Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
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Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
are listed at the end of the text.

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Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron";
[)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above";
[n.] "n with dot below"; and so forth.

THE

NEW . GRESHAM

ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME . I . PART . 3

[Illustration]

_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING
COMPANY . _Limited_

66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND
LONDON W.C.2.
1922

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LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS

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VOLUME I PART 3

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PLATES

                                                                  Page

  BACTERIA                                                        348

MAPS IN COLOUR


  AUSTRALIA                                                       316

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KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

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The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--

VOWELS

[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.

ä, as in _a_lms, Fr. _â_me, Ger. B_a_hn = á of Indian names.

[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.

a, as in f_a_t.

[a:], as in f_a_ll.

_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
in Indian names.

[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.

e, as in m_e_t.

[.e], as in h_e_r.

[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.

i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
French and Italian words.

_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eû_ne = Ger. long _ö_, as in S_ö_hne,
G_ö_the (Goethe).

eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _ö_ short.

[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.

o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.

ö, as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.

[=u] as in t_u_be.

u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.

[u:], as in b_u_ll.

ü, as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _û_ as in d_û_, Ger. _ü_ long as in gr_ü_n,
B_ü_hne.

[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
M_ü_ller.

oi, as in _oi_l.

ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.

CONSONANTS

Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
explanation are the following:--

ch is always as in ri_ch_.

_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.

g is always hard, as in _g_o.

_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
similar gutturals.

[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.

r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
much more strongly trilled.

s, always as in _s_o.

th, as _th_ in _th_in.

_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.

w always consonantal, as in _w_e.

x = ks, which are used instead.

y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
l[=e]ny).

zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.

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ATREB´ATES, ancient inhabitants of that part of Gallia Belgica, afterwards
called _Artois_. A colony of them settled in Britain, in a part of
Berkshire and Oxfordshire.

AT´REK, a river of Asia, forming the boundary between Persia and the
Russian Transcaspian territory, and flowing into the Caspian; length 250
miles.

ATREUS (at´r[=u]s), in Greek mythology, a son of Pelops and Hippodam[=i]a,
and grandson of Tant[)a]lus. Atreus was the father of Agamemnon, according
to Homer; other writers call him Agamemnon's grandfather. He succeeded
Eurystheus, his father-in-law, as King of Myc[=e]næ, and in revenge for the
seduction of his wife by his brother Thyestes gave a banquet at which the
latter partook of the flesh of his own sons. Atreus was killed by Ægisthus,
a son of Thyestes. The tragic events connected with this family furnished
materials to some of the great Greek dramatists.

ATRI (ancient, HADRIA), an episcopal city in the province of Teramo, Italy,
8 miles from the Adriatic. It has an old (thirteenth century) Gothic
cathedral, ruins of ancient Roman walls and buildings, and a palace of the
Agraviva family, who were Dukes of Atri from 1398 to 1775. Pop. 14,043.

AT´RIPLEX. See _Orache_.

A´TRIUM, the entrance-hall and most important apartment of a Roman house,
generally ornamented with statues, pictures, and _imagines_ or ancestral
likenesses, which were portrait masks in wax kept in cases. The _atrium_
formed the reception-room for visitors and clients. It was lighted by the
_compluvium_, an opening in the roof, towards which the roof sloped so as
to throw the rainwater into a cistern in the floor called the _impluvium_.

In zoology the term is applied to the large chamber or 'cloaca' into which
the intestine opens in the Tunicata.

AT´ROPA, the nightshade genus of plants. See _Belladonna_.

AT´ROPHY, a wasting of the flesh due to some interference with the
nutritive processes. It may arise from a variety of causes, such as
permanent, oppressive, and exhausting passions, organic disease, a want of
proper food or of pure air, suppurations in important organs, copious
evacuations of blood, saliva, semen, &c., and it is also sometimes produced
by poisons, for example arsenic, mercury, lead, in miners, painters,
gilders, &c. In old age the whole frame except the heart undergoes atrophic
change, and it is of frequent occurrence in infancy as a consequence of
improper, unwholesome food, exposure to cold, damp, or impure air, &c.
Single organs or parts of the body may be affected irrespective of the
general state of nutrition; thus local atrophy may be superinduced by
palsies, the pressure of tumours upon the nerves of the limbs, or by
artificial pressure, as in the feet of Chinese ladies.

AT´ROPIN, or AT´ROPINE, a crystalline alkaloid obtained from the deadly
nightshade (_Atr[)o]pa Belladonna_). It is very poisonous, and produces
persistent dilation of the pupil.

AT´ROPOS, the eldest of the three Fates (the others being Clotho and
Lach[)e]sis), who cuts the thread of life with her shears.

ATTACHÉ (at´a-sh[=a]), a junior member of the diplomatic services attached
to an embassy or legation.

ATTACH´MENT, in English law, a taking of the person, goods, or estate by
virtue of a writ or precept. It is distinguished from an _arrest_ by
proceeding out of a higher court by precept or writ, whereas the latter
proceeds out of an inferior court by precept only. An arrest lies only
against the body of a man, whereas an attachment lies often against the
goods only, and sometimes against the body and goods. It differs from a
_distress_ in that an attachment does not extend to lands, while a distress
cannot touch the body.--_Foreign attachment_ answers to what in Scotland is
termed arrestment, by means of which a creditor may obtain the security of
the goods or other personal property of his debtor in the hands of a third
person for the purpose of enforcing the appearance of the debtor to answer
to an action, and afterwards, upon his continued default, of obtaining the
property absolutely in satisfaction of the demand.

ATTACK´, the opening act of hostility by a force seeking to dislodge an
enemy from its position. It is considered more advantageous to offer than
to await attack, even in a defensive war. The historic forms of attack are:
(1) the parallel; (2) the form in which both wings attack and the centre is
kept back; (3) the form in which the centre is pushed forward and the wings
kept back; (4) the famous oblique mode, dating at least from Epaminondas,
and employed by Frederick the Great, where one wing advances to engage,
whilst the other is kept back, and occupies the attention of the enemy by
pretending an attack. Napoleon preferred to mass heavy columns against an
enemy's centre. The forms of attack have changed with the weapons used. In
the days of the pike heavy masses were the rule, but the use of the musket
led to an extended battle-front to give effect to the fire. The advance in
long and slender lines which grew out of this has been not less famous in
the annals of British attack than the square formation in those of defence.
In the European War (1914-18) the Germans often attacked in mass-formation;
but British attacks were usually carried out by successive _waves_; one
wave secured its objective and consolidated it while another wave passed
through to attack a more advanced objective. Artillery preparation became
of increasingly great importance; it broke down the enemy's wire,
counteracted his artillery-fire, and made his infantry keep under cover. In
trench-to-trench attacks machine-guns and trench-mortars were of great
value, and many casualties were avoided by the skilful use of tanks in the
attack. But it is still a fundamental principle of tactics that the
infantry is the chief factor in the attack, and that no attack can be
considered overwhelmingly successful without the use of the bayonet.

ATTAIN´DER, the legal consequences of a sentence of death or outlawry
pronounced against a person for treason or felony, the person being said to
be _attainted_. It resulted in forfeiture of estate and 'corruption of
blood', rendering the party incapable of inheriting property or
transmitting it to heirs; but these results now no longer follow. Formerly
persons were often subjected to attainder by a special Bill or Act passed
in Parliament called _Bills of Attainder_, the last being passed in 1798,
in the case of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of the Irish rebel leaders.

ATTAINT´, a writ at common law against a jury for a false verdict, finally
abolished in England in 1825.

ATTALE´A, a genus of American palms, comprising the piassava palm, which
produces coquilla-nuts.

ATT´ALUS, the names of three kings of ancient Pergamus (241-133 B.C.), the
last of whom bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. They were all patrons of
art and literature.

AT´TAR, in the East Indies, a general term for a perfume from flowers; in
Europe generally used only of the _attar_ or _otto of roses_, an essential
oil made from _Rosa centifolia_, the hundred-leaved or cabbage-rose, _R.
damasc[=e]na_, or damask-rose, _R. mosch[=a]ta_, or musk-rose, &c., 100,000
roses yielding only 180 grains of attar. Cashmere, Shiraz, and Damascus are
celebrated for its manufacture, and there are extensive rose farms in the
valley of Kezanlik in Roumelia and at Ghazipur in Benares. The oil is at
first greenish, but afterwards it presents various tints of green, yellow,
and red. It is concrete at all ordinary temperatures, but becomes liquid
about 84° F. It consists of two substances, a hydrocarbon and an oxygenated
oil, and is frequently adulterated with the oils of rhodium, sandal-wood,
and geranium, with the addition of camphor or spermaceti.

AT´TERBURY, Francis, an English prelate, born in 1662, and educated at
Westminster and Oxford. In 1687 he took his degree of M.A., and appeared as
a controversialist in a defence of the character of Luther, entitled,
_Considerations on the Spirit of Martin Luther_, &c. He also assisted his
pupil, the Hon. Charles Boyle, in his famous controversy with Bentley on
the _Epistles of Phalaris_. Having taken orders in 1691 he settled in
London, became chaplain to William and Mary, preacher of Bridewell, and
lecturer of St. Bride's. Controversy was congenial to him, and in 1706 he
commenced one with Dr. Wake, which lasted four years, on the rights,
privileges, and powers of convocations. For this service he received the
thanks of the lower house of convocation and the degree of Doctor of
Divinity from Oxford. Soon after the accession of Queen Anne he was made
Dean of Carlisle, aided in the defence of the famous Sacheverell, and wrote
_A Representation of the Present State of Religion_. In 1712 he was made
Dean of Christ Church, and in 1713 Bishop of Rochester and Dean of
Westminster. After the death of the queen in 1714 he distinguished himself
by his opposition to George I; and, having entered into a correspondence
with the Pretender's party, was apprehended in Aug., 1722, and committed to
the Tower. Being banished the kingdom, he settled in Paris, where he
chiefly occupied himself in study and in correspondence with men of
letters. But even here, in 1725, he was actively engaged in fomenting
discontent in the Scottish Highlands. He died in 1731, and his body was
privately interred in Westminster Abbey. His sermons and letters are marked
by ease and grace; but as a critic and a controversialist he is rather
dexterous and popular than accurate and profound.

ATTERCLIFFE, a parliamentary division of the borough of Sheffield.

ATTIC, an architectural term variously used. An _Attic base_ is a peculiar
kind of base, used by the ancient architects in the Ionic order and by
Palladio and some others in the Doric. An _Attic story_ is a low story in
the upper part of a house rising above the main portion of the building. In
ordinary language an attic is an apartment lighted by a window in the roof.

AT´TICA, a State of ancient Greece, the capital of which is Athens. The
territory was triangular in shape, with Cape Sunium (Colonna) as its apex
and the ranges of Mounts Cithæron and Parnes as its base. On the north
these ranges separated it from Boeotia; on the west it was bounded by
Megaris and the Saronic Gulf; on the east by the Ægean. Its most marked
physical divisions consisted of the highlands, midland district, and coast
district, with the two famous plains of Eleusis and of Athens. The
Cephissus and Ilissus, though small, were its chief streams; its principal
hills, Cithæron, Parnes, Hymettus, Pentelicus, and Laurium. Its soil has
probably undergone considerable deterioration, but produced good fruit,
especially olives and figs. These are still cultivated, as well as the vine
and cereals, but Attica is better suited for pasture than tillage.
According to tradition the earliest inhabitants of Attica lived in a savage
manner until the time of Cecrops, who came, 1550 B.C., with a colony from
Egypt, taught them all the essentials of civilization, and founded Athens.
One of Cecrops' descendants founded eleven other cities in the regions
round, and there followed a period of mutual hostility. To Theseus is
assigned the honour of uniting these cities in a confederacy, with Athens
as the capital, thus forming the Attic State. After the death of Codrus,
1068 B.C., the monarchy was abolished, and the government vested in archons
elected by the nobility, at first for life, in 752 B.C. for ten years, and
in 683 B.C. for one year only. The severe constitution of Draco was
succeeded in 594 by the milder code of Solon, the democratic elements of
which, after the brief tyranny of the Pisistratids, were emphasized and
developed by Clisthenes. He divided the people into ten classes, and made
the Senate consist of 500 persons, establishing as the Government an
oligarchy modified by popular control. Then came the splendid era of the
Persian War, which elevated Athens to the summit of fame. Miltiades at
Marathon, and Themistocles at Salamis, conquered the Persians by land and
by sea. The chief external danger being removed, the rights of the people
were enlarged; the archons and other magistrates were chosen from all
classes without distinction. The period from the Persian War to the time of
Alexander (500 to 336 B.C.) was most remarkable for the development of the
Athenian constitution. Attica appears to have contained a territory of
nearly 850 sq. miles, with some 500,000 inhabitants, 360,000 of whom were
slaves, while the inhabitants of the city numbered 180,000. Cimon and
Pericles (444 B.C.) raised Athens to its point of greatest splendour,
though under the latter began the Peloponnesian War, which ended with the
conquest of Athens by the Lacedæmonians. The succeeding tyranny of the
Thirty, under the protection of a Spartan garrison, was overthrown by
Thrasybulus, with a temporary partial restoration of the power of Athens;
but the battle of Cheronæa (338 B.C.) made Attica, in common with the rest
of Greece, a dependency of Macedon. The attempts at revolt after the death
of Alexander were crushed, and in 260 B.C. Attica was still under the sway
of Antigonus Gonatas, the Macedonian king. A period of freedom under the
shelter of the Achæan League then ensued, but their support of Mithridates
led, in 146 B.C., to the subjugation of the Grecian States by Rome. After
the division of the Roman Empire, Attica belonged to the Empire of the East
until, in A.D. 396, it was conquered by Alaric the Goth and the country
devastated. Attica and Boeotia now form a nome or province of the kingdom
of Greece, with a population of 407,063.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Frazer,
_Pausanias's Description of Greece_, vols. ii and v; C. Wordsworth, _Athens
and Attica_.

AT´TICUS, Titus Pomponius, a Roman of great wealth and culture, born 109
B.C., and died 32 B.C. On the death of his father he removed to Athens to
avoid participation in the civil war, to which his brother Sulpicius had
fallen a victim. There he so identified himself with Greek life and
literature as to receive the surname Atticus. It was his principle never to
mix in politics, and he lived undisturbed amid the strife of factions.
Sulla and the Marian party, Cæsar and Pompey, Brutus and Antony, were alike
friendly to him, and he was in favour with Augustus. Of his close
friendship with Cicero proof is given in the series of letters addressed to
him by Cicero. He married at the age of fifty-three, and had one daughter,
Pomponia, named by Cicero Atticula and Attica. He reached the age of
seventy-seven years without sickness, but, being then attacked by an
incurable disease, ended his life by voluntary starvation. He was a type of
the refined Epicurean, and an author of some contemporary repute, though
none of his works have reached us.--The name Atticus was given to Addison
by Pope, in a well-known passage (Prologue to the _Satires_, addressed to
Dr. Arbuthnot).

AT´TILA (in Ger. _Etzel_), the famous leader of the Huns, was the son of
Mundzuk, and the successor, in conjunction with his brother Bleda, of his
uncle Roua. The rule of the two leaders extended over a great part of
Northern Asia and Europe, and they threatened the Eastern Empire, and twice
compelled the weak Theodosius II to purchase an inglorious peace. Attila
caused his brother Bleda to be murdered (444), and in a short time extended
his dominion over all the peoples of Germany and exacted tribute from the
Eastern and Western emperors. The Vandals, the Ostrogoths, the Gepidæ, and
a part of the Franks united under his banners, and he speedily formed a
pretext for leading them against the Empire of the East. He laid waste all
the countries from the Black to the Adriatic Sea, and in three encounters
defeated the Emperor Theodosius, but could not take Constantinople. Thrace,
Macedonia, and Greece all submitted to the invader, who destroyed seventy
flourishing cities; and Theodosius was obliged to purchase a peace. Turning
to the west, the 'scourge of God', as his defeated enemies termed him,
crossed with an immense army the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Seine, came to
the Loire, and laid siege to Orleans. The inhabitants of this city repelled
the first attack, and the united forces of the Romans under Aetius, and of
the Visigoths under their king, Theodoric, compelled Attila to raise the
siege. He retreated to Champagne, and waited for the enemy in the plains of
Châlons. In apparent opposition to the prophecies of the soothsayers the
ranks of the Romans and Goths were broken; but when the victory of Attila
seemed assured, the Gothic prince Thorismond, the son of Theodoric, poured
down from the neighbouring height upon the Huns, who were defeated with
great slaughter. Rather irritated than discouraged, he sought in the
following year a new opportunity to seize upon Italy, and demanded Honoria,
the sister of Valentinian III, in marriage, with half the kingdom as a
dowry. When this demand was refused he conquered and destroyed Aquileia,
Padua, Vicenza, Verona, and Bergamo, laid waste the plains of Lombardy, and
was marching on Rome when Pope Leo I went with the Roman ambassadors to his
camp and succeeded in obtaining a peace. Attila went back to Hungary, and
died on the night of his marriage with Hilda or Ildico (453), either from
the bursting of a blood-vessel or by her hand. The description that
Jordanès (or Jornandes) has left us of him is in keeping with his
Kalmuck-Tartar origin. He had a large head, a flat nose, broad shoulders,
and a short and ill-formed body; but his eyes were brilliant, his walk
stately, and his voice strong and well-toned.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Thierry,
_Koenig Attila und seine Zeit_; E. Hutton, _Attila and the Huns_.

ATTILLY, a village in France. See _Scarpe, Battle of the_.

ATTLEBOROUGH, a manufacturing town of the United States, in Massachusetts.
Pop. 19,731.

AT´TOCK, a town and fort in Rawal Pindi district, Punjab, overhanging the
Indus at the point where it is joined by the Kabul River. It is at the head
of the steam navigation of the Indus, and is connected with Lahore by
railway. It is an important post on the military road to the frontier. Pop.
2822.

ATTOR´NEY, a person appointed to do something for and in the stead and name
of another. An attorney may have _general_ powers to act for another; or
his power may be _special_, and limited to a particular act or acts. A
special attorney is appointed by a deed called a _power_ or _letter of
attorney_, specifying the acts which he is authorized to do. An _attorney
at law_ is a person qualified to appear for another before a court of law
to prosecute or defend any action on behalf of his client. The term in
England was formerly applied especially to those practising before the
supreme courts of common law at Westminster, and corresponded to the term
_solicitor_ used in courts of Chancery; but this distinction was abolished
in 1873, and _solicitor_ is now the regular term for all such legal agents.
In the United States the term is in common use, and is wide enough to
include what in England would be called barristers (or counsel), in
Scotland advocates, having indeed the general sense of lawyer. In America
women are admitted as attorneys.

ATTORNEY-GENERAL, in England and Ireland, the first law-officer and legal
adviser of the Crown, acting on its behalf in its revenue and criminal
proceedings, carrying on prosecutions in crimes that have a public
character, guarding the interests of charitable endowments, and granting
patents. He is _ex officio_ the leader of the bar, and, as a member of
Parliament, has charge of all Government measures on legal questions. The
Solicitor-General holds a similar position, and may act in his place. In
Scotland the Attorney-General is called Lord-Advocate. There are also
Attorneys-General in the colonies. In the United States he is head of the
Department of Justice. The individual States have also an Attorney-General.

ATTRAC´TION, the tendency of all material bodies, whether masses or
particles, to approach each other, to unite, and to remain united. Newton
was the first to adopt the theory of a universal attractive force, and to
determine its laws. When bodies tend to come together from sensible
distances the tendency is termed either the attraction of _gravitation_,
_magnetism_, or _electricity_, according to circumstances; when the
attraction operates at insensible distances it is known as _adhesion_ with
respect to surfaces, as _cohesion_ with respect to the particles of a body,
and as _affinity_ when the particles of different bodies tend together. It
is by the attraction of gravitation that all bodies fall to the earth when
unsupported.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Newton, _Principia_; Thomson and Tait, _Natural
Philosophy_; Laplace, _Mécanique Céleste_; Poynting, _The Mean Density of
the Earth_.

ATTREK. See _Atrek_.

AT´TRIBUTE, in philosophy, a quality or property of a substance, as
whiteness or hardness. A substance is known to us only as a congeries of
attributes.

In the fine arts an attribute is a symbol regularly accompanying and
marking out some personage. Thus the caduceus, purse, winged hat, and
sandals are attributes of Mercury, the trampled dragon that of St. George.

ATTWOOD, George, F.R.S., an English mathematician, born 1746, died 1807,
best known by his invention, called after him _Attwood's Machine_, for
verifying the laws of falling bodies. It consists essentially of a
freely-moving pulley over which runs a fine cord with two equal weights
suspended from the ends. A small additional weight is laid upon one of
them, causing it to descend with uniform acceleration. Means are provided
by which the added weight can be removed at any point of the descent, thus
allowing the motion to continue from this point onward with uniform
velocity. See _Gravitation_.

ATYS, or ATTIS (at'is), in classical mythology, the shepherd lover of
Cyb[)e]le, who, having broken the vow of chastity which he made her,
castrated himself. In Asia Minor Atys seems to have been a deity, with
somewhat of the same character as Adonis. Catullus has written a celebrated
poem (Carmen 63) on the subject of Attis.

AUBAGNE ([=o]-b[.a]n-y[.e]), a town in France, department of
Bouches-du-Rhône, with manufactures of cottons, pottery, cloth. Pop. 8800.

AUBAINE, DROIT D' (drwä d[=o]-b[=a]n). See _Droit d'Aubaine_.

AUBE ([=o]b), a north-eastern French department; area 2326 sq. miles; pop.
227,745. The surface is undulating, and watered by the Aube, &c. The N. and
N.W. districts are bleak and infertile, the southern districts remarkably
fertile. A large extent of ground is under forests and vineyards, and the
soil is admirable for grain, pulse, and hemp. The chief manufactures are
worsted and hosiery. Troyes is the capital.--The River Aube, which gives
name to the department, rises in Haute-Marne, flows N.W., and after a
course of 113 miles joins the Seine.

AUBENAS ([=o]b-nä), a town of France, department Ardèche, with a trade in
coal, silk, &c. Pop. 7206.

AUBER ([=o]-b[=a]r), Daniel François Esprit, a French operatic composer,
born 1782, at Caen, in Normandy, died at Paris 1871. He was originally
intended for a mercantile career, but devoted himself to music, studying
under Cherubini. His first great success was his opera _La Bergère
Châtelaine_, produced in 1820. In 1822 he had associated himself with
Scribe as librettist, and other operas now followed in quick succession.
Chief among them were _Masaniello_ or _La Muette de Portici_ (1828), _Fra
Diavolo_ (1830), _Lestocq_ (1834), _L'Ambassadrice_ (1836), _Le Domino
Noir_ (1837), _Les Diamants de la Couronne_ (1841), _Marco Spada_ (1853),
_La Fiancée du Roi de Garbe_ (1864). Despite his success in _Masaniello_,
his peculiar field was comic opera, in which his charming melodies, bearing
strongly the stamp of the French national character, his uniform grace and
piquancy, won him a high place.

AUBERGINE ([=o]'b[.e]r-zh[=e]n), the fruit of the eggplant (q.v.).

AUBERVILLIERS ([=o]-b[=a]r-v[=e]l-y[=a]), a suburban locality of Paris,
with a fort belonging to the defensive works of the city. Pop. 37,558.

AUBIGNÉ, Merle d'. See _Merle d'Aubigné_.

AUBIN ([=o]-ba[n.]), a town of Southern France, department of Aveyron, 20
miles N.E. of Villefranche; mining district: coal, sulphur, alum, and iron.
Pop. 9574.

AU´BREY, John, F.R.S., an English antiquary, born in Wiltshire in 1625 or
1626, died about 1700. He was educated at Oxford; collected materials for
the _Monasticon Anglicanum_, and afforded important assistance to Wood, the
antiquary. He left large collections of manuscripts, which have been used
by subsequent writers. His _Miscellanies_ (London, 1696) contain much
curious information, but display credulity and superstition. His _Survey of
Surrey_ was incorporated in Rawlinson's _Natural History and Antiquities of
the County of Surrey_, which was published in 1719.

AU´BURN, the name of many places in America, the chief being a handsome
city of New York State, at the north end of Owasco Lake. It is chiefly
famous for its State prison, large enough to receive 1000 prisoners. In the
town or vicinity various manufactures are carried on. Pop. 36,142.--Another
Auburn is in Maine, on the Androscoggin River, a manufacturing town. Pop.
(1920), 16,985.

AUBUSSON ([=o]-b[.u]-s[=o]n), a town of the interior of France, department
Creuse, celebrated for its carpets. Pop. 7211.

AUBUSSON ([=o]-b[.u]-s[=o]n), Pierre d', grand-master of the knights of St.
John of Jerusalem, born in 1423 of a noble French family, served in early
life against the Turks, then entered the order of St. John, obtained a
commandery, was made grand-prior, and in 1476 succeeded the Grand-master
Orsini. In 1480 the Island of Rhodes, the head-quarters of the order, was
invaded by a Turkish army of 100,000 men. The town was besieged for two
months and then assaulted, but the Turks were obliged to retire with great
loss. He died at Rhodes in 1503.

AUCH ([=o]sh), a town in S.W. France, capital of department Gers; the seat
of an archbishop, with one of the finest Gothic cathedrals in France;
manufactures linens, leather, &c. Pop. 13,638.

AUCHENIA ([a:]-k[=e]'ni-a). See _Llama_.

AUCHTERAR´DER, a town, Perthshire, Scotland, with manufactures of tweeds,
tartans, &c. The opposition to the presentee to the church of Auchterarder
(1839) originated the struggle which ended in the formation of the Free
Church of Scotland. Pop. (1921), 3151.

AUCK´LAND, a town of New Zealand, in the North Island, founded in 1840, and
situated on Waitemata Harbour, one of the finest harbours of New Zealand,
where the island is only 6 miles across, there being another harbour
(Manukau) on the opposite side of the isthmus. At dead low water there is
sufficient depth in the harbour for the largest steamers. The working ship
channel has an average depth of 36 feet, and varies in width from 1 to 2
miles. The harbour has two good entrances, with a lighthouse; and is
defended by batteries. There are numerous wharves and jetties, and two
graving-docks, one of which--the Calliope Dock, opened in 1887--is one of
the largest in the whole of the Southern Seas. Its site is picturesque, the
streets are spacious, and the public buildings--churches, educational
establishments, including a university college--are numerous and handsome.
It has a large and increasing trade, there being connection with the chief
places on the island by rail, and regular communication with the other
ports of the colony, Australia, and Fiji by steam. It was formerly the
capital of the colony. Pop. (including suburbs) 157,750.--The provincial
district of Auckland forms the northern part of North Island, with an area
of 25,364 sq. miles. Pop. 308,766. The surface is very diversified;
volcanic phenomena are common, including geysers, hot lakes, &c.; rivers
are numerous; wool, timber, kauri-gum, &c., are exported. Much gold has
been obtained in the Thames Valley and elsewhere.

AUCKLAND, William Eden, Lord, an English statesman, born 1744; educated at
Eton and Oxford, called to the bar 1768, Under-Secretary of State 1772, and
in 1776 a lord of the Board of Trade. In 1778 he was nominated in
conjunction with Lord Howe and others to act as mediator between Britain
and the insurgent American colonies. He was afterwards Secretary of State
for Ireland, Ambassador Extraordinary to France, Ambassador Extraordinary
to the Netherlands, &c. He was raised to the peerage in 1788, and died in
1814.

AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group of islands about 180 miles S. of New Zealand,
discovered in 1806, and belonging to Britain. They are of volcanic origin
and fertile; and the largest, which is 30 miles by 15, has two good
harbours. There are no settled inhabitants.

AUCTION is a public sale to the party offering the best price where the
buyers bid against each other, or to the bidder who first accepts the terms
offered by the vendor where he sells by reducing his terms until someone
accepts them. The latter form is known as a _Dutch Auction_. A sale by
auction must be conducted in the most open and public manner possible; and
there must be no collusion on the part of the buyers. Puffing, or mock
bidding, to raise the value by apparent competition, is illegal.

AUCTIONEER´, a person who conducts sales by auction. It is his duty to
state the conditions of sale, to declare the respective biddings, and to
terminate the sale by _knocking down_ the thing sold to the highest bidder.
In Britain an auctioneer must have a licence (for which he pays £10),
renewable annually. Verbal declarations by an auctioneer are not suffered
to control the printed conditions of sale. The Auctioneers' Institute of
the United Kingdom was founded in 1886.

AU´CUBA, a genus of plants, ord. Cornaceæ, one species of which, _A.
japoníca_, a laurel-like shrub with spotted leaves, a native of Japan and
China, is now common in ornamental grounds in Europe. The flowers are
dioecious and inconspicuous. For a long time only the female plant,
introduced into Britain from Japan in 1783, was cultivated, but in 1850 the
male was introduced, and the fruit, which consists of beautiful coral-red
berries, is now frequently developed, and adds greatly to the
attractiveness of the plant. _A. himalaica_, also brought to Europe, is
less hardy.

AUDE ([=o]d), a maritime department in the S. of France; area 2448 sq.
miles, mainly covered by hills belonging to the Pyrenees or the Cevennes,
and traversed W. to E. by a valley drained by the Aude. The loftier
districts are bleak and unproductive; the others tolerably fertile,
yielding good crops of grain. The wines, especially the white wines, are
famous; olives and other fruits are also cultivated. The manufactures are
varied; the trade is facilitated by the Canal du Midi. Carcassonne is the
capital; other towns are Narbonne and Castelnaudary. Pop. 286,552. The
River Aude rises in the Eastern Pyrenees, and, flowing nearly parallel to
the Canal du Midi, falls into the Mediterranean after a course of 130
miles.

AUDEBERT ([=o]d-b[=a]r), Jean Baptiste, French engraver and naturalist,
born in 1759, died in 1800; published _Histoire Naturelle des Singes, des
Makis, et des Galéopithèques_; _Histoire des Colibris_, &c.; and began
_Histoire des Grimpereaux et des Oiseaux de Paradis_, finished by
Desray--all finely-illustrated works.

AU´DENSHAW, a town of England, in Lancashire, 4 miles E. of Manchester,
with cotton-mills, engineering-works, &c. Pop. (1921), 7878.

AUDIOMETER, an instrument for the measurement of hearing, invented by
Professor D. E. Hughes, of London, in 1879.

AU´DIPHONE, an acoustic instrument by means of which deaf persons are
enabled to hear. It consists essentially of a fan-shaped plate of hardened
caoutchouc, which is bent to a greater or less degree by strings, and is
very sensitive to sound-waves. When used, the up edge is pressed against
the upper front teeth, with the convexity outward, and the sounds being
collected are conveyed from the teeth to the auditory nerve without passing
through the external ear.

AU´DIT, an examination into accounts or dealings with money or property,
along with vouchers or other documents connected therewith, especially by
proper officers, or persons appointed for the purpose. Also the occasion of
receiving the rents from the tenants on an estate.

AU´DITOR, a person appointed to examine accounts, public or private, to see
whether they are correct and in accordance with vouchers. In Britain the
public accounts are audited by the Exchequer and Audit Department, Somerset
House, at the head of it being a comptroller and auditor-general, and an
assistant-comptroller and auditor, with a large staff of clerks. In
Scotland there is an auditor attached to the Court of Session appointed to
tax costs in litigation.

AUDITORY NERVES. See _Ear_.

AUDLEY, a town (urban district) of England, in Staffordshire, to the
north-west of the district of The Potteries, with coal and iron mines. Pop.
(1921), 14,751.

AUDRAN ([=o]-drän), Gerard, a celebrated French engraver, born 1640;
studied at Rome; was appointed engraver to Louis XIV; died at Paris 1703.
He engraved Le Brun's _Battles of Alexander_, two of Raphael's cartoons,
Poussin's _Coriolanus_, &c., and takes a first place among historical
engravers. Other members of the family were successful in the same
profession: Benoît, 1661-1721; Claude _père_, 1592-1677; Claude _fils_,
1640-84; Germain, 1631-1710; Jean, 1667-1756.

AU´DUBON, John James, an American naturalist of French extraction, born
near New Orleans in 1775, was educated in France, and studied painting
under David. In 1798 he settled in Pennsylvania, but having a great love
for ornithology he set out in 1810 with his wife and child, descended the
Ohio, and for many years roamed the forests in every direction, drawing the
birds which he shot. In 1826 he came to England, exhibited his drawings in
Liverpool, Manchester, and Edinburgh, and finally published them in an
unrivalled work of double-folio size, with 435 coloured plates of birds the
size of life (_The Birds of America_, 4 vols., 1827-39), with an
accompanying text (_Ornithological Biography_, 5 vols., 8vo, partly written
by Professor Macgillivray). On his final return to America he laboured with
Dr. Bachman on a finely-illustrated work entitled _The Quadrupeds of
America_ (1843-50, 3 vols.). He died at New York in 1851.

AUERBACH, a manufacturing town of Germany, in Saxony. Pop. 2200.

AUERBACH (ou'[.e]r-bä_h_), Berthold, a distinguished German author of
Jewish extraction, born 1812, died 1882. He abandoned the study of Jewish
theology in favour of philosophy, publishing in 1836 his _Judaism and
Modern Literature_, and a translation of the works of Spinoza with critical
biography (5 vols., 1841). His later works were tales or novels, and his
_Village Tales of the Black Forest_ (_Schwarzwälder Dorfgeschichten_), as
well as others of his writings, have been translated into several
languages. Other works: _Barfüssele_, _Joseph im Schnee_, _Edelweiss_, _Auf
der Höhe_, _Das Landhaus am Rhein_, _Waldfried_, _Brigitta_.

AUERSTÄDT (ou'[.e]r-stet), battle at, 14th Oct., 1806. See _Jena_.

AUGEAS ([a:]-j[=e]'as), a fabulous king of Elis, in Greece, whose stable
contained 3000 oxen, and had not been cleaned for thirty years. Hercules
undertook to clear away the filth in one day in return for a tenth part of
the cattle, and executed the task by turning the River Alph[=e]us through
it. Augeas, having broken the bargain, was deposed and slain by Hercules.

AUGER ([a:]'g[.e]r), an instrument for boring holes considerably larger
than those bored by a gimlet, used by carpenters and joiners, ship-wrights,
&c.

AUGEREAU ([=o]zh-r[=o]), Pierre François Charles, Duke of Castiglione,
Marshal of France, son of a mason, born at Paris 1757. He adopted the life
of a soldier, and by 1796 had reached the rank of general of division in
the army of Italy. At Casale, Lodi, Castiglione, and Arcole he highly
distinguished himself. In 1797 he was at Paris, and was the instrument of
the _coup d'état_ of the 18th of Fructidor (4th Sept.). In 1799 he was
chosen a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He then obtained the
command of the army in Holland, and fought till the end of the campaign. In
1803 he was appointed to lead the army collected at Bayonne against
Portugal. In 1804 he was named marshal of the empire, and grand officer of
the Legion of Honour. He subsequently took part in the battles of Jena and
Eylau, held a command in Spain, and in July, 1813, led the army in Bavaria
against Saxony, taking part in the battle of Leipzig. On Napoleon's
abdication he submitted to Louis XVIII, who named him a peer. He died 1816.

AUGHRIM, a village in Co. Galway, Ireland, memorable for the decisive
victory gained in the neighbourhood, 12th July, 1691, by the forces of
William of Orange, under Ginkel, over the Irish and French troops, under
St. Ruth. The total English casualties were about 1700, while the Irish
lost at least 7000 men as well as all their war material. This battle
caused the complete submission of the country.

AUGIER ([=o]-zhi-[=a]), Emile, noted French dramatist, born 1820, came
young to Paris, entered a lawyer's office, but relinquished law for
literature; elected an academician in 1857, in 1868 a commander of the
Legion of Honour. His first and one of his best dramas was the comedy _La
Ciguë_ (1844); among his other works are _L'Aventurière_, _Gabrielle_,
_Paul Forestier_, _Le Mariage d'Olympe_, _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_, _Les
Effrontés_, _Le Fils de Giboyer_, _Les Lions et les Renards_, _Maître
Guérin_, _Les Fourchambault_, &c. He died in 1889.

AUGITE ([a:]'j[=i]t) is the commonest member of the pyroxene group of
minerals; a constituent of many igneous rocks, such as basalt, gabbro, &c.
It crystallizes in short almost rectangular prisms of the monoclinic
system, modifying planes causing cross-sections to be eight-sided. Its
specific gravity is about 3.2; lustre vitreous; hardness sufficient to
scratch glass; colour usually dark. It is a silicate of calcium, magnesium,
iron, and aluminium, and alters in geological time by slow
recrystallization into hornblende, possibly with some loss of calcium. It
may be imitated by the artificial fusion of its constituents. A
transparent, green, non-aluminous variety found at Zillertal, in Tyrol, is
used in jewellery.

AUGSBURG (ougz'b[u:]r_h_; Lat. _Augusta Vindelicorum_), a city of Bavaria,
at the junction of the Wertach and Lech, antique in appearance, but with
some fine streets, squares, and handsome or interesting buildings,
including a splendid town hall, a lofty belfry (Perlach Tower), cathedral,
with paintings by Domenichino, Holbein, &c.; St. Ulrich's Church; the
bishop's palace, where the Augsburg Confession was presented to the Diet,
afterwards a royal residence; the Fugger Palace, or mansion of the
celebrated Fugger family; the public library; the theatre; the Academy of
Arts; and the Fuggerei, a separate quarter of the city, consisting of
fifty-three small houses, tenanted at a merely nominal rent by indigent
Roman Catholics. Augsburg was a renowned commercial centre in the Middle
Ages, and is still an important emporium of South German and Italian trade;
industries: cotton spinning and weaving, dyeing, woollen manufacture,
machinery and metal goods, books and printing, chemicals, &c. The Emperor
Augustus established a colony here about 12 B.C. In 1276 it became a free
city, and, besides being a great mart for the commerce between the north
and south of Europe, it was a great centre of German art in the Middle
Ages. It early took a conspicuous part in the Reformation. (See next
article.) In 1806 it was incorporated in Bavaria. Pop. (1919), 154,555.

AUGSBURG CONFESSION, a document which was presented by the Protestants at
the Diet of Augsburg, 1530, to the Emperor Charles V and the Diet, and
being signed by the Protestant States was adopted as their creed. Luther
made the original draft; but as its style appeared too violent it was given
to Melanchthon for amendment. The original is to be found in the imperial
Austrian archives. Afterwards Melanchthon arbitrarily altered some of the
articles, and there arose a division between those who held the original
and those who held the altered Augsburg Confession. The former is received
by the Lutherans, the latter by the German Reformed.

AU´GURS, a board or college of diviners who, amongst the Romans, predicted
future events and announced the will of the gods from the occurrence of
certain signs. These consisted of signs in the sky, especially thunder and
lightning; signs from the flight and cries of birds; from the feeding of
the sacred chickens; from the course taken or sounds uttered by various
quadrupeds or by serpents; from accidents or occurrences, such as spilling
the salt, sneezing, &c. The answers of the augurs as well as the signs by
which they were governed were called _auguries_, but bird-predictions were
properly termed _auspices_. Nothing of consequence could be undertaken
without consulting the augurs, and by the mere utterance of the words _alio
die_ ('meet on another day') they could dissolve the assembly of the people
and annul all decrees passed at the meeting.

AU´GUST, the eighth month from January. It was the sixth of the Roman year,
and hence was called _Sext[=i]lis_ till the Emperor Augustus affixed to it
his own name.

AUGUS´TA, the name of many ancient places, as Augusta Trevirorum, now
_Trèves_; Augusta Taurinorum, now _Turin_; Augusta Vindelicorum, now
_Augsburg_; &c.

AUGUSTA (ou-g[u:]s't[.a]), or AGOS´TA, a seaport in the south-east of
Sicily, 12 miles north of Syracuse. It exports salt, oil, honey, &c. Pop.
17,250.

AUGUS´TA, capital of Maine, United States, on the River Kennebec, which is
crossed by a bridge and is navigable for small vessels 43 miles from its
mouth, while a dam enables steamboats to ply for 20 miles farther up and
furnishes immense water-power. Pop. (1920), 14,144.

AUGUSTA, the capital of Richmond county, Georgia, United States, on the
left bank of the Savannah River, 231 miles from its mouth; well built, and
connected with the river by high-level canals; an important manufacturing
centre, having cotton-mills, machine-shops, and railroad works, &c. Pop.
(1920), 52,548.

AU´GUSTINE (Aurelius Augustinus), ST., a renowned father of the Christian
Church, was born at Tagaste, in Africa, in 354, his mother Monica being a
Christian, his father Patricius a pagan. His parents sent him to Carthage
to complete his education, but he disappointed their expectations by his
neglect of serious study and his devotion to pleasure. A lost book of
Cicero's, called _Hortensius_, led him to the study of philosophy; but
dissatisfied with this he went over to the Manichæans. He was one of their
disciples for nine years, but left them, went to Rome, and thence to Milan,
where he announced himself as a teacher of rhetoric. St. Ambrose, the
bishop of this city, converted him to the faith of his boyhood, and the
reading of Paul's _Epistles_ wrought an entire change in his life and
character. He retired into solitude, and prepared himself for baptism,
which he received in his thirty-third year from the hands of Ambrose.
Returning to Africa, he sold his estate and gave the proceeds to the poor,
retaining only enough to support him. At the desire of the people of Hippo,
Augustine became the assistant of the bishop of that town, preached with
extraordinary success, and in 395 succeeded to the see. He entered into a
warm controversy with Pelagius concerning the doctrines of free-will,
grace, and predestination, and wrote treatises concerning them, but of his
various works his _Confessions_ is most secure of immortality. He died 28th
Aug., 430, while Hippo was besieged by the Vandals. He was a man of great
enthusiasm, self-devotion, zeal for truth, and powerful intellect, and
though there have been fathers of the Church more learned, none have
wielded a more powerful influence. His doctrine of grace, which was an
important contribution to Christian thought, triumphed at last in the
Reformation and evangelical religion. His writings are partly
autobiographical, as the _Confessions_, partly polemical, homiletic, or
exegetical. The greatest is the _City of God_ (_De Civitate Dei_), a
vindication of Christianity.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Joseph McCabe, _St. Augustine
and his Age_; Nourrisson, _La Philosophie de St. Augustin_.

AU´GUSTINE, or AUSTIN, ST., the _Apostle of the English_, first Archbishop
of Canterbury, flourished at the close of the sixth century, was sent, in
596, with forty monks by Pope Gregory I to introduce Christianity into
Saxon England, and was kindly received by Ethelbert, King of Kent, whom he
converted, baptising 10,000 of his subjects in one day. In acknowledgment
of his tact and success Augustine received the archiepiscopal pall from the
Pope, with instructions to establish twelve sees in his province, but he
could not persuade the British bishops in Wales to unite with the new
English Church. He died in 604 or 605. Cf. Sir H. H. Howorth, _St.
Augustine of Canterbury_.

AU´GUSTINS, or AUGUSTINES, members of several monastic fraternities who
follow rules framed by the great St. Augustine, or deduced from his
writings, of which the chief are the Canons Regular of St. Augustine, or
Austin Canons, and the Begging Hermits or Austin Friars. The Austin Canons
were introduced into Britain about 1100, and had about 170 houses in
England and about twenty-five in Scotland. They took the vows of chastity
and poverty, and their habit was a long black cassock with a white rochet
over it, having over that a black cloak and hood. The Austin Friars,
originally hermits, were a much more austere body, went barefooted, and
formed one of the four orders of mendicants. An order of nuns had also the
name of Augustines. Their garments, at first black, were afterwards violet.

AUGUSTO´VO, a town of Poland, formerly in Russia, in the government of
Suwalki, founded in 1557 by Sigismund II. Pop. 11,797. The battle of
Augustovo was fought between the Russians and the Germans between 14th Sept
and 3rd Oct., 1914.

AUGUS´TULUS, Romulus, the last of the Western Roman emperors; reigned for
one year (475-6), when he was overthrown by Odoacer and banished.

AUGUS´TUS, Gaius Julius Cæsar Octavianus (originally called Gaius
Octavius), Roman emperor, was the son of Gaius Octavius and Atia, a
daughter of Julia, the sister of Julius Cæsar. He was born 63 B.C., and
died A.D. 14. Octavius was at Apollonia, in Epirus, when he received news
of the death of his uncle (44 B.C.), who had previously adopted him as his
son. He returned to Rome to claim Cæsar's property and avenge his death,
and now took, according to usage, his uncle's name with the surname
Octavianus. He was aiming secretly at the chief power, but at first he
joined the republican party, and assisted at the defeat of Antony at
Mutina. He got himself chosen consul in 43. Soon after the second
triumvirate was formed between him and Antony and Lepidus, and this was
followed by the conscription and assassination of three hundred Senators
and two thousand knights of the party opposed to the triumvirate. Next year
Octavianus and Antony defeated the republican army under Brutus and Cassius
at Philippi. The victors now divided the Roman world between them,
Octavianus getting the West, Antony the East, and Lepidus Africa. Sextus
Pompeius, who had made himself formidable at sea, had now to be put down;
and Lepidus, who had hitherto retained an appearance of power, was deprived
of all authority (36 B.C.) and retired into private life. Antony and
Octavianus now shared the Empire between them; but while the former, in the
East, gave himself up to a life of luxury, and alienated the Romans by his
alliance with Cleopatra and his adoption of Oriental manners, Octavianus
skilfully cultivated popularity, and soon declared war ostensibly against
the Queen of Egypt. The naval victory of Actium, in which the fleet of
Antony and Cleopatra was defeated, made Octavianus master of the world, 31
B.C. He returned to Rome, 29 B.C., celebrated a splendid triumph, and
caused the temple of Janus to be closed in token of peace being restored.
Gradually all the highest offices of State, civil and religious, were
united in his hands, and the new title of Augustus was also assumed by him,
being formally conferred by the Senate in 27 B.C. Great as was the power
given to him, he exercised it with wise moderation, and kept up the show of
a republican form of government. Under him successful wars were carried on
in Africa and Asia (against the Parthians), in Gaul and Spain, in Pannonia,
Dalmatia, &c.; but the defeat of Varus by the Germans under Arminius with
the loss of three legions, A.D. 9, was a great blow to him in his old age.
Many useful decrees proceeded from him, and various abuses were abolished.
He gave a new form to the Senate, employed himself in improving the morals
of the people, enacted laws for the suppression of luxury, introduced
discipline into the armies, and order into the games of the circus. He
adorned Rome in such a manner that it was said: "He found it of brick, and
left it of marble". The people erected altars to him, and, by a decree of
the Senate, the month Sextilis was called _Augustus_ (our August). He was a
patron of literature; Virgil and Horace were befriended by him, and their
works and those of their contemporaries are the glory of the _Augustan
Age_. His death, which took place at Nola, plunged the Empire into the
greatest grief. He was thrice married, but had no son, and was succeeded by
his stepson Tiberius, whose mother Livia he had married after prevailing on
her husband to divorce her.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. B. Firth, _Augustus Cæsar_
(in Heroes of the Nations series); E. S. Shuckburgh, _Augustus_.

AUGUSTUS II (or FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I), Elector of Saxony and King of
Poland, second son of John George III, Elector of Saxony, was born at
Dresden in 1670, died at Warsaw 1733. He succeeded his brother in the
Electorate in 1694, and the Polish throne having become vacant, in 1696, by
the death of John Sobieski, Augustus presented himself as a candidate for
it and was successful. He joined with Peter the Great in the war against
Charles XII of Sweden, invaded Livonia, but was defeated by Charles near
Riga, and at Clissow, between Warsaw and Cracow. In 1704 he was deposed,
and two years later formally resigned the crown to Stanislaus I, now
devoting himself to his Saxon dominions. In 1709, after the defeat of
Charles at Poltava, the Poles recalled Augustus, who united himself anew
with Peter. The two monarchs, in alliance with Denmark, sent troops into
Pomerania, but the Swedish general Steinbock defeated the allies at
Gadebusch, 20th Dec., 1712. The death of Charles XII put an end to the war,
and Augustus concluded a peace with Sweden. A confederation was now formed
in Poland against the Saxon troops, but through the mediation of Peter an
arrangement was concluded by which the Saxon troops were removed from the
kingdom. Augustus now gave himself up to voluptuousness and a life of
pleasure. His Court was one of the most splendid and polished in Europe.
The Poles yielded but too readily to the example of their king, and the
last years of his reign were characterized by boundless luxury and
corruption of manners. His wife left him one son. The Countess of
Königsmark bore him the celebrated commander Marshal Saxe (Maurice of
Saxony).

AUGUSTUS III (or FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II), Elector of Saxony and King of
Poland, son of Augustus II, born at Dresden 1696, succeeded his father as
Elector in 1733, and was chosen King of Poland through the influence of
Austria and Russia. He closely followed the example of his father,
distinguishing himself by the splendour of his feasts and the extravagance
of his Court. He preferred Dresden to Warsaw, and through his long absence
from Poland the government sank into entire inactivity. During the first
Silesian war he formed a secret alliance with Austria. The consequence was
that during the second Silesian war Frederick the Great of Prussia pushed
on into Saxony, and occupied the capital, from which Augustus fled. By the
peace of Dresden, 25th Dec., 1745, he was reinstated in the possession of
Saxony. In 1756 he was involved anew in a war against Prussia. When
Frederick declined his proposal of neutrality he left Dresden, and entered
the camp at Pirna, where 17,000 Saxon troops were assembled. Frederick
surrounded the Saxons, who were obliged to surrender, and Augustus fled to
Poland. On the threat of invasion by Russia he returned to Dresden, where
he died in 1763. His son, Frederick Christian, succeeded him as Elector of
Saxony, and Stanislaus Poniatowski as King of Poland.

[Illustration: Razor-bill (_Alca torda_)]

AUK, a name of certain swimming birds, family Alcidæ, including the great
auk, the little auk, the puffin, &c. The genus Alca, or auks proper,
contains only two species, the great auk (_Alca impennis_), and the
razor-bill (_Alca torda_). The great auk or gair-fowl, a bird about 3 feet
in length, used to be plentiful in northerly regions, and also visited the
British shores, but has become extinct. Some seventy skins, about as many
eggs, with bones representing perhaps a hundred individuals, are preserved
in various museums. Though the largest species of the family, the wings
were only 6 inches from the carpal joint to the tip, totally useless for
flight, but employed as fins in swimming, especially under water. The tail
was about 3 inches long; the beak was high, short, and compressed; the
head, neck, and upper parts were blackish; a large spot under each eye, and
most of the under parts white. Its legs were placed so far back as to cause
it to sit nearly upright. The razor-bill is about 15 inches in length, and
its wings are sufficiently developed to be used for flight. It is found in
numbers on some parts of the British shores, as the Isle of Man.

AULAP´OLAY, or ALLEPPI, a seaport on the south-west coast of Hindustan,
Travancore, between the sea and a lagoon, with a safe roadstead all the
year round; exports timber, coir, coconuts, &c. Pop. 24,918.

AULD LICHTS. See _Presbyterianism_.

AULIC (Lat. _aula_, a court or hall), an epithet given to a council (the
_Reichshofrath_) in the old German Empire, one of the two supreme courts of
the German Empire, the other being the court of the imperial chamber
(_Reichskammergericht_). It had not only concurrent jurisdiction with the
latter court, but in many cases exclusive jurisdiction, in all feudal
processes, and in criminal affairs, over the immediate feudatories of the
Emperor and in affairs which concerned the imperial Government.

AU´LIS, in ancient Greece, a seaport in Boeotia, on the strait called
Euripus, between Boeotia and Euboea. See _Iphigenia_.

AULLAGAS (ou-lyä'gäs), a salt lake of Bolivia, which receives the surplus
waters of Lake Titicaca through the Rio Desaguadero, and has only one
perceptible insignificant outlet, so that what becomes of its superfluous
water is still a matter of uncertainty.

AULNOY ([=o]-nwä), Countess d', French writer, born 1650, died 1705, was
the author of _Contes des Fées_ (_Fairy Tales_), many of which, such as
_The White Cat_, _The Yellow Dwarf_, &c., have been translated into
English. She also wrote a number of novels, historical memoirs, &c.

AUMALE ([=o]-mäl), a small French town, department of Seine Inférieure, 35
miles N.E. of Rouen, which has given titles to several notables in French
history.--Jean d'Arcourt, Eighth Count d'Aumale, fought at Agincourt, and
defeated the English at Gravelle (1423).--Claude II, Duc d'Aumale, one of
the chief instigators of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, was killed
1573.--Charles de Lorraine, Duc d'Aumale, was an ardent partisan of the
League in the politico-religious French wars of the sixteenth
century.--Henri-Eugene-Philippe Louis d'Orleans, Duc d'Aumale, son of Louis
Philippe, king of the French, was born in 1822. In 1847 he succeeded
Marshal Bugeaud as Governor-General of Algeria, where he had distinguished
himself in the war against Abd-el-Kader. After the revolution of 1848 he
retired to England; but he returned to France in 1871, and was elected a
member of the Assembly; became Inspector-General of the army in 1879, and
was expelled along with the other royal princes in 1886, but was allowed to
return. Author of a _History of the House of Condé_, &c. He died in 1897.

AUN´GERVILLE, Richard, known as Richard de Bury (from his birthplace Bury
St. Edmund's), English statesman, bibliographer, and correspondent of
Petrarch, born 1281, died 1345. He entered the order of Benedictine monks,
and became tutor to the Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward III. Promoted to
several offices of dignity, he ultimately became Bishop of Durham, and Lord
Chancellor of England. During his frequent embassies to the Continent he
made the acquaintance of many of the eminent men of the day. He was a
diligent collector of books, and formed a library at Oxford. Author of
_Philobiblon_, printed at Cologne in 1473; _Epistoloe Familiarium_,
including letters to Petrarch, &c.

AURANGABAD´, a town of India, in the territory of the Nizam of Hyderabad,
175 miles from Bombay. It contains a ruined palace of Aurangzib and a
mausoleum erected to the memory of his favourite wife. It was formerly a
considerable trading centre, but its commercial importance decreased when
Hyderabad became the capital of the Nizam. Pop. 34,000.

AURANGZIB ('ornament of the throne'), one of the greatest of the Mogul
emperors of Hindustan, born in Oct. 1618 or 1619. When he was nine years
old his weak and unfortunate father, Shah Jehan, succeeded to the throne.
Aurangzib was distinguished, when a youth, for his serious look, his
frequent prayers, his love of solitude, his profound hypocrisy, and his
deep plans. In his twentieth year he raised a body of troops by his address
and good fortune, and obtained the government of the Deccan. He stirred up
dissensions between his brothers, made use of the assistance of one against
the other, and finally shut his father up in his harem, where he kept him
prisoner. He then murdered his relatives one after the other, and in 1659
ascended the throne. Notwithstanding the means by which he had got
possession of power, he governed with much wisdom. Two of his sons, who
endeavoured to form a party in their own favour, he caused to be arrested
and put to death by slow poison. He carried on many wars, conquered
Golconda and Bijapur, and drove out, by degrees, the Mahrattas from their
country. After his death, on 4th March, 1707, the Mogul Empire declined.

AURANTIA´CEÆ, the orange tribe, a nat. ord. of plants, polypetalous
dicotyledons, with leaves containing a fragrant essential oil in
transparent dots, and a superior pulpy fruit, originally natives of India;
examples comprise the orange, lemon, lime, citron, and shaddock.

AURAY ([=o]-r[=a]), a seaport of North-West France, department Morbihan,
with a deaf and dumb institute, and within 2 miles of St. Anne of Auray, a
famous place of pilgrimage. Pop. 6653.

AURE´LIAN, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, Emperor of Rome, of humble origin,
was born about A.D. 212, rose to the highest rank in the army, and on the
death of Claudius II (270) was chosen emperor. He delivered Italy from the
barbarians (Alemanni and Marcomanni), and conquered the famous Zenobia,
Queen of Palmyra. He followed up his victories by the reformation of
abuses, and the restoration throughout the Empire of order and regularity.
He lost his life, A.D. 275, by assassination, when heading an expedition
against the Persians.

AURE´LIUS ANTONI´NUS, Marcus, often called simply MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman
emperor and philosopher, son-in-law, adopted son, and successor of
Antoninus Pius, born A.D. 121, succeeded to the throne 161, died 180. His
name originally was Marcus Annius Verus. He voluntarily shared the
government with Lucius Verus, whom Antoninus Pius had also adopted. Brought
up and instructed by Plutarch's nephew, Sextus, the orator Herodes Atticus,
and L. Volusius Mecianus, the jurist, he had become acquainted with learned
men, and formed a particular love for the Stoic philosophy. A war with
Parthia broke out in the year of his accession, and did not terminate till
166. A confederacy of the northern tribes now threatened Italy, while a
frightful pestilence, brought from the East with the army, raged in Rome
itself. Both emperors set out in person against the rebellious tribes. In
169 Verus died, and the sole command of the war devolved on Marcus
Aurelius, who prosecuted it with the utmost rigour, and nearly exterminated
the Marcomanni. His victory over the Quadi (174) is connected with a famous
legend. Dion Cassius tells us that the twelfth legion of the Roman army was
shut up in a defile, and reduced to great straits for want of water, when a
body of Christians enrolled in the legion prayed for relief. Not only was
rain sent, which enabled the Romans to quench their thirst, but a fierce
storm of hail beat upon the enemy, accompanied by thunder and lightning,
which so terrified them that a complete victory was obtained, and the
legion was ever after called _The Thundering Legion_ (_Legio Fulminatrix_).
After this victory the Marcomanni, the Quadi, as well as the rest of the
barbarians, sued for peace. The sedition of the Syrian governor Avidius
Cassius, with whom Faustina, the empress, was in treasonable communication,
called off the emperor from his conquests, but before he reached Asia the
rebel was assassinated. Aurelius returned to Rome, after visiting Egypt and
Greece, but soon new incursions of the Marcomanni compelled him once more
to take the field. He defeated the enemy several times, but was taken sick
at Sirmium, and died at Vindobona (Vienna) in 180. His only extant work is
the _Meditations_, written in Greek. It has been translated into most
modern languages (into English first by George Long in 1862, and by J.
Jackson in 1906). This may be regarded as a manual of practical morality,
in which wisdom, gentleness, and benevolence are combined in the most
fascinating manner. Many believe it to have been intended for the
instruction of his son Commodus. Aurelius was one of the best emperors Rome
ever saw, although his philosophy and the magnanimity of his character did
not restrain him from the persecution of the Christians, whose religious
doctrines he was led to believe were subversive of good government, and
whom he charged, therefore, with obstinacy, the greatest social crime in
the eyes of Roman authority. Marcus Aurelius was not so much a philosopher
as a seeker after righteousness.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. B. Watson, _M. Aurelius
Antoninus_; Sir Samuel Dill, _Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius_;
Translations of the _Meditations_ by G. H. Kendall, and J. Jackson.

AURENGZEBE. See _Aurangzib_.

AURE´OLA, or AU´REOLE, in paintings, an illumination surrounding the whole
figure of a holy person, as Christ, a saint, or a martyr, intended to
represent a luminous cloud or haze emanating from him. It is generally of
an oval shape, or may be nearly or quite circular, and is of similar
character with the nimbus surrounding the heads of sacred personages.

AU´R[)E]US, the first gold coin which was coined at Rome, 207 B.C. Its
value varied at different times, from about 12s. to £1, 4_s_. See
_Numismatics_.

AURICH (ou´r[=e]_h_), a German town, province of Hanover. Pop. 6070.

AU´RICLE. See _Heart_.

AURIC´ULA, a garden flower derived from the yellow _Prim[)u]la
Auric[)u]la_, found native in the Swiss Alps, and sometimes called
bear's-ear from the shape of its leaves. It has for over three centuries
been an object of cultivation by florists, who have succeeded in raising
from seed a great number of beautiful varieties. Its leaves are obovate,
entire or serrated, and fleshy, varying, however, in form in the numerous
varieties. The flowers are borne on an erect umbel and central scape with
involucre. The original colours of the corolla are yellow, purple, and
variegated, and there is a mealy covering on the surface. There are
auricula clubs and societies in the north of England.

AURICULAR CONFESSION. See _Confession_.

AU´RIFABER, the Latinized name of Johann Goldschmidt, one of Luther's
companions, born 1519, became pastor at Erfurt in 1566, died there in 1579.
He collected the unpublished MSS. of Luther, and edited the _Epistolæ_ and
the _Table-talk_.

AURIFLAMME. See _Oriflamme_.

AURI´GA, in astronomy, the _Waggoner_, a constellation of the northern
hemisphere, containing Capella, a star of the first magnitude. _Nova
Aurigæ,_ a temporary star, appeared in the constellation in 1892.

AURILLAC ([=o]-r[=e]-y[.a]k), a town of France, capital of the department
Cantal, in a valley watered by the Jordanne, about 270 miles S. of Paris;
well built, with wide streets; copper-works, paper-works, manufactures of
lace, tapestry, leather, &c. Pop. 18,036.

AUROCHS ([a:]'roks), a species of wild bull or buffalo, the _urus_ of
Cæsar, _bison_ of Pliny, the European bison, _Bos_ or _Bonassus Bison_ of
modern naturalists. The animal was once abundant in Europe, but were it not
for the protection afforded by the late Emperor of Russia to a few herds
which inhabit the forests of Lithuania it would before this have been
extinct.

AURO´RA, an American city, of Kane county, Illinois, on Fox River, 40 miles
W. by S. of Chicago; it has flourishing manufactures, railway-works, and a
considerable trade. Pop. (1920), 36,265.

AURO´RA (Gr. _E[=o]s_), in classical mythology, the goddess of the dawn,
daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios and Sel[=e]n[=e] (Sun
and Moon). She was represented as a charming figure, 'rosy-fingered', clad
in a yellow robe, rising at dawn from the ocean and driving her chariot
through the heavens. Among the mortals whose beauty captivated the goddess,
poets mentioned Orion, Tith[=o]nus, and Ceph[)a]lus.

AURO´RA, one of the New Hebrides Islands, S. Pacific Ocean, about 30 miles
long by 5 wide. It rises to a considerable elevation, and is covered with a
luxuriant vegetation.

[Illustration: Aurora Borealis]

AURO´RA BOREA´LIS, a luminous meteoric phenomenon appearing in the north,
most frequently in high latitudes, the corresponding phenomenon in the
southern hemisphere being called _Aurora Australis_, and both being also
called _Polar Light_, _Streamers_, &c. The northern aurora has been far the
most observed and studied. It usually manifests itself by streams of light
ascending towards the zenith from a dusky line of cloud or haze a few
degrees above the horizon, and stretching from the north towards the west
and east, so as to form an arc with its ends on the horizon, and its
different parts and rays are constantly in motion. Sometimes it appears in
detached places; at other times it almost covers the whole sky. It assumes
many shapes and a variety of colours, from a pale red or yellow to a deep
red or blood colour; and in far northern latitudes serves to illuminate the
earth and cheer the gloom of the long winter nights. The appearance of the
aurora borealis so exactly resembles the effects of experimental electrical
phenomena that there is every reason to believe that their causes are
similar. When electricity passes through rarefied air it exhibits a
diffused luminous stream which has all the characteristic appearances of
the aurora, and hence it is highly probable that this natural phenomenon is
occasioned by the passage of electricity through the upper regions of the
atmosphere. The synchronism of auroral display with disturbances of the
magnetic needle is an ascertained fact, and the connection between auroræ
and magnetism is further evident from the fact that the beams or
coruscations issuing from a point in the horizon west of north are
frequently observed to run in the magnetic meridian. What are known as
magnetic storms are invariably connected with exhibitions of the aurora,
and with spontaneous galvanic currents in the ordinary telegraph wires; and
this connection is found to be so certain that, upon remarking the display
of one of the three classes of phenomena, we can at once assert that the
other two are also present. In recent years it has been established that
auroræ wax and wane in frequency _pari passu_ with sun-spots in an 11-year
cycle, and that they often manifest themselves about the time of transit of
a conspicuous spot across the sun's central meridian. Also they frequently
recur at successive intervals of about 27 days, which is the period of a
solar rotation relative to the earth. It is therefore inferred that auroræ
are largely excited by influences proceeding from the sun, and it is
suggested that they are the result of the impinging upon our upper
atmosphere of streams of electric corpuscles expelled from the solar orb,
these streams when approaching our planet being mainly directed to its
higher latitudes as a consequence of its magnetic polarity. The aurora
borealis is said to be frequently accompanied by sound, which is variously
described as resembling the rustling of pieces of silk against each other,
or the sound of wind against the flame of a candle. The aurora of the
southern hemisphere is quite a similar phenomenon to that of the
north.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Angot, _Les Aurores Polaires_; Captain H. P.
Dawson, _Observations of the International Polar Expeditions, 1882-3, Fort
Rae_.

AURUNGABAD. See _Aurangabad_.

AURUNGZEBE. See _Aurangzib_.

AUSCULTA´TION, a method of distinguishing the state of the internal parts
of the body, particularly of the thorax and abdomen, by observing the
sounds arising in the part either through the immediate application of the
ear to its surface (immediate auscultation), or by applying the stethoscope
to the part, and listening through it (mediate auscultation). Auscultation
may be used with more or less advantage in all cases where morbid sounds
are produced, but its general applications are: the _auscultation_ of
respiration, the _auscultation_ of the voice; _auscultation_ of coughs;
_auscultation_ of sounds foreign to all these, but sometimes accompanying
them; _auscultation_ of the actions of the heart; obstetric _auscultation_.
The parts when struck also give different sounds in health and disease.

AUSO´NIA, an ancient poetical name of Italy.

AUSO´NIUS, Decimus Magnus (_c._ A.D. 310-395), Roman poet, born at
Burdigala (Bordeaux). Valentinian entrusted to him the education of his son
Gratian, and appointed him afterwards quæstor and pretorian prefect.
Gratian appointed him consul in Gaul, and after this emperor's death he
lived upon an estate at Bordeaux, devoted to literary pursuits. He wrote
epigrams, idyls, eclogues, letters in verse, &c., still extant, and was
probably a Christian. He was rather a man of letters than a poet, and his
poems are devoid of inspiration.

AUS´PICES, among the ancient Romans strictly omens or auguries derived from
birds, though the term was also used in a wider sense. Nothing of
importance was done without taking the auspices, which, however, simply
showed whether the enterprise was likely to result successfully or not,
without supplying any further information. Magistrates possessed the right
of taking the auspices, in which they were usually assisted by an augur.
Before a war or campaign a Roman general always took the auspices, and
hence the operations were said to be carried out 'under his auspices'. See
_Augur_.

AUS´SIG, a town in Bohemia, in the republic of Czecho-Slovakia, formerly in
Austria, near the junction of the Bila with the Elbe, 42 miles N.N.W. of
Prague; has large manufactures of woollens, chemicals, &c. The town is now
known as Ousti nad Labem. Pop. 40,000.

AUS´TEN, Jane, English novelist, born 1775, at Steventon, in Hants, of
which parish her father was rector. Her principal novels are, _Sense and
Sensibility; Pride and Prejudice_, which Disraeli is said to have read
seventeen times; _Mansfield Park_; and _Emma_. Two more were published
after her death, entitled _Northanger Abbey_ and _Persuasion_, which were,
however, her most early attempts. Her novels are marked by ease, humour,
and a complete knowledge of the domestic life of the English middle classes
of her time. She died in 1817.

AUSTENITE, a constituent of high-carbon steel (q.v.).

AUS´TERLITZ, a town with 3703 inhabitants, in Moravia, 10 miles E. of
Brünn, famous for the battle of 2nd Dec., 1805, fought between the French
(70,000 in number) and the allied Austrian and Russian armies (95,000). The
decisive victory of the French led to the Peace of Pressburg between France
and Austria.

AUS´TIN, capital of the State of Texas, on the Colorado, about 200 miles
from its mouth, and accessible to steamboats during certain seasons. There
is a State university and other institutions, and a splendid capitol built
of red granite. Pop. (1920), 34,876.

AUSTIN, Alfred, English poet, born at Hedingley, near Leeds, in 1835,
educated at Stonyhurst and St. Mary's College, Oscott; took the degree of
B.A. at London in 1853, was called to the bar and practised, but gave up
law for literature in 1861. He published, in 1861, a satire called _The
Season_, followed by many poems, including _The Human Tragedy_, _The Golden
Age_, _Savonarola_ (a tragedy), _English Lyrics_, _Fortunatus the
Pessimist_, _Lyrical Poems_, _Narrative Poems_, _Prince Lucifer_, _Alfred
the Great_, _A Tale of True Love_, _Flodden Field_ (a tragedy), &c. His
works in prose include _The Garden that I love_, _In Veronica's Garden_,
_Spring and Autumn in Ireland_, _Haunts of Ancient Peace_, _The Bridling of
Pegasus_, &c. He was made Poet Laureate in 1896, about four years after the
death of Tennyson. He died in 1913.

AUS´TIN, John, an English writer on jurisprudence, born 1790, died 1859.
From 1826 to 1835 he filled the chair of jurisprudence at London
University. He served on several royal commissions, one of which took him
to Malta; lived for some years on the Continent, and finally settled at
Weybridge, in Surrey. His fame rests solely on his great works: _The
Province of Jurisprudence Determined_, published in 1832; and his _Lectures
on Jurisprudence_, published by his widow between 1861 and 1863.--His wife,
Sarah, one of the Taylors of Norwich, produced translations of German
works, and other books bearing on Germany or its literature; also,
_Considerations on National Education_, &c. Born 1793, died 1867. Her
daughter, Lady Duff Gordon, translated Meinhold's _Mary Schweidler, the
Amber Witch_, and other German works.

AUSTIN, ST. See _Augustine_.

AUSTIN FRIARS. See _Augustins_.

AUSTRALASIA, a division of the globe usually regarded as comprehending the
Islands of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, New Caledonia, the New
Hebrides, the Solomon Islands, New Ireland, New Britain, the Admiralty
Islands, New Guinea, and the Arru Islands, besides numerous other islands
and island groups; estimated area, 3,400,000 sq. miles; pop. 6,000,000. It
forms one of the three portions into which some geographers have divided
Oceania, the other two being Malaysia and Polynesia. The British
territories in Australasia comprise the Commonwealth of Australia, the
Australian dependencies of Papua and Northern Territory, New Zealand and
adjacent islands, and the crown colony of Fiji.

[Illustration]

AUSTRALIA (older name, NEW HOLLAND), the largest island in the world, a
sea-girt continent, lying between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, S.E. of
Asia; between lat. 10° 39' and 39° 11' S.; long. 113° 5' and 153° 16' E.;
greatest length, from W. to E., 2400 miles; greatest breadth, from N. to
S., 1700 to 1900 miles. It is separated from New Guinea on the north by
Torres Strait, from Tasmania on the south by Bass Strait. It is divided
into two unequal parts by the Tropic of Capricorn, and consequently belongs
partly to the South Temperate, partly to the Torrid Zone. It is occupied by
five British colonies, namely, New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland in
the east; South Australia in the middle, stretching from sea to sea; and
Western Australia in the west, which, with the Island of Tasmania, form the
Commonwealth of Australia. Their area and population are as follows:--

                      Area in         Pop.
                       sq. m.        in 1920
  New South Wales     309,432      2,091,115
  Victoria             87,884      1,528,151
  Queensland          670,500        752,245
  South Australia     380,070        491,177
  Western Australia   975,920        330,819
  Tasmania             26,215        212,847
  Northern Territory  523,620          3,992
  Federal Territory       940          1,972

Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, and Perth are the chief towns. The
population of the Commonwealth of Australia was 4,895,894 in 1917 and
5,412,318 in 1920.

Although there are numerous spacious harbours on the coasts, there are few
remarkable indentations, the principal being the Gulf of Carpentaria, on
the N., the Great Australian Bight, and Spencer's Gulf, on the S. The chief
projections are Cape York Peninsula and Arnhem Land in the north. Parallel
to the N.E. coast runs the Great Barrier Reef for 1000 miles. In great part
the E. coast is bold and rocky, and is fringed with many small islands.
Part of the S. coast is low and sandy, and part presents cliffs of several
hundred feet high. The N. and W. coasts are generally low, with some
elevations at intervals.

The interior, so far as explored, is largely composed of rocky tracts and
barren plains with little or no water. The whole continent forms an immense
plateau, highest in the east, low in the centre, and with a narrow tract of
land usually intervening between the elevated area and the sea. The base of
the table-land is granite, which forms the surface-rock in a great part of
the south-west, and is common in the higher grounds along the east side.
Secondary (cretaceous) and tertiary rocks are largely developed in the
interior. Silurian rocks occupy a large area in South Australia, on both
sides of Spencer Gulf. The mountainous region in the south-east and east is
mainly composed of volcanic, Silurian, carbonaceous, and carboniferous
rocks yielding good coal. No active volcano is known to exist, but in the
south-east there are some craters only recently extinct. The highest and
most extensive mountain-system is a belt about 150 miles wide skirting the
whole eastern and south-eastern border of the continent, and often called,
in whole or in part, the Great Dividing Range, from forming the great
water-shed of Australia. A part of it, called the Australian Alps, in the
south-east, contains the highest summits in Australia, Mount Kosciusko
(7175 feet), Mount Clarke (7256 feet), and Mount Townshend (7353 feet).
West of the Dividing Range are extensive plains or downs admirably adapted
for pastoral purposes. The deserts and scrubs, which occupy large areas of
the interior, are a characteristic feature of Australia. The former are
destitute of vegetation, or are covered only with a coarse, spiny grass
that affords no sustenance to cattle or horses; the latter are composed of
a dense growth of shrubs and low trees, often impenetrable till the
traveller has cleared a track with his axe.

[Illustration: COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Geological]

The rivers of Australia are nearly all subject to great irregularities in
volume, many of them at one time showing a channel in which there is merely
a series of pools, while at another they inundate the whole adjacent
country. The chief is the Murray, which, with its affluents the
Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Darling, drains a great part of the interior
west of the Dividing Range, and falls into the sea on the south coast
(after entering Lake Alexandrina). Its greatest tributary is the Darling,
which may even be regarded as the main stream. On the east coast are the
Hunter, Clarence, Brisbane, Fitzroy, and Burdekin; on the west, the Swan,
Murchison, Gascoyne, Ashburton, and De Grey; on the north, the Fitzroy,
Victoria, Flinders, and Mitchell. The Australian rivers are of little
service in facilitating internal communication. Many of them lose
themselves in swamps or sandy wastes of the interior. A considerable river
of the interior is Cooper's Creek, or the Barcoo, which falls into Lake
Eyre, one of a group of lakes on the south side of the continent having no
outlet, and accordingly salt. The principal of these are Lakes Eyre,
Torrens, and Gairdner, all of which vary in size and saltness according to
the season. Another large salt lake of little depth, Lake Amadeus, lies a
little west of the centre of Australia. Various others of less magnitude
are scattered over the interior.

The climate of Australia is generally hot and dry, but very healthy. In the
tropical portions there are heavy rains, and in most of the coast districts
there is a sufficiency of moisture, but in the interior the heat and
drought are extreme. Considerable portions now devoted to pasturage are
liable at times to suffer from drought. At Melbourne the mean temperature
is about 56°, at Sydney about 63°. The south-eastern settled districts are
at times subject to excessively hot winds from the interior, which cause
great discomfort, and are often followed by a violent cold wind from the
south ('southerly bursters'). In the mountainous and more temperate parts
snow-storms are common in winter (June, July, and August).

Australia is a region containing a vast quantity of mineral wealth.
Foremost come its rich and extensive deposits of gold, which, since the
precious metal was first discovered in 1851, have produced a total of
nearly £600,000,000. The greatest quantity has been obtained in Victoria,
but New South Wales and Queensland have also yielded a considerable amount,
and now Western Australia stands first in respect of annual output.
Australia also possesses silver, copper, tin, lead, zinc, antimony,
mercury, plumbago, &c., besides coal (now worked to a considerable extent
in New South Wales) and iron. Various precious stones are found, as the
garnet, ruby, topaz, sapphire, and even the diamond. Of building-stone
there are granite, limestone, marble, and sandstone.

[Illustration: COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Mean Annual Rainfall and
Temperature]

The Australian flora presents peculiarities which mark it off by itself in
a very decided manner. Many of its most striking features have an
unmistakable relation to the general dryness of the climate. The trees and
bushes have for the most part a scanty foliage, presenting little surface
for evaporation, or thick leathery leaves well fitted to retain moisture.
The most widely-spread types of Australian vegetation are the various kinds
of gum tree (_Eucalyptus_), the shea-oak (_Casuar[=i]na_), the acacia or
wattle, the grass tree (_Xanthorrhoea_), many varieties of Proteaceæ, and a
great number of ferns and tree-ferns. Of the gum tree there are found
upwards of 150 species, many of which are of great value. Individual
specimens of the 'peppermint' (_E. amygdal[)i]na_) have been found to
measure from 480 to 500 feet in height. As timber trees the most valuable
members of this genus are the _E. rostr[=a]ta_ (or red gum), _E.
leucox[)y]lon_, and _E. margin[=a]ta_ (jarrah), the timber of which is
hard, and almost indestructible. A number of the gum trees have deciduous
bark. The wattle or acacia includes about 300 species, some of them of
considerable economic value, yielding good timber or bark for tanning. The
most beautiful and most useful is that known as the golden wattle (_A.
dealb[=a]ta_) which in spring is adorned with rich masses of fragrant
yellow blossom. Palms--of which there are twenty-four species, all except
the coco-palm peculiar to Australia--are confined to the north and east
coasts. In the 'scrubs' already mentioned hosts of densely-intertwisted
bushes occupy extensive areas. The _mallee_ scrub is formed by a species of
dwarf eucalyptus, the _mulga_ scrub by a species of thorny acacia. A plant
which covers large areas in the arid regions is the _spinifex_ or porcupine
grass, a hard, coarse, and excessively spiny plant, which renders
travelling difficult, wounds the feet of horses, and is utterly uneatable
by any animal. Other large tracts are occupied by herbs or bushes of a more
valuable kind, from their affording fodder. Foremost among those stands the
salt-bush (_Atriplex nummularia_, ord. Chenopodiaceæ). Beautiful flowering
plants are numerous. Australia also possesses great numbers of turf-forming
grasses, such as the kangaroo-grass (_Anthistiria austr[=a]lis_), which
survives even a tolerably-protracted drought. The native fruit trees are
few and unimportant, and the same may be said of the plants yielding roots
used as food; but exotic fruits and vegetables may now be had in the
different colonies in great abundance and of excellent quality. The vine,
the olive, and mulberry thrive well, and quantities of wine are now
produced. The cereals of Europe and maize are extensively cultivated, and
large tracts of country, particularly in Queensland, are under the
sugar-cane.

The Australian fauna is almost unique in its character. Its great feature
is the nearly total absence of all the forms of mammalia which abound in
the rest of the world, their place being supplied by a great variety of
marsupials--these animals being nowhere else found, except in the opossums
of America. There are about 110 kinds of marsupials (of which the kangaroo,
wombat, bandicoot, and phalangers or opossums, are the best-known
varieties), over twenty kinds of bats, a wild dog (the dingo), and a number
of rats and mice. Two extraordinary animals, the platypus, or water-mole of
the colonist (Ornithorhynchus), and the porcupine ant-eater (Echidna)
constitute the lowest order of mammals (Monotremata), and are confined to
Australia. Their young are produced from eggs. Australia now possesses a
large stock of the domestic animals of Britain, which thrive there
remarkably well. The breed of horses is excellent. Horned cattle and sheep
are largely bred, the first attaining a great size, while the sheep improve
in fleece and their flesh in flavour. There are upwards of 650 different
species of birds, the largest being the emu, or Australian ostrich, and a
species of cassowary. Peculiar to the country are the black swan, the
honey-sucker, the lyre-bird, the brush-turkey, and other mound-building
birds, the bower-birds, &c. The parrot tribe preponderates over most other
groups of birds in the continent. There are many reptiles, the largest
being the alligator, found in some of the northern rivers. There are
upwards of sixty different species of snakes, some of which are very
venomous. Lizards, frogs, and insects are also numerous in various parts.
The seas, rivers, and lagoons abound in fish of numerous varieties, and
other aquatic animals, many of them peculiar. Whales and seals frequent the
coasts. On the northern coasts are extensive fisheries of trepang, much
visited by native traders from the Indian Archipelago. Some animals of
European origin, such as the rabbit and the sparrow, have developed into
real pests in several of the colonies.

[Illustration: COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Surface Features]

The natives belong to the Australian negro stock, and are sometimes
considered the lowest as regards intelligence in the whole human family,
though this is doubtful. At the census of 1891 they were believed to number
about 60,000, exclusive of those in the unexplored parts. They are of a
dark-brown or black colour, with jet-black curly but not woolly hair, of
medium size, but inferior muscular development. In the settled parts of the
continent they are inoffensive, and rapidly dying out. They have no fixed
habitations; in the summer they live almost entirely in the open air, and
in the more inclement weather they shelter themselves with bark erections
of the rudest construction. They have no cultivation and no domestic
animals. Their food consists of such animals as they can kill, and no kind
of living creature seems to be rejected, snakes, lizards, frogs, and even
insects being eaten, often half raw. They are ignorant of the potter's art.
In their natural condition they wear little or no clothing. They speak a
number of different languages or dialects. The women are regarded merely as
slaves, and are frequently maltreated. They have no religion; they practise
polygamy, and are said sometimes to resort to cannibalism, but only in
exceptional circumstances. They are occasionally employed by the settlers
in light kinds of work, and as horse-breakers; but they dislike continuous
occupation, and soon give it up. The weapons of all the tribes are
generally similar, consisting of spears, shields, boomerangs, wooden axes,
clubs, and stone hatchets. Of these the boomerang is the most singular,
being an invention confined to the Australians.

The five colonies, independently of each other, having declared their
desire for a federal union, the Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed. A
Convention, which sat at Adelaide in 1897-8, drafted a Constitution Bill,
and on 9th July, 1900, the British Parliament passed the Act to constitute
the Commonwealth. There is now a Governor-General and Central or Federal
Parliament, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives, while
each State has also (as before) a Governor, an administration, and a
Parliament of its own. Each Parliament consists of two Houses corresponding
to the British House of Lords and House of Commons, but both Houses are
elected by popular vote. Altogether the machinery of government very much
resembles that of the home country. The aggregate annual revenue of the
colonies is over £30,000,000. The public debt on 30th June, 1917, was
£372,517,623. The former militia and volunteer units have been gradually
merged into the new Citizen Army started by the Australian Government in
1911. The Government also agreed in the same year to furnish an Australian
fleet unit, upon which King George conferred the title of 'Royal Australian
Navy'. There is no established Church in the colonies. The denomination
which numbers most adherents is the English or Anglican Church, next to
which come the Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and Methodists. Education is
well provided for, instruction in the primary schools being in some cases
free and compulsory, and the higher education being more and more attended
to. There are flourishing universities in Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide.
Newspapers are exceedingly numerous, and periodicals of all kinds are
abundant. There is as yet no native literature of any distinctive type, but
names of Australian writers of ability both in prose and poetry are
beginning to be known beyond their own country.

Pastoral and agricultural pursuits and mining are the chief occupations of
the people, though manufactures and handicrafts also employ large numbers.
The total land area under cultivation was calculated at 13,298,576 acres in
1919-20. For sheep-rearing and the growth of wool the Australian colonies
are unrivalled, and while the production of gold has considerably
decreased, that of wool is constantly on the increase. The great bulk of
the wool exported goes to Britain, which receives over 300,000,000 pounds
from the Australian colonies annually (£37,256,915 in 1919-20). The
commerce is rapidly extending, and becoming every year more important to
Britain, whence the colonists derive their chief supplies of manufactured
goods in return for wool, gold, and other produce. Next to wool come gold,
tin, copper, wheat, preserved meat, and tallow, hides and skins, cotton,
tobacco, sugar, and wine as the most important items of export. The chief
imports consist of textile fabrics, haberdashery, and clothing, machinery
and metal goods. The aggregate imports in 1920 amounted to about
£97,456,899 in value, the exports to £148,564,523. There are upwards of
23,000 miles of railway in actual use or in course of construction, and
about 133,000 miles of telegraph. In 1912 the building of the
Trans-Australian railway from Port Augusta to Kalgoorlie was commenced. The
longest telegraph line is that running northwards across the continent from
Adelaide. The two chief routes for mails between Britain and the Australian
colonies are by way of the Suez Canal, and by San Francisco across the
American continent. The coinage is the same as in the mother country. Banks
and banking offices are numerous, including post office or other savings
banks for the reception of small sums.

It is doubtful when Australia was first discovered by Europeans. Between
1531 and 1542 the Portuguese published the existence of a land which they
called Great Java, and which corresponded to Australia, and probably the
first discovery of the country was made by them early in the sixteenth
century. The first authenticated discovery is said to have been made in
1601 by a Portuguese named Manoel Godinho de Eredia. In 1606 Torres, a
Spaniard, passed through the strait that now bears his name, between New
Guinea and Australia. Between this period and 1628 a large portion of the
coastline of Australia had been surveyed by various Dutch navigators. In
1664 the continent was named New Holland by the Dutch Government. In 1688
Dampier coasted along part of Australia, and about 1700 explored a part of
the W. and N.W. coasts. In 1770 Cook carefully surveyed the E. coast, named
a number of localities, and took possession of the country for Britain. He
was followed by Bligh in 1789, who carried on a series of observations on
the N.E. coast, adding largely to the knowledge already obtained of this
new world. Colonists had now arrived on the soil, and a penal settlement
was formed (1788) at Port Jackson. In this way was laid the foundation of
the future colony of New South Wales. The Moreton Bay district (Queensland)
was settled in 1825; in 1835 the Port Phillip district. In 1851 the latter
district was erected into a separate colony under the name of Victoria.
Previous to this time the colonies both of Western Australia and of South
Australia had been founded--the former in 1829, the latter in 1836. The
latest of the colonies is Queensland, which dates from 1859. The discovery
of gold in abundance took place in 1851 and caused an immense excitement
and great influx of immigrants. The population was then only about 350,000,
and was slowly increasing; but the discovery of the precious metal started
the country on that career of prosperity which has since been almost
uninterrupted. Convicts were long sent to Australia from the mother
country, but transportation to New South Wales practically ceased in 1840,
and the last convict vessel to W. Australia arrived in 1868. Altogether
about 70,000 convicts were landed in Australia (besides almost as many in
Tasmania).

The record of interior exploration forms an interesting part of Australian
history. This has been going on since early last century, and is as yet far
from complete. There is still a large area of the continent of which little
or nothing is known, comprising especially a vast territory belonging to
Western Australia, and a portion of South Australia. Among the men who have
won fame in the field of Australian exploration are Oxley (1817-23), who
partly explored the Lachlan and Macquarie, discovered the Brisbane, &c.;
Hume and Hovell (1824), who crossed what is now the colony of Victoria from
north to south; Cunningham (1827), who discovered the Darling Downs; Sturt
(1828-9), who examined the Macquarie, part of the Darling, and the
Murrumbidgee, which he traced to the Murray, sailing down the latter to
Lake Alexandrina; in 1844 he penetrated to near the middle of the continent
from the south; Mitchell (1831-6) made extensive explorations in New South
Wales and Victoria; McMillan (1839) explored and traversed Gippsland; Eyre
(1840) travelled by the coast from Adelaide to King George's Sound;
Leichhardt in 1844-5 travelled from Brisbane to Port Essington, discovering
fine tracts of territory and the numerous rivers flowing into the Gulf of
Carpentaria; in 1848 he was lost in the northern interior, in attempting to
cross Australia from east to west, and nothing further regarding his fate
has been discovered; Kennedy (1848) was killed in exploring Cape York
Peninsula; A. C. Gregory (1855-6) explored part of North-Western Australia,
and crossed from that to the Brisbane district, an important exploring
journey; McDouall Stuart (1859-60-2) crossed the continent from south to
north and back again nearly in the line of the present overland telegraph;
Burke, Wills, Gray, and King (1860-1) crossed from Melbourne to the Gulf of
Carpentaria, but Burke, Wills, and Gray perished on the return journey;
F. T. Gregory (1861) explored the region of the Ashburton, Fortescue, and
other rivers of North-West Australia; Warburton (1873) travelled with
camels from the centre of the continent to the north-west coast; J. Forrest
(1874) made an important journey in Western Australia; Giles (1874-6)
explored Central Western Australia; Favenc (1878-9) travelled from Brisbane
to Port Darwin; A. Forrest (1879) explored part of Northern Australia;
Mills (1883) traversed with camels a considerable stretch of new ground in
Western Australia; Winnicke (1883-4), also with camels, explored and mapped
about 40,000 sq. miles of the unknown interior; Lindsay (1885-6) travelled
north-west from Lake Eyre, and then north-east to the Gulf of Carpentaria.
Among subsequent explorations mention may be made of Carnegie's eight
months' journeyings in W. Australia (1896-7). (See articles on the separate
colonies.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wall, _Physical Geography of Australia_; Aflalo,
_Natural History of Australia_; T. A. Coghlan, _A Statistical Account of
the Seven Colonies of Australasia_ (Sydney); G. W. Rusden, _History of
Australia_.

AUSTRA´LIOIDS, one of the five groups into which Professor Huxley
classifies man, comprising the indigenous non-Aryan inhabitants of Central
and Southern India, the ancient Egyptians and their descendants, and the
modern Fellahs.

AUSTRIA, or GERMAN AUSTRIA, a republic formed out of the fragments of the
old Austro-Hungarian Empire. The republic was proclaimed on 12th Nov.,
1918, and the government was taken in hand by the National Constitutional
Assembly. The new republic, the frontiers of which were provisionally
defined by the treaty of St. Germain (q.v.), includes Upper Austria, Lower
Austria, Salzburg, and parts of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, and Vorarlberg,
some districts having been assigned to Yugo-Slavia and Italy. German
Austria now has an area of 30,716 sq. miles, and a pop. of 6,130,197.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY (in Ger. _Oesterreich_, that is, Eastern Empire), previous
to the changes resulting from the European War (1914-18), a Central
European monarchy, inhabited by several nationalities, and consisting of
the Austrian Empire, the Hungarian monarchy, and the territory of Bosnia
and Herzegovina annexed by Austria on 5th Oct., 1908. The States had
together a total area of about 261,242 sq. miles, and were bounded S. by
Turkey, the Adriatic, and Italy; W. by Switzerland, Bavaria, and Saxony; N.
by Prussia and Russian Poland; and E. by Russia and Roumania. On 12th Nov.,
1918, the German-Austrian Republic was proclaimed, and the government was
taken in hand by the National Constitutional Assembly. The account given in
the following pages applies to the countries only as they existed before
the end of the European War.

The population of Austria proper in 1913 was estimated at 29,193,293.

The prevailing character of the Austrian dominions is mountainous or hilly,
the plains not occupying more than a fifth part of the whole surface. The
loftiest ranges belong to the Alps, and are found in Styria, Salzburg, and
Carinthia, the highest summits being the Ortlerspitzen (12,814 feet) on the
western boundary of Tyrol, and the Grossglockner (12,300 feet) on the
borders of Salzburg, Tyrol, and Carinthia. Another great range is that of
the Carpathians. The chief rivers are the Danube, with its tributaries, and
the Dniester. The Danube is navigable for pretty large vessels; the
tributaries also are largely navigable. The lakes are numerous and often
picturesque, the chief being Lake Balaton or the Plattensee. The climate is
exceedingly varied, but generally good. The principal products of the north
are wheat, barley, oats, and rye; in the centre vines and maize are added;
and in the south olives and various fruits. The cereals grow to perfection,
other crops being hops, tobacco, flax, and hemp. Sheep and cattle are
largely reared.--Wild deer, wild swine, chamois, foxes, lynxes, and a
species of small black bear are found in many districts, the fox and lynx
being particularly abundant.--In mineral productions Austria is very rich,
possessing, with the exception of platinum, all the useful metals, the
total annual value of the mineral products of Austria being estimated at
upwards of £15,000,000, the principal being coal, salt, and iron.

Before the European War, manufactures were in the most flourishing
condition in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lower Austria; less so in the
eastern provinces, and insignificant in Dalmatia, Bukowina, Herzegovina,
&c. Among the most important manufactures were those of machinery and metal
goods, Austria holding a high place for the manufacture of musical and
scientific instruments, gold and silver plate and jewellery; of stone and
china-ware and of glass, which is one of the oldest and most
highly-developed industries in Austria; of chemicals; of sugar from beet;
of beer, spirits, &c.; and especially the manufactures of wool, cotton,
hemp, and flax.

In addition to the general import and export trade, Austria carried on a
very considerable amount of business in the transit of goods through her
territory. In 1914 the total value of imports into Austria-Hungary was
£114,716,000, of exports £83,996,000; the value of imports in 1913 was
£141,433,000, the exports £115,129,000. Among imports were cotton and other
fibres, textile goods and yarn, metals, machinery, drugs, chemicals, oils,
fats, hides, skins, &c. The chief exports were cereals, animals, metallic
goods, woven fabrics, pottery and glass manufactures. Nearly two-thirds of
the commerce are with Germany, next in importance being the trade with
Roumania, Italy, and Russia. The exports direct to the United Kingdom in
1913 were £7,705,949; the imports of British produce direct, £4,480,760;
but these amounts do not include indirect exports and imports through other
countries. The staple exports to the United Kingdom were corn and flour.
The chief imports from it were cotton manufactures, machinery and metals,
woollen goods, fish, &c. In 1913 the mercantile navy of Austria had a total
burden of about 471,252 tons. The principal ports were Trieste, in Austria,
and Fiume, in Hungary.

None of the European States, except Russia, exhibited such a diversity of
race and language as the former dual monarchy. The Slavs--who differ
greatly, however, amongst themselves in language and civilization--amounted
to above 20,000,000, or 46 per cent of the total population, and formed the
great mass of the population of Bohemia, Moravia, Carniola, Galicia,
Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia, and Northern Hungary, and half the
population of Silesia and Bukowina. The Germans, about 9,950,266, formed
almost the sole population of the archduchy of Austria, Salzburg, the
greatest portion of Styria and Carinthia, almost the whole of Tyrol and
Vorarlberg, large portions of Bohemia and Moravia, the whole of West
Silesia, &c.; and they were also numerous in Hungary and Transylvania. The
Magyars or Hungarians (10,061,549) formed nearly half of the inhabitants of
the former Kingdom of Hungary and the connected provinces.

The State religion of the former dual monarchy was the Roman Catholic. In
1910 there were in the Austrian portion of the monarchy 22,530,000 Roman
Catholics, 3,417,000 Greek Catholics united to the Roman Church, 689,000
non-united, 589,000 Protestants, and 1,314,000 Jews.

The intellectual culture of the people was highest in the German provinces,
but in some of the other provinces the percentage of uneducated was very
high. Attendance at the elementary schools was compulsory on all children
from their sixth to the end of their fourteenth year in most of the
Austrian provinces; to at least the twelfth year in the whole empire. There
were numerous gymnasia and 'real schools', the gymnasia being intended
chiefly to prepare pupils for the universities, while in the real schools a
more practical end was kept in view, and modern languages and physical
science formed the groundwork of the educational course. The technical high
schools in Austria were very important institutions, and there are many
other special schools where the students received training in mining,
agriculture, industries of all kinds, art, music, commerce, &c. In 1917
there were eight universities maintained by the State, viz. in Vienna,
Prague (2), Gratz, Cracow, Lemberg, Innsbruck, and Czernowitz. Most of
these have four faculties--Catholic theology, law and politics, medicine,
and philosophy.

Before the revolution of 1918 the ruler of the dual monarchy had the title
of emperor in his Austrian dominions, but he was only king of Hungary. The
Parliament of the Austrian division of the empire was known as the
Reichsrath, or council of the realm, consisting of an Upper House
(Herrenhaus), composed of princes of the imperial family, nobles with the
hereditary right to sit, archbishops, and life-members nominated by the
Emperor; and a Lower House (Abgeordnetenhaus) of 516 deputies elected on
the basis of universal suffrage. There were seventeen provincial Diets or
Assemblies, each provincial division having one. In the Hungarian division
of the Empire the legislature was a Parliament consisting of an Upper House
or House of Magnates and of a Lower House or House of Representatives, the
latter elected by all citizens of full age paying a small amount in taxes,
or otherwise qualified. Its powers corresponded to those of the Austrian
Parliament or Reichsrath. All matters affecting the joint interests of the
two divisions of the monarchy, such as foreign affairs, war, and finance,
were dealt with by the Parliaments of the two States. There were three
Budgets, viz. one for common affairs, one for Austria, and one for Hungary.
The Budget estimates for the former Austrian kingdom in 1913 were
£130,716,773 (the revenue balancing the expenditure). In 1918 the estimates
were: expenditure 24,321,140,000 crowns, revenue 4,854,789 crowns.
Austria's special debt in Feb., 1918, was placed at 54,081,765,681 crowns,
of which 29,274,603,300 crowns were war debt. On 20th Nov., 1918, the
Provisional Government of the Austrian Republic passed a law adopting the
Budget of 1918-9, and empowering the Minister of Finance to make good the
difference between revenue and expenditure.

Military service was compulsory and universal throughout the dual monarchy.
The old Austro-Hungarian army numbered about 820,000 men on a peace
footing.

_History._--In 791 Charlemagne drove the Avars from the territory between
the Ens and the Raab, and united it to his empire under the name of _the
Eastern Mark_ (that is, March or boundary land); and from the establishment
by him of a margraviate in this new province the former Austrian Empire
took its rise. On the invasion of Germany by the Hungarians it became
subject to them from 900 till 955, when Otho I, by the victory of Augsburg,
reunited a great part of this province to the German Empire, which by 1043
had extended its limits to the Leitha. The margraviate of Austria was
hereditary in the family of the Counts of Babenberg (Bamberg) from 982 till
1156, in which year the boundaries of Austria were extended so as to
include the territory above the Ens, and the whole was created a duchy. The
territory was still further increased in 1192 by the gift of the duchy of
Styria as a fief from the Emperor Henry VI, Vienna being by this time the
capital. The male line of the House of Bamberg became extinct in 1246, and
the Emperor Frederick II declared Austria and Styria a vacant fief, the
hereditary property of the German emperors. In 1282 the Emperor Rudolph
granted Austria, Styria, and Carinthia to his two sons, Albert and Rudolph.
The former became sole ruler (duke), and since then, until 12th Nov., 1918,
Austria remained under the House of Habsburg. Albert, who was an energetic
ruler, was elected emperor in 1298, but was assassinated in 1308. The first
of his successors whom we need specially mention was Albert V, son-in-law
of the Emperor Sigismund. He assisted Sigismund in the Hussite wars, and
was elected, after his death, King of Hungary and of Bohemia, and German
emperor (1438). Ladislaus, his posthumous son, was the last of the Austrian
line proper, and its possessions devolved upon the collateral Styrian line
in 1457; since which time the House of Austria furnished an unbroken
succession of German emperors.

In 1453 the Emperor Frederick III, a member of this House, had conferred
upon the country the rank of an archduchy before he himself became ruler of
all Austria. His son Maximilian I, by his marriage with Mary, the surviving
daughter of Charles the Bold, united the Netherlands to the Austrian
dominions. After the death of his father, in 1493, Maximilian was made
Emperor of Germany, and transferred to his son Philip the government of the
Netherlands. He also added to his paternal inheritance Tyrol, with several
other territories, particularly some belonging to Bavaria, and acquired for
his family new claims to Hungary and Bohemia. The marriage of his son
Philip to Joanna of Spain raised the House of Habsburg to the throne of
Spain. Philip, however, died in 1506, and the death of Maximilian, in 1519,
was followed by the union of Spain and Austria, his grandson (the eldest
son of Philip), Charles I, King of Spain, being elected Emperor of Germany
as Charles V. Charles thus became the greatest monarch in Europe, but in
1521 he ceded to his brother Ferdinand all his dominions in Germany.
Ferdinand I, by his marriage with Anna, the sister of Louis II, King of
Hungary, acquired the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, with Moravia,
Silesia, and Lusatia, the appendages of Bohemia. To oppose him the woywode
of Transylvania, John Zapolya, sought the help of the Sultan, Soliman II,
who appeared in 1529 at the gates of Vienna, but was compelled to retreat.
In 1535 a treaty was made by which John Zapolya was allowed to retain the
royal title and half of Hungary, but after his death new disputes arose,
and Ferdinand maintained the possession of Lower Hungary only by paying
Soliman the sum of 30,000 ducats annually (1562). In 1556 Ferdinand
obtained the imperial crown, when his brother Charles laid by the sceptre
for a cowl. He died in 1564, leaving his territories to be divided amongst
his three sons.

Maximilian II, the eldest, succeeded his father as emperor, obtaining
Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia; Ferdinand, the second son, received Tyrol
and Lower Austria; and Charles, the youngest, obtained Styria, Carinthia,
Carniola, and Görz. Maximilian died in 1576, and was succeeded on the
imperial throne by his eldest son Rudolph II, who had already been crowned
King of Hungary in 1572, and King of Bohemia in 1575. Rudolph's reign was
distinguished by the war against Turkey and Transylvania; the persecutions
of the Protestants, who were driven from his dominions; the cession of
Hungary in 1608; and in 1611 of Bohemia and his hereditary estates in
Austria to his brother Matthias. Matthias, who succeeded Maximilian on the
imperial throne, concluded a peace with the Turks, but was disturbed by the
Protestant Bohemians, who took up arms in defence of their religious
rights, thus commencing the Thirty Years' War. After his death in 1619 the
Bohemians refused to acknowledge his successor, Ferdinand II, until after
the battle of Prague in 1620, when Bohemia had to submit, and was deprived
of the right of choosing her king. Lutheranism was strictly forbidden in
all the Austrian dominions. Hungary, which revolted under Bethlem Gabor,
Prince of Transylvania, was, after a long struggle, subdued. During the
reign of Ferdinand III (1637-57), successor of Ferdinand II, Austria was
continually the theatre of war; Lusatia was ceded to Saxony in 1635; and
Alsace to France in 1648, when peace was restored in Germany by the Treaty
of Westphalia.

The Emperor Leopold I, son and successor of Ferdinand III, was victorious
through the talents of Prince Eugene in two wars with Turkey; and Vienna
was delivered by Sobieski and the Germans from the attacks of Kara Mustapha
in 1683. In 1687 he united Hungary to Transylvania, and in 1699 restored to
Hungary the country lying between the Danube and the Theiss. It was the
chief aim of Leopold to secure to Charles, his second son, the inheritance
of the Spanish monarchy, and in 1701, upon the victory of French diplomacy
in the appointment of the grandson of Louis XIV, the War of the Spanish
Succession commenced. Leopold died in 1705, but Joseph I, his eldest son,
continued the war. As he died without children in 1711, his brother Charles
was elected emperor, but was obliged to accede in 1714 to the Peace of
Utrecht, by which Austria received the Netherlands, Milan, Mantua, Naples,
and Sardinia. In 1720 Sicily was given to Austria in exchange for Sardinia.
This monarchy now embraced over 190,000 sq. miles; but its power was
weakened by new wars with Spain and France. In the peace concluded at
Vienna (1735 and 1738) Charles VI was forced to cede Naples and Sicily to
Spain and part of Milan to the King of Sardinia; and in 1739, by the Peace
of Belgrade, he was obliged to transfer to the Porte Belgrade, Serbia, &c.,
partly in order to secure the succession to his daughter, Maria Theresa, by
the Pragmatic Sanction. He died in 1740.

On Maria Theresa's marriage to Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine (the
dynasty henceforth being that of Habsburg-Lorraine), and her accession to
the Austrian throne, the Empire was threatened with dismemberment.
Frederick II of Prussia subdued Silesia; the Elector of Bavaria was crowned
in Lintz and Prague, and in 1742 chosen emperor under the name of Charles
VII; Hungary alone supported the heroic and beautiful queen. Charles,
however, died in 1745, and the husband of Theresa was crowned Emperor of
Germany as Francis I; but a treaty concluded in 1745 confirmed to Frederick
the possession of Silesia, and by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748,
Austria was obliged to cede the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla
to Philip, Infant of Spain, and several districts of Milan and Sardinia. To
recover Silesia, Maria Theresa formed an alliance with France, Russia,
Saxony, and Sweden, and entered upon the Seven Years' War; but by the Peace
of Hubertsberg, 1763, Silesia was recognized as Prussian territory. On the
death of Francis I, in 1765, Joseph II, his eldest son, was appointed to
assist his mother in the government and elected Emperor of Germany. The
partition of Poland (1772) gave Galicia and Lodomeria to Austria, which
also obtained Bukowina from the Porte in 1777. At the death of the Empress
in 1780 Austria contained 235,000 sq. miles, with a pop. estimated at
24,000,000.

The liberal home administration of the Empress was continued and extended
by her successor, Joseph II, who did much to further the spread of
religious tolerance, education, and the industrial arts. The Low Countries,
however, revolted, and he was unsuccessful in the war of 1788 against the
Porte. His death took place in 1790. He was succeeded by his eldest
brother, Leopold II, under whom peace was restored in the Netherlands, and
in Hungary, and also with the Porte. On the death of his sister and her
husband Louis XVI of France he formed an alliance with Prussia, but died in
1792, before the French revolutionary war broke out.

His son, Francis II, succeeded, and was elected German Emperor, by which
time France had declared war against him as King of Hungary and Bohemia. In
1795, in the third partition of Poland, West Galicia fell to Austria, and
by the Peace of Campo-Formio (1797) she received the largest part of the
Venetian territory as compensation for her loss of Lombardy and the
Netherlands. In 1799 Francis, in alliance with Russia, renewed the war with
France until 1801, when the Peace of Lunéville was concluded. In 1804
Francis declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria as Francis I, and
united all his States under the name of the Empire of Austria, immediately
taking up arms once more with his allies Russia and Great Britain against
France. The war of 1805 was terminated by the Peace of Pressburg (26th
Dec.), by which Francis had to cede to France the remaining provinces of
Italy, as well as to give up portions of territory to Bavaria, Würtemberg,
and Baden, receiving in return Salzburg and Berchtesgaden. After the
formation of the Confederation of the Rhine (12th July, 1806) Francis was
forced to resign his dignity as Emperor of Germany, which had been in his
family more than 500 years. A new war with France in 1809 cost the monarchy
42,380 sq. miles of territory and 3,500,000 subjects. Napoleon married
Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor, and in 1812 concluded an alliance
with him against Russia. But in 1813 Francis again declared war against
France, and formed an alliance with Britain, Prussia, and Sweden against
his son-in-law. By the Congress of Vienna (1815) Austria gained Lombardy
and Venetia, and recovered, together with Dalmatia, the hereditary
territories which it had been obliged to cede.

In the troubled period following the French revolution of 1830
insurrections took place in Modena, Parma, and the Papal States (1831-2),
but were suppressed without much difficulty; and though professedly neutral
during the Polish insurrections Austria clearly showed herself on the side
of Russia, with whom her relations became more intimate as those between
Great Britain and France grew more cordial. The death of Francis I (1835)
and accession of his son, Ferdinand I, made little change in the Austrian
system of government, and much discontent was the consequence. In 1846 the
failure of the Polish insurrection led to the incorporation of Cracow with
Austria. In Italy the declarations of Pio Nono in favour of reform
increased the difficulties of Austria, and in Hungary the opposition under
Kossuth and others assumed the form of a great constitutional movement. In
1848, when the expulsion of Louis Philippe shook all Europe, Metternich
found it impossible any longer to guide the helm of the State, and the
Government was compelled to admit a free press and the right of citizens to
arms. Apart from the popular attitude in Italy and in Hungary, where the
Diet declared itself permanent under the presidency of Kossuth, the
insurrection made equal progress in Vienna itself, and the royal family, no
longer in safety, removed to Innsbruck. After various ministerial changes
the Emperor abdicated in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph; more
vigorous measures were adopted; and Austria, aided by Russia, reduced
Hungary to submission.

The year 1855 is memorable for the Concordat with the Pope, which put the
educational and ecclesiastical affairs of the Empire entirely into the
hands of the Papal see. In 1859 the hostile intentions of France and
Sardinia against the possessions of Austria in Italy became so evident that
she declared war by sending an army across the Ticino; but after disastrous
defeats at Magenta and Solferino she was compelled to cede Milan and the
north-west portion of Lombardy to Sardinia. In 1864 she joined with the
German States in the war against Denmark, but a dispute about
Schleswig-Holstein involved her in a war with her allies (1866), while at
the same time Italy renewed her attempts for the recovery of Venice. The
Italians were defeated at Custozza and driven back across the Mincio; but
the Prussians, victorious at Königgrätz (or Sadowa), threatened Vienna.
Peace was concluded with Prussia on 23rd Aug. and with Italy on 3rd Oct.,
the result of the war being the cession of Venetia through France to Italy
and the withdrawal of Austria from all interference in the affairs of
Germany.

For nearly half a century (from 1866 to 1914) the internal affairs of
Austria-Hungary gave much occupation to statesmen of the dual monarchy.
Hungarian demands for self-government were finally agreed to, and the
Empire was divided into the two parts already mentioned--Austria and
Hungary. This settlement was consummated by the coronation of the Emperor
Francis Joseph I, at Budapest, as King of Hungary, on 8th June, 1867. In
the same year the Concordat of 1855 came up for discussion, and measures
were passed for the re-establishment of civil marriage, the emancipation of
schools from the domination of the Church, and the placing of different
creeds on a footing of equality. The fact of the Austro-Hungarian dominions
comprising so many different nationalities gave the central Government much
trouble, both in regard to internal and to external affairs. In regard to
the 'Eastern Question', for instance, the action of Austria was hampered by
the sympathies shown by the Magyars for their blood relations, the Turks,
while the Slavs were naturally more favourable to Russia. During the war
between Russia and Turkey in 1877-8 Austria remained neutral; but at its
close it was decided at the Congress of Berlin that Bosnia and Herzegovina
should in future be administered by Austria instead of Turkey. In 1908,
taking advantage of the condition of Turkey, Austria formally annexed these
provinces. By the middle of Oct., 1918, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy began
to break up into independent national States. Four States of some size laid
claim to independence, viz. German-Austria, Czecho-Slovakia (recognized by
the Allies), Hungary, and Yugo-Slavia. On 13th Oct., 1921, German Austria
signed with Hungary the Burgenland pact, agreeing to a plebiscite in
several districts. For recent history of Austria, see _Francis Joseph;
European War._--Cf. S. Whitman, _Austria_ (in Story of the Nations Series);
H. W. Steed, _The Hapsburg Monarchy._

AUTEUIL ([=o]-t[.e]-y[.e]), formerly a suburban village of Paris, but now
enclosed within the fortifications.

AUTOBIOG´RAPHY, a department of literature of which, as a definite branch
or form at least, we have no very ancient examples, though many
autobiographical details are contained, for instance, in Cicero's and
Pliny's letters, while St. Augustine has left a fragmentary autobiography
in his _Confessions_. Various writers of note, without claiming or perhaps
intending to write a formal autobiography, have left similar materials in
the form of their own memoirs or reminiscences, or, for a portion of their
lives, in diaries. The chief English diarists are Pepys and Evelyn, while
Crabb Robinson is an admirable modern example. Brief autobiographies were
written by Gibbon, Hume, and Sir Walter Scott (of his early life only), and
among other writers who have given us autobiographies or kindred works are
Fanny Burney, Cobbett, Haydon, Miss Mitford, Harriet Martineau, Leigh Hunt,
Hugh Miller (in _My Schools and Schoolmasters_), John Stuart Mill, Anthony
Trollope, Sir Henry Taylor, Miss F. P. Cobbe, Carlyle, Ruskin, Herbert
Spencer, Alexander Bain, and Alfred Russel Wallace. Lord Roberts's
_Forty-one Years in India_ and General Grant's _Personal Memoirs_ are most
interesting autobiographical works by men of action. One of the most famous
of autobiographies is that of the Italian Benvenuto Cellini. See
_Biography_.

AUTOCHROME. See _Photography_.

AUTOCHTHONES ([a:]-tok'tho-n[=e]z), the Greek name for the aboriginal
inhabitants of a country. See _Aborigines_.

AU´TOCLAVE (derived from the Gr. _autos_, self, and Lat. _clavis_, key) is
a strong steam-tight vessel in which hydrolysis of liquids can be carried
out, under pressure, at temperatures considerably higher than their normal
boiling-points. The vessels may be of copper, iron, or other suitable
material, are sometimes enamelled within, or may have renewable refractory
linings when used for corrosive liquids. Some types have mechanical
agitators. Used in the manufacture of candles, coal-tar colours, &c. May be
heated by high-pressure steam or in baths of oil or molten lead. See
_Papin_.

AU´TOCRAT (Gr. _autos_, self, _kratos_, rule), an absolute or uncontrolled
ruler; the head of a State who is not controlled by any constitutional
limitations, such as the Tsars of Russia till 1917.

AUTO-DE-FE (Sp.); AUTO-DA-FE (Pg.), literally, 'act of faith'. See
_Inquisition_.

AU´TOGRAPH, a person's own handwriting; an original manuscript or
signature, as opposed to a copy. The practice of collecting autographs or
signatures originated in Germany and the Low Countries, chiefly among
members of the universities, and dates at least from the sixteenth century.
Among the earliest collections known are those of John Cotton and Hans
Sloane in the British Museum, and of Philippe de Bethune, brother of Sully,
and Loménie de Brienne at the Bibliothèque Nationale. The most celebrated
collection formed in England in recent years is that of Alfred Morrison.

AUTOMATIC WRITING. See _Psychical Research_; _Spiritualism_.

AUTOM´ATISM, the confinement of activity in men or animals within a purely
mechanical limit, resulting from injury to or partial removal of the brain.

AUTOM´ATON (Gr. _automatos_, spontaneous), a self-moving machine performing
actions like those of a living being, and often shaped like one. The
walking statues of Dædalus, the flying dove of Archytas, the brazen head of
Friar Bacon, the iron fly of Regiomontanus, the door-opening figure of
Albertus Magnus, the parading knights of the clock presented to Charlemagne
by Harun al Rashid, the toy carriage and attendants constructed by Camus
for Louis XIV, the flute-player, tambour-player, and duck of Vaucanson, and
the writing child of the brothers Droz are among the more noteworthy of
traditional automata. See _Conjuring_.

AUTOMOBILE. See _Motor Vehicles_.

AUTON´OMY, the power of a State, institution, &c., to legislate for itself.

AUTOPH´AGI (-j[=i]), birds which feed themselves as soon as hatched.

AU´TOPLASTY, the operation by which wounds and diseased parts are repaired
with healthy tissues taken from other parts of the same person's body.

AUTOPLATE. See _Printing_.

AUTOP´SY, literally, personal observation or inspection, commonly
restricted to post-mortem examination. See _Coroner_.

AU´TOTYPE, a species of photographic print. A thin sheet of gelatine on
paper is rendered sensitive to light by treatment with bichromate of
potash, and then exposed under an ordinary photographic negative. The
portions of gelatine affected by the light become insoluble, the remainder
of the gelatine is then washed away, and the picture remains reproduced in
the gelatine, there being slight elevations and depressions corresponding
with the distribution of light and shade. This may be printed from, but it
is more often made use of to obtain electrotypes or other reverses, from
which impressions can more easily be taken.

AUTUMN, the season between summer and winter, in the northern hemisphere
often regarded as embracing August, September, and October, or three months
about that time. The beginning of the astronomical autumn is 22nd Sept.,
the autumnal equinox; and the end is 21st Dec., the shortest day. The
autumn of the southern hemisphere takes place at the time of the northern
spring.

AUTUN ([=o]-t[.u]n; ancient, BIBRACTE, later, AUGUSTODUNUM), a town,
South-Eastern France, department of Saône-et-Loire. It has two Roman gates
of exquisite workmanship, the ruins of an amphitheatre and of several
temples, the cathedral of St. Lazare, a fine Gothic structure of the
twelfth century with chapels added in the fifteenth; manufactures of
carpets, woollens, cotton, velvet, hosiery, &c. Pop. 15,498.

AUTUNITE, a hydrous phosphate of uranium and calcium, crystallizing in the
rhombic system in yellow plates. Like other minerals of the uranium series
it shows radio-activity.

AUVERGNE ([=o]-v[=a]r-ny[.e]), a province, Central France, now merged into
departments Cantal and Puy-de-Dôme, and an arrondissement of Haute-Loire.
The Auvergne Mountains, separating the basins of the Allier, Cher, and
Creuse from those of the Lot and Dordogne, contain the highest points of
Central France: Mount Dor, 6188 feet; Cantal, 6093 feet, and Puy-de-Dôme,
4806 feet. The number of extinct volcanoes and general geologic formation
make the district one of great scientific interest. The minerals include
iron, copper, and lead, and there are warm and cold mineral springs.
Auvergne contributes a large supply to the labour markets of Paris and
Belgium, there being in Paris alone some 50,000 Auvergnats.

AUXERRE ([=o]-s[=a]r), a town, France, department of Yonne, 110 miles S.E.
of Paris. Principal edifices: a fine Gothic cathedral, unfinished; the
abbey of St. Germain, with curious crypts; and an old episcopal palace, now
the Hôtel de Prefecture; it manufactures woollens, hats, casks, leather,
earthenware, violin strings, &c.; trade, chiefly in wood and wines, of
which the best known is white Chablis. Pop. 21,930.

AUXOM´ETER, an instrument to measure the magnifying powers of an optical
apparatus.

AUXONNE ([=o]-son; ancient, AUSSONA), a town, France, department of
Côte-d'Or (Burgundy), on the Saône; a fortified place, with some
manufactures. Pop. 6300.

A´VA, a town in Asia, formerly the capital of Burma, on the Irawadi, now
almost wholly in ruins.

AVA-AVA, ARVA, KAVA, or YAVA (_Macropiper methysticum_), a plant of the
nat. ord. Piperaceæ (pepper family), so called by the inhabitants of
Polynesia, who make an intoxicating drink out of it. Its leaves are chewed
with betel, in South-Eastern Asia.

AVAD´AVAT. See _Amadavat_.

AV´ALANCHES, large masses of snow or ice precipitated from the mountains,
and distinguished as _wind_ or _dust avalanches_ when they consist of
fresh-fallen snow whirled like a dust-storm into the valleys; as _sliding
avalanches_ when they consist of great masses of snow sliding down a slope
by their own weight; and as _glacier_ or _summer avalanches_ when
ice-masses are detached by heat from the high glaciers.

AVÂL ISLANDS. Same as _Bahrein Islands_.

AVALLON ([.a]-v[.a]-l[=o]n), a town of Central France, department Yonne.
Pop. 5900.

AV´ALON, a sort of fairyland or elysium mentioned in connection with the
legends of King Arthur, being his abode after disappearing from the haunts
of men: called also _Avilion_. The name is also identified with
Glastonbury; and has been given to a peninsula of Newfoundland.

AVAN´TURINE, or AVEN´TURINE, a variety of quartz containing glittering
spangles of mica through it; also a sort of artificial gem of similar
appearance.

AV´ARS, a nation, probably of Turanian origin, who at an early period may
have migrated from the region east of the Tobol in Siberia to that about
the Don, the Caspian Sea, and the Volga. A part advanced to the Danube in
A.D. 555, and settled in Dacia. They served in Justinian's army, aided the
Lombards in destroying the kingdom of the Gepidæ, and in the sixth century
conquered under their Khan Bajan the region of Pannonia. They then won
Dalmatia, pressed into Thuringia and Italy against the Franks and Lombards,
and subdued the Slavs dwelling on the Danube, as well as the Bulgarians on
the Black Sea. But they were ultimately limited to Pannonia, where they
were overcome by Charlemagne, and nearly extirpated by the Slavs of
Moravia. After 827 they disappear from history. Traces of their fortified
settlements are found, and known as Avarian rings. See _Lesghians_.

AVATAR´, more properly AVATARA, in Hindu mythology, an incarnation of the
Deity. Of the innumerable avatars the chief are the ten incarnations of
Vishnu, who appeared successively as a fish, a tortoise, a boar, a
man-lion, a dwarf, &c.

AVATCH´A, a volcano and bay in Kamchatka. The volcano, which is 9000 feet
high, was last active in 1855. The town of Petropavlovsk lies in the bay.

AVEBURY ([=a]v´be-ri), a village of England, in Wiltshire, occupying the
site of a so-called Druidical temple, which originally consisted of a large
outer circle of 100 stones, from 15 to 17 feet in height, and about 40 feet
in circumference, surrounded by a broad ditch and lofty rampart, and
enclosing two smaller circles. Few traces now remain of the structure. On
the neighbouring downs are numerous barrows or tumuli, one of which, called
Silbury Hill, rises to the height of 130 feet, with a circumference of 2027
feet at the base, covering fully 5 acres.

AVEBURY, John Lubbock, first Baron. See _Lubbock_.

AVEIRO ([.a]-v[=a]´i-r[u:]), a coast town in Portugal, province of Douro,
with a cathedral, an active fishery, and a thriving trade. Pop. 11,523.

AVELLINO ([.a]-vel-l[=e]´n[=o]), a town in Southern Italy, capital of the
province of Avellino, 29 miles east of Naples, the seat of a bishop.
Avellino nuts were celebrated under the Romans. Pop. 24,620. Area of the
province, 1165 sq. miles; pop. 411,813.

A´VE MARI´A ('Hail, Mary'), the first two words of the angel Gabriel's
salutation (_Luke_, i, 28), and the beginning of the very common Latin
prayer to the Virgin in the Roman Catholic Church. Its lay use was
sanctioned at the end of the twelfth century, and a papal edict of 1326
ordains the repetition of the prayer thrice each morning, noon, and
evening, the hour being indicated by sound of bells called the Ave Maria or
Angelus Domini. The prayers are counted upon the small beads of the rosary,
as the pater-nosters are upon the large ones.

AVE´NA. See _Oat_.

AV´ENS, the English name of two rosaceous plants of the genus Geum. Common
avens, or herb-bennet, _G. urb[=a]num_, possesses astringent properties,
and was formerly used in medicine. The mountain avens, _Dryas octopetala_,
belongs to the same nat. ord.

AV´ENTAILE, the movable face-guard of the helmet, through which the wearer
breathed.

AV´ENTINE, one of the seven hills of Rome, east of the Tiber. It was
included in the city by Servius Tullius.

AVEN´TURINE. See _Avanturine_.

AV´ERAGE, in maritime law, any charge or expense over and above the freight
of goods, and payable by their owner.--_General average_ is the sum falling
to be paid by the owners of ship, cargo, and freight, in proportion to
their several interests, to make good any loss or expense intentionally
incurred for the general safety of ship and cargo, e.g. throwing goods
overboard, cutting away masts, port dues in cases of distress,
&c.--_Particular average_ is the sum falling to be paid for unavoidable
loss when the general safety is not in question, and therefore chargeable
on the individual owner of the property lost. A policy of insurance
generally covers both general and particular average, unless specially
excepted.--_Averaging_, in Stock Exchange language, denotes the operation
of a speculator in increasing transactions at a higher or lower price when
the price is moving against him, so that the average price of the whole
will be higher or lower than his original purchase or sale.

AVER´NUS, a lake, now called LAGO D'AVERNO, in Campania, Italy, between the
ancient Cumæ and Puteoli, about 8 miles from Naples. It is the crater of an
old volcano, and is in some places 180 feet deep. Formerly the gloom of its
forest surroundings and its mephitic exhalations caused it to be regarded
as the entrance to the infernal regions. It was the fabled abode of the
Cimmerians, and especially dedicated to Proserpine.

AVERROES (a-ver´o-es; corrupted from IBN ROSHD), the most renowned Arabian
philosopher, born at Cordova, in Spain, 1126, died at Morocco 1198. His
ability procured him the succession to his father's office of chief
magistrate, and the King of Morocco appointed him at the same time cadi in
the province of Mauretania. Accused of being an infidel, he was, however,
deprived of his offices, and banished to Spain; but, being persecuted there
also, he fled to Fez, where he was condemned to recant and undergo public
penance. Upon this he went back to his own country, where the Caliph
Almansur finally restored him to his dignities. Averroes regarded Aristotle
as the greatest of all philosophers, and devoted himself so largely to the
exposition of his works as to be called among the Arabians _The
Interpreter_. He wrote a compendium of medicine, and treatises on theology,
philosophy, jurisprudence, &c. His commentaries upon Aristotle appeared
before 1250 in a Latin translation attributed to Michael Scott, the reputed
wizard (1194-1250), and others. Averroes was at once a philosopher, a
theologian, and a theosophist.

AVERRUNCA´TOR, a garden implement for pruning trees without a ladder,
consisting of two blades similar to stout shears, one fixed rigidly to a
long handle, and the other moved by a lever to which a cord passing over a
pulley is attached.

AVER´SA, a well-built town of Southern Italy, 7 miles N. of Naples, in a
beautiful vine and orange district, the seat of a bishop, with a cathedral
and various religious institutions, and a large lunatic asylum. Andreas of
Hungary, husband of Queen Joanna I, was strangled in a convent here, 18th
Sept., 1345. Pop. 23,203.

AVESNES ([.a]-v[=a]n), a town of France, department Nord. Pop. 5829.

AVESTA. See _Zendavesta_.

AVEYRON ([.a]-v[=a]-r[=o][n.]), a department occupying the southern
extremity of the central plateau of France, traversed by mountains
belonging to the Cevennes and the Cantal ranges; principal rivers: Aveyron,
Lot, and Tarn, the Lot alone being navigable. The climate is cold, and
agriculture is in a backward state, but considerable attention is paid to
sheep-breeding. It is noted for its 'Roquefort cheese'. It has coal, iron,
and copper mines, besides other minerals. Area, 3385 sq. miles; capital,
Rhodez. Pop. (1921), 332,940.

AVEZZANO ([.a]-vet-zä'n[=o]), a town of S. Italy, province Aquila. Pop.
11,279.

AV´IARY, a building or enclosure for keeping, breeding, and rearing birds.
Aviaries appear to have been used by the Persians, Greeks, and Romans, and
are highly prized in China. In England they were in use at least as early
as 1577, when William Harrison refers to "our costlie and curious
aviaries". An aviary may be simply a kind of very large cage, or a series
of enclosures.

AVIATIK, a German type of biplane. It was originally built at Mulhausen in
Alsace.

AVIATION. See _Aeronautics_.

AVICEN´NA, or EBN-SINA, an Arabian philosopher and physician, born at
Kharmaithen, in the province of Bokhara, A.D. 980. After practising as a
physician he quitted Bokhara at the age of twenty-two, and for a number of
years led a wandering life, settling at last at Hamadan, subsequently as
vizier of the Emir. On the death of his patron he lived in retirement at
Hamadan, but having secretly offered his services to the Sultan of Ispahan
he was imprisoned by the new Emir. Escaping, he fled to Ispahan, was
received with great honour by the Sultan, and passed there in quietness the
last fourteen years of his life, writing upon medicine, logic, metaphysics,
astronomy, and geometry. His philosophy was Aristotelianism mingled with
neo-Platonism, and his influence is most marked in Dante and the Mystics.
He died at Hamadan, in Northern Persia, 1037, leaving many writings, mostly
commentaries on Aristotle. Of his 100 treatises the best known is the
_Canon Medicinæ_, which was still in use as a textbook at Louvain and
Montpellier in the middle of the seventeenth century. His _Philosophia
Orientalis_, mentioned by Roger Bacon, is lost.

AVIE´NUS, Rufus Festus, a Latin descriptive poet, who flourished about the
end of the fourth century A.D., and wrote _Descriptio Orbis Terræ_, a
general description of the earth; _Ora Maritima_, an account of the
Mediterranean coasts, &c.

AVIFAU´NA, a collective term for the birds of any region.

AVIGLIANO ([.a]-v[=e]l-yä´n[=o]), a town of S. Italy, province Potenza.
Pop. 17,413.

AVIGNON ([.a]-v[=e]-ny[=o]n; ancient, AVENIO), an old town of S.E. France,
capital of department Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Rhone; enclosed by
lofty battlemented and turreted walls, well built, but with rather narrow
streets. It is an archbishop's see since 1475, and has a large and ancient
cathedral on a rock overlooking the town, the immense palace in which the
Popes resided (used as a barracks and prison for a long time), and other
old buildings. The industries of the city are numerous and varied, the
principal being connected with silk. The silk manufacture and the breeding
of silk-worms are the principal employments in the district. Here Petrarch
lived several years, and made the acquaintance of Laura, whose tomb is in
the Franciscan church. From 1309 to 1377 seven Popes in succession, from
Clement V to Gregory XI, resided in this city. After its purchase by Pope
Clement VI, in 1348, Avignon and its district continued, with a few
interruptions, under the rule of a vice-legate of the Pope's till 1791,
when it was formally united to the French Republic. Pop. 49,304.

AVIGNON BERRIES. See _French Berries_.

AVILA (ä'v[=e]-l[.a]), a town of Spain, capital of province of Avila, a
modern division of Old Castile. It is the see of the Bishop suffragan of
Santiago, with fine cathedral. Once one of the richest towns of Spain.
Principal employment in the town, spinning; in the province, breeding sheep
and cattle. Pop., town, 12,060; province, 214,008.

AVILA, Gil Gonzalez d', a Spanish antiquary and biographer, 1577-1658; made
historiographer of Castile in 1612, and of the Indies in 1641. Most
valuable works: _Teatro de las Grandezas de Madrid_, 1623, and _Teatro
Ecclesiastico_, 1645-53.

AVILA Y ZUÑIGA (ä´v[=e]-l[.a] [=e] thö-ny[=e]´g[.a]), Don Luis d', Spanish
general, diplomatist, and historian; a favourite of Charles V; born about
1490, died about 1560. His chief work, printed in 1548 and translated into
five languages, was on the war of Charles V in Germany.

AVILES ([.a]-v[=e]'les), a town of Northern Spain, province Oviedo, with a
good harbour. Pop. 13,660.

AVIZ, an order of knighthood in Portugal, instituted by Sancho, its first
king, and having as its original object the subjection of the Moors.

AVIZAN´DUM, in Scots law, private consideration. To make _avizandum_ is to
remove a cause from the public court to the private consideration of the
judge.

AVLO´NA (Ital. _Valona_), a seaport of Albania on the Adriatic, with a
considerable trade. It was occupied and made a naval and military base by
the Italians during the European War. Pop. 6500.

AVO´CA, or OVOCA, a river and valley in Ireland, County Wicklow, celebrated
as the scene and subject of one of Moore's _Irish Melodies_. The river is
formed by the union of the Avonbeg and Avonmore, and below the junction
receives the Aughrim, the name in Celtic signifying 'the meeting of the
waters'. After a course of about 9 miles it falls into the sea about a mile
below Arklow. The scenery here is singularly beautiful, and attracts many
visitors.

AVOCA´DO-PEAR. See _Alligator-pear_.

AVOGAD´RO'S LAW, in physics, asserts that equal volumes of different gases
at the same pressure and temperature contain an equal number of molecules.

AVOIRDUPOIS (a-v[.e]r'd[u:]-pois; from old French, literally, 'goods of
weight'), a system of weights used for all goods except precious metals,
gems, and medicines, and in which a pound contains 16 ounces, or 7000
grains, while a pound troy contains 12 ounces, or 5760 grains. A
hundredweight contains 112 pounds avoirdupois; a _cental_ of 100 pounds is
common in America, and is a legal British weight. See _Weights and
Measures_.

AV´OLA, a seaport on the east of Sicily, with a trade in almonds, sugar,
&c. Pop. 17,711.

A´VON, the name of several rivers in England, of which the principal are:
1. The Upper Avon, rising in Leicestershire, and flowing S.W. into the
Severn at Tewkesbury. Stratford-on-Avon lies on this river. 2. The Lower
Avon, rising in Gloucestershire, and falling into the Severn N.W. of
Bristol; navigable as far as Bath. 3. In Monmouthshire. 4. In Wiltshire and
Hampshire, entering the English Channel at Christchurch Bay. There are also
streams of this name in Wales and Scotland.

AVONMOUTH, a place at the mouth of the River Avon, 6 miles from Bristol,
and connected with it by rail and river, with large docks belonging to the
Bristol corporation, and forming part of the shipping accommodation of that
city.

[Illustration: Avoset (_Recurvirostra avosetta_)]

AV´OSET, a bird about the size of a lapwing, of the genus Recurvirostra
(_R. avosetta_), family Scolopacidæ (snipes), ord. Grallatores. The bill is
long, slender, elastic, and bent upward toward the tip, the legs long, the
feet webbed, and the plumage variegated with black and white. The bird
feeds on worms and other small animals, which it scoops up from the mud of
the marshes and fens that it frequents. It is found in Europe, Asia,
Africa, and America; but the American species is slightly different from
the others.

AVRANCHES ([.a]-vrä[n.]sh; ancient, ABRINCÆ), a town, France, department La
Manche, about 3 miles from the Atlantic. It formerly had a fine cathedral,
destroyed during the first French revolution. Manufactures: lace, thread,
and candles. Pop. 7174.

AWE ([a:]), a Scottish loch in Argyllshire, about 28 miles long and 2
broad, and communicating by the Awe with Loch Etive. Ben Cruachan stands at
its northern extremity. It has many islands and beautiful scenery, and
abounds in trout, salmon, &c.

AXE, or AX, a well-known tool for cutting or chipping wood, consisting of
an iron head with an arched cutting edge of steel, which is in line with
the wooden handle of the tool, and not at right angles to it as in the
adze.

AXEL. See _Absalon_.

AXE-STONE. See _Jade_.

AXHOLME ISLE (aks'[=o]m), a sort of island in England formed by the Rivers
Trent, Idle, and Don, in the north-west angle of Lincolnshire, 17 miles
long, 4½ broad.

[Illustration: Leaf and stem of Horse-chestnut, showing axil]

AXIL, or AXILLA, in botany, the angle between the upper side of a leaf and
the stem or branch from which it springs. Buds usually appear in the axils,
and flowers or flower-stalks growing in this way are called _axillary_.

AX´IM, a town of W. Africa, on the Gold Coast.

AX´INITE, a mineral, silicate of alumina, lime, &c., with boracic acid,
deriving its name from the form of the crystals, the edges of which bear
some resemblance to the edge of an axe.

AXIN´OMANCY, an ancient method of divination by the movements of an axe
(Gr. _axin[=e]_) balanced on a stake, or of an agate placed on a red-hot
axe. The names of suspected persons being uttered, the movements at a
particular name indicated the criminal.

AX´IOM, a universal proposition, which the understanding must perceive to
be true as soon as it perceives the meaning of the words, and therefore
called a _self-evident truth_: e.g. _A_ is _A_. In mathematics, axioms are
those propositions which are assumed without proof, as being in themselves
independent of proof, and which are made the basis of all the subsequent
reasoning; as, 'The whole is greater than its part'; 'Things that are equal
to the same thing are equal to one another'. See _Geometry_.

AXIS, the straight line, real or imaginary, passing through a body or
magnitude, on which it revolves, or may be supposed to revolve; especially
a straight line with regard to which the different parts of a magnitude, or
several magnitudes, are symmetrically arranged; e.g. the _axis of the
world_, the imaginary line drawn through its two poles.

In _botany_ the word is also used, the stem being termed the _ascending
axis_, the root the _descending axis_.

In _anatomy_ the name is given to the second vertebra from the head, that
on which the _atlas_ moves. See _Atlas_.

AXIS (_Cervus axis_), a species of Indian deer, also known as the Spotted
Hog-deer, of a rich fawn colour, nearly black along the back, with white
spots, and under parts white. Breeds freely in many parks in Europe.

AX´MINSTER, a market town, England, county Devon, on the Axe, at one time
celebrated for its woollen cloth and carpet manufactures, and giving name
to an expensive variety of carpet having a thick soft pile, and also to a
cheaper variety. Pop. (1921), 2049.

AX´OLOTL (_Amblyst[)o]ma macul[=a]tum_), a curious Mexican amphibian, not
unlike a newt, from 8 to 10 inches in length, with gills formed of three
long ramified or branch-like processes floating on each side of the neck.
It reproduces by laying eggs, and was for some time regarded as a perfect
animal with permanent gills. It is said, however, that they frequently lose
their gills like the other members of the genus, though some authorities
maintain that the true axolotl never loses its gills, and that merely
confusion with _A. tigr[=i]num_ has led to the belief, as this species
sometimes retains its branchiæ, though usually it loses them. The axolotl
is esteemed a luxury by the Mexicans. There are a number of species of
Amblystoma in North America.

AX´UM, or AKSUM, a town in Tigré, a division of Abyssinia, once the capital
of an important kingdom, and at one time the great depot of the ivory trade
in the Red Sea. It is the seat of an _abuna_ or Patriarch, and has a pop.
of 5000. The site of the town still exhibits many remains of its former
greatness.

AYACUCHO (ä-y[.a]-kö'ch[=o]), the name of a department of Peru, and of its
capital. The department has an area of 18,185 sq. miles; a pop. of 302,469.
The town (formerly Guamanga or Huamanga) has a cathedral and a university,
and a pop. of 20,000.

AYALA ([.a]-yä'l[.a]), Pedro Lopez de, Spanish historian and poet,
Chancellor of Castile in the second half of the fourteenth century, and the
author of a history of Castile from 1350 to 1396. He took an active part in
the struggle between Henry II and Pedro the Cruel, and was taken prisoner
by the English in 1367. During his English captivity he wrote part of his
chief poetical work, _A Book in Rhyme concerning Court Life_. Died 1407.

AYAMONTE ([.a]-y[.a]-mon't[=a]), a seaport town, Spain, province of Huelva,
2 miles from the mouth of the Guadiana. Pop. 6000.

AYASS´OLUK. See _Ephesus_.

[Illustration: Aye-aye (_Cheir[)o]mys madagascariensis_)]

AYE-AYE ([=i]-[=i]; _Cheir[)o]mys madagascariensis_), an animal of
Madagascar, so called from its cry; now referred to the lemur family. It is
about the size of a hare, has large flat ears and a bushy tail; large eyes;
long sprawling fingers, the third so slender as to appear shrivelled;
colour, musk-brown, mixed with black and grey ash; feeds on grubs, fruits,
&c.; habits, nocturnal. See _Primates_, _Lemurs_.

AYESHA (a-yesh'a), daughter of Abu-Bekr and favourite wife of Mahomet,
though she bore him no child, born in 610 or 611. After his death she
opposed the succession of Ali, but was defeated and taken prisoner. She
died at Medina in 677 or 678 (A.H. 58).

AYLESBURY ([=a]lz´be-ri), county town of Buckinghamshire, England, with a
fine old parish church; chief industries, silk-throwing, printing, making
condensed milk, and poultry-rearing for the London market. The Aylesbury
duck, also called 'white English', is famous. Previous to 1885 it and its
hundred sent two members to Parliament, and it still gives its name to a
parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), 12,114.

AY´LOFFE, Sir Joseph, an English antiquary, born about 1708, died 1781;
member of the first council of the Society of Antiquaries, a commissioner
for the preservation of State papers, the author and editor of several
works, of which the best known is his _Calendars of the Auntient Charters_,
&c.

AYMARAS ([=i]´m[.a]-r[.a]z), an Indian race of Bolivia and Peru, speaking a
language akin to the Quichua.

AY´MON, the surname of four brothers, Alard, Richard, Guiscard, and Renaud,
who hold a first place among the heroes of the Charlemagne cycle of
romance. Their exploits were the subject of a romance, _Les Quatre Fils
d'Aymon_, by Huon de Villeneuve, a trouvère of the thirteenth century, and
Renaud is a leading figure in Ariosto's _Orlando_.

AYR ([=a]r), a town of Scotland, a royal and parliamentary burgh, and
capital of Ayrshire, at the mouth of the River Ayr, on the Firth of Clyde.
It was the site of a Roman station. William the Lion built a castle there
in 1197 and constituted it a royal burgh in 1202; and the Parliament which
confirmed Robert Bruce's title to the crown sat in Ayr. It is picturesquely
situated, and has excellent public and other buildings. Two bridges connect
Ayr proper with the suburbs of Newton and Wallacetown, a third stands
farther up the river. The 'New Brig' of Burns's 'Brigs of Ayr' (built in
1788) had to be replaced by a new structure in 1879, while the 'Auld Brig'
(built in 1252) still stands, after being repaired. Carpets, lace goods,
leather, iron goods, &c., are manufactured. The harbour accommodation is
good, and in particular coals are largely exported. The house in which
Burns was born stands within 1½ miles of the town, and near 'Alloway's auld
haunted kirk', and a monument to him is near. Ayr unites with Ardrossan,
Irvine, Prestwick, Saltcoats, and Troon in sending a member to Parliament.
Pop. 32,986.--The county has an area of 724,523 acres. It is divided into
the districts of Carrick in the south, Kyle in the middle, and Cunningham
in the north. The surface is irregular, and a large portion of it hilly,
but much of it is fertile. The principal streams are the Ayr, Stinchar,
Girvan, Doon, Irvine, and Garnock. Coal and iron are abundant; and there
are numerous collieries and ironworks. Limestone and freestone are also
abundant. Agriculture is in a flourishing state, the principal crops being
oats, turnips, and early potatoes, while dairy husbandry is extensively
practised; the Ayrshire cows, referred to in the eighteenth century as the
Cunningham, are celebrated as milkers, and Ayrshire cheese ('Dunlop' and
'Cheddar') has a high reputation. Woollen manufactures are extensive,
particularly carpets and bonnets; lace goods are largely made; Kilmarnock
is a centre of engineering and of dairying education. Goods made include
explosives, boots and shoes, chemicals, and leather. Chief towns, Ayr,
Kilmarnock, Irvine, Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Stevenston, Maybole. Ayr and
Buteshire send three members to Parliament. Pop. 267,600 (1918).

AYRER ([=i]´rer), Jacob, a German dramatist of the sixteenth century, who
almost rivalled Hans Sachs in copiousness and importance. He was a citizen
and legal official of Nuremberg, and died in 1605. His works, published at
Nuremberg in 1618, under the title _Opus Theatricum_, include thirty
comedies and tragedies and thirty-six humorous pieces.

AYRTON, William Edward, English physicist and electrical engineer, born in
1847. From 1873 to 1879 he was professor of natural philosophy and
telegraphy in the Imperial College of Engineering at Tokio. In 1879 he was
appointed professor of applied physics in the City and Guilds of London
Institute. He invented an ammeter, voltmeter, &c., in conjunction with
Professor Perry. He died in 1908. He published _Practical Electricity_, and
many papers on scientific subjects.

AYTOUN ([=a]´tun), Sir Robert, poet, born in Fifeshire, Scotland, 1570,
died 1638. After studying at St. Andrews he lived for some time in France,
whence, in 1603, he addressed a panegyric in Latin verse to King James on
his accession to the crown of England. By the grateful monarch he was
appointed one of the gentlemen of the bedchamber, and private secretary to
the queen, receiving also the honour of knighthood. At a later period of
his life he was secretary to Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. His poems
are few in number, but are distinguished by elegance of diction. Several of
his Latin poems are preserved in the work called _Delitiæ Poetarum
Scotorum_, published at Amsterdam in 1637 at the expense of Sir John Scot
of Scotstarvet.

AYTOUN, William Edmonstoune, poet and prose writer, born at Edinburgh in
1813, died at Blackhills, Elgin, 1865. He studied at the University of
Edinburgh, became a writer to the signet in 1835, and passed as advocate in
1840. He issued a volume of poems in 1832, by 1836 was a contributor to
_Blackwood's Magazine_, and in 1840 he published the _Life and Times of
Richard 1_. In 1848 he published a collection of ballads entitled _Lays of
the Scottish Cavaliers_, which has proved the most popular of all his
works. It was followed in 1854 by _Firmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy_
(intended to ridicule certain popular writers); the _Bon Gaultier Ballads_
(parodies and other humorous pieces, in conjunction with Theodore Martin),
1855; in 1856 the poem _Bothwell_; and in subsequent years by _Norman
Sinclair_, _The Glenmutchkin Railway_, and other stories. In 1858 he edited
a critical and annotated collection of the _Ballads of Scotland_. A
translation of the poems and ballads of Goethe was executed by him in
conjunction with Theodore Martin. In 1845 he became professor of rhetoric
and English literature in the University of Edinburgh--a position which he
held till his death. In 1852 he was appointed Sheriff of Orkney and
Shetland.

AYUNTAMIENTO ([.a]-y[u:]n-t[.a]-m[=e]-en´t[=o]), the name given to the town
and village councils in Spain and Spanish America.

AYU´THIA, the ancient capital of Siam, on the Menam, now a scene of
splendid ruin.

AZA´LEA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Ericaceæ, or heaths, remarkable for
the beauty and fragrance of their flowers, and distinguished from the
rhododendrons chiefly by the flowers having five stamens instead of ten.
Many beautiful rhododendrons with deciduous leaves are known under the name
of _azalea_ in gardens. The azaleas are common in North America, and two
species of these--_A. visc[=o]sa_ and _A. nudifl[=o]ra_--are well known in
Britain. An Asiatic species, _A. pontica_, famous for the stupefying effect
which its honey is said to have produced on Xenophon's army (cf.
_Anabasis_, book iv, chap. 8), is also common in British gardens and
shrubberies; and another, _A. indica_, is a brilliant greenhouse plant.

AZAMGARH, or AZIMGARH, a town of India, United Provinces, capital of
district of same name. Pop. 18,835.--The district has an area of 2418 sq.
miles; a pop. of 1,530,000.

AZEGLIO ([.a]d-zel´y[=o]), Massimo Taparelli, Marquis d', an Italian
'admirable Crichton', artist, novelist, publicist, statesman, and soldier,
born at Turin in 1798, died 1866. After gaining some reputation in Rome as
a painter, he married the daughter of Manzoni, and achieved success in
literature by his novels _Ettore Fieramosca_ (1833) and _Niccolo dei Lapi_
(1841). These embodied much of the patriotic spirit, and in a short time he
devoted himself exclusively to fostering the national sentiment by personal
action and by his writings. Many of the reforms of Pius IX were due to him.
He commanded a legion in the Italian struggle of 1848, and was severely
wounded at Vincenza. Chosen a member of the Sardinian Chamber of Deputies,
he was, after the battle of Novara, made president of the cabinet, and in
1859 appointed to the military post of general and
commissioner-extraordinary for the Roman States.

AZERBAIJAN ([.a]-zer-b[=i]-jän´), a province of North-Western Persia; area,
40,000 sq. miles; pop. estimated at 2,000,000. It consists generally of
lofty mountain ranges, some of which rise to a height of between 12,000 and
13,000 feet. Principal rivers: the Aras or Araxes, and the Kizil-Uzen,
which enter the Caspian; smaller streams discharge themselves within the
province into the great salt lake of Urumiyah. Agricultural products:
wheat, barley, maize, fruit, cotton, tobacco, and grapes. Horses, cattle,
sheep, and camels are reared in considerable numbers. Chief minerals: iron,
lead, copper, salt, saltpetre, and marble. Tabriz is the capital; pop.
200,000.

AZERBAIJAN, a new republic proclaimed in 1918, after the Russian
revolution. It consists of the former Russian province of Baku on the coast
of the Caspian Sea. In 1920 the Bolshevist party overthrew the Government
and broke off relations with the Entente. See _Russia_.

AZ´IMUTH of a heavenly body, the arc of the horizon comprehended between
the meridian of the observer and a vertical circle passing through the
centre of the body. The azimuth and altitude give the exact position of the
body with reference to the horizon.

AZINCOURT. See _Agincourt_.

AZO COMPOUNDS, a class of substances which belong to the benzene series and
contain carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. All azo compounds are highly
coloured, and in some cases they are direct cotton dyes. The simplest azo
compound is _azobenzene_, the chemical formula of which is
C_6H_5--N = N--C_6H_5. It is prepared from nitrobenzene by reducing it with
stannous chloride and sodium hydroxide. Azobenzene is a highly-coloured
crystalline substance, but it is not a dye; it forms, however, the basis of
the dyes known as _azodyes_. The azodyes form one of the largest groups of
dyes, and derive their name from the presence of the characteristic
chemical group --N = N--, known as the _azo_ group. Azo compounds may
become exceedingly complicated in structure. They are divided into mon-azo,
di-azo, tri-azo compounds according to the number of azo groups present.
The well-known dyes Congo Red and Bismarck Brown are azo compounds of
complicated structure. Azo dyes were discovered by Griess in 1856, but as a
class did not come on the market until about 1876.

AZOF. See _Azov_.

AZO´IC. See _Pre-Cambrian_.

AZOIMIDE, or HYDRAZOIC ACID, N_3H, is an acid liquid of disagreeable odour,
producing headache if inhaled. The acid itself and its salts, with the
exception of the alkali salts, are exceedingly explosive and dangerous to
handle. Lead hydrazoate, PbN_6, is one of the most stable of these salts.
It is a more powerful explosive than mercury fulminate, and has been used
instead, in the manufacture of detonators.

AZORES (a-z[=o]rz' or a-z[=o]'res), or WESTERN ISLANDS, a group belonging
to and 900 miles west of Portugal, in the North Atlantic Ocean. They are
nine in number, and form three distinct groups--a N.W., consisting of
Flores and Corvo; a central, consisting of Terceira, São Jorge, Pico,
Fayal, and Graciosa; and a S.E., consisting of São Miguel (or St. Michael)
and Santa Maria. The total area is 922 sq. miles; São Miguel (containing
the capital Ponta Delgada), Pico, and Terceira are the largest. The
islands, which are volcanic and subject to earthquakes, are of
comparatively recent origin, and are conical, lofty, precipitous, and
picturesque. The most remarkable summit is the peak of Pico, about 7600
feet high. There are numerous hot springs. They are covered with luxuriant
vegetation, and diversified with woods, corn-fields, vineyards, lemon and
orange groves, and rich, open pastures. The mild and somewhat humid
climate, combined with the natural fertility of the soil, brings all kinds
of vegetable products rapidly to perfection, among the most important being
grain, oranges, pine-apples, bananas, potatoes, yams, beans, coffee, and
tobacco. The inhabitants are mainly of Portuguese descent, indolent and
devoid of enterprise. Principal exports: wine and brandy, oranges, maize,
beans, pineapples, cattle. The climate is recommended as suitable for
consumptive patients. The Azores were discovered by Cabral about 1431,
shortly after which date they were taken possession of and colonized by the
Portuguese. When first visited they were uninhabited, and had scarcely any
other animals except birds, particularly hawks, to which, called in
Portuguese _açores_, the islands owe their name. Pop. 242,613 (1911).

AZ´OTE, a name formerly given to nitrogen; hence substances containing
nitrogen and forming part of the structure of plants and animals are known
as _azotized_ bodies. Such are albumen, fibrine, caseine, gelatine, urea,
kreatine, &c. See _Nitrogen_.

A´ZOV, or ASOV, a town in the Russian government of Ekaterinoslav, upon an
island at the mouth of the Don, where it flows into the Sea of Azov;
formerly a place of extensive trade, but its harbour has become almost
sanded up. Pop. 31,111.

AZOV, SEA OF (ancient, PALUS MOE[=O]TIS), an arm of the Black Sea, with
which it is united by the Straits of Kertch or Kaffa; length about 170
miles, breadth about 80 miles; greatest depth not more than 8 fathoms. The
W. part, called the Putrid Sea, is separated from the main expanse by a
long sandy belt called Arabat, along which runs a military road. The sea
teems with fish. The Don and other rivers enter it, and its waters are very
fresh.

AZPEITIA ([.a]th-p[=a]'i-ti-[.a]), a town of N.E. Spain, province
Guipuzcoa. Near it is the convent of Loyola, a large edifice, now a museum.
Pop. 6692.

AZ´RAEL. See _As'rael_.

AZ´TECS (from _Aztatl_ (heron), and _Flacatl_ (man), 'people of the
heron'), a race of people who settled in Mexico early in the fourteenth
century, ultimately extended their dominion over a large territory, and
were still extending their supremacy at the time of the arrival of the
Spaniards, by whom they were speedily subjugated. Their political
organization, termed by the Spanish writers an absolute monarchy, consisted
of a military chief exercising important, but not unlimited, power in civil
affairs, in which the council of chiefs and periodic assemblies of the
judges had also a voice. Their most celebrated ruler was Montezuma, who was
reigning when the Spaniards arrived, about the middle of the fifteenth
century. It is inferred that considerable numbers of them lived in large
communal residences, and that land was held and cultivated upon the
communal principle. Slavery and polygamy were both legitimate, but the
children of slaves were regarded as free. Although ignorant of the horse,
ox, &c., they had a considerable knowledge of agriculture, maize and the
agave being the chief produce. Silver, lead, tin, and copper were obtained
from mines, and gold from the surface and river beds, but iron was unknown
to them, their tools being of bronze and obsidian. Metal coins were not in
use. In metal-work, feather-work, weaving, and pottery they possessed a
high degree of skill. To record events they used picture-writing, and their
lunar calendars were of unusual accuracy. Two special deities claimed their
reverence: Huitzilo-pochtli, the god of war, propitiated with human
sacrifices; and Quetzalcoatl, the beneficent god of light and air, with
whom at first the Aztecs were disposed to identify Cortez. Their temples,
with large terraced pyramidal bases, were in the charge of an exceedingly
large priesthood, to whom the education of the young was entrusted. As a
civilization of apparently independent origin, yet closely resembling in
many features the archaic Oriental civilizations, the Aztec civilization is
of the first interest, but in most accounts of it a large speculative
element has to be discounted.

AZ´ULINE, or AZ´URINE, blue dyes belonging to the coal-tar class.

A´ZURE, the heraldic term for the colour blue, represented in engraving by
horizontal lines.

AZ´URINE (_Leuciscus cærul[)e]us_), a fresh-water fish of the same genus as
the roach, chub, and minnow, found in some parts of Europe, but rare in
Britain; called also _Blue Roach_.

AZ´URITE, a blue mineral, a carbonate of copper, often occurring in
crystals. Its formula is 2CuCO_3.Cu(OH)_2, and it is also called _Blue
Malachite_. Also a name of lazulite.

AZYMITE. See _Eucharist_.

       *       *       *       *       *


B

B is the second letter and the first consonant in the English and most
other alphabets. It is a mute and labial, pronounced solely by the lips,
and is distinguished from _p_ by being sonant, that is, produced by the
utterance of voice as distinguished from breath.

B, in _music_, the seventh note of the model diatonic scale or scale of C.
It is called the leading note, as there is always a feeling of suspense
when it is sounded until the keynote is heard.

BAADER, Franz Xaver von (fr[.a]nts-zä'fer fon bä'der), German philosopher
and theologian, born in Munich, 1765, died 1841. He studied engineering,
became superintendent of mines, and was ennobled for services. He was
deeply interested in the religious speculations of Eckhart, St. Martin, and
Böhme, and in 1826 was appointed professor of philosophy and speculative
theology in the University of Munich. During the last three years of his
life he was interdicted from lecturing for opposing the interference in
civil matters of the Roman Catholic Church.

BA´AL, or BEL, a Semitic word, which primarily signified lord or
proprietor, and was afterwards applied to many different divinities, or,
with qualifying epithets, to the same divinity regarded in different
aspects, describing him as an occupier of some physical object or locality,
or as a possessor of some attribute. Thus in _Hos._ ii, 16 it is applied to
Jehovah himself, while _Baal-berith_ (the Covenant-lord) was the god of the
Shechemites, and _Baal-zebub_ (the Fly-god) the idol of the Philistines at
Ekron. Baal was the sacred title applied to the Sun as the principal male
deity of the Phoenicians and their descendants, the Carthaginians, as well
as of the ancient Canaanitish nations, and was worshipped as the supreme
ruler and vivifier of nature. The word enters into the composition of many
Hebrew, Phoenician, and Carthaginian names of persons and places; thus,
_Jerubaal_, _Hasdrubal_ (help of Baal), _Hannibal_ (grace of Baal), and
_Baal-Hammon_, _Baal-Thamar_, &c.

BAALBEK´ (ancient, HELIOP[)O]LIS, 'city of the sun'), a place in Syria, in
a fertile valley at the foot of Antilibanus, 40 miles from Damascus, famous
for its magnificent ruins. Of these the chief is the Temple of the Sun,
built either by Antoninus Pius or by Septimius Severus. Some of the blocks
used in its construction are 60 feet long by 12 thick; and its fifty-four
columns, of which six are still standing, were 72 feet high and 22 in
circumference. Near it is a temple of Jupiter, of smaller size though
larger than the Parthenon at Athens, and there are other structures of an
elaborately ornate type. Originally a centre of Sun-worship, it became a
Roman colony under Julius Cæsar, was garrisoned by Augustus, and acquired
increasing renown under Trajan as the seat of an oracle. Under Constantine
its temples became churches, but after being sacked by the Arabs in 748,
and more completely pillaged by Tamerlane in 1401, it sank into hopeless
decay. The work of destruction was completed by an earthquake in 1759.

BAAL-ZEBUB. See _Beelzebub_.

BABA, a cape near the north-west point of Asia Minor.

BABADAGH (b[.a]-b[.a]-däg'), a town of Roumania, capital of the Dobrudsha,
carrying on a considerable Black Sea trade; it was bombarded by the
Russians in 1854. Pop. 10,000.

BAB´BAGE, Charles, English mathematician and inventor of the
calculating-machine, born 1792, died 1871. He graduated at Cambridge in
1814, and occupied the Lucasian chair of mathematics at Cambridge for
eleven years, but delivered no lectures. As early as 1812 he conceived the
idea of calculating numerical tables by machinery, and in 1823 he received
a grant from Government for the construction of such a machine. After a
series of experiments lasting eight years, and an expenditure of £17,000
(£6000 of which was sunk by himself, the balance voted by Government),
Babbage abandoned the undertaking in favour of a much more enlarged work,
an analytical engine, worked with cards like the jacquard-loom; but the
project was never completed. The incompleted machine is now in the South
Kensington Museum. Among the many treatises he published on subjects
connected with mathematics and mechanics few can be regarded as finished
performances. Babbage was instrumental in founding the Astronomical and
Statistical Societies (1820 and 1834).

BABBIT-METAL, a soft metal resulting from alloying together certain
proportions of copper, tin, and zinc or antimony, used with the view of as
far as possible obviating friction in the bearings of journals, cranks,
axles, &c., invented by Isaac Babbit (1799-1862), a goldsmith of Taunton,
Massachusetts.

BA´BEL. See _Babylon_.

BA´BEL, TOWER OF, according to the 11th chapter of _Genesis_, a structure
in the Plain of Shinar, Mesopotamia, commenced by the descendants of Noah
subsequent to the deluge, but which was not allowed to proceed to
completion. It has commonly been identified with the great temple of Belus,
or Bel, that was one of the chief edifices in Babylon, and the huge mound
called Birs Nimrud is generally regarded as its site, though another mound,
which to this day bears the name of Babil, has been assigned by some as its
site. Babel means literally 'gate of God'. The meaning 'confusion' assigned
to it in the Bible really belongs to a word of similar form. See _Babylon_.

BAB-EL-MANDEB ('gate of tears', from being dangerous to small craft), a
strait, 15 miles wide, between the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, formed by
projecting points of Arabia in Asia, and Abyssinia in Africa. The Island of
Perim is here.

BA´BER, first Grand Mogul, the founder of the Mogul dynasty in Hindustan,
born in 1483, died 1530. He was a grandson of the great Tartar prince,
Timur or Tamerlane, and was sovereign of Cabul. He invaded Hindustan, and
in 1525 overthrew and killed Sultan Ibrahim, the last Hindu emperor of the
Pathan or Afghan race. He made many improvements, social and political, in
his empire, and left a valuable autobiography (English translation, 1826).

BABEUF (b[.a]-beuf), François Noel, a French political agitator, born in
1764; started a democratic journal in Paris, called _Le Tribun du Peuple,
par 'Gracchus' Babeuf_, and wrote with great severity against the Jacobins.
After the fall of Robespierre, to which he powerfully contributed, he
openly attacked the terrorists, and advocated the most democratic
principles. He was accused of a conspiracy against the directorial
Government, condemned to death, and guillotined in 1797. He was one of the
pioneers of Socialism in France.

BAB´INGTON, Anthony, a Catholic gentleman of Derbyshire, born 1561. He
associated with others of his own persuasion to assassinate Queen
Elizabeth, and deliver Mary, Queen of Scots. The plot being discovered, the
conspirators were executed in 1586.

BABIROUSSA. See _Babyroussa_.

BAB´ISM, the doctrines of a Mohammedan sect whose head-quarters is Persia,
founded by Seyd Ali Mohammed in 1844. He took the name of Bab-ed-din, 'the
gate of the faith', and afterwards that of Nokteh, 'the point', as not
merely the recipient of a new divine revelation, but the focus in which all
preceding dispensations would converge. One of his most successful
disciples was a highly-gifted woman, Gurred-ul-Ayn, 'consolation of the
eyes', who perished with many others during a persecution in 1852. The Bab
himself had been executed about two years before this, and was succeeded by
a noble youth, Mirza Yahya. The sect holds that all individual existence is
an emanation from the supreme deity, by whom it will be ultimately
reabsorbed. The morality of the sect is pure and cheerful, and it shows
great advancement in the treatment of woman. Moses, Christ, and Mohammed
are acknowledged as prophets, though only mere precursors of the Bab. A
schism divided the followers of Babism into two sects, Bahais and Ezelis.
The former have carried on an active propaganda in America.

BA´BOO, or BABU, a Hindu title of respect equivalent to _sir_ or _master_,
usually given to wealthy and educated native gentlemen, especially when of
the mercantile class.

[Illustration: Family of Common Baboons (_Cynoceph[)a]lus babouin_)]

BABOON´, a common name applied to a division of old-world quadrumana (apes
and monkeys), comprehending the genera Cynoceph[)a]lus and Papio. They have
elongated abrupt muzzles like a dog, strong tusks or canine teeth, usually
short tails, cheek-pouches, small deep eyes with large eyebrows, and naked
callosities on the buttocks. Their hind and fore feet are well
proportioned, so that they run easily on all fours, but they do not
maintain themselves in an upright posture with facility. They are generally
of the size of a moderately large dog, but the largest, the mandrill, is,
when erect, nearly of the height of a man. They are almost all African,
ugly, sullen, fierce, lascivious, and gregarious, defending themselves by
throwing stones, dirt, &c. They live on fruits and roots, eggs and insects.
They include the chacma, drill, common baboon, and mandrill. The chacma or
pig-tailed baboon (_Cynoceph[)a]lus porcarius_) is found in considerable
numbers in parts of the S. African colonies, where the inhabitants wage war
against them on account of the ravages they commit in the fields and
gardens. The common baboon (_C. babouin_) inhabits a large part of Africa
farther to the north. It is of a brownish-yellow colour, while the chacma
is greyish-black, or in parts black. The hamadryas (_C. hamadryas_) of
Abyssinia is characterized by long hair, forming a sort of shoulder-cape.
The black baboon (_C. niger_) is found in Celebes.

BABOUR (bä´b[u:]r). See _Baber_.

BAB´RIUS, a Greek poet who flourished during the second or third century of
the Christian era, and wrote a number of Æsopian fables. Several versions
of these made during the Middle Ages have come down to us as _Æsop's
Fables_. In 1840 a manuscript containing 120 fables by Babrius, previously
unknown, was discovered on Mount Athos.

BABUYA´NES ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific Ocean, between Luzon and
Formosa, belonging to United States. Pop. 12,000.

BABY-FARMING. The law relating to the protection of children and young
persons has been subjected to amendment and consolidation by the Children
Act of 1908, which wholly repealed the Infant Life Protection Act of 1897
dealing with baby-farming and infant life protection.

The Act of 1908 (Part I) deals with baby-farming, and requires that notice
shall be given to the Local Authority (in Scotland the Parish Council) by
the person undertaking for reward the nursing and maintenance of any infant
or infants under seven years of age apart from their parents, within
forty-eight hours after reception, unless the period for which it is
received be only forty-eight hours or less. The notice requires the name,
sex, date and place of birth of the child to be stated, where it is to be
kept, and from whom it is received. The Act also provides that such a
person shall notify any change in his residence or the removal or death of
the infant to the Local Authority within forty-eight hours. In regard to
all these matters the Act is retrospective, and necessitates persons who
had undertaken nursing and maintenance of such infants before its coming
into operation to comply with its provisions within a month after the
commencement thereof. But it exempts any person who may have given the
similar notice required by the Infant Life Protection Act of 1897, although
it does not exempt any person whose duty it was to have given notice
thereunder from any liability which such a person may have incurred
thereunder.

A duty is imposed upon Local Authorities to inquire regarding persons
willing to undertake the nursing and maintenance of infants, to appoint
infant-protection visitors of either sex in so far as it provides for
infant life protection and gives powers to such Local Authorities and
visitors for fulfilling the requirements of the Act. It is an offence for
the person undertaking the nursing to refuse to allow such visitors access
to the infant or the premises in which it is kept; and, if need be,
application may be made to the court for a warrant to enter the house in
which an infant is farmed out, and where there is reason to believe that
the Act is being contravened. It is an offence for any infant to be kept
(1) by any person from whose care an infant has been removed under the Act
or the Infant Life Protection Act, or (2) by any person convicted of any
offence under Part II of the Children Act of 1908 or the Prevention of
Cruelty to Children Act, 1904.

The Local Authority may fix the number of infants under the age of seven
years which may be kept in any dwelling, and it is an offence to keep more.
Provision is also made for the removal of an infant from overcrowded,
dangerous, or insanitary premises, or from the custody of a person unfit to
take charge of the child; and an application may be made by a visitor to a
magistrate for a removal order enforceable by the visitor or a constable.
Should the infant die, notice of the fact must be given by the person with
whom it is farmed out to the Procurator-fiscal of the district, if in
Scotland, and, if in England, to the Coroner of the district, within
twenty-four hours. He shall hold an inquest unless a certificate by a
medical practitioner specifying the cause of death shall be forwarded.
Failure to give such notice is punishable under the Act.

A person nursing an infant for reward shall have no interest in the life of
the child for the purposes of life assurance. It is not permissible for
such a person or insurance company to insure the life of such a child. To
do so renders both the person and the insurance company liable to
prosecution.

Any person knowingly or wilfully making any false statement in any notice
required to be given under the Act commits an offence under the Act.

Imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or a fine not exceeding
£25, may be imposed upon any person found guilty upon summary conviction of
an offence against Part I of the Children Act, 1908; in addition the court
may order the removal of the infant to a place of safety. All fines are
payable to the Local Authority for the purposes of the Act.

Legal guardians of an infant, as well as institutions established for the
protection and care of infants, are exempted from the provisions of Part I
of the Children Act, 1908.

BAB´YLON, the capital of Babylonia, on the left of the Euphrates, one of
the largest and most splendid cities of the ancient world, now a scene of
ruins, and earth-mounds containing them. Babylon was a royal city sixteen
hundred years before the Christian era; but the old city was almost
entirely destroyed in 683 B.C. A new city was built by Nebuchadnezzar
nearly a century later. This was in the form of a square, each side 15
miles long, with walls of such immense height and thickness as to
constitute one of the wonders of the world. It contained splendid edifices,
large gardens and pleasure-grounds, especially the 'hanging-gardens', a
sort of lofty terraced structure supporting earth enough for trees to grow,
and the celebrated Tower of Babel or Temple of Belus, rising by stages to
the height of 625 feet. (See _Babel, Tower of_.) After the city was taken
by Cyrus in 538 B.C., and Babylonia made a Persian province, it began to
decline, and had suffered severely by the time of Alexander the Great. He
intended to restore it, but was prevented by his death, which took place
here in 323 B.C., from which time its decay was rapid. Interesting
discoveries have been made on its site, more especially of numerous and
valuable inscriptions in the cuneiform or arrow-head character. The modern
town of Hillah is believed to represent the ancient city, and the plain
here for miles round is studded with vast mounds of earth and brick and
imposing ruins. The greatest mound is Birs Nimrud, about 6 miles from
Hillah. It rises nearly 200 feet, is crowned by a ruined tower, and is
commonly believed to be the remains of the ancient Temple of Belus. Another
great ruin-mound, called Mujellibeh, has also been assigned as its site.

BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. These ancient seats of Mesopotamian civilization lay
across the western Asian trade-routes, Babylonia being in the south and
Assyria in the north. The area, in which they flourished is embraced by the
Rivers Tigris and Euphrates, and extends from the head of the Persian Gulf
to the frontiers of Armenia and Northern Syria, is bordered on the east by
Persia and on the west by the Syro-Arabian desert. 'Mesopotamia' is a term
borrowed by the ancient Greeks from the Semites, and was first applied to
the north-western region. There was a Roman province of that name. The
northern area of the Tigro-Euphrates valley is partly mountainous and
partly steppe land, with wide stretches of elevated grazing-lands and
fertile districts on the banks of rivers. Assyria, derived from A-usar
('the river-bank region'), had origin in north-eastern Mesopotamia. Its
most ancient capital, Asshur (modern Kal'at Sherkat), was situated on the
western bank of the River Tigris, between the tributaries the Upper Zab and
the Lower Zab. Nineveh, the last capital of all, lay farther north on the
eastern bank of the Tigris, and right opposite modern Mosul. The Assyrians
called themselves Asshurai, and their national god was Ashur (earlier
Ashir), written A-Shur, but confused in time with Ash-Shur, the name of the
capital. The southern area of Mesopotamia, below Bagdad, where the Tigris
and Euphrates come within 35 miles of one another, is a flat alluvial
plain. Babylonia proper is that fish-shaped region between the rivers,
which broadens out to about 100 miles and gradually narrows to the point at
Kurnah where the rivers meet and form the Shatt-el-Arab. From Kurnah to the
head of the Persian Gulf is the ancient area of Chaldea, which means
'Sea-land'. The inhabitants called themselves Kaldu (Sea-landers) and were
known to the Hebrews as the Kasdim, and to the Greeks as the Chaldaioi.
Babylonia, and the rest of the alluvial plain, is the 'gift' of the rivers
which rise in flood each year when the snow melts on the Armenian
mountains. Both the Tigris and the Euphrates bring down enormous quantities
of sediment--indeed five times as much as does the Egyptian Nile--and they
have withal more destructive tendencies. The accumulating silt tends to
divert the flow of the rivers in the south, and a process of land-making
which began at the close of the Ice Age is still in progress, thrusting
back the head of the Persian Gulf. At one time the Tigris and Euphrates
entered the gulf by separate mouths, and Chaldea was then a narrow fringe
of steppe land, plain, and marshes. The River Tigris is about 1146 miles
long, and begins to rise early in March, reaching its height in May, and
subsiding before the end of June. The Euphrates is a slower river, about
1780 miles in length. It begins to rise a fortnight later than the Tigris,
is longer in flood, and does not reach its lowest level until September. As
there is a drop of only 120 feet between Bagdad and the sea, a distance, as
the crow flies, of about 300 miles, the ancient Babylonians did their
utmost to conserve the water which came down in such abundance and was
rapidly drained away, after doing much damage. Near Bagdad the Tigris is on
a higher level than the Euphrates, and could be run into it through a
canal; farther south the Euphrates, being on the higher level, could be run
by canal into the Tigris. The ancient engineers cut these and other canals;
indeed, they covered the whole valley with a network of them. To store the
Euphrates water for the season of drought and great heat, they formed
canals which carried the roaring flood into two depressions in the western
desert between the modern towns of Kerbela and Ram[.a]di. These depressions
are utilized for the British irrigation scheme. The Babylonians did their
utmost to control the Tigris by erecting earthen dams so as to hold up as
much of the water as possible. Earthen dykes were also erected to raise its
banks. The right bank protected the farms from disastrous flooding. These
ancient irrigation works made Babylonia the greatest grain-yielding area in
the ancient world. Its vast surplus of food stimulated trade and brought
Babylonia immense wealth, while its strategic situation made it very
powerful. Its cultural influence flowed along the trade routes, eastward
across Persia and the Iranian plateau, northward through Assyria to Armenia
(ancient Urartu) and beyond, and north-westward along the Euphrates banks
into Syria and Palestine, and into Asia Minor, the land of the Hittites,
and then along the highway to Europe, called later by the Persians 'the
royal road'. The road to Egypt ran southward from North Syria through
Palestine, skirting the maritime valley by 'the way of the Philistines'.
The merchants of many nations met in the city of Babylon, the London of the
ancient western Asian world, and in the trading centres of North Syria,
including Carchemish.

[Illustration: Assyrian Soldiers]

The earliest agriculturists and traders of Babylonia were the Sumerians, a
non-Semitic people, who built a number of cities in the irrigated valley
and founded colonies in Assyria. No trace has been found of a Neolithic Age
in Babylonia. Its civilization, so far as our knowledge goes, began after
copper was introduced. At an early period Semites filtered into the valley.
They absorbed Sumerian civilization, and ultimately became politically
predominant in the northern part of the valley, which was called Akkad (the
biblical Accad). The southern part was then known as Sumer or Sumeria (the
biblical 'Plain of Shinar'). Akkad embraced the city States of Agade,
Babylon, Borsippa, Sippar, Kish, Opis, and Kutha. The Sumerian city States
included Eridu, Ur (later 'of the Chaldees' and the birthplace of Abraham),
Lagash, Shuruppak, Erech, Umma, and Adab. Inter-state wars resulted time
and again in the formation of confederacies which were more of political
than racial character, and the predominance of one city or another.
Religious ideas were fused, and local pantheons appear to have reflected
local politics. The chief seat of early Sumerian civilization was the city
of Eridu, a name signifying 'on the seashore'. Its site is marked by modern
Abu-Shahrein on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, and south-east of Ur,
modern Mukayyar. Eridu was originally a seaport on the Persian Gulf, from
which it is now separated by about 125 miles of land formed by river silt.
The chief god of Eridu was Ea, a name also rendered Ae and Aa, and
apparently meaning 'waters' or 'house (region) of waters'. That the term
'waters' had a special significance for the inhabitants of a water-formed
land is evident by the fact that the Semitic equivalent of Ea is Enki,
which means 'lord of earth'. Other titles of the god were 'lord of Heaven
and Earth', 'ruler of the land', 'the deep', 'god of the abyss', and 'king
of the river'. He was withal the 'Creator', water having created Sumeria,
and Nadimmud, 'lord of everything', as the Egyptian Osiris in his character
of god of the Nile was 'Neb-er-Zer', also 'lord of everything'. Ea had a
ship with a crew including his son Marduk (Merodach or Marad, the Ni-marad
or Nimrod of legend) and In-ab, 'the pilot of Eridu'. The ship was hailed,
in religious literature, as the bringer of fertility and joy. Evidently the
beginning of Sumerian civilization had some connection with ancient
seafarers. Of special interest in this connection are the references made
by the Greek writer Berosus to Oannes, a sea-dweller who came daily from
the Persian Gulf to instruct the early Babylonians how to irrigate the
land, grow crops, erect houses, make laws, write, calculate and measure,
and engage in trade. Texts have been discovered which tend to identify
Oannes with the god Ea. As the early Sumerians bore a strong physical
resemblance to the ancient Egyptians, and there were links between the
early religious beliefs and customs of the two peoples, it is suspected
that they represented two branches of the same ancient stock. Some think
Sumerian civilization was founded by colonists from Egypt, while others
believe that Egyptian civilization was stimulated by settlers from Sumeria.
The question as to who first invented ships has an important bearing in
this connection. When we turn to Sumero-Babylonian religious myths we find
that some reflect local natural phenomena. In one the Euphrates is hailed
as the River (god) "who didst create all things". Another, referring to the
creation of man, says that Marduk (earlier the god Gilimma) "tied reeds on
the face of the waters, he formed dust and poured it out beside the reeds
... he formed mankind". Another version is that man was created from the
god's blood and bone, or, as Berosus has it, from the god's blood and
earth. The oldest Sumerian creation myth states that all things came from
primeval water. Then many deities were created by the pre-existing triad of
gods, Anu (the sky-god), Enlil ('the elder Bel', the earth-god, and 'lord
of grain'), and Ea, who was associated with the goddess Ninkharsagga. Ea
had several other wives, including Ninshar or Ninkurra, Ninella, Nintu, and
Damkina. These goddesses were ultimately all absorbed by Ishtar, the
Semitic name of the love and mother goddess. In the later Babylonian 'Seven
Tablets' version of the creation myth a conflict is introduced. The female
chaos-dragon Tiamat is slain by Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, 'the
later Bel', who cuts up her body and uses part to form the sky and part to
keep the waters in their place. After a time a deluge took place. In the
Sumerian myth a priest-king called Ziusudu (earlier named Tatug or Uttu)
corresponds both to Adam and to Noah, and builds a large vessel, having
been warned by Ea of the approaching disaster. The Gilgamesh Epic refers to
the hero as Ut-na-pishtim (or Pir-na-pishtim). He and his wife afterwards
become immortal, and they are visited on their island by Gilgamesh (the
Babylonian Hercules), when, smitten by disease, he searches for the Plant
of Life, which he finds and afterwards loses. Ishtar, the goddess who plays
a part in this epic, is also the heroine of the poetic legend which tells
of her descent to Hades in quest of Tammuz, whose story resembles somewhat
that of Adonis and has Osirian characteristics. The Babylonian Persephone
was Eresh-ki-gal with whom Tammuz dwelt in her underworld for part of the
year. Associated with her was Nergal, chief god of Kutha, whose planet was
Mars. He conquered Hades. He and other city gods appear to have been
developed from attributes vaguely shared by the earlier triad Anu,
Bel-Enlil, and Ea. The moon-god of Ur was Sin (Sumerian Nannara), whose
name clings to the desert of Sinai. Shamash was the Semitic name of the
sun-god of Sippar, the Sumerian being Utu; Gishnu, the Light, and
Ma-banda-anna, 'the boat of heaven' (like the Egyptian Ra), and Mitra were
among his other non-Semitic names. Dagan, the god of the Euphrates, is
regarded as a form of Ea, and as probably the same deity as Dagon of the
Philistines. In later times the astrologers coloured with their doctrines
the religious beliefs of Babylonia.

Among the early empire-builders of Babylonia were Lugal-zaggisi of Sumerian
Erech, who claimed to have subdued all lands from the Lower Sea (Persian
Gulf) to the Upper Sea (the Mediterranean). He flourished about 2800 B.C.
Another was Sargon of Akkad, who lived about a century and a half later. He
must not be confused with the much later biblical Sargon of Assyria. His
son or grandson, Naram-Sin, recorded his great trading activities and
victories over his enemies, including the Elamites, whose chief stronghold
was Susa in south-western Persia. Elam was a rival power of considerable
strength. About 2200 B.C. it had overrun a great part of Sumeria, and Akkad
fell to the invading bands of Amorites. These Amorites founded the
Hammurabi Dynasty, of which the king of that name was sixth in succession;
Hammurabi extinguished the last sparks of Elamite power in Sumeria, which,
with Akkad, was united to form the kingdom of Babylonia, named after
Babylon, the capital. It was during this period that Abraham migrated from
Ur to Palestine. Hammurabi (_c._ 2123-2081 B.C.) codified the ancient
Sumerian laws and did much to develop trade. The chief god of his kingdom
was Marduk, 'the later Bel', whose temple was called Esagilla. Babylon
became the greatest trading centre in Western Asia and a rival of the
Egyptian Memphis. Sumerian gradually ceased to be a spoken language, being
supplanted by Semitic, but remained, like Latin, in mediæval Europe, the
language of law, culture, and religion, while the Babylonian language
became the language of trade and diplomacy, and was used in international
correspondence by all the great Powers. The Hammurabi dynasty came to an
end about 1926 B.C., when the Hittites raided Babylonia and carried off the
statues of Marduk and his consort. Kassites, assisted by Elamites, had been
attacking Babylonia from the east, and the Sea-landers, who were Arabians
mixed with Sumerians, established their independence. In the end the
Kassites, who were probably Aryan by race, conquered Babylonia and
established a new dynasty. Like the Trojans they were 'tamers of horses'.
Their military successes are believed to have been due to the use of the
horse, which was a rarity in Babylonia before their time, but became common
as a beast of burden as soon as the Kassite dynasty was established.
Kassite supremacy lasted for over 570 years, and during that period
Babylonia was known as Karduniash. One of its early kings brought back from
Khani (Mitanni) the statues of Marduk and his consort which had been
carried off by the Hittites. Babylonian civilization was not changed by
Kassite conquest, and its trade went on as of yore. The Kassites formed an
aristocracy like the Normans in England. During the Kassite period Assyria
was a growing power. It had origin as a Sumerian colony, but above the
relics of the Sumerians at Asshur have been found those of a people whose
kings had such non-Semitic and probably Aryan names as Ushpia, Kikia, and
Adasi. The Amorites afterwards swept into Assyria, which they Semitized.
During the Hammurabi dynasty it was subject to Babylonian overlordship. It
grew independent during the latter period of the Kassite dynasty, and its
kings formed compacts with the Kassites. Their western neighbours were by
this time the Mitannians. An Aryan military aristocracy had formed a
powerful State in north-western Mesopotamia, where they worshipped Indra,
Varuna, and Mitra, gods which figure in the mythology of the Aryan invaders
of India. Egypt, under Thothmes III, extended her Syrian empire to the
borders of Mitannia and a friendship sprang up between the two Powers.
Assyria was during the period subject to Mitanni. The Tell-el-Amarna
letters reveal the fact that Egyptian monarchs had married princesses from
Mitanni, and the famous Akhenaton had Mitannian blood in his veins.

[Illustration: Ashur-natsir-pal in Chariot, hunting Lions about 884 B.C.
From a relief in the Palace of Nimrod]

[Illustration: Tablet recording the Wars of Sennacherib]

The Hittites conquered Northern Syria and overran Mitannia when the
Egyptian Asian empire went to pieces. Assyria then became powerful and
independent again, the first great king of its new age being Ashur-uballit,
who was strong enough to interfere with Babylonia's domestic politics.
Shalmaneser I of Assyria (_c._ 1300 B.C.) conquered the whole of the
Mitanni kingdom and extended the Assyrian empire westward across the
Babylonian caravan road to North Syria. He built a new capital at Kalah
(Nimrud). His son, Tulkulti--Nineb I--(_c._ 1275 B.C.), conquered Babylonia
and reigned over it for seven years. In the end he was murdered by
political conspirators, with whom his son was associated. Civil war ensued,
and Assyria's history is found to be obscure for a century afterwards. In
Babylon the Kassite dynasty, under which trade flourished, came to an end
as a result of an Elamite invasion about 1185 B.C. A new Babylonian dynasty
then arose, and the third king, Nebuchadnezzar I, revived the old empire
and waged war against Assyria. But the future lay with Assyria, which was
organized as a military State. It did not have Babylonia's natural
resources, and could only exist as a great Power by imposing tribute on
weaker States. A standing army was the basis of its strength. The national
god was Ashur, who was symbolized by a winged disk, an adaptation of the
Egyptian winged disk of Horus. It was carried to battle with the king, so
that wherever the king was, there was the national god of war. The
heavily-bearded Assyrians were a fiercer and more war-like people than the
mild shaven Babylonians, who were ever influenced by Sumerian modes of
thought. The Assyrian temperament is reflected in its art, which at its
best is characterized by vigorous realism and brilliant ferocity. Much of
it is harsh, exaggerated, and pompous. A sharp contrast is presented by the
calmer and more idealistic art of the Sumero-Babylonians. The records of
Assyrian monarchs deal mainly with extensive conquests. They did their
utmost to set up a reign of terror in Western Asia, and when subject States
revolted the chief men in them were flayed alive or impaled on stakes. The
wholesale destruction of trading city States and the massacres of thousands
of innocents were fit subjects for an Assyrian conqueror to boast of in his
inscriptions. Hittites, North Syrians, Babylonians, and Urartians
(Armenians), were time and again plundered and subjected. A great conqueror
of the Middle Period was Tiglath-Pileser I (_c._ 1100 B.C.), and other
monarchs of the same name repeated his conquests and atrocities during the
last century of Assyria's existence. The military glory of such a monarch
as Ashur-natsir-pal III (885-860 B.C.), whose armies swept through western
Asia like cyclones, has a lurid background of savage cruelty and
oppression. He fought for no greater cause than plunder and the maintenance
of Assyria's ability to wring tribute from the oppressed. His son,
Shalmaneser III, extended the empire but died under a cloud of internal
revolt. Subsequent rulers dominated Babylonia, and one, Adad-nirari IV
(810-782 B.C.), married the Babylonian princess, Sammurammat, the Semiramis
of tradition. Tiglath-Pileser IV (745-727 B.C.) was overlord of Babylon,
and, indeed, Babylonia was more or less under Assyrian sway for the next
century. Sargon II ('Sargon the later') did his utmost to break the
national spirit in subject States by transporting whole communities from
one to another. He removed a portion of the 'ten lost tribes' to the Median
hills, and dispatched Babylonians from Kutha to Samaria, where they made
Nergal their chief god. His campaigns extended to Phoenicia, Cilicia, and
Armenia. Sennacherib, his son, defeated Egypt and her allies in Palestine
and besieged Hezekiah in Jerusalem. A revolution in Babylonia broke out,
and he swept into it and devastated Babylon, so that Nineveh might become
the chief city in Mesopotamia. But Babylon had to be rebuilt by his son
Esarhaddon, so that its dislocated trade might be restored. Esarhaddon,
recognizing that the great commercial rival of Babylonia was Egypt, and
that Egypt instigated the Palestinian and Syrian revolts against Assyria,
invaded the Nile valley and captured and sacked Memphis. Ashur-bani-pal
(668-626 B.C.), the next Assyrian emperor, punished the Egyptian rebels by
sweeping southwards and capturing and sacking Thebes, which is referred to
as No (Nu-Amon) in the Bible (_Nahum_, iii, 8-10): "Populous No ... Yet was
she carried away ... her young children also were dashed in pieces at the
top of all the streets: and they (the Assyrians) cast lots for her
honourable men, and all her great men were bound in chains". Egypt became
for a time an Assyrian province. Elam was similarly dealt with, the great
capital Susa being treated like Thebes. On the north and east Assyrian
power was established with characteristic Assyrian ferocity and
thoroughness. The result was that the predatory nomadic tribes of Scythians
and Medes were able to sweep through the devastated territories and strike
at the very heart of the empire. Ashur-bani-pal was the last great monarch
of Assyria. In private life he was cultured and scholarly, and his library,
which contained copies of many ancient records and literary works, is one
of the sources of Mesopotamian history. Although the Sardanapulus of Greek
tradition, he was not the actual monarch who perished when Nineveh was
captured and sacked about 606 B.C. by the fiery hillmen from the east. The
Assyrian military organization collapsed and Assyria ceased to be. The
factors that led to the downfall of Assyria can only be guessed at. It may
be that its many wars of conquest had left it in a state of exhaustion. It
is also possible that the new generation of the aristocratic class that
grew up in wealth and luxury was disorganized by intrigues and corruption.
After Ashur-bani-pal died, no great leader arose, and the vast unwieldy
empire suffered from internal decay. Babylonia was the first to foster
organized revolt. It was overrun by the Chaldeans from the south, who, two
years after Ashur-bani-pal's death, set on the throne at Babylon their
leader, King Nabopolassar. With him began the Neo-Babylonian dynasty which
lasted for 86 years. He had an ambitious and capable son named
Nebuchadnezzar, who set out, as soon as Nineveh fell, to seize the western
portion of the Assyrian Empire--the Medes, with whom the Chaldeans had an
agreement, being content to retain north-eastern Mesopotamia. The
Egyptians, having overcome the Assyrian garrisons in the Nile valley, were
by this time moving northward through Palestine with the idea of
re-establishing their ancient empire in Asia. Memphis and Babylon were
rival trading centres, and the struggle that ensued was one which was to
decide which should have preeminence on the western Asian trade-routes, and
especially the 'clearing-houses' of North Syria. In 604 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar
met and defeated Pharaoh Necho's Egyptian army at Carchemish. The Egyptians
retreated in confusion and were pursued to their frontier. Nabopolassar's
death in Babylon caused Nebuchadnezzar to return home and ascend the
throne. Eight years later, [Illustration] however, he was back in Palestine
again. Judah had been plotting with Egypt, its ally, and the Babylonian
monarch besieged and captured Jerusalem. Thousands of Jews were carried off
as captives to Babylonia. In 587 B.C. Egypt involved Judah in a second
revolt. Nebuchadnezzar II again captured Jerusalem. This time he destroyed
the city and carried away the greater part of the remnant of the Jewish
people to serve his artisans and agriculturists "by Babel's streams".
Babylon was triumphant as a political and trading centre, and, during
Nebuchadnezzar's long reign of 42 years, prospered greatly. Its products
and its culture were carried far and wide, and Chaldean astrologers as well
as merchants became known in Egypt and Greece. Babylonia was the birthplace
of the science of astronomy, which developed from astrology. Nebuchadnezzar
was a great builder. It is the ruins of his Babylon that have been
excavated in our own day. Although Greek descriptions of the city have been
found to be somewhat exaggerated, it was yet made very strong and
impressive. The royal palace was rebuilt, and the Hanging Garden on its
terraced platform became one of the seven wonders of the world. Trade
flourished in the capital, and a harbour was built at the head of the
Persian Gulf to promote sea traffic. In 539 B.C. Cyrus, the Persian
conqueror, having defeated the Babylonian army, entered Babylon in state
and was welcomed by the priests, Nabo-nidus, the last king of the
Neo-Babylonian empire, having made them his enemies. The independence of
Babylonia then came to an end, but the importance of its capital as a
trading centre did not suffer sudden decline. When it was captured by
Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. it had been much damaged in consequence of
revolts against Persia. The Macedonian conqueror resolved to make it his
capital, but his early death, and subsequent political developments,
hastened its decay. The Greeks had removed the rocks that blocked the
Tigris, which then could be navigated by vessels from the Persian Gulf.
Seleucus built the new capital of Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris,
and the traders followed the officials to the new Babylon. In time
Ctesiphon arose on the left bank, and after the fall of the Parthian empire
it was the principal city of the province. The Moslem conquest of
Mesopotamia in the seventh century of our era brought about the rise of
Bagdad, a few miles to the north of Ctesiphon. It will be noted that all
these cities are strategically situated in the neck of land, between the
rivers, which is crossed by the caravan roads leading east and west. During
the reign of the famous Harun al Rashid (786-809) Bagdad was at the height
of its splendour. A portion of this ruler's great palace still remains, and
the tomb of Zobiede, his queen, is a prominent feature on the outskirts of
the city. Bagdad declined as a trading centre after Vasco da Gama
discovered the sea-route to India, and diverted the merchandise previously
carried to Europe across the overland routes across Persia and through
Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Bagdad afterwards depended chiefly on the
traffic caused by pilgrim caravans to and from Mecca. The disastrous
neglect of Babylonia's irrigation system occurred under Turkish rule.
Towards the close of the nineteenth century Germany obtained concessions
from the Turks and planned the Bagdad railway, so as to reopen the ancient
overland trade-route for Indo-Persian trade. British interests in the
Persian Gulf were seriously threatened by this scheme. When war broke out
in 1914, a British force landed in ancient Chaldea and pushed northward.
Bagdad, the modern Babylon, was captured in 1917, and Mosul (Nineveh) was
occupied in 1918. The Peace Treaty between the Allied Powers and Turkey
placed Mesopotamia under the protection of Great Britain, which thus
secured control of the Bagdad railway. An extensive irrigation scheme in
the southern alluvial valley promises to restore ancient Babylonia to its
importance as one of the great grain-yielding areas of the
world.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. W. Rogers, _History of Babylonia and Assyria_; H.
Winckler, _History of Babylonia and Assyria_; L. W. King and H. R. H. Hall,
_Egypt and Western Asia in the Light of recent Discoveries_; P. S. P.
Handcock, _The Latest Light on Bible Lands_; L. W. King, _History of
Babylon_; D. A. Mackenzie, _Myths of Babylonia and Assyria_; T. G. Pinches,
_The Religion of Babylon and Assyria_; _The Old Testament in the Light of
the Records of Assyria and Babylonia_; A. H. Sayce, _Religions of Ancient
Egypt and Babylonia_; M. Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice
in Babylonia and Assyria_; R. Koldeweg, _The Excavations of Babylon_.

BABYROUSSA (bab-i-r[u:]s´a; a Malay word signifying stag-hog), a species of
wild hog (_Sus_ or _Porcus Babyrussa_), a native of the Indian Archipelago.
From the outside of the upper jaw spring two teeth 12 inches long, curving
upwards and backwards like horns, and almost touching the forehead. The
tusks of the lower jaw also appear externally, though they are not so long
as those of the upper jaw. Along the back are some weak bristles, and on
the rest of the body only a sort of wool. These animals live in herds, feed
on herbage, are sometimes tamed, and their flesh is well flavoured.

BAC´CARAT, a gambling card game of French origin, played by any number of
players, or rather betters, and a banker. The latter deals two cards to
each player and two to himself, and covers the stakes of each with an equal
sum. The cards are then examined, and according to the scores made the
players take their own stake and the banker's, or the latter takes all or a
certain number of the stakes.

BACCARAT (b[.a]k-[.a]-rä), a town of France, about 15 miles south-east of
Lunéville, department Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the River Meurthe, with a
handsome new church, and one of the largest works for plate-glass and
crystal in France. Pop. 7277.

BACCHANA´LIA, or DIONYSIA, feasts in honour of Bacchus or Dionysus,
characterized by licentiousness and revelry, and celebrated in ancient
Athens. In the processions were bands of Bacchantes of both sexes, who,
inspired by real or feigned intoxication, wandered about rioting and
dancing. They were clothed in fawn-skins, crowned with ivy, and bore in
their hands _thyrsi_, that is spears entwined with ivy, or having a
pine-cone stuck on the point. These feasts passed from the Greeks to the
Romans, who celebrated them with still greater dissoluteness till the
Senate abolished them, 187 B.C.

BACCHANTE (bak-an´te), a person taking part in revels in honour of Bacchus.
See _Bacchanalia_.

BACCHIGLIONE (b[.a]k-kil´y[=o]-n[=a]), a river of Northern Italy, rises in
the Alps, passes through the towns of Vicenza and Padua, and enters the
Adriatic near Chioggia, after a course of about 90 miles.

BACCHUS (bak´us; in Greek, generally _Dion[)y]sus_), the god of wine, son
of Zeus (Jupiter) and S[)e]m[)e]l[=e]. He first taught the cultivation of
the vine and the preparation of wine. To spread the knowledge of his
invention he travelled over various countries and received in every quarter
divine honours. Drawn by lions (some say panthers, tigers, or lynxes), he
began his march, which resembled a triumphal procession. Those who opposed
him were severely punished, but on those who received him hospitably he
bestowed rewards. His love was shared by several; but Ariadne, whom he
found deserted upon Naxos, alone was elevated to the dignity of a wife, and
became a sharer of his immortality. In art he is represented with the
round, soft, and graceful form of a maiden rather than with that of a young
man. His long waving hair is knitted behind in a knot, and wreathed with
sprigs of ivy and vine leaves. He is usually naked; sometimes he has a
loose mantle hung negligently round his shoulders; sometimes a fawn-skin
hangs across his breast. He is often accompanied by Silenus, Bacchantes,
Satyrs, &c. See _Bacchanalia_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Farnell, _Cults of the Greek
States_; J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_; Sir
J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_.

BACCHYLIDES (bak-kil'i-d[=e]z), born in the Island of Cos, about the middle
of the fifth century B.C., the last of the great lyric poets of Greece, a
nephew of Simonides and a contemporary of Pindar. The extant remains of his
odes, hymns, pæans, &c., were augmented in 1897 by papyrus discoveries.

BACCIOCCHI (b[.a]t-chok´[=e]), Maria Anne Eliza Bonaparte, sister of
Napoleon, born at Ajaccio, 1777, died near Trieste, 1820; a great patroness
of literature and art. She married Captain Bacciocchi, who in 1805 was
created Prince of Lucca and Piombino. She virtually ruled these
principalities herself, and as Grand-Duchess of Tuscany she enacted the
part of a queen. She fell with the Empire.

BACCIO DELIA PORTA (b[.a]ch´[=o]). See _Bartolommeo_.

BACH (ba_h_), Johann Sebastian, one of the greatest of German musicians,
born in 1685 at Eisenach, died in 1750 at Leipzig. Being the son of a
musician he was early trained in the art, and soon distinguished himself.
In 1703 he was engaged as a player at the Court of Weimar, and subsequently
he was musical director to the Duke of Anhalt-Köthen, and afterwards held
an appointment at Leipzig. He paid a visit to Potsdam on the invitation of
Frederick the Great. As a player on the harpsichord and organ he had no
equal among his contemporaries; but it was not till a century after his
death that his greatness as a composer was fully recognized. His
compositions, many of which are pieces of sacred music, show great
originality. They include pieces, vocal and instrumental, for the organ,
piano, stringed and keyed instruments; church cantatas, oratorios, masses,
passion music, &c. More than fifty musical performers have proceeded from
this family. Sebastian himself had eleven sons, all distinguished as
musicians. The most renowned were the following:--Wilhelm Friedemann, born
in 1710 at Weimar, died at Berlin in 1784. He was one of the most
scientific harmonists and most skilful organists.--Karl Philipp Emmanuel,
born in 1714 at Weimar, died in 1788 at Hamburg. He composed mostly for the
piano, and published melodies for Gellert's hymns; he also wrote _The True
Manner of Playing the Harpsichord_.--Johann Christoph Friedrich, born at
Weimar, 1732, died in 1795, a great organist, is known also by the music he
published.--Johann Christian, born in 1735 at Leipzig, died in London,
1782, was a favourite composer and conductor with the English
public.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Spitta, _Johann Sebastian Bach_; A. Pirro,
_L'Esthétique de Jean Sebastian Bach_.

BACHARACH (b[.a]_h_´[.a]-r[.a]_h_), a small place of 2000 inhabitants on
the Rhine, 12 miles S. of Coblenz. The vicinity produces excellent wine,
which was once highly esteemed. The view from the ruins of the castle is
one of the sublimest on the Rhine.

BACH´ELOR, a term applied anciently to a person in the first or
probationary stage of knighthood who had not yet raised his standard in the
field. It also denotes a person who has taken the first degree in the
liberal arts and sciences, or in divinity, law, or medicine, at a college
or university; or a man of any age who has not been married.--A _knight
bachelor_ is one who has been raised to the dignity of a knight without
being made a member of any of the orders of chivalry such as the Garter,
the Thistle, or the Bath.

BACHELOR'S BUTTONS, the double-flowering buttercup (_Ranunculus acris_),
with white or yellow blossoms, common in gardens.

BACHIAN (b[.a]ch´[.a]n), one of the Molucca Islands, immediately S. of the
equator, S.W. of Gilolo; area, 800 sq. miles. It is ruled by a native
sultan under the Dutch.

BACHMUT (b[.a]_h_-möt'), a town in the Ukraine, government of
Ekaterinoslav, with a trade in cattle, tallow, &c., and coal and rock-salt
mines. Pop. 20,000.

BACILLA´RIA, a genus of microscopic algæ, belonging to the class
Diatomaceæ, the siliceous remains of which abound in cretaceous, tertiary,
and more recent geological deposits.

BACIL´LUS. See _Bacteria_.

BACK, Admiral Sir George, eminent English Arctic discoverer, born 1796,
died 1878. He accompanied Franklin and Richardson in their northern
expeditions, and in 1833-4 headed an expedition to the Arctic Ocean through
the Hudson Bay Company's territory, on which occasion he wintered at the
Great Slave Lake, and discovered the Back or Great Fish River.

BACKERGUNGE. See _Bakarganj_.

BACKGAM´MON, a game played by two persons upon a table or board made for
the purpose, with pieces or men, dice-boxes, and dice. The table is in two
parts, on which are twenty-four black and white spaces called points. Each
player has fifteen men of different colours for the purpose of distinction.
The movements of the men are made in accordance with the numbers turned up
by the dice.

BACKHAUS, Wilhelm, one of the greatest living pianists, born at Leipzig in
1884. At the age of twenty-one he was appointed a professor at the Royal
College of Music, Manchester. This position, however, he soon gave up, and
since 1905 has devoted his time to concert tours.

BACKHUYSEN (b[.a]k´hoi-zn), Ludolf, a painter of the Dutch school,
particularly celebrated for sea pieces, born in 1631, died 1709. His most
famous picture is a sea piece which the burgomasters of Amsterdam
commissioned him to paint as a present to Louis XVI. It is still at Paris.

BACKWARDA´TION, a stock exchange term signifying the rate paid by a
speculative seller of stock for the privilege of carrying over or
continuing a bargain from one fortnightly account to another, instead of
closing it on the appointed day.

BACNINH, a town of Tongking, on the Red River, fortified and containing a
French garrison, being in an important strategic position. Pop. 7000.

BA´CON, Anthony, elder brother of the celebrated Lord Chancellor, was born
in 1558 and died in 1601. He was a skilful politician, and much devoted to
learned pursuits. He became personally acquainted with most of the foreign
literati of the day, and gained the friendship of Henri IV of France.
Francis Bacon dedicated to him the first edition of the _Essays_.

BACON, Francis, Baron Verulam, Viscount St. Albans, and Lord High
Chancellor of England, was born at London in 1561, died at Highgate in
1626. His father, Nicholas Bacon, was Keeper of the Great Seal under Queen
Elizabeth. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1575 was
admitted to Gray's Inn. From 1576 to 1579 he was at Paris with Sir Amyas
Paulet, the English ambassador. The death of his father called him back to
England, and being left in straitened circumstances he zealously pursued
the study of law, and was admitted a barrister in 1582. In 1584 he became
member of Parliament for Melcombe Regis, and soon after drew up a _Letter
of Advice_ to Queen Elizabeth, an able political memoir. In 1586 he was
member for Taunton, in 1589 for Liverpool. A year or two after he gained
the Earl of Essex as a friend and patron. Bacon's talents and his
connection with the Lord-Treasurer Burleigh, who had married his mother's
sister, and his son, Sir Robert Cecil, First Secretary of State, seemed to
promise him the highest promotion; but he had displeased the queen, and
when he applied for the attorney-generalship, and next for the
solicitor-generalship (1595), he was unsuccessful. Essex endeavoured to
indemnify him by the donation of an estate in land. Bacon, however, forgot
his obligations to his benefactor, and not only abandoned him as soon as he
had fallen into disgrace, but without being obliged took part against him
on his trial, in 1601, and was active in obtaining his conviction. He had
been chosen member for the county of Middlesex in 1593, and for Southampton
in 1597, and had long been a Queen's Counsel. The reign of James I was more
favourable to his interest. He was assiduous in courting the king's favour,
and James, who was ambitious of being considered a patron of letters,
conferred upon him in 1603 the honour of knighthood. In 1604 he was
appointed King's Counsel, with a pension of £60; in 1606 he married; in
1607 he became Solicitor-General, and six years after Attorney-General.
Between James and his Parliament he was anxious to produce harmony, but his
efforts were without avail, and his obsequiousness and servility gained him
enmity and discredit. In 1617 he was made Lord-Keeper of the Seal; in 1618
Lord High Chancellor of England and Baron Verulam. In this year he lent his
influence to bring a verdict of guilty against Raleigh. In 1621 he was made
Viscount St. Albans. Soon after this his reputation received a fatal blow.
A new Parliament was formed in 1621, and the Lord Chancellor was accused
before the House of bribery, corruption, and other malpractices. It is
difficult to ascertain the full extent of his guilt; but he seems to have
been unable to justify himself, and handed in a 'confession and humble
submission', throwing himself on the mercy of the Peers. He was condemned
to pay a fine of £40,000, to be committed to the Tower during the pleasure
of the king, declared incompetent to hold any office of State, and banished
from Court for ever. The sentence, however, was never carried out. The fine
was remitted almost as soon as imposed, and he was imprisoned for only a
few days. He survived his fall a few years, during this time occupying
himself with his literary and scientific works, and vainly hoping for
political employment. In 1597 he published his celebrated _Essays_, which
immediately became very popular, were successively enlarged and extended,
and translated into Latin, French, and Italian. The treatise on the
_Advancement of Learning_ appeared in 1605; _The Wisdom of the Ancients_ in
1609 (in Latin); his great philosophical work, the _Novum Organum_ (in
Latin), in 1620; and the _De Augmentis Scientiarum_, a much enlarged
edition (in Latin) of the _Advancement_, in 1623. His _New Atlantis_ was
written about 1614-7; _Life of Henry VII_ about 1621. Various minor
productions also proceeded from his pen. Numerous editions of his works
have been published, by far the best being that of Messrs. Spedding, Ellis,
and Heath, 1857-9 (reprinted, 1879-90). Bacon was great as a moralist, a
historian, a writer on politics, and a rhetorician; but it is as the father
of the inductive method in science, as the powerful exponent of the
principle that facts must be observed and collected before theorizing, that
he occupies the grand position he holds among the world's great ones. His
moral character, however, was not on a level with his intellectual,
self-aggrandizement being the main aim of his life. We need do no more than
allude to the preposterous attempt that has been made to prove that Bacon
was the real author of the plays attributed to Shakespeare, an attempt that
only ignorance of Bacon and Shakespeare could uphold and
tolerate.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Spedding, _Life and Letters of Francis Bacon_;
R. W. Church, _Bacon_ (in English Men of Letters Series); Sir Sidney Lee,
_Great Englishmen of the Sixteenth Century_; J. M. Robertson, _Short
History of Free-thought_.

BACON, John, English sculptor, born 1740, died 1799. Among his chief works
are two groups for the interior of the Royal Academy; the statue of Judge
Blackstone for All Souls College, Oxford; another of Henry VI for Eton
College; the monument of Lord Chatham in Westminster Abbey; and the statues
of Dr. Johnson and Mr. Howard in St. Paul's Cathedral.

BACON, Sir Nicholas, father of Francis Bacon, Lord-Keeper of the Great
Seal, born 1510, died 1579. Henry VIII gave him several lucrative offices,
which he retained under Edward VI. He lived in retirement during the reign
of Mary, but Queen Elizabeth appointed him Lord-Keeper for life. He was the
intimate friend of Lord Burleigh, a sister of whose wife he married, and by
her became the father of the great Chancellor.

BACON, Roger, an English monk, and one of the most profound and original
thinkers of his day, was born about 1214, near Ilchester, Somersetshire,
died at Oxford in 1294. He first entered the University of Oxford, and went
afterwards to that of Paris, where he is said to have distinguished himself
and received the degree of Doctor of Theology. About 1250 he returned to
England, entered the order of Franciscans and fixed his abode at Oxford;
but having incurred the suspicion of his ecclesiastical superiors, he was
sent to Paris and kept in confinement for ten years, without
writing-materials, books, or instruments. The cause seems to have been
simple enough. He had been a diligent student of the chemical, physical,
and mathematical sciences, and had made discoveries, and deduced results,
which appeared so extraordinary to the ignorant that they were believed to
be works of magic. This opinion was countenanced by the jealousy and hatred
of the monks of his fraternity. In subsequent times he was popularly
classed among those who had been in league with Satan. Having been set at
liberty, he enjoyed a brief space of quiet while Clement IV was Pope; but
in 1278 he was again thrown into prison, where he remained for at least ten
years. Of the close of his life little is known. His most important work is
his _Opus Majus_, where he discusses the relation of philosophy to
religion, and then treats of language, metaphysics, optics, and
experimental science. He was undoubtedly the earliest philosophical
experimentalist in Britain; he made signal advances in optics; was an
excellent chemist; and in all probability discovered gunpowder. He was
intimately acquainted with geography and astronomy, as appears by his
discovery of the errors of the calendar, and their causes, and by his
proposals for correcting them, in which he approached very nearly to
truth.--Cf. E. Charles, _Roger Bacon, sa vie, ses ouvrages, ses doctrines_.

[Illustration: Bacteria--Forms of cells

1. Coccus. 2. Bacillus. 3. Spirillum (vibrio). 4. Spirillum (spirochæte).]

BACTE´RIA (Gr. _bakt[=e]rion_, a rod), a general term applied to the lowest
visible forms of life; other names given are _germs_ or _microbes_. They
are divided into three classes: (1) _cocci_--these are minute spheres about
one twenty-five thousandth of an inch in diameter, arranged in chains or
clusters; (2) _bacilli_--these are straight rods about the breadth of a
coccus and two to four times as long; (3) _spirilla_--here there are two
forms; one is like a bacillus, but curved (spirillum proper or vibrio); the
other is a very fine spiral thread (spirochaete) often only half the
thickness of a vibrio and two to six times as long. Bacteria consist of
protoplasm surrounded by a membrane, and many show active movements; they
all multiply asexually by splitting, and so rapidly may the process occur
that 17,000,000 organisms or more may be formed from one bacterium in
twenty-four hours. The chief part played by bacteria in nature is to cause
putrefaction. They are found on all organic matter, and are therefore
omnipresent. When grown artificially (see _Bacteriology_) they usually
require organic matter for their food, and this they split up into simpler
chemical compounds, some of which are very poisonous to animals (toxins);
they can also split up sugars to produce various alcohols, acids, and
gases. When certain of the bacilli are starved, the living matter gathers
itself up into a spore surrounded by a very resisting membrane, and it can
survive for a long time in this condition. All ordinary bacteria, including
most of those which produce disease, can be killed by a few minutes'
boiling, but the sporing varieties (e.g. many putrefactive forms) withstand
much longer boiling--up to one and a half hours; they can also be killed by
chemical means (see _Disinfection_). Many bacteria are useful to man, and a
few give rise to disease (see _Germ Theory_).

[Illustration: BACTERIA

All the above are magnified 560 times.]

BACTERIOLOGY, the branch of science which deals with the structure and
properties of bacteria. Though the existence of bacteria had been known
from the time when Leeuwenhock arranged lenses so as to form a microscope,
it was through the work of Pasteur that modern knowledge regarding the
group originated. Pasteur's discovery that yeasts are the cause of the
formation of alcohol from sugar was followed by his showing that bacteria
are responsible for other processes of a similar character, e.g. the
formation of vinegar from alcohol, the occurrence of the rancid change in
butter, &c. When he went on to prove that a bacterium was the cause of a
disease of silkworms, a stimulus was given to the germ theory of infection,
and bacteriology was thus early brought intimately into contact with
medical science. Another stimulus to bacteriological inquiry came from the
controversy on spontaneous generation, and Pasteur was one of those who
helped to establish the principle that the new development of living
things, as represented by bacteria, out of non-living matter does not take
place. This led to the inevitable deduction that all putrefactive processes
are due to bacteria. On this Lister founded his antiseptic treatment of
wounds, the practical effects of which focused attention on the important
part played by bacteria in human affairs. The modern science of
bacteriology really dates from 1877, when Koch proved that _Bacillus
anthracis_ is the cause of anthrax in cattle. The outstanding feature of
Koch's research was that in it, for the first time, methods were employed
whereby all extraneous organisms were excluded from the inquiry, and the
way was thus opened up for the study of the properties and effects of one
species of bacterium acting by itself. The chief aspects of his work were
as follows: (1) the determination of the temperatures at which bacteria are
killed; the knowledge of this enables investigators to render free from
living organisms their apparatus and the food materials (usually called
_media_) necessary to support bacterial life (this is called
_sterilization_); (2) the discovery that the insertion of a plug of
cotton-wool in the neck of a vessel (e.g. a flask or test-tube) before its
sterilization constitutes a sufficient filter, which prevents bacteria in
the outside air gaining access to its interior or to any food medium placed
in it for sterilization; (3) the elaboration of a series of media capable
of acting as food for all the commonly occurring bacteria; (4) the
introduction of a simple method of separating from one another bacterial
species which in nature are often growing side by side. This is effected by
making media containing a jelly (e.g. gelatine) which melts at a relatively
low temperature. The bacterial mixture is well diluted in the melted
medium, and this is poured out in a thin layer on a sterile glass plate and
allowed to set. Each individual bacterial cell can thus multiply apart from
neighbouring cells, and, it may be, in a few hours the resulting growth (a
'colony') is visible to the naked eye. A minute part of the colony is
picked off with a heated needle and placed on a mass of sterile medium. In
this way a 'pure culture' of each species present in the original mixture
can be obtained. Koch's work was chiefly concerned with disease bacteria,
and between 1880 and 1895 many such organisms were isolated in pure culture
and their properties investigated (see _Germ Theory of Disease_).

While in the evolution of knowledge the progress of bacteriology has been
most associated with that of medicine and surgery, the science has
fundamental relations with many other human interests, and the same methods
are used in investigating such relationships. The adaptation of these
methods on a commercial scale underlies all industrial processes concerned
in the preserving of milk and in the canning and bottling of meat and fruit
(apart from the addition of chemical preservatives). Since bacteriology
came into existence, many of the most primitive domestic procedures have
been improved and placed on a scientific basis. Thus, butter-making
involves a previous souring of the milk; this is due to bacterial action,
and standard mixtures of milk-souring bacteria are now regularly supplied
by the laboratory as 'starters' of the process. It is recognized that the
disorders of milk, e.g. 'ropiness', 'blue milk', &c., are due to certain
'wild' bacteria gaining access to the dairy. The ripening of such cheeses
as Gorgonzola and Stilton is due to bacteria and allied organisms, and here
again light has been shed on the 'diseases' of cheese by bacteriological
investigation. The pickling of foods by salt, or vinegar, or nitre, is due
to the action of these substances as antiseptics, and a similar principle,
aided by boiling, underlies the making of jams. Again, certain kinds of
bacteria which only flourish at high temperatures are responsible for the
heating of hay and corn stacks, and for the production of ensilage.
Bacteriology is also throwing important light on factors concerned in the
fertility of soils. For example, it has been shown that the little nodules
on the roots of plants of the pea tribe are caused by bacteria; these, in
growing, take up nitrogen from the air, and form compounds which promote
the growth of the plant on which they are parasites and remain to enrich
the soil when the plant dies. In short, there is no industry, which depends
on natural putrefaction being prevented or modified so as to stop at a
particular stage, which bacteriology cannot guide towards securing the most
perfect results.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fischer, _The Structure and Functions of
Bacteria_; Abbot, _Principles of Bacteriology_; Muir and Ritchie, _Manual
of Bacteriology_; E. R. Stitt, _Practical Bacteriology_; P. H. Hiss and H.
Zinsser, _A Textbook of Bacteriology_.

BACTRIA´NA, or BACTRIA, a country of ancient Asia, south of the Oxus and
reaching to the west of the Hindu Kush. It is often regarded as the
original home of the Indo-European races. A Græco-Bactrian kingdom
flourished about the third century B.C., but its history is obscure.

BACULI´TES, a fossil genus allied to the ammonites, characteristic of
cretaceous strata, having a straight tapering shell. See _Cephalopoda_.

BA´CUP, a municipal borough of England, in Lancashire, 18 miles N. of
Manchester. The chief manufacturing establishments are connected with
cotton-spinning and power-loom weaving; there are also ironworks,
Turkey-red dyeing-works, and in the neighbourhood numerous coal-pits and
immense stone-quarries. Pop. (1921), 21,256.

BADAGRY, seaport in the British province of Southern Nigeria, West Africa,
50 miles E.N.E. of Whydah. Pop. about 10,000.

BADAJOZ (b[.a]-_d_[.a]-_h_[=o]th´; ancient, PAX AUGUSTA), the fortified
capital of the Spanish province of Badajoz, on the left bank of the
Guadiana, which is crossed by a stone bridge of twenty-eight arches. It is
a bishop's see, and has an interesting cathedral. During the Peninsular War
Badajoz was besieged by Marshal Soult, and taken in March, 1811. It was
twice attacked by the English, on 5th and 29th May, 1811, and was besieged
by Wellington on 16th March, and taken 6th April, 1812. Pop. 37,600.--The
province of Badajoz has an area of 8451 sq. miles. Pop. 644,220.

BADAKSHAN´, a territory of Central Asia, tributary to the Ameer of
Afghanistan. It has the Oxus on the north, and the Hindu Kush on the south,
and has lofty mountains and fertile valleys; the chief town is Faizabad.
The inhabitants profess Mahommedanism. Pop. 20,957.

BADALONA (bä-_d_[.a]-l[=o]´na), a Mediterranean seaport of Spain, 5 miles
from Barcelona. Pop. 19,240.

BADEN (bä´d[.e]n), formerly a Grand-Duchy and one of the more important
States of the German Empire, situated in the S.W. of Germany, to the west
of Württemberg. It is divided into four districts, Constance, Freiburg,
Karlsruhe, and Mannheim. It has an area of 5819 sq. miles, and a pop. of
2,142,833. It is mountainous, being traversed to a considerable extent by
the lofty plateau of the Schwarzwald or Black Forest, which attains its
highest point in the Feldberg (4904 feet). The nucleus of this plateau
consists of gneiss and granite. In the north it sinks down towards the
Odenwald, which is, however, of different geological structure, being
composed for the most part of red sandstone. The whole of Baden, except a
small portion in the S.E., in which the Danube takes its rise, belongs to
the basin of the Rhine, which bounds it on the south and west. Numerous
tributaries of the Rhine intersect it, the chief being the Neckar. Lakes
are numerous, and include a considerable part of the Lake of Constance. The
climate varies much. The hilly parts, especially in the east, are cold and
have a long winter, while the valley of the Rhine enjoys the finest climate
of Germany. The principal minerals worked are coal, salt, iron, zinc, and
nickel. The number of mineral springs is remarkably great, and of these not
a few are of great celebrity. The vegetation is peculiarly rich, and there
are magnificent forests. The cereals comprise wheat, oats, barley, and rye.
Potatoes, hemp, tobacco, wine, and sugar-beet are largely produced. Several
of the wines, both white and red, rank in the first class. Baden has long
been famous for its fruits also. Of the total area 55.4 per cent is under
cultivation, 39.4 per cent under forest, and 5.2 per cent uncultivated
(houses, roads, water, &c.). The farms are mostly quite small. The
manufactures are important. Among them are textiles, tobacco and cigars,
chemicals, machinery, pottery ware, jewellery (especially at Pforzheim),
wooden clocks, confined chiefly to the districts of the Black Forest,
musical boxes and other musical toys. The capital is Karlsruhe, about 5
miles from the Rhine; the other chief towns are Mannheim,
Freiburg-im-Breisgau (with a Roman Catholic university), Baden, and
Heidelberg. Baden has warm mineral springs, which were known and used in
the time of the Romans. Heidelberg has a university (Protestant), founded
in 1386, the oldest in Germany. The railways have a length of 1200 miles,
and are all State property. In the time of the Roman Empire southern Baden
belonged to the Roman province of Rhætia. Under the old German Empire it
was a margraviate, which in 1533 was divided into Baden-Baden and
Baden-Durlach, but reunited in 1771. The title of grand-duke was conferred
by Napoleon in 1806, and in the same year Baden was extended to its present
limits. Until 1918 the executive power was vested in the grand-duke, the
legislative in a house of legislature, consisting of an upper and a lower
chamber. The former consisted partly of hereditary members; the latter of
elected representatives of the people. In the break-up of the German Empire
in Nov., 1918, Baden was among the first States to feel the shock of
revolution. The Grand-Duke Frederick I abdicated, and the Provisional
Government, under the Socialist Herr Jeiss, proclaimed Baden a Republic.
Two-thirds of the population are Roman Catholics, the rest Protestants.

BADEN (or BADEN-BADEN, to distinguish it from other towns of the same name;
German _Bad_, a bath), a town and watering-place, in the former Grand-Duchy
of Baden, 18 miles S.S.W. of Karlsruhe, built in the form of an
amphitheatre on a spur of the Black Forest, overhanging a valley, through
which runs a little stream Oosbach. Baden has been celebrated from the
remotest antiquity for its thermal baths; and it used also to be celebrated
for its gaming-saloons. It has many good buildings, and a castle, the
summer residence of the former grand-dukes. Pop. 22,066.

BADEN, a town of Austria, 15 miles S.W. of Vienna. It has numerous hot
sulphurous springs, used both for bathing and drinking, and much
frequented. Pop. 19,000.

BADEN, a small town of Switzerland, canton Aargau, celebrated for its hot
sulphurous baths, which attract many visitors. Pop. 8318.

BADEN-POWELL. See _Powell_.

BADGE (baj), a distinctive device, emblem, mark, honorary decoration, or
special cognizance, used originally to identify a knight or distinguish his
followers, now worn as a sign of office or licensed employment, as a token
of membership in some society, or generally as a mark showing the relation
of the wearer to any person, occupation, or order. See _Cockade_,
_Heraldry_, _Totems_.

[Illustration: Common Badger (_Meles vulg[=a]ris_)]

BADGER (baj´[.e]r), a plantigrade, carnivorous mammal, allied both to the
bears and to the weasels, of a clumsy make, with short thick legs, and long
claws on the fore-feet. The common badger (_Meles vulg[=a]ris_) is as large
as a middling-sized dog, but much lower on the legs, with a flatter and
broader body, very thick tough hide, and long coarse hair. It inhabits the
north of Europe and Asia, burrows, is indolent and sleepy, feeds by night
on vegetables, small quadrupeds, &c. Its flesh may be eaten, and its hair
is used for artists' brushes in painting. The American badger belongs to a
separate genus. _Badger baiting_, or _drawing the badger_, is a barbarous
sport, long a favourite amusement in England, but declared illegal in the
middle of last century, and yet to some extent practised, generally as an
attraction to public-houses of the lowest sort. A badger is put in a
barrel, and one or more dogs are put in to drag him out. When this is
effected he is returned to his barrel, to be similarly assailed by a fresh
set. The badger usually makes a most determined and savage resistance.

BADGER DOG, a long-bodied, short-legged dog, with rather large pendulous
ears, usually short haired, black, and with yellow extremities; often
called by its German name _Dachshund_.

BAD´MINTON, a game closely resembling lawn-tennis, but played with
battledore and shuttle-cock instead of ball and racket: named after a seat
of the Duke of Beaufort, in Gloucestershire.

BADRINATH (-ät´), a peak of the main Himalayan range, in Garhwál District,
in the United Provinces, 23,210 feet above the sea. On one of its
shoulders, at an elevation of 10,400 feet, stands a celebrated temple of
Vishnu, which some years attracts as many as 50,000 pilgrims.

BAEDEKER (b[=a]´de-k[.e]r), Karl, a German publisher, born 1801, died 1859;
originator of a celebrated series of guide-books for travellers.

BAELZ'S DISEASE, an affection of the mouth characterized by swelling of the
mucous glands of the mouth and lips, leading to the formation of small
abscesses and ulcers.

BAENA (b[.a]-[=a]´n[.a]), a town of Spain, in Andalusia, province of
Cordova, and 24 miles S.S.E. of the city of that name. Pop. 14,730.

BAEZA (b[.a]-[=a]´th[.a]; anciently, BEATIA), a town of Spain, in
Andalusia, 22 miles E.N.E. of Jaen, with 15,843 inhabitants. The principal
edifices are the cathedral, the university (now suppressed), and the old
monastery of St. Philip de Neri.

BAFFA (ancient, PAPHOS), a seaport on the S.W. coast of Cyprus. Pop. 1000.
It occupies the site of New Paphos, which, under the Romans, was full of
beautiful temples and other public buildings. Old Paphos stood a little to
the south-east.

BAFFIN, William, an English navigator, born 1584, famous for his
discoveries in the Arctic regions; in 1616 he ascertained the limits of
Baffin Bay. He was killed at the siege of Ormuz, in the East Indies, 1622.

BAFFIN BAY, on the N.E. of North America, between Greenland and Baffin Land
and other islands that lie on the N. of the continent; discovered by Baffin
in 1616.

BAFULABE (b[.a]-f[u:]-lä-b[=a]), a trading-place in French West Africa, on
the Upper Senegal, and on the railway that runs from Kayes on the Senegal
to Bammako on the Niger.

BAGAMO´YO, a seaport of former German East Africa, a short distance
north-west of Dar-el-Salaam. There is no proper harbour, only a shallow and
rather exposed roadstead where ships have to anchor some distance from the
shore, yet it is the chief trading-centre of the colony, and as the
terminus of the caravan route to Tanganyika is a place of some importance.
Pop. about 25,000. See _European War_.

BAGASSE´, the sugar-cane in its dry crushed state as delivered from the
mill, and after the main portion of its juice has been expressed; used as
fuel in the sugar factory, and called also _cane-trash_.

BAGATELLE´, a game played on a long flat board covered with cloth like a
billiard-table, with spherical balls and a cue or mace. At the end of the
board are nine cups or sockets of just sufficient size to receive the
balls. These sockets are arranged in the form of a regular octagon, with
the ninth in the middle, and are numbered consecutively from one upwards.
Nine balls are used, generally one black, four white, and four red, the
distinction between white and red being made only for the sake of variety.
In the ordinary game, at starting, the black ball is placed on a point in
the longitudinal middle line of the board, a few inches in front of the
nearest of the sockets, and the player places one of his eight balls on a
corresponding point at the other end of the board, and tries to strike the
black ball into one of the sockets with his own. After this his object is
to place as many of his balls as possible in the sockets. Each ball so
placed counts as many as the socket is numbered for, and the black ball
always counts double. He who first makes the number of points agreed on
wins.

BAGDAD´, or BAGHDAD, a city of a vilayet of same name (54,540 sq. miles;
pop. 900,000) in what was anciently Mesopotamia. The greater part of it
lies on the eastern bank of the Tigris, which is crossed by a bridge of
boats; old Bagdad, the residence of the caliphs (now in ruins), was on the
western bank of the river. The city occupies a large area. The houses are
mostly built of brick, the streets unpaved and very narrow, and there are
few buildings of any note. The palace of the governor is spacious. Of the
mosques only a few attract notice, many are in ruins; the bazaars are large
and well stocked; that of Dawd Pasha still ranks as one of the most
splendid in the world. Manufactures: leather, silks, cottons, woollens,
carpets, &c. Steamers ply on the river between Bagdad and Bassorah, and the
town exports wheat, dates, galls, gums, mohair, carpets, &c., to Europe,
the chief import being cotton goods. The estimated population is over
200,000; of these about 86,000 are Mahommedans, 52,000 Jews, and 7000
Christians. The city has been frequently visited by the plague. Bagdad was
founded in 762 by the Caliph Almansur, and raised to a high degree of
splendour in the ninth century by Harun Al Rashid. It is the scene of a
number of the tales of the _Arabian Nights_. It was long the chief city of
the Mahommedan world, and at one time is said to have had two millions of
inhabitants. In the thirteenth century it was stormed by Hulaku, grandson
of Genghis-Khan, who caused the reigning caliph to be slain, and destroyed
the caliphate. It was again laid waste by Timur in 1401. For a considerable
period it was the object of contention between the Persians and the Turks,
until it was besieged and captured by Sultan Murad IV in 1638. Since that
date it remained a part of the Turkish Empire. It was captured by the
British on 11th March, 1917.

BAGDAD RAILWAY, a railway which, under arrangement with the Turkish
Government, was intended to run from Konia, which is the terminus of the
Anatolian railway system, to Bagdad, Basra (Bassorah), and the Persian
Gulf. It was built chiefly by means of funds provided by German and French
financiers, in association with the Anatolian Railway Company, a German
company. The line has been constructed continuously as far as Kara Bunar in
Cilicia. Farther on, the following sections have been completed: Dorak to
Bagtché, on the Ordana side of the Taurus Mountains; Radjun, via Muslimié,
to Jerablus, on the Euphrates, with a branch from Muslimié to Aleppo;
Jerablus to El-Abiad, and Bagdad to Samara. A branch line has also been
completed from Alexandretta to Toprak Kalé. Of the distance from Konia to
Bagdad (1509 miles), 1117 miles (with gaps) are already working. In 1919
the railway system passed to the Allies, and in 1920 it was announced that
the line between Basra and Bagdad had been completed.

BAGEHOT (bag´ot), Walter, English economist and journalist, born at
Langport, Somerset, 1826, died at the same place 1877. He studied at
Bristol, and at University College, London, and graduated as B.A. and M.A.
at the London University (1848). He was for some time associated with his
father in the banking business at Langport, and for a number of years he
acted as London agent for the bank. He was one of the editors of the
_National Review_ (1855-64), and from 1860 till his death he was editor and
part proprietor of the _Economist_. His chief works are: _Physics and
Politics_; _The English Constitution_; _Lombard Street_; and _Studies,
Literary, Biographic, and Economic_. He was a high authority on economics,
banking, and finance, and was often consulted by public men.

[Illustration: Baggala]

BAG´GALA, a two-masted Arab boat, generally 200-250 tons burden, used for
trading in the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, &c.

BAGGESEN (bag´e-sen), Jens, a Danish poet, who also wrote much in German,
born 1764, at Korsör, died at Hamburg, 1826. He led a rather wandering and
unsettled life, spending some time in England as well as in France and
Germany. He tried lyric, epic, and dramatic poetry, but was most successful
as a humorist and satirist. One of his best poems is his famous song _There
was a Time when I was very Little_.

BAGGING is the name of the textile material which is used in the making of
bags. Baltic hemp was the first material used for the purpose, but now all
kinds of fibres are used, though the majority of bags are made of jute
fibre. The style of the bagging used depends, naturally, upon the
requirements of the bag; for the export of raw cotton from the United
States of America we find the coarsest of all cotton-bagging used. When
intended to carry grain, spices, sugar, &c., the bag must be made of
closely-woven material. In many cases bags to carry sugar are lined with
paper.

BAGHELKAND, a tract of country in Central India, occupied by a collection
of native States (Rewah being the chief), under the Governor-General's
agent for Central India; area, 11,323 sq. miles. Pop. 1,772,574.

BAGHERIA (b[.a]-g[=a]´r[=e]-[.a]), a town of Sicily, province of Palermo, 9
miles by railway from the city of Palermo. Pop. 21,212.

BAGIMONT'S ROLL, a rent-roll of Scotland, made up in 1275 by _Baiamund_ or
_Boiamond_ de Vicci, vulgarly called _Bagimont_, who was sent from Rome by
the Pope, in the reign of Alexander III, to collect the tithe of all the
church livings in Scotland for an expedition to the Holy Land. It remained
the statutory valuation, according to which the benefices were taxed, till
the Reformation. A copy of it as it existed in the reign of James V is in
the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh.

BAGIRMI (b[.a]-gir´m[=e]), or BAGHERMI, a Mohammedan Negro State in Central
Africa, situated to the south-east of Lake Tchad. It is mostly a plain; has
an area of about 20,000 sq. miles, and about 100,000 inhabitants. The
people are industrious, and fairly civilized. The country is in the French
sphere of influence, but the people are still under a native ruler.

BAGNARA (b[.a]-nyä´r[.a]), a seaport near the S.W. extremity of Italy. Pop.
11,000.

BAGNÈRES DE BIGORRE (b[.a]n-y[=a]r d[.e] b[=e]-gorr), a watering-place,
France, department Hautes-Pyrénées, on the left bank of the Adour. It owes
its chief celebrity to its sulphurous and saline baths. The springs were
known to and used by the Romans. The site is one of the most romantic in
the Pyrénées, and the town is well built and well provided with
accommodation for visitors. Pop. 8455.

BAGNÈRES DE LUCHON (b[.a]n-y[=a]r d[.e] lu-sh[=o]n), a town, France,
department Haute-Garonne, in a picturesque valley surrounded by wooded
hills, one of the principal watering-places of the Pyrénées, having
sulphurous thermal waters, beneficial in rheumatic complaints. There is a
large bathing establishment, and a large and splendid casino building,
comprising a theatre, concert and ball rooms, &c. Resident pop. 4000.

BAGNI (bän´y[=e]), Italian for 'baths', a name in Italy for various places
which possess natural baths or thermal springs, with some designation added
to mark the particular locality. _Bagni di Lucca_, in the province of
Lucca, and about 13 miles north-east of the city of Lucca, is one of the
most frequented of these bathing-places, its waters being recommended
against gout, rheumatism, affections of the skin, &c.

BAGPIPE, a musical wind-instrument of very great antiquity, having been
used among the ancient Greeks, and being a favourite instrument over Europe
generally in the fifteenth century. It still continues in use among the
country people of Poland, Italy, the south of France, and in Scotland and
Ireland. Though now often regarded as the national instrument of Scotland,
especially Celtic Scotland, it is only Scottish by adoption, being
introduced into that country from England. It consists of a leathern bag,
which receives the air from the mouth, or from bellows; and of pipes, into
which the air is pressed from the bag by the performer's elbow. In the
common or Highland form, one pipe (called the _chanter_) plays the melody;
of the three others (called _drones_) two are in unison with the lowest _A_
of the chanter, and the third and longest an octave lower, the sound being
produced by means of reeds. The chanter has eight holes, which the
performer stops and opens at pleasure, but the scale is imperfect and the
tone harsh. The Highland bagpipe is a powerful instrument, and calls for
great exertion of the lungs in order that the air may be supplied in
sufficient quantity. There are several other species of bagpipes, as the
soft and melodious Irish bagpipe, supplied with wind by a bellows, and
having several keyed drones and a keyed chanter; the old English bagpipe
(now no longer used); the Italian bagpipe, a very rude instrument, &c. The
Irish bagpipe is, musically speaking, the most perfect of
all.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Dalyell, _Musical Memoirs of Scotland_; E. de
Bricqueville, _Les Musettes_.

BAGRATION (b[.a]g-rä´ty[=o]n), Peter, Prince, distinguished Russian
general, descended from a noble Georgian family. He was born in 1765,
entered the Russian army in 1782, and henceforth was constantly engaged in
active service, distinguishing himself in many actions and gradually rising
in military rank. He fought in Poland, in Italy, and against the Turks, was
engaged in the battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, and Friedland, and at last was
mortally wounded at the battle of Borodino, Sept., 1812.

BAGSHOT-SAND, in geology, the collective name for a series of sands of the
Eocene age, occupying extensive tracts round Bagshot, in Surrey, and in the
New Forest, Hampshire, the whole reposing on the London-clay; generally
devoid of fossils.

BAGSTER, Samuel, publisher, founder of the firm of Bagster & Sons,
celebrated for their bibles, was born in 1772, and died in 1851. He began
business as a London bookseller in 1794, and soon turned his attention to
the publication of bibles, bringing out a Hebrew bible, the _Septuagint_
(Greek) version, and the English version, with 60,000 parallel references,
followed by his great polyglot bible, which in its final form showed eight
languages at the opening of the volume. Separate versions in different
languages were also brought out, with various other aids to the study of
Scripture; a polyglot _Book of Common Prayer_, in eight languages; &c.

BAHA´DUR SHAH, the last of the Grand Moguls of India, a descendant of
Tamerlane. In 1857, during the Indian Mutiny, the Mahommedans, who wished
to restore the Empire of the Moguls, placed him, then a very old man, at
the head of the movement in Delhi; but the city was soon retaken by the
British, and the Emperor was banished to Rangoon, where he died in 1862.

BAHA´MA ISLANDS, or LUCAYOS, a group of islands in the West Indies, forming
a colony belonging to Britain, lying N.E. of Cuba and S.E. of the coast of
Florida, the Gulf Stream passing between them and the mainland. They extend
a distance of upwards of 600 miles, and are said to be twenty-nine in
number, besides keys and rocks innumerable. The principal islands are Grand
Bahama, Great and Little Abaco, Andros Islands, New Providence, Eleuthera,
San Salvador, Great Exuma, Watling Island, Long Island, Crooked Island,
Acklin Island, Mariguana Island, Grand Inagua. Of the whole group about
twenty are inhabited, the most populous being New Providence, which
contains the capital, Nassau; the largest being Andros, 100 miles long, 20
to 40 broad. They are low and flat, and have in many parts extensive
forests. Total area, 4400 sq. miles. The soil is a thin but rich vegetable
mould, and an important product is pineapples, which form a large export
(both canned and green). Other fruits are also grown, with sisal hemp (a
valuable export), cotton, sugar, maize, yams, ground nuts, coco-nuts, &c.
Sponges are obtained in large quantity, and are at present the chief
export. Total exports about £382,140 (1919). The Bahama Islands are a very
favourite winter resort for persons suffering from lung trouble. San
Salvador, or Cat Island, is generally believed to be the same as Guanahani,
the land first touched on by Columbus (12th Oct., 1492) on his first great
voyage. The first British settlement was made on New Providence towards the
close of the seventeenth century. A number of loyal Americans settled in
the islands after the War of Independence. Pop. 55,944, including 14,000
whites.

BAHA´WALPUR, a town of India, capital of State of same name in the Punjab,
2 miles from the Sutlej; surrounded by a mud wall and containing the
extensive palace of the Nawab. Pop. 18,700. The State has an area of 15,000
sq. miles, of which 10,000 is desert, the only cultivated lands lying along
the Indus and Sutlej. Pop. 780,641.

BAHIA (b[.a]-[=e]´[.a]; formerly ST. SALVADOR), a town of Brazil, on the
Bay of All Saints, State of Bahia. It consists of a lower town, which is
little more than an irregular, narrow, and dirty street, stretching about 4
miles along the shore; and an upper town, larger and much better built,
with various outlying suburbs. The harbour is one of the best in South
America; and the export trade, chiefly in sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco,
hides, piassava, and tapioca, is very extensive. Pop. 348,000. The State,
area 164,600 sq. miles, pop. 3,013,007, has much fertile land, both along
the coast and in the interior.

BAHIA BLANCA, a seaport of the Argentine Republic, on a bay of same name
opening into the Atlantic, about 350 miles south-west of Buenos Ayres; it
is a rising place connected by railway with the capital, and a terminus of
other railways from the interior. It carries on a considerable trade
directly with Europe, exporting mutton, wheat, &c. Pop. 75,000.

BAHR (bär), an Arabic word signifying sea or large river; as in
Bahr-el-Huleh, the Lake Merom in Palestine; Bahr-el-Abiad, the White Nile,
Bahr-el-Azrek, the Blue Nile, which together unite at Khartoum.

BAHRAICH (bä-r[=a]ch´), a flourishing town of India, in Oudh, Faizabad
division. It carries on a good local trade, and has a shrine that attracts
many Hindu and Mohammedan pilgrims. It is the seat of an American Methodist
mission. Pop. 27,304.

BAHREIN (bä´r[=i]n) ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Persian Gulf, in an
indentation on the Arabian coast, since 1867 under British protection. The
principal island, usually called Bahrein, is about 27 miles in length and
10 in breadth. It is in general very flat and low, and the soil is not very
fertile except in a few places; but irrigation is employed and excellent
dates are grown. The principal town is Menamah or Manama; pop. 30,000. The
smaller island of Moharrek, separated by a shallow strait 2 miles wide,
contains the town of Moharrek, the present seat of government; pop. 25,000.
The Bahrein Islands are chiefly noted for their pearl-fisheries, which were
known to the ancients, and which employ in the season from 2000 to 3000
boats manned by from 8 to 20 men each. Total pop. estimated at 110,000.

BAHR-EL-GHAZAL, a large river of Central Africa, a western tributary of the
White Nile (or Bahr-el-Abiad). It flows through a very swampy region, and
is liable to inundations. The head of steam navigation is Meshra-er-Rek.
The river gives its name to a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,
yielding ivory, rubber, timber, &c., and suited for cotton growing.

BAIADEER. See _Bayadere_.

BAIÆ (b[=i]´[=e]), an ancient Roman watering-place on the coast of
Campania, 10 miles west of Naples. Many of the wealthy Romans had country
houses at Baiæ, which was a favourite resort of Horace. Ruins of temples,
baths, and villas still attract the attention of archæologists.

BAIKAL (b[=i]´k[.a]l), a large freshwater lake in Eastern Siberia, 360
miles long, and about 50 in extreme breadth, interspersed with islands; in
the line of the great Siberian Railway. It is surrounded by rugged and
lofty mountains; contains seals, and many fish, particularly salmon,
sturgeon, and pike. Its greatest depth is over 4000 feet. It receives the
waters of the Upper Angara, Selenga, Barguzin, &c., and discharges its
waters by the Lower Angara. It is frozen over in winter.

BAIKIE, William Balfour, born in the Orkney Islands 1824, died at Sierra
Leone 1863. He joined the British navy, and was made surgeon and naturalist
of the Niger Expedition, 1854. He took the command on the death of the
senior officer, and explored the Niger for 250 miles. Another expedition,
which started in 1857, passed two years in exploring, when the vessel was
wrecked, and all the members, with the exception of Baikie, returned to
England. With none but native assistants he formed a settlement at the
confluence of the Benué and the Quorra, in which he was ruler, teacher, and
physician, and within a few years he opened the Niger to navigation, made
roads, and established a market.

BAIL, the person or persons who procure the release of a prisoner from
custody by becoming surety for his appearance in court at the proper time;
also, the security given for the release of a prisoner from custody. In the
United States bail is a matter of right in all cases where a sentence of
death cannot be pronounced, and even in such a case it may be allowed by
one of the judges.

BAILDON, an urban district in the W. Riding of Yorkshire, about 5 miles
north of Bradford, with worsted manufactures, chemical works, and quarries.
Pop. (1921), 6527.

BAILEN (b[=i]-len´), a town of Southern Spain, province Jaen, with
lead-mines. Pop. 8334.

BAILEY (b[=a]´li), the name given to the courts of a castle formed by the
spaces between the circuits of walls or defences which surrounded the keep.

BAILEY, or BAILY, Nathaniel, an English lexicographer, school teacher at
Stepney, and author of several educational works. His _Dictionary_,
published in 1721, passed through a great many editions.

BAILEY, Philip James, English poet, born near Nottingham, 1816, called to
the bar 1840, died 1902. He published _Festus_, his best work, in 1839;
_The Mystic_, 1855; _The Age_, 1858; and _The Universal Hymn_, 1867.

BAILIE, or BAILLIE, a municipal officer or magistrate in Scotland,
corresponding to an _alderman_ in England. The criminal jurisdiction of the
provost and bailies of royal burghs extends to breaches of the peace,
drunkenness, adulteration of articles of diet, thefts not of an aggravated
character, and other offences of a less serious nature.

BAILIFF, a civil officer or functionary, subordinate to someone else. There
are several kinds of bailiffs, whose offices widely differ, but all agree
in this, that the keeping or protection of something belongs to them. In
England the sheriff is the monarch's bailiff, and his county is a
bailiwick. The name is also applied to the chief magistrates of some towns,
to keepers of royal castles, as of Dover, to persons having the
conservation of the peace in hundreds and in some special jurisdictions, as
Westminster, and to the returning officers in the same. But the officials
commonly designated by this name are the _bailiffs_ of sheriffs, or
sheriffs' officers, who execute processes, &c.

BAILLEUL (b[.a]-yeul), an ancient French town, department of Nord, near the
Belgian frontier, about 19 miles west of Lille. Much fighting took place in
its vicinity during the European War, but it was not destroyed until the
campaign of 1918. Pop. 12,828.--A village of the same name in department
Orne gave its name to the Baliol family.

BAILLIE, Joanna, a Scottish authoress, born at Bothwell, Lanarkshire, in
1762, died at Hampstead, 1851. She removed in early life to London, where
her brother, Matthew Baillie, was settled as a physician. Here in 1798 she
published her first work, entitled _A Series of Plays_, in which she
attempted to delineate the stronger passions by making each passion the
subject of a tragedy and a comedy. The series was followed up by a second
volume in 1802, and a third in 1812. A second series appeared in 1836, and
a complete edition of her whole dramatic works in 1850. She also published
a volume of miscellaneous poetry, including songs, in 1841. Her only plays
performed on the stage were a tragedy entitled the _Family Legend_, brought
out at Edinburgh under the patronage of Sir Walter Scott; and _De
Montfort_, brought out by John Kemble, who acted in it with Mrs. Siddons.

BAILLIE, Matthew, M.D., physician and anatomist, brother of the preceding,
was born 1761 at Shotts, Lanarkshire, died at Cirencester, Gloucestershire,
in 1823. In 1773 he was sent to the University of Glasgow. He afterwards
studied anatomy under his maternal uncles, John and William Hunter, and
entered Oxford, where he graduated as M.D. In 1783 he succeeded his uncle
as lecturer on anatomy in London, where he acquired a high reputation as a
teacher and demonstrator, having also a large practice. In 1810 he was
appointed physician to George III. His work on _The Morbid Anatomy of Some
of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body_ gave him a European
reputation.

BAILLIE, Robert, an eminent Scottish Presbyterian clergyman, was born at
Glasgow in 1599, died 1662. Though educated and ordained as an
Episcopalian, he resisted the attempt of Archbishop Laud to introduce his
_Book of Common Prayer_ into Scotland, and joined the Presbyterian party.
In 1638 he represented the presbytery of Irvine in the General Assembly at
Glasgow, which dissolved Episcopacy in Scotland. In 1640 he was selected to
go to London, with other commissioners, to draw up the accusation against
Archbishop Laud. Of this, and almost all the other proceedings of his
public life, he has left a minute account in his letters and journals,
which form a most valuable collection for the history of his time. In 1642
he was appointed professor of divinity at Glasgow. He was a member of the
Westminster Assembly of Divines, and attended its sittings from 1643-6.
After the Restoration, though made principal of his college through Court
patronage, he did not hesitate to express his dissatisfaction with the
reintroduction of Episcopacy.

BAILLIE, Robert, of Jerviswood, in Lanarkshire, a Scottish patriot of the
reign of Charles II. He brought himself into notice by opposing the
tyrannical measures of Archbishop Sharpe against the Nonconformists, for
which he was fined 6000 merks (or £500) and imprisoned for four months. In
1683 he went to London in furtherance of a scheme of emigration to South
Carolina taken up by a number of Scottish gentlemen, as being the only way
of escaping the tyranny of the Government. He became associated with
Monmouth, Sydney, Russell, and the rest of that party, and was charged with
complicity in the Rye-house plot. After a long imprisonment, during which
vain attempts were made to obtain evidence against him, he was brought
before the Court of Justiciary (23rd Dec., 1684), was found guilty, and
condemned to be executed that afternoon.

BAILLIESTON, a town of Scotland, in Lanarkshire, a few miles east of
Glasgow, with extensive collieries, in which many of the inhabitants are
employed. Pop. 5500.

BAILLY (b[.a]-y[=e]), Jean Sylvain, French astronomer and statesman, born
at Paris 1736. After some youthful essays in verse, he was induced by
Lacaille to devote himself to astronomy, and on the death of the latter in
1753, being admitted to the Academy of Sciences, he published a reduction
of Lacaille's observations on the zodiacal stars. In 1764 he competed ably
but unsuccessfully for the Academy prize offered for an essay upon
Jupiter's satellites, Lagrange being his opponent; and in 1771 he published
a treatise on the light reflected by these satellites. In the meantime he
had won distinction as a man of letters by his _Éloges_ on Pierre
Corneille, Leibnitz, Molière, and others; and the same qualities of style
shown by these were maintained in his _History of Astronomy_ (1775-87), his
most extensive work. In 1784 the French Academy elected him a member. The
revolution drew him into public life. Paris chose him, 12th May, 1789,
first deputy of the _tiers-état_, and in the Assembly itself he was made
first president, a post occupied by him on 20th June, 1789, in the session
of the Tennis Court, when the deputies swore never to separate till they
had given France a new constitution. As Mayor of Paris his moderation and
impartial enforcement of the law failed to commend themselves to the
people, and his forcible suppression of mob violence, 17th July, 1791,
aroused a storm which led to his resignation and retreat to Nantes. In 1793
he attempted to join Laplace at Melun, but was recognized and sent to
Paris, where he was condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, and executed
on 12th Nov.

BAILMENT, in law, is the delivery of a chattel or thing to a person in
trust, either for the use of the bailer or person delivering, or for that
of the bailee or person to whom it is delivered. A bailment always supposes
the subject to be delivered only for a limited time, at the expiration of
which it must be re-delivered to the bailer, the responsibility of the
bailee being dependent, in some degree, upon the contract on which the
bailment is made. Pledging and letting for hire are species of bailment.
_Agistment_, or the taking in of cattle or live stock to feed at a rate of
so much per head, is a contract of bailment.

BAILY, Edward Hodges, an English sculptor, born at Bristol 1788, died at
London 1867. He became a pupil of Flaxman in 1807, gained the Academy Gold
Medal in 1811, and was elected R.A. in 1821. Principal works: _Eve at the
Fountain_, _Eve Listening to the Voice_, _Maternal Affection_, _Girl
Preparing for the Bath_, _The Graces_, &c. The bas-reliefs on the south
side of the Marble Arch, Hyde Park, the statue of Nelson on the Trafalgar
Square monument, and other public works, were by him.

BAILY, Francis, astronomer, born in Berkshire 1774; settled in London as a
stockbroker in 1802. While thus actively engaged he published _Tables for
the Purchasing and Renewing of Leases_, _The Doctrine of Interest and
Annuities_, _The Doctrine of Life Annuities and Assurances_, and an epitome
of universal history. On retiring from business with an ample fortune in
1825 he turned his attention to astronomy, became one of the founders of
the Astronomical Society, contributed to its _Transactions_, and in 1835
published a life of Flamsteed. He died in 1844.

BAILY'S BEADS, a phenomenon attending eclipses of the sun, the unobscured
edge of which appears discontinuous and broken immediately before and after
the moment of complete obscuration. It is classed as an effect of
irradiation, and is caused by the sun shining through the depressions
between the lunar mountains.

BAIN, Alexander, Scottish philosopher and educationalist, was born at
Aberdeen in 1818. He was educated at Marischal College (then a separate
university), Aberdeen; was for some years a deputy professor in the
university; subsequently held official posts in London; and in 1860 was
appointed professor of logic and English in Aberdeen University, a post
which he held till his resignation in 1881. His most important works are:
_The Senses and the Intellect_ (1855); _The Emotions and the Will_ (1859),
together forming a complete exposition of the human mind; _Mental and Moral
Science_ (1868); _Logic, Deductive and Inductive_ (1870); _Mind and Body_
(1873); _Education as a Science_ (1879); _James Mill, a Biography_ (1881);
_John Stuart Mill, a Criticism with Personal Recollections_ (1882); besides
an _English Grammar_; _English Composition and Rhetoric_; an
_Autobiography_, &c. Bain was at once grammarian, rhetorician,
educationalist, and logician, but his fame rests on his contributions to
psychology. He died in 1903.

BAINSIZZA PLATEAU. See _European War_.

BAIRAM (b[=i]´ram), the Easter of the Mohammedans, which follows
immediately after the Ramadan or Lent (a month of fasting), and lasts three
days. This feast during the course of thirty-three years makes a complete
circuit of all the months and seasons, as the Turks reckon by lunar years.
Sixty days after this first great Bairam begins the lesser Bairam. They are
the only two feasts prescribed by the Mohammedan religion.

BAIRD, Sir David, a distinguished British soldier, was born in
Aberdeenshire in 1757, and entered the army 1772. Having been promoted to a
lieutenancy in 1778 he sailed for India, distinguished himself as a captain
in the war against Hyder Ali, was wounded and taken prisoner, and confined
in the fortress of Seringapatam for nearly four years. He and his
fellow-prisoners were treated with great barbarity, and many of them died
or were put to death, but at last (in 1784) all that survived were set at
liberty. In 1787 he became major, and in 1791 joined the army under
Cornwallis as lieutenant-colonel, and was appointed to the command of a
brigade in the war against Tippoo. After much hard service he was made a
colonel in 1795, went in 1797 to the Cape of Good Hope as
brigadier-general, and in 1798, on his appointment as major-general,
returned to India. In 1799 he commanded the storming party at the assault
of Seringapatam, and, in requital, was presented with the State sword of
Tippoo Saib. Being appointed in 1800 to command an expedition to Egypt, he
landed at Kosseir in June, 1801, crossed the desert, and, embarking on the
Nile, descended to Cairo, and thence to Alexandria, which he reached a few
days before it surrendered to General Hutchinson. Next year he returned to
India, but being soon after superseded by Sir Arthur Wellesley
(Wellington), he sailed for Britain, where he was knighted and made K.B.
With the rank of lieutenant-general he commanded an expedition in 1805 to
the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1806, after defeating the Dutch, he received
the surrender of the colony. He commanded a division at the siege of
Copenhagen, and after a short period of service in Ireland sailed with
10,000 men for Corunna, where he formed a junction with Sir John Moore. He
commanded the first division of Moore's army, and in the battle of Corunna
lost his left arm. By the death of Sir John Moore, Sir David succeeded to
the chief command, receiving for the fourth time the thanks of Parliament,
and a baronetcy. In 1814 he was made a general. He died in 1829.

BAIRD, Spencer Fullerton, American naturalist, born 1823, died 1887. From
1850 to 1878 he was assistant secretary, and then became secretary, of the
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and was also chief Government
commissioner of fish and fisheries. He wrote much on natural history, his
chief works being _The Birds of North America_ (in conjunction with John
Cassin), _The Mammals of North America_, _Review of American Birds in the
Smithsonian Institution_, and (with Messrs. Brewer and Ridgeway) _History
of North American Birds_.

BAIREUTH (b[=i]´roit), a well-built and pleasantly-situated town of
Bavaria, on the Red Main, 41 miles north-east of Nürnberg. The principal
edifices, besides churches, are the old and the new palace, the
opera-house, the gymnasium, and the national theatre, constructed after the
design of the composer Wagner, and opened in 1876 with a grand performance
of his tetralogy of the _Nibelungen Ring_. Industries: cotton-spinning,
sugar-refining, musical instruments, sewing-machines, leather, brewing, &c.
There is a monument to Jean Paul F. Richter, who died here. Pop. 34,547.

BAIUS, or DE BAY, Michael, Catholic theologian, was born 1513, in Hainaut,
educated at Louvain, made professor of theology there in 1552, and chosen a
member of the Council of Trent in 1563. Leaving the scholastic method, he
founded systematic theology directly upon the Bible and the Christian
fathers, of whom he particularly followed St. Augustine. His doctrines of
original sin and of salvation by grace led to his persecution as a heretic
by the old Scotists, and the Jesuits, who succeeded in obtaining a Papal
bull in 1567, condemning the doctrines imputed to him. Baius, however,
remained in the possession of his dignities, was appointed in 1575
Chancellor of Louvain University; and the King of Spain even conferred upon
him the office of Inquisitor-General in the Netherlands. He died in 1589.
His Augustinian views descended to the Jansenists, while his doctrine of
pure undivided love to God formed the staple of Quietism. His system is
called _Baianism_.

BAIZE, a sort of coarse woollen fabric with a rough nap, now generally used
for linings, and mostly green or red in colour.

BAJA (bä´y[.a]), a market town of Hungary, district of Bacs, on the Danube,
with a trade in grain and wine, and a large annual hog fair. Pop. 20,361.

BAJADERES. See _Bayaderes_.

BAJAZET (b[.a]-y[.a]-zet´), or BAYEZID, I, Turkish emperor, who, in 1389,
having strangled his brother Jacob, succeeded his father Murad or Amurath,
who fell in the battle of Kossovo while fighting against the Serbians. From
the rapidity of his conquests he received the name of _Ilderim_, the
Lightning. In three years he overcame Bulgaria, part of Serbia, Macedonia,
Thessaly, and the States of Asia Minor, and besieged Constantinople for ten
years, defeating Sigismund and the allied Hungarians, Poles, and French in
1395. The attack of Timur (Tamerlane) on Natolia, in 1400, saved the Greek
Empire, Bajazet being defeated and taken prisoner by him near Ancyra,
Galatia, 1402. The story of his being carried about in a cage by Timur is
improbable; but Bajazet died, in 1409, in Timur's camp, in Caramania. His
successor was Soliman I.

BAJAZET II succeeded his father, Mohammed II, Sultan of the Turks, in 1481.
He increased the Turkish Empire by conquests on the N.W. and in the E.,
took Lepanto, Modon, and Durazzo in a war against the Venetians, and
ravaged the coasts of the Christian States on the Mediterranean, to revenge
the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. Having abdicated in favour of his
younger son Selim, he died on his way to a residence near Adrianople in
1513. He did much for the improvement of his empire and the promotion of
the sciences.

BAJIMONT'S ROLL. See _Bagimonts Roll_.

BAJOCCO, or BAIOCCO (b[.a]-yok´o), was a copper coin in the Papal States,
the hundredth part of a scudo, or rather more than a halfpenny. The name
was also given in Sicily to the Neapolitan _grano_, the hundredth part of
the ducato (3s. 4d.).

BAJUS. See _Baius_.

BAJZA (boi´za), Anton, Hungarian lyric poet, historian, and critic, born
1804, died 1858. As contributor to and editor of various periodicals he
played an important part in the development of modern Hungarian literature
and drama. A volume of his poems, of high merit, was published in 1835. He
also translated a collection of foreign dramas, and edited a series of
historical works.

BAKALAHA´RI, a Bechuana tribe inhabiting the Kalahari Desert, S. Africa.

BAK´ARGANJ, a maritime district and town in Eastern Bengal; chief rivers:
Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna. Area, 3649 sq. miles. Pop. 2,292,000. The
town now lies in ruins. Pop. 7000.

BAKAU (bä´kou), a town of Roumania, on the Bistritza. Pop. 16,187.

BAKCHISARAI (b[.a]k-chi-s[.a]-r[=i]´), or BAGTCHESERAI (Bakh-chi-Sarai)
(bäg-che-se-r[=i]; Turk., 'Garden Palace'), an ancient town of Russia, in
the Crimea, picturesquely situated at the bottom of a narrow valley, hemmed
in by precipices. It contains the palace of the ancient Crimean khans,
restored by the Russian Government. Pop. 15,000.

BAKER, Sir Richard, an English historian, born in Kent in 1568, educated at
Oxford, knighted in 1603 by James I, and in 1620 appointed High Sheriff of
Oxfordshire, where he had estates. Having given security for a debt
incurred by his wife's family, he was thrown into Fleet Prison, where,
after remaining some years, he died in 1645. During his imprisonment he
wrote some devotional books and his _Chronicle of the Kings of England_,
first published in 1641, and afterwards continued by Edward Phillips, the
nephew of Milton, and others--a work of great popularity in its day, though
of no permanent value.

BAKER, Sir Samuel White, a distinguished English traveller, born in 1821.
He resided some years in Ceylon; in 1861 began his African travels, which
lasted several years, in the Upper Nile regions, and resulted, among other
discoveries, in that of Albert Nyanza Lake in 1864, and of the exit of the
White Nile from it. In Africa he encountered Speke and Grant after their
discovery of the Victoria Nyanza. On his return home he was received with
great honour and was knighted. In 1869 he returned to Africa as head of an
expedition sent by the Khedive of Egypt to annex and open up to trade a
large part of the newly-explored country, being raised to the dignity of
pasha. He returned in 1873, having finished his work, and was succeeded by
the celebrated Gordon. His writings include: _The Rifle and the Hound in
Ceylon_; _Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon_; _The Albert Nyanza_; _The
Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia_; _Ismailia: a Narrative of the Expedition to
Central Africa_; _Cyprus as I saw it in 1879_; also, _Cast up by the Sea_,
a story published in 1868. He died 30th Dec., 1893.

BAKER, Thomas, antiquary, born 1656, educated at Cambridge. As a non-juror
he lost his living at Long-Newton in 1690, and was compelled to resign his
fellowship on the accession of George I, but continued to reside at St.
John's College till his death in 1740. His _Reflections on Learning_
(1709-10) went through seven editions. He left in MS. forty-two folio
volumes of an _Athenæ Cantabrigienses_, from which a _History of St. John's
College_ was edited by Professor Mayor in 1869.

BAKEWELL, an ancient market town, England, county of Derby, between Buxton
and Matlock, possessing a fine Gothic church, a chalybeate spring, a
cotton-mill erected by Arkwright, and a large marble-cutting industry. Pop.
3062.

BAKEWELL, Robert, an English agriculturist, celebrated for his improvements
in the breeding of sheep, cattle, and horses, was born in Leicestershire in
1725, and died in 1795. He commenced experiments in breeding sheep, about
1755, upon his father's farm at Dishley, and for fifty years devoted
himself to the acquisition and diffusion of information upon the subject.
He was the originator of the new Leicestershire breed of sheep, which has
since been so well known, and also of a breed of cattle very famous in
their day. The demand for his rams increased so considerably, that whereas
he let them for the season at £16 per head in 1755, by 1789 they were hired
at 6000 guineas. Various improvements in farm management were also
introduced by him.

BAKHMUT. See _Bachmut_.

BAKHUISEN. See _Backhuysen_.

BAKING, a term meaning 'to cook by dry heat', and primarily applied to the
baking of bread. A common application of the term is to a mode of cooking
food in a close oven, baking in this case being opposed to roasting or
broiling, in which an open fire is used. The oven should not be too close,
but ought to be properly ventilated. Baking is also applied to the
hardening of earthenware or porcelain by fire. See _Bread_.

BAKING POWDER, a mixture of bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid, usually
with some flour added. The water of the dough causes the liberation of
carbonic acid, which makes the bread 'rise'.

BAKONY (b[.a]-kon´y[.e]) WALD, a thickly wooded mountain range dividing the
Hungarian plains, famous for the herds of swine fed on its mast.

BAKSHEESH´, an Eastern term for a present or gratuity. A demand for
baksheesh meets travellers in the East everywhere from Turkey and Egypt to
Hindustan.

BAKU (bä-kö´), a Russian port on the western shore of the Caspian,
occupying part of the Peninsula of Apsheron. The naphtha or petroleum
springs of Baku have long been known; and the Field of Fire, so called from
emitting inflammable gases, has long been a place of pilgrimage with the
Guebres or Fire-worshippers. From the development of the petroleum
industry, Baku has greatly increased, and is now a large and flourishing
town. About 1500 oil-wells are in operation, producing immense quantities
of petroleum (6,448,000 tons in 1917), much of which is led direct in pipes
from the wells to the refineries in Baku, and it is intended to lay a pipe
for its conveyance all the way to the Black Sea at Batoum, which is already
connected with Baku by railway. Some of the wells have had such an outflow
of oil as to be unmanageable, and the Baku petroleum now competes
successfully with any other in the markets of the world. Baku, formerly the
station of the Caspian fleet, is strongly fortified, and has a large
shipping trade. The district of Baku lies within the limits of the new
Republic of Azerbaijan. Pop. 237,000; pop. of the province, 1,119,600.

BAKU´NIN, Michael, Russian anarchist, the founder of Nihilism, born 1814 of
a rich and noble family, entered the army, but threw up his commission
after two years' service, and studied philosophy at Moscow, with his
friends Hertzen, Turgeniev, Granovski (historian), and Byelinski (critic).
Having adopted Hegel's system as the basis of a new revolution, he went in
1841 to Berlin, and thence to Dresden, Geneva, and Paris, as the
propagandist of anarchism. Wherever he went he caused disturbance, and
after undergoing imprisonment in various States, was handed over to Russia
in 1851 by Austria, imprisoned for five years, and finally sent to Siberia.
Escaping thence through Japan, he joined Hertzen in London on the staff of
the _Kolokol_. His extreme views, however, ruined the paper and led to a
quarrel with Marx and the Internationale; and having fallen into disrepute
with his own party in Russia, he died suddenly and almost alone at Berne in
1878. He demanded the entire abolition of the State as a State, the
absolute equalization of individuals, and the extirpation of hereditary
rights and of religion, his conception of the next stage of social progress
being purely negative and annihilatory.

BALA, a lake 4 miles long, and an urban district of N. Wales, in
Merionethshire. Pop. 1408.

BALAAM (b[=a]'lam), a prophet, invited by Balak, King of Moab, to curse the
Israelites, but compelled by miracle to bless them instead (_Num._
xxii-xxiv). In another account he is represented as aiding in the
perversion of the Israelites to the worship of Baal, and as being,
therefore, slain in the Midianitish war (_Num._ xxxi; _Josh._ xiii). He is
the subject of many rabbinical fables, the Targumists and Talmudists
regarding him, as most of the fathers did, in the light of an impious and
godless man.

BALA BEDS, or BALA SERIES, a deposit of Upper Ordovician Age, named from
the Bala district, North Wales, consisting of slates, grits, sandstones,
and limestones, there being two limestones separated by sandy and slaty
rocks about 1400 feet thick. They contain trilobites of many species, and
other marine fossils. The lower Bala limestone (25 feet thick) may be
traced over a large area in North Wales. See _Caradoc Series_, _Ordovician
System_.

BALACHONG´, an Oriental condiment, composed of small fishes, or shrimps,
pounded up with salt and spices and then dried.

BALÆ´NA, the genus which includes the Greenland or right whale, type of the
family Balænidæ, or whale-bone whales.

BALÆ´NICEPS ('whale-head'), a genus of wading birds belonging to the Sudan,
intermediate between the herons and storks, and characterized by an
enormous bill, broad and swollen, giving the only known species (_B. rex_),
also called shoe-bird, a peculiar appearance. It feeds on fishes,
water-snakes, carrion, &c., and makes its nest in reeds or grass adjoining
water. The bill is yellow, blotched with dark-brown, the general colour of
the plumage dusky-grey, the head, neck, and breast slaty, the legs
blackish.

BALÆNOP´TERA. See _Rorqual_.

BALAGARH (bä-lä-g_a_r'), town of Hindustan, in the Punjab. Pop. 11,233.

BALAGHAT´, a district of India, in the Central Provinces, Nagpur division;
area, 3146 sq. miles; capital, Burha, a small place. The surface is
diversified, comprising extensive uplands as well as lowlands; forests are
extensive, and a comparatively small part of the area is under cultivation,
rice being the chief crop. Iron exists in considerable quantities, and it
is worked in a small way; gold is also worked. Pop. 330,000, almost
entirely rural.

BALAGUER (b[.a]-l[.a]-g[=a]r'), Victor, Spanish author and politician,
important writer in the Catalonian dialect, born 1824, died 1901. Born at
Barcelona, he studied law there, and, becoming learned in Catalonian
history, was appointed archivist and soon after professor of history. In
1869 he entered the Cortes as a Liberal; in 1872 was Minister of Public
Works; from 1886 to 1888 Colonial Minister. He wrote much both in prose and
verse, his prose comprising historical works, novels, &c., his verse
lyrics, ballads, tragedies, odes, &c. His tragedies were partly on subjects
taken from Catalonian history, partly on subjects connected with Greek and
Roman history or literature. Among his lyrical and other poems are: _El
Trovador de Montserrat_; _Primavera de Ultimo Trovador Catalan_; _Poesias
Completas_ (1874); _Obras Poeticas_ (1880). _Don Juan de Serrallonga_ is
the most popular of his novels. Among other works of his are: _Historia
Politica y Literaria de los Trovadores_; _Historia de Cataluña_; _Los
Pirineos_; _Cristobal Colon_; _Estudios Historicos y Politicos_; _Historias
y Tradiciones_; _Instituciones y Reyes de Aragon_. As a poet he was
imitative, reminding us of Quintana, Zorilla, and Byron.

BALAKLAVA (b[.a]-l[.a]-klä'va), a small seaport in the Crimea, 8 miles
S.S.E. Sevastopol. In the Crimean war it was captured by the British, who
used the harbour as a base of supplies. The famous battle of Balaklava was
fought some distance to the north of the seaport, on 25th Oct., 1854. The
Russians brought a force of 25,000 men against the allies, a much larger
force than they had to encounter, and the chief incidents in the battle
were as follows: The Russians captured a series of positions occupied by
the Turks in front of the British position; a Russian cavalry charge was
repulsed by the 93rd Highlanders; a great mass of Russian cavalry was
defeated by a charge of British heavy cavalry; the British light cavalry
brigade charged and took a Russian battery, and put to flight the cavalry
behind it, but were compelled by overpowering force to retreat with heavy
loss, their retreat being covered by a brilliant charge of the French. The
celebrated charge of the light brigade, or of the 'six hundred', though a
brilliant feat of arms, was made under an erroneous interpretation of
orders; that of the heavy brigade was equally glorious, and contributed far
more to the final repulse of the enemy.

BALAKO´VO, a river-port of South-Eastern Russia, on the left bank of the
Volga, government of Samara, with a very important trade in grain. Pop.
16,000.

BALALAI´KA, a musical instrument of very ancient Slavonic origin, common
among the Russians and Tartars. It is a narrow, shallow guitar with only
two strings.

BAL´ANCE, an instrument for determining the relative weights of bodies.
Balances are of various forms; in that most commonly used a horizontal beam
rests so as to turn easily upon a fulcrum in the middle. From the
extremities of the beam, called the centres of suspension, hang the scales;
and a slender metal pointer between them, and in front of the fulcrum,
indicates when the beam is level. The characteristics of a good balance
are: (1) that the beam should rest in a horizontal position when the scales
are either empty or loaded with equal weights; (2) that a very small
addition of weight put into either scale should cause the beam to deviate
from the level, which property is denominated the sensibility of the
balance; (3) that when the beam is deflected from the horizontal position
by inequality of the weights on the scales, it should have a tendency
speedily to restore itself and come to rest in the level, which property is
called the stability of the balance. To secure these qualities the arms of
the beam should be exactly similar, equal in weight and length, and as long
as possible; the centres of gravity and suspension should be in one
straight line, and the fulcrum immediately above the centre of gravity; and
the fulcrum and the centres of suspension should cause as little friction
as possible. The fulcrum ought to be a knife-edge; and if the balance
requires to be very delicate, the centres of suspension ought to be
knife-edges also. If the balance has no tendency to one position more than
another, when the scales are either loaded, empty, or off altogether, it is
proof that the centre of gravity and the fulcrum coincide, and the remedy
is to lower the centre of gravity. If the beam is disturbed by a small
addition of weight to either scale, and exhibits no tendency to resume the
horizontal position, we may infer that the centre of gravity is above the
fulcrum. If it requires a considerable excess of weight to deflect the beam
from the level, we may infer either that there is too much friction at the
fulcrum, or that the centre of gravity is too low. If two weights are found
to be in equipoise, one being in each scale, and if, when that which is in
one scale is put into the other, there is no longer equilibrium, then we
may infer that the arms of the beam are of unequal lengths. For purposes of
accuracy, balances have occasionally means of raising or depressing the
centre of gravity, of regulating the length of the arms, &c., and the whole
apparatus is usually enclosed in a glass case, to prevent the heat from
expanding the arms unequally, or currents of air from disturbing the
equilibrium. A refinement in weighing is obtained by the use of the
milligram rider, a short bent wire which can be moved along a scale
engraved on the beam.

Of the other forms of balance, the Roman balance, or steel-yard, consists
of a lever moving freely upon a suspended fulcrum, the shorter arm of the
lever having a scale or pan attached to it, and the longer arm, along which
slides a weight, being graduated to indicate quantities. It is commonly
used for weighing loaded carts, for luggage at railway stations, &c. A
variety of this, the Danish balance, has the weight fixed at the end of the
lever, the fulcrum being movable along the graduated index. The
spring-balance registers the weight of an article by the extent to which it
draws out or compresses a spiral spring. It is of service where a high
degree of exactness is not required, as in its domestic use, and it also
finds application in the dynamometer for measuring horse-power of
machinery. An extremely ingenious balance, used in the Mint and the Bank of
England, for weighing 'blanks' and sovereigns, distributes them
automatically into three compartments according as they are light, heavy,
or the exact weight. The Roberval balance is a form in common use for
weighing letters and parcels.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. A. Brauer, _The
Construction of the Balance_; E. Nicholson, _Men and Measures: a history of
weights and measures, ancient and modern_.

BALANCE OF POWER, a political principle which first came to be recognized
in modern Europe in the sixteenth century, though it appears to have been
also acted on by the Greeks in ancient times, in preserving the relations
between their different States. The object in maintaining the balance of
power is to secure the general independence of nations as a whole, by
preventing the aggressive attempts of individual States to extend their
territory and sway at the expense of weaker countries. The first European
monarch whose ambitious designs induced a combination of other States to
counteract them was the Emperor Charles V, similar coalitions being formed
in the end of the seventeenth century, when the ambition of Louis XIV
excited the fears of Europe, and a century later against the exorbitant
power and aggressive schemes of the first Napoleon. Since that time we have
the instance of the Crimean War, entered into to check the ambition of
Russia. Of late years there has been a marked tendency among British
politicians to decry and impugn the principle of the balance of power, as
calculated only to propagate a system of mutual hostility, and retard the
cause of progress, by the expenditure both of money and life thus
occasioned. An equilibrium between the various Powers is, of course,
essential to the very existence of international law. The war of 1914-8 has
proved to the world that in the absence of any central authority neither
treaties nor signatures could prevent a State sufficiently powerful from
ignoring the law and acting solely according to its interests and ambitious
designs. See _Society of Nations_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hume, _Essay on the
Balance of Power_; Von Gentz, _Fragments on the Balance of Power_;
Professor L. Oppenheim, _International Law_, vol. i; Vattel, _Le droit des
gens_.

BALANCE OF TRADE, the difference between the stated money values of the
exports and imports of a country. The balance is erroneously said to be 'in
favour' of a country when the value of the exports is in excess of that of
the imports, and 'against it' when the imports are in excess of the
exports. The phrases date from the days of the mercantile system, the
characteristic doctrine of which alleged the desirability of regulating
commerce with a view to amassing treasure by exporting produce largely,
importing little merchandise in return, and receiving the balance in
bullion. In certain conceivable political and industrial conditions this
may have had beneficial results; but its importance was greatly
overestimated, and the state of this balance came to be regarded as an
invariable criterion of the industrial condition of a country. The false
analogy of the successful merchant who gains more than he spends became the
basis of popular reasoning, the products of a country being mistakenly
identified with its exports, its consumption with its importation. It is
now generally recognized that if bullion be exported from a country it is
because it is at the time the cheapest commodity available for export; and
further, that there are certain natural limits to its undue exportation, in
that the increased scarcity of money is attended with a fall in the
money-value of other commodities, which thus in turn become preferable
objects of exportation, while bullion flows back. The excess of the value
of imports over that of exports, which is regarded by some as an adverse
and alarming symptom in British trade, is in large part readily accounted
for on the ground of shipping receipts, insurance returns, interest on
capital employed in foreign trade, merchants' profits, and the income
derived from foreign investments.

[Illustration: Group of _Bal[)a]nus tintinnab[)u]lum_]

BAL´ANUS ('acorn-shells'), a genus of sessile cirripeds, family Balanidæ,
of which colonies are to be found on rocks at low water, on timbers,
crustaceans, shells of mollusca, &c. They differ from the barnacles in
having a symmetrical shell, and being destitute of a flexible stalk. The
shell consists of six plates, with an operculum of four valves. They pass
through a larval state, in which they are not fixed, moving by means of
swimming feet which disappear in the final state. All the Balanidæ are
hermaphrodite. A South American species (_Bal[)a]nus psitt[)a]cus_) is
eaten on the coast of Chile, the _Bal[)a]nus tintinnab[)u]lum_ by the
Chinese. The old Roman epicures esteemed the larger species.

BALAPUR´, town of India, in Akola district, Berar, with strong fort and
fine pavilion of black stone. Pop. 10,500.

BAL´AS, a name used to distinguish the rose-coloured species of ruby from
the ruby proper.

BALASOR´, a seaport town, Hindustan, presidency of Bengal, province of
Orissa, head-quarters of a district and subdivision bearing the same name.
It carries on a considerable traffic with Calcutta. Pop. 21,362.

BALA´TA, a gum yielded by _Mim[=u]sops Balata_, a tree growing abundantly
in British, French, and Dutch Guiana, Honduras and Brazil, obtained in a
milky state by 'tapping' the tree, and hardening to a substance like
leather. Used for similar purposes to india-rubber, and in the United
States chewed as a masticatory.

BAL´ATON, or PLATTENSEE, a lake of Hungary, 55 miles S.W. of Pesth; length,
50 miles; breadth, 3 to 10 miles; area, about 390 sq. miles. Of its
thirty-two feeders the Szala is the largest, and the lake communicates with
the Danube by the Rivers Sio and Sarviz. It abounds with a species of
perch.

BALBEC. See _Baalbek_.

BALBI, Adrien, geographer and statistician, born at Venice in 1782. In 1808
his first work on geography, _Prospetto Politico-Geografico_, procured his
appointment as professor of geography in the College of San Michele at
Murano, and he became in 1811 professor of natural philosophy in the Lyceum
at Fermo. In 1820 he proceeded to Portugal, and collected there materials
for his _Essai Statistique sur le Royaume de Portugal et d'Algarve_ and
_Variétés Politiques et Statistiques de la Monarchie Portugaise_, both
published in 1822 at Paris, where he resided till 1832. He then settled in
Padua, where he died in 1848. Balbi's admirable _Abrégé de Géographie_ was
written at Paris, and translated into the principal European languages.

BALBI, Gasp[=a]ro, a Venetian dealer in precious stones, born about the
middle of the sixteenth century, who travelled first to Aleppo and thence
down the Euphrates and Tigris to the Malabar coast, sailing finally for
Pegu, where he remained for two years. His _Viaggio all' Indie Orientale_,
published on his return to Venice in 1590, contains the earliest account of
India beyond the Ganges.

BALBO, Ces[=a]re, Italian author and statesman, born in 1789 at Turin.
After holding one or two posts under the patronage of Napoleon, he devoted
himself to history, publishing a history of Italy prior to the period of
Charlemagne, a compendium of Italian history, &c. His _Speranze d'Italia_
(1843), a statement of the political condition of Italy, and of the
practicable ideals to be kept in view, gave him a wide reputation. He died
in 1853.

BALBO´A, Vasco Nuñez de, one of the early Spanish adventurers in the New
World, born 1475. Having dissipated his fortune, he went to America, and
was at Darien with the expedition of Francisco de Enciso in 1510. An
insurrection placed him at the head of the colony, but rumours of a western
ocean and of the wealth of Peru led him to cross the isthmus. On 25th
Sept., 1513, he saw for the first time the Pacific, and after annexing it
to Spain, and acquiring information about Peru, returned to Darien. Here he
found himself supplanted by a new governor, Pedrarias Davila, with much
consequent grievance on the one side, and much jealousy on the other.
Balboa submitted, however, and in the following year was appointed Viceroy
of the South Sea. Davila was apparently reconciled to him, and gave him his
daughter in marriage, but shortly after, in 1517, had him beheaded on a
charge of intent to rebel. Pizarro, who afterwards completed the discovery
of Peru, served under Balboa.

BALBRIGGAN, a seaport and favourite watering-place, Ireland, county of
Dublin; celebrated for its hosiery. Pop. 2273.

BAL´CONY, in architecture, is a gallery projecting from the outer wall of a
building, supported by columns or brackets, and surrounded by a balustrade.
Balconies were not used in Greek and Roman buildings, and in the East the
roof of the house has for centuries served similar purposes on a larger
scale. Balconies properly so styled came into fashion in Italy in the
Middle Ages, and were introduced into Britain in the sixteenth century.

[Illustration: Baldachin: Church of St. Ambrogio, Milan]

BAL´DACHIN (-kin; It. _baldachino_), a canopy or tent-like covering of any
material, either suspended from the roof, fastened to the wall, or
supported on pillars over altars, thrones, pulpits, beds, portals, &c.
Portable baldachins of rich materials were formerly used to shield the
heads of dignitaries in processions, and are still so used in the
processions of the Roman Catholic Church, and in the East. The enormous
bronze baldachin designed by Bernini for Pope Urban VIII, and placed over
the tomb of the apostles in St. Peter's at Rome, is one of the most famous,
though surpassed in beauty by many in other European cathedrals and
churches.

BALDER, or BALDUR, a Scandinavian divinity, represented as the son of Odin
and Frigga, beautiful, wise, amiable, and beloved by all the gods. His
mother took an oath from every creature, and even from every inanimate
object, that they would not harm Balder, but omitted the mistletoe. Balder
was therefore deemed invulnerable, and the other gods in sport flung stones
and shot arrows at him without harming him. But the evil god Loki fashioned
an arrow from the mistletoe and got Balder's blind brother H[=o]der to
shoot it, himself guiding his aim. Balder fell dead, pierced to the heart,
to the deep grief of all the gods. He is believed to be a personification
of the brightness and beneficence of the sun.

BALDI, Bernardino, mathematician, theologian, geographer, historian, poet,
&c., born at Urbino 1533; studied at Padua; became abbot of Guastalla. He
knew upwards of twelve languages, and is said to have written over a
hundred works, most of which remain in MS. His works include a poem on
_Navigation_, various translations and commentaries, _Lives of Celebrated
Mathematicians_, &c. He died in 1617.

BALDNESS, loss of the hair, complete or partial, usually the latter, and
due to various causes. Most commonly it results as one of the changes
belonging to old age, due to wasting of the skin, hair-sacs, &c. It may
occur as a result of some acute disease, or at an unusually early age,
without any such cause. In both the latter cases it is due to defective
nourishment of the hair, owing to lessened circulation of the blood in the
scalp. The best treatment for preventing loss of hair seems to consist in
such measures as bathing the head with cold water and drying it by vigorous
rubbing with a rough towel and brushing it well with a hard brush. Various
stimulating lotions are also recommended, especially those containing
cantharides. But probably in most cases senile baldness is unpreventable.
When extreme scurfiness of the scalp accompanies loss of the hair, an
ointment that will clear away the scurf will prove beneficial.

BALDOVINET´TI, Alessio, Florentine artist, born 1427. Few of his works
remain except a _Nativity_ in the church of the Annunziato, and two
altarpieces in the gallery of the Uffizi and the Academy of Arts, Florence.
Died 1499. His portrait by himself is in the gallery at Bergamo.

BALDRIC (b[a:]ld´rik), a broad belt formerly worn over the right or left
shoulder diagonally across the body, often highly decorated and enriched
with gems, and used not only to sustain the sword, dagger, or horn, but
also for purposes of ornament, and as a military or heraldic symbol.

BAL´DUNG, Hans, or HANS GRÜN (grün), German painter and wood engraver, born
in Swabia 1470, died in Strasburg 1552. His work, though inferior to
Dürer's, possessed many of the same characteristics, and on this account he
has been sometimes considered a pupil of the Nuremberg master. His
principal paintings are the series of panels (of the date 1516) over the
altar in Freiburg Cathedral; others of his works are to be found at Berlin,
Colmar, and Basel. His numerous and often fantastic engravings have the
monogram H and B, with a small G in the centre of the H.

BALDWIN I, Emperor of Constantinople, founder of the short-lived dynasty of
Latin sovereigns of the Eastern Empire, was born in 1172, and was
hereditary Count of Flanders and Hainault. His courage and conduct in the
fourth crusade led to his unanimous election as Emperor of the East after
the capture of Constantinople by the French and Venetians in 1204. In the
absence of Baldwin's brother with a large part of the army, the Greeks rose
in revolt under the instigation of Joannices, King of Bulgaria. Baldwin
marched on Adrianople, but was taken prisoner and died in captivity, 1205.
Baldwin was succeeded by his brother Henry.--BALDWIN II, fifth and last
Latin Emperor of Constantinople, was born 1217. During his minority John de
Brienne was regent, but on his assuming the power himself the Empire fell
to pieces. In 1261 Constantinople was taken by the forces of Michael
Palæologus, and Baldwin retired to Italy, dying in 1270.

BALDWIN I, King of Jerusalem, reigned 1100-18, having assumed the title
which his elder brother, Godfrey de Bouillon, had refused. He subdued
Cæsarea, Ashdod, Tripolis, and Acre.--BALDWIN II, his cousin and successor,
reigned from 1118-31. During his reign the reduction of Tyre and
institution of the order of Templars took place.--BALDWIN III, King of
Jerusalem from 1143 to 1162, was son and successor of Foulques of Anjou,
and the embodiment of the best aspects of chivalry. After defeating
Noureddin in 1152, and again in 1157, he was enabled to devote himself to
the hopeless task of improving the kingdom and establishing the Christian
chivalry in the East. His death in 1162 was almost immediately followed by
the total collapse of the kingdom.

BALDWIN, James Mark, American philosopher, born in Columbia, 12th Jan.,
1861. He was educated at Princeton College, Leipzig and Berlin
Universities; was instructor of German and French at Princeton College,
1885-7; professor of philosophy in Lake Forest University, 1887-9;
professor of psychology at Princeton University, 1893-1903. From 1903-9 he
was professor of philosophy and psychology at the Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore. Professor Baldwin is best known by his experimental psychology
and his theories of genetic logic. He distinguishes between genetic logic,
as theory of thought, and genetic philosophy, as theory of reality. Genetic
sciences, according to Baldwin, are psychology, sociology, ethics, &c., and
his point of view he terms 'Æsthonomical Idealism'. Among his numerous
works are: _Handbook of Psychology_ (2 vols., 1891-2); _Mental Development
in the Child and the Race_ (3rd edition, 1906); _Social and Ethical
Interpretations in Mental Development_ (1904); _Thought and Things, or
Genetic Logic_ (1906-8). He also edited the _Dictionary of Philosophy and
Psychology_ (1901-9) and _The Psychological Review_ (1894-1909).

BÂLE (bäl). See _Basel_.

BALE, John, an English ecclesiastic, born in Suffolk in 1495, died in 1563.
Although educated a Roman Catholic, he became a Protestant, and the
intolerance of the Catholic party drove him to the Netherlands. On the
accession of Edward VI he returned to England, was presented to the living
of Bishop's Stoke, Southampton, and soon after nominated Bishop of Ossory,
in Ireland. Here, on his preaching the reformed religion, the popular fury
against him reached such a pitch that in one tumult five of his domestics
were murdered in his presence. On the accession of Mary he lay some time
concealed in Dublin, and after many hardships found refuge in Switzerland.
At her death he was appointed by Elizabeth a prebend of Canterbury, where
he died. His fame as an author rests upon his _Scriptorum Illustrium
Majoris Britanniæ Catalogus_, or _An Account of the Lives of Eminent
Writers of Britain_, commencing with Japhet the son of Noah, and ending
with the year 1557. It is compiled from various writers, chiefly from the
antiquary Leland. He was also the author of nineteen miracle plays, printed
in 1558. One of his plays, _Kynge Johan_, is a link between the old
morality plays and the historical drama.

BALEAR´IC CRANE (_Balear[)i]ca pavon[=i]na_), a handsome species of crested
crane inhabiting North-West Africa.

BALEAR´IC ISLANDS, an archipelago of four large and eleven small islands,
south-east of Spain, including Majorca, Minorca, Iviza, and Formentera. The
popular derivation of the ancient name Baleares (Gr. _ballein_, to throw)
has reference to the repute of the inhabitants for their skill in slinging,
in which they distinguished themselves both in the army of Hannibal and
under the Romans, by whom the islands were annexed in 123 B.C. After being
taken by the Vandals, under Genseric, and in the eighth century by the
Moors, they were taken by James I, King of Aragon, 1220-34, and constituted
a kingdom, which in 1343 was united to Spain. The islands now form a
Spanish province, with an area of 1935 sq. miles, and 330,167 inhabitants.
See separate articles.

BALEEN´. See _Whale-bone_.

BALE-FIRE, any great fire kindled in the open air, especially the fire of a
funeral pile, or a beacon-fire.

BALEN (bä´len), Hendrik van, painter, born at Antwerp 1560, died 1632. His
works, chiefly classical, religious, and allegorical--some of them executed
in partnership with Breughel--are to be found in most of the European
galleries. He was the first master of Van Dyck and Snyders. Three of his
sons also followed the art.

BALFE (balf), Michael William, composer, was born in Dublin, 15th May,
1808. In his seventh year he performed in public on the violin, and at
sixteen took the part of the Wicked Huntsman in _Der Freischütz_ at Drury
Lane. In 1825 he went to Italy, wrote the music for a ballet, _La Pérouse_,
for the Scala at Milan, and in the following year sang at the
Théâtre-Italien, Paris, with moderate success. He returned to Italy, and at
Palermo was given his first opera, _I Rivali_ (1829). For five years he
continued singing and composing operas for the Italian stage. In 1835 he
came to England, and composed a number of operas, amongst others _The
Bohemian Girl_ (1843), _The Rose of Castile_ (1857), _Satanella_ (1858),
and _The Talisman_ (first performed in 1874). He died 20th Oct., 1870. His
operas are melodious, and many of the airs are excellent.

BALFOUR (bal-för´), Sir Andrew, Bart., a Scottish botanist and physician,
born in Fifeshire in 1630. After completing his studies at St. Andrews and
London, and travelling on the Continent, he settled at Edinburgh, where he
planned, with Sir Robert Sibbald, the Royal College of Physicians, and was
elected its first president. He also laid the foundation of a hospital in
Edinburgh, which expanded into the Royal Infirmary. He died in 1694. His
familiar letters were published in 1700.

BAL´FOUR, Right Hon. Arthur James, First Earl of (created 1922), son of
J. M. Balfour of Whittingehame, Haddingtonshire, and of Lady Blanche Cecil,
sister of the third Marquess of Salisbury, was born 25th July, 1848, and
educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. He represented Hertford
from 1874-5, East Manchester from 1885 to 1906, and has been representative
for the City of London since 1906. For a time he was private secretary to
his uncle, Lord Salisbury, under whom he was President of the Local
Government Board, and afterwards Secretary for Scotland (1886-7), with a
seat in the cabinet. He showed much firmness and ability as Chief Secretary
for Ireland during Lord Salisbury's administration from 1887-91. He
succeeded Rt. Hon. W. H. Smith as leader of the House of Commons and First
Lord of the Treasury in 1891-2, and held the position again from 1895 till
1900, and from that year till 1902. On the retirement of Lord Salisbury in
1902 he became Prime Minister, a position which he retained till Dec.,
1905. Under him as Premier was passed the new English Education Act (which
owed much to his personal influence and exertions), that for London, and
the new Licensing Act, and he advocated a change of our fiscal policy, at
least as far as having recourse to retaliation, denying that he in any way
favoured protection. He became First Lord of the Admiralty in the Coalition
Government of 1915, and Foreign Secretary in 1916. He was one of the
British delegates to the Peace Conference in 1919. He is given to studies
bearing on philosophy and religion, and has published a _Defence of
Philosophic Doubt_ (1879), _Essays and Addresses_ (1893), _The Foundations
of Belief_ (1895), _Economic Notes on Insular Free-Trade_ (1903),
_Criticism and Beauty_ (1909), _Theism and Humanism_ (1915), &c. He was
President of the British Association in 1904, and Gifford Lecturer, Glasgow
University, 1913-4. In 1919 he was elected to succeed Lord Rayleigh, O.M.,
as Chancellor of Cambridge University.

BALFOUR, Francis Maitland, writer on embryology, brother of the foregoing,
born in 1851, early distinguished himself in his special study, and in
1874, in conjunction with Dr. M. Foster, published _The Elements of
Embryology_; but the promise of his chief work, _Comparative Embryology_
(1880-1) was unfulfilled, as in 1882 he was killed by a fall on Mont Blanc.

BALFOUR, Sir James, Scottish lawyer and politician, born about 1522, took
part in the conspiracy against Cardinal Beaton, and was condemned with Knox
to the galleys; but after his release found it to his interest to change
his opinions, and was appointed, through the favour of Queen Mary, Lord of
Session and member of the Privy Council. In 1567 he was appointed Governor
of Edinburgh Castle, but had no scruple in surrendering it to Murray, who
made him President of the Court of Session. He was charged with a share in
the murder of Darnley, and helped to bring Regent Morton to his death. He
died in 1583. _The Practicks of Scots Law_, attributed to him, was long a
textbook.

BALFOUR, John Hutton, a distinguished botanist, born 1808, died 1884. He
graduated at Edinburgh University in arts and in medicine; from 1841 to
1845 was professor of botany in Glasgow University; and in the latter year
removed to Edinburgh to occupy a similar post, resigning his chair in 1879.
He wrote valuable botanical textbooks, including _Elements_, _Outlines_,
_Manual_, and _Class-book_, besides various other works.

BALFROOSH´, or BARFURUSH´, a town, Persia, province of Mazanderan, about
twelve miles from the Caspian, a great emporium of the trade between Persia
and Russia. Pop. estimated at 50,000.

BA´LI, an island of the Indian Archipelago east of Java, belonging to
Holland; greatest length, 85 miles, greatest breadth, 55 miles; area, about
2160 sq. miles. It consists chiefly of a series of volcanic mountains, of
which the loftiest, Agoong (11,326 feet), became active in 1843 after a
long period of quiescence. Principal products: rice, cocoa, coffee, indigo,
cotton, &c. The people are akin to those of Java and are mostly Brahmans in
religion. It is divided into eight provinces under native rajahs, and since
1882 has formed one colony with Lombok, the united pop. being 1,363,000, of
whom about 900,000 belong to Bali.

BAL´IOL, or BALLIOL, John de, of Barnard Castle, Northumberland, father of
King John Baliol, a great English (or Norman) baron in the reign of Henry
III, to whose cause he strongly attached himself in his struggles with the
barons. In 1263 he laid the foundation of Balliol College, Oxford, which
was completed by his widow Devorguila or Devorgilla. She was daughter and
co-heiress of Allan of Galloway, a great baron of Scotland, by Margaret,
eldest daughter of David, Earl of Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion.
It was on the strength of this genealogy that his son John Baliol became
temporary King of Scotland. He died 1269.

BAL´IOL, or BALLIOL, John, King of Scotland, born about 1249, died 1315. On
the death of Margaret, the Maid of Norway and grandchild of Alexander III,
Baliol claimed the vacant throne by virtue of his descent from David, Earl
of Huntingdon, brother to William the Lion, King of Scotland (see above
article). Robert Bruce (grandfather of the king) opposed Baliol; but Edward
I's decision was in favour of Baliol, who did homage to him for the
kingdom, 20th Nov., 1292. Irritated by Edward's harsh exercise of
authority, Baliol concluded a treaty with France, then at war with England;
but after the defeat at Dunbar he surrendered his crown into the hands of
the English monarch. He was sent with his son to the Tower, but, by the
intercession of the Pope in 1297, obtained liberty to retire to his Norman
estates, where he died.--His son, Edward, in 1332 landed in Fife with an
armed force, and, having defeated a large army under the Regent Mar (who
was killed), got himself crowned king, but was driven out in three months.

BALIS´TIDÆ. See _Trigger-fishes_.

BALIZE (ba-l[=e]z´). See _Belize_.

BAL´KAN (ancient, HÆMUS), a rugged chain of mountains extending from Cape
Emineh, on the Black Sea, in Eastern Roumelia, westwards to the borders of
Serbia, though the name is sometimes used to include the whole mountain
system from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, the region south of Austria and
Russia, or south of the Danube and Save, forming the Balkan Peninsula. The
range, which is over 200 miles in length, forms the water-shed between the
streams flowing northward into the Danube and those flowing southward to
the Ægean, the chief of the latter being the Maritza. The average height is
not more than 5000 feet, but the highest point, Tchat-al-dagh, is 8340
feet. In the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8 the Russian troops managed to
cross it without great difficulty, though they had to encounter a stubborn
resistance at the Shipka Pass, where a Turkish army of 32,000 men
ultimately surrendered to them.

BALKAN LEAGUE, THE. After the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by
Austria, in 1908, the Balkan League of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and
Greece was formed, apparently at the instigation of the Powers of the
Triple Entente, primarily to constitute a bulwark against Austrian
aggression towards the southeast. The League, however, directed its
activities against Turkey, taking advantage of Turkish embarrassments in
Libya and of the success of an insurrection in Albania to attempt in 1912
the overthrow of the Turkish regime in Europe. The declaration of
hostilities by the League in Oct., 1912, began the First Balkan War (q.v.).
The League was maintained during the two campaigns of the war, but jealousy
of Bulgarian pre-eminence led to its disruption in June, 1913, when Serbia,
Montenegro, and Greece went to war with their former ally.

BALKAN STATES. See _Bulgaria_, _Greece_, _Roumania_, _Serbia_, _Turkey_,
and _Yugo-Slavs_.

BALKAN WAR, THE. The First Balkan War (Oct., 1912-May, 1913) was the effort
of the Balkan League (q.v.) to dismember Turkey in Europe. Each member of
the League was allotted a definite strategic object, and each gained a
considerable measure of success. Bulgaria defeated the Turks at Kirk
Kilisseh and Lule Burgas, and drove them behind the lines of Tchataldja.
The Greeks captured Salonica; the Serbians forced their way to the sea at
Durazzo. The Montenegrins invested Scutari. An armistice in December was
followed by indecisive negotiations, in which the Great Powers took part.
Renewed hostilities in the spring of 1913 (during which the Turks lost
Adrianople) came to an end with the Treaty of London in May. Before its
promises could be carried out, Serbia, Greece, and Roumania joined to crush
Bulgaria in the Second Balkan War, alleging that her claims to conquered
territory in Macedonia were excessive. The Treaty of Bucharest (Aug., 1913)
finally concluded the war. The net results were: (1) to confine Turkey to
Constantinople and the vilayet of Adrianople; (2) to extend Bulgarian
territory to the Ægean and to increase greatly both Serbia and Montenegro;
(3) to grant Salonica to Greece; (4) to create an autonomous
Albania.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Ashmead-Bartlett, _With the Turks in Thrace_;
_The Balkan War Drama_, by a Special Correspondent; D. J. Cassvetti,
_Hellas and the Balkan Wars_; Sir J. R. L. Rankin, _The Inner History of
the Balkan War_.

BALKASH´, or BALKHASH (b[.a]l-_h_[.a]sh´), a salt lake in Russian Central
Asia, surrounded by steppes and plains; length about 330 miles, area 8500
sq. miles, depth nowhere more than 80 feet; formerly of much greater area
and gradually growing smaller; receives the Ili and other smaller streams.

BALKH (bälk or bäl_h_), a city in the north of Afghanistan, in Afghan
Turkestan, at one time the emporium of the trade between India, China, and
Western Asia. It was long the centre of Zoroastrianism, and was also an
important Buddhist centre. In 1220 it was sacked by Genghis Khan, and again
by Timur in the fourteenth century. The remains of the ancient city extend
for miles. The town is now merely a village, but a new town has been built
an hour's journey north of the old, the residence of the Afghan governor,
with a pop. of about 20,000. The district, which formed a portion of
ancient Bactria, lies between the Oxus and the Hindu-Kush, with Badakshan
to the east and the desert to the west. In the vicinity of the Oxus, where
there are facilities for irrigation, the soil is rich and productive, and
there are many populous villages.

BAL´KIS, the Arabian name of the Queen of Sheba who visited Solomon. She is
the central figure of innumerable Eastern legends and tales.

BALL, GAME OF. Ball-playing was practised by the ancients, and old and
young amused themselves with it. The Phæacian damsels are represented in
the _Odyssey_ as playing it to the sound of music; and Horace represents
Mæcenas as amusing himself thus during a journey. In the Greek gymnasia,
the Roman baths, and in many Roman villas, a _sphæristerium_ (a place
appropriated for playing ball) was to be found; the games played being
similar to those of the present day. In the Middle Ages the sport continued
to be very popular both as an indoor and outdoor exercise, and was a
favourite Court pastime until about the end of the eighteenth century. In
England football and tennis are mentioned at an early date, and a favourite
game prior to the English revolution was one in which a _mall_ or mallet
was used, hence the name _pall-mall_ (It. _palla_, Lat. _pila_, a ball) for
the game and the place where it was played. The most popular modern forms
are cricket, base-ball, football, golf, lawn-tennis, fives, and polo.

BALL, John, an itinerant preacher of the fourteenth century, excommunicated
about 1367 for promulgating "errors, schisms, and scandals against the
Pope, archbishops, bishops, and clergy". He was one of the most active
promoters of the popular insurgent spirit which found vent under Wat Tyler
in 1381, and the couplet

 "When Adam delved and Eve span
  Who was then the gentleman?"

is attributed to him. He was hanged, drawn, and quartered on 15th July,
1381.

BALL, Sir Robert Stawell, astronomer, born at Dublin 1840, educated at
Chester and Trinity College, Dublin. In 1865 he was appointed Lord Rosse's
astronomer at Parsonstown, and subsequently held various official posts,
including those of Andrews professor of astronomy in the University of
Dublin and Astronomer Royal for Ireland (1874), Lowndean professor of
astronomy and geometry in the University of Cambridge and director of the
observatory (1892). He became F.R.S. in 1873, and was knighted in 1886.
Besides many memoirs and articles, he published _The Story of the Heavens_,
_Starland_, _In Starry Realms_, _Time and Tide_, _The Story of the Sun_,
_Great Astronomers_, _The Earth's Beginning_, _Popular Guide to the
Heavens_ (numerous plates with accompanying text), _Natural Sources of
Power_, &c. He died in 1913.

BAL´LAD, a term loosely applied to various poetic forms of the song type,
but in its most definite sense a poem in which a short narrative is
subjected to simple lyrical treatment. It was, as indicated by its name,
which is related to the Low Latin _ballare_ and O. French _baller_, to
dance, originally a song accompanied by a dance. The ballad, like the
nursery tales and the _Märchen_, is probably one of the earliest forms of
rhythmic poetic expression, constituting a species of epic in miniature,
out of which by fusion and remoulding larger epics were sometimes shaped.
Their present form is, of course, relatively recent. As in the folk-tales,
so in the ballads of different nations, the resemblances are sufficiently
numerous and close to point to the conclusion that they have often had
their first origin in the same primitive folk-lore or popular tales. But in
any case, excepting a few modern literary ballads of a subtler kind, they
have been the popular expression of the broad human emotions clustering
about some strongly-outlined incidents of war, love, crime, superstition,
or death. It is probable that in the Homeric poems fragments of older
ballads are embedded; but the earliest ballads, properly so called, of
which we have record were the _ballistea_ or dancing-songs of the Romans,
of the kind sung in honour of the deeds of Aurelian in the Sarmatic war by
a chorus of dancing boys. In their less specialized sense of lyric
narratives, their early popularity among the Teutonic race is evidenced by
the testimony of Tacitus, of the Gothic historian Jornandes, and the
Lombard historian Paulus Diaconus; and many appear to have been written
down by order of Charlemagne and used as a means of education. Of the
ballads of this period, however, only a general conception can be formed
from their traces in conglomerates like the _Niebelungenlied_; the more
artificial productions of the Minnesingers and Meistersingers overlying the
more popular ballad until the fifteenth century, when it sprang once more
into vigorous life. A third German ballad period was initiated by Bürger,
under the inspiration of the revived interest in the subject shown in Great
Britain and the publication of the Percy _Reliques_; and the movement was
sustained by Herder, Schiller, Goethe, Heine, Uhland, and others. The
earlier German work is, however, of inferior value to that of Scandinavia,
where, though comparatively few manuscripts have survived, and those not
more than three or four centuries old, a more perfect oral tradition has
rendered it possible to trace the original stock of the twelfth century.

Of the English and Scottish ballads anterior to the thirteenth century
there are few traces beyond the indication that they were abundant, if
indeed anything can be definitely asserted of them earlier than the
fourteenth century. Among the oldest may be placed _The Little Gest of
Robin Hood_, _Hugh of Lincoln_, _Sir Patrick Spens_, and the _Battle of
Otterbourn_. In the fifteenth century specimens multiply rapidly:
ballad-making became in the reign of Henry VIII a fashionable amusement,
the king himself setting the example; and though in the reign of Elizabeth
ballads came into literary disrepute and ballad singers were brought under
the law, yet there was no apparent check upon the rate of their production.
Except perhaps in the north of England and south of Scotland, there was,
however, a marked and increasing tendency to vulgarization as distinct from
the preservation of popular qualities. The value of the better ballads was
lost sight of in the flood of dull, rhythmless, and frequently scurrilous
verse. The modern revival in Britain dates from the publication of Allan
Ramsay's _Evergreen_ and _Tea-table Miscellany_ (1724-7) and of the
selection _Reliques_ made by Bishop Percy from his seventeenth-century MSS.
(1765), a revival not more important for its historic interest than for the
influence which it has exercised upon all subsequent poetry.

The threefold wave discernible in German, if not in British, ballad
history, is equally to be traced in Spain, which alone among the Latinized
countries of Europe has songs of equal age and merit with the British
historic ballads. The principal difference between them is, that for the
most part the Spanish romance is in trochaic, the British ballad in iambic
metre. The ballads of the Cid date from about the end of the twelfth and
beginning of the thirteenth century; and then followed an interval of more
elaborate production, a revival of ballad interest in the sixteenth
century, a new declension, and finally a modern and still-persisting
enthusiasm.

The French poetry of this kind never reached any high degree of perfection,
the romance, farce, and lyric flourishing at the expense of the ballad
proper. Of Italy much the same may be said, though Sicily has supplied a
great store of ballads; and nearly all the Portuguese poetry of this kind
is to be traced to a Spanish origin. The Russians have lyrico-epic poems,
of which some, in old Russian, are excellent, and the Serbians are still in
the ballad-producing stage of civilization. Modern Greece has also its
store of ballads, published in several collections. In Greece, Russia, and
elsewhere the old habit of improvising song as an accompaniment to dance
still exists.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Professor Child, _English and Scottish Popular
Ballads_; Professor Gummere, _The Beginnings of Poetry_; Sir W. Scott,
_Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_ (edited by T. F. Henderson); T. F.
Henderson, _The Ballad in Literature_.

BALLADE (bal-[.a]d´), the earlier and modern French spelling of _ballad_,
but now limited in its use to a distinct verse-form introduced into English
literature of late years from the French, and chiefly used by writers of
_vers-de-société_. It consists of three stanzas of eight lines each, with
an _envoy_ or closing stanza of four lines. The rhymes, which are not more
than three, follow each other in the stanzas thus: a, b, a, b; b, c, b, c,
and in the envoy, b, c, b, c; and the same line serves as a refrain to each
of the stanzas and to the envoy. There are other varieties, but this may be
regarded as the strictest, according to the precedent of Villon and Marot.

BAL´LANTYNE, James, the printer of Sir Walter Scott's works, born at Kelso
1772, died at Edinburgh 1833. Successively a solicitor and a printer in his
native town, at Scott's suggestion he removed to Edinburgh, where the high
perfection to which he had brought the art of printing, and his connection
with Scott, secured him a large trade. The printing firm of James
Ballantyne & Co. included Scott, James Ballantyne, and his brother John
(who died in 1821). For many years he conducted the _Edinburgh Weekly
Journal_. His firm was involved in the bankruptcy of Constable & Co., by
which Scott's fortunes were wrecked, but Ballantyne was continued by the
creditors' trustee in the literary management of the printing-house. He
survived Scott only about four months.

BALLANTYNE, Robert Michael, writer of books for boys, born at Edinburgh
1825, died in Rome 1894, was a nephew of James Ballantyne, the printer of
Sir Walter Scott's works. He was for some years in North America in the
service of the Hudson's Bay Company, and his experiences there supplied him
with materials for some of his earlier books, especially _Hudson's Bay, or
Life in the Wilds of North America_ (1848); _The Young Fur Traders_; and
_Ungava, a Tale of Eskimo Land_. For many years he continued to produce
popular and instructive boys' books, dealing with scenes and subjects of
the most varied kind; and he also published a volume entitled _Personal
Reminiscences of Book-Making_ (1893).

BALLARAT´, or BALLAARAT, an Australian town in Victoria, chief centre of
the gold-mining industry of the colony, and next in importance to
Melbourne, from which it is distant W.N.W. about 60 miles direct. It
consists of two distinct municipalities, Ballarat West and Ballarat East,
separated by the Yarrowee Creek, and has many handsome buildings, and all
the institutions of a progressive and flourishing city, including hospital,
mechanics' institute and library, free public library, Anglican and Roman
Catholic cathedrals, &c. Gold was first discovered in 1851, and the
extraordinary richness of the field soon attracted hosts of miners. The
surface diggings having been exhausted, the precious metal is now got from
greater depths, and there are mines as deep as some coal-pits, the gold
being obtained by crushing the auriferous quartz. There are also foundries,
woollen mills, flour-mills, breweries and distilleries, &c. Pop. 42,252.

BAL´LAST, a term applied (1) to heavy matter, as stone, sand, iron, or
water placed in the bottom of a ship or other vessel to sink it in the
water to such a depth as to enable it to carry sufficient sail without
oversetting. (2) The sand placed in bags in the car of a balloon to steady
it and to enable the aeronaut to lighten the balloon by throwing part of it
out. (3) The material used to fill up the space between the rails on a
railway in order to make it firm and solid.

BALL´ATER, a village and favourite summer resort in Aberdeenshire, on the
Dee, at the terminus of the Deeside Railway, about 43 miles from Aberdeen,
a centre from which Balmoral, Lochnagar, Braemar, &c., are easily reached.
The Pananich chalybeate springs are adjacent. Pop. (1921), 1542.

[Illustration: Ball-cock

1. Cistern with ball-cock attached: _a_, rising main; _b_, supply to house.
2. Outside view of valve (cistern full). 3. Piston with rubber disk. 4.
Section of valve (cistern full). 5. Section of valve with piston pulled
down.]

BALL-COCK, a kind of self-acting stopcock opened and shut by means of a
hollow sphere or ball of metal attached to the end of a lever connected
with the cock. Such cocks are often employed to regulate the supply of
water to cisterns. The ball floats on the water in the cistern by its
buoyancy, and rises and sinks as the water rises and sinks, shutting off
the water in the one case and letting it on in the other.

BAL´LENTYNE, or BELLENDEN, John, a Scottish poet; was a native of Lothian,
and appears to have been born towards the close of the fifteenth century.
He was in the service of James V from the king's earliest years, and at his
request he translated Boece's _Latin History_, which had been published at
Paris in 1526, the translation being printed in 1536. As a reward he was
made Archdeacon of Moray and a canon of Ross. He was a bitter opponent of
the Reformation, and is said to have died at Rome in 1550.

BALLET (bal´[=a]), a species of dance, usually forming an interlude in
theatrical performances, but principally confined to opera. Its object is
to represent, by mimic movements and dances, actions, characters,
sentiments, passions, and feelings, in which several dancers perform
together. The ballet is an invention of modern times, though pantomimic
dances were not unknown to the ancients. The dances frequently introduced
into operas seldom deserve the name ballet, as they usually do not
represent any action, but are destined only to give the dancers an
opportunity of showing their skill. The modern ballet was developed and
perfected in France, and introduced into England in the eighteenth century.
From an artistic point of view, the modern ballet is often a very low-class
entertainment.

[Illustration: Ball-flower]

BALL-FLOWER, an architectural ornament resembling a ball placed in a
circular flower, the three petals of which form a cup round it; usually
inserted in a hollow moulding, and generally characteristic of the
Decorated Gothic style of the fourteenth century.

BALLIA, a town of India, in the United Provinces, on the Ganges, the
administrative head-quarters of a district of the same name. Pop. 16,680.

BALLINA´, a town and river-port, Ireland, County Mayo, on both banks of the
Moy, about 5 miles above its mouth in Killala Bay, with a considerable
local and also a little coasting and foreign trade. Pop. 4662.

BALLINASLOE´ (-sl[=o]), a town, Ireland, in Galway and Roscommon counties,
15 miles south-west of Athlone, on both sides of the Suck, noted for its
cattle fair, from 5th till 9th Oct., the most important in Ireland. The
town contains remains of a castle of Elizabethan date. Pop. 5170.

[Illustration: Ballista as used by the Romans]

BALLIS´TA, a machine used in military operations by the ancients for
hurling heavy missiles, thus serving in some degree the purpose of the
modern cannon. The motive power appears to have been obtained by the
torsion of ropes, fibres, catgut, or hair. They are said to have sometimes
had an effective range of a quarter of a mile, and to have thrown stones
weighing as much as 300 lb. The ballistæ differed from the _catapultæ_, in
that the latter were used for throwing darts.

BALLIS´TIC PENDULUM, an apparatus for ascertaining the velocity of military
projectiles, and consequently the force of fired gunpowder. A piece of
ordnance is fired against bags of sand supported in a strong case or frame
suspended so as to swing like a pendulum. The arc through which it vibrates
is shown by an index, and the amount of vibration forms a measure of the
force or velocity of the ball.

BALLISTICS, the science of the motion of projectiles. _Interior ballistics_
deals with the motion of the shot while inside the gun, and with the
results of the explosion of the charge. _Exterior ballistics_ comprises a
study of the trajectory or path of the projectile in the air, and the
causes which affect the shape of this path, such as the density of the air,
shape and weight of the shot, rifling of the barrel, angle of fire and
speed of the projectile. If the air-resistance be neglected, it can be
shown that the trajectory is a _parabola_. This result, given by Galileo,
is of little use in gunnery except when taken along with a knowledge of
air-resistance. Robins, in 1742, first measured the muzzle-speed of the
shot by firing into a ballistic pendulum and noting the swing of the
pendulum. Wheatstone, in 1840, suggested measuring the speed by causing the
shot to cut successive wire screens, each of which formed part of an
electric circuit. The Boulangé chronograph is a modern development of this
idea. Rev. F. Bashforth's experiments, carried out between 1865 and 1880,
form the basis of our knowledge of air-resistance. He found that the latter
was proportional to the square of the diameter of the shot, and that,
although the resistance is expressible in terms of a power of the speed,
this power changes with the speed. The air-resistance is a maximum at about
the speed at which sound travels, viz. 1100 feet per second. Artillerists
employ ballistic tables based on the results obtained by Bashforth and
others, by means of which, given the kind of projectile, its initial
velocity, and angle of fire, they can calculate the range and time of
flight of the projectile. See _Gunnery_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Bashforth, _The
Motion of Projectiles_; J. M. Ingalls, _Interior Ballistics_; P.
Charbonnier, _Balistique Extérieure_.

BALLOON-FISH (_Tetra[)o]don line[=a]tus_), ord. Plectognathi, a curious
tropical fish that can inflate itself so as to resemble a balloon.

BALLOONS, the most elementary form of lighter-than-air air-craft,
unprovided with any means of propulsion or steering. Deriving its power of
sustentation from the gas contained in the gas-bag, the free balloon is
spherical in form. It is usually filled with coal-gas, which has a
lifting-force of 35 lb. per 1000 cu. feet. Varying in size from 5000 to
20,000 cu. foot capacity, the gas-bag is covered with a 'net', from which
is hung the 'basket' for the accommodation of the aeronaut, or pilot, and
passengers. The spherical gas-bag has at the bottom an elongation, known as
the 'neck', which is open to the air in order that the gas may escape as it
expands during the rise into the rarefied atmosphere of the upper air. A
'valve' is fitted at the top, which may be opened by a cord from the basket
when it is desired to allow gas to escape in order to descend. Bags
containing sand are carried in order that ballast may be dropped when it is
desired to rise. A free balloon is completely at the mercy of the wind, and
simply drifts where the wind takes it. Balloons are usually constructed of
cotton fabric, though occasionally of gold-beater's skin, in which case
they are commonly filled with hydrogen in place of coal-gas. A 'trail-rope'
is usually carried, with which the practice of 'trailing' may be effected
over open country or the sea. This consists in allowing the end of the
trail-rope to drag on the ground. As the balloon rises it raises more of
the rope off the ground, the additional weight bringing it down again. _Per
contra_, as it falls the weight of the trail-rope is taken by the ground
and so lightens the balloon. This tends to maintain the balloon at a
uniform height. The greatest height ever attained by a balloon is 37,000
feet, reached by Glaisher and Coxwell in Sept., 1862. Both aeronauts nearly
perished from the effects of the cold and rarefaction of the atmosphere. In
1895 Parseval and Siegsfield, two officers of the Prussian army, invented
the 'Drachen-ballon' or 'Kite-balloon' (Fr. _Saucisse_). This consists of a
captive balloon comprising an elongated gas-bag fitted with an automatic
air-chamber, or 'ballonet', for maintaining the pressure, and automatic
stabilizers to prevent yawing off the wind, rolling from side to side, and
pitching horizontally. This was improved upon by Captain Caquot of the
French army, who in 1916 produced an improved type, offering many
advantages, which was used in large numbers by the British, French, and
American armies and navies during the Great European War of 1914-8. See
also _Aeronautics_, _Air-ships_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _British Military Manual of
Ballooning_; Rev. J. M. Bacon, _The Dominion of the Air_; H. Coxwell, _My
Life and Balloon Experiences_; J. Glaisher, _Travels in the Air_; G.
Tissandier, _Histoire de mes Ascensions_.

BAL´LOT, VOTING BY, signifies literally voting by means of little balls
(called by the French _ballottes_), usually of different colours, which are
put into a box in such a manner as to enable the voter, if he chooses, to
conceal for whom or for what he gives his suffrage. The method is adopted
by most clubs in the election of their members--a white ball indicating
assent, a black ball dissent. Hence, when an applicant is rejected, he is
said to be _blackballed_. The term voting by ballot is also applied in a
general way to any method of secret voting, as, for instance, when a person
gives his vote by means of a ticket bearing the name of the candidate whom
he wishes to support. In this sense vote by ballot is the mode adopted in
electing the members of legislative assemblies in most countries, as well
as the members of various other bodies. In ancient Greece and Rome the
ballot was in common use. In Britain it had long been advocated in the
election of members of Parliament and of municipal corporations, but it was
only introduced by an Act passed in 1872.

BALLYME´NA, a town of Ireland, County Antrim, 22 miles from Belfast, with a
considerable trade in linens and linen yarns, the manufacture of which is
carried on to a great extent. Pop. 11,380.

BALLYMO´NEY, a town of Ireland, County Antrim, 38 miles N.W. of Belfast;
linen, chemicals, tanning, and brewing. Pop. 3100.

BALLYSHAN´NON, a small seaport of Ireland, County Donegal, on the Erne,
about 1 mile from the S.E. shore of Donegal Bay. Pop. 2471.

BALM (bäm; _Melissa officin[=a]lis_), a plant, belonging to the Labiatæ;,
formerly in great repute for its medicinal virtues. A native of the south
of Europe, it is cultivated in English gardens. It is a herbaceous
perennial, with an erect branching stem about 2 feet high. The leaves arise
with the flower-stems from a thick joint at the extremity of the stalk. The
flowers are whitish; they are produced in a round terminal umbel, and
appear in June. The stems and leaves are slightly stimulating and tonic.
They contain an essential oil of a yellowish colour and with a fragrant
smell, called oil of balm.

BALM OF GILEAD, the exudation of a tree, _Balsamodendron gileadense_, nat.
ord. Amyridaceæ, a native of Arabia Felix, and also obtained from the
closely-allied species _Balsamodendron Opobals[)a]mum_. The leaves of the
former tree yield when bruised a strong aromatic scent; and the balm of
Gilead of the shops, or balsam of Mecca or of Syria, is obtained from it by
making an incision in its trunk. It has a yellowish or greenish colour, a
warm, bitterish, aromatic taste, and an acidulous fragrant smell. It is
valued as an odoriferous unguent and cosmetic by the Turks. It is
frequently adulterated for market.--The _balm of Gilead fir_, which
produces a turpentine called Canada balsam, is the _Abies balsamif[)e]ra_,
a North American species, whose range is from Virginia to Canada. The name
is derived from _Jeremiah_, viii, 22.

BALMAIN´, a populous western suburb of Sydney, N.S.W., with extensive docks
and various industrial works. Pop. 33,000.

BALMER´INO, Arthur Elphinstone, Lord, a Scottish Jacobite, born 1688,
executed 1746. He took part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715, and fought
at Sheriffmuir. Having joined the young Pretender in 1745, he was taken
prisoner at Culloden, tried at Westminster, found guilty, and beheaded. His
title was from Balmerino in Fife.

BALMOR´AL CASTLE, a private residence of the British sovereign, beautifully
situated on the S. bank of the Dee, in Aberdeenshire, 45 miles W. by S. of
Aberdeen. It stands in the midst of fine and varied mountain scenery, is
built of granite in the Scottish baronial style, mainly in two connected
blocks, and has an imposing appearance. The estate, purchased by the Prince
Consort in 1852 and bequeathed to Queen Victoria, extends to about 40,000
acres, mostly deer forest.

BALNAVES´, Henry, of Halhill, a Scottish reformer, was born at Kirkcaldy,
educated at St. Andrews, and became a lord of session and a member of the
Scottish Parliament in 1538. He was one of the commissioners appointed in
1543 to treat of the proposed marriage between Edward VI and Mary. In 1547
he was one of the prisoners taken in the castle of St. Andrews and exiled
to France. Recalled in 1554, he busily engaged in the establishment of the
reformed faith, assisted in revising the _Book of Discipline_, and
accompanied Murray to England in connection with Darnley's murder. He died
in 1579.

BALRAMPUR. See _Bulrampur_.

BALSA, a kind of raft or float used on the coasts and rivers of Peru and
other parts of South America for fishing, for landing goods and passengers
through a heavy surf, and for other purposes where buoyancy is chiefly
wanted. It is formed generally of two inflated seal-skins, connected by a
sort of platform on which the fisherman, passengers, or goods are placed.

BAL´SAM, the common name of succulent plants of the genus Impatiens, family
Balsaminaceæ, having beautiful irregular flowers, cultivated in gardens and
green-houses. _Impatiens balsam[=i]na_, native of the East Indies, is a
common cultivated species. _I. noli-me-tangere_ grows wild in Britain, but
is not native. See _Impatiens_.

BALSAM, an aromatic, resinous substance, flowing spontaneously or by
incision from certain plants. A great variety of substances pass under this
name. But in chemistry the term is confined to such vegetable juices as
consist of resins mixed with volatile oils, and yield the volatile oil on
distillation. The resins are produced from the oils by oxidation. A balsam
is thus intermediate between a volatile oil and a resin. It is soluble in
alcohol and ether, and capable of yielding benzoic acid. The balsams are
either liquid or more or less solid; as, for example, the balm of Gilead,
and the balsams of copaiba, Peru, and Tolu. Benzoin, dragon's-blood, and
storax are not true balsams, though sometimes called so. The balsams are
used in perfumery, medicine, and the arts. See _Copaiba_, &c.--_Balsam of
Gilead_ or _of Mecca_, balm of Gilead (q.v.).--_Canada balsam_. See _Canada
balsam_.

BALSAM FIR. See _Balm of Gilead_.

BALSA´MO, Joseph. See _Cagliostro, Count_.

BALSAMODEN´DRON, a genus of trees or bushes, ord. Amyridaceæ, species of
which yield such balsamic or resinous substances as balm of Gilead,
bdellium, myrrh, &c.

BALTA, a town in the Ukraine, government of Podolia, on the Kodema, an
affluent of the Bug, 115 miles N.N.W. of Odessa. Pop. 18,450.

BALTIC, BATTLE OF THE. See _Copenhagen_; _Parker, Sir Hyde_.

BALTIC PROVINCES, a term commonly given to the former Russian governments
of Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia (q.v.).

BALTIC SEA, an inland sea or large gulf connected with the North Sea,
washing the coasts of Denmark, Germany, Russia, and Sweden; nearly 900
miles long, extending to 200 broad; superficial extent, together with the
Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, 171,743 sq. miles. Its greatest depth is 126
fathoms; mean, 44 fathoms. A chain of islands separates the southern part
from the northern, or Gulf of Bothnia. The water of the Baltic is colder
and clearer than that of the ocean: it contains a smaller proportion of
salt, and the ice obstructs the navigation three or four months in the
year. Among the rivers that enter it are the Neva, Dwina, Oder, Vistula,
and Niemen. Islands: Samsoe, Moen, Bornholm, Langeland, Laaland, which
belong to Denmark (besides Zealand and Funen); Gottland and Oeland,
belonging to Sweden; Rügen, belonging to Prussia; Dagoe and Oesel,
belonging to Russia; and the Åland Islands. The Sound, the Great and the
Little Belt lead from the Kattegat into the Baltic. The Baltic and North
Sea were long connected by the Eider and a canal from it to the
neighbourhood of Kiel, but this has been superseded by the great ship
canal, starting from the Elbe near its mouth and ending in Kiel Bay.

BAL´TIMORE, a city and port in Maryland, United States, finely situated on
the N. side of the Patapsco, 14 miles above Chesapeake Bay. Baltimore takes
its name from Lord Baltimore, the founder of Maryland; it was first laid
out as a town in 1729; and was erected into a city in 1797. It is well
built, chiefly of brick, and is known as the 'monumental city', from the
public monuments which adorn it, the principal being the Washington
monument. Among its buildings are the city hall, built in Renaissance
style, of white marble, with a tower and dome rising 240 feet; the Peabody
Institute, containing a library, art gallery, &c.; the Maryland Institute;
the custom-house; the post office; the United States court-house and jail,
the Johns Hopkins hospital, the Roman Catholic cathedral, &c. The chief
educational institution, now one of the most important in the States, is
the Johns Hopkins University, endowed with 3,500,000 dollars by its founder
(whose name it bears). There is a Roman Catholic archbishop with the rank
of primate, and a Protestant episcopal bishop. Industries: shipbuilding;
manufactures of iron, wool, cotton, pottery, &c.; sugar-refining,
distilling, tanning, the making of agricultural implements, canning oysters
and fruits, &c. As a flour market Baltimore is an important centre; and it
does an immense trade in exporting tobacco and other products. The harbour
is very extensive. Pop. (1920), 733,826.

BALTIMORE, George Calvert, Lord, born in Yorkshire about 1580, died in
London 1632. He was for some time Secretary of State to James I, but this
post he resigned in 1624 in consequence of having become a Roman Catholic.
Notwithstanding this he retained the confidence of the king, who in 1625
raised him to the Irish peerage, his title being from Baltimore, a
fishing-village of Cork. He had previously obtained a grant of land in
Newfoundland, but as this colony was much exposed to the attacks of the
French he left it, and obtained another patent for Maryland. He died before
the charter was completed, and it was granted to his son Cecil, who deputed
the governorship to his brother Leonard (1606-47).

BALTIMORE BIRD, an American bird, the _Ict[)e]rus Baltimorii_, family
Icteridæ, nearly allied to the Sturnidæ, or starlings. It is a migratory
bird, and is known also by the names of 'golden robin', 'hang-bird', and
'fire-bird'. It is about 7 inches long; the head and upper parts are black,
the under parts of a brilliant orange hue. It builds a pouch-like nest,
very skilfully constructed of threads deftly interwoven, suspended from a
forked branch and shaded by overhanging leaves. It feeds on insects,
caterpillars, beetles, &c. Its song is a clear, mellow whistle.

BALUCHISTAN (ba-lö´chi-stän), a country in Asia, the coast of which is
continuous with the north-western seaboard of India, bounded on the north
by Afghanistan, on the west by Persia, on the south by the Arabian Sea, and
on the east by Sindh. It has an area of about 135,000 sq. miles, and a
population estimated at 834,703. The general surface of the country is
rugged and mountainous, with some extensive intervals of barren sandy
deserts, and there is a general deficiency of water. Various kinds of grain
are cultivated, and there is abundance of excellent fruits. The main body
of the inhabitants are divided into two great branches, the Baluchis and
Brahuis, differing in language, figure, and manners. The Baluchi language
resembles the modern Persian, the Brahui presents points of agreement with
the Dravidian languages of India. The Baluchis in general have tall
figures, long visages, and prominent features; the Brahuis have shorter,
thicker bodies, with round faces and rather flat features. Both races are
Mahommedans, hospitable and brave. There are also many Afghans and others
in the country. The Khan of Khelat, the nominal ruler of the whole land, in
1877 concluded a treaty with Britain, in virtue of which he became a
feudatory of India. Since then Quetta, in the north-east, occupying an
important position, and certain portions of territory, have been absolutely
annexed, and in 1887 a separate administration was constituted, and British
authority established, under the Governor-General's agent. The area of
British Baluchistan, including tribal areas, is 54,228 sq. miles; pop.
414,412. The country nominally under the Khan of Khelat has an area of
72,280 sq. miles; pop. 359,086. Under British administration roads and
railways have been made, with telegraphs and a postal service. Wool,
fruits, &c., are exported, cottons and other goods imported, and there is a
fair transit trade.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Floyer, _Unexplored Baluchistan_; T.
Thornton, _Life of Sandeman_.

BAL´USTER, a small column or pilaster, of various forms and dimensions,
often adorned with mouldings, used for balustrades.

BALUSTRADE´, a range of balusters, together with the cornice or coping
which they support, used as a parapet for bridges or the roofs of
buildings, or as a mere ornament; also serving as a fence or enclosure for
balconies, terraces, staircases, &c.

BALUZE (b[.a]-lüz), Étienne, French historian and miscellaneous writer,
born 1630, died 1718. For more than thirty years he was librarian to M. de
Colbert, and was appointed professor of canon law in the Royal College, but
displeasing Louis XIV with his _Histoire Générale de la Maison d'Auvergne_,
he was thrown into prison and his property confiscated. He recovered his
liberty in 1713, but did not regain his position. He left some 1500 MSS. in
the national library of Paris, besides forty-five printed works, including
_Regum Francorum Capitularia_ (2 vols.) and _Miscellanea_ (7 vols.).

BALZAC (b[.a]l-z[.a]k), Honoré de, a celebrated French novelist, was born
at Tours in 1799, died 1850. Before completing his twenty-fourth year he
had published a number of novels under various assumed names, but the
success attending all was very indifferent; and it was not till 1829, by
the publication of _Le Dernier Chouan_, a tale of La Vendée, and the first
novel to which Balzac appended his name, that the attention of the public
was diverted to the extraordinary genius of the author. A still greater
popularity attended his _Physiologie de Mariage_, a work full of piquant
and caustic observations on human nature. He wrote a large number of
novels, all marked by a singular knowledge of human nature and distinct
delineation of character, but apt to be marred by exaggeration. Among his
best-known works are: _Scènes de la Vie de Province_, _Scènes de la Vie
Parisienne_, _Le Père Goriot_, _Eugénie Grandet_, and _Le Médecin de
Campagne_. The publication of this last, in 1835, led to a correspondence
between Balzac and the Countess Eveline de Hanska, a Polish lady whom,
after about fifteen years, he visited and married. A collected edition of
his works, under the title _La Comédie Humaine_, was published in 45 vols.,
Paris, 1856-9, and another in 1869. In 1899 appeared the first volume of
Balzac's _Oeuvres Posthumes_, and in 1906 the second.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F.
Wedmore, _Balzac_; M. F. Sandars, _Balzac_; W. H. Helm, _Aspects of
Balzac_; Taine, _Essay on Balzac_.

BALZAC (b[.a]l-z[.a]k), Jean Louis Guez de, French writer, born 1594, died
1654. His writings, which had a great reputation in their day owing to the
elegance of his style, are now neglected. The most esteemed are his
_Familiar Letters_, _Le Prince_, _Le Socrate Chrétien_, and _Aristippe_.

BAMAKO, capital of the French colony of Upper Senegal and Niger since 1904.
It is an important trade-centre and the terminus of the Niger-Senegal
railway. Pop. 8000.

BAMBA, a district of the Congo, W. coast of Africa, lying to the south of
the River Ambriz. It is thickly populated, and is rich in gold, silver,
copper, salt, &c.

BAMBAR´RA, a territory of Western Africa, on the Upper Niger, first visited
by Mungo Park, now in the French portion of the Sudan. The country is
generally very fertile, producing wheat, rice, maize, yams, &c. The
inhabitants are of negro or mixed race, and some are Mohammedans. Excellent
cotton cloth is made. The chief town is Segou. Pop. estimated at 2,000,000.
See _Senegal_.

BAM´BERG, a town of Germany, Bavaria, charmingly situated on several hills,
on the navigable River Regnitz, some 3 miles from its mouth in the Main. It
is the seat of a Catholic archbishop; the cathedral, founded in 1004 (the
present structure dates from 1111), is one of the finest churches in
Germany. The royal library contains 100,000 volumes and valuable MSS.
Bamberg carries on a large trade; its industries are cotton-spinning,
tobacco-manufacture, brewing, &c. Pop. 48,063.

BAMBINO (b[.a]m-b[=e]´n[=o]; It., an infant), the figure of our Saviour
represented as an infant in swaddling-clothes. The _Santissimo Bambino_ in
the church of Ara Coeli at Rome, a richly-decorated figure carved in wood,
is believed to be able to perform miracles and heal the sick. According to
popular belief, the painting was miraculously done by St. Luke or by an
angel. Bambinos are set up for the adoration of the faithful in many places
in Catholic countries.

BAMBOCCIADES (bam-boch-[=a]dz´), pictures, generally grotesque, of common,
rustic, or low life, such as those of Peter Van Laar, a Dutch painter of
the seventeenth century, who on account of his deformity was called
_Bamboccio_ (cripple). Teniers is the great master of this style.

[Illustration: Bamboo (_Bambusa arundinac[)e]a_)]

BAMBOO´, the common name of the arborescent grasses belonging to the genus
Bamb[=u]sa. There are many species, belonging to the warmer parts of Asia,
Africa, and America, and growing from a few feet to as much as 100 feet,
requiring much moisture to thrive properly. A peculiarity of the bamboo
family is that they flower on reaching a certain age, generally about 130
years. The best-known species is _B. arundinac[)e]a_, common in tropical
and sub-tropical regions. From the creeping underground rhizome, which is
long, thick, and jointed, spring several round jointed stalks, which send
out from their joints several shoots, the stalks also being armed at their
joints with one or two sharp rigid spines. The oval leaves, 8 or 9 inches
long, are placed on short footstalks. The flowers grow in large panicles
from the joints of the stalk. Some stems grow to 8 or 10 inches in
diameter, and are so hard and durable as to be used for building purposes.
The smaller stalks are used for walking-sticks, flutes, &c.; and indeed the
plant is used for innumerable purposes in the East Indies, China, and other
Eastern countries. Cottages are almost wholly made of it; also, bridges,
boxes, water-pipes, ladders, fences, bows and arrows, spears, baskets,
mats, paper, masts for boats, &c. The young shoots may be either pickled or
salted and eaten with rice, or candied and preserved in sugar; the seeds of
some species are also eaten. The substance called _tabasheer_ is a
siliceous deposit that gathers at the internodes of the stems. The bamboo
is imported into Europe for various purposes, and is grown in British
gardens.

BAMBOOK´, a country in Western Africa between the Falémé and Senegal
Rivers, about 140 miles in length, by 80 to 100 in breadth. It is on the
whole hilly and somewhat rugged. The valleys and plains are remarkably
fertile. The natives are Mandingoes, mostly professed Mahommedans ruled by
independent chieftains, most of whom acknowledge the supremacy of France.
Gold and ivory are exchanged for European goods.

BAMBOOK-BUTTER, shea-butter (q.v.).

BAM´BOROUGH CASTLE, an ancient English castle on the coast of
Northumberland, formerly with connected estate the property of the
Forsters, and forfeited to the Crown in 1715, both being purchased by Lord
Crewe, Bishop of Durham, and bequeathed by him for charitable purposes.

BAMBU´SA. See _Bamboo_.

BAM´IAN, a valley and pass of Afghanistan, the latter at an elevation of
8496 feet, the only known pass over the Hindu Kush for artillery and heavy
transport. The valley is one of the chief centres of Buddhist worship, and
contains two remarkable colossal statues and other ancient monuments.

BAMO. See _Bhamo_.

BAMPTON LECTURES, a course of lectures established in 1751 by John Bampton,
Canon of Salisbury, who bequeathed certain property to the University of
Oxford for the endowment of eight divinity lectures to be annually
delivered. The subjects prescribed are mainly connected with the evidences
of Christianity, and the lecturer must have taken the degree of M.A. at
Oxford or Cambridge. The first course of lectures was delivered in 1780,
and they have been delivered every year since, with the exceptions of 1834,
1835, and 1841. Among the more remarkable lectures were those by Dr. White
in 1784, by Dr. Mant in 1812, by Reginald Heber in 1815, Whately in 1822,
Milman in 1827, Dr. Hampden in 1832, H.L. Mansel in 1858, Canon Liddon in
1866, Canon Gore in 1891, J. R. Illingworth in 1894, and W. R. Inge in
1899. A similar course of lectures, the Hulsean, is annually delivered at
Cambridge.

BAN, in political law, is equivalent to excommunication in ecclesiastical.
In Teutonic history the _ban_ was an edict of interdiction or proscription:
thus, to put a prince under the ban of the empire was to divest him of his
dignities, and to interdict all intercourse and all offices of humanity
with the offender. Sometimes whole cities have been put under the _ban_,
that is, deprived of their rights and privileges.

BAN, anciently, a title given to the military chiefs who guarded the
eastern marches of Hungary; till 1919 the title of the Governor of Croatia
and Slavonia. A province over which a ban is placed is called _banat_, and
is equivalent to the German term _mark_. During the European War, Serbia
occupied the banat to the south of Hungary, and her claims to that region
were disputed both by Hungary and Roumania. The territory is bounded almost
entirely by the Danube, Theiss, and Maros Rivers, except on the east, where
it is shut in by the Transylvanian Carpathians. The banat was ultimately
divided between Yugo-Slavia and Roumania. See _Temesvar_.

[Illustration: Banana (_Musa sapientum_)]

BANA´NA, a plant of the genus Musa, nat. ord. Musaceæ, being _M.
sapientum_, while the plantain is _M. paradisi[)a]ca_. It is originally
indigenous to the East Indies, and an herbaceous plant with an underground
stem. The apparent stem, which is sometimes as high as 30 feet, is formed
of the closely-compacted sheaths of the leaves. The leaves are 6 to 10 feet
long and 1 or more broad, with a strong midrib, from which the veins are
given off at right angles; they are used for thatch, basket-making, &c.,
besides yielding a useful fibre. The spikes of the flowers grow nearly 4
feet long, in bunches, covered with purple-coloured bracts. The fruit is 4
to 10 or 12 inches long, and 1 inch or more in diameter; it grows in large
bunches, weighing often from 40 to 80 lb. The pulp is soft and of a
luscious taste; when ripe it is eaten raw or cooked. The banana is
cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries, and is the food of
millions. It is estimated that in Jamaica alone 40,000 acres are devoted to
its culture. Excellent biscuits may be made from banana meal, but it is not
suitable for bread. Vast quantities are imported by Britain and the United
States. Manila hemp is the product of a species of banana.

BANA´NA, an African port, in Belgian Congo, at the mouth of the Congo.

BANANA-BIRD, a pretty insessorial bird (_Ict[)e]rus leucopt[)e]ryx_), a
native of the West Indies and the warmer parts of America. It is a lively
bird, easily domesticated, tawny and black in colour, with white bars upon
the wings.

BANAT. See _Ban_.

BAN´BRIDGE, a town of Ireland, County Down, 22 miles S.W. of Belfast, on
the Bann. The manufacture of linen is carried on to a great extent in town
and neighbourhood. Pop. 5101.

BANBURY (ban'be-ri), a town of England, in Oxfordshire, long celebrated for
its cheese, its cakes, and its ale; a parliamentary borough till 1885, and
now giving name to a parliamentary division of the county. Pop. (municipal
borough) (1921), 13,347.

BANCA, an island belonging to the Dutch East Indies, between Sumatra and
Borneo; area, 4446 sq. miles; pop. 113,658, of which a considerable
proportion are Chinese. It is celebrated for its excellent tin, of which
the annual yield is above 6000 tons; but it produces nothing else of any
importance.

BANCO, in commerce, a term employed to designate the money in which the
banks of some countries keep or kept their accounts, in contradistinction
to the current money of the place, which might vary in value or consist of
light and foreign coins. The term was applied to the Hamburg bank accounts
before the adoption (in 1873) of the new German coinage. The mark _banco_
had a value of 1s. 5½d.; but there was no corresponding coin. See _Bank_.

BAN´CROFT, George, American historian, born near Worcester, Mass., 1800,
died 1891. He was educated at Harvard and in Germany, where he made the
acquaintance of many literary men of note. In 1823 he published a
translation of Heeren's _Politics of Ancient Greece_, and a small volume of
poems, and was also meditating and collecting materials for a history of
the United States. Between 1834 and 1840 three volumes of his history were
published. In 1845 he was appointed Secretary of the Navy, and effected
many reforms and improvements in that department. He was American
ambassador to Britain from 1846 to 1849, when the University of Oxford
conferred on him the honorary degree of D.C.L. He took the opportunity
while in Europe to perfect his collections on American history. He returned
to New York in 1849, and began to prepare for the press the fourth and
fifth volumes of his history, which appeared in 1852. The sixth appeared in
1854, the seventh in 1858, the eighth soon after, but the ninth did not
appear till 1866. From 1867 to 1874 he was Minister Plenipotentiary at the
Court of Berlin. The tenth and last volume of his great work appeared in
1874. An additional section appeared first as a separate work in 1882:
_History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States_, and
the whole came out in 6 vols. in 1884-5. He has also published many essays
in the _North American Review_ and other periodicals, a selection from
which was published in 1855 under the title of _Miscellanies_.

BAN´CROFT, Richard, born in Lancashire 1544, died 1610, studied at
Cambridge, entered the Church, and rose rapidly during the reign of
Elizabeth till he obtained the see of London in 1597. James I made him
Archbishop of Canterbury on the death of Whitgift. He suppressed the
Puritans mercilessly, and they in return never ceased to abuse him.

BAN´CROFT, Sir Squire, English actor, born in London in 1841. After playing
in Dublin and elsewhere he made his first appearance in London, at the
Prince of Wales's Theatre, in 1865. He married Miss Marie Effie Wilton in
1867, and was knighted in 1897. In collaboration with his wife he has
written _The Bancrofts: Recollections of Sixty Years_ (1909).

BANDA, a town and district of India, in the United Provinces. The town
stands on a plain on the right bank of the Ken River, 95 miles S.W. from
Allahabad, and is a considerable cotton mart. Pop. 22,000.--Area of
district 2965 sq. miles. Pop. 660,000.

BANDA ISLANDS, a group belonging to Holland, Indian Archipelago, south of
Ceram, Great Banda, the largest, being 12 miles long by 2 broad. They are
beautiful islands, of volcanic origin, yielding quantities of nutmeg.
Goenong Api, or Fire Mountain, is a cone-shaped volcano which rises 2320
feet above the sea. Pop. 10,000.

BANDAJAN´, a pass over a range of the Himálaya, Kashmir State, 14,854 feet
above sea-level.

BANDAN´NA, a variety of silk handkerchief having a uniformly-dyed ground,
usually of bright red or blue, ornamented with white or yellow circular,
lozenge-shaped, or other simple figures produced by discharging the
groundcolour.

BANDA ORIENTAL. See _Uruguay_.

BANDEL´LO, Matteo, an Italian writer of _novelle_ or tales, born about
1480, died about 1562. He was, in his youth, a Dominican monk, and having
been banished from Italy as a partisan of the French, Henry II of France
gave him in 1550 the bishopric of Agen. He left the administration of his
diocese to the Bishop of Grasse, and employed himself, at the advanced age
of seventy, in the completion of his _novelle_. He also wrote poetry, but
his fame rests on his _novelle_, which are in the style of Boccaccio's
_Decameron_ and the Queen of Navarre's _Heptameron_, and have been made use
of by Shakespeare, Massinger, and Beaumont and Fletcher.

BANDE NOIRE. See _French Revolution_.

BAND-FISH, the popular name of fishes of the genus Cep[)o]la, from their
long, flat, thin bodies. _C. rubescens_, a very fragile creature, is
sometimes cast up on British shores. Also called _Snake-fish_,
_Ribbon-fish_.

[Illustration: Pig-footed Bandicoot (_Chæropus castanotis_)]

BAN´DICOOT (Perameles), a genus of small Australian marsupials. The most
common species (_P. nasuta_), the long-nosed bandicoot, measures about 1½
feet from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail. It is not unlike an
overgrown rat, and is most destructive to farm-produce.

BAN´DICOOT RAT, the _Mus gigant[=e]us_, the largest known species of rat,
attaining the weight of 2 or 3 lb., and the length, including the tail, of
24 to 30 inches. It is a native of India, and is very abundant in Ceylon.
Its flesh is said to be delicate and to resemble young pork, and is a
favourite article of diet with the coolies. It is destructive upon
rice-fields and gardens.

BANDINELLI, Baccio, Italian sculptor, born at Florence 1493, died there
1560. He was jealous of and strove to rival Michael Angelo. Among his works
are a _Hercules and Cacus_, _The Dead Body of Christ held up by an Angel_,
_Adam and Eve_, &c.

BAN´DIT, It. _bandito_, originally an _exile_, banished man, or outlaw, and
hence, as persons outlawed frequently adopted the profession of brigand or
highwayman, the word came to be synonymous with brigand, and is now applied
to members of the organized gangs which infest some districts of Italy,
Sicily, Spain, Greece, and Turkey.

BAND OF HOPE. See _Temperance_.

BAN´DOLIER, a large leathern belt or baldrick, to which were attached a bag
for balls and a number of pipes or cases of wood or metal covered with
leather, each containing a charge of gunpowder. It was worn by ancient
musketeers, and hung from the left shoulder under the right arm with the
ball bag at the lower extremity, and the pipes suspended on either side.
The name is now given to a similar belt, worn by mounted troops, for
carrying cartridges. Another form of the word is _bandoleer_.

BAN´DOLINE, a gummy perfumed substance used to impart gloss and stiffness
to the hair.

BAN´DON, a town, Ireland, County Cork, on both sides of the Bandon. Pop.
3122.

BANDS, a small article of clerical dress, made of linen, going round the
neck and hanging down in front for a short distance in two pieces with
square ends, supposed to be a relic of the amice.

BANEBERRY, or HERB CHRISTOPHER (_Actæa spic[=a]ta_), a European plant, ord.
Ranunculaceæ, local in England, with a spike of white flowers and black,
poisonous berries. Two American species are considered remedies for
rattlesnake bite.

BANÉR (b[.a]-n[=a]r´), Johan Gustafsson, a Swedish general in the Thirty
Years' War, born 1596, died 1641. He made his first campaigns in Poland and
Russia, and accompanied Gustavus Adolphus, who held him in high esteem, to
Germany. After the death of Gustavus in 1632 he had the chief command of
the Swedish army, and in 1634 invaded Bohemia, defeated the Saxons at
Wittstock, 24th Sept., 1636, and took Torgau. He ravaged Saxony again in
1639, gained another victory at Chemnitz, and in 1640 defeated Piccolomini.
In Jan., 1641, he very nearly took Ratisbon by surprise.

BANFF (bamf), county town of Banffshire, Scotland, a seaport on the Moray
Firth at the mouth of the Deveron. It is well built, carries on some
boat-building, and has ropeworks, a brewery, &c., fishing and shipping.
Near the town are the county lunatic asylum, and Duff House, a seat of the
Duke of Fife, now public property; on the east side of the Deveron is the
town of Macduff, where an extensive fishing trade is carried on. Banff is
one of the Elgin burghs, which together return a member to Parliament. Pop.
3517.--The county has an area of 403,053 acres. In the south it is
mountainous; but the northern part is comparatively low and fertile;
principal rivers, the Spey and Deveron; principal mountains, Cairngorm
(4095 feet) and Ben Macdhui (4296 feet), on its southern boundary. Little
wheat is raised, the principal crops being barley, oats, turnips, and
potatoes. Fishing is an important industry; as is also the distilling of
whisky. Serpentine abounds in several places, especially at Portsoy, where
it is known as 'Portsoy marble', and Scotch topazes or cairngorm stones are
found on the mountains in the south. Banffshire returns one member to
Parliament. Pop. (1921), 57,293.

BANFF, a town of N. W. Canada, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, on the
Canadian Pacific Railway, with National Park, hot springs, coal-mines, &c.

BANG. See _Bhang_.

BANGALORE´, a town of Hindustan, capital of Mysore, and giving its name to
a considerable district in the east of Mysore State. The town stands on a
healthy plateau 3000 feet above sea-level, has a total area of nearly 14
sq. miles, and is one of the pleasantest British stations in India. In the
old town stands the fort, reconstructed by Hyder Ali in 1761, and taken by
Lord Cornwallis in 1791. Under English administration the town has greatly
prospered in recent times. There are manufactures of silks, cotton cloth,
carpets, gold and silver lace, &c. Pop. 189,485.--The Bangalore district
has an area of 3070 sq. miles, of which more than half represent cultivable
land. Pop. about 760,000.

BANGKOK´, or BANKOK, the capital of the kingdom of Siam, extending for
several miles on both sides of the Menam, which falls into the Gulf of Siam
about 15 miles below. The inner city occupies an island surrounded with
walls and bastions, and contains the palace of the king and other important
buildings. The dwellings of the common people are of wood or bamboo, often
raised on piles; a large portion of the population, however, dwell in boats
or wooden houses erected on bamboo rafts moored in the river, and forming a
floating town. Temples are numerous and lavishly decorated. Houses in the
European style have been erected in modern times, and the telegraph,
telephone, gas, fire-engines, and omnibuses introduced. A university with
eight faculties has recently been established. The trade, both inland and
foreign, is very extensive, the exports consisting chiefly of rice, sugar,
silk, cotton, tobacco, pepper, sesame, ivory, aromatic wood, cabinet woods,
tin, hides, &c.; and the imports consisting chiefly of British cotton,
woollen, and other goods. Pop. 628,675, of whom about a half are Chinese.
See _Siam_.

BAN´GOR, a city of North Wales, in Carnarvonshire, picturesquely situated
near the northern entrance of the Menai Strait. It appears to have
possessed a cathedral in the sixth century, which was destroyed by the
Normans in 1071. The present cathedral--the third--only dates from the
reign of Henry VII. It has a college of the University of Wales (founded in
1903), and a Normal College. Bangor has risen into importance as a popular
resort; its principal trade is in the export of slates from the
neighbouring quarries. Pop. (1921), 11,032.

BAN´GOR, a seaport town, Ireland, County Down, on the south side of Belfast
Lough. Principal trade: cotton, linen, and embroideries. Pop. 7776.

BAN´GOR, a port of the United States, in Maine, on the W. side of Penobscot
River, a flourishing and pleasantly-situated town, and one of the largest
lumber depots in the world. The river is navigable to the town for vessels
of the largest size. Pop. (1920), 25,948.

BANGO´RIAN CONTROVERSY, a controversy stirred up by a sermon preached
before George I in 1717 by Dr. Hoadly, Bishop of Bangor, from the text "My
kingdom is not of this world" (_John_, xviii, 36), in which the bishop
contended in the most pronounced manner for the spiritual nature of
Christ's kingdom. The controversy was carried on with great heat for many
years, and resulted in an enormous collection of pamphlets.

BANGS´RING. See _Banxring_.

BANGWEO´LO, or BANGWEULU, LAKE, in South Africa, the southernmost of the
great lake reservoirs of the Congo, heard of in 1798, was reached by
Livingstone in 1868, an oval-shaped shallow sheet of water, said to be 150
miles in length along its greater axis, from east to west, and about 75
miles in width, but its exact limits are uncertain. It was first
circumnavigated by Poulett Weatherley in 1896. See _Congo_.

BAN´IAN, or BAN´YAN, an Indian trader or merchant, one engaged in commerce
generally, but more particularly one of the great traders of Western India,
as in the seaports of Bombay, Kurrachee, &c., who carry on a large trade by
means of caravans with the interior of Asia, and with Africa by vessels.
They form a class of the Vaisya caste, wear a peculiar dress, and are
strict in the observance of fasts and in abstaining from the use of flesh.
Hence, _Banian days_, days in which sailors in the navy had no flesh meat
served out to them. Banian days are now abolished, but the term is still
applied to days of poor fare.

BANIAN TREE. See _Banyan_.

BA´NIM, John, an Irish novelist, dramatist, and poet, born in 1798, died
1842. His chief early work was a poem, _The Celt's Paradise_ (1821). Having
settled in London, he made various contributions to magazines and to the
stage; but his fame rests on his novels, particularly the _O'Hara Tales_,
in which Irish life is admirably portrayed. In these, as in some of his
other publications, his brother, Michael Banim (born 1796, died 1874), had
an important share, if not an equal claim to praise. The two brothers have
been justly called 'the first national novelists of Ireland'.

BANISHMENT. See _Exile_.

BAN´JARMASSIN, a district and town in the south-east of Borneo, under the
government of the Dutch. The town is situated on an arm of the Banjar,
about 14 miles above its mouth, in a marshy locality, the houses being
built on piles, and many of them on rafts. Exports: pepper, benzoin,
bezoar, ratans, dragon's-blood, birds'-nests, &c.; imports: rice, salt,
sugar, opium, &c. Pop. 52,000, mostly Dyaks.

BAN´JO (a negro corruption of _bandore_; It. _pandora_, from Lat.
_pandura_, a three-stringed instrument), the favourite musical instrument
of the negroes of the Southern States of America. It is six-stringed, has a
body like a tambourine and a neck like a guitar, and is played by stopping
the strings with the fingers of the left hand and twitching or striking
them with the fingers of the right. The upper or octave string, however, is
never stopped. The banjo was introduced into England in 1846.

BANJOEMAS (b[.a]n´yö-m[.a]s), a town in Java, near the centre of the
island, well built and of commercial importance; it is 22 miles from the
coast, and is the residence of a Dutch governor. Pop. 6500.

BANKING AND BANKS. Banks are establishments for the deposit, custody, and
repayment on demand of money, and obtain the bulk of their profits from the
investment of sums thus derived and not in immediate demand. The term is a
derivative of the _banco_ or bench of the early Italian money-dealers,
being analogous in its origin to the terms _trapez[=i]tai_ (_trapeza_, a
bench or table) applied to the ancient Greek money-changers, and _mensarii_
(_mensa_, a table) applied to the public bankers of Rome.

In respect of constitution there is a broad division of banks into public
and private; public banks including such establishments as are under any
special state or municipal control or patronage, or whose capital is in the
form of stock or shares which are bought and sold in the open market;
private banks embracing those which are carried on by one or more
individuals without special authority or charter and under the laws
regulating ordinary trading companies. In respect of function three kinds
of banks may be discriminated: (1) banks of deposit merely, receiving and
returning money at the convenience of depositors; (2) banks of discount or
loan, borrowing money on deposit and lending it in the discount of
promissory notes, bills of exchange, and negotiable securities; (3) banks
of circulation or issue, which give currency to promissory notes of their
own, payable to bearer and serving as a medium of exchange within the
sphere of their banking operations. The more highly-organized banks
discharge all three functions, but all modern banks unite the two first.
For the successful working of a banking establishment certain resources
other than the deposits are of course necessary, and the capital paid up by
shareholders on their shares and forming the substantial portion of their
claim to public credit is held upon a different footing from the sums
received from depositors. It is usually considered that for sound banking
this capital should not be traded with for the purpose of making gain in
the same way as the moneys deposited in the bank; and it is for the most
part invested in Government or other securities subject to little
fluctuation in value and readily convertible into money. But in any case
prudence demands that a _reserve_ be kept sufficient to meet all probable
requirements of customers in event of commercial crises or minor panics.
The reserve of the banking department of the Bank of England is always in
coin, or in notes against which an equivalent value of coin and bullion is
lying in the issue department. In other English banks the reserve is
usually kept partly in gold and partly in Government stocks and Bank of
England notes; but it sometimes lies as a deposit in the Bank of England.
The working capital proper of a bank is constituted by moneys on deposit,
for which the bank may or may not pay interest; the advantages of security,
of ease in the transmission of payments, &c., being regarded in the cases
of banks little affected by competition as a sufficient return to the
depositor. Thus the Bank of England pays no interest on deposits, while the
contrary practice has prevailed in Scotland since 1729, where interest is
paid on deposits although not on current accounts.

Of the methods of making profit upon the money of depositors, one of the
most common is to advance it in the discounting of bills of exchange not
having long periods (seldom more than three months with the Bank of
England) to run; the banker receiving the amounts of the bills from the
acceptors when the bills arrive at maturity. Loans or advances are also
often made by bankers upon exchequer bills or other Government securities,
on railway debentures or the stock of public companies of various kinds, as
well as upon goods lying in public warehouses, the dock-warrant or
certificate of ownership being transferred to the banker in security. In
the case of a well-established credit they may be advanced upon notes of
hand without other security. Money is less commonly advanced by bankers
upon mortgages on land, in which the money loaned is almost invariably
locked up for a number of years. To banks of issue a further source of
profit is open in their note circulation, inasmuch as the bank is enabled
to lend these notes, or promises to pay, as if they were so much money and
to receive interest on the loan accordingly, as well as to make a
profitable use of the money or property that may be received in exchange
for its notes, so long as the latter remain in circulation. It is obvious,
however, that this interest on its loaned notes may not run over a very
extended period, in that the person to whom they are issued may at once
return them to the bank to lie there as a deposit and so may actually draw
interest on them from the bank of issue; or he may present them to be
exchanged for coin, or by putting them at once into circulation may ensure
a certain number speedily finding their way back through other hands or
other banks to the establishment from which he received them. A
considerable number of the notes issued will, however, be retained in
circulation at the convenience of the public as a medium of exchange; and
on this circulating portion a clear profit accrues. This rapid return of
notes through other banks, &c., in exchange for portions of the reserve of
the issuing bank, is one of the restraints upon an issue of notes in excess
of the ability of the bank to meet them. In the United Kingdom a more
obvious restraint upon an unlimited note issue, originating partly in a
desire for greater security, partly in the belief that the note
augmentation of the currency might lead to harmful economic results in its
influence upon prices, is to be found in the Bank Acts of 1844 and 1845,
which impose upon banks of issue the necessity of keeping an equivalent in
gold for all notes issued beyond a certain fixed amount. The wisdom of
these legal restrictions, which are not uniform throughout the kingdom, and
the desirability of the acquisition and control by the State of the whole
business of issue, are still matters of debate.

In specific relation to his customer the banker occupies the position of
debtor to creditor, holding money which the customer may demand at any time
in whole or in part by means of a cheque payable at sight on presentation
during banking hours. For the refusal to cash a cheque from the erroneous
supposition that he has no funds of his customer's in his hands, or for
misleading statements respecting the position in which the bank stands, the
banker is legally responsible. Moreover, the law regards him as bound to
know his customer's signature, and the loss falls upon him in event of his
cashing a forged cheque. In their relations to the community, the chief
services rendered by banks are the following: By receiving deposits of
money they are the means by which the surplus capital of one part of a
country is transferred to another where it may be advantageously employed
in stimulating industry; they enable vast and numerous money transactions
to be carried on without the intervention of coin or notes at all, thus
obviating trouble, risk, and expense. The mechanism by which the last of
these benefits is secured is to be found in perfection in the London
Clearing House.

The modern tendency of banks is towards amalgamation. The large English
banking institutions have absorbed many of the smaller banks. They have
also made working arrangements with Scotch and Irish banks and with similar
institutions abroad.

The result of these amalgamations is to give control of immense financial
resources to a smaller number of banks. In 1918 the Government appointed a
Committee to inquire into the effect of such amalgamations and absorptions.
The terms of reference were: "To consider and report to what extent, if at
all, amalgamations between banks may affect prejudicially the interests of
the industrial and mercantile community, and whether it is desirable that
legislation should be introduced to prohibit such amalgamations or to
provide safeguards under which they might continue to be permitted"; and
the Committee reported: "That legislation be passed requiring that the
prior approval of the Government must be obtained before any amalgamations
are announced or carried into effect".

In order, however, that such legislation may not have the effect of
producing secret amalgamations, the Committee decided that "all proposals
for agreements which would alter the status of a bank as regards its
separate entity and control, or for purchase by one bank of the shares of
another bank, be also submitted for the prior approval of the Government
before they are carried out".

Another development is the registration of the British Overseas Bank,
Limited, with a nominal capital of £5,000,000. The principal object of this
institution is to carry on general banking business in all parts of the
world. Four banks--two English, one Scotch, and one having connections with
South America--are financially interested in the Overseas Bank.

Banking operations on a considerable scale appear to have been conducted by
the ancients, and recent excavations have proved that in the seventh
century B.C. banking was practised at Bagdad by a firm of Egibi & Sons.
Modern banking, however, must be regarded as having had an independent
origin in the reviving civilization of the Middle Ages. In the twelfth
century almost the whole trade of Europe was in the hands of the Italian
cities, and it was in these that the need of bankers was first felt. The
earliest public bank, that of Venice, established in 1171 and existing down
to the dissolution of the Republic in 1797, was for some time a bank of
deposit only, the Government being responsible for the deposits, and the
whole capital being in effect a public loan. In the early periods of the
operations of this bank deposits could not be withdrawn, but the depositor
had a credit at the bank to the amount deposited, this credit being
transferable to another person in place of money payment. Subsequently
deposits were allowed to be withdrawn, the original system proving
inconvenient outside the Venetian boundaries. It is, however, less from the
Bank of Venice than from the Florentine bankers of the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries that modern banking specially dates, the magnitude of
their operations being indicated by the fact that between 1430 and 1433, 76
bankers of Florence issued on loan nearly 5,000,000 gold florins. The Bank
of St. George at Genoa also furnished a striking chapter in financial
history. The important Bank of Amsterdam, taken by Adam Smith as a type of
the older banks, was established in 1509, and owed its origin to the
fluctuation and uncertainty induced by the clipped and worn currency. The
object of the institution (established under guarantee of the city) was to
give a certain and unquestionable value to a bill on Amsterdam; and for
this purpose the various coins were received in deposit at the bank at
their real value in standard coin, less a small charge for recoinage and
expense of management. For the amount deposited a credit was opened on the
books of the bank, by the transfer of which payments could be made, this
so-called _bank money_ being of uniform value as representing money at the
mint standard. It bore, therefore, an _agio_ or premium above the worn-coin
currency, and it was legally compulsory to make all payments of 600
guilders and upwards in bank money. The deposits were supposed to remain in
the coffers of the bank, but they were secretly traded with in the
eighteenth century till the collapse of the bank in 1790. Banks of a
similar character were established at Nuremberg and other towns, the most
important being the Bank of Hamburg, founded in 1619. In England there was
no corresponding institution, the London merchants being in the habit of
lodging their money at the Mint in the Tower, until Charles I appropriated
the whole of it (£200,000) in 1640. Thenceforth they lodged it with the
goldsmiths, who began to do banking business in a small way, encouraging
deposits by allowing interest for their use, lending money for short
periods, discounting bills, &c. The bank-note was first invented and issued
in 1690 by the Bank of Stockholm, founded by Palmstruck in 1688, and one of
the most successful of banking establishments. About the same time the
banks of England and Scotland began to take shape, opening up a new era in
the financing of commerce and industry.

_Bank of England._--The Bank of England, the most important banking
establishment in the world, was projected by William Paterson, who was
afterwards the promoter of the disastrous Darien scheme. It was the first
public bank in the United Kingdom, and was chartered in 1694 by an Act
which, among other things, secured certain recompenses to such persons as
should advance the sum of £1,500,000 towards carrying on the war against
France. Subscribers to the loan became, under the Act, stockholders, to the
amount of their respective subscriptions, in the capital stock of a
corporation, denominated the _Governor and Company of the Bank of England_.
The company thus formed advanced to the Government £1,200,000 at an
interest of 8 per cent--the Government making an additional bonus or
allowance to the bank of £4000 annually for the management of this loan
(which, in fact, constituted the capital of the bank), and for settling the
interest and making transfers, &c., among the various stockholders. This
bank, like that of Venice, was thus originally an engine of the Government,
and not a mere commercial establishment. Its capital has been added to from
time to time, the original capital of £1,200,000 having increased to
£14,553,000 in 1816, since which no further augmentation has taken place.
There exists besides, however, a variable 'rest' of over £3,000,000. The
charter of the bank was originally granted for eleven years certain, or
till a year's notice after 1st Aug., 1705. It was subsequently renewed for
various periods in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1742, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1833, and
1844, certain conditions which the bank had to fulfil being specified at
each renewal. On this last occasion it was continued till twelve months'
notice from 1855. At the same time the issue department of the bank was
established as distinct from the general banking department, the sole
business entrusted to the former being the issue of notes. By this
arrangement the bank was authorized to issue notes to the value of
£14,000,000 upon securities specially set apart, the most important of the
securities being the sum of £11,015,100 due to the bank by the Government,
together with so much of the coin and bullion then held by the bank as was
not required by the banking department. The bank has since been permitted
to increase its issue on securities to £18,450,000, but for every note that
the issue department may issue beyond the total sum of £18,450,000 an
equivalent amount of coin or bullion must be paid into the coffers of the
bank. For its special privileges the bank has to pay to the Government an
annual sum of £180,000, and the profit derived from the issue of notes
beyond £14,000,000. The Bank of England notes are practically equivalent to
gold. They are (like all English bank-notes) of the value of £5 and
upwards, and are legal tender throughout England. Notes once issued by the
bank and returned to it are not reissued but are destroyed--a system
adopted in order to facilitate the keeping of an account of the numbers of
the notes in circulation, and so prevent forgery. On 7th Aug., 1914,
Government notes for £1, and ten shillings, were issued convertible into
gold at the Bank of England.

In compliance also with the Bank Charter Act of 1844 the bank is compelled
to publish a weekly account, of which the following is a specimen:--

   _Dr_.        ISSUE DEPARTMENT. Week ending 11th August, 1920     _Cr_.

  Notes issued           £139,980,460 | Government debt        £11,015,100
                                      | Other securities         7,434,900
                                      | Gold coin and bullion  121,530,460
                                      | Silver bullion              ---
                         ------------ |                       ------------
                         £139,980,460 |                       £139,980,460

   _Dr_.                      BANKING DEPARTMENT                    _Cr_.

  Capital                 £14,553,000 | Government securities   £68,250,449
  Rest                      3,458,795 | Other securities         73,805,565
  Public deposits          15,999,059 | Notes                    14,452,665
  Other deposits          124,018,988 | Gold and silver coin      1,537,092
  Seven-day and other          15,929 |
   bills                 ------------ |                        ------------
                         £158,045,771 |                        £158,045,771

The total of the notes given out by the issue department is called the
'issue circulation', the portion of it in the hands of the public being the
'active circulation', and that still in the banking department being the
'note reserve'. This 'note reserve' represents really the amount of bullion
in the issue department available for the use of the banking department. Of
the other items in the account it may be noted that the proprietors' 'rest'
is a varying surplus increased always by accumulated profits up to 5th
April and 10th Oct., when the bank dividends are paid to the shareholders;
and that the public deposits, which include sums lodged on account of the
customs, inland revenue, &c., increase through revenue receipts until the
dividend terms in January, April, July, and October. The other or private
deposits comprise those of bankers, merchants, and other persons. An
increase in these private deposits indicates an increase of monetary ease,
while a decrease informs us that bankers, merchants, and traders have calls
upon them for money. A better indication of the demand for money is
furnished, however, by the advances on commercial securities, and it is by
this and the condition of the reserve that the bank rate of discount is
regulated. When the reserve is high and the advances moderate the discount
rate is low, and it is raised according as the reserve falls and advances
are more in request, especially during an adverse foreign exchange and
drain of gold. Gold is thus restrained from going abroad, and its influx
into the country is encouraged. In addition to the profit which the bank
may make by ordinary banking business, by the Bank Act of 1892 and the
Revenue Act of 1906, it receives an allowance for the management of the
national debt, at the rate of £325 per million on 500 millions, and £100
per million on all debt above that sum. The annual sum is not to be less
than £160,000. It also derives a profit from foreign gold coin and bullion
brought to it, for which it pays £3, 17s. 9d., or 1½d. per ounce less than
the real value.

The management of the bank is in the hands of a governor, deputy-governor,
and twenty-four directors, elected by stock-holders who have held £500 of
stock for six months previous to the election. A director is required to
hold £2000, a deputy-governor £3000, and a governor £4000 of the stock. The
court or board of directors meets every Thursday, when the weekly account
is presented. The Bank of England has branches in Liverpool, Manchester,
Newcastle, Birmingham, Leeds, Hull, Bristol, Plymouth, and Portsmouth.

The other English banks consist of numerous joint-stock and private banks
in London and the provinces, many of the provincial establishments of both
kinds having the right to issue notes. Private banks in London with not
more than six partners have never been prevented from issuing notes, but
they could not profitably compete with the Bank of England. The maximum
issues of the provincial banks are limited to a certain amount, against
which they are not compelled to hold gold in reserve, and they have no
power to issue against specie in excess of the fixed circulation. Their
actual issues are considerably below this amount. No union can take place
between a joint-stock bank and a private bank, or between two joint-stock
banks of issue, without one of them losing its issue. Their total
authorized circulation is about £2,958,900, but the actual circulation of
these banks is now only about £1,200,000, being distributed among about
eighteen private and about twenty joint-stock banks. The notes of these
banks are payable in Bank of England paper. The greater number of
joint-stock banks are of limited liability, though their liability in
respect of their notes is unlimited. Some of them have a large number of
branches. All the joint-stock banks allow interest on money deposited with
them. The total paid-up capital and reserves of the English joint-stock
banks is about £100,000,000.

_Scotland_.--In Scotland there are no private banks, the only banks in that
portion of the United Kingdom being eight joint-stock banks of issue, and
their branches (the Mercantile and Savings not being banks of issue). By
the Act of 1845 new banks of issue were prohibited, a monopoly being given
to such establishments (nineteen in number) as existed in the year previous
to 1st May, 1845. At the same time the issue of each was limited to the
amount of its average circulation during that year, together with the
specie held at the head office. Any bank issuing notes in excess of this
limit is supposed to hold an equivalent amount of gold. The aggregate
authorized circulation is now £2,676,350; the average actual circulation is
fully £7,000,000. The Bank of Scotland, established by Act of Parliament in
1695, had for its original capital only £100,000, increased to £200,000 in
1744; but it now has a capital of £1,325,000 paid up. It remained the only
bank in Scotland till the Royal Bank of Scotland was established in 1727,
with an original capital of £151,000, which has grown to £2,000,000 paid
up. The British Linen Company was incorporated in 1746, for the purpose of
promoting the linen manufacture, but soon became a general banking company;
capital, £1,250,000 paid up. These three banks claim to be by their
charters banks of limited liability. All the other Scottish banks have been
established within the nineteenth century. They are all incorporated by
royal charter or Act of Parliament, which enables them to sue and be sued
as a corporation, and latterly they have all become banks of limited
liability, except that their liability is not to be limited in respect to
their note issue. The total paid-up capital of the Scotch banks is
£9,300,000. A large number of one-pound notes circulate in Scotland, thus
tending to keep the requirements for gold low. From allowing a moderate
rate of interest on deposit accounts (although not on current accounts) it
is not uncommon for depositors in Scottish banks to lodge their money
permanently as an investment; and the habit of keeping an account with a
banker is much more general in Scotland than in England, branch offices of
the banks being very numerous. Several of the Scotch banks have branch
offices in London, but of course they cannot issue their own notes from
these offices. The Scotch banks have enjoyed a high reputation for
stability, and though public confidence was somewhat shaken by the failure
of the Western Bank in 1857, and even more rudely by that of the City of
Glasgow Bank in 1878, their shares are generally looked upon as a safe and
remunerative investment. Their total deposits amount to fully £107,000,000.

_Ireland._--The banks in Ireland consist of one public or national bank,
the Bank of Ireland, and of sundry joint-stock and private banks. The
authorized note circulation is arranged on the same footing as that of the
Scotch banks. If any bank discontinues its issue and issues notes of the
Bank of Ireland, the circulation of the latter may be to an equal amount
increased. The authorized circulation is £6,354,494; the actual circulation
is sometimes a little above, sometimes a little below. The Bank of Ireland,
which was established by charter in 1783 with similar privileges to those
granted to the Bank of England, has lent the greater portion of its capital
to Government. Its capital is £2,769,230 (or £3,000,000 Irish); it has also
a rest or reserve of over £1,000,000. The bank allows interest on deposits
when lodged for a stated period.

_Banque de France._--The Bank of France is second in importance only to the
Bank of England. It was established in the beginning of the nineteenth
century, at first with a capital of 45,000,000 francs, and with the
exclusive privilege in Paris of issuing notes payable to bearer, a
privilege which was extended in 1848 to cover the whole of France. It has
numerous branches in the larger towns, a number of these having been
acquired in 1848, when certain joint-stock banks of issue were by
Government decree incorporated with the Bank of France, the capital of
which was then increased to 91,250,000 francs (£3,650,000), in 91,250
shares of 1000 francs each. In 1857 the capital was doubled, and besides
this it has a large surplus capital or rest. Like the Bank of England, it
is a bank of deposit, discount, and circulation, and is a large creditor of
the State. The Government appoints the governor and the two
deputy-governors, who are all required to be stockholders. There is also a
body of fifteen directors and three censors, nominated by the shareholders.
The value of its note circulation in March, 1922, was 36,225,852,000
francs.

_British Colonies._--With regard to the banks in British colonies little
need be said. All the more important are joint-stock concerns, and they are
carried on subject to Acts passed by the respective colonial legislatures.
Some of them have their head-quarters in London, and have been established
by English capital. In Canada the banks are not allowed to issue notes of
lower denominations than five dollars, notes for one and two dollars and
higher amounts being issued by the Dominion Government; and the banking
laws are such that there is no possibility of holders of bank-notes being
losers by them. The total paid-up capital of the Canadian banks is about
£20,000,000; their total deposits about £135,000,000.

_United States._--The more important of the banks of the United States are
what are called national banks, established in accordance with an Act
passed in 1863. Associations of this kind at starting must invest at least
a third of their paid-up capital in Government bonds, which pay them an
interest of 4 per cent more or less. They then obtain from the Government
bureau, established for the purpose, 90 per cent of paper-money sheets,
which they sign and pay out, this constituting their note circulation.
These banks pay no interest to depositors. Besides the notes of these banks
a large portion of the currency of the United States consists of Government
notes issued from the national treasury. There are also banks chartered by
the different States and private banks.

_Savings-banks_ are banks established for the receiving of small sums, so
as to be taken advantage of by the poorer classes, and they are carried on
entirely for the benefit of the depositors. They are of comparatively
recent origin, one of the earliest having been an institution in which
small sums were received, and interest allowed on them, established by Mrs.
Priscilla Wakefield, at Tottenham, near London, in 1803. The first
savings-bank in Scotland was formed in 1810 by the Rev. Henry Duncan, of
Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire. In 1814 the Edinburgh savings-bank was established
on the same principles, and the system soon spread over the kingdom. The
first Act relating to savings-banks was passed in 1817. By it all deposits
in savings-banks, as soon as they reached £50, were placed in the hands of
the National Debt Commissioners, who allowed interest on them. In 1824 it
was enacted that the deposits for the first year should not exceed £50, nor
those in subsequent years £30, the total deposits being limited to £150,
and interest ceasing to be paid when accrued interest made the total £200.
By the Act of 1893 the limit of annual deposit was raised to £50, and the
interest is now rather less than 3 per cent. An Act of 1833 had provided
for the purchase of Government annuities by depositors either for life or
for a term of years; and an annuity of any amount up to £100 may now be
obtained. Depositors in savings-banks (by an Act of 1880) can also have
their money invested for them in Government stock, the banks collecting and
paying the dividends; and when accrued interest raises an account above
£200 the excess is now so invested for the depositor. The total amount
invested by one person in Government stock is not to exceed £500, nor £200
in one year. These banks are managed by local trustees having no personal
interest in the business, and by certain paid officers. A new class of
savings-banks, namely, _Post Office Savings-banks_, was established in
Britain in connection with the money-order department of the Post Office in
1861. Any sum not less than a shilling is received, provided that the total
amount banked does not exceed £50 in one year, or more than £200 in all;
the excess of accrued interest above this being invested in Government
stock. Interest is paid on every complete pound at the rate of 2½ per cent.
For the deposits the Government is responsible, and they may be drawn from
any Post Office Savings-bank in the kingdom. These savings-banks have
become very numerous, and much of the funds formerly in the trustees'
savings-banks has been transferred to them. The total amount deposited in
the old banks is now about £52,000,000, in the new about £157,600,000. The
regulations regarding the purchase of Government stock and annuities
correspond with those given above. Savings-banks are now well known in all
civilized countries, and the good they have done is incalculable. In the
United States there is an enormous amount of money deposited in them. Post
Office Savings-banks have been proposed to be established in the States,
but have not yet been so. In Canada, Australia, and other British colonies
they are established, as well as savings-banks of several other kinds.
School savings-banks are the most recent institutions of this kind, and
have had a marked effect for good.

_Bank Holidays_, in England and Ireland, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Whit
Monday, first Monday in August, Christmas and following day, or 27th (if
next day is a Sunday); in Scotland, New-Year's Day, first Monday of May and
August and Christmas.

BANKRUPT (from It. _banca rotta_ 'bank broken' or 'bench broken'. Dr.
Johnson said that the word originated from the Italian custom of breaking
the bench of an insolvent money-changer; but _rotta_ also means
'interrupted' or 'stopped', and is here used more in the sense of our
colloquial word _broken_, and means 'insolvent'), a person whom the law
does or may take cognizance of as unable to pay his debts. Properly it is
of narrower signification than _insolvent_, an insolvent person simply
being unable to pay all his debts. In England up till 1861 the term
_bankrupt_ was limited to an insolvent trader, and such traders were on a
different footing from other insolvent persons, the latter not getting the
same legal relief from their debts. In all civilized communities laws have
been passed regarding bankruptcy. At present bankruptcy in England is
regulated by the Bankruptcy Acts of 1883 and 1890, which have as one chief
feature the intervention of the Board of Trade in the proceedings, with the
object of obtaining full official supervision and control. A bankruptcy
petition may be presented either by a creditor or a debtor. A creditor's
petition must be founded on a debt of not less than fifty pounds, due to
one or more creditors, and on an 'act of bankruptcy' committed by the
debtor within three months before the presentation of the petition. A
debtor commits an act of bankruptcy if he makes a conveyance of his
property to a trustee for the benefit of his creditors; if he makes a
fraudulent transfer of any part of his property; if, to defeat or delay his
creditors, he conceal himself either at home or abroad; if execution issued
against him has been enforced by seizure and sale of his goods under
process in an action in any court; if he files in court a declaration of
inability to pay his debts, or presents a bankruptcy petition against
himself; if a creditor has obtained a final judgment against him for any
amount and he fail to pay the judgment debt without satisfactory reason; or
if the debtor gives notice to any of his creditors that he has suspended,
or is about to suspend, payment of his debts. In London jurisdiction in
bankruptcy now rests with the High Court of Justice, while the county
courts continue to have jurisdiction in bankruptcy outside the London
district. When the court is satisfied as to the petition, a 'receiving
order' is issued to protect the debtor's estate by constituting the
official appointed by the Board of Trade receiver of the debtor's property,
and to stay the remedies of all creditors until the meeting of creditors.
The debtor must make out a full statement of his affairs, accounting as
best he can for his insolvency. The official receiver summons the meeting
of creditors, a summary of the debtor's affairs being sent to each creditor
with the notice of the meeting, which is also advertised in the _London
Gazette_. The creditors must send to the official receiver, one day before
the meeting, sworn proofs of their claims to enable them to vote. At the
meeting the creditors (unless the debtor's proposal for a composition or
scheme be entertained) pass a resolution adjudging the debtor bankrupt, and
appoint a trustee of the bankrupt's property, with a committee of
inspection selected from their own body to superintend the administration
of the bankrupt's property by the trustee, who divides the available
realized assets amongst all creditors who have sent sworn proofs of claims.
Rates, assessments, and taxes, and all wages or salary of a clerk, servant,
labourer, or workman during four months before the date of the receiving
order not exceeding £50 are paid in priority to all other debts. The
trustee is required to give satisfactory security to the Board of Trade, by
which his accounts are audited not less than twice in each year. All moneys
received by the trustee under the bankruptcy must be paid forthwith to an
account kept at the Bank of England by the Board of Trade, called the
'Bankruptcy Estates Account'. The debtor is bound to be publicly examined
upon oath in court, and any creditor who has tendered a proof, or his
representative, may take part in the examination. Until the debtor has
passed his public examination he cannot apply for an order of discharge,
and upon proof of misdemeanour the court refuses or suspends the discharge.
A discharged bankrupt is disqualified for five years from acting as member
of Parliament, justice of peace, alderman, overseer of the poor, county
councillor, or as a member of any school, highway, or burial board. An
undischarged bankrupt obtaining credit to the extent of £20 or upwards from
any person, without informing such person of his status, is guilty of a
misdemeanour. By the Act of 1883 the creditors may at the first meeting
resolve to entertain a proposal for a composition or scheme of arrangement
of the debtor's affairs, but the composition or scheme shall not be binding
on the creditors, unless confirmed at a second meeting by a majority in
number representing three-fourths in value of all the creditors who have
proved. The composition or scheme has then to be formally brought before
the court for approval, which may be refused. A composition or scheme may
be sanctioned by the court after the debtor's adjudication as a bankrupt,
and in this case the bankruptcy is annulled. Though imprisonment for debt
has been abolished, fraudulent bankrupts may be punished, and the conduct
of prosecutions for offences arising out of any bankruptcy proceeding falls
to the public prosecutor. The estates of persons dying insolvent may be
administered according to the law of bankruptcy. The Act of 1913 embodies
suggestions of the Bankruptcy Law Amendment Committee of 1906. Thus, the
Summary Jurisdiction Act can now be applied to offenders under the Debtors'
Act. Whereas previously conviction for such offences as failure to keep
proper accounts and concealment of debt could only be by trial before a
jury, they are punishable after summary trial before a stipendiary
magistrate or justice of the peace, the onus of proving innocence falling
on the debtor. A married woman, too, may be made bankrupt even if not
trading separately from her husband.

According to Scots law bankruptcy is notorious insolvency, that is, a
public acknowledgment of inability to discharge obligations. By a judicial
proceeding, called _sequestration_, authorized by the Court of Session or
sheriff court, on the petition of the debtor himself with the concurrence
of one creditor swearing to a debt of £50, two whose debts together amount
to £70, or of any number of creditors whose debts together amount to £100;
or on the petition of a creditor or creditors to the foregoing extent
without the concurrence of the debtor, if he has clearly shown himself to
be insolvent (or a _notour bankrupt_), the whole estates and effects of the
debtor, real and personal, are legally taken for behoof of the creditors.
The debtor's estate is then made over to a trustee chosen by the creditors,
the trustee being charged to bring the whole estate into the form of money,
with certain precautions, and to receive, investigate, and reject or admit
the claims of the creditors, subject to review of the Court of Session or
sheriff court by summary petition. The debtor, and all who can give
information as to the estate, must submit to public examination on oath
before the sheriff of the county, and the debtor may thereafter, or by
petition after six, twelve, or eighteen months from sequestration, be
discharged of all debts by the court with consent of the creditors or a
number of them, or at the expiry of two years without consent. These
proceedings may be partly superseded by 'composition' if such be assented
to by a majority in number and nine-tenths in value of creditors, or by a
majority in number and four-fifths in value of the creditors, according to
the period at which such arrangement may be proposed. They may also be
terminated by a deed of arrangement entered into between the bankrupt and a
majority in number and four-fifths in value of his creditors, approved of
by the court. Before a discharge is given there must be a report from the
trustee as to the conduct of the bankrupt, whether he has complied with the
provisions of the Act, whether his bankruptcy is culpable or not, &c.
Before the abolition of imprisonment for ordinary civil debts by Act passed
in 1880, an insolvent debtor often took advantage of a form of process by
which, on making a complete _cessio bonorum_, or surrender to his creditors
of all his property, he might obtain protection from imprisonment. Though
no person can now be imprisoned for ordinary debts, a creditor of a
_notour_ bankrupt may present a petition to the sheriff, praying him to
decern that the debtor assign over all his goods for behoof of his
creditors and that a trustee be appointed; and this proceeding is still
designated a process of _cessio bonorum_. The Act of 1880 also provides for
the better punishment of fraudulent debtors in Scotland. If the debtor's
liabilities exceed £200, the sheriff may award _sequestration_ of the
debtor's estate instead of _cessio bonorum_. There is no appeal from the
sheriff's decision with respect to discharge.

In Ireland there is a special code of bankruptcy contained in special Acts,
differing to some extent from the regulations prevailing both in England
and Scotland. Thus in Ireland it is not an offence for an undischarged
bankrupt to obtain credit to any amount without disclosing the fact of his
bankruptcy. All bankruptcy business comes before the court at Dublin,
Belfast, or Cork. Imprisonment for debt was abolished in 1872.

Official returns in Great Britain show a tendency towards a smaller number
of failures, but a larger amount of money is involved.

In the different British colonies the laws regulating bankruptcy naturally
differ, and the same is the case with the individual States of the American
Union, though Congress has the power of legislating for the whole country
in regard to this, and has oftener than once done so.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H.
Goudy, _Treatise of the Law of Bankruptcy in Scotland_; Sir R. H. J.
Palgrave, _Dictionary of Political Economy_; E. T. Baldwin, _The Law of
Bankruptcy and Bills of Sale_; Sir R. L. V. Williams, _The Law and Practice
of Bankruptcy_; R. Ringwood, _The Principles of Bankruptcy_.

BANKS, Sir Joseph, Baronet, a distinguished naturalist, born in London
1743. After studying at Harrow and Eton he went to Oxford in 1760, and
formed there amongst his fellow-undergraduates a voluntary class in botany,
&c. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1766, and soon after went
to Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay to collect plants. In 1768, with Dr.
Solander, a Swedish gentleman, pupil of Linnæus, and then assistant
librarian at the British Museum, he accompanied Cook's expedition as
naturalist. In 1772 he visited Iceland along with Dr. Solander, and during
this voyage the Hebrides were examined, and the columnar formation of the
rocks of Staffa first made known to geologists. In 1777 Banks was chosen
President of the Royal Society, and in 1781 was made a baronet, and in 1795
received the Order of the Bath. He wrote only essays, papers for learned
societies, and short treatises. He died in 1820, and bequeathed his
collections to the British Museum.

BANKS, Thomas, an English sculptor, born in 1735, died in 1805. He studied
sculpture in the Royal Academy, where he obtained the gold medal for a
bas-relief of the _Rape of Proserpine_. In 1772 he went to Italy, where he
executed several excellent pieces, particularly _Cupid tormenting a
Butterfly_, which was afterwards purchased by the Empress Catherine. On
leaving Italy he spent two unsatisfactory years in Russia, and then
returned to England, where he was soon after made an Academician. One of
his best-known works is _Shakespeare attended by Painting and Poetry_.
Among his other works was a colossal statue--_Achilles mourning the loss of
Briseis_--in the hall of the British Institution, and the monument of Sir
Eyre Coote in Westminster Abbey. His bust of Warren Hastings is in the
National Gallery.

BANK´SIA (named after Sir Joseph Banks), a genus of Australian shrubs and
trees, order Proteaceæ, with leathery leaves generally dark-green on the
upper surface and pale below, often cultivated in conservatories for their
peculiar foliage and flowers. They are named "honeysuckles" by the
colonists, from the honey the flowers contain.

BANKS´RING. See _Banxring_.

BANKURA´, a town of Bengal, on the Dhalkisor River, healthy and with a
considerable trade Pop. 21,000.

BANN, Upper and Lower, two rivers in the N. of Ireland, the former rising
in the mountains of Mourne, County Down, and, after flowing 38 miles in a
northerly direction, falling into Lough Neagh, the latter being the outlet
of Lough Neagh, and falling into the Atlantic Ocean 4 miles below
Coleraine, after a course of nearly 40 miles.

BAN´NATYNE CLUB, a literary society instituted in Edinburgh (1823) by Sir
Walter Scott (its first president), David Laing (secretary till its
dissolution in 1861), Archibald Constable, and Thomas Thomson. It started
with thirty-one members, subsequently extended to 100, having as its object
the printing of rare works on Scottish history, literature, geography, &c.
It derived its name from George Bannatyne (1545-1609), the collector of the
famous MS. of early Scottish poetry.

BAN´NERET, formerly, in England, a knight made on the field of battle as a
reward for bravery, with the ceremony of cutting off the point of his
pennon and making it a banner. The first banneret in England was made by
King Edward I, and the last (John Smith) by Charles I after the battle of
Edgehill in 1642.

BAN´NOCK, a cake made of oatmeal, barley-meal, or peasemeal baked on an
iron plate or griddle over the fire. From a supposed resemblance the turbot
is sometimes called in Scotland the _Bannock-fluke_.

BANNOCKBURN, a village of Scotland, in Stirlingshire, 2 miles S.E.
Stirling, famous for the decisive battle in which King Robert Bruce of
Scotland defeated Edward II of England, on the 24th June, 1314. It has
manufactures of woollens, such as tartans, carpets, &c.; pop. 4103.

BANNS OF MARRIAGE, public notice of the intended celebration of a marriage
given either by proclamation, viva voce, by a clergyman, session-clerk, or
precentor in some religious assembly, or by posting up written notice in
some public place. Dissent of parents or guardians renders null and void
the publication of the banns of minors. In France the banns must be
published on two distinct Sundays, and the marriage cannot take place until
three days after the second publication. In America the practice is
confined to the Roman Catholics, although it is still recognized in the
statutes of some of the States.

BANNU, a district in the north-west of Hindustan, traversed by the Indus;
area, 3847 sq. miles; pop. 390,000, nearly half being Afghans.

BANQUETTE (bang-ket´) in fortification, the elevation of earth behind a
parapet, on which the garrison or defenders may stand. The height of the
parapet above the banquette is usually about 4 feet 6 inches; the breadth
of the banquette from 2½ or 3 feet to 4 or 6 feet, according to the number
of ranks to occupy it. It is frequently made double, that is, a second is
made still lower.

BANSHEE´, or BENSHI´, a fairy woman believed in Ireland and some parts of
Scotland to attach herself to a particular house, and to appear or make her
presence known by wailing before the death of one of the family.

BAN´TAM, a residency occupying the whole of the W. end of the Island of
Java. It formed an independent kingdom, governed by its own sultan, till
1683, and the Dutch exercised suzerainty with brief intermission until its
formal incorporation by them at the beginning of last century. It produces
rice, coffee, sugar, cinnamon, &c. Serang is its capital. The town Bantam
was the first Dutch settlement in Java (1595), and for some time their
principal mart, though now not so prosperous.

BAN´TAM FOWL, a small but spirited breed of domestic fowl, first brought
from the East Indies, supposed to derive its name from Bantam in Java. Most
of the sub-varieties have feathered legs; but these are not to be
preferred. In point of colour the black and nankeen varieties are the best.
A well-bred bantam does not weigh more than a pound.

BANTENG´ (_Bos Banteng_ or _Sondaicus_), a wild species of ox, native of
Java and Borneo, having a black body, slender white legs, short sleek hair,
sharp muzzle, and the back humped behind the neck.

BANTING SYSTEM, a course of diet for reducing superfluous fat, adopted and
recommended in 1863 by W. Banting of London. The dietary recommended was
the use of butcher-meat principally, and abstinence from beer, farinaceous
food, and vegetables. See _Corpulence_.

BAN´TRY, a seaport near the head of Bantry Bay, County Cork, Ireland. Pop.
3159.--The _bay_, one of three large inlets at the S.W. extremity of
Ireland, affords an unsurpassed anchorage, and is about 25 miles long by 4
to 6 broad, and from 10 to 40 fathoms deep, with no dangerous rocks or
shoals.

BANTU (bän-tö´), the ethnological name of a group of African races below
about 6° N. latitude, and including the Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, the
tribes of the Loango, Congo, &c., but not the Hottentots.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Deniker, _Races of Man_; J. Roscoe, _The Northern Bantu_.

BANU. See _Bannu_.

BANX´RING (genus Tapaia), a quadruped belonging to the Insectivora,
inhabiting the Indian Archipelago, bearing some resemblance externally to a
squirrel, but having a long pointed snout.

[Illustration: Banyan (_Ficus benghalensis_)]

BAN´YAN (_Ficus benghalensis_), a tree of India, of the fig genus. The most
peculiar feature of this tree is its method of throwing out from the
horizontal branches supports which take root as soon as they reach the
ground, enlarge into trunks, and, extending branches in their turn, soon
cover a prodigious extent of ground. A celebrated banyan tree has been
known to shelter 7000 men beneath its shade. The wood is soft and porous,
and from its white glutinous juice bird-lime is sometimes prepared. Both
juice and bark are regarded by the Hindus as valuable medicines, and the
tree itself is sacred. The banyan tree is described by Southey in his poem
_The Curse of Kehama_.

[Illustration: Baobab or Monkey-bread Tree (_Adansonia digitata_)]

BA´OBAB (_Adansonia digit[=a]ta_) or MONKEY-BREAD TREE, a tree belonging to
the nat. ord. (or sub-ord.) Bombaceæ, and the best-known species of its
genus, which was named after the naturalist Adanson. Though not tall, it is
one of the bulkiest of trees, its trunk sometimes measuring 30 feet in
diameter, and as the profusion of leaves and drooping boughs sometimes
almost hides the stem, the whole forms a hemispherical mass of verdure 140
to 150 feet in diameter and 60 to 70 feet high. It is a native of the
African savannahs, and is cultivated in many of the warmer parts of the
world. The roots are of extraordinary length, a tree 77 feet in girth
having a tap-root 110 feet in length. The leaves are deep green, divided
into five unequal parts lanceolate in shape, and radiating from a common
centre. The flowers resemble the white poppy, having snowy petals and
violet-coloured stamens; and the fruit, which is large and of an oblong
shape, is said to taste like gingerbread, with a pleasant acid flavour. The
wood is pale-coloured, light, and contains a large store of water, which
enables the tree to withstand prolonged drought. The tree is liable to be
attacked by a fungus which, growing in the woody part, renders it soft and
pithlike. By the negroes of the west coast these trunks are hollowed into
chambers, and dead bodies are suspended in them. There they become
perfectly dry and well preserved, without further preparation or embalming.
The baobab is emollient and mucilaginous; the pulverized leaves constitute
_lalo_, which the natives mix with their daily food.

BAPAUME, a French town in the department of Pas-de-Calais. It has been the
scene of several battles. In 1793 the French were compelled by the allied
troops to abandon the place, and in the Franco-German war one of the most
closely-contested battles was fought there on 3rd Jan., 1871. Bapaume,
occupied by the Germans in the European War, was recaptured by British
troops on 29th Aug., 1918, the great battle of Bapaume having begun on 21st
Aug. Pop. (1911) 2917.

BAPH´OMET, the imaginary idol or symbol which the Templars were accused of
employing in their mysterious rites, and of which little is known. The word
is supposed to be a corruption of Mahomet, to whose faith the Templars were
accused of having a leaning. See _Gnosticism_.

BAPTISM (from the Gr. _baptiz[=o]_, from _bapt[=o]_, to immerse or dip), a
rite which is generally thought to have been usual with the Jews even
before Christ, being administered to proselytes. All that can be said,
however, with some certainty is that the Jewish baptism was not of later
origin than the Christian baptism. Anyhow, from this baptism that of St.
John the Baptist differed, because he baptized Jews also as a symbol of the
necessity of perfect purification from sin. Christ himself never baptized,
but directed his disciples to administer this rite to converts (_Mat._
xxviii, 19); and baptism, therefore, became a religious ceremony among
Christians, taking rank as a sacrament with all sects which acknowledge
sacraments. It should, however, be borne in mind that among many peoples a
rite is found which has considerable likeness to Christian baptism. In the
primitive Church the person to be baptized was dipped in a river or in a
vessel, with the words which Christ had ordered, generally adopting a new
name further to express the change. Sprinkling, or, as it was termed,
_clinic_ baptism, was used only in the case of the sick who could not leave
their beds. The Greek Church and Eastern schismatics retained the custom of
immersion; but the Western Church adopted or allowed the mode of baptism by
pouring or sprinkling, since continued by most Protestants. This practice
can be traced back certainly to the third century, before which its
existence is disputed. Since the Reformation there have been various
Protestant sects called Baptists, holding that baptism should be
administered only by immersion, and to those who can make a personal
profession of faith. The Montanists in Africa baptized even the dead, and
in Roman Catholic countries the practice of baptizing church bells--a
custom of tenth-century origin--continues to this day. Being an initiatory
rite, baptism is only administered once to the same person. The Roman and
Greek Catholics consecrate the water of baptism, but Protestants do not.
The act of baptism is accompanied only with the formula that the person is
baptized in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; but, among most
Christians, it is preceded by a confession of faith made by the person to
be baptized if an adult, and by his parents or sponsors if he be a child.
The Roman Catholic form of baptism is far more elaborate than the
Protestant. This Church teaches that all persons not baptized are damned,
and that even unbaptized infants are not admitted into Heaven; but for
those whose chief fault was that they had not been baptized, even St.
Augustine himself believed in a species of mitigated damnation. Protestants
hold that though the neglect of the sacrament is a sin, yet the saving new
birth may be found without the performance of the rite which symbolizes it.
Naming the person baptized forms no essential part of the ceremony, but has
become almost universal, probably from the ancient custom of renaming the
catechumen.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_ (vol. ii); S.
Baring-Gould, _Origin and Development of Religious Belief_; J. E. Hanaver,
_Baptism, Jewish and Christian_; Harnack, _History of Dogma_; article
_Baptism_ in _Encyclopedia of Ethics and Religion_; Corblet, _Histoire du
Sacrément du Baptême_; P. Mauro, _Baptism: its place and importance in
Christianity_.

[Illustration: Baptistery of S. Giovanni in Laterano, Rome]

BAP´TISTERY, a building or a portion of a building in which is administered
the rite of baptism. In the early Christian Church the baptistery was
distinct from the basilica or church, but was situated near its west end,
and was generally circular or octagonal in form, and dome-roofed. About the
end of the sixth century the baptistery began to be absorbed into the
church, the font being placed within and not far from the western door.
Some detached baptisteries still remain in use, as those of the Lateran,
Rome (the earliest in existence), at Pisa, Parma, Ravenna, Aquileia, Siena,
Florence, &c., that of Florence being 108 feet in diameter externally, and
richly decorated. Baptisteries were dedicated to St. John the Baptist.

BAP´TISTS, a Protestant sect, distinguished by their opinions respecting
the mode and subjects of baptism. With regard to the mode, they maintain
the necessity of immersion, and with regard to the subjects, they consider
that baptism ought not to be administered to children at all, nor to adults
in general, but to those only who profess repentance and faith. They are
sometimes called _Anti-pædobaptists_, to express their variance from those
who defend infant baptism, and who are called _Pædobaptists_. Apart from
the special sect of that name, Baptists are to be found equally among
Calvinists and Arminians, Trinitarians and Unitarians. The Baptists as a
whole adopt the Independent or Congregational form of church government,
and their ecclesiastical assemblies are held for the purpose of mutual
stimulus and intercourse, and not for the general government of the body,
or for interference with individual churches. The Particular Baptists of
England (so called from believing that Christ died only for the elect), the
Baptists of Scotland and Ireland, the Associated Baptists of America, and
some of the Seventh-day Baptists, are Calvinistic. The other classes, such
as the General Baptists (who believe that Christ died for all), are
Arminian, or at least not Calvinistic. Most Baptists profess to be
Trinitarians. The Free-will Baptists, the Christian Society, and most of
the General Baptists of England admit of open communion; the other bodies
decline communion with any Christians but Baptists. The Associated or
Calvinistic Baptists long ranked in the United States as the most numerous
denomination of Christians. The Seventh-day Baptists, or Sabbatarians,
observe the seventh day of the week. The Free-will Baptists profess the
doctrine of free salvation. The Anabaptists of the Reformation period are
not to be confounded with the Baptists, by whom their principles were
expressly disclaimed. The first regular Baptist Church appears to have been
formed in the reign of Elizabeth, but we may date their first public
acknowledgment as distinct from the Anabaptists from their petition to
Parliament in 1620. The year 1633 provides the earliest record of the
formation of a Particular Baptist Church in London. In 1689 a Baptist
General Assembly, held in London, formulated a confession of thirty-two
articles and a catechism. The Baptist Union, formed in 1832, comprehends
the greater number of members of the sect in Great Britain and Ireland. In
July, 1905, a world-congress of Baptists was held in London, and the
Baptist World Alliance was constituted. The total number of members of
Baptist Churches in the United Kingdom was 405,104 in 1922, and 408,029 in
1920. There are nine colleges for training ministers, of which the chief
are: Bristol Baptist College; Regent's Park; Rawdon, Bradford; and the
Metropolitan Pastors' College. The Regular Baptists in the United States
numbered 7,504,447 members in 1922, and nearly 6,000,000 in 1920, in
addition to which there are Anti-mission Baptists, Free-will Baptists, and
Seventh-day Baptists. In Canada there are in all about 128,730
Baptists.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. C. Vedder, _A Short History of the Baptists_;
A. H. Newman, _History of the Baptist Churches in the United States_; _The
Baptist Handbook_ (annually); _The American Baptist Year-book_ (annually);
W. E. MacIntyre, _Baptist Churches, 1500-1914_.

BAR, in law, the railing that encloses the place which counsel occupy in
courts of justice; hence the phrase, _at the bar of the court_, that is, in
open court. Hence also persons duly admitted as pleaders or advocates
before the courts of England are denominated _barristers_ (see
_Barrister_), and the whole body of such barristers or advocates are called
the _bar_. The enclosed place or dock in which persons accused of crimes
stand in court is also called the bar. Near the door of both Houses of
Parliament there is also a bar, beyond which none but the members and
clerks are admitted, and at which counsel, witnesses, offenders against
privilege, &c., are heard.

BAR, in music, is a line drawn through the stave to mark the rhythm of
small portions; the notes composing these are also called a bar.

BAR, in heraldry, an ordinary resembling the fesse, stretching like it
horizontally across the shield but narrower.

BAR, CONFEDERATION OF. See _Poland_.

BAR´ABA, the name of a great steppe in the West Siberian governments of
Tomsk, Akmolinsk, and Tobolsk.

BARABIN´ZIANS, a rude, uncultivated tribe of Tartars, living on the banks
of the River Irtish, and subsisting chiefly on the produce of their herds
and on fish supplied by the lakes of the Baraba steppe.

BARAGUEY-D'HILLIERS (b[.a]-r[.a]-g[=a]-d[=e]l-y[=a]),Louis, a distinguished
French general under the first Empire, born in Paris, 1764. After serving
under Custine and other generals he joined the army of Italy, and took
Bergamo and Venice, of which he became Governor. He took part in the
expedition to Egypt, served in the campaigns in Germany and Spain, and
commanded a division of the "Great Army" in the Russian campaign of 1812.
He was entrusted with the direction of the vanguard in the retreat, but was
compelled to capitulate. Napoleon ordered him to return to France as under
arrest, but, overcome with grief and fatigue, he died at Berlin on the way,
Dec., 1812.

BARANOVITCHI, a town in Russia, government of Minsk. A battle was fought
here between the Russians and the Germans in July, 1916. See _European
War_.

BARB, a horse of the Barbary breed, introduced by the Moors into Spain, and
of great speed, endurance, and docility.

[Illustration: Barbacan. Walmgate Bar, York]

BAR´BACAN, or BARBICAN, generally an advanced work defending the entrance
to a castle or fortified town, as before the gate or drawbridge, and often
of formidable size and strength.

BARBA´DOES, or BARBADOS, the most eastern of the West India Islands, first
mentioned in 1518, and occupied by the British in 1625. Length, 21 miles;
breadth, 13; area, 106,470 acres or 166 sq, miles, about 74,000 being under
cultivation. It is divided into eleven Church of England parishes; capital,
Bridgetown. It is one of the most densely-populated areas in the world, the
population in 1917 being estimated at 186,656, or nearly 1100 to the square
mile. The climate is very hot, though moderated by the constant
trade-winds; and the island is subject to dreadful hurricanes. The surface
is broken, now without forests, and with few streams; the highest point is
1145 feet above the sea-level. There are few indigenous mammals or birds.
The black lowland soil gives great returns of sugar in favourable seasons.
The chief exports, besides sugar, are molasses and rum; imports: rice, salt
meat, corn, butter, flour, &c. Both exports and imports were over
£2,000,000 in 1918. Barbadoes has a considerable transit trade, being in
some measure the central mart for all the Windward Islands. It is the see
of a bishop and the head-quarters of the British forces in the West Indies.
There is a railway across the island, also tramways, telephones, &c. The
island forms a distinct government under a Governor, an Executive and a
Legislative Council of 9 members, and a House of Assembly of 24 members.
Liberal provision is made for education both by old foundations and by
annual vote.

BARBADOES LEG, a form of elephantiasis.

BAR´BARA, ST., according to the legend, belonged to Nicomedia, in Asia
Minor, and was beheaded by her father for having turned Christian, he being
immediately thereafter struck dead by lightning. The latter part of this
legend caused her, probably, to be invoked in storms, and to be considered
the patron saint of artillerists.

BARBARELLI. See _Giorgione_.

BARBARIAN (Gk. _barbaros_), a name given by the Greeks, and afterwards by
the Romans, to everyone who spoke an unintelligible language; and hence
coming to connote the idea of _rude_, _illiterate_, _uncivilized_. This
word, therefore, did not always convey the idea of something odious or
savage; thus a Greek character in Plautus calls Nævius a barbarous poet,
because he had not written in Greek; and Cicero terms illiterate persons
without taste 'barbarians'.

BARBAROSSA ('red-beard'), the name of two famous Turkish corsairs of the
sixteenth century, who ravaged the shores of the Mediterranean, and
established themselves in Algiers. The elder of the brothers, Aruch or
Horuk, was killed in 1518; the younger and more notorious, Hayraddin, who
captured Tunis, died in 1546. See _Frederick Barbarossa_.

BAR´BARY, a general name for the most northerly portion of Africa,
extending about 2600 miles from Egypt to the Atlantic, with a breadth
varying from about 140 to 550 miles, comprising Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia,
and Libya (Tripolitania, Barqa, and Fezzan). The principal races are: the
Berbers, the original inhabitants, from whom the country takes its name;
the Arabs, who conquered an extensive portion of it during the times of the
caliphs; the Bedouins, Jews, Turks, and the French colonists of Algeria,
&c. The country, which was prosperous under the Carthaginians, was, next to
Egypt, the richest of the Roman provinces, and the Italian States enriched
themselves by their intercourse with it. In the fifteenth century, however,
it became infested with adventurers who made the name of Barbary corsair a
terror to commerce, a condition of things finally removed by the French
occupation of Algeria.

BARBARY APE (_In[)u]us ecaud[=a]tus_), a species of ape, or tailless
monkey, with greenish-brown hair, of the size of a large cat, remarkable
for docility, also called the _magot_. It is common in Barbary and other
parts of Africa, and some used to live formerly on Gibraltar Rock, being
the only European monkey, though probably not indigenous. It has been the
'showman's ape' from time immemorial.

BAR´BASTEL, or BARBASTELLE, a bat with hairy lips (_Barbastellus
comm[=u]nis_), a native of England.

BARBAS´TRO, a city, Spain, Arragon, province of Huesca, with an interesting
cathedral, and some trade and manufactures. Pop. 7202.

BAR´BAULD, Anna Letitia, English poet and general writer, was born in
Leicestershire, 1743, daughter of a Presbyterian minister named Aikin. She
published a small volume of miscellaneous poems in 1772, and in 1773, in
conjunction with her brother, Dr. John Aikin, a collection of pieces in
prose. In 1774 she married the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld. Her _Early Lessons
and Hymns for Children_, and various essays and poems, won considerable
popularity. She edited a collection of English novels, with critical and
biographical notices; a selection from the British essayists of the reign
of Anne, and another from Richardson's correspondence. Her last long poem,
_Eighteen Hundred and Eleven_, appeared in 1812. She died at
Stoke-Newington, 1825.

BAR´BECUE, a word of West Indian origin, meaning a hog, or other large
animal, roasted whole. In the United States the word means a large
gathering of people in the open air, for a social or political feast, where
whole animals are roasted and eaten.

BARBED WIRE, wire-rope for fencing or other purposes, having fixed in it
short bent pieces of wire with sharp projecting points, which serve to keep
animals from pressing against it. There is an Act of Parliament (1893) to
prevent the use of barbed-wire fences that form a nuisance on a public road
or path; and a person employing barbed wire for fencing may render himself
liable for damages caused by it to another person who is legitimately using
the adjoining ground. Barbed wire plays an important part in the
construction of obstacles in modern warfare. During the European War, all
systems of trenches were protected by thick belts of wire. This wire was
laid out in various different ways, two of the best being known as the
Concertina Fence and the Double-apron Fence.

BARBEL (Barbus), a genus of freshwater fishes of the carp family,
distinguished by the four fleshy filaments growing from the lips, two at
the nose and one at each corner of the mouth, forming the kind of beard to
which the genus owes its name. Of the several species the European _Barbus
vulg[=a]ris_, common in most rivers, has an average length of from 12 to 18
inches, and in form and habits strongly resembles the pike. Its body is
elongated and rounded, olive-coloured above and bluish on the sides, and
covered with small scales. The upper jaw, which is much longer than the
lower, forms a snout, with which it bores into the mud for worms, insects,
aquatic plants, &c. It is common in the Thames, where it gives good sport
to the angler; but its flesh is very coarse, and at the time of spawning
the roe is dangerous to eat.

BARBER, one whose occupation is to shave or trim the beard, or to cut and
dress hair. The practice of surgery was formerly a part of the craft, and
by an Act of Henry VIII the Company of Barbers was incorporated with the
Company of Surgeons--the company being then known as the
Barber-surgeons--with the limitation, however, that the surgeons were not
to shave or practise 'barbery', and the barbers were to perform no higher
surgical operation than blood-letting and tooth-drawing. This continued
till the time of George II. The signs of the old profession--the pole which
the patient grasped, its spiral decoration in imitation of the bandage, and
the basin to catch the blood--are still sometimes retained. The barbers'
shops, always notorious for gossip, were in some measure the news centres
of classic and mediæval times. The ancient hall in London, formerly used by
the Barber-surgeons, is still standing in Markwell Street, Cripplegate.

BARBERINI (b[.a]r-be-r[=e]´n[=e]), a celebrated Florentine family, which,
since the pontificate of Maffeo Barberini (Urban VIII, 1623-44), has
occupied a distinguished place among the nobility of Rome. During his reign
Urban was chiefly intent on the aggrandizement of his three nephews, of
whom two were appointed cardinals, and the third Prince of Palestrina.

[Illustration: Barberry _(Berb[)e]ris aristata)_]

BAR´BERRY, a genus of shrubs, nat. ord. Berberidaceæ. The common barberry
(_Berb[)e]ris vulg[=a]ris_) has serrate, pointed leaves (the primary ones
reduced to tripartite spines), hanging clusters of yellow flowers, and
small, orange-red berries, which are sometimes made into preserves. The
inner bark and roots yield a fine yellow dye (berberine). The shrub is a
native of temperate Asia, but is now generally diffused through Europe and
N. America. In Britain it has been almost universally banished from
hedgerows, owing to its connection with the black rust of wheat. Numerous
other species inhabit Asia and America; those of the section Mahonia have
pinnate leaves. _B. aristata_ is an erect bush, with furrowed red-brown
branches, and pendulous clusters of yellow flowers; it thrives best in the
south. See _Irritability_ and _Rust_.

BAR´BERTON, the chief mining-centre of De Kaap gold-fields, Transvaal,
about 80 miles from Lydenburg, and 150 to 160 from Delagoa Bay. British
prisoners were confined here in the Boer War (1899-1902). Pop. about 2000
(whites).

BAR´BETS (Bucconidæ), a family of climbing birds with a thick conical beak,
having tufts of bristles at its base. Their wings are short and their
flight somewhat heavy. They have been divided into three sub-genera: The
_barbicans_ (Pogonias), inhabiting India and Africa, and feeding chiefly on
fruit; the _barbets_ proper (Bucco), found in Africa and America, and
nearly related to the woodpeckers; and the _puff-birds_ (Tamatia),
inhabiting America, and feeding on insects.

BARBETTE (b[.a]r-bet´), an elevation of earth behind the breastwork of a
fortification, from which the artillery may be fired over the parapet
instead of through an embrasure. In ships of war the name is given to a
strong breastwork of armour over which heavy guns are fired. See
_Fortification_.

BARBEYRAC (b[.a]r-b[=a]-r[.a]k), Jean, an able writer on jurisprudence and
natural law, translator of Grotius and Cumberland, and translator and
annotator of Pufendorf. Born 1674; professor of law at Lausanne and
Groningen; died 1744.

BARBICAN. See _Barbacan_.

BARBIÉ DU BOCAGE (b[.a]rb-y[=a] dü b[=o]-käzh), Jean Denis, a distinguished
geographer, born in Paris in 1760, who laid the foundation of his fame in
1788 by his _Atlas_ to Barthélemy's _Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis_. His maps
and plans to the works of Thucydides, Xenophon, &c., exhibit much
erudition, and materially advanced the science of ancient geography. He
also prepared many modern maps, and published various excellent
dissertations. He held many honourable posts, and died in 1825.

BARBIER (b[.a]rb-y[=a]), Antoine Alexandre, bibliographer (1765-1825). He
was appointed keeper of the library of the Conseil d'État in 1798; Napoleon
made him his librarian in 1807; and he was afterwards librarian to Louis
XVIII. His _Catalogue de la Bibliothèque du Conseil d'État_ (1801-3), and
_Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes_ (1806-9), are both
valuable works.

BARBIERI (b[.a]r-b[=e]-[=a]´r[=e]), Giovanni Francesco (otherwise known as
_Guercino_ (the squinter) _da Cento_), an eminent and prolific historical
painter, born near Bologna 1590, died in 1666. His style showed the
influence of Caravaggio and of the Caracci, his best work being of the
latter school. Chief work, a _St. Petronilla_ in the Capitol at Rome; but
most of the large galleries have pictures by him.

BARBIERI, Paolo Antonio, a celebrated still-life and animal painter, was a
brother of Guercino; born 1596, died 1640.

BARBITONE. See _Veronal_.

BARBIZON (b[.a]r-b[=e]-z[=o]n), a French village about 25 miles south by
east of Paris, on the borders of the Forest of Fontainebleau, and 6 miles
north-west of the town of that name. It has given its name to a French
school of painters, including Corot, Millet, Rousseau, Jules Dupré, and
Daubigny.

BAR´BOUR, John, an ancient Scottish poet, contemporary with Chaucer, born
about 1316. By 1357 he was Archdeacon of Aberdeen, and in the following
year was appointed a commissioner to treat for the ransom of David II. He
appears as Auditor of the Exchequer more than once; he travelled through
England on several occasions, and was pensioned by Robert II. His chief
poem, _The Bruce_ (Brus), written about 1375, was first published in 1571,
and the chief manuscripts of the poem are those in the Advocates' Library,
Edinburgh, dated 1489, and in St. John's College, Cambridge. Of another
long poem, setting forth the Trojan origin of the Scottish kings, no MS.
remains, unless a portion of two Troy books in the Cambridge and Bodleian
libraries may be ascribed to Barbour. He has also been credited with having
compiled a _Book of Legends of Saints_, existing in a single MS. at
Cambridge, and published in 1881-2 by Horstman in his _Legenden Sammlung_.
He died in 1395. He was the father of Scottish poetry and history, and his
_Bruce_ is linguistically of high value. Though wanting in the higher
qualities of poetry, it is truthful and natural, and often exhibits a high
moral dignity.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_; Irving,
_History of Scottish Poetry_.

BARBUDA (b[.a]r-bö´da), one of the West Indies, annexed by Britain in 1628;
about 15 miles long and 8 miles wide; lying north of Antigua; pop. 580. It
is flat, fertile, and healthy. Corn, cotton, pepper, and tobacco are the
principal produce, but the island is only partially cleared for
cultivation. There is no harbour, but a well-sheltered roadstead on the
west side. It is a dependency of Antigua.

BARBUSSE, Henri, a French author born at Asnières in 1874. He served in the
French army during the European War, and his descriptions of the realities
of modern warfare have made him famous. His works include _Le Feu_ and
_Clarté_.

BARBY (bär´b[=e]), a German town on the Elbe, in the government of
Magdeburg, with an old castle. Pop. 5202.

BAR´CA, a division of N. Africa, between the Gulf of Sidra and Egypt,
annexed by Italy in 1911-2; capital, Bengazi. It formed a portion of the
ancient Cyrenaica, and from the time of the Ptolemies was known as
Pentapolis from its five Greek cities. It became part of Tripoli, and later
a separate province under Turkish dominion. On 18th Oct., 1912, it was
formally recognized as a dependency of Italy, and forms with Tripoli the
Italian colony of Libya. The country consists of a rocky plateau. A large
portion of it is desert, but some parts, especially near the coast, are
fertile, and yield abundant crops and excellent pasture, the chief being
wheat, barley, dates, figs, and olives. Flowering shrubs, roses,
honeysuckles, &c., occur in great variety. There are hardly any permanent
streams, but the eastern portion is tolerably well watered by rains and
springs. The exports are grain and cattle, with ostrich feathers and ivory
from the interior. Next to Bengazi (pop. 35,000), the seaport of Derna is
the chief town (pop. 8000). The population probably does not exceed
300,000. See _Cyrenaica_ and _Tripoli_.

BARCAROLLE (-rol´), a species of song sung by the _barcaruoli_, or
gondoliers, of Venice, and hence applied to a song or melody composed in
imitation. A very well-known example is to be found in Offenbach's _Tales
of Hoffmann_.

BARCELLONA (b[.a]r-chel-[=o]´n[.a]), seaport, Sicily, province of Messina,
immediately contiguous to Pozzo di Gotto, and practically forming one town
with it. Joint pop. 26,172.

BARCELONA (b[.a]r-thel-[=o]´n[.a]), next to Madrid the chief city of Spain,
capital of the province of Barcelona, and formerly capital of the kingdom
of Catalonia; finely situated on the northern portion of the Spanish
Mediterranean coast. It is divided into the upper and lower town; the
former modern, regular, stone-built, and often of an English architectural
type, the latter old, irregular, brick-built, and with traces of Eastern
influence in the architecture. The harbour is suited to accommodate large
vessels. The principal manufactures are cottons, silks, woollens,
machinery, paper, glass, chemicals, stoneware, soap; exports manufactured
goods, wine and brandy, fruit, oil, &c.; imports coals, textile fabrics,
machinery, cotton, fish, hides, silks, timber, &c. The city contains a
university, several public libraries, a museum, a large arsenal,
cannon-foundry, &c. Barcelona was, until the twelfth century, governed by
its own counts, but was afterwards united with Arragon. In 1640, with the
rest of Catalonia, it placed itself under the French Crown; in 1652 it
submitted again to the Spanish Government; in 1697 it was taken by the
French, but was restored to Spain at the Peace of Ryswick. It has had
several severe visitations of cholera and yellow fever, and has been the
scene of many serious and sanguinary revolts, as in 1836, 1840, and 1909.
Pop. 618,766.--The province has an area of 2968 sq. miles; pop. 1,191,386
(1918). It is generally mountainous, but well cultivated, and among the
most thickly peopled in Spain.

BARCELONA, a town of Venezuela, near the mouth of the Neveri, which is
navigable for vessels of small size, but larger vessels anchor off the
mouth of the river. Pop. 13,000.

BARCELONA NUTS, hazel-nuts exported from the Barcelona district of Spain.

BAR´CLAY, Alexander, a poet of the sixteenth century, most probably a
native of Scotland, born about 1475; for some years a priest and chaplain
of St. Mary Ottery, in Devonshire; afterwards a Benedictine monk of Ely;
subsequently a Franciscan, and also the holder of one or two livings; died
1552. His principal work was a satire, entitled _The Shyp of Folys of this
Worlde_, part translation and part imitation of Brandt's _Narrenschiff_
(Ship of Fools), and printed by Pynson in 1509. He also wrote _The Myrrour
of Good Maners_, and some _Egloges_ (Eclogues), both printed by Pynson, as
well as translations, &c.

BARCLAY, John, poet and satirist, son of a Scottish father, born at
Pont-à-Mousson (Lorraine) in 1582, and probably educated in the Jesuits'
College there. Having settled in England, he published a Latin
politico-satirical romance, entitled _Euphormionis Satyricon_, having as
its object the exposure of the Jesuits. In 1616 he left England for Rome,
received a pension from Pope Paul V, and died in 1621. His chief work is a
singular romance in Latin, entitled _Argenis_ (Paris, 1621), thought by
some to be an allegory bearing on the political state of Europe at the
period. Several seventeenth-century romances were indebted to this work,
among others Fénelon's _Télémaque_ and Calderon's _Argenis y Poliarco_. It
has been translated into several modern languages. His shorter poems
appeared in the _Delitiæ Poetarum Scotorum_,

BARCLAY, Robert, the celebrated apologist of the Quakers, born in 1648 at
Gordonstown, Moray, and educated at Paris, where he became a Roman
Catholic. He was recalled home by his father, whose example he followed in
becoming a Quaker. His first treatise in support of his adopted principles,
published at Aberdeen in the year 1670, under the title of _Truth Cleared
of Calumnies_, together with his subsequent writings, did much to rectify
public sentiment in regard to the Quakers. His chief work, in Latin, _An
Apology for the True Christian Divinity_, was soon reprinted at Amsterdam,
and quickly translated into German, Dutch, French, and Spanish, and, by the
author himself, into English. His fame was now widely diffused; and, in his
travels with William Penn and George Fox through England, Holland, and
Germany, to spread the opinions of the Quakers, he was received everywhere
with the highest respect. The last of his productions, _On the Possibility
and Necessity of an Inward and Immediate Revelation_, was not published in
England until 1686; from which time Barclay lived quietly with his family.
He died, after a short illness, at his own house of Ury, Kincardineshire,
in 1690. He was a friend of and had influence with James II.

BARCLAY, Sir Thomas, British barrister, born in 1853. Educated at the
Universities of London, Paris, Bonn, and Jena, he was sent to Paris in 1876
as correspondent of _The Times_. He has been greatly instrumental in
bringing about a better understanding between England and France. He was
knighted in 1904, and entered Parliament in 1910. His works include:
_Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_; _The Turco-Italian War
and its Problems_; _Law and Usage of War_.

BARCLAY DE TOLLY, Michael, Prince, a distinguished general and
field-marshal of Russia, born in 1755. His family, of Scottish origin, had
been established in Livonia since 1689. He entered the army at an early
age, served in various campaigns against the Turks, Swedes, and Poles, and
in 1811 was named Minister of War. On the invasion of Napoleon he was
transferred to the chief command of the army, and adopted a plan of
retreat; his forces did not greatly exceed 100,000 men, but the Court
became impatient, and after the capture of Smolensk by the French he was
superseded by Kutusov. Sinking all personal feeling, he asked leave to
serve under his successor, commanded the right wing at the battle of the
Moskwa, maintained his position, and covered the retreat of the rest of the
army. After the battle of Bautzen, in 1813, he was reappointed to the chief
command, which he had soon after to resign to Prince Schwarzenberg. He
forced the surrender of General Vandamme after the battle of Dresden, took
part in the decisive battle of Leipzig, and was made a field-marshal in
Paris. In 1815 he received from the emperor the title of prince, and from
Louis XVIII the badge of the Order of Military Merit. He died in 1818.

BAR-COCHBA (b[.a]r-ko_h_´b[.a]), or BAR-COCHEBAS, Simon, a Jewish impostor,
who pretended to be the Messiah, raised a revolt, and made himself master
of Jerusalem about A.D. 132, and of about fifty fortified places. Hadrian
sent to Britain for Julius Severus, one of his ablest generals, who
gradually regained the different forts and then took and destroyed
Jerusalem. Bar-cochba retired to a mountain fortress, and perished in the
assault of it by the Romans three years after, about 135.

BAR´COO. See _Cooper's Creek_.

BARD, one of an order among the ancient Celtic tribes, whose occupation was
to compose and sing verses in honour of the heroic achievements of princes
and brave men, generally to the accompaniment of the harp. Their verses
also frequently embodied religious or ethical precepts, genealogies, laws,
&c. Their existence and function was known to the Romans two centuries
B.C.; but of the Gallic bards only the tradition of their popularity
survives. The first Welsh bards of whom anything is extant are Taliesin,
Aneurin, and Llywarch, of the sixth century. A considerable lacuna then
occurs in their history until the order was reconstituted in the tenth
century by King Howel Dha, and again in the eleventh by Gryffith ap Conan.
Edward I is said to have hanged all the Welsh bards as promoters of
sedition. Some modern attempts have been made in Wales to revive bardism,
and the Cambrian Society was formed in 1818, for this purpose and for the
preservation of the remains of the ancient literature. The revived
Eisteddfodau, or bardic festivals, have been so far exceedingly popular. In
Ireland there were three classes of bards: those who sang of war, religion,
&c., those who chanted the laws, and those who gave genealogies and family
histories in verse. They were famous harpists. In the Highlands of Scotland
there are considerable remains of compositions supposed to be those of
their old bards still preserved.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Jones, _Relics of the
Welsh Bards_; Walker, _Memoirs of the Irish Bards_; Dottin, _Manuel de
l'Antiquité Celtique_; John Rhys and D. Brynmor-Jones, _The Welsh People_;
D. D. Evans, _Ancient Bards of Britain_.

BARDESA´NES, a Syrian Gnostic, poet, astrologer, and philosopher, born 154
or 164 at Edessa, died 222. His system started with the statement that from
the union of God with matter sprang Christ and a female Holy Ghost, from
whom in turn sprang various existences. He propagated his doctrines in
Syrian hymns (_Hymn on the Soul_), the first in the language. His son,
Harmonius, was also an able hymn-writer. The Bardesanists maintained
themselves till the twelfth century, the later adherents having practically
adopted Manichæism.

BARDWAN´, or BURDWAN´, a division of Bengal, upon the Hugli, comprising the
six districts of Bardwan, Hugli, Howrah, Midnapur, Bankura, and Birbhum.
Area, 13,850 sq. miles; pop. 8,245,000.--The district _Bardwan_ has an area
of 2697 sq. miles, and a pop. of 1,532,500. Apart from its products, rice,
grain, hemp, cotton, indigo, &c., it has a noted coal-field of about 500
sq. miles in area, with an annual output of about half a million tons.--The
town of _Bardwan_ has a fine palace of the Maharajah and a pop. of 35,022.

BAREBONE, or BARBONE, Praise-God, the name of a leather-seller in Fleet
Street, London, who obtained a kind of lead in the convention which
Cromwell substituted for the Long Parliament, and which was thence
nicknamed the Barebone Parliament. After its dissolution he disappeared
till 1660, when he presented a petition to Parliament against the
restoration of the monarchy. In 1661 he was committed to the Tower for some
time, but his subsequent history is unknown.

BAREFOOTED FRIARS. See _Monasticism_.

BARÉGE (ba-r[=a]zh´), a light, open tissue of silk and worsted, or cotton
and worsted, for women's dresses, originally manufactured near Baréges. It
is now made chiefly at Bagnères-de-Bigorre.

BARÉGES (b[.a]-r[=a]zh), a watering-place, south of France, department
Hautes-Pyrénées, about 4000 feet above the sea, celebrated for its thermal
springs, which are frequented for rheumatism, scrofula, &c. The place is
hardly inhabited except in the bathing season, June till September.

BAREGINE (ba-r[=a]zh´in; from _Baréges_), a gelatinous product of certain
algæ growing in sulphuric mineral springs, and imparting to them the colour
and odour of flesh-broth.

BAREILLY (ba-r[=a]´li), a town of Hindustan, in the United Provinces,
capital of a district of same name, on a pleasant and elevated site. It has
a fort and cantonments, a Government college, and manufactures
sword-cutlery, gold and silver lace, perfumery, furniture and upholstery.
On the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny the native garrison took possession of
the place, but it was retaken by Lord Clyde in May, 1858. Pop.
129,462.--The district has an area of 1595 sq. miles; pop. 1,089,550.

BAR´ENTS, William, a Dutch navigator of the end of the sixteenth century,
who, on an expedition intended to reach China by the North-East Passage,
discovered Novaya Zemlya. He wintered there in 1596-7, and died before
reaching home.

BARET´TI, Joseph, an Italian writer, born at Turin, 1719. In 1748 he came
to England, and in 1753 published in English a _Defence of the Poetry of
Italy against the Censures of M. Voltaire_. In 1760 he brought out a useful
_Italian and English Dictionary_. After an absence of six years, during
part of which he edited the _Frusta Letteraria_ (Literary Scourge) at
Venice, he returned to England, and in 1768 published an _Account of the
Manners and Customs of Italy_. Not long after, in defending himself in a
street brawl, he stabbed his assailant and was tried for murder at the Old
Bailey but acquitted, Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, Garrick, Reynolds, and
Beauclerk giving testimony to his good character. An _English and Spanish
Dictionary_, and various other works, followed before his death in 1789.

BARFLEUR (b[.a]r-fl_eu_r), at one time the best port on the coast of
Normandy, and the reputed port from which William the Conqueror sailed. It
was destroyed in the year 1346 by Edward III. Present pop. 1304.

BARFRUSH´, or BARFURUSH´, Same as _Balfroosh_.

BARGAIN AND SALE, a legal term denoting the contract by which lands,
tenements, &c., are transferred from one person to another. See
_Conveyancing_.

BARGE, a term similar in origin to _barque_, but generally used of a
flat-bottomed boat of some kind, whether used for loading and unloading
vessels, or as a canal-boat, or as an ornamental boat of state or pleasure.

[Illustration: Barge-board or gable-end of Manor House, Bramley, Hants.]

BARGE-BOARD (perhaps a corruption of _verge-board_), in architecture, a
board generally pendent from the eaves of gables, so as to conceal the
rafters, keep out rain, &c. They are sometimes elaborately ornamented. The
portion of the roof projecting from the wall at the gable-end, and beneath
which the barge-board runs, is termed the _barge-course_.

BARHAM (bar'am), Rev. Richard Harris, a humorous writer, born in 1788 at
Canterbury; educated at St. Paul's School, London, and at Brasenose,
Oxford; appointed in succession curate of Ashford, curate of Westwell,
rector of Snargate in Romney Marsh, and one of the minor canons of St.
Paul's Cathedral. He published two novels, _Baldwin_ and _My Cousin
Nicholas_, wrote nearly a third of the articles in Gorton's _Biographical
Dictionary_, and contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_. In 1824 he was
appointed priest in ordinary of the Chapel Royal, and afterwards rector of
St. Mary Magdalene and St. Gregory-by-St.-Paul, London. In 1837, on the
starting of _Bentley's Miscellany_, he laid the main foundation of his
literary fame by the publication in that periodical of the _Ingoldsby
Legends_. He died in 1845.

BARHEBRÆ´US. See _Abulfaragius_.

BARI (bä'r[=e]; ancient, BARIUM), a seaport, S. Italy, on a small
promontory of the Adriatic, capital of the province Terra di Bari. It was a
place of importance as early as the third century B.C., and has been thrice
destroyed and rebuilt. The present town, though poorly built for the most
part, has a large Norman castle, a fine cathedral and priory, &c. It
manufactures cotton and linen goods, hats, soap, glass, and liqueurs; has a
trade in wine, grain, almonds, oil, &c., and is now an important seaport.
In 1915 the town suffered considerably from floods. Pop. 109,218.--The
province has an area of 2048 sq. miles, and is fertile in fruit, wine, oil,
&c.; pop. 935,982.

BARI, a negro people of Africa, dwelling on both sides of the White Nile,
between lat. 3° 30' and 6° N. They practise agriculture, cattle-rearing,
smithwork, &c. Their country was conquered by Baker for Egypt.

BARIL´LA, is the commercial name for impure sodium carbonate imported from
Spain and the Levant. At one time all sodium carbonate required for
industrial purposes was prepared from barilla obtained by burning various
marine plants (Salsola, Salicornia, and others). Only 25 per cent of the
weight of the ash contained soda, and consequently its import was expensive
and considerably added to the price of the manufacture of glass and soap.
During the Napoleonic wars the price of barilla rose to such a height that
Napoleon offered a reward for the discovery of a process for the
manufacture of sodium carbonate. A chemist, Leblanc, in 1791 invented a new
process by which sodium carbonate could be obtained from common salt, and
this entirely superseded barilla. Plants are still grown in Southern France
and Spain to obtain soda and other substances from the ash; but almost all
the sodium carbonate of the present day is manufactured chemically.

BARING, the name of a famous English family of bankers and financiers,
statesmen and diplomats, from which has arisen the financial house of
Baring Brothers & Co., and of which members now hold four peerages, namely,
two earldoms--Northbrook and Cromer--and two baronies--Ashburton and
Revelstoke. The founder of the house was Francis Baring (1740-1810), whose
father was a cloth manufacturer near Exeter, and grandfather pastor of the
Lutheran Church at Bremen, the family being thus of German origin. Francis
Baring settled in London, attained a high position in the mercantile and
financial world, was long a member of Parliament and a director of the East
India Company, and was made a baronet in 1793. Of his sons, one, Alexander,
was created Baron Ashburton (in 1835), and rendered important political
services in connection with the boundary treaty concluded between Britain
and the United States, and known by his title (see _Ashburton_, _Ashburton
Treaty_). His son, the second Lord Ashburton (1799-1864), held a position
of some note in politics, and his first wife, a daughter of the sixth Earl
of Sandwich, was fond of the society of both politicians and literary men,
among those who were on friendly terms with her being Carlyle and
Thackeray. Sir Francis Baring's eldest son, Thomas, was father of Francis
Thornhill Baring, first Lord Northbrook (1796-1866), whose eldest son,
Thomas, was created Earl of Northbrook in 1876, and held successively a
number of high positions, among them that of Viceroy of India (1872-6) and
First Lord of the Admiralty (1880-5). (See _Northbrook_.) Another son of
Sir Francis, Henry Baring, was father of Edward Baring, the first Baron
Revelstoke (born in 1828, died in 1897), who was long one of the most
conspicuous members of the financial world of London, and was raised to the
peerage as baron in 1885. He had full management of the great house of
Baring Brothers, which under him was long most prosperous, but in 1890 fell
into temporary difficulties. Henry Baring was father also of Evelyn Baring,
Earl Cromer (q.v.).

BARING-GOULD (b[=a]-ring-g[=o]ld´), Sabine, English clergyman and author,
born at Exeter, 1834. Educated at Cambridge, he held several livings in the
English Church, and in 1881 became rector of Lew Trenchard, Devon. After
publishing several books on theological and miscellaneous subjects, he
distinguished himself as a novelist. Among his works are: _Iceland, its
Scenes and Sagas_; _Curious Myths of the Middle Ages_; _The Origin and
Development of Religious Belief_; _Lives of the Saints_ (in 15 vols.);
_Village Sermons_; _The Vicar of Morwenstowe_ (an account of the Rev. R. S.
Hawker); _The Mystery of Suffering_; _History of the Church in Germany_;
_The Tragedy of the Cæsars_; _Cliff Castles and Cave Dwellings_; _The
Church Revival_; &c.; besides the novels _Mehalah_, _John Herring_,
_Richard Cable_, _The Gaverocks_, _Court Royal_, _The Pennycomequicks_,
&c.; and short stories or novelettes.

BARINGO, a lake in Africa, N.E. of the Victoria Nyanza, about 20 miles
long.

BAR´ITONE, or BAR´YTONE, a male voice, the compass of which partakes of
those of the common bass and the tenor, but does not extend so far
downwards as the one, nor to an equal height with the other. Its best tones
are from the lower A of the bass clef to the lower F in the treble.

BA´RIUM (from the Gr. _barys_, heavy), the metal of which _baryta_ is the
oxide; specific gravity 4; symbol Ba. It is only found in compounds, such
as the common sulphate (or _barytes_) and carbonate, and was isolated by
Davy in 1808. It is a yellow malleable metal, which readily oxidizes,
decomposes water, and fuses at a low temperature. Its nitrate and chlorate
are used in pyrotechny. Barium salts, when brought into a non-luminous
flame, burn with a yellowish-green colour. See _Baryta_.

[Illustration: Magnified Section of Oak-bark.

A, Epidermis. B, Cells containing chlorophyll or colouring matter. C, Liber
or Bast. D, Cambium. E, Sapwood.]

BARK, properly the _periderm_, or outer covering, of woody stems and roots,
composed of dead tissues cut off from the living parts of the organ by one
or more layers of impervious cork. It serves to prevent loss of water, and
also affords protection against animals and fungi. The outermost bark is
continually sloughed in the form of scales (Scots Pine) or sheets (Common
Birch), being regenerated from within by the activity of the cork-cambium
(_phellogen_). Bark is usually rich in waste-products, many of which are of
economic value, such as tannin, gums, &c. Bottle-cork is the bark of the
cork-oak. Bark for tanning is obtained from oak, hemlock-spruce, species of
acacia, &c. Peruvian and Angostura barks, cinnamon, &c., are other useful
barks. As commonly used, bark denotes all the tissues external to the
_cambium_.

BARK. See _Barque_.

BARK, PERUVIAN. See _Cinchona_.

BARKER, Granville, playwright, was born in London in 1877. His principal
plays are: _The Voysey Inheritance_ (1905), _Waste_ (1907), _The Madras
House_ (1910). He has published a book (in which William Archer
collaborated) called _A National Theatre_, and another entitled _The Red
Cross in France_. His revivals of Shakespeare have introduced some new
ideas of mounting and stage-effects.

BARKER'S MILL, also called Scottish turbine, a hydraulic machine on the
principle of what is known as the hydraulic tourniquet. This consists of an
upright vessel free to rotate about a vertical axis, and having at its
lower end two discharging pipes projecting horizontally on either side and
bent in opposite directions at the ends, through which the water is
discharged horizontally, the direction of discharge being mainly at right
angles to a line joining the discharging orifice to the axis. The backward
pressures at the bends of the tubes, arising from the two issuing jets of
water, cause the apparatus to revolve in an opposite direction to the
issuing fluid. The machine was invented by a Dr. Barker towards the end of
the seventeenth century.

BARKING, a town, England, county of Essex, on the Roding, 7 miles N.E. of
London, with some important manufacturing works. Near it is the outfall of
the sewage of a large part of London. Pop. (1921), 35,543.

BARKSTON ASH, a parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire.

BARK-STOVE, or BARK-BED, a sort of hothouse for forcing or for growing
plants that require a great heat combined with moisture, both of which are
supplied by the fermentation that sets up in a bed of spent tanner's bark
contained in a brick pit under glass.

BAR´LAAM AND JOS´APHAT, a famous mediæval spiritual romance, which is in
its main details a Christianized version of the Hindu legends of Buddha.
The story first appeared in Greek in the works of Joannes Damascenus in the
eighth century. It is, however, more probably the work of a monk of the
Sabbas monastery, near Jerusalem, and written at the beginning of the
seventh century. The compilers of the _Gesta Romanorum_, Boccaccio, Gower,
and Shakespeare have all drawn materials from it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Max
Müller, _Chips from a German Workshop_; J. Jacobs, _Barlaam and Josaphat_,
(There is a translation by Rev. G. R. Woodward and H. Mattingly in the Loeb
Library).

BAR-LE-DUC (b[.a]r-l-d[.u]k), a town of North-East France, capital of
department Meuse, with manufactures of cotton and woollen stuffs, leather,
confectionery, &c. Pop. 17,068.

BARLET´TA, a seaport in South Italy, province of Bari, on the Adriatic,
with a fine Gothic cathedral; it has a considerable export trade in grain,
wine, almonds, &c. Pop. 44,233.

BAR´LEY, the name of several cereal plants of the genus Hordeum, ord.
Gramineæ: (grasses), yielding a grain used as food and also for making
malt, from which are prepared beer, porter, and whisky. Barley has been
known and cultivated from remote antiquity, and beer was made from it among
the Egyptians. It is mentioned in _Exodus_, in connection with the ten
plagues; and it is referred to in ancient Chinese records. Excellent barley
is produced in Britain. The species principally cultivated are _Hord[)e]um
dist[)i]chum_, two-rowed barley; _H. vulg[=a]re_, four-rowed barley; and
_H. hexastichum_, six-rowed, of which the small variety is the sacred
barley of the ancients. The varieties of the four- and six-rowed species
are generally coarser than those of the two-rowed, and adapted for a poorer
soil and more exposed situation. Some of these are called _bere_ or _bigg_.
In Britain barley occupies more than 22½ per cent of the land under corn,
but in N. America the extent of it as a crop is comparatively small, being
in Canada, however, relatively greater than in the States, and the Canadian
barley is of very high quality. Barley is better adapted for cold climates
than any other grain, and some of the coarser varieties are cultivated
where no other cereal can be grown. Russia devotes a surface of over
20,000,000 acres to barley, i.e. a little under 11 per cent of the cereal
area of the country. Germany has 4,000,000 and France 1,800,000 acres of
barley. Some species of the genus, three of which are natives of Britain,
are mere grasses. _Pot_ or _Scotch barley_ is the grain deprived of the
husk in a mill. _Pearl barley_ is the grain polished and rounded and
deprived of husk and pellicle. _Patent barley_ is the farina obtained by
grinding pearl barley. _Barley-water_, a decoction of pearl barley, is used
in medicine as possessing emollient, diluent, and expectorant qualities.

BARLEY-SUGAR. See _Confectionery_; _Sugar_.

BAR´LOW, Joel, an American poet and diplomatist, born 1755. After an active
and changeful life as chaplain, lawyer, editor, land-agent, lecturer, and
consul, he went to Paris and acquired a fortune. On his return to America
he was appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to France (1811), but died near
Cracow in 1812 on his way to meet Napoleon. His principal poem, _The
Columbiad_ (_The Vision of Columbus_), dealing with American history from
the time of Columbus, was published in 1807.

BARM. See _Yeast_.

BAR´MECIDES (-s[=i]dz), a distinguished Persian family, whose virtues and
splendour form a favourite subject with Mahommedan poets and historians.
Two eminent members of this family were Khaled-ben-Barmek, tutor of Haroun
al Rashid, and his son Yahya, grand vizier of Haroun. The expression
_Barmecide Feast_, meaning a visionary banquet or make-believe
entertainment, originates from the Barber's story of his Sixth Brother in
the _Arabian Nights' Entertainments_.

BAR´MEN, a German city on the Wupper, in the Prussian Rhine Province,
government of Düsseldorf, and forming a continuation of the town of
Elberfeld, in the valley of Barmen. It has extensive ribbon and other
textile manufactures; also dyeworks, manufactures of chemicals, metal
wares, buttons, yarns, iron, machines, pianos, organs, soap, &c. In 1919
Barmen was the scene of Spartacist disorders. Pop. 169,214.

BARMOUTH, Welsh name ABERMAW, a small seaport and watering-place of Wales,
in Merionethshire, at the entrance of Barmouth Bay, a fine estuary. It is
picturesquely situated, and has become a favourite resort of tourists and
others. Pop. (1921), 3559.

BAR´NABAS, the surname, according to _Acts_, iv, 36-7, given by the
apostles to Joseph, a fellow-labourer of St. Paul, and, like him, ranked as
an apostle. He is said to have founded at Antioch the first Christian
community, to have been first Bishop of Milan, and to have suffered
martyrdom at Cyprus. His festival is held on the 11th June.

BARNABAS, SAINT, EPISTLE OF, an epistle in twenty-one chapters unanimously
ascribed to Barnabas by early Christian writers, but without any support of
internal evidence. It was probably written about A.D. 130 (or, according to
others, between A.D. 70 and 79) by one who was not a Jew, and under the
influence of Alexandrian Judaistic thought. See _Codex_ (_Sinaiticus_).

BARNABITES, an order of monks founded in Milan in 1530 and named after the
Milan church of St. Barnabas which was allotted them to preach in. On their
expulsion from France in 1905, the majority of the Barnabites sought refuge
in England. A few monasteries of the order still exist in Italy, Belgium,
Austria, and Spain.

[Illustration: Barnacles hanging from timber]

BAR´NACLE, the name of a family (Lepadidæ) of marine crustaceous animals,
ord. Cirripedia. They are enveloped by a mantle and shell, composed of five
principal valves and several smaller pieces, joined together by a membrane
attached to their circumference; and they are furnished with a long,
flexible, fleshy stalk or peduncle, provided with muscles, by which they
attach themselves to ships' bottoms, submerged timber, &c. They feed on
small marine animals, brought within their reach by the water and secured
by their tentacula. Some of the larger species are edible. According to an
old fable, these animals produced barnacle geese.

BARNACLE GOOSE (_Anser Bernicla_ or _leucopsis_), a summer visitant of the
northern seas, in size rather smaller than the common wild goose, and
having the forehead and cheeks white, the upper body and neck black. A
fable asserts that the crustaceans called barnacles changed into geese, and
various theories have been framed to account for its origin. Max Müller
supposes the geese were originally called _Hiberniculæ_ or Irish geese, and
that barnacle is a corruption of this; but the resemblance of a barnacle to
a goose hanging by the head may account for it. The Brent Goose is also
sometimes called the Barnacle Goose, but the two should not be confused.

BARNARD-CASTLE, a town, England, County Durham, giving name to a
parliamentary division of the county. There are a large thread-mill and
carpet manufactories; the Bowes Museum and Art Gallery, endowed by private
munificence, and costing over £80,000; and the Northern Counties School,
richly endowed. The castle was originally built about 1178 by Bernard
Baliol, grandfather of John Baliol. Pop. 4737.

BARNAR´DO, Thomas John, philanthropist, born in Ireland in 1845, qualified
as a medical practitioner, studying in London, Edinburgh, and Paris,
established his first home for neglected London children in 1867, and for
the rest of his life was engaged in the same class of work. Up to his death
in 1905 he had nearly 60,000 destitute waifs cared for and trained in the
institutions with which his name is connected, many of the children having
been sent to Canada or other colonies. The Barnardo homes and institutions
have become very numerous, being established in various English counties as
well as in London, a few being in Canada. A naval training-school for boys
is included among them. It was a rule of the founder that no destitute
child should be refused admission. The homes have since 1899 been under a
council or body incorporated under the title of the National Incorporated
Waifs Association, but continue to be managed on the same lines as before.
Dr. Barnardo published _Something Attempted, Something Done_; _The Rescue
of Waifs_; &c.--Cf. J. H. Batt, _Dr. Barnardo, the Foster-father of
Nobody's Children_.

BARNAUL´, a town of Siberia, government of Tomsk, on the Barnaulski, near
its influx into the Obi. The town is of wood but well built, with museum,
observatory, &c. It is an important mining centre for lead, copper, and
silver, has a copper-mint, kilns, and factories. Pop. 61,330.

BARNAVE (b[.a]r-näv), Antoine-Pierre-Joseph-Marie, a distinguished French
revolutionist, born 1761, died 1793. He successfully maintained against
Mirabeau the right of the National Assembly, as against that of the king,
to declare for peace or war, but afterwards asserted the inviolability of
the king's person. He was impeached, condemned, and guillotined.

BARNES, an urban district of England, in Surrey, on the right bank of the
Thames, a short distance above London, connected with Middlesex by
Hammersmith Suspension Bridge. There is here a common of 120 acres, one of
the preserved open spaces of the metropolitan area. Pop. (1921), 34,281.

BARNES (bärnz), Albert, theologian, born in the State of New York, 1798. In
1825 he was ordained pastor of the Presbyterian Church of Morristown, New
Jersey, and from 1830 till his death in 1870 had charge of the first
Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia. He is chiefly known by his _Notes on
the New Testament_ and _Notes on the Old Testament_.

BARNES, Rt. Hon. George Nicoll, British Labour leader, born at Dundee, in
Scotland, in 1859. After working as an engineer he became assistant
secretary of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers in 1892, and was general
secretary from 1896 to 1906. He entered Parliament in 1906, became Minister
for Pensions in 1916, member of War Cabinet in 1917, and was Minister
without portfolio from 1919 to Jan., 1920. He was a British representative
at the Peace Conference in Paris.

BARNES, William, English dialect poet and philologist, born in Dorsetshire
in 1800, died 1886. Of humble birth, he first entered a solicitor's office,
then taught at a school in Dorchester, and having taken orders became
rector of Winterbourne Came in his native county and died there. He
acquired a knowledge of many languages, and published works on Anglo-Saxon
and English, as _An Anglo-Saxon Delectus_, _A Philological Grammar_
(grounded upon English), _Grammar and Glossary of the Dorset Dialect_, &c.,
but is best known by his _Poems of Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect_ and
_Poems of Rural Life in Common English_.

BAR´NET, a town of England, in Herts, 11 miles from London, where was
fought in 1471 a battle between the Yorkists and Lancastrians, resulting in
the defeat of the latter and the death of Warwick, Edward IV being thus
established king. Pop. (1921), 11,772.

BARNETT, John, musical composer, son of Bernhard Beer, a German, born at
Bedford 1802, died 1890. He composed music as a lad, and his songs and
ballads soon had great vogue. In 1834 his opera _The Mountain Sylph_ was
produced with success, and three years after was followed by the less
successful _Fair Rosamond_. For many years before his death he was little
heard of.

BARNETT, John Francis, nephew of the former, born in 1837, died in 1916,
was also a distinguished musician and teacher, author of cantatas: _The
Ancient Mariner_, _Paradise and the Peri_, _The Raising of Lazarus_, _The
Building of the Ship_, and of various other works.

BARNEVELDT (bär'ne-velt), Johan van Olden, grand pensionary of Holland
during the struggle with Philip II of Spain, born in 1547. After the
assassination of William of Orange, and the conquest of the south provinces
by the Spaniards under Parma, he headed the embassy to secure English aid.
Finding, however, that the Earl of Leicester proved a worse than useless
ally, he secured the elevation of the young Maurice of Nassau to the post
of Stadtholder, at the same time by his own wise administration doing much
to restore the prosperity of the State. After serving as ambassador to
France and England, he succeeded in 1607 in obtaining from Spain a
recognition of the independence of the States, and two years later in
concluding with her the twelve years' truce. Maurice, ambitious of absolute
rule and jealous of the influence of Barneveldt, was interested in the
continuance of the war, and lost no opportunity of hostile action against
the great statesman. In this he was aided by the strongly-marked theologic
division in the State between the Gomarites (the Calvinistic and popular
party) and the Arminians, of whom Barneveldt was a supporter. Maurice, who
had thrown in his lot with the Gomarites, encouraged the idea that the
Arminians were the friends of Spain, and procured the assembly of a synod
at Dort (1618), which violently condemned them. Barneveldt and his friends
Grotius and Hoogerbeets were arrested, and subjected to a so-called trial;
and Barneveldt, to whom the country owed its political existence and the
Commons their retention of legislative power, was beheaded on 13th May,
1619. His sons, four years later, attempted to avenge his death; one was
beheaded, the other escaped to Spain.

BARNOLDSWICK, an urban district of England, West Riding of Yorkshire, 9
miles south-west of Skipton, with cotton manufactures and other industries.
Pop. (1921), 11,951.

BARNS´LEY, a municipal borough of England, West Riding of Yorkshire. Its
staple industries are the manufacture of linens, iron, and steel, and there
are numerous collieries in the neighbourhood. Created a parliamentary
borough in 1918, Barnsley returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921),
53,670.

BARN´STAPLE, a county and municipal borough in England, county of Devon,
giving its name to a parliamentary division of the county on the right bank
of the Taw, where it receives the Yeo; manufactures of lace, paper,
pottery, furniture, toys and turnery, and leather. Pop. 14,409.

BAROACH. See _Broach_.

BARO´DA, a non-tributary State, but subordinate to the Indian Government,
situated in the north of the Bombay presidency. It consists of a number of
detached territories in the province of Guzerat, and is generally level,
fertile, and well cultivated, producing luxuriant crops of grain, cotton,
tobacco, opium, sugar-cane, and oil-seeds. There is a famous breed of large
white oxen used as draught cattle. Area, 8182 sq. miles; pop. (1911)
2,032,798. The ruler is called the _Gaekwár_. The dissensions of the Baroda
family have more than once called for British intervention, and in 1875 the
ruling Gaekwár was tried and deposed in connection with the charge of
attempting to poison the British Resident. Since 1908 there is a
Legislative Council of 17 members.--_Baroda_, the capital, is the third
city in the Bombay presidency. It consists of the city proper within the
walls and the suburbs without, and is largely composed of poor and crowded
houses, but has also some fine buildings, and is noted for its Hindu
temples kept up by the State. Pop. 99,345.--Cf. E. St. C. Weeden, _A Year
with the Gaekwár of Baroda_.

BAROGRAPH, a kind of aneroid barometer, which, by means of special
mechanism and appliances, is made to furnish automatically a continuous
record of the successive changes in atmospheric pressure. The paper that
receives the record is made to move by clockwork while in contact with the
index pencil, which rises and falls according to alterations of atmospheric
pressure.

BAROM´ETER, an instrument for measuring the weight or pressure of the
atmosphere and thus determining changes in the weather, the height of
mountains, and other phenomena. It had its origin about the middle of the
seventeenth century in an experiment of Torricelli, an Italian, who found
that if a glass tube about 3 feet in length, open at one end only, and
filled with mercury, were placed vertically with the open end in a cup of
the same fluid metal, a portion of the mercury descended into the cup,
leaving a column only about 30 inches in height in the tube. He inferred,
therefore, that the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the mercury in
the cup forced it up the tube to the height of 30 inches, and that this was
so because the weight of a column of air from the cup to the top of the
atmosphere was only equal to that of a column of mercury of the same base
and 30 inches high. Pascal confirmed the conclusion in 1645; six years
afterwards it was found by Perrier that the height of the mercury in the
Torricellian tube varied with the weather; and in 1655 Boyle proposed to
use the instrument to measure the height of mountains.

[Illustration: Common Upright Barometer; Marine Barometer]

The common or _cistern_ barometer, which is a modification of the
Torricellian tube, consists of a glass tube 33 inches in length and about
one-third of an inch in diameter, hermetically sealed at the top, and
having the lower end resting in a small vessel containing mercury, or bent
upwards and terminating in a glass bulb partly occupied by the mercury and
open to the atmosphere. The tube is first filled with purified mercury, and
then inverted, and there is affixed to it a scale to mark the height of the
mercurial column, which comparatively seldom rises above 31 inches or sinks
below 28 inches. In general the rising of the mercury presages fair
weather, and its falling the contrary, a great and sudden fall being the
usual presage of a storm. The weather-points on the ordinary barometric
scale are as follows: At 28 inches, stormy weather; 28½, much rain or snow;
29, rain or snow; 29½, changeable; 30, fair or frost; 30½, settled fair or
frost; 31, very dry weather or hard frost. Certain attendant signs,
however, have also to be noted: thus, when fair or foul weather follows
almost immediately upon the rise or fall of the mercury, the change is
usually of short duration; while if the change of weather be delayed for
some days after the variation in the mercury, it is usually of long
continuance. The direction of the wind has also to be taken into account.

[Illustration: Siphon Barometer; Wheel Barometer]

The _siphon_ barometer consists of a bent tube, generally of uniform bore,
having two unequal legs, the longer closed, the shorter open. A sufficient
quantity of mercury having been introduced to fill the longer leg, the
instrument is set upright, and the mercury takes such a position that the
difference of the levels in the two legs represents the pressure of the
atmosphere. In the best siphon barometers there are two scales, one for
each leg, the divisions on one being reckoned upwards, and on the other
downwards from an intermediate zero point, so that the sum of the two
readings is the difference of levels of the mercury in the two branches.

The _wheel_ barometer is the one that is most commonly used for domestic
purposes. It is far from being accurate, but it is often preferred for
ordinary use on account of the greater range of its scale, by which small
differences in the height of the column of mercury are more easily
observed. It usually consists of a siphon barometer having a float resting
on the surface of the mercury in the open branch, a thread attached to the
float passing over a pulley, and having a weight as a counterpoise to the
float at its extremity. As the mercury rises and falls the thread and
weight turn the pulley, which again moves the index of the dial.

The _mountain_ barometer is a portable mercurial barometer with a tripod
support and a long scale for measuring the altitude of mountains. To
prevent breakage, through the oscillations of such a heavy liquid as
mercury, it is usually carried inverted, or it is furnished with a movable
basin and a screw, by means of which the mercury may be forced up to the
top of the tube. For delicate operations, such as the measurement of
altitudes, the scale of the barometer is furnished with a nonius or
vernier, which greatly increases the minuteness and accuracy of the scale.
For the rough estimate of altitudes the following rule is sufficient: As
the sum of the heights of the mercury at the bottom and top of the mountain
is to their difference, so is 52,000 to the height to be measured, in feet.
(See also _Heights, Measurement of_.) In exact barometric observations two
corrections require to be made, one for the depression of the mercury in
the tube by capillary attraction, the other for temperature, which
increases or diminishes the bulk of the mercury. In regard to the
measurement of heights, the general rule is to subtract the ten-thousandth
part of the observed altitude for every degree of Fahrenheit above 32°.

[Illustration: Aneroid Barometer]

In the _aneroid_ barometer, as its name implies (Gr. _a_, not, _n[=e]ros_,
liquid), no fluid is employed, the action being dependent upon the
susceptibility to atmospheric pressure shown by a flat circular metallic
chamber from which the air has been partially exhausted, and which has a
flexible top and bottom of corrugated metal plate. By an ingenious
arrangement of springs and levers the depression or elevation of the
surface of the box is registered by an index on the dial, by which means it
is also greatly magnified, being given in inches to correspond with the
mercurial barometer. Aneroids are, however, generally less reliable than
mercurial barometers, with which they should be frequently compared. The
illustration shows an aneroid without its case. At the centre of the
partially exhausted metal chamber is a small pillar [M], connected with a
steel spring [R]. The rise and fall of the top of the chamber, due to
changing atmospheric pressure, is transmitted by means of the levers [L],
and [_m_] to a metallic axis [_r_], and this axis carries a lever [_t_],
whose end is attached to a chain [_s_], which turns a drum on whose axis
the index needle is fixed.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Abbe, _Meteorological
Apparatus_; Marvin, _Barometers and the Measurement of Atmospheric
Pressure_.

BAR´ON, originally, in the feudal system, the vassal or immediate tenant of
any superior; but the term was afterwards restricted to the king's barons,
and again to the greater of these only, who attended the Great Council, or
who, at a later date, were summoned by writ to Parliament. It was the
second rank of nobility, until dukes and marquesses were introduced and
placed above the earls, and viscounts also set above the barons, who
therefore now hold the lowest rank in the British peerage. The present
barons are of three classes: (1) barons by writ, whose ancestors have long
sat in the Upper House; (2) by patent; (3) by tenure, i.e. holding the
title as annexed to land. The coronet is a plain gold circle with six balls
or 'pearls' on its edge, the cap being of crimson velvet.

BARON AND FEME, a term used for husband and wife in English law.

BAR´ONET, a hereditary dignity in Great Britain and Ireland, next in rank
to the peerage, originally instituted by James I in 1611, nominally to
promote the colonization and defence of Ulster, each baronet, on his
creation, being then obliged to pay into the treasury a sum of £1095,
exclusive of fees. Baronets of Ireland were instituted in 1620, and of
Scotland in 1625, the latter being called baronets of Nova Scotia, because
their creation was originally intended to further the colonization of Nova
Scotia. But the baronets of Scotland and of England have been baronets of
Great Britain if created since 1707; since 1801 all creations have been
known as baronetcies of the United Kingdom. A baronet has the title of
'Sir' prefixed to his Christian and surname, and his wife is 'Lady'
so-and-so. Baronets rank before all knights except Knights of the Garter,
the Thistle, and St. Patrick. They have as their badge a 'bloody hand' (the
arms of Ulster), that is, a left hand, erect and open, cut off at the
wrist, and red in colour.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pixley, _History of the
Baronetage_; G. E. Cokayne, _Complete Baronetage_; _The Baronetage under 27
Sovereigns, 1309-1910_.

BARO´NIUS, or BARONIO, Cæsar, Italian ecclesiastical historian, born 1538;
educated at Naples; in 1557 went to Rome; was one of the first pupils of
St. Philip of Neri, and member of the oratory founded by him; afterwards
cardinal and librarian of the Vatican Library. He owed these dignities to
the services which he rendered the Church by his _Ecclesiastical Annals_,
comprising valuable documents from the papal archives, on which he laboured
from the year 1580 until his death, 30th June, 1607. They were continued,
though with less power, by other writers, of whom Raynaldus takes the first
rank; others are Laderchi and Theiner.

BARON OF BEEF, two sirloins not cut asunder.

BARONS' WAR, the war carried on for several years by Simon de Montfort and
other barons of Henry III against the king, beginning in 1263.

BARONY, a manor or landed estate under a baron, who formerly had certain
rights of jurisdiction in his barony and could hold special courts. In
Ireland baronies are still the chief subdivisions of the counties.

BAROSMA. See _Bucku_.

BAROT´SELAND, a former kingdom of South Africa, now a part of Rhodesia.

BAROUCHE (ba-rösh'), a four-wheeled carriage with a falling top and two
inside seats in which four persons can sit, two facing two.

BARQUE (bärk), a three-masted vessel of which the fore-mast and main-mast
are square-rigged, but the mizzen-mast has fore-and-aft sails only.

BARQUISIMETO (b[.a]r-k[=e]-s[=e]-m[=a]'t[=o]), a city in the north of the
Republic of Venezuela, capital of the State of Lara. Pop. about 32,000.

BAR´RA, or BAR, a small kingdom in Africa, near the mouth of the Gambia.
The Mandingoes, who form a considerable part of the inhabitants, are
Mahommedans and the most civilized people on the Gambia. Pop. 200,000. The
coast here belongs to Britain. The chief town is Barrinding, where the
so-called king resides. See _Gambia_.

BARRA, an island of the Outer Hebrides, west coast of Scotland, belonging
to Inverness-shire; 8 miles long and from 2 to 5 miles broad, of irregular
outline, with rocky coasts, surface hilly but furnishing excellent pasture.
On the west coast the Atlantic, beating with all its force, has hollowed
out vast caves and fissures. Large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are
reared on the island. The coasts of this and adjacent islands abound with
fish, and fishing is an important industry. The inhabitants, about 2500,
are Roman Catholics, and speak Gaelic.

BARRA, a town about 3 miles east of Naples. Pop. 12,080.

BARRACAN´, or BARRAGAN, strictly, a thick strong stuff made in Persia and
Armenia of camel's hair, but the name has been applied, by Byron and
others, to various wool, flax, and cotton fabrics.

BAR´RACK (Sp. _barraca_), originally a small cabin or hut for troops, but
now applied to the permanent buildings in which troops are lodged. Despite
the obvious evils of the quartering system, the introduction of barracks by
George III met with considerable opposition in the British Parliament as
dangerous to liberty, by estranging the soldier from the citizen, and
fitting him to become a tool of despotism.

BARRACKPUR (-pör'), a town and military cantonment, Hindustan, on the left
bank of the Hughli, 10 miles N.N.E. of Calcutta. The suburban residence of
the Viceroy is in Barrackpur Park. Pop. 31,907.

BARRACOON´, a negro barrack or slave depot, formerly plentiful on the west
coast of Africa, in Cuba, Brazil, &c.

BARRACU´DA, a name for certain large and ferocious fishes of the genus
Sphyræna, and allied to the mullets, inhabiting southern seas, and caught
in abundance for food.

BARRAFRAN´CA, a town of Sicily, province Caltanissetta. Pop. 11,170.

BARRAMUN´DA. See _Ceratodus_.

BARRANQUILLA (b[.a]r-r[.a]n-k[=e]l'y[.a]), a port of S. America, in
Colombia, on a branch of the River Magdalena, near its entrance into the
Caribbean Sea, connected by rail with the seaport Puerto Colombia. Pop.
64,543.

BARRAS (b[.a]-rä), Paul François Jean Nicholas, Comte de, member of the
French National Convention and of the Executive Directory, born in Provence
1755, died 1829. After serving in the army in India and Africa, he joined
the revolutionary party and was a deputy in the _tiers état_. He took part
in the attack upon the Bastille and upon the Tuileries, and voted for the
death of Louis XVI. In the subsequent events he displeased Robespierre, and
on this account joined the members of the committee, who foresaw danger
awaiting them, and being entrusted with the chief command of the forces of
his party he made himself master of Robespierre. On 4th Feb., 1795, he was
elected president of the Convention, and on 5th Oct., when the troops of
the sections which favoured the royal cause approached, Barras for a second
time received the chief command of the forces of the Convention. On this
occasion he employed General Bonaparte, for whom he procured the chief
command of the army of the interior, and afterwards the command of the army
in Italy. From the events of the 18th Fructidor (4th Sept., 1797) he
governed absolutely until the 13th June, 1799, when Siéyès entered the
Directory, and in alliance with Bonaparte procured his downfall in the
revolution of the 18th Brumaire (9th Nov., 1799). He afterwards resided at
Brussels, Marseilles, Rome, and Montpellier under surveillance. His
_Memoirs_ (in four volumes) were published in French and in English in
1895-6.

BAR´RATRY, in commerce, any fraud committed by the master or mariners of a
ship, whereby the owners, freighters, or insurers are injured; as by
deviation from the proper course of the voyage, by the captain, for his own
private purposes; fraudulent negligence; embezzlement of any part of the
cargo, &c.

BARRATRY, COMMON, in law, the stirring up of lawsuits and quarrels between
other persons, the party guilty of this offence being indictable as a
_common barrator_ or _barretor_. The commencing of suits in the name of a
fictitious plaintiff is common barratry. In old Scots law it denotes the
taking of bribes by a judge.

BARREL, a well-known variety of wooden vessel; but the term is also used as
a definite measure and weight. A barrel of beer is 36 gallons, of flour 196
lb., of beef or pork 200 lb. The Italian _barile_ varies from 7 to 31
English gallons; the French _barrique_ of Bordeaux contains 50 English
gallons = 228 French litres.

BARREL-ORGAN, a musical instrument usually carried by street musicians, in
which a barrel, studded with pegs or staples, when turned round, opens a
series of valves to admit air to a set of pipes, or acts upon wire strings
like those of the piano, thus producing a fixed series of tunes.

BARREN GROUNDS, a large tract in the North-West Territories of Canada,
extending northwards from Churchill River to the Arctic Ocean between Great
Bear and Great Slave Lake and Hudson's Bay. It largely consists of swamps,
lakes, and bare rock.

BARRHEAD´, a town, Scotland, Renfrewshire, on the Levern, 7 miles S.W. of
Glasgow; chief industries: printing of cottons, the spinning of cotton
yarn, dyeing, bleaching, iron and brass founding, and sanitary ware. Pop.
11,387.

BARRIE, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 55 miles N.W. Toronto,
picturesquely situated on Lake Simcoe, a favourite summer resort. Pop.
6420.

BARRIE, Sir James Matthew, a novelist and playwright, born in 1860 at
Kirriemuir, Forfarshire; studied at Edinburgh University, graduating as
M.A. in 1882. After working on a Nottingham journal he was a journalist in
London. His first book, _Better Dead_ (1887), a satire on London life, was
followed by the highly successful _Auld Licht Idylls_ (1888), with its
sequel _A Window in Thrums_ (that is, Kirriemuir) (1889). Among his novels
and tales are _When a Man's Single_, _My Lady Nicotine_, _The Little
Minister_, _Sentimental Tommy_, _Tommy and Grizel_, _The Little White
Bird_. Successful plays are _Peter and Wendy_, _The Professor's Love
Story_, _The Little Minister_ (based on the novel), _The Admirable
Crichton_, _Quality Street_, _Little Mary_, _Peter Pan_, _What Every Woman
Knows_, _Dear Brutus_, _A Kiss for Cinderella_, _Mary Rose_. His plays on
the whole have been even more successful than his other works. He was
created a baronet in 1913, and elected Rector of the University of St.
Andrews in 1919.--Cf. J. A. Hammerton, _J. M. Barrie and his Books_.

BARRIER REEF, a coral reef, or rather series of reefs, extending for 1260
miles off the N. E. coast of Australia, at a distance from land ranging
from 10 to 100 miles. In sailing along this coast, steamers generally take
the route inside the reef, where there is a channel about 12 fathoms deep
throughout, protected by the reefs themselves; the outer channel is safer
for sailing vessels.

BARRIER TREATY, the treaty (1718) by which, when the Spanish Netherlands
were ceded to Austria, the Dutch secured the right to garrison several
border fortresses of the country at the expense of Austria, to serve as a
barrier against France. It was declared void in 1781 by Joseph II.

BAR´RINGTON, Daines, son of Viscount Barrington, lawyer, antiquarian, and
naturalist, born 1727, died 1800. He wrote many papers for the Royal
Society and the Society of Antiquaries; published some separate works, and
was a correspondent of White of Selborne, who addressed to him a number of
the letters in _The Natural History of Selborne_.

BAR´RISTER, in England or Ireland, an advocate or pleader, who has been
admitted by one of the Inns of Court, viz. the Inner Temple, Middle Temple,
Lincoln's Inn, or Gray's Inn, to plead at the bar. It is they who speak
before all the higher courts, being instructed in regard to the case they
have in hand by means of the _brief_ which they receive from the solicitor
who may happen to engage their services, and which has a certain fee
endorsed upon it as the sum to be paid for the barrister's services in the
case. Before a student can be admitted to the bar he must have been a
member of one of those societies, and have kept twelve terms there. The
examinations, which had dwindled into mere forms, have been revived and
made more stringent. Barristers are sometimes called _utter_ or _outer
barristers_, to distinguish them from the king's counsel, who sit within
the bar in the courts and are distinguished by a silk gown. Barristers are
also spoken of as _counsel_, as in the phrase _opinion of counsel_, that
is, a written opinion on a case obtained from a barrister before whom the
facts have been laid. All judges are selected from the barristers. A
barrister cannot maintain an action for his fees, which are considered
purely honorary. A _revising barrister_ is a barrister appointed to revise
the list of persons in any locality who have a vote for a member of
Parliament. The term corresponding to barrister is in Scotland _advocate_,
in the United States _counsellor-at-law_; but the position of the latter is
not quite the same.--Cf. J. R. V. Marchant, _Barrister-at-law_.

BAR´ROS, João de, Portuguese historian, born 1496. He was attached to the
Court of King Emmanuel, who, after the publication in 1520 of Barros'
romance, _The Emperor Clarimond_, urged him to undertake a history of the
Portuguese in India, which appeared thirty-two years later. King John III
appointed Barros Governor of the Portuguese settlements in Guinea, and
General Agent for these colonies, further presenting him in 1530 with the
province of Maranham, in Brazil, for the purpose of colonization. For his
losses by the last enterprise the king indemnified him, and he died in
retirement in 1570. Besides his standard work, the _Decadas_, a history of
the Portuguese in India (a complete edition of which appeared at Lisbon
between 1778 and 1788), he wrote a moral dialogue on compromise, and the
first _Portuguese Grammar_.

BARRO´SA, a village, Spain, near the S. W. coast of Andalusia, near which
General Graham, when abandoned by the Spaniards, defeated a superior French
force in 1811.

BAR´ROW, a river in the south-east of Ireland, province Leinster, rising on
the borders of the King's and Queen's Counties, and after a southerly
course joining the Suir in forming Waterford harbour. It is next in
importance to the Shannon, and is navigable for vessels of 200 tons for 25
miles above the sea. Its principal tributary is the Nore.

BAR´ROW, Isaac, an eminent English mathematician and divine, born in London
in 1630; studied at the Charterhouse and at Trinity College, Cambridge, of
which he became a fellow in 1649. After a course of medical studies he
turned to divinity, mathematics, and astronomy, and took his M. A. degree
in 1652, and, failing to obtain the Cambridge Greek professorship, went
abroad. In 1659 he was ordained; in 1660 elected Greek professor at
Cambridge; in 1662 professor of geometry in Gresham College; and in 1663
Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge, a post which he resigned to
Newton in 1669. In 1670 he was created D. D., in 1672 master of Trinity
College, and in 1675 vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. He died in
1677. His principal mathematical works (written in Latin) were: _Euclidis
Elementa_ (1655); _Euclidis Data_ (1657); _Mathematicæ Lectiones_ (1664-6);
_Lectiones Opticæ_ (1669); _Lectiones Geometricæ_ (1670); _Archimedis
Opera_; _Apollonii Conicorum lib. iv_; _Theodosii Spherica_, (1675). All
his English works, which are theological, were left in MS., and published
by Dr. Tillotson in 1685, the best edition being that prepared by the Rev.
A. Napier in 1859. As a mathematician Barrow was deemed inferior only to
Newton. The Latin edition of his mathematical works was prepared by Whewell
in 1860.

BARROW, Sir John, Bart., geographer and man of letters, born in 1764 in
Lancashire. At the age of sixteen he went in a whaler to Greenland; and
later on was teacher of mathematics in a school at Greenwich. In 1792 he
was sent with Lord Macartney, in his embassy to China, to take charge of
philosophical instruments for presentation to the Chinese emperor. His
account of this journey was of great value, and not less so was the account
of his travels in South Africa, whither he went in 1797 as secretary to
Macartney. In 1804 he was appointed second secretary to the Admiralty, a
post occupied by him for forty years. In 1835 he was made a baronet; and he
died in 1848, three years after his retirement. Besides the accounts of his
own travels, he published lives of Earl Macartney, Lord Anson, and Lord
Howe; _Voyages of Discovery and Research within the Arctic Regions_; an
_Autobiography_ written at the age of eighty-three, &c.

BAR´ROW-IN-FUR´NESS, a seaport, county and parliamentary borough of
Lancashire, in the district of Furness, opposite the Island of Walney, a
town that has increased from a fishing-hamlet with 100 inhabitants in 1848
to a town of 74,254 inhabitants in 1921. Its prosperity is due to the mines
of red hematite iron-ore which abound in the district, and to the railway
rendering its excellent natural harbour available. It has several large
docks, besides graving-docks, a floating dock capable of receiving vessels
of 3000 tons, a large timber pond, &c. There is an extensive trade in
timber, cattle, grain, and flour; and iron-ore and pig-iron are largely
shipped. It has numerous blast-furnaces, and one of the largest
Bessemer-steel works in the world. Besides ironworks, a large business is
done in shipbuilding, the making of railway wagons and rolling-stock,
ropes, sails, bricks, &c. A town hall, erected at a cost of £60,000, was
opened in 1887. Barrow-in-Furness returns one member to Parliament.

[Illustration: Barrows]

BAR´ROWS, mounds of earth or stones raised to mark the resting-place of the
dead, and distinguished, according to their shape, as _long_, _bowl_,
_bell_, _cone_, and _broad_ barrows. The practice of barrow-burial is of
unknown antiquity and almost universal, barrows being found all over
Europe, in Northern Africa, Asia Minor, Afghanistan, Western India, and in
America. In the earliest barrows the enclosed bodies were simply laid upon
the ground, with stone or bone implements and weapons beside them. In
barrows of later date the remains are generally enclosed in a stone cist.
Frequently cremation preceded the erection of the barrow, the ashes being
enclosed in an urn or cist. A detailed description of an ancient
barrow-burial is given in the Anglo-Saxon poem _Beowulf_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Canon W. Greenwell, _British Barrows_; J. Anderson, _Scotland in Pagan
Times_; W. C. Borlase, _The Dolmens of Ireland_.

BARROW STRAIT, the connecting channel between Lancaster Sound and Baffin's
Bay on the east and the Polar Ocean on the west. Named after Sir John
Barrow.

BARRY, a seaport of S. Wales, Glamorganshire, 7 miles south-west of
Cardiff, with large docks, exporting much coal. Pop. (1921), 38,927.

BAR´RY, Sir Charles, an English architect, born in London, 1795. After
executing numerous important buildings, such as the Reform Clubhouse,
London, St. Edward's School, Birmingham, &c., he was appointed architect of
the new Houses of Parliament at Westminster, with the execution of which he
was occupied for more than twenty-four years. He was elected a Royal
Academician in 1844, was knighted in 1852, and died suddenly in 1860.

BARRY, Comtesse Du. See _Du Barry_.

BARRY, Edward Middleton, R.A. (1830-80), son of Sir Charles Barry, was also
a distinguished architect, and designed many important buildings, though he
was disappointed in regard to his plans for the Albert Memorial, National
Gallery, and New Law Courts.

BARRY, James, a painter and writer on art, born at Cork, 1741; studied
abroad with the aid of Burke; was elected Royal Academician on his return;
and worked seven years on the paintings for the hall of the Society for the
Encouragement of the Arts. His first picture which attracted attention was
_St. Patrick baptizing the King of Cashel_. In 1773 he published his
_Inquiry into the Real and Imaginary Obstructions to the Increase of the
Arts in England_, and in 1782 was elected professor of painting to the
Academy. He was expelled in 1797 on the ground of his authorship of the
_Letter to the Society of Dilettanti_. His chief painting was his _Victors
at Olympia_. He died in 1806.

BARRY CORNWALL. See _Procter, Bryan Waller_.

BAR´SABBAS, surnamed Justus, son of Alpheus, brother of James the Less and
of Judas, and one of the candidates for the apostolical office left vacant
by Judas Iscariot. According to tradition, he was afterwards Bishop of
Eleutheropolis, near Jerusalem, and suffered martyrdom. Another Barsabbas,
surnamed Judas, supposed to be the brother of the above, is mentioned in
the _Acts_ as a companion of St. Paul and Barnabas at Antioch. He is
supposed to have died in Jerusalem at a very advanced age.

BAR-SHOT, a double-headed shot consisting of two pieces connected by a bar.

BARSI, a town of India, in Sholapur district, Bombay, 43 miles north of
Sholapur and 128 miles east of Poona, with a trade in cotton, oil, &c. Pop.
21,000.

BAR-SUR-AUBE (b[.a]r-s[.u]r-[=o]b), an ancient town, France, department
Aube, where, in 1814, a hotly-contested action was fought between Napoleon
and the Allies. Pop. 4533.

BART, BARTH, or BAERT (bärt), Jean, a famous French sailor, born at
Dunkirk, 1650, the son of a poor fisherman. He became captain of a
privateer, and after some brilliant exploits was appointed captain in the
royal navy. In recognition of his further services he was made commodore,
subsequently receiving letters of nobility. Brusque, if not vulgar, in
manner, and ridiculed by the Court for his indifference to ceremony, he
made the navy of the nation everywhere respected, and furnished some of the
most striking chapters in the romance of naval warfare. After the Peace of
Ryswick he lived quietly at Dunkirk, and died there while equipping a fleet
to take part in the War of the Spanish Succession, 1702.

BARTAS (b[.a]r-tä), Guillaume de Salluste du, a French poet, termed 'the
divine' by contemporary English writers, born 1544. Principal work, _La
Semaine ou la Création du Monde_, a poem on the creation, translated into
English by Joshua Sylvester. It is said to have had a considerable
influence on Milton's _Paradise Lost_. He died of wounds received at Ivry,
1590.

BARTFELD (b[.a]rt´felt), an old town in Czecho-Slovakia, formerly Hungary,
county of Saros, on the Tepl, with mineral springs in the neighbourhood.
Pop. 6160, mostly Slovaks.

BARTH (bärt), Heinrich, African traveller, born at Hamburg, 1821, died in
1865. He graduated at the University of Berlin as Ph.D. in 1844, and set
out in 1845 to explore all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean.
The first volume of his _Wanderungen durch die Küstenländer des
Mittelmeeres_ was published in 1849, in which year he was invited by the
British Government to join Dr. Overweg in accompanying Richardson's
expedition to Central Africa. The expedition set out from Tripoli in Feb.,
1850, and, in spite of the death both of Richardson and Overweg, Barth did
not return to Tripoli till the autumn of 1855. His explorations, which
extended over an area of about 2,000,000 sq. miles, determined the course
of the Niger and the true nature of the Sahara. The English account of it
was entitled _Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa_ (5
vols., 1857-8). An important work on the African languages was left
unfinished.

BARTH, Jean. See _Bart_.

BARTHÉLEMY (b[.a]r-t[=a]l-m[=e]), Jean Jacques, French author, born 1716.
He was educated under the Jesuits, for holy orders, but declined all offers
of clerical promotion above the rank of Abbé He gained considerable repute
as a worker in philology and archæology; and after his appointment as
Director of the Royal Cabinet of Medals, in 1753, spent some time
travelling in Italy collecting medals and antiquities. His best-known work,
not inaptly characterized by himself as an unwieldy compilation, was his
_Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grèce_ (1787). It was very popular and was
translated into various tongues. Though taking no part in the revolution,
he was arrested on a charge of being an aristocrat in 1793, but was set at
liberty, and subsequently offered the post of librarian of the National
Library. He died in 1795.

BARTHÉLMY-SAINT-HILAIRE (b[.a]r-t[=a]l-m[=e]-san-t[=e]-l[=a]r), Jules,
French scholar and statesman, born 1805, died in 1895. He was professor of
Greek and Latin philosophy in the Collège de France, but resigned the chair
after the _coup d'état_ of 1852 and refused to take the oath. He was
reappointed in 1862; and in 1869 was returned to the Corps Législatif.
After the revolution he was a member of the National Assembly; and was
elected Senator for life in 1876. He published a translation of Aristotle,
and works on Buddhism, Mohammed and Mohammedanism, the Vedas, &c.

BARTHEZ (b[.a]r-t[=a]), Paul Joseph, an eminent French physician, born at
Montpellier 1734, died 1806. At Montpellier he founded a medical school,
which acquired a reputation throughout all Europe. Having settled in Paris,
he was appointed by the king consulting physician, and by the Duke of
Orleans his first physician. The Revolution deprived him of the greatest
part of his fortune, and drove him from Paris, but Napoleon brought him
forth again, and loaded him in his advanced age with dignities. Among his
numerous writings may be mentioned _Nouvelle Mécanique des Mouvements de
l'Homme et des Animaux_; _Traitement des Maladies Goutteuses_;
_Consultation de Médecine_, &c. His _Traité du Beau_ was published
posthumously (1807).

BARTHOLDI (b[.a]r-tol´d[=e]), Auguste, French sculptor, born 1834, died
1904; best known for his colossal statue of Liberty, now overlooking the
harbour of New York.

BARTHOLIN (bär´to-lin), Kaspar, Swedish writer, born 1585, died 1630. He
studied medicine, philosophy, and theology; was made doctor of medicine at
Basel in 1610, rector of the University of Copenhagen 1618, and professor
of theology 1624. His _Institutiones Anatomicæ_ was for long a standard
textbook in the universities.--His son, Thomas, born at Copenhagen 1616,
died 1680, was equally celebrated as a philologist, naturalist, and
physician. He was professor of anatomy at Copenhagen, 1648; physician to
the king, Christian V, in 1670; and Councillor of State, 1675.--His sons,
Kaspar (born 1654, died 1704) and Thomas (born 1659, died 1690) were also
highly distinguished--the former as an anatomist, the latter as an
archæologist.

BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE OF ST., the brutal slaughter of the French
Protestants, which began on 24th Aug., 1572, by secret orders from Charles
IX, at the instigation of his mother, Catherine de' Medici, and in which,
according to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, including women and children, were
murdered throughout the country. During the minority of Charles and the
regency of his mother, a long war raged in France between the Catholics and
Huguenots, the leaders of the latter being the Prince of Condé and Admiral
Coligny. In 1570 overtures were made by the Court to the Huguenots, which
resulted in a treaty of peace. This treaty blinded the chiefs of the
Huguenots, particularly Admiral Coligny, who was tired of the civil war.
The king appeared to have entirely disengaged himself from the influence of
the Guises and his mother; he invited Coligny to his Court, and honoured
him as a father. The most artful means were employed to increase this
delusion. The sister of the king was married to the Prince de Béarn (18th
Aug., 1572) in order to allure the most distinguished Huguenots to Paris.
On 22nd Aug. a shot from a window wounded the admiral. The king hastened to
visit him, and swore to punish the author of the villainy; but on the same
day he was induced by his mother to believe that the admiral had designs on
his life. "God's death!" he exclaimed; "kill the admiral; and not only him,
but all the Huguenots; let none remain to disturb us." The following night
Catherine held the council, which fixed the execution for the night of St.
Bartholomew, 24th Aug., 1572. After the assassination of Coligny, a bell
from the tower of the royal palace at midnight gave to the assembled
companies of burghers the signal for the general massacre of the Huguenots.
The Prince of Condé and the King of Navarre saved their lives by going to
mass and pretending to embrace the Catholic religion. By the king's orders
the massacre was extended throughout the whole kingdom; and the horrible
slaughter continued for thirty days in almost all the
provinces.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry White, _Massacre of St. Bartholomew and
History of the Religious Wars_; Lavisse, _Histoire de France_ (vol. vi).

BARTHOL´OMEW, ST., the apostle, is probably the same person as _Nathanael_,
mentioned in the _Gospel of St. John_ as an upright Israelite and one of
the first disciples of Jesus. He is said to have taught Christianity in the
south of Arabia, into which, according to Eusebius, he carried the _Gospel
of St. Matthew_ in the Hebrew language, and to have suffered martyrdom. The
ancient Church had an apocryphal gospel bearing his name, of which nothing
has been preserved. A festival is held in his memory on 24th Aug.

BARTHOLOMEW, ST., or ST. BARTHÉLEMY, an island, one of the West Indies, in
the Leeward group, belonging to France, about 24 miles in circumference. It
produces some tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, &c. Pop. 3000. The only town
is Gustavia. The island, occupied by France in 1648, was ceded to Sweden in
1784, but was again acquired by France in 1877 at the cost of 275,000
francs.

BARTHOLOMEW FAIR, a celebrated fair, established in the reign of Henry I
(1133), formerly held in West Smithfield, London, on St. Bartholomew's Day
(24th Aug., O. S.), but abolished since 1855.

BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL, ST., one of the great hospitals of London, formerly
the priory of St. Bartholomew, and made a hospital by Henry VIII in 1547.
On an average over 6000 patients are annually admitted to the hospital,
while about 150,000 out-patients are treated at its out-door dispensaries.
A medical school is attached to it, attended by more than four hundred
students.

BARTHOU, Louis, French statesman, born at Orloron-Sainte-Marie in 1862. He
practised as an advocate until he entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1889.
He was a member of several Cabinets, and was appointed Premier in March,
1913, but resigned in December of the same year. He was Minister of Foreign
Affairs in Painlevé's Cabinet during the European War. In April, 1922, he
headed the French delegation to the Genoa Conference. His works include
_Mirabeau_; _Lamartine, Orateur_; _Les Amours d'un Poète_, &c.

[Illustration: Bartizan, Micklegate Bar, York.

_a_, _a_, Balistraria]

BAR´TIZAN, a small overhanging turret pierced with one or more apertures
for archers, projecting generally from the angles on the top of a tower, or
from the parapet, or elsewhere, as in a mediæval castle. The word, probably
a corruption of _bratticing_, was apparently first used by Sir Walter
Scott.

BART´LETT, William Henry, an English artist, born 1809, died, on a voyage
from Malta to Marseilles, 1854. He travelled extensively abroad, and the
illustrated works descriptive of the countries visited by him (Switzerland,
the Bosporus and the Danube, Syria and Palestine, Egypt, Canada, United
States, &c.) obtained great success with the public, the engravings being
from sketches by his own pencil.

BARTOLINI (b[.a]r-to-l[=e]´n[=e]), Lorenzo, a celebrated Italian sculptor,
born at Florence about 1778, died 1850. He studied and worked in Paris, and
was patronized by Napoleon. On the fall of the Empire he returned to
Florence, where he continued to exercise his profession. Among his greater
works may be mentioned his groups of _Charity_, and _Hercules and Lichas_,
a colossal bust of Napoleon, and the beautiful monument in the cathedral of
Lausanne, erected in memory of Lady Stratford Canning. Bartolini ranks next
to Canova among modern Italian sculptors.

BARTOLOMMEO (-m[=a]´o), Fra, or BACCIO DELLA PORTA (b[.a]ch[=o]´), Italian
painter, born at Florence 1475, died there 1517. He studied painting in
Florence, and acquired a more perfect knowledge of art from the works of
Leonardo da Vinci. He was an admirer and follower of Savonarola, on whose
death he took the Dominican habit, and assumed the name of Fra Bartolommeo.
He was the friend of Michael Angelo and Raphael; painted many religious
pictures, among them a _Saint Mark_ and a _Saint Sebastian_, which are
greatly admired. His colouring, in vigour and brilliancy, comes near to
that of Titian and Giorgione. His _Holy Family_ is in the National Gallery,
London.

BARTOLOZZI (-lot´s[=e]), Francesco, a distinguished engraver, born at
Florence in 1725, or, according to others, in 1730, died at Lisbon 1815. In
Venice, in Florence, and Milan he etched several pieces on sacred subjects,
and then went to London, where he received great encouragement. After forty
years' residence in London, he went to Lisbon on the invitation of the
Prince Regent of Portugal. He became director of the National Academy at
Lisbon, where he remained till his death.

BAR´TON, Andrew, one of Scotland's first great naval commanders; flourished
during the reign of James IV, and belonged to a family which for two
generations had produced able and successful seamen. In 1497 he commanded
the escort which accompanied Perkin Warbeck from Scotland. After doing
considerable damage to English shipping, he was killed in an engagement
with two ships which had been specially fitted out against him (1512).

BARTON, Bernard, known as the Quaker poet, born at Carlisle 1784, died
1849. In 1806 he removed to Woodbridge, in Suffolk, where he was long clerk
in a bank. He published _Metrical Effusions_ (1812); _Poems by an Amateur_
(1818); _Poems_ (1820); _Napoleon, and other Poems_ (1822); _Poetic Vigils_
(1824); _Devotional Verses_ (1826); _A New-year's Eve, and other Poems_
(1828); besides many contributions to the annuals and magazines. His
poetry, though deficient in force, is pleasing, fluent, and graceful.
Barton is chiefly remembered as the friend of Charles Lamb, with whom he
began to correspond in 1822.

BARTON, Elizabeth, a country girl born in 1506 at Aldington, in Kent
(commonly called the Holy Maid or the Nun of Kent), who gained some
notoriety in the reign of Henry VIII. She was subject to epileptic fits,
and was persuaded by certain priests that she was a prophetess inspired by
God. Among other things she prophesied that Henry, if he persisted in his
purpose of divorce and second marriage, would not be king for seven months
longer, and would die a shameful death, and be succeeded by Catherine's
daughter. On arrest the imposture was confessed, and Barton and six others
were executed 5th May, 1534.

BARTON-UPON-HUMBER, a town of England, in Lincolnshire, on the Humber. It
contains two old churches, one of which is an undoubted specimen of
Anglo-Saxon architecture. Pop. (1921), 6454.

BARTSCH (b[.a]rch), Karl Friedrich, a German scholar, born in 1832, died in
1888, whose labours have been of immense service in elucidating the older
literature and language of his native country as well as in the field of
the Romance tongues. Among his publications were editions of the
_Nibelungenlied_, _Walther von der Vogelweide_, _Kudrun_, &c.;
_Chrestomathie de l'ancien Français_; _Provençalisches Lesebuch_;
translations of Burns, of Dante, &c.

BARTSIA, a genus of Scrophulariaceæ, green half-parasites upon roots of
grasses. Three species are British; _B. alpina_ has underground shoots, not
unlike those of the allied Toothwort, with fleshy scale-leaves bearing
water-secreting glands.

BARU (ba-rö´), a woolly substance used for caulking ships, stuffing
cushions, &c., found at the base of the leaves of an East India sago palm.

BARUCH (b[=a]´ruk; literally, 'blessed'), a Hebrew scribe, friend and
assistant to the prophet Jeremiah. At the captivity, after the destruction
of Jerusalem, Jeremiah and Baruch were permitted to remain in Palestine,
but were afterwards carried into Egypt, 588 B.C. His subsequent life is
unknown. One of the apocryphal books bears the name of Baruch. The Council
of Trent gave it a place in the canon, but its authenticity was not
admitted either by the ancient Jews or the early Christian fathers.

BARWOOD, a dyewood obtained from _Pterocarpus angolensis_, a tall tree of
West Africa. It is chiefly used for giving orange-red dyes on cotton yarns.
See _Camwood_; _Sandalwood_.

BARY´TA, oxide of barium (BaO) is found in nature associated with sulphuric
acid as barium sulphate, heavy-spar or Barytes (BaSO_4), and with carbon
dioxide as barium carbonate or witherite (BaCO_3). Baryta is a heavy
greyish powder of specific gravity 4.7, obtained by burning barium in
oxygen or from barium nitrate or barium carbonate. It has a strong affinity
for water, and combines with it in the evolution of lead and the formation
of barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)_2). Barium oxide is manufactured in quantity
for the preparation of barium dioxide (BaO_2), from which oxygen was at one
time obtained. (See _Oxygen_.) Baryta forms white crystalline salts with
acids, which are all poisonous with the exception of barium sulphate.
Barium hydroxide is soluble in water, forming a strongly-alkaline solution,
Baryta water, which is much used in chemical analysis. Barium sulphate is a
white substance insoluble in water and in acids, and is the source of most
of the barium compounds. Artificially-prepared barium sulphate is used as a
pigment, _Permanent White_, also in the paper industry and in vulcanizing
rubber. Other salts of barium of importance are barium chloride, barium
nitrate, and barium carbonate, used in pyrotechny and in glass manufacture.

BARYTES (AMERICAN BARITE), a rhombic mineral consisting of barium sulphate
(specific gravity 4.5) occurring in veins and extensive masses as a
subsequent deposit in various rocks. Colourless to brownish, the colourless
massive examples being in great demand as a substitute for white lead in
paint and for other purposes. Barytes is mined in the north of England and
in County Cork.

BARYTONE. See _Baritone_.

[Illustration: Basaltic Columns, Fingal's Cave, Island of Staffa]

BASALT (ba-s[a:]lt´), a well-known igneous rock occurring in the ancient
trap and the recent volcanic series of rocks, but more abundantly in the
former. It is a fine-grained, heavy, crystalline rock, consisting of
felspar, augite, and magnetic iron, and sometimes contains a little
olivine. Basalt is amorphous, columnar, tabular, or globular. The columnar
form is straight or curved, perpendicular or inclined, sometimes nearly
horizontal; the diameter of the columns from 3 to 18 inches, sometimes with
transverse hemispherical joints, in which the convex part of one is
inserted in the concavity of another; and the height from 5 to 150 feet.
The forms of the columns generally are pentagonal, hexagonal, or octagonal.
When decomposed it is found also in round masses, either spherical or
compressed and lenticular. These rounded masses are sometimes composed of
concentric layers, with a nucleus, and sometimes of prisms radiating from a
centre. Fingal's Cave, in the Island of Staffa, furnishes a remarkable
instance of basaltic columns. The pillars of the Giant's Causeway, Ireland,
composed of this stone, and exposed to the roughest sea for ages, have
their angles as perfect as those at a distance from the waves. Basalt often
assumes curious and fantastic forms, as, for example, those masses
popularly known as 'Samson's Ribs' at Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and 'Lot'
and 'Lot's Wife' near the south coast of St. Helena.

BASCHI (b[.a]s'k[=e]), Matteo, an Italian Minorite friar of the convent of
Montefalcone, founder and first general of the Capuchin branch of the
Franciscans. He died at Venice, 1552.

BAS´CINET, or BAS´NET, a light helmet, sometimes with, but more frequently
without, a visor, in general use for English infantry in the reigns of
Edward II and III and Richard II.

BASE, in architecture, that part of a column which is between the top of
the pedestal and the bottom of the shaft; where there is no pedestal, the
part between the bottom of the column and the pavement. The term is also
applied to the lower projecting part of the wall of a room, consisting of a
plinth and its mouldings.

BASE, in chemistry, a term applied to those compound substances which unite
with acids to form salts. The most important bases are oxides of metals,
and when brought in contact with acids their oxygen combines with the
hydrogen of the acid to form water. They are divided into several sections,
of which the most important are the alkalies. These substances are the
hydrates of the so-called alkaline metals, and may be compared to water in
which part of the hydrogen is replaced by a metallic radicle. Potash, for
instance, is the hydrate of the metal potassium. The alkalies are readily
soluble in water, restore the blue colour to reddened litmus, and give a
green with red cabbage, dahlia, and other vegetable blues, and convert the
yellow of turmeric into a brownish red. Most of the bases, however, are
insoluble in water, and without any effect on vegetable colours. See
_Alkali_; _Acids_.

BASE, a term in tactics, signifying the original line on which an offensive
army forms; or any safe position from which an army takes the field to
invade an enemy's country; upon which it depends for its supplies,
reinforcements, &c.; to which it sends back its sick and wounded; and upon
which it would generally fall back in case of reverse and retreat.

BASE-BALL, the national game of the United States of America. It holds the
position there that is held by cricket in England. It is a scientific
development of the old English game of 'rounders', and is played by nine
players a side. A diamond-shaped space of ground, 90 feet on the side, is
marked out, the corners being the 'bases'. One side takes the field and the
other sends a man to bat. When the field side takes its place, the
'pitcher', standing inside the ground near the centre and in front of the
batsman, delivers a ball to the batsman, who stands at the 'home base'
within a certain marked space, and who tries to drive it out of the reach
of the fielders, and far enough out of the field to enable him to run round
the bases, which scores a run. If he cannot run round all, he may stop at
any one, and may be followed by another batsman. If the ball is caught by
an opponent before touching the ground when the batsman is running, or if
he is touched by the ball, he is out (also in several other cases), and
when three on his side are put out, the field side take the bat. Nine of
these innings make a game, which the highest score wins. The bat is of a
cylindrical shape, not more than 2½ inches in diameter nor more than 42
inches long. The ball is about 9 inches in circumference and weighs 5 - 5¼
oz. Base-ball is not a very old game, having attained its present position
only since about 1845. Many professional players now engage in it. Attempts
have been made to introduce it into Britain and Australia, but with little
success.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Official Base-ball Guide_, in the Spalding
Athletic Library (annually); R. H. Barbour, _The Book of School and College
Sports_; A. G. Spalding, _America's National Game_; W. J. Clarke and F. T.
Dawson, _Base-ball_.

BASEDOW (bä'ze-d[=o]), John Bernhard, German educationalist, born in
Hamburg 1723, died in 1790. After having gained considerable experience as
a teacher, especially at the gymnasium of Altona, he published a number of
works dealing with mental and moral philosophy, the teaching of religion
and morality, &c., some of which roused a great amount of discussion. His
watchword was "Everything according to nature". In 1771 he was called to
Dessau by Prince Leopold, and in 1774 took charge of an educational
institution in which his views were to receive practical exemplification.
This institution, which he called the _Philanthropinum_, was a school free
from sectarian bias, and in which the pupils were to be disciplined in all
studies--physical, intellectual, and moral. This school led to the
establishment of some similar ones, though Basedow retired from it in 1776,
not having been very successful in the practical working out of his
theories. His place was taken by Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746-1818). He
henceforth devoted himself to authorship, writing especially on religious
subjects. The chief feature of Basedow's system is the full development of
the faculties of the young, in pursuance of the notions of Locke and
Rousseau. His name still lives in the history of education, and his efforts
were not without result.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. Meyer, _Leben, Charakter und
Schriften Basedows_ (2 vols., 1791-2); A. Pinloche, _La Réforme de
l'Education en Allemagne au dix-huitième Siècle_; O. H. Lang, _Basedow, His
Life and Work_.

BASEL (bä'zl; Fr. _Bâle_), a canton and city of Switzerland. The canton
borders on Alsace and Baden, has an area of 177 sq. miles, and a pop. of
222,000 (1916), nearly all speaking German. It is divided into two
half-cantons, Basel city (Basel-Stadt) and Basel country (Basel-Land). The
former consists of the city and its precincts, the remainder of the canton
forming Basel-Land, the capital of which is Liestal. The whole canton
belongs to the valley of the Rhine. The soil is generally well cultivated;
and the climate in the low grounds allows of the cultivation of the vine
and other fruits.--The city of _Basel_ is 43 miles N. of Bern, and consists
of two parts on opposite sides of the Rhine, and communicating by three
bridges, one of them an ancient wooden structure, besides a railway bridge.
The older portions are irregularly built with narrow streets, and are now
surrounded with pleasant promenades where the old fortifications existed.
Basel has an ancient cathedral, founded 1010, containing the tombs of
Erasmus and other eminent persons; the fine modern church of St. Elizabeth;
town hall (1508); a university, founded by Pius II in 1460; a seminary for
missionaries; a bible society; a museum containing the valuable public
library, pictures, &c. The industries include silk ribbons (8000 hands),
metal articles, tanning, paper, aniline dyes and other chemicals, brewing,
&c.; and the position of Basel, a little below where the Rhine becomes
navigable and at the terminus of the French and German railways, has made
it the emporium of a most important trade. At Basel was signed the treaty
of peace between France and Prussia, 5th April, and that between France and
Spain, 22nd July, 1795. Pop. (with suburbs), 137,000 (latest estimate).

BASEL, COUNCIL OF, a celebrated oecumenical council of the Church, convoked
by Pope Martin V and his successor Eugenius IV. It was opened 14th Dec.,
1431, under the presidency of the Cardinal Legate Juliano Cesarini of St.
Angelo. The objects of its deliberations were to extirpate heresies (that
of the Hussites in particular), to unite all Christian nations under the
Catholic Church, to put a stop to wars between Christian princes, and to
reform the Church. But its first steps towards a peaceable reconciliation
with the Hussites were displeasing to the Pope, who authorized the Cardinal
Legate to dissolve the Council. That body opposed the pretensions of the
Pope, and, notwithstanding his repeated orders to remove to Italy,
continued its deliberations under the protection of the Emperor Sigismund,
of the German princes, and of France. On the Pope continuing to issue bulls
for its dissolution, the Council commenced a formal process against him,
and cited him to appear at its bar. On his refusal to comply with this
demand the Council declared him guilty of contumacy, and, after Eugenius
had opened a counter-synod at Ferrara, decreed his suspension from the
papal chair (24th Jan., 1438). The removal of Eugenius, however, seemed so
impracticable that some prelates, who till then had been the boldest and
most influential speakers in the Council, including the Cardinal Legate
Juliano, left Basel, and went over to the party of Eugenius. The Archbishop
of Arles, Cardinal Louis Allemand, was now made first President of the
Council, and directed its proceedings with much vigour. In May, 1439, it
declared Eugenius, on account of his disobedience of its decrees, a
heretic, and formally deposed him. Excommunicated by Eugenius, they
proceeded, in a regular conclave, to elect the Duke Amadeus of Savoy to the
papal chair. Felix V--the name he adopted--was acknowledged by only a few
princes, cities, and universities. After this the moral power of the
Council declined; its last formal session was held 16th May, 1443, though
it was not technically dissolved till 7th May, 1449, when it gave in its
adhesion to Nicholas V, the successor of Eugenius. The decrees of the
Council of Basel are admitted into none of the Roman collections, and are
considered of no authority by the Roman lawyers. They are regarded,
however, as of authority in points of canon law in France and Germany, as
their regulations for the Reformation of the Church have been adopted in
the pragmatic sanctions of both countries, and, as far as they regard
clerical discipline, have been actually enforced.

BASE-LINE, in surveying, a straight line measured with the utmost precision
to form the starting-point of the triangulation of a country or district.
See _Geodesy_.

BASH. See _Mining_.

BA´SHAN, the name in Scripture for a singularly rich tract of country lying
beyond the Jordan between Mount Hermon and the land of Gilead. At the time
of the Exodus it was inhabited by the Amorites, who were overpowered by the
Israelites, and the land assigned to the half-tribe of Manasseh. The
district was, and yet is, famous for its oak forests and its cattle.
Remains of ancient cities are common.

BASHAW, or BASHA. See _Pasha_.

BASHEE´ ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Chinese Sea between Luzon and
Formosa, long. 122° E.; lat. 20° 28´ to 20° 55´ N. They were discovered by
Dampier in 1687, and belong to the United States. The largest island is
Batan, with a population of 8000.

BASHI-BAZOOKS´, irregular troops in the Turkish army. They are mostly
Asiatics, and have had to be disarmed several times by the regular troops
on account of the barbarities by which they have rendered themselves
infamous.

BASH´KIRS, a tribe of Finno-Tartar origin, inhabiting the Russian
governments of Ufa, Orenburg, Perm, and Samara. They formerly roamed about
under their own princes in Southern Siberia, but in 1556 they voluntarily
placed themselves under the Russian sceptre. They are nominally
Mahommedans, and live by hunting, cattle-rearing, breeding of cattle and
horses, and keeping of bees. They are rude and warlike and partially
nomadic. They number about 1,000,000.--Cf. Ujfalvy, _Les Bashkirs_.

BASHKIRTSEV, Marie, Russian painter and authoress, born 1860, died 1884;
educated mostly outside of Russia, in France, Germany, and Italy; became an
accomplished linguist and musician, and studied art in Paris, attaining
high success, but overtaxing her system, with fatal results. She is best
known from her journal, an intimate personal record, interesting not only
as revealing her own peculiar character and intellectual gifts, but also
for notices of the notable personages with whom she came in contact. It has
been translated into various languages--into English by Mathilde Blind
(1890), who has also published _A Study of Marie Bashkirtsev_ (1892). A
number of her letters were also published in 1891.--Cf. _The Journal of
Marie Bashkirtsev, an Exposure and a Defence_.

BASIC SLAG, the slag or refuse-matter which is got in making basic steel,
and which, from the phosphate of lime it contains, is a valuable
fertilizer. See _Manures (Phosphatic)_.

BASIC STEEL. See _Steel_.

BASI´DIOMYCETES, one of the two sub-classes of the Eumycetes or septate
Fungi, including the bulk of the larger and more familiar saprophytic
types, such as the Mushroom, Toad-stools, Shelf-fungi, Puff-balls, and
Earth-stars, and also the important parasites known as the Rusts. They are
characterized by their principal spores being produced externally, usually
in fours, upon an organ called a _basidium_. The basidia are arranged in a
continuous layer (hymenium), and are usually massed together upon a
specialized fruit-body, of which an ordinary mushroom is a good example.
The principal subdivisions of the group, with representative genera, are as
follows:--

A. Basidia septate (Proto-Basidiomycetes).

1. Family Uredineæ (Rusts). Basidia transversely septate; teleutospores
present; parasites. Puccinia, Phragmidium, Melampsora.

2. Family Auricularineæ. Basidia transversely septate; no teleutospores;
saprophytes. Auricularia.

3. Family Tremellineæ. Basidia longitudinally septate; saprophytes.
Tremella.

B. Basidia not septate (Auto-Basidiomycetes).

4. Family Exobasidiineæ. Parasites without fruit-body; basidia exposed on
surface of host. Exobasidium.

5. Family Dacryomycetineæ. Fruit-body soft; hymenium on its surface;
saprophytes. Dacryomyces, Calocera.

6. Group Hymenomycetes (several families). Hymenium generally on gills, in
tubes, &c.; saprophytes or, less often, parasites. Agaricus Polyporus,
Hydnum.

7. Group Gastromycetes (several families). Hymenium within a closed
fruit-body, which does not open until the spores are ripe; saprophytes.
Ithyphallus, Lycoperdon.

The Ustilagineæ (Smuts) are often regarded as Basidiomycetes of a low type,
but it is more probable that they are allied to the Unicellular
Chytridineæ. The Basidiomycetes are the highest members of the Fungoid
alliance; their relations to the lower groups are obscure.

BASI´DIUM, the characteristic spore-producing organ of the Basidiomycetes.
Typically, e.g. in the Toad-stools, it is a club-shaped structure, produced
at its free end into four slender processes, the _sterigmata_, each of
which bears a _basidiospore_ at its tip. The young basidium contains two
nuclei, which later fuse; the fusion-nucleus then undergoes two successive
divisions, involving a reduction of chromosomes, and each of the four
resultant nuclei passes through a sterigma into a basidiospore. These
latter are thus seen to be carpospores, comparable to those of Red Algæ,
and to the ascospores of Ascomycetes. The basidia of Uredineæ (Rusts) and
of some other primitive Basidiomycetes are septate, but otherwise agree
with the type described above. See _Basidiomycetes_; _Carpospore_; _Rusts_.

BASIL. See _Basilius_.

BAS´IL, a labiate plant, _Oc[)i]mum basil[)i]cum_, a native of India, much
used in cookery, especially in France, and known more particularly as sweet
or common basil. Bush or lesser basil is _O. minimum_; wild basil belongs
to a different genus, being the _Calamintha Clinopodium_.

BASIL, ST., called the _Great_, one of the Greek fathers, was born in 329,
and made in 370 Bishop of Cæsarea in Cappadocia, where he died in 379. He
was distinguished by his efforts for the regulation of clerical discipline,
and, above all, his endeavours for the promotion of monastic life. The
Greek Church honours him as one of its most illustrious saints, and
celebrates his festival on 1st Jan. The vows of obedience, chastity, and
poverty framed by St. Basil are essentially the rules of all the orders of
Christendom, although he is particularly the father of the Eastern, as St.
Benedict is the patriarch of the Western orders.

BASILAN´, the principal island of the Sulu Archipelago, now belonging to
the Philippines, off the S.W. extremity of Mindanao, from which it is
separated by the Strait of Basilan. It is about 30 miles in length by 20
miles in breadth. Pop. about 8000.

BASILE´AN MANUSCRIPTS, two manuscripts of the Greek New Testament now in
the library of Basel. (1) A nearly complete uncial copy of the Gospels of
the eighth century; (2) a cursive copy of the whole New Testament except
the Apocalypse, tenth century.

BASIL´IAN LITURGY, that form for celebrating the Eucharist drawn up towards
the close of the fourth century by Basil the Great, still used in the Greek
Church.

BASILIAN MONKS, monks who strictly follow the rules of St. Basil, chiefly
belonging to the Greek Church.

[Illustration: Basilica di S'Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna]

BASIL´ICA, originally the name applied by the Romans to their public halls,
either of justice, of exchange, or other business. The plan of the basilica
was usually a rectangle divided into aisles by rows of columns, the middle
aisle being the widest, with a semicircular apse at the end, in which the
tribunal was placed. The ground-plan of these buildings was generally
followed in the early Christian churches, which, therefore, long retained
the name of basilica, and it is still applied to some of the churches in
Rome by way of distinction, and sometimes to other churches built in
imitation of the Roman basilicas.

BASILICA´TA, also called POTENZA, an Italian province, extending north from
the Gulf of Taranto, and corresponding pretty closely with the ancient
Lucania. Area, 3855 sq. miles; pop. 489,574 (1915).

BASIL´ICON, a name of several ointments, the chief ingredients of which are
wax, pitch, resin, and olive-oil.

BASIL´ICON DO´RON (the royal gift), the title of a book written by King
James I in 1599, containing a collection of precepts of the art of
government. It maintains the claim of the king to be sole head of the
Church. Printed at Edinburgh, 1603.

BASIL´IDES (d[=e]z), one of the most famous Gnostic teachers, a native of
Alexandria, who lived under the reigns of Adrian and Antoninus Pius about
A.D. 120-40. He was well acquainted with Christianity, but mixed it up with
the wildest dreams of the Gnostics, peopling the earth and the air with
multitudes of _æons_. He was also greatly influenced by Platonism and
Zoroastrianism. His disciples (Basilidians) were numerous in Syria, Egypt,
Italy, and Gaul, but they are scarcely heard of after the fourth century.

BAS´ILISK, a fabulous creature formerly believed to exist, and variously
regarded as a kind of serpent, lizard, or dragon, and sometimes identified
with the cockatrice. It inhabited the deserts of Africa, and its breath and
even its look was fatal. The name is now applied to a genus of saurian
reptiles (Basiliscus), belonging to the family Iguanidæ;, distinguished by
an elevated crest or row of scales, erectable at pleasure, which, like the
dorsal fins of some fishes, runs along the whole length of the back and
tail. The mitred or hooded basilisk (_B. mitr[=a]tus_) is especially
remarkable for a membranous bag at the back of the head, of the size of a
small hen's egg, which can be inflated with air at pleasure. The other
species have such hoods also, but of a less size. To this organ they owe
their name, which recalls the basilisk of fable, though in reality they are
exceedingly harmless and lively creatures. The _B. amboinensis_ is a native
of the Indian Archipelago, where it is much used for food. It frequents
trees overhanging water, into which it drops when alarmed.

BASIL´IUS I, a Macedonian, Emperor of the East, born A.D. 820, died 886. He
was of obscure origin, but having succeeded in gaining the favour of the
Emperor Michael III, he became his colleague in the Empire, 866. After the
assassination of Michael, 867, Basilius became emperor. Though he had
worked his way to the throne by a series of crimes, he proved an able and
equitable sovereign. The versatility, if not the depth, of his intellect is
strikingly displayed in his _Exhortations to his Son Leo_, which are still
extant.

BASILIUS II, Emperor of the East, born 958, died 1025. On the death of his
father, the Emperor Romanus the Younger, in 963, he was kept out of the
succession for twelve years by two usurpers. He began to reign in
conjunction with his brother Constantine, 975. His reign was spent in
almost perpetual warfare, his most important struggle being that which
resulted in the conquest of Bulgaria, 1018.

BA´SIN, in physical geography, the whole tract of country drained by a
river and its tributaries. The line dividing one river basin from another
is the water-shed, and by tracing the various water-sheds we divide each
country into its constituent basins. The basin of a loch or sea consists of
the basins of all the rivers which run into it.--In geology a basin is any
dipping or disposition of strata towards a common axis or centre, due to
upheaval and subsidence. It is sometimes used almost synonymously with
'formation' to express the deposits lying in a certain cavity or depression
in older rocks. The 'Paris basin' and 'London basin' are familiar
instances.

BA´SINGSTOKE, a town of England, county of Hants, 18 miles N.N.E. of
Winchester. It has a good trade in corn, malt, &c., and now gives its name
to one of the parliamentary divisions of the county. Pop. (1921), 12,718.

BAS´KERVILLE, John, celebrated English printer and type-founder, born in
1706, died 1775. He settled at Birmingham as a writing-master, subsequently
engaged in the manufacture of japanned works, and in 1750 commenced
printing. From his press came highly-prized editions of ancient and modern
classics, Bibles, prayer-books, &c., all beautifully-printed works. His
first work was a _Virgil_, published in 1757, followed by his famous
edition of Milton in 1758.

BASKET, a vessel or utensil of wicker-work, made of interwoven osiers or
willows, rushes, twigs, grasses, &c. The process of basket-making is very
simple, and appears to be well known among the very rudest peoples. The
ancient Britons excelled in the art, and their baskets were highly prized
in Rome.--Cf. T. Okey, _Introduction to the Art of Basket-making_.

BASKING-SHARK (_Sel[)a]ch[=e] maxima_ or _Cetorh[=i]nus maximus_), a
species of shark, so named from its habit of basking in the sun at the
surface of the water. It reaches the length of 40 feet, and its liver
yields a large quantity of oil. It frequents the northern seas, and is
known also as the sail-fish or sun-fish.

BASLE. See _Basel_.

BASOCHE. See _Bazoche_.

BASQUES (b[.a]sks), or BISCAYANS (in their own language, _Euscaldunac_), a
remarkable race of people dwelling partly in the south-west corner of
France (Basses-Pyrénées), but mostly in the north of Spain adjacent to the
Pyrenees. They are probably descendants of the ancient Iberi, who occupied
Spain before the Celts. They preserve their ancient language, former
manners, and national dances, and make admirable soldiers, especially in
guerrilla warfare. Their language is highly polysynthetic, and stands
isolated from other tongues of Europe. There are eight principal dialects,
which are not only distinguished by their pronunciation and grammatical
structure, but differ even in their vocabularies. The Basques, who number
about 600,000 (450,000 in Spain, and 150,000 in France), occupy in Spain
the provinces of Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Al[)a]va; in France parts of the
departments of the Upper and Lower Pyrenees, Ariége, and Upper Garonne. The
Basques are very religious and conservative in their religious practices.
Ignatius Loyola and Francis Xavier de Navarre were Basques.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Julien Vinson, _Les Basques et le pays Basque_; _Le Folk-lore du pays
Basque_; Michel, _Le pays Basque, sa population, sa langue, ses moeurs, sa
littérature, et sa musique_; Van Eys, _Outlines of a Basque Grammar_.

BASRA, BASSORA, or BASRAH, a city in Lower Mesopotamia, on the west bank of
the Shat-el-Arab (the united stream of the Tigris and Euphrates), about 50
miles from its mouth, and nearly 300 miles south-east of Bagdad. It is
surrounded by a wall about 10 miles in circuit, from 20 to 25 feet thick;
but much of the area enclosed is occupied by gardens, &c. The houses are
generally mean. A considerable transit trade is carried on here between the
Turkish and Persian dominions and India, and since communication by steamer
has been established with Bagdad and Bombay the prosperity of the town has
greatly increased. The chief exports are: dates, camels and horses, wool
and wheat; imports: coffee, indigo, rice, tissues, &c. The inhabitants are
estimated at 80,000; but in the eighteenth century they were said to number
150,000. The substitution of date and wheat cultivation for that of rice
has rendered the place much more healthy. The ruins of the ancient and more
famous Bassora--founded by Caliph Omar in 636, at one time a centre of
Arabic literature and learning and regarded as 'the Athens of the
East'--lie about 9 miles south-west of the modern town. The town was
occupied by the British on 22nd Nov., 1914. The first through-train from
Basra to Bagdad was run in Jan., 1920.

[Illustration: Bas-relief--Northern frieze of Parthenon]

BAS-RELIEF (bä´r[=e]-l[=e]f or bas´r[=e]-l[=e]f) or BASSO-RILIEVO,
low-relief, a mode of sculpturing figures on a flat surface, the figures
having a very slight relief or projection from the surface. It is
distinguished from _haut-relief_ (_alto-rilievo_), or high-relief, in which
the figures stand sometimes almost entirely free from the ground.
Bas-relief work has been described as 'sculptured painting', from the
capability of disposing of groups of figures and exhibiting minor adjuncts,
as in a painting. The finest specimen of bas-relief is the frieze around
the cella of the Parthenon; large portions of it are to be seen in the
British Museum.

BASS (b[=a]s; from the It. _basso_, deep, low), in music, the lowest part
in the harmony of a musical composition, whether vocal or instrumental.
According to some it is the fundamental or most important part, while
others regard the melody or highest part in that light. Next to the melody,
the bass part is the most striking, the freest and boldest in its
movements, and richest in effect.--_Figured bass_, a bass part having the
accompanying chords suggested by certain figures written above or below the
notes--the most successful system of shorthand scoring at present in use
among organists and pianists.--_Fundamental bass_, the lowest note or root
of a chord; a bass consisting of a succession of fundamental
notes.--_Thorough bass_, the mode or art of expressing chords by means of
figures placed over or under a given bass. Figures written over each other
indicate that the notes they represent are to be sounded simultaneously,
those standing close after each other that they are to be sounded
successively. The common chord in its fundamental form is generally left
unfigured, and accidentals are indicated by using sharps, naturals, or
flats along with the figures.

BASS (b[.a]s), the name of a number of fishes of several genera, but
originally belonging to a genus of sea-fishes (Labrax) of the perch family,
distinguished from the true perches by having the tongue covered by small
teeth and the preoperculum smooth. _L. lupus_, the only British species,
called also sea-dace, and from its voracity sea-wolf, resembles somewhat
the salmon in shape, and is much esteemed for the table, weighing about 15
lb. _L. line[=a]tus_ (_Roccus line[=a]tus_), or striped bass, an American
species, weighing from 25 to 30 lb., is much used for food, and is also
known as rock-fish. Both species occasionally ascend rivers, and attempts
have been made to cultivate British bass in freshwater ponds with success.
Two species of black bass (_Micropt[)e]rus salmoides_ and _M. dolomieu_),
American freshwater fishes, are excellent as food and give fine sport to
the angler. The former is often called the large-mouthed black bass, from
the size of its mouth. Both make nests and take great care of their eggs
and young. The _Centropristis nigricans_, an American sea-fish of the perch
family, and weighing 2 to 3 lb., is known as the sea-bass.

BASS (b[.a]s), THE, a remarkable insular trap-rock, at the mouth of the
Firth of Forth, 3 miles from North Berwick, of a circular form, about 1
mile in circumference, rising majestically out of the sea to a height of
313 feet. It pastures a few sheep, and is a great breeding-place of solan
geese. During the persecution of the Covenanters its castle, long since
demolished, was used as a State prison, in which several eminent
Covenanters were confined. It was held from 1691 to 1694 with great courage
and pertinacity by twenty Jacobites, who in the end capitulated on highly
honourable terms.

BASS. See _Basswood_.

BASSA´NO, a commercial city of North Italy, province of Vicenza, on the
Brenta, over which is a covered wooden bridge. It has lofty old walls and
an old castle, and has various industries and an active trade. Near
Bassano, 8th Sept., 1796, Bonaparte defeated the Austrian general Wurmser.
Pop. (commune) 17,130.

BASSA´NO (from his birth-place; real name GIACOMO DA PONTE), an Italian
painter, born 1510, died 1592. He painted historical pieces, landscapes,
flowers, &c., and also portraits. He left four sons, who all became
painters, Francesco being the most distinguished.

BASSANO DAM. See _Dams_.

BAS´SARIS. See _Cacomistle_.

BASSEIN (bas-s[=a]n'), a town in Lower Burma, province of Pegu, on both
banks of the Bassein River, one of the mouths of the Irawadi, and navigable
for the largest ships. It has considerable trade, exporting large
quantities of rice, and importing coal, salt, cottons, &c. Pop.
37,081.--Bassein District has an area of 4127 sq. miles and a pop. of 9598
(1911).

BASSEIN (bas-s[=a]n'), a town in Hindustan, 28 miles north of Bombay. At
the beginning of the eighteenth century it was a fine and wealthy city,
with over 60,000 inhabitants; it has now only about 9598 (1911).

BASSELIN (b[.a]s-lan), Olivier, an old French poet or song-writer, born in
the Val-de-Vire, Normandy, about the end of the fourteenth century, died
about 1450. His sprightly songs, famous under the name _Vaux-de-Vire_, have
given origin and name to the modern Vaudevilles.

BASSELISSE TAPESTRY. See _Hautelisse_.

BASSES-ALPES (bäs-[.a]lp; 'Lower Alps'). See _Alpes_.

BASSES-PYRÉNÉES (bäs-p[=e]-r[=a]-n[=a]; 'LOWER PYRENEES'). See _Pyrénées_.

BASS´ET, the name of a game at cards, formerly much played, especially in
France. It is very similar to the modern _faro_. See _Lansquenet_.

BASSET, or BASSET-HOUND, a smooth-haired dog with short crooked legs,
rather large head, and large pendulous ears, thus somewhat resembling a
bloodhound and a dachshund. It is sometimes used in packs for hunting
hares, or in beating and covert work generally.

BASSETERRE (bäs-t[=a]r), two towns in the West Indies.--1. Capital of the
Island of St. Christopher's, at the mouth of a small river, on the south
side of the island. Trade considerable. Pop. about 9000.--2. The capital of
the Island of Guadeloupe. It has no harbour, and the anchorage is
unsheltered and exposed to a constant swell. Pop. 8650.

BASSET-HORN, a musical instrument, now practically obsolete, a sort of
clarinet of enlarged dimensions, with a curved and bell-shaped metal end.
The compass extends from F below the bass staff to C on the second
ledger-line above the treble. Mozart wrote several pieces for the
basset-horn, and Beethoven employed it in his _Prometheus_ overture.

BASSETLAW, a parliamentary division of the county of Nottingham.

BASSIA, a genus of tropical trees found in the East Indies and Australia,
nat. ord., Sapotaceæ. The seeds of _B. butyracea_, the Indian butter tree,
yield a butter-like substance, which makes good soap. _B. latifolia_, the
Mahwa of Bengal, furnishes a valuable hard timber, and has edible flowers,
from which a potent spirit is distilled; a gutta-percha is obtained from
_B. pallida_.

BASSOMPIERRE (bä-son-py[=a]r), Francois de, Marshal of France,
distinguished both as a soldier and a statesman, born 1579, died 1646. In
1602 he made his first campaign against the Duke of Savoy, and he fought
with equal distinction in the following year in the imperial army against
the Turks. In 1622 Louis XIII appointed him Marshal of France, and became
so much attached to him that Luynes, the declared favourite, sent him on
embassies to Spain, Switzerland, and England. After his return he became an
object of suspicion to Cardinal Richelieu, and was sent to the Bastille in
1631, from which he was not released till 1643, after the death of the
cardinal. During his detention he occupied himself with writing his
memoirs, which shed much light on the events of that time.

BASSO´ON, a musical wind-instrument of the reed order, blown with a bent
metal mouthpiece, and holed and keyed like the clarinet. Its compass
comprehends three octaves rising from B flat below the bass staff. Its
diameter at bottom is 3 inches, and for convenience of carriage it is
divided into two or more parts, whence its Italian name, _fagotto_, a
bundle. It serves for the bass among wood wind-instruments, as hautboys,
flutes, &c.

BASSORA GUM, an inferior kind of gum resembling gum-arabic.

BASS ROCK. See _Bass_.

BASS STRAIT, a channel beset with islands, which separates Australia from
Tasmania, 120 miles broad, discovered by George Bass, a surgeon in the
Royal Navy, in 1798.

BASSWOOD, or BASS, the American lime tree or linden (_Tilia americ[=a]na_),
a tree common in N. America, yielding a light, soft timber.

BAST, a term originally applied to fibrous tissue external to the cambium;
now used in two senses: (1) for Phloem (q.v.); (2) commercially, for the
fibre of the lime or linden. The manufacture of lime-bast into mats, ropes,
&c., is in Russia a considerable industry, bast-mats for packing furniture,
covering plants, &c., being largely exported.

BASTAR´, a feudatory State in Upper Godavari district, Central Provinces of
India; area, 13,062 sq. miles; pop. 433,310. Chief town, Jagdalpur; pop.
4294.

BAS´TARD, a child begotten and born out of wedlock; an illegitimate child.
By the civil and canon laws, and by the law of Scotland, a bastard becomes
legitimate by the intermarriage of the parents at any future time. In some
of the United States, bastards can be legitimized by subsequent marriage,
in addition to which, however, the father must also recognize the child as
his. By the laws of England a child, to be legitimate, must at least be
_born_ after the lawful marriage; it does not require that the child shall
be begotten in wedlock, but it is indispensable that it should be born
after marriage, no matter how short the time, the law presuming it to be
the child of the husband. The only incapacity of a bastard is that he
cannot be heir or next of kin to any one save his own issue. In England the
maintenance of a bastard in the first instance devolves on the mother,
while in Scotland it is a joint burden upon both parents. The mother is
entitled to the custody of the child in preference to the father. See
_Legitimation_; _Illegitimacy_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacquet, _Traité de la
Bâtardise_; Nicholls and Mackay, _History of the English Poor Law_.

[Illustration: Bastard Bar]

BASTARD BAR, more correctly _baton sinister_, the heraldic mark used to
indicate illegitimate descent. It is a diminutive of the bend sinister, of
which it is one-fourth in width, couped or cut short at the ends, so as not
to touch the corners of the shield.

BASTARD FALLOW. See _Fallow Land_.

BASTARD SAFFRON. See _Safflower_.

BASTIA (b[.a]s-t[=e]´[.a]), the former capital of the Island of Corsica,
upon the N.E. coast, 75 miles N.E. of Ajaccio, on a hill slope; badly
built, with narrow streets, a strong citadel, and an indifferent harbour;
with some manufactures, a considerable trade in hides, soap, wine, oil,
pulse, &c. Pop. 29,412.

BAS´TIAN, Adolf, German traveller and ethnologist, born in 1826, died in
1905. His travels embraced various parts of Europe, the United States,
Mexico, Peru, Australia and New Zealand, Southern and Western Africa,
Egypt, Arabia, India, South-Eastern Asia, the Asiatic Archipelago, Japan,
China, Mongolia, Siberia, &c. His numerous writings throw light on almost
every subject connected with ethnology or anthropology, as well as
psychology, linguistics, non-Christian religions, geography, &c. Some of
his chief works are: _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_ (Peoples of Eastern
Asia); _Ethnographische Forschungen_; _Ideale Welten_; _Die Völkerkunde u.
der Völkerverkehr_; &c.

BAS´TIAN, Henry Charlton, English physician and biologist, born at Truro in
1837, died on 17th Nov., 1915. He was educated at Falmouth and at
University College, London, where he was assistant curator in the museum
from 1860 to 1863. He obtained the degree of M.A. in 1861 from the
University of London, graduating subsequently in medicine at the same
university (M.B. 1863, M.D. 1866). From 1864 to 1866 he was a medical
officer in Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum, and in 1866 was appointed
lecturer on pathology and assistant physician in St. Mary's Hospital. In
1867 he became professor of pathological anatomy in University College,
subsequently he was also professor of clinical medicine, and in the period
1887-95 he occupied the chair of medicine and clinical medicine. Apart from
numerous contributions to medical and other periodicals, and to Quain's
_Dictionary of Medicine_, he published _The Modes of Origin of Lowest
Organisms_ (1871); _The Beginnings of Life_ (1872); _Evolution and the
Origin of Life_ (1874); _Lectures on Paralysis from Brain Disease_ (1875);
_The Brain as an Organ of Mind_ (1880); which has been translated into
French and German; _The Nature and Origin of Living Matter_; _Evolution of
Life_; _Origin of Life_; &c.

BASTIAT (b[.a]s-t[=e]-[.a]), Frédéric, French economist, advocate of
free-trade, and opponent of protection, born at Bayonne 1801, died at Rome
1850. He became acquainted with Cobden and the English free-traders, whose
speeches he translated into French. Whilst combating protectionism, Bastiat
was also an opponent of socialism. His chief works are: _Sophismes
Économiques_ (1846); _Propriété et Loi_; _Justice et Fraternité_ (1848);
_Protectionisme et Communisme_ (1849); _Harmonies Économiques_ (1849).

BASTIEN-LEPAGE (b[.a]s-tya[n.]-l[.e]-päzh), Jules, French painter, born
1848, died 1884. He studied at Paris under Cabanel, and about 1874 began to
attract some notice as a realistic painter of subjects connected with the
country and everyday life, among his first pictures of note being _Song of
Spring_, _Portrait of My Grandfather_, and _The First Communion_. Among his
most important works are _The Hayfield_, _The Potato Harvest_, _Portrait of
Mme Sarah Bernhardt_, _The Beggar_, and _The Forge_.--Cf. Marie
Bashkirtsev, _Journal Intime_; Arnic, J. _Bastien-Lepage, lettres et
souvenirs_.

BASTILLE (b[.a]s-t[=e]l´), a French name for any strong castle provided
with towers, but as a proper name the State prison and citadel of Paris,
which was built about 1370 by Charles V. It was ultimately used chiefly for
the confinement of persons of rank who had fallen victims to the intrigues
of the Court or the caprice of the Government. (See _Cachet, Lettres de_.)
The capture of the Bastille by the Parisian mob, 14th July, 1789, was the
opening act of the Revolution. On that date the Bastille was surrounded by
a tumultuous mob, who first attempted to negotiate with the Governor,
Delaunay, but when these negotiations failed, began to attack the fortress.
For several hours the mob continued their siege without being able to
effect anything more than an entrance into the outer court of the Bastille;
but at last the arrival of some of the Royal Guard with a few pieces of
artillery forced the Governor to let down the second drawbridge and admit
the populace. The Governor was seized, but on the way to the Hotel de Ville
he was torn from his captors and put to death. The next day the destruction
of the Bastille commenced. Not a vestige of it exists, but its site is
marked by a column in the Place de la Bastille.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: François
Ravaisson, _Les Archives de la Bastille_; Arnold, _Histoire de la
Bastille_; Bingham, _The Bastille_; Funck-Brentano, _The Bastille_; M.J. de
Staal, _La Bastille sous la Régence_ (edited by Funck-Brentano).

BASTINA´DO, an Eastern method of corporal punishment, consisting of blows
upon the soles of the feet, applied with a bamboo cane.

BAS´TION, in fortification, a large mass of earth, faced with sods, brick,
or stones, standing out from a rampart, of which it is a principal part. A
bastion consists of two _flanks_, each commanding and defending the
adjacent _curtain_, or that portion of the wall extending from one bastion
to another, and two _faces_ making with each other an acute angle called
the _salient angle_, and commanding the outworks and ground before the
fortification. The distance between the two flanks is the _gorge_, or
entrance into the bastion. The use of the bastion is to bring every point
at the foot of the rampart as much as possible under the guns of the place.

BAST´WICK, John, English physician and ecclesiastical controversialist,
born in 1593, died 1654. He settled at Colchester, but, instead of
confining himself to his profession, entered keenly into theological
controversy, and was condemned by the Star Chamber for his books against
Prelacy: _Elenchus Religionis Papisticæ_, _Flagellum Pontificis_, and _The
Letanie of Dr. J. Bastwick_. With Prynne and Burton he was sentenced to
lose his ears in the pillory, to pay a fine of £5000, and to be imprisoned
for life. He was released by the Long Parliament, and entered London in
triumph along with Prynne and Burton. He appears to have continued his
controversies with the Independents and others to the very last.

BASU´TOLAND, a native province and British South African possession,
situated between the Orange Free State, Natal, Griqualand East, and the
Cape Province. The Basutos belong chiefly to the great stem of the
Bechuanas, and have made greater advances in civilization than perhaps any
other South African race. In 1866 the Basutos, who had lived under a
semi-protectorate of the British since 1848, were proclaimed British
subjects, their country placed under the government of an agent, and in
1871 it was joined to Cape Colony. In 1879 the attempted enforcement of an
Act passed for the disarmament of the native tribes caused a revolt under
the chief Moirosi, which the Cape forces were unable to put down. When
peace was restored Basutoland was separated from Cape Colony (1884), and is
now governed by a Resident Commissioner under the High Commissioner for
South Africa. Basutoland has an area of about 11,716 sq. miles, much of it
covered with grass, and there is but little wood. The climate is pleasant.
The natives keep cattle, sheep, and horses, cultivate the ground, and
export grain. The Basuto ponies, which originally were brought from Batavia
by the Dutch in the eighteenth century, are famous. It is divided into
eight districts, each under a magistrate. Capital, Maseru. Pop. (European),
1396; (native), 404,507.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Widdicombe, _Fourteen Years in
Basutoland_; M. Martin, _Basutoland: Its Legends and Customs_; Sir G.
Lagden, _The Basutos_; Rev. D. F. Ellenberger, _History of the Basuto_.

[Illustration: Bats Asleep

Left--Serotine (_Vespertilio serotinus_). Right--Long-eared bat (_Plecotus
auritus_).]

BAT, one of the group of wing-handed, flying mammals, having the fore-limb
peculiarly modified so as to serve for flight, and constituting the order
Cheiroptera. Bats are animals of the twilight and darkness, and are common
in temperate and warm regions, but are most numerous and largest in the
tropics. All European bats are small, and have a mouse-like skin. The body
of the largest British species, _Vespertilio noct[)u]la_, is less than that
of a mouse, but its wings stretch about 15 inches. During the day it
remains in caverns, in the crevices of ruins, hollow trees, and similar
lurking places, and flits out at evening in search of food, which consists
of insects. Several species of the same genus are common in North America.
Many bats are remarkable for having a singular nasal cutaneous appendage,
bearing in some cases a fancied resemblance to a horse-shoe. Bats may be
conveniently divided into two sections--the insectivorous or carnivorous,
comprising all European and most African and American species; and the
fruit-eating, belonging to tropical Asia and Australia, with several
African forms. An Australian fruit-eating bat (_Pter[)o]pus ed[=u]lis_),
commonly known as the kalong or flying-fox, is the largest of all the bats;
it does much mischief in orchards. At least two species of South American
bats are known to suck the blood of other mammals, and thence are called
'vampire-bats'. All the British bats belong to the insectivorous group, the
fruit-eating and blood-sucking bats being confined to warmer regions. There
are fifteen species on the British list, but of these three are very rare.
Among the most noteworthy forms are the greater and the lesser horse-shoe
bats, in which the ears are nearly as long as the whole body. As winter
approaches, in cold climates bats seek shelter in caverns, vaults, ruinous
and deserted buildings, and similar retreats, where they cling together in
large clusters, hanging head downwards by the feet, and remain in a torpid
condition until the returning spring recalls them to active exertions. Bats
generally bring forth two young. The parent shows a strong degree of
attachment to her offspring, and, when they are captured, will follow them,
and even submit to captivity herself rather than forsake her charge.

[Illustration: Vampire-bat (_Phyllostroma spectrum_)]

BATAILLE, Henry, French poet and dramatist, born at Nîmes in 1872. His
first volume of poems, _La Chambre Blanche_, appeared in 1895. His other
works include _Le Beau Rivage_, _Maman Colibri_, _La Marche Nuptiale_, _La
Femme Nue_, _La Divine Tragédie_, &c.

BATALHA (b[.a]-t[.a]l'y[.a]), a village in Portugal, 69 miles north of
Lisbon, with a renowned convent of Dominicans, a splendid building.

BATAN´GAS, a town of the Philippines, in the Island of Luzon, capital of a
province of same name, 58 miles south of Manila. Pop. 33,131.

BATA´TAS. See _Sweet-potato_.

BAT´AVI. See _Batavians_.

BATA´VIA, a city and seaport of Java, on the north coast of the island, the
capital of the Dutch East Indies. It is situated on a wide, deep bay, the
principal warehouses and offices of the Europeans, the Java Bank, the
exchange, &c., being in the old town, which is built on a low, marshy plain
near the sea, intersected with canals and very unhealthy; while the
Europeans reside in a new and much healthier quarter. Batavia has a large
trade, sugar being the chief export. It was founded by the Dutch in 1619,
and attained its greatest prosperity in the beginning of the eighteenth
century. Its inhabitants are chiefly Malay, with a considerable admixture
of Chinese and a small number of Europeans. Pop. 234,697 (1918).

BATAVIAN REPUBLIC. See _Belgium_; _Netherlands._

BATAVIANS, an old German nation which inhabited a part of the present
Holland, especially the island called _Batavia_, formed by that branch of
the Rhine which empties itself into the sea near Leyden, together with the
Waal and the Meuse. Tacitus asserts that they were a branch of the Catti.
They were subdued by Germanicus, and were granted special privileges for
their faithful services to the Romans, but revolted under Vespasian. They
were, however, again subdued by Trajan and Adrian, and at the end of the
third century the Salian Franks obtained possession of the Island of
Batavia.

BATCHIAN. See _Bachian_.

BATES, Henry Walter, traveller and naturalist, born at Leicester 1825,
learned the hosiery trade, but in 1847 went to the Amazon with Russel
Wallace, and remained there for eleven years studying the natural history
of the region. Returning to England, he published in 1862 his _Naturalist
on the River Amazons_, a work regarded as a classic. He was assistant
secretary to the Royal Geographical Society from 1864 till his death in
1892. A large part of his collections is in the British Museum.

BATH (b[.a]th), a city of England, in Somersetshire, on the Avon, which is
navigable for barges from Bristol; is beautifully placed among the hills,
and the houses are built of freestone, obtained from the neighbourhood. The
Abbey Church, dating from the fifteenth century, ranks as one of the finest
specimens of Perpendicular Gothic architecture. Bath is remarkable for its
medicinal waters, the four principal springs yielding no less than 184,000
gallons of water a day; and the baths are both handsome and roomy. The
temperature of the springs varies from 109° to 117° F. They contain
carbonic acid, chloride of sodium and of magnesium, sulphate of soda,
carbonate and sulphate of lime, &c. Bath was founded by the Romans, and
called by them _Aquæ Solis_ (Waters of the Sun). Amongst the Roman remains
discovered there have been some fine baths. The height of its prosperity
was reached, however, in the eighteenth century, when Beau Nash was leader
of the fashion and master of its ceremonies. Since then, though it still
attracts large numbers of visitors, it has become the resort of
valetudinarians chiefly. Jointly with Wells it is the head of a diocese,
and since 1918 returns one member to the House of Commons. Pop. (1921),
68,648.

BATH, a town, United States, Maine, on the west side and at the head of the
winter navigation of the Kennebec, 12 miles from the sea. Chief industries:
shipbuilding and allied crafts. Pop. 9396.

BATH, the immersion of the body in water, or an apparatus for this purpose.

_Ancient Baths._--The use of the bath as an institution, apart from
occasional immersion in rivers or the sea, is, as might be anticipated, an
exceedingly old custom. Homer mentions the bath as one of the first
refreshments offered to a guest; thus, when Ulysses enters the palace of
Circe, a bath is prepared for him, and he is anointed after it with costly
perfumes. No representation, however, of a bath as we understand it is
given upon the Greek vases, bathers being represented either simply washing
at an elevated basin, or having water poured over them from above. In later
times, rooms, both public and private, were built expressly for bathing,
the public baths of the Greeks being mostly connected with the gymnasia.
Apparently, by an inversion of the later practice, it was customary in the
Homeric epoch to take first a cold and then a hot bath; but the
Lacedæmonians substituted the hot-air sudorific bath, as less enervating
than warm water, and in Athens at the time of Demosthenes and Socrates the
warm bath was considered by the more rigorous to be an effeminate custom.
The fullest details we have with respect to the bathing of the ancients
apply to its luxurious development under the Romans. Their bathing
establishments consisted of four main sections: the undressing room, with
an adjoining chamber in which the bathers were anointed; a cold room with
provision for a cold bath; a room heated moderately to serve as a
preparation for the highest and lowest temperatures; and the sweating-room,
at one extremity of which was a vapour-bath and at the other an ordinary
hot bath. After going through the entire course both the Greeks and Romans
made use of strigils or scrapers, either of horn or metal, to remove
perspiration, oil, and impurities from the skin. Connected with the baths
were walks, covered race-grounds, tennis-courts, and gardens, the whole,
both in the external and internal decorations, being frequently on a
palatial scale. The group of the _Laocoon_ and the _Farnese Hercules_ were
both found in the ruins of Roman baths.

_Modern Baths._--With respect to modern baths, that commonly in use in
Russia consists of a single hall, built of wood, in the midst of which is a
powerful metal oven, covered with heated stones, and surrounded with broad
benches, on which the bathers take their places. Cold water is then poured
upon the heated stones, and a thick, hot steam rises, which causes the
sweat to issue from the whole body. The bather is then gently whipped with
wet birch rods, rubbed with soap, and washed with luke-warm and cold water;
of the latter, some pailfuls are poured over his head; or else he leaps,
immediately after this sweating-bath, into a river or pond, or rolls in the
snow. The Turks, by their religion, are obliged to make repeated ablutions
daily, and for this purpose there is, in every city, a public bath
connected with a mosque. A favourite bath among them, however, is a
modification of the hot-air sudorific bath of the ancients introduced under
the name of 'Turkish' into other than Mahommedan countries. A regular
accompaniment of this bath, when properly given, is the operation known as
'kneading', generally performed at the close of the sweating process, after
the final rubbing of the bather with soap, and consisting in a systematic
pressing and squeezing of the whole body, stretching the limbs, and
manipulating all the joints as well as the fleshy and muscular parts.
Public baths are now common in Europe, but the first English public baths
and wash-houses of the kind now common in all cities were established in
Liverpool and near the London docks in 1844. In 1846 an Act was passed for
their encouragement, and a series of statutes, known as 'The Baths and
Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896', followed. The establishment of cheap
swimming-baths was authorized in 1878.

The principal natural warm baths in England are at Bath, in Somersetshire
(the hottest), and Buxton and Matlock, in Derbyshire. The temperature of
the Bath springs ranges from 109° to 117° F., while that of the Buxton and
Matlock waters scarcely exceeds 82°. The baths of Harrogate, which are
strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, are also of great
repute for the cure of obstinate cutaneous diseases, indurations of the
glands, &c. The most celebrated natural hot baths in Europe are those of
Aix-la-Chapelle, and the various Baden, in Germany; Toeplitz, in Bohemia;
Bagnières, Baréges, and Dax, in the south of France; and Spa, in Belgium.
Besides the various kinds of water-bath with or without medication or
natural mineral ingredients, there are also milk, oil, wine, earth, sand,
mud, and electric baths, smoke-baths and gas-baths; but these are as a rule
only indulged in after specific prescription.

The practice of bathing as a method of cure in cases of disease falls under
the head of hydropathy; but even when it is employed simply for pleasure or
purification due regard should be paid to the physiological condition of
the bather. In many cases cold bathing should be avoided altogether,
especially by those who have any tendency to spitting of blood or
consumption, by gouty people, or by those who have any latent visceral
disease or apoplectic tendency. Wherever the bath is followed by shivering
instead of by a healthy reactionary glow, it is undesirable; and a cold
bath in the morning after any debauchery or excess in eating or drinking on
the previous evening is exceedingly imprudent. Delicate persons and
children ought not to bathe in the sea before ten or eleven o'clock in the
morning, and in no case should bathing be indulged in after a long fast. In
cold streams and rivers additional precautions should be taken, the cold
plunge, when heated or fatigued, being frequently attended with fatal
results. Even warm baths are not wholly free from danger; apoplexy and
death having been known to follow a hot bath when entered with a full
stomach. As a rule the temperature should not exceed 105°, and they should
not be too long continued. Frequent indulgence in them has an enervating
effect, though the majority of people need as yet no renewal of Hadrian's
prohibitive legislation in this matter. See also _Douches_;
_Thermæ_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. A. Becker, _Gallus_; J. Farrar, _Baths and
Bathing_; W. P. Gerhard, _Modern Baths and Bath Houses_; R. F. Fox,
_Principles and Practice of Medical Hydrology_.

BATH, KNIGHTS OF THE, an order of England, supposed to have been instituted
by Henry IV on the day of his coronation, but allowed to lapse after the
reign of Charles II till 1725, when George I revived it as a military
order. By the book of statutes then prepared the number of knights was
limited to the sovereign and thirty-seven knights companions; but the
limits of the order were greatly extended in 1815, and again in 1847, when
it was opened to civilians. It now consists of three classes, each
subdivided into (1) military members, (2) civil members, and (3) honorary
members, consisting of foreign princes and officers. The first class
consists of Knights of the Grand Cross (G.C.B.); the second of Knights
Commanders (K.C.B.); and the third of Companions (C.B.). The Dean of
Westminster is dean of the order. In 1917 the Companions of the order were
given the privileges and precedence of Commanders, the badge being now worn
round the neck. In 1918 the statutes were amended in order to admit
officers of the Royal Air Force to the military division. The ribbon of the
order is crimson; the military badge a gold cross of eight points, with the
lion of England between the four principal angles, and having in a circle
in the centre the rose, thistle, and shamrock between three imperial
crowns; motto: _Tria juncta in uno_. Stars are worn by the two first
classes, with additional motto, _Ich dien_, for the military members only.
See _Knighthood_.

BATH-BRICK, a preparation of siliceous earth found in the River Parret, in
Somersetshire, in the form of a solid brick, used for cleaning knives, &c.
See _Sand_.

BATH´GATE, a town, Scotland, Linlithgowshire, pleasantly situated, and
having in the vicinity the paraffin-works known as Young's, a paper-mill
and other works, and coal and iron-stone mines. Pop. (1921), 8504.

BATHOLITE, a mass of igneous rock having no visible floor, and presumed to
pass down into some region of the earth's crust where molten rocks at one
time prevailed over all others. Granite blocks, like those of the Cairngorm
Mountains in Scotland, or the long ridge of the Leinster Chain, which have
intruded into their surroundings, are regarded as batholites the crests of
which have become exposed by denudation. A batholite in its original molten
condition may exist under any large area of volcanic activity, and the
similarity of the igneous rocks sent to the surface over broad regions of
the earth, constituting what are called 'petrographical provinces', points
to the existence of very considerable continuous rock-cauldrons in the
crust.

BATHOM´ETER, an instrument, invented by C. Williams Siemens, for measuring
the depth of sea beneath a vessel without casting a line. It is based upon
the fact that the attraction exerted upon any given mass of matter on the
ship is less when she is afloat than ashore, because of the less density of
sea-water as compared with that of earth or rock.

BATHONIAN STAGE, a division of the middle Jurassic series of rocks,
including the beds between the Inferior Oolite and the Oxford Clay. The
name is derived from its excellent development near Bath, in Somersetshire,
and the most important member is the Oolitic limestone known as Bath-stone
(q.v.). The Bathonian stage includes the following beds in ascending
order:--

1. _Stonesfield Slate_, named from a village near Woodstock; a flaggy
limestone used for roofing, with remains of ferns and cycads washed in from
the Jurassic land, and of some of the earliest-known mammals, allies of the
monotremes or the marsupials. 2. The _Great_ or _Bath Oolite_, with marine
fossils, and also remains of the large reptiles known as dinosaurs. 3.
_Bradford Clay._ 4. _Forest Marble._ 5. _Cornbrash_, so called from its
'brashy' or rubbly nature, an earthy oolite yielding fair land for corn.

BATHORI (bä'to-r[=e]), or BATHORY, a Hungarian family, which gave
Transylvania five princes, and Poland one of its greatest kings. The more
important members were:--1. Stephen, born in 1532, elected Prince of
Transylvania in 1571, on the death of Zapolya, and in 1575 King of Poland.
He accomplished many internal reforms, recovered the Polish territories in
possession of the Czar of Moscovy, and reigned prosperously till his death
in 1586.--2. Sigismund, nephew of Stephen, educated by the Jesuits, became
Prince of Transylvania in 1581, shook off the Ottoman yoke, and had begun
to give hopes of reigning gloriously when he resigned his dominions to the
Emperor Rudolph II, in return for two principalities in Silesia, a
cardinal's hat, and a pension. Availing himself, however, of an invitation
by the Transylvanians, he returned, and placed himself under the protection
of the Porte, but was defeated by the Imperialists in every battle, and
finally sent to Prague, where he died almost forgotten in 1613.--3.
Elizabeth, niece of Stephen, King of Poland, and wife of Count Nadasdy, of
Hungary. She is said to have bathed in the blood of 600 young girls in the
hope of renewing her youth, and to have committed other enormities. She was
afterwards seized and confined till her death in 1614.

BAT-HORSE. See _Batman_.

BA´THOS, a Greek word meaning depth, now used to signify a ludicrous
sinking from the elevated to the mean in writing or speech. First used in
this sense by Pope in _The Art of Sinking in Poetry_ (_Scriblerus Papers_,
1729).

BATH-STONE (also called BATH-OOLITE and ROE-STONE, from the small rounded
grains of which it is composed), a species of English limestone. It is
extensively worked near Bath for building purposes. When just quarried it
is soft; but though it soon becomes hard on exposure to the atmosphere, and
is of handsome appearance, it is not very durable.

BATH´URST, a British settlement on the west coast of Africa, on the Island
of St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Gambia, with a trade in gum, bees-wax,
hides, ivory, gold, rice, cotton, and palm-oil. Pop. 8000.

BATHURST, a town in the western district of New South Wales, on the
Macquarie River, with wide, well-laid-out streets at right angles, and a
central square, tanneries, railway workshops, breweries, flour-mills, and
other industries. Pop. 9200.

BATHURST, Allen Bathurst, First Earl, a distinguished statesman in Queen
Anne's reign; born 1684. He took part with Harley and St. John in opposing
the influence of Marlborough, was raised to the peerage in 1711, impeached
the promoters of the South Sea scheme, opposed the Bill against Atterbury,
and was a leading antagonist of Walpole. He was created earl in 1772. His
name is also associated with those of the leading writers and wits of the
day. Died 1775.

BATHURST, Henry Bathurst, Third Earl, son of the second earl, a prominent
Tory statesman, after whom various capes, islands, and districts were
named. Born 1762; in 1807, President of Board of Trade; in 1809, Secretary
for Foreign Affairs; and in 1812, Secretary for the Colonies, a post held
by him for sixteen years. He was also President of the Council under
Wellington, 1828-30. Died 1834.

BATHURST ISLAND, on the North Australian coast, belonging to S. Australia,
separated from Melville Island by a narrow strait; triangular in shape,
with a wooded area of about 1000 sq. miles.--Also an island in the Arctic
Ocean discovered by Parry, E. of Cornwallis and W. of Melville Island, 76°
N., 100° W.

BATHYB´IUS (Gr. _bathys_, deep, _bios_, life), the name given by Huxley to
what was regarded as granular slimy masses of animal matter found covering
the sea-bottom at great depths.

BATISTE (ba-t[=e]st'), a fine linen cloth made in Flanders and Picardy,
named after its inventor, Jean Baptiste of Cambrai.

BAT´LEY, a municipal and parliamentary borough of England, West Riding of
York, about a mile from Dewsbury; principal manufactures: heavy woollen
cloths, such as pilot, beaver, police, army, and frieze cloths, flushings,
and blankets. Batley and Morley unite in returning one member to
Parliament. Pop. 36,151.

BATMAN (bat'man or bä'man; from Fr. _bât_, a pack-saddle), in the British
army, a person allowed by the Government to every company of a regiment on
foreign service. His duty is to take charge of the cooking utensils, &c.,
of the company, and he has a bat-horse to convey these utensils from place
to place.

BA´TON, a short staff or truncheon, in some cases used as an official
badge, as that of a field-marshal. The conductor of an orchestra has a
baton for the purpose of directing the performers as to time, &c. In
heraldry, what is usually called the 'bastard bar', or 'bar sinister', is
properly a baton sinister. See _Bastard Bar_.

BAT´ON ROUGE (rözh), the capital of Louisiana, United States, on the left
bank of the Mississippi, with an arsenal, barracks, military hospital,
State house, State university, &c. On 5th Aug., 1862, the Confederates
under General Breckenridge suffered a severe defeat before it. Pop. (1920),
21,782.

BATOUM, or BATUM (b[.a]-töm´), a port on the east coast of the Black Sea,
acquired by Russia by the Treaty of Berlin, on condition that its
fortifications were dismantled and it was thrown open as a free port. It
rapidly grew to be the main outlet for Transcaucasia; its harbour was
enlarged for commercial reasons; an arsenal was built outside it; it was
connected by a military road with Kars; and finally, in July, 1886, the
Russian Government declared it to be a free port no longer. Its importance
as a naval and military station to Russia was unquestionably great; it is
of most importance commercially as an outlet for the mineral oil of Baku.
The water is of great depth close inshore, and the shipping lies under
protection of the overhanging cliffs of the Gouriel Mountains. Batoum was
abandoned by the Bolshevik Government in March, 1918, and occupied by the
Turks on 15th April of the same year. By the terms of the armistice
concluded with Turkey in Nov., 1918, the Allies occupied the port, and in
Nov., 1919, a military governor was appointed by the British Government. On
9th July, 1920, Batoum was evacuated by the British, and occupied by
Georgian troops. Pop. 46,000.--The province of _Batoum_ has an area of 2693
sq. miles. Pop. 186,000.

BATRACHIANS (ba-tr[=a]´ki-anz; Gr. _batrach[)o]s_, a frog), the fourth
order in Cuvier's arrangement of the class Reptilia, comprising frogs,
toads, newts, salamanders, and sirens. The term is now sometimes employed
as synonymous with amphibia, but is more usually restricted to the order
Anura or tailless amphibia. See _Amphibia_.

BATSHIAN. See _Bachian_.

BAT´TA, an allowance which military officers in India receive in addition
to their pay. It was originally given only when the officers were on the
march or in the field, but now half batta is paid when troops are in
cantonments.

BATTAL´ION, the tactical unit of command in infantry, supposed to be of the
maximum strength to be efficiently handled by one officer in chief command,
with others under him. In most armies it is about 1000 to 1100 men. The
former is about the strength of a battalion in the British army, in which
battalions now correspond to what were formerly regiments, the chief
commanding officer (in actual command) being the lieutenant-colonel. See
_Army_.

BATTALION OF DEATH, the legion of Russian women and girls, belonging to all
classes, organized in 1917 and commanded by the famous revolutionary Madame
Botshkalova. The battalion took part in several engagements.

BAT´TAS, or BATTAKS, a people belonging to the Malayan race inhabiting the
valleys and plateaus of the mountains that extend longitudinally through
the Island of Sumatra. They practise agriculture and cattle-rearing, and
are skillful in various handicrafts; they have also a written literature
and an alphabet of their own, their books treating of astrology,
witchcraft, medicine, war, &c. They are under the rule of hereditary
chieftains. In 1908 a Battak Institute was established at Leyden for the
study of the Battak country, people, &c.

BAT´TENBERG, a village in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, from which
the sons (by morganatic marriage) of Prince Alexander of Hesse, uncle of
Louis, Grand-Duke of Hesse, the husband of Princess Alice of Britain,
derived their titles of princes of Battenberg. One of them, Alexander, was
Prince of Bulgaria from 1879 to 1886, and died in 1893. Another, Prince
Henry, was married to Princess Beatrice of Great Britain in 1885, and died
in 1896.

BATTENBERG, Prince Louis Alexander of, born 24th May, 1854, in Graz, son of
Prince Alexander of Hesse. He became a naturalized British subject, entered
the navy in 1868, and in 1884 married Princess Victoria, eldest daughter of
Princess Alice Maud, Grand-Duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, and second daughter
of Queen Victoria. He became rear-admiral in 1904, was second admiral of
the Mediterranean fleet from 1906 to 1908, commanded the Atlantic fleet
from 1908 to 1910, the 3rd and 4th divisions of the Home fleet in 1911, and
was appointed Second Sea Lord in Nov., 1911, and First Sea Lord in Dec.,
1912, in succession to Sir Francis Bridgeman. In October, 1914, however, in
consequence of a campaign against alien enemies which culminated in an
attack in the _Globe_ on the First Sea Lord, he tendered his resignation to
Mr. Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, on the ground that
his birth and parentage in some respects impaired his usefulness. In 1917
the king determined that those princes of his family who were his subjects
and bore German names and titles should relinquish those titles and adopt
British surnames, and Prince Louis adopted the title of Marquess of Milford
Haven, and the surname of Mountbatten. He was the author of _Men-of-war
Names, their Meaning and Origin_ (1908). He was made a Privy Councillor in
1914, and was both a Civil and a Military Knight Grand Cross of the Bath.
He died 11th Sept., 1921.

[Illustration: Roman Battering-ram]

BATTERING-RAM, an engine for battering down the walls of besieged places.
The ancients employed two different engines of this kind--one suspended in
a frame, the other movable on wheels or rollers. They consisted of a beam
or spar with a massive metal head, and were set in motion either by a
direct application of manual force or by means of cords passing over
pulleys. Some are said to have been 120 feet or more in length, and to have
been worked by 100 men. One is described as being 180 feet long, and having
a head weighing 1½ tons. Smaller ones, manned by three or four soldiers,
were also frequently employed. They were generally covered with a roof or
screen for the protection of the workers. The battering-ram is mentioned by
Ezekiel (iv, 2; xxi, 22), and the Romans learnt the use of it from the
Greeks.

BAT´TERSEA, a municipal and parliamentary borough of London, in Surrey, in
a low situation on the south bank of the Thames, nearly opposite Chelsea,
with a fine public park extending over 185 acres. The district is
associated with the names of Pope and Bolingbroke, and with the
Wellington-Winchilsea duel. Battersea returns two members to Parliament.
Pop. (municipal borough), (1921), 167,693.

BAT´TERY, (1) any number of guns grouped for action in one place and under
one control; (2) the tactical and administrative unit of the Royal Regiment
of Artillery; (3) an entrenched work constructed as a position for guns in
siege warfare.

The Royal Regiment of Artillery is organized in batteries of horse, field,
heavy, siege, and mountain artillery. These differ in the weight and type
of gun with which they have to do, but the general principles of
organization are the same. (See _Army_.) Nominally a battery consists of
six guns with their attendant ammunition wagons (12) and certain other
transport. A major commands the battery, and has a captain and three
subalterns to assist him. For all purposes a battery is permanently
organized in three sections, each of two guns and four wagons, under
subaltern officers; while in action it is divided into two parts, (_a_) the
fighting battery of six guns and six wagons; (_b_) the wagon line of the
remaining wagons, under command of the captain. The change from march
formation to that necessary for firing is termed 'coming into action'.

Horse, field, and some heavy batteries are horse-drawn (six or eight horses
to a gun), while other heavy batteries and siege-guns are drawn by
mechanical transport or mounted on railway platforms. Mountain batteries
are organized for pack transport only--either mules or carriers--all the
material being specially constructed to this end. Among combinations with
the word battery come the following: _battery commander_, the officer
commanding a battery; _battery leader_, the senior subaltern, who receives
and carries out the commander's orders in action; _battery-fire_, each gun
of a battery firing in turn: as opposed to gun-fire, where each gun fires
independently. See _Artillery_.

BATTERY, in criminal law, an assault by beating or wounding another. The
least touching or meddling with the person of another against his will may
be held to constitute a battery.

BATTERY, in electricity and galvanism, a combination of several jars or
metallic plates. See _Daniell's Cell_; _Electric Battery_; _Secondary
Cell_.

BATTHYANYI (b[.a]t-y[.a]n´y[=e]), one of the oldest and most celebrated
Hungarian families, traceable as far back as the Magyar invasion of
Pannonia in the ninth century. Among later bearers of the name have
been--Count Casmir Batthyanyi, who was associated with Kossuth, was
Minister of Foreign Affairs in Hungary during the insurrection of 1849, and
died in Paris 1854; Count Louis Batthyanyi, born 1809, of another branch of
the family, was leader of the opposition in the Hungarian Diet until the
breaking out of the commotions of 1848, when he took an active part in
promoting the national cause; but on the entry of Windischgrätz into Pesth
he was arrested and shot, 1849.

BATTLE, a combat between two armies. In ancient times and the Middle Ages
the battleground was often chosen by agreement, and the battle was a mere
trial of strength, a duel _en gros_; and as the armies of the ancients were
imperfectly organized, and the combatants fought very little at a distance,
after the battle had begun manuoevres were much more difficult, and troops
almost entirely beyond the control of the general. Under these
circumstances the battle depended almost wholly upon the previous
arrangements and the valour of the troops. In modern times, however, the
finest combinations, the most ingenious manoeuvres, are rendered possible
by the better organization of the armies, and it is the skill of the
general rather than the courage of the soldier that now determines the
event of a battle. Battles are distinguished as _offensive_ or _defensive_
on either side, but there is a natural and ready transition from one method
to the other. The purely defensive attitude is condemned by tacticians
except in cases where the only object desirable is to maintain a position
of vital consequence, the weight of precedent being in favour of the dash
and momentum of an attacking force even where opposed to superior forces.
Where the greatest generals have acted upon the defensive, it has almost
always been with the desire to develop an opportunity to pass to the
offensive, and, having discovered their opponent's hand, to marshal against
the enemy, exhausted with attack, the whole strength of their resources.
Napoleon won more than one great victory by this method, and Wellington's
reputation was largely based upon his skill in defensive-offensive
operations. Tacticians have divided a battle into three periods, which are
disposition, combat, and the decisive moment. In some measure they require
distinct qualities in a commander, the intellect which can plot a
disposition being by no means always of the prompt judgment passing to
instant action which avails itself of the crucial moment to crush an enemy.
Cooperation and mutual support of all arms and services is essential to
success in a modern battle, which may occupy many days or even weeks and
embrace a large area of country, e.g. the battle of the Marne, the battle
of the Somme. This co-operation is ensured by the most careful and detailed
arrangements being made beforehand, such arrangements even including the
rehearsal of more important phases over ground prepared to represent the
country over which the operations will eventually take place. The modern
battle may be, and probably will be, a continuation of many
operations--_offensive_ and _defensive_--carried out by distinct and
separate formations. The general scope of the operations as a whole will be
planned by the supreme commander, while the choice of the methods to be
used is left to the commander of the formations affected. See _Strategy_;
_Tactics_.

BATTLE, a town in Sussex, so named from the battle of Hastings having been
fought there. An abbey built by William the Norman has disappeared, but
important remains of a later building exist on the same site; and there is
an old church of great interest. Pop. (1921), 2891.

BATTLE (or BATTEL), WAGER OF, an obsolete method, according to English law,
of deciding civil or criminal cases by personal combat between the parties
or their champions in presence of the court. A woman, a priest, a peer, or
a person physically incapable of fighting could refuse such a trial. It was
not abolished till 1819 (by the Statute of 59 George III, c. 46), but had
long previously been in abeyance. See _Ordeal_.

BATTLE-AXE, a weapon much used in war in the early part of the Middle Ages
among knights. It is a weapon which affords hardly any guard, and the
heavier the blow given with it the more the fighter is exposed; but its use
was to some extent necessitated by the resistance of iron armour to all but
heavy blows. In England and Scotland the battle-axe was much employed, the
Lochaber-axe remaining a formidable implement of destruction in the hands
of the Highlanders to a recent period.

BATTLE CREEK, a town of the United States, in Michigan, at the junction of
the Kalamazoo and Battle Creek, with a college, and manufactures of
agricultural implements, &c. Pop. 25,267.

BATTLEFORD, a trading town of Canada, province of Saskatchewan, at the
junction of the Battle and Saskatchewan (North Fork). Pop. 1335.

BAT´TLEMENT, a notched or indented parapet of a fortification, formed by a
series of raised parts called _cops_ or _merlons_, separated by openings
called _crenelles_ or _embrasures_, the soldier sheltering himself behind
the merlon, while he fires through the embrasure. Battlements were
originally military, but were afterwards used freely in ecclesiastical and
civil buildings by way of ornament, on parapets, cornices, tabernacle work,
&c.

BATTLE-PIECE, a painting representing a battle. Some of the greatest pieces
of this kind are the _Battle of Constantine_, of which the cartoons were
drawn by Raphael, and which was executed by Giulio Romano; Lebrun's
_Battles of Alexander_; and the _Battles of the Amazons_, by Rubens.

BATTUE (ba-tü´), a method of killing game by having persons to beat a wood,
copse, or other cover, and so drive the animals (pheasants, hares, &c.)
towards the spot where sportsmen are stationed to shoot them.

BATTUS, legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene, in Libya, about
650 B.C. There were eight rulers of the family founded by him, bearing
alternately the names Battus and Arcesilaus.

BATU KHAN, Mongol ruler of the Western conquests of his grandfather,
Genghis Khan, from 1224 to 1255. He overran Russia, Poland, Hungary, and
Dalmatia, holding Russia for ten years.

BATUM. See _Batoum_.

BAUDELAIRE (b[=o]d-l[=a]r), Charles Pierre, French poet, born 1821. His
first work of importance was a series of translations from Poe, ranking
among the most perfect translations in any literature. A volume of poems,
_Les Fleurs du Mal_ (1857), established his reputation as a leader of the
Romanticists, though the police thought it necessary to deodorize them. Of
a higher tone were his _Petits Poèmes en Prose_; followed in 1859 by a
monograph on Théophile Gautier, in 1860 by _Les Paradis Artificiels_ (opium
and hashish studies), and in 1861 by _Wagner et Tannhäuser à Paris_. He
died in 1867. The best English rendering of the _Fleurs du Mal_ is by A.
Symons (1905).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry James, _French Poets and Novelists_;
Asselineau, _Charles Baudelaire, sa vie et son oeuvre_; F. Gautier,
_Charles Baudelaire_.

BAUDRY (b[=o]-dr[=e]), Paul Jacques Aimé, a prominent modern French
painter, born in 1828, died Jan., 1886. He took the grand prix de Rome in
1850, and exhibited many important works, of which the better known are his
_Charlotte Corday_ and _La Perle et la Vague_. The decoration of the
_foyer_ of the New Opera House at Paris was entrusted to him--an enormous
work, occupying a total surface of 500 sq. metres, but admirably
accomplished by him in eight years.

BAUER (bou´er), Bruno, German philosopher, historian, and Biblical critic
of the rational school, born 1809, died 1882. Wrote _Critique of the Gospel
of John_ (1840); _Critique of the Synoptic Gospels_ (1840); _History of the
French Revolution to the Founding of the Republic_ (1847); _History of
Germany during the French Revolution and the Rule of Napoleon_ (1846);
_Critique of the Gospels_ (1850-1); _Critique of the Pauline Epistles_
(1850); _Philo, Strauss, Renan, and Primitive Christianity_ (1874); _Christ
and the Cæsars_ (1877), &c.

BAUHIN (b[=o]-an), Gaspard, born at Basel in 1560; in 1580 elected to the
Greek chair at Basel, and in 1589 to that of anatomy and botany. He died in
1624. His fame rests chiefly on his _Pinax Theatri Botanici_ and _Theatrum
Botanicum_. Linnæus gave his name to a genus of plants.

BAUHIN´IA, a genus of plants, ord. Leguminosæ, usually lianes, found in the
woods of hot countries, and often stretching from tree to tree like cables.
Many are showy and interesting. The bark of _B. varieg[=a]ta_ is used in
tanning; the bast fibres of some Indian species are made into ropes and
twine.

BAUMGARTEN (boum´g[.a]r-tn), Alexander Gottlieb, a German philosopher, born
in 1714 at Berlin; in 1740 was made professor of philosophy at
Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and died there in 1762. He is the founder of
æsthetics as a science, and the inventor of this name. His ideas were first
developed in his _De Nonnullis ad Poema pertinentibus_ (1735), and
afterwards in the two volumes of his uncompleted _Æsthetica_, published
1750-8.

BAUR (bour), Ferdinand Christian, German theologian, founder of the
'Tübingen School' of theologians and Hegelian thinkers, born in 1792. The
publication of his first work, _Symbolism and Mythology, or The Natural
Religion of Antiquity_, in 1824-5, led to his appointment as professor in
the evangelical faculty of Tübingen University, a position occupied by him
till his death in 1860. His chief works in the department of the history of
Christian dogma are: _The Christian Gnosis, or The Christian Philosophy of
Religion_ (1835); _The Christian Doctrine of the Atonement_ (1838); _The
Christian Doctrine of the Trinity and the Incarnation_ (1841-3); _The
Compendium of and Lectures on the History of Christian Dogmas_ (1847,
1865). To the department of New Testament criticism and the early history
of Christianity belong the so-called _Pastoral Epistles of the Apostle
Paul_ (1835); _Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ_ (1845); _Critical
Inquiries Concerning the Canonic Gospels_ (1847); _A History of Christian
Doctrine to the End of the Eighteenth Century_ (1853-63). Baur's views in
regard to the Church of the earliest times and the New Testament Scriptures
have been very influential. He saw different and opposing tendencies at
work in the Church of apostolic times, and believed that the New Testament
mainly took form in the second century, the only genuine writings previous
to A.D. 70 being the four great Pauline epistles and _Revelation_.

BAUTZEN (bout´sen), or BUDISSIN, a German town in Saxony, upon a height on
the right bank of the Spree, with some old and interesting buildings. The
inhabitants are mostly Lutheran, and both Catholics and Protestants worship
in the same cathedral. Chief manufactures: woollen goods, paper, gunpowder,
machines. Napoleon defeated the united armies of the Russians and the
Prussians at Bautzen on the 21st May, 1813. Pop. 32,754.

BAUXITE (b[a:]k´s[=i]t), a rock resembling clay, but consisting of hydrated
aluminium oxides, with, in good examples, a silica content of less than 2
per cent. Bauxite is mined at Les Baux in Provence, in Arkansas, and other
places, including County Antrim, where it occurs between basaltic lavas. It
is the source of commercial aluminium, and is also used for bricks for
high-temperature furnaces, and in alum manufacture. Like laterite (q.v.),
it results from tropical conditions of weathering acting on a variety of
silicate rocks.

BAVA´RIA (Ger. _Bayern_; Fr. _Bavière_), previous to the changes caused by
the European War (1914-8), a kingdom in the south of Germany, the second
largest State of the _Reich_, composed of two isolated portions, the larger
comprising about eleven-twelfths of the monarchy, having Würtemberg, Baden,
&c., on the west, while the smaller portion, the Pfalz or Palatinate, is
separated from the other by Würtemberg and Baden, and lies west of the
Rhine; total area, 30,346 sq. miles. The main political divisions are:
Upper Bavaria (pop. 1,532,065; chief town, Munich, the capital of the
country, pop. 596,467); Lower Bavaria (724,331); Palatinate (937,085);
Upper Palatinate and Regensburg (600,284); Upper Franconia (661,862);
Middle Franconia (930,868); Lower Franconia and Aschaffenburg (710,943);
Sehwaben and Neuburg (789,853); total in (1919), 7,150,146. Next towns
after Munich are Nürnberg, Augsburg, Würzburg, and Ratisbon (Regensburg).
The main portion of the country is hilly; in the south, where it belongs to
the Alps, it is mountainous; but north of the Alps and south of the Danube,
which flows east through the country from Ulm to Passau, there is a
considerable plateau, averaging about 1600 feet above the sea-level. The
south frontier is formed by a branch of the Noric Alps, offsets from which
project far into the plateau; principal peaks: the Zugspitze, 10,394 feet,
and the Watzmann, 9470 feet. The highest summits on the Bohemian (Austrian)
frontier, belonging to the Böhmerwald Mountains, are the Rachel, 5102 feet,
and the Arber, 5185 feet. Ranges of less elevation bordering on or
belonging to the country are the Fichtelgebirge in the north-east, the
Frankenwald, Rhöngebirge, and Spessart in the north, and the Steigerwald
and Franconian Jura in the middle. The Palatinate is traversed by the north
extremity of the Vosges Mountains, the highest peak being the Konigstuhl,
2162 feet. The greater part of the country belongs to the basin of the
Danube, which is navigable, its tributaries on the south being the Iller,
Lech, Isar, and Inn; on the north, the Wornitz, Altmühl, Nab, and Regen.
The northern portion belongs to the basin of the Main, which receives the
Regnitz and Saale, and is a tributary of the Rhine. The Palatinate has only
small streams that flow into its boundary river the Rhine. The chief lakes
of Bavaria are all on the higher part of the south plateau; the smaller
within the range of the Alps. The Ammer-See is about 10 miles long by 2½
broad, 1736 feet above the sea; the Würm-See or Starnberger-See, about 12
miles long by 3 broad, 1899 feet; and Chiem-See, 9 miles long by 9 to 4
broad, 1651 feet. The climate in general is temperate and healthy, though
somewhat colder than the other South German States; yearly average about
47° F.

As regards soil, Bavaria is one of the most fertile countries in Germany,
producing the various cereals in abundance, the best hops in Germany,
fruit, wine, tobacco, &c., and having extensive forests. Lower Franconia
(the Main valley) and the Palatinate are the great vine-growing districts.
The celebrated Steinwein and Leistenwein are the produce of the slopes of
the Steinberg and Marienberg at Würzburg (on the Main). The forests of
Bavaria, chiefly fir and pine, yield a large revenue, much timber being
annually exported, together with potash, tar, turpentine, &c. The principal
mineral products are salt, coal, and iron, some of the mining works
belonging to the State. The minerals worked include copper, quicksilver,
manganese, cobalt, porcelain clay, alabaster, graphite. Large numbers of
horses and cattle are reared, as also sheep and swine. The return of cattle
in 1917 showed 272,667 horses, 3,896,702 cattle, and 616,464 sheep. The
manufactures are individually mostly on a small scale. The principal
articles manufactured are linens, woollens, cottons, leather, paper, glass,
earthen and iron ware, jewellery, &c. The optical and mathematical
instruments made are excellent. A most important branch of industry is the
brewing of beer, for which there are upwards of 7000 establishments,
producing over 300 millions of gallons a year. The distilleries produce
over 4 millions of gallons of alcohol. A number of the people maintain
themselves by the manufacture of articles in wood, and by felling and
hewing timber. The trade of Bavaria in home produce exported and goods
imported for consumption in the country is not large. Principal exports:
corn, timber, wine, cattle, glass, hops, fruit, beer, wooden wares, &c. The
chief imports are sugar, coffee, cotton, rice, spices, dye-stuffs, silk and
silk goods, lead, &c. From its position Bavaria has a considerable transit
trade. The Konig Ludwig Canal connects the Main at Bamberg with the Altmühl
a short distance above its embouchure in the Danube, thus establishing
water communication between the North Sea and the Black Sea. The railway
system has a total mileage of 5290, mostly belonging to the State.

Education is in a less satisfactory condition than in most German States.
There are about 7500 elementary schools, at which attendance is compulsory
up to fourteen years of age. There are three universities, two of which
(Munich and Würzburg) are Roman Catholic, and one (Erlangen) Protestant. In
art Bavaria is best known as the home of the Nürnberg school, founded about
the middle of the sixteenth century by Albert Dürer. Hans Holbein is also
claimed as a Bavarian; and to these have to be added the eminent sculptors
Kraft and Vischer, both born about the middle of the fifteenth century. The
restoration of the reputation of Bavaria in art was chiefly the work of
Ludwig I, under whom the capital became one of the most prominent seats of
the fine arts in Europe. The religion of the State is Roman Catholicism,
over 70 per cent of the population being Roman Catholics. All citizens,
whatever their creed, possess the same civil and political rights. The
dioceses of Bavaria comprise two Roman Catholic archbishopries, Munich and
Bamberg; and six bishopries, Augsburg, Ratisbon, Eichstädt, Passau,
Würzburg, and Spires.

For over a century Bavaria was a kingdom, and the crown hereditary in the
male line of the descendants of the ancient Counts of Wittelsbach. The
executive power was vested in the king, but his ministers were responsible
for his acts. The legislature consisted of two chambers--one of senators,
composed of princes of the royal family, the great officers of the State,
the two archbishops, the heads of certain noble families, and certain
members appointed by the Crown; the other of deputies, 163 in number,
elected by direct and secret vote, and calculated at the rate of 1 for
every 38,000 inhabitants. The lower chamber was elected for six years. The
Budget for each of the years 1916 and 1917 balanced at £12,183,411; for
1918 and 1919 at £42,639,595; the public debt on 1st July, 1917, was
£128,719,000, £98,179,000 being railway debt. The army (peace footing,
72,000) was raised by conscription--every man being liable to serve from
the 1st of January of the year in which he completes his twentieth year. In
time of peace the army was under the command of the King of Bavaria, but in
time of war under that of the Emperor of Germany, as commander-in-chief of
the whole German army.

As a result of the revolutionary movement in Nov., 1918, the Bavarian
dynasty was deposed and a republican form of government set up. The
provisional constitution, made public on 7th Jan., 1919, established a
Socialist Republic in Bavaria. The supreme power lies with the people; the
Diet consists of one chamber; the suffrage is universal; the privileges of
birth and caste are abolished. The supreme executive power is exercised by
the ministry as a whole. The Church is separated from the State, and all
religious associations have equal rights.

_History._--The Bavarians take their name from the Boii, a Celtic tribe
whose territory was occupied by a confederation of Germanic tribes, called
after their predecessors Boiarii. These were made tributary first to the
Ostrogoths, and then to the Franks; and on the death of Charlemagne his
successors governed the country by lieutenants with the title of margrave,
afterwards converted (in 921) into that of duke. In 1070 Bavaria passed to
the family of the Guelphs, and in 1180 by imperial grant to Otho, Count of
Wittelsbach, founder of the dynasty reigning until 1918. In 1623 the
reigning duke was made one of the Electors of the empire. Elector
Maximilian II joined in the War of the Spanish Succession on the side of
France, and this led, after the battle of Blenheim, 1704, to the loss of
his dominions for the next ten years. His son, Charles Albert, likewise
lost his dominions for a time to Austria, but they were all recovered again
by Charles's son, Maximilian III (1745). In the wars following the French
revolution Bavaria was in a difficult position between France and Austria,
but in the end joined Napoleon, from whom its Elector Maximilian IV
received the title of king (1805), a title afterwards confirmed by the
treaties of 1814 and 1815. King Maximilian I was succeeded by his son,
Ludwig (or Louis) I, under whom various circumstances helped to quicken a
desire for political change. Reform being refused, tumults arose in 1848,
and Ludwig resigned in favour of his son, Maximilian II, under whom certain
modifications of the constitution were carried out. At his death in 1864 he
was succeeded by Ludwig II. In the war of 1866 Bavaria sided with Austria,
and was compelled to cede a small portion of its territory to Prussia, and
to pay a war indemnity of £2,500,000. Soon after Bavaria entered into an
alliance with Prussia, and in 1867 joined the Zollverein. In the
Franco-German War of 1870-1 the Bavarians took a prominent part, and it was
at the request of the King of Bavaria, on behalf of all the other princes
and the senates of the free cities of Germany, that the King of Prussia
agreed to accept the title of Emperor of Germany. From Jan., 1871, to 1918
Bavaria formed part of the German Empire, and was represented in the
Bundesrath by six, and in the Reichstag by forty-eight members. The
eccentricity early displayed by Ludwig II developed to such an extent that
in June, 1886, he was placed under control, and a regency established under
Prince Luitpold (Leopold). The change was almost immediately followed by
the suicide of the king, and as Prince Otto, the brother and heir of the
late king, was insane, the regency was continued. Prince Luitpold died on
12th Dec., 1912, and his son, Ludwig, became regent. On 5th Nov., 1913, the
prince was proclaimed king, under the name of Ludwig III, in succession to
his cousin, King Otto, who was declared incapable of ruling. King Otto died
on 12th Oct., 1916. Ludwig III abdicated in Nov., 1918, and the Bavarian
Government was taken over by a cabinet under the leadership of Kurt Eisner.
Eisner was assassinated in Feb., 1919, and a struggle ensued between the
moderate Socialists and the extremists of the Left. The moderate party,
however, returned to power in May, 1919.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Riezler,
_Geschichte Bayerns_ (4 vols.); R. Piloty, _Die Verfassungsgeschichte des
Königreichs Bayern_; Götz, _Geographisch-historisches Handbuch von Bayern_;
M. Docberl, _Entwickelungsgeschichte Bayerns_; C. P. Higby, _Religious
Policy of the Bavarian Government during the Napoleonic Period_.

BAXTER, Richard, the most eminent of the English nonconforming divines of
the seventeenth century, born in Rowton, Shropshire, 1615; ordained in
1638; parish minister of Kidderminster in 1640. The imposition of the oath
of universal approbation of the doctrine and discipline of the Church of
England (the _et cætera oath_) detached him from the Establishment. After
the battle of Naseby he accepted the chaplaincy of Colonel Whalley's
regiment. He can scarcely be said, however, to have separated as yet in
spirit from the Establishment. He upheld the monarchy, condemned the
execution of the king and the election of Cromwell, preached against the
Covenant and against separatists and sectaries, but his piety won him the
respect of all parties. At the Restoration he became king's chaplain, but
declined the bishopric of Hereford, and on the passage of the Act of
Uniformity threw in his lot entirely with the nonconformists. In 1685 he
was arrested, refused a hearing by Jeffreys, and imprisoned. After his
release he lived in retirement till his death in 1691. He left about 150
treatises, of which his _Saints' Everlasting Rest_, _Call to the
Unconverted_, and _Reformed Pastor_ have been the most
popular.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Orme, _Life and Times of Richard Baxter_;
J. Stalker, _Lecture on Baxter_ in _The Evangelical Succession_; McAdam
Muir, _Religious Writers of England_; Currier, _Nine Great Preachers_.

BAXTERIANS, followers of Baxter in respect of his attempted compromise
between Calvinism and Arminianism. They reject the doctrine of reprobation,
admit a universal potential salvation, becoming actual in the case of the
elect, and assert the possibility of falling from grace. The Baxterians
never formed a sect or even a school, but were men of independent minds,
distinguishing between essentials and non-essentials: in things necessary,
unity; in things doubtful, liberty; in all things, charity. The two most
eminent Baxterians were Dr. Isaac Watts and Dr. Philip Doddridge.--Cf.
McAdam Muir, _Religious Writers of England_.

BAY, the laurel tree, noble laurel, or sweet-bay (_Laurus nob[)i]lis_); but
the term is loosely given to many trees and shrubs resembling this. A fatty
or fixed oil (used in veterinary medicine) and also a volatile oil are
obtained from the berries, but what is called 'bayberry oil' is also
obtained from the genus Myrica or candleberry. In N. America the
fragrant-flowered _Magnolia glauca_ is called sweet-bay, the red-bay being
_Laurus carolinensis_, the loblolly-bay _Gordonia lasianthus_. See
_Laurel_.

BAY, in geography, an indentation of some size into the shore of a sea or
lake, generally said to be one with a wider entrance than a gulf.

BAY, in architecture, a term applied to a recessed division or compartment
of a building, as that marked off by buttresses or pillars.

[Illustration: Nests of Baya (_Ploceus philipp[=i]nus_)]

BA´YA, the weaver-bird (_Ploc[)e]us philipp[=i]nus_), an interesting East
Indian passerine bird, somewhat like the bullfinch. Its nest resembles a
bottle, and is suspended from the branch of a tree. The entrance is from
beneath, and there are two chambers, one for the male, the other for the
female. The baya is easily tamed, and will fetch and carry at command.

BAYADERES (b[=a]-a-d[=e]rz´), the general European name for the dancing and
singing girls of India, some of whom are attached to the service of the
Hindu temples, while others travel about and dance at entertainments for
hire. Those in the service of the temples are generally devoted to this
profession (including that of prostitution) from their childhood.

BAYAMO (b[.a]-yä´m[=o]), or ST. SALVADOR, a town in the east of Cuba, near
the Cauto. Pop. 18,180.

BAYARD (b[.a]-yär), Pierre du Terrail, Seigneur de, the _Chevalier sans
peur et sans reproche_, born in 1476 in Castle Bayard, near Grenoble, in
Southern France. At the age of eighteen he accompanied Charles VIII to
Italy, and in the battle of Fornovo took a standard. At the beginning of
the reign of Louis XII, in a battle near Milan, he entered the city at the
heels of the fugitives, and was taken prisoner, but released by Ludovico
Sforza without ransom. In Apulia he killed his calumniator, Sotomayor, and
afterwards defended a bridge over the Garigliano singly against the
Spaniards, receiving for this exploit as a coat of arms a porcupine, with
the motto _Vires agminis unus habet_ ('one has the strength of a band'). He
distinguished himself equally against the Genoese and the Venetians, and,
when Julius II declared himself against France, went to the assistance of
the Duke of Ferrara. He was severely wounded at the assault of Brescia, but
returned, as soon as cured, to the camp of Gaston de Foix, before Ravenna,
and after new exploits was again dangerously wounded in the retreat from
Pavia. In the war commenced by Ferdinand the Catholic he displayed the same
heroism, and the fatal reverses which embittered the last years of Louis
XII only added to the personal glory of Bayard. When Francis I ascended the
throne he sent Bayard into Dauphiné to open a passage over the Alps and
through Piedmont. Prosper Colonna lay in wait for him, but was made
prisoner by Bayard, who immediately after further distinguished himself in
the battle of Marignano. After his defence of Mézières against the invading
army of Charles V he was saluted in Paris as the saviour of his country,
receiving the honour paid to a prince of the blood. His presence reduced
the revolted Genoese to obedience, but failed to prevent the expulsion of
the French after the capture of Lodi. In the retreat the safety of the army
was committed to Bayard, who, however, was mortally wounded by a stone from
a blunderbuss in protecting the passage of the Sesia. He kissed the cross
of his sword, confessed to his squire, and died, 30th April, 1524. He was
buried in a church of the Minorites, at Grenoble.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: "Le Loyal
Serviteur" (supposed to be Jacques de Mailles), _La très joyeuse ...
histoire ... des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du bon chevalier sans
paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de Bayart_ (printed in 1527);
modern edition of this work by M. J. Roman; A. de Terrebasse, _Histoire de
Pierre Terrail, Seigneur de Bayart_.

BAYAZID´, a ruined town in Armenia, 140 miles S.E. of Erzerum, S.W. of
Mount Ararat, at various times the scene of warlike operations, and twice
occupied by the Russians in 1877. Total pop. 4000.

BAYAZID. See _Bajazet_.

BAYBERRY. See _Bay_ (tree) and _Candleberry_.

BAY CITY, an American city, Michigan, on the east side of Saginaw River,
near its mouth in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron. Chief articles of trade, lumber
and salt. Pop. (1920), 47,554.

BAYEUX, (b[.a]-y_eu_) an ancient town, France, department Calvados, 16
miles N.W. of Caen, with manufactures of lace, calico, and porcelain. In
its cathedral, said to be the oldest in Normandy, the famous Bayeux
tapestry was preserved for a long time. Pop. 7638.

[Illustration: A section of the Bayeux Tapestry showing the Norman cavalry
attacking the English footmen at the Battle of Hastings]

BAYEUX TAPESTRY, so called because it was originally found in the cathedral
of Bayeux, in the public library of which town it is still preserved.
Formerly known as the 'Toile de St. Jean', it is supposed to have been
worked by Matilda, Queen of William the Conqueror, and to have been
presented by Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, the half-brother of William, to the
church in which it was found. It is 231 feet in length and 20 inches in
breadth, and is divided into seventy-two compartments, the subject of each
scene being indicated by a Latin inscription. These scenes give a pictorial
history of the invasion and conquest of England by the Normans, beginning
with Harold's visit to the Norman Court, and ending with his death at
Hastings.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bolton Corney, _Researches and Conjectures on the
Bayeux Tapestry_; Jules Comte, _Tapisserie de Bayeux_; F. R. Fowke, _The
Bayeux Tapestry_.

BAY ISLANDS, an island group, Bay of Honduras, off N. coast of State of
Honduras, incorporated as a British colony in 1852, and ceded to Honduras
in 1856. The largest is Ruatan, 30 miles long. Pop. about 5000.

BAYLE (b[=a]l), Pierre, French critic and miscellaneous writer, the son of
a Calvinist preacher, born at Carlat (Languedoc) in 1647, died at Rotterdam
1706. A statue in his honour was erected at Pamiers in 1906. He studied at
Toulouse, and was employed for some time as a private tutor at Geneva and
Rouen. He went to Paris in 1674, and soon after was appointed professor of
philosophy at Sedan. Six years after he removed to Rotterdam, where he
filled a similar chair. The appearance of a comet, in 1680, which
occasioned an almost universal alarm, induced him to publish, in 1682, his
_Pensées Diverses sur la Comète_, a work full of learning, in which he
discussed various subjects of metaphysics, morals, theology, history, and
politics. It was followed by his _Critique Générale de l'Histoire du
Calvinisme de Maimbourg_. This work excited the jealousy of his colleague,
the theologian Jurieu, and involved Bayle in many disputes. In 1684 he
undertook a periodical work, _Nouvelles de la République des Lettres_,
containing notices of new books in theology, philosophy, history, and
general literature. This publication, which lasted for three years, added
much to his reputation as a philosophical critic. In 1693 Jurieu succeeded
in inducing the magistrates of Rotterdam to remove Bayle from his office.
He now devoted all his attention to the composition of his _Dictionnaire
Historique et Critique_, which he first published in 1696, in 2 vols. fol.
It is a vast storehouse of facts, discussions, and opinions, and though it
was publicly censured by the Rotterdam consistory for its frequent
impurities, its pervading scepticism, and tacit atheism, it long remained a
favourite book both with literary men and with men of the world. The
articles in his dictionary, in themselves, are generally of little value,
and serve only as a pretext for the notes, in which the author displays, at
the same time, his learning and the power of his logic. The best editions
are that of 1740, in 4 vols. fol. (Amsterdam and Leyden), and that in 16
vols., published in 1820-4 at Paris.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. A. Feuerbach,
_Pierre Bayle_; F. Brunetière, _Études Critiques_ (5th series); A. Cazes,
_Pierre Bayle, sa vie, ses idées, son influence, son oeuvre_.

BAY-LEAF, the leaf of the sweet-bay or laurel tree (_Laurus nobilis_).
These leaves are aromatic, and are used in cookery and confectionery. See
_Bay_.

BAYLEN (b[=i]-len´). Same as _Bailen_.

BAYLY (b[=a]´li), Thomas Haynes, English poet, novelist, dramatist, and
miscellaneous writer, born 1797, died 1839. He was educated at Oxford, and
intended for the Church. He wrote thirty-six pieces for the stage, most of
which were successful; several novels: _The Aylmers_, _A Legend of
Killarney_, &c.; and numerous songs. As a song-writer he was most prolific
and most popular. _The Soldier's Tear_, _We met--'twas in a Crowd_, were
the best known.

BAY MAHOGANY, that variety of mahogany exported from Honduras. It is softer
and less finely marked than the variety known as Spanish mahogany, but is
the largest and most abundant kind.

BAYNES (b[=a]nz), Thomas Spencer, LL.D., born at Wellington, Somerset, in
1823, died suddenly in London, 1887. He studied under Sir William Hamilton
at Edinburgh, and acted as his class assistant from 1851 to 1855. From 1857
to 1863 he was resident in London, where he acted as examiner in logic and
mental philosophy in the University of London, and as assistant editor of
the _Daily News_. In 1864 he was appointed to the chair of logic, rhetoric,
and metaphysics in St. Andrews University, a post he held till his death.
In 1873, when he became editor of the ninth edition of the _Encyclopædia
Britannica_, his wide acquaintance with men of letters and learning
assisted him greatly in the selection of suitable contributors. He
translated the _Port Royal Logic_ (see _Arnauld_), and was a frequent
contributor to the principal reviews and literary journals.

BAY OF ISLANDS, a large, deep, and safe harbour on the N.E. coast of the N.
Island of New Zealand. On it is Kororarika, the first European settlement
in New Zealand.--Also a large bay formed by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, on
the west coast of Newfoundland. See _New Zealand_.

BAY´ONET (Fr. _baïonnette_), a straight, sharp-pointed weapon, invented by
a Frenchman (probably a native of Bayonne) in the seventeenth century. A
bayonet was originally screwed into the muzzle of the firelock, converting
it into a short pike. This system, which practically precluded any further
use of the firelock as such, was later improved by a Scotchman, who fitted
the weapon with a socket and bolt, enabling it to be placed over the muzzle
of the musket instead of being screwed into it. The firelock could then be
used for both missile and shock action, according to requirements. The
bayonet replaced the pike in the English army after the revolution of 1690.
The length, shape, and weight of the bayonet have varied considerably at
different periods and in different countries; that at present in use in the
British army is a short sword-shaped weapon, 1 foot 6 inches long and
weighing about 1 pound. In war it is considered that an attack with the
bayonet or the immediate threat of one is a necessary preliminary to a
successful assault.

BAYONNE (b[.a]-yon), a well-built fortified town, the largest in the French
department Basses-Pyrénées, at the confluence of the Nive and the Adour,
about 2 miles from their mouth in the Bay of Biscay; with a citadel
commanding the harbour and city, a cathedral--a beautiful ancient
building--shipbuilding and other industries, and a considerable trade.
Among the lower class the Basque language is spoken. Catherine de' Medici
had an important interview with the Duke of Alva in Bayonne, June, 1565, at
which it is said the massacre of St. Bartholomew was arranged. It was also
the scene of the abdication of Charles IV of Spain in favour of Napoleon
(1808). In 1814 the British forced the passage of the Nive and invested the
town, from which the French made a desperate but unsuccessful sortie. Pop.
27,886.

BAYONNE CITY, a suburb of New York, in Hudson County, New Jersey. Pop.
76,754.

BAYOU (b[=a]-yö´), in the southern States of North America, a stream which
flows from a lake or other stream: frequently used as synonymous with creek
or tidal channel.

BAYREUTH (b[=i]´roit). See _Baireuth_.

BAY RUM, a spirit obtained by distilling the leaves of _Myrica acris_, or
other West Indian trees of the same genus. It is used for toilet purposes,
and as a liniment in rheumatic affections.

BAY-SALT, a general term for coarse-grained salt, but properly applied to
salt obtained by spontaneous or natural evaporation of sea-water in large
shallow tanks or _bays_.

[Illustration: Bay-window at Bramhall Hall, Cheshire]

BAY-WINDOW, a window forming a recess or bay in a room, projecting
outwards, and rising from the ground or basement on a plan rectangular,
semi-octagonal, or semi-hexagonal, but always straight-sided. One of the
finest examples of bay-windows is that of the banqueting-hall at Hampton
Court. The term is, however, also often employed to designate a
_bow-window_, which more properly forms the segment of a circle, and an
_oriel-window_, which is supported on a kind of bracket, and is usually on
the first floor.

BAZA (bä´th[.a]), an old town of Spain, Andalusia, province of Granada,
formerly a large and flourishing city. In 1810 the French, under Marshal
Soult, here defeated the Spaniards under Generals Blake and Freire. Pop.
15,964.

BAZAAR. See _Bazar_.

BAZAINE (b[.a]-z[=a]n), François Achille, French general, born 1811, died
1888. He entered the army as a private soldier in 1831, and served in
Algeria with distinction, gaining the cross of the Legion of Honour, and
rising to the rank of lieutenant. He next went to Spain and fought in the
Foreign Legion against the Carlists; and in 1839 returned to Algeria, where
he eventually held the rank of colonel (1850). He was next engaged in the
Crimean War, being at first commander of a brigade and then general of
division, leading the French troops sent to attack the fortress of Kinburn
(1855). He did good service also in the Italian war of 1859, being actively
engaged in the battle of Solferino. His military reputation was increased
by the part he took in the Mexican expedition (1862-4), in which he led the
first division under Forey, and when this general was recalled became
commander-in-chief of the French forces in Mexico and marshal of France.
His loyalty, however, to the cause of the Emperor Maximilian was very
doubtful. In 1870 he took command of the army of the Rhine, or the third
army corps, in the Franco-German War, collected a very large army in the
neighbourhood of Metz, and had the intention of joining his forces with
those of MacMahon at Châlons. He found this impossible, however, especially
after Gravelotte, and was forced into Metz, where he capitulated after a
seven weeks' siege, with an army of 175,000 men. For this act he was tried
by court-martial in 1871, found guilty of treason, and condemned to death.
The sentence was commuted to twenty years' seclusion in the Isle of St.
Marguerite, from which he escaped in 1874, and retired to Spain. He
published _Épisodes de la Guerre de 1870_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Brugère,
_L'Affaire Bazaine_; Comte d'Herisson, _La Légende de Metz_.

BAZAR´, or BAZAAR´, in the East an exchange, market-place, or place where
goods are exposed for sale, usually consisting of small shops or stalls in
a narrow street or series of streets. These bazar-streets are frequently
shaded by a light material laid from roof to roof, and sometimes are arched
over. Marts for the sale of miscellaneous articles, chiefly fancy goods,
are now to be found in most European cities, bearing the name of _bazars_.
The term bazar is popularly applied to a sale of miscellaneous articles,
mostly of fancy work, and contributed gratuitously, in furtherance of some
charitable or other purpose.

BAZAR´JIK, now officially called Dobritsh (q.v.).

BAZIGARS´, a tribe of Indians dispersed throughout the whole of Hindustan
mostly in wandering tribes. They are divided into seven castes; their chief
occupation is that of jugglers, acrobats, and tumblers, in which both males
and females are equally skilful. They present many features analogous to
the gipsies of Europe, and like these each clan has its king.

BAZIN, René, French novelist, born 1853. For some time he was professor of
law in the Catholic University of Angers. His literary reputation was
established by _Une Tache d'Encre_. His other novels include _La Terre qui
meurt_, _De Toute son Âme_, _Les Oberlé_, _Les Noellet_, _Davidée Birot_,
all of which have been translated into English by Dr. A. S. Rappoport. He
has also written _Questions littéraires et sociales_, &c. Bazin was elected
a member of the Académie Française in 1903.

BAZOCHE (b[.a]-zosh´), or BASOCHE (a corruption of _Basilica_), a
brotherhood formed by the clerks of the Parliament of Paris at the time it
ceased to be the grand council of the French king. They had a king,
chancellor, and other dignitaries; and certain privileges were granted them
by Philip the Fair early in the fourteenth century, as also by subsequent
monarchs. They had an annual festival, having as a principal feature
dramatic performances in which satirical allusions were freely made to
passing events. These farces or satires were frequently interdicted, but
they had a considerable influence on the French drama. The Bazoche took an
active part in the French Revolution, but the order was suppressed by the
decree of 13th Feb., 1791.

BAZZI (b[.a]t´s[=e]). See _Sodoma_.

BDELLIUM (del´i-um), an aromatic gum resin brought chiefly from Africa and
India, in pieces of different sizes and figures, externally of a dark
reddish brown, internally clear, and not unlike glue. To the taste it is
slightly bitterish and pungent; its odour is agreeable. It is used as a
perfume and a medicine, being a weak deobstruent. Indian bdellium is the
produce of _Balsamodendron Roxburghii_; African of _B. africanum_; Egyptian
bdellium is obtained from the doum palm; and Sicilian is produced by
_Daucus gummifer_, a species of the genus to which the carrot belongs. The
bdellium mentioned in _Gen._ ii, 12, was apparently a precious stone,
perhaps a pearl. See _Myrrh_.

BEACHES, RAISED, a term applied to those long, terraced, level pieces of
land, consisting of sand and gravel, and containing marine shells, now, it
may be, a considerable distance above and away from the sea, but bearing
sufficient evidences of having been at one time sea-beaches. In Scotland
such a terrace has been traced extensively along the coasts at about 25
feet above the present sea-level.

BEACHY HEAD, a promontory in the south of England, on the coast of Sussex,
rising 575 feet above sea-level, with a revolving light, visible in clear
weather from a distance of 28 miles. A naval battle took place here, 30th
June, 1690, in which a French fleet under Tourville defeated an English and
Dutch combined fleet under Lord Torrington.

BEACON (b[=e]´kon), an object visible at some distance, and serving to
notify the presence of danger; commonly applied to a fire-signal set on a
height to spread the news of hostile invasion or other great event; and
also applied to a mark or object of some kind placed conspicuously on a
coast or over a rock or shoal at sea for the guidance of vessels, often an
iron structure of considerable height.

BEACONSFIELD (b[=e]´konz-f[=e]ld), a village of Buckinghamshire, the parish
church of which contains the remains of Edmund Burke, whose seat was in the
neighbourhood; while a marble monument to the poet Waller, who owned the
manor, is in the churchyard. It gave the title of earl to the English
statesman and novelist Benjamin Disraeli. Pop. (1921), 3642.

BEACONSFIELD, formerly known as Du Toit's Pan, a town of Cape Province
about a mile to the east of Kimberley, of which it forms a suburb. Pop.
20,364.

BEACONSFIELD, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of, an eminent English statesman and
novelist, of Jewish extraction; eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli, author of
the _Curiosities of Literature_; born in London in 1804, died there in
1881, buried at Hughenden. He attended for a time a private school, and was
first destined for the law, but showing a decided taste for literature he
was allowed to follow his inclination. In 1826 he published _Vivian Grey_,
his first novel; and subsequently travelled for some time, visiting Italy,
Greece, Turkey, and Syria, and gaining experiences which were afterwards
reproduced in his books. His travels and impressions are embodied in a
volume of letters addressed to his sister and his father. In 1831 another
novel, _The Young Duke_, came from his pen. It was followed at short
intervals by _Contarini Fleming_, _Alroy_, _Henrietta Temple_, _Venetia_,
_The Revolutionary Epic_ (a poem), &c. In 1832, and on two subsequent
occasions, he appeared as candidate for the representation of High Wycombe,
with a programme which included vote by ballot and triennial parliaments,
but was unsuccessful. His political opinions gradually changed: in 1835 he
unsuccessfully contested Taunton as a Tory. In 1837 he gained an entrance
to the House of Commons, being elected for Maidstone. His first speech in
the House was treated with ridicule; but he finished with the prophetic
declaration that the time would come when they would hear him. During his
first years in Parliament he was a supporter of Peel; but when Peel pledged
himself to abolish the corn-laws, Disraeli became the leader of the
protectionists. About this time he became a leader of what was known as the
'Young England' party, the most prominent characteristic of which was a
sort of sentimental advocacy of feudalism. This spirit showed itself in his
two novels of _Coningsby_ and _Sybil_, published respectively in 1844 and
1845. Having acquired the manor of Hughenden, in Buckinghamshire, he was in
1847 elected for this county, and he retained his seat till raised to the
peerage nearly thirty years later. His first appointment to office was in
1852, when he became Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Derby. The
following year, however, the ministry was defeated. He remained out of
office till 1858, when he again became Chancellor of the Exchequer, and
brought in a Reform Bill which wrecked the Government. During the time the
Palmerston Government was in office Disraeli led the opposition in the
Lower House with conspicuous ability and courage. In 1866 the Liberals
resigned, and Derby and Disraeli came into power, the latter being again
Chancellor of the Exchequer. They immediately brought in, and carried,
after a violent and bitter struggle, a Reform Bill on the basis of
household suffrage. In 1868 he became Premier on the resignation of Lord
Derby, but his tenure of office was short. In 1874 he again became Prime
Minister with a strong Conservative majority, and he remained in power for
six years. This period was marked by his elevation to the peerage in 1876
as Earl of Beaconsfield, and by the prominent part he took in regard to the
Eastern question and the conclusion of the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. In
1880 Parliament was rather suddenly dissolved, and, the new Parliament
showing an overwhelming Liberal majority, he resigned office, though he
still retained the leadership of his party. Within a few months of his
death the publication of a novel called _Endymion_ (his last, _Lothair_,
had been published ten years before) showed that his intellect was still
vigorous. Among others of his writings, besides those already mentioned,
are: _A Vindication of the English Constitution_ (1834); _Alarcos, a
Tragedy_ (1839); and _Lord George Bentinck, a Political Biography_
(1852).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Selected Speeches of the Earl of Beaconsfield_
(edited by T. E. Kebbel); T. Martin, _Memorials of Lord Beaconsfield_; the
article _Disraeli_, by T. E. Kebbel, in _Dictionary of National Biography_;
Sir William Fraser, _Disraeli and his Day_; Sichel, _Disraeli_; the best
work, however, is W. F. Monypenny's _Life of Disraeli, Earl of
Beaconsfield_ (continued by G. E. Buckle).

BEAD (b[=e]d), originally a prayer; then a small perforated ball of gold,
pearl, amber, glass, or the like, to be strung on a thread, and used in a
rosary by Roman Catholics in numbering their prayers, one bead being passed
at the end of each ejaculation or short prayer; finally any such small
ornamental body. The use of beads among pagans is of greater antiquity than
their Christian use, but there is no evidence to show that the latter is
derived from the former. Glass beads are now the most common sort; they
form a considerable item in the African trade.--In architecture and joinery
the bead is a small round moulding. It is of frequent occurrence in
architecture, particularly in the classical styles, and is used in
picture-frames and other objects carved in wood.--_St. Cuthbert's Beads_,
the popular name of the detached and perforated joints of encrinites.

BEADLE (b[=e]´dl), an officer in a university, whose chief business is to
walk with a mace in a public procession: also, a parish officer whose
business is to punish petty offenders, and a church officer (chiefly,
although not exclusively, in Scotland) with various subordinate duties, as
waiting on the clergyman, keeping order in church, attending meetings of
vestry or session, &c. The primary meaning of the word (from O.E. _beodan_,
to offer, announce) appears to be 'herald', one who announces or proclaims
something.

BEAD-SNAKE (_Elaps fulvus_), a beautiful snake of North America, inhabiting
cultivated grounds, especially plantations of the sweet-potato, and
burrowing in the ground. It is finely marked with yellow, carmine, and
black. Though it possesses poison-fangs it never seems to use them.

BEAGLE (b[=e]´gl), a small hound, resembling a foxhound or harrier, and
used to hunt rabbits and hares, being often kept in packs. The beagle is
smaller than the harrier, compactly built, smooth-haired, and with
pendulous ears. The smallest of them are little larger than the lap-dog.

BEALE, Lionel Smith, English physician and biologist, born in 1828, died in
1906. He was educated at King's College School and King's College, London,
and was a professor in the medical department of the latter institution for
forty-three years, finally holding the chair of the principles and practice
of medicine. His numerous published works treat of medical, anatomical,
physiological, and biological subjects; the microscope; various questions
of morality, &c. They include _How to Work with the Microscope_, _The
Structure of the Tissues_, _Protoplasm_, _Disease Germs_, _Life Theories
and Religious Thought_, _The Mystery of Life_, _Bioplasm_, _On Slight
Ailments_, _Religio Medici_, _Religio Scientiæ_, _Religio Vitæ_, &c.

BEAM, a long, straight, and strong piece of wood, iron, or steel,
especially when holding an important place in some structure, and serving
for support or consolidation; often equivalent to _girder_. In a balance it
is the part from the ends of which the scales are suspended. In a loom it
is a cylindrical piece of wood on which weavers wind the warp before
weaving; also, the cylinder on which the cloth is rolled as it is woven. In
a ship, one of the strong transverse pieces stretching across from one side
to the other to support the decks and retain the sides at their proper
distance: hence a ship is said to be 'on her beam ends' when lying over on
her side. For calculations relating to beams, see Morley's _Strength of
Materials_ and _Theory of Structures_.

BEAM TREE (_Pyrus aria_), a tree of the same genus as the apple,
mountain-ash, and service tree found throughout Britain, having berries
that are edible when quite mellow, and yielding a hard and fine-grained
wood.

BEAN, a name given to several kinds of leguminous seeds and the plants
producing them, probably originally belonging to Asia. They belong to
several genera, particularly to Vicia, garden and field bean; Phase[)o]lus,
French or kidney bean; and Dolichos, tropical bean. The common bean (_Vicia
Faba_) is cultivated both in fields and gardens as food for man and beast.
Beans were believed by some of the ancients to contain the souls of their
ancestors, and Pythagoras would not eat beans for this reason. One of the
bean family still retains the name of the Pythagorean bean. Beans were
introduced by the Moors into Spain, whence they came to France and later to
England. It is possible, however, that they were brought to Britain by the
Romans. They are now largely imported from Egypt, Turkey, Greece, and the
Netherlands. There are many varieties, as the Mazagan, the Windsor, the
long-pod, &c., in gardens, and the horse or tick bean in fields. The soil
that best suits is a good strong clay. The seed of the Windsor is fully an
inch in diameter; the horse bean is much less, often not much more than
half an inch in length and three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Beans are
very nutritious, containing nearly 50 per cent of digestible carbohydrate
and 25 per cent of nitrogenous matter. The bean is an annual, from 2 to 4
feet high. The flowers are beautiful and fragrant. The _kidney bean_,
_French bean_, or _haricot_ is the _Phase[)o]lus vulg[=a]ris_, a well-known
culinary vegetable. There are two principal varieties, annual dwarfs and
runners. The beans cultivated in America and largely used as articles of
food belong to the genus Phase[)o]lus. The _scarlet-runner bean_
(_Phase[)o]lus multiflorus_), a native of Mexico, is cultivated on account
of its long rough pods and its scarlet flowers.

BEAN-GOOSE (_Anser seg[)e]tum_), a species of wild goose, a migratory bird
which arrives in Britain in autumn and retires to the north in the end of
April, though some few remain to breed. Being rather less in size than the
common wild goose, it is sometimes called the _small grey goose_.

BEAN-KING, the person chosen king in Twelfth Night festivities in virtue of
having got the piece of cake containing the bean buried in the cake for
this purpose.

[Illustration: Brown or Black Bear (_Ursus arctos_)]

[Illustration: The Polar or White Bear (_Ursus mar[)i]timus_)]

BEAR, the name of several large plantigrade carnivorous mammals of the
genus Ursus. The teeth are forty-two in number, as in the dog, but there is
no carnassial or sectorial tooth, and the molars have a more tubercular
character than in other carnivores. The eyes have a nictitating membrane,
the nose is prominent and mobile, and the tail very short. The true bears
are about ten in number, natives chiefly of Europe, Asia, and N. America.
They generally lie dormant in their den during the winter months. The brown
or black bear of Europe is the _Ursus arctos_. It is a native of almost all
the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and was at one time common in the
British Islands. It feeds on fruits, roots, honey, ants, and, in case of
need, on mammals. It sometimes reaches the length of 7 feet, the largest
specimens being found farthest to the north. It lives solitarily. The
American black bear is the _U. americ[=a]nus_, with black shining fur, and
rarely above 5 feet in length. It is a great climber, is less dangerous
than the brown bear, and is hunted for its fur and flesh. It is very
amusing in captivity. The grizzly bear (_U. ferox_ or _horribilis_) is an
inhabitant of the Rocky Mountains; it is a ferocious animal, sometimes 9
feet in length, and has a bulky and unwieldy form, but is nevertheless
capable of great rapidity of motion. The extinct cave-bear (_U. spelæus_)
seems to have been closely akin to the grizzly. The Siberian bear (_U.
coll[=a]ris_) is perhaps a variety of the brown bear. The polar or white
bear (_U. marit[)i]mus_) is an animal possessed of great strength and
fierceness. It lives in the polar regions, frequents the sea, feeds on
fish, seals, &c., and usually is 7 to 8 feet in length. The Malayan or
coco-nut palm bear (_U. malay[=a]nus_) inhabits Cochin-China, Nepaul, the
Sunda Islands, &c., lives exclusively on vegetable food, and is an expert
climber. It is called also sun-bear and bruang. The Indian black bear or
sloth-bear of India and Ceylon (_U. labi[=a]tus_) is reputed to be a fierce
and dangerous animal.

BEAR, or BERE, a species of barley (_Hord[)e]um hexastichum_), having six
rows in the ear, cultivated in Scotland and the north of England.

[Illustration: The Constellation of the Great Bear. The two stars on the
right are the Pointers]

BEAR, GREAT and LITTLE, the popular names of two constellations in the
northern hemisphere. The Great Bear (_Ursa Major_) is situated near the
pole. It is remarkable for its well-known seven stars, by two of which,
called the Pointers, the pole-star is always readily found. These seven
stars are popularly called the _Wagon_, _Charles's Wain_, or the _Plough_.
The Little Bear (_Ursa Minor_) is the constellation which contains the
pole-star. This constellation has seven stars placed together in a manner
resembling those in the Great Bear.

BEAR-BAITING, the sport of baiting bears with dogs, formerly one of the
established amusements, not only of the common people, but of the nobility
and even royalty itself. The places where bears were publicly baited were
called bear-gardens. Butler gives a description of bear-baiting in his
_Hudibras_. Bear-baiting was prohibited by Act of Parliament in 1835.

BEARBERRY (_Arctostaphylos uva-ursi_), an evergreen shrub of the heath
family growing on the barren moors of Scotland, Northern Europe, Siberia,
and N. America. The leaves, under the name of _uva ursi_, are used in
medicine as an astringent and tonic.

BEARD, the hair round the chin, on the cheeks, and the upper lip, which is
a distinction of the male sex and of manhood. It differs from the hair on
the head by its greater hardness and its form. Some nations have hardly
any, others a great profusion. The latter generally consider it as a great
ornament; the former pluck it out; as, for instance, the American Indians.
The beard has often been considered as a mark of the sage and the priest.
Moses forbade the Jews to shave their beards. With the ancient Germans the
cutting off another's beard was a high offence. Even now the beard is
regarded as a mark of great dignity among many nations in the East, as the
Turks. Alexander the Great introduced shaving among the Greeks, by ordering
his soldiers to wear no beards; among the Romans it was introduced in 296
B.C. The custom of shaving came into use in modern times during the reigns
of Louis XIII and XIV of France, both of whom ascended the throne without a
beard. Till then fashion sanctioned divers forms of moustaches and beards.
In the reign of Henry VIII of England, the authorities of Lincoln's Inn
prohibited wearers of beards from sitting at the great table unless they
paid double commons. Taxation of beards was introduced in the reign of
Elizabeth, beards of above a fortnight's growth being subject to a yearly
tax of 3s. 4d. This impost was copied by Peter the Great in Russia. It is
only in comparatively recent times that beards and moustaches have again
become common.--Cf. Philippe, _Histoire philosophique, politique, et
religieuse de la barbe_.

BEARD-MOSS (_Usnea barb[=a]ta_), a lichen of grey colour, forming a shaggy
coat on many forest trees.

BEARDSLEY, Aubrey Vincent, artist in black and white, born 1872, died 1898;
took up art as a profession at the age of nineteen, and executed a large
number of drawings for books and periodicals, showing great technical
skill, originality, and disregard of conventionality, with sometimes a
tendency towards the repulsive or morbid. Consumption had marked him as its
victim from the first. Collections of his drawings were published under the
titles _A Book of Fifty Drawings_, _The Early Work of Aubrey Beardsley_,
_The Late Work of Aubrey Beardsley_, &c. _Under the Hill_, with his letters
and poems, was published in 1904. Cf. G. Derry, _An Aubrey Beardsley
Scrap-book_.

BEARER SECURITIES. See _Stock Exchange_.

BEARING, the direction or point of the compass in which an object is seen,
or the situation of one object in regard to another, with reference to the
points of the compass. Thus, if from a certain situation an object is seen
in the direction of north-east, the _bearing_ of the object is said to be
N.E. from the situation.--_To take bearings_, to ascertain on what point of
the compass objects lie.

BEAR LAKE, GREAT, an extensive sheet of fresh water in the North-West
Territory of Canada, between about 65° and 67° 32´ N. lat.; and under the
120th degree of W. long.; of irregular shape; area about 14,000 sq. miles.
The water is very clear and the lake abounds in fish.--_Bear Lake River_,
the outlet at the S.W. extremity of Great Bear Lake, runs S.W. for 70 miles
and joins the Mackenzie River.

BÉARN (b[=a]-[.a]r), one of the provinces into which France was formerly
divided, now chiefly included in the department of Lower Pyrénées. Pau is
the chief town (pop. 35,000). There is a peculiar and well-marked
dialect--the Béarnese--spoken in this district, which has much more
affinity with Spanish than with French.

BEAR-PIT, a deep, open pit with perpendicular walls, built in a zoological
garden for keeping bears, and having in the centre a pole on which they may
exercise their climbing powers.

BEAR RIVER, a river of the United States, 400 miles long; rises in the
north of Utah, and flows northward into Idaho; turns abruptly southward,
re-enters Utah, and empties into Great Salt Lake.

BEARS AND BULLS. See _Stock Exchange_.

BEAR´S-GREASE, the fat of bears, esteemed as of great efficacy in
nourishing and promoting the growth of hair. The unguents sold under this
name, however, are in a great measure made of hog's lard or veal fat, or a
mixture of both, scented and slightly coloured.

BEAS, river of India. See _Bias_.

BEAT, in acoustics and music, the beating or pulsation resulting from the
joint vibrations of two sounds of the same strength, and all but in unison.
Also a short shake or transient grace-note struck immediately before the
note it is intended to ornament. The word is also used for the movement of
the hand or baton, by which the rhythm of a piece of music is indicated,
and by which a conductor ensures perfect agreement in tempo and accent on
the part of the orchestra or chorus.

BEATH (b[=e]th), a populous parish of Fifeshire, Scotland, containing the
towns of Cowdenbeath, Kelty, and Hill of Beath. Pop. 24,350, (Cowdenbeath
having 7908).

BEATIFICATION, in the Roman Catholic Church, an act by which the Pope
declares a person beatified or blessed after his death. It is the first
step to canonization, that is, the raising one to the honour and dignity of
a saint. No person can be beatified till fifty years after his or her
death. All certificates or attestations of virtues and miracles, the
necessary qualifications for saintship, are examined by the Congregation of
Rites. This examination often continues for several years; after which his
Holiness decrees the beatification, and the corpse and relics of the future
saint are exposed to the veneration of all good Christians. The present
custom dates from a Bull of Urban VIII in 1634, although local veneration
may be traced back to the earliest Christian ages.--In the Orthodox Eastern
Church beatification is not distinguished from canonization.

BEATING THE BOUNDS, the periodical survey or perambulation by which the
boundaries of parishes in England are preserved. It was the custom in some
places that the clergyman of the parish, with the parochial officers and
the boys of the parish school, should march to the boundaries, where the
boys were struck with willow rods. A similar ceremony in Scotland was
called _riding the marches_.

BEA´TON, David, Archbishop of St. Andrews, and cardinal, born 1494. Pope
Paul III raised him to the rank of cardinal in Dec., 1538. On the death of
his uncle, Archbishop James Beaton, he succeeded him in the see of St.
Andrews in 1539. After the accession of Mary he became Chancellor of
Scotland, and distinguished himself by his zeal in persecuting members of
the Reformed party, among the rest the famous Protestant preacher George
Wishart, whose sufferings at the stake he viewed from his window with
apparent exultation. At length a conspiracy was formed against him, and he
was assassinated at his own castle of St. Andrews, on the 29th May, 1546.
His private character was marked by pride, cruelty, and licentiousness.

BEATRICE PORTINARI (b[=a]-[.a]-tr[=e]´ch[=a] por-t[=e]-nä´r[=e]), the
"glorious lady" of Dante, born about 1266, died 1290; the daughter of a
wealthy citizen of Florence, and wife of Simone de Bardi. She was but eight
years of age, and Dante nine, when he met her first at the house of her
father. He altogether saw her only once or twice, and she probably knew
little of him. The story of his love is recounted in the _Vita Nuova_,
which was mostly written after her death.

BEATTIE (b[=e]´ti), James, a Scottish poet and philosophical writer, born
at Laurencekirk, Kincardineshire, in 1735, died at Aberdeen 1803. He
studied at Marischal College, Aberdeen, for four years, and received the
M.A. degree. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster at Fordoun, a few miles
from his native place; from whence he obtained a mastership in the Grammar
School of Aberdeen, and ultimately was installed professor of moral
philosophy and logic in Marischal College. In 1760 he published a volume of
poems, which he subsequently endeavoured to buy up, considering them
unworthy of him. In 1765 he published a poem, _The Judgment of Paris_, and
in 1770 his celebrated _Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth_,
attacking Helvetius and Hume and advocating what was afterwards called the
doctrine of Common Sense, for which the University of Oxford conferred on
him the degree of D.C.L., and George III honoured him, when on a visit to
London, with a private conference and a pension. He next published in 1771
the first book of his poem _The Minstrel_, and in 1774 the second; this is
the only work by which he is now remembered. In 1776 he published
dissertations on _Poetry and Music_, _Laughter and Ludicrous Composition_,
&c.; in 1783 _Dissertations, Moral and Critical_; in 1786 _Evidences of the
Christian Religion_; and in 1790-3 _Elements of Moral Science_. His closing
years were darkened by the death of his two sons.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Margaret
Forbes, _Beattie and His Friends_; A. Mackie, _James Beattie, the Minstrel:
Some Unpublished Letters_.

BEATTIE, William, M.D., Scottish physician, poet, and miscellaneous writer,
born in 1793, died at London 1875. He was author of the standard _Life of
Thomas Campbell_, whose intimate friend he was; published several poems,
including _John Huss_, _The Heliotrope_, and _Polynesia_; wrote a series of
descriptive and historical works, beautifully illustrated by his friend and
fellow-traveller, W. H. Bartlett, on Switzerland, Scotland, &c. He had a
very extensive and lucrative medical practice.

BEATTY, Admiral of the Fleet, Earl, born in 1871. He entered the navy in
1884, became Commander in 1898, Rear-Admiral in 1910, and Vice-Admiral in
1915. He served in the Sudan from 1896 to 1897, and in China in 1900. In
1912 he was Naval Secretary to the First Lord of the Admiralty, and from
1912 to 1916 commanded the First Battle Cruiser Squadron. He distinguished
himself in the battle of Jutland in 1916, and until 1919, when he succeeded
Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss (now Lord Wester Wemyss) as First Sea Lord, he
was in command of the Grand Fleet. When the entire German High Seas Fleet
left port on 31st May, 1916, and steamed up the west coast of Denmark, it
was quickly sighted by the British scouts, so that the main British fleet
immediately steamed out from its base to engage the enemy. The British
Battle Cruiser Squadron, under the command of Earl Beatty (then Sir David)
was nearer the scene than the main battle fleet under Sir John Jellicoe
(Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa since 1918). The admiral sighted the enemy
fleet north-west of the Horn Reef, and about 3.30 in the afternoon the
ships engaged. The Jutland battle lasted only a few hours. At the end of
Nov., 1916, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe was made First Sea Lord of the
Admiralty, and Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty took over the supreme command
of the Grand Fleet.

He is a D.S.O., an O.M., a G.C.B., a G.C.V.O., and a Grand Officer of the
French Legion of Honour. He was knighted in 1914, and received a grant of
£100,000 in Aug., 1919, when he was created an earl. He was elected Lord
Rector of Edinburgh University in 1917.

BEAUCAIRE (b[=o]-k[=a]r), a small commercial city of Southern France,
department Gard, on the Rhone opposite Tarascon, with which it communicates
by a fine suspension-bridge. It is chiefly famous for its great fair
(founded in 1217), held yearly from the 21st to the 28th July. Pop. 8488.

BEAUCHAMP (b[=o]-shän), Alphonse de, French historian and publicist, born
at Mon[)a]co 1767, died at Paris 1832. Under the Directory he had the
surveillance of the press, a position which supplied him with materials for
his _History of La Vendée_. He contributed to the _Moniteur_ and the
_Gazette de France_. Among his chief works are the _History of the Conquest
of Peru_, the _History of Brazil_, and the _Life of Louis XVIII_. The
_Mémoires de Fouché_ is also with good reason ascribed to him.

BEAUFORT, (b[=o]´fort), Henry, cardinal, natural son of John of Gaunt and
half-brother of Henry IV, King of England, born 1377, died 1447; was made
Bishop of Lincoln, whence he was translated to Winchester. He repeatedly
filled the office of Lord Chancellor, and took part in all the most
important political movements of his times.

BEAUFORT SCALE. See _Wind Scale_; _Navigation_.

BEAUFORT WEST, a town of Cape Province, capital of the division of that
name, 339 miles by railway north-east of Cape Town, well built and well
supplied with water, though in a district with a small rainfall, and
chiefly yielding wool. It is a popular health resort. Pop. 4530.

BEAUGENCY (b[=o]-zh[.a][n.]-s[=e]), an ancient town, France, department
Loiret, on the Loire, of some historical interest. General Chanzy was
defeated there by the Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg, 7th-8th Dec., 1870. Pop.
3532.

BEAUHARNAIS (b[=o]-[.a]r-n[=a]), Alexandre, Viscount, was born in 1760 in
Martinique. He married Joséphine Tascher de la Pagerie, who was afterwards
the wife of Napoleon. At the breaking out of the French Revolution he was
chosen a member of the National Assembly, of which he was for some time
president. In 1792 he was general of the army of the Rhine. He was falsely
accused of having promoted the surrender of Mainz, and was sentenced to
death 23rd July, 1794.

BEAUHARNAIS, Eugène de, Duke of Leuchtenberg, Prince of Eichstädt, and
Viceroy of Italy during the reign of Napoleon, was born 1781, died at
Munich 1824. He was the son of Alexandre Beauharnais and Joséphine,
afterwards wife of Napoleon and Empress of France. After his father's death
he joined Hoche in La Vendée, and subsequently studied for a time in Paris.
He accompanied Napoleon to Egypt in 1798, rose rapidly in the army, was
appointed Viceroy of Italy in 1805, and married a daughter of the King of
Bavaria in 1806. He administered the government of Italy with great
prudence and moderation, and was much beloved by his subjects. In the
Russian campaign he commanded the third _corps d'armée_, and greatly
distinguished himself. To him and to Ney France was mainly indebted for the
preservation of the remains of her army during the retreat from Moscow.
After the battle of Lützen of 2nd May, 1813, where, by surrounding the
right wing of the enemy, he decided the fate of the day, he went to Italy,
which he defended against the Austrians until the deposition of Napoleon.
After the fall of Napoleon he concluded an armistice, by which he delivered
Lombardy and all Upper Italy to the Austrians. He then went immediately to
Paris, and thence to his father-in-law at Munich, where he afterwards
resided.--His sister, Hortense Eugénie, Queen of Holland, was born in 1783,
died in 1837. She became Queen of Holland by marrying Louis Bonaparte, and
after Louis's abdication of the throne she lived apart from him. She wrote
several excellent songs, and composed some deservedly popular airs, among
others the well-known _Partant pour la Syrie_. Napoleon III was her third
and youngest son.

BEAULY (b[=u]´li), a small seaport of Scotland, Inverness-shire, near the
mouth of the River Beauly, which enters the Beauly Firth, a sea loch
branching off from Inverness Firth, with interesting ruins of an old
priory. Pop. 882.

BEAUMARCHAIS (b[=o]-mär-sh[=a]), Pierre Augustin Caron de, a French wit and
dramatist, was born at Paris in 1732, died 1799. He was the son of a
watchmaker named Caron, whose trade he practised for a time. He early gave
striking proofs of his mechanical and also of his musical talents; attained
proficiency as a player on the guitar and harp, and was appointed
harp-master to the daughters of Louis XV. By a rich marriage (after which
he added 'de Beaumarchais' to his name) he laid the foundation of the
immense wealth which he afterwards accumulated by his speculations, and
which was also increased by a second marriage. In the meantime he occupied
himself with literature, and published two dramas--_Eugénie_ in 1767 and
_Les Deux Amis_ in 1770. He first really distinguished himself by his
_Mémoires_ (Paris, 1774), or statements in connection with a lawsuit, which
by their wit, satire, and liveliness entertained all France. The _Barber of
Seville_ (1775) and the _Marriage of Figaro_ (1784) have given him a
permanent reputation. His last work was _Mes Six Époques_, in which he
relates the dangers to which he was exposed in the revolution. He lost
about a million livres by his edition of the works of Voltaire (1785), and
still more at the end of 1792 by his attempt to provide the French army
with 60,000 muskets. He was a singular instance of versatility of talent,
being at once an artist, politician, projector, merchant, and
dramatist.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. de Loménie, _Beaumarchais et son temps_
(English translation by H. S. Edwards); Gudin de la Brenellerie, _Histoire
de Beaumarchais_.

BEAUMARIS (b[=o]-ma´ris), a seaport town, North Wales, Isle of Anglesey, on
the Menai Strait. It is a favourite watering-place, and contains the
remains of a castle built by Edward I about 1295. Pop. (1921), 1839.

BEAUMONT, a city of the United States, in Eastern Texas, in a region rich
in cotton, timber, and petroleum, and an important railway centre. Pop.
28,851.

BEAUMONT (b[=o]´mont), Francis, and FLETCHER, John, two eminent English
dramatic writers, contemporaries of Shakespeare, and the most famous of
literary partners. The former, son of a common-pleas judge, was born at
Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, in 1584, died in 1616, and was buried in
Westminster Abbey. At the age of sixteen he published a translation, in
verse, of Ovid's _Fable of Salmacis and Hermaphroditus_, and before
nineteen became the friend of Ben Jonson. With Fletcher also he was early
on terms of friendship. He married Ursula, daughter of Henry Isley of
Sundridge, in Kent, by whom he left two daughters.--_John Fletcher_ was
born at Rye, Sussex, in 1579. His father was successively Dean of
Peterborough, Bishop of Bristol, Worcester, and London. _The Woman Hater_,
produced in 1606-7, is the earliest work known to exist in which he had a
hand. It does not appear that he was ever married. He died in London of the
plague, Aug., 1625, and was buried at St. Saviour's, Southwark. The
friendship of Beaumont and Fletcher, like their literary partnership, was
singularly close; they lived in the same house, and are said to have even
had their clothes in common. The works that pass under their names consist
of over fifty plays, a masque, and some minor poems. It is believed that
all the minor poems except one were written by Beaumont. After the death of
Beaumont, Fletcher continued to write plays alone or with other dramatists.
It is now difficult, if not indeed impossible, to determine with certainty
the respective shares of the two poets in the plays passing under their
names. According to the testimony of some of their contemporaries, Beaumont
possessed the deeper and more thoughtful genius, Fletcher the gayer and
more idyllic. _Four Plays in One_, _Wit at Several Weapons_, _Thierry and
Theodoret_, _Maid's Tragedy_, _Philaster_, _King and no King_, _Knight of
the Burning Pestle_, _Cupid's Revenge_, _Little French Lawyer_, _Scornful
Lady_, _Coxcomb_, and _Laws of Candy_ have been assigned to Beaumont and
Fletcher conjointly. To Beaumont alone--_The Masque of the Inner Temple and
Gray's Inn_. To Fletcher alone--_The Faithful Shepherdess_, _Woman Hater_,
_Loyal Subject_, _Mad Lover_, _Valentinian_, _Double Marriage_, _Humorous
Lieutenant_, _Island Princess_, _Pilgrim_, _Wild-goose Chase_, _Spanish
Curate_, _Beggar's Bush_, _Rule a Wife and Have a Wife_, _Fair Maid of the
Inn_, &c. To Fletcher and Rowley--_Queen of Corinth_, _Maid of the Mill_,
and _Bloody Brother_. To Fletcher and Massinger--_False One_ and _Very
Woman_. To Fletcher and Shirley--_Noble Gentleman_, _Night-walker_, and
_Love's Pilgrimage_. To Fletcher and Shakespeare--_Two Noble
Kinsmen_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. C. Macaulay, _Francis Beaumont, a Critical
Study_; Sir A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_ (vol. ii).

BEAUMONT, Sir George, born of an ancient family in Leicestershire in 1753,
died 1827. He possessed considerable skill as a landscape-painter, but was
noted more especially as a munificent patron of the arts. The establishment
of the National Gallery was mainly owing to his exertions. He was a friend
of Wordsworth, who dedicated to him the 1815 edition of his Poems.

BEAUMONT, Sir John, born 1582, died 1627, brother of Francis Beaumont the
dramatist; was author of _Bosworth Field_, an historical poem, and various
sacred and other poems. A poem in eight books, called _The Crown of
Thorns_, has been lost.

BEAUMONT, Joseph, D.D., born 1615, died 1699; descended from an old
Leicestershire family. In 1663 he became master of Peterhouse, Cambridge.
He wrote _Psyche, or Love's Mystery_, a poem once very popular, and an
attack on Henry More's _Mystery of Godliness_, for which he received the
thanks of the university.

BEAUMONT, William, M.D., an American surgeon, born 1785, died 1853. His
experiments on digestion with the Canadian St. Martin, who lived for years
after receiving a gunshot wound in the stomach which left an aperture of
about two inches in diameter, were of great importance to physiological
science.

BEAUMONT-HAMEL, village of France, department Somme, the scene of fierce
fighting in 1918. See _Somme, Battles of the_.

BEAUNE (b[=o]n), a town, France, department Côte d'Or, 23 miles S.S.W. of
Dijon, well built, with handsome church, public library, museum, &c., and a
trade in the fine Burgundy and other wines of the district. Pop. 13,409.

BEAUNE (b[=o]n), Florimond, a distinguished mathematician and friend of
Descartes, born at Blois 1601, died at the same place 1652. He may be
regarded as the originator of the integral calculus.

BEAUREGARD (b[=o]´r[.e]-g[.a]rd), Pierre Gustavus Toutant, a general of the
Confederate troops in the American Civil War, born in 1818 near New
Orleans. He studied at the military academy, West Point, and left it as
artillery lieutenant in 1838. He served in the Mexican War, and on the
outbreak of the Civil War joined the Confederates. He commanded at the
bombardment of Fort Sumter, gained the battle of Bull Run, lost that of
Shiloh, assisted in the defence of Charleston, and aided Lee in that of
Richmond. He was the author of _Principles and Maxims of the Art of War_
(1863). He died in 1893.

BEAUSOBRE (b[=o]-s[=o]-br), Isaac, born in 1659 at Niort, in France, died
at Berlin 1738. In 1683 he became Protestant minister of
Chatillon-sur-Indre, but was compelled by persecution to go into exile in
1685. In 1694 he became minister to French Protestants at Berlin. He
enjoyed much of the favour both of Frederick William I and of the Crown
Prince, afterwards Frederick the Great, and died in 1738. His most
remarkable work is the _Histoire Critique de Manichée et du Manichéisme_
(1734).

BEAUVAIS (b[=o]-v[=a]; ancient, _Bellovacum_), a town, France, capital of
the department of Oise, at the confluence of the Avelon with the Thérain,
43 miles north of Paris, poorly built, but with some fine edifices, the
choir of the uncompleted cathedral being one of the finest specimens of
Gothic architecture in France. In 1472 Beauvais resisted an army of 80,000
Burgundians under Charles the Bold. On this occasion the women particularly
distinguished themselves, and one of them, Jeanne Lainé, called La
Hachette, seeing a soldier planting a standard on the wall, seized it and
hurled him to the ground. The banner is preserved in the town hall, and an
annual procession of young girls commemorates the deed. Manufactures:
tapestry and carpets, trimmings, woollen cloth, cottons, &c. Pop. 20,250.

[Illustration: Beavers (_Castor fiber_)]

BEAVER, the largest rodent quadruped now existing in the northern
hemisphere, about 2 feet in length exclusive of the tail, genus Castor (_C.
fiber_), is now found in considerable numbers only in North America, living
in colonies, but occurring solitary in Central Europe and Asia. It has
short ears, a blunt nose, small fore-feet, large webbed hind-feet, with a
flat ovate tail covered with scales on its upper surface. It is valued for
its fur, which used to be largely employed in the manufacture of hats, but
for which silk is now for the most part substituted, and for an odoriferous
secretion named castor, at one time in high repute, and still largely used
in some parts of the world as an antispasmodic medicine. The food of the
beaver consists of the bark of trees, leaves, roots, and berries. Their
favourite haunts are rivers and lakes which are bordered by forests. In
winter they live in houses, which are 3 to 4 feet high, are built on the
water's edge, and, being substantial structures with the entrance under
water, afford them protection from wolves and other wild animals. These
dwellings are called beaver 'lodges', and accommodate a single family. They
also live in burrows. They can gnaw through large trees with their strong
teeth, this being done partly to obtain food, partly to get materials for
houses or dam-building. When they find a stream not sufficiently deep for
their purpose, they throw across it a dam constructed with great ingenuity
of wood, stones, and mud. Beavers were fairly numerous in Britain in very
early times, at least in Scotland and Wales. Their existence has been
recorded in Wales till the thirteenth century, and in Scotland to a later
date, but they are now extinct in Britain. A colony was some years ago
introduced into the Island of Bute, but they died out again.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Harting, _British Animals Extinct within Historic Times_; E. A. Mills, _In
Beaver World_; A. A. R. Dugmore, _The Romance of the Beaver_.

BEAVER (from Fr. _baviére_, a child's bib, from _bave_, saliva), the
movable face-guard of a helmet, so fitted on as to be raised and lowered at
pleasure.

BEAVER FALLS, a town of the United States, Pennsylvania, on Beaver River,
30 miles north-west of Pittsburg, in the coal and natural-gas region. Pop.
12,191.

BEAVER-RAT (_Hydromys chrysogaster_), a Tasmanian rodent quadruped,
inhabiting the banks both of salt and fresh waters. They are admirable
swimmers and divers, and exceedingly shy.

BEBEE´RU. See _Greenheart_.

BEBEL (b[=a]´bl), Ferdinand August, German Socialist, born in 1840, died in
1913. He became a master turner in Leipzig, was elected to the Reichstag or
Diet of the new German Empire in 1871, in which he was prominent until his
death. He opposed the leadership of Prussia in Germany and the
establishment of the empire, and showed himself favourable to the Paris
Commune and the International. Found guilty of treasonable practices, he
was condemned to two years' imprisonment in a fortress in 1872, with six
months' ordinary imprisonment for insulting the Kaiser. His influence kept
on increasing as leader of the Social Democrats in Germany and in the
German Parliament, where he spoke strongly against militarism and the
emperor's naval policy. His works include _Die Frau und der Socialismus_
(Woman and Socialism), in which he went so far as to attack marriage as an
institution; _Die Socialdemokratic und das allgemeine wahlrecht_; _Für
Volkswehr gegen Militarismus_; _Aus meinem Leben_; &c.

BEC, a celebrated abbey of France, in Normandy, near Brionne, founded in
the eleventh century, now represented only by some ruins. Lanfranc and
Anselm were both connected with this abbey.

BECCAFI´CO, a European bird (_Sylvia hortensis_), the garden-warbler. These
birds are much esteemed as dainties in the autumn, when they have fattened
on figs and grapes.

BECCAFU´MI, Domen´ico, Italian painter, born near Sienna in the latter half
of the fifteenth century, enriched the churches of Sienna with many noble
frescoes and other paintings. He drew and coloured well, and possessed
strong inventive powers. He died at Sienna in 1551, and was buried in its
cathedral.

BECCARIA (bek-[.a]-r[=e]´[.a]), Cesare Bonesana, Marchese di, Italian
economist and writer on penal laws, born 1738, died 1794. He is principally
known from his treatise, _On Crimes and Punishments_, which was speedily
translated into various languages, and to which many of the reforms in the
penal codes of the principal European nations are traceable. He became
professor of political economy at Milan, where he died.

BECCARIA (bek-[.a]-r[=e]´[.a]), Giovanni Battista, an Italian natural
philosopher, born 1716, died 1781; was appointed professor of experimental
physics at Turin, 1748; author of a treatise on _Natural and Artificial
Electricity_, _Letters on Electricity_, &c. He contributed several articles
to the _Transactions of the Royal Society of London_, and was commissioned
in 1759 to measure an arc of the meridian in the neighbourhood of Turin.

BECCLES (bek´lz), a municipal borough in Suffolk, England, 33 miles N.N.E.
from Ipswich, on the right bank of the Waveney; has a fine church of the
fourteenth century, and a good trade coastwise. Pop. (1921), 7077.

BECELÆRE, town of Belgium, province of West Flanders. It was the scene of
fighting in the third battle of Ypres (1917), and in the battle of Flanders
(1918).

BECERRA (be-ther´[.a]), Gaspar, Spanish painter and sculptor, born 1520,
died 1570. He studied under Michel Angelo at Rome, and is credited with the
chief share in the establishment of the fine arts in Spain.

BECHE (b[=a]sh), Sir Henry de Ia, an English geologist, born 1796, died
1855. He founded the geological survey of Great Britain, which was soon
undertaken by the Government, De la Beche being appointed director-general.
He also founded the Jermyn Street Museum of Economic or Practical Geology,
and the School of Mines. His principal works are: _Geology of Jamaica_,
_Classification of European Rocks_, _Geological Manual_, _Researches in
Theoretical Geology_, _Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset_, &c.

BÊCHE-DE-MER (b[=a]sh-d[=e]-m[=a]r). See _Trepang_.

BECHER (be_h_´er), Johann Joachim, German chemist, born in 1625 or 1635,
died in London 1682. He became a professor at Mainz; was elected a member
of the Imperial Council at Vienna, 1660, but fell into disgrace and
subsequently resided in various parts of Germany, Holland, Italy, Sweden,
and Great Britain. His chief work, _Physica Subterranea_, containing many
of the fanciful theories of the alchemists, was published in 1669, and
enlarged in 1681. Among his other works are _Laboratorium portabile_ and
_Alphabetum minerale_.

BECHSTEIN (be_h_´st[=i]n), Johann Matthäus, German naturalist, born in
1757, died in 1822. He wrote a popular _Natural History of Germany_, and
various works on forestry, in which subject his labours were highly
valuable. In Britain he is best known by a treatise on cage birds.

BECHUANAS, or BETCHUANAS (bech-wan´az), a widely-spread race of people
inhabiting the central region of South Africa north of Cape Province. They
belong to the great Kaffir stem, and are divided into tribal sections. They
live chiefly by husbandry and cattle-rearing, and they work with some skill
in iron, copper, ivory, and skins. They were led to seek British protection
owing to the encroachments of the Boers. The southern portion of their
territory was first placed under British protection in 1885, and
subsequently the whole Bechuana country up to the Zambezi was annexed. In
1895 the southern portion (then a Crown colony) was united to the Cape
Colony; the remainder is still a protectorate partly under native chiefs.
The head-quarters of the British administration are at Mafeking in the Cape
Province. Bechuanaland Protectorate comprises the territory lying between
the Molopo River on the south and the Zambezi on the north, and extending
from the Transvaal Province and Matabeleland on the east to South-West
Africa; area, 275,000 sq. miles; pop. 125,350, of whom about 1700 are
Europeans. It is generally flat or slightly undulating, and is essentially
a grass country, the grasses being nutritious and standing drought well.
Surface water is scarce, but there is underground water, besides swampy
lakes such as Ngami. Some parts are wooded and well watered. Gold, coal,
and copper have been found. There is railway connection both with south and
north.--Cf. G. W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_.

BECK CASE, THE, a celebrated case of mistaken identity, which involved a
grave miscarriage of justice. Adolf Beck, a Swede, had been sentenced in
1890 to seven years' penal servitude for a series of mean frauds committed
against some women, and in 1904 he was again convicted and sentenced for a
similar offence. Soon after his second trial a Jew named John Smith, who
had been convicted of fraudulency in 1877, was arrested for similar frauds
committed while Beck was in custody. The resemblance between the two men
was remarkable, and it was eventually discovered that Beck was entirely
innocent. He received two King's pardons, and the sum of £5000 from the
Home Office as compensation. A commission which considered the case drew
attention in its report to the carelessness of the police in identifying
Beck with Smith, though the latter was a Jew; and stated that further legal
training was desirable for the subordinate officials in the Home Office.
Beck died in poverty in 1909. Cf. J. Kempster, _Perversion of Justice as
exhibited in the Beck Case_.

BECKENHAM, a suburban locality on the south of London, in West Kent, now
forming an urban district, lying south of Sydenham. Pop. 33,350.

BECK´ER, Wilhelm Adolf, German archæologist, born at Dresden 1796, died at
Meissen 1846. In 1828 he became a teacher at Meissen, in 1837 was appointed
extraordinary professor of classical archæology at Leipzig, and in 1842
ordinary professor. Best-known works: _Gallus, or Roman Scenes of the Time
of Augustus_; and _Charicles, or Illustrations of the Life of the Ancient
Greeks_, which wonderfully reproduce the social life of old Rome and
Greece.

BECK´ET, Thomas (the form À Becket is also common), Archbishop of
Canterbury, born in London 1117 or 1119, assassinated in Canterbury
Cathedral, 29th Dec., 1170. He was educated at Oxford and Paris, and was
sent, by the favour of Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, to study civil
law at Bologna in Italy, and on his return made Archdeacon of Canterbury
and Provost of Beverley. In 1158 Henry II appointed him High Chancellor and
preceptor to his son, Prince Henry--the first instance after the Conquest
of a high office being filled by a native Englishman. At this period he was
a complete courtier, conforming in every respect to the humour of the king.
He was, in fact, the king's prime companion, held splendid levees, and
courted popular applause. On the death of Theobald, 1162, he was
consecrated archbishop, when he affected an extraordinary austerity of
character, and appeared as a zealous champion of the Church against the
aggressions of the king, whose policy was to have the clergy in
subordination to the civil power. Becket was forced to assent to the
Constitutions of Clarendon, but a series of bitter conflicts with the king
followed, ending in Becket's flight to France, when he appealed to the
Pope, by whom he was supported. After much negotiation a sort of
reconciliation took place in 1170, and Becket returned to England, resumed
his office, and renewed his defiance of the royal authority. A rash hint
from the king induced four barons, Reginald Fitz-Urse, William de Tracy,
Hugh de Morville, and Richard Breto, to go to Canterbury and murder the
archbishop while at vespers in the cathedral. He was canonized in 1172 by
Pope Alexander III, and the splendid shrine erected at Canterbury for his
remains was, for three centuries, a favourite place of
pilgrimage.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. Robertson and J. B. Sheppard, _Materials
for the History of Archbishop Becket_ (Rolls Series); Canon Morris, _Life
and Martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket_; Lhuillier, _Saint Thomas de
Cantorbéry_; Abbott, _St. Thomas of Canterbury, His Death and His
Miracles_.

BECKETT, Gilbert Abbot À. See _À Beckett_.

BECK´FORD, William, an English writer famous in his time for his immense
wealth and his eccentricities. He was born at Fonthill, his father's estate
in Wiltshire, in 1759. In 1770 the death of his father left him in the
possession of £1,000,000 of money, and an income of £100,000 a year. He
travelled much, and for some time lived in Portugal. He expended an
enormous sum in building and rebuilding Fonthill Abbey, near Salisbury,
which he filled with rare and expensive works of art. Here he lived in
seclusion for twenty years. In 1822 the abbey and greater part of its
contents were sold, and he retired to Bath, where, with a much-diminished
fortune, but one amply sufficient, he lived till 1844. His literary fame
rests upon his Eastern tale _The History of the Caliph Vathek_, which he
wrote in French, and a translation of which by the Rev. Samuel Henley
appeared at London in 1786. The tale is still much read, and was highly
commended by Lord Byron. He had two daughters, one of whom became Duchess
of Hamilton, and brought his valuable library to this family.--_William
Beckford_, his father, a London merchant and West Indian proprietor, was
famous for a spirited speech made to George III when Lord Mayor of
London.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cyrus Redding, _Memoir_; R. Garnett, _Vathek_ (with
a critical essay); Melville, _The Life and Letters of William Beckford of
Fonthill_.

BECKMANN, Johann, German writer on the industrial arts and agriculture,
born 1739, died 1811. He was for a short time professor of physics and
natural history at Petrograd, and afterwards for almost forty-five years
professor of philosophy and economy in Göttingen. His _History of
Inventions_ is well known in the English translation of it. This work
entitled the author to be regarded as the founder of scientific technology.

BECKX (beks), Pierre Jean, general of the order of Jesuits, born near
Louvain, Belgium, 1795, died 1887. The success of the Jesuits, especially
in non-Catholic countries, was greatly due to his tact and energy.

BECQUEREL (bek-rel), Antoine César, French physicist, born 1788, died 1878.
He served as an officer of engineers, and retired in 1815, after which he
devoted himself to the study of electricity, especially electro-chemistry.
In 1837 he was awarded the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London. He
refuted the 'theory of contact' by which Volta explained the action of his
pile or battery. Becquerel may be considered one of the creators of
electro-chemistry.--His son, Alexandre Edmond (1820-91), was associated
with him in much of his work. He was the author of a work _La Lumière, ses
causes et ses effets_ (1867-8).

BECQUEREL RAYS (bek-rel), the rays given out by radium and other
'radioactive' substances, so named from their discoverer, the French
physicist, Henri Becquerel (born 1852, died 1908), son of Alexandre Edmond
Becquerel. They were first detected in 1896, as proceeding from uranium
salts; and it is only by uranium, thorium, radium, and one or two other
elements that they are emitted, these bodies giving them out spontaneously
and without any apparent loss of radioactive power or change of any kind.
The Becquerel rays are invisible, and only known by their effects, which
are of various kinds: thus, like the Röntgen rays, they blacken a
photographic plate, even after passing through glass or other intervening
substances; they cause a number of different substances to give out a
fluorescent light, and they render air a conductor of electricity. Like the
Röntgen rays, they act strongly on the human skin. They consist of a
mixture of [alpha]-, [beta]-, and [gamma]-rays. See _Radio-activity_;
_Radium_.

BECSE (bech´e), OLD, a town of Hungary, 48 miles S. of Szegedin, on the
right bank of the Theiss. Pop. 19,000.--NEW BECSE, a market-town on the
left bank of the Theiss, 5 miles E. of Old Becse. Pop. 7725, or, with the
immediately adjoining village of Franyova, about 15,000. Both towns carry
on an extensive trade in grain.

BECSKEREK (bech´ke-rek), two towns of South Hungary.--_Great Becskerek_,
now in Yugo-Slavia, is on the Bega, 45 miles N. of Belgrade, with which it
communicates by the Bega Canal. Trade in cattle and agricultural produce.
Pop. 26,407.--_Little Becskerek_, now belonging to Roumania, is 11 miles by
railway from Temesvar. Pop. 3660.

BED, BEDSTEAD, an article of furniture to sleep or rest on. The term _bed_
properly is applied to a large flat bag filled with feathers, down, wool,
or other soft material, and also to a mattress supported on spiral springs
or form of elastic chains or wirework which is raised from the ground on a
bedstead. The term, however, sometimes includes the bedstead or frame for
supporting the bed. The forms of beds are necessarily very various--every
period and country having its own form of bed. Air-beds and water-beds are
much used by invalids.

BED, in geology, a layer or stratum, usually a stratum of considerable
thickness.

BEDA. See _Bede_.

BÉDARIEUX (b[=a]-där-i-_eu_), a thriving town, Southern France, department
Hérault, situated on the Orb. Pop. 6186.

BED-BUG. See _Bug_.

BED-CHAMBER, LORDS OF THE, officers of the royal household of Britain under
the Groom of the Stole. They are twelve in number, and wait a week each in
turn. In the case of a queen regnant these posts are occupied by ladies,
called _Ladies of the Bed-chamber_.

BEDDOES (bed´[=o]z), Thomas, physician and author, born 1760; educated at
Oxford, London, and Edinburgh. After taking his doctor's degree, and
visiting Paris, he was appointed professor of chemistry at Oxford. There he
published some excellent chemical treatises, and essays upon such subjects
as the calculus, sea-scurvy, consumption, catarrh, and fever. His expressed
sympathy with the French revolutionists led to his retirement from his
professorship in 1792, soon after which he published his _Observations on
the Nature of Demonstrative Evidence_, and the exceedingly popular _History
of Isaac Jenkins_. In 1794 he married a sister of Maria Edgeworth; and in
1798, with the pecuniary aid of Wedgwood, opened a pneumatic institution
for curing phthisical and other diseases by inhalation of gases. It
speedily became an ordinary hospital, but was noteworthy as connected with
the discovery of the properties of nitrous oxide, and as having been
superintended by the young Humphry Davy. Beddoes' essays _On Consumption_
(1779) and _On Fever_ (1807), and his _Hygeia_ (3 vols., 1807) had a high
contemporary repute. He died in 1808.

BEDDOES, Thomas Lovell, poet, son of above, born 1803, died 1849; published
_The Bride's Tragedy_ while a student at Oxford, studied medicine, and
lived long abroad. His work was largely fragmentary, but his posthumous
_Death's Jest-book, or The Fool's Tragedy_ (1850), received the high praise
of such judges as Landor and Browning. His _Poems_, with memoir, appeared
in 1851.

BEDE, BEDA, or BÆDA, known as the Venerable, English historian and
theologian, born in 672 or 673 in the neighbourhood of Monkwearmouth,
County Durham; educated at St. Peter's Monastery, Wearmouth; took deacon's
orders in his nineteenth year at St. Paul's Monastery, Jarrow, and was
ordained priest at thirty by John of Beverley, Bishop of Hexham. His life
was spent in studious seclusion, the chief events in it being the
production of homilies, hymns, lives of saints, commentaries, and works in
history, chronology, grammar, &c. He was the most learned Englishman of his
day, and in some sense the father of English history, his most important
work being his _Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_ (or _Ecclesiastical
History of England_), afterwards translated by King Alfred into
Anglo-Saxon. Besides his familiarity with Latin, he knew Greek and had some
acquaintance with Hebrew. Most of his writings were on scriptural and
ecclesiastical subjects, but he also wrote on chronology, physical science,
grammar, &c., and had considerable ability in the writing of Latin verse.
He died in 735, an interesting record of his closing days being preserved
in a letter by his pupil Cuthbert. His body was after a lapse of time
removed from Jarrow church to Durham, but of the shrine which formerly
enclosed them only the Latin inscription remains, ending with the
verse--'Hac sunt in fossa Bedæ venerabilis ossa'. On 13th Nov., 1899, Leo
XIII decreed that the feast of the Venerable Bede should be celebrated in
the Church on 27th May. An edition of the whole works of Bede (12 vols.),
with an English translation, was prepared by Dr. Giles
(1843-4).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gehle. _De Bedæ Venerabilis Vita et Scriptis_;
Browne, _The Venerable Bede_; C. Plummer's introduction to his edition of
the _Historia Ecclesiastica_.

BEDEGUAR, or BEDEGAR (bed´e-gär), a spongy excrescence or gall, sometimes
termed sweet-brier sponge, found on various species of roses, and produced
by several insects as receptacles for their eggs, especially by the _Cynips
rosæ_, It was once thought to be a diuretic and vermifuge.

BEDELL´, William, a celebrated Irish bishop, born in Essex in 1570. In 1604
he went to Venice as chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton, and remained eight
years. After holding the living of Horingsheath from 1615-27, he became
Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1629 Bishop of Kilmore and
Ardagh, though he resigned the latter of the united sees in 1630. He set
himself to reform abuses and promote the spread of Protestantism, procured
the translation of the Old Testament into Irish, and by his tact and wisdom
conciliated the adherents of both creeds. He underwent a brief imprisonment
on the breaking out of the rebellion in 1641, and died in the year
following. His biography was written by Bishop Burnet.

BE´DER WARE. See _Bidery_.

BED´FORD, a municipal and, until 1918, a parliamentary borough, England,
county town of Bedfordshire, on the Ouse. The chief buildings are the law
courts, a range of public schools, a large infirmary, county jail, &c., and
the churches. The town is rich in charities and educational institutions,
the most prominent being the Bedford Charity, embracing grammar and other
schools, and richly endowed. There is an extensive manufactory of
agricultural implements; lace is also made, and there is a good trade. John
Bunyan was born at Elstow, a village near the town, and it was at Bedford
that he lived, preached, and was imprisoned. Bedford gives its name to a
parliamentary division of the county. Pop. 40,247.--_Bedfordshire_ or
_Beds_, the county, is bounded by Northampton, Bucks, Herts, Cambridge, and
Huntingdon; area, 302,942 acres, of which 260,000 are under tillage or in
permanent pasture. Chalk hills, forming a portion of the Chilterns, cross
it on the south; north of this is a belt of sand; the soil of the vale of
Bedford, consisting mostly of clay and loam, is very fertile; and the
meadows on the Ouse, Ivel, and other streams furnish rich pasturage.
Two-thirds of the soil is under tillage. Besides the usual cereal and other
crops, culinary vegetables are extensively cultivated for the London
market. Principal manufactures: agricultural implements, and straw-plait
for hats, which is made up principally at Dunstable and Luton. The county
returns three members to Parliament (divisions: Bedford, Luton, Midlands).
Pop. (1921), 206,478.

BEDFORD, John, Duke of, one of the younger sons of Henry IV, King of
England; famous as a statesman and a warrior. He defeated the French fleet
in 1416, commanded an expedition to Scotland in 1417, and was lieutenant of
England during the absence of Henry V in France. On the king's death he
became Regent of France, and for several years his policy was as successful
as it was able and vigorous, the victory of Verneuil in 1424 attesting his
generalship. The greatest stain on his memory is his execution of the Maid
of Orleans (Joan of Arc) in 1431. He died in 1435 at Rouen, and was buried
in the cathedral of that city.

BEDFORD LEVEL, a large tract of marshy land in England, of about 400,000
acres total area, comprising 63,000 in Norfolk, 30,000 in Suffolk, 50,000
in Huntingdon, the Peterborough fen in Northampton, the Holland district in
Lincolnshire, and most of the Isle of Ely in Cambridge. It derives its name
from Francis, Earl of Bedford, who in 1634 made an agreement with Charles I
for the drainage of the Level, in consideration of receiving 95,000 acres
of the reclaimed land. A great part of the Level is under cultivation, and
produces grain, flax, and cole-seed; the remainder yields a winter harvest
of wild-fowl for the London market. See _Fenland_.

BEDFORDSHIRE REGIMENT, THE, raised in 1688 on the approach of the Prince of
Orange, suffered severely at Blenheim, and distinguished itself in a marked
manner at the siege of Lille. In 1797 it went to Scotland and there
recruited 1000 'parish boys' under sixteen years old, who later made
excellent soldiers. The regiment shared in the Chitral and South African
(1900-2) campaigns; on going to the front in 1914, sustained heavy losses
at Givenchy, and distinguished itself at Ypres and the Aisne.

BEDIVERE, the last knight of the Round Table (q.v.). See _Morte d'Arthur_.

BED´LAM, a corruption of Bethlehem (Hospital), the name of a religious
house in London, converted, after the general suppression by Henry VIII,
into a hospital for lunatics. The original Bedlam stood in Bishopsgate
Street; its modern successor in St. George's Fields was opened in 1815,
having been built on the site of the notorious tavern called 'The Dog and
the Duck'. The lunatics were at one time treated as little better than wild
beasts, and hence Bedlam came to be typical of any scene of wild confusion.
The average number of patients is about 300.

BED´LINGTON, a town and urban district of England, in Northumberland, near
the mouth of the Blyth, and not far from the seaport of Blyth, with
collieries, ironworks, &c. Pop. 25,440.

BEDLINGTON TERRIER, an English Dog, deriving its name from Bedlington, in
Northumberland, having first become well known as a favourite among the
miners of that place. It is a dog of moderate size, head rather long, with
a light, silky tuft on top, ears hanging close to the cheeks, legs
moderately long and strong, tail tapering to the point, which is almost
bare; colour, dark blue, blue and tan, liver, liver and tan, sandy, or
sandy and tan; courageous, intelligent, and generally useful.

BEDLIS. See _Betlis_.

_Printed and bound in Great Britain_

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Corrections made to printed original.

Article Barthélmy-Saint-Hilaire. "Buddhism, Mohammed and Mohammedanism":
'Mohammedansim' in original.

Article Baryta. "barium carbonate or witherite (BaCO_3)": 'BaCo_3' in
original.

Article Bass. "from its voracity sea-wolf": 'it voracity' in original.

Article Batoum. "in July, 1886, the Russian Government ...": 'Goverment' in
original.