished pupils. The industries embrace
iron, machinery, railway plant, cotton, leather, chemicals, and beer, and
the trade is large. Pop. 358,728.

DUST, solid matter in a fine state of division. Spores of plants, bacteria,
&c., are found in the atmosphere, but in general organic particles are
numerous only over thickly populated districts. Inorganic particles are
derived from various sources. Where the soil is dry, dust is whirled aloft
by the winds, this cause giving rise to the great sand-storms of tropical
desert regions. Volcanoes in eruption eject large quantities of dust. It is
estimated that millions of meteors are encountered by the earth per day.
Most of these are excessively minute. They are speedily disintegrated, and
generally entirely reduced to dust at high levels. Evaporation is almost
always proceeding over seas and oceans, and from foam thrown up and swept
along by the winds the dissolved salts are liberated as solid particles.
Again vast quantities of dust are produced in the consumption of fuel.

The late Dr. John Aitken, F.R.S., of Falkirk, Stirlingshire, contrived a
means of gauging the dust contents of the atmosphere. This consists of a
glass box about a centimetre in thickness. Two pieces of wet filter paper
inside serve to keep the contained air damp. The bottom of the box is a
micrometer plate, divided rectangularly in millimetres. It can be examined
from above by a lens. An air-pump can withdraw definite volumes of air as
desired. When the air is partially withdrawn, the expansion of the
remainder produces cooling. The dust particles form nuclei for condensation
of the vapour. They are thus precipitated on the plate, and counted,
leaving the air dust-free. A measured quantity of the air to be tested is
next drawn in and shaken up. Further operation of the air-pump causes its
expansion, and the deposition of its dust particles, which can then be
counted. Dr. Aitken found the proportion of dust on Ben Nevis to vary at
different times from under 100 particles to over 14,000 per cubic
centimetre. Over oceans the numbers were from about 500 on the Indian to
2000 on the Atlantic. But over cities 100,000 per cubic centimetre are
frequently present. A puff of cigarette smoke was estimated to contain
4,000,000,000 particles.

Many phenomena are connected with the existence of dust in the atmosphere.
As a result of Dr. Aitken's discoveries the belief largely prevailed that
the formation of fog, of rain, and other varieties of precipitation, was
necessarily dependent on dust particles as nuclei of condensation. Though
they certainly function to a preponderating extent, it has been shown that
gaseous particles can act similarly, particularly when air is ionized. Dust
is the main cause of the scattering of the sun's rays which produces
twilight, the blue of the sky, the gorgeous red and golden hues of sunrise
and sunset, and the purple lights of advancing dusk. After the great
Krakatoan eruptions of 1883, dust was carried in the upper atmosphere
several times round the earth, and caused extraordinary colour effects. To
a lesser degree similar phenomena followed the West Indian eruptions of
1902. The unusual sunlessness of the summer of 1912 was attributed to dust
expelled in the preceding great eruptions at Katmai, Alaska.

DUTCH CLOVER, _Trifolium repens_, commonly called white clover, a valuable
pasture plant. It has a creeping stem; the leaflets are broad, obovate,
with a horse-shoe mark in the centre; the white or pinkish flowers are in a
globular head.

DUTCH EAST INDIES, forming a large and important colonial possession of the
Netherlands Government, lie between 6° N. and 11° S., and 95° E. and 141°
E. The colony includes Java and Madura, with the 'Outposts', which comprise
Sumatra, the south-east and west portions of Borneo, Banca, Billiton,
Celebes, the Timor and Riau-Lingga Archipelagos, the smaller Sunda Islands,
and the north and west of New Guinea. The total area is about 735,000 sq.
miles; the population of about 47,000,000 is composed of 46,000,000 natives
of Malay race, 832,000 Arabs, Chinese, and other Orientals, and some 80,000
whites. The origin of the colony may be traced to the treaty made by the
Dutch with the Sultan of Bantam in Sumatra (1595), which was followed by
the formation of the Dutch East India Company (1602), the establishment of
Batavia (1619) on the ruins of the native town of Jacatra, and the
settlement in Sumatra (1677). The Dutch East India Company was dissolved in
1798, since which date the colony has been administered from the
Netherlands by a Governor-General, who, assisted by a Council of five
members nominated by the queen, has the power to pass laws, subject to the
general regulations adopted in 1854. Some of the outlying islands are,
however, administered by their native princes under the 'advice' of a
Netherlands Resident. Batavia (population about 234,000), a town in the
province of the same name on the north-west coast of Java, is the
administrative capital and an important centre of trade. Java and Sumatra,
containing about three-fourths of the total population of the colony, are
self-supporting as regards food, besides producing for European consumption
large quantities of tobacco, tea, coffee, sugar, cinchona, tin, rubber, and
copra. The colonial army numbers some 1200 officers and 40,000 men;
compulsory service for white men within certain age-limits was adopted in
1918. There is also a small naval force.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bemmelen and
Hooyer, _Guide to the Dutch East Indies_; W. Cool, _With the Dutch in the
East_; J. M. Brown, _The Dutch East_.

DUTCH METAL, an alloy containing 84.5-84.7 per cent of copper and 15.5-15.3
per cent of zinc, with a fine golden-yellow colour, ductile, malleable, and
tenacious. When beaten out by a process analogous to that for gold-leaf,
until the sheets are less than 1/50,000th part of an inch thick, it
constitutes Dutch leaf or Dutch foil, and is used as a cheap substitute for
gold-leaf for ornamental purposes.

DUTCH PINK, a bright yellow colour used in distemper, for staining
paper-hangings, and for other ordinary purposes. It is composed of chalk or
whiting coloured with a decoction of birch leaves, French berries, and
alum.

DUTCH RUSH, _Equis[=e]tum hyem[=a]le_, one of the plants known as
horse-tails, with a firm texture and so large an amount of silica in the
cuticle that it is employed as a fine sand-paper for polishing delicate
woodwork. The plant is found in marshes and woods in Britain, but for
economic use it is imported from Holland, whence its popular name.

DUTROCHET (d[.u]-tro-sh[=a]), René Joachim Henri, a French physiologist,
born in Poitou in 1776, died at Paris in 1847. He served for some time as
medical attendant to Joseph Bonaparte during the Spanish campaign 1808-9;
but afterwards returned to France, and retired to the estate of
Châteaurenault, where he devoted himself exclusively to physical and
physiological studies. His chief works have been published in a collective
form with the title _Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire Anatomique et
Physiologique des Végétaux et des Animaux_ (1837, 2 vols.).

DVINA, NORTHERN, a Russian river formed by the union of two small streams
in the government of Vologda. It flows in a north-westerly direction, and
falls by four mouths into the White Sea. At Archangel, before it divides,
it is 4 miles broad. It is navigable as far as Suchona, and is connected
with the Volga and Neva by canal.

DVO[VR]ÁK (dvor-shäk´), Anton, a Bohemian musical composer, born in 1841,
died in 1904. He studied at the Prague Conservatoire, and composed several
operas on national Bohemian subjects, songs, orchestral arrangements of
Bohemian dances, several symphonies, a _Stabat_ _Mater_, a cantata (_The
Spectre Bride_), and an oratorio (_St. Ludmila_). In 1892 he was director
of the New York National Conservatory, and after 1895 he lived in Prague,
where he wrote, in 1889, the opera _Der Teufel und die wilde Kätze_.

DWARF, a term applied to any animal or plant greatly below the usual size
of its kind, particularly to a human being of small dimensions. Strictly
speaking, the term should be used with reference to individuals and not to
races. When a whole population consists of people of small stature, the
proper term to apply to them is pigmies, not dwarfs. Accounts of pigmy
tribes have been common from early times, such tribes being located
especially in Africa; and it would appear from the accounts of Du Chaillu,
Schweinfurth, and other travellers that there are several pigmy tribes
throughout this continent. The Obongo, a race of dwarfs, are described as
living in woods near the Okanda River, in wretched huts made of branches.
Other races are the Mabongo, and the Akka dwarfs of Central Africa (see
_Akkas_); and a race exists in the Congo State, not as a distinct
community, however, but mixed with other tribes. Individual dwarfs occur in
all races, and were formerly a fashionable appendage to the courts of
princes and the families of nobles. Jeffery Hudson, the favourite dwarf of
Charles I, at the age of thirty is said to have been only 18 inches high,
though he afterwards grew to 3 feet 9 inches. Bébé, the celebrated dwarf of
Stanislas of Poland, was 33 inches; Wybrand Lolkes, a Dutch dwarf, when
sixty years of age was only 27 inches; Charles H. Stratton, 'General Tom
Thumb', was 31 inches high at the age of twenty-five; Francis Flynn,
'General Mite', was only 21 inches at sixteen. In most of the extreme cases
the dwarfing is the result of some defect in the ductless glands which
regulate the normal growth of the body. Stories of dwarfs and brownies are
to be found in the folk-lore of many tribes on earth.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. J.
Wood, _Giants and Dwarfs_; E. Tyson, _Philological Essay concerning Pygmies
of the Ancients_.

DWARFING, the process of training up trees or shrubs for ornament in houses
so as to cause them never to reach more than a very small size, by keeping
them in poor soil, giving them little water, pinching off strong shoots,
&c. It is much practised among the Chinese and Japanese.

DWIGHT (dw[=i]t), Timothy, American divine, born in Massachusetts 1752,
died 1817. His father was Colonel Timothy Dwight, and his mother was a
daughter of Jonathan Edwards. He served as chaplain in the revolutionary
army, and ultimately became president of Yale College. His _Theology
Explained and Defended_ (1818) was for long a standard work both in Britain
and in America.

DY´AKS, the aborigines of Borneo, chiefly inhabiting the interior of the
island. They are a finely formed race, of a yellow complexion, and are
described as docile, industrious, and superior to the Malays. The more
advanced of them practise agriculture and dwell in neatly-constructed and
tolerably comfortable houses. In Sarawak they have made considerable
advances in civilization. The practice of head-hunting (hunting their
enemies to make trophies of their heads) is practised among them, but has
been abolished where European influence prevails.--Cf. Hose and McDougall,
_The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_ (2 vols.).

DYAUS (dyous), the god of the sky in the older mythology of the Hindus. His
name is etymologically connected with that of the Greek Zeus.

DYCE (d[=i]s), Alexander, Shakespearean editor, born at Edinburgh 30th
June, 1798, died 15th May, 1869. He was educated at Edinburgh and Oxford,
but in 1827 settled in London, where most of his life was passed. He first
became known by his editions of Collins, Peele, Webster, Marlowe, and
Skelton, accompanied by notes and biographies of the authors. His chief
work was an edition of Shakespeare in six volumes, with notes (1853-8).

DYCE, William, painter, born at Aberdeen in 1806, died near London, 1864.
He studied in London and Rome, and practised his art in Edinburgh. In 1840
he became director of the School of Design in London, and in 1844 was
appointed professor of fine art in King's College, London. He was elected a
Royal Academician in 1848. Amongst his chief works are: _Francesca da
Rimini_ (1837): _Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliverance_ (1844); _King
Lear in the Storm_ (1851); _Christabel_ (1855); _The Good Shepherd_ (1856);
_The Baptism of Ethelbert_, a large fresco for the Houses of Parliament,
and a series of frescoes illustrative of the legends relating to King
Arthur, for the same. He also executed for the Prince Consort, at Osborne,
the fresco _Neptune giving the Empire of the Sea to Britannia_.

DYEING is the art of colouring textile and other materials in such a way
that the colours are not readily removed by the action of light, washing,
&c. Like spinning and weaving, it was originally a home industry, as it
still is in many places. The natural dyes formerly employed are now largely
displaced by dyes derived from coal-tar products, the first discovery of
which was made by Perkin in 1856; a few mineral colours are employed in
cotton dyeing. Before dyeing, the materials have generally to be cleansed
or bleached to get rid of undesirable colouring matters or impurities; and
frequently a textile material is subjected to some subsidiary treatment in
order to obtain special effects. For example, cotton yarn may be subjected
to the action of strong caustic soda ('mercerizing' process) while in a
state of great tension, in order to give it a permanent silky lustre.
Dyeing is not only an art, it is also a branch of applied chemistry. One
fundamental principle is, that the colouring matter and other necessary
substances must be applied in a state of solution, and while in direct
contact with the fibre they must be rendered insoluble, so that they are
precipitated within or upon the fibre and fixed permanently. The method of
effecting this varies greatly, according to the fibre and the colouring
matter employed. As a rule, the vegetable and the animal fibres are dyed by
very different methods. The affinity of the animal fibres for certain
colouring matters is often so great that they are readily dyed by simple
immersion in hot colour solutions; but this simple process is not generally
sufficient. According to the method of their application in dyeing, the
following groups of dye-stuffs may be distinguished: _Acid Dyes_, _Basic
Dyes_, _Direct Dyes_, _Developed Dyes_, _Mordant Dyes_, _Vat Dyes_. A dye
is _substantive_ to a particular fibre when it dyes that fibre directly,
and _adjective_ when the presence of a third substance known as a _mordant_
is necessary.

The _acid dyes_ are so called because they are of an acid character and are
applied in an acid dye-bath. As a rule, they are only suitable for dyeing
the animal fibres, e.g. wool and silk, also leather, horn, feathers, &c.,
and they are substantive to these materials. The purple vegetable dyestuff
_orchil_ belongs to this class. The acid dyes derived from coal-tar are
very numerous, and yield a great variety of hues--red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, violet, brown, and black. The _basic dyes_ are so called
because their essential constituents, to which they owe their dyeing power,
are organic bases. The bases themselves are colourless and too insoluble in
water to be of use, hence they are employed in the form of their soluble
coloured salts, usually the hydrochlorides of the colour-bases. Their
solutions are precipitated by tannic acid, because it combines with the
colour-bases to form insoluble tannates. Wool, silk, and animal substances
generally have a direct attraction for colour-bases, and hence these fibres
are readily dyed by simple immersion in hot aqueous solutions of the basic
dyes. Cotton and linen, on the other hand, are not dyed so readily; they
need first to be mordanted or impregnated with the _mordant_ tannic acid.
Most of the colours of this class are fugitive to light, and all but one,
viz. _barberry root_, are derived from coal-tar products.

The _direct dyes_ are so called because they dye cotton without the aid of
any mordanting process. The first of this class derived from coal-tar was
_congo red_, discovered in 1884; at present this group includes a very
great variety of fast colours, and forms, indeed, one of the most important
and valuable series of dye-stuffs employed. Cotton, linen, and the
vegetable fibres generally are dyed in the simplest possible manner by
merely boiling them in a solution of the dye-stuff, with or without the
addition of a little soap, carbonate or sulphate of soda, &c. Wool and silk
are frequently dyed in the same manner as cotton. Very few vegetable
dye-stuffs belong to the direct colours, e.g. _Safflower_, _Turmeric_,
_Saffron_, _Annatto_ (see the articles). They are all fugitive, and are now
of little or no importance to the dyer. The coal-tar colours of this class,
on the other hand, are extremely numerous. The _developed dyes_ are formed
_in situ_ upon the fibre by the successive application of two or more
substances. They include _aniline black_, a permanent black produced by the
oxidation of aniline, and the _ice colours_, which are _azo dyes_ derived
from certain coal-tar products containing nitrogen.

The _mordant dyes_ form one of the most important classes of colouring
matters, for they include not only most of the vegetable dye-stuffs, e.g.
madder, logwood, fustic, &c., but also many valuable fast coal-tar colours,
commonly known as the _alizarin dyes_, after their typical representative,
alizarin. These mordant dyes have by themselves very little colouring
power, as a rule, and if employed alone in dyeing give little or no result.
If applied, however, in conjunction with metallic salts, notably those of
chromium, aluminium, iron, tin, and copper, they each yield a variety of
colours, according to the metallic salt employed. In employing them two
distinct operations are usually involved: first, that of applying the
metallic salt or _mordant_, called the _mordanting process_; and second,
that of _dyeing_ proper, in which the mordanted material is boiled in a
solution or decoction of the dye-stuff. During the dyeing operation the
colouring principle of the dye-stuff combines with the metallic salt
already upon the material, and the colour is thus produced and fixed upon
the fibre. The method of mordanting varies with the fibre and the metallic
salt employed. The vegetable dye-stuffs of this class include _Madder_,
_Sapanwood_, _Camwood_, _Barwood_, _Old Fustic_, _Young Fustic_,
_Quercitron Bark_, _Persian Berries_, _Weld_, _Logwood_ (see these separate
articles). _Madder_ was formerly the most important and highly valued of
the dye-stuffs of this class, being especially employed to produce the fine
'Turkey-red' dye; but it is now entirely superseded by the coal-tar colour
alizarin. Similarly, the employment of _cochineal_ (an insect dye) has also
greatly diminished through the introduction of the cheaper colours.
_Camwood_ and _barwood_ are almost entirely used in wool-dyeing, either in
conjunction with the indigo-vat or for the purpose of dyeing various shades
of brown. _Old fustic_ is the most important of the yellow mordant
dye-stuffs, and the colours are fast although not very brilliant.
_Quercitron bark_ is an excellent dye-stuff employed by wool-dyers for the
production of bright orange and yellow colours. _Persian berries_ and
_weld_, a species of wild mignonette, are both excellent dye-stuffs, but
their employment is now limited. _Logwood_ is largely employed by wool,
silk, and cotton dyers for dyeing black and dark-blues, which, although
fast to washing, are only moderately so towards light. The important
vegetable dye _catechu_ (q.v.) is used in dyeing cotton and wool brown. On
wool, catechu yields _khaki_ browns in single bath by using copper sulphate
as the mordant. On silk, it is largely employed for weighting purposes in
the process of dyeing black. Although dyewoods are still much employed,
they are being steadily replaced by coal-tar colours. The _vat dyes_ are
insoluble in water, but yield reduction products which are soluble in
aqueous alkali, and can be readily reoxidized to the dye-stuff. In this
class may be included the _sulphur dyes_, substances of uncertain
composition obtained by fusing certain compounds containing nitrogen with
sulphur and sodium sulphide, which are now extensively and increasingly
employed, especially as direct dyes for cotton. _Indigo_, a typical vat
dye, is prepared both artificially and from natural sources. It is a
dark-blue powder quite insoluble in water, but when reduced it yields
_indigo-white_ which dissolves in aqueous alkali, the solution thus
obtained being called an _indigo-vat_. Cotton, wool, or silk steeped for
some time in the clear yellow solution of such a vat, and then exposed to
the oxidizing influence of the air, is dyed a permanent blue. The
indigo-white absorbed by the fibre loses its acquired hydrogen, and thus
insoluble indigo-blue is regenerated within and upon the fibre.

In the classification adopted above, the following _mineral colours_
employed in cotton dyeing belong to the group of developed dyes, since they
are formed on the fibre: _chrome yellow_, obtained by immersing cotton
successively in solutions of acetate of lead and bichromate of potash;
_iron buff_ (oxide of iron), produced by the successive application of
sulphate of iron and carbonate of soda; _Prussian blue_, developed by
passing the buff-dyed cotton through an acidified solution of potassium
ferrocyanide; _manganese brown_ (oxide of manganese), deposited similarly
to iron buff. The mineral colours are very useful for certain purposes, and
are very fast to light.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Crookes, _A Practical Handbook of
Dyeing and Calico-printing_; W. P. Dreaper, _Chemistry and Physics of
Dyeing_; Knecht, Rawson, and Loewenthal, _Manual of Dyeing_; Rawson,
Gardner, and Laycock, _A Dictionary of Dyes, Mordants, &c._

DYER, John, English poet, born in Carmarthenshire about 1700, died in 1758.
Educated at Westminster School, he became a painter, but, not succeeding in
that vocation, took orders and was appointed to a small living. In 1727 he
published his poem of _Grongar Hill_, in 1740 _The Ruins of Rome_, and in
1757 _The Fleece_, a didactic poem in five books.

DYER'S-BROOM, a European and now also N. American shrub (_Genista
tinctoria_), formerly used with woad for dyeing green.

DYER'S-WEED, _Res[=e]da Lute[)o]la_, a British plant of the same genus as
mignonette, otherwise called _Yellow-weed_, _Weld_, or _Woad_, nat. ord.
Resedaceæ. This plant grows in waste ground; it affords a beautiful yellow
dye, and is cultivated for that purpose.--_Dyer's Greenweed_ is _Genista
tinctoria_.

DYING DECLARATION, a deposition made by one who is in prospect of death.
Such declarations are as a general rule admissible as evidence only in
criminal and not in civil cases, and must be made, according to English,
though not Scottish law, in the full consciousness of the danger of death.

DYNAM´ICS is the science which deals with the laws of force in their
relation to matter at rest or in motion, and as such it is differentiated
from _kinematics_, which considers motion mathematically, and apart from
the forces producing it. Dynamics is divided into two great branches:
_statics_, which treats of solid bodies at rest under the action of forces;
and _kinetics_, which treats of the action of forces in producing motion in
solid bodies. Formerly the latter alone was called dynamics, and to this,
in conjunction with statics, the general name _mechanics_ was given. In the
wide sense dynamics includes also hydrodynamics. It is to Newton that we
owe the clear statement of the three primary laws of force on which the
science of dynamics is based. These are: (1) that every body remains in a
state of rest, or of uniform motion along a straight line, unless it is
compelled by force to change that state; (2) that rate of change of
momentum is in proportion to the force employed, and occurs along the
straight line in which the force acts; (3) that, as the result of every
action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction. These laws, which
were formulated from experiment, involve the conception of force as a
primary influence or action expressed in terms of space, time, and matter.
Now, in dealing with the laws of force, a standard of measurement is
required which shall be applicable to all forces at all times, and we
therefore require to begin by establishing units of space, time, and mass.
There are two systems of units in use, the one British, the other French.
In the British system the foot is taken as the unit of length, and the
second as the unit of time. In the French the centimetre is the unit of
length, the second the unit of time; the unit velocity in the one case
being that of one foot per second, in the other one centimetre per second.
The British unit of mass is the pound (the mass of a certain lump of
platinum deposited in the Exchequer Office, London); the French the gramme;
and accordingly the French units of space, mass, and time are commonly
known as the C.G.S. (centimetre, gramme, second) units. As the weight of a
pound (or a gramme) is not the same at all parts of the earth's surface, it
cannot give us of itself an absolute or dynamical unit of force, that is,
an invariable unit; but taking it in conjunction with unit time and unit
velocity, we do obtain such a unit. Two absolute units of force are in
common use in dynamics, the _poundal_ and the _dyne_, the latter being the
absolute unit in the C.G.S. system. The former is _that force which, acting
on the mass of one pound for one second, generates in that mass a velocity
of one foot per second_. The latter is _that force which, acting on the
mass of one gramme for one second, generates in that mass a velocity of one
centimetre per second_. It is important in dynamics to distinguish between
_mass_ and _weight_. The _mass_ of one pound is the quantity of matter
equal to a certain standard quantity (a certain lump of metal) and is quite
independent of force. The _weight_ of one pound is the force with which the
mass of one pound is attracted to the earth's surface by the force of
gravity. Another important term is _momentum_: the momentum of a body in
motion at any instant is the product of the mass of the body and the
velocity at that instant. See _Couple_; _Elasticity_; _Energy_; _Force_;
_Hydrodynamics_; _Kinematics_; _Kinetics_; _Statics_; _Thermodynamics_;
_Waves_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kelvin and Tait, _Natural Philosophy_; A. Gray,
_Dynamics_; P. G. Tait, _Dynamics_; S. L. Loney, _Mechanics and
Hydrostatics for Beginners_.

DYN´AMITE. See _Explosives_.

DY´NAMO. See _Generator_.

DYNAMOM´ETER, an apparatus for measuring the power or rate of working of a
machine. There are two types, the transmission dynamometer, which measures
the power of the machine without sensibly diminishing it; and the
absorption dynamometer, which measures the power by using it all. The
instrument is generally employed to determine the horse-power transmitted
by a shaft or by belting.--Cf. Aspinall Parr's _Electrical Engineering
Testing_.

DYRRHACHIUM. See _Durazzo_.

DY´SART, a royal and municipal burgh of Scotland, in Fife, on the Firth of
Forth. It is an old place, and is a member of the Kirkcaldy district of
parliamentary burghs. Pop. of royal burgh, 4197.

DYS´ENTERY is a disease of an acute type, due to the action of a bacillus,
characterized by pain and frequent passage of blood and mucus. Owing to
improved sanitation, dysentery has become less frequent. In temperate
countries sporadic cases occur from time to time, and occasional epidemics
break out, but in the tropics widespread epidemics occur, and the disease
is a serious menace. It is a very frequent camp disease, and has been the
scourge of all armies in tropical and semi-tropical regions. The bacilli
are widely spread by the fæces of infected persons, and usually the
infection takes place by the mouth. The onset is rapid, and marked by
fever, pain in the abdomen, and frequent stools. At first mucus only is
seen in the stools, but soon blood appears. In very acute cases the patient
is seriously ill in forty-eight hours, and may die on the third or fourth
day. Moderate cases may go on for several weeks, with resulting
convalescence. Some cases become chronic in type, and a person may have
chronic dysentery for years. Bismuth in large doses is given, and morphia
is a most useful drug to relieve the pain and quieten the bowel. Normal
saline solution is given by rectum after the acute stage, whenever
possible. Chronic dysentery requires dietetic treatment for the persistent
dyspepsia and irritability of the bowel. Amoebic dysentery, due to the
_Amoeba dysenteriæ_, is a distinct disease.

DYS´ODILE, a yellowish or greenish foliated carbonaceous substance found in
Sicily originally, and derived from the decay of minute organisms. When
ignited, it burns and emits a very unpleasant smell.

DYSON, Sir Frank Watson, F.R.S., LL.D.(Edin.), British astronomer, born at
Ashby 8th Jan., 1868, the son of a Baptist minister. Educated at Bradford
Grammar School and Trinity College, Cambridge, he became chief assistant at
the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in 1894, and secretary of the Royal
Astronomical Society in 1899. Astronomer Royal for Scotland in 1905, he was
appointed Astronomer Royal for England in 1910. He was knighted in 1915.

DYSPEP´SIA, or GASTRITIS, may be either acute or chronic. _Acute dyspepsia_
may follow when more food is taken than the stomach can digest, or when
unsuitable articles are taken. The symptoms are headache, depression,
nausea, vomiting, with pain, varying from a feeling of discomfort in the
abdomen to marked tenderness. The tongue is furred, and usually there is
diarrhoea, while in the more severe attacks the onset is marked by chill
and a rise of temperature. An attack may last from one day to four days.
Treatment for mild cases is simply a dose of castor-oil (children) or blue
pill (adults), but in severe cases vomiting should be promoted by warm
water, or the stomach tube if necessary, and a dose of calomel (3 grains),
followed by salts, should be given. Absolute rest to the stomach is
necessary, and only small quantities of water allowed. Repeated attacks
lead to the establishment of the chronic form. _Chronic dyspepsia_ is a
condition of disturbed digestion due to the prolonged use of unsuitable, or
improperly prepared, foods. Hot cakes, excess of tea, coffee, or alcohol,
rapid and irregular meals are all common causes. It may also arise in the
course of diseases like anæmia, chronic tuberculosis, gout, Bright's
disease, chronic heart disease, cirrhosis, and in diseases of the stomach
itself, as cancer, gastric ulcer, and gastric dilatation. The most common
symptoms are a feeling of oppression after food, tenderness over the
stomach, headache, nausea, flatulence, constipation, and occasionally
vomiting. Treatment consists of dietetic measures, regulated exercises,
change of air and surroundings, and avoidance of depression. Milk should be
used freely, and in severe cases should be given alone till improvement
sets in. Fats and greasy dishes should be avoided. Fruits are sometimes
well borne, and at other times the reverse. Drugs do not play so important
a rôle, but bitter tonics, like nux vomica, quassia, gentian, &c., are the
best. Constipation should be treated when necessary.

DYSPHO´NIA is difficulty in speaking, and is the result of some forms of
laryngitis. The condition is aggravated by attempts to use the voice, and
complete rest is necessary to bring about an early and satisfactory
recovery. Tonics, moderate exercise, and a holiday hasten recovery.

DYSPNOEA (dis-pn[=e]´a) is difficult or laboured breathing. It is a symptom
of diseases of the heart or lungs, and is produced by any condition which
interferes with normal respiration. It is sometimes present in nervous
disturbances.

DZE´REN, or DZE´RON, the Chinese antelope, a remarkably swift species of
antelope (_Procapra guttur[=o]sa_) inhabiting the dry arid deserts of
Central Asia, Tibet, China, and Southern Siberia. It is nearly 4½ feet in
length, and 2½ feet high at the shoulder.

DZIG´GETAI, or KIANG (_Equus hemi[)o]nus_), a species of wild ass native to
Central Asia, allied both to the horse and ass. Its head is large like that
of the ass, but in form resembles that of the horse. The ears also resemble
those of the horse. It runs with a rapidity exceeding that of the best
Arabian horses.

DZOUNGARIA, or SUNGARIA, a Chinese territory in Central Asia, stretching
from about 43° to 48° N. lat. and from about 82° to 86° E. long. It has an
area of 147,950 sq. miles, and pop. 600,000. It is administratively
connected with Kuldja, and since the surrender of Kuldja by the Russians in
1880 is again under Chinese rule. Dzoungaria, once the centre of an
independent empire, was first conquered by the Chinese in 1757.

       *       *       *       *       *


E

E, the second vowel and the fifth letter of the English alphabet. It occurs
more frequently in English words than any other letter of the alphabet. Its
long or natural sound in English coincides with the sound of _i_ in the
Italian and French languages, as in _here_, _mere_, _me_. It has also
another principal sound, a short one, heard in _met_, _men_. It has besides
a sound like _a_ in _bare_, as in _there_, _where_, &c., and the obscure
sound which is heard in _her_. As a final letter in English it is generally
silent, but it serves to indicate that the preceding vowel is to have its
long sound, as in _mane_, _cane_, _plume_. When two _e_'s come together the
sound is generally the same as that of the single _e_ long, as in _deem_,
_esteem_, _need_ (compare, however, _pre-exist_, &c.).

E, in music, is the third note or degree of the diatonic scale, answering
to the _mi_ of the Italians and French.

EADIE ([=e]´di), John, D.D., a Scottish preacher and theologian, born 1810,
died 1876. He was educated at Glasgow University, and entered the ministry
of the Secession Church, becoming in 1843 professor of biblical literature
in the Divinity Hall of the Church, a post which he continued to hold after
the Secession body was merged in the United Presbyterian Church (in 1847).
Among his works are _Biblical Cyclopædia_; _Analytical Concordance to the
Scriptures_; _Ecclesiastical Cyclopædia_; _Commentary on the Greek Text of
Ephesians_, and similar works on _Colossians_, _Philippians_, and
_Galatians_; and _The English Bible_. He was one of the scholars engaged on
the Revised Version of the New Testament.

EAD´MER, an English monk, the friend and biographer of St. Anselm. In 1120
he was chosen Bishop of St. Andrews; but as the Scottish king refused to
recognize the right of the Archbishop of Canterbury to consecrate him, he
returned to England and died a simple monk about 1124. Besides the life of
St. Anselm, Eadmer wrote lives of St. Wilfrid, St. Dunstan, St. Odo, and
other English saints, as well as a valuable history (_Historiæ Novorum_) of
events in England and the English Church from 1066 to 1122.

[Illustration: Imperial Eagle (_Aqu[)i]la mogilnik_)]

[Illustration: African Sea-eagle (_Halia[=e]tus vocifer_)]

EAGLE (Lat. _aquila_, Fr. _aigle_), the general name of raptorial birds
that form a group or sub-family (Aquil[=i]næ) of the great family
Falconidæ, which includes the eagles, falcons, and hawks. The eagle is
popularly regarded as the noblest and most courageous of the rapacious
birds. It soars to a greater height than any other European bird, from
which circumstance the ancients considered it as the bird or messenger of
Jove. The genus Aqu[)i]la, which includes the most typical eagles, is
distinguished by its long and powerful bill, the curve commencing at the
cere, by its wings reaching to the tip of the tail, and by its tarsi being
feathered to the toes. The imperial eagle (_A. mogilnik_) of Central
Europe, North-East Africa, India, and China is probably the species to
which the popular belief in the courage, strength, and nobleness of eagles
is to be traced. _A. chrysaëtus_, the golden eagle, is the chief British
species. It measures over 6 feet from tip to tip of the expanded wings, and
3 feet from the beak to the end of the tail. The adults have the body
brownish, becoming darker with age; the feathers of the head and neck
pointed, and of a golden-red hue. This species is found all over the
northern hemisphere. It was once common in the Highlands of Scotland, but
is now becoming rare. The Kirghis and other tribes of Central Asia use the
golden eagle to kill antelopes, foxes, and even wolves. Another British
eagle is the erne or sea-eagle (_Haliaëtus albicilla_) found near the
sea-coast or lakes, and feeding largely on fish. The general colour is
greyish-brown, the head pale-coloured, the tail white. The bald eagle
(_Haliaëtus leucoceph[)a]lus_), found in North America and North-East Asia,
is the symbol of the United States, though Franklin deplores the selection
on account of his mean and dishonest habit of robbing the industrious
osprey of the fish caught by him. Like all members of the genus, his diet
is less restricted than that of the true eagles; and he even takes carrion.
See also _Harpy Eagle_.

[Illustration: Roman Standard]

EAGLE, as a symbol. The eagle first appears as a war standard amongst the
Persians, through whom it reached the Egyptians. As the standard of the
Roman armies it was first used by Marius, and afterwards took the place of
all the other emblems at the head of the legions. It was first made of
wood, then of silver, and finally, under Cæsar and his successors, of gold.
In the Mediæval Ages the eagle became the heraldic emblem of the Holy Roman
Empire, and was made double-headed in the fourteenth century. When the Holy
Roman Empire fell to pieces in 1806, the double-headed eagle was retained
by Austria. The double-headed eagle was assumed by Tsar Ivan III in 1472,
and became the national military symbol of Russia; the single-headed eagle
was assumed by the modern German Empire in 1871, and by the United States
of America. The American eagle stands with outspread wings guarding a
shield, with the motto _E pluribus unum_. The eagle was also the badge of
several orders, the chief of which were the order of the _Black Eagle_,
founded by the Elector of Brandenburg in 1701, and the highest order in
Prussia; the order of the _Red Eagle_, also a Prussian order, and founded
in 1705; and the Russian order of the _White Eagle_, originally Polish, and
instituted in 1325.

EAGLE, a gold coin in the United States of the value of ten dollars, or £2
sterling, first coined in 1795. There are also half-eagles, quarter-eagles,
and double-eagles.

EAGLE-HAWK, a name sometimes applied to small South American eagles (genus
Morphnus), with short wings and long legs.

EAGLEHAWK, a gold-mining town in Victoria, Australia, 4 miles from Bendigo.
Pop. 8130.

EAGLE-OWL, a name for several large horned owls, such as _Bubo ignavus_
(the great horned owl), little inferior in size to the golden eagle, found
in many parts of Europe and sometimes in Britain. An allied species, the
Virginian horned owl (_B. virginianus_), is common in the United States.

EALING, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Middlesex, the former a
few miles west of London. Pop. 61,222.

[Illustration: Diagrammatic Section of Outer, Middle, and Inner Ear

P, Concha. E.C., External canal. D, Drum. H, Hammer. A, Anvil. E,
Eustachian tube. S. Stirrup, S.C, Semicircular canals. C, Cochlea. Arrows
denote the direction of vibration.]

EAR, the organ of hearing. In the higher vertebrates it is divided into the
outer, middle, and inner ear. The external ear, which is a cartilaginous
funnel for collecting the sound waves and directing them inwards, is
composed of the _concha_, or projecting part, and of the _auditory canal_,
which extends from the _concha_ to the membrane of the _tympanum_ or
_drum_. This membrane is a partition stretched obliquely across the bottom
of the auditory canal, which it separates from the middle ear or tympanum;
it is semi-transparent and very delicate. It vibrates with the waves of
sound which strike against it, and transmits the vibrations to certain
little bones of the cavity of the tympanum. These bones, which have been
named respectively the hammer (_malleus_), the anvil (_incus_), and the
stirrup (_stapes_), transmit the vibrations to the internal ear, forming a
chain communicating at one end with the membrane just mentioned, and at the
other with the inner ear. The internal ear consists of a complicated system
of tubes known as the _membranous labyrinth_, containing fluid in which
waves are set up by the vibrations transmitted to it by the little bones
from the drum membrane. The lower part of the labyrinth is coiled like a
snail shell, and is called the _cochlea_. It is the real organ of hearing.
The upper part consists of three _semicircular canals_, the function of
which is to record the position and movements of the body in space. The
middle ear communicates with the pharynx by the Eustachian tube, through
which air from the mouth may be introduced into the tympanic cavity, so as
to permit vibrations of the drum membrane. In the external auditory canal
of the ear is produced the cerumen or ear-wax. The cut shows P the concha,
E.C. the external canal, D the drum membrane partly removed, S the stirrup,
A the anvil and H the hammer, the small bones communicating with the drum
and vestibule, C cochlea, S.C semicircular canals, E Eustachian tube.--Cf.
Sir Thomas Wrightson, _An Enquiry into the Analytical Mechanism of the
Internal Ear_.

EAR-COCKLE, a disease in wheat caused by the presence in the grain of worms
belonging to the genus Vibrio. It is called in some parts of England
_purples_.

EARL (A.Sax. _eorl_; Dan. _jarl_), a degree of the British nobility between
marquess and viscount, the title of highest antiquity in England. The title
was made hereditary by William the Conqueror, and for a time was used
interchangeably with that of _count_, the corresponding title on the
Continent. The wife of an earl is still called a _countess_. The earl was
the highest in rank of the nobility until Edward III created a duke in
1357, and Richard II a marquess in 1385. The first earl of England is the
Earl of Arundel. An earl's coronet is composed of eight pearls raised upon
points, with small leaves between, above the rim. See _Peer_.

EARLE, John, English bishop and writer, born about 1601, died 1665. He was
educated at Oxford, and, after writing some short poems, gave to the world
anonymously in 1628 _Microcosmographie, or a Piece of the World discovered
in Essays and Characters_--a work full of wit, humour, and admirable
character-painting. He was tutor to Charles II, accompanied him during his
exile, and was held by him in the highest esteem. In 1662 he was
consecrated Bishop of Worcester, and next year was translated to Salisbury.

EARLE, Rev. John, Anglo-Saxon scholar, was born in 1824, and died in 1903.
He studied at Oriel College, Oxford, where he obtained first-class honours
in classics, and was elected a fellow (1848). In the following year he took
orders, and was appointed for five years university professor of
Anglo-Saxon. In 1857 he became rector of Swanswick, near Bath, and in 1871,
a prebendary of Wells. The five years' rule having been rescinded, he was
re-elected professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford in 1876, and continued to
hold the position, together with the rectory of Swanswick, until his death.
Among his contributions to the study of Anglo-Saxon and modern English are
the following: _Two Saxon Chronicles Parallel_ (1865); _The Philology of
the English Tongue_ (1871); _A Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon_
(1877); _English Plant Names from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century_
(1880); _Anglo-Saxon Literature_ (1884), a very useful and informing little
manual; _Handbook to the Land Charters and other Saxonic Documents_ (1888);
_English Prose: its Elements, History, and Usage_ (1890); _The Deeds of
Beowulf_ (1892), a translation of the well-known Anglo-Saxon epic; _The
Psalter of 1539_ (1894); and _A Simple Grammar of English now in Use_
(1898). He also wrote a book on _Bath, Ancient and Modern_ (1864).

EARLESTOWN, a town of Lancashire, England, 14 miles east of Liverpool.
There are here engineering-works, sugar-works, and other establishments.
Pop. 9020.

EARL-MARSHAL, a great officer of England, who had, anciently, several
courts under his jurisdiction, as the court of chivalry and the court of
honour. He is the head of the College of Arms (Heralds' College), grants
armorial bearings, and determines all claims in connection with them. Since
1672 the office is hereditary in the family of Howard (Dukes of Norfolk).
There was also an earl-marshal of Scotland, the office being hereditary in
the Keith family until 1716, when it was abolished.

EARLOM, Richard, English mezzotinto engraver, born 1743, died 1822. His
engravings from Reynolds, Hogarth, Van Huysum, &c., and from Claude's
_Liber Veritatis_, are exceptionally fine, and are standard works in their
department.

EARLSTON (originally ERCILDOUN), a village of Scotland in Berwickshire.
Near it are the ruins of the ancient tower, which belonged to the famous
Thomas the Rhymer. Pop. 1749.

[Illustration: Early English Architecture

Peterborough Cathedral. Part of the West Front Lincoln Cathedral. Early
English Pillars in the Eastern Transept]

[Illustration: Early English Capital, Salisbury]

EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE, the first of the Pointed or Gothic styles of
architecture that prevailed in England. It succeeded the Norman in the
reign of Richard I (1189), and continued to the end of the reign of Henry
II in 1272, a period of 123 years, when it gradually merged into the
Decorated style. One of the leading peculiarities in this style is the form
of the windows, which are narrow in proportion to their height, and
terminate in a pointed arch, resembling the blade of a lancet (and
therefore often called the _Lancet_ style). Throughout the early period of
the style they are very plain, particularly in small churches; but in
cathedrals and other large buildings the windows, frequently combined two
or more together, are carried to a great height, are richly and deeply
moulded, and the jambs ornamented with slender shafts. On the eastern and
western fronts of small churches the windows are often combined in this
manner, with a circular window above and a richly moulded door below; but
in large buildings there is often more than one range of windows, and the
combinations are very various. Though separated on the outside, these
lancets are in the interior combined into one design, thus giving the first
idea of a compound window. The doorways are in general pointed, and in rich
buildings sometimes double; they are usually moulded, and enriched with the
tooth-ornament. The buttresses are often very bold and prominent, and are
frequently carried up to the top of the building with but little
diminution, and terminate in acutely pointed pediments, which, when raised
above the parapet, produce in some degree the effect of pinnacles. In this
style, likewise, flying-buttresses were first introduced (see
_Buttresses_), and the buttresses themselves much increased in projection
owing to the comparative lightness of the walls, which required some
counter-support to resist the outward pressure of the vaulting. The roof in
the Early English style appears always to have been high pitched, and the
towers surmounted by lofty pointed spires, as at Salisbury Cathedral. In
the interior the arches are usually lancet-shaped, and the pillars often
reduced to very slender proportions. As if to give still greater lightness
of appearance, they are frequently made up of a centre pillar, surrounded
by slight detached shafts, only connected with the pillar by their capitals
and bases, and bands of metal placed at intervals. These shafts are
generally of Purbeck marble, the pillar itself being of stone, and from
their extreme slenderness they sometimes appear as if quite inadequate to
support the weight above them. The earliest example of Early English
architecture is the choir of Canterbury, followed by the choir of Lincoln
Cathedral, but some of the best examples are to be seen in Salisbury
Cathedral. The architects of this style carried their ideas of lightness to
the utmost limits of prudence, and their successors have been afraid to
imitate their example. The abacus of the capitals is generally made up of
two bold round mouldings, with a deep hollow between. The foliage is
peculiar, generally very gracefully drawn, and thrown into elegant curves;
it is usually termed _stiff-leaved_, from the circumstance of its rising
with a stiff stem from the neck-mould of the capital. The trefoil is
commonly imitated, and is very characteristic of the style. The mouldings
of this style have great boldness, and produce a striking effect of light
and shade. They consist chiefly of rounds separated by deep hollows, in
which a peculiar ornament, called the _dog's-tooth_, is used, whenever
ornament can be introduced. This ornament is as characteristic of the Early
English as the zigzag is of the Norman. See _Dog's-tooth_.--Cf. F. Bond,
_An Introduction to English Church Architecture, from the 11th to the 16th
Century_.

EARNEST, in law, any sum paid in advance, to bind parties to the
performance of a verbal agreement, or something given by a buyer to a
seller as a pledge of adherence to a bargain. The party is then obliged to
abide by his bargain, and is not discharged upon forfeiting his earnest. In
England the general view is that the sum paid as earnest, however small, is
part of the price.

EAR-RING, an ornament for the ear, consisting of a ring or hook passing
through the lobe, with a pendant of diamonds, pearls, or other jewels
frequently attached. Ear-rings were commonly worn amongst the Oriental
nations, and by both sexes, especially in Babylonia and Assyria, from the
earliest times. Amongst the Greeks and Romans the wearing of ear-rings was
usually confined to women. In England the Romanized Britons and the
Anglo-Saxons wore them, but the fashion declined in the tenth century, and
was again introduced in the sixteenth century, in Queen Elizabeth's time.

EARSDON, an urban district or town of England, South Northumberland,
several miles north-west of Tynemouth, with productive collieries. Pop.
10,568.

EARTH, the planet which we inhabit, a nearly spherical body which every
twenty-four hours rotates from west to east round an imaginary line called
its axis--this axis having as its extremities the north and south
poles--while in the course of a year it completes a revolution round the
sun. To an observer whose view is not obstructed, the visible part of the
earth appears as a circular and horizontal expanse, on the circumference of
which the heavens appear to rest. Accordingly, in remote antiquity, the
earth was regarded as a flat, circular body, floating on the waters. But
even in antiquity the spherical form of the earth began to be suspected. It
is only on this supposition that we can explain how the horizon of vision
grows wider and wider the higher the position we choose, how the tops of
towers and mountains at a distance become visible before the bases, how the
hull of a ship first disappears as she sails away, and how, as we go from
the poles towards the equator, new stars become visible. Besides these
proofs there are many others, such as the circular contour of the earth's
shadow seen on the moon during an eclipse. The mere fact that the earth can
be circumnavigated does not, as is sometimes assumed, prove it to be
globular. But its surface, land and ocean, has been almost all explored and
accurately mapped, and the relative distances and directions found to
obtain between the places on its surface are consistent only with its
possessing such a shape.

The earth is not, however, an exact sphere, but is very slightly flattened
at the poles, so as to have the form known as an _oblate spheroid_. In this
way the _polar diameter_, or diameter from pole to pole, is shorter than
the diameter at right angles to this--the _equatorial diameter_. The most
accurate measurements make the polar diameter almost 27 miles less than the
equatorial, the equatorial diameter being found to be 7926.7 miles, and the
polar 7900 miles. The earth is regarded as divided into two halves--the
northern and the southern hemisphere--by the _equator_, an imaginary line
going right round it midway between the poles. In order to indicate with
precision the position of places on the earth additional circles are
imagined to be traced upon the surface in such a manner that those of the
one set all pass through both poles, while those of the other are drawn
parallel to the equator. The former are called _meridians_, the latter
_parallels of latitude_, and by reference to them we can state the latitude
and longitude, and thus the exact position, of any place.

Many experiments by various methods have been made in order to determine
the average density of the earth, and the total quantity of matter it
contains. Amongst these methods may be mentioned: (1) that of measuring the
deflection of a plumb-line due to a mountain's attraction, and thereby
comparing the mass of the earth with that of the mountain; (2) that founded
on the difference of oscillation period of a pendulum when placed at the
summit of a mountain and when at the sea-level; (3) by the determination of
the difference of gravity at the top and the bottom of a deep mine, by
pendulum experiments; (4) Cavendish's experiment with the torsion balance,
which attempts to compare the attractive force of two large lead balls upon
two small lead balls with that exercised by the earth. From these and other
experiments it has been calculated that the mean density of the earth is to
that of water as about 5½ to 1.

The earth, in common with the other planets, moves round the sun,
completing its revolution in about 365 days and 6 hours. The orbit of the
earth is an ellipse, with the sun in one of its foci. Hence the earth is
not equally distant from the sun throughout the year; it is over 3,000,000
miles nearer at one time than another, its least distance (_perihelion_
distance), according to recent calculations, being about 91,340,000 miles;
its greatest (_aphelion_ distance), 94,450,000; and the mean distance,
92,897,000 miles. From this it may be calculated that the velocity of the
earth in its orbit is about 18½ miles a second. About 3rd Jan. the earth is
nearest the sun, and about 4th July farthest from it. This position of
matters, which is subject to slow alteration in the course of ages, at
present tends to moderate the seasonal variations in the northern
hemisphere, and to intensify them in the southern. The passage of the earth
round its orbit causes the sun to appear as if it described an annual
circuit of the heavens; and hence it is that at one time of the year one
group of stars is seen in the neighbourhood of the sun near sunrise or
sunset, and at another time another group. This apparent path of the sun is
the _ecliptic_, and corresponds with what would be the path of the earth as
seen from the sun; and the groups of stars through which the sun
successively passes form the _zodiac_.

[Illustration: The Hemispheres, showing the Greatest Masses of Land and
Water]

The earth's daily motion about its own axis takes place in twenty-three
hours, fifty-six minutes, and four seconds of mean time. This diurnal
revolution is the occasion of the alternation of day and night. As the axis
on which the earth performs its diurnal rotation is inclined towards the
plane of its path about the sun at an angle of 66½°, and the angle between
the plane of the ecliptic and the plane of the earth's equator is therefore
23½°, the sun ascends in the heavens, as seen from our northern latitudes,
from 21st March to 21st June (the summer _solstice_), to about 23½° above
the celestial equator, and descends again towards the equator from 21st
June to 23rd Sept.; it then sinks till 22nd Dec. (the winter _solstice_),
when it is about 23½° below the equator, and returns again to the equator
by 21st March. This arrangement is the cause of the seasons, and the
inequality of day and night attending them. For all places removed from the
equator, day and night are equal only twice in the year (at the
_equinoxes_). At the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere the north
pole of the earth is turned towards the sun, and the south pole away from
it, and for places within 23½° of the former there is a period of longer or
shorter duration during which the sun is continually above the horizon
throughout the twenty-four hours of each day, while round the latter there
is an equal extent of surface within which the sun for similar periods is
below the horizon. (See _Day_.) The reverse state of matters occurs at the
winter solstice. The circles bounding these regions are called respectively
the _arctic_ and the _antarctic_ circle, and the regions themselves the
_polar_ or _frigid zones_. Throughout a region extending to 23½° on each
side of the equator the sun is directly overhead at any place twice in the
year. The circles which bound this region are called the _tropics_, that in
the northern hemisphere being the tropic of _Cancer_, that in the southern
the tropic of _Capricorn_, while the region between is the _torrid zone_.
The regions between the tropics and the polar circles are respectively the
_north_ and _south temperate zones_.

From the evidence furnished by volcanoes, hot springs, sinking of mines,
&c., it is known that the earth has a high internal temperature. Taking the
average of the various observed rates of increase this temperature seems to
increase 1° F. for every 60 feet of descent. Assuming this to continue, the
rocks at a depth of 2 miles would be as hot as boiling water, and at a
depth of 50 miles the heat would be such as at the surface would melt every
known solid. This being so, various theories as to the internal condition
of the earth have been proposed: (1) that a thin envelope or crust
surrounds a molten interior. It can be shown, however, that as tides must
be produced in such a molten mass the cool outer crust would be unable to
withstand the enormous force of these unless it were about 2000 miles
thick. (2) That the interior is solid, with spaces here and there filled
with liquid or gaseous material. This theory assumes that there are within
the earth enormous cavities filled with molten rock, which escapes, when
local pressure is removed, in the form of volcanic outbursts. (3) That the
earth consists of a thin crust, a large solid nucleus, and a liquid film
between the nucleus and the crust. (4) That the earth is solid to the
centre, but any part may become liquid if local pressure is removed. On
this theory it is supposed that if water should percolate to liquefied
rocks, it would be converted into steam, and produce the various volcanic
phenomena.

The question of the constitution of the earth's interior has in recent
years been much investigated by means of seismographic records. These
appear to indicate that there are three distinct divisions. The outer crust
has a thickness of from 20 to 40 miles. It possesses a high power of
resistance to all kinds of stress. Beneath it is a large shell possessing a
density and elasticity resembling fine steel. This shell has a high
rigidity against changing forces of shorter duration, like tidal action,
but in its outer parts at least yields in time to unvarying long-continued
stress. The third or innermost division of the earth is probably molten, as
it can transmit compressional waves, but yielding immediately to
distortional or twisting forces, is unable to transmit distortional waves.
This innermost portion appears to be a sphere of radius approximately
one-half that of the earth as a whole. The transition between the crust and
intermediate shell is abrupt, but that between the latter and the central
portion is more gradual.

The earth (like the other planets) is believed to have condensed and
solidified from a gaseous or nebular condition, and to have once had a far
higher temperature than now. If such were the case, the outer surface,
losing heat by radiation, would be the first part to cool quickly; while
the interior, losing its heat by conduction, would not cool so rapidly,
and, therefore, would naturally have a higher temperature than the portion
at the surface. This is what all observations indicate the condition of the
earth to be, and the shape of the earth also indicates that it must once
have been in a fluid state. Calculations have been made of the time which
has elapsed since solidification commenced, the estimates being in general
of the order of hundreds of millions of years. See _Nebular Hypothesis_.

Another feature that the earth as a whole presents is its magnetism. When a
magnetic needle is balanced on a point, it remains at rest in one position
only, pointing then nearly due north and south. This can be explained only
on the supposition that the earth acts as a great magnet. It has, in fact,
two poles--a north and a south magnetic pole--which are not very far from
the geographical poles. The magnetic equator, where the vertical force is
zero and the dipping needle takes a horizontal position, does not diverge
greatly from the geographical equator. The earth acts upon all magnets as
they act upon each other, and it is for this reason that they point north
and south.

The surface of the earth contains over 196,000,000 sq. miles, of which
about two-sevenths is dry land, the remaining five-sevenths being water.
The land is arranged into masses of irregular shape and size, the greatest
connected mass being in the eastern hemisphere. The chief masses receive
the name of continents, detached masses of smaller size being islands. The
surface of the land is variously diversified, exhibiting mountains,
valleys, plains, plateaus, deserts, &c. The water area of the earth is
divided into oceans, seas, bays, gulfs, &c., while rivers and lakes may be
regarded as features of the land surface. The great phenomena of the oceans
are currents and tides. The population of the whole earth is estimated at
from 1600 to 1700 millions. The earth is attended by the moon as a
subordinate or secondary planet. See also such articles as _Climate_,
_Currents_, _Ocean_, _Earthquake_, and _Seasons_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. von
Humboldt, _Cosmos_; E. Reclus, _The Earth and its Inhabitants_; T. G.
Bonney, _The Story of our Planet_; T. M. Reade, _The Evolution of Earth
Structure_; _Theory of Geomorphic Changes_; A. T. Swaine, _The Earth: its
Genesis and Evolution, considered in the Light of the most Recent
Scientific Research_.

EARTHENWARE, a name applied to the commoner sorts of pottery-ware. The
older kinds of earthenware, such as Majolica, Delft-ware, Faïence, and
Palissy-ware, are not only glazed, but are besides elaborately coloured and
enamelled and ornamented with raised figures of various kinds. See
_Pottery_.

EARTH-HOUSES, a name generally given throughout Scotland to underground
buildings, also known as 'Picts' houses' or 'Picts' dwellings'. The
earth-house in its simplest form consists of a single irregular-shaped
chamber, formed of unhewn stones, the side walls gradually converging
towards the top until they can be roofed by stones of 4 or 5 feet in width,
all covered in by a mound of earth rising slightly above the level of the
adjacent ground. In the more advanced form of these structures two or three
chambers are found. Earth-houses are frequent in the north-east of
Scotland, occasionally thirty or forty being found in the same locality.
Querns, bones, deers' horns, earthen vessels, cups and implements of bone,
stone celts, bronze swords, and the like, are occasionally found in
connection with them. Very similar structures, known as beehive-houses,
occur also in Ireland and Cornwall.

EARTH-NUT, the _Conopodium denudatum_, an umbelliferous plant common in
woods and fields in Britain. The leaves are ternately divided, and the
small white flowers are in terminal umbels. The tuber or nut is about 4 or
6 inches below the surface, at the termination of a long slender root. It
is brown, the size of a chestnut, of a sweetish farinaceous nature,
resembling in taste the common chestnut. Swine are very fond of the nuts,
and fatten rapidly where they are abundant. The name is frequently applied
to _Carum Bulbocast[)a]num_, which has a similar tuber. See _Ground-nut_.

EARTHQUAKE, a shaking of the earth's surface, propagated from place to
place by a wave motion. It may vary in intensity from the slightest
perceptible tremor to a violent shock which bursts open chasms and changes
the appearance of the ground. Earthquakes originate in the crust of the
earth, generally at only a very few miles depth, and probably never lower
than about 30 miles. The point of origin is called the centre or seismic
focus, and the place on the surface vertically over it the epicentre. It is
rather difficult to tell the depth of the focus. Mallet estimated this by
projecting backward the direction of travel of the wave at different
points, as judged from the inclinations of the rents in buildings, &c.,
assumed to be at right angles to the line of propagation. The accuracy of
this method has been improved by substituting evidence of direction as
given by seismographs. The focus of an earthquake is often submarine, and
subsequent to the shock transmitted through the solid earth a great
sea-wave may invade the land and produce far more disastrous effects.

In some cases an earthquake may be caused by a fall of rock in some
subterranean cavity. This gives only a minor and local shock. The vast
majority of earthquakes are certainly _tectonic_, originating from the
snapping of strata under great strain, or the further slipping of portions
of the earth's crust along previously existing fault planes. Such
dislocations probably arise sometimes from the variations of weight
supported by the earth's crust in neighbouring regions, due to the
transport by rivers of material, which they erode at one place and deposit
at another. A further cause is the contraction undergone by the earth in
its secular cooling. There are also earthquakes of _volcanic_ origin,
accompanying eruptions, but these are not usually of any great violence,
nor do they involve any large area. The coasts of the Pacific
Ocean--American, Asiatic, and East Indian--are much visited by earthquakes,
in especial the Japanese Islands. The other band of greatest frequency has
a direction outlined by the Azores, Alps, Mediterranean, and the Caucasus
and Himalaya Mountains. It may be noted that all the regions specially
affected are distinguished by steep gradients of the earth's surface.

[Illustration: Diagram of Earthquake

AB, Surface of earth. F, Focus. E, Epicentre. 1-4, Successive positions of
earthquake wave. S, S, Cracked walls; the cracks being at right angles to
CF and DF give some indication of the depth of focus.]

In recent years much information has been obtained by the investigation of
earthquakes by various kinds of seismograph. One single instrument at a
particular station, e.g. a Milne seismograph, will enable the distance of
the epicentre to be calculated. From the results of three stations, the
precise locality can practically always be told. With additional or
particular forms of instruments, this may even be possible by means of the
records at one station. Earthquake waves are found to consist of distinctly
defined types. The first to arrive are the preliminary tremors or
first-phase waves, then the second-phase waves, next the third-phase or
large waves, and lastly the concluding waves, consisting largely of
'echoes' or reflected vibrations. The speed of the preliminary tremors is
found to be only about 2 miles per second for very short distances, but for
a quadrant of the earth's surface they travel at an average of about 7
miles per second, a speed which is only slightly exceeded for still greater
distances. The second-phase waves travel with a little under two-thirds of
these velocities. These two classes of wave have been proved to travel
through the earth, approximately along chords, but with the path slightly
bent, convex towards the earth's centre. The first-phase waves are
longitudinal, or waves of compression; the second-phase are transverse, or
waves of distortion. The greater speed for greater distances is due to the
track being more through the earth's interior and less through its outer
portions, as the interior transmits wave-motion much more rapidly than the
crust. The rigidity at some depth from the surface has been shown to be of
the same order of magnitude as the rigidity of steel. The third-phase waves
are of much longer vibration period and wide amplitude, and have been
compared to a groundswell on the sea. Their time of passage from the
epicentre to any place is proportional to the distance measured round the
earth's surface, and it is clear that they travel on the surface, and not
through the interior. Their speed is nearly 2 miles per second. The
difference in time between the arrival of the preliminary tremors at any
station and the arrival of the second-phase waves, or between the
second-phase and third-phase waves, enables the distance of the epicentre
to be easily found, as these differences, of course, become greater with
increasing distance.

The number of earthquakes has been found to be enormously greater than was
at one time supposed; in fact, small tremors are occurring daily in one
part or another of the earth. Great and destructive shocks are generally
preceded by minor shocks in the same district, and they are always followed
for months afterwards by a series of gradually lessening after-shocks.
Among the most remarkable earthquakes of modern times were those which
destroyed Lima in 1746, and Lisbon in 1755; more recently destructive
earthquakes visited Calabria in 1857, Peru and Ecuador in 1868, the Island
of Ischia in 1884, Japan in 1896, North India and Calabria in 1905, San
Francisco in 1906, Messina and Reggio in 1908. One of the greatest
earthquakes of recent times was that which visited the provinces of Kansu
and Shensi in North-West China, on 16th Dec., 1920. (See
_Seismograph_.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Milne, _Earthquakes and other
Earth-Movements_; C. Davison, _A Study of Recent Earthquakes_; C. G. Knott,
_The Physics of Earthquake Phenomena_.

EARTHS, a term applied in geology to certain loosely aggregated siliceous
and aluminous materials, the detritus of pre-existing rocks. In chemistry
the term earth is given to certain metallic oxides, such as the 'alkaline
earths' lime, baryta, and strontia; also to alumina and a series known as
the 'rare earths'. The earths were regarded as simple bodies until Sir H.
Davy proved them to be compounds of oxygen with metals.

EARTH-SHINE, in astronomy, a name given to the faint light visible on the
part of the moon not directly illuminated by the sun, due to the
illumination of that portion by the sunlight which the earth reflects on
her. It is most conspicuous when the illuminated part of the disc is small,
as soon after new moon. This phenomenon is popularly described as 'the old
moon in the new moon's arms'.

EARTH-TONGUE. See _Geoglossum_.

EARTHWORKS (in fortification) are military works formed chiefly of earth
and designed either as permanent or temporary defences. They are cheaper,
more easily repaired, and expose their defenders to less risk from broken
stone than stone-works. See _Entrenchments_.

EARTHWORM, the name applied to segmented worms (Annelids) that burrow in
the soil, and belong to the ord. Oligochæta, a subdivision of the
bristle-worms (Chætopoda). They have a long, cylindrical body, divided by
transverse furrows into numerous rings. The mouth is destitute of jaws, and
they have no eyes, tentacles, or other head appendages. They are
hermaphrodite. The commonest British forms are chiefly species of Lumbricus
and Allolobophora. They feed on earth and various kinds of animal and
vegetable matter, and move by the contractions of successive parts of the
body aided by a double row of bristles. They are of great service to the
agriculturist by loosening the soil and increasing its depth. This is
chiefly the result of their mode of nourishment, since they deposit the
soil they have swallowed, after digestion, in heaps called _worm castings_
which bring up rich fine soil to the surface, gradually covering the upper
layer sometimes to the extent of several inches.

EAR-TRUMPET, an artificial instrument for aiding the collection of the
vibrations or waves of sound, and carrying them in an intensified form to
the internal parts of the ear. They are generally made of tin, vulcanite,
or gutta-percha, and are of various forms. A small kind known as
ear-cornets or acoustic auricles, attached to the ear by a spring, is
sometimes used in slight cases of deafness.

[Illustration: Earwig (_Forfic[)u]la auricularia_). Male and female]

EARWIG (_Forfic[)u]la_), a common orthopterous insect whose name is derived
from its supposed habit of insinuating itself into the ears of persons.
This is practically impossible, yet the notion is widely spread, as appears
from the names given to the earwig in different languages, as in Fr.
_perceoreille_ (pierce-ear), in Ger. _ohrenhöhler_ (ear-borer). Much damage
is sustained by gardeners from the depredations of these insects among
fruit and tender vegetables, which constitute their proper food. The earwig
is about three-quarters of an inch in length, having the wings folded under
very short and truncate elytra or wing-cases, and the extremity of the
abdomen armed with a horny forceps.

EASEMENT, in law, a right or privilege which one proprietor may have to use
the land of another in connection with the needs of his own land, as the
use of a way, a water-course, &c. The right to an easement may be acquired
either by grant or by uninterrupted enjoyment for a period of years.

EAST, one of the four cardinal points, being the point in the heavens where
the sun is seen to rise at the equinox, or the corresponding point on the
earth; that point of the horizon lying on the right hand when one's face is
turned towards the north pole. By _the East_, in an indefinite sense, is
often meant Syria, Arabia, Persia, India, and the eastern part of the world
generally.

EASTBOURNE, a municipal borough and flourishing watering-place of England,
county of Sussex, on the English Channel, near Beachy Head; also a
parliamentary division of Sussex. The town is handsomely built, having fine
parades and well-planted walks and drives. Pop. 52,544.

EAST CAPE, the most easterly point of Asia, projecting into Behring's
Strait nearly opposite Cape Prince of Wales in Alaska.

EASTER, the festival commemorating the resurrection of Christ, observed in
the Roman Catholic, the Greek, Anglican, Lutheran, and other branches of
the Christian Church. By the first Christians it was considered to continue
the feast of the _passover_, at which the paschal lamb, a type of Christ,
was sacrificed. Hence its name in Greek (_pascha_), French (_pâques_), and
other Romance languages is taken from the Hebrew _pesach_, passover. The
English name, according to the Venerable Bede, comes from the Anglo-Saxon
_Eostre_ (from Teutonic _Austr[=o]_), a goddess of light or spring, whose
festival was celebrated in April. There was long a dispute in the Christian
Church as to the proper time for holding Easter, the Christians of the East
celebrating it on the same day as that on which the Jewish passover fell,
that is, the 14th of Nisan (hence they were called _quarto decimani_),
while the majority of the Church celebrated it on the Sunday next after
this day. The controversy was decided by the Council of Nice (Nicæa) in
325, which settled that it was to be reckoned as at present, namely, that
Easter is the first Sunday after the full moon which happens upon or next
after the 21st of March; and if the full moon happens on a Sunday,
Easter-day is the Sunday after, but, properly speaking, for the 'full moon'
in the above the 'fourteenth day of the moon' should be substituted.--Cf.
Sir J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_.

EASTER DUES, or OFFERINGS, in the Church of England, certain dues paid to
the parochial clergy by the parishioners at Easter as a compensation for
the tithe for personal labour.

EASTER EGGS. The egg was anciently a symbol of the mother goddess and of
birth: the sun emerged from the cosmic egg. The Saxon goddess Easter was a
life-giver. On Easter Day, the day of Christ's resurrection, eggs (Pasche
eggs) were dyed in symbolic colours, and boiled hard to be rolled or used
in egg-breaking contests. The Jews have eggs at the Passover Feast.

EASTER ISLAND, or RAPANUI (discovered by the Dutch Admiral Roggeven, on
Easter, 6th April, 1722), an island, 12 miles long, in the South Pacific
Ocean, long. 109° 17' W., lat. 27° 6' S., and utilized for grazing sheep
and cattle. It now belongs to Chile, from which it is 2000 miles distant.
Pop. 250 in 1916. The Routledge Expedition reported, in 1919, that the
inhabitants are of mixed Polynesian and Melanesian origin. Their ancient
bird-cult shows very close resemblances to that of the Solomon Islands.
Numerous gigantic stone images of a soft 'volcanic ash' were being
worshipped when the island was first visited by Europeans in the eighteenth
century. Some still lie partly constructed in a crater quarry. These images
date back a few centuries, and resemble those made until recently in wood
on this island and elsewhere in Oceania, and bear symbols used on these and
in tattooing. Local legends of the earliest settlements from distant
islands and of local tribal wars still survive. The present inhabitants are
undoubtedly descendants of the image-makers and worshippers. Cf. K.
Routledge, _The Mystery of Easter Island_.

EASTERN BENGAL AND ASSAM, a province of India, under a Lieutenant-Governor,
formed in 1905 by disjoining from Bengal the three divisions of Chittagong,
Dacca, and Rajshahi (with the exception of Darjeeling) and uniting Assam
with them, as also the state of Cooch Behar. It was formed in order to
provide for the better government both of the area belonging to it and of
that of Bengal, which was regarded as having become rather unwieldy, its
population being still 54 millions. On 1st April, 1912, however, Assam was
separated from Eastern Bengal and reconstituted. Its area is about 53,000
sq. miles, and the pop. nearly 6,750,000.

EASTERN CHURCHES, a collective term for the Greek, Armenian, Coptic,
Abyssinian, Syrian, and other kindred Churches, as distinguished from the
Latin, or Western Church.

EASTERN QUESTION, THE, an international political problem which occupied
the attention of European statesmen during the last two centuries, and even
since 1453, when the Turks established their empire and gained sway over
the Balkans. It deals with the relations of the Balkan nationalities,
Turkey, and the Great Powers to each other. Russia, Germany, Austria,
Greece, France, Italy, and Great Britain were all interested in the Near
East and in the Eastern Question ever since the Treaty of Kutshuk-Kainardji
in 1774. The Levantine commerce and the Mediterranean ports were, and still
are, of vital importance not only to Russia, but also to the Balkan States
and to the neighbouring European powers. The occupation of Egypt by Great
Britain, the Russo-Turkish War of 1878, the proclamation of Bulgaria's
independence, the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria in 1908,
all contributed to the complication of the Eastern Question. This
complication was further increased by Italy's occupation of Tripoli in
1911, by the Balkan Wars (1912-3), and by the construction of the Bagdad
Railway with the aid of German capital. It is no exaggeration to say that
the Eastern Question was one of the causes which led to the outbreak of the
European War of 1914. The Peace Treaties of Versailles, Sèvres, and St.
Germain have not yet settled the Eastern Question, and the peace in the
Near East is still a problem which occupies the attention of European
diplomatists.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. A. Phillips, _Modern Europe_; R. W. Seton
Watson, _The Rise of Nationality in the Balkans_.

EASTERN RUMELIA. See _Bulgaria_.

EASTER TERM, one of the four regular terms of the courts of common law in
England, beginning on the 19th April, and continuing till the middle or end
of May.--In Oxford University, a term beginning 13th April, ending 27th
May; in Cambridge, beginning 18th April, and ending 24th June.

[Illustration: Silver Rupee of East India Company, 1675]

EAST INDIA COMPANY, a great English company, originally simply a trading
association, which played an important part in the history of Hindustan. It
was formed in 1599 in London, with a subscribed capital of about £30,000,
for the purpose of trade with the East Indies. A charter was granted to it
by Queen Elizabeth on 31st December, 1600, for fifteen years, renewable for
a similar period. In this charter the Company is styled, "The Governor and
Company of the Merchants of London trading into the East Indies". The first
voyages resulted in large profits. In 1609 the charter was renewed by James
I, and made perpetual, reserving power to the Crown to recall it at three
years' notice. Additional power was granted to the Company of seizing and
confiscating ships and goods of contraband traders, either in the British
dominions or in any of the places where they were authorized to trade.
Among the motives which had induced the Company to press for this renewal
of their charter was the necessity they had experienced from the jealousy
of the Dutch and Portuguese to send out vessels fitted not only for trade,
but for defence and indeed attack. Accordingly Captain Best, who commanded
the eighth expedition, attacked four Portuguese war galleons, convoying 200
sail of merchantmen, off Surat, and gained a complete victory, which so
impressed the Great Mogul that he immediately made a treaty with Captain
Best, giving the English full liberty to trade in his dominions. This
treaty was concluded on 6th Feb., 1613. It was followed at once by a
resolution of the Company to trade on a joint-stock. £429,000 was raised as
capital, and apportioned in fitting out four voyages for 1613, 1614, 1615,
1617. In 1617 and 1618 the Company was so enlarged as to include 954
proprietors, while a new joint-stock of £1,600,000 was subscribed. In 1619
a treaty was made with the Dutch, by which the two companies were to work
in harmony for twenty years; but in 1629 the Dutch massacred the leading
members of the English factory at Amboyna. In the feeble reigns of James
and Charles I, however, the outrage remained unredressed, and the English
Company, ill supported by the Crown, was often reduced to great straits.
Their trade, impeded by the Dutch, became unprofitable, and, to add to
their difficulties, Charles I in 1635 gave a licence to a rival company. At
length, under Cromwell, the Company received a new charter. A territorial
footing had been acquired in Madras in 1640, to which settlement was given
the control of all the factories in Bengal and the Coromandel coast, the
Supreme Council in India still remaining at Surat. A new charter, granted
by Charles II in 1660, enlarged the powers of the Company, giving it
political and judicial authority in the factories and colonies established
by it, with the right to appoint governors. On the Revolution of 1688 the
Company was involved in new difficulties, and in 1692 the Commons presented
an address to the Crown praying for their dissolution. At this time, by an
accidental failure to pay a tax upon their stock, the Company formally
forfeited their charter, and were compelled to accept its renewal with the
important proviso of a reservation to the Crown of the right to alter or
modify its conditions. The maximum stock to be held by any individual was
fixed at £10,000, every £1000 of which was to give a vote, while the right
of membership was thrown open to all British subjects. The Scottish
Parliament also sanctioned a company, but a war with Spain and the bitter
opposition of the English Parliament made difficulties under which this
company succumbed. Meantime the misconduct of the English company had so
strengthened its enemies that, in spite of all its opposition, a resolution
in favour of the formation of a new company passed the House of Commons on
4th May, 1698, and this company was actually constituted by Act 9 William
III cap. xliv. This Act provided for the extinction of the old company, but
an amalgamation was eventually arranged in 1708. The possessions of the old
company at the time of amalgamation, upon which the valuation of £330,000
was placed in 1700, included a large number of places in India, a footing
having been by this time acquired in each of the three presidencies,
besides possessions in Persia, Cochin-China, and Sumatra. The dividends of
the Company rose rapidly after the amalgamation, and finally settled at 8
per cent; and it procured without difficulty, at various periods, a
prolongation of its exclusive privileges until 1780, still with three
years' notice. In the meantime the French possessions had, as well as the
English, been growing in power and importance in the East, and on the
outbreak of the war of the Austrian Succession in 1741 commenced those
struggles (Clive being the first great English leader) by which a
mercantile company was led on to establish British supremacy over nearly
the whole of India. In 1766 the right of the Company to acquire territorial
possessions formed a subject of parliamentary inquiry; and the question of
the political rights of the Company being thus opened up, the ministry
began to act on their view of it by sending out a Crown plenipotentiary to
India. A regulating Act was passed in 1773 remodelling the powers of the
Company, and placing it completely under the control of Parliament,
providing for the establishment by the Crown of courts of judicature in
India. The charter, which expired in 1780, was renewed till 1791. The
Renewal Act provided that the Company, which was already bound to submit to
the Government all dispatches received from India, should submit for
approval all dispatches proposed to be transmitted thither. In 1784 another
Act established a board, afterwards known as the Board of Control, to
superintend, direct, and control all acts, operations, and concerns
relating to the civil and military government or revenues of India. The
board was to consist of a principal Secretary of State, the Chancellor of
the Exchequer, and four Privy Councillors nominated by the Crown. The
directors of the Company were bound to submit all their papers except those
referring to commercial matters to this board, and obey its instructions.
From this time the political power of the Company was little more than
nominal. While the right of nominating the servants of the Company was
still left to the directors, the absolute right of recall was vested in the
Crown. A subsequent Declaratory Bill regulated the power of the Board of
Control to send out troops at the expense of the Company. In 1813 the
charter was renewed on condition that the right of exclusive trade should
be restricted to China, while the India trade should be thrown open to all
British subjects. A Church establishment for India was also provided by
this Act. The appointment of governors-general, governors, and
commanders-in-chief was no longer to be valid without the direct sanction
of the Crown. The renewal of the Company's charter in 1834 took place amid
continued opposition to their mercantile, and even to their legislative
privileges. It continued them in all their possessions except the Island of
St. Helena, put an end to the exclusive right of trade with China, and
enacted that the Company should with all convenient speed close their
commercial business, and make sale of all their property not retained for
Government purposes; all their other property was to be held in trust for
the Crown, which was to take over their debts and guarantee their dividend
out of the revenues of India. The stock was valued at £6,000,000, which was
to bear interest at 10 per cent, and be redeemable after 30th April, 1874,
on payment of £12,000,000. The Company was now fairly in liquidation, and
on the outbreak of the mutiny of 1857 it was felt indispensable to vest the
government of India directly in the Crown, and this was accordingly done in
1858. Henceforth the Company existed only for the purpose of receiving
payment of its capital, and of the dividends due upon capital until its
repayment.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Bruce, _Annals of the East India Company_; Sir
W. W. Hunter, _History of British India_; W. Cunningham, _Growth of English
Industry and Trade in Modern Times_; J. Macpherson, _The History and
Management of the East India Company_; W. Foster and F. C. Danvers,
_Letters received by the East India Company from its Servants in the East_
(6 vols.).

EAST INDIES, the name loosely applied to Hindustan, the Indo-Chinese
peninsula, and a portion of the Eastern Archipelago, but excluding the
Philippine Islands, New Guinea, and Australia.

EASTLAKE, Sir Charles Lock, English painter, president of the Royal
Academy, born at Plymouth 17th Nov., 1793, died at Pisa 23rd Dec., 1865. He
studied at the Royal Academy, London, and at Paris. In 1817 he visited
Italy and Greece, and painted besides other pictures his _Pilgrims arriving
in Sight of Rome_. In 1830 he was elected member of the Royal Academy, and
in 1850 became its president, receiving at the same time the honour of
knighthood. From 1843 to 1847 he was keeper of the National Gallery, of
which he was afterwards director for about ten years. Sir Charles is also
known as a writer on art by his _Materials for a History of Oil-painting_.
Among his most noteworthy pictures are: _Lord Byron's Dream_ (in the Tate
Gallery), _Greek Fugitives_, _Escape of the Carrara Family_, _Christ
blessing Little Children_, _Christ lamenting over Jerusalem_.

EAST LONDON, a seaport on the east coast of Cape Province, at the mouth of
the Buffalo River, now an important outlet for the produce of this region,
connected by railway with Cape Town. Pop. 20,867.

EAST MAIN, a considerable river of Canada, having a westward course to
James Bay, the southern extension of Hudson Bay, and forming the boundary
between Quebec province and Ungava territory.

EASTON, a city of Pennsylvania, United States, at the junction of the
Delaware and Lehigh Rivers, 75 miles S.W. of New York. It contains
iron-foundries, tanneries, and breweries. Pop. 32,000.

EAST RIVER, a strait in New York State, separating New York from Brooklyn
and connecting Long Island Sound with New York Bay, about 20 miles long.
The Brooklyn Bridge, and the Williamsburg, Queensboro, and Manhattan
Bridges now cross the river.

EAST ST. LOUIS, a town of the United States, in Illinois, on the east bank
of the Mississippi, opposite St. Louis, and connected with it by a great
steel arch bridge and another bridge, carrying numerous lines of railway.
Pop. 58,547.

EASTWOOD, a town of England, in Notts, on the Derbyshire border, with
coal-mines, 8½ miles W.N.W. of Nottingham. Pop. 4692.

EAU ([=o]), a French word signifying _water_, and used in English with some
other words for several spirituous waters, particularly perfumes, as _eau
de Cologne_, and _eau de Luce_.--_Eau de Cologne_ is a fragrant water, made
originally and in most perfection in Cologne by a manufacturer named
Farina, by whose successors the only genuine water is said still to be
manufactured. It consists of spirits of wine flavoured by different
essential oils blended so as to yield a fine fragrant scent. It was
invented in Northern Italy by one of the Farina family, who afterwards
settled in Cologne.--_Eau Créole_, a highly esteemed liqueur made in
Martinique by distilling the flowers of the mammee apple with spirit of
wine.--_Eau de Luce_ ('water of Luce'), so called from the name of its
inventor, is made by dissolving white soap in spirit of wine, and adding
oil of amber and sal ammoniac. It is a milky fluid, antispasmodic and
stimulant.--_Eau de Vie_ ('water of life'), a term used by the French for
the coarser kinds of brandy, _cognac_ being the name of the best.

EAU CLAIRE ([=o] kl[=a]r), a city of Wisconsin, United States, at the
junction of the Eau Claire and Chippewa Rivers, a great lumbering centre.
In 1910 Eau Claire adopted the commission form of government, being the
first city in the state to do so. Pop. 18,310.

EAUX-BONNES ([=o]-bon), a watering-place, France, department of Basses
Pyrénées, about 25 miles south of Pau. The hot sulphur springs are said to
have great efficacy in affections of the chest. Pop. 622.--Near it is _Eaux
Chaudes_, also with warm springs.

E´BAL, a mountain of Western Palestine about half-way between Jerusalem and
Nazareth, on the north side of a narrow valley, on the south side of which
and directly opposite stands Mt. Gerizim with Nablous almost between. Here
the Israelites set up an altar on their entrance into the Holy Land and had
the law solemnly read to them by Joshua (_Jos._ viii 30-35). At the east
end of the valley are Jacob's Well and Joseph's Tomb.

EBBSFLEET, a hamlet in the Isle of Thanet, county Kent, memorable as the
place where the first Anglo-Saxon invaders landed.

EBBW-VALE, a town of England, in Monmouthshire, with ironworks, steelworks,
and collieries. Pop. 30,540.

EBENA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of gamopetalous Dicotyledons, consisting of trees
and shrubs, of which the wood is very hard, and frequently of very dark
colour in the centre, as ebony. The leaves are alternate, and generally
coriaceous and shining; calyx gamosepalous and persistent, with three or
six equal divisions; corolla with imbricated divisions. The fruit is a
globular berry containing a small number of compressed seeds. The principal
genus is Diosp[)y]ros, which yields ebony and iron-wood.

EBERS ([=a]´b[.e]rz), Georg Moritz, German Egyptologist and novelist, born
1st March, 1837, at Berlin, died in 1898. He studied at Göttingen, and
afterwards at Berlin, where he devoted himself to Egyptology. In 1870 he
was made professor at the University of Leipzig, but he had to resign in
1889. In 1869 and 1870 he travelled extensively in Egypt and Nubia. Two
years later he again visited Egypt, where he discovered the medical
papyrus, known as the _Papyrus Ebers_. His most important works have been
translated into English, such as _Egypt, Descriptive, Historical, and
Picturesque_; and the novels _An Egyptian Princess_, _Uarda_, _Homo Sum_,
_The Emperor_, _The Sisters_, all dealing with old Egyptian life; _The
Burgomaster's Wife_, and _Only a Word_.

EBERSWALDE ([=a]´berz-v[.a]l-de), a town in Prussia, in the province of
Brandenburg, on the Finow Canal, 27 miles north-east of Berlin. It has a
school of forestry, piscicultural establishment, botanic gardens,
well-frequented mineral springs, and industrial works of various kinds.
Pop. 26,064.

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CHANGES MADE AGAINST PRINTED ORIGINAL

Page 8. Term "- b_2c_1": '- b_1c_2' in original.

Page 25. "François Didot, born in 1689": '1869' in original.

Page 112. "In the German army": 'Germany army' in original.