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THE MECHANISM
OF THE
HUMAN VOICE.

(CURWEN'S EDITION, 5263.)

BY

EMIL BEHNKE,

_Late Lecturer on Vocal Physiology at the Tonic Sol-fa College,
Teacher of Voice Production._

EDITED, WITH A NEW CHAPTER ON "VOICE FAILURE,"

BY MRS. EMIL BEHNKE.

FIFTEENTH EDITION.

LONDON:
J. CURWEN & SONS LTD., 24 BERNERS STREET, W.

Price 1s. 6d.; CLOTH 2s. 6d.




PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION.

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

CONTENTS.

PLATES.

INDEX.

FOOTNOTES.


          TO
     MY DEAR WIFE
      THIS ESSAY
          IS
    AFFECTIONATELY
      DEDICATED




PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION.


A ninth edition of this book having been called for, I take the
opportunity to return my sincere thanks for the many kind expressions
concerning its usefulness which have reached me since the lamented death
of its author, my dear husband.

In carrying on his work, both my daughter and myself have felt the
benefit of the clear and concise instructions the book contains.

We have also proved with our pupils the absolute truth and value of the
BEHNKE SYSTEM OF VOICE TRAINING, by means of which we have obtained
results most gratifying to ourselves, and surprising to the pupils,
whether speakers or singers.

I hope that the new chapter on "Voice Failure," which I have added by
Mr. Curwen's desire, may be of some use in preventing breakdown of
voice, from which so many students suffer.

K. BEHNKE.

18, EARL'S COURT SQUARE, S.W.




PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.


A THIRD edition of this little book has now become necessary, and I must
again express my gratitude for the continued commendations bestowed upon
my work both in the press and in private letters.

In response to many solicitations, I have added to this edition a few
hints on teaching, deduced from physiological facts, which may prove
useful by stimulating the advance of thought in a new direction.

These hints are extracts from a series of articles on "Science and
Singing" which I had the pleasure of writing in the _Edinburgh St.
Cecilia Magazine_; and I am indebted to the Editor, Mr. A. C. Miller,
for kindly permitting me to reproduce them here.




PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.


The favourable reception and rapid sale of a large first edition has
stimulated me to revise this little book, and without alteration of my
original scheme of practical utility, to somewhat enlarge on one or two
points which appeared to demand further elucidation.

In this, as in the former edition, I have received great assistance from
my friend Mr. Lennox Browne, the eminent throat surgeon, who, by ever
patiently discussing with me debatable points, and by giving me access
to cases, interesting from a physiological point of view, both at the
Central Throat and Ear Hospital, Gray's Inn Road, and in his extensive
private practice, has afforded me opportunities of increasing my
knowledge and experience which would not have arisen otherwise. I feel
it a pleasure as well as a duty publicly to acknowledge my indebtedness
to him, which I have, many times before, expressed in private.

My best thanks are also due to Mr. J. Spencer Curwen, for the help he
has rendered me in many ways.

And finally, it would indeed be ungrateful on my part, if I did not
place on record the obligation under which I consider myself to my
reviewers for the uniformly favourable notice they have so kindly taken
of my first effort, and for several useful hints of which I have duly
taken advantage.

One objection has been made which strikes at the very root of the plan
upon which I have proceeded in my little volume, and to which,
therefore, I beg leave to say a few words in reply. A learned writer in
the _Athenæum_ finds fault with me for making use of popular instead of
scientific terms, which, he says, may be the cause to the reader of
great confusion if he refers to other works, and he adds that "Back
Ring-Pyramid Muscle" is almost as hard a mouthful as "Crico-Arytenoideus
posticus." I have asked several non-scientific friends of good general
education to read this sentence to me, and they succeeded very well with
"Back Ring-Pyramid Muscle," while they utterly collapsed when coming to
"Crico-Arytenoideus posticus."

This is, however, in my humble opinion, of minor importance. The great
point is, that my terms--which by the way are not inventions, but simply
translations--convey a meaning to the general reader, and the originals
do not. This is a fact which I dared not ignore, because my essay is
intended for the people and not for men of science. As I have taken care
also, for the sake of those who might wish to consult other and more
learned books than mine, to give the terms generally used by
physiologists by the side of my translations, I do not think there is
anything that could ever confuse my readers.

I conscientiously believe that these are good and weighty reasons for
the plan I adopted in the first edition, and trust my reviewers, as well
as my readers, will accept them as a sufficient justification of the
same practice in the present volume.

E. B.

_February, 1881._




PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.


The number of books bearing more or less directly on the Theory of Voice
Production which have been published during the last few years is very
large, and shows clearly the extraordinary interest taken in this
subject, not only by professional singers and speakers, but also by the
general public. If I am now about to add another contribution to this
already extensive literature, it is simply because amongst all the many
excellent works on the Human Voice there is not one which brings before
the reader the whole subject from beginning to end. The student who
really wishes to get a clear understanding of the matter is obliged to
wade through a variety of scientific books, and to pick up here and
there, by means of very hard reading, such little scraps of information
as, with much labour and waste of time, he can extract from books which
were, in most instances, never written for the purpose for which he
consults them.

       *       *       *       *       *

To supply this generally-admitted want I have written these pages, in
which I have endeavoured, to the best of my ability, to place before the
reader in a simple and comprehensive form the Physiology of the Human
Voice. I have, as far as possible, discarded all scientific terms, and
it has been my aim to treat my subject in so simple and direct a manner
as really to enlighten my readers instead of bewildering them. A
treatise like this can, under no circumstances, be light reading; and I
ask those who are truly anxious for information to give me patient
study, accompanied by careful reference to the diagrams. For students
who enter upon a perusal of these pages in such a spirit, this essay is
specially intended; and if I have succeeded in making plain to such as
these a really complicated subject, then my highest ambition will be
satisfied.

E. B.

_April, 1880._




CONTENTS.


                                                                      PAGES

Introduction                                                            1-7

The vocal organ as a musical instrument                                8-61

Differences of the voice-box, or larynx, in children, women, and men  62-68

Movements of the voice-box, or larynx, which can be seen or felt      69-72

The laryngoscope, and how to use it                                   73-79

The teachings of the laryngoscope                                    80-105

Appendix--Hints on teaching                                         106-125

Appendix To The Ninth Edition--Voice Failure                             126

Appendix To The Tenth Edition--Does Diaphragmatic
Breathing Apply Equally To Women As To Men?                             141

Index                                                                   143

Index To "Voice Failure                                                 146

Footnotes.




PLATES.


                                                     PAGES

   I. General view of vocal organ            _facing title_

  II. The Lungs                                         10

 III. The Chest                                         11

  IV. Chest capacity--Methods of breathing              16

   V. Side view of the Larynx                           32

  VI. Front view of the Larynx                          33

 VII. Larynx, Side view showing interior                37

VIII. Larynx, Side view, muscles, &c.                   42

  IX. Larynx, Side view, interior of left half          43

   X. The Glottis in three states                       46

  XI. Larynx, Section viewed from above                 48

 XII. Larynx, Section viewed from behind                51

      Sketch of Laryngoscope designed by Dr. Foulis     78

XIII. Laryngoscopic Image--Breathing                    84

 XIV.       "         "    Upper thick register         84

  XV.       "         "    Upper thin register          85

 XVI.       "         "    Small register               85

      Diagram of compass of the registers               93




INTRODUCTION.


We are living in an age which is singularly poor in fine voices, both
male and female, and with regard to the tenors of the present time there
is this additional misfortune, that, as a rule, their voices do not
last, but are often worn out in a very few years; in many instances
while their owners are still under training, and before they have had an
opportunity of making their appearance in public. If we remember that
there was a time when most beautiful and highly cultivated voices were
so plentiful that even in comparatively small towns there were to be
found Opera Companies consisting of excellent singers, we may well ask
ourselves how this remarkable change for the worse has come about.
People have attempted to account for it in various ways. Up to the
middle of the last century women were forbidden by Ecclesiastical Law to
take part in Church music. The voices of boys being available only for a
very short time, means were taken to prevent their voices from breaking,
and thus a class of male soprani and contralti was created, who made
their first appearance in Rome in the beginning of the 17th century, and
to these singers the education of the female voices was soon almost
exclusively entrusted. In the middle of the last century, however, when
women were permitted to participate in Church music, there was no longer
any occasion to procure artificial female voices, and these singers
gradually died out, though there were still some of them living and
teaching in the beginning of the present century. According to Rossini,
who certainly was eminently qualified to give an opinion on the subject,
the decline of vocal art in these latter years is mainly due to the
disappearance of this class of singers, and if it be true that
henceforth the training of female voices was undertaken by tenors, who,
being of course unable to give a true pattern to their pupils, treated
the female organ according to their own very different registers, then
it can easily be understood that many voices must have been ruined by
the process, and the scarcity of distinguished female singers would thus
be satisfactorily accounted for. But I fail to see in what way the
disappearance of male soprani and contralti could possibly have affected
tenors and basses.

Again, it is asserted that the way in which modern composers write vocal
music is the cause of the evil. Certain it is that in the compositions
of the old Italian masters the voice is studied, and nothing introduced
which is hurtful or disadvantageous. Awkward intervals are avoided, no
fatigue is caused, and everything is eminently _singable_; but the music
is not always expressive of the sense of the words, which were clearly
considered to be of minor importance. With our modern (and especially
with the German) composers, it is just the opposite, their chief aim
being thoroughly to enter, not only into the spirit of their text, but
even into the slightest shade, the minutest detail of it, so as to make
the music, as it were, a translation of their words into a higher kind
of language. What, on the other hand, is possible or impossible for the
voice is, since the time of Beethoven, but rarely considered; many
composers, even the most distinguished ones, having evidently little
knowledge of the most beautiful of instruments, for which they are
nevertheless continually writing.

When one of the greatest living masters introduced the harp into his
works, he wrote for it just as though it were a piano--_i.e._, as though
it were to be played upon with the thumb and four fingers. But it so
happens that on that instrument the fourth finger is never used.
Consequently, when it came to the point harpists could not play that
gentleman's compositions: they had first to re-write them. Here the
composer, of course, was found out immediately, and he or any other man
would have the same fate if he attempted to write for an instrument the
properties of which he did not fully understand. But with the human
voice the case is different. Every musician believes himself to be
competent to write for it, though he may possibly be wholly unacquainted
with its many peculiarities. It is to be feared, therefore, that modern
composers must be held largely responsible for the sad state of affairs
concerning vocal art at the present time, and well might they learn a
lesson from Mozart, who, in spite of his genius, first carefully studied
the human voice, and then wrote for it.

Another explanation of the decline of singing is this, that the gradual
and very considerable rise of pitch during the last 150 years is at the
bottom of all the mischief, as the vocal organ is unable to bear the
strain to which it is subjected. With regard to tenors, however, the
great evil is, that with very few exceptions, such as the celebrated
Frenchman, Roger, they disregard, or at any rate did disregard for a
considerable period, the falsetto register, singing everything, however
high, in chest voice. I am afraid it cannot be said even that they have
been beguiled into this serious mistake by the imperceptible rise of
pitch just mentioned, but the truth is that they have committed this
fatal blunder knowingly and wilfully, because they saw that it would
pay. In support of this statement I will quote a few lines from the
publication called "The Opera and the Art of Singing," by
Glogg-ner-Castelli:

     "In the field of singing a new man arose, who, in spite of great
     personal attributes, worked destructively for the future, and whose
     influence upon the later manner of singing is seldom truly
     recognized. I mean the singer Duprez. Hissed off at first in Paris,
     he turned to Italy, where he stayed several years, and then
     returned to the French capital. When he came to use his magnificent
     vocal resources, as he did in the Fourth Act of _Tell_, where he
     brought out the high C in the chest voice with all the might of his
     colossal organ, it was all over with the fame of all his
     predecessors. Nourrit, till then the favourite of the Parisians, a
     distinguished tenor singer, recognized the rival's power. His day
     was over, and in despair over his lost and irrecoverable glory, he
     flung himself from an upper window upon the pavement, and so made
     an end of his life. Duprez may justly be considered one of the
     greatest dramatic singers of our time, and the main features of his
     method soon spread themselves all over Europe. After hearing of
     Duprez, and how the chest register could be cultivated even into
     the highest regions of the voice, the public were no longer
     contented with the use of the falsetto. Soon it became impossible
     to be engaged as an "heroic tenor" without at least possessing the
     high B[b] in the chest tone. The singers found it a more thankful
     task to humour the taste of the public than to pay extra regard to
     the intentions of the composer; for often Meyerbeer himself
     indicates, by a _pp_, his design that the falsetto and not the
     chest tone should be employed. That every tenor singer, whether
     such high pressure suited his natural compass or not, strove to
     screw his voice up and 'make effect' was very natural; for art goes
     after bread, and a high C with the chest voice often realizes an
     income of thousands to its fortunate possessor. Roger has made a
     laudable exception; his beautiful use of the falsetto certainly
     produces a more agreeable effect than the forced chest tones so
     unnatural to the organ of many a singer. How widespread is this
     mistaken notion, that the use of the falsetto is entirely contrary
     to art, we hear frequently enough in the expressions of individuals
     when some unlucky tenor happens to get caught on one of these
     tabooed falsetto tones. Thus the school founded by Duprez,
     important in itself, has called into life a manner of singing, the
     ruinous consequences of which we can see daily."

But whatever may be the true reason or reasons, the fact that we have
very few singers of eminence as compared with former ages, and that
vocal art in general has gone down, is undisputed, and men have set
themselves to remedy the evil by trying to ascertain the actual process
by which the voice is produced, thinking that if they could but find
this out there would be a true scientific basis upon which to found a
way of teaching singing--or as I should rather say, of training
voices--which would be sure and unerring.

       *       *       *       *       *

The experiments of the great physiologist Johannes Müller are well
known, and they have been followed up by others. But they were made upon
dissected larynges, and as various teachers of singing started the most
conflicting theories as to how the process shown by Müller was carried
on in the living subject, and treated the voices of their pupils
accordingly, these investigations have perhaps on the whole done more
harm than good. Science was made responsible for the blunders of those
who attempted to be guided by it. And thus it has happened that when at
a later period further trials were made, but this time upon the living
subject, and in the act of singing, they were received with indifference
and distrust. Only very lately teachers of vocal music have begun to
find out that here are facts put before them which cannot be gainsaid,
and that if these investigations do nothing else, they at any rate make
them acquainted with the exact nature of the vocal organ, and what it
will bear and what it will not bear.




THE VOCAL ORGAN AS A MUSICAL INSTRUMENT.


"Physiologists," says Dr. Witkowski,[A] "are quite at issue when they
endeavour to determine what kind of instrument the vocal organ
resembles; indeed, Galien compares it to a flute, Magendie to a hautboy,
Despiney to a trombone, Diday to a hunting-horn, Savart to a
bird-catcher's call, Biot to an organ-pipe, Malgaigne to the little
instrument used by the exhibitors of Punch, and Ferrein to a spinet or
harpsichord. The last-named compared the lips of the glottis to the
strings of a violin; hence was given the name _Vocal Cords_, which they
have since retained. The current of air was the bow, the exertion of the
chest and lungs the hand which carried the bow, the thyroid cartilages
the _points d'appui_, the arytenoids the pegs, and lastly, the muscles
inserted in them the power which tensed or relaxed the cords."

It must be admitted that the human voice bears more resemblance to a
reed instrument than to any other; but when the comparison is pushed to
its legitimate consequences it is found to break down. We cannot resist
the conclusion that the vocal organ is infinitely superior to any
instrument made by human hands. Its mechanism is so wonderful as to
excite the profoundest admiration, and the more we continue to study it
the more we marvel at the wisdom of the Divine Maker who planned it. I
shall, therefore, speak of it simply as a wind instrument composed of--

     1.--THE BELLOWS.

     Represented by the LUNGS. Pl. I (Frontispiece), L.

     2.--THE WINDPIPE. Pl. I, w.

     3.--THE VOICEBOX OR LARYNX. Pl. I, v.

     4.--THE RESONATOR.

     Represented by (_a_) THE UPPER PART OF THE THROAT, or PHARYNX, pl.
     I, P; (_b_) THE MOUTH, pl. I, M; (_c_) THE NOSE, pl. I, N.

[Illustration: PLATE II.

THE LUNGS

R. RIGHT LUNG. L. LEFT LUNG.

W. WINDPIPE (TRACHEA).

V. VOICEBOX (LARNYX).

The top part of the left Lung is represented as partly cut away in order
to show the ramifications of the Bronchial Tubes.]

[Illustration: PLATE III.

THE CHEST.

B B. BREAST BONE.

C C. COLLAR BONES.

1 TO 11. RIBS. (The twelfth not visible.)

M (curved dotted line). MIDRIFF (DIAPHRAGM).

L L. LUNGS. H. HEART.

W. WINDPIPE (TRACHEA).
]

The Lungs are enclosed in the chest, which they fit exactly, and of
which they occupy by far the largest portion, leaving but a small space
for the heart. They consist of two halves (pl. II, R, L), each roughly
resembling the upper part of a sugar-loaf somewhat flattened and
hollowed out at the bottom. The left shows two and the right three
distinct flaps or lobes. They are only connected by means of the
windpipe (pl. II, W) and its branches.

=The Chest= (pl. III) is an air-tight chamber, which is narrower above
than below. It is formed by the spine at the back, twelve ribs (pl. III,
1 to 11, the twelfth not visible on the drawing), with their inner and
outer muscles on either side, the breast-bone (pl. III, B B) in front,
the root of the neck at the top, and the midriff or diaphragm (pl. I, M)
at the bottom.

=The Midriff= (pl. III, M) is a muscular and movable partition by which
the lungs are separated from the abdomen. It is arched upwards like an
inverted basin, but when its muscular fibres contract it flattens and
descends, thus increasing the capacity of the chest at the expense of
that of the abdomen.

=The Function of the Lungs= is, as everybody knows, respiration, which may
be considered from a mechanical or a chemical point of view. In this
little work we are only concerned with the mechanical part of the
subject. If we examine the lungs of a calf, which are very similar to
those of a human being, we find that they are soft and elastic to the
touch, giving out when pressed a peculiar whizzing sound. We may
increase their volume by blowing into them through the windpipe, so as
to make them double their original size, and then tie up the windpipe.
On re-opening the windpipe the air escapes, and the lungs are gradually
reduced to their former bulk. Now, by drawing a deep breath we produce
the same result in ourselves as by blowing into the lungs of the calf;
by holding the breath we produce the same result as by tying up the
windpipe--that is to say, we keep the lungs in a state of expansion; and
by releasing the breath we are, as it were, untying the windpipe,
leaving the lungs to dwindle down gradually to their former size.

There is one very material point, however, in which the analogy ceases.
It is this: we keep the air in the inflated calf's lungs by tying up the
windpipe, and the corresponding act in ourselves would be to hold our
breath by muscular contraction of the outlet in the throat. This is
precisely what we do in straining, and in lifting heavy weights, &c.;
but it should _never_ be done in breathing for vocal purposes. Here it
must, on the contrary, be our endeavour to train, to the highest
possible degree, the powerful muscles of the chest and of the abdomen,
instead of throwing the labour intended for them upon the comparatively
weak and delicate muscles governing the outlet of the windpipe.

To make the way in which respiration is carried on clearer still, I
quote the following interesting and lucid account from Huxley's
"Elementary Physiology," fourth edition, p. 104. He compares the
breathing apparatus to "a sort of bellows without a valve," in which
the chest and the lungs represent the body of the bellows, while the
windpipe is the pipe; "and the effect of the respiratory movement is
just the same as that of the approximation and separation of the handles
of the bellows, which drive out and draw in the air through the pipe.
There is, however, one difference between the bellows and the
respiratory apparatus, of great importance in the theory of respiration,
though frequently overlooked, and that is, that the sides of the bellows
can be brought close together so as to force out all, or nearly all, the
air which they contain, while the walls of the chest, when approximated
as much as possible, still enclose a very considerable cavity; so that
even after the most violent expiratory effort, a very large quantity of
air is left in the lungs."

=Respiration=, consequently, consists of two acts--namely, inspiration and
expiration. Inspiration may be produced in three different ways--(1) By
pushing the chest forward and flattening the midriff, so as to compel
the lungs to _descend_ and to increase in volume in order to fill the
empty space created by this movement; (2) by extending the ribs
_sideways_; and (3) by _drawing up_ the upper parts of the
chest--namely, the collar bones (pl. III, C C) and the shoulder blades.
In scientific works the first is called diaphragmatic or abdominal,[B]
the second lateral or costal, and the third clavicular or scapular
breathing. As, however, these terms convey no meaning to the general
reader, I prefer to speak of--(1) Midriff Breathing; (2) Rib Breathing;
(3) Collar-bone Breathing. In taking a full, deep inspiration, midriff
breathing and rib breathing take place almost together and assist each
other--that is to say, the midriff contracts and flattens, and
immediately afterwards the ribs extend sideways; with this difference,
however, that in men the action of the midriff takes a larger share in
the work than the ribs, while in woman, on the contrary, the movement of
the ribs is greater than that of the midriff.

     By way of illustrating this curious difference of breathing in men
     and women, the following anecdote, which has the recommendation of
     being strictly true, may perhaps amuse the reader. Some time ago a
     troupe of "Female Minstrels," calling themselves, I believe, "The
     American Amazons," made a tour through this country. Their faces
     were blackened in the orthodox fashion, and they were in male
     attire, wearing tight-fitting garments of a peculiar kind. Two
     friends, both medical men, went to hear them (or perhaps to see
     them, I am not sure which), when Mr. A remarked that two of the
     performers were men. Mr. B did not see it, even when the
     individuals were pointed out to him, and asked his friend for the
     reasons for his opinion. "Why," said Mr. A, "I see it by their
     abdominal breathing!" And sure enough Mr. B now saw it too, and
     there was no mistake about it; for in the two suspected
     individuals the abdomen was evidently moving in respiration, while
     in all the others no movement was perceptible excepting that of
     their chests.

[Illustration: PLATE IV.

DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING THE VARYING CAPACITY OF THE CHEST, ACCORDING TO
THE METHOD IN WHICH THE LUNG IS INFLATED.

From Mr. Lennox Browne's "Medical Hints on the Production and
Management of the Singing Voice," by permission of Messrs Chappell
and Co.

The front outline A of the shaded figure represents the chest after
full expiration; the black continuous line A gives the increase in
size of the chest, and the descent of the diaphragm, indicated by
the curved transverse lines, in full abdominal respiration. The
dotted line C shows the retraction of the diaphragm and of the
abdominal muscles in forced clavicular inspiration. The varying
thickness of the line B indicates the fact of healthy breathing in
a man being more abdominal than in woman. The outlines of forced
inspiration in both sexes are remarkably similar.
]

The combined forms of midriff and rib breathing are the right method of
inspiration, while collar-bone breathing is absolutely wrong, and should
never be made use of. The reasons of this are not far to seek. The lower
part of each lung is large and broad, while the upper part is
cone-shaped, and very much smaller. It is self-evident, therefore, that
by downward and sideways expansion (enlarging the _lower_ part of the
lungs) you will inhale a much greater quantity of air than by drawing up
the collar-bones. This consideration alone should suffice to prove the
utter falseness of collar-bone breathing. Collar-bone breathing has also
the additional disadvantage of causing much fatigue, because all the
parts surrounding the upper region of the lungs are hard and unyielding,
so that a great amount of resistance has to be overcome (the "_lutte
vocale_" of French authors), while the very opposite is the case with
the lower part of the lungs.

Mr. Lennox Browne, who was, I believe, the first to direct the attention
of English readers to this matter, says,[C] "Clavicular [collar-bone]
breathing is a method of respiration totally vicious, and to be avoided.
By it the whole lower part of the chest is flattened and drawn in,
instead of being distended; consequently the lower or larger part of the
lungs is not inflated. It is a method never exercised by nature in a
state of health, but only when, from disease, either the abdominal or
chest muscles cannot act; and it is the method least efficacious in
filling, as it is the one calculated to most fatigue the chest; for it
compresses the vessels and nerves of the throat, and this leads to
engorgement and spasmodic action of the muscles."

We may well pause here and give another moment to the consideration of
this most important subject. The lungs, as we have seen, are the bellows
of our vocal organ; they supply the air which is the motive power on
which the voice depends. Without air no tone can be produced. Nay, more,
life itself must cease without it. Breathing goes on regularly while the
voice is silent; but in speaking and singing both inspiration and
expiration have to be regulated according to the nature of the phrases
to be spoken or sung. If the speaker does not know how to take breath
and how to control the expiration, his delivery will of necessity be
jerky and uncertain. But in the singer it is even more important that he
should be able to fill his lungs well, and, having done this, to have
absolute command over his expiration; because while the speaker can
arrange his sentences, his speed, and his breathing-places very much at
his own pleasure, the singer is bound by the music before him. It must,
therefore, be his aim to cultivate a proper method of breathing with the
object of first getting, with the least possible fatigue, the largest
possible amount of air in the most scrupulously careful manner, so as to
prevent even the smallest fraction of it from being wasted. Yet how
seldom is breathing systematically practised as an indispensable
preliminary to the production of tone! I have no hesitation in saying
that the subject is, in many instances, dismissed with a few general
observations. Pupils, of course, take breath somehow, and teachers are
glad to leave this uninteresting part of the business, and to proceed to
the cultivation of the voice.

It may be as well to add that what has been said so far about right and
wrong methods of breathing is not by any means mere theory, but that any
one can convince himself of the truth of the rules laid down by making a
few experiments with the spirometer, an instrument for measuring the
breathing power of the chest by indicating on a dial the exact number of
cubic inches of air expelled from the lungs. This breathing power will
be found to vary according to the way in which the inspiration has been
accomplished. In my own case, for instance, the spirometer should
register, according to the table of comparative height and breathing
power compiled by John Hutchinson, 230 cubic inches. Having suffered
from severe attacks of bleeding from the lungs, my maximum with midriff
and rib breathing is only 220, but with collar-bone breathing I barely
reach 180!

During the Summer Session of the Tonic Sol-fa College I carefully tested
the breathing capacity of ten students, and found that there was an
average excess of midriff and rib breathing over collar-bone breathing
to the extent of 25 cubic inches: the least amount of their increased
power was 12 cubic inches, and the greatest was 45! I imagine that these
figures are more eloquent than any words, and I think it superfluous to
make any further comment on them.

I am strongly of opinion that breathing exercises, especially in the
case of intending public singers, should always be carried on with a
spirometer,[D] because that instrument enables us with the greatest
accuracy to check results which otherwise can only be guessed at.

If this suggestion were acted upon we should certainly no longer be
distressed by that intolerable and never-ceasing tremolo which now so
frequently mars many, in other respects, fine voices. It is a curious,
and at first sight unaccountable, circumstance that this great fault is
specially noticeable amongst French singers. But at the Conservatoire de
Musique in Paris students are deliberately taught the wrong method of
inspiration; for, as we gather from the "Méthode de Chant du
Conservatoire de Musique," they are told to "flatten [or draw in] the
abdomen" and to "bulge out the chest." Thus the mystery is at once
cleared up, because the tremolo arises almost invariably from a weakness
of the muscles of the midriff or diaphragm, to which attention has
already been called in these pages. Owing to the abdomen being drawn in,
the midriff never properly contracts; the muscles are not sufficiently
exercised, and consequently have not power enough to resist the pressure
that is brought to bear upon them in singing. They tremble, and this
trembling being communicated to the lungs, which are resting upon them,
the stream of air they give forth, loses its evenness and continuity,
with the result I have just stated. It will be seen from the above
explanation that this tremolo, one of the greatest vices besetting
modern singing, and which has hitherto been held by many to be
incurable, may be got rid of completely, though perhaps not very
quickly, by the simple remedy of lung gymnastics on the right principle.
The tremolo may certainly also arise from weakness of some muscles in
the voicebox or larynx, by which the tension of the vocal ligaments is
diminished and increased in rapid alternation. But this is a case for a
medical man, which does not fall within my province to discuss, though I
am justified in saying, on the authority of Mr. Lennox Browne,[E] that
even in many of these cases the effect is clearly attributable to
faulty breathing, since there is seldom any local disease of the larynx;
while exercise on a right method of breathing will cure the spasmodic
action of the laryngeal muscles with but little or no medical treatment.

       *       *       *       *       *

I need scarcely add that there is yet another kind of tremolo, which,
being absolutely under the control of the performer, is one of the chief
ornaments of song, and to which the observations just made in no way
apply.

       *       *       *       *       *

In addition to the involuntary tremolo there are a number of other
afflictions, "Clergymen's sore throat" amongst them, which are admitted
by eminent medical authorities to be due to collar-bone breathing, and
which may be entirely cured by proper lung gymnastics, or, in other
words, by breathing exercises on the right principle; that is to say, by
calling into play the muscles of the abdomen and of the lower part of
the chest. This is a subject which is little understood by singers and
public speakers, many of whom would be amazed at the sometimes most
wonderful results produced by such simple means. I will therefore quote
a case in point which came under my notice quite recently, and which
will give the reader an idea of the importance of proper breathing:

Mr. X, a tall thin young man, engaged in evangelistic work, suffered
from a "weakness of voice," which he found a great hindrance to his
success. He therefore consulted Mr. Lennox Browne, who at once told him
that he had no disease of any kind, and sent him to me for a course of
breathing exercises. I found that Mr. X chiefly spoke in a child's
voice, over which, moreover, he had very little control; and when I
requested him to take a deep inspiration, he drew in his abdomen, bulged
out his chest, and raised his collar-bones. The spirometer only
registered 200 cubic inches instead of 260, which, according to
Hutchinson's table, was his mean.

My course was, therefore, plain. I made him stand in an easy natural
position, neither allowing him to bulge out his chest, nor to draw in
the abdomen, and then instructed him how to acquire some control over
his midriff and the lower muscles of the chest. It may be observed here,
in passing, that we can, in a state of health, contract and relax these
muscles at will, just as easily as we can bend a finger, and that this
power, when lost through disuse, can be regained with little difficulty.
In Mr. X's case this process was particularly speedy, with the result of
increasing his breathing power in two lessons by 60 cubic inches. In one
additional week I could dismiss him with a full sonorous man's voice, in
place of the uncertain child's squeak with which he came to me. It is no
exaggeration to say that this young man left me with a _new_ voice, and
if people had heard him when he first came to me, behind a screen, and
again after the last lesson, they would certainly not have believed that
they were listening to the same person. What Mr. X and his friends think
of his case may be seen from the following letter which he wrote me on
July 6th, 1880:--"Now that a week has passed since the last lesson I had
from you, I write to bear testimony to the wonderful benefit to my voice
obtained through the very short course I took. My friends are quite
astonished at the marked difference, and I beg you will accept my most
sincere thanks," &c.

Many similar cases might be mentioned, but the one just quoted is
sufficient, and I will sum the matter up with a few remarks which Mr.
Lennox Browne made as chairman at my lecture at the Aldersgate Street
Literary Institution, on October 9th, 1880. He then said that, in his
medical experience, he found that persons who suffered from their voices
generally owed their ailments to bad habits of using the voice, and not
to any defect in the larynx or resonance chamber. In several cases
lately he had sent such patients to Herr Behnke, who had given them
lessons in correct breathing, and who had thereby, and without any
medicine, galvanism, or other aid, restored their voices in a remarkably
short time.

From what has been said above about midriff and rib breathing _versus_
collar-bone breathing, the folly of tight-lacing, or, indeed, of in any
way interfering with the freedom of the waist, will be at once apparent.
We pride ourselves upon our civilization; we make a boast of living in
the age of science; physiology is now taught, or at least talked of, in
almost every school; the laws of health are proclaimed in lectures and
lessons innumerable all over the country, and we laugh at barbarous
customs of other nations, such, for instance, as that of Chinese women
preventing the growth of their feet by forcing them into boots of only
half their proper size. And yet our ladies wear instruments of torture
called corsets, altering the shape of their bodies, and positively
driving the lower ribs _into the lungs_! Now which folly is the
greater--that of doubling up the toes, or of crippling the body in its
most vital parts? Let ladies answer the question, and let them further
most solemnly consider that the girls of to-day are the mothers of
to-morrow, and that upon the measure of their own health and strength
depends the well-being of coming generations.

It is only fair to add, that if the practice of interfering with the
freedom of the waist is reprehensible in the case of ladies, it is, in
one sense, still more so in the case of the male sex, because, as has
been shown before, men depend more for their breathing upon the action
of the abdominal muscle than women. They should, therefore, neither wear
tight-fitting vests, nor suspend their pantaloons by means of
waistbands, belts, or buckles. Loose garments and braces are the proper
thing, though the latter are commonly, but erroneously, considered to be
injurious. _Abdominal_ belts may be worn with advantage by persons of
either sex requiring their support; but these are very different from
stays or waist-bands. I find that an enterprising firm is advertising
corsets for gentlemen (!), and a woodcut may be seen in some papers
representing a young Adonis laced up in regular ladies' fashion, so
that, if it were not for his luxurious moustache, one would certainly
take the drawing to be meant for a woman. It is almost impossible to
imagine that a man could ever make such a fool of himself; on the other
hand, it is clear that these advertisements would not continue to appear
if they did not bring customers. But these poor creatures do not deserve
to be called men, and I am sincerely sorry for them.

With regard to the question whether inspiration should take place
through the mouth or through the nostrils, I must enter my most decided
protest against making it a practice to inhale through the mouth. There
are, of course, occasions when this is unavoidable, as, for instance,
where the singer has rapidly to take what is called a "half breath." But
complete inflation, or, "full breath," is not the work of a moment; it
takes time, and must be done gradually, steadily, and without the
slightest interruption. This should _always_ be done through the
nostrils. The mouth was never intended for breathing, while the nose is
specially and admirably adapted for this purpose. Not only can the lungs
be well and quickly filled through this channel, but it is so cunningly
devised that it acts at the same time as a "respirator," both purifying
and warming the air before it touches the more delicate parts of the
vocal organ. On the other hand, when inhaled through the mouth, the air
carries with it, sometimes right into the voicebox, dust and other
impurities, and its temperature is not materially altered. The
consequence is that the throat and voicebox, when heated by singing or
talking, or by hot rooms, are often exposed to cold, raw, and foggy
winter air, and serious derangements of the respiratory organs are the
natural consequence. If, moreover, this pernicious habit of breathing be
once contracted, we shall soon also sleep with open mouths, thus
parching our throats, and sowing the seeds of many a serious disorder.

On this point I quote a few lines from Dr. Louis Elsberg,[F] professor
of laryngology in the University of New York: "The natural mode of quiet
breathing is through the nose; mouth-breathing is an acquirement. A
new-born infant would choke to death if you closed its nose; it does not
immediately know how to get air into the lungs through the mouth until
after, by depressing the tongue, you have once made a passage for it."

George Catlin, the celebrated traveller among American Indians, became
so thoroughly convinced that the difference between the healthy
condition and physical perfection of these people in their primitive
state, especially their sound teeth and good lungs, and the deplorable
mortality, the numerous diseases and deformities in _civilized_
communities, is mainly due to the habit, common among the latter, of
breathing through the mouth, especially during sleep, that he wrote a
book entitled "Malrespiration and its Effects upon the Enjoyment and
Life of Man." In this book he says, "If I were to endeavour to bequeath
to posterity the most important motto which human language can convey,
it should be in three words, 'Shut your mouth.' In the social
transactions of life this might have its beneficial results as the most
friendly cautionary advice, or be received as the grossest of insults;
but where I would print and engrave it, in every nursery and on every
bedpost in the universe, its meaning could not be mistaken, and obeyed,
its importance would soon be realized."

He also says, "It is one of the misfortunes of civilization that it has
too many amusing and exciting things for the mouth to say, and too many
delicious things for it to taste, to allow of its being closed during
the day. The mouth therefore has too little reserve for the protection
of its natural purity of expression, and too much exposure for the
protection of its garniture; but, _do keep your mouth shut_ when you
_read_, when you _write_, when you _listen_, when you _are in pain_,
when you are _walking_, when you are _running_, when you are _riding_,
and _by all means when you are angry_! There is _no person_ but who will
find and acknowledge _improvement_ in _health_ and _enjoyment_ from even
a temporary attention to this advice."

Again he says, "There is a proverb, as old and unchangeable as their
hills, amongst North American Indians, 'My son, if thou wouldst be wise,
open first thy eyes; thy ears next, and last of all thy mouth, that thy
words may be words of wisdom, and give no advantage to thine adversary.'
This might be adopted with good effect in _civilized_ life; he who would
_strictly adhere_ to it would be sure to reap its benefits in his
_waking_ hours, and would _soon find_ the habit running into his hours
of _rest_, into which he would _calmly_ enter; dismissing the nervous
anxieties of the day, as he firmly closed his teeth and his lips, only
to be opened _after_ his eyes and his ears in the morning, the rest of
_such_ sleep would bear him daily and hourly proof of its value."

Catlin regards the habit of sleeping with the mouth open the most
pernicious of _all bad habits_. The horrors of nightmare and snoring
are, according to him, but the _least_ of its evil effects. He thinks
"for the greater portion of the thousands and tens of thousands of
persons suffering with weakness of lungs, with bronchitis, asthma,
indigestion, and other affections of the digestive and respiratory
organs," the correction of this habit is a _panacea_ for their ills!

He insists that "_mothers_ should be looked to as the first and
principal _correctors_ of this most destructive of human habits; ... and
the united and simultaneous efforts of the civilized world should be
exerted in the overthrow of a monster so destructive to the good looks
and life of man. Every physician should advise his patients, and every
boarding-school in existence and every hospital should have its surgeon
or matron, and every regiment its officer, to make their nightly and
hourly 'rounds,' to force a _stop_ to so unnatural, disgusting, and
dangerous a habit! Under the working of such a system, mothers guarding
and helping the helpless, schoolmasters their scholars, hospital
surgeons their patients, generals their soldiers, and the rest of the
world protecting themselves, a few years would show the glorious results
in the bills of mortality, and the next generation would be a
_regeneration_ of the human race."

=The Windpipe= (pl. I, W).--Having examined the bellows of our vocal
organ, we next notice the windpipe, by means of which the air is carried
into and out of the lungs. It is an elastic tube kept open by 18 or 20
rings which do not quite meet at the back. It enters the lungs by means
of two smaller tubes, which in their turn branch out very much like the
roots of a tree, until their ramifications end in the microscopic cells
of the lungs. The windpipe is capable of being slightly elongated or
shortened, and narrowed or widened, and its interior is covered with a
mucous membrane, which, as its name implies, is continually kept in a
moist state.

=The Voicebox, or Larynx= (pl. V) may be described as resembling a funnel,
the upper part of which has been bent into a triangular shape. Its front
corner (pl. V, 1) may be both seen and felt in the throat, and the
general position of the voicebox is thereby at once indicated. The
framework of the voicebox consists of five parts. 1st. The Ring
cartilage (pl. V, 2) is so named on account of its general resemblance
to a signet ring. It is narrow in front, and has the part corresponding
to the seal behind; the upper border (pl. V, 8, 4) rises very
considerably towards the back, where it is about an inch high. 2nd.
Riding upon this, as it were, with its hollow part towards the back,
is the Shield cartilage (pl. V, 5), which consists of two plates united
in front at an angle which forms the prominence referred to just now as
that corner of the triangular funnel (pl. V, 1) which may be both seen
and felt in the throat, and which is commonly called the Adam's Apple.
It protects the interior and more delicate parts of the voice apparatus,
from which circumstance it derives its name of shield cartilage. The
plates of the shield have each at the back two horns, the upper and the
lower. With the upper horns (pl. VI, 1, 2) the shield cartilage is
attached by means of bands (pl. VI, 6, 7) to the corresponding
projections (pl. VI, 4, 5) of the tongue-bone (pl. VI, 3), which has the
shape of a horseshoe. With the lower horns (pl. V, 8), of which on our
diagram we can only see one, it moves upon the ring cartilage as upon a
hinge (pl. V, 9).

[Illustration: PLATE V.

SIDE VIEW OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX.

   1. FRONT CORNER OF THE VOICEBOX (LARYNX).

   2. RING (CRICOID) CARTILAGE.

3, 4. UPPER BORDER OF THE RING.

   5. SHIELD (THYROID) CARTILAGE.

6, 7. UPPER HORNS OF THE SHIELD.

   8. RIGHT LOWER HORN OF THE SHIELD.

   9. POINT WHERE THE SHIELD MOVES UPON THE RING.

  10. RING-SHIELD (CRICO-THYROID) APERTURE COVERED BY MEMBRANE.

  11. LID (EPIGLOTTIS).

  12. WINDPIPE (TRACHEA).

]

[Illustration: PLATE VI.

FRONT VIEW OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX.

  1, 2. UPPER HORNS OF THE SHIELD.

     3. TONGUE (HYOID) BONE.

  4, 5. HORNS OF THE TONGUE-BONE.

  6, 7. BANDS UNITING THE SHIELD WITH THE TONGUE-BONE.

  8, 9. LID.

10, 11. PLATES OF THE SHIELD.

    12. RING.

    13. ELASTIC BAND UNITING THE SHIELD WITH THE RING.

    14. WINDPIPE.

]

This is a very particular point, and I beg the reader particularly to
notice that if the shield cartilage (pl. V, 5) were gradually drawn
downwards and forwards, the space which we now see between the shield
and the ring (pl. V, 10) would get smaller and smaller, until at last it
quite disappeared; and the distance between the front of the shield (pl.
V, 1) and the highest part of the back of the ring (pl. V, 4) would be
increased.

     I may observe here that authorities differ as to whether the shield
     moves upon the ring, or the ring upon the shield, and that some
     maintain the one is drawn down while the other is tipped upward. It
     is sufficient for our purpose, however, that a movement as upon a
     hinge takes place, whereby, as explained just now, the distance
     between the front of the shield and the highest part of the back of
     the ring is increased.

3rd. =The Lid= (pl. V, 11) is an elastic cartilage which serves to close
the voicebox in the act of swallowing, in order to protect it against
any intruding foreign substances. The food we take has to pass over it,
and it sometimes happens, when the lid has not been pulled down tight
enough, that a particle of food enters the voicebox, in which case we
say it has "gone the wrong way," and there is then no peace until the
intruder has been got rid of, generally by a violent fit of coughing.

     The lid, it is true, is not the only means of protection which the
     voicebox possesses. Professor C. J. Eberth, for instance, mentions
     (Archiv für pathol: Anatomie, vol. lxiii., p. 135, Berlin, 1868)
     the case of a woman who, upon dissection, was found to be entirely
     without the free upper part of the lid, which could alone cover the
     voicebox. She had never experienced any difficulty in swallowing,
     and it is therefore clear that with her the closing of some of the
     parts immediately below was sufficient to prevent the food from
     getting into the voicebox. But "the exception proves the rule," and
     in spite of this and other similar cases, the fact remains that the
     lid is obviously the first and most natural protector of the
     voicebox.

4th and 5th. We have thus far become acquainted with three cartilages
out of the five. Let us now remove one plate of the shield, as though
cutting it off with a knife (pl. VII, 1 and 2), in order that we may
look inside and see the remaining two cartilages which have hitherto
been hidden by it. These are--

=The Pyramids= (pl. VII, 1 and 2), so called because of their shape. Their
bases are triangular and hollowed out; their sides taper upwards and
terminate in points which are bent slightly backwards, and they have
each two projections, one pointing forwards (pl. VII, 3) and the other
outwards and backwards (pl. VII, 4). It will be convenient to have a
special name for the projections pointing outwards and backwards, which
we will therefore call the Levers.

The Pyramids are attached with their hollow bases to the borders of the
ring (pl. VII, 5), and they are capable of executing rotary movements
with surprising freedom and rapidity. Their inner sides may be made to
run parallel or to diverge. In addition to this they can be drawn
towards each other, or away from each other, so that their summits may
either be widely separated or brought close together.

=The Vocal Ligaments= are two ledges of elastic tissue covered with a very
delicate membrane. Each one of them is connected along its whole length,
on one side, with the shield cartilage. The vocal ligaments are attached
by their hinder ends to those little projections of the pyramids which
point forwards (pl. VII, 3, 3), and by their front ends to the centre of
the shield (pl. VII, 6), where the two plates meet under a more or
less acute angle.

[Illustration: PLATE VII.

SIDE VIEW OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX, SHOWING THE INTERIOR OF IT, THE
RIGHT PLATE BEING REMOVED.

1, 2. PYRAMIDS (ARYTENOID CARTILAGES).

3, 3. FRONT PROJECTIONS OF THE PYRAMIDS.

4. LEVER OF THE RIGHT PYRAMID.

5. UPPER BORDER OF THE RING.

6, 3, 3. VOCAL LIGAMENTS.

7. LID.

8. SHIELD.

9. LEFT UPPER HORN OF THE SHIELD.

10. RING.

11. WINDPIPE.
]

     These vocal ligaments are generally called the vocal cords, but
     this term is misleading, as it implies strings like those, for
     instance, of the violin, which are attached only at either end and
     are free at every other point. This, however, as we have just seen,
     is not the case, the "Cords" being free only along their inner
     edges. The name "Vocal Bands," which German physiologists have
     substituted for "Vocal Cords," does not mend the matter, as it is
     open to exactly the same objections. The term "Vocal Lips," also
     used by some writers, is, in my judgment, the most unfortunate of
     all, because it conveys a totally wrong idea of these parts, as
     will be seen from a description in another chapter of their
     movements in the act of singing. I have, therefore, sought for a
     word which, as a proper description of the thing it is to
     designate, shall always call a correct image to the reader's mind,
     and as I cannot find a better one than "Ligament," I have adopted
     it. I shall consequently in these pages always speak of the
     tone-producing element as the "Vocal Ligaments."

The vocal ligaments, having met, are struck by the air blown against
them from below, and being elastic they yield, allowing themselves to be
forced upwards. A little air is thereby set free, and the pressure from
below diminished, in consequence of which the vocal ligaments resume
their former position, and even move a little more downwards. The
renewed pressure of the air once more overcomes the resistance of the
vocal ligaments, which again recede as soon as another escape of air has
taken place, and this process is repeated in rapid and regular
succession. In this manner, and in this manner alone, is vocal tone
produced, whether it be called chest, falsetto, head, or by any other
name.

     There are still some writers who teach a different doctrine. For
     instance, Miss Sabilla Novello, in her "Voice and Vocal Art,"
     embodied in the "Collegiate Vocal Tutor," published by Novello,
     Ewer, and Co., says on p. 9, that "The head voice results from the
     upper [_i.e._, the false] vocal cords" (these we shall see
     presently), and on page 13, that the falsetto tones "are created
     principally by the action of the trachea [windpipe] and not by that
     of the vocal ligaments." Another writer, Mr. Rumney Illingworth, in
     a paper "On the Larynx and its Physiology," read before the Royal
     Medical Society of Edinburgh, on March 3rd, 1879, and communicated
     to "The Students' Journal and Hospital Gazette" (Vol. IV., No. 91,
     p. 151), says that "The falsetto voice is produced by the laryngeal
     sacculi [the pockets of the voicebox, which will be described
     further on] acting in the same way as a hazel-nut can be made to
     act as a whistle, when the kernel has been extracted through a
     small hole in the shell; or as part of the cavity of the mouth acts
     in whistling." I shall refer to these theories again as the
     opportunity for their proper discussion arises; for the present I
     will quote a few authorities on the subject.

     Dr. CARPENTER, in his "Human Physiology," eighth edition, page 914,
     says, "The true theory of the voice may now be considered as well
     established in regard to this essential particular that the sound
     is the result of the vibrations of the vocal cords," &c.

     Professor MARSHALL, in his "Outlines of Physiology," page 255,
     says: "Experiments on living animals show that the vocal cords are
     alone the essential organs for the production of voice, for so long
     as these remain untouched, although all the other parts in the
     interior of the larynx be destroyed, the animal is able to emit
     vocal sounds.... The existence of an opening in the larynx of a
     living animal, or of man, _above_ the glottis [glottis means the
     vibrating element of the voicebox] in no way prevents the formation
     of vocal sound; such an opening if situated in the trachea
     [windpipe] causes total loss of voice, but by simply closing it,
     vocal sounds can again be produced. Such openings, in man, are met
     with, either as the results of accidents, of suicidal attempts, or
     of operations performed on the larynx or trachea for the relief of
     disease."

     Dr. TOBOLD, Professor in the University of Berlin, in his
     "Laryngoscopie and Kehlkopf Krankheiten" (Laryngoscopy and Diseases
     of the Larynx), p. 131, says, "Soft palate, lid, pockets, and
     pocket-bands are not directly active in the production of either
     chest or falsetto tones; they only modify the tone produced in the
     glottis."

     Dr. LUSCHKA, Professor in the University of Tubingen, in his great
     work "Der Kehlkopf des Menschen" (The Human Larynx), says in the
     introduction: "Only the vocal cords, with the slit they form, have
     specifically functional signification, in a narrower sense, of a
     voice apparatus, as the parts of the larynx which lie under and
     over them have no material and deciding influence on the production
     of sound."

     I will bring my quotations to a close with the following, which
     seeks to prove the contrary. Dr. C. B. GARRETT ("The Human Voice,"
     J. and J. Churchill, London, 1875, p. 17) says, "It is recorded
     that the larynx of a blackbird was removed by severing the windpipe
     just below it; that the poor 'thing continued to _sing_, though in
     a feebler tone.' This proves that notes can be formed _behind the
     instrument_ and before the air reaches it." This argument, however,
     is of no value, because it so happens that birds have two larynges,
     one at the bottom and the other at the top of the windpipe. Dr.
     Garrett seems not to have been aware of this fact.

The vocal ligaments in the adult male are, in a state of rest, about
three-quarters of an inch long, and in the female about half an inch. I
pointed out before that the vocal ligaments are attached in front to the
shield (pl. VII, 6) and behind to the pyramids (pl. VII, 3, 3). Let it
now be borne in mind--1st, That the pyramids, in their turn, are
fastened to the upper border of the ring cartilage; and 2nd, That by
drawing the shield downwards and forwards upon the ring, the distance
between the upper border of the ring (pl. VII, 5) and the front of the
shield (pl. VII, 6) is increased, and it will be easily seen that this
movement must of necessity have the effect of stretching the vocal
ligaments.

This drawing of the shield downwards and forwards upon the ring is
brought about by a pair of muscles ascending on either side, in the
shape of a fan, from the ring to the shield cartilage (pl. VIII, 1, 2).
These muscles we name the "Ring-Shield Muscles." In opposition to them
there is another pair inside the shield, running parallel with the vocal
ligaments (pl. IX, 1, 2, 3). They are attached (like the vocal
ligaments) in front to the shield cartilage and behind to the pyramids.
These muscles we will call the "Shield-Pyramid Muscles." They counteract
the ring-shield muscles, and having overcome their resistance, pull the
shield cartilage up again, thereby, of course, relaxing the vocal
ligaments. The ring-shield muscles, therefore, _stretch_ the vocal
ligaments and the shield-pyramid muscles _relax_ them. The
shield-pyramid muscles have an additional function--that of pressing
together the vocal ligaments, under certain circumstances, thereby
narrowing the opening between them. They have therefore been, in these
later days, called the Sphincter[G] muscle of the glottis. They have
also been called the Vocal Muscles, since they play so important a part
in the formation of all vocal tone that a paralysis of them causes total
loss of voice.

[Illustration: PLATE VIII.

SIDE VIEW OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX.

1, 2. RING-SHIELD MUSCLE (CRICO-THYROIDEUS).

3. LID.

4. SHIELD.

5, 6. UPPER HORNS OF THE SHIELD.

7. RING.

8. WINDPIPE.
]

[Illustration: PLATE IX.

SIDE VIEW OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX, SHOWING THE INTERIOR OF THE LEFT
HALF.

1, 2, 3. SHIELD-PYRAMID MUSCLE (THYRO-ARYTENOIDEUS).

4, 5. RING-PYRAMID MUSCLE (CRICO-ARYTENOIDEUS).

6. SHIELD.

7. LEFT UPPER HORN.

8. PYRAMID.

9. RING.

10. WINDPIPE.
]

     It may be observed here that it is impossible to imitate, in the
     dead subject, the contraction of the vocal muscles. All
     conclusions, therefore, drawn from experiments upon exsected
     larynges, with regard to tone-production in living man are
     necessarily quite untrustworthy, and cannot for one moment be
     admitted as evidence against observations made upon singers with
     the laryngoscope.

These two pairs of muscles, then, namely the ring-shield muscles (pl.
VIII, 1, 2) and the shield-pyramid muscles (pl. IX, 1, 2, 3) by
stretching, slackening, and compressing the vocal ligaments, mainly
govern the pitch of the tones produced by their vibrations. The
ring-shield muscles receive some assistance in stretching the vocal
ligaments from another quarter, of which we shall speak later on.

We have now had a look at the vocal ligaments, and we have seen by what
means they are put on the stretch. As, however, in a state of repose
these ligaments diverge behind, they must be brought parallel to each
other before they are ready for the production of sound. Let us,
therefore, in order to explain how this is done, imagine that we have
cut off that part of the pyramids which is standing out above the vocal
ligaments (pl. VII), and let us now have a look at these parts from
above. You see the ligaments (pl. XA, 1, 2), a section of the pyramids
(pl. XA, 3, 4), and uniting these an elastic band (pl. XA, 5). The space
between these parts is commonly called the Glottis, but as this
appellation belongs more properly to the vocal ligaments, it is
manifestly wrong to give the same name to the _space_ which they
inclose. This space should be distinguished as the "_Chink_ of the
Glottis" or the "Vocal Chink."

     I have been blamed for making this distinction in the face of
     almost universal usage. But I can point to the great anatomist
     Professor Luschka as having set the example, and while it is true
     that in most physiological works "Glottis" is used for the _slit_
     between the vocal ligaments, yet the appellations "Rima glottidis"
     and "Aperture of the glottis" are also employed for the same thing.
     Medical men, moreover, speak of "Spasm of the glottis," and singing
     masters of the "Shock of the glottis," which terms are clearly
     quite meaningless when applied to a space.

Dr. Garrett says, on page 12 of the book quoted before, that "The upper
portion of the larynx above the false vocal cords is termed the
glottis." He might as well say, "The upper portion of the face above the
nose is termed the mouth." I really should not notice so astounding a
statement were it not made by one signing himself an M.D., and published
by so eminent a firm of Medical publishers as Messrs. J. and A.
Churchill.

[Illustration: PLATE X.

A. GLOTTIS IN REPOSE.

B. GLOTTIS IN RESPIRATION.

C. GLOTTIS IN THE PRODUCTION OF SOUND.

A. 1, 2. VOCAL LIGAMENTS.

3, 4. SECTION OF THE PYRAMIDS.

5. ELASTIC BAND.

6, 7. LEVERS OF THE PYRAMIDS.
]

On plate XI you see all parts in a state of rest. To the levers of the
pyramids (pl. XI, 1, 2) a pair of muscles is attached, the bases of
which are fixed upon the back of the ring cartilage below (pl. XI, 3, 6,
3). The action of these "Back Ring-Pyramid Muscles" (pl. XI, 4, 1 and 5,
2) is to contract as soon as we take breath, thereby drawing together
the pyramids _behind_ and separating them _in front_, at the same time
stretching the elastic band behind (pl. X, A, 5). By this movement the
chink of the glottis is thrown _wide open_ into the shape depicted on
pl. X, B. During expiration these relax, the elastic band contracts, and
the vocal chink resumes the shape as on pl. XI. These movements go on
from the beginning of our lives to the end, whether we are asleep or
awake, with more or less vigour, according as we take a slight or a deep
inspiration. The back ring-pyramid muscles (pl. XI, 4, 1 and 5, 2), have
consequently the all-important function of keeping open the gate through
which the air we breathe enters the lungs. They have, therefore, been
poetically called the "Guardians of the Portal of Life." By their action
of pulling the pyramids backwards, they also assist the ring-shield
muscles (pl. VIII, 1, 2) in stretching the vocal ligaments.

       *       *       *       *       *

In opposition to these "Opening Muscles" there is another pair rising
from the side borders of the ring (pl. XI, 3, 3) which are fastened to
the front part of the levers of the pyramids (pl. XI, 1, 2), serving to
draw together their front projections to which the vocal ligaments are
attached, and which are thereby brought parallel with each other.

[Illustration: PLATE XI.


VIEW OF A SECTION OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX, FROM ABOVE.

1, 2. SECTION OF THE PYRAMIDS WITH VOCAL LIGAMENTS AND ELASTIC BAND.

3, 6, 3. RING.

7. PYRAMID MUSCLE (ARYTENOIDEUS TRANSVERSUS).

8, 9, 10. SHIELD.

11. BANDS BY MEANS OF WHICH THE PYRAMIDS ARE ATTACHED TO THE RING.

4 & 5. BACK RING-PYRAMID MUSCLES (POSTERIOR CRICO-ARYTENOIDEI).

1, 3 & 2, 3. SIDE RING-PYRAMID MUSCLES (LATERAL CRICO-ARYTENOIDEI).

NOTE.--The shield-pyramid muscles (Thyro-Arytenoidei) which run parallel
with the vocal ligaments are, for the sake of clearness, omitted from
this diagram.]

These "Side Ring-Pyramid Muscles" (pl. XI, 3, 1 and 3, 2; see also pl.
IX, 5, 4) are assisted by a single muscle uniting the pyramids behind
the elastic band which we have already noticed. This muscle we will call
the "Pyramid Muscle" (pl. XI, 7). By the united action of the muscles
which have just been described the vocal chink is thrown in the shape
shown on pl. X, C, and the vocal ligaments are now in a proper position
for the production of tone.

       *       *       *       *       *

Before proceeding any farther it will be well if we once more glance at
the muscles with which we have become acquainted, so that we may be
quite sure about their functions.


MUSCLES:

I. GOVERNING THE SHAPE OF THE VOCAL CHINK.

The Back Ring-Pyramid}                  OPENING
Muscles              }           THE VOCAL CHINK.

THESE ARE OPPOSED BY--

The Side Ring-Pyramid   }
Muscles, and the Pyramid}               CLOSING
Muscles, assisted by the}        THE VOCAL CHINK.
Shield-Pyramid Muscles  }


II. GOVERNING THE PITCH OF THE TONES.

The Ring-Shield Muscles,          }        STRETCHING
assisted by the Back Ring-Pyramid }
Muscles                           } THE VOCAL LIGAMENTS.

THESE ARE OPPOSED BY--

The Shield-Pyramid  }        SLACKENING
Muscles             } THE VOCAL LIGAMENTS.

=The Pocket Ligaments= (called "False Vocal Cords," pl. XII, 1 and 2) are
a pair of horizontal projections running above and parallel with the
vocal ligaments (pl. XII, 3 and 4). The pocket ligaments are, like the
vocal ligaments, attached in front to the shield and behind to the
pyramids. They may be described as two ledge-shaped pads mainly formed
of glands. They are very sensitive and movable, and ready on the
smallest incitement to meet with great rapidity in order to protect the
vocal ligaments from any harm. They must, therefore, be chiefly regarded
as safeguards of the vocal apparatus, though it is probable that by
breaking the stream of air passing through the chink of the glottis,
they also exercise considerable influence upon the _quality_ of the tone
emitted. It may be affirmed, however, without the slightest hesitation,
that they have absolutely nothing to do with the _production_ of tone.
We shall see these glandular ledges again during our observations upon
the living subject, and I shall therefore say no more about them at
present.

[Illustration: PLATE XII.

VIEW OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX, WHICH HAS BEEN CUT OPEN FROM BEHIND.

1, 2. POCKET LIGAMENTS (FALSE VOCAL CORDS).

3, 4. VOCAL LIGAMENTS (VOCAL CORDS).

5, 6. SHIELD (THYROID) CARTILAGE.

7, 8. CARTILAGES OF SANTORINI.

9. LID (EPIGLOTTIS).

14, 10 & 15, 11. FOLDS OF MUCOUS MEMBRANE (ARYTENO-EPIGLOTTIC FOLDS).

12, 13. WEDGES (CUNEIFORM CARTILAGES).

14, 15. CARTILAGES OF WRISBERG.

16, 17. PYRAMID MUSCLE (ARYTENOIDEUS TRANSVERSUS).

18, 19. RING (CRICOID) CARTILAGE.

20, 21. TONGUE (HYOID) BONE.
]

The space between the pocket ligaments and the vocal ligaments (pl. XII,
1, 2, 3, 4) is the entrance to two pouches or pockets which extend
outwards and upwards. The dimensions of these pockets vary very much in
different individuals. As a rule their height does not exceed two-fifths
of an inch, so that their terminations do not reach the upper borders of
the shield cartilage (pl. XII, 5 and 6). But there are instances in
which the pockets are nearly three-quarters of an inch high, and where
such is the case they, as a necessary consequence, reach beyond the
shield. Sometimes they are so high as nearly to touch the root of the
tongue. Their outer walls are chiefly formed of loose fatty cellular
tissue, and the pockets are almost entirely surrounded by a large number
of small glands.

     Now these are the "Laryngeal sacculi" which, according to Mr.
     Illingworth, produce the falsetto voice by "acting in the same way
     as a hazel-nut can be made to act as a whistle, when the kernel has
     been extracted through a small hole in the shell," &c. I think,
     however, that the reader will, from the description given above,
     agree with me that the acoustic properties of the pockets of the
     voicebox cannot be very great, and that, at all events, there is a
     vast difference between their construction and that of a hazel-nut,
     either with or without the kernel. Then there is this additional
     difficulty, that even if one could whistle upon the pockets in the
     manner suggested, there are two of them, covered, let it be
     remembered, with a multitude of glands, continually producing
     moisture, and liable to enlarge or to diminish. How, I should like
     to know, could two such cavities be so tuned as under any
     circumstances to produce exactly the same tones? Would not rather
     frightful discords be the inevitable result? And again, what
     provision is there in the pockets for the gradations of pitch? But
     quite apart from these considerations, this and other similar
     theories are completely disproved by the fact that every tone which
     the human voice is capable of producing can be produced by
     _inspiration as well as by expiration_. The tones sung by
     inspiration are, as might be expected, wholly devoid of beauty,
     because the vocal apparatus is, as it were, put upside down, and
     the position of bellows and resonator reversed. But that does not
     alter the question. The fact remains, and clearly proves that the
     pockets have no more to do with the falsetto than with the chest
     voice, because in inspiration the air strikes the vocal ligaments
     _after it has passed_ the pockets, and yet the result is, beauty of
     tone apart, exactly the same.

The function of the pockets, in my opinion, is this: They are the means
of isolating the vocal ligaments, thus enabling them to vibrate freely
and without hindrance. They also allow the sound-waves to expand
sideways, thereby materially adding to their resonance. Lastly, they
with their many little glands produce and supply the vocal ligaments
with that moisture without which, according to the investigations of J.
Müller,[H] the production of tone cannot be carried on.

Above the pocket ligaments there is a kind of tube which is formed by
the upper part of the pyramids (surmounted by two little bodies called
the cartilages of Santorini, pl. XII, 7, 8) behind; the lid or
epiglottis (pl. XII, 9) in front, and sideways by two folds of mucous
membrane running up from the pyramids to the lid (pl. XII, 14, 10 and
15, 11). These folds are in many cases supported by two small
cartilages, which we will call the Wedges (pl. XII, 12, 13). These,
according to Madame Emma Seiler, are the chief factors in the formation
of the highest register of the female voice. In some physiological works
they are treated as of very little consequence, and in others they are
not mentioned at all.

These wedges are two thin strips of cartilage running in front of the
pyramids (pl. XII, 12 and 13) where they are embedded in a number of
glands. Their upper ends terminate in the cartilages of Wrisberg (pl.
XII, 14, 15), and their lower ends gradually dwindle away in the
direction of the vocal ligaments.

     Madame Seiler says that they "reach to the middle of the vocal
     chords, by which they are enveloped."[I] She comments in the same
     book on the fact that German anatomists have been reluctant to
     admit the existence of these cartilages; and she adds on page 61,
     "It was, therefore, a great satisfaction to me to find them
     described under the name of the cuneiform cartilages in Wilson's
     'Human Anatomy.'" It must be confessed, however, that Wilson's
     description of them is totally different from Madame Seiler's. He
     says, "The cuneiform cartilages are two small cylinders of yellow
     fibro-cartilage, about seven lines in length and enlarged at each
     extremity. _By the lower end or base_ the cartilage is attached _to
     the middle of the external surface_ of the arytenoid (the pyramid),
     and by its upper extremity forms a prominence in the border of the
     aryteno-epiglottidean fold of membrane"[J] (_i.e._, the fold
     running up to the lid). According to Seiler, therefore, the wedges
     reach from the pyramids to the middle of the vocal ligaments, but
     according to Wilson their bases are attached to the middle of the
     outer surface of the pyramids, so that they cannot even touch the
     vocal ligaments. As Madame Seiler assigns very important functions
     to these wedges in the formation of the highest register of the
     female voice, and as she quotes Wilson in a manner that must lead
     the reader to suppose he gave a similar description to hers of
     these cartilages, I have thought it right to give Wilson's
     statement in full.

     But there is a description of these cartilages by Dr. Witkowski
     which corresponds very closely with Madame Seiler's. Speaking of
     some of the glands of the voicebox, he says in the work mentioned
     before, on p. 12--"They are arranged in the form of an L, whose
     vertical branch goes along the arytenoid cartilages (the pyramids),
     _the horizontal branch following the direction of the vocal cords_.
     _There is often found situated in the midst of this group of glands
     the cuneiform cartilage of Wrisberg_, sometimes reduced to a mere
     cartilaginous granule."

     Dr. Elsberg also describes them on p. 37 of the treatise before
     mentioned as "elongated nodules" in the hinder portion of the vocal
     ligaments, and says they are found "more often in the female than
     in the male sex." He calls them the "posterior vocal nodules," and
     gives on p. 36 a diagram which shows them most clearly and
     unmistakably. This point would therefore seem to be settled.

=The Resonator.=--We now come to the last part of our instrument, namely,
the resonator, which is formed of (1) the pockets of the larynx; (2) the
tube above the pocket ligaments; (3) the upper part of the throat; (4)
the mouth; and (5) the nose. Before giving a description of the
resonator, it will be necessary to make a few introductory remarks on
certain laws of the philosophy of sound, which have been so clearly
demonstrated that they admit of no contradiction.

=Tone=, as we have seen, is the result of rapid periodic vibrations.

The =Loudness= of tone depends upon the _amplitude_ of the vibrations.
This is easily shown by drawing a bow over the string of a violin: while
the vibrations of the string are largest, the tone produced is loudest,
and as the vibrations get smaller, so the tone becomes fainter.

The =Pitch= of tone depends upon the _number_ of vibrations in a given
period of time. The greater the number of vibrations the higher the
pitch, and _vice versâ_.

The =Quality= of tone depends on the _form_ of the vibrations, "which also
determines the occurrence of upper partial tones."[K]

Now, to make the sound of any tone-producing element more intense, and
to give it some special quality, is the work of the resonator. If we
simply fix a fiddle string at either end, and, after giving it a certain
amount of tension, draw a bow across it, we shall certainly produce a
tone, but a very poor and faint one. Put the same string with the same
amount of tension upon a cheap violin, and the tone will be intensified,
and its quality changed, though that quality may be of a very unpleasant
kind. Repeat the experiment upon an Amati or a Straduarius, and not only
will the tone be more powerful still, but it will also have a full,
round, and beautiful quality. Something, it is true, depends upon the
string and upon the bowing, but we are here supposing the same string
and the same player, our object being to show how the _resonator_,
which, in this case, is the body of the violin, intensifies the tone of
the string, and affects its quality.

Illustrations exemplifying the same thing might be multiplied to any
extent, but the one I have just given will suffice. As with the string,
so with the vocal ligaments. Cut a larynx out of a dead body, put it in
proper position on the top of a bellows, and force the air through it,
and you will produce tone, but faint and poor tone. Now add a resonator
to the larynx, and the tone of the vocal ligaments will be intensified,
and its quality altered according to the kind of resonator you make use
of.

It is clear, therefore, that the human voice does not only depend upon
the vibrations of the vocal ligaments, and the corresponding vibrations
of the air passing between them, but also upon the resonator as defined
on p. 9. According to the natural formation of our resonator, and
according to the infinite variety of shapes which every one has it in
his power to give to it, our voices will be, always supposing the
conditions of the vocal ligaments to be the same, either full, round,
sonorous, and _beautiful_, or they will be poor, cutting, muffled,
guttural, nasal, and _ugly_.

As we have, or may easily acquire, absolute command over the resonator,
or, at least, over the greatest part of it, it is a comfort to know that
so very much depends upon it, and I trust my readers will now, with some
amount of pleasure, look with me at this part of the vocal apparatus.

The 1st and 2nd divisions of the resonator--namely, the pockets of the
larynx and the tube above the pocket ligaments--have been fully
described on pp. 52, 53, and no more need be said on the subject here.

The upper part of the throat, called in scientific works the "Pharynx"
(pl. I, P), is a cavity, the largest part of which may be seen through
the arch at the back of the open mouth. Its hinder wall is formed by the
spinal column, and it extends upwards as far as the Eustachian tubes
(pl. I, E) which communicate with the middle part of the ear. Here it
joins--

The =Cavities of the Nose= (pl. I, N), which have for their base the hard
and soft palate (pl. I, H and S), and which are divided by a bone
partition.

The only part of the =Mouth= which requires a particular description is
the soft palate. This is a movable partition by means of which either
the mouth or the nose can be completely separated from the throat. If
the nose is to be shut off from the throat the soft palate is _raised_,
and pressed against the back of the pharynx. If the mouth is to be shut
off the soft palate is _lowered_, and rests closely upon the back of the
tongue. This partition plays a most important part in vocalization. In
the formation of all pure vowel sounds it is _raised_, thereby closing
the nasal cavities, and it has been found that the closure is loosest
for "ah" (as in "father") and tightest for "e" (as in "bee"), the
intermediate vowels being "a" (as in "name"), "oh" and "oo" (as in
"food"). This has been clearly shown by Czermak in the following manner.
Lying down on his back, he had the nasal cavities filled with tepid
water. He then uttered the various vowel sounds, and ascertained from
the quantity of water required to force open the closure formed by the
soft palate the degree of tightness for each vowel. He afterwards
constructed a very ingenious little apparatus, by means of which, in one
of his lectures, he demonstrated this fact to his audience. It will be
easily understood from the above explanation that, if the closure of
the nasal cavities is sufficiently imperfect to allow any considerable
amount of air to pass through the nose, the result will be a nasal tone.

     I am aware that the very opposite is taught by some. There are
     those who maintain that nasal tone arises from the air _not_ being
     able to get through the nose. I am even informed that in some parts
     of England where nasal tone seems to be a general affliction, it is
     the practice of teachers of singing to cause their pupils to bathe
     their noses in hot water in order to relax the muscles which are
     supposed by their contraction to produce nasal tone. I would,
     however, in support of my statement, draw attention to the
     following indisputable facts:--(1) It is quite possible to
     completely close the nostrils, and yet to produce pure vocal tone.
     (2) Persons who are either partly or entirely without the soft
     palate can _under no circumstances_ utter a single sound without
     the most pronounced nasal quality. It seems to me that these facts
     sufficiently speak for themselves; but if any of my readers are not
     convinced by them, let them try this experiment: Take a thin mirror
     and hold it flat against the upper lip, with the glass upwards. Now
     sing a pure vocal tone, and the mirror will remain perfectly
     bright. Sing, on the contrary, with nasal quality, and the mirror
     will at once be completely dimmed. This shows conclusively that
     nasal sound is produced by singing _through_ the nose, and this
     cannot be done without lowering the soft palate. Teachers of
     singing know well enough that guttural tone is caused by the
     obstinate arching up of the tongue, and if they understand their
     business they eventually succeed in teaching a pupil labouring
     under this disadvantage to get perfect control over his tongue. But
     nobody thinks of the soft palate, though that can be brought under
     subjection just as well as the tongue. Let singing masters see to
     it, and young ladies will no longer be laughed at for having to
     put their noses into hot water before charming their friends with
     a song.

It now only remains to be added that the interior of the windpipe and of
the voicebox, as well as that of the throat, the mouth, and the nose, is
lined with a thin mucous membrane of a pinkish colour. This concludes my
description of the Vocal Organ as a musical instrument.




DIFFERENCES OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX, IN CHILDREN, WOMEN, AND MEN.


The voicebox of a newly-born baby is about one-third the size of that of
a grown woman. It is therefore rather large in proportion to other parts
of the body, with the exception of the head, which comparatively is
larger still. The horizontal outline of the shield cartilage is a very
gentle curve, and the upper horns are short, in consequence of which the
voicebox is close to the tongue. The wedges, according to Merkel, are
strongly developed; the vocal ligaments are short and thick, and the
pockets deep. Up to the third year the voicebox grows very considerably,
but no particular alterations take place from that time to the period of
puberty, which generally occurs at the age of 14 or 15, rather earlier
in girls than in boys. This period of change lasts from six to twelve
months, or sometimes even two or three years. During this time the vocal
organs undergo a marked change. In boys, the angle at which the two
plates of the shield meet becomes more and more acute, and the length of
the vocal ligaments increases only in the proportion of five to ten. In
girls, on the other hand, the horizontal outline of the shield does not
lose its evenness, and the length of the vocal ligaments increases only
in the proportion of five to seven. The cartilages would seem,
especially in boys, to grow more rapidly than the muscles, so that the
slowly-growing muscles do not, at first, control the newly-developed
cartilages. This accounts for the unmanageable state of the voice at
this period. The changes which take place in the female voicebox are
very imperceptible, so that they do not materially affect the character
of the voice. In the male voicebox, on the contrary, the alterations are
very marked, and the result is that the high voice of the boy is changed
into the tenor or the bass of the man. While, therefore, before the
period of puberty the voicebox is materially the same in both sexes,
there are, afterwards, considerable differences noticeable, not only
with regard to size, but also with regard to shape. This seems, indeed,
sufficiently obvious, and any one can see it by simply comparing the
outside of the throat of a man with that of a woman.

     Nevertheless we are told by Mr. Lunn[L] that "Anatomy teaches us
     that there is no difference between the male and female larynx save
     in size;" and by Dr. Garrett (on page 13 of the book quoted before)
     that "The male larynx does not differ anatomically in the least
     from that of the female, except in size."

     My readers may judge for themselves whether these statements are
     borne out by facts or not.

It must further be observed that the whole upper part of the shield in
the female voicebox is less developed than in the male. The upper horns
are short, so that the voicebox is more closely attached to the
tongue-bone, and its position in the throat is altogether higher in
woman than in man. To show more clearly still the difference in the
proportions of the male and the female voicebox, I give below some
average measurements (taken from Luschka's great work on the Larynx)
which I have, for the convenience of English readers, reduced, as nearly
as possible, from centimetres and millimetres to inches.

                                         MALE.            FEMALE.

    Height of the voicebox in  }        2-4/5in.         1-9/10in.
    front, with the lid raised }       (7 cent.)        (4.8 cent.)

    Greatest width between the    }     1-3/5in.         1-2/5in.
    plates of the shield cartilage}    (4 cent.)        (3.5 cent.)

    Depth between the lower         }
    border of the shield cartilage, }   1-1/5in.          1 in.
    and the opposite point          }  (3 cent.)       (2.4 cent.)
    of the ring cartilage.          }

    Length of the vocal chink ...         1 in.          3/5 in.
                                        (25 mm.)        (15 mm.)

According to this eminent anatomist, therefore, the differences between
male and female larynges are as follows: In height, 9/10; in width, 1/5;
in depth, 1/5; in the length of the vocal chink, 2/5 of an inch. As it
is plain that if there were "no difference between the male and the
female larynx save in size," all their proportions would be alike, I
think I may safely assume that I have proved my point, which is a rather
important one, as the reader will see when the registers in the male and
female voice come up for discussion.

We will now consider the question how the various classes of
voice--_i.e._, Sopranos, Contraltos, Tenors, and Basses--are to be
accounted for by corresponding differences in the voicebox. We know that
tone is produced by the vibrations of the vocal ligaments. It is clear,
therefore, that a voice will be high or low according to the number of
vibrations which the ligaments are capable of producing, or in other
words, according to their dimensions and their tension. This difference
is easily seen by comparing the voicebox of a soprano with that of a
bass, because there the proportions are so manifestly smaller in the one
than in the other. There are similar distinctions between soprano and
contralto on the one hand, and between tenor and bass on the other, but
they are not so striking. Neither can they, for various reasons, be
demonstrated with the laryngoscope; but they exist nevertheless.

It is true that the vocal ligaments of a soprano are sometimes longer
than those of a contralto, just as the ligaments of a tenor are
occasionally longer than those of a bass. But I maintain that the longer
ligaments of sopranos and tenors are correspondingly thinner, and that
their tension is greater, owing to the ring-shield or stretching muscles
being more powerful than their opponents--the shield-pyramid muscles.
Where this is the case the ligaments are more slanting than they would
be otherwise, and the consequence of this is that less power of blast is
required to make them speak. With this mechanism the higher registers
are very readily united with the lower ones, and the voices so produced
are of a light and flexible kind. Where, on the contrary, the vocal
ligaments of contraltos and basses are comparatively short, they are
also thick in proportion, and the shield-pyramid muscles are more
powerful than the opposing ring-shield muscles, so that there is less
tension. I shall be asked how I can prove this tension theory, and my
reply is this: The diameter of the vocal ligaments depends in a large
measure on the magnitude of the shield-pyramid muscles. If, therefore,
the ligaments are exceptionally thick, the muscles just named must of
necessity be very powerful, and can easily resist the pulling of the
ring-shield muscles. If, on the contrary, the ligaments are
exceptionally thin, it is equally certain that the shield-pyramid
muscles are weak in proportion, and then the stretching muscles can
easily overcome their resistance.

       *       *       *       *       *

I may add that I came to the above conclusions about the various classes
of voices years ago, when commencing the study of this subject. Not only
have I never since seen any reason to alter my views--although I have
not failed to notice and carefully examine the theories of others
denying my doctrine--but I am more than ever convinced that my
explanations are correct. I have now the gratification of seeing my
theory confirmed by so great an authority as Dr. Merkel, of Leipzig, who
most elaborately explains the subject in his latest work on the larynx,
to which I have already alluded in these pages.

       *       *       *       *       *

Besides the factors enumerated above, there are, no doubt, others which
are also of consequence in determining the particular kind of voice to
be produced by this vocal apparatus or by that; as, for instance, the
windpipe, or the resonator, or both. The capacity of the chest--nay, the
structure of the whole body, may have a more or less direct influence
upon it. But there are absolutely no statistics to proceed upon, and in
the absence of these it is vain to indulge in any speculations on the
subject.




MOVEMENTS OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX, WHICH CAN BE SEEN OR FELT.


The voicebox in a man is situated almost exactly in the middle of the
throat; in woman its position is, for reasons partly explained on page
64, considerably higher. It moves downwards in inspiration, and upwards
in expiration; and the more vigorously we breathe, the more marked are
these movements. In the act of swallowing the voicebox rises quickly,
and in yawning it goes down so completely that the whole windpipe may
vanish into the chest, and even the part of the ring cartilage may
disappear.

When singing in what is called chest-voice the voicebox rises gradually
with each higher tone. Changing the mode of tone production, and
singing--say an octave higher--in falsetto, the voicebox makes quite a
leap upwards, and then again rises gradually with each higher tone,
just as in chest-voice, but in a lesser degree. The voicebox, however,
does not stand so high for the lowest falsetto as for the highest chest
tones.

     It is possible, of course, to limit these movements to a minimum,
     but a teacher who insists upon his pupils keeping their voice-boxes
     perfectly still commits a serious mistake, because it is always
     injurious to do violence to nature. It is one thing to keep the
     voicebox steady, thereby facilitating the working of some of those
     muscles which act immediately upon the vocal ligaments; it is quite
     another thing, as will be seen below, to attempt to prevent
     movements which have to serve a great purpose.

In _whispering_, the voicebox occupies a different position in the
throat for each vowel. I invite the reader to try the following curious
experiment. Let him take the larynx gently between the thumb and the
first finger, and then _whisper_ OO (as in "food,") OH, AH, A (as in
"name,") and E (as in "bee"). He will find that the voicebox rises with
every succeeding vowel until at last it has completely slipped away from
between the finger and thumb. Each one of these _whispered_ vowels has,
as first ascertained by Helmholtz, its exact pitch, whether uttered by a
little child or by an old man, and the effect of the rising of the
voicebox is to shorten the resonator, whereby the raising of the pitch
is produced.

I stated on page 41 that the vocal ligaments were capable of being
stretched by the ring-shield muscles, and that the pitch of the tones
produced by their vibrations depended mainly on their tension. As we
are now taking note of such movements of the voicebox as may be either
seen or felt in the throat, we will take the opportunity of trying
whether my statement can be verified. Let the reader, therefore, do as
follows:--(1) Place the finger on the shield cartilage, and press it
vigorously backward. (2) Sing loudly any high tone that is well within
your compass. Hold this tone steadily, and _be quite sure you do not
alter its pitch_. (3) Now suddenly remove your finger, continuing to
sing as before. What is the result? Your tone is raised by a third, or
even more, according to the amount of pressure you exercised on the
shield. And how did this result come about? In this way: By pressing the
shield backwards you elongated the ring-shield muscles, thereby
counteracting their stretching influence, and at the same time
slackening the vocal ligaments. The tone you sang while doing this was,
we will say C'. By releasing the shield you enabled the ring-shield
muscles to contract again, thereby putting the vocal ligaments on the
stretch as they were at first. That changed your C' to E', or higher
still. Have I proved my assertion?

Now one more test, if you please. I pointed out to you on page 34 an
opening between the shield and the ring. You will see it on plate V, No.
10. Please sing a low tone; place your finger gently on the shield, and
move it downwards. You will soon discover a little hollow which
corresponds with the opening I just mentioned, and into which you can
easily put part of the tip of your finger. Now sing up the scale, and
take care to keep the tip of your finger in the hollow. Remember that in
singing up the scale your voicebox will rise, which movement you must
follow, or you will lose the place. If you do this carefully, you will
find that the hollow gets smaller and smaller by degrees until at last
it closes entirely, and you can no longer find a trace of it. Now sing
down again, keeping your finger on the same spot. You will soon notice
the hollow again, and it will continue to get larger and larger until
you arrive at the bottom of your scale.

This, of course, is but another way of showing the mechanism by which
the pitch of your tones is raised or lowered, and we have proved the
same thing by our preceding experiment. But I asked you to try this
chiefly because it will enable you to put a check upon my statements
with regard to the registers of the voice, a subject which I propose to
discuss in another chapter.




THE LARYNGOSCOPE, AND HOW TO USE IT.


The Laryngoscope in its simplest form is a thin circular mirror, about
three-quarters of an inch in diameter, set in a metal frame, and
fastened at an angle of 120° to a piece of wire from three to four
inches long, which is put into a small wooden handle not much thicker
than a pencil, and about the same length as the wire. By help of the
laryngoscope we can either see our own larynx or that of another person.
The easiest experiment is upon the larynx of some one else. In this
case, the person to be operated upon sits facing the sun, the head
slightly bent backwards, and the mouth wide open. If he has not
sufficient control over his tongue to prevent it from arching up, he
must gently hold its protruding tip with a pocket handkerchief between
his thumb and forefinger. The mirror is now slightly warmed to prevent
its becoming dimmed by the moisture of the breath, and then, holding it
like a pen, the operator introduces it into the throat so that it
touches the uvula. This must be done lightly yet firmly, care being
taken not to bring the mirror into contact with the base of the tongue.
The rays of the sun falling upon the mirror are reflected downwards into
the voicebox, the image of which is clearly visible in the mirror. In
making observations upon oneself, a second mirror in the shape of an
ordinary hand looking-glass is necessary to reproduce the image in the
small mirror. This is the way in which the renowned professor of
singing, Senor Manuel Garcia, made those famous "Observations on the
Human Voice," communicated to the Royal Society by Dr. Sharpey, on May
the 24th, 1855. Similar attempts had been made before; for instance, in
1827 by Babington, in 1838 by Baumès, in 1840 by Liston, and in 1844 by
Warden and Avery. But they had all ended in failure, an occasional
glimpse of some parts of the voicebox being the only result obtained.
Garcia, however, brilliantly succeeded where all his predecessors had
failed, and was the first not only to see the vocal ligaments, but to
see them in the act of singing, and to see them so clearly as to be able
to give an account of their minutest movements. The instrument has since
been greatly improved, and the process of investigation has become a
science. Medical men all over the world have laid hold of it, and
suffering humanity is daily benefited by it. But Garcia is the man who
produced the first results, and to him, therefore, is due the credit of
being practically the inventor of the laryngoscope.

It is almost incredible, but it is true, that this splendid invention
was received coldly and with distrust in this country, and had it not
been for Dr. Johann N. Czermak, Professor of Physiology at the
University of Pesth, the matter would, in all probability, have been
forgotten. But this gentleman recognized the value of Garcia's
invention, and he at once went enthusiastically to work, and pushed on
vigorously in the way which Garcia had opened for him. He constructed an
apparatus which enabled him, by making use of artificial light, to work
without interruption and without waiting for the sun to shine. He then
made his first attempts on himself in order to become acquainted with
the conditions which have to be fulfilled by the observer as well as by
the person to be operated upon. In this way he soon became a master of
the new process, which he immediately brought under the notice of the
profession by giving lectures and demonstrations in the chief towns of
Europe.

More than twenty years have passed since then, and the laryngoscope has,
during that time, been made excellent use of, not only for the
alleviation of suffering, and the cure of disease, but also for its
original purpose--_i.e._, the exploration of the mechanism of the human
voice.

My own connection with the matter has arisen through my desire to sift
contradictory statements made by various observers. Having read many
English, German, and French books on the subject, I was in position to
pick up a hint here, and to get some good advice there, and the
consequence was that I was able to pursue a course which made me
familiar with the use of the laryngoscope in a very short time. As my
experience may be useful to others, I will briefly relate how I
proceeded.

I made my first attempts upon a skull, to which I attached a
plaster-of-Paris model of the voicebox, the whole being fastened to an
iron stand. The instrument I used was a concave reflector on a spectacle
frame. The reflector had a hole in the centre, and was capable of being
moved in various directions. The next thing was the little mirror
described on page 73, and lastly, a gas lamp on the principle of the
well-known "Queen's" reading lamps, which can be raised or lowered at
pleasure. I placed the skull to the left of the lamp, and looking with
my right eye through the hole in the centre of the reflector, practised
throwing the light swiftly and with certainty into the upper part of the
throat. I then introduced the little spy mirror, and tried to see and to
recognize the various parts of the voicebox, which, let it be
remembered, present a somewhat different appearance in the looking-glass
from what they do if seen without it. Then I got a friend to mark my
artificial voicebox, unknown to me, in various ways, and endeavoured
quickly to discover what he had done. In this way I soon acquired a
considerable amount of skill in handling the instrument, and also became
thoroughly familiar with the image of the voicebox in the mirror.[M]
Having thus to a large extent mastered the mechanical part of my work, I
proceeded to make observations upon myself. I placed to the left of the
lamp an ordinary bedroom looking-glass, in which now appeared my own
face instead of the skull which hitherto occupied this place. I opened
my mouth, and by the help of the reflector directed the light into the
image of it in the looking-glass. I then continued in every way as I
had done with the skull, with this difference, however, that I had
first, as pointed out before, to warm the little spy mirror in order to
prevent its becoming dimmed in the throat.

An instrument has since been designed by the late Dr. G. D. Foulis, of
Glasgow, which for simplicity, general excellence, and cheapness, far
surpasses the above contrivance, and which I strongly recommend to
intending students of laryngoscopy. It consists of a plain stand on
which is placed a glass globe filled with water, the whole being
surmounted by a small square mirror. The rays from a lamp or candle,
placed behind the globe, are concentrated into the open mouth of the
observer, who is seated in front of it, enabling him, by the use of an
ordinary throat mirror, to inspect the movements of his own vocal
ligaments.

[Illustration]

This apparatus, as shown in the annexed drawing, including a throat
mirror, and safely packed for transmission, may be had from Messrs. W.
B. Hilliard & Sons, 65, Renfield Street, Glasgow, for the very small sum
of 7s. 6d.

Let not the reader who tries laryngoscopic investigations be discouraged
if, at first, violent retching is the result. It does not so much arise
from sensitiveness of the parts touched, as from awkwardness in
introducing the mirror. If he perseveres he will soon be rewarded by a
view of the pearly white vocal ligaments, and a little repeated practice
upon himself will enable him also to operate upon others without causing
them discomfort.

I close this chapter by again reminding amateur laryngoscopists that in
the vast majority of cases where the touch of the mirror causes retching
and gagging, it is due less to the sensitiveness of the person operated
upon than to the want of skill on the part of the operator. He should in
that case renew his experiments upon himself, and continue them until he
has fully mastered the use of the instrument, as it is not fair to make
others suffer for his own clumsiness.




THE TEACHINGS OF THE LARYNGOSCOPE.


On introducing the mirror into the throat we first see the back part of
the tongue, which has a very uneven surface, and which is, as a rule,
covered with greyish phlegm. We next notice a hollow space between the
tongue and the lid, which is divided by an elastic band forming a little
bridge between the two. Next comes the upper free part of the lid, the
shape of which greatly varies in different individuals. It hangs over
the voicebox, which it almost completely hides from view; but during the
production of a high tone on the vowel A, as in "sad," it takes an
almost perpendicular position. When the lid is so raised (pl. XIV, L) we
can see right down to the bottom of it, where we observe that it bulges
out a little. Extending from either side of the lid to the pyramids are
two folds of mucous membrane, in the hinder part of either of which are
to be observed two little elevations representing the cartilages of
Santorini (pl. XIV, S S), and the upper points of the wedges, called
the cartilages of Wrisberg (pl. XIV, W W). Looking down the kind of tube
which is formed by the parts just enumerated, we next notice two
horizontal projections running from front to back, which are the pocket
ligaments (pl. XIV, P P). Everything we have seen so far is of a pinkish
colour. Below the pocket ligaments, right at the bottom of the tube
described above, we see the main object of our investigation, namely,
the vocal ligaments (pl. XIV, V V). These, being almost of a pearly
white, form a strong contrast to all their surroundings, and it is quite
impossible to mistake them.

       *       *       *       *       *

In quiet breathing the vocal chink is of a triangular shape, of which,
however, we can only see the hinder part, the front part being hidden by
the lid (pl. XIII). In exaggerated efforts at breathing this space gets
considerably larger, so that, with a well-directed light, we can see
into the windpipe, of which the rings are plainly noticeable. It is even
possible to see the lowest part of the windpipe, where it is divided
into the two branches entering the lungs.

       *       *       *       *       *

For the purpose of studying the movements of the vocal ligaments in the
act of singing, the vowel A, as in "sad" will be found the most
favourable, because the formation of the mouth, and the position of the
tongue which it necessitates, enable us to get a complete view of the
interior of the voicebox, which during the emission of other vowel
sounds is more or less hidden.

     Mr. Lunn objects that all investigations with the laryngoscope are
     valueless on account of the supposed necessity of holding the tip
     of the protruding tongue. He says, in a letter to the "Orchestra"
     (January, 1880): "One of our most promising singers told me he
     could not rightly produce his voice when under laryngoscopic
     investigation. It is a moral impossibility for all!" (A physical
     impossibility would be more to the purpose.) "Let the reader pull
     his tongue out with a napkin as far as he can, and sing, and he
     will get some notion of the tone producible." There is no
     foundation for this objection, because if a singer has his tongue
     under proper control there is not the slightest occasion to put it
     out and to hold it. As to pulling it out as far as one can, that
     should not be done under any circumstances, and no man having the
     slightest knowledge of laryngoscopy would suggest such a ridiculous
     proceeding. In my own case the vocal ligaments can be seen from one
     end to the other while I keep my tongue in its natural position,
     and I am willing to demonstrate this fact to any one who has any
     doubt in the matter.

As soon as we produce a tone, the pyramids, and with them the vocal
ligaments, meet, so as to touch each other more or less closely, while
there still remains a large space between the pocket ligaments above.
Every time we take breath, the pyramids with the vocal ligaments recede,
to meet again as before, every time we strike a new tone. The vocal
ligaments, thrown into vibrations by the stream of air passing between
them, cut, as it were, this stream of air into regular waves, and thus
(as more fully explained on p. 38) tone is produced.

We notice here that this tone-production may be originated in three
different ways:--(1) The vocal ligaments may meet _after_ the air has
commenced to pass between them. Of this an aspirate is the result. (2)
The vocal ligaments may meet _before_ the air has commenced to pass
between them. This causes a check or a click at the beginning of the
tone. (3) The vocal ligaments may meet just at the very moment when the
air passes between them. In this case the tone is properly struck. There
is nothing to make it indefinite as in case No. 1, and nothing to impede
it as in case No. 2. Production as in case No. 3 causes the tone to
travel much farther than production as in cases Nos. I and 2, and it is
this way of striking a tone which is known under the name of "Coup de
Glotte" or "Shock of the Glottis."

     "But it is not a shock of the glottis at all," says Mr. Lunn, on
     page 68 of the book quoted before. "It is an audible result arising
     from the false cords [pocket ligaments] releasing condensed air
     imprisoned below them, which air in its release explodes." I beg
     leave to observe that condensed imprisoned air thus released could
     produce a puff, but not a musical tone. The matter is, moreover,
     capable of being demonstrated to the eye. The process takes place
     as described above, and I am ready at any moment to show that the
     pocket ligaments _never_ meet in singing. There can, therefore, be
     no possibility of condensed air being imprisoned below them, and we
     need not enter into any further argument on the subject.

[Illustration: PLATE XIII.

LARYNGOSCOPIC IMAGE. BREATHING.

T. TONGUE.

L. LID.

V. V. VOCAL LIGAMENTS.

W. W. CARTILAGES OF WRISBERG.

S. S. CARTILAGES OF SANTORINI.

]

[Illustration: PLATE XIV.

LARYNGOSCOPIC IMAGE. UPPER THICK.

T. T. TONGUE.

L. LID.

P. P. POCKET LIGAMENTS.

V. V. VOCAL LIGAMENTS.

W. W. CARTILAGES OF WRISBERG.

S. S. CARTILAGES OF SANTORINI.
]

[Illustration: PLATE XV.

LARYNGOSCOPIC IMAGE. UPPER THIN.

T. T. TONGUE.

L. LID.

P. P. POCKET LIGAMENTS.

V. V. VOCAL LIGAMENTS.

W. W. CARTILAGES OF WRISBERG.

S. S. CARTILAGES OF SANTORINI.
]

[Illustration: PLATE XVI.

LARYNGOSCOPIC IMAGE. SMALL.

T. T. TONGUE.

L. LID.

P. P. POCKET LIGAMENTS.

V. V. VOCAL LIGAMENTS.

W. W. CARTILAGES OF WRISBERG.

S. S. CARTILAGES OF SANTORINI.
]

We now proceed to study the Registers of the human voice. A very Babel
of confusion exists on this important subject, and we are not only
perplexed by a multiplicity of terms, but also by the various and often
contradictory meanings attached to them. Thus people talk of chest,
medium, mixed, throat, falsetto, and head registers, and these terms
being utterly unscientific--_i.e._, being based upon sensations and
fancies instead of physiological facts--no one can give a clear and
satisfactory definition of any one of them. To bring order into such
chaos is an almost hopeless undertaking, and the first step in this
direction is obviously to ask ourselves, What is the meaning of the word
"Register?" My reply is this: _A register consists of a series of tones
which are produced by the same mechanism_. Then comes the question, Can
any such registers be demonstrated in the vocal apparatus; and if so,
what are the mechanisms by which they are produced? The answer supplied
by the laryngoscope is, Yes. There are, broadly speaking, three
registers in the human voice, and the mechanisms are plainly visible, as
follows:--(1) During the lowest series of tones the vocal ligaments
vibrate in their entire thickness (pl. XIV). (2) During the next series
of tones the vocal ligaments vibrate only with their thin inner edges
(pl. XV). (3) During the highest series of tones a portion of the vocal
chink is firmly closed, and only a small part of the vocal ligaments
vibrates (pl. XVI).

In accordance with these physiological facts, Mr. Curwen, in his
admirable book "The Teacher's Manual," calls the registers _the Thick_,
_the Thin_, and _the Small_. These names have a scientific basis, and
their meaning cannot be misunderstood. They are already familiar to
thousands who study music by Mr. Curwen's method, and I have myself made
use of them in my lectures at University College and at other places. I
shall, therefore, also adopt them in this little work, and hope they
will soon find general acceptance among teachers and learners, as
thereby a great many misunderstandings will be avoided.

       *       *       *       *       *

Our next business will be to ascertain how these registers are divided
among various voices, and the result as revealed by the laryngoscope is
rather startling. It consists in this, that the break between the Thick
and Thin occurs _in both sexes_ at about [Illustration: musical
notation] In order to realize the full meaning of this, the reader must
bear in mind that music for tenors is generally written an octave higher
than it is sung, so that the tones we are now speaking about would, as a
rule, in a tenor part be expressed by [Illustration: musical notation].
My assertion, therefore, amounts to this, that everything below
[Illustration: musical notation] whether sung by soprano, contralto,
tenor, or bass, is produced by one mechanism--that is to say, by the
vocal ligaments vibrating in their entire thickness; and that the series
of tones above [Illustration: musical notation] whether sung by bass,
tenor, contralto, or soprano, is again produced by one mechanism
(although a different one from the last), that is to say, by the vocal
ligaments vibrating only with their thin inner edges. Then there remains
the small register, which belongs almost exclusively to sopranos, and
which represents the series of tones above [Illustration: musical
notation].

I thus maintain, not only that the great break between the thick and the
thin occurs (individual differences apart) at the same place in both
sexes, but that (leaving for the moment sub-divisions out of
consideration) the male voice has but two registers--_i.e._, the Thick
and the Thin, while the female voice has three registers--_i.e._, the
Thick, the Thin, and the Small. From this it follows that the female
voice is _not_, as supposed by some, simply a reproduction of the male
an octave higher.

I have spoken of the above results of the investigations with the
laryngoscope as startling, because the female voicebox is generally
imagined to be exactly like the male, save in size, and the inference
that the female voice must be exactly like the male, save in pitch, is,
therefore, a very natural one. Neither am I surprised that those who
hold an opposite view to mine are never tired of advancing this
argument.

     Mr. Lunn says, in the book quoted before, on page 24, "Consequently
     it may safely be asserted that the vocal cords are subject to the
     same laws as all sounding bodies, and as the sole difference
     between the male and the female larynx is one of size alone, the
     voice from the latter _is_ a reproduction of the former on a higher
     scale."

I have, however, shown by the measurements of Luschka, on p. 64, that
the proportions of the female voicebox are materially different from
those of the male, and I have also pointed out differences in shape
noticeable to any observer. Now, although I do not pretend that I have
by these facts and figures sufficiently accounted for the difference in
the registers of the male and the female voice; yet these facts and
figures are nevertheless greatly in my favour, and they are certainly a
sufficient answer to the above argument of those who differ from me.

My case is further strengthened by the testimony of that eminent
physiologist, Dr. Merkel, who says,[N] "In the male organ there are only
two materially different registers to be noticed, the chest and the
falsetto, ... on the other hand, in the female organ there are clearly
to be distinguished three registers--a low, a medium, and a high." (From
Dr. Merkel's definitions on pp. 148, 149, and 152, it will be seen that
low, medium, and high, are but other names here employed for Thick,
Thin, and Small.) Dr. Merkel, speaking of the chest (thick) register,
goes on to observe, on p. 148, "It ceases, very curiously, in both sexes
on one of the first four tones of the one-lined octave (der
ein-gestrichenen Octave) [Illustration: musical notation] so that it is
about one octave longer [deeper] in man than in woman."

Let it be observed above all things that I am not propounding a theory,
but explaining a fact; a fact, moreover, which I have before now
demonstrated to men holding opposite opinions, thereby convincing them,
and which I am willing at any moment to demonstrate again. A very
striking proof that the distribution of the registers is in accordance
with my explanations may be further found in the circumstance that it is
often impossible to distinguish a male voice from a female when (other
things such as power and quality being equal) both sing in the same
registers. The similarity is, of course, greatest between tenor and
contralto, and in case of a trial they must confine themselves to the
compass easily belonging to both; neither should the singers be seen by
the listeners. I have frequently by these experiments convinced
sceptics; and it has happened more than once when the female voice was
slightly more robust than the male, that, to the great amusement of
those present, the judges emphatically and without the slightest
hesitation pronounced the lady to be the tenor and the gentleman the
contralto.

       *       *       *       *       *

We have so far only spoken of three registers, the Thick, below
[Illustration: musical notation]; the Thin, between [Illustration: Music
and]; and the Small, above [Illustration: musical notation]. The
distinguishing features of these are so very clear as to make any
mistake impossible. But now we come to sub-divisions, and with regard to
these the matter is not so simple. Singers know very well that other
breaks occur in the human voice besides those hitherto mentioned, and
the question arises how they are to be accounted for by corresponding
changes in the vocal organ. The evidence furnished on this point by the
laryngoscope is, in my opinion, not sufficient, because the alterations
in the vocal ligaments are so exceedingly minute as to be capable of
being differently interpreted by different observers. I have
consequently come to the conclusion that they cannot be accepted as
indicating changes of mechanism unless corroborated and amplified by
other signs.

In order to place the whole subject before the reader in a comprehensive
form, I cannot do better than quote the elaborate description which
Madame Emma Seiler gives of the registers in "The Human Voice in
Singing" (Philadelphia, 1875). Madame Seiler, to whom Mr. Lunn is
pleased to refer, on p. 65 of his treatise, as an "ignorant person,"
assisted Professor Helmholtz, of Heidelberg, in his essay upon the
Formation of the Vowel-tones and the Registers of the Female Voice. He
says he thus had "an opportunity of knowing the delicacy of her musical
ear, and her ability to master the more difficult and abstract parts of
the theory of music." The Professor further speaks of her as "a very
careful, skilled, and learned teacher." Professor Du Bois-Reymond, of
Berlin, also describes her as "a lady of truly remarkable attainments."
With such recommendations I make no apology for quoting at length from
Madame Seiler's writings; and it will be readily understood that
whenever I differ from her, I do so with some diffidence, and only after
careful conviction of the accuracy of my own independent observations.

[Illustration]

I shall substitute the terms hitherto used in these pages for others
employed by Madame Seiler, and I have added a diagram of the
registers, which may assist the reader in forming a clear idea of the
subject.


THE THICK REGISTER.

"When the vowel A, as in 'man,' was sung, I could, after long-continued
practice, plainly see how the pyramids quickly rose with their summits
in their mucous membranous case and approached to mutual contact. In
like manner the vocal ligaments approached each other so closely that
scarcely any space between them was observable. The pocket ligaments
formed the ellipse described by Garcia in the upper part of the
glottis."

The word "glottis" really signifies the vibrating element in the
voicebox. I suppose, therefore, that by "the upper part of the glottis"
Madame Seiler here means the "part above the glottis."

"When, in using the laryngoscope upon myself, I slowly sang the
ascending scale, this movement of the vocal ligaments and pyramids was
repeated at every tone. They separated and appeared to retreat, in order
to close again anew, and to rise somewhat more than before. This
movement of the pyramids may best be compared to that of a pair of
scissors. With every higher tone the vocal ligaments seemed more
stretched, and the vocal chink somewhat shorter. At the same time, when
I sang the scale upward, beginning with the lowest tones, the vocal
ligaments seemed to be moved in their whole length and breadth by large,
loose vibrations, which extended even to all the rest of the interior of
the voicebox.

       *       *       *       *       *

"The place at which the pyramids, almost closed together, cease their
action and leave the formation of the sound to the vocal ligaments
alone, I found in the thick register of the female voice at C, C[#]
[Illustration: musical notation], more rarely at B [Illustration:
musical notation]. In the thick register of the male voice this change
occurs at A, B[b] [Illustration: musical notation]. With some effort the
above-mentioned action of the pyramids may be continued several tones
higher. But such tones, especially in the female voice, have that rough
and common timbre which we are too often compelled to hear in our female
singers. The glottis also, in this case, as well as the parts of the
voicebox near the glottis, betrays the effort very plainly; as the tones
ascend, the glottis and the surrounding parts grow more and more red.
_As at this place in the thick register there occurs a visible and
sensible straining of the organs, so also is it in all the remaining
transitions, as soon as the attempt is made to extend the action by
which the lower tones are formed beyond the given limits of the same._
These transitions, which cannot be extended without effort, coincide
perfectly with the places where J. Müller had to _stretch_ the ligaments
of his exsected voicebox so powerfully in order to reach the succeeding
half-tone. Garcia likewise finds tones thus formed disagreeable and
imperfect in sound.

"Usually, therefore, at the note C[#] [Illustration: musical notation]
in the female voice, and A, B[b] [Illustration: musical notation] in the
male voice, the vocal ligaments alone act in forming the sound, and are
throughout the register moved by large, loose, full vibrations. But the
instant the vocal ligaments are deprived of the assistance of the
pyramids they relax, and appear longer than at the last tone produced by
that aid. But with every higher tone they appear again to be stretched
shorter and more powerfully up to F, F[#] [Illustration: musical
notation] the natural transition from the thick to the thin register, as
well in the _male_ as in the _female_. The voicebox is perceptibly lower
in all the tones of the thick register than in quiet breathing."

I confess my inability to understand how the vocal ligaments can get
_longer_ by relaxing and _shorter_ by stretching. But apart from this I
assert that there is no relaxing of the vocal ligaments at the break
between the Lower Thick and the Upper Thick at all. This is clearly
proved by the ring-shield aperture, which would open immediately if such
were the case. I also doubt whether the action or inaction of the
pyramids determines the break between the Lower Thick and the Upper
Thick, as they are cartilages--_i.e._, pieces of gristle--and cannot,
therefore, by any vibrations of their own assist in the production of
tone. The tension of the vocal ligaments increases as we sing up the
scale until the ring-shield aperture has quite disappeared. But while it
remains so closed, and without the vocal ligaments being any further
stretched, we can yet sing higher still. The gradations of tone are now
no longer formed by the action of the ring-shield muscles (see p. 34),
but by the shield-pyramid muscles which press the vocal ligaments more
and more closely together, until at last scarcely any trace of a slit
remains between them. Another result of this action of the
shield-pyramid muscles must also be to narrow the space _below_ the
vocal chink, which, as we know from the experiments of J. Müller, has
the effect of raising the pitch of tones. I think it very likely,
therefore, that the change from the lower to the upper thick is really
brought about by the shield-pyramid muscles coming into play after the
ring-shield muscles have done their share.


THE THIN REGISTER.

"All the tones of the thin register are produced by vibrations only of
the fine, inner, slender edges of the vocal ligaments. In this action
the vocal ligaments are not so near together, but allow of a fine linear
space between them, and the pocket ligaments are pressed further back
than in the production of the tones of the thick register. The rest of
the action of the glottis is, however, entirely the same. With the
beginning of the thin register at F[#] [Illustration: musical notation]
the whole vocal chink appears again longer, and the vocal ligaments are
much looser than in the highest tones of the thick register. The united
action, already described, of the pyramids and the vocal ligaments in
forming the deeper tones of the thin register, extends to C, C[#]
[Illustration: musical notation] in the female voice, and in the male
voice to E[b], E [Illustration: musical notation] commonly written thus,
E[b], E [Illustration: musical notation] but which only rarely occurs in
composition, and then is sung by tenors as I have given it; that is, one
octave lower.

"With the C[#] [Illustration: musical notation] in the female voice, and
the E[b], E [Illustration: musical notation] in the male voice, the
pyramids cease again to act, and, as before, in the Upper Thick, leave
the formation of the sounds to the vocal ligaments alone, which at this
change appear again longer and looser, but with every higher tone
tighten up to F, F[#] [Illustration: musical notation] in the female
voice, and in the male voice to G [Illustration: musical notation] or as
it is commonly written, [Illustration: musical notation]. In the thin
register the voicebox preserves its natural position as in quiet
breathing."

I must say here that I have never had any very clear conception of
Madame Seiler's meaning when she speaks of the action or inaction of the
pyramids in the formation of the registers. In the lower thick register
there is, as a rule, a small triangular space between them which gets
gradually smaller as the tones ascend, until it is quite closed in the
upper thick. Dr. Merkel, also, has made the same observation. So far,
therefore, we are agreed. But even of this I can find no trace in the
thin register, where I have always noticed that the pyramids are quite
close together. On this point, my assertion is borne out by Dr. Merkel,
who insists upon the same thing. I also demur to Madame Seiler's
statement that in this register again the vocal ligaments relax at the
beginning of the upper division, and I invite the reader to test the
matter by reference to the ring-shield aperture. The evidence furnished
by this experiment is conclusive, because the vocal ligaments cannot
possibly relax without a corresponding enlargement of the ring-shield
aperture. A very striking illustration of this occurs during the
transition from the Upper Thick to the Lower Thin. During the highest
tones of the Upper Thick, when the tension of the vocal ligaments is
greatest, the ring-shield aperture, as we have seen before, completely
closes, while immediately opening very widely during the lowest tones of
the Lower Thin, when the vocal ligaments are quite relaxed. Nothing of
the kind takes place during the change either from the Lower Thin to the
Upper Thin, or from the Lower Thick to the Upper Thick. It appears to me
that Madame Seiler has rather exaggerated the importance of these minor
breaks, while she does not make enough of the great break between the
Upper Thick and the Lower Thin. If there is straining anywhere, it is
during the attempt to carry the mechanism of the Upper Thick beyond its
natural limit. In this case the tension of the vocal ligaments, as
indeed of all surrounding parts, becomes so tremendous that at last the
whole thing looks as though it were literally going to fly to pieces in
every direction. Now change into the Lower Thin, and the relief is
wonderful. Let tenors make a note of this. If they _will_ violate
Nature, they must pay the penalty!

As regards the transition from the Lower Thin to the Upper Thin, I would
suggest the following explanation:--The vocal chink is at first, as
Madame Seiler says, linear, and the gradations of tone are caused by
simple tension of the vocal ligaments, which is proved by the diminution
of the ring-shield aperture. While this goes on we are in the Lower
Thin. Now the laryngoscope reveals another method of still further
raising the pitch, which consists in a gradual shortening of the vocal
chink. This is caused by the shield-pyramid muscles pressing together
the ends of the vocal ligaments, thereby giving the vocal chink a
slightly elliptic shape. When this mechanism comes into play we are in
the Upper Thin.


THE SMALL REGISTER.

"When in the observation of the thin register I had sung upwards to its
highest tones, and then sang still higher, I became aware, with the F[#]
[Illustration: musical notation] of a change in the motions of the
organ of singing, and the tones thus produced had a different _timbre_
from those of the Thin. It required long and patient practice before I
finally succeeded in drawing forward the lid so that I could see the
glottis in its whole length. Not until then was I able to observe the
following: With the F[#] [Illustration: musical notation] the vocal
ligaments suddenly closed firmly together to their middle, with their
fine edges one over the other. This closing appeared as a fine red line
extending, from the pyramids at the back, forward to the middle of the
vocal ligaments, and leaving free only a third part of the whole
glottis, immediately under the lid, to the front wall of the voicebox.

       *       *       *       *       *

"The foremost part of the glottis formed an oval orifice, which, with
every higher tone, seemed to contract more and more, and so became
smaller and rounder. The fine edges of the vocal ligaments which formed
this orifice were alone vibrating, and the vibrations seemed at first
looser, but, with every higher tone, the ligaments were more stretched."

       *       *       *       *       *

I have repeatedly had the opportunity of observing the mechanism of the
small register, and I only differ from Madame Seiler in this, that I did
not notice that "with every higher tone the ligaments were more
stretched." It appeared to me, on the contrary, as though the raising of
the pitch was produced by a contraction of the vocal ligaments. In all
other respects I entirely agree with the above description. According to
Madame Seiler the small register is formed by the action of the wedges,
as described on p. 54.

We have thus become acquainted with the mechanism of the registers of
the human voice. We have also seen that it is possible to carry these up
beyond their natural limits, though the process is accompanied by
visible signs of straining. The practice of teachers, therefore, whose
aim it is to "extend" voices upwards, and who are very proud, especially
in tenors, of their "made tones," is strongly to be condemned, and is
sure to have disastrous results. It is, on the other hand, equally
possible to carry the registers down several tones below the places
called the breaks, so that at the limits of each register there are a
number of tones which may be produced by two different mechanisms. The
carrying down of a register causes no fatigue, and though its volume is
weak as compared with the corresponding lower register, it is surprising
how soon it can, by judicious practice, be made to acquire fulness and
power.

In order to prevent misunderstandings, it may be well to add that the
breaks as indicated in the preceding pages are intended only to show
the average compass in the great majority of voices. As, for instance,
there are basses who have an exceptional extension of the Lower Thick
downwards, so there are, undoubtedly, tenors who have an exceptional
extension of the Upper Thick upwards. It must, therefore, be the voice
trainer's business very carefully to ascertain the exact limits of the
registers in every single case. In choral singing, however, where
individual attention is impossible, the breaks as given above may be
implicitly relied upon. Not only should the registers never be carried
above these points, but if the teacher is wise he will insist upon his
pupils forming the habit of changing the mechanism a tone or two below.

NEVER "EXTEND" LOWER REGISTERS UPWARDS, BUT STRENGTHEN THE UPPER
REGISTERS, AND CARRY THEM DOWNWARDS, THUS EQUALIZING THE VOICES FROM TOP
TO BOTTOM, AND ENABLING YOUR PUPILS TO SING WITHOUT STRAINING. That is
the great lesson taught by the investigations described in these pages.
I have seen a singer pull himself together, and with a tremendous effort
shout a high A in the thick register. His neck swelled out, his face
became blood-red, and altogether the "performance" was of an acrobatic
rather than of an artistic nature. The general public, of course, loudly
applauded, but people of taste and refinement shuddered. Such
exhibitions are, unfortunately, not rare. If this little book should
contribute, however remotely, to discourage them, it will not have been
written in vain.




APPENDIX TO THE THIRD EDITION


It has been suggested to me that the usefulness of my little book would
be enlarged if I were to add an appendix containing some application to
practical work of the physiological laws already explained. This I have
endeavoured to do in the following chapter, and I trust the simplicity
of the directions will enable the reader to carry out my instructions,
to vary them, and to enlarge upon them according to circumstances.


HINTS ON TEACHING.

One of the most important lessons taught us by the study of Vocal
Physiology is the correct method of breathing and of obtaining control
over the respiratory muscles. I will now give a few exercises for this
purpose.

Divest yourself of any article of clothing which at all interferes with
the freedom of the waist. Lie down flat on your back. Place one hand
lightly on the abdomen and the other upon the lower ribs. Inhale,
through the nostrils, slowly, deeply, and evenly, without interruption
or jerking. If this is done properly the abdomen will, gradually and
without any trembling movement, increase in size, and the lower ribs
will expand sideways, while the upper part of the chest and the
collar-bones remain undisturbed. Now hold the breath, _not_ by shutting
the glottis, but by keeping the midriff down and the chest walls
extended, and count four mentally, at the rate of sixty per minute. Then
let the breath go _suddenly_. The result of this will be a flying up of
the midriff, and a falling down of the ribs; in other words, there will
be a collapse of the lower part of the body. This collapse may not at
first be very distinct, as the extension has probably been insufficient;
but both will become more and more perfect as the result of continued
practice.

Let it be clearly understood: The _in_spiration is to be slow and deep,
the _ex_piration sudden and complete. In _in_spiration the abdomen and
the lower part of the chest expand, and in _ex_piration they collapse.

The time of holding the breath is not, at the outset, to exceed four
seconds, and the student must never, on any account, fatigue himself
with these exercises; they may, however, be frequently repeated at
intervals. It will be found by occasional trials upon the spirometer
that the breathing capacity increases with these exercises. The process
of abdominal respiration becomes easy and no longer requires constant
watchfulness, and the student will soon be able to carry it on, not only
lying down, but while he is standing or walking, though not at once with
the same ease. He must now, for a time, be careful to see that he has
the same physical sensations in breathing which he noticed while making
his first experiment when lying down; and he must exercise special care
when running, going upstairs, &c., and, of course, in speaking or
singing.

The criterion of correct inspiration is, as I have said before, an
increase of size of the abdomen and of the lower part of the chest.
Whoever draws in the abdomen and raises the upper part of the chest in
the act of filling his lungs does wrong.

Meanwhile, in continuing the breathing exercises, the time of holding
the breath may be increased at the rate of two seconds per week; so that
the student who, during the first fortnight, limited himself to four
seconds will, at the end of six weeks, hold his breath during twelve
seconds. I have, in some instances, with students of mine, gone as far
as twenty seconds; but I desire very earnestly to warn my readers to be
cautious and not to go to extremes. Nothing will be gained, but infinite
harm may ensue by over-doing these lung gymnastics, and persons at all
inclined to bleeding from the lungs should not undertake the exercises
at all, except with the sanction of their medical adviser, who will
limit the practice according to circumstances.

The second breathing exercise is the exact opposite of the first, and
consists in taking a rapid _in_spiration and making the _ex_piration
slow, even, uninterrupted and without jerking or trembling. My musical
readers will at once see the importance of this exercise for the purpose
of singing sustained tones and florid passages; but it would be quite
useless to attempt it before No. 1 has been sufficiently practised.

The third and last breathing exercise consists in taking the
_in_spiration as in No. 1, and the _ex_piration as in No. 2. After the
two preceding ones have been fully mastered this last is easy enough;
and the student who has persevered so far will now have overcome one of
the greatest difficulties of a vocalist, namely, the proper management
of the breath, an accomplishment which seems to become more and more
rare in our go-ahead times of electricity.

I feel that my description of these breathing exercises is far from
complete, and what is worse, that it may lead to misunderstandings, the
results of which will hereafter be laid to my charge. But writing,
however lucid and careful, can never take the place of _vivâ voce_
instruction; and I wish it to be distinctly understood that the
explanations here given are not by any means intended to supersede the
aid of a competent and painstaking teacher.

I will take leave of this part of my subject by warning my readers
against the mistake, which may be caused by a superficial perusal of
these pages, that it is the chief aim of the above breathing exercises
to enable the singer or speaker to cram as much air as possible into
the lungs. I have pointed out some of the evils which are likely to
arise from exaggerated breathing efforts; yet I wish to say again, most
emphatically, that it is quite possible to _overcrowd_ the lungs with
air. This is a matter of every-day occurrence, which is not, however, on
that account any the less reprehensible; for, as I have already
mentioned, it is sure to lead, sooner or later, to forcing and
inequality of voice, and to congestion of the vessels and tissues of the
throat and of the lungs.

Now we come to the question of the production and cultivation of the
voice, including the nature and the proper treatment of the registers.
In this connection I shall endeavour to explain a series of exercises
based upon physiological facts, which will enable the reader to strike
out a safe and direct path, avoiding much useless drudgery, and leading
to eminently satisfactory results. As it is not my object to supply a
singing manual, but simply to point out the way of treating the voice
upon scientific principles, I shall not attempt to deal separately with
the different classes of voices, or to go into minute details; but it
will rather be my aim to lay down general principles, leaving my readers
to carry them into practice, and to elaborate them according to
individual circumstances. It must also be borne in mind that the
exercises I am going to recommend will here be taken as they suggest
themselves, while passing in review the various parts which unitedly
form the mechanism of the human voice. Therefore, in the actual process
of training a voice, they will have to be taken in a different order
from that in which they are discussed here, in accordance with the
general plan of this book.

The movements of the pyramids with the vocal ligaments attached to them
are governed by two sets of muscles pulling them either together or away
from each other. These have been fully described under the names of the
"Closing Muscles" and the "Opening Muscles;" and the reader will at once
see the importance of devising a set of exercises which shall call these
opening and closing muscles into play, thereby making them powerful, and
bringing them under the control of the will.

This is, fortunately, a very simple matter; for all we have to do is to
sing a series of short tones, each tone to be followed by a short
inspiration. We have learnt that every time we strike a tone the vocal
ligaments are made to approximate; by so doing we therefore exercise the
closing muscles. Every time we take an inspiration the vocal ligaments
are separated; by so doing therefore we exercise the opening muscles. It
is plain from these explanations that, by practising in the manner just
indicated, we shall gain the same results in five minutes which it
would take us half an hour to obtain by singing sustained tones after
the usual method of teaching.

Let me now give as clear a description of the exercise as possible. Find
the pitch of your speaking voice, which we will say is _F_. Then sing
the following:--

[Illustration: musical notation

_o_  _o_  _o_  _o_
_ah_ _ah_ _ah_ _ah_
_ai_ _ai_ _ai_ _ai_

Strike the tone firmly and clearly, avoiding alike the _check_ of the
glottis and the _glide_ of the glottis. This is often a matter of great
difficulty, requiring much patience and perseverance on the part of the
teacher as well as on that of the student. The _glide_ of the glottis is
particularly hard to eradicate, and in many instances the case seems to
be hopeless. Do not, however, despair, but try this: Pronounce
vigorously the word "Up." Then _whisper_, but still very vigorously and
distinctly, three times the vowel _u_, as you just had it in the word
"up." Immediately afterwards _sing_ "Ah." Thus--

    UP!       _u_, _u_, _u_,     Ah.
(_spoken_)    (_whispered_)    (_sung_)

I recommend this device from extended personal experience, and hope my
fellow-teachers may find it as useful as I have found it myself. Another
point of importance in practising the exercise for strengthening the
opening and the closing muscles is the breathing after every tone; and
this must be done gently and without effort, the only perception which
the singer should have of it being a slight movement of the midriff.
When you can sing the exercise in this manner on _F_, your supposed
speaking tone, then go up the scale, semitone by semitone, to _B_ or _C_
above, and down again, semitone by semitone, to _B_ or _C_ below. Of the
quality of tone I will say nothing here, because that part of the
subject will be discussed later on in connection with the tongue and the
soft palate.

The next thing in connection with the physiology of the vocal organ from
which we can deduct a practical lesson is the action of the muscles
governing the pitch of the voice. This process is a very complex one,
and can be made clear only by _vivâ voce_ explanations, with the help of
good models and moving diagrams, by demonstrations with the
laryngoscope, and by carefully watching external signs. There is no
doubt, however, that a set of muscles, described as the "Stretching and
Slackening Muscles," play the most important part in this matter, and I
advise the reader to study carefully the chapter on "The Movements of
the Voicebox," and try the experiments mentioned in it. It will thus be
seen that the flexibility of the voice depends in a great measure upon
the control we have over the muscles governing the pitch; that is to
say, upon the readiness and exactness with which we are able to allow
them to contract or to relax.

Performers upon various instruments, as for instance the piano and the
violin, know that certain exercises are indispensable to brilliant
execution, because they strengthen the muscles of the wrist and of the
fingers, and make them obedient to the will. It has even been found that
simple finger gymnastics, exercising separately different sets of
muscles, and making them independent of each other, are of the greatest
value, and save long hours of tedious and wearisome practising. In a
similar manner we may spare ourselves much trouble and gain our end most
readily by vocal gymnastics, calculated to bring into play the
stretching and slackening muscles of the larynx. There is no difficulty
about it. Sing F, the same tone from which we started when exercising
the opening and the closing muscles, and add to it G. The alteration of
the pitch is brought about by a contraction of the stretching muscles
overcoming the resistance of the opposing slackening muscles, thereby
_tensing_ the vocal ligaments. If you again sing F, the case is
reversed, and the new alteration in pitch is brought about by a
contraction of the slackening muscles overcoming the resistance of the
opposing stretching muscles, thereby _relaxing_ the vocal ligaments.

[Illustration: musical notation

_o_         _o_
_ah_        _ah_
_ai_        _ai_

The above is an example. Take great care to render it perfectly. Sing
every tone clearly and distinctly, but without jerking, at the same time
_uniting_ all the tones, but without drawling. Do not try how quickly
you can sing, but rather how distinctly. Commence slowly, and be in no
hurry to increase the speed. Raise and lower the exercise semitone by
semitone within the medium part of your voice. A variety of exercises
founded upon the same principles may be introduced, and will serve to
increase the flexibility of the voice in a very short time.

Now we come to the "Registers" of the voice. I have defined a register
as "a series of tones produced by the same mechanism." The five
registers of which the human voice, taken as a whole, consists, are
carefully described, and the means by which they are formed minutely
explained in a former part of this book. These registers, nevertheless,
continue to be a stumbling-stone to many, and the fact of the existence
in the throat of different actions for the production of different
series of tones has led some teachers into the deplorable mistake of
developing and exaggerating them, instead of, on the contrary, smoothing
them over and equalizing them. The result is that we often hear singers
who seem to have two or three different _voices_. They are growling in
the one, moaning in the second, and shrieking in the third; while it
should have been their aim so to blend and to unite the registers as to
make it difficult even for a practised ear to distinguish the one from
the other. Such singing is outrageous, and I protest against the opinion
expressed in some quarters that it is the natural outcome of the
teachings of the laryngoscope.

In developing and strengthening the registers I base my first exercises
upon the fact that the "Vowel Scale" goes from low to high in this
order; _oo_, _oh_, _ah_, _ai_, _ee_, so that consequently the highest
tones will be produced most readily when singing the vowels in the order
just given.

[Illustration: musical notation

_o_   _ah_   _ai_   _ee_   _ai_    _ah_   _o_
_oo_  _o_    _ah_   _ai_    _ah_    _o_    _oo_

Sing this exercise quite softly, strike each tone clearly and
distinctly, and take a _slight_ inspiration after every tone. Be careful
to take a full inflation only at the beginning, and afterwards to inhale
_less_ air than has been consumed in every preceding tone, or you will
after a while overcrowd the lungs, and experience a sensation of being
choked. This is a thing to be avoided in any case; but under present
circumstances it should be remembered that the short inspirations are
not taken for the purpose of re-filling the lungs, but simply to compel
the "opening and closing muscles" to do their work. By so doing we give
them six times more exercise than by breathing only once at the
beginning; and, what is more important still with regard to our
immediate object, we greatly facilitate the task of the vocal ligaments
to arrange themselves in different ways according to the registers they
are to produce.

It is self-evident that the danger of carrying the mechanism of a
register beyond its proper limit is greater if the vocal ligaments are
kept together, than it would be if they were made to separate, thereby
being enabled to close again under different conditions. It will be
seen, therefore, that the slight inspirations after every tone are an
essential part of the exercise, and must on no account be omitted. The
exercise is to be taken at a convenient pitch, and then to be raised
semitone by semitone in accordance with the requirements of individual
voices. It may, after some time, be taken right through upon the vowel
_ah_, and finally _legato_, gradually increasing the speed, to the
Italian word _scala_, singing the syllable _la_ to the last note.

The change from one register to another should always be made a couple
of tones below the extreme limit, so that there will be at the juncture
of every two registers a few "optional" tones which it is possible to
take with both mechanisms. The singer will be wise, however, to avail
himself of the power of producing an optional tone with the mechanism of
the lower register only on rare occasions. To force the register beyond
its natural limit is, of course, infinitely worse, and should never be
tolerated. The practice carries its own punishment, as it invariably
ruins the voice; and tones so produced always betray the effort
(frequently in a most painful degree), and are consequently never
beautiful.

It is to be observed that the exercise given above may be varied to any
extent, so long as it is based upon the principle which has been
explained. The beneficial results in the development of the voice will
speedily be noticed, and then sustained tones may be sung through the
whole compass after the orthodox fashion.

This brings me to the consideration of the "mixed voice," which is
essential in bridging over the break between the "upper thick" and the
"lower thin" of the tenor, and which is also frequently made use of by
baritones and basses in the production of their highest tones.

The "voce mista" is "mixed" in this sense, that it combines the
_vibrating mechanism_ of the "lower thin" with the _position of the
larynx_ of the "lower thick;" that is to say, while the vibrations are
confined to the thin inner edges of the vocal ligaments, the larynx
itself takes a lower position in the throat than for the "lower thin,"
and the result is a remarkable increase of volume without any
corresponding additional effort in the production of tone. A few trials
before a looking-glass will at once prove the correctness of this
explanation, and, what is of more practical consequence, will enable the
student with a little practice to overcome the serious difficulty of
singing high tones without straining, yet with a fulness capable of
being increased or diminished at pleasure.

The last thing we have to consider is the "resonator" of the human
voice, namely, the upper part of the throat, the mouth, and the nose.
Whether we sing _ah_, _ai_, _ee_, _o_, or _oo_, the original tone
produced by the vibrations of the vocal ligaments is in either case
absolutely the same, and it takes the form of one vowel or another,
solely according to the shape which the "resonator" assumes, and which
may be described as a mould into which the tone is cast. The quality of
the voice also--its throatiness, its nasal twang, its shrillness,
harshness, and ugliness, or its purity, roundness, fulness, and
beauty--depend mainly upon the nature of the resonator, and upon the
way in which we work it. It is, therefore, a matter of the highest
importance to be fully acquainted with this part of the vocal apparatus,
and I hope my readers will follow me in a brief consideration of it with
the more pleasure, as we are now speaking of parts which are directly
under the control of our will, and upon the proper management of which
so much depends.

There is a most able, most painstaking, and most instructive work upon
this subject, "Pronunciation for Singers," by Alexander Ellis, Esq.,
F.R.S., &c., published by J. Curwen and Sons, to which I would call the
attention of all who desire to make the best use of their voices. To be
really understood this book requires that the student should
conscientiously carry out all the experiments Mr. Ellis suggests. But
any one doing so will, I venture to assert, rise from the study of this
subject with a deeper conviction of the immense importance of the
"resonator," and with a clearer perception of the best way of managing
it than he ever had before. I obtain better and quicker results with my
pupils since I have learnt the lessons Mr. Ellis teaches, and I have no
doubt my fellow teachers will derive similar benefit from their study.

One of the few points upon which "doctors" do not differ is that the
tone, in order to be pure, resonant, and far-reaching, must be allowed
to come well to the front of the mouth. It should, as the phrase goes,
be directed against the hard palate just above the front teeth. But this
is an unfortunate way of putting it, as the tone fills the whole cavity
of the mouth, and cannot be "directed" like a jet of water upon any
given point. Nevertheless the idea sought to be conveyed by the
injunction is good, for it is certainly essential to good quality that
the tone should be brought well forward in the mouth. This is frequently
prevented by several circumstances which we will now consider:--

The "soft palate" may be in the way. This is the movable partition
shaped like an arch with the little pendant called the "uvula" hanging
down in the centre. It acts like a curtain. If we lower it, it hangs
upon the back of the tongue, shutting off the mouth from the throat,
thereby compelling the tone to pass through the nostrils, and thus
giving it a nasal quality. This nasal quality increases the more the
passages through which the tone has to travel are impeded; but the first
and indispensable condition for its existence is the lowering of the
soft palate. Raise this, and you may completely shut the nostrils and
yet produce a pure vocal tone. The reason is that, with the soft palate
_up_, the nose is shut off from the throat, thereby compelling the tone
to pass through the mouth.

But more, the soft palate is never still for a moment while we are
singing or speaking, as it assumes a different degree of tension for
every vowel and also for every pitch of the voice. We see, therefore,
that this curtain has great influence upon the management of the voice,
and we should do all we can to get it under our control. In order to
accomplish this, arrange a mirror so that you get the light reflected
upon the back of your throat without bending the head, stretching the
neck, or otherwise assuming an awkward position. I recommend reflected
instead of direct light, because with the latter it is almost impossible
to get a perfect sight of the soft palate without making any
contortions, and these, however slight, are fatal to success. The
management of the light will, no doubt, offer a little difficulty to
those not practised in these matters, but once made it is easily
rearranged, and the gain is great.

The mirror mentioned above is to throw the light into your mouth; you
will require another one in which to see the image. Now try the
following: Open your mouth and breath through the nostrils; the soft
palate will immediately drop upon the tongue. Sing while it is in this
position, and you will produce nasal tone. Now breathe through the
mouth, and the soft palate will rise. Raise it higher still, by
attempting to yawn, till the uvula almost disappears. Sing again with
the soft palate in this position, and if nothing else interferes you
will produce pure vocal tone. If you sing up and down the scale you will
perceive that the soft palate to some extent rises and falls with the
pitch of your tones. You will also notice that the tension of it
increases as you approach the the limit of one register, and that it
diminishes as soon as you change into the next register above. All these
things, and a great many besides, you will notice if you observe
carefully, and by a little steady practice you will acquire easy control
over the movements of your soft palate, the beneficial results of which
will soon be manifested in the improved quality and the better
management of your voice.

This leads me to remark that the soft palate should, as a matter of
course, be in a perfectly healthy condition, or it cannot perform the
infinite variety of movements required from it. In many cases however,
it is in a very different state, the arch being congested, the uvula
elongated, and the tonsils greatly enlarged. People with a soft palate
like this are handicapped. They might as well try to run a race with a
heavy weight on their shoulders as to sing or speak with such
impediments in their throats. They should at once put themselves in the
hands of a properly qualified medical practitioner, who may probably
recommend clipping of the uvula or excision of the tonsils. Either
operation is a slight one, and in suitable cases nothing but good can
follow from it.

Another obstacle to the forward production of tone is often caused by
that great movable plug called the tongue. We have it on the highest
authority that the tongue is an "unruly member." It is sometimes
difficult to keep it under proper control, and with some people it is
continually running away altogether. As under ordinary circumstances, so
in singing. Instead of peacefully assuming the position necessary for
the production of the various vowels, the tongue rises in rebellion; it
arches up, stiffens and defies all attempts to keep it in order. The
tone is consequently more or less impeded and shut in, with the result
of making it guttural or throaty. Here again singing before the mirror
as described above will enable the student to master his tongue and to
improve his voice to a wonderful extent. All voice trainers, as I have
said before, agree that tone should be allowed to come well forward, and
the best plan to bring about this desirable end is to sing _oo_, then to
allow _oo_ to dwindle into _o_, and finally to allow _o_ to dwindle into
_ah_.

In some cases these _oo-o-ah_ exercises are insufficient because the
throatiness of tone is partly brought about by a stiffening of the
throat in general. The _oo-o-ah_ must then be preceded by staccato
exercises upon the syllable _Koo_, which have the effect not only of
throwing the tone forward, but also of making the throat supple. Make
the experiment before a mirror and you will see the reason.

I should have pointed out in the course of this chapter that one of the
great secrets in the production of fine resonant and far-reaching tone
consists in using as little air as possible; and I conclude by advising
all those who want to be heard to open their mouths, a thing which,
curiously enough, many people in these islands seem to be determined not
to do.




_APPENDIX TO THE NINTH EDITION_




VOICE FAILURE.

A NEW CHAPTER, WRITTEN FOR THE NINTH EDITION, BY MRS. EMIL BEHNKE.


The large and ever increasing number of professional voice users of all
classes and of all grades who break down in voice is matter for serious
and earnest consideration. Innumerable students of singing of both
sexes, in England and abroad, suffer shipwreck of their hopes and
ambitions in the loss of their voices during the process of training,
long before the period arrives for professional and public voice use. In
some of these cases general delicacy of constitution has been the
principal factor in the failure; in others weakness of throat or lungs
may have been a cause. But after making ample allowance for such
physical contributories, we are still face to face with the fact that
voice failure, accompanied by throat ailments, more or less serious,
occurs with startling frequency, and no other reason is assigned for it
than the irresponsible, indefinite one that the voice broke down under
training. Of the infinitesimal number of successful students--that is to
say, of those who, having completed their studies, come before the
public as professional singers--so few escape the common lot that it
would almost appear as if a fatality attended the following of the
vocal art; yet from a health point of view, singing is an admirable
exercise, and abundant medical testimony has been adduced in proof of
this statement.

There are, of course, other causes of non-success in vocal students
besides break-down of voice. A fine voice and good musical knowledge are
but parts of the equipment of the singer; if he have not the soul of an
artist he will never rise above mediocrity. With musical and artistic
failures this chapter has nothing to do, but only with preventible
causes of break-down, such as have come under my personal observation
from close association with the work of my late husband, and also in my
own and my daughter's work since his lamented decease.

In the establishment of a rule or law founded upon general truths, a
number of examples bearing upon the subject under consideration are
relied on as conclusive evidence, and by their use we are enabled to
analyse reasons and deduce conclusions.

From the examination of a large number of cases of vocal failure in
singers and in speakers who have placed themselves under my tuition for
recovery of voice, I have found that among the most frequent and most
injurious mistakes are:--

1st. Wrong methods of breathing and of breath management.

2nd. Loud singing and shouting.

3rd. Neglecting to cultivate the resonators.

4th. Forcing: (_a_) the registers; (_b_) the top notes.


INCORRECT BREATHING.

As regards methods of breathing, the descriptions and instructions given
in this volume require no addition, and if carefully followed will prove
of inestimable advantage both hygienically and vocally. It is, however,
a fact that, not only in England, but also on the Continent, pupils are
taught to breathe clavicularly, in opposition to Nature's method, which
is diaphragmatic--_i.e._, the combined forms of rib and diaphragm
breathing. The following is a striking example of the evil of clavicular
breathing.

During last summer an American lady, who had been studying singing in
Milan for three years, came to me in great distress. She had expected to
appear in Grand Opera in London, but, alas! her voice broke down, and
serious throat troubles manifested themselves. She had lost all the
upper notes of her voice from C in alt. down to D in the stave, and what
was left of it was thin, reedy, and tremulous, like that of an old woman
instead of a girl of 24. Her master had insisted on clavicular
breathing, the result being that when her lung capacity was tested it
registered only 80 cubic inches instead of 240. In addition to faulty
breathing, she had been allowed to force up the registers of the voice
to such an extent as to bring on serious congestion, with varicose veins
in the vocal ligaments and in the pharynx. After several lessons the
breathing capacity increased to 200 cubic inches, the voice regained
some of the upper notes, and lost the "cracked," tremulous sound. In
time, with great care, the majority of the notes will come back, but
probably C in alt. will never be reached again, and the general
deterioration of voice may never be fully overcome.

Numerous similar instances, in men's voices as well as in women's, could
be adduced, but the foregoing suffices; the results of incorrect
breathing and of forcing being much the same in all cases, differing
principally in degree.

In the "Treatise on the Art of Singing" by the late Signor Lamperti,
occurs the following passage, which fully bears out the necessity for
diligent acquirement of correct methods of breathing:--"Masters of the
present day, instead of obliging pupils to make a severe study of the
art of respiration, as a rule, omit it altogether, and take them through
the greater part of a modern opera at every lesson, to the certain ruin
of their voices, and often at the expense of their bodily health. How
many young singers come to Milan or to Paris with beautiful voices,
musical talent, and every other natural gift, who, after putting
themselves under the guidance of a master for two years, study modern
operas; how many of these unfortunately find at the time of their
_début_ that their voices, instead of being fresh and improved by
education, are already worn and tremulous, and that, through the
ignorance of their master, they have no longer any hope of success in
their artistic career, which was finished before it was begun." A sad
but an "ower true" description, applicable to other centres of
voice-training besides Milan and Paris.

It is scarcely possible to over-estimate the importance of correct
methods of breathing and of breath management to all voice users,
whether they are singers or speakers. As breath is the motive power of
all voice it needs but little consideration to arrive at the conclusion
that the best method of supply and control of this motor power is of
vital necessity to those who depend upon their voices for success in
their vocation, whether it be that of singer, clergyman, lecturer, or
actor.

Some of the worst descriptions of stammering owe their origin to
improper breath management, and numbers of such cases which have been
under my care have been perfectly cured by specially designed breathing
exercises, adapted to the requirements of each individual case, combined
with training of the various muscles employed in articulation. As no
two persons stammer alike there can be no universal panacea for the cure
of this terrible affliction; it is, therefore, necessary to study the
peculiar idiosyncrasies of each case before formulating a plan of
treatment; and this makes it impossible to write rules for self-cure
suited to every case.


LOUD SINGING.

The practice of always singing loudly is greatly to be deprecated,
leading as it does to undue strain, to coarseness of the voice, and to
utter inability to modulate it into softness and purity of tone. Anyone
can shout and bawl, but not every one can sing softly--therefore always
practise softly until the voice be well formed, when it will be easy to
increase the volume of sound. Constant shouting causes the muscles of
the larynx to lose their contractile power, and a condition is brought
about which is analogous to writer's cramp. Sometimes no voice can be
produced, while at others it is given forth in a series of
uncontrollable jerks. Singers deficient in resonance, and who have not
acquired the best use and control of the various parts of the resonator,
resort to the objectionable practice of forcing their voices, relying
upon power of blast and vigour of shout instead of cultivating
resonance. A loud, big voice, produced with effort, is a manifestation
of a certain amount of physical power; but such voice-production is not
singing, it is mere shouting. Tones so produced will ultimately show
their bad origin by the effect left behind on the misused muscles.


CULTIVATION OF THE RESONATORS.

The resonators of the human voice, about which years ago Emil Behnke
lectured and wrote, are only just beginning to receive the attention
which their important functions deserve. Over some of the resonating
cavities we can obtain no voluntary control; but over the whole of the
mouth, of the buccal cavity, and over part of the pharyngeal we may, by
education, gain as much influence as over the fingers of the hand, and
the results obtained by such training are frequently astonishing. A
student at one of our colleges came to me recently whose first question
was "Can you teach me how not to sing with a 'squeezed' throat?"
"Nothing easier," was my reply. On his singing a few notes to me, the
tone of the voice revealed that owing to want of knowledge of the action
of the resonators, he was closing his throat in such a manner that the
voice sounded as if he were singing through the teeth of a comb. Without
looking in his mouth, I drew on a piece of paper the position in which
were his soft palate, the pillars of the fauces, the uvula, and the
tongue, telling him that was the picture he would see on looking at his
throat while singing. This proved on examination to be the case; and
great was his wonderment to find that, after a little practice he could
voluntarily remedy this squeezed position until it gradually disappeared
altogether, and with it the unpleasant quality of voice which had caused
him so much trouble.

The inherent quality of tone is reinforced by the co-vibrations of the
air in the resonance cavities, the greater fulness of the sound being
caused by the increased quantity of air which is set into vibration. The
slightest alteration in the shape of these cavities affects the quality
of vocal tone by altering the direction and size of the air columns.

There is for every tone an air column of a certain size which most
powerfully reinforces that tone; and every resonance cavity answers to
some particular note better than to others. Timbre in the voice depends
largely upon the echoing and re-echoing of these resonance chambers; and
it needs but little reflection to see that the shape given to the mouth
in pronouncing speech sounds--more especially vowel sounds, with all
their various shades--interferes more or less with the purity and
quality of tone. Hence the necessity in singing for modifying vowel
pronunciation to suit the various tones and pitches of the voice. Every
shade of vowel has a certain pitch of its own which is best produced by
certain positions of the mouth, tongue, and soft palate. It is,
therefore, necessary, carefully to shape the mouth so that, on notes of
different pitches, the configuration of the mould may be that which
gives the best quality of the particular vowel tone. There must be an
unimpeded passage for the voice from the larnyx to the lips, and this
cannot be obtained if the same vowel shades are maintained in song as in
speech. The vowels which require the greatest alteration in position of
the mouth are A, E, and U; E being quite the most difficult, because,
contrary to the opinion of some teachers who consider it the best for
forward production of tone, it keeps the sound farther back in the
throat than any other vowel, shutting it up and making the sound thin
and poor. Diligent practice before a mirror is necessary in order to
acquire the best position of the buccal resonance chamber; its
attainment will well repay the trouble taken, for not only will the
voice gain in timbre, in resonance, and in ease, but pronunciation will
become pure and clear.

The vowel "ah" is frequently chosen as the best one for vocalising,
because in its pronunciation it is easy to put the mouth in a good
position; and voices are trained on it exclusively, with the result that
no other vowel, or vowel shade, is perfectly produced. Actual false
intonation often arises from want of practice in adjusting the cavity of
the mouth to that shape required for producing the best tone and
resonance on the different notes; the absence of co-ordination between
the fundamental tone and the overtones preventing perfect tune.

The absolute truth of the foregoing remarks may easily be proved by
singing the vowels at either extreme of the "vowel scale of nature,"
viz., "oo and ee," over the whole compass of the voice, having regard to
the beauty of tone. Although the singer may be quite unaware of the
science underlying the fact, it will be found that the quality of the
voice at the bottom of its range as these vowels are sung is very
different from that at the top of the range, the alterations taking
place in almost imperceptible gradations. By reference to the foregoing
pages of this book it will be seen that the late Emil Behnke attached
great importance to vowel training, and exemplifications of his methods
are to be found in "Voice Training Exercises" and "Voice Training
Studies" written in conjunction with C. W. Pearce, Mus.Doc. The subject
is also fully explained in "Voice, Song, and Speech," by Lennox Browne,
F.R.C.S., and Emil Behnke; and the whole matter is most ably discussed
in "Pronunciation for Singers," by the late Dr. A. J. Ellis, F.R.S.,
published by Messrs Curwen & Sons.

In thus strongly advocating education of the resonator in the production
of vowel sounds in singing, let me not be supposed to ignore the
necessity for also cultivating pronunciation of consonants, which have
been termed the checks and stops of sound.

Clearness of enunciation and purity of pronunciation, which are great
aids to the voice, and possess a charm all their own, depend upon both
vowels and consonants being accurately rendered.

The English are the worst enunciators of all European peoples, and their
custom is to lay the blame on the language, than which none other is
deemed by them so unvocal. There is, however, a vast amount of sonority
and musical charm in our grand and noble language, second only to the
Italian, when properly spoken.

The cultivation of pure, accurate, and refined pronunciation in speech
will greatly facilitate good enunciation in singing, and should he
sedulously acquired; for there are numbers of vocalists who leave us in
doubt as to whether the words they sing are English, French, Italian, or
German; while the number of those who mispronounce words in a deplorable
manner is legion.


FORCING THE REGISTERS.

The next factor which has much to do with voice failure is forcing the
registers beyond their proper point of change. The erroneous belief
appears to exist that, by carrying up the registers a few notes beyond
their natural limits, the tones thus produced are fuller and richer. But
if in training a voice this practice be followed the result will be
serious injury to the vocal organ.

This is not a theoretical statement; we can easily see with the
laryngoscope the great amount of congestion of the vocal ligaments
immediately caused by thus forcing up a register; and not only are these
affected by the strain put upon them, but the whole interior of the
throat becomes blood-red, and looks irritated and inflamed. As soon as
the change to the right register is made the vocal apparatus returns to
its normal state.

Now we all know the effects of undue strain on muscles in other parts of
the body, and have felt the pain and weakness arising therefrom; but far
worse results follow the damage to the throat caused by the strain of
forcing up the registers, by both speakers and singers. The quality of
the voice becomes impaired, and actual loss of notes follows. In some
extreme cases which I have had under my care, there has been entire
absence of voice both in speaking and in singing, and much suffering has
been experienced from granular inflammation of the throat brought on by
this faulty voice use.

Another method of forcing the voice is the almost universal endeavour to
acquire "top notes" which do not belong to the singer's compass. Because
of the high notes in some voices exceptionally endowed by nature, it
seems as though all singers, no matter what their natural range, have
made it the one object of their training to strive after a vocal
attainment whose rarity appears to be almost its only justification to
be considered as an artistic merit. Why should these ever vanishing
"top notes" be so much craved and striven for? Can it be said that, as
regards each individual voice, these notes are higher in a scale of
excellence than the rest? What merit does their acquisition promise as a
set-off to the deterioration of the voice and its inevitable ultimate
failure? A high note, _per se_, is not necessarily "a thing of beauty"
to the listener, while the result of its attainment is often the
converse of a "joy for ever" to the singer; for in those cases of
forcing up the voice above its natural compass, violence is done to the
throat, which in time results in some of the many ailments peculiar to
singers who use faulty methods. The middle range of the voice becomes
proportionately weaker and thinner as the cult of the extra "top notes"
becomes greater, until the anomalous position is reached of a voice with
two ends and no middle; while these superadded, artificial, high notes
are wanting in timbre, in purity, in strength, and in ease. It is easily
demonstrable by the laryngoscope that the forced and strained action of
the vocal ligaments, and of other laryngeal and throatal muscular
action, exercises an injurious influence upon the voice. The endeavour
to sing notes beyond the extreme of the compass, or notes which do not
naturally lie within any one register--particularly the chest
register--causes great fatigue of the tensor muscles of the vocal
ligaments, and serious congestion, extending to the windpipe and pharynx
has, in many cases, followed this practice.

More time and energy are devoted to the acquirement of what the late
Emil Behnke called "mere acrobatic skill" than is given to the purely
artistic side of voice use, and it follows that we get "the survival
_not_ of the fittest" but rather of those with exceptionally strong
physical organisations, instead of refined artists.

The deterioration throughout the whole compass of the voice is often
painfully noticeable during an entire song, but the forcible shouting of
a full, high-pitched note at its close seems to be intended to
compensate for all the misery previously endured by the sensitive
listener.

Now the maintenance of a healthy condition of the vocal muscles depends
to a great degree upon the right use of those muscles in the formation
of tone. There should never be any feeling of fatigue, strain, pricking,
tightness, aching, or of pain in the throat, nor yet of huskiness after
vocal practice. The method of voice use which produces such results, or
any one of them, is wrong. Nature is pointing out as forcibly as
possible the injury which is being done. Her warning should be heeded
before conditions, getting worse, lead up to the sad ailments from which
so many suffer, and which are disastrous to both voice and health.

The foregoing facts and illustrations force upon us the conclusion that
the large majority of throat affections from which both speakers and
singers suffer might be entirely prevented by correct methods of voice
use. As prevention is proverbially better than cure, it must be
infinitely more advantageous to acquire correct methods than to unlearn
bad ones which exercise a deleterious influence, always recognisable
even when entire voice failure has not followed their practice.




_APPENDIX TO THE TENTH EDITION_


DOES DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING APPLY EQUALLY TO WOMEN AS TO MEN?


In a kind notice of the first edition of this brochure, which appeared
in _The Medical Press_, the editor raises the above question. He says:
"The evils attending faulty methods of voice-production are pointed out
both from an anatomical and from an artistic point of view,
diaphragmatic breathing being especially insisted on in opposition to
mere clavicular breathing. This is undoubtedly correct; but we think the
advice here embodied would have been even more valuable had the
authoress mentioned if from her experience she thought it applied in an
equal extent to both sexes, as it is well known that nature, or we may
perhaps more correctly say, the art of dress, causes women to breathe in
a far more 'clavicular manner' than men."

This is a valuable criticism, and as the point indicated is likely to be
of interest to many persons, I append my reply, which appeared in the
next number of _The Medical Press_:--

"To the Editor of the _Medical Press and Circular_.

"SIR,--I intended the advice on breathing to apply to both sexes,
diaphragmatic breathing with perfect control being the foundation of all
good voice-production, whether in speaking or in singing, in men and
women alike, while clavicular breathing is a potent factor in
voice-failure accompanied by throat ailments. From the examination of a
large number of cases, I find it exceptional for a woman, when dressed,
to breathe diaphragmatically, but when the garments are unfastened, and
a few simple directions followed, Nature's mode of breathing commences
to re-assert itself, feebly at first, but vigorously after a little
practice. Very many men also breathe clavicularly, to the great
detriment of their voices, whether in speaking or in singing. I have
noticed, however that whereas the majority of women _always_ breathe
clavicularly, comparatively few men adopt this pernicious habit unless
when using the voice, which is, of course, the worst time for them to
employ it. As a rule, men re-acquire the natural manner of breathing
more easily and quickly than women; this may be partly accounted for by
their greater freedom from constricting garments. After a few weeks'
training of the respiratory muscles, the lung capacity frequently
exceeds, in women especially, the average given in Hutchinson's tables.

"Thanking you in anticipation for your courtesy in publishing this
letter,--I am, sir, yours &c.,

"K. BEHNKE

"18, Earl's Court Square, S.W."




INDEX.


Artificial female voice, Roman teachers,  2


Back ring pyramid muscles,  46, 48

Bands uniting shield and tongue-bone,  34

Belts _v._ braces for men,  25

Breast bone,  11

Breathing, Collar-bone,  17
  ----, Curing defective,  23
  ---- during sleep,  28
  ---- exercises,  106
  ----, midriff and rib combined,  17
  ----, Mouth _v._ nostril,  26
  ---- neglected by teachers,  19
  ----, View of larynx,  84

Breath, Singers' half-,  26

Browne, Lennox, on breathing,  18, 22


Carpenter, Dr., How tone is produced,  39

Cartilages of Santorini,  51, 54, 80
  ---- of Wrisberg,  51, 54, 81

Catlin on American Indian breathing,  28

Chest described,  12
  ---- voice used for pay,  4

Chink, Vocal,  45, 81

Clergymen's sore throat,  22

Collar-bones,  11

Composers disregarding voices,  3
  ----' ignorance of harp,  3
  ----, Modern, wed music and words,  3
  ---- to blame for vocal decline,  4

Cords, Vocal, a misleading term,  38
  ----, ----, False,  60
  ----, ----, origin of term,  8

Corsets for gentlemen,  26

Curwen's names for registers,  87

Czermak's test in vowel formation,  59
  ---- use of the laryngoscope,  75


Duprez' Chest C,  5


Eberth's case, voice-box without lid,  35

Elsberg on nose-breathing,  28
  ---- on wedges  (posterior nodules),  55

Eustachian tubes,  58

Exercises, Ah, legato, scala,  117
  ----, Breathing,  106
  ----, Controlling tongue,  124
  ----, glottis, check and glide,  112
  ---- for tone quality,  119, 121
  ---- in changing registers,  118
  ----, Mixed-voice,  119
  ---- on koo,  124
  ---- on vowels,  116
  ----, Opening mouth,  125
  ----, Resonator,  119
  ----, Soft palate,  121
  ---- to govern pitch,  115
  ----, Voice production,  110

Experiment, calf's lungs,  12
  ----, Czermak on vowels,  59
  ----, defects in breathing,  23
  ----, feeling ring-shield aperture, 72, 100
  ---- in telling male and female registers,  90

Experiments, Marshall on animals, 39
  ----, Müller on dissected larynges, 7, 96
  ----, pressing shield to test pitch, 71
  ----, Spirometer, 20
  ----, Violin tone, 57
  ----, whisper and feel voice-box, 70
  ---- with laryngoscope, 76, 92
  ---- with mirror, for nasal tone, 60


Falsetto register neglected, 4, 6

Female and male minstrels, 15
  ---- voice spoilt by tenor pattern, 2

Foulis' laryngoscope, 78

French singers subject to tremolo, 20


Garcia and the laryngoscope, 74
  ---- on forced registers, 96

Garrett, error in describing glottis, 45
  ---- on a blackbird's larynx, 40
  ---- on differences in larynges, 64

Glogg-ner-Castelli on chest voice, 5

Glottis, Chink of the, 45, 81
  ----, Defects to avoid, 112
  ---- in producing sound, 46
  ---- in repose, 46
  ---- in respiration, 46
  ----, Shock of the, 83
  ----, sphincter muscle, 44


Heart, 11

Helmholtz on whispered vowels, 70

Horns, Upper and lower, 34, 37, 42

Human voice, four parts, 9
  ---- voice, incomparable, 9

Huxley's description of respiration, 14


Illingworth, Rumney, on falsetto, 39, 52

Inspiration and expiration, 14
  ---- of men and women, 15
  ----, Three ways of, 14
  ---- through the mouth, 26

Isenschmid's throat apparatus, 77

Italian composers studying voices, 3


Lacing, Tight, 25

Laryngo-Phantom, Isenschmid's, 77

Laryngoscope described, 73
  ----, Errors in using, 79
  ----, How to use, 73
  ----, What is seen, 80

Laryngoscopic images, 84, 85

Larynx generally described, 31
  ---- (see Voice-box)

Levers of the Pyramids, 36

Lid and its function, 32, 35, 80

Ligaments, Pocket, 50, 81
  ----,  ----, not tone producers, 52
  ----,  ----, their functions, 53, 83
  ----, Vocal, described, 36, 81, 94
  ----,  ----, how produce tone, 32, 81
  ----,  ----, how stretched, 47
  ----,  ----, in S.C.T.B. voices, 66
  ----,  ----, size, movement, 41
  ----,  ----, Three actions of, 83
  ----,  ----, View of, 37

Lung gymnastics, 21

Lungs described, 9
  ----, Experiment with calf's, 12
  ----, their function, 12

Lunn on "Coup de glotte", 83
  ---- on differences in larynges, 64, 89
  ---- on laryngoscopic views, 82

Luschka, and term "vocal chink", 45
  ----, how tone is produced, 40

Luschka's measurements of larynges, 64


Male contralti, 2
  ---- soprani, 1

Malrespiration, 28

Marshall, experiments on animals, 39

Merkel on male and female larynges, 90
  ---- on pyramids and registers, 99
  ---- on tension of ligaments, 67

Merkel's terms for registers, 90

Meyerbeer and the falsetto, 5

Midriff, 11
  ---- described, 12

Mixed voice, defined, 119

Mouth, its part in singing, 59
  ----, when to keep it shut, 29

Mozart studied voice before composing, 4

Mucous membrane, 61, 80

Müller's experiments on larynges 7, 96

Muscles, back ring pyramid, 46, 48
  ---- governing pitch, 113
  ----, How to strengthen, 113
  ----, ligament tension theory, 67
  ----, Pyramid, 49

Muscles, Ring-shield, 41
  ----, ----,  how change registers, 97
  ----, Shield-pyramid, 41
  ----, Shield-pyramid, how change registers, 97
  ----, Side ring-pyramid, 48
  ----, Summary of uses of, 49


Nasal tone, various theories, 60

Nose cavities, 59

Nostrils best adapted for breathing, 27

Nourrit and Duprez, 5

Novello, Sabilla, how tone is produced, 39


Palate, Soft, exercising, 121
  ----, ----, its movements, 59

Paris Conservatoire method of inspiration, 20

Pharynx, 58

Pitch, Mechanism affecting, 72
  ----, Rise of, strains voice, 4

Pronunciation for Singers, Ellis's, 120

Pyramids, how act in registers, 99
  ----, Levers of the, 36, 46
  ----, side view, 37
  ----, their shape and motion, 36, 82, 94


Register, Mechanism of thick, 94
  ----, Thick, described, 94
  ----, Thin,  ", 98

Registers, Compass of the, 93
  ----, Teachers' Manual on, 87
  ----, definition, 86
  ----, described by Mme. Seiler, 94
  ----, distinguishing sex, 90
  ----, Evil of straining, 101
  ----, How ligaments act in, 86
  ----, how small is formed, 101
  ----, how upper thick formed, 95, 97
  ----, Images of, 84, 85
  ----, Laryngoscope and sub-division of, 91
  ----, "Mixed voice", 118
  ----, optional tones, 118
  ----, places of break, 87, 96
  ----, Straining of, 95
  ----, Three female voice, 88
  ----, to equalise, not expose, 116
  ----, Two male voice, 138
  ----, Upper and lower thick, 96
  ----, ---- ---- ---- thin, 100
  ----, what laryngoscope teaches, 104

Resonator changes by vowel, 70
  ----, effect of formation, 58
  ----, its parts, 9, 56

Respiration described, 13

Ribs, 11

Ring cartilage, 31, 32

Ring-shield muscles, 41, 70

Roger, the French tenor's style, 4, 6

Rossini on decline of vocal art, 2


Seiler, description of the registers, 92
  ----, Madame, on "wedges", 54
  ---- on action of vocal ligaments, 100

Shield and ring, Motion of, 34, 71

Shield cartilage, 34

Shield plates, 33, 71

Shield-pyramid muscles, 41

Singable music, 3

Singing _v._ speaking, 18

Snoring and keeping mouth open, 30

Sphincter muscle of the glottis, 44

Spirometer tests recommended, 19


Teaching, Hints on, 106

Tenors as teachers of female voice, 2
  ----, Short vocal life of, 1
  ---- sing octave lower than written, 87

Tobold, how tone is produced, 40

Tone, how produced, 56
  ----, loudness, 56
  ----, pitch, 56
  ----, quality, 56
  ----, Three ways of producing, 83

Tongue-bone, 34
  ----, Exercises to control, 124

Tonic Sol-fa College, Experiments, 20

Tremolo, Controlled artistic, 22
  ----, Involuntary, 21
  ---- mars fine voices, 20
  ----, Origin of, 21


Violin, Experiments for tone on a, 57

Vocal gymnastics, 114

Voce mista, 118

Voice-box, Attempts to see the,  74
  ---- compared with instruments, 8
  ----, differences in size, 62
  ----, dissecting, 7, 44, 57
  ----, its parts specified, 31
  ---- measurements, 64
  ---- movements, teaching of, 70, 72
  ----, visible movements, 69

Voice-breaking, Cause of, 63

Voice, Cause of high or low, 65
  ---- cultivation exercises, 110
  ----, female, Wrong use of, 95

Voice, period of change in youth, 63
  ----, quality of, exercises, 119
  ----, poverty of the age, 1
  ---- sufferers, Cure of, 24

Vowel scale, Order of the, 116
  ----, Use of palate in forming,  59


Wedges, Action in small register, 103
  ----, or cuneiform cartilages, 51, 54, 81

Whispering, Voice-box movements in,  70

When to keep the mouth shut,  29

Wilson, Erasmus, on cuneiform cartilages,  54

Windpipe described,  31, 81

Witkowski on "the wedges",  55
  ---- on views of specialists, 8

Women in church music, 2

Words ignored by composers,  3




INDEX TO "VOICE FAILURE."


Breathing, Evils of clavicular, 128

Breathing, Lamperti on, 129

Breathing, Wrong, 127, 128


Forcing,  128

Forcing, Acquiring top notes, 137


Intonation affected by resonance, 134


Laryngoscope, Its lessons, 137, 138

Lung capacity, 128


Pronunciation,  136


Registers, Forcing, 128, 136

Resonators, Neglect, 128, 132


Shouting,  128

Singing, Loud, 128,, 131

Stammering,  130

Symptoms of faulty voice use,  139


Throat, Inflammation of, 137

Timbre,  133

Tone, Squeezing,  132


Vowels, Shaping mouth for,  134

Vowels, Scale of nature,  135




Opinions of the Press and the Medical and the Musical Professions on the
Author's Book, Lectures, and Teaching.


SIGNOR GARCIA writes to the Author:--

DEAR SIR,--Very many thanks for the copy forwarded to me of your most
interesting work. It will prove of an inestimable advantage to students,
being, in my humble estimation, one of the clearest and most practical
treatises on the subject which contemporary literature has produced.
Accept also my sincere thanks for the description contained in your work
of the origin of the laryngoscope, and believe me, dear sir, yours most
sincerely, M. GARCIA.


THE ATHENÆUM.

Interesting, compared with those previously published, as being written
by a musician and not by a medical man. Hence we are not surprised to
find purely musical questions discussed here with great ability.


NATURE.

The object of this little book is to give singers a plain and
comprehensible view of the musical instrument on which they perform. The
author seems to have succeeded in this attempt remarkably well. He has
evidently had much practical work himself, and has especially set
himself the task of examining the action of the vocal organs during
singing by means of the laryngoscope; and his record of his own
experience in acquiring the use of that beautiful instrument is not only
interesting, but of much practical value. The last section of the book
is devoted to the teachings of the laryngoscope as to the action of the
vocal ligaments in producing voice, with especial reference to the
so-called registers. "A register consists of a series of tones which are
produced by the same mechanism," is his definition (p. 86), which is new
and complete, and he proceeds to explain the different mechanism of each
kind of register as actually observed on singers. There are some good
remarks on breathing (pp. 17-22). All information is given throughout in
clear, intelligible language, and illustrated by fourteen woodcuts....
The book may be safely recommended to all singers, and others who are
desirous of knowing how vocal tones are produced.


SATURDAY REVIEW.

On the important question of the different registers of the voice and
their proper use, Mr. Behnke practically breaks new ground. He has
carefully gone over the whole subject of the production of the voice as
far as the larynx is concerned, and worked it out anew by a long and
careful series of experiments and observations with the laryngoscope....
Mr. Behnke's book is clearly written, and the plates well drawn and
printed; while the anatomical details are made clear to the general
reader by the use of English names for the different parts.... It is a
very valuable book, and ought to be read and thought over by all who
have the training of young singers, and indeed by all musicians.


MEDICAL PRESS AND CIRCULAR.

In clear and untechnical language the author gives an accurate account
of the construction and mode of action of the human larynx, its
differences in men, women, and children, and the teachings of the
laryngoscope, notably with respect to the "registers" of the voice....
M. Behnke is evidently an accurate observer and a logical reasoner, and
a study of his work side by side with Witkowski's "Movable Atlas of the
Throat and Tongue" must be advantageous to any one desiring to make the
best use of his voice.


THE SPECIALIST.

This useful little book is the outcome of the author's large experience
and careful research. It is written concisely, in clear and untechnical
language, and frequent references are made to such authorities as
Huxley, Lennox Browne, Eberth, Carpenter, Marshall, Luschka, &c. That
Herr Behnke thoroughly understands his subject no one who reads his book
can doubt, and if those who wish to know the right way to sing and avoid
the wrong way will carefully study this little manual they will not go
far wrong. For all who are dependent on the right use of their voices
for their daily bread, Herr Behnke's book will be most opportune.


MUSICAL STANDARD.

An excellent specimen of a familiar way of putting unfamiliar truths.


MUSIC TRADES REVIEW.

There are excellent reasons why singers should possess an intimate
knowledge of the structure and functions of the various organs concerned
in the production of the voice, and this knowledge they are likely to
gain more easily and effectually from the present treatise than from any
other with which we are acquainted. Mr. Emil Behnke writes in a
singularly clear and lucid manner, and if his book be not exactly light,
it is very interesting reading. Much of the information conveyed is
invaluable. We cannot too strongly recommend the present volume to the
perusal of vocal students.


MUSICAL EDUCATION.

After carefully reading the book we are at no loss to understand how it
is that there is such a demand for it amongst the members of the musical
public. The style is admirably simple and lucid, and every statement
made is in accordance with the latest views on the subject held by
physiologists and anatomists of acknowledged eminence.


KEY BOARD.

The most reasonable, practical, and common-sense work to be found
anywhere.


THE VOICE.

This book is clear and plain, and gives just the information that every
singer and speaker should have. It is the ablest and most practical
treatise on the voice we have seen.


THE INQUIRER.

Men have set themselves to try and ascertain the actual process by which
vocal sounds are produced, and thus to form a scientific basis on which
to found a way of training voices. Herr Behnke, in a singularly clear
and lucid manner, brings the whole subject before the reader, and, to
make it readily understood by non-scientific people, gives a translation
of the Greek terms used by physiologists side by side with the
originals. We cannot too strongly insist upon the necessity of forming a
scientific basis for teaching singing, and, indeed, for training the
voice for public speaking, &c. We congratulate Herr Behnke upon the
patience and perseverance with which he has pursued his investigations
with the laryngoscope.


MUSIC.

Mr. Emil Behnke has already made himself known to the leading members of
the musical and medical professions by his learned lectures on "The
Theory of Voice Production," and has gained the esteem of those
interested in the subject by the masterly manner in which he deals with
the matter, as well as his unaffected and, as far as possible,
untechnical treatment of it. Mr. Behnke has done much to popularize the
study of the human voice, and his book (which abounds in admirable
plates) deserves to be widely known.


EDUCATIONAL TIMES.

It is but rarely that science figures as the handmaid of art, yet this
book is a signal instance of it, for it is one of the first attempts, if
not the very first, at an investigation, on strictly scientific
principles, of the normal and the abnormal development of the voice,
both in speaking and singing. Herr Behnke, who is both a musician and a
physiologist, has brought to bear upon this subject his knowledge as a
musician, and the results of several years of patient and careful
scientific experiments. We cannot too highly commend this little work to
the attention of all those interested in so important a subject.


BIRMINGHAM DAILY GAZETTE.

Since Herr Behnke's removal from Birmingham to London he has become an
accepted authority on the subject of voice production, and we are glad
to see the results of his studies presented in the useful way in which
they are in this little volume. Earnest and conscientious students of
the vocal art need not be reminded that the production of fine tone is
not the all-in-all of the excellences of singing, but they will
certainly know better how to employ their gifts after mastering the
secrets Herr Behnke reveals.




Opinions of Mrs. Emil Behnke's Pupils.

VOICE TRAINING.


FROM AN OLD PUPIL.

GRESHAM HOTEL, DUBLIN.

DEAR MRS. BEHNKE,--It is indeed regrettable that Mr. Behnke was not
spared to reap to a greater extent the reward of his wonderful work.
You, I know, must have acquired an adequate knowledge of his magnificent
system of teaching to enable you to continue on the same course, and so
perpetuate his memory. This is a source of comfort to your many friends.


FROM A LADY LECTURER.

EDGBASTON, _May 11th, 1893_.

MY DEAR MRS. BEHNKE,--I feel I must write to tell you how much better I
am, and how greatly indebted I am to your treatment.... I can take two
or three meetings a week with ease, thanks to your training, and the
deeper and fuller tone of my voice has been remarked upon by many.


LARNE, IRELAND.

I have no hesitation in saying that, under God, you were the means of
curing my voice.


FROM A CLERGYMAN WHO HAD BROKEN DOWN IN VOICE.

LONDON, _July, 1893_.

My voice gives me no trouble now; it is indeed very much fuller and more
resonant. I can fill my church without the least effort.


FROM A CLERGYMAN WHO HAD SUFFERED FROM "CLERGYMAN'S SORE THROAT."

BRIGHTON, _26th June, 1893_.

DEAR MRS. BEHNKE,--I take this opportunity of thanking you very much for
what you have done for my voice. I shall try to keep up your exercises,
and hope to receive more lessons later on in the year.


FROM A CLERGYMAN WHO STAMMERED, AND WHOSE VOICE WAS WEAK.

"THE PARSONAGE," _Feb. 7th, 1893_.

DEAR MRS. BEHNKE,--I told the Rev. Mr. S. of the great benefit I had
derived from your instruction. He proposes to bring the subject of your
work, and the importance of it to young clergymen, before the Bishop,
with a view to something being done for ordination candidates.


FROM A TEACHER OF SINGING.

SCARBOROUGH, _Jan. 6th, 1894_.

DEAR MRS. BEHNKE,--For some years I have been teaching successfully on
the lines laid down in your late husband's publications and his own
"Voice Training Exercises;" and have put into the hands of some of my
pupils your "Voice Training Primer." One of them has just passed Trinity
College Senior Singing Examination with honours (84 marks out of 100).
My own experience is that no exercises I have ever used have so helped
to produce "forward" and to cure "throaty" tone, and I have long felt I
owed to Mr. Behnke a debt of gratitude for his works. May I be permitted
to acknowledge it to you?




STAMMERING.


THE TIMES.

Pre-eminent success in the education and treatment of stammering and
other speech defects.

THE BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL.

DR. F. L. NICHOLLS writes:--"This infirmity is so great a drawback to
almost every walk in life, and for public speaking so complete a
hindrance, that a cure is of the utmost importance. It may therefore be
of interest, and possibly of some use to members of the medical
profession having a case of this nature in their practice, and desiring
assistance for its cure, if I mention that I have recently had the most
satisfactory experience of the cure of such a case. The father, a
minister, was very anxious for his son to follow in his own footsteps,
while the lad stuttered so badly it was not to be thought of, unless a
cure could be effected; and for this purpose he was sent to Mrs. Behnke,
of Earl's Court Square, London. Mrs. Behnke was chosen from high
recommendations, and very thoroughly has she proved worthy of them. The
lad has just returned home, and speaks without the slightest impediment.
I should state that previously to going under Mrs. Behnke's hands we had
tried various rules and recommendations without the least success."

"Stammering: its Nature and Treatment." Price 1_s_, of Mrs. Emil
Behnke.




Causes of Voice Failure.

_By Mrs. EMIL BEHNKE._

=Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged.=

=OPINIONS OF THE PRESS=.


THE WEEKLY ECHO.

A very useful pamphlet by a very able teacher. It is published at
sixpence, but contains many guinea fees' worth of knowledge, and hints
where to procure more.


THE SHREWSBURY CHRONICLE.

Ought to be perused by all who seek distinction as vocalists.


BRISTOL TIMES.

A valuable little brochure. It is one of the most concise and practical
treatises on the subject we have seen, and if only the hints contained
therein were more generally observed, we should have not only less voice
failure, but more good singers with strong, resonant, and lasting vocal
organs. The little book should be in the hands of all singers, students
especially.


HEARTH AND HOME.

Mrs. Behnke's pamphlet should be eagerly read. I advise all those who
are interested in the preservation of their voices to invest sixpence in
the purchase of this admirable booklet, as they cannot fail to gain much
assistance from the excellent matter therein contained.


HALIFAX GUARDIAN.

The pamphlet is terse and valuable in the information it affords.


THE MEDICAL PRESS.

"Causes of Voice Failure," by Mrs. Emil Behnke, has the merit of being
practical and of containing truths which must appeal forcibly not only
to singers, but also to listeners.


WARRINGTON GUARDIAN.

"Causes of Voice Failure." This important subject is well treated by
Mrs. Emil Behnke.


THE QUEEN.

Well worth reading for the valuable hints which it contains.


THE PRACTICAL TEACHER.

The husband of Mrs. Behnke was the greatest authority in his day upon
voice-training, and, in recommending his wife's book we need only say
that her knowledge of this subject is only second to what his was.


MUSICAL OPINION.

This is a small, cheap, and useful pamphlet by Mrs. Emil Behnke. The
quiet, clear, convincing manner in which she writes deserves full
recognition.


SUSSEX DAILY NEWS.

"Causes of Voice Failure," by Mrs. Behnke, is a useful little tract
which may be confidently recommended to the notice of singers,
professional and amateur, for the sound advice and cautions against
common faults of training contained in it.


BRISTOL OBSERVER.

Mrs. Emil Behnke has written a little work on "Causes of Voice Failure"
which deserves to be widely circulated among students of singing. It
should be carefully read.


CAMBRIAN.

Excellent advice is given which must be of great value to those who
contemplate adopting the vocal profession either from a pecuniary or
from an artistic standpoint.


THE SCHOOLMASTER.

Mrs. Behnke goes to the root of the matter, and her proposals are urged
clearly. Incidentally she touches on stammering, and we recommend those
interested in the subject to give her ideas, at any rate, consideration.


THE PROFESSIONAL WORLD.

We would recommend it to all interested in the question of voice
production and voice preservation.


LITERARY WORLD.

The writer of this essay is a well-known expert in her subject.


TUNBRIDGE WELLS ADVERTISER.

In a concise form Mrs. Behnke gives some valuable hints that singers
would do well to note and pay attention to.


WEST SUSSEX GAZETTE.

Mrs. Behnke was well advised to consent to the publication of this
valuable chapter added to the ninth edition of her husband's well-known
work, "Mechanism of the Human Voice," and we are glad to note it has
already run to a second edition.




THE BEHNKE VOICE-TRAINING METHOD.

=Voice-Training Exercises=

=ALSO=

=Voice-Training Studies=

=BY=

=EMIL BEHNKE and Dr. C. W. PEARCE.=

_In separate books for Soprano, Mezzo-Soprano, Contralto, Tenor,
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Price: Paper Covers, 1s. 6d. net cash; Bound in Cloth, 3s. net cash.


=Voice-Training Primer=

=By MRS. EMIL BEHNKE=.

Price 2s. net cash; Bound in Cloth, 3s. net cash.

_These works are highly recommended by the musical, medical, and general
press, and by teachers._

CHAPPELL & Co., Ltd., 50 NEW BOND STREET, LONDON, W. Melbourne and New
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=And may be had of all music-sellers.=




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=The Musical Herald= gives no music; it is bought because of the
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=The Musical Herald= is indispensable to the up-to-date Pianoforte
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=The Musical Herald= gives each month, in reply to questions, lists of
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=The Musical Herald= devotes much space to Voice Training matters. It
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=The Musical Herald= provides each month a full biography, with portrait,
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FOOTNOTES:

[A] "The Mechanism of Voice, Speech, and Taste." Translated and edited
by Mr. Lennox Browne, F.R.C.S. London: Baillière, Tindall, and Cox.

[B] It having been proved to Mr. Behnke that the use of the term
"_abdominal_" instead of "_diaphragmatic_" breathing led to
misconception and misrepresentation of his views on this important
subject, he discarded the words "abdominal breathing" and used only the
term "diaphragmatic breathing" in his teaching and writing. Will readers
kindly bear this in mind?--K. B.

[C] "Medical Hints on the Production and Management of the Singing
Voice," Fifth Edition, p. 15. London: Chappell and Co.

[D] Only for the purpose of ascertaining the capacity of the lungs
_before_ commencing the exercises, and the gain acquired after some
weeks of regular work.

[E] "The Throat and its Diseases," pp. 289, 290. London: Baillière,
Tindall, and Cox.

[F] "The Throat and its Functions." New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.

[G] _Sphincter_ is an anatomical term applied to circular muscles which
constrict or close certain natural orifices.

[H] "Ueber die Compensation der physischen Kräfte am menschlichen
Stimmorgan," p. 8. Berlin, 1839.

[I] "Voice in Singing," p. 189. Philadelphia, 1875.

[J] "Anatomist's Vade Mecum." By Erasmus Wilson, F.R.S. London. Eighth
edition, p. 596.

[K] Helmholtz, "Sensations of Tone:" translated by Alexander J. Ellis,
F.R.S., &c., p. 37.

[L] "Philosophy of Voice," 2nd edition, p. 19. Baillière, Tindall, and
Cox.

[M] A "Laryngo-Phantom" has recently been brought out by Dr. Isenschmid
of Munich, which greatly facilitates this preliminary practice. It
consists of an imitation of the throat, the larynx, and the mouth, and
"is intended to familiarize students with as many of the details
connected with the use of the laryngoscope as it is possible to learn
before the application of the instrument to the living subject." A
number of little paintings representing different laryngoscopic
appearances may be slipped into this Phantom, unknown to the student,
who has to discover what has been done by the usual process. This
apparatus can therefore be strongly recommended as affording excellent
and constant practice. It may be had of Messrs. Krohne & Sesemann, 8,
Duke Street, Manchester Square, W., price £2 2s.

[N] "Der Kehlkopf," p. 153. Leipzig, 1873. J. J. Weber.






End of Project Gutenberg's The Mechanism of the Human Voice, by Emil Behnke