E-text prepared by Fritz Ohrenschall, Michael Zeug, Lisa Reigel, and the
Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
(https://www.pgdp.net)



Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
      file which includes images of the original pages.
      See 22994-h.htm or 22994-h.zip:
      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/2/9/9/22994/22994-h/22994-h.htm)
      or
      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/2/9/9/22994/22994-h.zip)


Transcriber's note:

      Some typographical and punctuation errors have been
      corrected. A complete list follows the text.

      Words italicized in the original are surrounded by
      _underscores_.

      Letters superscripted in the original have been placed
      in {} brackets.

      [=m] designates an m with a macron. It is a shortcut
      indicating that the word should have two m's in succession.

      Ellipses are represented as in the original.





THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY

by

FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER







[Illustration]


New York
Henry Holt and Company
1921

Copyright, 1920
by
Frederick J. Turner


TO
CAROLINE M. TURNER
MY WIFE




PREFACE


In republishing these essays in collected form, it has seemed best to
issue them as they were originally printed, with the exception of a few
slight corrections of slips in the text and with the omission of
occasional duplication of language in the different essays. A
considerable part of whatever value they may possess arises from the
fact that they are commentaries in different periods on the central
theme of the influence of the frontier in American history. Consequently
they may have some historical significance as contemporaneous attempts
of a student of American history, at successive transitions in our
development during the past quarter century to interpret the relations
of the present to the past. Grateful acknowledgment is made to the
various societies and periodicals which have given permission to reprint
the essays.

Various essays dealing with the connection of diplomatic history and the
frontier and others stressing the significance of the section, or
geographic province, in American history, are not included in the
present collection. Neither the French nor the Spanish frontier is
within the scope of the volume.

The future alone can disclose how far these interpretations are correct
for the age of colonization which came gradually to an end with the
disappearance of the frontier and free land. It alone can reveal how
much of the courageous, creative American spirit, and how large a part
of the historic American ideals are to be carried over into that new age
which is replacing the era of free lands and of measurable isolation by
consolidated and complex industrial development and by increasing
resemblances and connections between the New World and the Old.

But the larger part of what has been distinctive and valuable in
America's contribution to the history of the human spirit has been due
to this nation's peculiar experience in extending its type of frontier
into new regions; and in creating peaceful societies with new ideals in
the successive vast and differing geographic provinces which together
make up the United States. Directly or indirectly these experiences
shaped the life of the Eastern as well as the Western States, and even
reacted upon the Old World and influenced the direction of its thought
and its progress. This experience has been fundamental in the economic,
political and social characteristics of the American people and in their
conceptions of their destiny.

Writing at the close of 1796, the French minister to the United States,
M. Adet, reported to his government that Jefferson could not be relied
on to be devoted to French interests, and he added: "Jefferson, I say,
is American, and by that name, he cannot be sincerely our friend. An
American is the born enemy of all European peoples." Obviously erroneous
as are these words, there was an element of truth in them. If we would
understand this element of truth, we must study the transforming
influence of the American wilderness, remote from Europe, and by its
resources and its free opportunities affording the conditions under
which a new people, with new social and political types and ideals,
could arise to play its own part in the world, and to influence Europe.

FREDERICK J. TURNER.

HARVARD UNIVERSITY, March, 1920.




CONTENTS


CHAPTER                                                       PAGE

   I THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY        1

  II THE FIRST OFFICIAL FRONTIER OF THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY       39

 III THE OLD WEST                                               67

  IV THE MIDDLE WEST                                           126

   V THE OHIO VALLEY IN AMERICAN HISTORY                       157

  VI THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY IN AMERICAN
     HISTORY                                                   177

 VII THE PROBLEM OF THE WEST                                   205

VIII DOMINANT FORCES IN WESTERN LIFE                           222

  IX CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE WEST TO AMERICAN DEMOCRACY           243

   X PIONEER IDEALS AND THE STATE UNIVERSITY                   269

  XI THE WEST AND AMERICAN IDEALS                              290

 XII SOCIAL FORCES IN AMERICAN HISTORY                         311

XIII MIDDLE WESTERN PIONEER DEMOCRACY                          335

     INDEX                                                     361




I

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY[1:1]


In a recent bulletin of the Superintendent of the Census for 1890 appear
these significant words: "Up to and including 1880 the country had a
frontier of settlement, but at present the unsettled area has been so
broken into by isolated bodies of settlement that there can hardly be
said to be a frontier line. In the discussion of its extent, its
westward movement, etc., it can not, therefore, any longer have a place
in the census reports." This brief official statement marks the closing
of a great historic movement. Up to our own day American history has
been in a large degree the history of the colonization of the Great
West. The existence of an area of free land, its continuous recession,
and the advance of American settlement westward, explain American
development.

Behind institutions, behind constitutional forms and modifications, lie
the vital forces that call these organs into life and shape them to meet
changing conditions. The peculiarity of American institutions is, the
fact that they have been compelled to adapt themselves to the changes of
an expanding people--to the changes involved in crossing a continent, in
winning a wilderness, and in developing at each area of this progress
out of the primitive economic and political conditions of the frontier
into the complexity of city life. Said Calhoun in 1817, "We are great,
and rapidly--I was about to say fearfully--growing!"[2:1] So saying, he
touched the distinguishing feature of American life. All peoples show
development; the germ theory of politics has been sufficiently
emphasized. In the case of most nations, however, the development has
occurred in a limited area; and if the nation has expanded, it has met
other growing peoples whom it has conquered. But in the case of the
United States we have a different phenomenon. Limiting our attention to
the Atlantic coast, we have the familiar phenomenon of the evolution of
institutions in a limited area, such as the rise of representative
government; the differentiation of simple colonial governments into
complex organs; the progress from primitive industrial society, without
division of labor, up to manufacturing civilization. But we have in
addition to this a recurrence of the process of evolution in each
western area reached in the process of expansion. Thus American
development has exhibited not merely advance along a single line, but a
return to primitive conditions on a continually advancing frontier line,
and a new development for that area. American social development has
been continually beginning over again on the frontier. This perennial
rebirth, this fluidity of American life, this expansion westward with
its new opportunities, its continuous touch with the simplicity of
primitive society, furnish the forces dominating American character. The
true point of view in the history of this nation is not the Atlantic
coast, it is the Great West. Even the slavery struggle, which is made so
exclusive an object of attention by writers like Professor von Holst,
occupies its important place in American history because of its relation
to westward expansion.

In this advance, the frontier is the outer edge of the wave--the meeting
point between savagery and civilization. Much has been written about the
frontier from the point of view of border warfare and the chase, but as
a field for the serious study of the economist and the historian it has
been neglected.

The American frontier is sharply distinguished from the European
frontier--a fortified boundary line running through dense populations.
The most significant thing about the American frontier is, that it lies
at the hither edge of free land. In the census reports it is treated as
the margin of that settlement which has a density of two or more to the
square mile. The term is an elastic one, and for our purposes does not
need sharp definition. We shall consider the whole frontier belt,
including the Indian country and the outer margin of the "settled area"
of the census reports. This paper will make no attempt to treat the
subject exhaustively; its aim is simply to call attention to the
frontier as a fertile field for investigation, and to suggest some of
the problems which arise in connection with it.

In the settlement of America we have to observe how European life
entered the continent, and how America modified and developed that life
and reacted on Europe. Our early history is the study of European germs
developing in an American environment. Too exclusive attention has been
paid by institutional students to the Germanic origins, too little to
the American factors. The frontier is the line of most rapid and
effective Americanization. The wilderness masters the colonist. It finds
him a European in dress, industries, tools, modes of travel, and
thought. It takes him from the railroad car and puts him in the birch
canoe. It strips off the garments of civilization and arrays him in the
hunting shirt and the moccasin. It puts him in the log cabin of the
Cherokee and Iroquois and runs an Indian palisade around him. Before
long he has gone to planting Indian corn and plowing with a sharp stick;
he shouts the war cry and takes the scalp in orthodox Indian fashion. In
short, at the frontier the environment is at first too strong for the
man. He must accept the conditions which it furnishes, or perish, and so
he fits himself into the Indian clearings and follows the Indian trails.
Little by little he transforms the wilderness, but the outcome is not
the old Europe, not simply the development of Germanic germs, any more
than the first phenomenon was a case of reversion to the Germanic mark.
The fact is, that here is a new product that is American. At first, the
frontier was the Atlantic coast. It was the frontier of Europe in a very
real sense. Moving westward, the frontier became more and more American.
As successive terminal moraines result from successive glaciations, so
each frontier leaves its traces behind it, and when it becomes a settled
area the region still partakes of the frontier characteristics. Thus the
advance of the frontier has meant a steady movement away from the
influence of Europe, a steady growth of independence on American lines.
And to study this advance, the men who grew up under these conditions,
and the political, economic, and social results of it, is to study the
really American part of our history.

In the course of the seventeenth century the frontier was advanced up
the Atlantic river courses, just beyond the "fall line," and the
tidewater region became the settled area. In the first half of the
eighteenth century another advance occurred. Traders followed the
Delaware and Shawnese Indians to the Ohio as early as the end of the
first quarter of the century.[5:1] Gov. Spotswood, of Virginia, made an
expedition in 1714 across the Blue Ridge. The end of the first quarter
of the century saw the advance of the Scotch-Irish and the Palatine
Germans up the Shenandoah Valley into the western part of Virginia, and
along the Piedmont region of the Carolinas.[5:2] The Germans in New York
pushed the frontier of settlement up the Mohawk to German Flats.[5:3] In
Pennsylvania the town of Bedford indicates the line of settlement.
Settlements soon began on the New River, or the Great Kanawha, and on
the sources of the Yadkin and French Broad.[5:4] The King attempted to
arrest the advance by his proclamation of 1763,[5:5] forbidding
settlements beyond the sources of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic;
but in vain. In the period of the Revolution the frontier crossed the
Alleghanies into Kentucky and Tennessee, and the upper waters of the
Ohio were settled.[5:6] When the first census was taken in 1790, the
continuous settled area was bounded by a line which ran near the coast
of Maine, and included New England except a portion of Vermont and New
Hampshire, New York along the Hudson and up the Mohawk about
Schenectady, eastern and southern Pennsylvania, Virginia well across the
Shenandoah Valley, and the Carolinas and eastern Georgia.[6:1] Beyond
this region of continuous settlement were the small settled areas of
Kentucky and Tennessee, and the Ohio, with the mountains intervening
between them and the Atlantic area, thus giving a new and important
character to the frontier. The isolation of the region increased its
peculiarly American tendencies, and the need of transportation
facilities to connect it with the East called out important schemes of
internal improvement, which will be noted farther on. The "West," as a
self-conscious section, began to evolve.

From decade to decade distinct advances of the frontier occurred. By the
census of 1820[6:2] the settled area included Ohio, southern Indiana and
Illinois, southeastern Missouri, and about one-half of Louisiana. This
settled area had surrounded Indian areas, and the management of these
tribes became an object of political concern. The frontier region of the
time lay along the Great Lakes, where Astor's American Fur Company
operated in the Indian trade,[6:3] and beyond the Mississippi, where
Indian traders extended their activity even to the Rocky Mountains;
Florida also furnished frontier conditions. The Mississippi River region
was the scene of typical frontier settlements.[7:1]

The rising steam navigation[7:2] on western waters, the opening of the
Erie Canal, and the westward extension of cotton[7:3] culture added five
frontier states to the Union in this period. Grund, writing in 1836,
declares: "It appears then that the universal disposition of Americans
to emigrate to the western wilderness, in order to enlarge their
dominion over inanimate nature, is the actual result of an expansive
power which is inherent in them, and which by continually agitating all
classes of society is constantly throwing a large portion of the whole
population on the extreme confines of the State, in order to gain space
for its development. Hardly is a new State or Territory formed before
the same principle manifests itself again and gives rise to a further
emigration; and so is it destined to go on until a physical barrier must
finally obstruct its progress."[7:4]

In the middle of this century the line indicated by the present eastern
boundary of Indian Territory, Nebraska, and Kansas marked the frontier
of the Indian country.[8:1] Minnesota and Wisconsin still exhibited
frontier conditions,[8:2] but the distinctive frontier of the period is
found in California, where the gold discoveries had sent a sudden tide
of adventurous miners, and in Oregon, and the settlements in Utah.[8:3]
As the frontier had leaped over the Alleghanies, so now it skipped the
Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains; and in the same way that the
advance of the frontiersmen beyond the Alleghanies had caused the rise
of important questions of transportation and internal improvement, so
now the settlers beyond the Rocky Mountains needed means of
communication with the East, and in the furnishing of these arose the
settlement of the Great Plains and the development of still another kind
of frontier life. Railroads, fostered by land grants, sent an
increasing tide of immigrants into the Far West. The United States Army
fought a series of Indian wars in Minnesota, Dakota, and the Indian
Territory.

By 1880 the settled area had been pushed into northern Michigan,
Wisconsin, and Minnesota, along Dakota rivers, and in the Black Hills
region, and was ascending the rivers of Kansas and Nebraska. The
development of mines in Colorado had drawn isolated frontier settlements
into that region, and Montana and Idaho were receiving settlers. The
frontier was found in these mining camps and the ranches of the Great
Plains. The superintendent of the census for 1890 reports, as previously
stated, that the settlements of the West lie so scattered over the
region that there can no longer be said to be a frontier line.

In these successive frontiers we find natural boundary lines which have
served to mark and to affect the characteristics of the frontiers,
namely: the "fall line;" the Alleghany Mountains; the Mississippi; the
Missouri where its direction approximates north and south; the line of
the arid lands, approximately the ninety-ninth meridian; and the Rocky
Mountains. The fall line marked the frontier of the seventeenth century;
the Alleghanies that of the eighteenth; the Mississippi that of the
first quarter of the nineteenth; the Missouri that of the middle of this
century (omitting the California movement); and the belt of the Rocky
Mountains and the arid tract, the present frontier. Each was won by a
series of Indian wars.

At the Atlantic frontier one can study the germs of processes repeated
at each successive frontier. We have the complex European life sharply
precipitated by the wilderness into the simplicity of primitive
conditions. The first frontier had to meet its Indian question, its
question of the disposition of the public domain, of the means of
intercourse with older settlements, of the extension of political
organization, of religious and educational activity. And the settlement
of these and similar questions for one frontier served as a guide for
the next. The American student needs not to go to the "prim little
townships of Sleswick" for illustrations of the law of continuity and
development. For example, he may study the origin of our land policies
in the colonial land policy; he may see how the system grew by adapting
the statutes to the customs of the successive frontiers.[10:1] He may
see how the mining experience in the lead regions of Wisconsin,
Illinois, and Iowa was applied to the mining laws of the Sierras,[10:2]
and how our Indian policy has been a series of experimentations on
successive frontiers. Each tier of new States has found in the older
ones material for its constitutions.[10:3] Each frontier has made
similar contributions to American character, as will be discussed
farther on.

But with all these similarities there are essential differences due to
the place element and the time element. It is evident that the farming
frontier of the Mississippi Valley presents different conditions from
the mining frontier of the Rocky Mountains. The frontier reached by the
Pacific Railroad, surveyed into rectangles, guarded by the United States
Army, and recruited by the daily immigrant ship, moves forward at a
swifter pace and in a different way than the frontier reached by the
birch canoe or the pack horse. The geologist traces patiently the shores
of ancient seas, maps their areas, and compares the older and the newer.
It would be a work worth the historian's labors to mark these various
frontiers and in detail compare one with another. Not only would there
result a more adequate conception of American development and
characteristics, but invaluable additions would be made to the history
of society.

Loria,[11:1] the Italian economist, has urged the study of colonial life
as an aid in understanding the stages of European development, affirming
that colonial settlement is for economic science what the mountain is
for geology, bringing to light primitive stratifications. "America," he
says, "has the key to the historical enigma which Europe has sought for
centuries in vain, and the land which has no history reveals luminously
the course of universal history." There is much truth in this. The
United States lies like a huge page in the history of society. Line by
line as we read this continental page from West to East we find the
record of social evolution. It begins with the Indian and the hunter; it
goes on to tell of the disintegration of savagery by the entrance of the
trader, the pathfinder of civilization; we read the annals of the
pastoral stage in ranch life; the exploitation of the soil by the
raising of unrotated crops of corn and wheat in sparsely settled farming
communities; the intensive culture of the denser farm settlement; and
finally the manufacturing organization with city and factory
system.[11:2] This page is familiar to the student of census statistics,
but how little of it has been used by our historians. Particularly in
eastern States this page is a palimpsest. What is now a manufacturing
State was in an earlier decade an area of intensive farming. Earlier yet
it had been a wheat area, and still earlier the "range" had attracted
the cattle-herder. Thus Wisconsin, now developing manufacture, is a
State with varied agricultural interests. But earlier it was given over
to almost exclusive grain-raising, like North Dakota at the present
time.

Each of these areas has had an influence in our economic and political
history; the evolution of each into a higher stage has worked political
transformations. But what constitutional historian has made any adequate
attempt to interpret political facts by the light of these social areas
and changes?[12:1]

The Atlantic frontier was compounded of fisherman, fur-trader, miner,
cattle-raiser, and farmer. Excepting the fisherman, each type of
industry was on the march toward the West, impelled by an irresistible
attraction. Each passed in successive waves across the continent. Stand
at Cumberland Gap and watch the procession of civilization, marching
single file--the buffalo following the trail to the salt springs, the
Indian, the fur-trader and hunter, the cattle-raiser, the pioneer
farmer--and the frontier has passed by. Stand at South Pass in the
Rockies a century later and see the same procession with wider intervals
between. The unequal rate of advance compels us to distinguish the
frontier into the trader's frontier, the rancher's frontier, or the
miner's frontier, and the farmer's frontier. When the mines and the cow
pens were still near the fall line the traders' pack trains were
tinkling across the Alleghanies, and the French on the Great Lakes were
fortifying their posts, alarmed by the British trader's birch canoe.
When the trappers scaled the Rockies, the farmer was still near the
mouth of the Missouri.

Why was it that the Indian trader passed so rapidly across the
continent? What effects followed from the trader's frontier? The trade
was coeval with American discovery. The Norsemen, Vespuccius, Verrazani,
Hudson, John Smith, all trafficked for furs. The Plymouth pilgrims
settled in Indian cornfields, and their first return cargo was of beaver
and lumber. The records of the various New England colonies show how
steadily exploration was carried into the wilderness by this trade. What
is true for New England is, as would be expected, even plainer for the
rest of the colonies. All along the coast from Maine to Georgia the
Indian trade opened up the river courses. Steadily the trader passed
westward, utilizing the older lines of French trade. The Ohio, the Great
Lakes, the Mississippi, the Missouri, and the Platte, the lines of
western advance, were ascended by traders. They found the passes in the
Rocky Mountains and guided Lewis and Clark,[13:1] Frémont, and Bidwell.
The explanation of the rapidity of this advance is connected with the
effects of the trader on the Indian. The trading post left the unarmed
tribes at the mercy of those that had purchased fire-arms--a truth which
the Iroquois Indians wrote in blood, and so the remote and unvisited
tribes gave eager welcome to the trader. "The savages," wrote La Salle,
"take better care of us French than of their own children; from us only
can they get guns and goods." This accounts for the trader's power and
the rapidity of his advance. Thus the disintegrating forces of
civilization entered the wilderness. Every river valley and Indian trail
became a fissure in Indian society, and so that society became
honeycombed. Long before the pioneer farmer appeared on the scene,
primitive Indian life had passed away. The farmers met Indians armed
with guns. The trading frontier, while steadily undermining Indian power
by making the tribes ultimately dependent on the whites, yet, through
its sale of guns, gave to the Indian increased power of resistance to
the farming frontier. French colonization was dominated by its trading
frontier; English colonization by its farming frontier. There was an
antagonism between the two frontiers as between the two nations. Said
Duquesne to the Iroquois, "Are you ignorant of the difference between
the king of England and the king of France? Go see the forts that our
king has established and you will see that you can still hunt under
their very walls. They have been placed for your advantage in places
which you frequent. The English, on the contrary, are no sooner in
possession of a place than the game is driven away. The forest falls
before them as they advance, and the soil is laid bare so that you can
scarce find the wherewithal to erect a shelter for the night."

And yet, in spite of this opposition of the interests of the trader and
the farmer, the Indian trade pioneered the way for civilization. The
buffalo trail became the Indian trail, and this became the trader's
"trace;" the trails widened into roads, and the roads into turnpikes,
and these in turn were transformed into railroads. The same origin can
be shown for the railroads of the South, the Far West, and the Dominion
of Canada.[14:1] The trading posts reached by these trails were on the
sites of Indian villages which had been placed in positions suggested by
nature; and these trading posts, situated so as to command the water
systems of the country, have grown into such cities as Albany,
Pittsburgh, Detroit, Chicago, St. Louis, Council Bluffs, and Kansas
City. Thus civilization in America has followed the arteries made by
geology, pouring an ever richer tide through them, until at last the
slender paths of aboriginal intercourse have been broadened and
interwoven into the complex mazes of modern commercial lines; the
wilderness has been interpenetrated by lines of civilization growing
ever more numerous. It is like the steady growth of a complex nervous
system for the originally simple, inert continent. If one would
understand why we are to-day one nation, rather than a collection of
isolated states, he must study this economic and social consolidation of
the country. In this progress from savage conditions lie topics for the
evolutionist.[15:1]

The effect of the Indian frontier as a consolidating agent in our
history is important. From the close of the seventeenth century various
intercolonial congresses have been called to treat with Indians and
establish common measures of defense. Particularism was strongest in
colonies with no Indian frontier. This frontier stretched along the
western border like a cord of union. The Indian was a common danger,
demanding united action. Most celebrated of these conferences was the
Albany congress of 1754, called to treat with the Six Nations, and to
consider plans of union. Even a cursory reading of the plan proposed by
the congress reveals the importance of the frontier. The powers of the
general council and the officers were, chiefly, the determination of
peace and war with the Indians, the regulation of Indian trade, the
purchase of Indian lands, and the creation and government of new
settlements as a security against the Indians. It is evident that the
unifying tendencies of the Revolutionary period were facilitated by the
previous coöperation in the regulation of the frontier. In this
connection may be mentioned the importance of the frontier, from that
day to this, as a military training school, keeping alive the power of
resistance to aggression, and developing the stalwart and rugged
qualities of the frontiersman.

It would not be possible in the limits of this paper to trace the other
frontiers across the continent. Travelers of the eighteenth century
found the "cowpens" among the canebrakes and peavine pastures of the
South, and the "cow drivers" took their droves to Charleston,
Philadelphia, and New York.[16:1] Travelers at the close of the War of
1812 met droves of more than a thousand cattle and swine from the
interior of Ohio going to Pennsylvania to fatten for the Philadelphia
market.[16:2] The ranges of the Great Plains, with ranch and cowboy and
nomadic life, are things of yesterday and of to-day. The experience of
the Carolina cowpens guided the ranchers of Texas. One element favoring
the rapid extension of the rancher's frontier is the fact that in a
remote country lacking transportation facilities the product must be in
small bulk, or must be able to transport itself, and the cattle raiser
could easily drive his product to market. The effect of these great
ranches on the subsequent agrarian history of the localities in which
they existed should be studied.

The maps of the census reports show an uneven advance of the farmer's
frontier, with tongues of settlement pushed forward and with
indentations of wilderness. In part this is due to Indian resistance, in
part to the location of river valleys and passes, in part to the unequal
force of the centers of frontier attraction. Among the important centers
of attraction may be mentioned the following: fertile and favorably
situated soils, salt springs, mines, and army posts.

The frontier army post, serving to protect the settlers from the
Indians, has also acted as a wedge to open the Indian country, and has
been a nucleus for settlement.[16:3] In this connection mention should
also be made of the government military and exploring expeditions in
determining the lines of settlement. But all the more important
expeditions were greatly indebted to the earliest pathmakers, the Indian
guides, the traders and trappers, and the French voyageurs, who were
inevitable parts of governmental expeditions from the days of Lewis and
Clark.[17:1] Each expedition was an epitome of the previous factors in
western advance.

In an interesting monograph, Victor Hehn[17:2] has traced the effect of
salt upon early European development, and has pointed out how it
affected the lines of settlement and the form of administration. A
similar study might be made for the salt springs of the United States.
The early settlers were tied to the coast by the need of salt, without
which they could not preserve their meats or live in comfort. Writing in
1752, Bishop Spangenburg says of a colony for which he was seeking lands
in North Carolina, "They will require salt & other necessaries which
they can neither manufacture nor raise. Either they must go to
Charleston, which is 300 miles distant . . . Or else they must go to
Boling's Point in V{a} on a branch of the James & is also 300 miles from
here. . . Or else they must go down the Roanoke--I know not how many
miles--where salt is brought up from the Cape Fear."[17:3] This may
serve as a typical illustration. An annual pilgrimage to the coast for
salt thus became essential. Taking flocks or furs and ginseng root, the
early settlers sent their pack trains after seeding time each year to
the coast.[17:4] This proved to be an important educational influence,
since it was almost the only way in which the pioneer learned what was
going on in the East. But when discovery was made of the salt springs of
the Kanawha, and the Holston, and Kentucky, and central New York, the
West began to be freed from dependence on the coast. It was in part the
effect of finding these salt springs that enabled settlement to cross
the mountains.

From the time the mountains rose between the pioneer and the seaboard, a
new order of Americanism arose. The West and the East began to get out
of touch of each other. The settlements from the sea to the mountains
kept connection with the rear and had a certain solidarity. But the
over-mountain men grew more and more independent. The East took a narrow
view of American advance, and nearly lost these men. Kentucky and
Tennessee history bears abundant witness to the truth of this statement.
The East began to try to hedge and limit westward expansion. Though
Webster could declare that there were no Alleghanies in his politics,
yet in politics in general they were a very solid factor.

The exploitation of the beasts took hunter and trader to the west, the
exploitation of the grasses took the rancher west, and the exploitation
of the virgin soil of the river valleys and prairies attracted the
farmer. Good soils have been the most continuous attraction to the
farmer's frontier. The land hunger of the Virginians drew them down the
rivers into Carolina, in early colonial days; the search for soils took
the Massachusetts men to Pennsylvania and to New York. As the eastern
lands were taken up migration flowed across them to the west. Daniel
Boone, the great backwoodsman, who combined the occupations of hunter,
trader, cattle-raiser, farmer, and surveyor--learning, probably from the
traders, of the fertility of the lands of the upper Yadkin, where the
traders were wont to rest as they took their way to the Indians, left
his Pennsylvania home with his father, and passed down the Great Valley
road to that stream. Learning from a trader of the game and rich
pastures of Kentucky, he pioneered the way for the farmers to that
region. Thence he passed to the frontier of Missouri, where his
settlement was long a landmark on the frontier. Here again he helped to
open the way for civilization, finding salt licks, and trails, and land.
His son was among the earliest trappers in the passes of the Rocky
Mountains, and his party are said to have been the first to camp on the
present site of Denver. His grandson, Col. A. J. Boone, of Colorado, was
a power among the Indians of the Rocky Mountains, and was appointed an
agent by the government. Kit Carson's mother was a Boone.[19:1] Thus
this family epitomizes the backwoodsman's advance across the continent.

The farmer's advance came in a distinct series of waves. In Peck's New
Guide to the West, published in Boston in 1837, occurs this suggestive
passage:

     Generally, in all the western settlements, three classes, like
     the waves of the ocean, have rolled one after the other. First
     comes the pioneer, who depends for the subsistence of his
     family chiefly upon the natural growth of vegetation, called
     the "range," and the proceeds of hunting. His implements of
     agriculture are rude, chiefly of his own make, and his efforts
     directed mainly to a crop of corn and a "truck patch." The
     last is a rude garden for growing cabbage, beans, corn for
     roasting ears, cucumbers, and potatoes. A log cabin, and,
     occasionally, a stable and corn-crib, and a field of a dozen
     acres, the timber girdled or "deadened," and fenced, are
     enough for his occupancy. It is quite immaterial whether he
     ever becomes the owner of the soil. He is the occupant for
     the time being, pays no rent, and feels as independent as the
     "lord of the manor." With a horse, cow, and one or two
     breeders of swine, he strikes into the woods with his family,
     and becomes the founder of a new county, or perhaps state. He
     builds his cabin, gathers around him a few other families of
     similar tastes and habits, and occupies till the range is
     somewhat subdued, and hunting a little precarious, or, which
     is more frequently the case, till the neighbors crowd around,
     roads, bridges, and fields annoy him, and he lacks elbow room.
     The preëmption law enables him to dispose of his cabin and
     cornfield to the next class of emigrants; and, to employ his
     own figures, he "breaks for the high timber," "clears out for
     the New Purchase," or migrates to Arkansas or Texas, to work
     the same process over.

     The next class of emigrants purchase the lands, add field to
     field, clear out the roads, throw rough bridges over the
     streams, put up hewn log houses with glass windows and brick
     or stone chimneys, occasionally plant orchards, build mills,
     school-houses, court-houses, etc., and exhibit the picture and
     forms of plain, frugal, civilized life.

     Another wave rolls on. The men of capital and enterprise come.
     The settler is ready to sell out and take the advantage of the
     rise in property, push farther into the interior and become,
     himself, a man of capital and enterprise in turn. The small
     village rises to a spacious town or city; substantial edifices
     of brick, extensive fields, orchards, gardens, colleges, and
     churches are seen. Broadcloths, silks, leghorns, crapes, and
     all the refinements, luxuries, elegancies, frivolities, and
     fashions are in vogue. Thus wave after wave is rolling
     westward; the real Eldorado is still farther on.

     A portion of the two first classes remain stationary amidst
     the general movement, improve their habits and condition, and
     rise in the scale of society.

     The writer has traveled much amongst the first class, the real
     pioneers. He has lived many years in connection with the
     second grade; and now the third wave is sweeping over large
     districts of Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. Migration has
     become almost a habit in the West. Hundreds of men can be
     found, not over 50 years of age, who have settled for the
     fourth, fifth, or sixth time on a new spot. To sell out and
     remove only a few hundred miles makes up a portion of the
     variety of backwoods life and manners.[21:1]

Omitting those of the pioneer farmers who move from the love of
adventure, the advance of the more steady farmer is easy to understand.
Obviously the immigrant was attracted by the cheap lands of the
frontier, and even the native farmer felt their influence strongly. Year
by year the farmers who lived on soil whose returns were diminished by
unrotated crops were offered the virgin soil of the frontier at nominal
prices. Their growing families demanded more lands, and these were dear.
The competition of the unexhausted, cheap, and easily tilled prairie
lands compelled the farmer either to go west and continue the exhaustion
of the soil on a new frontier, or to adopt intensive culture. Thus the
census of 1890 shows, in the Northwest, many counties in which there is
an absolute or a relative decrease of population. These States have been
sending farmers to advance the frontier on the plains, and have
themselves begun to turn to intensive farming and to manufacture. A
decade before this, Ohio had shown the same transition stage. Thus the
demand for land and the love of wilderness freedom drew the frontier
ever onward.

Having now roughly outlined the various kinds of frontiers, and their
modes of advance, chiefly from the point of view of the frontier itself,
we may next inquire what were the influences on the East and on the Old
World. A rapid enumeration of some of the more noteworthy effects is all
that I have time for.

First, we note that the frontier promoted the formation of a composite
nationality for the American people. The coast was preponderantly
English, but the later tides of continental immigration flowed across to
the free lands. This was the case from the early colonial days. The
Scotch-Irish and the Palatine Germans, or "Pennsylvania Dutch,"
furnished the dominant element in the stock of the colonial frontier.
With these peoples were also the freed indented servants, or
redemptioners, who at the expiration of their time of service passed to
the frontier. Governor Spotswood of Virginia writes in 1717, "The
inhabitants of our frontiers are composed generally of such as have been
transported hither as servants, and, being out of their time, settle
themselves where land is to be taken up and that will produce the
necessarys of life with little labour."[22:1] Very generally these
redemptioners were of non-English stock. In the crucible of the
frontier the immigrants were Americanized, liberated, and fused into a
mixed race, English in neither nationality nor characteristics. The
process has gone on from the early days to our own. Burke and other
writers in the middle of the eighteenth century believed that
Pennsylvania[23:1] was "threatened with the danger of being wholly
foreign in language, manners, and perhaps even inclinations." The German
and Scotch-Irish elements in the frontier of the South were only less
great. In the middle of the present century the German element in
Wisconsin was already so considerable that leading publicists looked to
the creation of a German state out of the commonwealth by concentrating
their colonization.[23:2] Such examples teach us to beware of
misinterpreting the fact that there is a common English speech in
America into a belief that the stock is also English.

In another way the advance of the frontier decreased our dependence on
England. The coast, particularly of the South, lacked diversified
industries, and was dependent on England for the bulk of its supplies.
In the South there was even a dependence on the Northern colonies for
articles of food. Governor Glenn, of South Carolina, writes in the
middle of the eighteenth century: "Our trade with New York and
Philadelphia was of this sort, draining us of all the little money and
bills we could gather from other places for their bread, flour, beer,
hams, bacon, and other things of their produce, all which, except beer,
our new townships begin to supply us with, which are settled with very
industrious and thriving Germans. This no doubt diminishes the number of
shipping and the appearance of our trade, but it is far from being a
detriment to us."[23:3]

Before long the frontier created a demand for merchants. As it
retreated from the coast it became less and less possible for England to
bring her supplies directly to the consumer's wharfs, and carry away
staple crops, and staple crops began to give way to diversified
agriculture for a time. The effect of this phase of the frontier action
upon the northern section is perceived when we realize how the advance
of the frontier aroused seaboard cities like Boston, New York, and
Baltimore, to engage in rivalry for what Washington called "the
extensive and valuable trade of a rising empire."

The legislation which most developed the powers of the national
government, and played the largest part in its activity, was conditioned
on the frontier. Writers have discussed the subjects of tariff, land,
and internal improvement, as subsidiary to the slavery question. But
when American history comes to be rightly viewed it will be seen that
the slavery question is an incident. In the period from the end of the
first half of the present century to the close of the Civil War slavery
rose to primary, but far from exclusive, importance. But this does not
justify Dr. von Holst (to take an example) in treating our
constitutional history in its formative period down to 1828 in a single
volume, giving six volumes chiefly to the history of slavery from 1828
to 1861, under the title "Constitutional History of the United States."
The growth of nationalism and the evolution of American political
institutions were dependent on the advance of the frontier. Even so
recent a writer as Rhodes, in his "History of the United States since
the Compromise of 1850," has treated the legislation called out by the
western advance as incidental to the slavery struggle.

This is a wrong perspective. The pioneer needed the goods of the coast,
and so the grand series of internal improvement and railroad legislation
began, with potent nationalizing effects. Over internal improvements
occurred great debates, in which grave constitutional questions were
discussed. Sectional groupings appear in the votes, profoundly
significant for the historian. Loose construction increased as the
nation marched westward.[25:1] But the West was not content with
bringing the farm to the factory. Under the lead of Clay--"Harry of the
West"--protective tariffs were passed, with the cry of bringing the
factory to the farm. The disposition of the public lands was a third
important subject of national legislation influenced by the frontier.

The public domain has been a force of profound importance in the
nationalization and development of the government. The effects of the
struggle of the landed and the landless States, and of the Ordinance of
1787, need no discussion.[25:2] Administratively the frontier called out
some of the highest and most vitalizing activities of the general
government. The purchase of Louisiana was perhaps the constitutional
turning point in the history of the Republic, inasmuch as it afforded
both a new area for national legislation and the occasion of the
downfall of the policy of strict construction. But the purchase of
Louisiana was called out by frontier needs and demands. As frontier
States accrued to the Union the national power grew. In a speech on the
dedication of the Calhoun monument Mr. Lamar explained: "In 1789 the
States were the creators of the Federal Government; in 1861 the Federal
Government was the creator of a large majority of the States."

When we consider the public domain from the point of view of the sale
and disposal of the public lands we are again brought face to face with
the frontier. The policy of the United States in dealing with its lands
is in sharp contrast with the European system of scientific
administration. Efforts to make this domain a source of revenue, and to
withhold it from emigrants in order that settlement might be compact,
were in vain. The jealousy and the fears of the East were powerless in
the face of the demands of the frontiersmen. John Quincy Adams was
obliged to confess: "My own system of administration, which was to make
the national domain the inexhaustible fund for progressive and unceasing
internal improvement, has failed." The reason is obvious; a system of
administration was not what the West demanded; it wanted land. Adams
states the situation as follows: "The slaveholders of the South have
bought the coöperation of the western country by the bribe of the
western lands, abandoning to the new Western States their own proportion
of the public property and aiding them in the design of grasping all the
lands into their own hands." Thomas H. Benton was the author of this
system, which he brought forward as a substitute for the American system
of Mr. Clay, and to supplant him as the leading statesman of the West.
Mr. Clay, by his tariff compromise with Mr. Calhoun, abandoned his own
American system. At the same time he brought forward a plan for
distributing among all the States of the Union the proceeds of the sales
of the public lands. His bill for that purpose passed both Houses of
Congress, but was vetoed by President Jackson, who, in his annual
message of December, 1832, formally recommended that all public lands
should be gratuitously given away to individual adventurers and to the
States in which the lands are situated.[26:1]

"No subject," said Henry Clay, "which has presented itself to the
present, or perhaps any preceding, Congress, is of greater magnitude
than that of the public lands." When we consider the far-reaching
effects of the government's land policy upon political, economic, and
social aspects of American life, we are disposed to agree with him. But
this legislation was framed under frontier influences, and under the
lead of Western statesmen like Benton and Jackson. Said Senator Scott of
Indiana in 1841: "I consider the preëmption law merely declaratory of
the custom or common law of the settlers."

It is safe to say that the legislation with regard to land, tariff, and
internal improvements--the American system of the nationalizing Whig
party--was conditioned on frontier ideas and needs. But it was not
merely in legislative action that the frontier worked against the
sectionalism of the coast. The economic and social characteristics of
the frontier worked against sectionalism. The men of the frontier had
closer resemblances to the Middle region than to either of the other
sections. Pennsylvania had been the seed-plot of frontier emigration,
and, although she passed on her settlers along the Great Valley into the
west of Virginia and the Carolinas, yet the industrial society of these
Southern frontiersmen was always more like that of the Middle region
than like that of the tide-water portion of the South, which later came
to spread its industrial type throughout the South.

The Middle region, entered by New York harbor, was an open door to all
Europe. The tide-water part of the South represented typical Englishmen,
modified by a warm climate and servile labor, and living in baronial
fashion on great plantations; New England stood for a special English
movement--Puritanism. The Middle region was less English than the other
sections. It had a wide mixture of nationalities, a varied society, the
mixed town and county system of local government, a varied economic
life, many religious sects. In short, it was a region mediating between
New England and the South, and the East and the West. It represented
that composite nationality which the contemporary United States
exhibits, that juxtaposition of non-English groups, occupying a valley
or a little settlement, and presenting reflections of the map of Europe
in their variety. It was democratic and nonsectional, if not national;
"easy, tolerant, and contented;" rooted strongly in material prosperity.
It was typical of the modern United States. It was least sectional, not
only because it lay between North and South, but also because with no
barriers to shut out its frontiers from its settled region, and with a
system of connecting waterways, the Middle region mediated between East
and West as well as between North and South. Thus it became the
typically American region. Even the New Englander, who was shut out from
the frontier by the Middle region, tarrying in New York or Pennsylvania
on his westward march, lost the acuteness of his sectionalism on the
way.[28:1]

The spread of cotton culture into the interior of the South finally
broke down the contrast between the "tide-water" region and the rest of
the State, and based Southern interests on slavery. Before this process
revealed its results the western portion of the South, which was akin to
Pennsylvania in stock, society, and industry, showed tendencies to fall
away from the faith of the fathers into internal improvement legislation
and nationalism. In the Virginia convention of 1829-30, called to revise
the constitution, Mr. Leigh, of Chesterfield, one of the tide-water
counties, declared:

     One of the main causes of discontent which led to this
     convention, that which had the strongest influence in
     overcoming our veneration for the work of our fathers, which
     taught us to contemn the sentiments of Henry and Mason and
     Pendleton, which weaned us from our reverence for the
     constituted authorities of the State, was an overweening
     passion for internal improvement. I say this with perfect
     knowledge, for it has been avowed to me by gentlemen from the
     West over and over again. And let me tell the gentleman from
     Albemarle (Mr. Gordon) that it has been another principal
     object of those who set this ball of revolution in motion, to
     overturn the doctrine of State rights, of which Virginia has
     been the very pillar, and to remove the barrier she has
     interposed to the interference of the Federal Government in
     that same work of internal improvement, by so reorganizing the
     legislature that Virginia, too, may be hitched to the Federal
     car.

It was this nationalizing tendency of the West that transformed the
democracy of Jefferson into the national republicanism of Monroe and the
democracy of Andrew Jackson. The West of the War of 1812, the West of
Clay, and Benton and Harrison, and Andrew Jackson, shut off by the
Middle States and the mountains from the coast sections, had a
solidarity of its own with national tendencies.[29:1] On the tide of the
Father of Waters, North and South met and mingled into a nation.
Interstate migration went steadily on--a process of cross-fertilization
of ideas and institutions. The fierce struggle of the sections over
slavery on the western frontier does not diminish the truth of this
statement; it proves the truth of it. Slavery was a sectional trait that
would not down, but in the West it could not remain sectional. It was
the greatest of frontiersmen who declared: "I believe this Government
can not endure permanently half slave and half free. It will become all
of one thing or all of the other." Nothing works for nationalism like
intercourse within the nation. Mobility of population is death to
localism, and the western frontier worked irresistibly in unsettling
population. The effect reached back from the frontier and affected
profoundly the Atlantic coast and even the Old World.

But the most important effect of the frontier has been in the promotion
of democracy here and in Europe. As has been indicated, the frontier is
productive of individualism. Complex society is precipitated by the
wilderness into a kind of primitive organization based on the family.
The tendency is anti-social. It produces antipathy to control, and
particularly to any direct control. The tax-gatherer is viewed as a
representative of oppression. Prof. Osgood, in an able article,[30:1]
has pointed out that the frontier conditions prevalent in the colonies
are important factors in the explanation of the American Revolution,
where individual liberty was sometimes confused with absence of all
effective government. The same conditions aid in explaining the
difficulty of instituting a strong government in the period of the
confederacy. The frontier individualism has from the beginning promoted
democracy.

The frontier States that came into the Union in the first quarter of a
century of its existence came in with democratic suffrage provisions,
and had reactive effects of the highest importance upon the older States
whose peoples were being attracted there. An extension of the franchise
became essential. It was _western_ New York that forced an extension of
suffrage in the constitutional convention of that State in 1821; and it
was _western_ Virginia that compelled the tide-water region to put a
more liberal suffrage provision in the constitution framed in 1830, and
to give to the frontier region a more nearly proportionate
representation with the tide-water aristocracy. The rise of democracy as
an effective force in the nation came in with western preponderance
under Jackson and William Henry Harrison, and it meant the triumph of
the frontier--with all of its good and with all of its evil
elements.[31:1] An interesting illustration of the tone of frontier
democracy in 1830 comes from the same debates in the Virginia convention
already referred to. A representative from western Virginia declared:

     But, sir, it is not the increase of population in the West
     which this gentleman ought to fear. It is the energy which the
     mountain breeze and western habits impart to those emigrants.
     They are regenerated, politically I mean, sir. They soon
     become _working politicians_; and the difference, sir, between
     a _talking_ and a _working_ politician is immense. The Old
     Dominion has long been celebrated for producing great orators;
     the ablest metaphysicians in policy; men that can split hairs
     in all abstruse questions of political economy. But at home,
     or when they return from Congress, they have negroes to fan
     them asleep. But a Pennsylvania, a New York, an Ohio, or a
     western Virginia statesman, though far inferior in logic,
     metaphysics, and rhetoric to an old Virginia statesman, has
     this advantage, that when he returns home he takes off his
     coat and takes hold of the plow. This gives him bone and
     muscle, sir, and preserves his republican principles pure and
     uncontaminated.

So long as free land exists, the opportunity for a competency exists,
and economic power secures political power. But the democracy born of
free land, strong in selfishness and individualism, intolerant of
administrative experience and education, and pressing individual liberty
beyond its proper bounds, has its dangers as well as its benefits.
Individualism in America has allowed a laxity in regard to governmental
affairs which has rendered possible the spoils system and all the
manifest evils that follow from the lack of a highly developed civic
spirit. In this connection may be noted also the influence of frontier
conditions in permitting lax business honor, inflated paper currency and
wild-cat banking. The colonial and revolutionary frontier was the region
whence emanated many of the worst forms of an evil currency.[32:1] The
West in the War of 1812 repeated the phenomenon on the frontier of that
day, while the speculation and wild-cat banking of the period of the
crisis of 1837 occurred on the new frontier belt of the next tier of
States. Thus each one of the periods of lax financial integrity
coincides with periods when a new set of frontier communities had
arisen, and coincides in area with these successive frontiers, for the
most part. The recent Populist agitation is a case in point. Many a
State that now declines any connection with the tenets of the Populists,
itself adhered to such ideas in an earlier stage of the development of
the State. A primitive society can hardly be expected to show the
intelligent appreciation of the complexity of business interests in a
developed society. The continual recurrence of these areas of
paper-money agitation is another evidence that the frontier can be
isolated and studied as a factor in American history of the highest
importance.[32:2]

The East has always feared the result of an unregulated advance of the
frontier, and has tried to check and guide it. The English authorities
would have checked settlement at the headwaters of the Atlantic
tributaries and allowed the "savages to enjoy their deserts in quiet
lest the peltry trade should decrease." This called out Burke's splendid
protest:

     If you stopped your grants, what would be the consequence? The
     people would occupy without grants. They have already so
     occupied in many places. You can not station garrisons in
     every part of these deserts. If you drive the people from one
     place, they will carry on their annual tillage and remove with
     their flocks and herds to another. Many of the people in the
     back settlements are already little attached to particular
     situations. Already they have topped the Appalachian
     Mountains. From thence they behold before them an immense
     plain, one vast, rich, level meadow; a square of five hundred
     miles. Over this they would wander without a possibility of
     restraint; they would change their manners with their habits
     of life; would soon forget a government by which they were
     disowned; would become hordes of English Tartars; and, pouring
     down upon your unfortified frontiers a fierce and irresistible
     cavalry, become masters of your governors and your
     counselers, your collectors and comptrollers, and of all the
     slaves that adhered to them. Such would, and in no long time
     must, be the effect of attempting to forbid as a crime and to
     suppress as an evil the command and blessing of Providence,
     "Increase and multiply." Such would be the happy result of an
     endeavor to keep as a lair of wild beasts that earth which
     God, by an express charter, has given to the children of men.

But the English Government was not alone in its desire to limit the
advance of the frontier and guide its destinies. Tidewater
Virginia[34:1] and South Carolina[34:2] gerrymandered those colonies to
insure the dominance of the coast in their legislatures. Washington
desired to settle a State at a time in the Northwest; Jefferson would
reserve from settlement the territory of his Louisiana Purchase north of
the thirty-second parallel, in order to offer it to the Indians in
exchange for their settlements east of the Mississippi. "When we shall
be full on this side," he writes, "we may lay off a range of States on
the western bank from the head to the mouth, and so range after range,
advancing compactly as we multiply." Madison went so far as to argue to
the French minister that the United States had no interest in seeing
population extend itself on the right bank of the Mississippi, but
should rather fear it. When the Oregon question was under debate, in
1824, Smyth, of Virginia, would draw an unchangeable line for the limits
of the United States at the outer limit of two tiers of States beyond
the Mississippi, complaining that the seaboard States were being drained
of the flower of their population by the bringing of too much land into
market. Even Thomas Benton, the man of widest views of the destiny of
the West, at this stage of his career declared that along the ridge of
the Rocky mountains "the western limits of the Republic should be drawn,
and the statue of the fabled god Terminus should be raised upon its
highest peak, never to be thrown down."[35:1] But the attempts to limit
the boundaries, to restrict land sales and settlement, and to deprive
the West of its share of political power were all in vain. Steadily the
frontier of settlement advanced and carried with it individualism,
democracy, and nationalism, and powerfully affected the East and the Old
World.

The most effective efforts of the East to regulate the frontier came
through its educational and religious activity, exerted by interstate
migration and by organized societies. Speaking in 1835, Dr. Lyman
Beecher declared: "It is equally plain that the religious and political
destiny of our nation is to be decided in the West," and he pointed out
that the population of the West "is assembled from all the States of the
Union and from all the nations of Europe, and is rushing in like the
waters of the flood, demanding for its moral preservation the immediate
and universal action of those institutions which discipline the mind and
arm the conscience and the heart. And so various are the opinions and
habits, and so recent and imperfect is the acquaintance, and so sparse
are the settlements of the West, that no homogeneous public sentiment
can be formed to legislate immediately into being the requisite
institutions. And yet they are all needed immediately in their utmost
perfection and power. A nation is being 'born in a day.' . . . But what
will become of the West if her prosperity rushes up to such a majesty of
power, while those great institutions linger which are necessary to form
the mind and the conscience and the heart of that vast world. It must
not be permitted. . . . Let no man at the East quiet himself and dream
of liberty, whatever may become of the West. . . . Her destiny is our
destiny."[36:1]

With the appeal to the conscience of New England, he adds appeals to her
fears lest other religious sects anticipate her own. The New England
preacher and school-teacher left their mark on the West. The dread of
Western emancipation from New England's political and economic control
was paralleled by her fears lest the West cut loose from her religion.
Commenting in 1850 on reports that settlement was rapidly extending
northward in Wisconsin, the editor of the _Home Missionary_ writes: "We
scarcely know whether to rejoice or mourn over this extension of our
settlements. While we sympathize in whatever tends to increase the
physical resources and prosperity of our country, we can not forget that
with all these dispersions into remote and still remoter corners of the
land the supply of the means of grace is becoming relatively less and
less." Acting in accordance with such ideas, home missions were
established and Western colleges were erected. As seaboard cities like
Philadelphia, New York, and Baltimore strove for the mastery of Western
trade, so the various denominations strove for the possession of the
West. Thus an intellectual stream from New England sources fertilized
the West. Other sections sent their missionaries; but the real struggle
was between sects. The contest for power and the expansive tendency
furnished to the various sects by the existence of a moving frontier
must have had important results on the character of religious
organization in the United States. The multiplication of rival churches
in the little frontier towns had deep and lasting social effects. The
religious aspects of the frontier make a chapter in our history which
needs study.

From the conditions of frontier life came intellectual traits of
profound importance. The works of travelers along each frontier from
colonial days onward describe certain common traits, and these traits
have, while softening down, still persisted as survivals in the place of
their origin, even when a higher social organization succeeded. The
result is that to the frontier the American intellect owes its striking
characteristics. That coarseness and strength combined with acuteness
and inquisitiveness; that practical, inventive turn of mind, quick to
find expedients; that masterful grasp of material things, lacking in the
artistic but powerful to effect great ends; that restless, nervous
energy;[37:1] that dominant individualism, working for good and for
evil, and withal that buoyancy and exuberance which comes with
freedom--these are traits of the frontier, or traits called out
elsewhere because of the existence of the frontier. Since the days when
the fleet of Columbus sailed into the waters of the New World, America
has been another name for opportunity, and the people of the United
States have taken their tone from the incessant expansion which has not
only been open but has even been forced upon them. He would be a rash
prophet who should assert that the expansive character of American life
has now entirely ceased. Movement has been its dominant fact, and,
unless this training has no effect upon a people, the American energy
will continually demand a wider field for its exercise. But never again
will such gifts of free land offer themselves. For a moment, at the
frontier, the bonds of custom are broken and unrestraint is triumphant.
There is not _tabula rasa_. The stubborn American environment is there
with its imperious summons to accept its conditions; the inherited ways
of doing things are also there; and yet, in spite of environment, and in
spite of custom, each frontier did indeed furnish a new field of
opportunity, a gate of escape from the bondage of the past; and
freshness, and confidence, and scorn of older society, impatience of its
restraints and its ideas, and indifference to its lessons, have
accompanied the frontier. What the Mediterranean Sea was to the Greeks,
breaking the bond of custom, offering new experiences, calling out new
institutions and activities, that, and more, the ever retreating
frontier has been to the United States directly, and to the nations of
Europe more remotely. And now, four centuries from the discovery of
America, at the end of a hundred years of life under the Constitution,
the frontier has gone, and with its going has closed the first period of
American history.


FOOTNOTES:

[1:1] A paper read at the meeting of the American Historical Association
in Chicago, July 12, 1893. It first appeared in the Proceedings of the
State Historical Society of Wisconsin, December 14, 1893, with the
following note: "The foundation of this paper is my article entitled
'Problems in American History,' which appeared in _The Ægis_, a
publication of the students of the University of Wisconsin, November 4,
1892. . . . It is gratifying to find that Professor Woodrow
Wilson--whose volume on 'Division and Reunion' in the Epochs of American
History Series, has an appreciative estimate of the importance of the
West as a factor in American history--accepts some of the views set
forth in the papers above mentioned, and enhances their value by his
lucid and suggestive treatment of them in his article in _The Forum_,
December, 1893, reviewing Goldwin Smith's 'History of the United
States.'" The present text is that of the _Report of the American
Historical Association_ for 1893, 199-227. It was printed with additions
in the _Fifth Year Book of the National Herbart Society_, and in various
other publications.

[2:1] "Abridgment of Debates of Congress," v, p. 706.

[5:1] Bancroft (1860 ed.), iii, pp. 344, 345, citing Logan MSS.;
[Mitchell] "Contest in America," etc. (1752), p. 237.

[5:2] Kercheval, "History of the Valley"; Bernheim, "German Settlements
in the Carolinas"; Winsor, "Narrative and Critical History of America,"
v, p. 304; Colonial Records of North Carolina, iv, p. xx; Weston,
"Documents Connected with the History of South Carolina," p. 82; Ellis
and Evans, "History of Lancaster County, Pa.," chs. iii, xxvi.

[5:3] Parkman, "Pontiac," ii; Griffis, "Sir William Johnson," p. 6;
Simms's "Frontiersmen of New York."

[5:4] Monette, "Mississippi Valley," i, p. 311.

[5:5] Wis. Hist. Cols., xi, p. 50; Hinsdale, "Old Northwest," p. 121;
Burke, "Oration on Conciliation," Works (1872 ed.), i, p. 473.

[5:6] Roosevelt, "Winning of the West," and citations there given;
Cutler's "Life of Cutler."

[6:1] Scribner's Statistical Atlas, xxxviii, pl. 13; McMaster, "Hist. of
People of U. S.," i, pp. 4, 60, 61; Imlay and Filson, "Western Territory
of America" (London, 1793); Rochefoucault-Liancourt, "Travels Through
the United States of North America" (London, 1799); Michaux's "Journal,"
in _Proceedings American Philosophical Society_, xxvi, No. 129; Forman,
"Narrative of a Journey Down the Ohio and Mississippi in 1780-'90"
(Cincinnati, 1888); Bartram, "Travels Through North Carolina," etc.
(London, 1792); Pope, "Tour Through the Southern and Western
Territories," etc. (Richmond, 1792); Weld, "Travels Through the States
of North America" (London, 1799); Baily, "Journal of a Tour in the
Unsettled States of North America, 1796-'97" (London, 1856);
Pennsylvania Magazine of History, July, 1886; Winsor, "Narrative and
Critical History of America," vii, pp. 491, 492, citations.

[6:2] Scribner's Statistical Atlas, xxxix.

[6:3] Turner, "Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wisconsin"
(Johns Hopkins University Studies, Series ix), pp. 61 ff.

[7:1] Monette, "History of the Mississippi Valley," ii; Flint, "Travels
and Residence in Mississippi," Flint, "Geography and History of the
Western States," "Abridgment of Debates of Congress," vii, pp. 397, 398,
404; Holmes, "Account of the U. S."; Kingdom, "America and the British
Colonies" (London, 1820); Grund, "Americans," ii, chs. i, iii, vi
(although writing in 1836, he treats of conditions that grew out of
western advance from the era of 1820 to that time); Peck, "Guide for
Emigrants" (Boston, 1831); Darby, "Emigrants' Guide to Western and
Southwestern States and Territories"; Dana, "Geographical Sketches in
the Western Country"; Kinzie, "Waubun"; Keating, "Narrative of Long's
Expedition"; Schoolcraft, "Discovery of the Sources of the Mississippi
River," "Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley," and
"Lead Mines of the Missouri"; Andreas, "History of Illinois," i, 86-99;
Hurlbut, "Chicago Antiquities"; McKenney, "Tour to the Lakes"; Thomas,
"Travels Through the Western Country," etc. (Auburn, N. Y., 1819).

[7:2] Darby, "Emigrants' Guide," pp. 272 ff; Benton, "Abridgment of
Debates," vii, p. 397.

[7:3] De Bow's _Review_, iv, p. 254; xvii, p. 428.

[7:4] Grund, "Americans," ii, p. 8.

[8:1] Peck, "New Guide to the West" (Cincinnati, 1848), ch. iv; Parkman,
"Oregon Trail"; Hall, "The West" (Cincinnati, 1848); Pierce, "Incidents
of Western Travel"; Murray, "Travels in North America"; Lloyd,
"Steamboat Directory" (Cincinnati, 1856); "Forty Days in a Western
Hotel" (Chicago), in _Putnam's Magazine_, December, 1894; Mackay, "The
Western World," ii, ch. ii, iii; Meeker, "Life in the West"; Bogen,
"German in America" (Boston, 1851); Olmstead, "Texas Journey"; Greeley,
"Recollections of a Busy Life"; Schouler, "History of the United
States," v, 261-267; Peyton, "Over the Alleghanies and Across the
Prairies" (London, 1870); Loughborough, "The Pacific Telegraph and
Railway" (St. Louis, 1849); Whitney, "Project for a Railroad to the
Pacific" (New York, 1849); Peyton, "Suggestions on Railroad
Communication with the Pacific, and the Trade of China and the Indian
Islands"; Benton, "Highway to the Pacific" (a speech delivered in the U.
S. Senate, December 16, 1850).

[8:2] A writer in _The Home Missionary_ (1850), p. 239, reporting
Wisconsin conditions, exclaims: "Think of this, people of the
enlightened East. What an example, to come from the very frontier of
civilization!" But one of the missionaries writes: "In a few years
Wisconsin will no longer be considered as the West, or as an outpost of
civilization, any more than Western New York, or the Western Reserve."

[8:3] Bancroft (H. H.), "History of California," "History of Oregon,"
and "Popular Tribunals"; Shinn, "Mining Camps."

[10:1] See the suggestive paper by Prof. Jesse Macy, "The Institutional
Beginnings of a Western State."

[10:2] Shinn, "Mining Camps."

[10:3] Compare Thorpe, in _Annals American Academy of Political and
Social Science_, September, 1891; Bryce, "American Commonwealth" (1888),
ii, p. 689.

[11:1] Loria, Analisi della Proprieta Capitalista, ii, p. 15.

[11:2] Compare "Observations on the North American Land Company,"
London, 1796, pp. xv, 144; Logan, "History of Upper South Carolina," i,
pp. 149-151; Turner, "Character and Influence of Indian Trade in
Wisconsin," p. 18; Peck, "New Guide for Emigrants" (Boston, 1837), ch.
iv; "Compendium Eleventh Census," i, p. xl.

[12:1] See _post_, for illustrations of the political accompaniments of
changed industrial conditions.

[13:1] But Lewis and Clark were the first to explore the route from the
Missouri to the Columbia.

[14:1] "Narrative and Critical History of America," viii, p. 10; Sparks'
"Washington Works," ix, pp. 303, 327; Logan, "History of Upper South
Carolina," i; McDonald, "Life of Kenton," p. 72; Cong. Record, xxiii, p.
57.

[15:1] On the effect of the fur trade in opening the routes of
migration, see the author's "Character and Influence of the Indian Trade
in Wisconsin."

[16:1] Lodge, "English Colonies," p. 152 and citations; Logan, "Hist. of
Upper South Carolina," i, p. 151.

[16:2] Flint, "Recollections," p. 9.

[16:3] See Monette, "Mississippi Valley," i, p. 344.

[17:1] Coues', "Lewis and Clark's Expedition," i, pp. 2, 253-259;
Benton, in Cong. Record, xxiii, p. 57.

[17:2] Hehn, _Das Salz_ (Berlin, 1873).

[17:3] Col. Records of N. C., v, p. 3.

[17:4] Findley, "History of the Insurrection in the Four Western
Counties of Pennsylvania in the Year 1794" (Philadelphia, 1796), p. 35.

[19:1] Hale, "Daniel Boone" (pamphlet).

[21:1] Compare Baily, "Tour in the Unsettled Parts of North America"
(London, 1856), pp. 217-219, where a similar analysis is made for 1796.
See also Collot, "Journey in North America" (Paris, 1826), p. 109;
"Observations on the North American Land Company" (London, 1796), pp.
xv, 144; Logan, "History of Upper South Carolina."

[22:1] "Spotswood Papers," in Collections of Virginia Historical
Society, i, ii.

[23:1] [Burke], "European Settlements" (1765 ed.), ii, p. 200.

[23:2] Everest, in "Wisconsin Historical Collections," xii, pp. 7 ff.

[23:3] Weston, "Documents connected with History of South Carolina," p.
61.

[25:1] See, for example, the speech of Clay, in the House of
Representatives, January 30, 1824.

[25:2] See the admirable monograph by Prof. H. B. Adams, "Maryland's
Influence on the Land Cessions"; and also President Welling, in Papers
American Historical Association, iii, p. 411.

[26:1] Adams' Memoirs, ix, pp. 247, 248.

[28:1] Author's article in _The Ægis_ (Madison, Wis.), November 4, 1892.

[29:1] Compare Roosevelt, "Thomas Benton," ch. i.

[30:1] _Political Science Quarterly_, ii, p. 457. Compare Sumner,
"Alexander Hamilton," chs. ii-vii.

[31:1] Compare Wilson, "Division and Reunion," pp. 15, 24.

[32:1] On the relation of frontier conditions to Revolutionary taxation,
see Sumner, Alexander Hamilton, ch. iii.

[32:2] I have refrained from dwelling on the lawless characteristics of
the frontier, because they are sufficiently well known. The gambler and
desperado, the regulators of the Carolinas and the vigilantes of
California, are types of that line of scum that the waves of advancing
civilization bore before them, and of the growth of spontaneous organs
of authority where legal authority was absent. Compare Barrows, "United
States of Yesterday and To-morrow"; Shinn, "Mining Camps"; and Bancroft,
"Popular Tribunals." The humor, bravery, and rude strength, as well as
the vices of the frontier in its worst aspect, have left traces on
American character, language, and literature, not soon to be effaced.

[34:1] Debates in the Constitutional Convention, 1829-1830.

[34:2] [McCrady] Eminent and Representative Men of the Carolinas, i, p.
43; Calhoun's Works, i, pp. 401-406.

[35:1] Speech in the Senate, March 1, 1825; Register of Debates, i, 721.

[36:1] Plea for the West (Cincinnati, 1835), pp. 11 ff.

[37:1] Colonial travelers agree in remarking on the phlegmatic
characteristics of the colonists. It has frequently been asked how such
a people could have developed that strained nervous energy now
characteristic of them. Compare Sumner, "Alexander Hamilton," p. 98, and
Adams, "History of the United States," i, p. 60; ix, pp. 240, 241. The
transition appears to become marked at the close of the War of 1812, a
period when interest centered upon the development of the West, and the
West was noted for restless energy. Grund, "Americans," ii, ch. i.




II

THE FIRST OFFICIAL FRONTIER OF THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY[39:1]


In the Significance of the "Frontier in American History," I took for my
text the following announcement of the Superintendent of the Census of
1890:

     Up to and including 1880 the country had a frontier of
     settlement but at present the unsettled area has been so
     broken into by isolated bodies of settlement that there can
     hardly be said to be a frontier line. In the discussion of its
     extent, the westward movement, etc., it cannot therefore any
     longer have a place in the census reports.

Two centuries prior to this announcement, in 1690, a committee of the
General Court of Massachusetts recommended the Court to order what shall
be the frontier and to maintain a committee to settle garrisons on the
frontier with forty soldiers to each frontier town as a main
guard.[39:2] In the two hundred years between this official attempt to
locate the Massachusetts frontier line, and the official announcement of
the ending of the national frontier line, westward expansion was the
most important single process in American history.

The designation "frontier town" was not, however, a new one. As early as
1645 inhabitants of Concord, Sudbury, and Dedham, "being inland townes
& but thinly peopled," were forbidden to remove without authority;[40:1]
in 1669, certain towns had been the subject of legislation as "frontier
towns;"[40:2] and in the period of King Philip's War there were various
enactments regarding frontier towns.[40:3] In the session of 1675-6 it
had been proposed to build a fence of stockades or stone eight feet high
from the Charles "where it is navigable" to the Concord at Billerica and
thence to the Merrimac and down the river to the Bay, "by which meanes
that whole tract will [be] environed, for the security & safty (vnder
God) of the people, their houses, goods & cattel; from the rage & fury
of the enimy."[40:4] This project, however, of a kind of Roman Wall did
not appeal to the frontiersmen of the time. It was a part of the
antiquated ideas of defense which had been illustrated by the impossible
equipment of the heavily armored soldier of the early Puritan régime
whose corslets and head pieces, pikes, matchlocks, fourquettes and
bandoleers, went out of use about the period of King Philip's War. The
fifty-seven postures provided in the approved manual of arms for loading
and firing the matchlock proved too great a handicap in the chase of the
nimble savage. In this era the frontier fighter adapted himself to a
more open order, and lighter equipment suggested by the Indian warrior's
practice.[40:5]

The settler on the outskirts of Puritan civilization took up the task of
bearing the brunt of attack and pushing forward the line of advance
which year after year carried American settlements into the wilderness.
In American thought and speech the term "frontier" has come to mean the
edge of settlement, rather than, as in Europe, the political boundary.
By 1690 it was already evident that the frontier of settlement and the
frontier of military defense were coinciding. As population advanced
into the wilderness and thus successively brought new exposed areas
between the settlements on the one side and the Indians with their
European backers on the other, the military frontier ceased to be
thought of as the Atlantic coast, but rather as a moving line bounding
the un-won wilderness. It could not be a fortified boundary along the
charter limits, for those limits extended to the South Sea, and
conflicted with the bounds of sister colonies. The thing to be defended
was the outer edge of this expanding society, a changing frontier, one
that needed designation and re-statement with the changing location of
the "West."

It will help to illustrate the significance of this new frontier when we
see that Virginia at about the same time as Massachusetts underwent a
similar change and attempted to establish frontier towns, or
"co-habitations," at the "heads," that is the first falls, the vicinity
of Richmond, Petersburg, etc., of her rivers.[41:1]

The Virginia system of "particular plantations" introduced along the
James at the close of the London Company's activity had furnished a type
for the New England town. In recompense, at this later day the New
England town may have furnished a model for Virginia's efforts to create
frontier settlements by legislation.

An act of March 12, 1694-5, by the General Court of Massachusetts
enumerated the "Frontier Towns" which the inhabitants were forbidden to
desert on pain of loss of their lands (if landholders) or of
imprisonment (if not landholders), unless permission to remove were
first obtained.[42:1] These eleven frontier towns included Wells, York,
and Kittery on the eastern frontier, and Amesbury, Haverhill, Dunstable,
Chelmsford, Groton, Lancaster, Marlborough,[42:2] and Deerfield. In
March, 1699-1700, the law was reënacted with the addition of Brookfield,
Mendon, and Woodstock, together with seven others, Salisbury,
Andover,[42:3] Billerica, Hatfield, Hadley, Westfield, and Northampton,
which, "tho' they be not frontiers as those towns first named, yet lye
more open than many others to an attack of an Enemy."[42:4]

In the spring of 1704 the General Court of Connecticut, following
closely the act of Massachusetts, named as her frontier towns, not to
be deserted, Symsbury, Waterbury, Danbury, Colchester, Windham,
Mansfield, and Plainfield.

Thus about the close of the seventeenth and the beginning of the
eighteenth century there was an officially designated frontier line for
New England. The line passing through these enumerated towns represents:
(1) the outskirts of settlement along the eastern coast and up the
Merrimac and its tributaries,--a region threatened from the Indian
country by way of the Winnepesaukee Lake; (2) the end of the ribbon of
settlement up the Connecticut Valley, menaced by the Canadian Indians by
way of the Lake Champlain and Winooski River route to the Connecticut;
(3) boundary towns which marked the edges of that inferior agricultural
region, where the hard crystalline rocks furnished a later foundation
for Shays' Rebellion, opposition to the adoption of the Federal
Constitution, and the abandoned farm; and (4) the isolated intervale of
Brookfield which lay intermediate between these frontiers.

Besides this New England frontier there was a belt of settlement in New
York, ascending the Hudson to where Albany and Schenectady served as
outposts against the Five Nations, who menaced the Mohawk, and against
the French and the Canadian Indians, who threatened the Hudson by way of
Lake Champlain and Lake George.[43:1] The sinister relations of leading
citizens of Albany engaged in the fur trade with these Indians, even
during time of war, tended to protect the Hudson River frontier at the
expense of the frontier towns of New England.

The common sequence of frontier types (fur trader, cattle-raising
pioneer, small primitive farmer, and the farmer engaged in intensive
varied agriculture to produce a surplus for export) had appeared, though
confusedly, in New England. The traders and their posts had prepared the
way for the frontier towns,[44:1] and the cattle industry was most
important to the early farmers.[44:2] But the stages succeeded rapidly
and intermingled. After King Philip's War, while Albany was still in the
fur-trading stage, the New England frontier towns were rather like mark
colonies, military-agricultural outposts against the Indian enemy.

The story of the border warfare between Canada and the frontier towns
furnishes ample material for studying frontier life and institutions;
but I shall not attempt to deal with the narrative of the wars. The
palisaded meeting-house square, the fortified isolated garrison houses,
the massacres and captivities are familiar features of New England's
history. The Indian was a very real influence upon the mind and morals
as well as upon the institutions of frontier New England. The occasional
instances of Puritans returning from captivity to visit the frontier
towns, Catholic in religion, painted and garbed as Indians and speaking
the Indian tongue,[44:3] and the half-breed children of captive Puritan
mothers, tell a sensational part of the story; but in the normal, as
well as in such exceptional relations of the frontier townsmen to the
Indians, there are clear evidences of the transforming influence of the
Indian frontier upon the Puritan type of English colonist.

In 1703-4, for example, the General Court of Massachusetts ordered five
hundred pairs of snowshoes and an equal number of moccasins for use in
specified counties "lying Frontier next to the Wilderness."[45:1]
Connecticut in 1704 after referring to her frontier towns and garrisons
ordered that "said company of English and Indians shall, from time to
time at the discretion of their chief co[=m]ander, range the woods to
indevour the discovery of an approaching enemy, and in especiall manner
from Westfield to Ousatunnuck.[45:2] . . . And for the incouragement of
our forces gone or going against the enemy, this Court will allow out of
the publick treasurie the su[=m]e of five pounds for every mans scalp of
the enemy killed in this Colonie."[45:3] Massachusetts offered bounties
for scalps, varying in amount according to whether the scalp was of men,
or women and youths, and whether it was taken by regular forces under
pay, volunteers in service, or volunteers without pay.[45:4] One of the
most striking phases of frontier adjustment, was the proposal of the
Rev. Solomon Stoddard of Northampton in the fall of 1703, urging the use
of dogs "to hunt Indians as they do Bears." The argument was that the
dogs would catch many an Indian who would be too light of foot for the
townsmen, nor was it to be thought of as inhuman; for the Indians "act
like wolves and are to be dealt with as wolves."[45:5] In fact
Massachusetts passed an act in 1706 for the raising and increasing of
dogs for the better security of the frontiers, and both Massachusetts
and Connecticut in 1708 paid money from their treasury for the trailing
of dogs.[46:1]

Thus we come to familiar ground: the Massachusetts frontiersman like his
western successor hated the Indians; the "tawney serpents," of Cotton
Mather's phrase, were to be hunted down and scalped in accord with law
and, in at least one instance by the chaplain himself, a Harvard
graduate, the hero of the Ballad of Pigwacket, who

                        many Indians slew,
     And some of them he scalp'd when bullets round him flew.[46:2]

Within the area bounded by the frontier line, were the broken fragments
of Indians defeated in the era of King Philip's War, restrained within
reservations, drunken and degenerate survivors, among whom the
missionaries worked with small results, a vexation to the border
towns,[46:3] as they were in the case of later frontiers. Although, as
has been said, the frontier towns had scattered garrison houses, and
palisaded enclosures similar to the neighborhood forts, or stations, of
Kentucky in the Revolution, and of Indiana and Illinois in the War of
1812, one difference is particularly noteworthy. In the case of
frontiersmen who came down from Pennsylvania into the Upland South along
the eastern edge of the Alleghanies, as well as in the more obvious case
of the backwoodsmen of Kentucky and Tennessee, the frontier towns were
too isolated from the main settled regions to allow much military
protection by the older areas. On the New England frontier, because it
was adjacent to the coast towns, this was not the case, and here, as in
seventeenth century Virginia, great activity in protecting the frontier
was evinced by the colonial authorities, and the frontier towns
themselves called loudly for assistance. This phase of frontier defense
needs a special study, but at present it is sufficient to recall that
the colony sent garrisons to the frontier besides using the militia of
the frontier towns; and that it employed rangers to patrol from garrison
to garrison.[47:1]

These were prototypes of the regular army post, and of rangers,
dragoons, cavalry and mounted police who have carried the remoter
military frontier forward. It is possible to trace this military cordon
from New England to the Carolinas early in the eighteenth century, still
neighboring the coast; by 1840 it ran from Fort Snelling on the upper
Mississippi through various posts to the Sabine boundary of Texas, and
so it passed forward until to-day it lies at the edge of Mexico and the
Pacific Ocean.

A few examples of frontier appeals for garrison aid will help to an
understanding of the early form of the military frontier. Wells asks,
June 30, 1689:

     1 That yo{r} Hon{rs} will please to send us speedily twenty
     Eight good brisk men that may be serviceable as a guard to us
     whilest we get in our Harvest of Hay & Corn, (we being unable
     to Defend ourselves & to Do our work), & also to Persue &
     destroy the Enemy as occasion may require

     2 That these men may be compleatly furnished with Arms,
     Amunition & Provision, and that upon the Countrys account, it
     being a Generall War.[48:1]

Dunstable, "still weak and unable both to keep our Garrisons and to send
out men to get hay for our Cattle; without doeing which wee cannot
subsist," petitioned July 23, 1689, for twenty footmen for a month "to
scout about the towne while wee get our hay." Otherwise, they say, they
must be forced to leave.[48:2] Still more indicative of this temper is
the petition of Lancaster, March 11, 1675-6, to the Governor and
Council: "As God has made you father over us so you will have a father's
pity to us." They asked a guard of men and aid, without which they must
leave.[48:3] Deerfield pled in 1678 to the General Court, "unlest you
will be pleased to take us (out of your fatherlike pitty) and Cherish us
in yo{r} Bosomes we are like Suddainly to breathe out o{r} Last
Breath."[48:4]

The perils of the time, the hardships of the frontier towns and
readiness of this particular frontier to ask appropriations for losses
and wounds,[48:5] are abundantly illustrated in similar petitions from
other towns. One is tempted at times to attribute the very frank
self-pity and dependent attitude to a minister's phrasing, and to the
desire to secure remission of taxes, the latter a frontier trait more
often associated with riot than with religion in other regions.

As an example of various petitions the following from Groton in 1704 is
suggestive. Here the minister's hand is probably absent:

     1 That wharas by the all dessposing hand of god who orders all
     things in infinit wisdom it is our portion to liue In such a
     part of the land which by reson of the enemy Is becom vary
     dangras as by wofull experiants we haue falt both formarly and
     of late to our grat damidg & discoridgment and espashaly this
     last yere hauing lost so many parsons som killed som
     captauated and som remoued and allso much corn & cattell and
     horses & hay wharby wee ar gratly Impouerrished and brought
     uary low & in a uary pore capasity to subsist any longer As
     the barers her of can inform your honors

     2 And more then all this our paster mr hobard is & hath been
     for aboue a yere uncapable of desspansing the ordinances of
     god amongst us & we haue advised with th Raurant Elders of our
     nayboring churches and they aduise to hyare another minister
     and to saport mr hobard and to make our adras to your honours
     we haue but litel laft to pay our deus with being so pore and
     few In numbr ather to town or cuntrey & we being a frantere
     town & lyable to dangor there being no safty in going out nor
     coming in but for a long time we haue got our brad with the
     parel of our liues & allso broght uery low by so grat a charg
     of bilding garisons & fortefycations by ordur of athorety &
     thar is saural of our Inhabitants ramoued out of town & others
     are prouiding to remoue, axcapt somthing be don for our
     Incoridgment for we are so few & so por that we canot pay two
     ministors nathar ar we wiling to liue without any we spand so
     much time in waching and warding that we can doe but litel els
     & truly we haue liued allmost 2 yers more like soulders then
     other wise & accapt your honars can find out some bater way
     for our safty and support we cannot uphold as a town ather by
     remitting our tax or tow alow pay for building the sauarall
     forts alowed and ordred by athority or alls to alow the one
     half of our own Inhabitants to be under pay or to grant
     liberty for our remufe Into our naiburing towns to tak cer for
     oursalfs all which if your honors shall se meet to grant you
     will hereby gratly incoridg your humble pateceners to conflect
     with th many trubls we are ensadant unto.[50:1]

Forced together into houses for protection, getting in their crops at
the peril of their lives, the frontier townsmen felt it a hardship to
contribute also to the taxes of the province while they helped to
protect the exposed frontier. In addition there were grievances of
absentee proprietors who paid no town taxes and yet profited by the
exertions of the frontiersmen; of that I shall speak later.

If we were to trust to these petitions asking favors from the government
of the colony, we might impute to these early frontiersmen a degree of
submission to authority unlike that of other frontiersmen,[51:1] and
indeed not wholly warranted by the facts. Reading carefully, we find
that, however prudently phrased, the petitions are in fact complaints
against taxation; demands for expenditures by the colony in their
behalf; criticisms of absentee proprietors; intimations that they may be
forced to abandon the frontier position so essential to the defense of
the settled eastern country.

The spirit of military insubordination characteristic of the frontier is
evident in the accounts of these towns, such as Pynchon's in 1694,
complaining of the decay of the fortifications at Hatfield, Hadley, and
Springfield: "the people a little wilful. Inclined to doe when and how
they please or not at all."[51:2] Saltonstall writes from Haverhill
about the same time regarding his ill success in recruiting: "I will
never plead for an Haverhill man more," and he begs that some meet
person be sent "to tell us what we should, may or must do. I have
laboured in vain: some go this, and that, and the other way at pleasure,
and do what they list."[51:3] This has a familiar ring to the student of
the frontier.

As in the case of the later frontier also, the existence of a common
danger on the borders of settlement tended to consolidate not only the
towns of Massachusetts into united action for defense, but also the
various colonies. The frontier was an incentive to sectional combination
then as it was to nationalism afterward. When in 1692 Connecticut sent
soldiers from her own colony to aid the Massachusetts towns on the
Connecticut River,[52:1] she showed a realization that the Deerfield
people, who were "in a sense in the enemy's Mouth almost," as Pynchon
wrote, constituted her own frontier[52:2] and that the facts of
geography were more compelling than arbitrary colonial boundaries.
Thereby she also took a step that helped to break down provincial
antagonisms. When in 1689 Massachusetts and Connecticut sent agents to
Albany to join with New York in making presents to the Indians of that
colony in order to engage their aid against the French,[52:3] they
recognized (as their leaders put it) that Albany was "the hinge" of the
frontier in this exposed quarter. In thanking Connecticut for the
assistance furnished in 1690 Livingston said: "I hope your honors do not
look upon Albany as Albany, but as the frontier of your honor's Colony
and of all their Majesties countries."[52:4]

The very essence of the American frontier is that it is the graphic line
which records the expansive energies of the people behind it, and which
by the law of its own being continually draws that advance after it to
new conquests. This is one of the most significant things about New
England's frontier in these years. That long blood-stained line of the
eastern frontier which skirted the Maine coast was of great importance,
for it imparted a western tone to the life and characteristics of the
Maine people which endures to this day, and it was one line of advance
for New England toward the mouth of the St. Lawrence, leading again and
again to diplomatic negotiations with the powers that held that river.
The line of the towns that occupied the waters of the Merrimac, tempted
the province continually into the wilderness of New Hampshire. The
Connecticut river towns pressed steadily up that stream, along its
tributaries into the Hoosatonic valleys, and into the valleys between
the Green Mountains of Vermont. By the end of 1723, the General Court of
Massachusetts enacted,--

     That It will be of Great Service to all the Western Frontiers,
     both in this and the Neighboring Government of Conn., to Build
     a Block House above Northfield, in the most convenient Place
     on the Lands called the Equivilant Lands, & to post in it
     forty Able Men, English & Western Indians, to be employed in
     Scouting at a Good Distance up Conn. River, West River, Otter
     Creek, and sometimes Eastwardly above the Great Manadnuck, for
     the Discovery of the Enemy Coming towards anny of the frontier
     Towns.[53:1]

The "frontier Towns" were preparing to swarm. It was not long before
Fort Dummer replaced "the Block House," and the Berkshires and Vermont
became new frontiers.

The Hudson River likewise was recognized as another line of advance
pointing the way to Lake Champlain and Montreal, calling out demands
that protection should be secured by means of an aggressive advance of
the frontier. _Canada delenda est_ became the rallying cry in New
England as well as in New York, and combined diplomatic pressure and
military expeditions followed in the French and Indian wars and in the
Revolution, in which the children of the Connecticut and Massachusetts
frontier towns, acclimated to Indian fighting, followed Ethan Allen and
his fellows to the north.[54:1]

Having touched upon some of the military and expansive tendencies of
this first official frontier, let us next turn to its social, economic,
and political aspects. How far was this first frontier a field for the
investment of eastern capital and for political control by it? Were
there evidences of antagonism between the frontier and the settled,
property-holding classes of the coast? Restless democracy, resentfulness
over taxation and control, and recriminations between the Western
pioneer and the Eastern capitalist, have been characteristic features of
other frontiers: were similar phenomena in evidence here? Did
"Populistic" tendencies appear in this frontier, and were there
grievances which explained these tendencies?[54:2]

In such colonies as New York and Virginia the land grants were often
made to members of the Council and their influential friends, even when
there were actual settlers already on the grants. In the case of New
England the land system is usually so described as to give the
impression that it was based on a non-commercial policy, creating new
Puritan towns by free grants of land made in advance to approved
settlers. This description does not completely fit the case. That there
was an economic interest on the part of absentee proprietors, and that
men of political influence with the government were often among the
grantees seems also to be true. Melville Egleston states the case thus:
"The court was careful not to authorize new plantations unless they were
to be in a measure under the influence of men in whom confidence could
be placed, and commonly acted upon their application."[55:1] The
frontier, as we shall observe later, was not always disposed to see the
practice in so favorable a light.

New towns seem to have been the result in some cases of the aggregation
of settlers upon and about a large private grant; more often they
resulted from settlers in older towns, where the town limits were
extensive, spreading out to the good lands of the outskirts, beyond easy
access to the meeting-house, and then asking recognition as a separate
town. In some cases they may have been due to squatting on unassigned
lands, or purchasing the Indian title and then asking confirmation. In
others grants were made in advance of settlement.

As early as 1636 the General Court had ordered that none go to new
plantations without leave of a majority of the magistrates.[55:2] This
made the legal situation clear, but it would be dangerous to conclude
that it represented the actual situation. In any case there would be a
necessity for the settlers finally to secure the assent of the Court.
This could be facilitated by a grant to leading men having political
influence with the magistrates. The complaints of absentee proprietors
which find expression in the frontier petitions of the seventeenth and
early eighteenth century seems to indicate that this happened. In the
succeeding years of the eighteenth century the grants to leading men and
the economic and political motives in the grants are increasingly
evident. This whole topic should be made the subject of special study.
What is here offered is merely suggestive of a problem.[56:1]

The frontier settlers criticized the absentee proprietors, who profited
by the pioneers' expenditure of labor and blood upon their farms, while
they themselves enjoyed security in an eastern town. A few examples from
town historians will illustrate this. Among the towns of the Merrimac
Valley, Salisbury was planted on the basis of a grant to a dozen
proprietors including such men as Mr. Bradstreet and the younger Dudley,
only two of whom actually lived and died in Salisbury.[56:2] Amesbury
was set off from Salisbury by division, one half of the signers of the
agreement signing by mark. Haverhill was first seated in 1641, following
petitions from Mr. Ward, the Ipswich minister, his son-in-law, Giles
Firmin, and others. Firmin's letter to Governor Winthrop, in 1640,
complains that Ipswich had given him his ground in that town on
condition that he should stay in the town three years or else he could
not sell it, "whenas others have no business but range from place to
place on purpose to live upon the countrey."[56:3]

Dunstable's large grant was brought about by a combination of leading
men who had received grants after the survey of 1652; among such grants
was one to the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company and another to
Thomas Brattle of Boston. Apparently it was settled chiefly by others
than the original grantees.[57:1] Groton voted in 1685 to sue the
"non-Residenc" to assist in paying the rate, and in 1679 the General
Court had ordered non-residents having land at Groton to pay rates for
their lands as residents did.[57:2] Lancaster (Nashaway) was granted to
proprietors including various craftsmen in iron, indicating, perhaps, an
expectation of iron works, and few of the original proprietors actually
settled in the town.[57:3] The grant of 1653-4 was made by the Court
after reciting: (1) that it had ordered in 1647 that the "ordering and
disposeing of the Plantation at Nashaway is wholly in the Courts power";
(2) "Considering that there is allredy at Nashaway about nine Families
and that severall both freemen and others intend to goe and setle there,
some whereof are named in this Petition," etc.

Mendon, begun in 1660 by Braintree people, is a particularly significant
example. In 1681 the inhabitants petitioned that while they are not "of
the number of those who dwell in their ceiled houses & yet say the time
is not come that the Lord's house should be built," yet they have gone
outside of their strength "unless others who are proprietors as well as
ourselves, (the price of whose lands is much raysed by our carrying on
public work & will be nothing worth if we are forced to quit the place)
doo beare an equal share in Town charges with us. Those who are not yet
come up to us are a great and far yet abler part of our
Proprietors . . ."[57:4] In 1684 the selectmen inform the General Court
that one half of the proprietors, two only excepted, are dwelling in
other places, "Our proprietors, abroad," say they, "object that they see
no reason why they should pay as much for thayer lands as we do for our
Land and stock, which we answer that if their be not a noff of reason
for it, we are sure there is more than enough of necessity to supply
that is wanting in reason."[58:1] This is the authentic voice of the
frontier.

Deerfield furnishes another type, inasmuch as a considerable part of its
land was first held by Dedham, to which the grant was made as a
recompense for the location of the Natick Indian reservation. Dedham
shares in the town often fell into the hands of speculators, and
Sheldon, the careful historian of Deerfield, declares that not a single
Dedham man became a permanent resident of the grant. In 1678 Deerfield
petitioned the General Court as follows:

     You may be pleased to know that the very principle & best of
     the land; the best for soile; the best for situation; as lying
     in y{e} centre & midle of the town: & as to quantity, nere
     half, belongs unto eight or 9 proprietors each and every of
     which, are never like to come to a settlement amongst us,
     which we have formerly found grievous & doe Judge for the
     future will be found intollerable if not altered. O{r}
     minister, Mr. Mather . . . & we ourselves are much discouraged
     as judging the Plantation will be spoiled if thes proprietors
     may not be begged, or will not be bought up on very easy terms
     outt of their Right . . . Butt as long as the maine of the
     plantation Lies in men's hands that can't improve it
     themselves, neither are ever like to putt such tenants on to
     it as shall be likely to advance the good of y{e} place in
     Civill or sacred Respects; he, ourselves, and all others that
     think of going to it, are much discouraged.[59:1]

Woodstock, later a Connecticut town, was settled under a grant in the
Nipmuc country made to the town of Roxbury. The settlers, who located
their farms near the trading post about which the Indians still
collected, were called the "go-ers," while the "stayers" were those who
remained in Roxbury, and retained half of the new grant; but it should
be added that they paid the go-ers a sum of money to facilitate the
settlement.

This absentee proprietorship and the commercial attitude toward the
lands of new towns became more evident in succeeding years of the
eighteenth century. Leicester, for example, was confirmed by the General
Court in 1713. The twenty shares were divided among twenty-two
proprietors, including Jeremiah Dummer, Paul Dudley (Attorney-General),
William Dudley (like Paul a son of the Governor, Joseph Dudley), Thomas
Hutchinson (father of the later Governor), John Clark (the political
leader), and Samuel Sewall (son of the Chief Justice). These were all
men of influence, and none of the proprietors became inhabitants of
Leicester. The proprietors tried to induce the fifty families, whose
settlement was one of the conditions on which the grant was made, to
occupy the eastern half of the township reserving the rest as their
absolute property.[59:2]

The author of a currency tract, in 1716, entitled "Some Considerations
upon the Several Sorts of Banks," remarks that formerly, when land was
easy to be obtained, good men came over as indentured servants; but now,
he says, they are runaways, thieves, and disorderly persons. The remedy
for this, in his opinion, would be to induce servants to come over by
offering them homes when the terms of indenture should expire.[60:1] He
therefore advocates that townships should be laid out four or five miles
square in which grants of fifty or sixty acres could be made to
servants.[60:2] Concern over the increase of negro slaves in
Massachusetts seems to have been the reason for this proposal. It
indicates that the current practice in disposing of the lands did not
provide for the poorer people.

But Massachusetts did not follow this suggestion of a homestead policy.
On the contrary, the desire to locate towns to create continuous lines
of settlement along the roads between the disconnected frontiers and to
protect boundary claims by granting tiers of towns in the disputed
tract, as well, no doubt, as pressure from financial interests, led the
General Court between 1715 and 1762 to dispose of the remaining public
domain of Massachusetts under conditions that made speculation and
colonization by capitalists important factors.[60:3] When in 1762
Massachusetts sold a group of townships in the Berkshires to the highest
bidders (by whole townships),[60:4] the transfer from the
social-religious to the economic conception was complete, and the
frontier was deeply influenced by the change to "land mongering."

In one respect, however, there was an increasing recognition of the
religious and social element in settling the frontier, due in part, no
doubt, to a desire to provide for the preservation of eastern ideals and
influences in the West. Provisions for reserving lands within the
granted townships for the support of an approved minister, and for
schools, appear in the seventeenth century and become a common feature
of the grants for frontier towns in the eighteenth.[61:1] This practice
with respect to the New England frontier became the foundation for the
system of grants of land from the public domain for the support of
common schools and state universities by the federal government from its
beginning, and has been profoundly influential in later Western States.

Another ground for discontent over land questions was furnished by the
system of granting lands within the town by the commoners. The principle
which in many, if not all, cases guided the proprietors in distributing
the town lots is familiar and is well stated in the Lancaster town
records (1653):

     And, whereas Lotts are Now Laid out for the most part Equally
     to Rich and poore, Partly to keepe the Towne from Scatering to
     farr, and partly out of Charitie and Respect to men of meaner
     estate, yet that Equallitie (which is the rule of God) may be
     observed, we Covenant and Agree, That in a second Devition and
     so through all other Devitions of Land the mater shall be
     drawne as neere to _equallitie according to mens estates_ as
     wee are able to doe, That he which hath now more then his
     estate Deserveth in home Lotts and entervale Lotts shall haue
     so much Less: and he that hath Less then his estate Deserveth
     shall haue so much more.[62:1]

This peculiar doctrine of "equality" had early in the history of the
colony created discontents. Winthrop explained the principle which
governed himself and his colleagues in the case of the Boston committee
of 1634 by saying that their divisions were arranged "partly to prevent
the neglect of trades." This is a pregnant idea; it underlay much of the
later opposition of New England as a manufacturing section to the free
homestead or cheap land policy, demanded by the West and by the labor
party, in the national public domain. The migration of labor to free
lands meant that higher wages must be paid to those who remained. The
use of the town lands by the established classes to promote an approved
form of society naturally must have had some effect on migration.

But a more effective source of disputes was with respect to the relation
of the town proprietors to the public domain of the town in contrast
with the non-proprietors as a class. The need of keeping the town
meeting and the proprietors' meeting separate in the old towns in
earlier years was not so great as it was when the new-comers became
numerous. In an increasing degree these new-comers were either not
granted lands at all, or were not admitted to the body of proprietors
with rights in the possession of the undivided town lands. Contentions
on the part of the town meeting that it had the right of dealing with
the town lands occasionally appear, significantly, in the frontier towns
of Haverhill, Massachusetts, Simsbury, Connecticut, and in the towns of
the Connecticut Valley.[63:1] Jonathan Edwards, in 1751, declared that
there had been in Northampton for forty or fifty years "two parties
somewhat like the court and country parties of England. . . . The first
party embraced the great proprietors of land, and the parties concerned
about land and other matters."[63:2] The tendency to divide up the
common lands among the proprietors in individual possession did not
become marked until the eighteenth century; but the exclusion of some
from possession of the town lands and the "equality" in allotment
favoring men with already large estates must have attracted ambitious
men who were not of the favored class to join in the movement to new
towns. Religious dissensions would combine to make frontier society as
it formed early in the eighteenth century more and more democratic,
dissatisfied with the existing order, and less respectful of authority.
We shall not understand the relative radicalism of parts of the
Berkshires, Vermont and interior New Hampshire without enquiry into the
degree in which the control over the lands by a proprietary monopoly
affected the men who settled on the frontier.

The final aspect of this frontier to be examined, is the attitude of the
conservatives of the older sections towards this movement of westward
advance. President Dwight in the era of the War of 1812 was very
critical of the "foresters," but saw in such a movement a safety valve
to the institutions of New England by allowing the escape of the
explosive advocates of "Innovation."[63:3]

Cotton Mather is perhaps not a typical representative of the
conservative sentiment at the close of the seventeenth century, but his
writings may partly reflect the attitude of Boston Bay toward New
England's first Western frontier. Writing in 1694 of "Wonderful Passages
which have Occurred, First in the Protections and then in the
Afflictions of New England," he says:

     One while the Enclosing of _Commons_ hath made Neighbours,
     that should have been like Sheep, to _Bite and devour one
     another_. . . . Again, Do our _Old_ People, any of them _Go
     Out_ from the Institutions of God, Swarming into New
     Settlements, where they and their Untaught Families are like
     to _Perish for Lack of Vision_? They that have done so,
     heretofore, have to their Cost found, that they were got unto
     the _Wrong side of the Hedge_, in their doing so. Think, here
     _Should this be done any more?_ We read of Balaam, in Num. 22,
     23. He was to his Damage, _driven to the_ Wall, when he would
     needs make an unlawful Salley forth after the _Gain_ of this
     World. . . . Why, when men, for the Sake of Earthly Gain,
     would be _going out_ into the _Warm_ Sun, they drive _Through
     the Wall_, and the _Angel of the Lord_ becomes their Enemy.

In his essay on "Frontiers Well-Defended" (1707) Mather assures the
pioneers that they "dwell in a Hatsarmaneth," a place of "tawney
serpents," are "inhabitants of the Valley of Achor," and are "the Poor
of this World." There may be significance in his assertion: "It is
remarkable to see that when the Unchurched Villages, have been so many
of them, _utterly broken up_, in the _War_, that has been upon us, those
that have had _Churches_ regularly formed in them, have generally been
under a more _sensible Protection_ of Heaven." "Sirs," he says, "a
_Church-State_ well form'd may fortify you wonderfully!" He recommends
abstention from profane swearing, furious cursing, Sabbath breaking,
unchastity, dishonesty, robbing of God by defrauding the ministers of
their dues, drunkenness, and revels and he reminds them that even the
Indians have family prayers! Like his successors who solicited
missionary contributions for the salvation of the frontier in the
Mississippi Valley during the forties of the nineteenth century, this
early spokesman for New England laid stress upon teaching anti-popery,
particularly in view of the captivity that might await them.

In summing up, we find many of the traits of later frontiers in this
early prototype, the Massachusetts frontier. It lies at the edge of the
Indian country and tends to advance. It calls out militant qualities and
reveals the imprint of wilderness conditions upon the psychology and
morals as well as upon the institutions of the people. It demands common
defense and thus becomes a factor for consolidation. It is built on the
basis of a preliminary fur trade, and is settled by the combined and
sometimes antagonistic forces of eastern men of property (the absentee
proprietors) and the democratic pioneers. The East attempted to regulate
and control it. Individualistic and democratic tendencies were
emphasized both by the wilderness conditions and, probably, by the prior
contentions between the proprietors and non-proprietors of the towns
from which settlers moved to the frontier. Removal away from the control
of the customary usages of the older communities and from the
conservative influence of the body of the clergy, increased the
innovating tendency. Finally the towns were regarded by at least one
prominent representative of the established order in the East, as an
undesirable place for the re-location of the pillars of society. The
temptation to look upon the frontier as a field for investment was
viewed by the clergy as a danger to the "institutions of God." The
frontier was "the Wrong side of the Hedge."

But to this "wrong side of the hedge" New England men continued to
migrate. The frontier towns of 1695 were hardly more than suburbs of
Boston. The frontier of a century later included New England's colonies
in Vermont, Western New York, the Wyoming Valley, the Connecticut
Reserve, and the Ohio Company's settlement in the Old Northwest
Territory. By the time of the Civil War the frontier towns of New
England had occupied the great prairie zone of the Middle West and were
even planted in Mormon Utah and in parts of the Pacific Coast. New
England's sons had become the organizers of a Greater New England in the
West, captains of industry, political leaders, founders of educational
systems, and prophets of religion, in a section that was to influence
the ideals and shape the destiny of the nation in ways to which the eyes
of men like Cotton Mather were sealed.[66:1]


FOOTNOTES:

[39:1] Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, April,
1914, xvii, 250-271. Reprinted with permission of the Society.

[39:2] Massachusetts Archives, xxxvi, p. 150.

[40:1] Massachusetts Colony Records, ii, p. 122.

[40:2] _Ibid._, vol. iv, pt. ii, p. 439; Massachusetts Archives, cvii,
pp. 160-161.

[40:3] See, for example, Massachusetts Colony Records, v, 79; Green,
"Groton During the Indian Wars," p. 39; L. K. Mathews, "Expansion of New
England," p. 58.

[40:4] Massachusetts Archives, lxviii, pp. 174-176.

[40:5] Osgood, "American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century," i, p.
501, and citations: cf. Publications of this Society, xii, pp. 38-39.

[41:1] Hening, "Statutes at Large," iii, p. 204: cf. 1 Massachusetts
Historical Collections, v, p. 129, for influence of the example of the
New England town. On Virginia frontier conditions see Alvord and
Bidgood, "First Explorations of the Trans-Allegheny Region," pp. 23-34,
93-95. P. A. Bruce, "Institutional History of Virginia," ii, p. 97,
discusses frontier defense in the seventeenth century. [See chapter iii,
_post_.]

[42:1] Massachusetts Archives, lxx, 240; Massachusetts Province Laws, i,
pp. 194, 293.

[42:2] In a petition (read March 3, 1692-3) of settlers "in Sundry Farms
granted in those Remote Lands Scituate and Lyeing between Sudbury,
Concord, Marlbury, Natick and Sherburne & Westerly is the Wilderness,"
the petitioners ask easement of taxes and extension into the Natick
region in order to have means to provide for the worship of God, and
say:

"Wee are not Ignorant that by reason of the present Distressed Condition
of those that dwell in these Frontier Towns, divers are meditating to
remove themselves into such places where they have not hitherto been
conserned in the present Warr and desolation thereby made, as also that
thereby they may be freed from that great burthen of public taxes
necessarily accruing thereby, Some haveing already removed themselves.
Butt knowing for our parts that wee cannot run from the hand of a
Jealous God, doe account it our duty to take such Measures as may inable
us to the performance of that duty wee owe to God, the King, & our
Familyes" (Massachusetts Archives, cxiii, p. 1).

[42:3] In a petition of 1658 Andover speaks of itself as "a remote
upland plantation" (Massachusetts Archives, cxii, p. 99).

[42:4] Massachusetts Province Laws, i, p. 402.

[43:1] Convenient maps of settlement, 1660-1700, are in E. Channing,
"History of the United States," i, pp. 510-511, ii, end; Avery, "History
of the United States and its People," ii, p. 398. A useful
contemporaneous map for conditions at the close of King Philip's War is
Hubbard's map of New England in his "Narrative" published in Boston,
1677. See also L. K. Mathews, "Expansion of New England," pp. 56-57, 70.

[44:1] Weeden, "Economic and Social History of New England," pp. 90, 95,
129-132; F. J. Turner, "Indian Trade in Wisconsin," p. 13; McIlwain,
"Wraxall's Abridgement," introduction; the town histories abound in
evidence of the significance of the early Indian traders' posts,
transition to Indian land cessions, and then to town grants.

[44:2] Weeden, _loc. cit._, pp. 64-67; M. Egleston, "New England Land
System," pp. 31-32; Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, pp. 37, 206, 267-268;
Connecticut Colonial Records, vii, p. 111, illustrations of cattle
brands in 1727.

[44:3] Hutchinson, "History" (1795), ii, p. 129, note, relates such a
case of a Groton man; see also Parkman, "Half-Century," vol. i, ch. iv,
citing Maurault, "Histoire des Abenakis," p. 377.

[45:1] Massachusetts Archives, lxxi, pp. 4, 84, 85, 87, 88.

[45:2] Hoosatonic.

[45:3] Connecticut Records, iv, pp. 463, 464.

[45:4] Massachusetts Colony Records, v, p. 72; Massachusetts Province
Laws, i, pp. 176, 211, 292, 558, 594, 600; Massachusetts Archives, lxxi,
pp. 7, 89, 102. Cf. Publications of this Society, vii, 275-278.

[45:5] Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 290.

[46:1] Judd, "Hadley," p. 272; 4 Massachusetts Historical Collections,
ii, p. 235.

[46:2] Farmer and Moore, "Collections," iii, p. 64. The frontier woman
of the farther west found no more extreme representative than Hannah
Dustan of Haverhill, with her trophy of ten scalps, for which she
received a bounty of £50 (Parkman, "Frontenac," 1898, p. 407, note).

[46:3] For illustrations of resentment against those who protected the
Christian Indians, see F. W. Gookin, "Daniel Gookin," pp. 145-155.

[47:1] For example, Massachusetts Archives, lxx, p. 261; Bailey,
"Andover," p. 179; Metcalf, "Annals of Mendon," p. 63; Proceedings
Massachusetts Historical Society, xliii, pp. 504-519. Parkman,
"Frontenac" (Boston, 1898), p. 390, and "Half-Century of Conflict"
(Boston, 1898), i, p. 55, sketches the frontier defense.

[48:1] Massachusetts Archives, cvii, p. 155.

[48:2] _Ibid._, cvii, p. 230; cf. 230 a.

[48:3] Massachusetts Archives, lxviii, p. 156.

[48:4] Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 189.

[48:5] Massachusetts Archives, lxxi, 46-48, 131, 134, 135 _et passim_.

[50:1] Massachusetts Archives, lxxi, p. 107: cf. Metcalf, "Mendon," p.
130; Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 288. The frontier of Virginia in 1755
and 1774 showed similar conditions: see, for example, the citations to
Washington's Writings in Thwaites, "France in America," pp. 193-195; and
frontier letters in Thwaites and Kellogg, "Dunmore's War," pp. 227, 228
_et passim_. The following petition to Governor Gooch of Virginia, dated
July 30, 1742, affords a basis for comparison with a Scotch-Irish
frontier:

We your pettionours humbly sheweth that we your Honours Loly and
Dutifull Subganckes hath ventred our Lives & all that we have In
settling ye back parts of Virginia which was a veri Great Hassirt &
Dengrous, for it is the Hathins [heathens] Road to ware, which has
proved hortfull to severil of ous that were ye first settlers of these
back woods & wee your Honibill pettionors some time a goo petitioned
your Honnour for to have Commisioned men amungst ous which we your
Honnours most Duttifull subjects thought properist men & men that had
Hart and Curidg to hed us yn time of [war] & to defend your Contray &
your poor Sogbacks Intrist from ye voilince of ye Haithen--But yet agine
we Humbly persume to poot your Honnour yn mind of our Great want of them
in hopes that your Honner will Grant a Captins' Commission to John
McDowell, with follring ofishers, and your Honnours' Complyence in this
will be Great settisfiction to your most Duttifull and Humbil
pettioners--and we as in Duty bond shall Ever pray . . . (Calendar of
Virginia State Papers, i, p. 235).

[51:1] But there is a note of deference in Southern frontier petitions
to the Continental Congress--to be discounted, however, by the
remoteness of that body. See F. J. Turner, "Western State-Making in the
Revolutionary Era" (_American Historical Review_, i, pp. 70, 251). The
demand for remission of taxes is a common feature of the petitions there
quoted.

[51:2] Proceedings Massachusetts Historical Society, xliii, pp. 506 ff.

[51:3] _Ibid._, xliii, p. 518.

[52:1] Connecticut Colonial Records, iv, p. 67.

[52:2] In a petition of February 22, 1693-4, Deerfield calls itself the
"most Utmost Frontere Town in the County of West Hampshire"
(Massachusetts Archives, cxiii, p. 57 a).

[52:3] Judd, "Hadley," p. 249.

[52:4] W. D. Schuyler-Lighthall, "Glorious Enterprise," p. 16.

[53:1] Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 405.

[54:1] "I want to have your warriours come and see me," wrote Allen to
the Indians of Canada in 1775, "and help me fight the King's Regular
Troops. You know they stand all close together, rank and file, and my
men fight so as Indians do, and I want your warriours to join with me
and my warriours, like brothers, and ambush the Regulars: if you will, I
will give you money, blankets, tomahawks, knives, paint, and any thing
that there is in the army, just like brothers; and I will go with you
into the woods to scout; and my men and your men will sleep together,
and eat and drink together, and fight Regulars, because they first
killed our brothers" (American Archives, 4th Series, ii, p. 714).

[54:2] Compare A. McF. Davis, "The Shays Rebellion a Political
Aftermath" (Proceedings American Antiquarian Society, xxi, pp. 58, 62,
75-79).

[55:1] "Land System of the New England Colonies," p. 30.

[55:2] Massachusetts Colony Records, i, p. 167.

[56:1] Compare Weeden, "Economic and Social History of New England," i,
pp. 270-271; Gookin, "Daniel Gookin," pp. 106-161; and the histories of
Worcester for illustrations of how the various factors noted could be
combined in a single town.

[56:2] F. Merrill, "Amesbury," pp. 5, 50.

[56:3] B. L. Mirick, "Haverhill," pp. 9, 10.

[57:1] Green, "Early Records of Groton," pp. 49, 70, 90.

[57:2] _Ibid._

[57:3] Worcester County History, i, pp. 2, 3.

[57:4] J. G. Metcalf, "Annals of Mendon," p. 85.

[58:1] P. 96. Compare the Kentucky petition of 1780 given in Roosevelt,
"Winning of the West," ii, p. 398, and the letter from that frontier
cited in Turner, "Western State-Making" (_American Historical Review_,
i, p. 262), attacking the Virginia "Nabobs," who hold absentee land
titles. "Let the _great men_," say they, "whom the land belongs to come
and defend it."

[59:1] Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, pp. 188-189.

[59:2] These facts are stated on the authority of E. Washburn,
"Leicester," pp. 5-15: compare Major Stephen Sewall to Jeremiah Dummer,
1717, quoted in Weeden, "Economic and Social History of New England,"
ii, p. 505, note 4.

[60:1] Compare the Virginia system, Bruce, "Economic History of Virginia
in the Seventeenth Century," ii, pp. 42, 43.

[60:2] For this item I am indebted to our associate, Mr. Andrew McF.
Davis: see his "Colonial Currency Reprints," i, pp. 335-349.

[60:3] Hutchinson, "History of Massachusetts" (1768), ii, pp. 331, 332,
has an instructive comment. A. C. Ford, "Colonial Precedents of Our
National Land System," p. 84; L. K. Mathews, "Expansion of New England,"
pp. 82 ff.

[60:4] J. G. Holland, "Western Massachusetts," p. 197.

[61:1] Jos. Schafer, "Origin of the System of Land Grants for
Education," pp. 25-33.

[62:1] H. D. Hurd (ed.), "History of Worcester County," i, p. 6. The
italics are mine.

[63:1] Egleston, "Land System of the New England Colonies," pp. 39-41.

[63:2] _Ibid._, p. 41.

[63:3] T. Dwight, "Travels" (1821), ii, pp. 459-463.

[66:1] [See F. J. Turner, "Greater New England in the Middle of the
Nineteenth Century," in American Antiquarian Society "Proceedings,"
1920.]




III

THE OLD WEST[67:1]


It is not the oldest West with which this chapter deals. The oldest West
was the Atlantic coast. Roughly speaking, it took a century of Indian
fighting and forest felling for the colonial settlements to expand into
the interior to a distance of about a hundred miles from the coast.
Indeed, some stretches were hardly touched in that period. This conquest
of the nearest wilderness in the course of the seventeenth century and
in the early years of the eighteenth, gave control of the maritime
section of the nation and made way for the new movement of westward
expansion which I propose to discuss.

In his "Winning of the West," Roosevelt dealt chiefly with the region
beyond the Alleghanies, and with the period of the later eighteenth
century, although he prefaced his account with an excellent chapter
describing the backwoodsmen of the Alleghanies and their social
conditions from 1769 to 1774. It is important to notice, however, that
he is concerned with a backwoods society already formed; that he ignores
the New England frontier and its part in the winning of the West, and
does not recognize that there was a West to be won between New England
and the Great Lakes. In short, he is interested in the winning of the
West beyond the Alleghanies by the southern half of the frontier folk.

There is, then, a western area intermediate between the coastal
colonial settlements of the seventeenth century and the trans-Alleghany
settlements of the latter portion of the eighteenth century. This
section I propose to isolate and discuss under the name of the Old West,
and in the period from about 1676 to 1763. It includes the back country
of New England, the Mohawk Valley, the Great Valley of Pennsylvania, the
Shenandoah Valley, and the Piedmont--that is, the interior or upland
portion of the South, lying between the Alleghanies and the head of
navigation of the Atlantic rivers marked by the "fall line."[68:1]

In this region, and in these years, are to be found the beginnings of
much that is characteristic in Western society, for the Atlantic coast
was in such close touch with Europe that its frontier experience was
soon counteracted, and it developed along other lines. It is unfortunate
that the colonial back country appealed so long to historians solely in
connection with the colonial wars, for the development of its society,
its institutions and mental attitude all need study. Its history has
been dealt with in separate fragments, by states, or towns, or in
discussions of special phases, such as German and Scotch-Irish
immigration. The Old West as a whole can be appreciated only by
obliterating the state boundaries which conceal its unity, by
correlating the special and fragmentary studies, and by filling the gaps
in the material for understanding the formation of its society. The
present paper is rather a reconnaissance than a conquest of the field, a
program for study of the Old West rather than an exposition of it.

The end of the period proposed may be placed about 1763, and the
beginning between 1676 and 1700. The termination of the period is marked
by the Peace of Paris in 1763, and the royal proclamation of that year
forbidding settlement beyond the Alleghanies. By this time the
settlement of the Old West was fairly accomplished, and new advances
were soon made into the "Western Waters" beyond the mountains and into
the interior of Vermont and New Hampshire. The isolation of the
transmontane settlements, and the special conditions and doctrines of
the Revolutionary era during which they were formed, make a natural
distinction between the period of which I am to speak and the later
extension of the West.

The beginning of the period is necessarily an indeterminate date, owing
to the different times of colonizing the coastal areas which served as
bases of operations in the westward advance. The most active movements
into the Old West occurred after 1730. But in 1676 New England, having
closed the exhausting struggle with the Indians, known as King Philip's
War, could regard her established settlements as secure, and go on to
complete her possession of the interior. This she did in the midst of
conflicts with the exterior Indian tribes which invaded her frontiers
from New York and Canada during the French and Indian wars from 1690 to
1760, and under frontier conditions different from the conditions of the
earlier Puritan colonization. In 1676, Virginia was passing through
Indian fighting--keenest along the fall line, where the frontier
lay--and also experiencing a social revolt which resulted in the defeat
of the democratic forces that sought to stay the progress of
aristocratic control in the colony.[70:1] The date marks the end of the
period when the Virginia tidewater could itself be regarded as a
frontier region, and consequently the beginning of a more special
interest in the interior.

Let us first examine the northern part of the movement into the back
country. The expansion of New England into the vacant spaces of its own
section, in the period we have chosen for discussion, resulted in the
formation of an interior society which contrasted in many ways with that
of the coast, and which has a special significance in Western history,
in that it was this interior New England people who settled the Greater
New England in central and western New York, the Wyoming Valley, the
Connecticut Reserve of Ohio, and much of the prairie areas of the Old
Northwest. It is important to realize that the Old West included
interior New England.

The situation in New England at the close of the seventeenth century is
indicated by the Massachusetts act of 1694 enumerating eleven towns,
then on the frontier and exposed to raids, none of which might be
voluntarily deserted without leave of the governor and council, on
penalty of loss of their freeholds by the landowners, or fine of other
inhabitants.[70:2]

Thus these frontier settlers were made substantially garrisons, or "mark
colonies." Crowded into the palisades of the town, and obliged in spite
of their poverty to bear the brunt of Indian attack, their hardships are
illustrated in the manly but pathetic letters of Deerfield's minister,
Mr. Williams,[70:3] in 1704. Parkman succinctly describes the general
conditions in these words:[70:4]

     The exposed frontier of New England was between two and three
     hundred miles long, and consisted of farms and hamlets loosely
     scattered through an almost impervious forest. . . . Even in
     so-called villages the houses were far apart, because, except
     on the seashore, the people lived by farming. Such as were
     able to do so fenced their dwellings with palisades, or built
     them of solid timber, with loopholes, a projecting upper story
     like a block house, and sometimes a flanker at one or more of
     the corners. In the more considerable settlements the largest
     of these fortified houses was occupied in time of danger by
     armed men and served as a place of refuge for the neighbors.

Into these places, in days of alarm, were crowded the outlying settlers,
just as was the case in later times in the Kentucky "stations."

In spite of such frontier conditions, the outlying towns continued to
multiply. Between 1720 and the middle of the century, settlement crept
up the Housatonic and its lateral valley into the Berkshires. About 1720
Litchfield was established; in 1725, Sheffield; in 1730, Great
Barrington; and in 1735 a road was cut and towns soon established
between Westfield and these Housatonic settlements, thus uniting them
with the older extensions along the Connecticut and its tributaries.

In this period, scattered and sometimes unwelcome Scotch-Irish
settlements were established, such as that at Londonderry, New
Hampshire, and in the Berkshires, as well as in the region won in King
Philip's War from the Nipmucks, whither there came also Huguenots.[72:1]

In King George's War, the Connecticut River settlers found their
frontier protection in such rude stockades as those at the sites of
Keene, of Charlestown, New Hampshire (Number Four), Fort Shirley at the
head of Deerfield River (Heath), and Fort Pelham (Rowe); while Fort
Massachusetts (Adams) guarded the Hoosac gateway to the Hoosatonic
Valley. These frontier garrisons and the self-defense of the
backwoodsmen of New England are well portrayed in the pages of
Parkman.[72:2] At the close of the war, settlement again expanded into
the Berkshires, where Lennox, West Hoosac (Williamstown), and Pittsfield
were established in the middle of the century. Checked by the fighting
in the last French and Indian War, the frontier went forward after the
Peace of Paris (1763) at an exceptional rate, especially into Vermont
and interior New Hampshire. An anonymous writer gives a contemporary
view of the situation on the eve of the Revolution:[72:3]

     The richest parts remaining to be granted are on the northern
     branches of the Connecticut river, towards Crown Point where
     are great districts of fertile soil still unsettled. The North
     part of New Hampshire, the province of Maine, and the
     territory of Sagadahock have but few settlements in them
     compared with the tracts yet unsettled. . . .

     I should further observe that these tracts have since the
     peace [_i. e._, 1763], been settling pretty fast: farms on the
     river Connecticut are every day extending beyond the old fort
     Dummer, for near thirty miles; and will in a few years reach
     to Kohasser which is nearly two hundred miles; not that such
     an extent will be one-tenth settled, but the new-comers do not
     fix near their neighbors, and go on regularly, but take spots
     that please them best, though twenty or thirty miles beyond
     any others. This to people of a sociable disposition in Europe
     would appear very strange, but the Americans do not regard the
     near neighborhood of other farmers; twenty or thirty miles by
     water they esteem no distance in matters of this sort; besides
     in a country that promises well the intermediate space is not
     long in filling up. Between Connecticut river and Lake
     Champlain upon Otter Creek, and all along Lake Sacrament
     [George] and the rivers that fall into it, and the whole
     length of Wood Creek, are numerous settlements made since the
     peace.[73:1]

For nearly a hundred years, therefore, New England communities had been
pushed out to new frontiers in the intervals between the almost
continuous wars with the French and Indians. Probably the most
distinctive feature in this frontier was the importance of the community
type of settlement; in other words, of the towns, with their Puritan
ideals in education, morals, and religion. This has always been a matter
of pride to the statesmen and annalists of New England, as is
illustrated by these words of Holland in his "Western Massachusetts,"
commenting on the settlement of the Connecticut Valley in villages,
whereby in his judgment morality, education, and urbanity were
preserved:

     The influence of this policy can only be fully appreciated
     when standing by the side of the solitary settler's hut in the
     West, where even an Eastern man has degenerated to a boor in
     manners, where his children have grown up uneducated, and
     where the Sabbath has become an unknown day, and religion and
     its obligations have ceased to exercise control upon the heart
     and life.

Whatever may be the real value of the community type of settlement, its
establishment in New England was intimately connected both with the
Congregational religious organization and with the land system of the
colonies of that section, under which the colonial governments made
grants--not in tracts to individuals, but in townships to groups of
proprietors who in turn assigned lands to the inhabitants without cost.
The typical form of establishing a town was as follows: On application
of an approved body of men, desiring to establish a new settlement, the
colonial General Court would appoint a committee to view the desired
land and report on its fitness; an order for the grant would then issue,
in varying areas, not far from the equivalent of six miles square. In
the eighteenth century especially, it was common to reserve certain lots
of the town for the support of schools and the ministry. This was the
origin of that very important feature of Western society, federal land
grants for schools and colleges.[74:1] The General Courts also made
regulations regarding the common lands, the terms for admitting
inhabitants, etc., and thus kept a firm hand upon the social structure
of the new settlements as they formed on the frontier.

This practice, seen in its purity in the seventeenth century
especially, was markedly different from the practices of other colonies
in the settlement of their back lands. For during most of the period New
England did not use her wild lands, or public domain, as a source of
revenue by sale to individuals or to companies, with the reservation of
quit-rents; nor attract individual settlers by "head rights," or
fifty-acre grants, after the Virginia type; nor did the colonies of the
New England group often make extensive grants to individuals, on the
ground of special services, or because of influence with the government,
or on the theory that the grantee would introduce settlers on his grant.
They donated their lands to groups of men who became town proprietors
for the purpose of establishing communities. These proprietors were
supposed to hold the lands in trust, to be assigned to inhabitants under
restraints to ensure the persistence of Puritan ideals.

During most of the seventeenth century the proprietors awarded lands to
the new-comers in accordance with this theory. But as density of
settlement increased, and lands grew scarce in the older towns, the
proprietors began to assert their legal right to the unoccupied lands
and to refuse to share them with inhabitants who were not of the body of
proprietors. The distinction resulted in class conflicts in the towns,
especially in the eighteenth century,[75:1] over the ownership and
disposal of the common lands.

The new settlements, by a process of natural selection, would afford
opportunity to the least contented, whether because of grievances, or
ambitions, to establish themselves. This tended to produce a Western
flavor in the towns on the frontier. But it was not until the original
ideals of the land system began to change, that the opportunity to make
new settlements for such reasons became common. As the economic and
political ideal replaced the religious and social ideal, in the
conditions under which new towns could be established, this became more
possible.

Such a change was in progress in the latter part of the seventeenth
century and during the eighteenth. In 1713, 1715, and 1727,
Massachusetts determined upon a policy of locating towns in advance of
settlement, to protect her boundary claims. In 1736 she laid out five
towns near the New Hampshire border, and a year earlier opened four
contiguous towns to connect her Housatonic and Connecticut Valley
settlements.[76:1] Grants in non-adjacent regions were sometimes made to
old towns, the proprietors of which sold them to those who wished to
move.

The history of the town of Litchfield illustrates the increasing
importance of the economic factor. At a time when Connecticut feared
that Andros might dispose of the public lands to the disadvantage of the
colony, the legislature granted a large part of Western Connecticut to
the towns of Hartford and Windsor, _pro forma_, as a means of
withdrawing the lands from his hands. But these towns refused to give up
the lands after the danger had passed, and proceeded to sell part of
them.[76:2] Riots occurred when the colonial authorities attempted to
assert possession, and the matter was at length compromised in 1719 by
allowing Litchfield to be settled in accordance with the town grants,
while the colony reserved the larger part of northwestern Connecticut.
In 1737 the colony disposed of its last unlocated lands by sale in lots.
In 1762 Massachusetts sold a group of entire townships in the Berkshires
to the highest bidders.[77:1]

But the most striking illustration of the tendency, is afforded by the
"New Hampshire grants" of Governor Wentworth, who, chiefly in the years
about 1760, made grants of a hundred and thirty towns west of the
Connecticut, in what is now the State of Vermont, but which was then in
dispute between New Hampshire and New York. These grants, while in form
much like other town grants, were disposed of for cash, chiefly to
speculators who hastened to sell their rights to the throngs of
land-seekers who, after the peace, began to pour into the Green Mountain
region.

It is needless to point out how this would affect the movement of
Western settlement in respect to individualistic speculation in public
lands; how it would open a career to the land jobbers, as well as to the
natural leaders in the competitive movement for acquiring the best
lands, for laying out town sites and building up new communities under
"boom" conditions. The migratory tendency of New Englanders was
increased by this gradual change in its land policy; the attachment to a
locality was diminished. The later years showed increasing emphasis by
New England upon individual success, greater respect for the self-made
man who, in the midst of opportunities under competitive conditions,
achieved superiority. The old dominance of town settlement, village
moral police, and traditional class control gave way slowly. Settlement
in communities and rooted Puritan habits and ideals had enduring
influences in the regions settled by New Englanders; but it was in this
Old West, in the years just before the Revolution, that individualism
began to play an important rôle, along with the traditional habit of
expanding in organized communities.

The opening of the Vermont towns revealed more fully than before, the
capability of New Englanders to become democratic pioneers, under
characteristic frontier conditions. Their economic life was simple and
self-sufficing. They readily adopted lynch law (the use of the "birch
seal" is familiar to readers of Vermont history) to protect their land
titles in the troubled times when these "Green Mountain Boys" resisted
New York's assertion of authority. They later became an independent
Revolutionary state with frontier directness, and in very many respects
their history in the Revolutionary epoch is similar to that of settlers
in Kentucky and Tennessee, both in assertion of the right to independent
self government and in a frontier separatism.[78:1] Vermont may be
regarded as the culmination of the frontier movement which I have been
describing in New England.

By this time two distinct New Englands existed--the one coastal, and
dominated by commercial interests and the established congregational
churches; the other a primitive agricultural area, democratic in
principle, and with various sects increasingly indifferent to the fear
of "innovation" which the dominant classes of the old communities felt.
Already speculative land companies had begun New England settlements in
the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania, as well as on the lower Mississippi;
and New England missions among the Indians, such as that at Stockbridge,
were beginning the noteworthy religious and educational expansion of the
section to the west.

That this movement of expansion had been chiefly from south to north,
along the river valleys, should not conceal from us the fact that it was
in essential characteristics a Western movement, especially in the
social traits that were developing. Even the men who lived in the long
line of settlements on the Maine coast, under frontier conditions, and
remote from the older centers of New England, developed traits and a
democratic spirit that relate them closely to the Westerners, in spite
of the fact that Maine is "down east" by preëminence.[79:1]

The frontier of the Middle region in this period of the formation of the
Old West, was divided into two parts, which happen to coincide with the
colonies of New York and Pennsylvania. In the latter colony the trend of
settlement was into the Great Valley, and so on to the Southern uplands;
while the advance of settlement in New York was like that of New
England, chiefly northward, following the line of Hudson River.

The Hudson and the Mohawk constituted the area of the Old West in this
part of the eighteenth century. With them were associated the Wallkill,
tributary to the Hudson, and Cherry Valley near the Mohawk, along the
sources of the Susquehanna. The Berkshires walled the Hudson in to the
east; the Adirondacks and the Catskills to the west. Where the Mohawk
Valley penetrated between the mountainous areas, the Iroquois Indians
were too formidable for advance on such a slender line. Nothing but
dense settlement along the narrow strip of the Hudson, if even that,
could have furnished the necessary momentum for overcoming the Indian
barrier; and this pressure was lacking, for the population was
comparatively sparse in contrast with the task to be performed. What
most needs discussion in the case of New York, therefore, is not the
history of expansion as in other sections, but the absence of expansive
power.

The fur-trade had led the way up the Hudson, and made beginnings of
settlements at strategic points near the confluence of the Mohawk. But
the fur-trader was not followed by a tide of pioneers. One of the most
important factors in restraining density of population in New York, in
retarding the settlement of its frontier, and in determining the
conditions there, was the land system of that colony.

From the time of the patroon grants along the lower Hudson, great
estates had been the common form of land tenure. Rensselaerswyck reached
at one time over seven hundred thousand acres. These great patroon
estates were confirmed by the English governors, who in their turn
followed a similar policy. By 1732 two and one-half million acres were
engrossed in manorial grants.[80:1] In 1764, Governor Colden wrote[80:2]
that three of the extravagant grants contain,

     as the proprietors claim, above a million acres each, several
     others above 200,000. * * * Although these grants contain a
     great part of the province, they are made in trifling
     acknowledgements. The far greater part of them still remain
     uncultivated, without any benefit to the community, and are
     likewise a discouragement to the settling and improving the
     lands in the neighborhood of them, for from the uncertainty of
     their boundaries, the patentees of these great tracts are
     daily enlarging their pretensions, and by tedious and most
     expensive law suits, distress and ruin poor families who have
     taken out grants near them.

He adds that "the proprietors of the great tracts are not only freed
from the quit-rents, which the other landholders in the province pay,
but by their influence in the assembly are freed from every other public
tax on their lands."

In 1769 it was estimated that at least five-sixths of the inhabitants of
Westchester County lived within the bounds of the great manors
there.[81:1] In Albany County the Livingston manor spread over seven
modern townships, and the great Van Rensselaer manor stretched
twenty-four by twenty-eight miles along the Hudson; while still farther,
on the Mohawk, were the vast possessions of Sir William Johnson.[81:2]

It was not simply that the grants were extensive, but that the policy
of the proprietors favored the leasing rather than the sale of the
lands--frequently also of the stock, and taking payment in shares. It
followed that settlers preferred to go to frontiers where a more liberal
land policy prevailed. At one time it seemed possible that the tide of
German settlement, which finally sought Pennsylvania and the up-country
of the South, might flow into New York. In 1710, Governor Hunter
purchased a tract in Livingston's manor and located nearly fifteen
hundred Palatines on it to produce naval stores.[82:1] But the attempt
soon failed; the Germans applied to the Indians on Schoharie Creek, a
branch of the Mohawk, for a grant of land and migrated there, only to
find that the governor had already granted the land. Again were the
villages broken up, some remaining and some moving farther up the
Mohawk, where they and accessions to their number established the
frontier settlements about Palatine Bridge, in the region where, in the
Revolution, Herkimer led these German frontiersmen to stem the British
attack in the battle of Oriskany. They constituted the most effective
military defense of Mohawk Valley. Still another portion took their way
across to the waters of the Susquehanna, and at Tulpehockon Creek began
an important center of German settlement in the Great Valley of
Pennsylvania.[82:2]

The most important aspect of the history of the movement into the
frontier of New York at this period, therefore, was the evidence which
it afforded that in the competition for settlement between colonies
possessing a vast area of vacant land, those which imposed feudal
tenures and undemocratic restraints, and which exploited settlers, were
certain to lose.

The manorial practice gave a bad name to New York as a region for
settlement, which not even the actual opportunities in certain parts of
the colony could counteract. The diplomacy of New York governors during
this period of the Old West, in securing a protectorate over the Six
Nations and a consequent claim to their territory, and in holding them
aloof from France, constituted the most effective contribution of that
colony to the movement of American expansion. When lands of these tribes
were obtained after Sullivan's expedition in the Revolution (in which
New England soldiers played a prominent part), it was by the New England
inundation into this interior that they were colonized. And it was under
conditions like those prevailing in the later years of the expansion of
settlements in New England itself, that this settlement of interior and
western New York was effected.

The result was, that New York became divided into two distinct peoples:
the dwellers along Hudson Valley, and the Yankee pioneers of the
interior. But the settlement of central and western New York, like the
settlement of Vermont, is a story that belongs to the era in which the
trans-Alleghany West was occupied.

We can best consider the settlement of the share of the Old West which
is located in Pennsylvania as a part of the migration which occupied the
Southern Uplands, and before entering upon this it will be advantageous
to survey that part of the movement toward the interior which proceeded
westward from the coast. First let us observe the conditions at the
eastern edge of these uplands, along the fall line in Virginia, in the
latter part of the seventeenth century, in order that the process and
the significance of the movement may be better understood.

About the time of Bacon's Rebellion, in Virginia, strenuous efforts
were made to protect the frontier line which ran along the falls of the
river, against the attacks of Indians. This "fall line," as the
geographers call it, marking the head of navigation, and thus the
boundary of the maritime or lowland South, runs from the site of
Washington, through Richmond, and on to Raleigh, North Carolina, and
Columbia, South Carolina. Virginia having earliest advanced thus far to
the interior, found it necessary in the closing years of the seventeenth
century to draw a military frontier along this line. As early as 1675 a
statute was enacted,[84:1] providing that paid troops of five hundred
men should be drawn from the midland and most secure parts of the
country and placed on the "heads of the rivers" and other places
fronting upon the Indians. What was meant by the "heads of the rivers,"
is shown by the fact that several of these forts were located either at
the falls of the rivers or just above tidewater, as follows: one on the
lower Potomac in Stafford County; one near the falls of the
Rappahannock; one on the Mattapony; one on the Pamunky; one at the falls
of the James (near the site of Richmond); one near the falls of the
Appomattox, and others on the Blackwater, the Nansemond, and the Accomac
peninsula, all in the eastern part of Virginia.

Again, in 1679, similar provision was made,[84:2] and an especially
interesting act was passed, making _quasi_ manorial grants to Major
Lawrence Smith and Captain William Byrd, "to seate certain lands at the
head [falls] of Rappahannock and James river" respectively. This scheme
failed for lack of approval by the authorities in England.[84:3] But
Byrd at the falls of the James near the present site of Richmond,
Robert Beverley on the Rappahannock, and other frontier commanders on
the York and Potomac, continued to undertake colonial defense. The
system of mounted rangers was established in 1691, by which a
lieutenant, eleven soldiers, and two Indians at the "heads" or falls of
each great river were to scout for enemy,[85:1] and the Indian boundary
line was strictly defined.

By the opening years of the eighteenth century (1701), the assembly of
Virginia had reached the conclusion that settlement would be the best
means of protecting the frontiers, and that the best way of "settling in
co-habitations upon the said land frontiers within this government will
be by encouragements to induce societies of men to undertake the
same."[85:2] It was declared to be inexpedient to have less than twenty
fighting men in each "society," and provision was made for a land grant
to be given to these societies (or towns) not less than 10,000 nor more
than 30,000 acres upon any of the frontiers, to be held in common by the
society. The power of ordering and managing these lands, and the
settling and planting of them, was to remain in the society. Virginia
was to pay the cost of survey, also quit-rents for the first twenty
years for the two-hundred-acre tract as the site of the "co-habitation."
Within this two hundred acres each member was to have a half-acre lot
for living upon, and a right to two hundred acres next adjacent, until
the thirty thousand acres were taken up. The members of the society
were exempt from taxes for twenty years, and from the requirements of
military duty except such as they imposed upon themselves. The
resemblance to the New England town is obvious.

"Provided alwayes," ran the quaint statute, "and it is the true intent
and meaning of this act that for every five hundred acres of land to be
granted in pursuance of this act there shall be and shall be continually
kept upon the said land one christian man between sixteen and sixty
years of age perfect of limb, able and fitt for service who shall alsoe
be continually provided with a well fixed musquett or fuzee, a good
pistoll, sharp simeter, tomahawk and five pounds of good clean pistoll
powder and twenty pounds of sizable leaden bulletts or swan or goose
shott to be kept within the fort directed by this act besides the powder
and shott for his necessary or useful shooting at game. Provided also
that the said warlike christian man shall have his dwelling and
continual abode within the space of two hundred acres of land to be laid
out in a geometricall square or as near that figure as conveniency will
admit," etc. Within two years the society was required to cause a half
acre in the middle of the "co-habitation" to be palisaded "with good
sound pallisadoes at least thirteen foot long and six inches diameter in
the middle of the length thereof, and set double and at least three foot
within the ground."

Such in 1701 was the idea of the Virginia tidewater assembly of a
frontiersman, and of the frontier towns by which the Old Dominion should
spread her population into the upland South. But the "warlike Christian
man" who actually came to furnish the firing line for Virginia, was
destined to be the Scotch-Irishman and the German with long rifle in
place of "fuzee" and "simeter," and altogether too restless to have his
continual abode within the space of two hundred acres. Nevertheless
there are points of resemblance between this idea of societies settled
about a fortified town and the later "stations" of Kentucky.[87:1]

By the beginning of the eighteenth century the engrossing of the lands
of lowland Virginia had progressed so far, the practice of holding large
tracts of wasteland for reserves in the great plantations had become so
common, that the authorities of Virginia reported to the home government
that the best lands were all taken up,[87:2] and settlers were passing
into North Carolina seeking cheap lands near navigable rivers. Attention
was directed also to the Piedmont portions of Virginia, for by this time
the Indians were conquered in this region. It was now possible to
acquire land by purchase[87:3] at five shillings sterling for fifty
acres, as well as by head-rights for importation or settlement, and land
speculation soon turned to the new area.

Already the Piedmont had been somewhat explored.[87:4] Even by the
middle of the seventeenth century, fur-traders had followed the trail
southwest from the James more than four hundred miles to the Catawbas
and later to the Cherokees. Col. William Byrd had, as we have seen, not
only been absorbing good lands in the lowlands, and defending his post
at the falls of the James, like a Count of the Border, but he also
engaged in this fur-trade and sent his pack trains along this trail
through the Piedmont of the Carolinas,[87:5] and took note of the rich
savannas of that region. Charleston traders engaged in rivalry for this
trade.

It was not long before cattle raisers from the older settlements,
learning from the traders of the fertile plains and peavine pastures of
this land, followed the fur-traders and erected scattered "cow-pens" or
ranches beyond the line of plantations in the Piedmont. Even at the
close of the seventeenth century, herds of wild horses and cattle ranged
at the outskirts of the Virginia settlements, and were hunted by the
planters, driven into pens, and branded somewhat after the manner of the
later ranching on the Great Plains.[88:1] Now the cow-drovers and the
cow-pens[88:2] began to enter the uplands. The Indians had by this time
been reduced to submission in most of the Virginia Piedmont--as Governor
Spotswood[88:3] reported in 1712, living "quietly on our frontiers,
trafficking with the Inhabitants."

After the defeat of the Tuscaroras and Yemassees about this time in the
Carolinas, similar opportunities for expansion existed there. The cattle
drovers sometimes took their herds from range to range; sometimes they
were gathered permanently near the pens, finding the range sufficient
throughout the year. They were driven to Charleston, or later sometimes
even to Philadelphia and Baltimore markets. By the middle of the
century, disease worked havoc with them in South Carolina[89:1] and
destroyed seven-eighths of those in North Carolina; Virginia made
regulations governing the driving of cattle through her frontier
counties to avoid the disease, just as in our own time the northern
cattlemen attempted to protect their herds against the Texas fever.

Thus cattle raisers from the coast followed the fur-traders toward the
uplands, and already pioneer farmers were straggling into the same
region, soon to be outnumbered by the tide of settlement that flowed
into the region from Pennsylvania.

The descriptions of the uplands by contemporaneous writers are in
glowing terms. Makemie, in his "Plain and Friendly Persuasion" (1705),
declared "The best, richest, and most healthy part of your Country is
yet to be inhabited, above the falls of every River, to the Mountains."
Jones, in his "Present State of Virginia" (1724), comments on the
convenience of tidewater transportation, etc., but declares that section
"not nearly so healthy as the uplands and Barrens which serve for Ranges
for Stock," although he speaks less enthusiastically of the savannas and
marshes which lay in the midst of the forest areas. In fact, the
Piedmont was by no means the unbroken forest that might have been
imagined, for in addition to natural meadows, the Indians had burned
over large tracts.[89:2] It was a rare combination of woodland and
pasture, with clear running streams and mild climate.[89:3]

The occupation of the Virginia Piedmont received a special impetus from
the interest which Governor Spotswood took in the frontier. In 1710 he
proposed a plan for intercepting the French in their occupation of the
interior, by inducing Virginia settlement to proceed along one side of
James River only, until this column of advancing pioneers should strike
the attenuated line of French posts in the center. In the same year he
sent a body of horsemen to the top of the Blue Ridge, where they could
overlook the Valley of Virginia.[90:1] By 1714 he became active as a
colonizer himself. Thirty miles above the falls of the Rappahannock, on
the Rapidan at Germanna,[90:2] he settled a little village of German
redemptioners (who in return for having the passage paid agreed to serve
without wages for a term of years), to engage in his iron works, also to
act as rangers on the frontier. From here, in 1716, with two companies
of rangers and four Indians, Governor Spotswood and a band of Virginia
gentlemen made a summer picnic excursion of two weeks across the Blue
Ridge into the Shenandoah Valley. _Sic juvat transcendere montes_ was
the motto of these Knights of the Golden Horse Shoe, as the governor
dubbed them. But they were not the "warlike christian men" destined to
occupy the frontier.

Spotswood's interest in the advance along the Rappahannock, probably
accounts for the fact that in 1720 Spotsylvania and Brunswick were
organized as frontier counties of Virginia.[91:1] Five hundred dollars
were contributed by the colony to the church, and a thousand dollars for
arms and ammunition for the settlers in these counties. The fears of the
French and Indians beyond the high mountains, were alleged as reasons
for this advance. To attract settlers to these new counties, they were
(1723) exempt from purchasing the lands under the system of head rights,
and from payment of quit-rents for seven years after 1721. The free
grants so obtained were not to exceed a thousand acres. This was soon
extended to six thousand acres, but with provision requiring the
settlement of a certain number of families upon the grant within a
certain time. In 1729 Spotswood was ordered by the Council to produce
"rights" and pay the quit-rents for the 59,786 acres which he claimed in
this county.

Other similar actions by the Council show that large holdings were
developing there, also that the difficulty of establishing a frontier
democracy in contact with the area of expanding plantations, was very
real.[91:2] By the time of the occupation of the Shenandoah Valley,
therefore, the custom was established in this part of Virginia,[91:3] of
making grants of a thousand acres for each family settled. Speculative
planters, influential with the Governor and Council secured grants of
many thousand acres, conditioned upon seating a certain number of
families, and satisfying the requirements of planting. Thus what had
originally been intended as direct grants to the actual settler,
frequently became grants to great planters like Beverley, who promoted
the coming of Scotch-Irish and German settlers, or took advantage of
the natural drift into the Valley, to sell lands in their grants, as a
rule, reserving quit-rents. The liberal grants per family enabled these
speculative planters, while satisfying the terms of settlement, to hold
large portions of the grant for themselves. Under the lax requirements,
and probably still more lax enforcement, of the provisions for actual
cultivation or cattle-raising,[92:1] it was not difficult to hold such
wild land. These conditions rendered possible the extension of a measure
of aristocratic planter life in the course of time to the Piedmont and
Valley lands of Virginia. It must be added, however, that some of the
newcomers, both Germans and Scotch-Irish, like the Van Meters, Stover,
and Lewis, also showed an ability to act as promoters in locating
settlers and securing grants to themselves.

In the northern part of the Shenandoah Valley, lay part of the estate of
Lord Fairfax, some six million acres in extent, which came to the family
by dower from the old Culpeper and Arlington grant of Northern Neck. In
1748, the youthful Washington was surveying this estate along the upper
waters of the Potomac, finding a bed under the stars and learning the
life of the frontier.

Lord Fairfax established his own Greenway manor,[92:2] and divided his
domain into other manors, giving ninety-nine-year leases to settlers
already on the ground at twenty shillings annually per hundred acres;
while of the new-comers he exacted two shillings annual quit-rent for
this amount of land in fee simple. Litigation kept land titles uncertain
here, for many years. Similarly, Beverley's manor, about Staunton,
represented a grant of 118,000 acres to Beverley and his associates on
condition of placing the proper number of families on the tract.[93:1]
Thus speculative planters on this frontier shared in the movement of
occupation and made an aristocratic element in the up-country; but the
increasing proportion of Scotch-Irish immigrants, as well as German
settlers, together with the contrast in natural conditions, made the
interior a different Virginia from that of the tidewater.

As settlement ascended the Rappahannock, and emigrants began to enter
the Valley from the north, so, contemporaneously, settlement ascended
the James above the falls, succeeding to the posts of the
fur-traders.[93:2] Goochland County was set off in 1728, and the growth
of population led, as early as 1729, to proposals for establishing a
city (Richmond) at the falls. Along the upper James, as on the
Rappahannock, speculative planters bought headrights and located
settlers and tenants to hold their grants.[93:3] Into this region came
natives of Virginia, emigrants from the British isles, and scattered
representatives of other lands, some of them coming up the James, others
up the York, and still others arriving with the southward-moving current
along both sides of the Blue Ridge.

Before 1730 few settlers lived above the mouth of the Rivanna. In 1732
Peter Jefferson patented a thousand acres at the eastern opening of its
mountain gap, and here, under frontier conditions, Thomas Jefferson was
born in 1743 near his later estate of Monticello. About him were pioneer
farmers, as well as foresighted engrossers of the land. In the main his
country was that of a democratic frontier people--Scotch-Irish
Presbyterians, Quakers, Baptists, and other sects,[94:1] out of
sympathy with the established church and the landed gentry of the
lowlands. This society in which he was born, was to find in Jefferson a
powerful exponent of its ideals.[94:2] Patrick Henry was born in 1736
above the falls, not far from Richmond, and he also was a mouthpiece of
interior Virginia in the Revolutionary era. In short, a society was
already forming in the Virginia Piedmont which was composed of many
sects, of independent yeomen as well as their great planter leaders--a
society naturally expansive, seeing its opportunity to deal in
unoccupied lands along the frontier which continually moved toward the
West, and in this era of the eighteenth century dominated by the
democratic ideals of pioneers rather than by the aristocratic tendencies
of slaveholding planters. As there were two New Englands, so there were
by this time two Virginias, and the uplands belonged with the Old West.

The advance across the fall line from the coast was, in North Carolina,
much slower than in Virginia. After the Tuscarora War (1712-13) an
extensive region west from Pamlico Sound was opened (1724). The region
to the north, about the Roanoke, had before this begun to receive
frontier settlers, largely from Virginia. Their traits are interestingly
portrayed in Byrd's "Dividing Line." By 1728 the farthest inhabitants
along the Virginia boundary were frontiersmen about Great Creek, a
branch of the Roanoke.[94:3] The North Carolina commissioners desired to
stop running the line after going a hundred and seventy miles, on the
plea that they were already fifty miles beyond the outermost inhabitant,
and there would be no need for an age or two to carry the line farther;
but the Virginia surveyors pointed out that already speculators were
taking up the land. A line from Weldon to Fayetteville would roughly
mark the western boundary of North Carolina's sparse population of forty
thousand souls.[95:1]

The slower advance is explained, partly because of the later settlement
of the Carolinas, partly because the Indians continued to be troublesome
on the flanks of the advancing population, as seen in the Tuscarora and
Yemassee wars, and partly because the pine barrens running parallel with
the fall line made a zone of infertile land not attractive to settlers.
The North Carolina low country, indeed, had from the end of the
seventeenth century been a kind of southern frontier for overflow from
Virginia; and in many ways was assimilated to the type of the up-country
in its turbulent democracy, its variety of sects and peoples, and its
primitive conditions. But under the lax management of the public lands,
the use of "blank patents" and other evasions made possible the
development of large landholding, side by side with headrights to
settlers. Here, as in Virginia, a great proprietary grant extended
across the colony--Lord Granville's proprietary was a zone embracing the
northern half of North Carolina. Within the area, sales and quit-rents
were administered by the agents of the owner, with the result that
uncertainty and disorder of an agrarian nature extended down to the
Revolution. There were likewise great speculative holdings, conditioned
on seating a certain proportion of settlers, into which the frontiersmen
were drifting.[95:2] But this system also made it possible for agents of
later migrating congregations to establish colonies like that of the
Moravians at Wachovia.[95:3] Thus, by the time settlers came into the
uplands from the north, a land system existed similar to that of
Virginia. A common holding was a square mile (640 acres), but in
practice this did not prevent the accumulation of great estates.[96:1]
Whereas Virginia's Piedmont area was to a large extent entered by
extensions from the coast, that of North Carolina remained almost
untouched by 1730.[96:2]

The same is true of South Carolina. By 1730, settlement had progressed
hardly eighty miles from the coast, even in the settled area of the
lowlands. The tendency to engross the lowlands for large plantations was
clear, here as elsewhere.[96:3] The surveyor-general reports in 1732
that not as many as a thousand acres within a hundred miles of
Charleston, or within twenty miles of a river or navigable creek, were
unpossessed. In 1729 the crown ordered eleven townships of twenty
thousand acres each to be laid out in rectangles, divided into fifty
acres for each actual settler under a quit-rent of four shillings a year
for every hundred acres, or proportionally, to be paid after the first
ten years.[96:4] By 1732 these townships, designed to attract foreign
Protestants, were laid out on the great rivers of the colony. As they
were located in the middle region, east of the fall line, among pine
barrens, or in malarial lands in the southern corner of the colony, they
all proved abortive as towns, except Orangeburg[96:5] on the North
Edisto, where German redemptioners made a settlement. The Scotch-Irish
Presbyterians who came to Williamsburg, on Black River, suffered
hardships; as did the Swiss who, under the visionary leadership of
Purry, settled in the deadly climate of Purrysburg, on the lower
Savannah. To Welsh colonists from Pennsylvania there was made a
grant--known as the "Welsh tract," embracing over 173,000 acres on the
Great Pedee (Marion County)[97:1] under headrights of fifty acres, also
a bounty in provisions, tools, and livestock.

These attempts, east of the fall line, are interesting as showing
the colonial policy of marking out towns (which were to be
politically-organized parishes, with representation in the legislature),
and attracting foreigners thereto, prior to the coming of settlers from
the North.

The settlement of Georgia, in 1732, completed the southern line of
colonization toward the Piedmont. Among the objects of the colony, as
specified in the charters, were the relief of the poor and the
protection of the frontiers. To guard against the tendency to engross
the lands in great estates, already so clearly revealed in the older
colonies, the Georgia trustees provided that the grants of fifty acres
should not be alienated or divided, but should pass to the male heirs
and revert to the trustees in case heirs were lacking. No grant greater
than five hundred acres was permitted, and even this was made
conditionally upon the holder settling ten colonists. However, under
local conditions and the competition and example of neighboring
colonies, this attempt to restrict land tenure in the interest of
democracy broke down by 1750, and Georgia's land system became not
unlike that of the other Southern colonies.[97:2]

In 1734, Salzburgers had been located above Savannah, and within seven
years some twelve hundred German Protestants were dwelling on the
Georgia frontier; while a settlement of Scotch Highlanders at Darien,
near the mouth of the Altamaha, protected the southern frontier. At
Augusta, an Indian trading fort (1735), whence the dealers in peltry
visited the Cherokee, completed the familiar picture of frontier
advance.[98:1]

We have now hastily surveyed the movement of the frontier of settlement
westward from the lowlands, in the later years of the seventeenth and
early part of the eighteenth century. There is much that is common in
the whole line of advance. The original settlers engross the desirable
lands of the older area. Indented servants and new-comers pass to the
frontier seeking a place to locate their headrights, or plant new towns.
Adventurous and speculative wealthy planters acquire large holdings in
the new areas, and bring over settlers to satisfy the requirements of
seating and cultivating their extensive grants, thus building up a
yeomanry of small landholders side by side with the holders of large
estates. The most far-sighted of the new-comers follow the example of
the planters, and petition for increasing extensive grants. Meanwhile,
pioneers like Abraham Wood, himself once an indented servant, and
gentlemen like Col. William Byrd--prosecuting the Indian trade from
their posts at the "heads" of the rivers, and combining frontier
protection, exploring, and surveying--make known the more distant
fertile soils of the Piedmont. Already in the first part of the
eighteenth century, the frontier population tended to be a rude
democracy, with a large representation of Scotch-Irish, Germans, Welsh,
and Huguenot French settlers, holding religious faiths unlike that of
the followers of the established church in the lowlands. The movement of
slaves into the region was unimportant, but not unknown.

The Virginia Valley was practically unsettled in 1730, as was much of
Virginia's Piedmont area and all the Piedmont area of the Carolinas. The
significance of the movement of settlers from the North into this vacant
Valley and Piedmont, behind the area occupied by expansion from the
coast is, that it was geographically separated from the westward
movement from the coast, and that it was sufficient in volume to recruit
the democratic forces and postpone for a long time the process of social
assimilation to the type of the lowlands.

As has been pointed out, especially in the Carolinas a belt of pine
barrens, roughly eighty miles in breadth, ran parallel with the fall
line and thus discouraged western advance across this belt, even before
the head of navigation was reached. In Virginia, the Blue Ridge made an
almost equally effective barrier, walling off the Shenandoah Valley from
the westward advance. At the same time this valley was but a
continuation of the Great Valley, that ran along the eastern edge of the
Alleghanies in southeastern Pennsylvania, and included in its mountain
trough the Cumberland and Hagerstown valleys. In short, a broad
limestone band of fertile soil was stretched within mountain walls,
southerly from Pennsylvania to southwestern Virginia; and here the
watergaps opened the way to descend to the Carolina Piedmont. This whole
area, a kind of peninsula thrust down from Pennsylvania, was rendered
comparatively inaccessible to the westward movement from the lowlands,
and was equally accessible to the population which was entering
Pennsylvania.[99:1]

Thus it happened that from about 1730 to 1760 a generation of settlers
poured along this mountain trough into the southern uplands, or
Piedmont, creating a new continuous social and economic area, which cut
across the artificial colonial boundary lines, disarranged the regular
extension of local government from the coast westward, and built up a
new Pennsylvania in contrast with the old Quaker colonies, and a new
South in contrast with the tidewater South. This New South composed the
southern half of the Old West.

From its beginning, Pennsylvania was advertised as a home for dissenting
sects seeking freedom in the wilderness. But it was not until the exodus
of German redemptioners,[100:1] from about 1717, that the Palatinate and
neighboring areas sent the great tide of Germans which by the time of
the Revolution made them nearly a third of the total population of
Pennsylvania. It has been carefully estimated that in 1775 over 200,000
Germans lived in the thirteen colonies, chiefly along the frontier zone
of the Old West. Of these, a hundred thousand had their home in
Pennsylvania, mainly in the Great Valley, in the region which is still
so notably the abode of the "Pennsylvania Dutch."[100:2]

Space does not permit us to describe this movement of
colonization.[100:3] The entrance to the fertile limestone soils of the
Great Valley of Pennsylvania was easy, in view of the low elevation of
the South Mountain ridge, and the watergaps thereto. The continuation
along the similar valley to the south, in Maryland and Virginia, was a
natural one, especially as the increasing tide of emigrants raised the
price of lands.[100:4] In 1719 the proprietor's price for Pennsylvania
lands was ten pounds per hundred acres, and two shillings quit-rents. In
1732 this became fifteen and one-half pounds, with a quit-rent of a half
penny per acre.[101:1] During the period 1718 to 1732, when the Germans
were coming in great numbers, the management of the lands fell into
confusion, and many seated themselves as squatters, without
title.[101:2] This was a fortunate possibility for the poor
redemptioners, who had sold their service for a term of years in order
to secure their transportation to America.

By 1726 it was estimated that there were 100,000 squatters;[101:3] and
of the 670,000 acres occupied between 1732 and 1740, it is estimated
that 400,000 acres were settled without grants.[101:4] Nevertheless
these must ultimately be paid for, with interest, and the concession of
the right of preëmption to squatters made this easier. But it was not
until 1755 that the governor offered land free from purchase, and this
was to be taken only west of the Alleghanies.[101:5]

Although the credit system relieved the difficulty in Pennsylvania, the
lands of that colony were in competition with the Maryland lands,
offered between 1717 and 1738 at forty shillings sterling per hundred
acres, which in 1738 was raised to five pounds sterling.[101:6] At the
same time, in the Virginia Valley, as will be recalled, free grants were
being made of a thousand acres per family. Although large tracts of the
Shenandoah Valley had been granted to speculators like Beverley,
Borden, and the Carters, as well as to Lord Fairfax, the owners sold
six or seven pounds cheaper per hundred acres than did the Pennsylvania
land office.[102:1] Between 1726 and 1734, therefore, the Germans began
to enter this valley,[102:2] and before long they extended their
settlements into the Piedmont of the Carolinas,[102:3] being recruited
in South Carolina by emigrants coming by way of Charleston--especially
after Governor Glenn's purchase from the Cherokee in 1755, of the
extreme western portion of the colony. Between 1750 and the Revolution,
these settlers in the Carolinas greatly increased in numbers.

Thus a zone of almost continuous German settlements had been
established, running from the head of the Mohawk in New York to the
Savannah in Georgia. They had found the best soils, and they knew how to
till them intensively and thriftily, as attested by their large,
well-filled barns, good stock, and big canvas-covered Conestoga wagons.
They preferred to dwell in groups, often of the same religious
denomination--Lutherans, Reformed, Moravians, Mennonites, and many
lesser sects. The diaries of Moravian missionaries from Pennsylvania,
who visited them, show how the parent congregations kept in touch with
their colonies[102:4] and how intimate, in general, was the bond of
connection between this whole German frontier zone and that of
Pennsylvania.

Side by side with this German occupation of Valley and Piedmont, went
the migration of the Scotch-Irish.[103:1] These lowland Scots had been
planted in Ulster early in the seventeenth century. Followers of John
Knox, they had the contentious individualism and revolutionary temper
that seem natural to Scotch Presbyterianism. They were brought up on the
Old Testament, and in the doctrine of government by covenant or compact.
In Ireland their fighting qualities had been revealed in the siege of
Londonderry, where their stubborn resistance balked the hopes of James
II. However, religious and political disabilities were imposed upon
these Ulstermen, which made them discontented, and hard times
contributed to detach them from their homes. Their movement to America
was contemporaneous with the heavy German migration. By the Revolution,
it is believed that a third of the population of Pennsylvania was
Scotch-Irish; and it has been estimated, probably too liberally, that a
half million came to the United States between 1730 and 1770.[103:2]
Especially after the Rebellion of 1745, large numbers of Highlanders
came to increase the Scotch blood in the nation.[103:3] Some of the
Scotch-Irish went to New England.[103:4] Given the cold shoulder by
congregational Puritans, they passed to unsettled lands about Worcester,
to the frontier in the Berkshires, and in southern New Hampshire at
Londonderry--whence came John Stark, a frontier leader in the French
and Indian War, and the hero of Bennington in the Revolution, as well as
the ancestors of Horace Greeley and S. P. Chase. In New York, a
Scotch-Irish settlement was planted on the frontier at Cherry
Valley.[104:1] Scotch Highlanders came to the Mohawk,[104:2] where they
followed Sir William Johnson and became Tory raiders in the Revolution.

But it was in Pennsylvania that the center of Scotch-Irish power lay.
"These bold and indigent strangers, saying as their excuse when
challenged for titles that we had solicited for colonists and they had
come accordingly,"[104:3] and asserting that "it was against the laws of
God and nature that so much land should be idle while so many christians
wanted it to work on and to raise their bread," squatted on the vacant
lands, especially in the region disputed between Pennsylvania and
Maryland, and remained in spite of efforts to drive them off. Finding
the Great Valley in the hands of the Germans, they planted their own
outposts along the line of the Indian trading path from Lancaster to
Bedford; they occupied Cumberland Valley, and before 1760 pressed up the
Juniata somewhat beyond the narrows, spreading out along its
tributaries, and by 1768 had to be warned off from the Redstone country
to avoid Indian trouble. By the time of the Revolution, their
settlements made Pittsburgh a center from which was to come a new era in
Pennsylvania history. It was the Scotch-Irish and German
fur-traders[104:4] whose pack trains pioneered into the Ohio Valley in
the days before the French and Indian wars. The messengers between
civilization and savagery were such men,[105:1] as the Irish Croghan,
and the Germans Conrad Weiser and Christian Post.

Like the Germans, the Scotch-Irish passed into the Shenandoah
Valley,[105:2] and on to the uplands of the South. In 1738 a delegation
of the Philadelphia Presbyterian synod was sent to the Virginia governor
and received assurances of security of religious freedom; the same
policy was followed by the Carolinas. By 1760 a zone of Scotch-Irish
Presbyterian churches extended from the frontiers of New England to the
frontiers of South Carolina. This zone combined in part with the German
zone, but in general Scotch-Irishmen tended to follow the valleys
farther toward the mountains, to be the outer edge of this frontier.
Along with this combined frontier stream were English, Welsh and Irish
Quakers, and French Huguenots.[105:3]

Among this moving mass, as it passed along the Valley into the Piedmont,
in the middle of the eighteenth century, were Daniel Boone, John Sevier,
James Robertson, and the ancestors of John C. Calhoun, Abraham Lincoln,
Jefferson Davis, Stonewall Jackson, James K. Polk, Sam Houston, and Davy
Crockett, while the father of Andrew Jackson came to the Carolina
Piedmont at the same time from the coast. Recalling that Thomas
Jefferson's home was on the frontier, at the edge of the Blue Ridge, we
perceive that these names represent the militant expansive movement in
American life. They foretell the settlement across the Alleghanies in
Kentucky and Tennessee; the Louisiana Purchase, and Lewis and Clark's
transcontinental exploration; the conquest of the Gulf Plains in the
War of 1812-15; the annexation of Texas; the acquisition of California
and the Spanish Southwest. They represent, too, frontier democracy in
its two aspects personified in Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln. It
was a democracy responsive to leadership, susceptible to waves of
emotion, of a "high religeous voltage"--quick and direct in action.

The volume of this Northern movement into the Southern uplands is
illustrated by the statement of Governor Tryon, of North Carolina, that
in the summer and winter of 1765 more than a thousand immigrant wagons
passed through Salisbury, in that colony.[106:1] Coming by families, or
groups of families or congregations, they often drove their herds with
them. Whereas in 1746 scarce a hundred fighting men were found in Orange
and the western counties of North Carolina, there were in 1753 fully
three thousand, in addition to over a thousand Scotch in the Cumberland;
and they covered the province more or less thickly, from Hillsboro and
Fayetteville to the mountains.[106:2] Bassett remarks that the
Presbyterians received their first ministers from the synod of New York
and Pennsylvania, and later on sent their ministerial students to
Princeton College. "Indeed it is likely that the inhabitants of this
region knew more about Philadelphia at that time than about Newbern or
Edenton."[106:3]

We are now in a position to note briefly, in conclusion, some of the
results of the occupation of this new frontier during the first half of
the eighteenth century--some of the consequences of this formation of
the Old West.

I. A fighting frontier had been created all along the line from New
England to Georgia, which bore the brunt of French and Indian attacks
and gave indispensable service during the Revolution. The significance
of this fact could only be developed by an extended survey of the
scattered border warfare of this era. We should have to see Rogers
leading his New England Rangers, and Washington defending interior
Virginia with his frontiersmen in their hunting shirts, in the French
and Indian War. When all of the campaigns about the region of Canada,
Lake Champlain, and the Hudson, central New York (Oriskany, Cherry
Valley, Sullivan's expedition against the Iroquois), Wyoming Valley,
western Pennsylvania, the Virginia Valley, and the back country of the
South are considered as a whole from this point of view, the meaning of
the Old West will become more apparent.

II. A new society had been established, differing in essentials from the
colonial society of the coast. It was a democratic self-sufficing,
primitive agricultural society, in which individualism was more
pronounced than the community life of the lowlands. The indented servant
and the slave were not a normal part of its labor system. It was engaged
in grain and cattle raising, not in producing staples, and it found a
partial means of supplying its scarcity of specie by the peltries which
it shipped to the coast. But the hunter folk were already pushing
farther on; the cow-pens and the range were giving place to the small
farm, as in our own day they have done in the cattle country. It was a
region of hard work and poverty, not of wealth and leisure. Schools and
churches were secured under serious difficulty,[107:1] if at all; but in
spite of the natural tendencies of a frontier life, a large portion of
the interior showed a distinctly religious atmosphere.

III. The Old West began the movement of internal trade which developed
home markets and diminished that colonial dependence on Europe in
industrial matters shown by the maritime and staple-raising sections.
Not only did Boston and other New England towns increase as trading
centers when the back country settled up, but an even more significant
interchange occurred along the Valley and Piedmont. The German farmers
of the Great Valley brought their woven linen, knitted stockings,
firkins of butter, dried apples, grain, etc., to Philadelphia and
especially to Baltimore, which was laid out in 1730. To this city also
came trade from the Shenandoah Valley, and even from the Piedmont came
peltry trains and droves of cattle and hogs to the same market.[108:1]
The increase of settlement on the upper James resulted in the
establishment of the city of Richmond at the falls of the river in 1737.
Already the tobacco-planting aristocracy of the lowlands were finding
rivals in the grain-raising area of interior Virginia and Maryland.
Charleston prospered as the up-country of the Carolinas grew. Writing in
the middle of the eighteenth century, Governor Glenn, of South Carolina,
explained the apparent diminution of the colony's shipping thus:[108:2]

     Our trade with New York and Philadelphia was of this sort,
     draining us of all the little money and bills that we could
     gather from other places, for their bread, flour, beer, hams,
     bacon, and other things of their produce, all which, except
     beer, our new townships begin to supply us with which are
     settled with very industrious and consequently thriving
     Germans.

It was not long before this interior trade produced those rivalries for
commercial ascendancy, between the coastwise cities, which still
continue. The problem of internal improvements became a pressing one,
and the statutes show increasing provision for roads, ferries, bridges,
river improvements, etc.[109:1] The basis was being laid for a national
economy, and at the same time a new source for foreign export was
created.

IV. The Old West raised the issues of nativism and a lower standard of
comfort. In New England, Scotch-Irish Presbyterians had been frowned
upon and pushed away by the Puritan townsmen.[109:2] In Pennsylvania,
the coming of the Germans and the Scotch-Irish in such numbers caused
grave anxiety. Indeed, a bill was passed to limit the importation of the
Palatines, but it was vetoed.[109:3] Such astute observers as Franklin
feared in 1753 that Pennsylvania would be unable to preserve its
language and that even its government would become precarious.[109:4] "I
remember," he declares, "when they modestly declined intermeddling in
our elections, but now they come in droves and carry all before them,
except in one or two counties;" and he lamented that the English could
not remove their prejudices by addressing them in German.[109:5] Dr.
Douglas[109:6] apprehended that Pennsylvania would "degenerate into a
foreign colony" and endanger the quiet of the adjacent provinces. Edmund
Burke, regretting that the Germans adhered to their own schools,
literature, and language, and that they possessed great tracts without
admixture of English, feared that they would not blend and become one
people with the British colonists, and that the colony was threatened
with the danger of being wholly foreign. He also noted that "these
foreigners by their industry, frugality, and a hard way of living, in
which they greatly exceed our people, have in a manner thrust them out
in several places."[110:1] This is a phenomenon with which a succession
of later frontiers has familiarized us. In point of fact the
"Pennsylvania Dutch" remained through our history a very stubborn area
to assimilate, with corresponding effect upon Pennsylvania politics.

It should be noted also that this coming of non-English stock to the
frontier raised in all the colonies affected, questions of
naturalization and land tenure by aliens.[110:2]

V. The creation of this frontier society--of which so large a portion
differed from that of the coast in language and religion as well as in
economic life, social structure, and ideals--produced an antagonism
between interior and coast, which worked itself out in interesting
fashion. In general this took these forms: contests between the
property-holding class of the coast and the debtor class of the
interior, where specie was lacking, and where paper money and a
readjustment of the basis of taxation were demanded; contests over
defective or unjust local government in the administration of taxes,
fees, lands, and the courts; contests over apportionment in the
legislature, whereby the coast was able to dominate, even when its white
population was in the minority; contests to secure the complete
separation of church and state; and, later, contests over slavery,
internal improvements, and party politics in general. These contests are
also intimately connected with the political philosophy of the
Revolution and with the development of American democracy. In nearly
every colony prior to the Revolution, struggles had been in progress
between the party of privilege, chiefly the Eastern men of property
allied with the English authorities, and the democratic classes,
strongest in the West and the cities.

This theme deserves more space than can here be allotted to it; but a
rapid survey of conditions in this respect, along the whole frontier,
will at least serve to bring out the point.

In New England as a whole, the contest is less in evidence. That part of
the friction elsewhere seen as the result of defective local government
in the back country, was met by the efficiency of the town system; but
between the interior and the coast there were struggles over
apportionment and religious freedom. The former is illustrated by the
convention that met in Dracut, Massachusetts, in 1776, to petition the
States of Massachusetts and New Hampshire to relieve the financial
distress and unfair legislative representation. Sixteen of the border
towns of New Hampshire sent delegates to this convention. Two years
later, these New Hampshire towns attempted to join Vermont.[111:1] As a
Revolutionary State, Vermont itself was an illustration of the same
tendency of the interior to break away from the coast. Massachusetts in
this period witnessed a campaign between the paper money party which was
entrenched in the more recently and thinly-settled areas of the interior
and west, and the property-holding classes of the coast.[111:2] The
opposition to the constitutions of 1778 and 1780 is tinctured with the
same antagonism between the ideas of the newer part of the interior and
of the coast.[112:1] Shays' Rebellion and the anti-federal opposition of
1787-88 found its stronghold in the same interior areas.[112:2]

The religious struggles continued until the democratic interior, where
dissenting sects were strong, and where there was antagonism to the
privileges of the congregational church, finally secured complete
disestablishment in New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. But
this belongs to a later period.[112:3]

Pennsylvania affords a clear illustration of these sectional
antagonisms. The memorial of the frontier "Paxton Boys," in 1764,
demanded a right to share in political privileges with the older part of
the colony, and protested against the apportionment by which the
counties of Chester, Bucks, and Philadelphia, together with the city of
Philadelphia, elected twenty-six delegates, while the five frontier
counties had but ten.[112:4] The frontier complained against the failure
of the dominant Quaker party of the coast to protect the interior
against the Indians.[112:5] The three old wealthy counties under Quaker
rule feared the growth of the West, therefore made few new counties, and
carefully restricted the representation in each to preserve the majority
in the old section. At the same time, by a property qualification they
met the danger of the democratic city population. Among the points of
grievance in this colony, in addition to apportionment and
representation, was the difficulty of access to the county seat, owing
to the size of the back counties. Dr. Lincoln has well set forth the
struggle of the back country, culminating in its triumph in the
constitutional convention of 1776, which was chiefly the work of the
Presbyterian counties.[113:1] Indeed, there were two revolutions in
Pennsylvania, which went on side by side: one a revolt against the
coastal property-holding classes, the old dominant Quaker party, and the
other a revolt against Great Britain, which was in this colony made
possible only by the triumph of the interior.

In Virginia, as early as 1710, Governor Spotswood had complained that
the old counties remained small while the new ones were sometimes ninety
miles long, the inhabitants being obliged to travel thirty or forty
miles to their own court-house. Some of the counties had 1,700
tithables, while others only a dozen miles square had 500. Justices of
the peace disliked to ride forty or fifty miles to their monthly courts.
Likewise there was disparity in the size of parishes--for example, that
of Varina, on the upper James, had nine hundred tithables, many of whom
lived fifty miles from their church. But the vestry refused to allow the
remote parishioners to separate, because it would increase the parish
levy of those that remained. He feared lest this would afford
"opportunity to Sectarys to establish their opinions among 'em, and
thereby shake that happy establishment of the Church of England which
this colony enjoys with less mixture of Dissenters than any other of her
Maj'tie's plantations, and when once Schism has crept into the Church,
it will soon create faction in the Civil Government."

That Spotswood's fears were well founded, we have already seen. As the
sectaries of the back country increased, dissatisfaction with the
established church grew. After the Revolution came, Jefferson, with the
back country behind him, was able finally to destroy the establishment,
and to break down the system of entails and primogeniture behind which
the tobacco-planting aristocracy of the coast was entrenched. The desire
of Jefferson to see slavery gradually abolished and popular education
provided, is a further illustration of the attitude of the interior. In
short, Jeffersonian democracy, with its idea of separation of church and
state, its wish to popularize education, and its dislike for special
privilege, was deeply affected by the Western society of the Old
Dominion.

The Virginian reform movement, however, was unable to redress the
grievance of unequal apportionment. In 1780 Jefferson pointed out that
the practice of allowing each county an equal representation in the
legislature gave control to the numerous small counties of the
tidewater, while the large populous counties of the up-country suffered.
"Thus," he wrote, "the 19,000 men below the falls give law to more than
30,000 living in other parts of the state, and appoint all their chief
officers, executive and judiciary."[114:1] This led to a long struggle
between coast and interior, terminated only when the slave population
passed across the fall line, and more nearly assimilated coast and
up-country. In the mountain areas which did not undergo this change, the
independent state of West Virginia remains as a monument of the contest.
In the convention of 1829-30, the whole philosophy of representation was
discussed, and the coast defended its control as necessary to protect
property from the assaults of a numerical majority. They feared that
the interior would tax their slaves in order to secure funds for
internal improvements.

As Doddridge put the case:[115:1]

     The principle is that the owners of slave property must be
     possessed of all the powers of government, however small their
     own numbers may be, to secure that property from the rapacity
     of an overgrown majority of white men. This principle admits
     of no relaxation, because the weaker the minority becomes, the
     greater will their need for power be according to their own
     doctrines.

Leigh of Chesterfield county declared:[115:2]

     It is remarkable--I mention it for the curiosity of the
     fact--that if any evil, physical or moral, arise in any of the
     states south of us, it never takes a northerly direction, or
     taints the Southern breeze; whereas, if any plague originate
     in the North, it is sure to spread to the South and to invade
     us sooner or later; the influenza--the smallpox--the
     varioloid--the Hessian fly--the Circuit Court
     system--Universal Suffrage--all come from the North, _and they
     always cross above the falls of the great rivers_; below, it
     seems, the broad expanse of waters interposing, effectually
     arrests their progress.

Nothing could more clearly bring out the sense of contrast between
upland and lowland Virginia, and the continued intimacy of the bond of
connection between the North and its Valley and Piedmont colonies, than
this unconscious testimony.

In North and South Carolina the upland South, beyond the pine barrens
and the fall line, had similar grievances against the coast; but as the
zone of separation was more strongly marked, the grievances were more
acute. The tide of backwoods settlement flowing down the Piedmont from
the north, had cut across the lines of local government and disarranged
the regular course of development of the colonies from the
seacoast.[116:1] Under the common practice, large counties in North
Carolina and parishes in South Carolina had been projected into the
unoccupied interior from the older settlements along their eastern edge.

But the Piedmont settlers brought their own social order, and could not
be well governed by the older planters living far away toward the
seaboard. This may be illustrated by conditions in South Carolina. The
general court in Charleston had absorbed county and precinct courts,
except the minor jurisdiction of justices of the peace. This was well
enough for the great planters who made their regular residence there for
a part of each year; but it was a source of oppression to the up-country
settlers, remote from the court. The difficulty of bringing witnesses,
the delay of the law, and the costs all resulted in the escape of
criminals as well as in the immunity of reckless debtors. The extortions
of officials, and their occasional collusion with horse and cattle
thieves, and the lack of regular administration of the law, led the
South Carolina up-country men to take affairs in their own hands, and in
1764 to establish associations to administer lynch law under the name of
"Regulators." The "Scovillites," or government party, and the
Regulators met in arms on the Saluda in 1769, but hostilities were
averted and remedial measures passed, which alleviated the difficulty
until the Revolution.[117:1] There still remained, however, the
grievance of unjust legislative representation.[117:2] Calhoun stated
the condition in these words:

     The upper country had no representation in the government and
     no political existence as a constituent portion of the state
     until a period near the commencement of the revolution.
     Indeed, during the revolution, and until the formation of the
     present constitution, in 1790, its political weight was
     scarcely felt in the government. Even then although it had
     become the most populous section, power was so distributed
     under the constitution as to leave it in a minority in every
     department of government.

Even in 1794 it was claimed by the up-country leaders that four-fifths
of the people were governed by one-fifth. Nor was the difficulty met
until the constitutional amendment of 1808, the effect of which was to
give the control of the senate to the lower section and of the house of
representatives to the upper section, thus providing a mutual
veto.[117:3] This South Carolina experience furnished the historical
basis for Calhoun's argument for nullification, and for the political
philosophy underlying his theory of the "concurrent majority."[118:1]
This adjustment was effected, however, only after the advance of the
black belt toward the interior had assimilated portions of the Piedmont
to lowland ideals.

When we turn to North Carolina's upper country we find the familiar
story, but with a more tragic ending. The local officials owed their
selection to the governor and the council whom he appointed. Thus power
was all concentrated in the official "ring" of the lowland area. The men
of the interior resented the extortionate fees and the poll tax, which
bore with unequal weight upon the poor settlers of the back country.
This tax had been continued after sufficient funds had been collected to
extinguish the debt for which it was originally levied, but venal
sheriffs had failed to pay it into the treasury. A report of 1770 showed
at least one defaulting sheriff in every county of the province.[118:2]
This tax, which was almost the sole tax of the colony, was to be
collected in specie, for the warehouse system, by which staples might be
accepted, while familiar on the coast, did not apply to the interior.
The specie was exceedingly difficult to obtain; in lack of it, the
farmer saw the sheriff, who owed his appointment to the dominant lowland
planters, sell the lands of the delinquent to his speculative friends.
Lawyers and court fees followed.

In short, the interior felt that it was being exploited,[118:3] and it
had no redress, for the legislature was so apportioned that all power
rested in the old lowland region. Efforts to secure paper money failed
by reason of the governor's opposition under instructions from the
crown, and the currency was contracting at the very time when population
was rapidly increasing in the interior.[119:1] As in New England, in the
days of Shays' Rebellion, violent prejudice existed against the
judiciary and the lawyers, and it must, of course, be understood that
the movement was not free from frontier dislike of taxation and the
restraints of law and order in general. In 1766 and 1768, meetings were
held in the upper counties to organize the opposition, and an
"association"[119:2] was formed, the members of which pledged themselves
to pay no more taxes or fees until they satisfied themselves that these
were agreeable to law.

The Regulators, as they called themselves, assembled in the autumn of
1768 to the number of nearly four thousand, and tried to secure terms of
adjustment. In 1770 the court-house at Hillsboro was broken into by a
mob. The assembly passed some measures designed to conciliate the back
country; but before they became operative, Governor Tryon's militia,
about twelve hundred men, largely from the lowlands, and led by the
gentry whose privileges were involved, met the motley army of the
Regulators, who numbered about two thousand, in the battle of the
Alamance (May, 1771). Many were killed and wounded, the Regulators
dispersed, and over six thousand men came into camp and took the oath of
submission to the colonial authorities. The battle was not the first
battle of the Revolution, as it has been sometimes called, for it had
little or no relation to the stamp act; and many of the frontiersmen
involved, later refused to fight against England because of the very
hatred which had been inspired for the lowland Revolutionary leaders in
this battle of the Alamance. The interior of the Carolinas was a region
where neighbors, during the Revolution, engaged in internecine conflicts
of Tories against Whigs.

But in the sense that the battle of Alamance was a conflict against
privilege, and for equality of political rights and power, it was indeed
a preliminary battle of the Revolution, although fought against many of
the very men who later professed Revolutionary doctrines in North
Carolina. The need of recognizing the importance of the interior led to
concessions in the convention of 1776 in that state. "Of the forty-four
sections of the constitution, thirteen are embodiments of reforms sought
by the Regulators."[120:1] But it was in this period that hundreds of
North Carolina backwoodsmen crossed the mountains to Tennessee and
Kentucky, many of them coming from the heart of the Regulator region.
They used the device of "associations" to provide for government in
their communities.[120:2]

In the matter of apportionment, North Carolina showed the same lodgment
of power in the hands of the coast, even after population preponderated
in the Piedmont.[120:3]

It is needless to comment on the uniformity of the evidence which has
been adduced, to show that the Old West, the interior region from New
England to Georgia, had a common grievance against the coast; that it
was deprived throughout most of the region of its due share of
representation, and neglected and oppressed in local government in large
portions of the section. The familiar struggle of West against East, of
democracy against privileged classes, was exhibited along the entire
line. The phenomenon must be considered as a unit, not in the fragments
of state histories. It was a struggle of interior against coast.

VI. Perhaps the most noteworthy Western activity in the Revolutionary
era, aside from the aspects already mentioned, was in the part which the
multitude of sects in the Old West played in securing the great
contribution which the United States made to civilization by providing
for complete religious liberty, a secular state with free churches.
Particularly the Revolutionary constitutions of Pennsylvania and
Virginia, under the influence of the back country, insured religious
freedom. The effects of the North Carolina upland area to secure a
similar result were noteworthy, though for the time ineffective.[121:1]

VII. As population increased in these years, the coast gradually yielded
to the up-country's demands. This may be illustrated by the transfer of
the capitals from the lowlands to the fall line and Valley. In 1779,
Virginia changed her seat of government from Williamsburg to Richmond;
in 1790, South Carolina, from Charleston to Columbia; in 1791, North
Carolina, from Edenton to Raleigh; in 1797, New York, from New York City
to Albany; in 1799, Pennsylvania, from Philadelphia to Lancaster.

VIII. The democratic aspect of the new constitutions was also influenced
by the frontier as well as by the prevalent Revolutionary philosophy;
and the demands for paper money, stay and tender laws, etc., of this
period were strongest in the interior. It was this region that supported
Shays' Rebellion; it was (with some important exceptions) the same area
that resisted the ratification of the federal constitution, fearful of a
stronger government and of the loss of paper money.

IX. The interior later showed its opposition to the coast by the
persistent contest against slavery, carried on in the up-country of
Virginia, and North and South Carolina. Until the decade 1830-40, it was
not certain that both Virginia and North Carolina would not find some
means of gradual abolition. The same influence accounts for much of the
exodus of the Piedmont pioneers into Indiana and Illinois, in the first
half of the nineteenth century.[122:1]

X. These were the regions, also, in which were developed the desire of
the pioneers who crossed the mountains, and settled on the "Western
waters," to establish new States free from control by the lowlands,
owning their own lands, able to determine their own currency, and in
general to govern themselves in accordance with the ideals of the Old
West. They were ready also, if need be, to become independent of the Old
Thirteen. Vermont must be considered in this aspect, as well as Kentucky
and Tennessee.[122:2]

XI. The land system of the Old West furnished precedents which developed
into the land system of the trans-Alleghany West.[122:3] The squatters
of Pennsylvania and the Carolinas found it easy to repeat the operation
on another frontier. Preëmption laws became established features. The
Revolution gave opportunity to confiscate the claims of Lord Fairfax,
Lord Granville, and McCulloh to their vast estates, as well as the
remaining lands of the Pennsylvania proprietors. The 640 acre (or one
square mile) unit of North Carolina for preëmptions, and frontier land
bounties, became the area awarded to frontier stations by Virginia in
1779, and the "section" of the later federal land system. The Virginia
preëmption right of four hundred acres on the Western waters, or a
thousand for those who came prior to 1778, was, in substance, the
continuation of a system familiar in the Old West.

The grants to Beverley, of over a hundred thousand acres in the Valley,
conditioned on seating a family for every thousand acres, and the
similar grants to Borden, Carter, and Lewis, were followed by the great
grant to the Ohio Company. This company, including leading Virginia
planters and some frontiersmen, asked in 1749 for two hundred thousand
acres on the upper Ohio, conditioned on seating a hundred families in
seven years, and for an additional grant of three hundred thousand acres
after this should be accomplished. It was proposed to settle Germans on
these lands.

The Loyal Land Company, by order of the Virginia council (1749), was
authorized to take up eight hundred thousand acres west and north of the
southern boundary of Virginia, on condition of purchasing "rights" for
the amount within four years. The company sold many tracts for £3 per
hundred acres to settlers, but finally lost its claim. The Mississippi
Company, including in its membership the Lees, Washingtons, and other
great Virginia planters, applied for two and one-half million acres in
the West in 1769. Similar land companies of New England origin, like
the Susquehanna Company and Lyman's Mississippi Company, exhibit the
same tendency of the Old West on the northern side. New England's Ohio
Company of Associates, which settled Marietta, had striking resemblances
to town proprietors.

These were only the most noteworthy of many companies of this period,
and it is evident that they were a natural outgrowth of speculations in
the Old West. Washington, securing military bounty land claims of
soldiers of the French and Indian War, and selecting lands in West
Virginia until he controlled over seventy thousand acres for
speculation, is an excellent illustration of the tendency. He also
thought of colonizing German Palatines upon his lands. The formation of
the Transylvania and Vandalia companies were natural developments on a
still vaster scale.[124:1]

XII. The final phase of the Old West, which I wish merely to mention, in
conclusion, is its colonization of areas beyond the mountains. The
essential unity of the movement is brought out by a study of how New
England's Old West settled northern Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont,
the Adirondacks, central and Western New York, the Wyoming Valley (once
organized as a part of Litchfield, Connecticut), the Ohio Company's
region about Marietta, and Connecticut's Western Reserve on the shores
of Lake Erie; and how the pioneers of the Great Valley and the Piedmont
region of the South crossed the Alleghanies and settled on the Western
Waters. Daniel Boone, going from his Pennsylvania home to the Yadkin,
and from the Yadkin to Tennessee and Kentucky, took part in the whole
process, and later in its continuation into Missouri.[124:2] The social
conditions and ideals of the Old West powerfully shaped those of the
trans-Alleghany West.

The important contrast between the spirit of individual colonization,
resentful of control, which the Southern frontiersmen showed, and the
spirit of community colonization and control to which the New England
pioneers inclined, left deep traces on the later history of the
West.[125:1] The Old West diminished the importance of the town as a
colonizing unit, even in New England. In the Southern area, efforts to
legislate towns into existence, as in Virginia, South Carolina, and
Georgia, failed. They faded away before wilderness conditions. But in
general, the Northern stream of migration was communal, and the Southern
individual. The difference which existed between that portion of the Old
West which was formed by the northward colonization, chiefly of the New
England Plateau (including New York), and that portion formed by the
southward colonization of the Virginia Valley and the Southern Piedmont
was reflected in the history of the Middle West and the Mississippi
Valley.[125:2]


FOOTNOTES:

[67:1] _Proceedings of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin for
1908._ Reprinted with the permission of the Society.

[68:1] For the settled area in 1660, see the map by Lois Mathews in
Channing, "United Stales" (N. Y., 1905), i, p. 510; and by Albert Cook
Myers in Avery, "United States" (Cleveland, 1905), ii, following p. 398.
In Channing, ii, following p. 603, is Marion F. Lansing's map of
settlement in 1760, which is on a rather conservative basis, especially
the part showing the interior of the Carolinas.

Contemporaneous maps of the middle of the eighteenth century, useful in
studying the progress of settlement, are: Mitchell, "Map of the British
Colonies" (1755); Evans, "Middle British Colonies" (1758); Jefferson and
Frye, "Map of Virginia" (1751 and 1755).

On the geographical conditions, see maps and text in Powell,
"Physiographic Regions" (N. Y., 1896), and Willis, "Northern
Appalachians," in "Physiography of the United States" (N. Y., 1896), pp.
73-82, 169-176, 196-201.

[70:1] See Osgood, "American Colonies" (N. Y., 1907), iii, chap. iii.

[70:2] See chapter ii, _ante_.

[70:3] Sheldon, "Deerfield" (Deerfield, Mass., 1895), i, p. 288.

[70:4] Parkman, "Frontenac" (Boston, 1898), p. 390; compare his
description of Deerfield in 1704, in "Half Century of Conflict" (Boston,
1898), i, p. 55.

[72:1] Hanna, "Scotch Irish" (N. Y. and London, 1902), ii, pp. 17-24.

[72:2] "Half Century of Conflict," ii, pp. 214-234.

[72:3] "American Husbandry" (London, 1775), i, p. 47.

[73:1] For the extent of New England settlements in 1760, compared with
1700, see the map in Channing, "United States," ii, at end of volume.

[74:1] Schafer, "Land Grants for Education," Univ. of Wis. _Bulletin_
(Madison, 1902), chap. iv.

[75:1] On New England's land system see Osgood, "American Colonies" (N.
Y., 1904), i, chap. xi; and Egleston, "Land System of the New England
Colonies," Johns Hopkins Univ. _Studies_ (Baltimore, 1886), iv. Compare
the account of Virginia, about 1696, in "Mass. Hist. Colls." (Boston,
1835), 1st series, v, p. 129, for a favorable view of the New England
town system; and note the probable influence of New England's system
upon Virginia's legislation about 1700. See chapter ii, _ante_.

[76:1] Amelia C. Ford, "Colonial Precedents of our National Land
System," citing Massachusetts Bay, House of Rep. "Journal," 1715, pp. 5,
22, 46; Hutchinson, "History of Massachusetts Bay" (London, 1768), ii,
p. 331; Holland, "Western Massachusetts" (Springfield, 1855), pp. 66,
169.

[76:2] "Conn. Colon. Records" (Hartford, 1874), viii, p. 134.

[77:1] Holland, "Western Massachusetts," p. 197. See the comments of
Hutchinson in his "History of Massachusetts Bay," ii, pp. 331, 332.
Compare the steps of Connecticut men in 1753 and 1755 to secure a land
grant in Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania, for the Susquehanna Company, and
the Connecticut governor's remark that there was no unappropriated land
in the latter colony--"Pa. Colon. Records" (Harrisburg, 1851), v, p.
771; "Pa. Archives," 2d series, xviii, contains the important documents,
with much valuable information on the land system of the Wyoming Valley
region. See also General Lyman's projects for a Mississippi colony in
the Yazoo delta area--all indicative of the pressure for land and the
speculative spirit.

[78:1] Compare Vermont's dealings with the British, and the negotiations
of Kentucky and Tennessee leaders with Spaniards and British. See _Amer.
Hist. Review_, i, p. 252, note 2, for references on Vermont's
Revolutionary philosophy and influence.

[79:1] See H. C. Emery, "Artemas Jean Haynes" (New Haven, 1908), pp.
8-10.

[80:1] Ballagh, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1897, p. 110.

[80:2] "N. Y. Colon. Docs," vii, pp. 654, 795.

[81:1] Becker, in _Amer. Hist. Review_, vi, p. 261.

[81:2] Becker, _loc. cit._ For maps of grants in New York, see
O'Callaghan, "Doc. Hist. of N. Y." (Albany, 1850), i, pp. 421, 774;
especially Southier, "Chorographical Map of New York"; Winsor,
"America," v, p. 236. In general on these grants, consult also "Doc.
Hist. of N. Y.," i, pp. 249-257; "N. Y. Colon. Docs.," iv, pp. 397, 791,
874; v, pp. 459, 651, 805; vi, pp. 486, 549, 743, 876, 950; Kip, "Olden
Time" (N. Y., 1872), p. 12; Scharf, "History of Westchester County"
(Phila., 1886), i, p. 91; Libby, "Distribution of Vote on Ratification
of Constitution" (Madison, 1894), pp. 21-25.

For the region of the Wallkill, including New Paltz, etc., see Eager,
"Outline History of Orange County, New York" (Newburgh, 1846-47); and
Ruttenber and Clark, "History of Orange County" (Phila., 1881), pp.
11-20. On Cherry Valley and upper Susquehanna settlements, in general,
in New York, see Halsey, "Old New York Frontier," pp. 5, 119, and the
maps by De Witt and Southier in O'Callaghan, "Doc. Hist. of N. Y.," i,
pp. 421, 774.

Note the French Huguenots and Scotch-Irish in Orange County, and the
Scotch-Irish settlers of Cherry Valley and their relation to
Londonderry, N. H., as well as the missionary visits from Stockbridge,
Mass., to the upper Susquehanna.

[82:1] Lord, "Industrial Experiments" (Baltimore, 1898), p. 45;
Diffenderfer, "German Exodus" (Lancaster, Pa., 1897).

[82:2] See _post_.

[84:1] Hening, "Va. Statutes at Large" (N. Y., 1823), ii, p. 326.

[84:2] _Ibid._, p. 433.

[84:3] Bassett, "Writings of William Byrd" (N. Y., 1901), p. xxi.

[85:1] Hening, iii, p. 82. Similar acts were passed almost annually in
successive years of the seventeenth century; cf. _loc. cit._, _pp._ 98,
115, 119, 126, 164; the system was discontinued in 1722--see Beverley,
"Virginia and its Government" (London, 1722), p. 234.

It is interesting to compare the recommendation of Governor Dodge for
Wisconsin Territory in 1836--see Wis. Terr. House of Reps. "Journal,"
1836, pp. 11 _et seq._

[85:2] Hening, iii, pp. 204-209.

[87:1] Compare the law of 1779 in "Va. Revised Code" (1819), ii, p. 357;
Ranck's "Boonesborough" (Louisville, 1901).

[87:2] Bassett, "Writings of Byrd," p. xii; "Calendar of British State
Papers, Am. and W. I.," 1677-80 (London, 1896), p. 168.

[87:3] Bassett, _loc. cit._, p. x, and Hening, iii, p. 304 (1705).

[87:4] [See Alvord and Bidgood, "First Explorations of the
Trans-Allegheny Region."]

[87:5] Bassett, "Writings of Byrd," pp. xvii, xviii, quotes Byrd's
description of the trail; Logan, "Upper South Carolina" (Columbia,
1859), i, p. 167; Adair describes the trade somewhat later; cf. Bartram,
"Travels" (London, 1792), _passim_, and Monette, "Mississippi Valley"
(N. Y., 1846), ii, p. 13.

[88:1] Bruce, "Economic Hist. of Va." (N. Y., 1896), i, pp. 473, 475,
477.

[88:2] See descriptions of cow-pens in Logan, "History of Upper S. C.,"
i, p. 151; Bartram, "Travels," p. 308. On cattle raising generally in
the Piedmont, see: Gregg, "Old Cheraws" (N. Y., 1867), pp. 68, 108-110;
Salley, "Orangeburg" (Orangeburg, 1898), pp. 219-221; Lawson, "New
Voyage to Carolina" (Raleigh, 1860), p. 135; Ramsay, "South Carolina"
(Charleston, 1809), i, p. 207; J. F. D. Smyth, "Tour" (London, 1784), i,
p. 143, ii, pp. 78, 97; Foote, "Sketches of N. C." (N. Y., 1846), p. 77;
"N. C. Colon. Records" (Raleigh, 1887), v, pp. xli, 1193, 1223;
"American Husbandry" (London, 1775), i, pp. 336, 350, 384; Hening, v.
pp. 176, 245.

[88:3] Spotswood, "Letters" (Richmond, 1882), i, p. 167; compare _Va.
Magazine_, iii, pp. 120, 189.

[89:1] "N. C. Colon. Records," v, p. xli.

[89:2] Lawson, "Carolina" (Raleigh, 1860), gives a description early in
the eighteenth century; his map is reproduced in Avery, "United States"
(Cleveland, 1907), iii, p. 224.

[89:3] The advantages and disadvantages of the Piedmont region of the
Carolinas in the middle of the eighteenth century are illustrated in
Spangenburg's diary, in "N. C. Colon. Records," v, pp. 6, 7, 13, 14.
Compare "American Husbandry," i, pp. 220, 332, 357, 388.

[90:1] Spotswood, "Letters," i, p. 40.

[90:2] On Germanna see Spotswood, "Letters" (index); Fontaine's journal
in A. Maury, "Huguenot Family" (1853), p. 268; Jones, "Present State of
Virginia" (N. Y., 1865), p. 59; Bassett, "Writings of Byrd," p. 356;
_Va. Magazine_, xiii, pp. 362, 365; vi, p. 385; xii, pp. 342, 350; xiv,
p. 136.

Spotswood's interest in the Indian trade on the southern frontier of
Virginia is illustrated in his fort Christanna, on which the above
references afford information.

The contemporaneous account of Spotswood's expedition into Shenandoah
Valley is Fontaine's journey, cited above.

[91:1] See the excellent paper by C. E. Kemper, in _Va. Magazine_, xii,
on "Early Westward Movement in Virginia."

[91:2] Compare Phillips, "Origin and Growth of the Southern Black
Belts," in _Amer. Hist. Review_, xi, p. 799.

[91:3] _Va. Magazine_, xiii, p. 113.

[92:1] "Revised Code of Virginia" (Richmond, 1819), ii, p. 339.

[92:2] _Mag. Amer. Hist._, xiii, pp. 217, 230; Winsor, "Narr. and Crit.
Hist. of America," v, p. 268; Kercheval, "The Valley" (Winchester, Va.,
1833), pp. 67, 209; _Va. Magazine_, xiii, p. 115.

[93:1] "William and Mary College Quarterly" (Williamsburg, 1895), iii,
p. 226. See Jefferson and Frye, "Map of Virginia, 1751," for location of
this and Borden's manor.

[93:2] Brown, "The Cabells" (Boston, 1895), p. 53.

[93:3] _Loc. cit._, pp. 57, 66.

[94:1] Meade, "Old Churches" (Phila., 1861), 2 vols.; Foote, "Sketches"
(Phila., 1855); Brown, "The Cabells," p. 68.

[94:2] _Atlantic Monthly_, vol. xci, pp. 83 _et seq._; Ford, "Writing of
Thomas Jefferson" (N. Y., 1892), i, pp. xix _et seq._

[94:3] Byrd, "Dividing Line" (Richmond, 1866), pp. 85, 271.

[95:1] "N. C. Colon. Records," iii, p. xiii. Compare Hawks, "Hist. of
North Carolina" (Fayetteville, 1859), map of precincts, 1663-1729.

[95:2] Raper, "North Carolina" (N. Y., 1904), chap. v; W. R. Smith,
"South Carolina" (N. Y., 1903), pp. 48, 57.

[95:3] Clewell, "Wachovia" (N. Y., 1902).

[96:1] Ballagh, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1897, pp. 120, 121,
citing Bassett, in "Law Quarterly Review," April, 1895, pp. 159-161.

[96:2] See map in Hawks, "North Carolina."

[96:3] McCrady, "South Carolina," 1719-1776 (N. Y., 1899), pp. 149, 151;
Smith, "South Carolina," p. 40; Ballagh, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report,"
1897, pp. 117-119; Brevard, "Digest of S. C. Laws" (Charleston, 1857),
i, p. xi.

[96:4] McCrady, "South Carolina," pp. 121 _et seq._; Phillips,
"Transportation in the Eastern Cotton Belt" (N. Y., 1908), p. 51.

[96:5] This was not originally provided for among the eleven towns. For
its history see Salley, "Orangeburg"--frontier conditions about 1769 are
described on pp. 219 _et seq._; see map opposite p. 9.

[97:1] Gregg, "Old Cheraws," p. 44.

[97:2] Ballagh, _loc. cit._, pp. 119, 120.

[98:1] Compare the description of Georgia frontier traders, cattle
raisers, and land speculators, about 1773, in Bartram, "Travels," pp.
18, 36, 308.

[99:1] See Willis, "Northern Appalachians," in "Physiography of the U.
S." in National Geog. Soc. "Monographs" (N. Y., 1895), no. 6.

[100:1] Diffenderfer, "German Immigration into Pennsylvania," in Pa.
German Soc. "Proc.," v, p. 10; "Redemptioners" (Lancaster, Pa., 1900).

[100:2] A. B. Faust, "German Element in the United States."

[100:3] See the bibliographies in Kuhns, "German and Swiss Settlements
of Pennsylvania" (N. Y., 1901); Wayland, "German Element of the
Shenandoah Valley" (N. Y., 1908); Channing, "United States," ii, p. 421;
Griffin, "List of Works Relating to the Germans in the U. S." (Library
of Congress, Wash., 1904).

[100:4] See in illustration, the letter in Myers, "Irish Quakers"
(Swarthmore, Pa., 1902), p. 70.

[101:1] Shepherd, "Proprietary Government in Pennsylvania" (N. Y.,
1896), p. 34.

[101:2] Gordon, "Pennsylvania" (Phila., 1829), p. 225.

[101:3] Shepherd, _loc. cit._, pp. 49-51.

[101:4] Ballagh, Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1897, pp. 112, 113.
Compare Smith, "St. Clair Papers" (Cincinnati, 1882), ii, p. 101.

[101:5] Shepherd, _loc. cit._, p. 50.

[101:6] Mereness, "Maryland" (N. Y., 1901), p. 77.

[102:1] "Calendar Va. State Papers" (Richmond, 1875), i, p. 217; on
these grants see Kemper, "Early Westward Movement in Virginia" in _Va.
Mag._, xii and xiii; Wayland, "German Element of the Shenandoah Valley,"
_William and Mary College Quarterly_, iii. The speculators, both
planters and new-comers, soon made application for lands beyond the
Alleghanies.

[102:2] In 1794 the Virginia House of Delegates resolved to publish the
most important laws of the state in German.

[102:3] See Bernheim, "German Settlements in the Carolinas" (Phila.,
1872); Clewell, "Wachovia"; Allen, "German Palatines in N. C." (Raleigh,
1905).

[102:4] See Wayland, _loc. cit._, bibliography, for references; and
especially _Va. Mag._, xi, pp. 113, 225, 370; xii, pp. 55, 134, 271;
"German American Annals," N. S. iii, pp. 342, 369; iv, p. 16; Clewell,
"Wachovia; N. C. Colon. Records," v, pp. 1-14.

[103:1] On the Scotch-Irish, see the bibliography in Green,
"Scotch-Irish in America," Amer. Antiquarian Soc. "Proceedings," April,
1895; Hanna, "Scotch-Irish" (N. Y., 1902), is a comprehensive
presentation of the subject; see also Myers, "Irish Quakers."

[103:2] Fiske, "Old Virginia" (Boston, 1897), ii, p. 394. Compare
Linehan, "The Irish Scots and the Scotch-Irish" (Concord, N. H., 1902).

[103:3] See MacLean, "Scotch Highlanders in America" (Cleveland, 1900).

[103:4] Hanna, "Scotch-Irish," ii, pp. 17-24.

[104:1] Halsey, "Old New York Frontier" (N. Y., 1901).

[104:2] MacLean, pp. 196-230.

[104:3] The words of Logan, Penn's agent, in 1724, in Hanna, ii, pp. 60,
63.

[104:4] Winsor, "Mississippi Basin" (Boston, 1895), pp. 238-243.

[105:1] See Thwaites, "Early Western Travels" (Cleveland, 1904-06), i;
Walton, "Conrad Weiser" (Phila., 1900); Heckewelder, "Narrative"
(Phila., 1820).

[105:2] Christian, "Scotch-Irish Settlers in the Valley of Virginia"
(Richmond, 1860).

[105:3] Roosevelt gives an interesting picture of this society in his
"Winning of the West" (N. Y., 1889-96), i, chap. v; see also his
citations, especially Doddridge, "Settlements and Indian Wars"
(Wellsburgh, W. Va., 1824).

[106:1] Bassett, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1894, p. 145.

[106:2] "N. C. Colon. Records," v, pp. xxxix, xl; _cf._ p. xxi.

[106:3] _Loc. cit._, pp. 146, 147.

[107:1] See the interesting account of Rev. Moses Waddell's school in
South Carolina, on the upper Savannah, where the students, including
John C. Calhoun, McDuffe, Legaré, and Petigru, were educated in the
wilderness. They lived in log huts in the woods, furnished their own
supplies, or boarded near by, were called to the log school-house by
horn for morning prayers, and then scattered in groups to the woods for
study. Hunt, "Calhoun" (Phila., 1907), p. 13.

[108:1] Scharf, "Maryland" (Baltimore, 1879), ii, p. 61, and chaps. i
and xviii; Kercheval, "The Valley."

[108:2] Weston, "Documents," p. 82.

[109:1] See, for example, Phillips, "Transportation in the Eastern
Cotton Belt," pp. 21-53.

[109:2] Hanna, "Scotch-Irish," ii, pp. 19, 22-24.

[109:3] Cobb, "Story of the Palatines" (Wilkes-Barre, Pa., 1897), p.
300, citing "Penn. Colon. Records," iv, pp. 225, 345.

[109:4] "Works" (Bigelow ed.), ii, pp. 296-299.

[109:5] _Ibid._, iii, p. 297; _cf._ p. 221.

[109:6] "Summary" (1755), ii, p. 326.

[110:1] "European Settlements" (London, 1793), ii, p. 200 (1765); _cf._
Franklin, "Works" (N. Y., 1905-07), ii, p. 221, to the same effect.

[110:2] Proper, "Colonial Immigration Laws," in Columbia Univ.,
"Studies," xii.

[111:1] Libby, "Distribution of the Vote on the Federal Constitution,"
Univ. of Wis. _Bulletin_, pp. 8, 9, and citations. Note especially "New
Hampshire State Papers," x, pp. 228 _et seq._

[111:2] Libby, _loc. cit._, pp. 12-14, 46, 54-57.

[112:1] Farrand, in _Yale Review_, May, 1908, p. 52 and citation.

[112:2] Libby, _loc. cit._

[112:3] See Turner, "Rise of the New West" (Amer. Nation series, N. Y.,
1906), pp. 16-18.

[112:4] Parkman, "Pontiac" (Boston, 1851), ii, p. 352.

[112:5] Shepherd, "Proprietary Government in Pennsylvania," in Columbia
Univ. _Studies_, vi, pp. 546 _et seq._ Compare Watson, "Annals," ii, p.
259; Green, "Provincial America" (Amer. Nation series, N. Y., 1905), p.
234.

[113:1] Lincoln, "Revolutionary Movement in Pennsylvania" (Boston,
1901); McMaster and Stone, "Pennsylvania and the Federal Constitution"
(Lancaster, 1888).

[114:1] "Notes on Virginia." See his table of apportionment in Ford,
"Writings of Thomas Jefferson," iii, p. 222.

[115:1] "Debates of the Virginia State Convention, 1829-1830" (Richmond,
1854), p. 87. These debates constitute a mine of material on the
difficulty of reconciling the political philosophy of the Revolution
with the protection of the property, including slaves, of the lowland
planters.

[115:2] _Loc. cit._, p. 407. The italics are mine.

[116:1] McCrady, "South Carolina, 1719-1776," p. 623.

[117:1] Brevard, "Digest of S. C. Laws," i, pp. xxiv, 253; McCrady,
"South Carolina, 1719-1776," p. 637; Schaper, "Sectionalism in South
Carolina," in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1900, i, pp. 334-338.

[117:2] Schaper, _loc. cit._, pp. 338, 339; Calhoun, "Works" (N. Y.,
1851-59), i, p. 402; _Columbia_ (S. C.) _Gazette_, Aug. 1, 1794; Ramsay,
"South Carolina," pp. 64-66, 195, 217; Elliot, "Debates," iv, pp. 288,
289, 296-299, 305, 309, 312.

[117:3] Schaper, _loc. cit._, pp. 440-447 _et seq._

[118:1] Turner, "Rise of the New West," pp. 50-52, 331; Calhoun,
"Works," i, pp. 400-405.

[118:2] "N. C. Colon. Records," vii, pp. xiv-xvii.

[118:3] See Bassett, "Regulators of N. C." in Amer. Hist. Assoc.
"Report," 1894, pp. 141 (bibliog.) _et seq._; "N. C. Colon. Records,"
pp. vii-x (Saunder's introductions are valuable); Caruthers, "David
Caldwell" (Greensborough, N. C., 1842); Waddell, "Colonial Officer"
(Raleigh, 1890); M. De L. Haywood, "Governor William Tryon" (Raleigh, N.
C., 1903); Clewell, "Wachovia," chap. x; W. E. Fitch, "Some Neglected
History of N. C." (N. Y., 1905); L. A. McCorkle and F. Nash, in "N. C.
Booklet" (Raleigh, 1901-07), iii; Wheeler, "North Carolina," ii, pp. 301
_et seq._; Cutter, "Lynch Law," chap. ii. and iii.

[119:1] Bassett, _loc. cit._, p. 152.

[119:2] Wheeler, "North Carolina," ii, pp. 301-306; "N. C. Colon.
Records," vii, pp. 251, 699.

[120:1] "N. C. Colon. Records," viii, p. xix.

[120:2] Turner, in _Amer. Hist. Review_, i, p. 76.

[120:3] "N. C. Colon. Records," vii, pp. xiv-xxiv.

[121:1] Weeks, "Church and State in North Carolina" (Baltimore, 1893);
"N. C. Colon. Records," x, p. 870; Curry, "Establishment and
Disestablishment" (Phila., 1889); C. F. James, "Documentary History of
the Struggle for Religious Liberty in Virginia" (Lynchburg, Va., 1900);
Semple, "The Virginia Baptists" (Richmond, 1810); Amer. Hist. Assoc.
"Papers," ii, p. 21; iii, pp. 205, 213.

[122:1] See Ballagh, "Slavery in Virginia," Johns Hopkins Univ.
"Studies," extra, xxiv; Bassett, "Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of
North Carolina," _Id._, xiv, pp. 169-254; Bassett, "Slavery in the State
of North Carolina," _Id._, xvii; Bassett, "Antislavery Leaders in North
Carolina," _Id._, xvi; Weeks, "Southern Quakers," _Id._, xv, extra;
Schaper, "Sectionalism in South Carolina," Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report,"
1900; Turner, "Rise of the New West," pp. 54-56, 76-78, 80, 90, 150-152.

[122:2] See F. J. Turner, "State-Making in the West During the
Revolutionary Era," in _American Historical Review_, i, p. 70.

[122:3] Hening, x, p. 35; "Public Acts of N. C.," i, pp. 204, 306;
"Revised Code of Va., 1819," ii, p. 357; Roosevelt, "Winning of the
West," i, p. 261; ii, pp. 92, 220.

[124:1] Alden, "New Governments West of the Alleghanies" (Madison,
1897), gives an account of these colonies. [See the more recent work by
C. W. Alvord, "The Mississippi Valley in British Politics, 1763-1774"
(1917).]

[124:2] Thwaites, "Daniel Boone" (N. Y., 1902); [A. Henderson, "Conquest
of the Old Southwest" (N. Y., 1920), brings out the important share of
up-country men of means in promoting colonization].

[125:1] Turner, in "Alumni Quarterly of the University of Illinois," ii,
133-136.

[125:2] [It has seemed best in this volume not to attempt to deal with
the French frontier or the Spanish-American frontier. Besides the works
of Parkman, a multitude of monographs have appeared in recent years
which set the French frontier in new light; and for the Spanish frontier
in both the Southwest and California much new information has been
secured, and illuminating interpretations made by Professors H. E.
Bolton, I. J. Cox, Chapman, Father Engelhart, and other California and
Texas investigators, although the works of Hubert Howe Bancroft remain a
useful mine of material. There was, of course, a contemporaneous Old
West on both the French and the Spanish frontiers. The formation,
approach and ultimate collision and intermingling of these contrasting
types of frontiers are worthy of a special study.]




IV

THE MIDDLE WEST[126:1]


American sectional nomenclature is still confused. Once "the West"
described the whole region beyond the Alleghanies; but the term has
hopelessly lost its definiteness. The rapidity of the spread of
settlement has broken down old usage, and as yet no substitute has been
generally accepted. The "Middle West" is a term variously used by the
public, but for the purpose of the present paper, it will be applied to
that region of the United States included in the census reports under
the name of the North Central division, comprising the States of Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin (the old "Territory Northwest
of the River Ohio"), and their trans-Mississippi sisters of the
Louisiana Purchase,--Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, North
Dakota, and South Dakota. It is an imperial domain. If the greater
countries of Central Europe,--France, Germany, Italy, and
Austro-Hungary,--were laid down upon this area, the Middle West would
still show a margin of spare territory. Pittsburgh, Cleveland, and
Buffalo constitute its gateways to the Eastern States; Kansas City,
Omaha, St. Paul-Minneapolis, and Duluth-Superior dominate its western
areas; Cincinnati and St. Louis stand on its southern borders; and
Chicago reigns at the center. What Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and
Baltimore are to the Atlantic seaboard these cities are to the Middle
West. The Great Lakes and the Mississippi, with the Ohio and the
Missouri as laterals, constitute the vast water system that binds the
Middle West together. It is the economic and political center of the
Republic. At one edge is the Populism of the prairies; at the other, the
capitalism that is typified in Pittsburgh. Great as are the local
differences within the Middle West, it possesses, in its physiography,
in the history of its settlement, and in its economic and social life, a
unity and interdependence which warrant a study of the area as an
entity. Within the limits of this article, treatment of so vast a
region, however, can at best afford no more than an outline sketch, in
which old and well-known facts must, if possible, be so grouped as to
explain the position of the section in American history.

In spite of the difficulties of the task, there is a definite advantage
in so large a view. By fixing our attention too exclusively upon the
artificial boundary lines of the States, we have failed to perceive much
that is significant in the westward development of the United States.
For instance, our colonial system did not begin with the Spanish War;
the United States has had a colonial history and policy from the
beginning of the Republic; but they have been hidden under the
phraseology of "interstate migration" and "territorial organization."

The American people have occupied a spacious wilderness; vast
physiographic provinces, each with its own peculiarities, have lain
across the path of this migration, and each has furnished a special
environment for economic and social transformation. It is possible to
underestimate the importance of State lines, but if we direct our gaze
rather to the physiographic province than to the State area, we shall be
able to see some facts in a new light. Then it becomes clear that these
physiographic provinces of America are in some respects comparable to
the countries of Europe, and that each has its own history of occupation
and development. General Francis A. Walker once remarked that "the
course of settlement has called upon our people to occupy territory as
extensive as Switzerland, as England, as Italy, and latterly, as France
or Germany, every ten years." It is this element of vastness in the
achievements of American democracy that gives a peculiar interest to the
conquest and development of the Middle West. The effects of this
conquest and development upon the present United States have been of
fundamental importance.

Geographically the Middle West is almost conterminous with the Provinces
of the Lake and Prairie Plains; but the larger share of Kansas and
Nebraska, and the western part of the two Dakotas belong to the Great
Plains; the Ozark Mountains occupy a portion of Missouri, and the
southern parts of Ohio and Indiana merge into the Alleghany Plateau. The
relation of the Provinces of the Lake and Prairie Plains to the rest of
the United States is an important element in the significance of the
Middle West. On the north lies the similar region of Canada: the Great
Lakes are in the center of the whole eastern and more thickly settled
half of North America, and they bind the Canadian and Middle Western
people together. On the south, the provinces meet the apex of that of
the Gulf Plains, and the Mississippi unites them. To the west, they
merge gradually into the Great Plains; the Missouri and its tributaries
and the Pacific railroads make for them a bond of union; another rather
effective bond is the interdependence of the cattle of the plains and
the corn of the prairies. To the east, the province meets the Alleghany
and New England Plateaus, and is connected with them by the upper Ohio
and by the line of the Erie Canal. Here the interaction of industrial
life and the historical facts of settlement have produced a close
relationship. The intimate connection between the larger part of the
North Central and the North Atlantic divisions of the United States will
impress any one who examines the industrial and social maps of the
census atlas. By reason of these interprovincial relationships, the
Middle West is the mediator between Canada and the United States, and
between the concentrated wealth and manufactures of the North Atlantic
States and the sparsely settled Western mining, cattle-raising, and
agricultural States. It has a connection with the South that was once
still closer, and is likely before long to reassert itself with new
power. Within the limits of the United States, therefore, we have
problems of interprovincial trade and commerce similar to those that
exist between the nations of the Old World.

Over most of the Province of the Lake and Prairie Plains the Laurentide
glacier spread its drift, rich in limestone and other rock powder, which
farmers in less favored sections must purchase to replenish the soil.
The alluvial deposit from primeval lakes contributed to fatten the soil
of other parts of the prairies. Taken as a whole, the Prairie Plains
surpass in fertility any other region of America or Europe, unless we
except some territory about the Black Sea. It is a land marked out as
the granary of the nation; but it is more than a granary. On the rocky
shores of Lake Superior were concealed copper mines rivaled only by
those of Montana, and iron fields which now[129:1] furnish the ore for
the production of eighty per cent of the pig iron of the United States.
The Great Lakes afford a highway between these iron fields and the coal
areas of the Ohio Valley. The gas and oil deposits of the Ohio Valley,
the coal of Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, and eastern Kansas, the lead and
zinc of the Ozark region and of the upper Mississippi Valley, and the
gold of the black Hills,--all contribute underground wealth to the
Middle West.

The primeval American forest once spread its shade over vast portions
of the same province. Ohio, Indiana, southern Michigan, and central
Wisconsin were almost covered with a growth of noble deciduous trees. In
southern Illinois, along the broad bottom lands of the Mississippi and
the Illinois, and in southern and southwestern Missouri, similar forests
prevailed. To the north, in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, appeared
the somber white pine wilderness, interlaced with hard woods, which
swept in ample zone along the Great Lakes, till the deciduous forests
triumphed again, and, in their turn, faded into the treeless expanse of
the prairies. In the remaining portions were openings in the midst of
the forested area, and then the grassy ocean of prairie that rolled to
west and northwest, until it passed beyond the line of sufficient
rainfall for agriculture without irrigation, into the semi-arid
stretches of the Great Plains.

In the middle of the eighteenth century, the forested region of this
province was occupied by the wigwams of many different tribes of the
Algonquin tongue, sparsely scattered in villages along the water
courses, warring and trading through the vast wilderness. The western
edge of the prairie and the Great Plains were held by the Sioux, chasing
herds of bison across these far-stretching expanses. These horsemen of
the plains and the canoemen of the Great Lakes and the Ohio were factors
with which civilization had to reckon, for they constituted important
portions of perhaps the fiercest native race with which the white man
has ever battled for new lands.

The Frenchman had done but little fighting for this region. He swore
brotherhood with its savages, traded with them, intermarried with them,
and explored the Middle West; but he left the wilderness much as he
found it. Some six or seven thousand French people in all, about Detroit
and Vincennes, and in the Illinois country, and scattered among the
Indian villages of the remote lakes and streams, held possession when
George Washington reached the site of Pittsburgh, bearing Virginia's
summons of eviction to France. In his person fate knocked at the portals
of a "rising empire." France hurried her commanders and garrisons, with
Indian allies, from the posts about the Great Lakes and the upper
Mississippi; but it was in vain. In vain, too, the aftermath of
Pontiac's widespread Indian uprising against the English occupation.
When she came into possession of the lands between the Ohio, the
Mississippi, and the Great Lakes, England organized them as a part of
the Province of Quebec. The daring conquest of George Rogers Clark left
Virginia in military possession of the Illinois country at the
conclusion of the Revolutionary War; but over all the remainder of the
Old Northwest, England was in control. Although she ceded the region by
the treaty which closed the Revolution, she remained for many years the
mistress of the Indians and the fur trade. When Lord Shelburne was
upbraided in parliament for yielding the Northwest to the United States,
the complaint was that he had clothed the Americans "in the warm
covering of our fur trade," and his defense was that the peltry trade of
the ceded tract was not sufficiently profitable to warrant further war.
But the English government became convinced that the Indian trade
demanded the retention of the Northwest, and she did in fact hold her
posts there in spite of the treaty of peace. Dundas, the English
secretary for the colonies, expressed the policy, when he declared, in
1792, that the object was to interpose an Indian barrier between Canada
and the United States; and in pursuance of this policy of preserving the
Northwest as an Indian buffer State, the Canadian authorities supported
the Indians in their resistance to American settlement beyond the Ohio.
The conception of the Northwest as an Indian reserve strikingly exhibits
England's inability to foresee the future of the region, and to measure
the forces of American expansion.

By the cessions of Virginia, New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut,
the Old Congress had come into nominal possession of an extensive public
domain, and a field for the exercise of national authority. The
significance of this fact in the development of national power is not
likely to be overestimated. The first result was the completion of the
Ordinance of 1787, which provided a territorial government for the Old
Northwest, with provisions for the admission of States into the Union.
This federal colonial system guaranteed that the new national
possessions should not be governed as dependent provinces, but should
enter as a group of sister States into the federation.[132:1] While the
importance of the article excluding slavery has often been pointed out,
it is probable that the provisions for a federal colonial organization
have been at least equally potential in our actual development. The full
significance of this feature of the Ordinance is only appreciated when
we consider its continuous influence upon the American territorial and
State policy in the westward expansion to the Pacific, and the political
preconceptions with which Americans approach the problems of government
in the new insular possessions. The Land Ordinance of 1785 is also
worthy of attention in this connection, for under its provisions almost
all of the Middle West has been divided by the government surveyor into
rectangles of sections and townships, by whose lines the settler has
been able easily and certainly to locate his farm, and the forester his
"forty." In the local organization of the Middle West these lines have
played an important part.

It would be impossible within the limits of this paper to detail the
history of the occupation of the Middle West; but the larger aspects of
the flow of population into the region may be sketched. Massachusetts
men had formed the Ohio Company, and had been influential in shaping the
liberal provisions of the Ordinance. Their land purchase, paid for in
soldiers' certificates, embraced an area larger than the State of Rhode
Island. At Marietta in 1788, under the shelter of Fort Harmar, their
bullet-proof barge landed the first New England colony. A New Jersey
colony was planted soon after at Cincinnati in the Symmes Purchase. Thus
American civilization crossed the Ohio. The French settlements at
Detroit and in Indiana and Illinois belonged to other times and had
their own ideals; but with the entrance of the American pioneer into the
forest of the Middle West, a new era began. The Indians, with the moral
support of England, resisted the invasion, and an Indian war followed.
The conquest of Wayne, in 1795, pushed back the Indians to the
Greenville line, extending irregularly across the State of Ohio from the
site of Cleveland to Fort Recovery in the middle point of her present
western boundary, and secured certain areas in Indiana. In the same
period Jay's treaty provided for the withdrawal of the British posts.
After this extension of the area open to the pioneer, new settlements
were rapidly formed. Connecticut disposed of her reserved land about
Lake Erie to companies, and in 1796 General Moses Cleaveland led the way
to the site of the city that bears his name. This was the beginning of
the occupation of the Western Reserve, a district about as large as the
parent State of Connecticut, a New England colony in the Middle West,
which has maintained, even to the present time, the impress of New
England traits. Virginia and Kentucky settlers sought the Virginia
Military Bounty Lands, and the foundation of Chillicothe here, in 1796,
afforded a center for Southern settlement. The region is a modified
extension of the limestone area of Kentucky, and naturally attracted the
emigrants from the Blue Grass State. Ohio's history is deeply marked by
the interaction of the New England, Middle, and Southern colonies within
her borders.

By the opening of the nineteenth century, when Napoleon's cession
brought to the United States the vast spaces of the Louisiana Purchase
beyond the Mississippi, the pioneers had hardly more than entered the
outskirts of the forest along the Ohio and Lake Erie. But by 1810 the
government had extinguished the Indian title to the unsecured portions
of the Western Reserve, and to great tracts of Indiana, along the Ohio
and up the Wabash Valley; thus protecting the Ohio highway from the
Indians, and opening new lands to settlement. The embargo had destroyed
the trade of New England, and had weighted down her citizens with debt
and taxation; caravans of Yankee emigrant wagons, precursors of the
"prairie schooner," had already begun to cross Pennsylvania on their way
to Ohio; and they now greatly increased in number. North Carolina back
countrymen flocked to the Indiana settlements, giving the peculiar
Hoosier flavor to the State, and other Southerners followed,
outnumbering the Northern immigrants, who sought the eastern edge of
Indiana.

Tecumthe, rendered desperate by the advance into his hunting grounds,
took up the hatchet, made wide-reaching alliances among the Indians, and
turned to England for protection. The Indian war merged into the War of
1812, and the settlers strove in vain to add Canadian lands to their
empire. In the diplomatic negotiations that followed the war, England
made another attempt to erect the Old Northwest beyond the Greenville
line into a permanent Indian barrier between Canada and the United
States; but the demand was refused, and by the treaties of 1818, the
Indians were pressed still farther north. In the meantime, Indian
treaties had released additional land in southern Illinois, and pioneers
were widening the bounds of the old French settlements. Avoiding the
rich savannas of the prairie regions, as devoid of wood, remote from
transportation facilities, and suited only to grazing, they entered the
hard woods--and in the early twenties they were advancing in a
wedge-shaped column up the Illinois Valley.

The Southern element constituted the main portion of this phalanx of
ax-bearers. Abraham Lincoln's father joined the throng of Kentuckians
that entered the Indiana woods in 1816, and the boy, when he had learned
to hew out a forest home, betook himself, in 1830, to Sangamon county,
Illinois. He represents the pioneer of the period; but his ax sank
deeper than other men's, and the plaster cast of his great sinewy hand,
at Washington, embodies the training of these frontier railsplitters, in
the days when Fort Dearborn, on the site of Chicago, was but a military
outpost in a desolate country. While the hard woods of Illinois were
being entered, the pioneer movement passed also into the Missouri
Valley. The French lead miners had already opened the southeastern
section, and Southern mountaineers had pushed up the Missouri; but now
the planters from the Ohio Valley and the upper Tennessee followed,
seeking the alluvial soils for slave labor. Moving across the southern
border of free Illinois, they had awakened regrets in that State at the
loss of so large a body of settlers.

Looking at the Middle West, as a whole, in the decade from 1810 to 1820,
we perceive that settlement extended from the shores of Lake Erie in an
arc, following the banks of the Ohio till it joined the Mississippi, and
thence along that river and up the Missouri well into the center of the
State. The next decade was marked by the increased use of the steamboat;
pioneers pressed farther up the streams, etching out the hard wood
forests well up to the prairie lands, and forming additional tracts of
settlement in the region tributary to Detroit and in the southeastern
part of Michigan. In the area of the Galena lead mines of northwestern
Illinois, southwestern Wisconsin, and northeastern Iowa, Southerners had
already begun operations; and if we except Ohio and Michigan, the
dominant element in all this overflow of settlement into the Middle West
was Southern, particularly from Kentucky, Virginia, and North Carolina.
The settlements were still dependent on the rivers for transportation,
and the areas between the rivers were but lightly occupied. The
Mississippi constituted the principal outlet for the products of the
Middle West; Pittsburgh furnished most of the supplies for the region,
but New Orleans received its crops. The Old National road was built
piecemeal, and too late, as a whole, to make a great artery of trade
throughout the Middle West, in this early period; but it marked the
northern borders of the Southern stream of population, running, as this
did, through Columbus, Indianapolis, and Vandalia.

The twenty years from 1830 to 1850 saw great changes in the composition
of the population of the Middle West. The opening of the Erie Canal in
1825 was an epoch-making event. It furnished a new outlet and inlet for
northwestern traffic; Buffalo began to grow, and New York City changed
from a local market to a great commercial center. But even more
important was the place which the canal occupied as the highway for a
new migration.

In the march of the New England people from the coast, three movements
are of especial importance: the advance from the seaboard up the
Connecticut and Housatonic Valleys through Massachusetts and into
Vermont; the advance thence to central and western New York; and the
advance to the interior of the Old Northwest. The second of these stages
occupied the generation from about 1790 to 1820; after that the second
generation was ready to seek new lands; and these the Erie Canal and
lake navigation opened to them, and to the Vermonters and other
adventurous spirits of New England. It was this combined New York-New
England stream that in the thirties poured in large volume into the zone
north of the settlements which have been described. The newcomers filled
in the southern counties of Michigan and Wisconsin, the northern
countries of Illinois, and parts of the northern and central areas of
Indiana. Pennsylvania and Ohio sent a similar type of people to the area
adjacent to those States. In Iowa a stream combined of the Southern
element and of these settlers sought the wooded tributaries of the
Mississippi in the southeastern part of the State. In default of legal
authority, in this early period, they formed squatter governments and
land associations, comparable to the action of the Massachusetts men who
in the first quarter of the seventeenth century "squatted" in the
Connecticut Valley.

A great forward movement had occurred, which took possession of oak
openings and prairies, gave birth to the cities of Chicago, Milwaukee,
St. Paul, and Minneapolis, as well as to a multitude of lesser cities,
and replaced the dominance of the Southern element by that of a modified
Puritan stock. The railroad system of the early fifties bound the
Mississippi to the North Atlantic seaboard; New Orleans gave way to New
York as the outlet for the Middle West, and the day of river settlement
was succeeded by the era of inter-river settlement and railway
transportation. The change in the political and social ideals was at
least equal to the change in economic connections, and together these
forces made an intimate organic union between New England, New York, and
the newly settled West. In estimating the New England influence in the
Middle West, it must not be forgotten that the New York settlers were
mainly New Englanders of a later generation.

Combined with the streams from the East came the German migration into
the Middle West. Over half a million, mainly from the Palatinate,
Würtemberg, and the adjacent regions, sought America between 1830 and
1850, and nearly a million more Germans came in the next decade. The
larger portion of these went into the Middle West; they became pioneers
in the newer parts of Ohio, especially along the central ridge, and in
Cincinnati; they took up the hardwood lands of the Wisconsin counties
along Lake Michigan; and they came in important numbers to Missouri,
Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, and to the river towns of Iowa. The
migration in the thirties and forties contained an exceptionally large
proportion of educated and forceful leaders, men who had struggled in
vain for the ideal of a liberal German nation, and who contributed
important intellectual forces to the communities in which they settled.
The Germans, as a whole, furnished a conservative and thrifty
agricultural element to the Middle West. In some of their social ideals
they came into collision with the Puritan element from New England, and
the outcome of the steady contest has been a compromise. Of all the
States, Wisconsin has been most deeply influenced by the Germans.

By the later fifties, therefore, the control of the Middle West had
passed to its Northern zone of population, and this zone included
representatives of the Middle States, New England, and Germany as its
principal elements. The Southern people, north of the Ohio, differed in
important respects from the Southerners across the river. They had
sprung largely from the humbler classes of the South, although there
were important exceptions. The early pioneer life, however, was
ill-suited to the great plantations, and slavery was excluded under the
Ordinance. Thus this Southern zone of the Middle West, particularly in
Indiana and Illinois, constituted a mediating section between the South
and the North. The Mississippi still acted as a bond of union, and up to
the close of the War of 1812 the Valley, north and south, had been
fundamentally of the same social organization. In order to understand
what follows, we must bear in mind the outlines of the occupation of the
Gulf Plains. While settlement had been crossing the Ohio to the
Northwest, the spread of cotton culture and negro slavery into the
Southwest had been equally significant. What the New England States and
New York were in the occupation of the Middle West, Virginia, the
Carolinas, and Georgia were in the occupation of the Gulf States. But,
as in the case of the Northwest, a modification of the original stock
occurred in the new environment. A greater energy and initiative
appeared in the new Southern lands; the pioneer's devotion to exploiting
the territory in which he was placed transferred slavery from the
patriarchal to the commercial basis. The same expansive tendency seen in
the Northwest revealed itself, with a belligerent seasoning, in the Gulf
States. They had a program of action. Abraham Lincoln migrated from
Kentucky to Indiana and to Illinois. Jefferson Davis moved from Kentucky
to Louisiana, and thence to Mississippi, in the same period. Starting
from the same locality, each represented the divergent flow of streams
of settlement into contrasted environments. The result of these
antagonistic streams of migration to the West was a struggle between the
Lake and Prairie plainsmen, on the one side, and the Gulf plainsmen, on
the other, for the possession of the Mississippi Valley. It was the
crucial part of the struggle between the Northern and Southern sections
of the nation. What gave slavery and State sovereignty their power as
issues was the fact that they involved the question of dominance over
common territory in an expanding nation. The place of the Middle West in
the origin and settlement of the great slavery struggle is of the
highest significance.

In the early history of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, a modified form of
slavery existed under a system of indenture of the colored servant; and
the effort of Southern settlers in Indiana and in Illinois to
reintroduce slavery are indicative of the importance of the pro-slavery
element in the Northwest. But the most significant early manifestation
of the rival currents of migration with respect to slavery is seen in
the contest which culminated in the Missouri Compromise. The historical
obstacle of the Ordinance, as well as natural conditions, gave an
advantage to the anti-slavery settlers northwest of the Ohio; but when
the Mississippi was crossed, and the rival streams of settlement mingled
in the area of the Louisiana Purchase, the struggle followed. It was an
Illinois man, with constituents in both currents of settlement, who
introduced the Missouri Compromise, which made a _modus vivendi_ for the
Middle West, until the Compromise of 1850 gave to Senator Douglas of
Illinois, in 1854, the opportunity to reopen the issue by his
Kansas-Nebraska bill. In his doctrine of "squatter-sovereignty," or the
right of the territories to determine the question of slavery within
their bounds, Douglas utilized a favorite Western political idea, one
which Cass of Michigan had promulgated before. Douglas set the love of
the Middle West for local self-government against its preponderant
antipathy to the spread of slavery. At the same time he brought to the
support of the doctrine the Democratic party, which ever since the days
of Andrew Jackson had voiced the love of the frontier for individualism
and for popular power. In his "Young America" doctrines Douglas had also
made himself the spokesman of Western expansive tendencies. He thus
found important sources of popular support when he invoked the localism
of his section. Western appeals to Congress for aid in internal
improvements, protective tariffs, and land grants had been indications
of nationalism. The doctrine of squatter-sovereignty itself catered to
the love of national union by presenting the appearance of a
non-sectional compromise, which should allow the new areas of the Middle
West to determine their own institutions. But the Free Soil party,
strongest in the regions occupied by the New York-New England colonists,
and having for its program national prohibition of the spread of slavery
into the territories, had already found in the Middle West an important
center of power. The strength of the movement far surpassed the actual
voting power of the Free Soil party, for it compelled both Whigs and
Democrats to propose fusion on the basis of concession to Free Soil
doctrines. The New England settlers and the western New York
settlers,--the children of New England,--were keenly alive to the
importance of the issue. Indeed, Seward, in an address at Madison,
Wisconsin, in 1860, declared that the Northwest, in reality, extended to
the base of the Alleghanies, and that the new States had "matured just
in the critical moment to rally the free States of the Atlantic coast,
to call them back to their ancient principles."

These Free Soil forces and the nationalistic tendencies of the Middle
West proved too strong for the opposing doctrines when the real struggle
came. Calhoun and Taney shaped the issue so logically that the Middle
West saw that the contest was not only a war for the preservation of the
Union, but also a war for the possession of the unoccupied West, a
struggle between the Middle West and the States of the Gulf Plains. The
economic life of the Middle West had been bound by the railroad to the
North Atlantic, and its interests, as well as its love of national
unity, made it in every way hostile to secession. When Dr. Cutler had
urged the desires of the Ohio Company upon Congress, in 1787, he had
promised to plant in the Ohio Valley a colony that would stand for the
Union. Vinton of Ohio, in arguing for the admission of Iowa, urged the
position of the Middle West as the great unifying section of the
country: "Disunion," he said, "is ruin to them. They have no
alternative but to resist it whenever or wherever attempted. . . .
Massachusetts and South Carolina might, for aught I know, find a
dividing line that would be mutually satisfactory to them; but, Sir,
they can find no such line to which the western country can assent." But
it was Abraham Lincoln who stated the issue with the greatest precision,
and who voiced most clearly the nationalism of the Middle West, when he
declared, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this
government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free."

So it was that when the civil war in Kansas grew into the Civil War in
the Union, after Lincoln's election to the presidency, the Middle West,
dominated by its combined Puritan and German population, ceased to
compromise, and turned the scale in favor of the North. The Middle West
furnished more than one-third of the Union troops. The names of Grant
and Sherman are sufficient testimony to her leadership in the field. The
names of Lincoln and Chase show that the presidential, the financial,
and the war powers were in the hands of the Middle West. If we were to
accept Seward's own classification, the conduct of foreign affairs as
well belonged to the same section; it was, at least, in the hands of
representatives of the dominant forces of the section. The Middle West,
led by Grant and Sherman, hewed its way down the Mississippi and across
the Gulf States, and Lincoln could exult in 1863, "The Father of Waters
again goes unvexed to the sea. Thanks to the great Northwest for it, nor
yet wholly to them."

In thus outlining the relations of the Middle West to the slavery
struggle, we have passed over important extensions of settlement in the
decade before the war. In these years, not only did the density of
settlement increase in the older portions of the region, but new waves
of colonization passed into the remoter prairies. Iowa's pioneers,
after Indian cessions had been secured, spread well toward her western
limits. Minnesota, also, was recruited by a column of pioneers. The
treaty of Traverse de Sioux, in 1851, opened over twenty million acres
of arable land in that State, and Minnesota increased her population
2730.7 per cent in the decade from 1850 to 1860.

Up to this decade the pine belt of the Middle West, in northern
Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota had been the field of operations of
Indian traders. At first under English companies, and afterward under
Astor's American Fur Company, the traders with their French and
half-breed boatmen skirted the Great Lakes and followed the rivers into
the forests, where they stationed their posts and spread goods and
whiskey among the Indians. Their posts were centers of disintegration
among the savages. The new wants and the demoralization which resulted
from the Indian trade facilitated the purchases of their lands by the
federal government. The trader was followed by the seeker for the best
pine land "forties"; and by the time of the Civil War the exploitation
of the pine belt had fairly begun. The Irish and Canadian choppers,
followed by the Scandinavians, joined the forest men, and log drives
succeeded the trading canoe. Men from the pine woods of Maine and
Vermont directed the industry, and became magnates in the mill towns
that grew up in the forests,--millionaires, and afterwards political
leaders. In the prairie country of the Middle West, the Indian trade
that centered at St. Louis had been important ever since 1820, with an
influence upon the Indians of the plains similar to the influence of the
northern fur trade upon the Indians of the forest. By 1840 the removal
policy had effected the transfer of most of the eastern tribes to lands
across the Mississippi. Tribal names that formerly belonged to Ohio and
the rest of the Old Northwest were found on the map of the Kansas
Valley. The Platte country belonged to the Pawnee and their neighbors,
and to the north along the Upper Missouri were the Sioux, or Dakota,
Crow, Cheyenne, and other horse Indians, following the vast herds of
buffalo that grazed on the Great Plains. The discovery of California
gold and the opening of the Oregon country, in the middle of the
century, made it necessary to secure a road through the Indian lands for
the procession of pioneers that crossed the prairies to the Pacific. The
organization of Kansas and Nebraska, in 1854, was the first step in the
withdrawal of these territories from the Indians. A period of almost
constant Indian hostility followed, for the savage lords of the
boundless prairies instinctively felt the significance of the entrance
of the farmer into their empire. In Minnesota the Sioux took advantage
of the Civil War to rise; but the outcome was the destruction of their
reservations in that State, and the opening of great tracts to the
pioneers. When the Pacific railways were begun, Red Cloud, the astute
Sioux chief, who, in some ways, stands as the successor of Pontiac and
of Tecumthe, rallied the principal tribes of the Great Plains to resist
the march of civilization. Their hostility resulted in the peace measure
of 1867 and 1868, which assigned to the Sioux and their allies
reservations embracing the major portion of Dakota territory, west of
the Missouri River. The systematic slaughter of millions of buffalo, in
the years between 1866 and 1873, for the sake of their hides, put an end
to the vast herds of the Great Plains, and destroyed the economic
foundation of the Indians. Henceforth they were dependent on the whites
for their food supply, and the Great Plains were open to the cattle
ranchers.

In a preface written in 1872 for a new edition of "The Oregon Trail,"
which had appeared in 1847, Francis Parkman said, "The wild cavalcade
that defiled with me down the gorges of the Black Hills, with its paint
and war plumes, fluttering trophies and savage embroidery, bows, arrows,
lances, and shields, will never be seen again." The prairies were ready
for the final rush of occupation. The homestead law of 1862, passed in
the midst of the war, did not reveal its full importance as an element
in the settlement of the Middle West until after peace. It began to
operate most actively, contemporaneously with the development of the
several railways to the Pacific, in the two decades from 1870 to 1890,
and in connection with the marketing of the railroad land grants. The
outcome was an epoch-making extension of population.

Before 1870 the vast and fertile valley of the Red River, once the level
bed of an ancient lake, occupying the region where North Dakota and
Minnesota meet, was almost virgin soil. But in 1875 the great Dalrymple
farm showed its advantages for wheat raising, and a tide of farm seekers
turned to the region. The "Jim River" Valley of South Dakota attracted
still other settlers. The Northern Pacific and the Great Northern
Railway thrust out laterals into these Minnesota and Dakota wheat areas
from which to draw the nourishment for their daring passage to the
Pacific. The Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, the Chicago and
Northwestern Railway, Burlington, and other roads, gridironed the
region; and the unoccupied lands of the Middle West were taken up by a
migration that in its system and scale is unprecedented. The railroads
sent their agents and their literature everywhere, "booming" the "Golden
West"; the opportunity for economic and political fortunes in such
rapidly growing communities attracted multitudes of Americans whom the
cheap land alone would not have tempted. In 1870 the Dakotas had 14,000
settlers; in 1890 they had over 510,000. Nebraska's population was
28,000 in 1860; 123,000 in 1870; 452,000 in 1880; and 1,059,000 in
1890. Kansas had 107,000 in 1860; 364,000 in 1870; 996,000 in 1880; and
1,427,000 in 1890. Wisconsin and New York gave the largest fractions of
the native element to Minnesota; Illinois and Ohio together sent perhaps
one-third of the native element of Kansas and Nebraska, but the Missouri
and Southern settlers were strongly represented in Kansas; Wisconsin,
New York, Minnesota, and Iowa gave North Dakota the most of her native
settlers; and Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, and New York did the same for
South Dakota.

Railroads and steamships organized foreign immigration on scale and
system never before equaled; a high-water mark of American immigration
came in the early eighties. Germans and Scandinavians were rushed by
emigrant trains out to the prairies, to fill the remaining spaces in the
older States of the Middle West. The census of 1890 showed in Minnesota
373,000 persons of Scandinavian parentage, and out of the total million
and one-half persons of Scandinavian parentage in the United States, the
Middle West received all but about three hundred thousand. The persons
of German parentage in the Middle West numbered over four millions out
of a total of less than seven millions in the whole country. The
province had, in 1890, a smaller proportion of persons of foreign
parentage than had the North Atlantic division, but the proportions
varied greatly in the different States. Indiana had the lowest
percentage, 20.38; and, rising in the scale, Missouri had 24.94; Kansas
26.75; Ohio 33.93; Nebraska 42.45; Iowa 43.57; Illinois 49.01; Michigan
54.58; Wisconsin 73.65; Minnesota 75.37; and North Dakota 78.87.

What these statistics of settlement mean when translated into the
pioneer life of the prairie, cannot be told here. There were sharp
contrasts with the pioneer life of the Old Northwest; for the forest
shade, there was substituted the boundless prairie; the sod house for
the log hut; the continental railway for the old National Turnpike and
the Erie Canal. Life moved faster, in larger masses, and with greater
momentum in this pioneer movement. The horizon line was more remote.
Things were done in the gross. The transcontinental railroad, the
bonanza farm, the steam plow, harvester, and thresher, the "league-long
furrow," and the vast cattle ranches, all suggested spacious combination
and systematization of industry. The largest hopes were excited by these
conquests of the prairie. The occupation of western Kansas may
illustrate the movement which went on also in the west of Nebraska and
the Dakotas. The pioneer farmer tried to push into the region with the
old methods of settlement. Deceived by rainy seasons and the railroad
advertisements, and recklessly optimistic, hosts of settlers poured out
into the plains beyond the region of sufficient rainfall for successful
agriculture without irrigation. Dry seasons starved them back; but a
repetition of good rainfalls again aroused the determination to occupy
the western plains. Boom towns flourished like prairie weeds; Eastern
capital struggled for a chance to share in the venture, and the Kansas
farmers eagerly mortgaged their possessions to secure the capital so
freely offered for their attack on the arid lands. By 1887 the tide of
the pioneer farmers had flowed across the semi-arid plains to the
western boundary of the State. But it was a hopeless effort to conquer a
new province by the forces that had won the prairies. The wave of
settlement dashed itself in vain against the conditions of the Great
Plains. The native American farmer had received his first defeat; farm
products at the same period had depreciated, and he turned to the
national government for reinforcements.

The Populistic movement of the western half of the Middle West is a
complex of many forces. In some respects it is the latest manifestation
of the same forces that brought on the crisis of 1837 in the earlier
region of pioneer exploitation. That era of over-confidence, reckless
internal improvements, and land purchases by borrowed capital, brought a
reaction when it became apparent that the future had been
over-discounted. But, in that time, there were the farther free lands to
which the ruined pioneer could turn. The demand for an expansion of the
currency has marked each area of Western advance. The greenback movement
of Ohio and the eastern part of the Middle West grew into the fiat
money, free silver, and land bank propositions of the Populists across
the Mississippi. Efforts for cheaper transportation also appear in each
stage of Western advance. When the pioneer left the rivers and had to
haul his crops by wagon to a market, the transportation factor
determined both his profits and the extension of settlement. Demands for
national aid to roads and canals had marked the pioneer advance of the
first third of the century. The "Granger" attacks upon the railway
rates, and in favor of governmental regulation, marked a second advance
of Western settlement. The Farmers' Alliance and the Populist demand for
government ownership of the railroad is a phase of the same effort of
the pioneer farmer, on his latest frontier. The proposals have taken
increasing proportions in each region of Western Advance. Taken as a
whole, Populism is a manifestation of the old pioneer ideals of the
native American, with the added element of increasing readiness to
utilize the national government to effect its ends. This is not
unnatural in a section whose lands were originally purchased by the
government and given away to its settlers by the same authority, whose
railroads were built largely by federal land grants, and whose
settlements were protected by the United States army and governed by the
national authority until they were carved into rectangular States and
admitted into the Union. Its native settlers were drawn from many
States, many of them former soldiers of the Civil War, who mingled in
new lands with foreign immigrants accustomed to the vigorous authority
of European national governments.

But these old ideals of the American pioneer, phrased in the new
language of national power, did not meet with the assent of the East.
Even in the Middle West a change of deepest import had been in progress
during these years of prairie settlement. The agricultural preponderance
of the country has passed to the prairies, and manufacturing has
developed in the areas once devoted to pioneer farming. In the decade
prior to the Civil War, the area of greatest wheat production passed
from Ohio and the States to the east, into Illinois, Indiana, and
Wisconsin; after 1880, the center of wheat growing moved across the
Mississippi; and in 1890 the new settlements produced half the crop of
the United States. The corn area shows a similar migration. In 1840 the
Southern States produced half the crop, and the Middle West one-fifth;
by 1860 the situation was reversed and in 1890 nearly one-half the corn
of the Union came from beyond the Mississippi. Thus the settlers of the
Old Northwest and their crops have moved together across the
Mississippi, and in the regions whence they migrated varied agriculture
and manufacture have sprung up.

As these movements in population and products have passed across the
Middle West, and as the economic life of the eastern border has been
intensified, a huge industrial organism has been created in the
province,--an organism of tremendous power, activity, and unity.
Fundamentally the Middle West is an agricultural area unequaled for its
combination of space, variety, productiveness, and freedom from
interruption by deserts or mountains. The huge water system of the Great
Lakes has become the highway of a mighty commerce. The Sault Ste. Marie
Canal, although open but two-thirds of the year, is the channel of a
traffic of greater tonnage than that which passes through the Suez
Canal, and nearly all this commerce moves almost the whole length of the
Great Lakes system; the chief ports being Duluth, Chicago, Detroit,
Cleveland, and Buffalo. The transportation facilities of the Great Lakes
were revolutionized after 1886, to supply the needs of commerce between
the East and the newly developed lands of the Middle West; the tonnage
doubled; wooden ships gave way to steel; sailing vessels yielded to
steam; and huge docks, derricks, and elevators, triumphs of mechanical
skill, were constructed. A competent investigator has lately declared
that "there is probably in the world to-day no place at tide water where
ship plates can be laid down for a less price than they can be
manufactured or purchased at the lake ports."

This rapid rise of the merchant marine of our inland seas has led to the
demand for deep water canals to connect them with the ocean road to
Europe. When the fleets of the Great Lakes plow the Atlantic, and when
Duluth and Chicago become seaports, the water transportation of the
Middle West will have completed its evolution. The significance of the
development of the railway systems is not inferior to that of the great
water way. Chicago has become the greatest railroad center of the world,
nor is there another area of like size which equals this in its railroad
facilities; all the forces of the nation intersect here. Improved
terminals, steel rails, better rolling stock, and consolidation of
railway systems have accompanied the advance of the people of the Middle
West.

This unparalleled development of transportation facilities measures the
magnitude of the material development of the province. Its wheat and
corn surplus supplies the deficit of the rest of the United States and
much of that of Europe. Such is the agricultural condition of the
province of which Monroe wrote to Jefferson, in 1786, in these words: "A
great part of the territory is miserably poor, especially that near
Lakes Michigan and Erie, and that upon the Mississippi and the Illinois
consists of extensive plains which have not had, from appearances, and
will not have, a single bush on them for ages. The districts, therefore,
within which these fall will never contain a sufficient number of
inhabitants to entitle them to membership in the confederacy."

Minneapolis and Duluth receive the spring wheat of the northern
prairies, and after manufacturing great portions of it into flour,
transmit it to Buffalo, the eastern cities, and to Europe. Chicago is
still the great city of the corn belt, but its power as a milling and
wheat center has been passing to the cities that receive tribute from
the northern prairies. It lies in the region of winter wheat, corn,
oats, and live stock. Kansas City, St. Louis, and Cincinnati are the
sister cities of this zone, which reaches into the grazing country of
the Great Plains. The meeting point of corn and cattle has led to the
development of the packing industries,--large business systems that send
the beef and pork of the region to supply the East and parts of Europe.
The "feeding system" adopted in Kansas, Nebraska, and Iowa, whereby the
stock is fattened from the surplus corn of the region, constitutes a
species of varied farming that has saved these States from the disasters
of the failure of a single industry, and has been one solution of the
economic life of the transition belt between the prairies and the Great
Plains. Under a more complex agriculture, better adapted to the various
sections of the State, and with better crops, Kansas has become more
prosperous and less a center of political discontent.

While this development of the agricultural interests of the Middle West
has been in progress, the exploitation of the pine woods of the north
has furnished another contribution to the commerce of the province. The
center of activity has migrated from Michigan to Minnesota, and the
lumber traffic furnishes one of the principal contributions to the
vessels that ply the Great Lakes and supply the tributary mills. As the
white pine vanishes before the organized forces of exploitation, the
remaining hard woods serve to establish factories in the former mill
towns. The more fertile denuded lands of the north are now receiving
settlers who repeat the old pioneer life among the stumps.

But the most striking development in the industrial history of the
Middle West in recent years has been due to the opening up of the iron
mines of Lake Superior. Even in 1873 the Lake Superior ores furnished a
quarter of the total production of American blast furnaces. The opening
of the Gogebic mines in 1884, and the development of the Vermillion and
Mesabi mines adjacent to the head of the lake, in the early nineties,
completed the transfer of iron ore production to the Lake Superior
region. Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin together now produce the ore
for eighty per cent of the pig iron of the United States. Four-fifths of
this great product moves to the ports on Lake Erie and the rest to the
manufactories at Chicago and Milwaukee. The vast steel and iron industry
that centers at Pittsburgh and Cleveland, with important outposts like
Chicago and Milwaukee, is the outcome of the meeting of the coal of the
eastern and southern borders of the province and of Pennsylvania, with
the iron ores of the north. The industry has been systematized and
consolidated by a few captains of industry. Steam shovels dig the ore
from many of the Mesabi mines; gravity roads carry it to the docks and
to the ships, and huge hoisting and carrying devices, built especially
for the traffic, unload it for the railroad and the furnace. Iron and
coal mines, transportation fleets, railroad systems, and iron
manufactories are concentrated in a few corporations, principally the
United States Steel Corporation. The world has never seen such a
consolidation of capital and so complete a systematization of economic
processes.

Such is the economic appearance of the Middle West a century after the
pioneers left the frontier village of Pittsburgh and crossed the Ohio
into the forests. De Tocqueville exclaimed, with reason, in 1833: "This
gradual and continuous progress of the European race toward the Rocky
Mountains has the solemnity of a providential event. It is like a deluge
of men, rising unabatedly, and driven daily onward by the hand of God."

The ideals of the Middle West began in the log huts set in the midst of
the forest a century ago. While his horizon was still bounded by the
clearing that his ax had made, the pioneer dreamed of continental
conquests. The vastness of the wilderness kindled his imagination. His
vision saw beyond the dank swamp at the edge of the great lake to the
lofty buildings and the jostling multitudes of a mighty city; beyond the
rank, grass-clad prairie to the seas of golden grain; beyond the harsh
life of the log hut and the sod house to the home of his children, where
should dwell comfort and the higher things of life, though they might
not be for him. The men and women who made the Middle West were
idealists, and they had the power of will to make their dreams come
true. Here, also, were the pioneer's traits,--individual activity,
inventiveness, and competition for the prizes of the rich province that
awaited exploitation under freedom and equality of opportunity. He
honored the man whose eye was the quickest and whose grasp was the
strongest in this contest: it was "every one for himself."

The early society of the Middle West was not a complex, highly
differentiated and organized society. Almost every family was a
self-sufficing unit, and liberty and equality flourished in the
frontier periods of the Middle West as perhaps never before in history.
American democracy came from the forest, and its destiny drove it to
material conquests; but the materialism of the pioneer was not the dull
contented materialism of an old and fixed society. Both native settler
and European immigrant saw in this free and competitive movement of the
frontier the chance to break the bondage of social rank, and to rise to
a higher plane of existence. The pioneer was passionately desirous to
secure for himself and for his family a favorable place in the midst of
these large and free but vanishing opportunities. It took a century for
this society to fit itself into the conditions of the whole province.
Little by little, nature pressed into her mold the plastic pioneer life.
The Middle West, yesterday a pioneer province, is to-day the field of
industrial resources and systematization so vast that Europe, alarmed
for her industries in competition with this new power, is discussing the
policy of forming protective alliances among the nations of the
continent. Into this region flowed the great forces of modern
capitalism. Indeed, the region itself furnished favorable conditions for
the creation of these forces, and trained many of the famous American
industrial leaders. The Prairies, the Great Plains, and the Great Lakes
furnished new standards of industrial measurement. From this society,
seated amidst a wealth of material advantages, and breeding
individualism, energetic competition, inventiveness, and spaciousness of
design, came the triumph of the strongest. The captains of industry
arose and seized on nature's gifts. Struggling with one another,
increasing the scope of their ambitions as the largeness of the
resources and the extent of the fields of activity revealed themselves,
they were forced to accept the natural conditions of a province vast in
area but simple in structure. Competition grew into consolidation. On
the Pittsburgh border of the Middle West the completion of the process
is most clearly seen. On the prairies of Kansas stands the Populist, a
survival of the pioneer, striving to adjust present conditions to his
old ideals.

The ideals of equality, freedom of opportunity, faith in the common man
are deep rooted in all the Middle West. The frontier stage, through
which each portion passed, left abiding traces on the older, as well as
on the newer, areas of the province. Nor were these ideals limited to
the native American settlers: Germans and Scandinavians who poured into
the Middle West sought the country with like hopes and like faith. These
facts must be remembered in estimating the effects of the economic
transformation of the province upon its democracy. The peculiar
democracy of the frontier has passed away with the conditions that
produced it; but the democratic aspirations remain. They are held with
passionate determination.

The task of the Middle West is that of adapting democracy to the vast
economic organization of the present. This region which has so often
needed the reminder that bigness is not greatness, may yet show that its
training has produced the power to reconcile popular government and
culture with the huge industrial society of the modern world. The
democracies of the past have been small communities, under simple and
primitive economic conditions. At bottom the problem is how to reconcile
real greatness with bigness.

It is important that the Middle West should accomplish this; the future
of the Republic is with her. Politically she is dominant, as is
illustrated by the fact that six out of seven of the Presidents elected
since 1860 have come from her borders. Twenty-six million people live in
the Middle West as against twenty-one million in New England and the
Middle States together, and the Middle West has indefinite capacity for
growth. The educational forces are more democratic than in the East,
and the Middle West has twice as many students (if we count together the
common school, secondary, and collegiate attendance), as have New
England and the Middle States combined. Nor is this educational system,
as a whole, inferior to that of the Eastern States. State universities
crown the public school system in every one of these States of the
Middle West, and rank with the universities of the seaboard, while
private munificence has furnished others on an unexampled scale. The
public and private art collections of Pittsburgh, Chicago, St. Paul, and
other cities rival those of the seaboard. "World's fairs," with their
important popular educational influences, have been held at Chicago,
Omaha, and Buffalo; and the next of these national gatherings is to be
at St. Louis. There is throughout the Middle West a vigor and a mental
activity among the common people that bode well for its future. If the
task of reducing the Province of the Lake and Prairie Plains to the uses
of civilization should for a time overweigh art and literature, and even
high political and social ideals, it would not be surprising. But if the
ideals of the pioneers shall survive the inundation of material success,
we may expect to see in the Middle West the rise of a highly intelligent
society where culture shall be reconciled with democracy in the large.


FOOTNOTES:

[126:1] With acknowledgments to the _International Monthly_, December,
1901.

[129:1] 1901.

[132:1] See F. J. Turner, "Western State-Making in the Revolutionary
Era," in _Am. Historical Review_, i, pp. 70 _et seq._




V

THE OHIO VALLEY IN AMERICAN HISTORY[157:1]


In a notable essay Professor Josiah Royce has asserted the salutary
influence of a highly organized provincial life in order to counteract
certain evils arising from the tremendous development of nationalism in
our own day. Among these evils he enumerates: first, the frequent
changes of dwelling place, whereby the community is in danger of losing
the well-knit organization of a common life; second, the tendency to
reduce variety in national civilization, to assimilate all to a common
type and thus to discourage individuality, and produce a "remorseless
mechanism--vast, irrational;" third, the evils arising from the fact
that waves of emotion, the passion of the mob, tend in our day to sweep
across the nation.

Against these surges of national feeling Professor Royce would erect
dikes in the form of provincialism, the resistance of separate sections
each with its own traditions, beliefs and aspirations. "Our national
unities have grown so vast, our forces of social consolidation so
paramount, the resulting problems, conflicts, evils, have become so
intensified," he says, that we must seek in the province renewed
strength, usefulness and beauty of American life.

Whatever may be thought of this philosopher's appeal for a revival of
sectionalism, on a higher level, in order to check the tendencies to a
deadening uniformity of national consolidation (and to me this appeal,
under the limitations which he gives it, seems warranted by the
conditions)--it is certainly true that in the history of the United
States sectionalism holds a place too little recognized by the
historians.

By sectionalism I do not mean the struggle between North and South which
culminated in the Civil War. That extreme and tragic form of
sectionalism indeed has almost engrossed the attention of historians,
and it is, no doubt, the most striking and painful example of the
phenomenon in our history. But there are older, and perhaps in the long
run more enduring examples of the play of sectional forces than the
slavery struggle, and there are various sections besides North and
South.

Indeed, the United States is, in size and natural resources, an empire,
a collection of potential nations, rather than a single nation. It is
comparable in area to Europe. If the coast of California be placed along
the coast of Spain, Charleston, South Carolina, would fall near
Constantinople; the northern shores of Lake Superior would touch the
Baltic, and New Orleans would lie in southern Italy. Within this vast
empire there are geographic provinces, separate in physical conditions,
into which American colonization has flowed, and in each of which a
special society has developed, with an economic, political and social
life of its own. Each of these provinces, or sections, has developed its
own leaders, who in the public life of the nation have voiced the needs
of their section, contended with the representatives of other sections,
and arranged compromises between sections in national legislation and
policy, almost as ambassadors from separate countries in a European
congress might make treaties.

Between these sections commercial relations have sprung up, and economic
combinations and contests may be traced by the student who looks beneath
the surface of our national life to the actual grouping of States in
congressional votes on tariff, internal improvement, currency and
banking, and all the varied legislation in the field of commerce.
American industrial life is the outcome of the combinations and contests
of groups of States in sections. And the intellectual, the spiritual
life of the nation is the result of the interplay of the sectional
ideals, fundamental assumptions and emotions.

In short, the real federal aspect of the nation, if we penetrate beneath
constitutional forms to the deeper currents of social, economic and
political life, will be found to lie in the relation of sections and
nation, rather than in the relation of States and nation. Recently
ex-secretary Root emphasized the danger that the States, by neglecting
to fulfil their duties, might fall into decay, while the national
government engrossed their former power. But even if the States
disappeared altogether as effective factors in our national life, the
sections might, in my opinion, gain from that very disappearance a
strength and activity that would prove effective limitations upon the
nationalizing process.

Without pursuing the interesting speculation, I may note as evidence of
the development of sectionalism, the various gatherings of business men,
religious denominations and educational organizations in groups of
States. Among the signs of growth of a healthy provincialism is the
formation of sectional historical societies. While the American
Historical Association has been growing vigorously and becoming a
genuine gathering of historical students from all parts of the nation,
there have also arisen societies in various sections to deal with the
particular history of the groups of States. In part this is due to the
great distances which render attendance difficult upon the meetings of
the national body to-day, but we would be short-sighted, indeed, who
failed to perceive in the formation of the Pacific Coast Historical
Association, the Mississippi Valley Historical Association, and the
Ohio Valley Historical Association, for example, genuine and spontaneous
manifestations of a sectional consciousness.

These associations spring in large part from the recognition in each of
a common past, a common body of experiences, traditions, institutions
and ideals. It is not necessary now to raise the question whether all of
these associations are based on a real community of historical interest,
whether there are overlapping areas, whether new combinations may not be
made? They are at least substantial attempts to find a common sectional
unity, and out of their interest in the past of the section, increasing
tendencies to common sectional ideas and policies are certain to follow.
I do not mean to prophesy any disruptive tendency in American life by
the rejuvenation of sectional self-consciousness; but I do mean to
assert that American life will be enriched and safe-guarded by the
development of the greater variety of interest, purposes and ideals
which seem to be arising. A measure of local concentration seems
necessary to produce healthy, intellectual and moral life. The spread of
social forces over too vast an area makes for monotony and stagnation.

Let us, then, raise the question of how far the Ohio Valley has had a
part of its own in the making of the nation. I have not the temerity to
attempt a history of the Valley in the brief compass of this address.
Nor am I confident of my ability even to pick out the more important
features of its history in our common national life. But I venture to
put the problem, to state some familiar facts from the special point of
view, with the hope of arousing interest in the theme among the many
students who are advancing the science of history in this section.

To the physiographer the section is made up of the province of the
Alleghany Plateaus and the southern portion of the Prairie Plains. In
it are found rich mineral deposits which are changing the life of the
section and of the nation. Although you reckon in your membership only
the states that touch the Ohio River, parts of those states are, from
the point of view of their social origins, more closely connected with
the Northwest on the Lake Plains, than with the Ohio Valley; and, on the
other hand, the Tennessee Valley, though it sweeps far toward the Lower
South, and only joins the Ohio at the end of its course, has been
through much of the history of the region an essential part of this
society. Together these rivers made up the "Western World" of the
pioneers of the Revolutionary era; the "Western Waters" of the
backwoodsmen.

But, after all, the unity of the section and its place in history were
determined by the "beautiful river," as the French explorers called
it--the Ohio, which pours its flood for over a thousand miles, a great
highway to the West; a historic artery of commerce, a wedge of advance
between powerful Indian confederacies, and rival European nations, to
the Mississippi Valley; a home for six mighty States, now in the heart
of the nation, rich in material wealth, richer in the history of
American democracy, a society that holds a place midway between the
industrial sections of the seaboard and the plains and prairies of the
agricultural West; between the society that formed later along the
levels about the Great Lakes, and the society that arose in the Lower
South on the plains of the Gulf of Mexico. The Alleghanies bound it on
the east, the Mississippi on the west. At the forks of the great river
lies Pittsburgh, the historic gateway to the West, the present symbol
and embodiment of the age of steel, the type of modern industrialism.
Near its western border is St. Louis, looking toward the Prairies, the
Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains, the land into which the tide of
modern colonization turns.

Between these old cities, for whose sites European nations contended,
stand the cities whose growth preëminently represents the Ohio valley;
Cincinnati, the historic queen of the river; Louisville, the warder of
the falls; the cities of the "Old National Road," Columbus,
Indianapolis; the cities of the Blue Grass lands, which made Kentucky
the goal of the pioneers; and the cities of that young commonwealth,
whom the Ohio river by force of its attraction tore away from an
uncongenial control by the Old Dominion, and joined to the social
section where it belonged.

The Ohio Valley is, therefore, not only a commercial highway, it is a
middle kingdom between the East and the West, between the northern area,
which was occupied by a greater New England and emigrants from northern
Europe, and the southern area of the "Cotton Kingdom." As Pennsylvania
and New York constituted the Middle Region in our earlier history,
between New England and the seaboard South, so the Ohio Valley became
the Middle Region of a later time. In its position as a highway and a
Middle Region are found the keys to its place in American history.

From the beginning the Ohio Valley seems to have been a highway for
migration, and the home of a culture of its own. The sciences of
American archeology and ethnology are too new to enable us to speak with
confidence upon the origins and earlier distribution of the aborigines,
but it is at least clear that the Ohio river played an important part in
the movements of the earlier men in America, and that the mounds of the
valley indicate a special type of development intermediate between that
of the northern hunter folk, and the pueblo building races of the south.
This dim and yet fascinating introduction to the history of the Ohio
will afford ample opportunity for later students of the relations
between geography and population to make contributions to our history.

The French explorers saw the river, but failed to grasp its significance
as a strategic line in the conquest of the West. Entangled in the water
labyrinth of the vast interior, and kindled with aspirations to reach
the "Sea of the West," their fur traders and explorers pushed their way
through the forests of the North and across the plains of the South,
from river to lake, from lake to river, until they met the mountains of
the West. But while they were reaching the upper course of the Missouri
and the Spanish outposts of Santa Fé, they missed the opportunity to
hold the Ohio Valley, and before France could settle the Valley, the
long and attenuated line of French posts in the west, reaching from
Canada to Louisiana, was struck by the advancing column of the American
backwoodsmen in the center by the way of the Ohio. Parkman, in whose
golden pages is written the epic of the American wilderness, found his
hero in the wandering Frenchman. Perhaps because he was a New Englander
he missed a great opportunity and neglected to portray the formation and
advance of the backwood society which was finally to erase the traces of
French control in the interior of North America.

It is not without significance in a consideration of the national
aspects of the history of the Ohio Valley, that the messenger of English
civilization, who summoned the French to evacuate the Valley and its
approaches, and whose men near the forks of the Ohio fired the opening
gun of the world-historic conflict that wrought the doom of New France
in America, was George Washington, the first American to win a national
position in the United States. The father of his country was the prophet
of the Ohio Valley.

Into this dominion, in the next scene of this drama, came the
backwoodsmen, the men who began the formation of the society of the
Valley. I wish to consider the effects of the formation of this society
upon the nation. And first let us consider the stock itself.

The Ohio Valley was settled, for the most part (though with important
exceptions, especially in Ohio), by men of the Upland South, and this
determined a large part of its influence in the nation through a long
period. As the Ohio Valley, as a whole, was an extension of the Upland
South, so the Upland South was, broadly speaking, an extension from the
old Middle Region, chiefly from Pennsylvania. The society of pioneers,
English, Scotch-Irish, Germans, and other nationalities which formed in
the beginning of the eighteenth century in the Great Valley of
Pennsylvania and its lateral extensions was the nursery of the American
backwoodsmen. Between about 1730 and the Revolution, successive tides of
pioneers ascended the Shenandoah, occupied the Piedmont, or up-country
of Virginia and the Carolinas, and received recruits from similar
peoples who came by eastward advances from the coast toward this Old
West.

Thus by the middle of the eighteenth century a new section had been
created in America, a kind of peninsula thrust down from Pennsylvania
between the falls of the rivers of the South Atlantic colonies on the
one side and the Alleghany mountains on the other. Its population showed
a mixture of nationalities and religions. Less English than the colonial
coast, it was built on a basis of religious feeling different from that
of Puritan New England, and still different from the conservative
Anglicans of the southern seaboard. The Scotch-Irish Presbyterians with
the glow of the covenanters; German sectaries with serious-minded
devotion to one or another of a multiplicity of sects, but withal deeply
responsive to the call of the religious spirit, and the English Quakers
all furnish a foundation of emotional responsiveness to religion and a
readiness to find a new heaven and a new earth in politics as well as in
religion. In spite of the influence of the backwoods in hampering
religious organization, this upland society was a fertile field for
tillage by such democratic and emotional sects as the Baptists,
Methodists and the later Campbellites, as well as by Presbyterians. Mr.
Bryce has well characterized the South as a region of "high religious
voltage," but this characterization is especially applicable to the
Upland South, and its colonies in the Ohio Valley. It is not necessary
to assert that this religious spirit resulted in the kind of conduct
associated with the religious life of the Puritans. What I wish to point
out is the responsiveness of the Upland South to emotional religious and
political appeal.

Besides its variety of stocks and its religious sects responsive to
emotion, the Upland South was intensely democratic and individualistic.
It believed that government was based on a limited contract for the
benefit of the individual, and it acted independently of governmental
organs and restraints with such ease that in many regions this was the
habitual mode of social procedure: voluntary coöperation was more
natural to the Southern Uplanders than action through the machinery of
government, especially when government checked rather than aided their
industrial and social tendencies and desires. It was a naturally radical
society. It was moreover a rural section not of the planter or merchant
type, but characterized by the small farmer, building his log cabin in
the wilderness, raising a small crop and a few animals for family use.
It was this stock which began to pass into the Ohio Valley when Daniel
Boone, and the pioneers associated with his name, followed the
"Wilderness Trace" from the Upland South to the Blue Grass lands in the
midst of the Kentucky hills, on the Ohio river. In the opening years of
the Revolution these pioneers were recruited by westward extensions
from Pennsylvania and West Virginia. With this colonization of the Ohio
Valley begins a chapter in American history.

This settlement contributed a new element to our national development
and raised new national problems. It took a long time for the seaboard
South to assimilate the upland section. We cannot think of the South as
a unit through much of its ante-bellum history without doing violence to
the facts. The struggle between the men of the up-country and the men of
the tide-water, made a large part of the domestic history of the "Old
South." Nevertheless, the Upland South, as slavery and cotton
cultivation extended westward from the coast, gradually merged in the
East. On the other hand, its children, who placed the wall of the
Alleghanies between them and the East, gave thereby a new life to the
conditions and ideals which were lost in their former home. Nor was this
all. Beyond the mountains new conditions, new problems, aroused new
ambitions and new social ideals. Its entrance into the "Western World"
was a tonic to this stock. Its crossing put new fire into its
veins--fires of militant expansion, creative social energy, triumphant
democracy. A new section was added to the American nation, a new element
was infused into the combination which we call the United States, a new
flavor was given to the American spirit.

We may next rapidly note some of the results. First, let us consider the
national effects of the settlement of this new social type in the Ohio
Valley upon the expansion and diplomacy of the nation. Almost from the
first the Ohio valley had constituted the problem of westward expansion.
It was the entering wedge to the possession of the Mississippi Valley,
and, although reluctantly, the Eastern colonies and then the Eastern
States were compelled to join in the struggle first to possess the Ohio,
then to retain it, and finally to enforce its demand for the possession
of the whole Mississippi Valley and the basin of the Great Lakes as a
means of outlet for its crops and of defense for its settlements. The
part played by the pioneers of the Ohio Valley as a flying column of the
nation, sent across the mountains and making a line of advance between
hostile Indians and English on the north, and hostile Indians and
Spaniards on the south, is itself too extensive a theme to be more than
mentioned.

Here in historic Kentucky, in the State which was the home of George
Rogers Clark it is not necessary to dwell upon his clear insight and
courage in carrying American arms into the Northwest. From the first,
Washington also grasped the significance of the Ohio Valley as a "rising
empire," whose population and trade were essential to the nation, but
which found its natural outlet down the Mississippi, where Spain blocked
the river, and which was in danger of withdrawing from the weak
confederacy. The intrigues of England to attract the Valley to herself
and those of Spain to add the settlements to the Spanish Empire, the use
of the Indians by these rivals, and the efforts of France to use the
pioneers of Kentucky to win New Orleans and the whole Valley between the
Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains for a revived French Empire in
America, are among the fascinating chapters of American, as well as of
Ohio Valley, history. This position of the Valley explains much of the
Indian wars, the foreign relations, and, indirectly, the domestic
politics of the period from the Revolution to the purchase of Louisiana.
Indeed, the purchase was in large measure due to the pressure of the
settlers of the Ohio Valley to secure this necessary outlet. It was the
Ohio Valley which forced the nation away from a narrow colonial attitude
into its career as a nation among other nations with an adequate
physical basis for future growth.

In this development of a foreign policy in connection with the Ohio
Valley, we find the germ of the Monroe doctrine, and the beginnings of
the definite independence of the United States from the state system of
the Old World, the beginning, in fact, of its career as a world power.
This expansive impulse went on into the War of 1812, a war which was in
no inconsiderable degree, the result of the aggressive leadership of a
group of men from Kentucky and Tennessee, and especially of the daring
and lofty demands of Henry Clay, who even thus early voiced the spirit
of the Ohio Valley. That in this war William Henry Harrison and the
Kentucky troops achieved the real conquest of the northwest province and
Andrew Jackson with his Tennesseeans achieved the real conquest of the
Gulf Plains, is in itself abundant evidence of the part played in the
expansion of the nation by the section which formed on the Ohio and its
tributaries. Nor was this the end of the process, for the annexation of
Texas and the Pacific Coast was in a very real sense only an aftermath
of the same movement of expansion.

While the Ohio Valley was leading the way to the building of a greater
nation, it was also the field wherein was formed an important
contribution of the United States to political institutions. By this I
mean what George Bancroft has well called "federal colonial system,"
that is, our system of territories and new States. It is a mistake to
attribute this system to the Ordinance of 1787 and to the leadership of
New England. It was in large measure the work of the communities of the
Ohio Valley who wrought out the essentials of the system for themselves,
and by their attitude imposed it, of necessity, upon the nation. The
great Ordinance only perfected the system.[168:1]

Under the belief that all men going into vacant lands have the right to
shape their own political institutions, the riflemen of western
Virginia, western Pennsylvania, Kentucky and Tennessee, during the
Revolution, protested against the rule of governments east of the
mountains, and asserted with manly independence their right to
self-government. But it is significant that in making this assertion,
they at the same time petitioned congress to admit them to the
sisterhood of States. Even when leaders like Wilkinson were attempting
to induce Kentucky to act as an independent nation, the national spirit
of the people as a whole led them to delay until at last they found
themselves a State of the new Union. This recognition of the paramount
authority of congress and this demand for self-government under that
authority, constitute the foundations of the federal territorial system,
as expressed in congressional resolutions, worked out tentatively in
Jefferson's Ordinance of 1784, and finally shaped in the Ordinance of
1787.

Thus the Ohio Valley was not only the area to which this system was
applied, but it was itself instrumental in shaping the system by its own
demands and by the danger that too rigorous an assertion of either State
or national power over these remote communities might result in their
loss to the nation. The importance of the result can hardly be
overestimated. It insured the peaceful and free development of the great
West and gave it political organization not as the outcome of wars of
hostile States, nor by arbitrary government by distant powers, but by
territorial government combined with large local autonomy. These
governments in turn were admitted as equal States of the Union. By this
peaceful process of colonization a whole continent has been filled with
free and orderly commonwealths so quietly, so naturally, that we can
only appreciate the profound significance of the process by contrasting
it with the spread of European nations through conquest and oppression.

Next let me invite your attention to the part played by the Ohio Valley
in the economic legislation which shaped our history in the years of the
making of the nation between the War of 1812 and the rise of the slavery
struggle. It needs but slight reflection to discover that in the area in
question, the men and measures of the Ohio Valley held the balance of
power and set the course of our national progress. The problems before
the country at that time were problems of internal development: the mode
of dealing with the public domain; the building of roads and digging of
canals for the internal improvement of a nation which was separated into
East and West by the Alleghany Mountains; the formation of a tariff
system for the protection of home industries and to supply a market for
the surplus of the West which no longer found an outlet in warring
Europe; the framing of a banking and currency system which should meet
the needs of the new interstate commerce produced by the rise of the
western surplus.

In the Ohio Valley, by the initiative of Ohio Valley men, and often
against the protest of Eastern sections, the public land policy was
developed by laws which subordinated the revenue idea to the idea of the
upbuilding of a democracy of small landholders. The squatters of the
Ohio Valley forced the passage of preëmption laws and these laws in
their turn led to the homestead agitation. There has been no single
element more influential in shaping American democracy and its ideals
than this land policy. And whether the system be regarded as harmful or
helpful, there can be, I think, no doubt that it was the outcome of
conditions imposed by the settlers of the Ohio Valley.

When one names the tariff, internal improvements and the bank, he is
bound to add the title "The American System," and to think of Henry Clay
of Kentucky, the captivating young statesman, who fashioned a national
policy, raised issues and disciplined a party to support them and who
finally imposed the system upon the nation. But, however clearly we
recognize the genius and originality of Henry Clay as a political
leader; however we recognize that he has a national standing as a
constructive statesman, we must perceive, if we probe the matter deeply
enough, that his policy and his power grew out of the economic and
social conditions of the people whose needs he voiced--the people of the
Ohio Valley. It was the fact that in this period they had begun to
create an agricultural surplus, which made the necessity for this
legislation.

The nation has recently celebrated the one hundredth anniversary of
Fulton's invention of the steamboat, and the Hudson river has been
ablaze in his honor; but in truth it is on the Ohio and the Mississippi
that the fires of celebration should really burn in honor of Fulton, for
the historic significance to the United States of the invention of the
steamboat does not lie in its use on Eastern rivers; not even in its use
on the ocean; for our own internal commerce carried in our own ships has
had a vaster influence upon our national life than has our foreign
commerce. And this internal commerce was at first, and for many years,
the commerce of the Ohio Valley carried by way of the Mississippi. When
Fulton's steamboat was applied in 1811 to the Western Waters, it became
possible to develop agriculture and to get the Western crops rapidly and
cheaply to a market. The result was a tremendous growth in the entire
Ohio Valley, but this invention did not solve the problem of cheap
supplies of Eastern manufactures, nor satisfy the desire of the West to
build up its own factories in order to consume its own products. The
Ohio Valley had seen the advantage of home markets, as her towns grew
up with their commerce and manufacturers close to the rural regions.
Lands had increased in value in proportion to their nearness to these
cities, and crops were in higher demand near them. Thus Henry Clay found
a whole section standing behind him when he demanded a protective tariff
to create home markets on a national scale, and when he urged the
breaking of the Alleghany barrier by a national system of roads and
canals. If we analyse the congressional votes by which the tariff and
internal improvement acts were passed, we shall find that there was an
almost unbroken South against them, a Middle Region largely for them, a
New England divided, and the Ohio Valley almost a unit, holding the
balance of power and casting it in favor of the American system.

The next topic to which I ask your attention is the influence of the
Ohio Valley in the promotion of democracy. On this I shall, by reason of
lack of time, be obliged merely to point out that the powerful group of
Ohio Valley States, which sprang out of the democracy of the backwoods,
and which entered the Union one after the other with manhood suffrage,
greatly recruited the effective forces of democracy in the Union. Not
only did they add new recruits, but by their competitive pressure for
population they forced the older States to break down their historic
restraints upon the right of voting, unless they were to lose their
people to the freer life of the West.

But in the era of Jacksonian democracy, Henry Clay and his followers
engaged the great Tennesseean in a fierce political struggle out of
which was born the rival Whig and Democratic parties. This struggle was
in fact reflective of the conditions which had arisen in the Ohio
Valley. As the section had grown in population and wealth, as the trails
changed into roads, the cabins into well-built houses, the clearings
into broad farms, the hamlets into towns; as barter became commerce and
all the modern processes of industrial development began to operate in
this rising region, the Ohio Valley broke apart into the rival interests
of the industrial forces (the town-makers and the business builders), on
the one side and the old rural democracy of the uplands on the other.
This division was symbolical of national processes. In the contest
between these forces, Andrew Jackson was the champion of the cause of
the upland democracy. He denounced the money power, banks and the whole
credit system and sounded a fierce tocsin of danger against the
increasing influence of wealth in politics. Henry Clay, on the other
hand, represented the new industrial forces along the Ohio. It is
certainly significant that in the rivalry between the great Whig of the
Ohio Valley and the great Democrat of its Tennessee tributary lay the
issues of American politics almost until the slavery struggle. The
responsiveness of the Ohio Valley to leadership and its enthusiasm in
action are illustrated by the Harrison campaign of 1840; in that "log
cabin campaign" when the Whigs "stole the thunder" of pioneer Jacksonian
democracy for another backwoods hero, the Ohio Valley carried its spirit
as well as its political favorite throughout the nation.

Meanwhile, on each side of the Ohio Valley, other sections were forming.
New England and the children of New England in western New York and an
increasing flood of German immigrants were pouring into the Great Lake
basin and the prairies, north of the upland peoples who had chopped out
homes in the forests along the Ohio. This section was tied to the East
by the Great Lake navigation and the Erie canal, it became in fact an
extension of New England and New York. Here the Free Soil party found
its strength and New York newspapers expressed the political ideas.
Although this section tried to attach the Ohio River interests to itself
by canals and later by railroads, it was in reality for a long time
separate in its ideals and its interests and never succeeded in
dominating the Ohio Valley.

On the south along the Gulf Plains there developed the "Cotton Kingdom,"
a Greater South with a radical program of slavery expansion mapped out
by bold and aggressive leaders. Already this Southern section had
attempted to establish increasing commercial relations with the Ohio
Valley. The staple-producing region was a principal consumer of its live
stock and food products. South Carolina leaders like Calhoun tried to
bind the Ohio to the chariot of the South by the Cincinnati and
Charleston Railroad, designed to make an outlet for the Ohio Valley
products to the southeast. Georgia in her turn was a rival of South
Carolina in plans to drain this commerce itself. In all of these plans
to connect the Ohio Valley commercially with the South, the political
object was quite as prominent as the commercial.

In short, various areas were bidding for the support of the zone of
population along the Ohio River. The Ohio Valley recognized its old
relationship to the South, but its people were by no means champions of
slavery. In the southern portion of the States north of the Ohio where
indented servitude for many years opened a way to a system of
semi-slavery, there were divided counsels. Kentucky also spoke with no
certain voice. As a result, it is in these regions that we find the
stronghold of the compromising movement in the slavery struggle.
Kentucky furnished Abraham Lincoln to Illinois, and Jefferson Davis to
Mississippi, and was in reality the very center of the region of
adjustment between these rival interests. Senator Thomas, of southern
Illinois, moved the Missouri Compromise, and Henry Clay was the most
effective champion of that compromise, as he was the architect of the
Compromise of 1850. The Crittenden compromise proposals on the eve of
the Civil War came also from Kentucky and represent the persistence of
the spirit of Henry Clay.

In a word, as I pointed out in the beginning, the Ohio Valley was a
Middle Region with a strong national allegiance, striving to hold apart
with either hand the sectional combatants in this struggle. In the
cautious development of his policy of emancipation, we may see the
profound influence of the Ohio Valley upon Abraham Lincoln--Kentucky's
greatest son. No one can understand his presidency without proper
appreciation of the deep influence of the Ohio Valley, its ideals and
its prejudices upon America's original contribution to the great men of
the world.

Enough has been said to make it clear, I trust, that the Ohio Valley has
not only a local history worthy of study, a rich heritage to its people,
but also that it has been an independent and powerful force in shaping
the development of a nation. Of the late history of this Valley, the
rise of its vast industrial power, its far-reaching commercial
influence, it is not necessary that I should speak. You know its
statesmen and their influence upon our own time; you know the relation
of Ohio to the office of President of the United States! Nor is it
necessary that I should attempt to prophesy concerning the future which
the Ohio Valley will hold in the nation.

In that new age of inland water transportation, which is certain to
supplement the age of the railroad, there can be no more important
region than the Ohio Valley. Let us hope that its old love of democracy
may endure, and that in this section, where the first trans-Alleghany
pioneers struck blows at the forests, there may be brought to blossom
and to fruit the ripe civilization of a people who know that whatever
the glories of prosperity may be, there are greater glories of the
spirit of man; who know that in the ultimate record of history, the
place of the Ohio Valley will depend upon the contribution which her
people and her leaders make to the cause of an enlightened, a
cultivated, a God-fearing and a free, as well as a comfortable,
democracy.


FOOTNOTES:

[157:1] An address before the Ohio Valley Historical Association,
October 16, 1909.

[168:1] See F. J. Turner, "New States West of the Alleghanies,"
_American Historical Review_, i, pp. 70 ff.




VI

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY IN AMERICAN HISTORY[177:1]


The rise of a company of sympathetic and critical students of history in
the South and in the West is bound to revolutionize the perspective of
American history. Already our Eastern colleagues are aware in general,
if not in detail, of the importance of the work of this nation in
dealing with the vast interior, and with the influence of the West upon
the nation. Indeed, I might take as the text for this address the words
of one of our Eastern historians, Professor Albert Bushnell Hart, who, a
decade ago, wrote:

     The Mississippi Valley yields to no region in the world in
     interest, in romance, and in promise for the future. Here, if
     anywhere, is the real America--the field, the theater, and the
     basis of the civilization of the Western World. The history of
     the Mississippi Valley is the history of the United States;
     its future is the future of one of the most powerful of modern
     nations.[177:2]

If those of us who have been insisting on the importance of our own
region are led at times by the enthusiasm of the pioneer for the
inviting historical domain that opens before us to overstate the
importance of our subject, we may at least plead that we have gone no
farther than some of our brethren of the East; and we may take comfort
in this declaration of Theodore Roosevelt:

     The states that have grown up around the Great Lakes and in
     the Valley of the Upper Mississippi, [are] the states which
     are destined to be the greatest, the richest, the most
     prosperous of all the great, rich, and prosperous
     commonwealths which go to make up the mightiest republic the
     world has ever seen. These states . . . form the heart of the
     country geographically, and they will soon become the heart in
     population and in political and social importance. . . . I
     should be sorry to think that before these states there loomed
     a future of material prosperity merely. I regard this section
     of the country as the heart of true American sentiment.[178:1]

In studying the history of the whole Mississippi Valley, therefore, the
members of this Association are studying the origins of that portion of
the nation which is admitted by competent Eastern authorities to be the
section potentially most influential in the future of America. They are
also studying the region which has engaged the most vital activities of
the whole nation; for the problems arising from the existence of the
Mississippi Valley, whether of movement of population, diplomacy,
politics, economic development, or social structure, have been
fundamental problems in shaping the nation. It is not a narrow, not even
a local, interest which determines the mission of this Association. It
is nothing less than the study of the American people in the presence
and under the influence of the vast spaces, the imperial resources of
the great interior. The social destiny of this Valley will be the social
destiny, and will mark the place in history, of the United States.

In a large sense, and in the one usually given to it by geographers and
historians, the Mississippi Valley includes the whole interior basin, a
province which drains into nearly two thousand miles of navigable waters
of the Mississippi itself, two thousand miles of the tawny flood of the
Missouri, and a thousand miles of the Ohio--five thousand miles of main
water highways open to the steamboat, nearly two and a half million
square miles of drainage basin, a land greater than all Europe except
Russia, Norway, and Sweden, a land of levels, marked by essential
geographic unity, a land estimated to be able to support a population of
two or three hundred millions, three times the present population of the
whole nation, an empire of natural resources in which to build a noble
social structure worthy to hold its place as the heart of American
industrial, political and spiritual life.

The significance of the Mississippi Valley in American history was first
shown in the fact that it opened to various nations visions of power in
the New World--visions that sweep across the horizon of historical
possibility like the luminous but unsubstantial aurora of a comet's
train, portentous and fleeting.

Out of the darkness of the primitive history of the continent are being
drawn the evidences of the rise and fall of Indian cultures, the
migrations through and into the great Valley by men of the Stone Age,
hinted at in legends and languages, dimly told in the records of mounds
and artifacts, but waiting still for complete interpretation.

Into these spaces and among the savage peoples, came France and wrote a
romantic page in our early history, a page that tells of unfulfilled
empire. What is striking in the effect of the Mississippi Valley upon
France is the pronounced influence of the unity of its great spaces. It
is not without meaning that Radisson and Groseilliers not only reached
the extreme of Lake Superior but also, in all probability, entered upon
the waters of the Mississippi and learned of its western affluent; that
Marquette not only received the Indians of the Illinois region in his
post on the shores of Lake Superior, but traversed the length of the
Mississippi almost to its mouth, and returning revealed the site of
Chicago; that La Salle was inspired with the vision of a huge interior
empire reaching from the Gulf to the Great Lakes. Before the close of
the seventeenth century, Perrot's influence was supreme in the Upper
Mississippi, while D'Iberville was laying the foundations of Louisiana
toward the mouth of the river. Nor is it without significance that while
the Verendryes were advancing toward the northwest (where they
discovered the Big Horn Mountains and revealed the natural boundaries of
the Valley) the Mallet brothers were ascending the Platte, crossing the
Colorado plains to Santa Fé and so revealing the natural boundaries
toward the southwest.

To the English the great Valley was a land beyond the Alleghanies.
Spotswood, the far-sighted Governor of Virginia, predecessor of frontier
builders, grasped the situation when he proposed western settlements to
prevent the French from becoming a great people at the back of the
colonies. He realized the importance of the Mississippi Valley as the
field for expansion, and the necessity to the English empire of
dominating it, if England would remain the great power of the New World.

In the war that followed between France and England, we now see what
the men of the time could not have realized: that the main issue was
neither the possession of the fisheries nor the approaches to the St.
Lawrence on the one hemisphere, nor the possession of India on the
other, but the mastery of the interior basin of North America.

How little the nations realized the true meaning of the final victory of
England is shown in the fact that Spain reluctantly received from France
the cession of the lands beyond the Mississippi, accepting it as a means
of preventing the infringement of her colonial monopoly in Spanish
America rather than as a field for imperial expansion.

But we know now that when George Washington came as a stripling to the
camp of the French at the edge of the great Valley and demanded the
relinquishment of the French posts in the name of Virginia, he was
demanding in the name of the English speaking people the right to occupy
and rule the real center of American resources and power. When
Braddock's axmen cut their road from the Potomac toward the forks of the
Ohio they were opening a channel through which the forces of
civilization should flow with ever increasing momentum and "carving a
cross on the wilderness rim" at the spot which is now the center of
industrial power of the American nation.

England trembled on the brink of her great conquest, fearful of the
effect of these far-stretching rivers upon her colonial system, timorous
in the presence of the fierce peoples who held the vast domain beyond
the Alleghanies. It seems clear, however, that the Proclamation of 1763,
forbidding settlement and the patenting of lands beyond the Alleghanies,
was not intended as a permanent creation of an Indian reservation out of
this Valley, but was rather a temporary arrangement in order that
British plans might mature and a system of gradual colonization be
devised. Already our greatest leaders, men like Washington and
Franklin, had been quick to see the importance of this new area for
enlarged activities of the American people. A sudden revelation that it
was the West, rather than the ocean, which was the real theater for the
creative energy of America came with the triumph over France. The Ohio
Company and the Loyal Land Company indicate the interest at the outbreak
of the war, while the Mississippi Company, headed by the Washingtons and
Lees, organized to occupy southern Illinois, Indiana, and western
Kentucky, mark the Virginia interest in the Mississippi Valley, and
Franklin's activity in promoting a colony in the Illinois country
illustrates the interest of the Philadelphians. Indeed, Franklin saw
clearly the possibilities of a settlement there as a means of breaking
up Spanish America. Writing to his son in 1767 he declared that a
"settlement should be made in the Illinois country . . . raising a
strength there which on occasions of a future war might easily be poured
down the Mississippi upon the lower country and into the Bay of Mexico
to be used against Cuba, the French Islands, or Mexico itself."[182:1]

The Mississippi Valley had been the despair of France in the matter of
governmental control. The coureurs de bois escaping from restraints of
law and order took their way through its extensive wilderness, exploring
and trading as they listed. Similarly, when the English colonists
crossed the Alleghanies they escaped from the control of mother colonies
as well as of the mother country. If the Mississippi Valley revealed to
the statesmen of the East, in the exultation of the war with France, an
opportunity for new empire building, it revealed to the frontiersmen,
who penetrated the passes of the Alleghanies, and entered into their new
inheritance, the sharp distinctions between them and the Eastern lands
which they left behind. From the beginning it was clear that the lands
beyond the Alleghanies furnished an opportunity and an incentive to
develop American society on independent and unconventional lines. The
"men of the Western Waters" broke with the old order of things,
subordinated social restraint to the freedom of the individual, won
their title to the rich lands which they entered by hard fighting
against the Indians, hotly challenged the right of the East to rule
them, demanded their own States, and would not be refused, spoke with
contempt of the old social order of ranks and classes in the lands
between the Alleghanies and the Atlantic, and proclaimed the ideal of
democracy for the vast country which they had entered. Not with the
mercurial facility of the French did they follow the river systems of
the Great Valley. Like the advance of the glacier they changed the face
of the country in their steady and inevitable progress, and they sought
the sea. It was not long before the Spaniards at the mouth of the river
realized the meaning of the new forces that had entered the Valley.

In 1794 the Governor of Louisiana wrote:

     This vast and restless population progressively driving the
     Indian tribes before them and upon us, seek to possess
     themselves of all the extensive regions which the Indians
     occupy between the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, the Gulf of
     Mexico, and the Appalachian Mountains, thus becoming our
     neighbors, at the same time that they menacingly ask for the
     free navigation of the Mississippi. If they achieve their
     object, their ambitions would not be confined to this side of
     the Mississippi. Their writings, public papers, and speeches,
     all turn on this point, the free navigation of the Gulf by the
     rivers . . . which empty into it, the rich fur trade of the
     Missouri, and in time the possession of the rich mines of the
     interior provinces of the very Kingdom of Mexico. Their mode
     of growth and their policy are as formidable for Spain as
     their armies. . . . Their roving spirit and the readiness with
     which they procure sustenance and shelter facilitate rapid
     settlement. A rifle and a little corn meal in a bag are
     enough for an American wandering alone in the woods for a
     month. . . . With logs crossed upon one another he makes a
     house, and even an impregnable fort against the Indians. . . .
     Cold does not terrify him, and when a family wearies of one
     place, it moves to another and settles there with the same
     ease.

     If such men come to occupy the banks of the Mississippi and
     Missouri, or secure their navigation, doubtless nothing will
     prevent them from crossing and penetrating into our provinces
     on the other side, which, being to a great extent unoccupied,
     can oppose no resistance. . . . In my opinion, a general
     revolution in America threatens Spain unless the remedy be
     applied promptly.

In fact, the pioneers who had occupied the uplands of the South, the
backwoods stock with its Scotch-Irish leaders which had formed on the
eastern edge of the Alleghanies, separate and distinct from the type of
tidewater and New England, had found in the Mississippi Valley a new
field for expansion under conditions of free land and unrestraint. These
conditions gave it promise of ample time to work out its own social
type. But, first of all, these men who were occupying the Western Waters
must find an outlet for their surplus products, if they were to become
a powerful people. While the Alleghanies placed a veto toward the east,
the Mississippi opened a broad highway to the south. Its swift current
took their flat boats in its strong arms to bear them to the sea, but
across the outlet of the great river Spain drew the barrier of her
colonial monopoly and denied them exit.

The significance of the Mississippi Valley in American history at the
opening of the new republic, therefore, lay in the fact that, beyond the
area of the social and political control of the thirteen colonies, there
had arisen a new and aggressive society which imperiously put the
questions of the public lands, internal communication, local
self-government, defense, and aggressive expansion, before the
legislators of the old colonial régime. The men of the Mississippi
Valley compelled the men of the East to think in American terms instead
of European. They dragged a reluctant nation on in a new course.

From the Revolution to the end of the War of 1812 Europe regarded the
destiny of the Mississippi Valley as undetermined. Spain desired to
maintain her hold by means of the control given through the possession
of the mouth of the river and the Gulf, by her influence upon the Indian
tribes, and by intrigues with the settlers. Her object was primarily to
safeguard the Spanish American monopoly which had made her a great
nation in the world. Instinctively she seemed to surmise that out of
this Valley were the issues of her future; here was the lever which
might break successively, from her empire fragments about the
Gulf--Louisiana, Florida and Texas, Cuba and Porto Rico--the Southwest
and Pacific coast, and even the Philippines and the Isthmian Canal,
while the American republic, building itself on the resources of the
Valley, should become paramount over the independent republics into
which her empire was to disintegrate.

France, seeking to regain her former colonial power, would use the
Mississippi Valley as a means of provisioning her West Indian islands;
of dominating Spanish America, and of subordinating to her purposes the
feeble United States, which her policy assigned to the lands between the
Atlantic and the Alleghanies. The ancient Bourbon monarchy, the
revolutionary republic, and the Napoleonic empire--all contemplated the
acquisition of the whole Valley of the Mississippi from the Alleghanies
to the Rocky Mountains.[186:1]

England holding the Great Lakes, dominating the northern Indian
populations and threatening the Gulf and the mouth of the Mississippi by
her fleet, watched during the Revolution, the Confederation, and the
early republic for the breaking of the fragile bonds of the thirteen
States, ready to extend her protection over the settlers in the
Mississippi Valley.

Alarmed by the prospect of England's taking Louisiana and Florida from
Spain, Jefferson wrote in 1790: "Embraced from St. Croix to St. Mary's
on one side by their possessions, on the other by their fleet, we need
not hesitate to say that they would soon find means to unite to them all
the territory covered by the ramifications of the Mississippi." And
that, he thought, must result in "bloody and eternal war or indissoluble
confederacy" with England.

None of these nations deemed it impossible that American settlers in the
Mississippi Valley might be won to accept another flag than that of the
United States. Gardoqui had the effrontery in 1787 to suggest to Madison
that the Kentuckians would make good Spanish subjects. France enlisted
the support of frontiersmen led by George Rogers Clark for her attempted
conquest of Louisiana in 1793. England tried to win support among the
western settlers. Indeed, when we recall that George Rogers Clark
accepted a commission as Major General from France in 1793 and again in
1798; that Wilkinson, afterwards commander-in-chief of the American
army, secretly asked Spanish citizenship and promised renunciation of
his American allegiance; that Governor Sevier of Franklin, afterwards
Senator from Tennessee and its first Governor as a State, Robertson the
founder of Cumberland, and Blount, Governor of the Southwest Territory
and afterwards Senator from Tennessee, were all willing to accept the
rule of another nation sooner than see the navigation of the Mississippi
yielded by the American government we can easily believe that it lay
within the realm of possibility that another allegiance might have been
accepted by the frontiersmen themselves. We may well trust Rufus Putnam,
whose federalism and devotion to his country had been proved and whose
work in founding New England's settlement at Marietta is well known,
when he wrote in 1790 in answer to Fisher Ames's question whether the
Mississippi Valley could be retained in the Union: "Should Congress give
up her claim to the navigation of the Mississippi or cede it to the
Spaniards, I believe the people in the Western quarter would separate
themselves from the United States very soon. Such a measure, I have no
doubt, would excite so much rage and dissatisfaction that the people
would sooner put themselves under the despotic government of Spain than
remain the indented servants of Congress." He added that if Congress did
not afford due protection also to these western settlers they might turn
to England or Spain.[187:1]

Prior to the railroad the Mississippi Valley was potentially the basis
for an independent empire, in spite of the fact that its population
would inevitably be drawn from the Eastern States. Its natural outlet
was down the current to the Gulf. New Orleans controlled the Valley, in
the words of Wilkinson, "as the key the lock, or the citadel the
outworks." So long as the Mississippi Valley was menaced, or in part
controlled, by rival European states, just so long must the United
States be a part of the state system of Europe, involved in its
fortunes. And particularly was this the case in view of the fact that
until the Union made internal commerce, based upon the Mississippi
Valley, its dominant economic interest, the merchants and sailors of the
northeastern States and the staple producers of the southern sea-board
were a commercial appanage of Europe. The significance of the
Mississippi Valley was clearly seen by Jefferson. Writing to Livingston
in 1802 he declared:

     There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which
     is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans, through
     which the produce of three-eights of our territory must pass
     to market, and from its fertility it will ere long yield more
     than half of our whole produce and contain more than half of
     our inhabitants. . . . The day that France takes possession of
     New Orleans fixes the sentence which is to restrain her within
     her low-water mark. It seals the union of two nations who in
     conjunction can maintain exclusive possession of the ocean.
     From that moment we must marry ourselves to the British fleet
     and nation . . . holding the two continents of America in
     sequestration for the common purposes of the united British
     and American nations.[188:1]

The acquisition of Louisiana was a recognition of the essential unity of
the Mississippi Valley. The French engineer Collot reported to his
government after an investigation in 1796:

     All the positions on the left [east] bank of the Mississippi
     . . . without the alliance of the Western states are far from
     covering Louisiana. . . . When two nations possess, one the
     coasts and the other the plains, the former must inevitably
     embark or submit. From thence I conclude that the Western
     States of the North American republic must unite themselves
     with Louisiana and form in the future one single compact
     nation; or else that colony to whatever power it shall belong
     will be conquered or devoured.

The effect of bringing political unity to the Mississippi Valley by the
Louisiana Purchase was profound. It was the decisive step of the United
States on an independent career as a world power, free from entangling
foreign alliances. The victories of Harrison in the Northwest, in the
War of 1812 that followed, ensured our expansion in the northern half of
the Valley. Jackson's triumphal march to the Gulf and his defense of New
Orleans in the same war won the basis for that Cotton Kingdom, so
important in the economic life of the nation and so pregnant with the
issue of slavery.[189:1] The acquisition of Florida, Texas, and the Far
West followed naturally. Not only was the nation set on an independent
path in foreign relations; its political system was revolutionized, for
the Mississippi Valley now opened the way for adding State after State,
swamping the New England section and its Federalism. The doctrine of
strict construction had received a fatal blow at the hands of its own
prophet. The old conception of historic sovereign States, makers of a
federation, was shattered by this vast addition of raw material for an
indefinite number of parallelograms called States, nursed through a
Territorial period by the Federal government, admitted under conditions,
and animated by national rather than by State patriotism.

The area of the nation had been so enlarged and the development of the
internal resources so promoted, by the acquisition of the whole course
of the mighty river, its tributaries and its outlet, that the Atlantic
coast soon turned its economic energies from the sea to the interior.
Cities and sections began to struggle for ascendancy over its industrial
life. A real national activity, a genuine American culture began. The
vast spaces, the huge natural resources, of the Valley demanded
exploitation and population. Later there came the tide of foreign
immigration which has risen so steadily that it has made a composite
American people whose amalgamation is destined to produce a new national
stock.

But without attempting to exhaust, or even to indicate, all the effects
of the Louisiana Purchase, I wish next to ask your attention to the
significance of the Mississippi Valley in the promotion of democracy and
the transfer of the political center of gravity in the nation. The
Mississippi Valley has been the especial home of democracy. Born of free
land and the pioneer spirit, nurtured in the ideas of the Revolution and
finding free play for these ideas in the freedom of the wilderness,
democracy showed itself in the earliest utterances of the men of the
Western Waters and it has persisted there. The demand for local
self-government, which was insistent on the frontier, and the
endorsement given by the Alleghanies to these demands led to the
creation of a system of independent Western governments and to the
Ordinance of 1787, an original contribution to colonial policy. This was
framed in the period when any rigorous subjection of the West to Eastern
rule would have endangered the ties that bound them to the Union
itself. In the Constitutional Convention prominent Eastern statesmen
expressed their fears of the Western democracy and would have checked
its ability to out-vote the regions of property by limiting its
political power, so that it should never equal that of the Atlantic
coast. But more liberal counsels prevailed. In the first debates upon
the public lands, also, it was clearly stated that the social system of
the nation was involved quite as much as the question of revenue.
Eastern fears that cheap lands in abundance would depopulate the
Atlantic States and check their industrial growth by a scarcity of labor
supply were met by the answer of one of the representatives in 1796:

     I question if any man would be hardy enough to point out a
     class of citizens by name that ought to be the servants of the
     community; yet unless that is done to what class of the People
     could you direct such a law? But if you passed such an act
     [limiting the area offered for sale in the Mississippi
     Valley], it would be tantamount to saying that there is some
     class which must remain here, and by law be obliged to serve
     the others for such wages as they please to give.

Gallatin showed his comprehension of the basis of the prosperous
American democracy in the same debate when he said:

     If the cause of the happiness of this country was examined
     into, it would be found to arise as much from the great plenty
     of land in proportion to the inhabitants, which their citizens
     enjoyed as from the wisdom of their political institutions.

Out of this frontier democratic society where the freedom and abundance
of land in the great Valley opened a refuge to the oppressed in all
regions, came the Jacksonian democracy which governed the nation after
the downfall of the party of John Quincy Adams. Its center rested in
Tennessee, the region from which so large a portion of the Mississippi
Valley was settled by descendants of the men of the Upland South. The
rule of the Mississippi Valley is seen when we recall the place that
Tennessee, Kentucky, and Missouri held in both parties. Besides Jackson,
Clay, Harrison and Polk, we count such presidential candidates as Hugh
White and John Bell, Vice President R. M. Johnson, Grundy, the chairman
of the finance committee, and Benton, the champion of western
radicalism.

It was in this same period, and largely by reason of the drainage of
population to the West, and the stir in the air raised by the Western
winds of Jacksonian democracy, that most of the older States
reconstructed their constitutions on a more democratic basis. From the
Mississippi Valley where there were liberal suffrage provisions (based
on population alone instead of property and population), disregard of
vested interests, and insistence on the rights of man, came the
inspiration for this era of change in the franchise and apportionment,
of reform of laws for imprisonment for debt, of general attacks upon
monopoly and privilege. "It is now plain," wrote Jackson in 1837, "that
the war is to be carried on by the monied aristocracy of the few against
the democracy of numbers; the [prosperous] to make the honest laborers
hewers of wood and drawers of water . . . through the credit and paper
system."

By this time the Mississippi Valley had grown in population and
political power so that it ranked with the older sections. The next
indication of its significance in American history which I shall
mention is its position in shaping the economic and political course of
the nation between the close of the War of 1812 and the slavery
struggle. In 1790 the Mississippi Valley had a population of about a
hundred thousand, or one-fortieth of that of the United States as a
whole; by 1810 it had over a million, or one-seventh; by 1830 it had
three and two-thirds millions, or over one-fourth; by 1840 over six
millions, more than one-third. While the Atlantic coast increased only a
million and a half souls between 1830 and 1840, the Mississippi Valley
gained nearly three millions. Ohio (virgin wilderness in 1790) was, half
a century later, nearly as populous as Pennsylvania and twice as
populous as Massachusetts. While Virginia, North Carolina, and South
Carolina were gaining 60,000 souls between 1830 and 1840, Illinois
gained 318,000. Indeed, the growth of this State alone excelled that of
the entire South Atlantic States.

These figures show the significance of the Mississippi Valley in its
pressure upon the older section by the competition of its cheap lands,
its abundant harvests, and its drainage of the labor supply. All of
these things meant an upward lift to the Eastern wage earner. But they
meant also an increase of political power in the Valley. Before the War
of 1812 the Mississippi Valley had six senators, New England ten, the
Middle States ten, and the South eight. By 1840 the Mississippi Valley
had twenty-two senators, double those of the Middle States and New
England combined, and nearly three times as many as the Old South; while
in the House of Representatives the Mississippi Valley outweighed any
one of the old sections. In 1810 it had less than one-third the power of
New England and the South together in the House. In 1840 it outweighed
them both combined and because of its special circumstances it held the
balance of power.

While the Mississippi Valley thus rose to superior political power as
compared with any of the old sections, its economic development made it
the inciting factor in the industrial life of the nation. After the War
of 1812 the steamboat revolutionized the transportation facilities of
the Mississippi Valley. In each economic area a surplus formed,
demanding an outlet and demanding returns in manufactures. The spread of
cotton into the lower Mississippi Valley and the Gulf Plains had a
double significance. This transfer of the center of cotton production
away from the Atlantic South not only brought increasing hardship and
increasing unrest to the East as the competition of the virgin soils
depressed Atlantic land values and made Eastern labor increasingly dear,
but the price of cotton fell also in due proportion to the increase in
production by the Mississippi Valley. While the transfer of economic
power from the Seaboard South to the Cotton Kingdom of the lower
Mississippi Valley was in progress, the upper Mississippi Valley was
leaping forward, partly under the stimulus of a market for its surplus
in the plantations of the South, where almost exclusive cultivation of
the great staples resulted in a lack of foodstuffs and livestock.

At the same time the great river and its affluents became the highway of
a commerce that reached to the West Indies, the Atlantic Coast, Europe,
and South America. The Mississippi Valley was an industrial entity, from
Pittsburgh and Santa Fé to New Orleans. It became the most important
influence in American politics and industry. Washington had declared in
1784 that it was the part of wisdom for Virginia to bind the West to the
East by ties of interest through internal improvement thereby taking
advantage of the extensive and valuable trade of a rising empire.

This realization of the fact that an economic empire was growing up
beyond the mountains stimulated rival cities, New York, Philadelphia,
and Baltimore, to engage in a struggle to supply the West with goods
and receive its products. This resulted in an attempt to break down the
barrier of the Alleghanies by internal improvements. The movement became
especially active after the War of 1812, when New York carried out De
Witt Clinton's vast conception of making by the Erie Canal a greater
Hudson which should drain to the port of New York all the basin of the
Great Lakes, and by means of other canals even divert the traffic from
the tributaries of the Mississippi. New York City's commercial
ascendancy dates from this connection with interior New York and the
Mississippi Valley. A writer in Hunt's _Merchants' Magazine_ in 1869
makes the significance of this clearer by these words:

     There was a period in the history of the seaboard cities when
     there was no West; and when the Alleghany Mountains formed the
     frontier of settlement and agricultural production. During
     that epoch the seaboard cities, North and South, grew in
     proportion to the extent and fertility of the country in their
     rear; and as Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia
     were more productive in staples valuable to commerce than the
     colonies north of them, the cities of Baltimore, Norfolk,
     Charleston, and Savannah enjoyed a greater trade and
     experienced a larger growth than those on the northern
     seaboard.

He, then, classifies the periods of city development into three: (1) the
provincial, limited to the Atlantic seaboard; (2) that of canal and
turnpike connected with the Mississippi Valley; and (3) that of railroad
connection. Thus he was able to show how Norfolk, for example, was shut
off from the enriching currents of interior trade and was outstripped
by New York. The efforts of Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and
Savannah to divert the trade of the Mississippi system to their own
ports on the Atlantic, and the rise or fall of these cities in
proportion as they succeeded are a sufficient indication of the meaning
of the Mississippi Valley in American industrial life. What colonial
empire has been for London that the Mississippi Valley is to the
seaboard cities of the United States, awakening visions of industrial
empire, systematic control of vast spaces, producing the American type
of the captain of industry.

It was not alone city rivalry that converged upon the Mississippi Valley
and sought its alliance. Sectional rivalry likewise saw that the balance
of power possessed by the interior furnished an opportunity for
combinations. This was a fundamental feature of Calhoun's policy when he
urged the seaboard South to complete a railroad system to tap the
Northwest. As Washington had hoped to make western trade seek its outlet
in Virginia and build up the industrial power of the Old Dominion by
enriching intercourse with the Mississippi Valley, as Monroe wished to
bind the West to Virginia's political interests; and as De Witt Clinton
wished to attach it to New York, so Calhoun and Hayne would make
"Georgia and Carolina the commercial center of the Union, and the two
most powerful and influential members of the confederacy," by draining
the Mississippi Valley to their ports. "I believe," said Calhoun, "that
the success of a connection of the West is of the last importance to us
politically and commercially. . . . I do verily believe that Charleston
has more advantages in her position for the Western trade, than any city
on the Atlantic, but to develop them we ought to look to the Tennessee
instead of the Ohio, and much farther to the West than Cincinnati or
Lexington."

This was the secret of Calhoun's advocacy in 1836 and 1837 both of the
distribution of the surplus revenue and of the cession of the public
lands to the States in which they lay, as an inducement to the West to
ally itself with Southern policies; and it is the key to the readiness
of Calhoun, even after he lost his nationalism, to promote internal
improvements which would foster the southward current of trade on the
Mississippi.

Without going into details, I may simply call your attention to the fact
that Clay's whole system of internal improvements and tariff was based
upon the place of the Mississippi Valley in American life. It was the
upper part of the Valley, and especially the Ohio Valley, that furnished
the votes which carried the tariffs of 1816, 1824, and 1828. Its
interests profoundly influenced the details of those tariffs and its
need of internal improvement constituted a basis for sectional
bargaining in all the constructive legislation after the War of 1812.
New England, the Middle Region, and the South each sought alliance with
the growing section beyond the mountains. American legislation bears the
enduring evidence of these alliances. Even the National Bank found in
this Valley the main sphere of its business. The nation had turned its
energies to internal exploitation, and sections contended for the
economic and political power derived from connection with the interior.

But already the Mississippi Valley was beginning to stratify, both
socially and geographically. As the railroads pushed across the
mountains, the tide of New England and New York colonists and German
immigrants sought the basin of the Great Lakes and the Upper
Mississippi. A distinct zone, industrially and socially connected with
New England, was forming. The railroad reinforced the Erie Canal and, as
De Bow put it, turned back the tide of the Father of Waters so that its
outlet was in New York instead of New Orleans for a large part of the
Valley. Below the Northern zone was the border zone of the Upland
South, the region of compromise, including both banks of the Ohio and
the Missouri and reaching down to the hills on the north of the Gulf
Plains. The Cotton Kingdom based on slavery found its center in the
fertile soils along the Lower Mississippi and the black prairies of
Georgia and Alabama, and was settled largely by planters from the old
cotton lands of the Atlantic States. The Mississippi Valley had
rejuvenated slavery, had given it an aggressive tone characteristic of
Western life.

Thus the Valley found itself in the midst of the slavery struggle at the
very time when its own society had lost homogeneity. Let us allow two
leaders, one of the South and one of the North, to describe the
situation; and, first, let the South speak. Said Hammond, of South
Carolina,[198:1] in a speech in the Senate on March 4, 1858:

     I think it not improper that I should attempt to bring the
     North and South face to face, and see what resources each of
     us might have in the contingency of separate organizations.

     Through the heart of our country runs the great Mississippi,
     the father of waters, into whose bosom are poured thirty-six
     thousand miles of tributary streams; and beyond we have the
     desert prairie wastes to protect us in our rear. Can you hem
     in such a territory as that? You talk of putting up a wall of
     fire around eight hundred and fifty thousand miles so
     situated! How absurd.

     But in this territory lies the great valley of the
     Mississippi, now the real and soon to be the acknowledged seat
     of the empire of the world. The sway of that valley will be as
     great as ever the Nile knew in the earlier ages of mankind.
     We own the most of it. The most valuable part of it belongs to
     us now; and although those who have settled above us are now
     opposed to us, another generation will tell a different tale.
     They are ours by all the laws of nature; slave labor will go
     to every foot of this great valley where it will be found
     profitable to use it, and some of those who may not use it are
     soon to be united with us by such ties as will make us one and
     inseparable. The iron horse will soon be clattering over the
     sunny plains of the South to bear the products of its upper
     tributaries to our Atlantic ports, as it now does through the
     ice-bound North. There is the great Mississippi, bond of union
     made by nature herself. She will maintain it forever.

As the Seaboard South had transferred the mantle of leadership to
Tennessee and then to the Cotton Kingdom of the Lower Mississippi, so
New England and New York resigned their command to the northern half of
the Mississippi Valley and the basin of the Great Lakes. Seward, the
old-time leader of the Eastern Whigs who had just lost the Republican
nomination for the presidency to Lincoln, may rightfully speak for the
Northeast. In the fall of 1860, addressing an audience at Madison,
Wisconsin, he declared:[199:1]

     The empire established at Washington is of less than a hundred
     years' formation. It was the empire of thirteen Atlantic
     states. Still, practically, the mission of that empire is
     fulfilled. The power that directs it is ready to pass away
     from those thirteen states, and although held and exercised
     under the same constitution and national form of government,
     yet it is now in the very act of being transferred from the
     thirteen states east of the Alleghany mountains and on the
     coast of the Atlantic ocean, to the twenty states that lie
     west of the Alleghanies, and stretch away from their base to
     the base of the Rocky mountains on the West, and you are the
     heirs to it. When the next census shall reveal your power, you
     will be found to be the masters of the United States of
     America, and through them the dominating political power of
     the world.

Appealing to the Northwest on the slavery issue Seward declared:

     The whole responsibility rests henceforth directly or
     indirectly on the people of the Northwest. . . . There can be
     no virtue in commercial and manufacturing communities to
     maintain a democracy, when the democracy themselves do not
     want a democracy. There is no virtue in Pearl street, in Wall
     street, in Court street, in Chestnut street, in any other
     street of great commercial cities, that can save the great
     democratic government of ours, when you cease to uphold it
     with your intelligent votes, your strong and mighty hands. You
     must, therefore, lead us as we heretofore reserved and
     prepared the way for you. We resign to you the banner of human
     rights and human liberty, on this continent, and we bid you be
     firm, bold and onward and then you may hope that we will be
     able to follow you.

When we survey the course of the slavery struggle in the United States
it is clear that the form the question took was due to the Mississippi
Valley. The Ordinance of 1787, the Missouri Compromise, the Texas
question, the Free Soil agitation, the Compromise of 1850, the
Kansas-Nebraska bill, the Dred Scott decision, "bleeding Kansas"--these
are all Mississippi Valley questions, and the mere enumeration makes it
plain that it was the Mississippi Valley as an area for expansion which
gave the slavery issue its significance in American history. But for
this field of expansion, slavery might have fulfilled the expectation of
the fathers and gradually died away.

Of the significance of the Mississippi Valley in the Civil War, it is
unnecessary that I should speak. Illinois gave to the North its
President; Mississippi gave to the South its President. Lincoln and
Davis were both born in Kentucky. Grant and Sherman, the northern
generals, came from the Mississippi Valley; and both of them believed
that when Vicksburg fell the cause of the South was lost, and so it must
have been if the Confederacy had been unable, after victories in the
East, to regain the Father of Waters; for, as General Sherman said:
"Whatever power holds that river can govern this continent."

With the close of the war political power passed for many years to the
northern half of the Mississippi Valley, as the names of Grant, Hayes,
Garfield, Harrison, and McKinley indicate. The population of the Valley
grew from about fifteen millions in 1860 to over forty millions in
1900--over half the total population of the United States. The
significance of its industrial growth is not likely to be overestimated
or overlooked. On its northern border, from near Minnesota's boundary
line, through the Great Lakes to Pittsburgh, on its eastern edge, runs a
huge movement of iron from mine to factory. This industry is basal in
American life, and it has revolutionized the industry of the world. The
United States produces pig iron and steel in amount equal to her two
greatest competitors combined, and the iron ores for this product are
chiefly in the Mississippi Valley. It is the chief producer of coal,
thereby enabling the United States almost to equal the combined
production of Germany and Great Britain; and great oil fields of the
nation are in its midst. Its huge crops of wheat and corn and its cattle
are the main resources for the United States and are drawn upon by
Europe. Its cotton furnishes two-thirds of the world's factory supply.
Its railroad system constitutes the greatest transportation network in
the world. Again it is seeking industrial consolidation by demanding
improvement of its vast water system as a unit. If this design, favored
by Roosevelt, shall at some time be accomplished, again the bulk of the
commerce of the Valley may flow along the old routes to New Orleans; and
to Galveston by the development of southern railroad outlets after the
building of the Panama Canal. For the development and exploitation of
these and of the transportation and trade interests of the Middle West,
Eastern capital has been consolidated into huge corporations, trusts,
and combinations. With the influx of capital, and the rise of cities and
manufactures, portions of the Mississippi Valley have become assimilated
with the East. With the end of the era of free lands the basis of its
democratic society is passing away.

The final topic on which I shall briefly comment in this discussion of
the significance of the Mississippi Valley in American history is a
corollary of this condition. Has the Mississippi Valley a permanent
contribution to make to American society, or is it to be adjusted into a
type characteristically Eastern and European? In other words, has the
United States itself an original contribution to make to the history of
society? This is what it comes to. The most significant fact in the
Mississippi Valley is its ideals. Here has been developed, not by
revolutionary theory, but by growth among free opportunities, the
conception of a vast democracy made up of mobile ascending individuals,
conscious of their power and their responsibilities. Can these ideals of
individualism and democracy be reconciled and applied to the twentieth
century type of civilization?

Other nations have been rich and prosperous and powerful, art-loving and
empire-building. No other nation on a vast scale has been controlled by
a self-conscious, self-restrained democracy in the interests of progress
and freedom, industrial as well as political. It is in the vast and
level spaces of the Mississippi Valley, if anywhere, that the forces of
social transformation and the modification of its democratic ideals may
be arrested.

Beginning with competitive individualism, as well as with belief in
equality, the farmers of the Mississippi Valley gradually learned that
unrestrained competition and combination meant the triumph of the
strongest, the seizure in the interest of a dominant class of the
strategic points of the nation's life. They learned that between the
ideal of individualism, unrestrained by society, and the ideal of
democracy, was an innate conflict; that their very ambitions and
forcefulness had endangered their democracy. The significance of the
Mississippi Valley in American history has lain partly in the fact that
it was a region of revolt. Here have arisen varied, sometimes
ill-considered, but always devoted, movements for ameliorating the lot
of the common man in the interests of democracy. Out of the Mississippi
Valley have come successive and related tidal waves of popular demand
for real or imagined legislative safeguards to their rights and their
social ideals. The Granger movement, the Greenback movement, the
Populist movement, Bryan Democracy, and Roosevelt Republicanism all
found their greatest strength in the Mississippi Valley. They were
Mississippi Valley ideals in action. Its people were learning by
experiment and experience how to grapple with the fundamental problem of
creating a just social order that shall sustain the free, progressive,
individual in a real democracy. The Mississippi Valley is asking, "What
shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his own soul?"

The Mississippi Valley has furnished a new social order to America. Its
universities have set new types of institutions for social service and
for the elevation of the plain people. Its historians should recount its
old ambitions, and inventory its ideals, as well as its resources, for
the information of the present age, to the end that building on its
past, the mighty Valley may have a significance in the life of the
nation even more profound than any which I have recounted.


FOOTNOTES:

[177:1] Proceedings of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association for
1909-10. Reprinted with the permission of the Association.

[177:2] _Harper's Magazine_, February, 1900, p. 413.

[178:1] Roosevelt, "The Northwest in the Nation," in "Proceedings of the
Wisconsin Historical Society," Fortieth Annual Meeting, p. 92.

[182:1] "Franklin's Works," iv, p. 141.

[186:1] [See the author's paper in _American Historical Review_, x, p.
245.]

[187:1] Cutler's "Cutler," ii, p. 372.

[188:1] "Jefferson's Works," iv, p. 431.

[189:1] [See on the Cotton Kingdom, U. B. Phillips, "History of
Slavery"; W. G. Brown, "Lower South"; W. E. Dodd, "Expansion and
Conflict"; F. J. Turner, "New West."]

[198:1] "Congressional Globe," 35th Congress, First Session, Appendix,
p. 70.

[199:1] "Seward's Works" (Boston, 1884), iv, p. 319.




VII

THE PROBLEM OF THE WEST[205:1]


The problem of the West is nothing less than the problem of American
development. A glance at the map of the United States reveals the truth.
To write of a "Western sectionalism," bounded on the east by the
Alleghanies, is, in itself, to proclaim the writer a provincial. What is
the West? What has it been in American life? To have the answers to
these questions, is to understand the most significant features of the
United States of to-day.

The West, at bottom, is a form of society, rather than an area. It is
the term applied to the region whose social conditions result from the
application of older institutions and ideas to the transforming
influences of free land. By this application, a new environment is
suddenly entered, freedom of opportunity is opened, the cake of custom
is broken, and new activities, new lines of growth, new institutions and
new ideals, are brought into existence. The wilderness disappears, the
"West" proper passes on to a new frontier, and in the former area, a new
society has emerged from its contact with the backwoods. Gradually this
society loses its primitive conditions, and assimilates itself to the
type of the older social conditions of the East; but it bears within it
enduring and distinguishing survivals of its frontier experience. Decade
after decade, West after West, this rebirth of American society has gone
on, has left its traces behind it, and has reacted on the East. The
history of our political institutions, our democracy, is not a history
of imitation, of simple borrowing; it is a history of the evolution and
adaptation of organs in response to changed environment, a history of
the origin of new political species. In this sense, therefore, the West
has been a constructive force of the highest significance in our life.
To use the words of that acute and widely informed observer, Mr. Bryce,
"The West is the most American part of America. . . . What Europe is to
Asia, what America is to England, that the Western States and
Territories are to the Atlantic States."

       *       *       *       *       *

The West, as a phase of social organization, began with the Atlantic
coast, and passed across the continent. But the colonial tide-water area
was in close touch with the Old World, and soon lost its Western
aspects. In the middle of the eighteenth century, the newer social
conditions appeared along the upper waters of the tributaries of the
Atlantic. Here it was that the West took on its distinguishing features,
and transmitted frontier traits and ideals to this area in later days.
On the coast, were the fishermen and skippers, the merchants and
planters, with eyes turned toward Europe. Beyond the falls of the rivers
were the pioneer farmers, largely of non-English stock, Scotch-Irish and
German. They constituted a distinct people, and may be regarded as an
expansion of the social and economic life of the middle region into the
back country of the South. These frontiersmen were the ancestors of
Boone, Andrew Jackson, Calhoun, Clay, and Lincoln. Washington and
Jefferson were profoundly affected by these frontier conditions. The
forest clearings have been the seed plots of American character.

In the Revolutionary days, the settlers crossed the Alleghanies and put
a barrier between them and the coast. They became, to use their phrases,
"the men of the Western waters," the heirs of the "Western world." In
this era, the backwoodsmen, all along the western slopes of the
mountains, with a keen sense of the difference between them and the
dwellers on the coast, demanded organization into independent States of
the Union. Self-government was their ideal. Said one of their rude, but
energetic petitions for statehood: "Some of our fellow-citizens may
think we are not able to conduct our affairs and consult our interests;
but if our society is rude, much wisdom is not necessary to supply our
wants, and a fool can sometimes put on his clothes better than a wise
man can do it for him." This forest philosophy is the philosophy of
American democracy. But the men of the coast were not ready to admit its
implications. They apportioned the State legislatures so that the
property-holding minority of the tide-water lands were able to outvote
the more populous back countries. A similar system was proposed by
Federalists in the constitutional convention of 1787. Gouverneur Morris,
arguing in favor of basing representation on property as well as
numbers, declared that "he looked forward, also, to that range of new
States which would soon be formed in the West. He thought the rule of
representation ought to be so fixed, as to secure to the Atlantic States
a prevalence in the national councils." "The new States," said he, "will
know less of the public interest than these; will have an interest in
many respects different; in particular will be little scrupulous of
involving the community in wars, the burdens and operations of which
would fall chiefly on the maritime States. Provision ought, therefore,
to be made to prevent the maritime States from being hereafter outvoted
by them." He added that the Western country "would not be able to
furnish men equally enlightened to share in the administration of our
common interests. The busy haunts of men, not the remote wilderness, was
the proper school of political talents. If the Western people get power
into their hands, they will ruin the Atlantic interest. The back
members are always most averse to the best measures." Add to these
utterances of Gouverneur Morris the impassioned protest of Josiah
Quincy, of Massachusetts, in the debates in the House of
Representatives, on the admission of Louisiana. Referring to the
discussion over the slave votes and the West in the constitutional
convention, he declared, "Suppose, then, that it had been distinctly
foreseen that, in addition to the effect of this weight, the whole
population of a world beyond the Mississippi was to be brought into this
and the other branch of the legislature, to form our laws, control our
rights, and decide our destiny. Sir, can it be pretended that the
patriots of that day would for one moment have listened to it? . . .
They had not taken degrees at the hospital of idiocy. . . . Why, sir, I
have already heard of six States, and some say there will be, at no
great distant time, more. I have also heard that the mouth of the Ohio
will be far to the east of the center of the contemplated empire. . . .
You have no authority to throw the rights and property of this people
into 'hotch-pot' with the wild men on the Missouri, nor with the mixed,
though more respectable, race of Anglo-Hispano-Gallo-Americans who bask
on the sands in the mouth of the Mississippi. . . . Do you suppose the
people of the Northern and Atlantic States will, or ought to, look on
with patience and see Representatives and Senators from the Red River
and Missouri, pouring themselves upon this and the other floor, managing
the concerns of a seaboard fifteen hundred miles, at least, from their
residence; and having a preponderancy in councils into which,
constitutionally, they could never have been admitted?"

Like an echo from the fears expressed by the East at the close of the
eighteenth century come the words of an eminent Eastern man of
letters[208:1] at the end of the nineteenth century, in warning against
the West: "Materialized in their temper; with few ideals of an ennobling
sort; little instructed in the lessons of history; safe from exposure to
the direct calamities and physical horrors of war; with undeveloped
imaginations and sympathies--they form a community unfortunate and
dangerous from the possession of power without a due sense of its
corresponding responsibilities; a community in which the passion for war
may easily be excited as the fancied means by which its greatness may be
convincingly exhibited, and its ambitions gratified. . . . Some chance
spark may fire the prairie."

Here, then, is the problem of the West, as it looked to New England
leaders of thought in the beginning and at the end of this century. From
the first, it was recognized that a new type was growing up beyond the
seaboard, and that the time would come when the destiny of the nation
would be in Western hands. The divergence of these societies became
clear in the struggle over the ratification of the federal constitution.
The up-country agricultural regions, the communities that were in debt
and desired paper money, with some Western exceptions, opposed the
instrument; but the areas of intercourse and property carried the day.

It is important to understand, therefore, what were some of the ideals
of this early Western democracy. How did the frontiersman differ from
the man of the coast?

The most obvious fact regarding the man of the Western Waters is that he
had placed himself under influences destructive to many of the gains of
civilization. Remote from the opportunity for systematic education,
substituting a log hut in the forest-clearing for the social comforts of
the town, he suffered hardships and privations, and reverted in many
ways to primitive conditions of life. Engaged in a struggle to subdue
the forest, working as an individual, and with little specie or
capital, his interests were with the debtor class. At each stage of its
advance, the West has favored an expansion of the currency. The pioneer
had boundless confidence in the future of his own community, and when
seasons of financial contraction and depression occurred, he, who had
staked his all on confidence in Western development, and had fought the
savage for his home, was inclined to reproach the conservative sections
and classes. To explain this antagonism requires more than denunciation
of dishonesty, ignorance, and boorishness as fundamental Western traits.
Legislation in the United States has had to deal with two distinct
social conditions. In some portions of the country there was, and is, an
aggregation of property, and vested rights are in the foreground: in
others, capital is lacking, more primitive conditions prevail, with
different economic and social ideals, and the contentment of the average
individual is placed in the foreground. That in the conflict between
these two ideals an even hand has always been held by the government
would be difficult to show.

The separation of the Western man from the seaboard, and his
environment, made him in a large degree free from European precedents
and forces. He looked at things independently and with small regard or
appreciation for the best Old World experience. He had no ideal of a
philosophical, eclectic nation, that should advance civilization by
"intercourse with foreigners and familiarity with their point of view,
and readiness to adopt whatever is best and most suitable in their
ideas, manners, and customs." His was rather the ideal of conserving and
developing what was original and valuable in this new country. The
entrance of old society upon free lands meant to him opportunity for a
new type of democracy and new popular ideals. The West was not
conservative: buoyant self-confidence and self-assertion were
distinguishing traits in its composition. It saw in its growth nothing
less than a new order of society and state. In this conception were
elements of evil and elements of good.

But the fundamental fact in regard to this new society was its relation
to land. Professor Boutmy has said of the United States, "Their one
primary and predominant object is to cultivate and settle these
prairies, forests, and vast waste lands. The striking and peculiar
characteristic of American society is that it is not so much a democracy
as a huge commercial company for the discovery, cultivation, and
capitalization of its enormous territory. The United States are
primarily a commercial society, and only secondarily a nation." Of
course, this involves a serious misapprehension. By the very fact of the
task here set forth, far-reaching ideals of the state and of society
have been evolved in the West, accompanied by loyalty to the nation
representative of these ideals. But M. Boutmy's description hits the
substantial fact, that the fundamental traits of the man of the interior
were due to the free lands of the West. These turned his attention to
the great task of subduing them to the purposes of civilization, and to
the task of advancing his economic and social status in the new
democracy which he was helping to create. Art, literature, refinement,
scientific administration, all had to give way to this Titanic labor.
Energy, incessant activity, became the lot of this new American. Says a
traveler of the time of Andrew Jackson, "America is like a vast
workshop, over the door of which is printed in blazing characters, 'No
admittance here, except on business.'" The West of our own day reminds
Mr. Bryce "of the crowd which Vathek found in the hall of Eblis, each
darting hither and thither with swift steps and unquiet mien, driven to
and fro by a fire in the heart. Time seems too short for what they have
to do, and the result always to come short of their desire."

But free lands and the consciousness of working out their social
destiny did more than turn the Westerner to material interests and
devote him to a restless existence. They promoted equality among the
Western settlers, and reacted as a check on the aristocratic influences
of the East. Where everybody could have a farm, almost for taking it,
economic equality easily resulted, and this involved political equality.
Not without a struggle would the Western man abandon this ideal, and it
goes far to explain the unrest in the remote West to-day.

Western democracy included individual liberty, as well as equality. The
frontiersman was impatient of restraints. He knew how to preserve order,
even in the absence of legal authority. If there were cattle thieves,
lynch law was sudden and effective: the regulators of the Carolinas were
the predecessors of the claims associations of Iowa and the vigilance
committees of California. But the individual was not ready to submit to
complex regulations. Population was sparse, there was no multitude of
jostling interests, as in older settlements, demanding an elaborate
system of personal restraints. Society became atomic. There was a
reproduction of the primitive idea of the personality of the law, a
crime was more an offense against the victim than a violation of the law
of the land. Substantial justice, secured in the most direct way, was
the ideal of the backwoodsman. He had little patience with finely drawn
distinctions or scruples of method. If the thing was one proper to be
done, then the most immediate, rough and ready, effective way was the
best way.

It followed from the lack of organized political life, from the atomic
conditions of the backwoods society, that the individual was exalted and
given free play. The West was another name for opportunity. Here were
mines to be seized, fertile valleys to be preëmpted, all the natural
resources open to the shrewdest and the boldest. The United States is
unique in the extent to which the individual has been given an open
field, unchecked by restraints of an old social order, or of scientific
administration of government. The self-made man was the Western man's
ideal, was the kind of man that all men might become. Out of his
wilderness experience, out of the freedom of his opportunities, he
fashioned a formula for social regeneration,--the freedom of the
individual to seek his own. He did not consider that his conditions were
exceptional and temporary.

Under such conditions, leadership easily develops,--a leadership based
on the possession of the qualities most serviceable to the young
society. In the history of Western settlement, we see each forted
village following its local hero. Clay, Jackson, Harrison, Lincoln, were
illustrations of this tendency in periods when the Western hero rose to
the dignity of national hero.

The Western man believed in the manifest destiny of his country. On his
border, and checking his advance, were the Indian, the Spaniard, and the
Englishman. He was indignant at Eastern indifference and lack of
sympathy with his view of his relations to these peoples; at the
short-sightedness of Eastern policy. The closure of the Mississippi by
Spain, and the proposal to exchange our claim of freedom of navigating
the river, in return for commercial advantages to New England, nearly
led to the withdrawal of the West from the Union. It was the Western
demands that brought about the purchase of Louisiana, and turned the
scale in favor of declaring the War of 1812. Militant qualities were
favored by the annual expansion of the settled area in the face of
hostile Indians and the stubborn wilderness. The West caught the vision
of the nation's continental destiny. Henry Adams, in his History of the
United States, makes the American of 1800 exclaim to the foreign
visitor, "Look at my wealth! See these solid mountains of salt and
iron, of lead, copper, silver, and gold. See these magnificent cities
scattered broadcast to the Pacific! See my cornfields rustling and
waving in the summer breeze from ocean to ocean, so far that the sun
itself is not high enough to mark where the distant mountains bound my
golden seas. Look at this continent of mine, fairest of created worlds,
as she lies turning up to the sun's never failing caress her broad and
exuberant breasts, overflowing with milk for her hundred million
children." And the foreigner saw only dreary deserts, tenanted by
sparse, ague-stricken pioneers and savages. The cities were log huts and
gambling dens. But the frontiersman's dream was prophetic. In spite of
his rude, gross nature, this early Western man was an idealist withal.
He dreamed dreams and beheld visions. He had faith in man, hope for
democracy, belief in America's destiny, unbounded confidence in his
ability to make his dreams come true. Said Harriet Martineau in 1834, "I
regard the American people as a great embryo poet, now moody, now wild,
but bringing out results of absolute good sense: restless and wayward in
action, but with deep peace at his heart; exulting that he has caught
the true aspect of things past, and the depth of futurity which lies
before him, wherein to create something so magnificent as the world has
scarcely begun to dream of. There is the strongest hope of a nation that
is capable of being possessed with an idea."

It is important to bear this idealism of the West in mind. The very
materialism that has been urged against the West was accompanied by
ideals of equality, of the exaltation of the common man, of national
expansion, that makes it a profound mistake to write of the West as
though it were engrossed in mere material ends. It has been, and is,
preëminently a region of ideals, mistaken or not.

It is obvious that these economic and social conditions were so
fundamental in Western life that they might well dominate whatever
accessions came to the West by immigration from the coast sections or
from Europe. Nevertheless, the West cannot be understood without bearing
in mind the fact that it has received the great streams from the North
and from the South, and that the Mississippi compelled these currents to
intermingle. Here it was that sectionalism first gave way under the
pressure of unification. Ultimately the conflicting ideas and
institutions of the old sections struggled for dominance in this area
under the influence of the forces that made for uniformity, but this is
merely another phase of the truth that the West must become unified,
that it could not rest in sectional groupings. For precisely this reason
the struggle occurred. In the period from the Revolution to the close of
the War of 1812, the democracy of the Southern and Middle States
contributed the main streams of settlement and social influence to the
West. Even in Ohio political power was soon lost by the New England
leaders. The democratic spirit of the Middle region left an indelible
impress on the West in this its formative period. After the War of 1812,
New England, its supremacy in the carrying trade of the world having
vanished, became a hive from which swarms of settlers went out to
western New York and the remoter regions.

These settlers spread New England ideals of education and character and
political institutions, and acted as a leaven of great significance in
the Northwest. But it would be a mistake to believe that an unmixed New
England influence took possession of the Northwest. These pioneers did
not come from the class that conserved the type of New England
civilization pure and undefiled. They represented a less contented, less
conservative influence. Moreover, by their sojourn in the Middle Region,
on their westward march, they underwent modification, and when the
farther West received them, they suffered a forest-change, indeed. The
Westernized New England man was no longer the representative of the
section that he left. He was less conservative, less provincial, more
adaptable and approachable, less rigorous in his Puritan ideals, less a
man of culture, more a man of action.

As might have been expected, therefore, the Western men, in the "era of
good feeling," had much homogeneity throughout the Mississippi Valley,
and began to stand as a new national type. Under the lead of Henry Clay
they invoked the national government to break down the mountain barrier
by internal improvements, and thus to give their crops an outlet to the
coast. Under him they appealed to the national government for a
protective tariff to create a home market. A group of frontier States
entered the Union with democratic provisions respecting the suffrage,
and with devotion to the nation that had given them their lands, built
their roads and canals, regulated their territorial life, and made them
equals in the sisterhood of States. At last these Western forces of
aggressive nationalism and democracy took possession of the government
in the person of the man who best embodied them, Andrew Jackson. This
new democracy that captured the country and destroyed the ideals of
statesmanship came from no theorist's dreams of the German forest. It
came, stark and strong and full of life, from the American forest. But
the triumph of this Western democracy revealed also the fact that it
could rally to its aid the laboring classes of the coast, then just
beginning to acquire self-consciousness and organization.

The next phase of Western development revealed forces of division
between the northern and southern portions of the West. With the spread
of the cotton culture went the slave system and the great plantation.
The small farmer in his log cabin, raising varied crops, was displaced
by the planter raising cotton. In all except the mountainous areas the
industrial organization of the tidewater took possession of the
Southwest, the unity of the back country was broken, and the solid South
was formed. In the Northwest this was the era of railroads and canals,
opening the region to the increasing stream of Middle State and New
England settlement, and strengthening the opposition to slavery. A map
showing the location of the men of New England ancestry in the Northwest
would represent also the counties in which the Free Soil party cast its
heaviest votes. The commercial connections of the Northwest likewise
were reversed by the railroad. The result is stated by a writer in _De
Bow's Review_ in 1852 in these words:--

     "What is New Orleans now? Where are her dreams of greatness
     and glory? . . . Whilst she slept, an enemy has sowed tares in
     her most prolific fields. Armed with energy, enterprise, and
     an indomitable spirit, that enemy, by a system of bold,
     vigorous, and sustained efforts, has succeeded in reversing
     the very laws of nature and of nature's God,--rolled back the
     mighty tide of the Mississippi and its thousand tributary
     streams, until their mouth, practically and commercially, is
     more at New York or Boston than at New Orleans."

The West broke asunder, and the great struggle over the social system to
be given to the lands beyond the Mississippi followed. In the Civil War
the Northwest furnished the national hero,--Lincoln was the very flower
of frontier training and ideals,--and it also took into its hands the
whole power of the government. Before the war closed, the West could
claim the President, Vice-President, Chief Justice, Speaker of the
House, Secretary of the Treasury, Postmaster-General, Attorney-General,
General of the army, and Admiral of the navy. The leading generals of
the war had been furnished by the West. It was the region of action,
and in the crisis it took the reins.

The triumph of the nation was followed by a new era of Western
development. The national forces projected themselves across the
prairies and plains. Railroads, fostered by government loans and land
grants, opened the way for settlement and poured a flood of European
immigrants and restless pioneers from all sections of the Union into the
government lands. The army of the United States pushed back the Indian,
rectangular Territories were carved into checkerboard States, creations
of the federal government, without a history, without physiographical
unity, without particularistic ideas. The later frontiersman leaned on
the strong arm of national power.

At the same time the South underwent a revolution. The plantation, based
on slavery, gave place to the farm, the gentry to the democratic
elements. As in the West, new industries, of mining and of manufacture,
sprang up as by magic. The New South, like the New West, was an area of
construction, a debtor area, an area of unrest; and it, too, had learned
the uses to which federal legislation might be put.

In the meantime the Old Northwest[218:1] passed through an economic and
social transformation. The whole West furnished an area over which
successive waves of economic development have passed. The State of
Wisconsin, now much like parts of the State of New York, was at an
earlier period like the State of Nebraska of to-day; the Granger
movement and Greenback party had for a time the ascendancy; and in the
northern counties of the State, where there is a sparser population, and
the country is being settled, its sympathies are still with the debtor
class. Thus the Old Northwest is a region where the older frontier
conditions survive in parts, and where the inherited ways of looking at
things are largely to be traced to its frontier days. At the same time
it is a region in many ways assimilated to the East. It understands both
sections. It is not entirely content with the existing structure of
economic society in the sections where wealth has accumulated and
corporate organizations are powerful; but neither has it seemed to feel
that its interests lie in supporting the program of the prairies and the
South. In the Fifty-third Congress it voted for the income tax, but it
rejected free coinage. It is still affected by the ideal of the
self-made man, rather than by the ideal of industrial nationalism. It is
more American, but less cosmopolitan than the seaboard.

We are now in a position to see clearly some of the factors involved in
the Western problem. For nearly three centuries the dominant fact in
American life has been expansion. With the settlement of the Pacific
coast and the occupation of the free lands, this movement has come to a
check. That these energies of expansion will no longer operate would be
a rash prediction; and the demands for a vigorous foreign policy, for an
interoceanic canal, for a revival of our power upon the seas, and for
the extension of American influence to outlying islands and adjoining
countries, are indications that the movement will continue. The
stronghold of these demands lies west of the Alleghanies.

In the remoter West, the restless, rushing wave of settlement has broken
with a shock against the arid plains. The free lands are gone, the
continent is crossed, and all this push and energy is turning into
channels of agitation. Failures in one area can no longer be made good
by taking up land on a new frontier; the conditions of a settled society
are being reached with suddenness and with confusion. The West has been
built up with borrowed capital, and the question of the stability of
gold, as a standard of deferred payments, is eagerly agitated by the
debtor West, profoundly dissatisfied with the industrial conditions that
confront it, and actuated by frontier directness and rigor in its
remedies. For the most part, the men who built up the West beyond the
Mississippi, and who are now leading the agitation,[220:1] came as
pioneers from the old Northwest, in the days when it was just passing
from the stage of a frontier section. For example, Senator Allen of
Nebraska, president of the recent national Populist Convention, and a
type of the political leaders of his section, was born in Ohio in the
middle of the century, went in his youth to Iowa, and not long after the
Civil War made his home in Nebraska. As a boy, he saw the buffalo driven
out by the settlers; he saw the Indian retreat as the pioneer advanced.
His training is that of the old West, in its frontier days. And now the
frontier opportunities are gone. Discontent is demanding an extension of
governmental activity in its behalf. In these demands, it finds itself
in touch with the depressed agricultural classes and the workingmen of
the South and East. The Western problem is no longer a sectional
problem: it is a social problem on a national scale. The greater West,
extending from the Alleghanies to the Pacific, cannot be regarded as a
unit; it requires analysis into regions and classes. But its area, its
population, and its material resources would give force to its assertion
that if there is a sectionalism in the country, the sectionalism is
Eastern. The old West, united to the new South, would produce, not a new
sectionalism, but a new Americanism. It would not mean sectional
disunion, as some have speculated, but it might mean a drastic assertion
of national government and imperial expansion under a popular hero.

This, then, is the real situation: a people composed of heterogeneous
materials, with diverse and conflicting ideals and social interests,
having passed from the task of filling up the vacant spaces of the
continent, is now thrown back upon itself, and is seeking an
equilibrium. The diverse elements are being fused into national unity.
The forces of reorganization are turbulent and the nation seems like a
witches' kettle.

But the West has its own centers of industrial life and culture not
unlike those of the East. It has State universities, rivaling in
conservative and scientific economic instruction those of any other part
of the Union, and its citizens more often visit the East, than do
Eastern men the West. As time goes on, its industrial development will
bring it more into harmony with the East.

Moreover, the Old Northwest holds the balance of power, and is the
battlefield on which these issues of American development are to be
settled. It has more in common with all parts of the nation than has any
other region. It understands the East, as the East does not understand
the West. The White City which recently rose on the shores of Lake
Michigan fitly typified its growing culture as well as its capacity for
great achievement. Its complex and representative industrial
organization and business ties, its determination to hold fast to what
is original and good in its Western experience, and its readiness to
learn and receive the results of the experience of other sections and
nations, make it an open-minded and safe arbiter of the American
destiny.

In the long run the "Center of the Republic" may be trusted to strike a
wise balance between the contending ideals. But she does not deceive
herself; she knows that the problem of the West means nothing less than
the problem of working out original social ideals and social adjustments
for the American nation.


FOOTNOTES:

[205:1] _Atlantic Monthly_, September, 1896. Reprinted by permission.

[208:1] Charles Eliot Norton.

[218:1] The present States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and
Wisconsin.

[220:1] [Written in the year of Mr. Bryan's first presidential
campaign.]




VIII

DOMINANT FORCES IN WESTERN LIFE[222:1]


The Old Northwest is a name which tells of the vestiges which the march
of settlement across the American continent has left behind it. The New
Northwest fronts the watery labyrinth of Puget Sound and awaits its
destiny upon the Pacific. The Old Northwest, the historic Northwest
Territory, is now the new Middle Region of the United States. A century
ago it was a wilderness, broken only by a few French settlements and the
straggling American hamlets along the Ohio and its tributaries, while,
on the shore of Lake Erie, Moses Cleaveland had just led a handful of
men to the Connecticut Reserve. To-day it is the keystone of the
American Commonwealth. Since 1860 the center of population of the United
States has rested within its limits, and the center of manufacturing in
the nation lies eight miles from President McKinley's Ohio home. Of the
seven men who have been elected to the presidency of the United States
since 1860, six have come from the Old Northwest, and the seventh came
from the kindred region of western New York. The congressional
Representatives from these five States of the Old Northwest already
outnumber those from the old Middle States, and are three times as
numerous as those from New England.

The elements that have contributed to the civilization of this region
are therefore well worth consideration. To know the States that make up
the Old Northwest--Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin--one
must understand their social origins.

Eldest in this sisterhood was Ohio. New England gave the formative
impulses to this State by the part which the Ohio Company played in
securing the Ordinance of 1787, and at Marietta and Cleveland
Massachusetts and Connecticut planted enduring centers of Puritan
influence. During the same period New Jersey and Pennsylvania sent their
colonists to the Symmes Purchase, in which Cincinnati was the
rallying-point, while Virginians sought the Military Bounty Lands in the
region of Chillicothe. The Middle States and the South, with their
democratic ideas, constituted the dominant element in Ohio politics in
the early part of her history. This dominance is shown by the nativity
of the members of the Ohio legislature elected in 1820: New England
furnished nine Senators and sixteen Representatives, chiefly from
Connecticut; New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, seventeen Senators
and twenty-one Representatives, mostly from Pennsylvania; while the
South furnished nine Senators and twenty-seven Representatives, of whom
the majority came from Virginia. Five of the Representatives were native
of Ireland, presumably Scotch-Irishmen. In the Ohio Senate, therefore,
the Middle States had as many representatives as had New England and the
South together, while the Southern men slightly outnumbered the Middle
States men in the Assembly. Together, the emigrants from the Democratic
South and Middle Region outnumbered the Federalist New Englanders three
to one. Although Ohio is popularly considered a child of New England, it
is clear that in these formative years of her statehood the commonwealth
was dominated by other forces.

By the close of this early period, in 1820, the settlement in Ohio had
covered more or less fully all except the northwest corner of the State,
and Indiana's formative period was well started. Here, as in Ohio,
there was a large Southern element. But while the Southern stream that
flowed into Ohio had its sources in Virginia, the main current that
sought Indiana came from North Carolina; and these settlers were for the
most part from the humbler classes. In the settlement of Indiana from
the South two separate elements are distinguishable: the Quaker
migration from North Carolina, moving chiefly because of anti-slavery
convictions; the "poor white" stream, made up in part of restless
hunters and thriftless pioneers moving without definite ambitions, and
in part of other classes, such as former overseers, migrating to the new
country with definite purpose of improving their fortunes.

These elements constituted well-marked features in the Southern
contribution to Indiana, and they explain why she has been named the
Hoosier State; but it should by no means be thought that all of the
Southern immigrants came under these classes, nor that these have been
the normal elements in the development of the Indiana of to-day. In the
Northwest, where interstate migration has been so continuous and
widespread, the lack of typical State peculiarities is obvious, and the
student of society, like the traveler, is tempted, in his effort to
distinguish the community from its neighbors, to exaggerate the odd and
exceptional elements which give a particular flavor to the State.
Indiana has suffered somewhat from this tendency; but it is undoubted
that these peculiarities of origin left deep and abiding influences upon
the State. In 1820 her settlement was chiefly in the southern counties,
where Southern and Middle States influence was dominant. Her two United
States Senators were Virginians by birth, while her Representative was
from Pennsylvania. The Southern element continued so powerful that one
student of Indiana origins has estimated that in 1850 one-third of the
population of the State were native Carolinians and their children in
the first generation. Not until a few years before the Civil War did the
Northern current exert a decisive influence upon Indiana. She had no
such lake ports as had her sister States, and extension of settlement
into the State from ports like Chicago was interrupted by the less
attractive area of the northwestern part of Indiana. Add to this the
geological fact that the limestone ridges and the best soils ran in
nearly perpendicular belts northward from the Ohio, and it will be seen
how circumstances combined to diminish Northern and to facilitate
Southern influences in the State prior to the railroad development.

In Illinois, also, the current of migration was at first preponderantly
Southern, but the settlers were less often from the Atlantic coast.
Kentucky and Tennessee were generous contributors, but many of the
distinguished leaders came from Virginia, and it is worthy of note that
in 1820 the two United States Senators of Illinois were of Maryland
ancestry, while her Representative was of Kentucky origin. The swarms of
land-seekers between 1820 and 1830 ascended the Illinois river, and
spread out between that river and the Mississippi. It was in this period
that Abraham Lincoln's father, who had come from Kentucky to Indiana,
again left his log cabin and traveled by ox-team with his family to the
popular Illinois county of Sangamon. Here Lincoln split his famous rails
to fence their land, and grew up under the influences of this migration
of the Southern pioneers to the prairies. They were not predominantly of
the planter class; but the fierce contest in 1824 over the proposition
to open Illinois to slavery was won for freedom by a narrow majority.

Looking at the three States, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, prior to 1850,
we perceive how important was the voice of the South here, and we can
the more easily understand the early affiliation of the Northwest with
her sister States to the south on the Western waters. It was not
without reason that the proposal of the Missouri Compromise came from
Illinois, and it was a natural enthusiasm with which these States
followed Henry Clay in the war policy of 1812. The combination of the
South, the western portion of the Middle States, and the Mississippi
Valley gave the ascendancy to the democratic ideals of the followers of
Jefferson, and left New England a weakened and isolated section for
nearly half a century. Many of the most characteristic elements in
American life in the first part of the century were due to this
relationship between the South and the trans-Alleghany region. But even
thus early the Northwest had revealed strong predilections for the
Northern economic ideals as against the peculiar institution of the
South, and this tendency grew with the increase of New England
immigration.

The northern two in this sisterhood of Northwestern States were the
first to be entered by the French, but latest by the English settlers.
Why Michigan was not occupied by New York men at an earlier period is at
first sight not easy to understand. Perhaps the adverse reports of
surveyors who visited the interior of the State, the partial
geographical isolation, and the unprogressive character of the French
settlers account for the tardy occupation of the area. Certain it is
that while the southern tier of States was sought by swarms of settlers,
Wisconsin and Michigan still echoed to Canadian boating-songs, and
voyageurs paddled their birch canoes along the streams of the wilderness
to traffic with the savages. Great Britain maintained the dominant
position until after the War of 1812, and the real center of authority
was in Canada.

But after the digging of the Erie Canal, settlement began to turn into
Michigan. Between 1830 and 1840 the population of the State leaped from
31,000 to 212,000, in the face of the fact that the heavy debt of the
State and the crisis of 1837 turned from her borders many of the
thrifty, debt-hating Germans. The vast majority of the settlers were New
Yorkers. Michigan is distinctly a child of the Empire State. Canadians,
both French and English, continued to come as the lumber interests of
the region increased. By 1850 Michigan contained nearly 400,000
inhabitants, who occupied the southern half of the State.

But she now found an active competitor for settlement in Wisconsin. In
this region two forces had attracted the earlier inhabitants. The
fur-trading posts of Green Bay, Prairie du Chien, and Milwaukee
constituted one element, in which the French influence was continued.
The lead region of the southwest corner of the State formed the center
of attraction for Illinois and Southern pioneers. The soldiers who
followed Black Hawk's trail in 1832 reported the richness of the soil,
and an era of immigration followed. To the port of Milwaukee came a
combined migration from western New York and New England, and spread
along the southern tier of prairie counties until it met the Southern
settlers in the lead region. Many of the early political contests in the
State were connected, as in Ohio and Illinois, with the antagonisms
between the sections thus brought together in a limited area.

The other element in the formation of Wisconsin was that of the Germans,
then just entering upon their vast immigration to the United States.
Wisconsin was free from debt; she made a constitution of exceptional
liberality to foreigners, and instead of treasuring her school lands or
using them for internal improvements, she sold them for almost nothing
to attract immigration. The result was that the prudent Germans, who
loved light taxes and cheap hard wood lands, turned toward
Wisconsin,--another _Völkerwanderung_. From Milwaukee as a center they
spread north along the shore of Lake Michigan, and later into northern
central Wisconsin, following the belt of the hardwood forests. So
considerable were their numbers that such an economist as Roscher wrote
of the feasibility of making Wisconsin a German State. "They can plant
the vine on the hills," cried Franz Löher in 1847, "and drink with happy
song and dance; they can have German schools and universities, German
literature and art, German science and philosophy, German courts and
assemblies; in short, they can form a German State, in which the German
language shall be as much the popular and official language as the
English is now, and in which the German spirit shall rule." By 1860 the
German-born were sixteen per cent of the population of the State. But
the New York and New England stream proved even more broad and steady in
its flow in these years before the war. Wisconsin's population rose from
30,000 in 1840 to 300,000 in 1850.

The New England element that entered this State is probably typical of
the same element in Wisconsin's neighboring States, and demands notice.
It came for the most part, not from the seaboard of Massachusetts, which
has so frequently represented New England to the popular apprehension. A
large element in this stock was the product of the migration that
ascended the valleys of Connecticut and central Massachusetts through
the hills into Vermont and New York,--a pioneer folk almost from the
time of their origin. The Vermont colonists decidedly outnumbered those
of Massachusetts in both Michigan and Wisconsin, and were far more
numerous in other Northwestern States than the population of Vermont
warranted. Together with this current came the settlers from western New
York. These were generally descendants of this same pioneer New England
stock, continuing into a remoter West the movement that had brought
their parents to New York. The combined current from New England and New
York thus constituted a distinctly modified New England stock, and was
clearly the dominant native element in Michigan and Wisconsin.

The decade of the forties was also the period of Iowa's rapid increase.
Although not politically a part of the Old Northwest, in history she is
closely related to that region. Her growth was by no means so rapid as
was Wisconsin's, for the proportion of foreign immigration was less.
Whereas in 1850 more than one-third of Wisconsin's population was
foreign-born, the proportion for Iowa was not much over one-tenth. The
main body of her people finally came from the Middle States, and
Illinois and Ohio; but Southern elements were well represented,
particularly among her political leaders.

The middle of the century was the turning-point in the transfer of
control in the Northwest. Below the line of the old national turnpike,
marked by the cities of Columbus, Indianapolis, Vandalia, and St. Louis,
the counties had acquired a stability of settlement; and partly because
of the Southern element, partly because of a natural tendency of new
communities toward Jacksonian ideals, these counties were preponderantly
Democratic. But the Southern migration had turned to the cotton areas of
the Southwest, and the development of railroads and canals had broken
the historic commercial ascendancy of the Mississippi River; New Orleans
was yielding the scepter to New York. The tide of migration from the
North poured along these newly opened channels, and occupied the less
settled counties above the national turnpike. In cities like Columbus
and Indianapolis, where the two currents had run side by side, the
combined elements were most clearly marked, but in the Northwest as a
whole a varied population had been formed. This region seemed to
represent and understand the various parts of the Union. It was this
aspect which Mr. Vinton, of Ohio, urged in Congress when he made his
notable speech in favor of the admission of Iowa. He pleaded the
mission of the Northwest as the mediator between the sections and the
unifying agency in the nation, with such power and pathos as to thrill
even John Quincy Adams.

But there are some issues which cannot be settled by compromise,
tendencies one of which must conquer the other. Such an issue the slave
power raised, and raised too late for support in the upper half of the
Mississippi Basin. The Northern and the Southern elements found
themselves in opposition to each other. "A house divided against itself
cannot stand," said Abraham Lincoln, a Northern leader of Southern
origin. Douglas, a leader of the Southern forces, though coming from New
England, declared his indifference whether slavery were voted up or down
in the Western Territories. The historic debates between these two
champions reveal the complex conditions in the Northwest, and take on a
new meaning when considered in the light of this contest between the
Northern and the Southern elements. The State that had been so potent
for compromise was at last the battle-ground itself, and the places
selected for the various debates of Lincoln and Douglas marked the
strongholds and the outposts of the antagonistic forces.

At this time the kinship of western New York and the dominant element in
the Northwest was clearly revealed. Speaking for the anti-slavery forces
at Madison, Wisconsin, in 1860, Seward said: "The Northwest is by no
means so small as you may think it. I speak to you because I feel that I
am, and during all my mature life have been, one of you. Although of New
York, I am still a citizen of the Northwest. The Northwest extends
eastward to the base of the Alleghany Mountains, and does not all of
western New York lie westward of the Alleghany Mountains? Whence comes
all the inspiration of free soil which spreads itself with such cheerful
voices over all these plains? Why, from New York westward of the
Alleghany Mountains. The people before me,--who are you but New York
men, while you are men of the Northwest?" In the Civil War, western New
York and the Northwest were powerful in the forum and in the field. A
million soldiers came from the States that the Ordinance, passed by
Southern votes, had devoted to freedom.

This was the first grave time of trial for the Northwest, and it did
much eventually to give to the region a homogeneity and
self-consciousness. But at the close of the war the region was still
agricultural, only half-developed; still breaking ground in northern
forests; still receiving contributions of peoples which radically
modified the social organism, and undergoing economic changes almost
revolutionary in their rapidity and extent. The changes since the war
are of more social importance, in many respects, than those in the years
commonly referred to as the formative period. As a result, the Northwest
finds herself again between contending forces, sharing the interests of
East and West, as once before those of North and South, and forced to
give her voice on issues of equal significance for the destiny of the
republic.

In these transforming years since 1860, Ohio, finding the magician's
talisman that revealed the treasury of mineral wealth, gas, and
petroleum beneath her fields, has leaped to a front rank among the
manufacturing States of the Union. Potential on the Great Lakes by
reason of her ports of Toledo and Cleveland, tapping the Ohio river
artery of trade at Cincinnati, and closely connected with all the vast
material development of the upper waters of this river in western
Pennsylvania and West Virginia, Ohio has become distinctly a part of the
eastern social organism, much like the State of Pennsylvania. The
complexity of her origin still persists. Ohio has no preponderant social
center; her multiplicity of colleges and universities bears tribute to
the diversity of the elements that have made the State. One-third of
her people are of foreign parentage (one or both parents foreign-born),
and the city of Cincinnati has been deeply affected by the German stock,
while Cleveland strongly reflects the influence of the New England
element. That influence is still very palpable, but it is New England in
the presence of natural gas, iron, and coal, New England shaped by blast
and forge. The Middle State ideals will dominate Ohio's future.

Bucolic Indiana, too, within the last decade has come into the
possession of gas-fields and has increased the exploitation of her coals
until she seems destined to share in the industrial type represented by
Ohio. Cities have arisen, like a dream, on the sites of country
villages. But Indiana has a much smaller proportion of foreign elements
than any other State of the Old Northwest, and it is the Southern
element that still differentiates her from her sisters. While Ohio's
political leaders still attest the Puritan migration, Indiana's clasp
hands with the leaders from the South.

The Southern elements continue also to reveal themselves in the
Democratic southwestern counties of Illinois, grouped like a broad delta
of the Illinois River, while northern Illinois holds a larger proportion
of descendants of the Middle States and New England. About one-half her
population is of foreign parentage, in which the German, Irish, and
Scandinavians furnish the largest elements. She is a great agricultural
State and a great manufacturing State, the connecting link between the
Mississippi and the Great Lakes. Her metropolis, Chicago, is the very
type of Northwestern development for good and for evil. It is an epitome
of her composite nationality. A recent writer, analyzing the school
census of Chicago, points out that "only two cities in the German
Empire, Berlin and Hamburg, have a greater German population than
Chicago; only two in Sweden, Stockholm and Göteborg, have more Swedes;
and only two in Norway, Christiana and Bergen, have more Norwegians";
while the Irish, Polish, Bohemians, and Dutch elements are also largely
represented. But in spite of her rapidity of growth and her complex
elements, Chicago stands as the representative of the will-power and
genius for action of the Middle West, and the State of Illinois will be
the battle-ground for social and economic ideals for the next
generation.

Michigan is two States. The northern peninsula is cut off from the
southern physically, industrially, and in the history of settlement. It
would seem that her natural destiny was with Wisconsin, or some possible
new State embracing the iron and copper, forest and shipping areas of
Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota on Lake Superior. The lower peninsula
of Michigan is the daughter of New York and over twelve per cent of
Michigan's present population were born in that State, and her traits
are those of the parent State. Over half her population is of foreign
parentage, of which Canada and England together have furnished one-half,
while the Germans outnumber any other single foreign element. The State
has undergone a steady industrial development, exploiting her northern
mines and forests, developing her lumber interests with Saginaw as the
center, raising fruits along the lake shore counties, and producing
grain in the middle trough of counties running from Saginaw Bay to the
south of Lake Michigan. Her state university has been her peculiar
glory, furnishing the first model for the state university, and it is
the educational contribution of the Northwest to the nation.

Wisconsin's future is dependent upon the influence of the large
proportion of her population of foreign parentage, for nearly
three-fourths of her inhabitants are of that class. She thus has a
smaller percentage of native population than any other of the States
formed from the Old Northwest. Of this foreign element the Germans
constitute by far the largest part, with the Scandinavians second. Her
American population born outside of Wisconsin comes chiefly from New
York. In contrast with the Ohio River States, she lacks the Southern
element. Her greater foreign population and her dairy interests contrast
with Michigan's Canadian and English elements and fruit culture. Her
relations are more Western than Michigan's by reason of her connection
with the Mississippi and the prairie States. Her foreign element is
slightly less than Minnesota's, and in the latter State the
Scandinavians take the place held by the Germans in Wisconsin. The
facility with which the Scandinavians catch the spirit of Western
America and assimilate with their neighbors is much greater than is the
case with the Germans, so that Wisconsin seems to offer opportunity for
non-English influence in a greater degree than her sister on the west.
While Minnesota's economic development has heretofore been closely
dependent on the wheat-producing prairies, the opening of the iron
fields of the Mesabi and Vermilion ranges, together with the development
of St. Paul and Minneapolis, Duluth and West Superior, and the
prospective achievement of a deep-water communication with the Atlantic,
seem to offer to that State a new and imperial industrial destiny.
Between this stupendous economic future to the northwest and the
colossal growth of Chicago on the southeast Wisconsin seems likely to
become a middle agricultural area, developing particularly into a dairy
State. She is powerfully affected by the conservative tendencies of her
German element in times of political agitation and of proposals of
social change.

Some of the social modifications in this State are more or less typical
of important processes at work among the neighboring States of the Old
Northwest. In the north, the men who built up the lumber interests of
the State, who founded a mill town surrounded by the stumps of the pine
forests which they exploited for the prairie markets, have acquired
wealth and political power. The spacious and well-appointed home of the
town-builder may now be seen in many a northern community, in a group of
less pretentious homes of operatives and tradesmen, the social
distinctions between them emphasized by the difference in nationality. A
few years before, this captain of industry was perhaps actively engaged
in the task of seeking the best "forties" or directing the operations of
his log-drivers. His wife and daughters make extensive visits to Europe,
his sons go to some university, and he himself is likely to acquire
political position, or to devote his energies to saving the town from
industrial decline, as the timber is cut away, by transforming it into a
manufacturing center for more finished products. Still others continue
their activity among the forests of the South. This social history of
the timber areas of Wisconsin has left clear indications in the
development of the peculiar political leadership in the northern portion
of the State.

In the southern and middle counties of the State, the original
settlement of the native American pioneer farmer, a tendency is showing
itself to divide the farms and to sell to thrifty Germans, or to
cultivate the soil by tenants, while the farmer retires to live in the
neighboring village, and perhaps to organize creameries and develop a
dairy business. The result is that a replacement of nationalities is in
progress. Townships and even counties once dominated by the native
American farmers of New York extraction are now possessed by Germans or
other European nationalities. Large portions of the retail trades of the
towns are also passing into German hands, while the native element seeks
the cities, the professions, or mercantile enterprises of larger
character. The non-native element shows distinct tendencies to dwell in
groups. One of the most striking illustrations of this fact is the
community of New Glarus, in Wisconsin, formed by a carefully organized
migration from Glarus in Switzerland, aided by the canton itself. For
some years this community was a miniature Swiss canton in social
organization and customs, but of late it has become increasingly
assimilated to the American type, and has left an impress by
transforming the county in which it is from a grain-raising to a dairy
region.

From Milwaukee as a center, the influence of the Germans upon the social
customs and ideals of Wisconsin has been marked. Milwaukee has many of
the aspects of a German city, and has furnished a stronghold of
resistance to native American efforts to enact rigid temperance
legislation, laws regulative of parochial schools, and similar attempts
to bend the German type to the social ideas of the pioneer American
stock. In the last presidential election, the German area of the State
deserted the Democratic party, and its opposition to free silver was a
decisive factor in the overwhelming victory of the Republicans in
Wisconsin. With all the evidence of the persistence of the influence of
this nationality, it is nevertheless clear that each decade marks an
increased assimilation and homogeneity in the State; but the result is a
compromise, and not a conquest by either element.

The States of the Old Northwest gave to McKinley a plurality of over
367,000 out of a total vote of about 3,734,000. New England and the
Middle States together gave him a plurality of 979,000 in about the same
vote, while the farther West gave to Bryan a decisive net plurality. It
thus appears that the Old Northwest occupied the position of a political
middle region between East and West. The significance of this position
is manifest when it is recalled that this section is the child of the
East and the mother of the Populistic West.

The occupation of the Western prairies was determined by forces similar
to those which settled the Old Northwest. In the decade before the war,
Minnesota succeeded to the place held by Wisconsin as the Mecca of
settlers in the prior decade. To Wisconsin and New York she owes the
largest proportion of her native settlers born outside of the State.
Kansas and Nebraska were settled most rapidly in the decade following
the war, and had a large proportion of soldiers in their American
immigrants. Illinois and Ohio together furnished about one-third of the
native settlers of these States, but the element coming from Southern
States was stronger in Kansas than in Nebraska. Both these States have
an exceptionally large proportion of native whites as compared with
their neighbors among the prairie States. Kansas, for example, has about
twenty-six per cent of persons of foreign parentage, while Nebraska has
about forty-two, Iowa forty-three, South Dakota sixty, Wisconsin
seventy-three, Minnesota seventy-five, and North Dakota seventy-nine.
North Dakota's development was greatest in the decade prior to 1890. Her
native stock came in largest numbers from Wisconsin, with New York,
Minnesota, and Iowa next in order. The growth of South Dakota occupied
the two decades prior to the census of 1890, and she has recruited her
native element from Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, and New York.

In consequence of the large migration from the States of the Old
Northwest to the virgin soils of these prairie States many counties in
the parent States show a considerable decline in growth in the decade
before 1890. There is significance in the fact that, with the exception
of Iowa, these prairie States, the colonies of the Old Northwest, gave
Bryan votes in the election of 1896 in the ratio of their proportion of
persons of native parentage. North Dakota, with the heaviest foreign
element, was carried for McKinley, while South Dakota, with a much
smaller foreign vote, went for Bryan. Kansas and Nebraska rank with Ohio
in their native percentage, and they were the center of prairie
Populism. Of course, there were other important local economic and
political explanations for this ratio, but it seems to have a basis of
real meaning. Certain it is that the leaders of the silver movement came
from the native element furnished by the Old Northwest. The original
Populists in the Kansas legislature of 1891 were born in different
States as follows: in Ohio, twelve; Indiana, six; Illinois, five; New
York, four; Pennsylvania, two; Connecticut, Vermont, and Maine, one
each,--making a total, for the Northern current, of thirty-two. Of the
remaining eighteen, thirteen were from the South, and one each from
Kansas, Missouri, California, England and Ireland. Nearly all were
Methodists and former Republicans.[238:1]

Looking at the silver movement more largely, we find that of the Kansas
delegation in the Fifty-fourth Congress, one was born in Kansas, and the
rest in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Maine.
All of the Nebraska delegation in the House came from the Old Northwest
or from Iowa. The biographies of the two Representatives from the State
of Washington tell an interesting story. These men came as children to
the pine woods of Wisconsin, took up public lands, and worked on the
farm and in the pineries. One passed on to a homestead in Nebraska
before settling in Washington. Thus they kept one stage ahead of the
social transformations of the West. This is the usual training of the
Western politicians. If the reader would see a picture of the
representative Kansas Populist, let him examine the family portraits of
the Ohio farmer in the middle of this century.

In a word, the Populist is the American farmer who has kept in advance
of the economic and social transformations that have overtaken those
who remained behind. While, doubtless, investigation into the ancestry
of the Populists and "silver men" who came to the prairies from the Old
Northwest would show a large proportion of Southern origin, yet the
center of discontent seems to have been among the men of the New England
and New York current. If New England looks with care at these men, she
may recognize in them the familiar lineaments of the embattled farmers
who fired the shot heard round the world. The continuous advance of this
pioneer stock from New England has preserved for us the older type of
the pioneer of frontier New England.

I do not overlook the transforming influences of the wilderness on this
stock ever since it left the earlier frontier to follow up the valleys
of western Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont, into western New
York, into Ohio, into Iowa, and out to the arid plains of western Kansas
and Nebraska; nor do I overlook the peculiar industrial conditions of
the prairie States. But I desire to insist upon the other truth, also,
that these westward immigrants, keeping for generations in advance of
the transforming industrial and social forces that have wrought so vast
a revolution in the older regions of the East which they left, could not
but preserve important aspects of the older farmer type. In the arid
West these pioneers have halted and have turned to perceive an altered
nation and changed social ideals. They see the sharp contrast between
their traditional idea of America, as the land of opportunity, the land
of the self-made man, free from class distinctions and from the power of
wealth, and the existing America, so unlike the earlier ideal. If we
follow back the line of march of the Puritan farmer, we shall see how
responsive he has always been to _isms_, and how persistently he has
resisted encroachments on his ideals of individual opportunity and
democracy. He is the prophet of the "higher law" in Kansas before the
Civil War. He is the Prohibitionist of Iowa and Wisconsin, crying out
against German customs as an invasion of his traditional ideals. He is
the Granger of Wisconsin, passing restrictive railroad legislation. He
is the Abolitionist, the Anti-mason, the Millerite, the Woman
Suffragist, the Spiritualist, the Mormon, of Western New York. Follow
him to his New England home in the turbulent days of Shays' rebellion,
paper money, stay and tender laws, and land banks. The radicals among
these New England farmers hated lawyers and capitalists. "I would not
trust them," said Abraham White, in the ratification convention of
Massachusetts, in 1788, "though every one of them should be a Moses."
"These lawyers," cried Amos Singletary, "and men of learning and moneyed
men that talk so finely and gloss over matters so smoothly to make us
poor illiterate people swallow the pill, expect to get into Congress
themselves! They mean to get all the money into their hands, and then
they will swallow up all us little folk, like the Leviathan, Mr.
President; yea, just as the whale swallowed up Jonah."

If the voice of Mary Ellen Lease sounds raucous to the New England man
to-day, while it is sweet music in the ears of the Kansas farmer, let
him ponder the utterances of these frontier farmers in the days of the
Revolution; and if he is still doubtful of this spiritual kinship, let
him read the words of the levelers and sectaries of Cromwell's army.

The story of the political leaders who remained in the place of their
birth and shared its economic changes differs from the story of those
who by moving to the West continued on a new area the old social type.
In the throng of Scotch-Irish pioneers that entered the uplands of the
Carolinas in the second quarter of the eighteenth century were the
ancestors of Calhoun and of Andrew Jackson. Remaining in this region,
Calhoun shared the transformations of the South Carolina interior. He
saw it change from the area of the pioneer farmers to an area of great
planters raising cotton by slave labor. This explains the transformation
of the nationalist and protectionist Calhoun of 1816 into the
state-sovereignty and free-trade Calhoun. Jackson, on the other hand,
left the region while it was still a frontier, shared the frontier life
of Tennessee, and reflected the democracy and nationalism of his people.
Henry Clay lived long enough in the kindred State of Kentucky to see it
pass from a frontier to a settled community, and his views on slavery
reflected the transitional history of that State. Lincoln, on the other
hand, born in Kentucky in 1809, while the State was still under frontier
conditions, migrated in 1816 to Indiana, and in 1830 to Illinois. The
pioneer influences of his community did much to shape his life, and the
development of the raw frontiersman into the statesman was not unlike
the development of his own State. Political leaders who experienced the
later growth of the Northwest, like Garfield, Hayes, Harrison, and
McKinley, show clearly the continued transformations of the section. But
in the days when the Northwest was still in the gristle, she sent her
sons into the newer West to continue the views of life and the policies
of the half-frontier region they had left.

To-day, the Northwest, standing between her ancestral connections in the
East and her children in the West, partly like the East, partly like the
West, finds herself in a position strangely like that in the days of the
slavery struggle, when her origins presented to her a "divided duty."
But these issues are not with the same imperious "Which?" as was the
issue of freedom or slavery.

Looking at the Northwest as a whole, one sees, in the character of its
industries and in the elements of its population, it is identified on
the east with the zone of States including the middle region and New
England. Cotton culture and the negro make a clear line of division
between the Old Northwest and the South. And yet in important historical
ideals--in the process of expansion, in the persistence of agricultural
interests, in impulsiveness, in imperialistic ways of looking at the
American destiny, in hero-worship, in the newness of its present social
structure--the Old Northwest has much in common with the South and the
Far West.

Behind her is the old pioneer past of simple democratic conditions, and
freedom of opportunity for all men. Before her is a superb industrial
development, the brilliancy of success as evinced in a vast population,
aggregate wealth, and sectional power.


FOOTNOTES:

[222:1] _Atlantic Monthly_, April, 1897. Published by permission.

[238:1] For this information I am indebted to Professor F. W. Blackmar,
of the University of Kansas.




IX

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE WEST TO AMERICAN DEMOCRACY[243:1]


Political thought in the period of the French Revolution tended to treat
democracy as an absolute system applicable to all times and to all
peoples, a system that was to be created by the act of the people
themselves on philosophical principles. Ever since that era there has
been an inclination on the part of writers on democracy to emphasize the
analytical and theoretical treatment to the neglect of the underlying
factors of historical development.

If, however, we consider the underlying conditions and forces that
create the democratic type of government, and at times contradict the
external forms to which the name democracy is applied, we shall find
that under this name there have appeared a multitude of political types
radically unlike in fact.

The careful student of history must, therefore, seek the explanation of
the forms and changes of political institutions in the social and
economic forces that determine them. To know that at any one time a
nation may be called a democracy, an aristocracy, or a monarchy, is not
so important as to know what are the social and economic tendencies of
the state. These are the vital forces that work beneath the surface and
dominate the external form. It is to changes in the economic and social
life of a people that we must look for the forces, that ultimately
create and modify organs of political action.

For the time, adaptation of political structure may be incomplete or
concealed. Old organs will be utilized to express new forces, and so
gradual and subtle will be the change that it may hardly be recognized.
The pseudo-democracies under the Medici at Florence and under Augustus
at Rome are familiar examples of this type. Or again, if the political
structure be rigid, incapable of responding to the changes demanded by
growth, the expansive forces of social and economic transformation may
rend it in some catastrophe like that of the French Revolution. In
all these changes both conscious ideals and unconscious social
reorganization are at work.

These facts are familiar to the student, and yet it is doubtful if they
have been fully considered in connection with American democracy. For a
century at least, in conventional expression, Americans have referred to
a "glorious Constitution" in explaining the stability and prosperity of
their democracy. We have believed as a nation that other peoples had
only to will our democratic institutions in order to repeat our own
career.

In dealing with Western contributions to democracy, it is essential that
the considerations which have just been mentioned shall be kept in mind.
Whatever these contributions may have been, we find ourselves at the
present time in an era of such profound economic and social
transformation as to raise the question of the effect of these changes
upon the democratic institutions of the United States. Within a decade
four marked changes have occurred in our national development; taken
together they constitute a revolution.

First, there is the exhaustion of the supply of free land and the
closing of the movement of Western advance as an effective factor in
American development. The first rough conquest of the wilderness is
accomplished, and that great supply of free lands which year after year
has served to reinforce the democratic influences in the United States
is exhausted. It is true that vast tracts of government land are still
untaken, but they constitute the mountain and arid regions, only a small
fraction of them capable of conquest, and then only by the application
of capital and combined effort. The free lands that made the American
pioneer have gone.

In the second place, contemporaneously with this there has been such a
concentration of capital in the control of fundamental industries as to
make a new epoch in the economic development of the United States. The
iron, the coal, and the cattle of the country have all fallen under the
domination of a few great corporations with allied interests, and by the
rapid combination of the important railroad systems and steamship lines,
in concert with these same forces, even the breadstuffs and the
manufactures of the nation are to some degree controlled in a similar
way. This is largely the work of the last decade. The development of the
greatest iron mines of Lake Superior occurred in the early nineties, and
in the same decade came the combination by which the coal and the coke
of the country, and the transportation systems that connect them with
the iron mines, have been brought under a few concentrated managements.
Side by side with this concentration of capital has gone the combination
of labor in the same vast industries. The one is in a certain sense the
concomitant of the other, but the movement acquires an additional
significance because of the fact that during the past fifteen years the
labor class has been so recruited by a tide of foreign immigration that
this class is now largely made up of persons of foreign parentage, and
the lines of cleavage which begin to appear in this country between
capital and labor have been accentuated by distinctions of nationality.

A third phenomenon connected with the two just mentioned is the
expansion of the United States politically and commercially into lands
beyond the seas. A cycle of American development has been completed. Up
to the close of the War of 1812, this country was involved in the
fortunes of the European state system. The first quarter of a century of
our national existence was almost a continual struggle to prevent
ourselves being drawn into the European wars. At the close of that era
of conflict, the United States set its face toward the West. It began
the settlement and improvement of the vast interior of the country. Here
was the field of our colonization, here the field of our political
activity. This process being completed, it is not strange that we find
the United States again involved in world-politics. The revolution that
occurred four years ago, when the United States struck down that ancient
nation under whose auspices the New World was discovered, is hardly yet
more than dimly understood. The insular wreckage of the Spanish War,
Porto Rico and the Philippines, with the problems presented by the
Hawaiian Islands, Cuba, the Isthmian Canal, and China, all are
indications of the new direction of the ship of state, and while we thus
turn our attention overseas, our concentrated industrial strength has
given us a striking power against the commerce of Europe that is already
producing consternation in the Old World. Having completed the conquest
of the wilderness, and having consolidated our interests, we are
beginning to consider the relations of democracy and empire.

And fourth, the political parties of the United States, now tend to
divide on issues that involve the question of Socialism. The rise of the
Populist party in the last decade, and the acceptance of so many of its
principles by the Democratic party under the leadership of Mr. Bryan,
show in striking manner the birth of new political ideas, the
reformation of the lines of political conflict.

It is doubtful if in any ten years of American history more significant
factors in our growth have revealed themselves. The struggle of the
pioneer farmers to subdue the arid lands of the Great Plains in the
eighties was followed by the official announcement of the extinction of
the frontier line in 1890. The dramatic outcome of the Chicago
Convention of 1896 marked the rise into power of the representatives of
Populistic change. Two years later came the battle of Manila, which
broke down the old isolation of the nation, and started it on a path the
goal of which no man can foretell; and finally, but two years ago came
that concentration of which the billion and a half dollar steel trust
and the union of the Northern continental railways are stupendous
examples. Is it not obvious, then, that the student who seeks for the
explanation of democracy in the social and economic forces that underlie
political forms must make inquiry into the conditions that have produced
our democratic institutions, if he would estimate the effect of these
vast changes? As a contribution to this inquiry, let us now turn to an
examination of the part that the West has played in shaping our
democracy.

From the beginning of the settlement of America, the frontier regions
have exercised a steady influence toward democracy. In Virginia, to take
an example, it can be traced as early as the period of Bacon's
Rebellion, a hundred years before our Declaration of Independence. The
small landholders, seeing that their powers were steadily passing into
the hands of the wealthy planters who controlled Church and State and
lands, rose in revolt. A generation later, in the governorship of
Alexander Spotswood, we find a contest between the frontier settlers and
the property-holding classes of the coast. The democracy with which
Spotswood had to struggle, and of which he so bitterly complained, was a
democracy made up of small landholders, of the newer immigrants, and of
indented servants, who at the expiration of their time of servitude
passed into the interior to take up lands and engage in pioneer farming.
The "War of the Regulation," just on the eve of the American Revolution,
shows the steady persistence of this struggle between the classes of the
interior and those of the coast. The Declaration of Grievances which the
back counties of the Carolinas then drew up against the aristocracy that
dominated the politics of those colonies exhibits the contest between
the democracy of the frontier and the established classes who
apportioned the legislature in such fashion as to secure effective
control of government. Indeed, in a period before the outbreak of the
American Revolution, one can trace a distinct belt of democratic
territory extending from the back country of New England down through
western New York, Pennsylvania, and the South.[248:1]

In each colony this region was in conflict with the dominant classes of
the coast. It constituted a quasi-revolutionary area before the days of
the Revolution, and it formed the basis on which the Democratic party
was afterwards established. It was, therefore, in the West, as it was in
the period before the Declaration of Independence, that the struggle for
democratic development first revealed itself, and in that area the
essential ideas of American democracy had already appeared. Through the
period of the Revolution and of the Confederation a similar contest can
be noted. On the frontier of New England, along the western border of
Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas, and in the communities beyond
the Alleghany Mountains, there arose a demand of the frontier settlers
for independent statehood based on democratic provisions. There is a
strain of fierceness in their energetic petitions demanding
self-government under the theory that every people have the right to
establish their own political institutions in an area which they have
won from the wilderness. Those revolutionary principles based on
natural rights, for which the seaboard colonies were contending, were
taken up with frontier energy in an attempt to apply them to the lands
of the West. No one can read their petitions denouncing the control
exercised by the wealthy landholders of the coast, appealing to the
record of their conquest of the wilderness, and demanding the possession
of the lands for which they have fought the Indians, and which they had
reduced by their ax to civilization, without recognizing in these
frontier communities the cradle of a belligerent Western democracy. "A
fool can sometimes put on his coat better than a wise man can do it for
him,"--such is the philosophy of its petitioners. In this period also
came the contests of the interior agricultural portion of New England
against the coast-wise merchants and property-holders, of which Shays'
Rebellion is the best known, although by no means an isolated instance.

By the time of the constitutional convention, this struggle for
democracy had affected a fairly well-defined division into parties.
Although these parties did not at first recognize their interstate
connections, there were similar issues on which they split in almost all
the States. The demands for an issue of paper money, the stay of
execution against debtors, and the relief against excessive taxation
were found in every colony in the interior agricultural regions. The
rise of this significant movement wakened the apprehensions of the men
of means, and in the debates over the basis of suffrage for the House of
Representatives in the constitutional convention of 1787 leaders of the
conservative party did not hesitate to demand that safeguards to the
property should be furnished the coast against the interior. The outcome
of the debate left the question of suffrage for the House of
Representatives dependent upon the policy of the separate States. This
was in effect imposing a property qualification throughout the nation as
a whole, and it was only as the interior of the country developed that
these restrictions gradually gave way in the direction of manhood
suffrage.

All of these scattered democratic tendencies Jefferson combined, in the
period of Washington's presidency, into the Democratic-Republican party.
Jefferson was the first prophet of American democracy, and when we
analyse the essential features of his gospel, it is clear that the
Western influence was the dominant element. Jefferson himself was born
in the frontier region of Virginia, on the edge of the Blue Ridge, in
the middle of the eighteenth century. His father was a pioneer.
Jefferson's "Notes on Virginia" reveal clearly his conception that
democracy should have an agricultural basis, and that manufacturing
development and city life were dangerous to the purity of the body
politic. Simplicity and economy in government, the right of revolution,
the freedom of the individual, the belief that those who win the vacant
lands are entitled to shape their own government in their own
way,--these are all parts of the platform of political principles to
which he gave his adhesion, and they are all elements eminently
characteristic of the Western democracy into which he was born.

In the period of the Revolution he had brought in a series of measures
which tended to throw the power of Virginia into the hands of the
settlers in the interior rather than of the coastwise aristocracy. The
repeal of the laws of entail and primogeniture would have destroyed the
great estates on which the planting aristocracy based its power. The
abolition of the Established Church would still further have diminished
the influence of the coastwise party in favor of the dissenting sects of
the interior. His scheme of general public education reflected the same
tendency, and his demand for the abolition of slavery was characteristic
of a representative of the West rather than of the old-time aristocracy
of the coast. His sympathy with the Western expansion culminated in the
Louisiana Purchase. In short, the tendencies of Jefferson's legislation
were to replace the dominance of the planting aristocracy by the
dominance of the interior class, which had sought in vain to achieve its
liberties in the period of Bacon's Rebellion.

Nevertheless, Thomas Jefferson was the John the Baptist of democracy,
not its Moses. Only with the slow setting of the tide of settlement
farther and farther toward the interior did the democratic influence
grow strong enough to take actual possession of the government. The
period from 1800 to 1820 saw a steady increase in these tendencies. The
established classes in New England and the South began to take alarm.
Perhaps no better illustration of the apprehensions of the old-time
Federal conservative can be given than these utterances of President
Dwight, of Yale College, in the book of travels which he published in
that period:--

     The class of pioneers cannot live in regular society. They are
     too idle, too talkative, too passionate, too prodigal, and too
     shiftless to acquire either property or character. They are
     impatient of the restraints of law, religion, and morality,
     and grumble about the taxes by which the Rulers, Ministers,
     and Schoolmasters are supported. . . . After exposing the
     injustice of the community in neglecting to invest persons of
     such superior merit in public offices, in many an eloquent
     harangue uttered by many a kitchen fire, in every blacksmith
     shop, in every corner of the streets, and finding all their
     efforts vain, they become at length discouraged, and under the
     pressure of poverty, the fear of the gaol, and consciousness
     of public contempt, leave their native places and betake
     themselves to the wilderness.

Such was a conservative's impression of that pioneer movement of New
England colonists who had spread up the valley of the Connecticut into
New Hampshire, Vermont, and western New York in the period of which he
wrote, and who afterwards went on to possess the Northwest. New England
Federalism looked with a shudder at the democratic ideas of those who
refused to recognize the established order. But in that period there
came into the Union a sisterhood of frontier States--Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, Missouri--with provisions for the franchise that brought in
complete democracy.

Even the newly created States of the Southwest showed the tendency. The
wind of democracy blew so strongly from the West, that even in the older
States of New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia,
conventions were called, which liberalized their constitutions by
strengthening the democratic basis of the State. In the same time the
labor population of the cities began to assert its power and its
determination to share in government. Of this frontier democracy which
now took possession of the nation, Andrew Jackson was the very
personification. He was born in the backwoods of the Carolinas in the
midst of the turbulent democracy that preceded the Revolution, and he
grew up in the frontier State of Tennessee. In the midst of this region
of personal feuds and frontier ideals of law, he quickly rose to
leadership. The appearance of this frontiersman on the floor of Congress
was an omen full of significance. He reached Philadelphia at the close
of Washington's administration, having ridden on horseback nearly eight
hundred miles to his destination. Gallatin, himself a Western man,
describes Jackson as he entered the halls of Congress: "A tall, lank,
uncouth-looking personage, with long locks of hair hanging over his face
and a cue down his back tied in an eel-skin; his dress singular; his
manners those of a rough backwoodsman." And Jefferson testified: "When I
was President of the Senate he was a Senator, and he could never speak
on account of the rashness of his feelings. I have seen him attempt it
repeatedly and as often choke with rage." At last the frontier in the
person of its typical man had found a place in the Government. This
six-foot backwoodsman, with blue eyes that could blaze on occasion, this
choleric, impetuous, self-willed Scotch-Irish leader of men, this expert
duelist, and ready fighter, this embodiment of the tenacious, vehement,
personal West, was in politics to stay. The frontier democracy of that
time had the instincts of the clansman in the days of Scotch border
warfare. Vehement and tenacious as the democracy was, strenuously as
each man contended with his neighbor for the spoils of the new country
that opened before them, they all had respect for the man who best
expressed their aspirations and their ideas. Every community had its
hero. In the War of 1812 and the subsequent Indian fighting Jackson made
good his claim, not only to the loyalty of the people of Tennessee, but
of the whole West, and even of the nation. He had the essential traits
of the Kentucky and Tennessee frontier. It was a frontier free from the
influence of European ideas and institutions. The men of the "Western
World" turned their backs upon the Atlantic Ocean, and with a grim
energy and self-reliance began to build up a society free from the
dominance of ancient forms.

The Westerner defended himself and resented governmental restrictions.
The duel and the blood-feud found congenial soil in Kentucky and
Tennessee. The idea of the personality of law was often dominant over
the organized machinery of justice. That method was best which was most
direct and effective. The backwoodsman was intolerant of men who split
hairs, or scrupled over the method of reaching the right. In a word, the
unchecked development of the individual was the significant product of
this frontier democracy. It sought rather to express itself by choosing
a man of the people, than by the formation of elaborate governmental
institutions.

It was because Andrew Jackson personified these essential Western traits
that in his presidency he became the idol and the mouthpiece of the
popular will. In his assault upon the Bank as an engine of aristocracy,
and in his denunciation of nullification, he went directly to his object
with the ruthless energy of a frontiersman. For formal law and the
subtleties of State sovereignty he had the contempt of a backwoodsman.
Nor is it without significance that this typical man of the new
democracy will always be associated with the triumph of the spoils
system in national politics. To the new democracy of the West, office
was an opportunity to exercise natural rights as an equal citizen of the
community. Rotation in office served not simply to allow the successful
man to punish his enemies and reward his friends, but it also furnished
the training in the actual conduct of political affairs which every
American claimed as his birthright. Only in a primitive democracy of the
type of the United States in 1830 could such a system have existed
without the ruin of the State. National government in that period was no
complex and nicely adjusted machine, and the evils of the system were
long in making themselves fully apparent.

The triumph of Andrew Jackson marked the end of the old era of trained
statesmen for the Presidency. With him began the era of the popular
hero. Even Martin Van Buren, whom we think of in connection with the
East, was born in a log house under conditions that were not unlike
parts of the older West. Harrison was the hero of the Northwest, as
Jackson had been of the Southwest. Polk was a typical Tennesseean, eager
to expand the nation, and Zachary Taylor was what Webster called a
"frontier colonel." During the period that followed Jackson, power
passed from the region of Kentucky and Tennessee to the border of the
Mississippi. The natural democratic tendencies that had earlier shown
themselves in the Gulf States were destroyed, however, by the spread of
cotton culture, and the development of great plantations in that region.
What had been typical of the democracy of the Revolutionary frontier and
of the frontier of Andrew Jackson was now to be seen in the States
between the Ohio and the Mississippi. As Andrew Jackson is the typical
democrat of the former region, so Abraham Lincoln is the very embodiment
of the pioneer period of the Old Northwest. Indeed, he is the embodiment
of the democracy of the West. How can one speak of him except in the
words of Lowell's great "Commemoration Ode":--

     "For him her Old-World moulds aside she threw,
     And, choosing sweet clay from the breast
         Of the unexhausted West,
     With stuff untainted shaped a hero new,
     Wise, steadfast in the strength of God, and true.

            *       *       *       *       *

     His was no lonely mountain-peak of mind,
     Thrusting to thin air o'er our cloudy bars,
     A sea-mark now, now lost in vapors blind;
     Broad prairie rather, genial, level-lined,
     Fruitful and friendly for all human kind,
     Yet also nigh to heaven and loved of loftiest stars.
         Nothing of Europe here,
     Or, then, of Europe fronting mornward still,
     Ere any names of Serf and Peer,
     Could Nature's equal scheme deface;
     New birth of our new soil, the first American."

The pioneer life from which Lincoln came differed in important respects
from the frontier democracy typified by Andrew Jackson. Jackson's
democracy was contentious, individualistic, and it sought the ideal of
local self-government and expansion. Lincoln represents rather the
pioneer folk who entered the forest of the great Northwest to chop out a
home, to build up their fortunes in the midst of a continually ascending
industrial movement. In the democracy of the Southwest, industrial
development and city life were only minor factors, but to the democracy
of the Northwest they were its very life. To widen the area of the
clearing, to contend with one another for the mastery of the industrial
resources of the rich provinces, to struggle for a place in the
ascending movement of society, to transmit to one's offspring the chance
for education, for industrial betterment, for the rise in life which the
hardships of the pioneer existence denied to the pioneer himself, these
were some of the ideals of the region to which Lincoln came. The men
were commonwealth builders, industry builders. Whereas the type of hero
in the Southwest was militant, in the Northwest he was industrial. It
was in the midst of these "plain people," as he loved to call them, that
Lincoln grew to manhood. As Emerson says: "He is the true history of the
American people in his time." The years of his early life were the years
when the democracy of the Northwest came into struggle with the
institution of slavery which threatened to forbid the expansion of the
democratic pioneer life in the West. In President Eliot's essay on "Five
American Contributions to Civilization," he instances as one of the
supreme tests of American democracy its attitude upon the question of
slavery. But if democracy chose wisely and worked effectively toward the
solution of this problem, it must be remembered that Western democracy
took the lead. The rail-splitter himself became the nation's President
in that fierce time of struggle, and armies of the woodsmen and pioneer
farmers recruited in the Old Northwest made free the Father of Waters,
marched through Georgia, and helped to force the struggle to a
conclusion at Appomattox. The free pioneer democracy struck down the
slave-holding aristocracy on its march to the West.

The last chapter in the development of Western democracy is the one that
deals with its conquest over the vast spaces of the new West. At each
new stage of Western development, the people have had to grapple with
larger areas, with bigger combinations. The little colony of
Massachusetts veterans that settled at Marietta received a land grant as
large as the State of Rhode Island. The band of Connecticut pioneers
that followed Moses Cleaveland to the Connecticut Reserve occupied a
region as large as the parent State. The area which settlers of New
England stock occupied on the prairies of northern Illinois surpassed
the combined area of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Men
who had become accustomed to the narrow valleys and the little towns of
the East found themselves out on the boundless spaces of the West
dealing with units of such magnitude as dwarfed their former experience.
The Great Lakes, the Prairies, the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains,
the Mississippi and the Missouri, furnished new standards of measurement
for the achievement of this industrial democracy. Individualism began to
give way to coöperation and to governmental activity. Even in the
earlier days of the democratic conquest of the wilderness, demands had
been made upon the government for support in internal improvements, but
this new West showed a growing tendency to call to its assistance the
powerful arm of national authority. In the period since the Civil War,
the vast public domain has been donated to the individual farmer, to
States for education, to railroads for the construction of
transportation lines.

Moreover, with the advent of democracy in the last fifteen years upon
the Great Plains, new physical conditions have presented themselves
which have accelerated the social tendency of Western democracy. The
pioneer farmer of the days of Lincoln could place his family on a
flatboat, strike into the wilderness, cut out his clearing, and with
little or no capital go on to the achievement of industrial
independence. Even the homesteader on the Western prairies found it
possible to work out a similar independent destiny, although the factor
of transportation made a serious and increasing impediment to the free
working-out of his individual career. But when the arid lands and the
mineral resources of the Far West were reached, no conquest was possible
by the old individual pioneer methods. Here expensive irrigation works
must be constructed, coöperative activity was demanded in utilization of
the water supply, capital beyond the reach of the small farmer was
required. In a word, the physiographic province itself decreed that the
destiny of this new frontier should be social rather than individual.

Magnitude of social achievement is the watchword of the democracy since
the Civil War. From petty towns built in the marshes, cities arose whose
greatness and industrial power are the wonder of our time. The
conditions were ideal for the production of captains of industry. The
old democratic admiration for the self-made man, its old deference to
the rights of competitive individual development, together with the
stupendous natural resources that opened to the conquest of the keenest
and the strongest, gave such conditions of mobility as enabled the
development of the large corporate industries which in our own decade
have marked the West.

Thus, in brief, have been outlined the chief phases of the development
of Western democracy in the different areas which it has conquered.
There has been a steady development of the industrial ideal, and a
steady increase of the social tendency, in this later movement of
Western democracy. While the individualism of the frontier, so prominent
in the earliest days of the Western advance, has been preserved as an
ideal, more and more these individuals struggling each with the other,
dealing with vaster and vaster areas, with larger and larger problems,
have found it necessary to combine under the leadership of the
strongest. This is the explanation of the rise of those preëminent
captains of industry whose genius has concentrated capital to control
the fundamental resources of the nation. If now in the way of
recapitulation, we try to pick out from the influences that have gone to
the making of Western democracy the factors which constitute the net
result of this movement, we shall have to mention at least the
following:--

Most important of all has been the fact that an area of free land has
continually lain on the western border of the settled area of the United
States. Whenever social conditions tended to crystallize in the East,
whenever capital tended to press upon labor or political restraints to
impede the freedom of the mass, there was this gate of escape to the
free conditions of the frontier. These free lands promoted
individualism, economic equality, freedom to rise, democracy. Men would
not accept inferior wages and a permanent position of social
subordination when this promised land of freedom and equality was theirs
for the taking. Who would rest content under oppressive legislative
conditions when with a slight effort he might reach a land wherein to
become a co-worker in the building of free cities and free States on the
lines of his own ideal? In a word, then, free lands meant free
opportunities. Their existence has differentiated the American
democracy from the democracies which have preceded it, because ever, as
democracy in the East took the form of highly specialized and
complicated industrial society, in the West it kept in touch with
primitive conditions, and by action and reaction these two forces have
shaped our history.

In the next place, these free lands and this treasury of industrial
resources have existed over such vast spaces that they have demanded of
democracy increasing spaciousness of design and power of execution.
Western democracy is contrasted with the democracy of all other times in
the largeness of the tasks to which it has set its hand, and in the vast
achievements which it has wrought out in the control of nature and of
politics. It would be difficult to over-emphasize the importance of this
training upon democracy. Never before in the history of the world has a
democracy existed on so vast an area and handled things in the gross
with such success, with such largeness of design, and such grasp upon
the means of execution. In short, democracy has learned in the West of
the United States how to deal with the problem of magnitude. The old
historic democracies were but little states with primitive economic
conditions.

But the very task of dealing with vast resources, over vast areas, under
the conditions of free competition furnished by the West, has produced
the rise of those captains of industry whose success in consolidating
economic power now raises the question as to whether democracy under
such conditions can survive. For the old military type of Western
leaders like George Rogers Clark, Andrew Jackson, and William Henry
Harrison have been substituted such industrial leaders as James J. Hill,
John D. Rockefeller, and Andrew Carnegie.

The question is imperative, then, What ideals persist from this
democratic experience of the West; and have they acquired sufficient
momentum to sustain themselves under conditions so radically unlike
those in the days of their origin? In other words, the question put at
the beginning of this discussion becomes pertinent. Under the forms of
the American democracy is there in reality evolving such a concentration
of economic and social power in the hands of a comparatively few men as
may make political democracy an appearance rather than a reality? The
free lands are gone. The material forces that gave vitality to Western
democracy are passing away. It is to the realm of the spirit, to the
domain of ideals and legislation, that we must look for Western
influence upon democracy in our own days.

Western democracy has been from the time of its birth idealistic. The
very fact of the wilderness appealed to men as a fair, blank page on
which to write a new chapter in the story of man's struggle for a higher
type of society. The Western wilds, from the Alleghanies to the Pacific,
constituted the richest free gift that was ever spread out before
civilized man. To the peasant and artisan of the Old World, bound by the
chains of social class, as old as custom and as inevitable as fate, the
West offered an exit into a free life and greater well-being among the
bounties of nature, into the midst of resources that demanded manly
exertion, and that gave in return the chance for indefinite ascent in
the scale of social advance. "To each she offered gifts after his will."
Never again can such an opportunity come to the sons of men. It was
unique, and the thing is so near us, so much a part of our lives, that
we do not even yet comprehend its full significance. The existence of
this land of opportunity has made America the goal of idealists from the
days of the Pilgrim Fathers. With all the materialism of the pioneer
movements, this idealistic conception of the vacant lands as an
opportunity for a new order of things is unmistakably present.
Kipling's "Song of the English" has given it expression:--

     "We were dreamers, dreaming greatly, in the man-stifled town;
     We yearned beyond the sky-line where the strange roads go down.
     Came the Whisper, came the Vision, came the Power with the Need,
     Till the Soul that is not man's soul was lent us to lead.
     As the deer breaks--as the steer breaks--from the herd where they
         graze,
     In the faith of little children we went on our ways.
     Then the wood failed--then the food failed--then the last water
         dried--
     In the faith of little children we lay down and died.

     "On the sand-drift--on the veldt-side--in the fern-scrub we lay,
     That our sons might follow after by the bones on the way.
     Follow after--follow after! We have watered the root
     And the bud has come to blossom that ripens for fruit!
     Follow after--we are waiting by the trails that we lost
     For the sound of many footsteps, for the tread of a host.

     "Follow after--follow after--for the harvest is sown:
     By the bones about the wayside ye shall come to your own!"

This was the vision that called to Roger Williams,--that "prophetic soul
ravished of truth disembodied," "unable to enter into treaty with its
environment," and forced to seek the wilderness. "Oh, how sweet," wrote
William Penn, from his forest refuge, "is the quiet of these parts,
freed from the troubles and perplexities of woeful Europe." And here he
projected what he called his "Holy Experiment in Government."

If the later West offers few such striking illustrations of the relation
of the wilderness to idealistic schemes, and if some of the designs were
fantastic and abortive, none the less the influence is a fact. Hardly a
Western State but has been the Mecca of some sect or band of social
reformers, anxious to put into practice their ideals, in vacant land,
far removed from the checks of a settled form of social organization.
Consider the Dunkards, the Icarians, the Fourierists, the Mormons, and
similar idealists who sought our Western wilds. But the idealistic
influence is not limited to the dreamers' conception of a new State. It
gave to the pioneer farmer and city builder a restless energy, a quick
capacity for judgment and action, a belief in liberty, freedom of
opportunity, and a resistance to the domination of class which infused a
vitality and power into the individual atoms of this democratic mass.
Even as he dwelt among the stumps of his newly-cut clearing, the pioneer
had the creative vision of a new order of society. In imagination he
pushed back the forest boundary to the confines of a mighty
Commonwealth; he willed that log cabins should become the lofty
buildings of great cities. He decreed that his children should enter
into a heritage of education, comfort, and social welfare, and for this
ideal he bore the scars of the wilderness. Possessed with this idea he
ennobled his task and laid deep foundations for a democratic State. Nor
was this idealism by any means limited to the American pioneer.

To the old native democratic stock has been added a vast army of
recruits from the Old World. There are in the Middle West alone four
million persons of German parentage out of a total of seven millions in
the country. Over a million persons of Scandinavian parentage live in
the same region. The democracy of the newer West is deeply affected by
the ideals brought by these immigrants from the Old World. To them
America was not simply a new home; it was a land of opportunity, of
freedom, of democracy. It meant to them, as to the American pioneer that
preceded them, the opportunity to destroy the bonds of social caste that
bound them in their older home, to hew out for themselves in a new
country a destiny proportioned to the powers that God had given them, a
chance to place their families under better conditions and to win a
larger life than the life that they had left behind. He who believes
that even the hordes of recent immigrants from southern Italy are drawn
to these shores by nothing more than a dull and blind materialism has
not penetrated into the heart of the problem. The idealism and
expectation of these children of the Old World, the hopes which they
have formed for a newer and freer life across the seas, are almost
pathetic when one considers how far they are from the possibility of
fruition. He who would take stock of American democracy must not forget
the accumulation of human purposes and ideals which immigration has
added to the American populace.

In this connection it must also be remembered that these democratic
ideals have existed at each stage of the advance of the frontier, and
have left behind them deep and enduring effects on the thinking of the
whole country. Long after the frontier period of a particular region of
the United States has passed away, the conception of society, the ideals
and aspirations which it produced, persist in the minds of the people.
So recent has been the transition of the greater portion of the United
States from frontier conditions to conditions of settled life, that we
are, over the large portion of the United States, hardly a generation
removed from the primitive conditions of the West. If, indeed, we
ourselves were not pioneers, our fathers were, and the inherited ways of
looking at things, the fundamental assumptions of the American people,
have all been shaped by this experience of democracy on its westward
march. This experience has been wrought into the very warp and woof of
American thought.

Even those masters of industry and capital who have risen to power by
the conquest of Western resources came from the midst of this society
and still profess its principles. John D. Rockefeller was born on a New
York farm, and began his career as a young business man in St. Louis.
Marcus Hanna was a Cleveland grocer's clerk at the age of twenty. Claus
Spreckles, the sugar king, came from Germany as a steerage passenger to
the United States in 1848. Marshall Field was a farmer boy in Conway,
Massachusetts, until he left to grow up with the young Chicago. Andrew
Carnegie came as a ten-year-old boy from Scotland to Pittsburgh, then a
distinctively Western town. He built up his fortunes through successive
grades until he became the dominating factor in the great iron
industries, and paved the way for that colossal achievement, the Steel
Trust. Whatever may be the tendencies of this corporation, there can be
little doubt of the democratic ideals of Mr. Carnegie himself. With
lavish hand he has strewn millions through the United States for the
promotion of libraries. The effect of this library movement in
perpetuating the democracy that comes from an intelligent and
self-respecting people can hardly be measured. In his "Triumphant
Democracy," published in 1886, Mr. Carnegie, the ironmaster, said, in
reference to the mineral wealth of the United States: "Thank God, these
treasures are in the hands of an intelligent people, the Democracy, to
be used for the general good of the masses, and not made the spoils of
monarchs, courts, and aristocracy, to be turned to the base and selfish
ends of a privileged hereditary class." It would be hard to find a more
rigorous assertion of democratic doctrine than the celebrated utterance,
attributed to the same man, that he should feel it a disgrace to die
rich.

In enumerating the services of American democracy, President Eliot
included the corporation as one of its achievements, declaring that
"freedom of incorporation, though no longer exclusively a democratic
agency, has given a strong support to democratic institutions." In one
sense this is doubtless true, since the corporation has been one of the
means by which small properties can be aggregated into an effective
working body. Socialistic writers have long been fond of pointing out
also that these various concentrations pave the way for and make
possible social control. From this point of view it is possible that the
masters of industry may prove to be not so much an incipient aristocracy
as the pathfinders for democracy in reducing the industrial world to
systematic consolidation suited to democratic control. The great
geniuses that have built up the modern industrial concentration were
trained in the midst of democratic society. They were the product of
these democratic conditions. Freedom to rise was the very condition of
their existence. Whether they will be followed by successors who will
adopt the exploitation of the masses, and who will be capable of
retaining under efficient control these vast resources, is one of the
questions which we shall have to face.

This, at least, is clear: American democracy is fundamentally the
outcome of the experiences of the American people in dealing with the
West. Western democracy through the whole of its earlier period tended
to the production of a society of which the most distinctive fact was
the freedom of the individual to rise under conditions of social
mobility, and whose ambition was the liberty and well-being of the
masses. This conception has vitalized all American democracy, and has
brought it into sharp contrasts with the democracies of history, and
with those modern efforts of Europe to create an artificial democratic
order by legislation. The problem of the United States is not to create
democracy, but to conserve democratic institutions and ideals. In the
later period of its development, Western democracy has been gaining
experience in the problem of social control. It has steadily enlarged
the sphere of its action and the instruments for its perpetuation. By
its system of public schools, from the grades to the graduate work of
the great universities, the West has created a larger single body of
intelligent plain people than can be found elsewhere in the world. Its
political tendencies, whether we consider Democracy, Populism, or
Republicanism, are distinctly in the direction of greater social control
and the conservation of the old democratic ideals.

To these ideals the West adheres with even a passionate determination.
If, in working out its mastery of the resources of the interior, it has
produced a type of industrial leader so powerful as to be the wonder of
the world, nevertheless, it is still to be determined whether these men
constitute a menace to democratic institutions, or the most efficient
factor for adjusting democratic control to the new conditions.

Whatever shall be the outcome of the rush of this huge industrial modern
United States to its place among the nations of the earth, the formation
of its Western democracy will always remain one of the wonderful
chapters in the history of the human race. Into this vast shaggy
continent of ours poured the first feeble tide of European settlement.
European men, institutions, and ideas were lodged in the American
wilderness, and this great American West took them to her bosom, taught
them a new way of looking upon the destiny of the common man, trained
them in adaptation to the conditions of the New World, to the creation
of new institutions to meet new needs; and ever as society on her
eastern border grew to resemble the Old World in its social forms and
its industry, ever, as it began to lose faith in the ideals of
democracy, she opened new provinces, and dowered new democracies in her
most distant domains with her material treasures and with the ennobling
influence that the fierce love of freedom, the strength that came from
hewing out a home, making a school and a church, and creating a higher
future for his family, furnished to the pioneer.

She gave to the world such types as the farmer Thomas Jefferson, with
his Declaration of Independence, his statute for religious toleration,
and his purchase of Louisiana. She gave us Andrew Jackson, that fierce
Tennessee spirit who broke down the traditions of conservative rule,
swept away the privacies and privileges of officialdom, and, like a
Gothic leader, opened the temple of the nation to the populace. She gave
us Abraham Lincoln, whose gaunt frontier form and gnarled, massive hand
told of the conflict with the forest, whose grasp of the ax-handle of
the pioneer was no firmer than his grasp of the helm of the ship of
state as it breasted the seas of civil war. She has furnished to this
new democracy her stores of mineral wealth, that dwarf those of the Old
World, and her provinces that in themselves are vaster and more
productive than most of the nations of Europe. Out of her bounty has
come a nation whose industrial competition alarms the Old World, and the
masters of whose resources wield wealth and power vaster than the wealth
and power of kings. Best of all, the West gave, not only to the
American, but to the unhappy and oppressed of all lands, a vision of
hope, and assurance that the world held a place where were to be found
high faith in man and the will and power to furnish him the opportunity
to grow to the full measure of his own capacity. Great and powerful as
are the new sons of her loins, the Republic is greater than they. The
paths of the pioneer have widened into broad highways. The forest
clearing has expanded into affluent commonwealths. Let us see to it that
the ideals of the pioneer in his log cabin shall enlarge into the
spiritual life of a democracy where civic power shall dominate and
utilize individual achievement for the common good.


FOOTNOTES:

[243:1] _Atlantic Monthly_, January, 1903. Reprinted by permission.

[248:1] See chapter iii.




X

PIONEER IDEALS AND THE STATE UNIVERSITY[269:1]


The ideals of a people, their aspirations and convictions, their hopes
and ambitions, their dreams and determinations, are assets in their
civilization as real and important as per capita wealth or industrial
skill.

This nation was formed under pioneer ideals. During three centuries
after Captain John Smith struck the first blow at the American forest on
the eastern edge of the continent, the pioneers were abandoning settled
society for the wilderness, seeking, for generation after generation,
new frontiers. Their experiences left abiding influences upon the ideas
and purposes of the nation. Indeed the older settled regions themselves
were shaped profoundly by the very fact that the whole nation was
pioneering and that in the development of the West the East had its own
part.

The first ideal of the pioneer was that of conquest. It was his task to
fight with nature for the chance to exist. Not as in older countries did
this contest take place in a mythical past, told in folk lore and epic.
It has been continuous to our own day. Facing each generation of
pioneers was the unmastered continent. Vast forests blocked the way;
mountainous ramparts interposed; desolate, grass-clad prairies, barren
oceans of rolling plains, arid deserts, and a fierce race of savages,
all had to be met and defeated. The rifle and the ax are the symbols of
the backwoods pioneer. They meant a training in aggressive courage, in
domination, in directness of action, in destructiveness.

To the pioneer the forest was no friendly resource for posterity, no
object of careful economy. He must wage a hand-to-hand war upon it,
cutting and burning a little space to let in the light upon a dozen
acres of hard-won soil, and year after year expanding the clearing into
new woodlands against the stubborn resistance of primeval trunks and
matted roots. He made war against the rank fertility of the soil. While
new worlds of virgin land lay ever just beyond, it was idle to expect
the pioneer to stay his hand and turn to scientific farming. Indeed, as
Secretary Wilson has said, the pioneer would, in that case, have raised
wheat that no one wanted to eat, corn to store on the farm, and cotton
not worth the picking.

Thus, fired with the ideal of subduing the wilderness, the destroying
pioneer fought his way across the continent, masterful and wasteful,
preparing the way by seeking the immediate thing, rejoicing in rude
strength and wilful achievement.

But even this backwoodsman was more than a mere destroyer. He had
visions. He was finder as well as fighter--the trail-maker for
civilization, the inventor of new ways. Although Rudyard Kipling's
"Foreloper"[270:1] deals with the English pioneer in lands beneath the
Southern Cross, yet the poem portrays American traits as well:

     "The gull shall whistle in his wake, the blind wave break in fire,
     He shall fulfill God's utmost will, unknowing his desire;
     And he shall see old planets pass and alien stars arise,
     And give the gale his reckless sail in shadow of new skies.

     "Strong lust of gear shall drive him out and hunger arm his hand
     To wring food from desert nude, his foothold from the sand.
     His neighbors' smoke shall vex his eyes, their voices break his
         rest;
     He shall go forth till south is north, sullen and dispossessed;
     He shall desire loneliness and his desire shall bring
     Hard on his heels, a thousand wheels, a people and a king.

     "He shall come back on his own track, and by his scarce cool camp,
     There shall he meet the roaring street, the derrick and the stamp;
     For he must blaze a nation's way with hatchet and with brand,
     Till on his last won wilderness an empire's bulwarks stand."

This quest after the unknown, this yearning "beyond the sky line, where
the strange roads go down," is of the very essence of the backwoods
pioneer, even though he was unconscious of its spiritual significance.

The pioneer was taught in the school of experience that the crops of one
area would not do for a new frontier; that the scythe of the clearing
must be replaced by the reaper of the prairies. He was forced to make
old tools serve new uses; to shape former habits, institutions and ideas
to changed conditions; and to find new means when the old proved
inapplicable. He was building a new society as well as breaking new
soil; he had the ideal of nonconformity and of change. He rebelled
against the conventional.

Besides the ideals of conquest and of discovery, the pioneer had the
ideal of personal development, free from social and governmental
constraint. He came from a civilization based on individual competition,
and he brought the conception with him to the wilderness where a wealth
of resources, and innumerable opportunities gave it a new scope. The
prizes were for the keenest and the strongest; for them were the best
bottom lands, the finest timber tracts, the best salt-springs, the
richest ore beds; and not only these natural gifts, but also the
opportunities afforded in the midst of a forming society. Here were mill
sites, town sites, transportation lines, banking centers, openings in
the law, in politics--all the varied chances for advancement afforded in
a rapidly developing society where everything was open to him who knew
how to seize the opportunity.

The squatter enforced his claim to lands even against the government's
title by the use of extra-legal combinations and force. He appealed to
lynch law with little hesitation. He was impatient of any governmental
restriction upon his individual right to deal with the wilderness.

In our own day we sometimes hear of congressmen sent to jail for
violating land laws; but the different spirit in the pioneer days may be
illustrated by a speech of Delegate Sibley of Minnesota in Congress in
1852. In view of the fact that he became the State's first governor, a
regent of its university, president of its historical society, and a
doctor of laws of Princeton, we may assume that he was a pillar of
society. He said:

     The government has watched its public domain with jealous eye,
     and there are now enactments upon your statute books, aimed at
     the trespassers upon it, which should be expunged as a
     disgrace to the country and to the nineteenth century.
     Especially is he pursued with unrelenting severity, who has
     dared to break the silence of the primeval forest by the blows
     of the American ax. The hardy lumberman who has penetrated to
     the remotest wilds of the Northwest, to drag from their
     recesses the materials for building up towns and cities in the
     great valley of the Mississippi, has been particularly marked
     out as a victim. After enduring all the privations and
     subjecting himself to all the perils incident to his
     vocation--when he has toiled for months to add by his honest
     labor to the comfort of his fellow men, and to the aggregate
     wealth of the nation, he finds himself suddenly in the
     clutches of the law for trespassing on the public domain. The
     proceeds of his long winter's work are reft from him, and
     exposed to public sale for the benefit of his paternal
     government . . . and the object of this oppression and wrong
     is further harassed by vexatious law proceedings against him.

Sibley's protest in congress against these "outrages" by which the
northern lumbermen were "harassed" in their work of what would now be
called stealing government timber, aroused no protest from his
colleagues. No president called this congressman an undesirable citizen
or gave him over to the courts.

Thus many of the pioneers, following the ideal of the right of the
individual to rise, subordinated the rights of the nation and posterity
to the desire that the country should be "developed" and that the
individual should advance with as little interference as possible.
Squatter doctrines and individualism have left deep traces upon American
conceptions.

But quite as deeply fixed in the pioneer's mind as the ideal of
individualism was the ideal of democracy. He had a passionate hatred for
aristocracy, monopoly and special privilege; he believed in simplicity,
economy and in the rule of the people. It is true that he honored the
successful man, and that he strove in all ways to advance himself. But
the West was so free and so vast, the barriers to individual achievement
were so remote, that the pioneer was hardly conscious that any danger to
equality could come from his competition for natural resources. He
thought of democracy as in some way the result of our political
institutions, and he failed to see that it was primarily the result of
the free lands and immense opportunities which surrounded him.
Occasional statesmen voiced the idea that American democracy was based
on the abundance of unoccupied land, even in the first debates on the
public domain.

This early recognition of the influence of abundance of land in shaping
the economic conditions of American democracy is peculiarly significant
to-day in view of the practical exhaustion of the supply of cheap arable
public lands open to the poor man, and the coincident development of
labor unions to keep up wages.

Certain it is that the strength of democratic movements has chiefly lain
in the regions of the pioneer. "Our governments tend too much to
democracy," wrote Izard, of South Carolina, to Jefferson, in 1785. "A
handicraftsman thinks an apprenticeship necessary to make him acquainted
with his business. But our backcountrymen are of the opinion that a
politician may be born just as well as a poet."

The Revolutionary ideas, of course, gave a great impetus to democracy,
and in substantially every colony there was a double revolution, one for
independence and the other for the overthrow of aristocratic control.
But in the long run the effective force behind American democracy was
the presence of the practically free land into which men might escape
from oppression or inequalities which burdened them in the older
settlements. This possibility compelled the coastwise States to
liberalize the franchise; and it prevented the formation of a dominant
class, whether based on property or on custom. Among the pioneers one
man was as good as his neighbor. He had the same chance; conditions were
simple and free. Economic equality fostered political equality. An
optimistic and buoyant belief in the worth of the plain people, a
devout faith in man prevailed in the West. Democracy became almost the
religion of the pioneer. He held with passionate devotion the idea that
he was building under freedom a new society, based on self government,
and for the welfare of the average man.

And yet even as he proclaimed the gospel of democracy the pioneer showed
a vague apprehension lest the time be short--lest equality should not
endure--lest he might fall behind in the ascending movement of Western
society. This led him on in feverish haste to acquire advantages as
though he only half believed his dream. "Before him lies a boundless
continent," wrote De Tocqueville, in the days when pioneer democracy was
triumphant under Jackson, "and he urges forward as if time pressed and
he was afraid of finding no room for his exertions."

Even while Jackson lived, labor leaders and speculative thinkers were
demanding legislation to place a limit on the amount of land which one
person might acquire and to provide free farms. De Tocqueville saw the
signs of change. "Between the workman and the master," he said, "there
are frequent relations but no real association. . . . I am of the
opinion, upon the whole, that the manufacturing aristocracy which is
growing up under our eyes is one of the harshest which ever existed in
the world; . . . if ever a permanent inequality, of conditions and
aristocracy again penetrate into the world, it may be predicted that
this is the gate by which they will enter." But the sanative influences
of the free spaces of the West were destined to ameliorate labor's
condition, to afford new hopes and new faith to pioneer democracy, and
to postpone the problem.

As the settlers advanced into provinces whose area dwarfed that of the
older sections, pioneer democracy itself began to undergo changes, both
in its composition and in its processes of expansion. At the close of
the Civil War, when settlement was spreading with greatest vigor across
the Mississippi, the railways began their work as colonists. Their land
grants from the government, amounting altogether by 1871 to an area five
times that of the State of Pennsylvania, demanded purchasers, and so the
railroads pioneered the way for the pioneer.

The homestead law increased the tide of settlers. The improved farm
machinery made it possible for him to go boldly out on to the prairie
and to deal effectively with virgin soil in farms whose cultivated area
made the old clearings of the backwoodsman seem mere garden plots. Two
things resulted from these conditions, which profoundly modified pioneer
ideals. In the first place the new form of colonization demanded an
increasing use of capital; and the rapidity of the formation of towns,
the speed with which society developed, made men the more eager to
secure bank credit to deal with the new West. This made the pioneer more
dependent on the eastern economic forces. In the second place the farmer
became dependent as never before on transportation companies. In this
speculative movement the railroads, finding that they had pressed too
far in advance and had issued stock to freely for their earnings to
justify the face of the investment, came into collision with the pioneer
on the question of rates and of discriminations. The Greenback movement
and the Granger movements were appeals to government to prevent what the
pioneer thought to be invasions of pioneer democracy.

As the western settler began to face the problem of magnitude in the
areas he was occupying; as he began to adjust his life to the modern
forces of capital and to complex productive processes; as he began to
see that, go where he would, the question of credit and currency, of
transportation and distribution in general conditioned his success, he
sought relief by legislation. He began to lose his primitive attitude
of individualism, government began to look less like a necessary evil
and more like an instrument for the perpetuation of his democratic
ideals. In brief, the defenses of the pioneer democrat began to shift,
from free land to legislation, from the ideal of individualism to the
ideal of social control through regulation by law. He had no sympathy
with a radical reconstruction of society by the revolution of socialism;
even his alliances with the movement of organized labor, which
paralleled that of organized capital in the East, were only
half-hearted. But he was becoming alarmed over the future of the free
democratic ideal. The wisdom of his legislation it is not necessary to
discuss here. The essential point is that his conception of the right of
government to control social process had undergone a change. He was
coming to regard legislation as an instrument of social construction.
The individualism of the Kentucky pioneer of 1796 was giving way to the
Populism of the Kansas pioneer of 1896.

The later days of pioneer democracy are too familiar to require much
exposition. But they are profoundly significant. As the pioneer doctrine
of free competition for the resources of the nation revealed its
tendencies; as individual, corporation and trust, like the pioneer,
turned increasingly to legal devices to promote their contrasting
ideals, the natural resources were falling into private possession.
Tides of alien immigrants were surging into the country to replace the
old American stock in the labor market, to lower the standard of living
and to increase the pressure of population upon the land. These recent
foreigners have lodged almost exclusively in the dozen great centers of
industrial life, and there they have accented the antagonisms between
capital and labor by the fact that the labor supply has become
increasingly foreign born, and recruited from nationalities who arouse
no sympathy on the part of capital and little on the part of the
general public. Class distinctions are accented by national prejudices,
and democracy is thereby invaded. But even in the dull brains of great
masses of these unfortunates from southern and eastern Europe the idea
of America as the land of freedom and of opportunity to rise, the land
of pioneer democratic ideals, has found lodgment, and if it is given
time and is not turned into revolutionary lines it will fructify.

As the American pioneer passed on in advance of this new tide of
European immigration, he found lands increasingly limited. In place of
the old lavish opportunity for the settler to set his stakes where he
would, there were frantic rushes of thousands of eager pioneers across
the line of newly opened Indian reservations. Even in 1889, when
Oklahoma was opened to settlement, twenty thousand settlers crowded at
the boundaries, like straining athletes, waiting the bugle note that
should start the race across the line. To-day great crowds gather at the
land lotteries of the government as the remaining fragments of the
public domain are flung to hungry settlers.

Hundreds of thousands of pioneers from the Middle West have crossed the
national boundary into Canadian wheat fields eager to find farms for
their children, although under an alien flag. And finally the government
has taken to itself great areas of arid land for reclamation by costly
irrigation projects whereby to furnish twenty-acre tracts in the desert
to settlers under careful regulation of water rights. The government
supplies the capital for huge irrigation dams and reservoirs and builds
them itself. It owns and operates quarries, coal mines and timber to
facilitate this work. It seeks the remotest regions of the earth for
crops suitable for these areas. It analyzes the soils and tells the
farmer what and when and how to plant. It has even considered the rental
to manufacturers of the surplus water, electrical and steam power
generated in its irrigation works and the utilization of this power to
extract nitrates from the air to replenish worn-out soils. The pioneer
of the arid regions must be both a capitalist and the protégé of the
government.

Consider the contrast between the conditions of the pioneers at the
beginning and at the end of this period of development. Three hundred
years ago adventurous Englishmen on the coast of Virginia began the
attack on the wilderness. Three years ago the President of the United
States summoned the governors of forty-six states to deliberate upon the
danger of the exhaustion of the natural resources of the nation.[279:1]

The pressure of population upon the food supply is already felt and we
are at the beginning only of this transformation. It is profoundly
significant that at the very time when American democracy is becoming
conscious that its pioneer basis of free land and sparse population is
giving way, it is also brought face to face with the startling outcome
of its old ideals of individualism and exploitation under competition
uncontrolled by government. Pioneer society itself was not sufficiently
sophisticated to work out to its logical result the conception of the
self-made man. But the captains of industry by applying squatter
doctrines to the evolution of American industrial society, have made the
process so clear that he who runs may read. Contests imply alliances as
well as rivalries. The increasing magnitude of the areas to be dealt
with and the occurrences of times of industrial stress furnished
occasion for such unions. The panic of 1873 was followed by an
unprecedented combination of individual businesses and partnerships into
corporations. The panic of 1893 marked the beginning of an extraordinary
development of corporate combinations into pools and trusts, agreements
and absorptions, until, by the time of the panic of 1907, it seemed not
impossible that the outcome of free competition under individualism was
to be monopoly of the most important natural resources and processes by
a limited group of men whose vast fortunes were so invested in allied
and dependent industries that they constituted the dominating force in
the industrial life of the nation. The development of large scale
factory production, the benefit of combination in the competitive
struggle, and the tremendous advantage of concentration in securing
possession of the unoccupied opportunities, were so great that vast
accumulations of capital became the normal agency of the industrial
world. In almost exact ratio to the diminution of the supply of
unpossessed resources, combinations of capital have increased in
magnitude and in efficiency of conquest. The solitary backwoodsman
wielding his ax at the edge of a measureless forest is replaced by
companies capitalized at millions, operating railroads, sawmills, and
all the enginery of modern machinery to harvest the remaining
trees.[280:1]

A new national development is before us without the former safety valve
of abundant resources open to him who would take. Classes are becoming
alarmingly distinct: There is the demand on the one side voiced by Mr.
Harriman so well and by others since, that nothing must be done to
interfere with the early pioneer ideals of the exploitation and the
development of the country's wealth; that restrictive and reforming
legislation must on no account threaten prosperity even for a moment. In
fact, we sometimes hear in these days, from men of influence, serious
doubts of democracy, and intimations that the country would be better
off if it freely resigned itself to guidance by the geniuses who are
mastering the economic forces of the nation, and who, it is alleged,
would work out the prosperity of the United States more effectively, if
unvexed by politicians and people.

On the other hand, an inharmonious group of reformers are sounding the
warning that American democratic ideals and society are menaced and
already invaded by the very conditions that make this apparent
prosperity; that the economic resources are no longer limitless and
free; that the aggregate national wealth is increasing at the cost of
present social justice and moral health, and the future well-being of
the American people. The Granger and the Populist were prophets of this
reform movement. Mr. Bryan's Democracy, Mr. Debs' Socialism, and Mr.
Roosevelt's Republicanism all had in common the emphasis upon the need
of governmental regulation of industrial tendencies in the interest of
the common man; the checking of the power of those business Titans who
emerged successful out of the competitive individualism of pioneer
America. As land values rise, as meat and bread grow dearer, as the
process of industrial consolidation goes on, and as Eastern industrial
conditions spread across the West, the problems of traditional American
democracy will become increasingly grave.

The time has come when University men may well consider pioneer ideals,
for American society has reached the end of the first great period in
its formation. It must survey itself, reflect upon its origins, consider
what freightage of purposes it carried in its long march across the
continent, what ambitions it had for the man, what rôle it would play in
the world. How shall we conserve what was best in pioneer ideals? How
adjust the old conceptions to the changed conditions of modern life?

Other nations have been rich and prosperous and powerful. But the United
States has believed that it had an original contribution to make to the
history of society by the production of a self-determining,
self-restrained, intelligent democracy. It is in the Middle West that
society has formed on lines least like those of Europe. It is here, if
anywhere, that American democracy will make its stand against the
tendency to adjust to a European type.

This consideration gives importance to my final topic, the relation of
the University to pioneer ideals and to the changing conditions of
American democracy. President Pritchett of the Carnegie Foundation has
recently declared that in no other form of popular activity does a
nation or State so clearly reveal its ideals or the quality of its
civilization as in its system of education; and he finds, especially in
the State University, "a conception of education from the standpoint of
the whole people." "If our American democracy were to-day called to give
proof of its constructive ability," he says, "the State University and
the public school system which it crowns would be the strongest evidence
of its fitness which it could offer."

It may at least be conceded that an essential characteristic of the
State University is its democracy in the largest sense. The provision in
the Constitution of Indiana of 1816, so familiar to you all, for a
"general system of education ascending in regular gradations from
township schools to a State University, wherein tuition shall be gratis
and equally open to all," expresses the Middle Western conception born
in the days of pioneer society and doubtless deeply influenced by
Jeffersonian democracy.

The most obvious fact about these universities, perhaps, lies in their
integral relation with the public schools, whereby the pupil has pressed
upon him the question whether he shall go to college, and whereby the
road is made open and direct to the highest training. By this means the
State offers to every class the means of education, and even engages in
propaganda to induce students to continue. It sinks deep shafts through
the social strata to find the gold of real ability in the underlying
rock of the masses. It fosters that due degree of individualism which is
implied in the right of every human being to have opportunity to rise in
whatever directions his peculiar abilities entitle him to go,
subordinate to the welfare of the state. It keeps the avenues of
promotion to the highest offices, the highest honors, open to the
humblest and most obscure lad who has the natural gifts, at the same
time that it aids in the improvement of the masses.

Nothing in our educational history is more striking than the steady
pressure of democracy upon its universities to adapt them to the
requirements of all the people. From the State Universities of the
Middle West, shaped under pioneer ideals, have come the fuller
recognition of scientific studies, and especially those of applied
science devoted to the conquest of nature; the breaking down of the
traditional required curriculum; the union of vocational and college
work in the same institution; the development of agricultural and
engineering colleges and business courses; the training of lawyers,
administrators, public men, and journalists--all under the ideal of
service to democracy rather than of individual advancement alone. Other
universities do the same thing; but the head springs and the main
current of this great stream of tendency come from the land of the
pioneers, the democratic states of the Middle West. And the people
themselves, through their boards of trustees and the legislature, are in
the last resort the court of appeal as to the directions and conditions
of growth, as well as have the fountain of income from which these
universities derive their existence.

The State University has thus both a peculiar power in the directness of
its influence upon the whole people and a peculiar limitation in its
dependence upon the people. The ideals of the people constitute the
atmosphere in which it moves, though it can itself affect this
atmosphere. Herein is the source of its strength and the direction of
its difficulties. For to fulfil its mission of uplifting the state to
continuously higher levels the University must, in the words of Mr.
Bryce, "serve the time without yielding to it;" it must recognize new
needs without becoming subordinate to the immediately practical, to the
short-sightedly expedient. It must not sacrifice the higher efficiency
for the more obvious but lower efficiency. It must have the wisdom to
make expenditures for results which pay manifold in the enrichment of
civilization, but which are not immediate and palpable.

In the transitional condition of American democracy which I have tried
to indicate, the mission of the university is most important. The times
call for educated leaders. General experience and rule-of-thumb
information are inadequate for the solution of the problems of a
democracy which no longer owns the safety fund of an unlimited quantity
of untouched resources. Scientific farming must increase the yield of
the field, scientific forestry must economize the woodlands, scientific
experiment and construction by chemist, physicist, biologist and
engineer must be applied to all of nature's forces in our complex modern
society. The test tube and the microscope are needed rather than ax and
rifle in this new ideal of conquest. The very discoveries of science in
such fields as public health and manufacturing processes have made it
necessary to depend upon the expert, and if the ranks of experts are to
be recruited broadly from the democratic masses as well as from those of
larger means, the State Universities must furnish at least as liberal
opportunities for research and training as the universities based on
private endowments furnish. It needs no argument to show that it is not
to the advantage of democracy to give over the training of the expert
exclusively to privately endowed institutions.

But quite as much in the field of legislation and of public life in
general as in the industrial world is the expert needed. The industrial
conditions which shape society are too complex, problems of labor,
finance, social reform too difficult to be dealt with intelligently and
wisely without the leadership of highly educated men familiar with the
legislation and literature on social questions in other States and
nations.

By training in science, in law, politics, economics and history the
universities may supply from the ranks of democracy administrators,
legislators, judges and experts for commissions who shall
disinterestedly and intelligently mediate between contending interests.
When the words "capitalistic classes" and "the proletariate" can be used
and understood in America it is surely time to develop such men, with
the ideal of service to the State, who may help to break the force of
these collisions, to find common grounds between the contestants and to
possess the respect and confidence of all parties which are genuinely
loyal to the best American ideals.

The signs of such a development are already plain in the expert
commissions of some States; in the increasing proportion of university
men in legislatures; in the university men's influence in federal
departments and commissions. It is hardly too much to say that the best
hope of intelligent and principled progress in economic and social
legislation and administration lies in the increasing influence of
American universities. By sending out these open-minded experts, by
furnishing well-fitted legislators, public leaders and teachers, by
graduating successive armies of enlightened citizens accustomed to deal
dispassionately with the problems of modern life, able to think for
themselves, governed not by ignorance, by prejudice or by impulse, but
by knowledge and reason and high-mindedness, the State Universities will
safeguard democracy. Without such leaders and followers democratic
reactions may create revolutions, but they will not be able to produce
industrial and social progress. America's problem is not violently to
introduce democratic ideals, but to preserve and entrench them by
courageous adaptation to new conditions. Educated leadership sets
bulwarks against both the passionate impulses of the mob and the
sinister designs of those who would subordinate public welfare to
private greed. Lord Bacon's splendid utterance still rings true: "The
learning of the few is despotism; the learning of the many is liberty.
And intelligent and principled liberty is fame, wisdom and power."

There is a danger to the universities in this very opportunity. At first
pioneer democracy had scant respect for the expert. He believed that "a
fool can put on his coat better than a wise man can do it for him."
There is much truth in the belief; and the educated leader, even he who
has been trained under present university conditions, in direct contact
with the world about him, will still have to contend with this inherited
suspicion of the expert. But if he be well trained and worthy of his
training, if he be endowed with creative imagination and personality, he
will make good his leadership.

A more serious danger will come when the universities are fully
recognized as powerful factors in shaping the life of the State--not
mere cloisters, remote from its life, but an influential element in its
life. Then it may easily happen that the smoke of the battle-field of
political and social controversy will obscure their pure air, that
efforts will be made to stamp out the exceptional doctrine and the
exceptional man. Those who investigate and teach within the university
walls must respond to the injunction of the church, "_Sursum
corda_"--lift up the heart to high thinking and impartial search for
the unsullied truth in the interests of all the people; this is the holy
grail of the universities.

That they may perform their work they must be left free, as the pioneer
was free, to explore new regions and to report what they find; for like
the pioneers they have the ideal of investigation, they seek new
horizons. They are not tied to past knowledge; they recognize the fact
that the universe still abounds in mystery, that science and society
have not crystallized, but are still growing and need their pioneer
trail-makers. New and beneficent discoveries in nature, new and
beneficial discoveries in the processes and directions of the growth of
society, substitutes for the vanishing material basis of pioneer
democracy may be expected if the university pioneers are left free to
seek the trail.

In conclusion, the university has a duty in adjusting pioneer ideals to
the new requirements of American democracy, even more important than
those which I have named. The early pioneer was an individualist and a
seeker after the undiscovered; but he did not understand the richness
and complexity of life as a whole; he did not fully realize his
opportunities of individualism and discovery. He stood in his somber
forest as the traveler sometimes stands in a village on the Alps when
the mist has shrouded everything, and only the squalid hut, the stony
field, the muddy pathway are in view. But suddenly a wind sweeps the fog
away. Vast fields of radiant snow and sparkling ice lie before him;
profound abysses open at his feet; and as he lifts his eyes the
unimaginable peak of the Matterhorn cleaves the thin air, far, far
above. A new and unsuspected world is revealed all about him. Thus it is
the function of the university to reveal to the individual the mystery
and the glory of life as a whole--to open all the realms of rational
human enjoyment and achievement; to preserve the consciousness of the
past; to spread before the eye the beauty of the universe; and to throw
wide its portals of duty and of power to the human soul. It must honor
the poet and painter, the writer and the teacher, the scientist and the
inventor, the musician and the prophet of righteousness--the men of
genius in all fields who make life nobler. It must call forth anew, and
for finer uses, the pioneer's love of creative individualism and provide
for it a spiritual atmosphere friendly to the development of personality
in all uplifting ways. It must check the tendency to act in mediocre
social masses with undue emphasis upon the ideals of prosperity and
politics. In short, it must summon ability of all kinds to joyous and
earnest effort for the welfare and the spiritual enrichment of society.
It must awaken new tastes and ambitions among the people.

The light of these university watch towers should flash from State to
State until American democracy itself is illuminated with higher and
broader ideals of what constitutes service to the State and to mankind;
of what are prizes; of what is worthy of praise and reward. So long as
success in amassing great wealth for the aggrandizement of the
individual is the exclusive or the dominant standard of success, so long
as material prosperity, regardless of the conditions of its cost, or the
civilization which results, is the shibboleth, American democracy, that
faith in the common man which the pioneer cherishes, is in danger. For
the strongest will make their way unerringly to whatever goal society
sets up as the mark of conceded preëminence. What more effective agency
is there for the cultivation of the seed wheat of ideals than the
university? Where can we find a more promising body of sowers of the
grain?

The pioneer's clearing must be broadened into a domain where all that is
worthy of human endeavor may find fertile soil on which to grow; and
America must exact of the constructive business geniuses who owe their
rise to the freedom of pioneer democracy supreme allegiance and devotion
to the commonweal. In fostering such an outcome and in tempering the
asperities of the conflicts that must precede its fulfilment, the nation
has no more promising agency than the State Universities, no more
hopeful product than their graduates.


FOOTNOTES:

[269:1] Commencement Address at the University of Indiana, 1910.

[270:1] [Printed from an earlier version; since published in his "Songs
from Books," p. 93, under the title, "The Voortrekker." Even fuller of
insight into the idealistic side of the frontier, is his "Explorer," in
"Collected Verse," p. 19.]

[279:1] Written in 1910.

[280:1] Omissions from the original are incorporated in later chapters.




XI

THE WEST AND AMERICAN IDEALS[290:1]


True to American traditions that each succeeding generation ought to
find in the Republic a better home, once in every year the colleges and
universities summon the nation to lift its eyes from the routine of
work, in order to take stock of the country's purposes and achievements,
to examine its past and consider its future.

This attitude of self-examination is hardly characteristic of the people
as a whole. Particularly it is not characteristic of the historic
American. He has been an opportunist rather than a dealer in general
ideas. Destiny set him in a current which bore him swiftly along through
such a wealth of opportunity that reflection and well-considered
planning seemed wasted time. He knew not where he was going, but he was
on his way, cheerful, optimistic, busy and buoyant.

To-day we are reaching a changed condition, less apparent perhaps, in
the newer regions than in the old, but sufficiently obvious to extend
the commencement frame of mind from the college to the country as a
whole. The swift and inevitable current of the upper reaches of the
nation's history has borne it to the broader expanse and slower
stretches which mark the nearness of the level sea. The vessel, no
longer carried along by the rushing waters, finds it necessary to
determine its own directions on this new ocean of its future, to give
conscious consideration to its motive power and to its steering gear.

It matters not so much that those who address these college men and
women upon life, give conflicting answers to the questions of whence and
whither: the pause for remembrance, for reflection and for aspiration is
wholesome in itself.

Although the American people are becoming more self-conscious, more
responsive to the appeal to act by deliberate choices, we should be
over-sanguine if we believed that even in this new day these
commencement surveys were taken to heart by the general public, or that
they were directly and immediately influential upon national thought and
action.

But even while we check our enthusiasm by this realization of the common
thought, we must take heart. The University's peculiar privilege and
distinction lie in the fact that it is not the passive instrument of the
State to voice its current ideas. Its problem is not that of expressing
tendencies. Its mission is to create tendencies and to direct them. Its
problem is that of leadership and of ideals. It is called, of course, to
justify the support which the public gives it, by working in close and
sympathetic touch with those it serves. More than that, it would lose
important element of strength if it failed to recognize the fact that
improvement and creative movement often come from the masses themselves,
instinctively moving toward a better order. The University's graduates
must be fitted to take their places naturally and effectually in the
common life of the time.

But the University is called especially to justify its existence by
giving to its sons and daughters something which they could not well
have gotten through the ordinary experiences of the life outside its
walls. It is called to serve the time by independent research and by
original thought. If it were a mere recording instrument of conventional
opinion and average information, it is hard to see why the University
should exist at all. To clasp hands with the common life in order that
it may lift that life, to be a radiant center enkindling the society in
which it has its being, these are primary duties of the University.
Fortunate the State which gives free play to this spirit of inquiry. Let
it "grubstake" its intellectual prospectors and send them forth where
"the trails run out and stop." A famous scientist holds that the
universal ether bears vital germs which impinging upon a dead world
would bring life to it. So, at least it is, in the world of thought,
where energized ideals put in the air and carried here and there by the
waves and currents of the intellectual atmosphere, fertilize vast inert
areas.

The University, therefore, has a double duty. On the one hand it must
aid in the improvement of the general economic and social environment.
It must help on in the work of scientific discovery and of making such
conditions of existence, economic, political and social, as will produce
more fertile and responsive soil for a higher and better life. It must
stimulate a wider demand on the part of the public for right leadership.
It must extend its operations more widely among the people and sink
deeper shafts through social strata to find new supplies of intellectual
gold in popular levels yet untouched. And on the other hand, it must
find and fit men and women for leadership. It must both awaken new
demands and it must satisfy those demands by trained leaders with new
motives, with new incentives to ambition, with higher and broader
conception of what constitute the prize in life, of what constitutes
success. The University has to deal with both the soil and sifted seed
in the agriculture of the human spirit.

Its efficiency is not the efficiency which the business engineer is
fitted to appraise. If it is a training ship, it is a training ship
bound on a voyage of discovery, seeking new horizons. The economy of the
University's consumption can only be rightly measured by the later times
which shall possess those new realms of the spirit which its voyage
shall reveal. If the ships of Columbus had engaged in a profitable
coastwise traffic between Palos and Cadiz they might have saved sail
cloth, but their keels would never have grated on the shores of a New
World.

The appeal of the undiscovered is strong in America. For three centuries
the fundamental process in its history was the westward movement, the
discovery and occupation of the vast free spaces of the continent. We
are the first generation of Americans who can look back upon that era as
a historic movement now coming to its end. Other generations have been
so much a part of it that they could hardly comprehend its significance.
To them it seemed inevitable. The free land and the natural resources
seemed practically inexhaustible. Nor were they aware of the fact that
their most fundamental traits, their institutions, even their ideals
were shaped by this interaction between the wilderness and themselves.

American democracy was born of no theorist's dream; it was not carried
in the _Susan Constant_ to Virginia, nor in the _Mayflower_ to Plymouth.
It came out of the American forest, and it gained new strength each time
it touched a new frontier. Not the constitution, but free land and an
abundance of natural resources open to a fit people, made the democratic
type of society in America for three centuries while it occupied its
empire.

To-day we are looking with a shock upon a changed world. The national
problem is no longer how to cut and burn away the vast screen of the
dense and daunting forest; it is how to save and wisely use the
remaining timber. It is no longer how to get the great spaces of
fertile prairie land in humid zones out of the hands of the government
into the hands of the pioneer; these lands have already passed into
private possession. No longer is it a question of how to avoid or cross
the Great Plains and the arid desert. It is a question of how to conquer
those rejected lands by new method of farming and by cultivating new
crops from seed collected by the government and by scientists from the
cold, dry steppes of Siberia, the burning sands of Egypt, and the remote
interior of China. It is a problem of how to bring the precious rills of
water on to the alkali and sage brush. Population is increasing faster
than the food supply.

New farm lands no longer increase decade after decade in areas equal to
those of European states. While the ratio of increase of improved land
declines, the value of farm lands rise and the price of food leaps
upward, reversing the old ratio between the two. The cry of scientific
farming and the conservation of natural resources replaces the cry of
rapid conquest of the wilderness. We have so far won our national home,
wrested from it its first rich treasures, and drawn to it the
unfortunate of other lands, that we are already obliged to compare
ourselves with settled states of the Old World. In place of our attitude
of contemptuous indifference to the legislation of such countries as
Germany and England, even Western States like Wisconsin send commissions
to study their systems of taxation, workingmen's insurance, old age
pensions and a great variety of other remedies for social ills.

If we look about the periphery of the nation, everywhere we see the
indications that our world is changing. On the streets of Northeastern
cities like New York and Boston, the faces which we meet are to a
surprising extent those of Southeastern Europe. Puritan New England,
which turned its capital into factories and mills and drew to its shores
an army of cheap labor, governed these people for a time by a ruling
class like an upper stratum between which and the lower strata there was
no assimilation. There was no such evolution into an assimilated
commonwealth as is seen in Middle Western agricultural States, where
immigrant and old native stock came in together and built up a
homogeneous society on the principle of give and take. But now the
Northeastern coast finds its destiny, politically and economically,
passing away from the descendants of the Puritans. It is the little
Jewish boy, the Greek or the Sicilian, who takes the traveler through
historic streets, now the home of these newer people to the Old North
Church or to Paul Revere's house, or to Tea Wharf, and tells you in his
strange patois the story of revolution against oppression.

Along the Southern Atlantic and the Gulf coast, in spite of the
preservative influence of the negro, whose presence has always called
out resistance to change on the part of the whites, the forces of social
and industrial transformation are at work. The old tidewater aristocracy
has surrendered to the up-country democrats. Along the line of the
Alleghanies like an advancing column, the forces of Northern capital,
textile and steel mills, year after year extend their invasion into the
lower South. New Orleans, once the mistress of the commerce of the
Mississippi Valley, is awakening to new dreams of world commerce. On the
southern border, similar invasions of American capital have been
entering Mexico. At the same time, the opening of the Panama Canal has
completed the dream of the ages of the Straits of Anian between Atlantic
and Pacific. Four hundred years ago, Balboa raised the flag of Spain at
the edge of the Sea of the West and we are now preparing to celebrate
both that anniversary, and the piercing of the continent. New relations
have been created between Spanish America and the United States and the
world is watching the mediation of Argentina, Brazil and Chile between
the contending forces of Mexico and the Union. Once more alien national
interests lie threatening at our borders, but we no longer appeal to the
Monroe Doctrine and send our armies of frontiersmen to settle our
concerns off-hand. We take council with European nations and with the
sisterhood of South America, and propose a remedy of social
reorganization in place of imperious will and force. Whether the effort
will succeed or not, it is a significant indication that an old order is
passing away, when such a solution is undertaken by a President of
Scotch Presbyterian stock, born in the State of Virginia.

If we turn to the Northern border, where we are about to celebrate a
century of peace with England, we see in progress, like a belated
procession of our own history the spread of pioneers, the opening of new
wildernesses, the building of new cities, the growth of a new and mighty
nation. That old American advance of the wheat farmer from the
Connecticut to the Mohawk, and the Genesee, from the Great Valley of
Pennsylvania to the Ohio Valley and the prairies of the Middle West, is
now by its own momentum and under the stimulus of Canadian homesteads
and the high price of wheat, carried across the national border to the
once lone plains where the Hudson Bay dog trains crossed the desolate
snows of the wild North Land. In the Pacific Northwest the era of
construction has not ended, but it is so rapidly in progress that we can
already see the closing of the age of the pioneer. Already Alaska
beckons on the north, and pointing to her wealth of natural resources
asks the nation on what new terms the new age will deal with her. Across
the Pacific looms Asia, no longer a remote vision and a symbol of the
unchanging, but borne as by mirage close to our shores and raising grave
questions of the common destiny of the people of the ocean. The dreams
of Benton and of Seward of a regenerated Orient, when the long march of
westward civilization should complete its circle, seem almost to be in
process of realization. The age of the Pacific Ocean begins, mysterious
and unfathomable in its meaning for our own future.

Turning to view the interior, we see the same picture of change. When
the Superintendent of the Census in 1890 declared the frontier line no
longer traceable, the beginning of the rush into Oklahoma had just
occurred. Here where the broken fragments of Indian nations from the
East had been gathered and where the wilder tribes of the Southwest were
being settled, came the rush of the land-hungry pioneer. Almost at a
blow the old Indian territory passed away, populous cities came into
being and it was not long before gushing oil wells made a new era of
sudden wealth. The farm lands of the Middle West taken as free
homesteads or bought for a mere pittance, have risen so in value that
the original owners have in an increasing degree either sold them in
order to reinvest in the newer cheap lands of the West, or have moved
into the town and have left the tillage to tenant farmers. The growth of
absentee ownership of the soil is producing a serious problem in the
former centers of the Granger and the Populist. Along the Old Northwest
the Great Lakes are becoming a new Mediterranean Sea joining the realms
of wheat and iron ore, at one end with the coal and furnaces of the
forks of the Ohio, where the most intense and wide-reaching center of
industrial energy exists. City life like that of the East, manufactures
and accumulated capital, seem to be reproducing in the center of the
Republic the tendencies already so plain on the Atlantic Coast.

Across the Great Plains where buffalo and Indian held sway successive
industrial waves are passing. The old free range gave place to the
ranch, the ranch to the homestead and now in places in the arid lands
the homestead is replaced by the ten or twenty acre irrigated fruit
farm. The age of cheap land, cheap corn and wheat, and cheap cattle has
gone forever. The federal government has undertaken vast paternal
enterprises of reclamation of the desert.

In the Rocky Mountains where at the time of Civil War, the first
important rushes to gold and silver mines carried the frontier backward
on a march toward the east, the most amazing transformations have
occurred. Here, where prospectors made new trails, and lived the wild
free life of mountain men, here where the human spirit seemed likely to
attain the largest measure of individual freedom, and where fortune
beckoned to the common man, have come revolutions wrought by the demand
for organized industry and capital. In the regions where the popular
tribunal and the free competitive life flourished, we have seen law and
order break down in the unmitigated collision of great aggregations of
capital, with each other and with organized socialistic labor. The
Cripple Creek strikes, the contests at Butte, the Goldfield mobs, the
recent Colorado fighting, all tell a similar story,--the solid impact of
contending forces in regions where civic power and loyalty to the State
have never fully developed. Like the Grand Cañon, where in dazzling
light the huge geologic history is written so large that none may fail
to read it, so in the Rocky Mountains the dangers of modern American
industrial tendencies have been exposed.

As we crossed the Cascades on our way to Seattle, one of the passengers
was moved to explain his feeling on the excellence of Puget Sound in
contrast with the remaining visible Universe. He did it well in spite of
irreverent interruptions from those fellow travelers who were
unconverted children of the East, and at last he broke forth in
passionate challenge, "Why should I not love Seattle! It took me from
the slums of the Atlantic Coast, a poor Swedish boy with hardly fifteen
dollars in my pocket. It gave me a home by the beautiful sea; it spread
before my eyes a vision of snow-capped peaks and smiling fields; it
brought abundance and a new life to me and my children and I love it, I
love it! If I were a multi-millionaire I would charter freight cars and
carry away from the crowded tenements and noisome alleys of the eastern
cities and the Old World the toiling masses, and let them loose in our
vast forests and ore-laden mountains to learn what life really is!" And
my heart was stirred by his words and by the whirling spaces of woods
and peaks through which we passed.

But as I looked and listened to this passionate outcry, I remembered the
words of Talleyrand, the exiled Bishop of Autun, in Washington's
administration. Looking down from an eminence not far from Philadelphia
upon a wilderness which is now in the heart of that huge industrial
society where population presses on the means of life, even the
cold-blooded and cynical Talleyrand, gazing on those unpeopled hills and
forests, kindled with the vision of coming clearings, the smiling farms
and grazing herds that were to be, the populous towns that should be
built, the newer and finer social organization that should there arise.
And then I remembered the hall in Harvard's museum of social ethics
through which I pass to my lecture room when I speak on the history of
the Westward movement. That hall is covered with an exhibit of the work
in Pittsburgh steel mills, and of the congested tenements. Its charts
and diagrams tell of the long hours of work, the death rate, the
relation of typhoid to the slums, the gathering of the poor of all
Southeastern Europe to make a civilization at that center of American
industrial energy and vast capital that is a social tragedy. As I enter
my lecture room through that hall, I speak of the young Washington
leading his Virginia frontiersmen to the magnificent forest at the
forks of the Ohio. Where Braddock and his men, "carving a cross on the
wilderness rim," were struck by the painted savages in the primeval
woods, huge furnaces belch forth perpetual fires and Huns and Bulgars,
Poles and Sicilians struggle for a chance to earn their daily bread, and
live a brutal and degraded life. Irresistibly there rushed across my
mind the memorable words of Huxley:

     "Even the best of modern civilization appears to me to exhibit
     a condition of mankind which neither embodies any worthy ideal
     nor even possesses the merit of stability. I do not hesitate
     to express the opinion that, if there is no hope of a large
     improvement of the condition of the greater part of the human
     family; if it is true that the increase of knowledge, the
     winning of a greater dominion over Nature, which is its
     consequence, and the wealth which follows upon that dominion,
     are to make no difference in the extent and the intensity of
     Want, with its concomitant physical and moral degradation,
     among the masses of the people, I should hail the advent of
     some kindly comet, which would sweep the whole affair away, as
     a desirable consummation."

But if there is disillusion and shock and apprehension as we come to
realize these changes, to strong men and women there is challenge and
inspiration in them too. In place of old frontiers of wilderness, there
are new frontiers of unwon fields of science, fruitful for the needs of
the race; there are frontiers of better social domains yet unexplored.
Let us hold to our attitude of faith and courage, and creative zeal.
Let us dream as our fathers dreamt and let us make our dreams come
true.

     "Daughters of Time, the hypocritic days,
     Muffled and dumb like barefoot dervishes,
     And marching single in an endless file,
     Bear diadems and fagots in their hands.
     To each they offer gifts after his will
     Bread, kingdoms, stars, and sky that hold them all.
     I, in my pleachéd garden watched the pomp,
     Forgot my morning wishes, hastily
     Took a few herbs and apples and the day
     Turned and departed silent. I, too late,
     Under her solemn fillet, saw the scorn!"

What were America's "morning wishes"? From the beginning of that long
westward march of the American people America has never been the home of
mere contented materialism. It has continuously sought new ways and
dreamed of a perfected social type.

In the fifteenth century when men dealt with the New World which
Columbus found, the ideal of discovery was dominant. Here was placed
within the reach of men whose ideas had been bounded by the Atlantic,
new realms to be explored. America became the land of European dreams,
its Fortunate Islands were made real, where, in the imagination of old
Europe, peace and happiness, as well as riches and eternal youth, were
to be found. To Sir Edwin Sandys and his friends of the London Company,
Virginia offered an opportunity to erect the Republic for which they had
longed in vain in England. To the Puritans, New England was the new land
of freedom, wherein they might establish the institutions of God,
according to their own faith. As the vision died away in Virginia toward
the close of the seventeenth century, it was taken up anew by the fiery
Bacon with his revolution to establish a real democracy in place of the
rule of the planter aristocracy, that formed along the coast. Hardly
had he been overthrown when in the eighteenth century, the democratic
ideal was rejuvenated by the strong frontiersmen, who pressed beyond the
New England Coast into the Berkshires and up the valleys of the Green
Mountains of Vermont, and by the Scotch-Irish and German pioneers who
followed the Great Valley from Pennsylvania into the Upland South. In
both the Yankee frontiersmen and the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians of the
South, the Calvinistic conception of the importance of the individual,
bound by free covenant to his fellow men and to God, was a compelling
influence, and all their wilderness experience combined to emphasize the
ideals of opening new ways, of giving freer play to the individual, and
of constructing democratic society.

When the backwoodsmen crossed the Alleghanies they put between
themselves and the Atlantic Coast a barrier which seemed to separate
them from a region already too much like the Europe they had left, and
as they followed the courses of the rivers that flowed to the
Mississippi, they called themselves "Men of the Western Waters," and
their new home in the Mississippi Valley was the "Western World." Here,
by the thirties, Jacksonian democracy flourished, strong in the faith of
the intrinsic excellence of the common man, in his right to make his own
place in the world, and in his capacity to share in government. But
while Jacksonian democracy demanded these rights, it was also loyal to
leadership as the very name implies. It was ready to follow to the
uttermost the man in whom it placed its trust, whether the hero were
frontier fighter or president, and it even rebuked and limited its own
legislative representatives and recalled its senators when they ran
counter to their chosen executive. Jacksonian democracy was essentially
rural. It was based on the good fellowship and genuine social feeling of
the frontier, in which classes and inequalities of fortune played
little part. But it did not demand equality of condition, for there was
abundance of natural resources and the belief that the self-made man had
a right to his success in the free competition which western life
afforded, was as prominent in their thought as was the love of
democracy. On the other hand, they viewed governmental restraints with
suspicion as a limitation on their right to work out their own
individuality.

For the banking institutions and capitalists of the East they had an
instinctive antipathy. Already they feared that the "money power" as
Jackson called it, was planning to make hewers of wood and drawers of
water of the common people.

In this view they found allies among the labor leaders of the East, who
in the same period began their fight for better conditions of the wage
earner. These Locofocos were the first Americans to demand fundamental
social changes for the benefit of the workers in the cities. Like the
Western pioneers, they protested against monopolies and special
privilege. But they also had a constructive policy, whereby society was
to be kept democratic by free gifts of the public land, so that surplus
labor might not bid against itself, but might find an outlet in the
West. Thus to both the labor theorist and the practical pioneer, the
existence of what seemed inexhaustible cheap land and unpossessed
resources was the condition of democracy. In these years of the thirties
and forties, Western democracy took on its distinctive form. Travelers
like De Tocqueville and Harriet Martineau, came to study and to report
it enthusiastically to Europe.

Side by side with this westward marching army of individualistic
liberty-loving democratic backwoodsmen, went a more northern stream of
pioneers, who cherished similar ideas, but added to them the desire to
create new industrial centers, to build up factories, to build
railroads, and to develop the country by founding cities and extending
prosperity. They were ready to call upon legislatures to aid in this, by
subscriptions to stock, grants of franchises, promotion of banking and
internal improvements. These were the Whig followers of that other
Western leader, Henry Clay, and their early strength lay in the Ohio
Valley, and particularly among the well-to-do. In the South their
strength was found among the aristocracy of the Cotton Kingdom.

Both of these Western groups, Whigs and Democrats alike, had one common
ideal: the desire to leave their children a better heritage than they
themselves had received, and both were fired with devotion to the ideal
of creating in this New World a home more worthy of mankind. Both were
ready to break with the past, to boldly strike out new lines of social
endeavor, and both believed in American expansion.

Before these tendencies had worked themselves out, three new forces
entered. In the sudden extension of our boundaries to the Pacific Coast,
which took place in the forties, the nation won so vast a domain that
its resources seemed illimitable and its society seemed able to throw
off all its maladies by the very presence of these vast new spaces. At
the same period the great activity of railroad building to the
Mississippi Valley occurred, making these lands available and diverting
attention to the task of economic construction. The third influence was
the slavery question which, becoming acute, shaped the American ideals
and public discussion for nearly a generation. Viewed from one angle,
this struggle involved the great question of national unity. From
another it involved the question of the relations of labor and capital,
democracy and aristocracy. It was not without significance that Abraham
Lincoln became the very type of American pioneer democracy, the first
adequate and elemental demonstration to the world that that democracy
could produce a man who belonged to the ages.

After the war, new national energies were set loose, and new
construction and development engaged the attention of the Westerners as
they occupied prairies and Great Plains and mountains. Democracy and
capitalistic development did not seem antagonistic.

With the passing of the frontier, Western social and political ideals
took new form. Capital began to consolidate in even greater masses, and
increasingly attempted to reduce to system and control the processes of
industrial development. Labor with equal step organized its forces to
destroy the old competitive system. It is not strange that the Western
pioneers took alarm for their ideals of democracy as the outcome of the
free struggle for the national resources became apparent. They espoused
the cause of governmental activity.

It was a new gospel, for the Western radical became convinced that he
must sacrifice his ideal of individualism and free competition in order
to maintain his ideal of democracy. Under this conviction the Populist
revised the pioneer conception of government. He saw in government no
longer something outside of him, but the people themselves shaping their
own affairs. He demanded therefore an extension of the powers of
governments in the interest of his historic ideal of democratic society.
He demanded not only free silver, but the ownership of the agencies of
communication and transportation, the income tax, the postal savings
bank, the provision of means of credit for agriculture, the construction
of more effective devices to express the will of the people, primary
nominations, direct elections, initiative, referendum and recall. In a
word, capital, labor, and the Western pioneer, all deserted the ideal of
competitive individualism in order to organize their interests in more
effective combinations. The disappearance of the frontier, the closing
of the era which was marked by the influence of the West as a form of
society, brings with it new problems of social adjustment, new demands
for considering our past ideals and our present needs.

Let us recall the conditions of the foreign relations along our borders,
the dangers that wait us if we fail to unite in the solution of our
domestic problems. Let us recall those internal evidences of the
destruction of our old social order. If we take to heart this warning,
we shall do well also to recount our historic ideals, to take stock of
those purposes, and fundamental assumptions that have gone to make the
American spirit and the meaning of America in world history.

First of all, there was the ideal of discovery, the courageous
determination to break new paths, indifference to the dogma that because
an institution or a condition exists, it must remain. All American
experience has gone to the making of the spirit of innovation; it is in
the blood and will not be repressed.

Then, there was the ideal of democracy, the ideal of a free
self-directing people, responsive to leadership in the forming of
programs and their execution, but insistent that the procedure should be
that of free choice, not of compulsion.

But there was also the ideal of individualism. This democratic society
was not a disciplined army, where all must keep step and where the
collective interests destroyed individual will and work. Rather it was a
mobile mass of freely circulating atoms, each seeking its own place and
finding play for its own powers and for its own original initiative. We
cannot lay too much stress upon this point, for it was at the very heart
of the whole American movement. The world was to be made a better world
by the example of a democracy in which there was freedom of the
individual, in which there was the vitality and mobility productive of
originality and variety.

Bearing in mind the far-reaching influence of the disappearance of
unlimited resources open to all men for the taking, and considering the
recoil of the common man when he saw the outcome of the competitive
struggle for these resources as the supply came to its end over most of
the nation, we can understand the reaction against individualism and in
favor of drastic assertion of the powers of government. Legislation is
taking the place of the free lands as the means of preserving the ideal
of democracy. But at the same time it is endangering the other pioneer
ideal of creative and competitive individualism. Both were essential and
constituted what was best in America's contribution to history and to
progress. Both must be preserved if the nation would be true to its
past, and would fulfil its highest destiny. It would be a grave
misfortune if these people so rich in experience, in self-confidence and
aspiration, in creative genius, should turn to some Old World discipline
of socialism or plutocracy, or despotic rule, whether by class or by
dictator. Nor shall we be driven to these alternatives. Our ancient
hopes, our courageous faith, our underlying good humor and love of fair
play will triumph in the end. There will be give and take in all
directions. There will be disinterested leadership, under loyalty to the
best American ideals. Nowhere is this leadership more likely to arise
than among the men trained in the Universities, aware of the promise of
the past and the possibilities of the future. The times call for new
ambitions and new motives.

In a most suggestive essay on the Problems of Modern Democracy, Mr.
Godkin has said:

     M. de Tocqueville and all his followers take it for granted
     that the great incentive to excellence, in all countries in
     which excellence is found, is the patronage and encouragement
     of an aristocracy; that democracy is generally content with
     mediocrity. But where is the proof of this? The incentive to
     exertion which is widest, most constant, and most powerful in
     its operations in all civilized countries, is the desire of
     distinction; and this may be composed either of love of fame
     or love of wealth or of both. In literary and artistic and
     scientific pursuits, sometimes the strongest influence is
     exerted by a love of the subject. But it may safely be said
     that no man has ever labored in any of the higher colleges to
     whom the applause and appreciation of his fellows was not one
     of the sweetest rewards of his exertions.

     What is there we would ask, in the nature of democratic
     institutions, that should render this great spring of action
     powerless, that should deprive glory of all radiance, and put
     ambition to sleep? Is it not notorious, on the contrary, that
     one of the most marked peculiarities of democratic society, or
     of a society drifting toward democracy, is the fire of
     competition which rages in it, the fevered anxiety which
     possesses all its members to rise above the dead level to
     which the law is ever seeking to confine them, and by some
     brilliant stroke become something higher and more remarkable
     than their fellows? The secret of that great restlessness
     which is one of the most disagreeable accompaniments of life
     in democratic countries, is in fact due to the eagerness of
     everybody to grasp the prizes of which in aristocratic
     countries, only the few have much chance. And in no other
     society is success more worshiped, is distinction of any kind
     more widely flattered and caressed.

     In democratic societies, in fact, excellence is the first
     title to distinction; in aristocratic ones there are two or
     three others which are far stronger and which must be stronger
     or aristocracy could not exist. The moment you acknowledge
     that the highest social position ought to be the reward of the
     man who has the most talent, you make aristocratic
     institutions impossible.

All that was buoyant and creative in American life would be lost if we
gave up the respect for distinct personality, and variety in genius, and
came to the dead level of common standards. To be "socialized into an
average" and placed "under the tutelage of the mass of us," as a recent
writer has put it, would be an irreparable loss. Nor is it necessary in
a democracy, as these words of Godkin well disclose. What is needed is
the multiplication of motives for ambition and the opening of new lines
of achievement for the strongest. As we turn from the task of the first
rough conquest of the continent there lies before us a whole wealth of
unexploited resources in the realm of the spirit. Arts and letters,
science and better social creation, loyalty and political service to the
commonweal,--these and a thousand other directions of activity are open
to the men, who formerly under the incentive of attaining distinction by
amassing extraordinary wealth, saw success only in material display.
Newer and finer careers will open to the ambitious when once public
opinion shall award the laurels to those who rise above their fellows in
these new fields of labor. It has not been the gold, but the getting of
the gold, that has caught the imaginations of our captains of industry.
Their real enjoyment lay not in the luxuries which wealth brought, but
in the work of construction and in the place which society awarded them.
A new era will come if schools and universities can only widen the
intellectual horizon of the people, help to lay the foundations of a
better industrial life, show them new goals for endeavor, inspire them
with more varied and higher ideals.

The Western spirit must be invoked for new and nobler achievements. Of
that matured Western spirit, Tennyson's Ulysses is a symbol.

     ". . . I am become a name
     For always roaming with an hungry heart,
     Much have I seen and known . . .
     I am a part of all that I have met;
     Yet all experience is an arch, where thro'
     Gleams that untravelled world, whose margin fades
     Forever and forever when I move.
     How dull it is to pause, to make an end,
     To rust unburnished, not to shine in use!

            *       *       *       *       *

     And this gray spirit yearning in desire
     To follow knowledge like a shining star
     Beyond the utmost hound of human thought.
     . . . Come my friends,
     'Tis not too late to seek a newer world.
     Push off, and sitting well in order smite
     The sounding furrows; for my purpose holds
     To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths
     Of all the Western stars until I die

            *       *       *       *       *

     To strive, to seek, to find and not to yield."


FOOTNOTES:

[290:1] Commencement Address, University of Washington, June 17, 1914.
Reprinted by permission from _The Washington Historical Quarterly_,
October, 1914.




XII

SOCIAL FORCES IN AMERICAN HISTORY[311:1]


The transformations through which the United States is passing in our
own day are so profound, so far-reaching, that it is hardly an
exaggeration to say that we are witnessing the birth of a new nation in
America. The revolution in the social and economic structure of this
country during the past two decades is comparable to what occurred when
independence was declared and the constitution was formed, or to the
changes wrought by the era which began half a century ago, the era of
Civil War and Reconstruction.

These changes have been long in preparation and are, in part, the result
of world-wide forces of reorganization incident to the age of steam
production and large-scale industry, and, in part, the result of the
closing of the period of the colonization of the West. They have been
prophesied, and the course of the movement partly described by students
of American development; but after all, it is with a shock that the
people of the United States are coming to realize that the fundamental
forces which have shaped their society up to the present are
disappearing. Twenty years ago, as I have before had occasion to point
out, the Superintendent of the Census declared that the frontier line,
which its maps had depicted for decade after decade of the westward
march of the nation, could no longer be described. To-day we must add
that the age of free competition of individuals for the unpossessed
resources of the nation is nearing its end. It is taking less than a
generation to write the chapter which began with the disappearance of
the line of the frontier--the last chapter in the history of the
colonization of the United States, the conclusion to the annals of its
pioneer democracy.

It is a wonderful chapter, this final rush of American energy upon the
remaining wilderness. Even the bare statistics become eloquent of a new
era. They no longer derive their significance from the exhibit of vast
proportions of the public domain transferred to agriculture, of
wildernesses equal to European nations changed decade after decade into
the farm area of the United States. It is true there was added to the
farms of the nation between 1870 and 1880 a territory equal to that of
France, and between 1880 and 1900 a territory equal to the European area
of France, Germany, England, and Wales combined. The records of 1910 are
not yet available, but whatever they reveal they will not be so full of
meaning as the figures which tell of upleaping wealth and organization
and concentration of industrial power in the East in the last decade. As
the final provinces of the Western empire have been subdued to the
purposes of civilization and have yielded their spoils, as the spheres
of operation of the great industrial corporations have extended, with
the extension of American settlement, production and wealth have
increased beyond all precedent.

The total deposits in all national banks have more than trebled in the
present decade; the money in circulation has doubled since 1890. The
flood of gold makes it difficult to gage the full meaning of the
incredible increase in values, for in the decade ending with 1909 over
41,600,000 ounces of gold were mined in the United States alone. Over
four million ounces have been produced every year since 1905, whereas
between 1880 and 1894 no year showed a production of two million ounces.
As a result of this swelling stream of gold and instruments of credit,
aided by a variety of other causes, prices have risen until their height
has become one of the most marked features and influential factors in
American life, producing social readjustments and contributing
effectively to party revolutions.

But if we avoid those statistics which require analysis because of the
changing standard of value, we still find that the decade occupies an
exceptional place in American history. More coal was mined in the United
States in the ten years after 1897 than in all the life of the nation
before that time.[313:1] Fifty years ago we mined less than fifteen
million long tons of coal. In 1907 we mined nearly 429,000,000. At the
present rate it is estimated that the supply of coal would be exhausted
at a date no farther in the future than the formation of the
constitution is in the past. Iron and coal are the measures of
industrial power. The nation has produced three times as much iron ore
in the past two decades as in all its previous history; the production
of the past ten years was more than double that of the prior decade.
Pig-iron production is admitted to be an excellent barometer of
manufacture and of transportation. Never until 1898 had this reached an
annual total of ten million long tons. But in the five years beginning
with 1904 it averaged over twice that. By 1907 the United States had
surpassed Great Britain, Germany, and France combined in the production
of pig-iron and steel together, and in the same decade a single great
corporation has established its domination over the iron mines and steel
manufacture of the United States. It is more than a mere accident that
the United States Steel Corporation with its stocks and bonds
aggregating $1,400,000,000 was organized at the beginning of the present
decade. The former wilderness about Lake Superior has, principally in
the past two decades, established its position as overwhelmingly the
preponderant source of iron ore, present and prospective, in the United
States--a treasury from which Pittsburgh has drawn wealth and extended
its unparalleled industrial empire in these years. The tremendous
energies thus liberated at this center of industrial power in the United
States revolutionized methods of manufacture in general, and in many
indirect ways profoundly influenced the life of the nation.

Railroad statistics also exhibit unprecedented development, the
formation of a new industrial society. The number of passengers carried
one mile more than doubled between 1890 and 1908; freight carried one
mile has nearly trebled in the same period and has doubled in the past
decade. Agricultural products tell a different story. The corn crop has
only risen from about two billion bushels in 1891 to two and
seven-tenths billions in 1909; wheat from six hundred and eleven million
bushels in 1891 to only seven hundred and thirty-seven million in 1909;
and cotton from about nine million bales in 1891 to ten and three-tenths
million bales in 1909. Population has increased in the United States
proper from about sixty-two and one-half millions in 1890 to
seventy-five and one-half millions in 1900 and to over ninety millions
in 1910.

It is clear from these statistics that the ratio of the nation's
increased production of immediate wealth by the enormously increased
exploitation of its remaining natural resources vastly exceeds the ratio
of increase of population and still more strikingly exceeds the ratio of
increase of agricultural products. Already population is pressing upon
the food supply while capital consolidates in billion-dollar
organizations. The "Triumphant Democracy" whose achievements the
iron-master celebrated has reached a stature even more imposing than he
could have foreseen; but still less did he perceive the changes in
democracy itself and the conditions of its life which have accompanied
this material growth.

Having colonized the Far West, having mastered its internal resources,
the nation turned at the conclusion of the nineteenth and the beginning
of the twentieth century to deal with the Far East to engage in the
world-politics of the Pacific Ocean. Having continued its historic
expansion into the lands of the old Spanish empire by the successful
outcome of the recent war, the United States became the mistress of the
Philippines at the same time that it came into possession of the
Hawaiian Islands, and the controlling influence in the Gulf of Mexico.
It provided early in the present decade for connecting its Atlantic and
Pacific coasts by the Isthmian Canal, and became an imperial republic
with dependencies and protectorates--admittedly a new world-power, with
a potential voice in the problems of Europe, Asia, and Africa.

This extension of power, this undertaking of grave responsibilities in
new fields, this entry into the sisterhood of world-states, was no
isolated event. It was, indeed, in some respects the logical outcome of
the nation's march to the Pacific, the sequence to the era in which it
was engaged in occupying the free lands and exploiting the resources of
the West. When it had achieved this position among the nations of the
earth, the United States found itself confronted, also, with the need of
constitutional readjustment, arising from the relations of federal
government and territorial acquisitions. It was obliged to reconsider
questions of the rights of man and traditional American ideals of
liberty and democracy, in view of the task of government of other races
politically inexperienced and undeveloped.

If we turn to consider the effect upon American society and domestic
policy in these two decades of transition we are met with palpable
evidences of the invasion of the old pioneer democratic order. Obvious
among them is the effect of unprecedented immigration to supply the
mobile army of cheap labor for the centers of industrial life. In the
past ten years, beginning with 1900, over eight million immigrants have
arrived. The newcomers of the eight years since 1900 would, according to
a writer in 1908, "repopulate all the five older New England States as
they stand to-day; or, if properly disseminated over the newer parts of
the country they would serve to populate no less than nineteen states of
the Union as they stand." In 1907 "there were one and one-quarter
million arrivals. This number would entirely populate both New Hampshire
and Maine, two of our oldest States." "The arrivals of this one year
would found a State with more inhabitants than any one of twenty-one of
our other existing commonwealths which could be named." Not only has the
addition to the population from Europe been thus extraordinary, it has
come in increasing measure from southern and eastern Europe. For the
year 1907, Professor Ripley,[316:1] whom I am quoting, has redistributed
the incomers on the basis of physical type and finds that one-quarter of
them were of the Mediterranean race, one-quarter of the Slavic race,
one-eighth Jewish, and only one-sixth of the Alpine, and one-sixth of
the Teutonic. In 1882 Germans had come to the amount of 250,000; in 1907
they were replaced by 330,000 South Italians. Thus it is evident that
the ethnic elements of the United States have undergone startling
changes; and instead of spreading over the nation these immigrants have
concentrated especially in the cities and great industrial centers in
the past decade. The composition of the labor class and its relation to
wages and to the native American employer have been deeply influenced
thereby; the sympathy of the employers with labor has been unfavorably
affected by the pressure of great numbers of immigrants of alien
nationality and of lower standards of life.

The familiar facts of the massing of population in the cities and the
contemporaneous increase of urban power, and of the massing of capital
and production in fewer and vastly greater industrial units, especially
attest the revolution. "It is a proposition too plain to require
elucidation," wrote Richard Rush, Secretary of the Treasury, in his
report of 1827, "that the creation of capital is retarded rather than
accelerated by the diffusion of a thin population over a great surface
of soil."[317:1] Thirty years before Rush wrote these words Albert
Gallatin declared in Congress that "if the cause of the happiness of
this country were examined into, it would be found to arise as much from
the great plenty of land in proportion to the inhabitants which their
citizens enjoyed as from the wisdom of their political institutions."
Possibly both of these Pennsylvania financiers were right under the
conditions of the time; but it is at least significant that capital and
labor entered upon a new era as the end of the free lands approached. A
contemporary of Gallatin in Congress had replied to the argument that
cheap lands would depopulate the Atlantic coast by saying that if a law
were framed to prevent ready access to western lands it would be
tantamount to saying that there is some class which must remain "and by
law be obliged to serve the others for such wages as they pleased to
give." The passage of the arable public domain into private possession
has raised this question in a new form and has brought forth new
answers. This is peculiarly the era when competitive individualism in
the midst of vast unappropriated opportunities changed into the
monopoly of the fundamental industrial processes by huge aggregations of
capital as the free lands disappeared. All the tendencies of the
large-scale production of the twentieth century, all the trend to the
massing of capital in large combinations, all of the energies of the age
of steam, found in America exceptional freedom of action and were
offered regions of activity equal to the states of all Western Europe.
Here they reached their highest development.

The decade following 1897 is marked by the work of Mr. Harriman and his
rivals in building up the various railroads into a few great groups, a
process that had gone so far that before his death Mr. Harriman was
ambitious to concentrate them all under his single control. High finance
under the leadership of Mr. Morgan steadily achieved the consolidation
of the greater industries into trusts or combinations and effected a
community of interests between them and a few dominant banking
organizations, with allied insurance companies and trust companies. In
New York City have been centered, as never before, the banking reserves
of the nation, and here, by the financial management of capital and
speculative promotion, there has grown up a unified control over the
nation's industrial life. Colossal private fortunes have arisen. No
longer is the per capita wealth of the nation a real index to the
prosperity of the average man. Labor on the other hand has shown an
increasing self-consciousness, is combining and increasing its demands.
In a word, the old pioneer individualism is disappearing, while the
forces of social combination are manifesting themselves as never before.
The self-made man has become, in popular speech, the coal baron, the
steel king, the oil king, the cattle king, the railroad magnate, the
master of high finance, the monarch of trusts. The world has never
before seen such huge fortunes exercising combined control over the
economic life of a people, and such luxury as has come out of the
individualistic pioneer democracy of America in the course of
competitive evolution.

At the same time the masters of industry, who control interests which
represent billions of dollars, do not admit that they have broken with
pioneer ideals. They regard themselves as pioneers under changed
conditions, carrying on the old work of developing the natural resources
of the nation, compelled by the constructive fever in their veins, even
in ill-health and old age and after the accumulation of wealth beyond
their power to enjoy, to seek new avenues of action and of power, to
chop new clearings, to find new trails, to expand the horizon of the
nation's activity, and to extend the scope of their dominion. "This
country," said the late Mr. Harriman in an interview a few years ago,
"has been developed by a wonderful people, flush with enthusiasm,
imagination and speculative bent. . . . They have been magnificent
pioneers. They saw into the future and adapted their work to the
possibilities. . . . Stifle that enthusiasm, deaden that imagination and
prohibit that speculation by restrictive and cramping conservative law,
and you tend to produce a moribund and conservative people and country."
This is an appeal to the historic ideals of Americans who viewed the
republic as the guardian of individual freedom to compete for the
control of the natural resources of the nation.

On the other hand, we have the voice of the insurgent West, recently
given utterance in the New Nationalism of ex-President Roosevelt,
demanding increase of federal authority to curb the special interests,
the powerful industrial organizations, and the monopolies, for the sake
of the conservation of our natural resources and the preservation of
American democracy.

The past decade has witnessed an extraordinary federal activity in
limiting individual and corporate freedom for the benefit of society. To
that decade belong the conservation congresses and the effective
organization of the Forest Service, and the Reclamation Service. Taken
together these developments alone would mark a new era, for over three
hundred million acres are, as a result of this policy, reserved from
entry and sale, an area more than equal to that of all the states which
established the constitution, if we exclude their western claims; and
these reserved lands are held for a more beneficial use of their
forests, minerals, arid tracts, and water rights, by the nation as a
whole. Another example is the extension of the activity of the
Department of Agriculture, which seeks the remotest regions of the earth
for crops suitable to the areas reclaimed by the government, maps and
analyzes the soils, fosters the improvement of seeds and animals, tells
the farmer when and how and what to plant, and makes war upon diseases
of plants and animals and insect pests. The recent legislation for pure
food and meat inspection, and the whole mass of regulative law under the
Interstate Commerce clause of the constitution, further illustrates the
same tendency.

Two ideals were fundamental in traditional American thought, ideals that
developed in the pioneer era. One was that of individual freedom to
compete unrestrictedly for the resources of a continent--the squatter
ideal. To the pioneer government was an evil. The other was the ideal of
a democracy--"government of the people, by the people and for the
people." The operation of these ideals took place contemporaneously with
the passing into private possession of the free public domain and the
natural resources of the United States. But American democracy was based
on an abundance of free lands; these were the very conditions that
shaped its growth and its fundamental traits. Thus time has revealed
that these two ideals of pioneer democracy had elements of mutual
hostility and contained the seeds of its dissolution. The present finds
itself engaged in the task of readjusting its old ideals to new
conditions and is turning increasingly to government to preserve its
traditional democracy. It is not surprising that socialism shows
noteworthy gains as elections continue; that parties are forming on new
lines; that the demand for primary elections, for popular choice of
senators, initiative, referendum, and recall, is spreading, and that the
regions once the center of pioneer democracy exhibit these tendencies in
the most marked degree. They are efforts to find substitutes for that
former safeguard of democracy, the disappearing free lands. They are the
sequence to the extinction of the frontier.

It is necessary next to notice that in the midst of all this national
energy, and contemporaneous with the tendency to turn to the national
government for protection to democracy, there is clear evidence of the
persistence and the development of sectionalism.[321:1] Whether we
observe the grouping of votes in Congress and in general elections, or
the organization and utterances of business leaders, or the association
of scholars, churches, or other representatives of the things of the
spirit, we find that American life is not only increasing in its
national intensity but that it is integrating by sections. In part this
is due to the factor of great spaces which make sectional rather than
national organization the line of least resistance; but, in part, it is
also the expression of the separate economic, political, and social
interests and the separate spiritual life of the various geographic
provinces or sections. The votes on the tariff, and in general the
location of the strongholds of the Progressive Republican movement,
illustrate this fact. The difficulty of a national adjustment of railway
rates to the diverse interests of different sections is another
example. Without attempting to enter upon a more extensive discussion of
sectionalism, I desire simply to point out that there are evidences that
now, as formerly, the separate geographical interests have their leaders
and spokesmen, that much Congressional legislation is determined by the
contests, triumphs, or compromises between the rival sections, and that
the real federal relations of the United States are shaped by the
interplay of sectional with national forces rather than by the relation
of State and Nation. As time goes on and the nation adjusts itself more
durably to the conditions of the differing geographic sections which
make it up, they are coming to a new self-consciousness and a revived
self-assertion. Our national character is a composite of these
sections.[322:1]

Obviously in attempting to indicate even a portion of the significant
features of our recent history we have been obliged to take note of a
complex of forces. The times are so close at hand that the relations
between events and tendencies force themselves upon our attention. We
have had to deal with the connections of geography, industrial growth,
politics, and government. With these we must take into consideration the
changing social composition, the inherited beliefs and habitual attitude
of the masses of the people, the psychology of the nation and of the
separate sections, as well as of the leaders. We must see how these
leaders are shaped partly by their time and section, and how they are in
part original, creative, by virtue of their own genius and initiative.
We cannot neglect the moral tendencies and the ideals. All are related
parts of the same subject and can no more be properly understood in
isolation than the movement as a whole can be understood by neglecting
some of these important factors, or by the use of a single method of
investigation. Whatever be the truth regarding European history,
American history is chiefly concerned with social forces, shaping and
reshaping under the conditions of a nation changing as it adjusts to its
environment. And this environment progressively reveals new aspects of
itself, exerts new influences, and calls out new social organs and
functions.

I have undertaken this rapid survey of recent history for two purposes.
First, because it has seemed fitting to emphasize the significance of
American development since the passing of the frontier, and, second,
because in the observation of present conditions we may find assistance
in our study of the past.

It is a familiar doctrine that each age studies its history anew and
with interests determined by the spirit of the time. Each age finds it
necessary to reconsider at least some portion of the past, from points
of view furnished by new conditions which reveal the influence and
significance of forces not adequately known by the historians of the
previous generation. Unquestionably each investigator and writer is
influenced by the times in which he lives and while this fact exposes
the historian to a bias, at the same time it affords him new instruments
and new insight for dealing with his subject.

If recent history, then, gives new meaning to past events, if it has to
deal with the rise into a commanding position of forces, the origin and
growth of which may have been inadequately described or even overlooked
by historians of the previous generation, it is important to study the
present and the recent past, not only for themselves but also as the
source of new hypotheses, new lines of inquiry, new criteria of the
perspective of the remoter past. And, moreover, a just public opinion
and a statesmanlike treatment of present problems demand that they be
seen in their historical relations in order that history may hold the
lamp for conservative reform.

Seen from the vantage-ground of present developments what new light
falls upon past events! When we consider what the Mississippi Valley has
come to be in American life, and when we consider what it is yet to be,
the young Washington, crossing the snows of the wilderness to summon the
French to evacuate the portals of the great valley, becomes the herald
of an empire. When we recall the huge industrial power that has centered
at Pittsburgh, Braddock's advance to the forks of the Ohio takes on new
meaning. Even in defeat, he opened a road to what is now the center of
the world's industrial energy. The modifications which England proposed
in 1794 to John Jay in the northwestern boundary of the United States
from the Lake of the Woods to the Mississippi, seemed to him, doubtless,
significant chiefly as a matter of principle and as a question of the
retention or loss of beaver grounds. The historians hardly notice the
proposals. But they involved, in fact, the ownership of the richest and
most extensive deposits of iron ore in America, the all-important source
of a fundamental industry of the United States, the occasion for the
rise of some of the most influential forces of our time.

What continuity and meaning are furnished by the outcome in present
times of the movements of minor political parties and reform agitations!
To the historian they have often seemed to be mere curious side eddies,
vexatious distractions to the course of his literary craft as it
navigated the stream of historical tendency. And yet, by the revelation
of the present, what seemed to be side eddies have not seldom proven to
be the concealed entrances to the main current, and the course which
seemed the central one has led to blind channels and stagnant waters,
important in their day, but cut off like oxbow lakes from the mighty
river of historical progress by the mere permanent and compelling forces
of the neglected currents.

We may trace the contest between the capitalist and the democratic
pioneer from the earliest colonial days. It is influential in colonial
parties. It is seen in the vehement protests of Kentucky frontiersmen in
petition after petition to the Congress of the Confederation against the
"nabobs" and men of wealth who took out titles to the pioneers' farms
while they themselves were too busy defending those farms from the
Indians to perfect their claims. It is seen in the attitude of the Ohio
Valley in its backwoods days before the rise of the Whig party, as when
in 1811 Henry Clay denounced the Bank of the United States as a
corporation which throve on special privileges--"a special association
of favored individuals taken from the mass of society, and invested with
exemptions and surrounded by immunities and privileges." Benton voiced
the same contest twenty years later when he denounced the bank as

     a company of private individuals, many of them foreigners, and
     the mass of them residing in a remote and narrow corner of the
     Union, unconnected by any sympathy with the fertile regions of
     the Great Valley in which the natural power of this Union, the
     power of numbers, will be found to reside long before the
     renewed term of the second charter would expire.

"And where," he asked, "would all this power and money center? In the
great cities of the Northeast, which have been for forty years and that
by force of federal legislation, the lion's den of Southern and Western
money--that den into which all the tracks point inward; from which the
returning track of a solitary dollar has never yet been seen."
Declaring, in words that have a very modern sound, that the bank tended
to multiply nabobs and paupers, and that "a great moneyed power is
favorable to great capitalists, for it is the principle of capital to
favor capital," he appealed to the fact of the country's extent and its
sectional divergences against the nationalizing of capital.

     What a condition for a confederacy of states! What grounds for
     alarm and terrible apprehension when in a confederacy of such
     vast extent, so many rival commercial cities, so much
     sectional jealousy, such violent political parties, such
     fierce contests for power, there should be but one moneyed
     tribunal before which all the rival and contending elements
     must appear.

Even more vehement were the words of Jackson in 1837. "It is now plain,"
he wrote, "that the war is to be carried on by the monied aristocracy of
the few against the democracy of numbers; the [prosperous] to make the
honest laborers hewers of wood and drawers of water through the credit
and paper system."

Van Buren's administration is usually passed hastily over with hardly
more than mention of his Independent Treasury plan, and with particular
consideration of the slavery discussion. But some of the most important
movements in American social and political history began in these years
of Jackson and Van Buren. Read the demands of the obscure labor papers
and the reports of labor's open-air meetings anew, and you will find in
the utterances of so-called labor visionaries and the Locofoco champions
of "equal rights for all and special privileges for none," like Evans
and Jacques, Byrdsall and Leggett, the finger points to the currents
that now make the main channel of our history; you will find in them
some of the important planks of the platforms of the triumphant parties
of our own day. As Professor Commons has shown by his papers and the
documents which he has published on labor history, an idealistic but
widespread and influential humanitarian movement, strikingly similar to
that of the present, arose in the years between 1830 and 1850, dealing
with social forces in American life, animated by a desire to apply the
public lands to social amelioration, eager to find new forms of
democratic development. But the flood of the slavery struggle swept all
of these movements into its mighty inundation for the time. After the
war, other influences delayed the revival of the movement. The railroads
opened the wide prairies after 1850 and made it easy to reach them; and
decade after decade new sections were reduced to the purposes of
civilization and to the advantages of the common man as well as the
promotion of great individual fortunes. The nation centered its
interests in the development of the West. It is only in our own day that
this humanitarian democratic wave has reached the level of those earlier
years. But in the meantime there are clear evidences of the persistence
of the forces, even though under strange guise. Read the platforms of
the Greenback-Labor, the Granger, and the Populist parties, and you will
find in those platforms, discredited and reprobated by the major parties
of the time, the basic proposals of the Democratic party after its
revolution under the leadership of Mr. Bryan, and of the Republican
party after its revolution by Mr. Roosevelt. The Insurgent movement is
so clearly related to the areas and elements that gave strength to this
progressive assertion of old democratic ideals with new weapons, that it
must be regarded as the organized refusal of these persistent
tendencies to be checked by the advocates of more moderate measures.

I have dealt with these fragments of party history, not, of course, with
the purpose of expressing any present judgment upon them, but to
emphasize and give concreteness to the fact that there is disclosed by
present events a new significance to these contests of radical democracy
and conservative interests; that they are rather a continuing expression
of deep-seated forces than fragmentary and sporadic curios for the
historical museum.

If we should survey the history of our lands from a similar point of
view, considering the relations of legislation and administration of the
public domain to the structure of American democracy, it would yield a
return far beyond that offered by the formal treatment of the subject in
most of our histories. We should find in the squatter doctrines and
practices, the seizure of the best soils, the taking of public timber on
the theory of a right to it by the labor expended on it, fruitful
material for understanding the atmosphere and ideals under which the
great corporations developed the West. Men like Senator Benton and
Delegate Sibley in successive generations defended the trespasses of the
pioneer and the lumberman upon the public forest lands, and denounced
the paternal government that "harassed" these men, who were engaged in
what we should call stealing government timber. It is evident that at
some time between the middle of the nineteenth century and the present
time, when we impose jail sentences upon Congressmen caught in such
violations of the land laws, a change came over the American conscience
and the civic ideals were modified. That our great industrial
enterprises developed in the midst of these changing ideals is important
to recall when we write the history of their activity.

We should find also that we cannot understand the land question without
seeing its relations to the struggle of sections and classes bidding
against each other and finding in the public domain a most important
topic of political bargaining. We should find, too, that the settlement
of unlike geographic areas in the course of the nation's progress
resulted in changes in the effect of the land laws; that a system
intended for the humid prairies was ill-adjusted to the grazing lands
and coal fields and to the forests in the days of large-scale
exploitation by corporations commanding great capital. Thus changing
geographic factors as well as the changing character of the forces which
occupied the public domain must be considered, if we would understand
the bearing of legislation and policy in this field.[329:1] It is
fortunate that suggestive studies of democracy and the land policy have
already begun to appear.

The whole subject of American agriculture viewed in relation to the
economic, political, and social life of the nation has important
contributions to make. If, for example, we study the maps showing the
transition of the wheat belt from the East to the West, as the virgin
soils were conquered and made new bases for destructive competition with
the older wheat States, we shall see how deeply they affected not only
land values, railroad building, the movement of population, and the
supply of cheap food, but also how the regions once devoted to single
cropping of wheat were forced to turn to varied and intensive
agriculture and to diversified industry, and we shall see also how these
transformations affected party politics and even the ideals of the
Americans of the regions thus changed. We shall find in the
over-production of wheat in the provinces thus rapidly colonized, and in
the over-production of silver in the mountain provinces which were
contemporaneously exploited, important explanations of the peculiar
form which American politics took in the period when Mr. Bryan mastered
the Democratic party, just as we shall find in the opening of the new
gold fields in the years immediately following, and in the passing of
the era of almost free virgin wheat soils, explanations of the more
recent period when high prices are giving new energy and aggressiveness
to the demands of the new American industrial democracy.

Enough has been said, it may be assumed, to make clear the point which I
am trying to elucidate, namely that a comprehension of the United States
of to-day, an understanding of the rise and progress of the forces which
have made it what it is, demands that we should rework our history from
the new points of view afforded by the present. If this is done, it will
be seen, for example, that the progress of the struggle between North
and South over slavery and the freed negro, which held the principal
place in American interest in the two decades after 1850, was, after
all, only one of the interests in the time. The pages of the
Congressional debates, the contemporary newspapers, the public documents
of those twenty years, remain a rich mine for those who will seek
therein the sources of movements dominant in the present day.

The final consideration to which I ask your attention in this discussion
of social forces in American life, is with reference to the mode of
investigating them and the bearing of these investigations upon the
relations and the goal of history. It has become a precedent, fairly
well established by the distinguished scholars who have held the office
which I am about to lay down, to state a position with reference to the
relations of history and its sister-studies, and even to raise the
question of the attitude of the historian toward the laws of
thermodynamics and to seek to find the key of historical development or
of historical degradation. It is not given to all to bend the bow of
Ulysses. I shall attempt a lesser task.

We may take some lessons from the scientist. He has enriched knowledge
especially in recent years by attacking the no-man's lands left
unexplored by the too sharp delimitation of spheres of activity. These
new conquests have been especially achieved by the combination of old
sciences. Physical chemistry, electro-chemistry, geo-physics,
astro-physics, and a variety of other scientic unions have led to
audacious hypotheses, veritable flashes of vision, which open new
regions of activity for a generation of investigators. Moreover they
have promoted such investigations by furnishing new instruments of
research. Now in some respects there is an analogy between geology and
history. The new geologist aims to describe the inorganic earth
dynamically in terms of natural law, using chemistry, physics,
mathematics, and even botany and zoölogy so far as they relate to
paleontology. But he does not insist that the relative importance of
physical or chemical factors shall be determined before he applies the
methods and data of these sciences to his problem. Indeed, he has
learned that a geological area is too complex a thing to be reduced to a
single explanation. He has abandoned the single hypothesis for the
multiple hypothesis. He creates a whole family of possible explanations
of a given problem and thus avoids the warping influence of partiality
for a simple theory.

Have we not here an illustration of what is possible and necessary for
the historian? Is it not well, before attempting to decide whether
history requires an economic interpretation, or a psychological, or any
other ultimate interpretation, to recognize that the factors in human
society are varied and complex; that the political historian handling
his subject in isolation is certain to miss fundamental facts and
relations in his treatment of a given age or nation; that the economic
historian is exposed to the same danger; and so of all of the other
special historians?

Those who insist that history is simply the effort to tell the thing
exactly as it was, to state the facts, are confronted with the
difficulty that the fact which they would represent is not planted on
the solid ground of fixed conditions; it is in the midst and is itself a
part of the changing currents, the complex and interacting influences of
the time, deriving its significance as a fact from its relations to the
deeper-seated movements of the age, movements so gradual that often only
the passing years can reveal the truth about the fact and its right to a
place on the historian's page.

The economic historian is in danger of making his analysis and his
statement of a law on the basis of present conditions and then passing
to history for justificatory appendixes to his conclusions. An American
economist of high rank has recently expressed his conception of "the
full relation of economic theory, statistics, and history" in these
words:

     A principle is formulated by _a priori_ reasoning concerning
     facts of common experience; it is then tested by statistics
     and promoted to the rank of a known and acknowledged truth;
     illustrations of its action are then found in narrative
     history and, on the other hand, the economic law becomes the
     interpreter of records that would otherwise be confusing and
     comparatively valueless; the law itself derives its final
     confirmation from the illustrations of its working which the
     records afford; but what is at least of equal importance is
     the parallel fact that the law affords the decisive test of
     the correctness of those assertions concerning the causes and
     the effects of past events which it is second nature to make
     and which historians almost invariably do make in connection
     with their narrations.[333:1]

There is much in this statement by which the historian may profit, but
he may doubt also whether the past should serve merely as the
"illustration" by which to confirm the law deduced from common
experience by _a priori_ reasoning tested by statistics. In fact the
pathway of history is strewn with the wrecks of the "known and
acknowledged truths" of economic law, due not only to defective analysis
and imperfect statistics, but also to the lack of critical historical
methods, of insufficient historical-mindedness on the part of the
economist, to failure to give due attention to the relativity and
transiency of the conditions from which his laws were deduced.

But the point on which I would lay stress is this. The economist, the
political scientist, the psychologist, the sociologist, the geographer,
the student of literature, of art, of religion--all the allied laborers
in the study of society--have contributions to make to the equipment of
the historian. These contributions are partly of material, partly of
tools, partly of new points of view, new hypotheses, new suggestions of
relations, causes, and emphasis. Each of these special students is in
some danger of bias by his particular point of view, by his exposure to
see simply the thing in which he is primarily interested, and also by
his effort to deduce the universal laws of his separate science. The
historian, on the other hand, is exposed to the danger of dealing with
the complex and interacting social forces of a period or of a country,
from some single point of view to which his special training or interest
inclines him. If the truth is to be made known, the historian must so
far familiarize himself with the work, and equip himself with the
training of his sister-subjects that he can at least avail himself of
their results and in some reasonable degree master the essential tools
of their trade. And the followers of the sister-studies must likewise
familiarize themselves and their students with the work and the methods
of the historians, and coöperate in the difficult task.

It is necessary that the American historian shall aim at this equipment,
not so much that he may possess the key to history or satisfy himself in
regard to its ultimate laws. At present a different duty is before him.
He must see in American society with its vast spaces, its sections equal
to European nations, its geographic influences, its brief period of
development, its variety of nationalities and races, its extraordinary
industrial growth under the conditions of freedom, its institutions,
culture, ideals, social psychology, and even its religions forming and
changing almost under his eyes, one of the richest fields ever offered
for the preliminary recognition and study of the forces that operate and
interplay in the making of society.


FOOTNOTES:

[311:1] Annual address as the president of the American Historical
Association, delivered at Indianapolis, December 28, 1910. Reprinted by
permission from _The American Historical Review_, January, 1911.

[313:1] Van Hise, "Conservation of Natural Resources," pp. 23, 24.

[316:1] _Atlantic Monthly_, December, 1908, vii, p. 745.

[317:1] [Although the words of these early land debates are quoted above
in Chapter VI, they are repeated because of the light they cast upon the
present problem.]

[321:1] [I have outlined this subject in various essays, including the
article on "Sectionalism" in McLaughlin and Hart, "Cyclopedia of
Government."]

[322:1] [It is not impossible that they may ultimately replace the State
as the significant administrative and legislative units. There are
strong evidences of this tendency, such as the organization of the
Federal Reserve districts, and proposals for railroad administration by
regions.]

[329:1] [See R. G. Wellington, "Public Lands, 1820-1840"; G. M.
Stephenson, "Public Lands, 1841-1862"; J. Ise, "Forest Policy."]

[333:1] Professor J. B. Clark, in Commons, ed., "Documentary History of
American Industrial Society," I. 43-44.




XIII

MIDDLE WESTERN PIONEER DEMOCRACY[335:1]


In time of war, when all that this nation has stood for, all the things
in which it passionately believes, are at stake, we have met to dedicate
this beautiful home for history.

There is a fitness in the occasion. It is for historic ideals that we
are fighting. If this nation is one for which we should pour out our
savings, postpone our differences, go hungry, and even give up life
itself, it is not because it is a rich, extensive, well-fed and populous
nation; it is because from its early days America has pressed onward
toward a goal of its own; that it has followed an ideal, the ideal of a
democracy developing under conditions unlike those of any other age or
country.

We are fighting not for an Old World ideal, not for an abstraction, not
for a philosophical revolution. Broad and generous as are our
sympathies, widely scattered in origin as are our people, keenly as we
feel the call of kinship, the thrill of sympathy with the stricken
nations across the Atlantic, we are fighting for the historic ideals of
the United States, for the continued existence of the type of society in
which we believe, because we have proved it good, for the things which
drew European exiles to our shores, and which inspired the hopes of the
pioneers.

We are at war that the history of the United States, rich with the
record of high human purposes, and of faith in the destiny of the common
man under freedom, filled with the promises of a better world, may not
become the lost and tragic story of a futile dream.

Yes, it is an American ideal and an American example for which we fight;
but in that ideal and example lies medicine for the healing of the
nations. It is the best we have to give to Europe, and it is a matter of
vital import that we shall safeguard and preserve our power to serve the
world, and not be overwhelmed in the flood of imperialistic force that
wills the death of democracy and would send the freeman under the yoke.
Essential as are our contributions of wealth, the work of our
scientists, the toil of our farmers and our workmen in factory and
shipyard, priceless as is the stream of young American manhood which we
pour forth to stop the flood which flows like moulten lava across the
green fields and peaceful hamlets of Europe toward the sea and turns to
ashes and death all that it covers, these contributions have their
deeper meaning in the American spirit. They are born of the love of
Democracy.

Long ago in prophetic words Walt Whitman voiced the meaning of our
present sacrifices:

     "Sail, sail thy best, ship of Democracy,
     Of value is thy freight, 'tis not the Present only,
     The Past is also stored in thee,
     Thou holdest not the venture of thyself alone, not of the Western
         Continent alone,
     Earth's résumé entire floats on thy keel, O ship, is steadied by
         thy spars,
     With thee Time voyages in trust, the antecedent nations sink or
         swim with thee,
     With all their ancient struggles, martyrs, heroes, epics, wars,
         thou bear'st the other continents,
     Theirs, theirs as much as thine, the destination-port triumphant."

Shortly before the Civil War, a great German, exiled from his native
land for his love of freedom, came from his new home among the pioneers
of the Middle West to set forth in Faneuil Hall, the "cradle of
liberty," in Boston, his vision of the young America that was forming in
the West, "the last depository of the hopes of all true friends of
humanity." Speaking of the contrast between the migrations to the
Mississippi Valley and those of the Old World in other centuries, he
said:

     It is now not a barbarous multitude pouncing upon old and
     decrepit empires, not a violent concussion of tribes
     accompanied by all the horrors of general destruction, but we
     see the vigorous elements--peaceably congregating and mingling
     together on virgin soil--; led together by the irresistible
     attraction of free and broad principles; undertaking to
     commence a new era in the history of the world, without first
     destroying the results of the progress of past periods;
     undertaking to found a cosmopolitan nation without marching
     over the dead bodies of slain millions.

If Carl Schurz had lived to see the outcome of that Germany from which
he was sent as an exile, in the days when Prussian bayonets dispersed
the legislatures and stamped out the beginnings of democratic rule in
his former country, could he have better pictured the contrasts between
the Prussian and the American spirit? He went on to say:

     Thus was founded the _great colony of free humanity_, which
     has not old England alone, but the _world_ for its mother
     country. And in the colony of free humanity, whose mother
     country is the world, they established the Republic of equal
     rights where the title of manhood is the title to citizenship.
     My friends, if I had a thousand tongues, and a voice as strong
     as the thunder of heaven, they would not be sufficient to
     impress upon your minds forcibly enough the greatness of this
     idea, the overshadowing glory of this result. This was the
     dream of the truest friends of man from the beginning; for
     this the noblest blood of martyrs has been shed; for this has
     mankind waded through seas of blood and tears. There it is
     now; there it stands, the noble fabric in all the splendor of
     reality.

It is in a solemn and inspiring time, therefore, that we meet to
dedicate this building, and the occasion is fitting to the time. We may
now see, as never before, the deeper significance, the larger meaning of
these pioneers, whose plain lives and homely annals are glorified as a
part of the story of the building of a better system of social justice
under freedom, a broader, and as we fervently hope, a more enduring
foundation for the welfare and progress under individual liberty of the
common man, an example of federation, of peaceful adjustments by
compromise and concession under a self-governing Republic, where
sections replace nations over a Union as large as Europe, where party
discussions take the place of warring countries, where the _Pax
Americana_ furnishes an example for a better world.

As our forefathers, the pioneers, gathered in their neighborhood to
raise the log cabin, and sanctified it by the name of home, the dwelling
place of pioneer ideals, so we meet to celebrate the raising of this
home, this shrine of Minnesota's historic life. It symbolizes the
conviction that the past and the future of this people are tied
together; that this Historical Society is the keeper of the records of a
noteworthy movement in the progress of mankind; that these records are
not unmeaning and antiquarian, but even in their details are worthy of
preservation for their revelation of the beginnings of society in the
midst of a nation caught by the vision of a better future for the world.

Let me repeat the words of Harriet Martineau, who portrayed the American
of the thirties:

     I regard the American people as a great embryo poet, now
     moody, now wild, but bringing out results of absolute good
     sense; restless and wayward in action, but with deep peace at
     his heart; exulting that he has caught the true aspect of
     things past and the depth of futurity which lies before him,
     wherein to create something so magnificent as the world has
     scarcely begun to dream of. There is the strongest hope of a
     nation that is capable of being possessed with an idea.

And recall her appeal to the American people to "cherish their high
democratic hope, their faith in man. The older they grow the more they
must reverence the dreams of their youth."

The dreams of their youth! Here they shall be preserved, and the
achievements as well as the aspirations of the men who made the State,
the men who built on their foundations, the men with large vision and
power of action, the lesser men in the mass, the leaders who served the
State and nation with devotion to the cause. Here shall be preserved the
record of the men who failed to see the larger vision and worked
impatiently with narrow or selfish or class ends, as well as of those
who labored with patience and sympathy and mutual concession, with
readiness to make adjustments and to subordinate their immediate
interests to the larger good and the immediate safety of the nation.

In the archives of such an old institution as that of the Historical
Society of Massachusetts, whose treasures run to the beginnings of the
Puritan colonization, the students cannot fail to find the evidence that
a State Historical Society is a Book of Judgment wherein is made up the
record of a people and its leaders. So, as time unfolds, shall be the
collections of this Society, the depository of the material that shall
preserve the memory of this people. Each section of this widely extended
and varied nation has its own peculiar past, its special form of
society, its traits and its leaders. It were a pity if any section left
its annals solely to the collectors of a remote region, and it were a
pity if its collections were not transformed into printed documents and
monographic studies which can go to the libraries of all the parts of
the Union and thus enable the student to see the nation as a whole in
its past as well as in its present.

This Society finds its special field of activity in a great State of the
Middle West, so new, as history reckons time, that its annals are still
predominantly those of the pioneers, but so rapidly growing that already
the era of the pioneers is a part of the history of the past, capable of
being handled objectively, seen in a perspective that is not possible to
the observer of the present conditions.

Because of these facts I have taken as the special theme of this address
the Middle Western Pioneer Democracy, which I would sketch in some of
its outstanding aspects, and chiefly in the generation before the Civil
War, for it was from those pioneers that the later colonization to the
newer parts of the Mississippi Valley derived much of their traits, and
from whom large numbers of them came.

The North Central States as a whole is a region comparable to all of
Central Europe. Of these States, a large part of the old
Northwest,--Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin; and their
sisters beyond the Mississippi--Missouri, Iowa and Minnesota--were
still, in the middle of the nineteenth century, the home of an
essentially pioneer society. Within the lifetime of many living men,
Wisconsin was called the "Far West," and Minnesota was a land of the
Indian and the fur traders, a wilderness of forest and prairie beyond
the "edge of cultivation." That portion of this great region which was
still in the pioneering period of settlement by 1850 was alone about as
extensive as the old thirteen States, or Germany and Austria-Hungary
combined. The region was a huge geographic mold for a new society,
modeled by nature on the scale of the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley, the
upper Mississippi and the Missouri. Simple and majestic in its vast
outlines it was graven into a variety that in its detail also had a
largeness of design. From the Great Lakes extended the massive glacial
sheet which covered that mighty basin and laid down treasures of soil.
Vast forests of pine shrouded its upper zone, breaking into hardwood and
the oak openings as they neared the ocean-like expanses of the prairies.
Forests again along the Ohio Valley, and beyond, to the west, lay the
levels of the Great Plains. Within the earth were unexploited treasures
of coal and lead, copper and iron in such form and quantity as were to
revolutionize the industrial processes of the world. But nature's
revelations are progressive, and it was rather the marvelous adaptation
of the soil to the raising of corn and wheat that drew the pioneers to
this land of promise, and made a new era of colonization. In the unity
with variety of this pioneer empire and in its broad levels we have a
promise of its society.

First had come the children of the interior of the South, and with ax
and rifle in hand had cut their clearings in the forest, raised their
log cabins, fought the Indians and by 1830 had pushed their way to the
very edge of the prairies along the Ohio and Missouri Valleys, leaving
unoccupied most of the Basin of the Great Lakes.

These slashers of the forest, these self-sufficing pioneers, raising the
corn and live stock for their own need, living scattered and apart, had
at first small interest in town life or a share in markets. They were
passionately devoted to the ideal of equality, but it was an ideal which
assumed that under free conditions in the midst of unlimited resources,
the homogeneous society of the pioneers _must_ result in equality. What
they objected to was arbitrary obstacles, artificial limitations upon
the freedom of each member of this frontier folk to work out his own
career without fear or favor. What they instinctively opposed was the
crystallization of differences, the monopolization of opportunity and
the fixing of that monopoly by government or by social customs. The road
must be open. The game must be played according to the rules. There must
be no artificial stifling of equality of opportunity, no closed doors to
the able, no stopping the free game before it was played to the end.
More than that, there was an unformulated, perhaps, but very real
feeling, that mere success in the game, by which the abler men were able
to achieve preëminence gave to the successful ones no right to look down
upon their neighbors, no vested title to assert superiority as a matter
of pride and to the diminution of the equal right and dignity of the
less successful.

If this democracy of Southern pioneers, this Jacksonian democracy, was,
as its socialist critics have called it, in reality a democracy of
"expectant capitalists," it was not one which expected or acknowledged
on the part of the successful ones the right to harden their triumphs
into the rule of a privileged class. In short, if it is indeed true that
the backwoods democracy was based upon equality of opportunity, it is
also true that it resented the conception that opportunity under
competition should result in the hopeless inequality, or rule of class.
Ever a new clearing must be possible. And because the wilderness seemed
so unending, the menace to the enjoyment of this ideal seemed rather to
be feared from government, within or without, than from the operations
of internal evolution.

From the first, it became evident that these men had means of
supplementing their individual activity by informal combinations. One of
the things that impressed all early travelers in the United States was
the capacity for extra-legal, voluntary association.[343:1] This was
natural enough; in all America we can study the process by which in a
new land social customs form and crystallize into law. We can even see
how the personal leader becomes the governmental official. This power of
the newly arrived pioneers to join together for a common end without the
intervention of governmental institutions was one of their marked
characteristics. The log rolling, the house-raising, the husking bee,
the apple paring, and the squatters' associations whereby they protected
themselves against the speculators in securing title to their clearings
on the public domain, the camp meeting, the mining camp, the vigilantes,
the cattle-raisers' associations, the "gentlemen's agreements," are a
few of the indications of this attitude. It is well to emphasize this
American trait, because in a modified way it has come to be one of the
most characteristic and important features of the United States of
to-day. America does through informal association and understandings on
the part of the people many of the things which in the Old World are and
can be done only by governmental intervention and compulsion. These
associations were in America not due to immemorial custom of tribe or
village community. They were extemporized by voluntary action.

The actions of these associations had an authority akin to that of law.
They were usually not so much evidences of a disrespect for law and
order as the only means by which real law and order were possible in a
region where settlement and society had gone in advance of the
institutions and instrumentalities of organized society.

Because of these elements of individualistic competition and the power
of spontaneous association, pioneers were responsive to leadership. The
backwoodsmen knew that under the free opportunities of his life the
abler man would reveal himself, and show them the way. By free choice
and not by compulsion, by spontaneous impulse, and not by the domination
of a caste, they rallied around a cause, they supported an issue. They
yielded to the principle of government by agreement, and they hated the
doctrine of autocracy even before it gained a name.

They looked forward to the extension of their American principles to the
Old World and their keenest apprehensions came from the possibility of
the extension of the Old World's system of arbitrary rule, its class
wars and rivalries and interventions to the destruction of the free
States and democratic institutions which they were building in the
forests of America.

If we add to these aspects of early backwoods democracy, its spiritual
qualities, we shall more easily understand them. These men were
emotional. As they wrested their clearing from the woods and from the
savages who surrounded them, as they expanded that clearing and saw the
beginnings of commonwealths, where only little communities had been, and
as they saw these commonwealths touch hands with each other along the
great course of the Mississippi River, they became enthusiastically
optimistic and confident of the continued expansion of this democracy.
They had faith in themselves and their destiny. And that optimistic
faith was responsible both for their confidence in their own ability to
rule and for the passion for expansion. They looked to the future.
"Others appeal to history: an American appeals to prophecy; and with
Malthus in one hand and a map of the back country in the other, he
boldly defies us to a comparison with America as she is to be," said a
London periodical in 1821. Just because, perhaps, of the usual isolation
of their lives, when they came together in associations whether of the
camp meeting or of the political gathering, they felt the influence of a
common emotion and enthusiasm. Whether Scotch-Irish Presbyterian,
Baptist, or Methodist, these people saturated their religion and their
politics with feeling. Both the stump and the pulpit were centers of
energy, electric cells capable of starting widespreading fires. They
_felt_ both their religion and their democracy, and were ready to fight
for it.

This democracy was one that involved a real feeling of social
comradeship among its widespread members. Justice Catron, who came from
Arkansas to the Supreme Court in the presidency of Jackson, said: "The
people of New Orleans and St. Louis are next neighbors--if we desire to
know a man in any quarter of the union we inquire of our next neighbor,
who but the other day lived by him." Exaggerated as this is, it
nevertheless had a surprising measure of truth for the Middle West as
well. For the Mississippi River was the great highway down which groups
of pioneers like Abraham Lincoln, on their rafts and flat boats, brought
the little neighborhood surplus. After the steamboat came to the western
waters the voyages up and down by merchants and by farmers shifting
their homes, brought people into contact with each other over wide
areas.

This enlarged neighborhood democracy was determined not by a reluctant
admission that under the law one man is as good as another; it was based
upon "good fellowship," sympathy and understanding. They were of a
stock, moreover, which sought new trails and were ready to follow where
the trail led, innovators in society as well as finders of new lands.

By 1830 the Southern inundation ebbed and a different tide flowed in
from the northeast by way of the Erie Canal and steam navigation on the
Great Lakes to occupy the zone unreached by Southern settlement. This
new tide spread along the margins of the Great Lakes, found the oak
openings and small prairie islands of Southern Michigan and Wisconsin;
followed the fertile forested ribbons along the river courses far into
the prairie lands; and by the end of the forties began to venture into
the margin of the open prairie.

In 1830 the Middle West contained a little over a million and a half
people; in 1840, over three and a third millions; in 1850, nearly five
and a half millions. Although in 1830 the North Atlantic States numbered
between three and four times as many people as the Middle West, yet in
those two decades the Middle West made an actual gain of several hundred
thousand more than did the old section. Counties in the newer states
rose from a few hundred to ten or fifteen thousand people in the space
of less than five years. Suddenly, with astonishing rapidity and volume,
a new people was forming with varied elements, ideals and institutions
drawn from all over this nation and from Europe. They were confronted
with the problem of adjusting different stocks, varied customs and
habits, to their new home.

In comparison with the Ohio Valley, the peculiarity of the occupation of
the northern zone of the Middle West, lay in the fact that the native
element was predominantly from the older settlements of the Middle West
itself and from New York and New England. But it was from the central
and western counties of New York and from the western and northern parts
of New England, the rural regions of declining agricultural prosperity,
that the bulk of this element came.

Thus the influence of the Middle West stretched into the Northeast, and
attracted a farming population already suffering from western
competition. The advantage of abundant, fertile, and cheap land, the
richer agricultural returns, and especially the opportunities for youth
to rise in all the trades and professions, gave strength to this
competition. By it New England was profoundly and permanently modified.

This Yankee stock carried with it a habit of community life, in contrast
with the individualistic democracy of the Southern element. The
colonizing land companies, the town, the school, the church, the feeling
of local unity, furnished the evidences of this instinct for
communities. This instinct was accompanied by the creation of cities,
the production of a surplus for market, the reaching out to connections
with the trading centers of the East, the evolution of a more complex
and at the same time a more integrated industrial society than that of
the Southern pioneer.

But they did not carry with them the unmodified New England institutions
and traits. They came at a time and from a people less satisfied with
the old order than were their neighbors in the East. They were the young
men with initiative, with discontent; the New York element especially
was affected by the radicalism of Locofoco democracy which was in
itself a protest against the established order.

The winds of the prairies swept away almost at once a mass of old habits
and prepossessions. Said one of these pioneers in a letter to friends in
the East:

     If you value ease more than money or prosperity, don't
     come. . . . Hands are too few for the work, houses for the
     inhabitants, and days for the day's work to be done. . . .
     Next if you can't stand seeing your old New England ideas,
     ways of doing, and living and in fact, all of the good old
     Yankee fashions knocked out of shape and altered, or thrown by
     as unsuited to the climate, don't be caught out here. But if
     you can bear grief with a smile, can put up with a scale of
     accommodations ranging from the soft side of a plank before
     the fire (and perhaps three in a bed at that) down through the
     middling and inferior grades; if you are never at a loss for
     ways to do the most unpracticable things without tools; if you
     can do all this and some more come on. . . . It is a universal
     rule here to help one another, each one keeping an eye single
     to his own business.

They knew that they were leaving many dear associations of the old home,
giving up many of the comforts of life, sacrificing things which those
who remained thought too vital to civilization to be left. But they were
not mere materialists ready to surrender all that life is worth for
immediate gain. They were idealists themselves, sacrificing the ease of
the immediate future for the welfare of their children, and convinced of
the possibility of helping to bring about a better social order and a
freer life. They were social idealists. But they based their ideals on
trust in the common man and the readiness to make adjustments, not on
the rule of a benevolent despot or a controlling class.

The attraction of this new home reached also into the Old World and gave
a new hope and new impulses to the people of Germany, of England, of
Ireland, and of Scandinavia. Both economic influences and revolutionary
discontent promoted German migration at this time; economic causes
brought the larger volume, but the quest for liberty brought the
leaders, many of whom were German political exiles. While the latter
urged, with varying degrees of emphasis, that their own contribution
should be preserved in their new surroundings, and a few visionaries
even talked of a German State in the federal system, what was noteworthy
was the adjustment of the emigrants of the thirties and forties to
Middle Western conditions; the response to the opportunity to create a
new type of society in which all gave and all received and no element
remained isolated. Society was plastic. In the midst of more or less
antagonism between "bowie knife Southerners," "cow-milking Yankee
Puritans," "beer-drinking Germans," "wild Irishmen," a process of mutual
education, a giving and taking, was at work. In the outcome, in spite of
slowness of assimilation where different groups were compact and
isolated from the others, and a certain persistence of inherited
_morale_, there was the creation of a new type, which was neither the
sum of all its elements, nor a complete fusion in a melting pot. They
were American pioneers, not outlying fragments of New England, of
Germany, or of Norway.

The Germans were most strongly represented in the Missouri Valley, in
St. Louis, in Illinois opposite that city, and in the Lake Shore
counties of eastern Wisconsin north from Milwaukee. In Cincinnati and
Cleveland there were many Germans, while in nearly half the counties of
Ohio, the German immigrants and the Pennsylvania Germans held nearly or
quite the balance of political power. The Irish came primarily as
workers on turnpikes, canals and railroads, and tended to remain along
such lines, or to gather in the growing cities. The Scandinavians, of
whom the largest proportion were Norwegians, founded their colonies in
Northern Illinois, and in Southern Wisconsin about the Fox and the head
waters of Rock River, whence in later years they spread into Iowa,
Minnesota and North Dakota.

By 1850 about one-sixth of the people of the Middle West were of North
Atlantic birth, about one-eighth of Southern birth, and a like fraction
of foreign birth, of whom the Germans were twice as numerous as the
Irish, and the Scandinavians only slightly more numerous than the Welsh,
and fewer than the Scotch. There were only a dozen Scandinavians in
Minnesota. The natives of the British Islands, together with the natives
of British North America in the Middle West, numbered nearly as many as
the natives of German lands. But in 1850 almost three-fifths of the
population were natives of the Middle West itself, and over a third of
the population lived in Ohio. The cities were especially a mixture of
peoples. In the five larger cities of the section natives and foreigners
were nearly balanced. In Chicago the Irish, Germans and natives of the
North Atlantic States about equaled each other. But in all the other
cities, the Germans exceeded the Irish in varying proportions. There
were nearly three to one in Milwaukee.

It is not merely that the section was growing rapidly and was made up of
various stocks with many different cultures, sectional and European;
what is more significant is that these elements did not remain as
separate strata underneath an established ruling order, as was the case
particularly in New England. All were accepted and intermingling
components of a forming society, plastic and absorptive. This
characteristic of the section as "a good mixer" became fixed before the
large immigrations of the eighties. The foundations of the section were
laid firmly in a period when the foreign elements were particularly free
and eager to contribute to a new society and to receive an impress from
the country which offered them a liberty denied abroad. Significant as
is this fact, and influential in the solution of America's present
problems, it is no more important than the fact that in the decade
before the Civil War, the Southern element in the Middle West had also
had nearly two generations of direct association with the Northern, and
had finally been engulfed in a tide of Northeastern and Old World
settlers.

In this society of pioneers men learned to drop their old national
animosities. One of the Immigrant Guides of the fifties urged the
newcomers to abandon their racial animosities. "The American laughs at
these steerage quarrels," said the author.

Thus the Middle West was teaching the lesson of national
cross-fertilization instead of national enmities, the possibility of a
newer and richer civilization, not by preserving unmodified or isolated
the old component elements, but by breaking down the line-fences, by
merging the individual life in the common product--a new product, which
held the promise of world brotherhood. If the pioneers divided their
allegiance between various parties, Whig, Democrat, Free Soil or
Republican, it does not follow that the western Whig was like the
eastern Whig. There was an infiltration of a western quality into all of
these. The western Whig supported Harrison more because he was a pioneer
than because he was a Whig. It saw in him a legitimate successor of
Andrew Jackson. The campaign of 1840 was a Middle Western camp meeting
on a huge scale. The log cabins, the cider and the coonskins were the
symbols of the triumph of Middle Western ideas, and were carried with
misgivings by the merchants, the bankers and the manufacturers of the
East. In like fashion, the Middle Western wing of the Democratic party
was as different from the Southern wing wherein lay its strength, as
Douglas was from Calhoun. It had little in common with the slaveholding
classes of the South, even while it felt the kinship of the pioneer with
the people of the Southern upland stock from which so many Westerners
were descended.

In the later forties and early fifties most of the Middle Western States
made constitutions. The debates in their conventions and the results
embodied in the constitutions themselves tell the story of their
political ideals. Of course, they based the franchise on the principle
of manhood suffrage. But they also provided for an elective judiciary,
for restrictions on the borrowing power of the State, lest it fall under
the control of what they feared as the money power, and several of them
either provided for the extinguishment of banks of issue, or rigidly
restrained them. Some of them exempted the homestead from forced sale
for debt; married women's legal rights were prominent topics in the
debates of the conventions, and Wisconsin led off by permitting the
alien to vote after a year's residence. It welcomed the newcomer to the
freedom and to the obligations of American citizenship.

Although this pioneer society was preponderantly an agricultural society
it was rapidly learning that agriculture alone was not sufficient for
its life. It was developing manufactures, trade, mining, the
professions, and becoming conscious that in a progressive modern state
it was possible to pass from one industry to another and that all were
bound by common ties. But it is significant that in the census of 1850,
Ohio, out of a population of two millions, reported only a thousand
servants, Iowa only ten in two hundred thousand and Minnesota fifteen
in its six thousand.

In the intellectual life of this new democracy there was already the
promise of original contributions even in the midst of the engrossing
toil and hard life of the pioneer.

The country editor was a leader of his people, not a patent-insides
recorder of social functions, but a vigorous and independent thinker and
writer. The subscribers to the newspaper published in the section were
higher in proportion to population than in the State of New York and not
greatly inferior to those of New England, although such eastern papers
as the _New York Tribune_ had an extensive circulation throughout the
Middle West. The agricultural press presupposed in its articles and
contributions a level of general intelligence and interest above that of
the later farmers of the section, at least before the present day.

Farmer boys walked behind the plow with their book in hand and sometimes
forgot to turn at the end of the furrow; even rare boys, who, like the
young Howells, "limped barefoot by his father's side with his eyes on
the cow and his mind on Cervantes and Shakespeare."

Periodicals flourished and faded like the prairie flowers. Some of
Emerson's best poems first appeared in one of these Ohio Valley
magazines. But for the most part the literature of the region and the
period was imitative or reflective of the common things in a not
uncommon way. It is to its children that the Middle West had to look for
the expression of its life and its ideals rather than to the busy
pioneer who was breaking a prairie farm or building up a new community.
Illiteracy was least among the Yankee pioneers and highest among the
Southern element. When illiteracy is mapped for 1850 by percentages
there appears two distinct zones, the one extending from New England,
the other from the South.

The influence of New England men was strong in the Yankee regions of
the Middle West. Home missionaries, and representatives of societies for
the promotion of education in the West, both in the common school and
denominational colleges, scattered themselves throughout the region and
left a deep impress in all these States. The conception was firmly fixed
in the thirties and forties that the West was the coming power in the
Union, that the fate of civilization was in its hands, and therefore
rival sects and rival sections strove to influence it to their own
types. But the Middle West shaped all these educational contributions
according to her own needs and ideals.

The State Universities were for the most part the result of agitation
and proposals of men of New England origin; but they became
characteristic products of Middle Western society, where the community
as a whole, rather than wealthy benefactors, supported these
institutions. In the end the community determined their directions in
accord with popular ideals. They reached down more deeply into the ranks
of the common people than did the New England or Middle State Colleges;
they laid more emphasis upon the obviously useful, and became
coëducational at an early date. This dominance of the community ideals
had dangers for the Universities, which were called to raise ideals and
to point new ways, rather than to conform.

Challenging the spaces of the West, struck by the rapidity with which a
new society was unfolding under their gaze, it is not strange that the
pioneers dealt in the superlative and saw their destiny with optimistic
eyes. The meadow lot of the small intervale had become the prairie,
stretching farther than their gaze could reach.

All was motion and change. A restlessness was universal. Men moved, in
their single life, from Vermont to New York, from New York to Ohio,
from Ohio to Wisconsin, from Wisconsin to California, and longed for the
Hawaiian Islands. When the bark started from their fence rails, they
felt the call to change. They were conscious of the mobility of their
society and gloried in it. They broke with the Past and thought to
create something finer, more fitting for humanity, more beneficial for
the average man than the world had ever seen.

"With the Past we have literally nothing to do," said B. Gratz Brown in
a Missouri Fourth of July oration in 1850, "save to dream of it. Its
lessons are lost and its tongue is silent. We are ourselves at the head
and front of all political experience. Precedents have lost their virtue
and all their authority is gone. . . . Experience can profit us only to
guard from antequated delusions."

"The yoke of opinion," wrote Channing to a Western friend, speaking of
New England, "is a heavy one, often crushing individuality of judgment
and action," and he added that the habits, rules, and criticisms under
which he had grown up had not left him the freedom and courage which are
needed in the style of address best suited to the Western people.
Channing no doubt unduly stressed the freedom of the West in this
respect. The frontier had its own conventions and prejudices, and New
England was breaking its own cake of custom and proclaiming a new
liberty at the very time he wrote. But there was truth in the Eastern
thought of the West, as a land of intellectual toleration, one which
questioned the old order of things and made innovation its very creed.

The West laid emphasis upon the practical and demanded that ideals
should be put to work for useful ends; ideals were tested by their
direct contributions to the betterment of the average man, rather than
by the production of the man of exceptional genius and distinction.

For, in fine this was the goal of the Middle West, the welfare of the
average man; not only the man of the South, or of the East, the Yankee,
or the Irishman, or the German, but all men in one common fellowship.
This was the hope of their youth, of that youth when Abraham Lincoln
rose from rail-splitter to country lawyer, from Illinois legislator to
congressman and from congressman to President.

It is not strange that in all this flux and freedom and novelty and vast
spaces, the pioneer did not sufficiently consider the need of
disciplined devotion to the government which he himself created and
operated. But the name of Lincoln and the response of the pioneer to the
duties of the Civil War,--to the sacrifices and the restraints on
freedom which it entailed under his presidency, reminds us that they
knew how to take part in a common cause, even while they knew that war's
conditions were destructive of many of the things for which they worked.

There are two kinds of governmental discipline: that which proceeds from
free choice, in the conviction that restraint of individual or class
interests is necessary for the common good; and that which is imposed by
a dominant class, upon a subjected and helpless people. The latter is
Prussian discipline, the discipline of a harsh machine-like, logical
organization, based on the rule of a military autocracy. It assumes that
if you do not crush your opponent first, he will crush you. It is the
discipline of a nation ruled by its General Staff, assuming war as the
normal condition of peoples, and attempting with remorseless logic to
extend its operations to the destruction of freedom everywhere. It can
only be met by the discipline of a people who use their own government
for worthy ends, who preserve individuality and mobility in society and
respect the rights of others, who follow the dictates of humanity and
fair play, the principles of give and take. The Prussian discipline is
the discipline of Thor, the War God, against the discipline of the White
Christ.

Pioneer democracy has had to learn lessons by experience: the lesson
that government on principles of free democracy can accomplish many
things which the men of the middle of the nineteenth century did not
realize were even possible. They have had to sacrifice something of
their passion for individual unrestraint; they have had to learn that
the specially trained man, the man fitted for his calling by education
and experience, whether in the field of science or of industry, has a
place in government; that the rule of the people is effective and
enduring only as it incorporates the trained specialist into the
organization of that government, whether as umpire between contending
interests or as the efficient instrument in the hands of democracy.

Organized democracy after the era of free land has learned that popular
government to be successful must not only be legitimately the choice of
the whole people; that the offices of that government must not only be
open to all, but that in the fierce struggle of nations in the field of
economic competition and in the field of war, the salvation and
perpetuity of the republic depend upon recognition of the fact that
specialization of the organs of the government, the choice of the fit
and the capable for office, is quite as important as the extension of
popular control. When we lost our free lands and our isolation from the
Old World, we lost our immunity from the results of mistakes, of waste,
of inefficiency, and of inexperience in our government.

But in the present day we are also learning another lesson which was
better known to the pioneers than to their immediate successors. We are
learning that the distinction arising from devotion to the interests of
the commonwealth is a higher distinction than mere success in economic
competition. America is now awarding laurels to the men who sacrifice
their triumphs in the rivalry of business in order to give their service
to the cause of a liberty-loving nation, their wealth and their genius
to the success of her ideals. That craving for distinction which once
drew men to pile up wealth and exhibit power over the industrial
processes of the nation, is now finding a new outlet in the craving for
distinction that comes from service to the Union, in satisfaction in the
use of great talent for the good of the republic.

And all over the nation, in voluntary organizations for aid to the
government, is being shown the pioneer principle of association that was
expressed in the "house raising." It is shown in the Red Cross, the Y.
M. C. A., the Knights of Columbus, the councils and boards of science,
commerce, labor, agriculture; and in all the countless other types, from
the association of women in their kitchen who carry out the
recommendations of the Food Director and revive the plain living of the
pioneer, to the Boy Scouts who are laying the foundations for a
self-disciplined and virile generation worthy to follow the trail of the
backwoodsmen. It is an inspiring prophecy of the revival of the old
pioneer conception of the obligations and opportunities of
neighborliness, broadening to a national and even to an international
scope. The promise of what that wise and lamented philosopher, Josiah
Royce called, "the beloved community." In the spirit of the pioneer's
"house raising" lies the salvation of the Republic.

This then is the heritage of pioneer experience,--a passionate belief
that a democracy was possible which should leave the individual a part
to play in free society and not make him a cog in a machine operated
from above; which trusted in the common man, in his tolerance, his
ability to adjust differences with good humor, and to work out an
American type from the contributions of all nations--a type for which
he would fight against those who challenged it in arms, and for which in
time of war he would make sacrifices, even the temporary sacrifice of
individual freedom and his life, lest that freedom be lost forever.


FOOTNOTES:

[335:1] An address delivered at the dedication of the building of the
State Historical Society of Minnesota, May 11, 1918. Printed by
permission of the Society.

[343:1] See De Tocqueville's interesting appreciation of this American
phenomenon.




INDEX


Absentee proprietors, 55, 297

Achievement, 309

Adams, Henry, 213

Adams, J. Q., 26, 192, 230

Agriculture, 314, 329;
  Middle West, 149, 150

Agriculture, Department of, 320

Alamance, 119, 120

Alaska, 296

Albany, 43, 52

Albany congress of 1754, 15

Algonquin Indians, 130

Aliens, land tenure by, 110

Alleghany Mountains, 9, 18, 67;
  as barrier to be overcome, 195

Allen, Ethan, 54

Allen, W. V., 220

American Historical Assoc., 159

American history, social forces, 311;
  survey of recent, 311

American life, distinguishing feature, 2

American people, 339

American spirit, 306, 336, 337

"American System," 171, 172

Americanization, effective, 4

Arid lands, 9, 147, 219, 239, 245, 278

Aristocracy, 250, 254, 257, 275

Army posts, frontier, 16;
  prototypes, 47

Asia, 296

Association, voluntary, 343, 344, 358

Astor's American Fur Co., 6, 143

Atlantic coast, as early frontier, 4;
  Mississippi Valley and, 190, 191;
  Northern, History, 295

Atlantic frontier, composition, 12

Atlantic states, 207, 208

Augusta, Ga., 98

Autocracy, 344


Back country, 68, 70;
  democracy of, 248;
  New England, 75

Backwoods society, 212

Backwoodsmen, 163, 164

Bacon, Francis, 286

Bacon's Rebellion, 84, 247, 251, 301

Baltimore, trade, 108

Bancroft, George, 168

Bank, 171, 254, 325

Bedford, Pa., 5

Beecher, Lyman, 35

Bell, John, 192

Benton, T. H., 26, 35, 192, 325, 328

Berkshires, 60, 71, 77

Beverley, Robert, 85, 91;
  manor, 92

"Birch seal," 78

Black Hills, 145

Blackmar, F. W., 238

Blank patents, 95

Blood-feud, 253

Blount, William, 187

Blue Ridge, 90, 99

Boone, A. J., 19

Boone, Daniel, 18, 105, 124, 165, 206

Boston, trade, 108

Boutmy, E. G., 211

Braddock, Edward, 181, 324

Brattle, Thomas, 56

British and Middle West, 350

Brown, B. Gratz, 355

Brunswick County, Va., 91

Bryan, W. J., 204, 236, 237, 246, 281, 327, 329

Bryce, James, 165, 206, 211, 284

Buffalo, N. Y., 136, 150, 151

Buffalo herds, 144

Buffer state, 131, 134

Burke, Edmund, 33;
  on the Germans, 109

Byrd, Col. William, 84, 87, 98


Calhoun, J. C., 2, 105, 141, 174, 206, 241;
  on representation, 117;
  policy of obtaining western trade for the South, 196

California, 8;
  gold, 144

Canada, 53, 226;
  barrier between, and the United States, 131;
  border warfare, 44;
  homesteads, 296;
  Middle West and, 128;
  wheat fields, 278

Canadians, 227

Canals, deep water, 150

Capital, 276, 305, 325;
  concentration and combinations, 245, 261, 266, 280, 305-306

"Capitalistic classes," 285

Capitalists, 20;
  "expectant," 343

Capitals, state, transfers, 121

Captains of industry, 258, 259, 260

Carnegie, Andrew, 260, 265

Caroline cow-pens, 16

Catron, John, 345

Cattle raising in Virginia, 88, 89, 92

Census, first, frontier at, 5

Census of 1820, frontier, 6

Census of 1890, extinction of frontier, 1, 9, 38, 39, 297

Center of nation, 222

Channing, W. E., 355

Charleston, S. C., 88, 108, 196

Chase, S. P., 104, 142

Cherry Valley, 104

Chicago, 137, 150, 151, 180, 350;
  character, 232

Chillicothe, 133, 223

Cincinnati, 133, 151, 162, 223, 231, 232

Cincinnati and Charleston R. R., 174

Cities, 297, 316-317;
  northeastern, 294-295;
  seaboard, 194, 195, 196;
  three periods of development, 195

Civil War, 356;
  Middle West and, 142;
  Mississippi Valley and, 201;
  Northwest and, 217

Clark, G. R., 131, 167, 186

Clark, J. B., 332

Class distinctions, 280, 285

Clay, Henry, 26, 168, 171, 172, 173, 174, 192, 197, 206, 213, 216, 226,
    241, 304, 325

Cleaveland, Gen. Moses, 133, 222, 257

Cleveland, 133, 150, 223, 231, 232

Clinton, De Witt, 195, 196

Coal supply, 313

Coast, Atlantic, 206;
  destiny, 295;
  interior and, antagonisms, 110

Coeducation, 353

Colden, Cadwallader, 80

Colonial life, 11

Colonial system, 127

Colonization, 312;
  English and French contrasted, 13-14;
  peaceful, 169

Colony of free humanity, 337-338

Columbus, Ohio, 162, 229

Combinations of capital and of labor, 245

Commencement seasons, 290

Commons, J. R., 327

Community, "beloved community," 358;
  life, 347;
  type of settlement, 73, 74, 125

Competition, 154, 203, 277, 308, 312

Compromise, 174, 198, 230, 236;
  slavery, 140, 142

Concentration of power and wealth, 245, 261, 266, 280

Concord, Mass., 39

Concurrent majority, 118

Congregational church, 74, 112

Congress and frontiersmen, 252-253

Connecticut, frontier towns, 42, 45, 53;
  land policy, 76

Connecticut River, 52, 53, 72

Connecticut Valley, 63, 73

Conquest, 269

Conscience, American, 328

Constitution, U. S., 209, 244

Constitutional convention of 1787, 249

Constitutions, state, 121, 252, 352;
  reconstruction, 192

Coöperation, voluntary, 165, 257, 258

Corn, areas, 149;
  belt, 151

Corporations, 265, 328

Cotton culture, 28, 139, 255;
  early extension, 7;
  transfer from the East to Mississippi Valley, 194

"Cotton Kingdom," 174, 189, 194, 198

Coureurs de bois, 182

Cow pens, 16, 88

Crockett, Davy, 105

Crops, migration, 149

Currency, 148;
  evil, 32;
  expansion, 210

Cutler, Manasseh, 141


Dairy interests in Wisconsin, 234, 236

Dakotas, settlement, 145, 146

Darien, Ga., 98

Davis, Jefferson, 105, 139, 174

De Bow, J. D. B., 197

De Bow's _Review_, 217

Debs, E. V., 281

Dedham, 40, 58

Deerfield, 48, 52, 58, 70

Democracy, 32, 54, 306;
  doubts of, 280;
  established in Old West, 107;
  free land and, 274;
  frontier, early, 106;
  frontier and, 30, 31, 247, 249;
  Godkin on, 307;
  in early 18th century, 98;
  Jacksonian, 192, 302, 342-343;
  Jeffersonian, 250, 251;
  magnitude of achievement in the West, 258;
  Middle West, 154;
  Mississippi Valley, 183;
  neighborhood, 346;
  new type in West, 210, 216;
  Ohio Valley, influence, 172;
  Ohio Valley and, 175;
  organized, 357;
  origin, 293;
  outcome of American experiences, 266;
  pressure on the universities, 283;
  significance of Mississippi Valley in promoting, 190;
  Upland South, 165;
  Western contributions, 243;
  Western ideals, 261;
  _see also_ Pioneer democracy

Democratic party, 327, 330;
  basis, 248;
  Middle Western wing, 352

Democratic-Republican party, 250

Denver, Colo., 19

De Tocqueville. _See_ Tocqueville

Detroit, 135, 150

Development, American, 205, 221;
  four changes, 244;
  personal, 271;
  significant decade, 246-247;
  study of, 10;
  true point of view, 3;
  Western, 218

D'Iberville. _See_ Iberville

Discovery, 271, 293, 301, 306

Doddridge, Joseph, 115

Dogs for hunting Indians, 45

Douglas, S. A., 140;
  Lincoln debates, 230

Douglas, William, 109

Down east, 79

Dracut, 111

Dreams, 301, 339

Duel, 253

Duluth, 150, 151, 234

Dunkards, 263

Dunstable, 48, 56

Duquesne, Abraham, 14

Dwight, Timothy (1752-1817), 63;
  fears of pioneer class, 251


East, efforts to restrict advance of frontier, 33, 34;
  fears of the West, 208;
  out of touch with West, 18

Economic forces and political institutions, 243

Economic historian, 332

Economic legislation and Ohio Valley, 170

Education, 282;
  Middle West, 156

Edwards, Jonathan, 63

Egleston, Melville, 55

Eliot, C. W., on corporation, 265;
  on democracy and slavery, 256

Emerson, R. W., 353;
  on Lincoln, 256

England, decrease of dependence on, 23;
  Mississippi Valley and, 180, 186;
  Old Northwest and, 131, 134

English pioneers, 270

English settlers in Michigan and Wisconsin, 226

English stock and English speech, 23

Equality, 274;
  New England, 61, 62, 63;
  Western settlers, 212

Erie Canal, 7, 136, 195, 197

Europe, American democracy and, 282;
  how America reacted on, 3;
  Southeastern, 294, 295, 316

Europeans, 267

Evolution, American, as key to history, 11

Expansion, 206, 219, 304, 345;
  Ohio Valley and, 166;
  world politics, 246

Experts, 284, 285, 286


"Fall line," 4, 9, 68;
  efforts to establish military frontier on, 84

Fairfax, Lord, 92, 123

Far East, 315

Far West, 315, 341

Farm lands, 297

Farm machinery, 276

Farmers, 238, 239

Farmer's frontier, 12, 16, 18

Federal colonial system, 168, 169

Federal Reserve districts, 322

Fertility, 129

Field, Marshall, 265

Finance, 318, 325;
  pioneer ideas, 148

Fire-arms and Indians, 13

Firmin, Giles, 56

Food supply, 279, 294, 314

Foreign parentage, Indiana and Illinois, 232;
  Michigan, 233;
  Western States, 237;
  Wisconsin, 233-234

Foreign policy, 168, 219

Forest Service, 320

Forest philosophy, 207

"Foresters," 63

Forests, 270, 293;
  Middle West, 130

Fortified houses, 71

Fourierists, 263

France, efforts to revive empire in America, 167;
  Middle West and, 131;
  Mississippi Valley and, 180, 186;
  western exploration, 163;

Franchise, 249-250, 252

Franklin, Benjamin, Mississippi Valley and, 182;
  on the Germans, 109

Free Soil party, 141, 173, 217

French explorers, 163

French frontier, 125

French settlers in Michigan and Wisconsin, 226

Frontier, conservative attitude toward advance, 63;
  definition, 3, 41;
  demand for independent statehood, 248;
  efforts to check and restrict it, 33;
  evil effects, 32;
  extinction, 1, 9, 38, 39, 321;
  farmers, 239, 240;
  first official, 39, 54;
  French, 125;
  importance as a military training school, 15;
  influence toward democracy, 247, 249;
  kinds and modes of advance, 12;
  Massachusetts, 65;
  military, of Old West, 106-107;
  religious aspects, 36;
  Spanish, 125;
  towns in Massachusetts, 42, 45, 53, 70;
  various comparisons, 10

Frontiersmen, 206, 209, 212;
  in Congress, 252-253;
  Mississippi Valley, 182;
  Virginia idea, 86

Fulton, Robert, 171

Fur trade, 13;
  England after Revolution, 131;
  Hudson River, 80;
  Southern, Old West, 87


Gallatin, Albert, 191, 252, 317

Galveston, 202

Garfield, J. A., 241

Geographic factors, 329

Geographic provinces, 158

Georgia, 174, 196;
  restriction of land tenure, 97;
  settlement, 97

Germanic germs, 3, 4

Germans, 263;
  in New York in early times, 5;
  Middle West and, 137-138, 146;
  Palatine, 5, 82, 100, 109, 124;
  political exiles, 349;
  sectaries, 164;
  Wisconsin, 23, 227, 236;
  zone of settlement in Great Valley, 102

Glarus, 236

Glenn, James, 23, 108

Godkin, E. L., 307

Goochland County, Va., 93

Government, 321;
  paternal, 328;
  popular, 357

Government discipline, 356

Government expeditions, 17

Government intervention, 344

Government ownership, 148

Government powers, 307

Government regulation, 281

Granger movement, 148, 203, 218, 276, 281

Grant, U. S., 142

Granville, Lord, 95, 123

Great Lakes, 128, 149, 150, 173, 297

Great Plains, 8, 128, 147;
  Indian trade and war, 144

Great Valley, 100;
  colonization, 100-101

Greater South, 174

Greeley, Horace, 104

Green Mountain Boys, 78

Greenback movement, 148, 203, 218, 276

Greenway manor, 92

Groseilliers, 180

Groton, 48, 57

Grund, F. J., 7

Grundy, Felix, 192

Gulf coast, 295

Gulf States, 141;
  occupation, 139


Hammond, J. H., on slavery problem in the Mississippi Valley, 198

Hanna, Marcus, 265

Harriman, E. H., 280, 318

Harrison, W. H., 168, 173, 189, 192, 213, 255

Hart, A. B., 177

Hartford, 76

Haverhill, 51, 62

Hayes, R. B., 241

Henry, Patrick, 94

Heroes, 254, 256;
  Western, 213

High thinking, 287

Higher law, 239

Hill, J. J., 260

Historian, 333

Historic ideals, 306, 335

Historical societies, 159-160, 339

History, character, 331-332;
  new viewpoints, 330

Holland, J. G., 73

Holst, H. E. von, 24

Home markets, 108, 216

Home missions, 36, 354

Homestead law of 1862, 145, 276

Hoosier State, 224

Housatonic River, 71

Housatonic Valley, 72

Houston, Sam, 105

Howells, W. D., 353

Hudson River, 53, 79;
  frontier, 43;
  fur trade, 80

Humanitarian movement, 327

Huxley, T. H., on modern civilization, 300


Iberville, P. le M. d', 180

Icarians, 263

Idealists, America the goal, 261;
  social, 349

Ideals, 239;
  American, and the West, 290;
  American, loyalty to, 307;
  American historic, 306, 335;
  immigrants, 264;
  Middle West, 153;
  Mississippi Valley, 203;
  pioneer, and the State university, 269;
  readjustment, 321, 328;
  Western, 209, 214, 267;
  Western democracy and, 261

Illinois, composite nationality, 232;
  elements of settlement, 225;
  settlement, 135

Illiteracy in Middle West, 353

Immigrants, 277;
  idealism, 264

Immigration, 146, 215, 316

Indian guides, 17

Indian policy, 10

Indian question, early, 9

Indian reservations, 278

Indian trade, 6, 13, 14;
  Middle West, 143, 144

Indian wars, 9;
  New England and, 69;
  Ohio Valley and, 167

Indiana, character, 232;
  constitution, 282;
  elements in settlement, 223-224;
  settlement, 134

Indianapolis, 162, 229

Indians, buffer state for England, 131, 134;
  congresses to treat with, 15;
  effects of trades on, 13;
  hunting Indians with dogs, 45;
  influence on Puritans and New England, 44;
  Middle West and, 133, 134;
  society, 13

Individualism, 30, 32, 37, 78, 125, 140, 203, 254, 259, 271, 273, 302,
    306;
  in the Old West, 107;
  reaction against, 307;
  Upland South, 165

Industrial conditions, 280, 281, 285;
  Middle West, 149, 154;
  Mississippi Valley, 194, 201;
  Ohio Valley and, 175

Industry, captains of, and large undertakings, 258, 259, 260;
  control, 318

Inland waterways, 202

Insurgent movement, 327

Intellectual life and the frontier, 37

Intercolonial congresses, 15

Interior and coast, antagonisms, 110

Internal commerce, 171, 188

Internal improvements, 27, 28, 29, 111, 170, 172, 216, 257;
  after 1812 to break down barrier to West, 195;
  Old West, 109

Internal trade, Old West, 108, 109

Iowa, 141, 143;
  elements and growth, 229;
  settlement, 137

Ipswich, 56

Irish, 350

Iron mines in Middle West, 152

Iron ore, 313

Iroquois Indians, 13, 80

Irrigation, 258, 279

Isms, 239

Izard, Ralph, 274


Jackson, Andrew, 105, 168, 173, 189, 206, 213, 216, 241, 252, 253, 268,
    326;
  personification of frontier traits, 252, 254

Jackson, Stonewall, 105

Jacksonian democracy, 192, 302, 342-343

James River, 84, 90;
  settlement, 93

Jefferson, Thomas, 93, 105, 114, 268;
  conception of democracy, 250, 251;
  on England and the Mississippi, 186;
  on the pioneer in Congress, 253;
  on the importance of the Mississippi Valley, 188

"Jim River" Valley, 145

Johnson, R. M., 192

Johnson, Sir William, 81, 104

Justice, direct forms in the West, 212


Kansas, 142, 144, 146, 151;
  Populists, 238;
  settlers, 237

Kansas City, 151

Kentucky, 19, 122, 162, 167, 168, 169, 192, 225, 253;
  slavery, 174

King Philip's War 40, 46, 69

Kipling, Rudyard, "Foreloper," 270;
  "Son of the English," 262


Labor, combinations, 245;
  composition of laboring class, 316

Labor theorists, 303, 326

Lamar, L. Q. C. (1825-1893), 25

Lancaster, Mass., 48, 57, 61

Land, 328-329;
  abundance, 274;
  abundance, as basis of democracy, 191, 192;
  alien tenure, 110;
  free, exhausted, 244-245;
  free Western, 211, 259;
  fundamental fact in Western society, 211;
  "mongering," 61;
  _see also_ Public lands

Land companies, 123, 347

Land grants, 9;
  for schools and colleges, 74;
  to railroads, 276

Land Ordinance of 1785, 132

Land policies, 10

Land system, "equality" principle in New England, 61, 62, 63;
  Georgia, 97;
  later federal, 123;
  New England, 54;
  New England conflicts, 75;
  New York State, 80;
  North Carolina, 95;
  Old West, 122;
  Pennsylvania, 101;
  Virginia, 91;
  Virginia grants to societies, 85

La Salle, 180

Laurentide glacier, 129

Law and order, 298, 344

Leadership, 213, 291, 292, 307;
  educated, 286

Lease, Mary Ellen, 240

Legislation, 277, 307;
  frontier and, 24;

Leicester, 59

Leigh, B. W., 115

Lewis and Clark, 13, 17

Liberty, Bacon on, 286;
  for universities, 287;
  individual, 213;
  Western, 212

Life as a whole, 287

Lincoln, Abraham, 105, 135, 142, 174, 206, 213, 217, 225, 241, 268, 304,
    356;
  Douglas debates, 230;
  embodiment of pioneer period, 255-256;
  Ohio Valley, influence of, 175

Lincoln, C. H., 113

Litchfield, 71, 76, 124

Livingston manor, 81, 82

Locofocos, 303, 326, 348

Log cabin, 338

"Log cabin campaign," 173

London Company, 301

Loria, Achille, 11

Louisiana, 180, 208

Louisiana Purchase, 25, 34, 140, 167, 213, 251;
  effect on Mississippi Valley, 189-190

Louisville, 162

Lowell, J. R., on Lincoln, 255

Loyal Land Co., 123, 182

Lumber industry, 152;
  Wisconsin, 234-235

Lumbermen, 272, 273

Lynch law, 212, 272;
  New England, 78


McKinley, William, 236, 237, 241

Magnitude, 258, 260, 276

Maine, 52-53

Maine coast, 79

Mallet brothers, 180

Manila, battle of, 247

Manorial practice in New York, 83

Marietta, 124, 133, 223, 257

"Mark colonies," 70

Marquette, Jacques, 180

Martineau, Harriet, 214, 303, 339

Massachusetts, attempt to locate frontier line, 39;
  frontier, 65;
  frontier towns, 42, 45, 53, 70;
  locating towns before settlement, 76

Mather, Cotton, attitude as to advancing frontier, 63

Mesabi mines, 152, 234

Mendon, 57

Methodists, 238

Mexico, 295

Michigan, 135-136, 137;
  development and resources, 233;
  settlement, 226, 228

Middle region, 27;
  in formation of the Old West, 79;
  typical American, 28

Middle West, agriculture, 150;
  Canada and, 128;
  Civil War and, 142;
  early society, 153-154;
  education, 282;
  elements of settlement--Northern and Southern, 346, 351;
  Europe and, 282;
  flow of population into, 132-133;
  forests, 130;
  Germans and, 137-138;
  Germans and Scandinavians, 146;
  idealism, 153;
  immigrants of varied nationalities, 349;
  importance, 126, 128;
  increase of settlement in the fifties, 142-143;
  industrial organism, 149;
  meaning of term, 126;
  nationalism, 142;
  natural resources, 129;
  New England element, 137;
  peculiarity and influence, 347;
  pioneer democracy, 335;
  settlement, 135, 342;
  slavery question and, 139;
  southern zone, 138

Migration, 21, 237, 337;
  communal vs. individual, 125;
  crops, 149;
  interstate, 224;
  labor, 62;
  New England, and land policy, 77

Militant expansive movement, 105

Military frontier, 41, 47;
  early form, 47;
  Old West, significance, 106-107;
  Virginia in later 17th century, 83, 84

Milwaukee, 137, 227, 236, 350

Miner's frontier, 12

Mining camps, 9

Mining laws, 10

Minneapolis, 137, 151, 234

Minnesota, 143, 144, 237;
  economic development, 234;
  Historical Society, 335, 338-339

Missions to the Indians, 79

Mississippi Company, 123, 182

Mississippi River, 7, 9, 142, 185, 194, 345

Mississippi Valley, 10, 139, 166-167, 324;
  beginning of stratification, 197;
  Civil War and, 201;
  democracy and, 190;
  early population, 183;
  economic progress after 1812, 194;
  England's efforts to control, 180-181;
  extent, 179;
  French explorers in, 180;
  frontiersmen's allegiance, 186-187;
  idealism, social order, 203-204;
  industrial growth after the Civil War, 201-202;
  political power and growth from 1810 to 1840, 193;
  primitive history, 179;
  question of severance from the Union, 187;
  significance in American history, 177, 185;
  slavery struggle and, 201;
  social forces, early, 183

Missouri, 192

Missouri Compromise, 140, 174, 226

Missouri Valley, 135

Mohawk Valley, 68, 82

Monroe, James, 150

Monroe Doctrine, 296;
  germ, 168

Monticello, 93

Moravians, 95, 102

Morgan, J. P., 318

Mormons, 263

Morris, Gouverneur, 207


Nashaway, 57

National problem, 293

Nationalism, 29;
  evils of, 157;
  Middle West and, 142

Nationalities, mixture, 27;
  replacement in Wisconsin, 235

Naturalization, 110

Nebraska, 144, 145, 220;
  settlers, 237

Negro, 295

New England, 27, 301;
  back lands, 75;
  coast vs. interior, 111;
  colonies from, 124;
  culmination of frontier movement, 78;
  early official frontier line, 43;
  economic life, 78;
  effect on the West, 36;
  foreign element, 294;
  frontier protection, 46-47;
  frontier types, 43-44;
  Greater New England, 66, 70;
  ideas, and Middle West, 348;
  Indian wars, 69;
  land system, 54;
  Middle West and, 347;
  Ohio settlement and, 223;
  Old West and, 68;
  Old West and interior New England, 70;
  pioneer type, 239;
  streams of settlement from, 215;
  two New Englands of the formative period of the Old West, 78-79

New Englanders in the Middle West, 137;
  in Wisconsin and the lake region, 228;
  three movements of advance from the coast, 136;
  Westernized, 215, 216

New Glarus, 236

New Hampshire, 69, 72, 77, 111

New Hampshire grants, 77

New Northwest, 222

New Orleans, 136, 137, 167, 187, 188, 189, 217, 295

New South, 218;
  Old West and, 100

New West, 257

New York City, 136, 195, 318

New York State, early frontier, 43;
  lack of expansive power, 80;
  land system, 80;
  settlement from New England, 83;
  western, 230

Newspapers of the Middle West, 353

Nitrates, 279

Norfolk, 195

North Carolina, 87, 106;
  coast vs. upland, 116;
  in Indiana Settlement, 224;
  public lands, 95;
  settlement, 94, 95;
  slavery, 122;
  taxation, 118, 119

North Central States, 126;
  region as a whole, 341

North Dakota, development, 237

Northampton, 63

Northfield, 53

Northwest, democracy, 356;
  Old and New, 222;
  _see also_ Old Northwest

Northwest Territory, 222

Northwestern boundary, 324

Norton, C. E., 208-209

Norwegians, 232

Nullification, 117, 254


Ohio, diversity of interests, 231-232;
  elements of settlement, 223;
  history, 133-134;
  New England element, 223;
  Southern contribution to settlement, 223

Ohio Company, 123, 133, 141, 182, 223

Ohio River, 5, 161

Ohio Valley, 104;
  as a highway, 162;
  economic legislation and, 170;
  effects on national expansion, 166;
  in American history, 157;
  influence on Lincoln, 175;
  part in making of the nation, 160;
  physiography, 160-161;
  relation to the South, 174;
  religious spirit, 164, 165;
  stock and settlement, 164

Oil wells, 297

Oklahoma, 278, 297

Old National road, 136

Old Northwest, 131, 132, 136, 221;
  as a whole, 241-242;
  defined, 218;
  elements of settlement, 222;
  political position, 236;
  social origin, 222-223;
  Southern element in settlement, 223, 225-226;
  turning point of control, 229

"Old South," 166

Old West, colonization of areas beyond the mountains, 124;
  consequences of formation, 106;
  New South and, 100;
  summary of frontier movement in 17th and early 18th centuries, 98;
  term defined, 68

Old World, 261, 267, 294, 299, 344, 349;
  effect of American frontier, 22;
  West and, 206, 210

Opportunity, 37, 212, 239, 259-260, 261, 263, 271-272, 342, 343

Orangeburg, 96

Ordinance of 1787, 25, 132, 168, 190, 223

Oregon country, 144

Orient, 297

Osgood, H. L., 30


Pacific coast, 168, 219, 304

Pacific Northwest, 296

Pacific Ocean, 297, 315

Packing industries, 151

Palatine Germans, 5, 22, 100, 109, 124;
  New York State and, 82

Palisades, 71

Panama Canal, 295

Panics, 279-280

Paper money, 32, 111, 121, 122, 209

Parkman, Francis, 70, 72, 144, 163

"Particular plantations," 41

Past, lessons of, 355

Patroon estates, 80

Paxton Boys, 112

Pecks "New Guide to the West," 19

Penn, William, 262

Pennsylvania, 23, 27;
  coast and interior, antagonisms, 112;
  German settlement, 82, 100;
  Great Valley of, 68, 164;
  land grants, 101;
  new Pennsylvania of the Great Valley, 100;
  Scotch-Irish, 103, 104;
  settlement Of Old West part, 83

Pennsylvania Dutch, 22, 100, 110

Perrot, Nicolas, 180

Philadelphia, 106;
  trade, 108

Physiographic provinces, 127

Piedmont, 68;
  Virginia, 87, 89

Pig iron, 152, 313

Pine, 151

Pine belt in Middle West, 143

Pioneer democracy, lessons learned, 357;
  Middle West, 335

Pioneer farmers, 21, 206, 257

Pioneers, conservative fears about, 251, 252;
  contest with capitalist, 325;
  contrast of conditions, 279;
  deeper significance, 338;
  essence, 271;
  ideals and the State university, 269;
  Middle West, 146, 154;
  Ohio Valley, 167;
  old ideals, 148;
  sketch, 19

Pittsburgh, 104, 127, 136, 154-155, 161, 265, 299, 314, 324

Plain people, 256, 267

Political institutions, 243;
  frontier and, 24

Political parties, 249, 324

Polk, J. K., 105, 192, 255

Pontiac, 131, 144

Poor whites, 224

Population center, 222

Populists, 32, 127, 147, 155, 203, 220, 247, 277, 281, 305;
  Kansas, 238

Prairie Plains, 129

Prairie states, 239

Prairies, 218, 236, 276, 348;
  settlement, 145, 147

Presbyterians, 105, 106, 109, 164

Presidency, 254;
  Mississippi Valley and, 192;
  Ohio Valley and, 175;
  Old Northwest and, 222

Prices, 313

Princeton college, 106

Pritchett, H. S., 282

Privilege, 192;
  conflict against, 120, 121

Proclamation of 1763, 181

Progressive Republican movement, 321

Prohibitionists, 240

"Proletariat," 285

Property, 210;
  as basis of suffrage, 249

Prosperity, 281

Protection. _See_ Tariff

Provinces, geographic, 158

Provincialism, desirable, 157, 159

Prussianism, 337, 356

Public lands, 25, 132, 303;
  policy of America, 26, 170;
  Western lands, first debates on, 191

Public schools, 266, 282

Puget Sound, 298

Puritan ideals, 73, 75, 78;
  German conflict with, 138

Puritanism, 27

Puritans and Indians, 44

Purrysburg, 97

Pynchon, John, 51, 52


Quakers, 105, 112, 164;
  in settlement of Indiana, 224

Quebec, Province of, 131

Quincy, Josiah, 208


Radisson, Sieur de, 180

Railroads, administration by regions, 322;
  Chicago and, 150;
  continental, 247;
  in early fifties, 137;
  land grants to, 276;
  Mississippi Valley, 304;
  northwestern, 145;
  origin, 14;
  speculative movement, 276;
  statistics, 314;
  western, 218

Rancher's frontier, 12, 16

Ranches, 9, 16;
  Virginia, 88

Rappahannock River, 84, 90;
  settlement, 93

Reclamation, 298

Reclamation Service, 320

Red Cloud (Indian), 144

Red River valley, 145

Redemptioners, 22, 90, 97, 100

Reformers, 281, 324;
  social, 262-263

Regulation, War of the, 248

Regulators, 116, 119, 120, 212

Religion of the Middle West, 345

Religious freedom of the Old West, 121

Religious spirit, Ohio Valley, 164, 165;
  Upland South, 164, 165

Rensselaerswyck, 80

Representation, 114, 117, 120

Republican party, 327

Research, 284, 287, 331

Revolution, American, 30

Rhodes, J. F., 24

Richmond, Va., 108

Rights, equal, 326-327, 338;
  of man, 192

Ripley, W. Z., 316

Robertson, James, 105, 187

Rockefeller, J. D., 260, 264-265

Rocky Mountains, 8, 9, 10, 298

Roosevelt, Theodore, 202, 204, 281, 319, 327;
  on the Mississippi Valley, 178;
  "Winning of the West," 67

Root, Elihu, 159

Roxbury, 59

Royce, Josiah, 157, 358

Rush, Richard, 317


St. Louis, 151, 161, 229

St. Paul, 137, 234

Salisbury, Mass., 56

Salt, 17;
  annual pilgrimage to coast for, 17

Salt springs, 17, 18

Salzburgers, 97

Sandys, Sir Edwin, 301

Sault Ste. Marie Canal, 149

Scalps, Massachusetts bounty for, 45

Scandinavians, 263, 350;
  Middle West, 146;
  Western life, 232-233, 234

Schools, early difficulties, 107;
  _see also_ Public schools

Schurz, Carl, 337

Science, 284, 330-331

Scientific farming, 294

Scotch Highlanders, 104;
  Georgia, 98

Scotch-Irish, 5, 22, 71;
  migration in Great Valley and Piedmont, 103;
  Pennsylvania, 104;
  South Carolina, 97;
  Virginia, 86, 91-92

Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, 105, 109, 164

Scovillites, 116

Seaboard cities, 194, 195, 196

Seattle, 298

"Section" of land, 123, 132

Sectionalism, 27, 28, 52, 157, 215, 220, 321

Sections, relation, 159

Self-government, 169, 190, 207, 248, 275

Self-made man, 219, 318

Servants, 60, 353

Service to the Union, 358

Settlement, community type, 73, 74

Settler, 20

Sevier, John, 105, 187

Seward, W. H., 141;
  on the Northwest, 230;
  on the slavery issue in the Mississippi Valley, 199, 200

Shays' Rebellion, 112, 119, 122, 249

Sheffield, 71

Sheldon, George, 58

Shenandoah Valley, 68, 90, 91, 92, 99, 105

Sherman, W. T., 142

Sibley, H. H. (1811-1891), 272, 273, 328

Silver movement, 238, 239, 329

Simsbury, 63

Singletary, Amos, 240

Sioux Indians, 130

Six Nations, 15, 83

Slavery question, 24, 29, 98, 111, 139, 304, 330;
  compromise movement, 174;
  democracy and, 256;
  expansion, 174;
  Middle West and, 139;
  Mississippi Valley and, 198, 201;
  Northwest and, 230;
  slaves as property, 115;
  Virginia and North Carolina, 122

Smith, Major Lawrence, 84

Social control, 277

Social forces, in American history, 311;
  mode of investigating, 330;
  on the Atlantic coast, 295;
  political institutions and, 243

Social mobility, 355

Social order, Mississippi Valley, 203-204;
  new, 263

Social reformers, 262-263

Socialism, 246, 277, 307, 321

Society, backwoods, 212;
  rebirth of in the West, 205

Soils, 278, 279;
  search for, 18

Solid South, 217

South, 27, 166, 218;
  contribution to settlement of Old Northwest (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois),
    223, 225-226;
  Ohio Valley and, 174;
  solid, 217;
  transforming forces, 295;
  West and, 196, 197;
  _see also_ Upland South

South Carolina, 174;
  condition of antagonism between coast and interior, 116;
  land system, townships, 96;
  trade, 108

South Dakota, development, 237

Southeastern Europe, 294, 299, 316

Southerners and the Middle West, 133-134, 135, 138

Southwest, 297

Spain, 167, 181, 246;
  Mississippi Valley and, 184, 185

Spangenburg, A. G., 17

Spanish America 181, 182, 295

Spanish frontier, 125

Spanish War, 246

Speculation, 319

Spoils system, 32, 254

Spotswood, Alexander, 22, 88, 90, 91, 113, 247;
  Mississippi Valley and, 180

Spotsylvania County, Va., 90

Spreckles, Claus, 265

Squatter-sovereignty, 140

Squatters, 272, 343;
  doctrines, 273, 328;
  ideal, 320;
  Middle West, 137;
  Ohio Valley, 170;
  Pennsylvania in 1726, 101

Stark, John, 103-104

State historical societies, 340

State lines, 127

State universities, 221, 354;
  as safeguard of democracy, 286;
  Michigan, 233;
  peculiar power, 283-284;
  pioneer ideals and, 269, 281

States, checkerboard, 218;
  frontier pioneers' demand for statehood, 248;
  groups, 159;
  new states vs. Atlantic States, 207;
  System of, 168

Staunton, Va., 92

Steam navigation, 7, 135, 171

Steel, 313

Steel and iron industry, 152

Stockbridge, 79

Stoddard, Solomon, 45

Success, 288, 309

Sudbury, 39

Suffrage, 192, 216;
  basis, 249;
  frontier and extension, 30;
  manhood, 250, 352

Superior, Lake, 180, 314;
  iron mines, 152

Swedes, 233

Symmes Purchase, 223


Talleyrand, 299

Taney, R. B., 141

Tariff, 25, 27, 170, 172, 197, 216

Taylor, Zachary, 255

Tecumthe, 134, 144

Tennessee, 122, 168, 187, 225, 252, 253;
  democracy, 192

Tennyson's "Ulysses," 310

Territories, system of, 168, 169

Texas, 168

Thomas, J. B., 174

Tocqueville, A. C. H. C. de, 153, 275, 303, 343

Toledo, Ohio, 231

Toleration, 355

Town meeting, 62

Towns, legislating into existence, 125;
  locating, Massachusetts, 76;
  New England and Virginia, 41;
  new settlements in New England, 55;
  South Carolina, 96;
  typical form of establishing in New England, 74;
  Virginia, 85, 86

Trader's frontier, 12;
  effects following, 12;
  rapidity of advance, 12, 13

Trading posts, 14

Transportation, 148;
  Great Lakes, 150

Tryon, William, 106

Tuscarora War, 94, 95


Ulstermen, 103

Unification of the West, 215

United States, collection of nations, 158;
  development since 1890, 311;
  federal aspect, 159;
  fundamental forces, 311;
  original contribution to society, 281-282;
  wealth, 312

U. S. Steel Corporation, 152-153, 247, 265, 313

Universities, duties, 292;
  function, 287;
  influence of university men, 285;
  need of freedom, 287;
  pressure of democracies on, 283;
  State and, 286;
  _see also_ State universities

Upland South, 164;
  religious spirit, 164, 165


Van Buren, Martin, 254, 326

Van Rensselaer manor, 81

Vandalia, 229

Verendryes, the, 180

Vermont, 69, 72, 77, 78, 111, 122, 136

Vermonters in Wisconsin and Michigan, 228

Vicksburg, 201

Vigilance committees, 212

Vinton, S. F., 141, 229

Virginia, 301;
  early attempt to establish frontier, 41;
  Indian wars, 69-70;
  inequalities, coast vs. interior, 113;
  interest in Mississippi Valley, 182;
  land grants, 91;
  land grants to societies, 85;
  Piedmont, society, 95;
  Piedmont portions, 87, 89;
  settlement in latter part of 17th century, 83;
  slavery, 122;
  two Virginias in later 17th century, 94;
  Western democracy and, 250

Virginia Convention of 1829-30, 28, 31

Visions, 270, 331, 339-340

Voyageurs, 17


Wachovia, 95

Walker, F. A., 128

War of 1812, 168, 213

Washington, George, 92, 124;
  Mississippi Valley and, 181, 182, 194, 196, 324;
  Ohio Valley and, 163, 167

Wealth, 213-214, 219, 288, 319;
  democracy versus, 192;
  in politics, 173;
  United States, 312

Wells (town), 47

"Welsh tract," 97

Wentworth, Benning, 77

West, American ideals and, 290;
  beginning of, 6;
  center of interest, 327;
  constructive force, 206;
  contributions to democracy, 243;
  factor in American history, 1, 3;
  ideals, 209, 214, 267;
  indefiniteness of term, 126;
  insurgent voice, 319;
  main streams of settlement, 215;
  mark of New England, 36;
  phase of division, 216-217;
  population, 35;
  problem of, 205;
  South and, 196, 197;
  warnings against, 208, 209;
  Middle West; _see also_ Old West; Old Northwest

West Virginia, 114

Westchester County, N. Y., 81

Western colleges, 36

Western life, dominant forces, 222

Western Reserve, 124, 133

Western spirit, 310

"Western Waters," 161, 206, 302;
  men of freedom and independence, 183

"Western World," 161, 166, 206, 302;
  basis of its civilization, 177

Wheat, 329;
  areas, 149

Whig party, 27, 173, 304, 351

White, Abraham, 240

White, Hugh, 192

Whitman, Walt, 336

Wilderness, 262, 269, 270, 279

Wilkinson, James, 169, 187

Williams, John (1664-1729), 70

Williams, Roger, 262

Windsor, 76

Winthrop, John, 62

Wisconsin, 137, 138, 218, 294, 341;
  development and elements, 233-234;
  German element, 227, 228, 236;
  New England element, 228;
  settlement, 226, 227

Wood, Abraham, 98

Woodstock, 59

World's fairs, 156

World-politics, 246, 315

Wyoming Valley, 79, 124


Yemassee War, 95

"Young America" doctrine, 140



       *       *       *       *       *



Transcriber's Notes:

The following words appear in the text with and without hyphens.
They have been left as in the original.

     battle-field     battlefield
     coast-wise       coastwise
     cow-pens         cowpens
     head-rights      headrights
     iron-master      ironmaster
     new-comers       newcomers
     non-sectional    nonsectional
     out-vote         outvote
     rail-splitter    railsplitters
     sea-board        seaboard
     slave-holding    slaveholding
     tide-water       tidewater
     un-won           unwon

The following corrections have been made to the text:

     page 25--as the nation marched westward.[period is missing in
     original]

     page 40, footnote 40:5--"American Colonies in the Seventeenth
     Century,"[quotation mark missing in original]

     page 48, footnote 48:4--Sheldon, "Deerfield,"[quotation mark
     missing in original]

     page 49--your honours [original has opening parenthesis]we
     haue but litel laft

     page 53--the frontier Towns.[original has extraneous quotation
     mark]

     page 68, footnote 68:1--Powell, "Physiographic
     Regions[original has extraneous single quote]"

     page 75, footnote 75:1--Egleston[original has Eggleston],
     "Land System of the New England Colonies,"

     page 86--at least three foot within the ground."[quotation
     mark missing in original]

     page 96, footnote 96:3--(N. Y., 1899)[closing parenthesis
     missing in original], pp. 149, 151;

     page 117, footnote 117:3--pp. 440-447[original has 440-437]

     page 118--it was being exploited,[original has period]

     page 118, footnote 118:2--N. C.[original has N .C.]

     page 123--Preëmption and preëmptions are hyphenated across
     line breaks in the original. The diaresis has been reinserted
     in the rejoined words.

     page 163--American backwoodsmen[original has backswoodsmen]

     page 167--to add the settlements[original has setlements]

     page 171--social conditions of the people whose[original has
     who] needs

     page 236--stronghold of resistance[original has resistence]

     page 254--formal law and the subtleties[original has
     subleties]

     page 268--that dwarf [original has extraneous word of] those
     of the Old World

     page 310--to pause, to make an end,[original has period]

     page 348--to his own business.[original has extraneous
     quotation mark]

     page 353--at least before [original has extraneous word at]
     the present day

     page 362--Bryan, W. J., 204, 236, 237, 246, 281, 327,
     330[original has 329]

     page 363, under Democracy--Godkin[original has Gookin] on, 307

     page 363--Democratic party, 327, 330[original has 329]

     page 363--Discovery, 271[original has 270], 293, 301, 306

     page 363--Douglas[original has Douglass], William, 109

     page 364--Forest[original has Foreign] Service, 320

     page 364, under Germans--Palatine, 5, 82, 100, 109,
     124[original also lists page 32 in error]

     page 366--Henry, Patrick, 94[original has 95]

     page 366, under Indians: hunting Indians with dogs,
     45[original has 95]

     page 367--Kipling, Rudyard, "Foreloper[original has
     Toreloper]," 270

     page 368--Marietta, 124, 133[original has 132], 223, 257

     page 368, under Michigan--development and resources,
     233[original has 232]

     page 371--Pynchon[original has Pyrichon], John, 51, 52

     page 373--Spangenburg[original has Spangenberg], A. G.

Spelling and punctuation errors in quoted material have been left as in
the original.

The index entry for James Glenn was after the entry for E. L. Godkin.
The two entries were reversed to maintain alphabetical order. Index
entries for Leicester and Leigh, B. W., were combined with the
Legislation entry. Entries were moved as appropriate.