Project Gutenberg's An Outline of English Speech-craft, by William Barnes This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: An Outline of English Speech-craft Author: William Barnes Release Date: November 26, 2013 [EBook #44289] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH SPEECH-CRAFT *** Produced by Henry Flower and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) Transcriber's Note Italic text is indicated by _underscores_, and bold text by =equals signs=. AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH SPEECH-CRAFT BY WILLIAM BARNES, B.D. ‘_Præsens Angli sermonis forma magis magisque recedit a stirpe antiquâ_’--Lexicon Frisicum, by JUSTUS HALBERTSMA, under ‘Dunsi’ [Illustration] LONDON C. KEGAN PAUL & CO., 1 PATERNOSTER SQUARE 1878 (_The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved_) FORE-SAY. This little book was not written to win prize or praise; but it is put forth as one small trial, weak though it may be, towards the upholding of our own strong old Anglo-Saxon speech, and the ready teaching of it to purely English minds by their own tongue. Speech was shapen of the breath-sounds of speakers, for the ears of hearers, and not from speech-tokens (letters) in books, for men’s eyes, though it is a great happiness that the words of man can be long holden and given over to the sight; and therefore I have shapen my teaching as that of a speech of breath-sounded words, and not of lettered ones; and though I have, of course, given my thoughts in a book, for those whom my voice cannot reach, I believe that the teaching matter of it may all be put forth to a learner’s mind, and readily understood by him, without book or letters. So, for consonants and vowels, as letters, I put breath-pennings and free-breathings, and these names would be good for any speech, of the lettering of which a learner might know nothing. On the grounds here given, I have not begun with _orthography_, the writing or spelling of our speech, or of any other, while as yet the teaching or learning of the speech itself is unbegun. I have tried to teach English by English, and so have given English words for most of the lore-words (scientific terms), as I believe they would be more readily and more clearly understood, and, since we can better keep in mind what we do than what we do not understand, they would be better remembered. There is, in the learning of that charmingly simple and yet clear speech, pure Persian, now much mingled with Arabic, a saddening check; for no sooner does a learner come to the time-words than he is told that he should learn, what is then put before him, an outline of Arabic Grammar. And there are tokens that, ere long, the English youth will want an outline of the Greek and Latin tongues ere he can well understand his own speech. The word _grammar_ itself seems a misused word, for _grapho_ is to write, and _graphma_, worn into _gramma_, means a writing, and the word _grammatikē_ meant, with the Greeks, booklore or literature in the main, and not speech-teaching alone. Whether my lore-words are well-chosen is a question for the reader’s mind. I have, for better or worse, treated the time-words, and nearly all the parts of speech, in a new way. I have clustered up the time-words as weak or strong on their endings, rather than on their headings, which had nothing to do with their forshapening or conjugation. Case I have taken as in the thing, and not in the name of it, as case is the case into which a thing falls with a time-taking, and case-words (prepositions) and case-endings are the tokens of their cases. The word _preposition_ means a foreputting, or word put before; but then _from_ and _to_, in _herefrom_, and _therefrom_, and _hitherto_, and _thereto_, are postpositions. I have tried, as I have given some so-thought truths of English speech, to give the causes of them, and hope that the little book may afford a few glimpses of new insight into our fine old Anglo-Saxon tongue. To any friend who has ever asked me whether I do not know some other tongues beside English, my answer has been ‘No; I do not know English itself.’ How many men do? And how should I know all of the older English, and the mighty wealth of English words which the English Dialect Society have begun to bring forth; words that are not all of them other shapes of our words of book-English, or words of their very meanings, but words of meanings which dictionaries of book-English should, but cannot give, and words which should be taken in hundreds (by careful choice) into our Queen’s English? If a man would walk with me through our village, I could show him many things of which we want to speak every day, and for which we have words of which Johnson knew nothing. Some have spoken of cultivated languages as differing from uncultivated ones, and of the reducing of a speech to a grammatical form. What is the meaning of ‘cultivate’ as a time word about a speech? The Latin dictionary does not help us to its meaning, and it might be that of the French _cultiver_, from which we should have, by the wonted changes, to _cultive_. The Romans said _colere deum_ and _colere agrum_, but not _agrum cultivare_; and we may believe that _colo_, with _deus_ or _ager_, bore the same meaning, ‘to keep or hold (with good care),’ and a speech is cultivated by the speaking as well as by the writing of it, and a speech which is sounding over a whole folkland every moment of the day cannot be uncultivated. ‘Not with good care,’ it may be said. Yes; most people speak as well as they can, as they write as well as they can, from the utterer of a fine rede-speech (oration), and the clergyman who gives unwritten sermons, down to the lowly maiden who dresses as finely as she can; and to try to dress herself well is a token that she will try to express herself well. King Finow, of the Tonga Islands, gave a fine speech, as Mr. Mariner tells us, at his coming to the throne; and it may be well said that he made it, as he had made it in thought, ere he came to the meeting. What is meant by the reducing of a speech to a grammatical form, or to grammar, is not very clear. If a man would write a grammar of a speech, of which there is yet none, what could he do but show it forth as it is in the shape which its best speakers over the land hold to be its best? To hold that a tongue had no shape, or a bad one, ere a grammar of it was written, seems much like saying that a man had no face, or a bad one, till his likeness was taken. HEADS OF MATTER. PAGE Free Breathings 1 Breath-pennings 2 Word-strain and Speech-strain 3 Thing-names 4 Thing-sundrinesses 4 Thing Mark-words: Sex 5 Kindred 5 Size 5 Tale 6-9 Outshowing Mark-words 10, 12 Persons 11 Suchness 12 Pitches of Suchness 13 Time-taking and Time-words 14 Intransitive 14 Transitive 15 Cause Time-takings 15 Time-giving 15 Words in _-ing_ 17 Strong and Weak Time-words 18-26 Sundriness of Time-taking 26 Helping Time-words, _can_, _may_, _shall_, _must_ 27 Person, Tale, Mood, Time 27, 30 Historic Time-wording 30 Case 31 Way-marks and Stead-marks 33 Thought-wording, Speech-wording 35 Twin Time-takings 35 Speech-trimming 36 Miswording 36-42 Word-sameness 38 Odd Wordshapes 42, 43 Wordiness 44 Hard Breathing 44 Mark Time-words (Participles) 45 Words of Speech-craft, and others 47 Power of the Word-endings 83 Goodness of a Speech 86 SPEECH-CRAFT. SPEECH-CRAFT (Grammar), called by our Saxon fore-fathers _Staef-craeft_ or _Letter-craft_, is the knowledge or skill of a speech. The science of speech in the main, as offmarked from any one speech (Philology), may be called _Speech-lore_. Speech is the speaking or bewording of thoughts, and is of sundry kinds of words. Speech is of breath-sounds with sundry breathings, hard or mild, and breath-pennings, which become words. (1) A freely open breathing through the throat, unpent by tongue or lips, as in the sounds =A=, =E=, =O=, =OO=, which are pure voicing. The main ones in English are-- 1. =ee=, in _meet_. 2. =e=, in Dorset speech. 3. =a=, in _mate_. 4. =ea=, in _earth_. 5. =a=, in _father_. 6. =aw=, in _awe_. 7. =o=, in _bone_. 8. =oo=, in _fool_. Besides this open speech-breathing there are two kinds of breath-penning. (2) The dead breath-penning, as in the sounds =AK=, =AP=, =AT=, =AG=, =AB=, =AD=, which end with a dead penning of the sounding breath. In =AK= and =AG= it is pent in the throat. In =AP= and =AB= with the lips. In =AT= and =AD= on the roof. =K=, =P=, =T= are hard pennings; =G=, =B=, =D= are mild pennings, the breathing being harder in the former and softer in the latter. Then there are half-pennings of the sounding breath, which is more or less but not wholly pent, but allowed to flow on as through the nose in =AMH=, =ANH=, =AM=, =AN=, =ANG=; as in the half-pent sounds-- =AKH=, =AF=, =AV=, =ATH=, =ATHE=, =ALL= (Welsh), =AL=, =ARH=, =AR=, =AS=, =AZ=, =ASH=, =AJ= (French), half-pent by the tongue and mouth-roof. For a hard breathing the mark is =H=, as _and_, _hand_; _art_, _hart_. +---------------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+ | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | | Dead Pennings, | Half-Pennings, | Dead-Pennings,|Half-Pennings,| | Hard | Hard | Mild | Mild | +---------------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+ |(1) =C=, =K= (Throat)|(5) =KH= German |(14) =G= |(18) =GH= | |(2) =NK= in _ink_ | and |(15) =NGH= like|(19) =NG= | |(3) =P= (Lip) | Welsh | =NG= in |(20) =V=, =BH=| | | | _finger_, | Irish | |(4) =T= |(6) =F= | not |(21) =M= | | |(7) =MH= | _singer_ |(22) =TH= in | | |(8) =TH= in |(16) =B= | _thee_ | | | _thin_ |(17) =D= |(23) =L= Welsh| | |(9) =LL= Welsh | |(24) =R= Welsh| | |(10) =RH= Welsh | |(25) =Z= | | |(11) =S= | |(26) =J= | | |(12) =SH= | | French | | |(13) =NH= | |(27) =N= | +---------------------+----------------+---------------+--------------+ Words are of breath-sounds, and some words are one-sounded, as _man_; and others are tway-sounded, as _manly_; and others many-sounded, as _unmanliness_. There is word-strain and speech-strain. The high word-strain (accent) is the rising or strengthening of the voice on one sound of a word, as _man´ly_. The high speech-strain (emphasis) is the rising or strengthening of the voice on a word of a thought-wording. The voice may both rise and fall on the same sounds, as _nō_. In English and its Teutonic sister speeches the strain keeps on the root or stem-word, as _man_, _man´ly_, _man´liness_; though in clustered words, with their first breath-sounds the same, the strain may shift for the sake of clearness, as ‘Give me the _tea_´pot’--the tea_kettle_ is given, and thereupon the bidder may say ‘the teaPOT´,’ not the teaKETTLE. In Greek the accent shifts in word-building, and likes mainly to settle at about two times or short breath-sounds from the end of the word; and in Welsh it settles mostly on the last breath-sound but one, as _eis´tedd_, a sitting; _eistedd´fod_, a sitting-stead; _eisteddfod´an_, sitting-steads, or bardic sessions. Besides the word-strain (accent) and the speech-strain (emphasis), there is a speech-tuning (modulation) of the voice (voice-winding), which winds up or down with sundry feelings of the mind, and with question and answers and changes of the matter of speech. Things may be _matterly_ (concrete) or bodies of matter, as a _man_, a _tree_, a _stone_; or Things may be _unmatterly_ (abstract), not bodies of matter, as _faith_, _hope_, _love_, _shape_, _speed_, _emptiness_. It is not altogether good that a matterly and unmatterly thing should be named by the very same word, as _youth_, a young man, and _youth_, youngness. THINGS AND THING-NAMES. Things are of many kinds, as a _man_, a _bird_, a _fish_; an _oyster_, a _sponge_, a _pebble_; _water_, _air_, _earth_; _honey_, _gold_, _salt_. The names of things may be called THING-NAMES. But there are one-head thing-names (proper names), the names each of some one thing of its kind; as _John_, the miller; _Toby_, the dog; _Moti_, the lady’s Persian cat. With Christian names may be ranked the so-called _patronymics_, or _sire-names_, taken from a father’s name, as William _Johnson_, Thomas _Richardson_; or in Welsh, Enid Verch _Edeyrn_; or in Hebrew Jeroboam _Ben-nebat_. Thing Sundriness and Thing Mark-words. ☛ _Mark_ is here to be taken in its old Saxon meaning, _mearc_--what bounds, defines, describes, distinguishes. The Welsh call the adjective the _weak name_ or noun, _enw gwan_. Sundriness of Sex, Kindred, Youngness, and Smallness. Marked by sundry names or mark-words, or mark endings. SEX. The stronger or _carl_ sex, as a _man_; the weaker or _quean_ sex, as a _girl_; the _unsexly_ things, as a _stone_. Husband, wife. Father, mother. Brother, sister. In Saxon the sexes in mankind were called _halves_ or _sides_, the spear-half and the spindle-half. Man, woman. Boy, girl. Buck, doe. Stag, hind. Ram, ewe. Cock, hen. _He_-goat, _she_-goat. King, queen. Duke, duchess. KINDRED, YOUNGNESS, OR SMALLNESS. Father, son. Mother, daughter. Mare, foal. Hind, fawn. Cat, kitten. Duck, duckling. Goose, gosling. Ethel, etheling. SMALL THINGS. By forlessening mark-endings: -_y_, -_ie._ Lass, lassie. Dog, doggie. -_kin._ Man, mannikin. -_el_, -_l._ Butt, bottle (of hay). Pot, pottle. Nose, nozzle. By mark-words: A _wee_ house, a _little_ boy. For bigness the English tongue wants name-shapes. We have _bul_, _horse_, and _tom_, which are mark-words of bigness or coarseness. Bulfinch. Bullfrog. Bulhead (the Miller’s Thumb. Pen-bwll, _Welsh_). Bulrush. Bulstang (the Dragonfly). Bullspink. Bulltrout. _Horse._ Horse-bramble. Horse-chesnut. Horse-laugh. Horse-leech. Horse-mushroom. Horse-mussel. Horse-tinger. Horse-radish. _Tom._ Tomboy. Tomcat. Tomfool. Tomnoddy. Tomtit. The words _bul_ and _horse_ are not taken from the animals. Sundriness in Tale. By tale mark-words, as _one_, _five_, _ten_, and others onward. Sundriness in Rank. By rank-word, as _first_, _fifth_, _tenth_, _last_. _An_, _a_, the so-called indefinite article, is simply the tale mark-word _an_, one. _Saxon_, an man. _Ger._, ein mann. _West Friesic_, in. _East Friesic_, en. _Holstein_, en. _New Friesic_, ien. We use _a_ before a consonant, and _an_ before a vowel, as _a_ man, _an_ awl. But it is not that we have put on the _n_ to _a_ against the yawning, but it is that the _n_ has been worn off from _an_. The Frieses and Holsteiners now say _ien man_ and _en mann_. The mark-word _an_, _a_ is of use to offmark a common one-head name, as ‘I have been to _a white church_’ (common); or, without the mark-word, ‘I have been to _Whitechurch_’ (one-head), the name of a village so called. ‘He lives by _a pool_’; ‘he lives by _Pool_’ (a town in Dorset). ‘He works in _a broad mead_’; ‘he works in _Broadmead_’ (in Bristol). As the Welsh has no such mark-word, it might be thought that it cannot give these two sundry meanings; and the way in which it can offmark them shows how idle it is to try one tongue only by another, or to talk of the unmeaningness or uselessness of the Welsh word moulding. _Llan-Tydno_ would mean _a church of Tydno_, but the parish called ‘The Church of Tydno’ is in Welsh _Llandydno_, which, as a welding of two words, hints to the Welsh mind that _Llandydno_ is a proper name, and so that of a parish. _Hoel da_ would mean _a good Hoel_; but to Hoel, the good king, the Welsh gives as a welded proper name _Hoel dda_; and to _Julius Cæsar_ the Welsh gives, as one welded proper name, _Iolo-voel_, Julius-bald, whereas _Iolo-moel_ would mean some bald Julius. One sundriness of tale, the marking of things under speech--as _onely_ (singular) or _somely_ (plural)--is by an onputting to the thing-name for _someliness_ a mark-ending, or by a moulding of the name into another shape or sound. By mark-endings, _-es_, _-s_, _-en_, _-n_. Lash, lashes. Cat, cats. House, housen. Shoe, shoon. By for-moulding, as _foot_, _feet_--_tooth_, _teeth_; or by both word-moulding or sound-moulding and an ending, as _brother_, _brethren_. When the singular shape ends in _-sh_, _-ss_, or _-x_, _-ks_, it takes on _-es_ for the somely, as _lash_, _lashes_; _kiss_, _kisses_; _box_, _boxes_. And surely, when the singular shape ends in _-st_, our Universities or some high school of speech ought to give us leave to make it somely by the old ending -_en_ or _-es_ instead of _-s_--_fist_, _fisten_, _fistes_; _nest_, _nesten_, _nestes_. What in the world of speech can be harsher than _fists_, _lists_, _nests_? It is unhappy that the old ending in _-en_, which is yet the main one in West Friesic, should have given way to the hissing _s_. Where common names with the definite mark-word become names of places they are wont to lose the article, as _The Bath_, in Somerset, is now _Bath_; _The Wells_, in Somerset, _Wells_; _Sevenoaks_, not _The Seven Oaks_, in Kent. In our version of Acts xxvii. 8, we have a place which is called _The Fair Havens_, instead of _Fairhavens_ without the mark-word, as the Greek gives the name. Other thing mark-words offmark all of the things of a name or set from others of another name or set. _All_ birds, or _all_ the birds in the wood; or all taken singly, as _each_ or _every_ bird; or somely, as _set_ or _share_; _some few_ or _a few_; _many_ or _a many_ birds. _Another_ or _others_ beyond one or some under speech. _Any one_ or _more_ of a some, either apple or any apples. _Both_, for the two without others; or _Much_ or _little_ grass. Many mark-words were at first thing-names. _Many_ was a _menge_, a main or upmingled set; and a great many men would mean a great set or gathering of men. _Few_ was _feo_, which seems to have meant at first a cluster or herd; and a few men was a few (cluster) of men. _Some_ was a _sam_ or _som_, a set or upmingled mass; and _some_ men was a _sam_ or _som_ of men. Now if the speech is about the set, it may be onely, as ‘There _is_ a great many,’ ‘there _is_ a small few,’ or ‘a few’; but if the speech is about the bemarked things, the mark-word may well be somely--‘many men _are_’; ‘few men _are_’; ‘some men _are_.’ In the queer wording, ‘many a man,’ ‘many a flow’r is born to blush unseen,’ it is not at all likely that _a_ is the article. It is rather a worn shape, like _a_ in _a-mong_ (an-menge), or _a-hunting_ (an-huntunge), of the Saxon case-word _an_ or _on_, meaning _in_; and it is not unlikely that _man_ has, by the mistaking of _a_ for an article, taken the stead of _men_--‘an maeng an men,’ a many or mass in men; as we say ‘a herd in sheep,’ ‘a horde in gold.’ So far as this is true the mark-word may be somely--‘many a man or men,’ ‘a main in men _are_.’ _None_ (Saxon _na-an_, no one) should have a singular verb--‘None _is_ (not _are_) always happy.’ Some mark-words are for a clear outmarking (as single or somely) of things outshown from among others. Outshowing Mark-words. (Near things.) Single. Somely. _This_ man. | _These_ men. (Farther off.) _That._ | _Those._ (Still farther off, or out of sight.) _Yon._ The so-called definite article _the_ is a mark-word of the same kind as _this_, _that_, _these_, and _those_. The word _the_ in ‘the more the merrier’ is not the article _the_--to a name-word. It is an old Saxon outshowing mark-word meaning with that (_mid þy_). ‘The more the merrier’; _þy_ (with that measure), they are more; _þy_ (with that measure), they are merrier. In the wording ‘the man _who_’ or ‘the bird _which_ was in the garden,’ _who_ and _which_ are not the names, but are tokens or mark-words of the things--_who_ of the _man_, and _which_ of the _bird_. A thing may be marked by many mark-words, as ‘the (never to be forgotten) day,’ ‘the (having to me shown so many kindnesses) man is yet alive.’ A long string of mark-words may, however, be found awkward, and so we may take a name-token _who_ for the _man_, and, instead of the words ‘having to me shown so many kindnesses,’ say, ‘who showed me so many kindnesses.’ _Who_ or _that_ is the name-token for menkind, and _which_ or _that_ for beings of lower life or of no life, as ‘the man _who_’ or ‘the bird or flower _which_ was in the garden.’ _Who_ and _which_ are used in the asking of questions--‘_Who_ is he?’ ‘_What_ is that?’ The name-token should follow close on the forename for the sake of clearness. ‘Alfred sold, for a shilling, the _bat which_ William gave him,’ not ‘Alfred sold the bat for a _shilling which_ William gave him,’ if it was the _bat_ that was given to him by William. These mark-words take the stead of thing-names, and are _Name-stead words_, and clear the speech of repetitions of the names. The baby may say ‘Baby wants the doll,’ but at length learns to say ‘_I_ want the doll’; or ‘_Papa_, take _baby_,’ and afterwards ‘_You_ take _me_’; or ‘Give _baby_ the _whip_--the _whip_ is _baby’s_,’ for ‘_It_ is _mine_.’ A man may be beholden to the speech in three ways:-- (1) He may be the speaker, called the First Person; (2) He may be spoken to, the Second Person (the to-spoken thing); (3) He may be spoken of, the Third Person (the of-spoken thing); and some mark-words are for the marking of things without their names, both in tale and their sundry beholdenness to the speech:-- Single. Somely. 1st Person. | _I._ _We_. 2nd Person. | _Thou._ _Ye_, _you_. 3rd Person. _He_, _she_, _it_. Here the sex is marked. _It_ is sometimes put for an unforeset thing-name of an unbodily cause or might, as ‘_it_ rains’; ‘_it_ freezes.’ For a child or an animal of unknown sex we may take the neuter (or sexless) mark-word _it_. ‘_It_ (the child) cries.’ SUCHNESS OR QUALITIES, and mark-words or mark-wording of suchness, as _good_, _bad_, _long_, _heavy_. Suchness may be marked by one word, as ‘a _white_ lily,’ or by a some or many of words, as ‘a _very white_ lily,’ or ‘a _most dazzlingly white_ lily,’ or ‘a lily as _white as snow_.’ Things are marked as having much of something, as _hilly_, _stony_, _watery_; or made of something, as _golden_, _wooden_, _woollen_; or having some things, as _two-legged_, _three-cornered_, _long-eared_, or _loved_ or _hated_; of the same set or likeness of something, as _lovely_, _quarrelsome_, _manly_, _childish_; wanting of something, as _beardless_, _friendless_. Pitches of Suchness. The Suchnesses of Things are of sundry pitches, which are marked by sundry shapes or endings or bye-words of the mark-words, as ‘My ash is _tall_, the elm is _taller_, and the Lombardy poplar is the _tallest_ of the three trees’; or ‘Snow is _whiter_ than chalk,’ or ‘Chalk is _less white_ than snow,’ or ‘John is the _tallest_ or _least tall_ of the three brothers.’ These Pitch-marks offmark sundry things by their sundry suchnesses, as ‘The _taller_ or _less tall_ man of the two is my friend,’ or ‘The _tallest_ man is _less tall_ than the tree,’ or ‘The _least tall_ man is _taller_ than the girl.’ The three Pitches may be called the _Common Pitch_, the _Higher Pitch_, and the _Highest Pitch_. The Welsh has a fourth Pitch-word, called the _Even Pitch_, as _pell_, far; _pellach_, farther; _pellaf_, farthest; _pelled_, as far (as something else). _Younger_ may mean _younger_ reckoned from young, or _younger_ reckoned from _old_; as ‘Alfred at 80 is younger than Edward at 85.’ In this case we may well say _less old_. _Worse_ (wyrse) is shapen from _wo_, _wa_, _we_, a stub-root which means _wrong_, _atwist_, _bad_ in any way, and is our _woe_. The _r_ in _weor_ is most likely of a forstrengthening and not a comparative meaning--_weor_, _wyr_, very bad; _weorer_, _wyrer_, still more strongly bad. But, not to double the _r_, men might have put a strengthening _s_, and so had _weors_. TIME-TAKING. You cannot behold a thing in your mind otherwise than in or under some doing or in some form of being. Every case of being or doing is a taking of time, as ‘the lily _is_ white,’ ‘the man _strikes_,’ ‘the bird _flies_ or _was hit_.’ For though the _being_ white, or the _striking_ or _flying_ or _hitting_ was only for the twinkling of an eye, it took time; for the eyelid takes time, however short it may be, to flit down and up over the eyeball. Thence the word commonly called the _verb_ may be called the _Time-taking word_ or _Time-word_, as it is called by the Germans _Das Zeitwort_; or, as it is the main word of the thought and speech, it is the _Thought-word_ or _Speech-word_; or, as it is called in Latin and other tongues, the _Word_. Welsh speech-lore has called the verb the _soul_[1] of the thought-wording. [1] ‘Enaid yr ymadrod yw’r ferf.’ Among the thousands of sundriness of time-taking there are some wide differences which should be borne in mind. Unoutreaching or Intransitive. Time-takings, which must or may end with the time-taking thing, as _To be._ John cannot _be_ another man. _To sleep_; _to walk_. John cannot _sleep_ or _walk_ another man. Outreaching (Transitive). Time-takings that may begin with the time-taking thing, and reach out to another, as _To strike_; _to see_. John may _strike_ or _see_ another man. Time-giving. If a man, A, takes time against another, B, as _to see_ B, we should more truly say of B that he _gives_, not _takes_, the time which A takes. The time-words for unoutreaching time-takings may be called _Unoutreaching_; of the outreaching ones, _Outreaching_; of the time-givings, _Time-giving_. In some cases there is between the time-taking thing and the time-giving thing a middle one--the thing, tool, or matter with which the time is taken, as ‘John hit William _with_ a stone’ or ‘a cane.’ But then, again, this wording is shortened by the putting of the name of the mid-thing as a time-word, as ‘John _stoned_ or _caned_ William.’ And this brings in a call for the marking of two sundry kinds of time-words--the strong or moulded, and weak or unmoulded time-words. A time-word, when it tells a taking of time by one thing against another, is in the outreaching (active) _voice_--‘John strikes the iron.’ When it tells of the giving of time, it is in the time-giving (passive) _voice_. When it tells of an unoutreaching time-taking it is in the middle _voice_. For the causing of another thing to take time some tongues have set shapes of the time-word, as, in Hindustani, _durna_, to run; _durāna_, to make another run. We have hardly any of such words, though such are-- Lie, lay. Sit, set. Rise, raise. Time-takings for becoming or making another thing become otherwise are marked by the ending _-en_ on the mark-word, as To blacken. To whiten. _Misdoing_ by the fore-eking _mis-_:-- Mistake. Misread. _Longer-lasting time-takings_ marked by the ending _-er_, as Chat, chatter (to chatter much or long). Fret, fritter. Sway, swagger. _Short_ or _small time-takings_ by endings such as _-ock_, _-ick_. Whine, whinnock. whinnick (to whine smally). _-el_, _-l_. Prate, prattle. Jog, joggle. Crack, crackle. A time-taking, taken as a deed or being without any time-taking thing, is taken as a _thing_, and its name is a _Thing-name_, as _to write_. As in Greek the Infinitive mood, _tò gráphein_, the ‘to write’; and in Italian, _il scrivere_, the ‘to write’ (the deed of writing or a writing), so the Infinitive mood-shape of the Saxon time-word was taken as a thing-name after the preposition _to_, to or for, as _to huntianne_ (to or for the deed to hunt or hunting), as ‘Why does Alfred keep those dogs?’ ‘To huntianne.’ Thence we have our wording-- ‘Any chairs _to mend_?’ (any chairs to or for the deed mending), ‘A house _to let_,’ ‘Letters _to write_,’ ‘A tale _to tell_,’ which is all good English. It is an evil to our speech that the thing-shape now ending in _-ing_ should be mistaken for the mark-word ending in _-ing_. Unhappily two sundry endings of the old English have worn into one shape. They were _-ung_ or _-ing_ and _-end_. _Singung_ is the deed of singing, a thing. _Singend_ is a mark-word, as in the wording ‘I have a _singing_ bird.’ _Sailing_ and _hunting_, in the foregiven thought-wordings, are thing-names, and not mark-words. _Sailing_ is _segling_, as ‘ne mid _seglinge_ ne mid rownesse’ (neither with sailing nor rowing).--Bede 5, 1. ‘_Wunigende_ ofer hyne’ (_woning_ [mark-word] over him).--Matt iii. 16. ‘Sy _wunung_ heora on west’ (be their _woning_ [thing-name] waste).--Ps. lxviii 30. ‘Ða genealaehton hym to Farisaer hyne _costigende_’ (then came near to him the Pharisees _tempting_ [mark-word] him).--Matt xix. 3. ‘Ne gelaede þu us on _costnunge_’ (lead us not into _tempting_ [thing-name]).--Lord’s Prayer. So ‘haelende,’ Matt v. 23; ‘haeling’; ‘bodigende,’ Matt. x. 35; ‘bodung,’ Luke xi. 32. ‘Waere þu to-daeg, on huntunge?’ (not _huntende_) (wert thou to-day on or in hunting?)--Aelfric’s Dialogue. ‘Hwaet dest þu be þinre huntunge?’ (not _huntende_) (what dost thou by thy hunting?)--Aelfric. ‘_The_ CALLING _of_ assemblies I cannot away with.’--Isa. i. 13. Not ‘calling assemblies,’ which, if _calling_ were a mark-word, would mean assemblies that call. The right speech-trimming with the thing-names in _-ing_ is to trim them in the old English way as thing-names in their cases; as, ‘We are the _offscouring_ of all things unto this day.’--1 Cor. iv. 13. Not ‘We are the offscouring all things.’ ‘For that righteous man, IN _seeing_ and _hearing_, vexed his righteous soul.’ ‘By _the_ WASHING _of_ regeneration and (_the_) RENEWING _of_ the Holy Ghost.’--Titus iii. 5. Not ‘He saved us by the washing regeneration and renewing the Holy Ghost.’ The ending _-er_ of the time-taker (_deeder_, name-word) is, not unclearly, the Celtic, Welsh _gwr_, or in word-welding _-wr_, the Latin _-or_; as, Welsh, _barn_, doom; _barnwr_, a doom-man. Latin, _canto_, to sing; _cantor_, a sing-man. Thence _-er_ seems a far less fitting ending for a tool-name than the old Saxon _-el_; and a tool for the whetting of knives would be more fitly called a _whettel_ than a whetter. _Choppel_, chopper; _clippels_, clippers. All new time-words now taken or shapen from other tongues must be unmoulded. We say _shoot_, shot (not _shooted_); but _loot_, looted (not _lot_), _loot_ being the Hindustani _lootna_, to rob or plunder. So time-words, which are known English words, of another kind, names or mark-words, are mostly unmoulded. The shapening of the time-words hangs rather more on their endings than on their headings. The oddest are those which end in the throat-pennings--=NG=, =NK=, =K=, =G=; and those ending in roof-pennings--=T=, =D=. Because the _-d_ of the roof-penning _-ed_ is so unlike a throat-penning, which cannot easily stand with it: and because the =T= and =D= are like _d_ as roof-pennings, and (_see_ Table) they may run into them. =-ING= ROOT-WORDS (strong). The wording of a time-taking (predicate) with its speech-thing (subject) is a _Thought-wording_ (proposition). _Strong_ or _moulded time-words_ are such as, for a time-taking of foretime, are moulded (without any out-eking) into another shape or sound, as I sing, I sang. It flies, it flew. The _weak_ or _unmoulded time-words_ take on, unmoulded, an ending such as _-ed_, as He stones, he _stoned_. He canes, he _caned_. All time-words that are known names of things are unmoulded, as To Plaster, plastered. Bud, budded. Comb, combed. Cap, capped. Dust, dusted. Fish, fished. Gate, gated. Water, watered. Heap, heaped. Mind, minded. Name, named. Pen, penned. Stone, stoned. Very many of our time-words are unmoulded from the same cause--that they are names of things; although such names of things, having become worn more or less out of shape, or having fallen out of use, may not show themselves to our minds what they are. _To hunt_ makes _hunted_; why? From _hound_, to hunt, meaning at first to seek with a hound. It may, however, be said, ‘Is to hunt from _hound_, or hound from _to hunt_?’ Such a point is, in very many cases, cleared out by the Anglo-Saxon, in which ‘to hunt’ is _hunt-i-an_, not _hunt-an_; and the _i_, a worn shape of _ig_, shows that _huntian_ is from _hund_, hound, and so hound is not from hunt. The time-word from the thing _hunt-ig-an_, _hunt-i-an_, is to _houndy_, to take time with a hound. We say Cling, clung. Fling, flung. Sling, slung. But we should say ‘he _ringed_ (not rung) his pig’; ‘he _stringed_ his harp’; _ring_ and _string_ being _things_. The _strong_ or _moulded time-words_ are nearly or quite all words ending in one single breath-penning, and of a close sound (1, 2, 3, or 4 of the Table), as =-ING=, Cling, clung. =-INK=, Sink, sank. =-K=, Speak, spoke. =-L=, Steal, stole. =-T=, Smite, smote. =-R=, Tear, tore. =-V=, Weave, wove. Other time-words, name-words, or stem-words, and broad-sounded ones (5, 6, 7, 8 of the Table), are nearly all weak or unmoulded. WEAK. The ending =-NG= in broad-sounded words-- Clang, clanged. Bung, bunged. Long, longed. =-NK,= BROAD. Bank, banked. Clank, clanked. Flank, flanked. And in Blink, blinked. Link, linked. Clink, clinked. =-K,= BROAD, LONG STEM-WORDS (weak). Bake, baked. Croak, croaked. Hawk, hawked. Rake, raked. _Make_ was heretofore _maked_: ‘For aevric rice man his castles _makede_.’--Sax. Chron. MCXXXVI. =K= wore out, whence Maked, ma-ed, maed, made. =-K,= SHORT. Back, backed. Clack, clacked. =-G,= SHORT. Beg, begged. Clog, clogged. All but _dig_, dug. What a pity to put it out of keeping with all of the others! It is _digged_ in the Bible. =-T,= LONG STEM-WORDS. Bait, baited. Bate, bated. Bleat, bleated. Bloat, bloated. Clout, clouted. Float, floated. =-T,= SHORT STEM-WORDS. Bat, batted. Bet, betted. Clot, clotted. =-TH.= Breathe, breathed. =-T=, SHORT (weak shortened). Cut, cut. Hit, hit. Let, let. Set, set. &c. The wear of these words was thislike: Let-_ede_. Let-_de_. The mild penning, _d_, after a hard one, _t_, became hard, _t_. Whence _lette_, let, with the two _tt run into one_. A pity! So were shapen _feed_, _fedde_, _fed_; _lead_, _ledde_, _led_; _read_, _redde_. WEAK =-D= (long). Crowd, crowded. Fade, faded. WEAK =-D= (short). Bed, bedded. Bud, budded. =-L=, BROAD SOUND (long). Brawl, brawled. Call, called. A few of them are shortened, as _feel_, _feeld_, _felt_. =-N=, LONG. Clean, cleaned. Frown, frowned. =-N=, SHORT STEM-WORDS. Din, dinned. Pin, pinned. Sin, sinned. =-R=, BROAD SOUNDS. Blare, blared. Care, cared. _Dare_ now makes _durst_; but in Friesic it is unmoulded--‘and ne _thuradon_ nâ wither forskina’ (and _dared_ not to show themselves again). =-R=, SHORT. Bar, barred. Purr, purred Stir, stirred. =-S= and =-Z=, LONG. Pose, posed. Praise, praised. Blaze, blazed. Close, closed. Daze, dazed. Raze, razed. =-SS.= Bless, blessed. Guess, guessed. =-SH.= Blush, blushed. Clash, clashed. =-P=, LONG. Heap, heaped. Peep, peeped. Reap, reaped. Gape, gaped. Cope, coped. Hope, hoped. Mope, moped. Stoop, stooped. Weak. Shortened. Creep, crep’d. Keep, kep’d. Leap, lep’d. Sleep, slep’d. Weep, wep’d. Sweep, swep’d. =-P=, SHORT. Cap, capped. Hap, happed. Hop, hopped. Stop, stopped. WEAK =-B= (short). Blab, blabbed. =-V=, LONG. Crave, craved. Grave, graved. Rave, raved. =-F=, SHORT. Huff, huffed. Cough, coughed. =-M=, LONG. Blame, blamed. All but _come_, came. Stub-roots. Time-words ending in an open breathing. Most of them are weak:-- Bay, bayed. Bow, bowed. Brew, brewed. Claw, clawed. Say, said. Stew, stewed. A few of them are moulded:-- Blow, blew. Crow, crew. Grow, grew. Slay, slew. All those that end in two or three sundry breath-pennings are weak:-- =-NCH=, Pinch, pinched. =-ND=, Land, landed. =-NGE=, Lounge, lounged. =-NT=, Grant, granted. =-PL=, Cripple, crippled. =-PT=, Intercept, intercepted. =-RB=, Barb, barbed. =-RC=, Cork, corked. =-RD=, Hord, horded. =-RG=, Charge, charged. =-RL=, Hurl, hurled. =-BL=, Bubble, bubbled. =-CL=, Cackle, cackled. =-DL=, Huddle, huddled. =-FL=, Ruffle, ruffled. =-FT=, Heft, hefted. =-GL=, Naggle, naggled. =-LP=, Gulp, gulped. =-LK=, Chalk, chalked. =-LD=, Mould, moulded. =-LP=, Help, helped. =-LV=, Calve, calved. =-MB=, Climb, climbed. =-MP=, Pump, pumped. =-MT=, Tempt, tempted. =-RM=, Harm, harmed. =-RN=, Burn, burned. =-RP=, Carp, carped. =-RT=, Flirt, flirted. =-RTH=, Earth, earthed. =-SS=, Miss, missed. =-SP=, Clasp, clasped. =-ST=, Consist, consisted. (All but _cast_, formerly _casted_.) =-TCH=, Hatch, hatched. =-TL=, Bottle, bottled. =-RST=, Burst, bursted. A few time-words ending with a throat-penning mark the heretofore time by some oddness of shape; as, Bring, brought. Think, thought. They were opened in sound, and also took the ending _ode_, _od_ (our _ed_), and then came into our shapes by sundry wonted changes:-- _-ing_ (as of _bring_) became _-ong_. _-ing-ed_ became (1) _-ong-ed_. _-ong-ed_ „ (2) _-ong’d_. _-ong’d_ „ (3) _-onk’d_. Then the _d_, a mild penning after a hard penning (_k_), became hard, _t_:-- _-onk’d_ became (4) _-onk’t_. _-onk’t_ „ (5) _-ok’t_. _-ok’t_ „ (6) _-o’t_, as _k_ and _t_ are harsh together. Whence-- Bring bro’t (brought). Buy (_bycg_, A.S.) bo’t. Seek (_sec_, A.S.) so’t. Teach (_taec_, A.S.) to’t. Our _gh_ as in _taught_ is the now unuttered (though still written) throat-penning. Time-takings or time-givings may be taken as thing-marks, as ‘the _hunting_ dog’; ‘the _hunted_ hare.’ The sundry moods of time-takings are marked by sundry shapes of the time-word, or by bye-words or mark-words--_shall_, _will_, _can_, _may_, _must_. The timings of time-takings are marked by sundry shapes of the time-word, and by bye-words or mark-words to it, as ‘the bird flies’ or does fly, or flew or did fly, or will fly. Under-Sundrinesses of Time-takings. Time-takings are of sundry kinds, under sundry names, as _to be_, _to walk_, _to strike_. Under-time-markings may be by single words, as ‘to write _well_ or _ill_, _slowly_ or _quickly_’; or by two or three words, as ‘he runneth _very swiftly_’; or by clusters of words, as ‘he runs _with most amazing speed_’; or ‘he works _in a very skilful way_.’ Fitting of the Time-word to all the cases of Person, Time, and Mood. In this fitting the time-word is helped by sundry bye-words or under-mark-words. _Can_, from the Saxon _cun-n-an_, to ken, know, to know how. ‘I _can_ write,’ I know how to write. The heretofore time-shape of _Ic can_ was _Ic cuðe_, for which we have now _I could_, with an _l_ which was never in the root of the word, and for which there is not any ground. _May._--_Mag-an_, the stem of maht, _might_, means _to strongen_, to be or become strong (Lat. _valere_), as is shown by cases of its use in Saxon and other Teutonic tongues. In an old Friesic good wish at the drinking to the health of a bride and bridegroom we find ‘Dat se lang lave en wel mage,’ that they long live and well _may_ (_strongen_, _bene valeant_); and in Saxon, ‘Hu maeg he?’ how mays he? (_strongens_ or _valet_). _Shall._--_Sceal-an_, meant, as a stem, to offmark, distinguish, or to _skill_ in the meaning of 1 Kings v. 6--‘Ic sceal dón,’ I offmark or skill to do; as what I am bent to do. ‘Thou shalt love the Lord thy God.’ Thou markest or clearly seest to love the Lord thy God. ‘Thou shalt not steal.’ Thou markest this. Not to steal. _Must._--_Mot-an_, _most-an_, is most likely a stem of the word _mag-an_, to strongen (_valere_). The _-st_ would strengthen the meaning of _mag_ (may) as it does in _-est_ of _longest_. So ‘I must go’ (Ic moste gán) would mean ‘I am overmighted by another’s might to go.’ Time-words are fitted To _Person_, as I am. | Thou art. | He is. To _Tale_, as I am. | Thou art. | He is. We are. | Ye are. | They are. To _Time_, as I am (now). | I was (heretofore). I shall be (hereafter). To _Mood_, as I write, or shall write. I may or can write, or might or could or should write. If I write, or if I had written. Things and Time-takings. Timing of time-takings is the marking of their times, as _now_, _heretofore_, or _hereafter_. TIME. _Now_ or _hereat_. I am, or I love, or am loved. _Heretofore done._ I was, or I loved, or was loved. _Heretofore ongoing._ I was, or I was a-loving or I did love. _Now ended._ I have been, or I have loved, or have been loved. _Heretofore ended._ I had been, or I had loved, or had been loved. _Heretofore ongoing, ended._ I had been a-loving. _Hereafter doing._ I shall be, or I shall love, or shall be loved. _Hereafter ongoing._ I shall be a-loving. _Hereafter ended._ I shall have been, or shall have loved, or shall have been loved. _Hereafter ended, ongoing._ I shall have been a-loving. Single and stringly time-takings of the same name, as ‘Mary _sold_ me some apples yesterday.’ There was a single selling; but under the wording ‘Mary formerly _sold_ apples in the market,’ it is clear that under the same word _sold_ is meant a string of sellings. So under the wording ‘_Write_ your name’ is understood a single writing; but under the wording ‘If you would write readily, write every day,’ the same word _write_ implies a string of writings. Some tongues (as the Greek and Russian) have two shapes of the time-words for these two cases of time-taking; as, Greek-- ‘Take thy bill and write fifty’ (γράψον, _aorist_).--Luke xvi. 6. ‘Jesus, stooping down, wrote on the ground’ (ἔγραφεν, _imperfect_, ondoing shape, _wrote on_). But Acts xxv. 26, ‘About whom I have nothing certain to write’ (γράψαι, _aorist_, to write off once for all). See the Greek text of the 3rd Epistle of John v. 13--‘I had many (things or many times?) to _write_ (γράφειν, ondoing shape), but I will not with pen and ink _write_ (γράψαι) to thee’ (_aorist_, offdoing form). An understanding of the difference between the _aorist_ and ondoing shapes is of weight in the reading of the Gospel. ‘To _make intercession_, to _intercede_ for them.’--Heb. vii. 25. To intercede once for all, at the doom-day? No. To intercede on always; for the word is not in the _aorist_ shape, but in the present ondoing form, _to be interceding_. Historic Time-wording. A time-shape of a time-word used in an unwonted way for the telling of a string of deeds, as, in English, the present time-shape is so used for deeds of foretime, as ‘He _opens_ the door, _walks_ in, coolly _takes_ a chair, _sits_ down, and _tells_ the maid he wishes to see me.’ So ‘Philip _findeth_ Nathanael, and _saith_ unto him,’ &c.--John i. 45. The Moods of Time-takings. MOOD. The wording of the time-taking may be; as, (1) Now or heretofore true, or hereafter sure, as ‘He _is_, or _was_, or _will be_’; ‘He _sings_, or _sang_, or _will sing_.’ _The Truth Mood._ (2) That it may or can, or could or might be so taken, as ‘He may or can go.’ _The Mayly Mood._ (3) Or that it is to be wished that it may or might be taken, as ‘I wish,’ or ‘Oh that I could go.’ _The Wish Mood._ Or that it is a hinge time-taking on which another hangs, as ‘If you ask (hinge), you will receive (on-hang).’ Or as bidden to be taken, as ‘Go thy way.’ Stead-marks and Way-marks of Time-takings. CASE. Things named in speech, so as to mark the stead of the beginning or end, or of the way of the time-taking at any point of its length or outreach in time or room, are Case-things. There are, however, two cases which are speech-cases and not stead-marks or way-marks:-- (1) That of the of-spoken thing (nominative), the thing of which the speech speaks, as ‘The bird flies’; and (2) The to-spoken thing (vocative), as ‘O sing, sweet bird.’ Cases are marked by shapes of thing-names or by case-words, or by the setting of the case-word either after or before the time-word, as ‘The dog drove out the cat,’ where the dog is the beginning of the time-taking; or ‘The cat drove out the dog,’ where the dog is the end of it, and is shown to be so by the setting of its name after the time-word. _Source._ ‘The bird flew from, or off, or out of the _tree_.’ ‘He died of or from _intemperance_.’ The _tree_ and _intemperance_ are source-marks of _flew_ and _died_. _End or Aim._ ‘John loved _George_.’ ‘He went to or towards _London_.’ ‘Edwin worked for _wages_, or strolled along by the _stream_.’ _The Stead Case._ ‘John was in the _field_ or at the _church_.’ _The Tool._ ‘Alfred wrote with a _pen_.’ ‘The bird flew before, behind, over, under, above, below, by, around, or through the _gate-turret_,’ which is the way-mark of _flew_. There is a Source-mark which is a source of the time-taking, not as being only that thing, but as being a thing then in some shape or kind of time-taking. ‘(_a_) The wind being against us, (_b_) we made but little way.’ _a_ is the source of _b_, ‘we made but little way,’ not from the wind simply as wind, but as also being against us. ‘You being my leader, I shall overcome.’ This is commonly called the absolute case (allfree case); though the wind is not free of a time-taking (being against us). It may be called the ‘thing-so-being’ case. Some tongues mark many of the cases by sundry endings of the thing-name, but we have in common names only one ending for case, the possessive, as ‘the horse’s mane,’ ‘John’s house.’ In name-tokens we have three case-forms, as _thou_, _thy_, _thee_--_thy_ for the possessive, and _thee_ for all the other cases. ‘The bird flew _from_ the apple-tree _in_ the corner _of_ the garden, _through_ the archway, and _under_ the elm _by_ the barn, _round_ the hayrick, and on _over_ the stream just _below_ the willow, and _above_ the bridge, and then _to_ the stall, and on _towards_ the wood, and _into_ an ivy-bush.’ Here the sundry named things are way-marks which mark the place of the _flying_ in its beginning and end, and at sundry points of its length. Such stead-marks or way-marks may be taken as in either of one or two or three cases, as they may be either stead-marks or way-marks, and as their beholdingness to the time-taking may be reckoned to it or from it to themselves. ‘The bird flew _over_ or _under_ or _by_ the tree.’ The flying at first reached on nearer towards the tree, and then reached off again farther from it, so that the tree was at first in the case of a toness, and then in the case of a fromness, with the flying. But under the wording ‘the roof is _over_ the floor,’ or ‘the floor is _under_ the roof,’ the time-taking _is_ is a staid and not an ongoing one, and either the roof or the floor may be in the fromness or toness case, as the height may be reckoned from it to the other, or to it from the other. A housemother may say ‘We live near (_to_) Fairton’ (toness case); yet an hour afterwards she may say ‘We live too far _from_ Fairton (fromness case) to step in readily for errands.’ Her abode may be four miles from Fairton, so that the time-taking _live_ is as far from Fairton in one case as the other; and yet it puts it in two sundry cases. ‘If Alfred gave to Edred a field,’ the time-taking _gave_ ended in the mid-thing, the field (the endingness case), but it put the field to Edred, as his, in the toness case. The place of a time-taking may be shown by one place-mark, or by two or three, of which a latter may mark the place of a former, as ‘The rooks build _in_ the elms, _above_ the house,’ where the elms mark the place of the _building_, and the house marks that of the place-mark (the _elms_). But some case-words are made up of a smaller case-word and a thing-name, as ‘Alfred sat _beside_ the wall.’ _Beside_ being ‘by the _side_,’ and the side of the wall (whereof case). The figure for _case-shifting_, or the changing of the case-tokens, is called in Gr. _enallage_ as ‘I have ten sovereigns _in my purse_’; ‘_My purse_ contains ten sovereigns.’ ‘_The pump has_ a new handle’; ‘There is a new handle _to the pump_.’ ‘The carpet _in_ the hall’; ‘The carpet _of_ the hall.’ ‘The brother _of_ or _to_ that lady.’ ‘John _likes_ cricket or is _fond of_ cricket.’ ‘Greedy _of_ gain or _for_ gain.’ ‘Think _of_ me or _on_ me.’ ‘He was killed by a blow _of a club_ or _with a club_.’ ‘He spoke _in_ the balcony or _from_ the balcony.’ THOUGHT-WORDING, SPEECH-WORDING, is the setting of words or a bewording of thought or speech (syntax). A thought-wording (proposition) is a bewording of the case of a thing with its time-taking. ‘The boy is good’ or ‘the boy plays.’ A thought-wording may have more thing-names and time-words, as ‘The boys and girls read and play.’ Thought-wordings (propositions) may be linked together in sundry ways, though mostly by Link-words (conjunctions). ‘Men walk _and_ birds fly’; ‘I sought him, _but_ I found him not’; ‘I waited at the door _while_ Alfred went into the house.’ Twin Time-takings. The _Hinge_ Time-taking, on which the other hangs, and the _Hank_ Time-taking which hangs on the Hinge one, as ‘If ye ask (_hinge_), ye shall receive (_hank_).’ There are sundry kinds of hinge time-takings, as one or the other or both of the time-takings may or may not be trowed or true or sure. (1) _Hinge_ and _hank_, trowed--‘As ye ask (as I trow you do), so ye receive (I trow).’ (2) _Hinge_, untrowed; _hank_, trowed--‘If ye ask (I trow not whether ye will or no), then ye will receive (I trow).’ The hinge-word put down as trowedly untrue, and the hank one trowed, as ‘If ye asked (as I trow you do not), ye would receive (I trow)’; or ‘If ye had asked (ye have not), ye would have received (I trow).’ The hinge time-taking trowed, and the other untrowed, as ‘Ye ask (I trow), that ye may receive (I trow not that ye will).’ Speech-trimming. The putting of speech into trim; _trim_ being a truly good form or state. To _trim_ a shrub, a bonnet, or a boat, is to put it into trim. 1. The first care in speech-trimming is that we should use words which give most clearly the meanings and thoughts of our mind, though it is not likely that unclear thought will find a clear outwording; and either of the two, as clear or unclear, helps to clearen or bemuddle the other. With most English minds, and with all who have not learned the building of Latin and Greek words, English ones may be used with fewer mistakes of meaning than would words from those tongues; though Englishmen should get a clearer insight into English word-building ere they could hope to keep English words to their true sundriness of meaning. The so-seeming miswordings (solœcisms) of writers in the Latinised and Greekish speech-trimming are not uncommon or unmarkworthy. One man writes of something which _necessitates_ another, though Latin itself has no _necessito_ to back ‘necessitate’; another gives _eliminate_ as meaning _elicit_, or outdraw; a third calls a _failure_ of a rule an _exception_ from it. There is no EXCEPTION to a rule but that which is _excepted_ from it at and in the downlaying of it. If a man gives a simple rule ‘that if it rains on St. Swithin’s day it rains forty days after it,’ and it did not so rain last year, the case is a _breach_ or _failure_ of the rule, and not an _exception_ to it. He gave no exception. Some say ‘Mrs. A. has had _twins_’ or ‘Alfred was one of _twins_.’ A twin is a _twain_, a _two_, or a couple of things of the same name or kind; and twins of children must be at least four. I should say ‘Alfred was one of _a_ twin.’ In the latter case it would be correct to say ‘There IS _one_ or a _twain_ of fat men,’ &c., in which _is_ would match both. One has written ‘ideas are _manufactured_.’ By whose hands? Another talks of ‘a _dilapidated_ dress’; and a third has ‘found the stomach of a big fish _dilapidated_.’ What are _lapides_? and what means _delapido_? A man has written of an old Tartar that he was ‘a _tameless_ gorilla’--a gorilla without a _tame_! as if _tame_ were a thing-name. Another says ‘It imposed _absolute limits_ upon the choice of positions.’ What are _absolute limits_ if absolute (from _absolvo_, to offloosen) means offloosened from all check and all limits? A man writes of ‘a photograph reproduced by a new permanent process.’ Is it the process or the sunprint that is permanent? _Preposterous_, foreaft, as when what should be _præ_, foremost, is put _post_ or behind; whereas a writer gives a structure as ‘preposterously overgrown,’ as if ‘preposterous’ meant only very much, vastly. One takes _irretrievable_ as nohow amended. If ‘retrieve’ is the French _retrouver_ (to find again), ‘irretrievable’ would mean not to be found again; and ‘the irretrievable defeat of the whole nation’ would be one which they could not _find_ again, as most likely they would not wish to find it. Twy-meanings. From want of words in English, or of care, our wording may seem to bear two meanings, as ‘John played with Edwin, and broke his bat.’ The bat of which boy? ‘One Robert Bone of Antony shot at a little bird sitting upon his cow’s back, and killed it--the bird (I mean), not the cowe.’--_Carew._ Word-sameness (Synonyms). Words of the same meaning are less often so than they are so called; and we sometimes give lists of synonyms showing the differences of their meanings. A twin of words of one very same meaning is rather evil than good; and if they are not of one very same meaning they should not be given as such. It may be that from a misunderstanding of the word _tautology_, as the name of a bad kind of speech-trimming, men have often shunned the good use of words. The bad tautology from which speakers have been so frayed seems to be the giving twice or many times, within one scope of thought-wording, the same matter of speech in the same words. It is true that it would not be good wording to say ‘John has sold _John’s_ horse’ for ‘_his_ horse’ since the name-tokens are shapen to stand for foregiven names. But where the same foreused word would give a very clear--if not the clearest--meaning, there seems to be little ground against the use of it. ‘I bought a horse on Monday and a donkey on Tuesday, and sold the _horse_ again at a gain on Thursday.’ Why should not the word _horse_ take the latter place as well as the word _steed_, or equine animal, or ‘more worthy beast’--or why should I not as well say, ‘An ass I want, and an ass I will buy,’ as ‘An ass I want, and a donkey, or _it_ or _him_, I will buy’? It seems that much wrong is done to the Greek of the Gospel by the putting, for the same Greek word, sundry English ones at sundry passages; and by what right do we try an Evangelist’s or an Apostle’s wisdom in the use of the same word, by which he must have meant to give the same meaning? or why should we make him to mean by κρίσις, at one time, a trying of a soul, and at another time a fordooming of him? It is not any tautology to use near to each other a thing-name and a mark-word which are only fellow stem-words, as ‘As _free_, and not using your _freedom_ for a cloke of wickedness.’ 2. Another care in speech-trimming is the choice of words for their sound-sweetness (Gr. _euphony_) or well-soundingness, or for speech-readiness. _Past_, with the hissing _s_ with _t_, is less sound-good than _after_; and _aqueduct_, with _ct_, is less well-sounding than _waterlode_; nor is _cataract_ softer than _waterfall_. The hereunder given wordings were lately heard in a law court:-- ‘I can give you _one or two instances_ of remarkable intelligence in the cases of fat men’; and A Juror--‘There _are one or two fat men_ on the jury (laughter).’ Dr. K.--‘I don’t think there are.’ How should these cases be treated? In the first case, ‘one instances’ is a breach of word-matching, as would be ‘two instance’; and in the latter, the word _one_ calls for _man_, and _two_ for _men_. May we not better say, ‘I can give you at least one instance,’ or ‘I believe more instances than one’? ‘A man who has already, and will still, render such services will be,’ &c. _Rendered_ is understood after _has_; but how may the thought be worded without the two puttings of the word _render_? Thus: ‘a man who will still be, as he has already been, found to render,’ &c. _Penetrate_ means insink, inpierce. M. Gambetta writes, ‘After the heroic examples given by open towns, and by villages only guarded by their firemen, it is absolutely necessary that each town, each commune, shall pay its debt to the national defence, and that all alike be _penetrated_ by the task which is imposed upon France.’ It seems a queer speech-wording to take a _task_ as a thing that _penetrates_, though it might be undertaken. A bad wording is often found with mark-words of the higher pitch, as ‘Alfred was more clever, but not so good, _as_ John.’ ‘Not so good’ is an inwedged word-cluster, but the word-setting is bad, as ‘more clever’ calls for the word _than_, not _as_; and ‘so good’ wants _as_, not _than_. It would be better to say ‘Alfred was more clever, but less good, than John.’ To try the word-setting take out the wedge-words (‘but not so good’), and you will have ‘Alfred was more clever _as_ John.’ _Dislike_ seems a bad word-shape. _Mislike_ is the old and true English one. _Like_ is from _lic_, a shape, as _lich_, the body of a dead man. ‘It _liketh_ (licað) me well’ is ‘it _shapes_ itself (looketh) to me well.’ ‘It _misliketh_ me’ is ‘it _misshapes_ itself to me’ (looks bad). To _seem_ is from the thing-name--_sam_, _seam_, _seem_, body or mass--and ‘it _seems_ to me’ is ‘it _bodies_ itself to me.’ ‘That ship _seems_ to be a French one,’ or ‘that man _seems_ to be ill,’ _bodies_ itself or himself to be a French one or ill. ‘The house and the goods _were_ burnt’; but ‘the house with the goods _was_ (not _were_) burnt,’ since it is only the house that is in the speech-case, as the goods are in the mate-case. ‘The house _was_ burnt with the goods.’ ‘_One_ of the children _are_ come.’ No--_is_ come. The one only is come. In our taking of time-words from the Latin in the shape of the past participle, we get at last a queer shape of word. Take the Latin _reg-_ of _rego_, to reach or straighten, as a line, and our word _reck_. From _reg_ comes _regtus_, _rectus_. Here the _t_ answers to our _d_ (German _t_ of _ed_ and _et_). Then _rec-t_ answers to _reck’d_. Now put on _ed_ to each, and _rec-t_ becomes _rec-t-ed_, as in _direc-t-ed_; and _reck’d_ becomes _reck-d-ed_, showing that _directed_ is truly _direg-ed-ed_, and too like _reck-ed-ed_, as ‘He _reck-ed-ed_ nought.’ We may often hear a man who is careful to speak good English say ‘This rose smells very sweetly,’ for sweet. The rose smells (gives out smell) as being itself very sweet, not as smelling (taking in smell) in a sweet way. To find which to use, the thing-markword or the under-markword, put ‘_as being_’ after the time-word, as ‘This rose smells (as being itself) _sweet_,’ not sweetly. ‘Can you smell now? you had, the other day, lost your smelling?’ ‘Yes, I smell very _nicely_.’ Not I smell as being myself very _nice_. A rose cannot smell any other thing, and so cannot smell it _nicely_. ‘Mary sings very _charmingly_,’ but ‘Mary looks very _charming_.’ ‘John looks _pale_,’ but ‘John looks very _narrowly_ into that gold-work.’ ‘I can taste _well_,’ ‘That peach tastes _good_.’ To have seen a man at a bygone time would mean that the seeing was before that bygone time; but we sometimes hear a man say, ‘I should (yesterday) have been very glad to have seen you (if you had called yesterday).’ That is, by wording, ‘I should have been very glad (yesterday) to have seen you (at a time before yesterday),’ not to see you yesterday; and yet that is what the speaker means. ‘I should have been very glad (yesterday) to see you (yesterday),’ or ‘I should be very glad to-day to have seen you yesterday.’ 3. Odd word-shapes are not in the main choice-worthy. Our time-word _go_ is of unwontsome conjugation, as its foretime shape _went_ is not shapen from _go_, but is a shape of another word, _wend_. So the forlessening name, _leveret_ for a _hareling_, and _cygnet_ for a _swanling_, are unwontsome, as being words of another speech. 4. There is a greater or less freedom of _word-shifting_ (Gr. _anastrophe_, up-shifting or back-shifting), as _up_ in ‘Fasten it _up_ well,’ ‘fasten it well _up_’; or _back_ in ‘He brought _back_ the saw,’ or ‘he brought the saw _back_’; ‘There is none to dispute _my right_,’ or ‘_my right_ there is none to dispute.’ Why should not English, like other tongues, more freely form words with headings of case-words, as _downfalls_, _incomings_, _offcuttings_, _outgoings_, _upflarings_, instead of the awkward falls-down, comings-in, cuttings-off, goings-out, flare-ups; or _offcast_ (for cast-off) clothes; or a _downbroken_ (for a broken-down) schoolmaster; _outlock_ or _outlocking_ (for a lock-out); the _uptaking_ beam (for the taking-up beam) of an engine? Oddly-shapen or Oddly-taken Words. Mongrel (hybrid) words, or words partly from one tongue and partly from another. Twy-speechwords are a sore blemish to our English, as they seem to show a scantiness of words which would be a shame to our minds; as, _Sub-warder_ for under-warder. _Pseudo-sailor_ for sham-sailor. _Ex-king_ for rodless or crownless king. _Prepaid_ for forepaid. _Bi-monthly_ for fortnightly or every fortnight. Wordiness (Verbosity). As ‘The train ran _with extraordinary velocity_,’ for ‘the train ran _very fast_.’ ‘Alfred did the business _with perfect fidelity_;’ for ‘Alfred did the business _faithfully_.’ Thence much of the wordiness of our written, if not spoken, composition. The ‘New York Times’ thus explains how it was that the flames got to the roof in the burning of the Fifth Avenue Hotel:--‘Fire always is aspirant, the sole exception being where incandescent masses fall down, and so act as a medium of ignition.’ The hard breathing (aspirate) is often wrongly dropped or misput by less good speakers; but, while the upper ranks laugh at them for their mistakes, they themselves, like our brethren of Friesland and Holstein, often drop it from words to which it of right belongs, and mainly from the hard-breathed =W= or the Saxon =HW= (our =WH=). What, _wat_ (Hols.) When, _wanne_ (Fri.) Where, _wâr_ (Fri.) Wheel, _weel_ (Fri.) Whelp, _welp_ (Fri.) While, _wile_ (Fri.) White, _wit_ (Fri.) (It is bad.) Shall we soon hear ‘Wet the ’ook with a wetstone’ for ‘Whet the hook with a whetstone’? Some Englishmen would say, ‘The ’ammer is on the hanvil’; and some have been known to say, ‘’enry ’it ’orace with the ’ollow of ’is ’and,’ for ‘Henry hit Horace with the hollow of his hand.’ English mark-timewords (participles) are of two kinds--one of an ongoing time-taking, as ‘the _rising_ sun’; and another of the ended time-taking, as ‘the _risen_ sun’; and they are of a few sundry shapes, some ending with _-en_, _-n_, as _broken_, and others ending with _-ed_, _-d_; and some without an ending, as _cut_. 1. In _-en_, those which are of one breath-sound, and moulded so that the bygone time-shape takes the sound (7) _o_[2]:-- [2] See Table of Sounds, p. 1. Bore, borne. Broke, broken. Chose, chosen. Clove, cloven. Drove, driven. Froze, frozen. Rode, ridden. Rose, risen. Shore, shorn. Smote, smitten. Spoke, spoken. Stole, stolen. Strode, stridden. Strove, striven. Swore, sworn. Tore, torn. Throve, thriven. Trode, trodden. Wore, worn. 2. Some one-sounded and moulded time-words, of the sound (8) in the shape for bygone time, take _-en_, _-n_; as, Draw, drew, drawn. Grow, grew, grown. Know, knew, known. Throw, threw, thrown. Flow, flew, flown. Slay, slew, slain. Unmoulded time-words take _-ed_, but a few of them take _-ed_ or _-en_; as, Grave, graved, {graved, {graven. These following, as is shown by the Saxon, ought to take _-ed_ rather than _-en_:-- Hew. Rive. Show. _Shape_, _shave_, and _swell_ were in Saxon moulded, and thence took _-en_. There is a set of time-words which were weak, but are now endingless in their mark-word shape. They ended with a roof-penning _-t_ or _-d_, and the roof-penning of the ending _-ed_ ran at last into the roof-penning of the stems in the way shown on p. 22, and their mark-word shapes are the same as those for bygone time. Cast. Cost. Cut. Hit. Let. Put. Rid. Set. Shoot. Shut. Split. Spread. Shed. SHORTENED SHAPES (p. 23). Bred. Crept. Dealt. Fed. Fled. Left. Lost. Slept. Sped. Spilt. Swept. Wept. One-sounded root time-words are mostly endingless in their mark-word shape:-- Sing, sang, _sung_. WORDS OF SPEECH-CRAFT, AND OTHERS, ENGLISHED. WITH SOME NOTES. =Ablative= (fromness case). The case of the source of the time-taking. =Abnormal.= Unshapely, queer of shape, odd. =Abrade.= To forfray, forfret. For _for-_ see For- hereafter. =Absist.= Forbear. =Absorb.= Forsoak. =Absolute.= _Checkless_, freed or loosened from checks. =Absolve.= To forfree-en, forloosen. =Abstract= (in speech-craft). Unmatterly, not of matterly form. =Accelerate.= To onquicken, quicken. =Accent.= Word-strain, a strain of the voice, higher or lower, on a breath-sound. =Accessary.= A bykeeper, deedmate. =Accidence.= The forshapenings of words for case, tale, time, mood, or person. =Accusative= (case). End-case, the case of a thing which is the end or aim of a time-taking. =Acephalous.= Headless. =Acoustics.= Sound-lore, hearing-lore. =Active.= Sprack (Wessex), doingsome, doughty. =Active= (time-taking). One that can reach from the time-taker to another thing; as, ‘to strike.’ John can strike another thing. =Acute.= Sharp or high in sound. =Adjective.= Thing-markword, mark-word. =Adulation.= Flaundering, glavering. =Adverb.= An under-markword. =Adversative.= Thwartsome. =Aerology.= Air-lore. =Aeronaut.= Airfarer. =Affirmation.= Foraying, or a _foryeaing_, not a _fornaying_; as, ‘Yes, he is.’ =Agglutinate.= To upcleam, to cleam up. =Aggregate.= The main, whole. =Allative= (case). A name given by some writers to that of a thing at which the time-taking is aimed (the aim case). =Alienate.= To unfrienden. =Allegory.= A forlikening. =Alliteration.= Mate-pennings (_i.e._ Breath-pennings). =Alone.= _All-án_, all-one:--‘Nen manniska buta God _al ena_.‘--W. Friesic. ‘No man, but God all-one (alone.)’ =Altercation.= A brangle, brangling, brawling. =Ambiguous.= Twy-sided, twy-meaning:--‘Alfred was struck as he was walking with a stout stick.’ _Struck_ or _walking_ with a stick? (twy-sided.) ‘Those shoes were made before the man that made them.’ _Before_ in time, or _before_ not behind? =Amicable.= Friendly:--‘We have lived in amicable relations’ (friendly, in friendliness). =Amphibious.= Twy-breath’d, twy-aired: by lungs and gills. =Amphibology.= A twy-casting, a wording of two meanings. =Amphimacrum.= Long sidelings, long end-sounds. A foot (in verse) of one short sound between two long ones, or of a low sound between two high ones; as, Tó and fró. =Amputate.= Forcarve. =Anachronism.= A mistiming. =Anagram.= A letter-shuffling; as, out of ‘name’ to 1234 make ‘mane,’ or of ‘march’ to make ‘charm.’ 3214 =Analysis.= A forloosening or unmaking of a word or wording, or any thing, into its sundry clear pieces. =Anastrophe.= A word-shifting; as, ‘Fasten it _up well_,’ ‘Fasten it _well up_.’ ‘He brought _back_ the horse,’ or ‘He brought the horse _back_.’ ‘There is none to dispute _my right_,’ or ‘_My right_ there is none to dispute.’ Anastrophe affords a case Of the shifting of words from place to place. =Ancestor.= Fore-elder, kin-elder. =Animate.= To quicken. =Annals.= Year-bookings. =Annihilate.= To fornaughten. =Anniversary.= Year-day. =Annuity.= Year-dole. =Antanaclasis.= Twy-hitting on a word:--‘If _shape_ that was which had no _shape_.’ ‘It is the best _art_ that conceals _art_.’ By antanaclasis is heard Aloud once more a former word. =Anodyne.= Pain-dunting, pain-dilling. (_Dill_, _-n_, to dunt, to soothe.) =Anomalous.= Odd-shaped, oddly shapen. =Antepenultimate= (breath-sound). Last but two. =Anticipate.= To foreween, foretake. =Antique.= Ancient, _fore_old, _ere_old. _Old_ for things in being, _fore_old or _ere_old for things forgone. =Antithesis.= An atsetting. =Antonomasia.= Name-shunning, the marking of a man by other words than his name; as, ‘The honourable member for A.,’ instead of ‘Mr. B.’ =Aphæresis.= Foredocking of a word; as, _pothecary_ for _apothecary_, _nob_ for _knob_. =Aphorisms.= Thought-cullings. =Apocope.= End-lopping; as _mortal_ for _mortalis_, _send_ for _send-an_. =Apodosis.= The hank time-taking to a hinge one (_protasis_):--‘If ye ask (hinge), ye shall receive (hank).’ =Aposiopésis.= A tongue-checking; as, ‘Do you think----but I reck not what you think.’ =Apostrophe.= An offturning. =Appellative= (name). A call-name. =Appendix.= Hank, hank-matter. =Apposition.= A twy-naming, a putting of two names for one thing; as, ‘The dog Toby.’ =Aptote.= Casemarkless. =Aqueduct.= Waterlode. =Arbitrator.= Daysman (Job ix. 33). =Armistice.= A weapon-staying, weapon-stay, war-pause. =Articulation.= Breath-penning. =Aspirate.= A breathing, hard breathing. =Assimilate.= To make of the same _sam_ (form of matter) or _lic_ (bodily form of a thing). To assimilate food, to forselfen it, to make it into a man’s self. =Asylum= has with us widely shifted its first meaning. An _asylon_ was a sanctuary where a man was _asylos_, not to be pulled away (from _a_, _sylao_) by a foe. Now it often means a place whence a man cannot get away. =Asyndeton.= Linklessness. The putting of words without link-words; as, ‘Faith, hope, charity,’ for ‘Faith _and_ hope _and_ charity.’ Asyndeton puts side by side Strong words, by ne’er a linkword tied. =Atmosphere.= Welkin-air. =Attraction.= A _fordrawing_, a drawing of a word out of its true case or tale by another word to which it is nearer than to the one which it should match; as, ‘Neither of the men _are_ (for _is_) come.’ Where the time-word would most likely have been drawn into the somely shape by its nearness to men. Attraction may be _misdrawing_. =Augment.= An eking, eking on or out. =Auxiliary.= Outeking or helping. =Be-= (a fore-eking, meaning _by_, _to_, _about_). _Bebutton_ a coat, to put buttons to it; _becloke_ school-children, give them clokes; _becloud_, obnubilate; _beflood_, inundate; _behem_, bebound or circumscribe; _bereek_, fumigate. =Belligerent.= War-waging. =Bibulous.= Soaksome. =Bicornous.= Twy-horned. =Bidental.= Two-teeth, two-teethed. =Bilateral.= Two-sided:--‘These articles would be considered a public _bilateral_ contract, and would form the subject of an agreement with the Powers having Catholic subjects.’ _Bilateral_ contract is put for _bipartite_, a contract by or between two sides, or of men of two sides; but it would seem that the Romans did not call the two sides in a contract or cause _latera_, but _partes_--‘Parte utrâque auditâ.’--_Plin. Jun._ _Latera_ are the sides of a body or space. =Binocular.= Two-sighted. =Bipennated= (as an axe). Twy-bladed. =Botany.= Wortlore. =Cardinal= (numbers). Tale-numbers; as, one, two, three. =Catachresis.= A misuse (of a word); as, an _iron milestone_; a _parricide_ for one who has killed his mother; _dilapidated_ for a ragged coat. =Chemistry.= Matter-lore, the science of matter. =Chronology.= Time-lore. =Cinereous.= Ash-grey. =Circular= (a trade-circular). A touting-sheet or -bill. =Circumference.= Rim, rimreach. =Circumflex.= A roundwinding, a winding of the voice up and down again. =Clause.= A word-cluster in a thought-wording. =Cognate.= Kin, akin. _Cognate_ breath-pennings; as, =T=, =D=, both on the roof. =Collective= (name). That of a cluster or a many or a body of single things; as, a club, a herd. =Colon.= Gr. _kōlon_, a limb or member. A mark for a limb, or marked share of a thought-bewording. =Colophon.= Book-end. =Comma.= Gr. _komma_, a cut or share. A mark for the offcutting of small shares of a discourse. =Complement.= An _upfilling_ or _outfilling_ in words. =Compound.= Clustered or a cluster, a clustered word, as _horseman_, or a thought-wording of two or more smaller ones. =Concord.= A matching. =Concrete.= Matterly. =Conditional= (mood). Hinge-mood (p. 34). =Conjugation= (of a time-word). The forfitting of it, the fortrimming of it. =Conjunction.= A link-word. =Conjunctive.= Linked, byholding. =Consonant.= A letter for any breath-penning. =Construction.= A word-setting, speech-trimming (see p. 36). =Contraction.= An updrawing:--_I’ll_ for I will, _sinn’d_ for sinnèd. =Co-ordinate.= Rank-mate, row-mate. =Copula.= A link or bond. =Correlative= (words). Mate-words. =Crasis.= Sound-blending, sound-welding. =Dactyl.= Gr. _daktylos_. A foot (in verse) of one long and two short sounds, or of one high and two low sounds, as _cheerily_. =Dative.= Giving. =Deciduous= (plant). Fallsome. (Does it mean that only the leaves fall, or that the whole stem falls?) An elm is summer-green or leaved, and winter-sear. Holly is ever-green or winter-leaved. Parsley or the nettle is summer-stemm’d and winter-fallsome. =Decimate.= To tithe:--‘Breech-loading rifles would so decimate columns.’ _Decimate_ (_decimo_, from _decem_, ten, in Latin) was to take for death every tenth man of a body that had behaved very badly. The word _decimate_ is now used very loosely, as meaning to cut up. =Defective.= Wanting of something of its kind. =Defective= (verb). Wanting of some time-shapes, as _quoth_, _must_, _go_. The foretime shape of _go_ (_gang_) would be, as that of an unmoulded time-word, _goed_; and _goed_, a worn shape of the older ‘_gaode_,’ is found in northern folk-speech, with _yowed_ (Saxon _eode_.) _Gang_ makes _ganged_. =Deficiency.= Underodds. Excess, overodds. =Define.= L. _de_, off; _finio_, to mark. To offmark. =Demagogue.= Folk-leader, folk’s-ringleader, folk’s-reder. =Democracy.= Folkdom. =Dental.= L. _dentes_, teeth. A dental breath-penning is one more or less on the teeth; as, _eth_, _ef_. =Dependency.= Beholdingness:--‘As if one member would continue his wellbeing without _beholdingness_ to the rest.’--_Carew._ =Depilatory.= Hairbane. =Depletion.= Unfullening. =Depopulate.= Unfolk, forwaste. =Deport.= Behave. =Deposit= (of money). Earnest, pledge, bewaring. =Deprave.= Forshrew, forwarp. =Depraved.= Wicked. =Desecrate.= Unhallow. =Desolate.= Forloned. =Deter.= Forfray. =Deteriorate.= Worsen. =Develop.= Unfold, unroll. =Diacritical.= Offmarking, offskilling, sunder-clearing. =Diæresis.= An outsundering or outopening, or foropening or forsundering, of a sound into two; as, L. _sylva_, _syl-wa_, into _syl-u-a_. Diæresis splits sounds in two, As if for _true_ you said _tri-u_. =Diagram.= A draught, offdrawing. =Dialect.= A sunder-speech, a folk-speech, a fortongueing. =Diaphanous.= Thoroughshining, thoroughshowing. =Dictionary.= A word-book. =Didactic.= Teaching, teachsome. =Disease.= The Saxon-English had about fifty pure Teutonic names of diseases, to the main of which we now give Latin names. They were ranked under some few head-words. _Cwealm_ (_qualm_) meant mostly a deadly or many-killing epidemic, as the plague or cholera, which they would call a _mancwealm_ (_manqualm_). Of this word we have left only _qualm_ with _qualmish_. _Adl_ (our _addle_) was another main word for disease, as an unsoundness. From this word we have _addle-headed_ and an _addled_ egg. _Coða_, _coðe_, was another main word for a disease. Hence (Dorset) a _cothed_ sheep. _Weorc_, _werc_ (our _wark_), was a disease of pain or achingness, as the gout or colic. _Seoc_, _syc_, meant any _sickness_ in which a man sinks down on his bed or is off his legs. _Braec_ or _breach_ was also given for some ailings. To these words were set others of the parts of the body which they took, or of some other marks. _Stic-adl_, stitch. _Sid-adl_ (side-addle), pleurisy. _Lengten-adl_, _lent-adl_, typhus. _Hip-werc_ (hip-wark), sciatica. _Hrop-werc_ (bowel-wark, belly-wark (York)), colic. _Fylle seoc_, falling sickness. _Lifer seoc_, liver sickness. _Lifer-adl_ (Aelfric), liver-addle. _Milte-seoc_ (Aelfric), milt-sickness. _Lenden-wyrc_ (Aelfric), loin-wark. _Mete-afluing_ (Aelfric), atrophy. _Wylde-fyr_ (wildfire) (Aelfric), erysipelas. =Dissipate.= Forscatter. =Distribution= (of prizes). Outdealing, fordealing, outgiving:--‘Uetdieling fen da pryzen.’--_Frs._ (outdealing of the prizes.) =-dom= (an ending). It is our word _doom_, from _deem_, and means a state or outreach of free judgment or power; as, _kingdom_, _freedom_. =-dom.= ‘The scoundreldom and the rascality of a great city.’ _Scoundrelhood._ _Dom_ (from _deman_, to judge or rule) would be good for kingdom, popedom, sheriffdom, or mayordom. Scoundreldom would mean the might of scoundrels as ruling or judging. =Domicile.= Abode, wonestead. =Ecthlipsis.= An outcasting or outstriking, as of a sound; as, ‘Sing _th’ Almighty’s_ praise’ for ‘_the Almighty’s_,’ or ‘_I’ll go_’ for ‘_I will_ go.’ Ecthlipsis happens where one leaves Out sounds, or for _the eaves_ says _th’ eaves_. =Elative= (case). The fromward case; as, ‘He came from the house.’ =Electricity.= Matter-quickness; not speed, but liveliness. The word electricity means, as a word, only amberishness. =Ellipsis.= An outleaving, as of a word understood; as, ‘I went to St. Paul’s’ (church). Ellipsis is of any word Well understood, but yet not heard. =-el= (an ending). It means smallness or slightness:--_Dazzle_, to daze; _fraze_, frizzle; _nose_, nozzle (p. 18). =Embrasure.= Gun-gap, cannon-gap. =Emphasis.= Speech-loudening, speech-strain. =Emporium=. Warestore. =Enallage.= Case-shifting, an onchanging, as of a word or case into or for another; as, ‘He was father to (or of) the fatherless.’ ‘The child took the toy in (or with) her hand.’ Enallagē takes word or case, To put it in another’s place. =-en-ing= (an ending). It means a becoming such; as, _blacken_, to make or become black; _blackening_, the becoming black. The ending _-en-ing_ differs from _-ness_, _-en-es_, as in _blackness_, which means the having become such. =Enthesis.= An insetting. =Epenthesis.= An inputting or inthrusting or infoisting of a sound or clipping into a word. Epenthesis, for little good, Infoisteth aught, as _l_ in _could_.[3] [3] From _cuðe_. =Epithet.= A mark-word put to a thing; as, ‘The _far-shooting_ Apollo,’ ‘the _white-blossom’d_ sloe.’ =Equilibrium.= Weight evenness. =Equivalent.= Worth evenness. =-er-r= (an ending). It means outeked in size or time:--_Chatter_, to chat much; _clamber_, to climb much; _wander_, to wind about (pp. 18, 59). =Esculent= (plant). Meatwort. =Etymology.= Word-building, word-making, word-shapening. =Euphemismus.= A fair wording, or the putting of bad or unworthy things in a fairer light by words of less evil meanings; as, ‘I did time’ for ‘I was in prison.’ ‘A government man’ for ‘a convict.’ By euphemismus men are glad To make a bad case seem less bad. =Euphony.= Sound softness, sound sweetness. =Exalt.= Forheighten:--‘Sa hwa him selma _forheaget_’ (whoever himself forheightens).--_Friesic_ (Matt xxiii. 12). =Excrescence.= Outgrowth. =Exegetical.= Outclearening. =Exordium.= Outsetting, outset. =Expansion=. Outbroadening of wild or overwrought fullness readily becomes a bad kind of wordiness:--‘Farmer Stubbs drank beer,’ ‘The votary of Demeter, who rejoiced in the name of Stubbs, indulged in potations of the cereal liquor’; or ‘He received me with the most lively indications of amity’ for ‘He received me very kindly’; or for ‘He owes ten thousand pounds,’ ‘He is in a state of indebtedness to the extent of ten thousand pounds’; ‘He warned the hunters off his land,’ ‘He conveyed to the votaries of Diana a strong admonition that they would not be permitted to prosecute their sport within his domain.’ =Faculty.= Makingness. =Filiaceous.= Threaden. =Flexible.= Bendsome. =Fluctuate.= Waver. =Foliate.= Leafen. =For-.= The fore-eking of forgive, forbear, is a most useful one. It is the Anglo-Saxon _for_, the German _ver_, and the Latin _per_, and means off or away. _For-go_, _per-eo_, to go off or away. _Per-suadeo_ (L. _suadeo_, from _suavis_), to soften or sweeten off. _Foreshorten_ and _forego_ should be _forshorten_ and _forgo_. =Forceps.= Tonglings, nipperlings. =Fore-= (a fore-eking). _Foredoom_, predestinate; _fore-token_, portent, omen (p. 61). =Fossil.= A forstonening. =Frangible.= Breaksome. =Garrulity.=[4] Wordiness, talksomeness. [4] The Welsh shows the source of this word in _gair_, a word; _gair-ol_, wordy. =Genealogy.= Kin-lore, kinhood-lore. =Genitive= (case). The offspring case (p. 30). =Genuflexion.= Knee-bowing. Much has been said (in the law trials about posture in the administration of the Holy Communion) of genuflexion. A genuflexion is any _knee-bowing_, but all knee-bowing is not kneeling, which is _knee-grounding_. =Glossarist.= A word-culler. =Glossary.= Gr. _glossa_, tongue, speech. A word-list or word-list:--‘Mei en _lyst_ vin oade spreckworden’ (with a list of old saws).--_Friesic._ =Grandiloquent.= High-talking. =Gratuitous.= Out of kindness. _Gratia_ is good will, free kindness; and _gratuitus_ is freely bestowed of _gratia_, without hire or reward. But a writer says that an attack of slander on a woman’s purity ‘was gratuitous,’ or of _gratia_ or good will, without hire or reward, as if _gratuitous_ meant without grounds of malice. =Hendiadys.= One-in-twice. A wording of one thing at twice, or as two things; as, ‘I heard shouting and men’ for ‘shouting of men.’ ‘An arm and strength’ for ‘a strong arm.’ A fortwaining. Hendiadys will give you two Clear words where one alone would do. =Hexameter.= Gr. _hex_, six; _metron_, measure, metre. A metre in Greek and Latin verse, lines of six feet. =-hood= (an ending). It means a state of being, rank, or standing among other things:--_Childhood_, _manhood_. =Horizon.= Sky-sill, sky-line. =Hybrid= (word). L. _hybrida_, a mongrel. =Hydrophobia.= Water-awe. =Hyperbaton.= Gr. _hyper_, over; _baino_, to fare, go. An overfaring, an overshifting of words out of their more wonted or better ranking; as, ‘What for,’ for ‘For what.’ A ‘speaking out’ for an ‘outspeaking.’ =Hypallage.= Word-shifting, case-shifting; as, ‘We gave wind to our sails’ for ‘our sails to the wind.’ ‘The men were put to the sword,’ though also ‘the sword was put to the men.’ =Hyperbolē.= An overcasting or overshooting of the truth; as, ‘The train went as swift as lightning.’ Hyperbolē, less right than wrong, O’ershoots the truth with words too strong. =Hyphen.= A tie-stroke. =Hysterologia.= A foreafter wording, forebehind or hinderforemost wording; as, ‘He earned a florin, and worked all the day,’ whereas he worked first, and so earned the florin. Hysterologia’s careless mind Puts last for first, and fore for hind. =Iambus.= Gr. A foot (in verse) of one short or low and one long or high sound; as, _ago_, a low-high twin. =Idiom.= Gr. _idioma_, from _idios_, one’s own. A folk’s-wording, a set form of words of any one speech or set of men; as, ‘How do you do?’ _Fr._: ‘Comment vous portez-vous?’ (How do you bear yourself?) ‘I have just dined.’ _Fr._: ‘Je viens de dîner’ (I come from to dine). =Imperative= (mood). The bidding mood. =Impersonal= (verb). A time-word without a thing-name; as, ‘It lightens,’ ‘it thunders,’ ‘it freezes,’ ‘it thaws.’ A _thingnameless_ or a deederless time-word. =Impertinence= may be meddlesomeness in what _non pertinet_, does not belong to one, or meddlesomeness in a deed or speech which _non pertinet_, does not _hold_ by the matter under thought, _unbyholdingness_. =Impertinent.= Meddlesome, unbyholding. =Inarticulate.= Unbreathpenned. =Incandescent.= White-hot, heat-whitened. =Inceptive= (verbs). Belonging to ontaking or beginning. _Becomesome_ time-words; as, L. _albesco_, to become white; English _whiten_, to become or make white. In Greek the ending of the becomesome words is _-iz_ or _-z_. _Orphanízo_, to make or become elderless, or an orphan. =Indefinite.= L. _in_, un; _finio_, to offmark, outmark. _Unoffmarked_, _unbounded_. =Indicative= (mood). The surehood mood. =Infinitive= (mood). L. _in_, un; _finitus_, bounded, marked. The unboundsome thing-free mood of a time-word free of anything; as, to love, to see. =Initial.= Word-head. =Injury.= _Injuria_ is a moral wrong (summum jus summa injuria). Do we not wrest its meaning in such wording as ‘The wind has done much _injury_ to my house-roof’ or ‘_injured_ my flowers’? How can the behaviour of the wind be made out to be a moral wrong, even if it be a hurt? =Instrumentive=, =instrumental= (case). The _tool-case_ or _means-case_, that of the tool or means of a deed; as, ‘He cut the wood with a knife.’ =Interest= (of money). Money-rent, loan-meed, loan-pay. =Interest.= Care:--‘I do not take any _interest_ in him or it.’ ‘I do not becare him or it.’ ‘Wha kara unsis?’ (what care to us) (Mœso-goth).--Matt. xxvii. 4. What a word to be taken as a thing-name is _interest_, ‘it is of odds’! The folk-speech, ‘It is of no odds to me,’ gives the meaning of ‘meâ non interest.’ =Intransitive.= Not overgoing, as time-takings that do not reach forth to another thing; as, to _sleep_. =Inversion.= L. _inverto_, to turn up. An end-shifting:--‘Thee at morn, and Thee I praise at night,’ for ‘I praise Thee at morn, and Thee at night.’ A shifting of the ends of a wording. =Irony.= Gr. _eirōneia_, from _eiron_, a shammer. A good wording for a bad meaning, _mock-praise_; as, ‘That was a _good_ shot,’ meaning a very _bad_ one. ‘He is a _nice_ man,’ meaning the reverse of _nice_. ‘How _glorious_ was the king of Israel to-day!’ meaning how _inglorious_. =-ism.= The stump _-ism_ of the Greek _-ismos_ seems to be used very loosely. _-ismos_ is from the ending _-izō_ of ontaking or inceptive time-words, and where there is no time-word ending in _-izō_ there is not, I should think, any thing-name in _-ismos_; as, _chloros_, green; _chlorizō_, to become green; _chlorismos_, a becoming green. So, if liberalism is a becoming _liberal_, conservatism is a becoming _conservat_, which might seem to mean _conservatus_, one conserved, rather than a conserver. Is chartism a becoming a _chart_? and what is Londonism, a becoming _London_ or a _Londoning_? and, if so, what is a Londoning? We have for _-ismos_ some English endings, as _-ening_, in _blackening_; besides _-hood_, _-ship_, and _-ness_, and many others of sundry kinds. For _-ism_, taken in names bestowed with very slight praise, we may take _-ishness_; as, _Hebraism_, Hebrewishness; _Grecism_, Greekishness; _Latinism_, Latinishness; _Londonism_, Londonishness; _solœcism_, folkswording. (On ‘Solœcism,’ see Aul. Gell. v. 20.) =Iterative=. Going over again and again. Iterative time-words, that mean to take many shorter times in time-takings of the same kind; as, to _chatter_, chat much; _clamber, wander_. =Labial= (letter). L. _labium_, lip. A lip breath-penning. =Laxative=. Loosensome. =Lecture=. A lore-speech. =Lenis=. L. _soft_. The soft breathing is an _unaspirate_ one, such as _a_ in _and_, not _ha_ in _hand_. =Letter=. L. _litera_; Sax. _bóc-staf_, a book-staff. It is bad that the same word _letter_ should be used for a _letter_ of the alphabet and an _epistle_, the old English word for which is a _brief_, as it is in German and West Friesic. It was also the name of the king’s letter for gathering of help-money in the church; though now it is the name only of a barrister’s letter of instruction. =Lingual=. L. _lingua_, the tongue. Belonging to the tongue. =Literature=. Book-lore. =Lithography=. Stone-printing. =Locative= (case). L. _locus_, stead, place. The stead or stow-case; as, ‘In London,’ ‘At church.’ =Logic=. Redelore. =-m, -om, -um.= A word-ending, a form of the Greek one _-ma_, as in _prag-ma_, from _prasso_; and of the Latin _-men_, as in _flu-men_, from _fluo_. Words so ended meant mostly the outcome of the time-word, and were at first thing-names; and so as time-words they were, as most of them yet are, weak ones. From roots ending, I believe, in _-ing_ came[5] [5] The words of the latter row are not shapen, at once, from those of the first one. Such of the first as are not roots in _-ing_ are fellow stems to the others. As, _stem_ from the root _sting_, to be more or less stiff or steadfast: sting, a stang, a stake, a stick. Steg-me (Gr. stigma), stegm (stem). _Stem_ is not from _stick_, but from the root. Blow Bloom. Cling (_root_) Clome (clay or clayen pottery), clam, climb. Cring (_root_) (to bend) Crome (a dung-pick with bent prongs). Dunt, ding(_root_) Dam, dim, dumb, damp (fire). Go (with quick } stirrings), } Game. --ging (_root_) } Glow Gleam, gloom. Grow Groom (a growing or now full-grown youth?). Hollow Haulm, helm, helmet. Harry Harm. Lose, lithe, (ling _r._) Limp, limb, lime, loam. Shriek Scream. Sew Seam. Slack,--sling (_root_) Slam (a slackness or looseness in matter or going; slam of a gate; a slack swing, as unguided by a hand). Slack Slime, slim. Stiff or stout Stem. Stray or Stretch on Stream.[6] Tang, ting (reach on) Team, time, and timer, timber (a very ontanging stick). Thick Thumb (the thick finger). [6] In Welsh _avon_, a river, is from a time-word meaning to go on. ‘Mi _av_ i’r _avon_ vawr rhag llosgi.’ (I will go into the great river ere I be burned.) _Welsh Song._ =Machine.= An old English word for a machine is _ginny_ or _jinny_ which seems to be a fellow-stem to _gin_, and to mean _to go_, not as in onfaring (locomotion), but as in the way of a machine. =Magnificent.= High-deedy, high-doing. =Magniloquent.= High-talking. =Mechanics.= Matter-might. =Metalepsis.= Gr. _metalambano_, to take over. A _use-shifting_ of a word, a taking of a word over from its common to another meaning; as, ‘Seven harvests ago’ for ‘seven summers or years.’ =Metaphor.= Gr. _metaphora_, from _metaphero_ to carry over. A figure of speech, the overcarrying of a name from a thing to which it belongs to another to which it does not belong; as, ‘The _Shepherd_ of Israel’ for ‘the Lord.’ ‘The _father_ of the people’ for ‘a good king.’ ‘_Eos_ Cymru’ (the Welsh _nightingale_) for ‘a fine Welsh songstress.’ ‘A man _burning_ with anger.’ =Metathesis.= Gr. _meta_, with or against; _thesis_, a putting. A penning-shift, as that of putting each of two pennings in the stead of the other; as, wa_ps_, wa_sp_; ha_ps_; ha_sp_; though the first of the two shapes is the older in English. Metathesis is where a word Shifts pennings, as in _crud_ for _curd_. =Meteor.= Welkin-fire. =Metonymy.= Gr. _meta_, off; _onoma_, a name. An _offnaming_, _name-shifting_, a wording that puts for a thing-name the name of some belonging--whether cause or effect or aught else--of the thing; as, ‘He reads _Horace_’ for ‘_his works_.’ ‘He lives by _the sweat of his brow_’ for ‘_work_.’ ‘Land holden by the _Crown_’ (_Queen_). ‘The power of the _pen_’ for ‘_writers_.’ =Miosis.= Gr. _meiōsis_, a forlessening. A wording by which a thing is lessened off; as, ‘Will you give me a _crumb_ of bread and a _drop_ of drink?’ Miōsis, a lessening, Makes of a great a smaller thing. =Monitor.= A warner. Ware-en-er, who makes ware. =Monosyllable.= A breath-sound. =Multiloquous.= Wordy, talksome. =Negative= (word). L. _nego_, to deny. Fornaysome. =Nomenclature.= Benaming, name-shapening. =Nominative.= L. _nomen_, a, name. The name-case, speech-case. =Noun.= L. _nomen_, a name; Fr. _nom_. A thing-name, thing-word, name-word. =Objective.= Objective case. A name commonly given to the time-giving thing when it is not the speech-case. =Onomatopœia.= A mocking name. The making of words from sounds; as, to _hiss_, a _peewit_ or _cuckoo_ from the sound it makes. =Optative= (mood). The wish mood; as, ‘Oh! that I had wings.’ ‘May you be happy.’ =Out-= (a fore-eking). _Outban_, exile; _outfaring_, peregrination, exodus; _outhue_, _outliken_, depict or draw. =Over-= (a fore-eking). _Overbold_, audacious; _overhang_, impend; _overweigh_, preponderate. =-p=, =-b=, =-f= (endings). They mean small in kind or short in time:--Poke, _pop_, poke quickly; _dip_, a small dive; _slip_, a small slide; _rip_, to rive quickly. =Palindrome.= Gr. _palin_, back; _dromos_, a running. A set of words which read the same backwards as forwards; as, ‘Lewd did I live, evil I did dwel,’ or ‘Roma tibi subito motibus ibit amor.’ A palindrome’s the same as read From head to tail, or tail to head. =Palpitate.= Throb. =Panacea.= Allheal. =Paradigm.= Gr. _paradeigma_, an offshowing, outshowing, a plan. A table of word-shapes. =Paragogē.= An outbringing or outlengthening of a word. A paragogē will be found Where words are lengthened by a sound. ‘Such a sweet pett as this Is neither far nor _neary_. Here we go up, up, up; Here we go down, down, _downy_. Here we go backwards and forwards, And here we go round, round, _roundy_.’ OLD SONG. ‘In playhouses, full _six-o_, One knows not where to _fix-o_.’ OLD SONG. =Paragraph.= An offwriting, a wording-share; such a share of a piece of writing as, if it were offwritten, would not want anything of a full meaning. =Paraphrase.= New bewording; a turning of a piece of writing into other words, often more if not clearer than those of the writer. A paraphrase, while it is meant to clearen, may falsen the paraphrased matter. The following paraphrase from an old written sermon of (as I believe) an old Dorset divine, may be a good sample of new bewording:-- ‘God, I thank Thee, that I am not as other men are, extortioners, unjust, adulterers, or even as this Publican: I fast twice in the week, I give tithes of all that I possess.’ Expanded or paraphrased:-- ‘With great gratitude, O God (said the Pharisee), I contemplate my own superior attainments. How free is my mind from a variety of black offences which invade the consciences of others! Extortion, injustice, and adultery are crimes (said he, striking his breast) which have no harbour here. Who can lay to my charge the neglect of any religious duty? Are not my tithes paid with cheerfulness, and my fasts observed with sanctity?’ ‘And the Publican, standing afar off, would not lift up so much as his eyes unto heaven, but smote upon his breast, saying, God be merciful to me a sinner.’ ‘The Publican, on the other hand, with every mark of the deepest contrition, stood abashed in a corner of the temple. Conscious of his own demerits, he was afraid to raise his eyes to that Being who sees the least degree of impurity with offence. After many ineffectual struggles to form the sighing of a contrite heart into the language of prayer, his efforts ended in this one exclamation, God be merciful to me a sinner.’ =Parenthesis.= An inwedging of a sentence within another:--‘Thou sayest--but they are but vain words--I have strength for the war.’ =Parody.= A song-mocking. =Paronomasia.= A kind of play on words of more or less like sound, though of sundry meaning; as, ‘Though _last_ not _least_.’ ‘Non amissi sed præmissi’ (said of friends deceased), ‘Not forgone but foregone.’ Paronomasia is found In pairs of words of some like sound. =Participle.= A thing-marking shape of the time-word. =Particle.= A wordling, a small shapefast word. =Patronymic.= Gr. _pater_, father, and _onoma_, name. A surname or sirename of a man taken from the forename of his father; as, John Richardson, Dafydd Ap-hoel, Patrick Mac-Duff, Jeroboam Ben-Nebat. =Pedigree.= Kin-stem, forekin-stem. =Penultimate.= Last but one. =Perambulator= (the child’s carriage). Push-wainling. =Perfect.= Fordone, forended, full-ended. =Period=, in rhetoric (redecraft) and speechcraft, is so called, as a speech-ring or speech-round, a full round of thought-wording, in which the speech-meaning is kept uphanging and more or less unclear, till the last word or word-cluster by which it is clearly fulfilled; as, ‘(1) That among the sundry changes of the world (2), (3) our hearts may surely there be fixed (4): (5) where true joys are to be found (6).’ The whole thought-wording is a period or speech-round. From (1) to (4) is a limb (called in Greek a _kōlon_) and has a meaning, though not a full one beyond which the mind awaits nothing more. The word-cluster from (1) to (2) yields no full meaning, and is called in Greek a _komma_ (_kopma_), a cutting or shareling. Thence we see the source of the names and uses of the stops--the _period_ (.), _colon_ (:), _comma_ (,). The _period_ marked the end of the period; the _colon_ that of the kolon; and the _comma_ that of a comma, or cutting of a colon. The word seems to be often misused. A _period_ (Gr. _periodos_) of time or wording is rightly a running of it round again to its like beginning; as, a week--from Sunday round to Sunday; or a year--from January to January. A straight stretch of time or words is not truly a period; as, a man’s life from birth to manhood is not a ring-gate, beginning anew at childhood. =Periphrasis.= Gr. _peri_, round; _phrasis_, a speaking. A roundabout speaking of a thing instead of an outright naming of it, a _name-hinting_; as, ‘The gentleman at the head of Her Majesty’s Government’ for Lord B. =Personal= (time-word); not an impersonal one; as, ‘It rains.’ ‘It snows;’ but one with a named time-taker, as ‘John rides.’ =Perverse.= Wayward, froward. =Pervious.= Throughletting. =Petrify.= To stonen, forstonen. =Philology.= Speechlore. =Phonetic.= Soundly. =Phonography=, =phonotypy=. Sound-spelling. Surely a photograph should be a phototype. _Graphō_ is to graze or grave along a body, but a photograph is given by a plumb downstriking of rays of light--a _typē_ and not a _graphē_. With _graphē_ and _typē_ we may set a _glyphē_ (from _glyphō_), an outsmoothing of a shape, as that of a figure from a block of stone. _Glyphō_ is a fellow stem-word to _glykys_, smooth, soft, or sweet. =Phrase.= Gr. _phrazo_, to speak, say. A word-cluster, a word-set, a cluster or set of byhanging words. =Pirate.= Sea-robber, weeking, wyking, wicing (Gloss. 11 cent.). The _wicings_ or _weekings_ or _vicings_ were so called as lurking about in the bays, _wicas_, _weeks_, _wykes_, or _wiches_. =Plagiary.= A thought-pilferer. =Pleonasm.= Gr. _pleonazo_, to fullen or overfullen. An overwording; as, ‘A great [thing of a] boar’ for ‘a great boar.’ ‘What [ever in the world] are you doing?’ ‘Never [in all my whole life] have I seen the like.’ A pleonasm oft is heard To strengthen speech by word on word. =Plocē.= Gr. _plokē_, a twining or folding. A twining or folding of a foregiven name, of one meaning the same name, in another; as, ‘Then Edwin was Edwin (or himself) again.’ Worthy of himself. ‘Coal is now coal,’ _i.e._ scarce and costly. By plocē you inweave a name Once more with meaning not the same. =Plural= (number). The somely (number). =Polyptoton.= Gr. _poly_, many; _ptotos_, case. The inbringing of fellow stem-words or root-words in sundry cases or ways:--‘He, friendless once, befriended friends.’ =Posterity.= Afterkin. =Postposition.= A hinder case-word, a case-word put after the thing-name; as, in Hindustani, _panee-main_, water in; _panee-sae_, water from; _panee-ko_, water to. Showing the source of case-endings. =Potential= (mood). L. _potentia_, might, power. Mayly. =Predicate.= The wording of the time-taking; as, ‘John _walked twenty miles_.’ =Prefix.= A fore-eking, a forewordling; as, _be-set_, _for-give_, _out-run_. =Preposition.= A case-word. =Preterite.= Bygone, past. =Programme.= A foredraught. =Pronoun= (personal). A name-token, a stead-word. Pronoun Adjective, mark-word. =Proper name.= A one-head name. =Prosopopœia.= Gr. _prosopon_, face, person; _poieo_, to make. The putting of an unmatterly or impersonal thing as a person. Prosopopœia shows your mind Unlive things doing as mankind. =Protasis.= The hinge time-taking. =Prototype.= Foreshape, forepattern. =Punctuation.= L. _punctuatio_, from _puncta_, points or stops. The skill of the putting of stops, or of the marking of voice-stoppings in speech. Bestopping. (See ‘Period.’) =Radicle.= Rootling. =Reciprocal= (verb). L. _re_, back, fro; _ci_, to this way. To and fro verbs; as, ‘They helped each other.’ =Rectify.= Righten. =Reflective.= Back-turning, as a time-taking which comes back to the source of it; as, ‘John cut or hit himself.’ =Regimen.= Government, overwielding of a thing by another. =Religion.= Faith-law. =Religious.= On the true meaning of _religiosus_ see Aul. Gell. _Noct. Att._ iv. 9. He makes it mean withholden, backbound from some uses. _Religiosa delubra_, a shrine hallowed from common use; _religiosus dies_, a day withholden, as unlucky, from great undertakings. A religious man is one who is withholden by his faith and conscience from bad deeds. =Restrain.= Inhold, forhold. =Result.= Outcome, outworking, backspring. _Result_ (from _resilio_, to spring back) is neither in sound nor meaning a better word than _outcome_ or _outworking_ or _froming_, _fromming_. =Rhetoric.= Rede-speech. =Rhythm.= Gr. _rhythmos_, number, as number of clippings or sounds in a line of verse. _Metre_, which meant at first tale of sounds rather than sound matching, which we call rime. _Rime_ is not come to us from the Greek, but is the Saxon _rim_ or _hrim_, tale or number. ‘Manâ and misdædâ ungerím ealrâ’ (a tale, beyond telling, of all wickednesses and misdeeds).--_Sermo Lupi ad Anglos._ ‘Deer naet in da rime was’ (who was not in the number).--_Old Friesic Law._ =Salubrious.= Healthy, halesome. =Satellite.= Henchman. =Scintillate.= Sparkle. =Semi-detached houses.= Twin-houses, a house-twin. =Sentence.= L. _sentio_, to think, deem, feel. In speech-craft, an uttering of a thought, one thought-wording. =Septuple.= Sevenfold. =-sh= (an ending). It means quickness and smartness; as, _clang_, clash; _crack_, crash; _fly_, flash; _go_, gush; _hack_, hash. In markwords it means somewhat such;--_blackish_, _boyish_. =-ship= (an ending). It means a shape or form of being:--_Friendship_, _mateship_. =Solœcisms.= Gr. _soloikismos_, from the bad Greek of the _Soloikoi_ in _Cilicia_. A miswording, barbarism, or, as an old Saxon gives it, ‘a miscweðen word,’ or a misquothing, a misqueathing. We in a solœcismus find Miswording of a loreless mind. =Solstice.= Sunsted. A.S. Sunanstede. =-some.= The ending _-some_ in such words as _aimsome_, _matchsome_, _yieldsome_ seems, as we look to its true first meaning, to be a fitting one. A _sam_ or _som_ (some) meant at first a body of mingled matter or things. In its stronger meaning lumps of suet melted up into a soft body would be a _sam_ or _som_; and potatoes boiled and mashed up would be a _sam_; and dough, if not flour itself, is a _sam_ or _som_. In the wider meaning of the word an upgathering of things, and even men, into a body or set is a _sam_ or _som_. Thence we have our word _same_ as well as the ending _-some_ and the markword _some_:--‘_Some_ in rags, and _some_ in jags, and _some_ in silken gowns’ (a _set_ or body in rags, a _set_ or body in jags, &c.). _Aimsome_, _yieldsome_ would mean of the _aim_ or _yield_ or _aiming_ or _yielding_ set or body. _Sam_ or _som_ gives our words _same_ and _so_. ‘The _same_ man’ means the very man in _sam_ or body or being. ‘Are they Hebrews? _so_ (same) am I.’ Of that _sam_ (am I). The Latin _se_ is most likely a word of the same root:--‘Lucius _se_ amat’ (Lucius loves _same_ or his _sam_); and this is the meaning of our word _self_. The Latin _similis_ would mean of the _sam_ or _same_ kind; and ‘to _summon_ (_samen_) men’ is to call them up into a _sam_, ‘Suma êlanda thêr im likte’ (some islands that pleased him).--_Oera Linda Book._ =Sophist.= Wordwise. =Sophistry.= Rede-guile, rede-cunning. =Spell.= Sax. _spellian_, to tell, utter forth a word or a set of words. =Spell.= A message or bewording, as in _Godspel_ (Gospel), ‘the good message.’ =-st= (an ending). It strengthens the meaning, as it does in _blackest_; blow, _blast_; brow, _breast_. =Stereography.= Bulk-drawing. =Stereometry.= Bulk-meting. =Stereotype.= Block-type. =Subject.= The speech-thing or thing under speech. =Subjunctive= (mood). The hinge-mood; as, ‘If ye ask, ye shall receive.’ =Suffix.= A wordling put on at the end of a word; as, man_-hood_, good_-ness_, kind_-ly_. End-eking, an on-eking, a word-ending. =Superlative.= The highest pitch. =Supposititious.= Underfoisted, undersmuggled. =Syllepsis.= Gr. _syn_, up, together; _lēpsis_, a taking. An uptaking, upmating, comprehension, as of a second or third person with a first; as, ‘I (1) and my brother (3) (we) learn Latin.’. Syllepsis takes I, you, and he As first persons, and all called we. =Synalœpha.= Gr. _syn_, up; _aleipho_, to smear. Sound-welding. The welding up of two sounds into one, or the end of one word into the head of the following. In Latin verse--‘Conticuere omnes,’ ‘conticue͞r omnes,’ ‘conticuere‿omnes’--uttering the _e_ and _om_ in the time of one syllable. So in Italian--‘In prat_o‿i_n foresta,’ ‘Sia l’alb_a‿o_ la sera,’ ‘Se dorm_e‿i_l pastor’--the _o i_, and _a o_, and _e i_ are uttered as one syllable. In English--‘Before th_e‿A_lmighty’s throne.’ By synalœpha breath-sounds run A couple to the time of one. =Syncope.= The cutting of a penning from within a word; as, ‘He ha-s’ for ‘he haves,’ ‘Gospel’ for ‘Godspel.’ The outcutting is truly an _outwearing_ of the clipping. A clipping’s lost by syncope, As _subtle’s_ sounded minus _b_. =Synecdoche.= Gr. _syn_, up; _ek_, out; _dochē_, a taking. An outtaking or outculling, as of a share of a thing for the whole, or the matter for the thing; as, ‘a hundred heads’ for ‘a hundred men’; ‘twenty hands’ for ‘twenty workmen’; ‘a cricketer’s willow’ for his ‘bat.’ =Synonym.= Gr. _syn_, together; _onyma_ a name. Synonyms are words or names of the same meaning, twin-words; as, _rabbit_ and _coney_, _volume_ and _tome_, _yearly_ and _annual_, _letter_ and _epistle_. Twains of words are, however, less often synonyms than they are so called. =Syntax.= Speech-trimming. A _trim_ is a fully right or good state of a thing, the state in which it ought to be; and ‘to trim’ a thing is to put it in trim, or fully as it ought to be. ‘To _trim_ a boat,’ to set it as it ought to be--upright, not heeling. ‘To _trim_ a bonnet or dress,’ to put it fully as it ought to be. And so ‘to _trim_ a hedge’: a man may think that, because much of the trimming of a hedge is done by cutting, a trimming is therefore a cutting. ‘I am out of _trim_’; ‘to _trim_,’ as a man in politics, albeit it may not be to set himself morally as he ought to be, is to set himself as he thinks that he ought to be for the nonce. =Tautology.= Word-sameness, a saying over again of the same thing or words. =Technical.= Craftly. =Telegram.= Wire-spell. (See Spell.) =Telegraph= (the electric). Spell-wire. =Telescope.= Spyglass. =Tense.= Time. =Termination.= A word-ending. =Tmesis.= A word-cutting or splitting or outsundering; as, ‘The child has _overthrown_ the flower-pot.’ By word-cutting or outsundering--‘The child has _thrown_ the flower-pot _over_.’ By tmesis you may oft outshare A word’s two word-stems here and there. =Transitive= is overfaresome; _intransitive_, unoverfaresome. =Triphthong.= Gr. _tri_, three; _phthongos_, sound. A threefold sound. =Uncial.= L. _literæ unciales_, text letters. Capital letters. =Under.= _Undersea_, submarine; _underspan_, subtend; _underslinking_, subterfuge. =Up-.= _Upclashing_, collision; _upthrong_, congregate. =Upmating.= The upmating of the persons, called in Greek _syllepsis_, touches the use of the personal pronouns. A second or third person upmated with the first is reckoned as first, and a third upmated with the second is reckoned as second; as, ‘That boat belongs to my brother (3) and me (1). _We_ (1) bought it.’ ‘That is known only to you (2) and me (1). _We_ know it.’ ‘I saw you (2) and your brother (3). _You_ (2) were there.’ But persons are upmated as well from kindliness or civility as from the calls of speech-craft. Thus a speaker will often upmate himself with a hearer or another, as a mother may upmate herself with her child by _we_, instead of _thou_ or _you_; as, Here _we_ go up, up, up; Here _we_ go down, down, downy; Here _we_ go backward and forward; And here _we_ go round, round, roundy-- though the going is only that of the child. A young man may say to a girl friend, ‘How proud _we_ are,’ meaning ‘_you_ are’; or a man may say of others who might not be very brisk at work, ‘_We_ are not very strong to-day’; or a footman may upmate himself with the heads of the house with such wording as ‘_We_ do not treat our guests so unhandsomely.’ =Vocabulary.= L. _vocabulum_, a word. A word-list, word-book, word-store. =Vocative= (case). L. _voco_, to call. The call-case. =-y=, =-ig= (an ending). It means eked with something:--_Snowy_, with snow; _dirty_, with dirt. =Zeugma.= Gr., a yoking. A yoking of two things as to one time-word which would fit only one of them, another being outleft; as, ‘The house which my own money, and not which my father bequeathed,’ supply _bought_ after ‘money.’ * * * * * The Power of the Word-endings. Some of the small word-endings end themselves with a dead breath-penning, and others with a half-penning. The dead pennings seem to betoken, mostly, an ending, or shortening, or lessening, in time or shape; while the half-pennings do not seem to bound, or shorten, or lessen, the meaning of their body-words. _Dead Pennings._ =-ock.= Hill-ock. =-ed.= I walk-ed (the time-taking ended). =-ig=, now =-y=. Wind-ig, wind-y (an eking of wind). =-op=, =-p=; =-ob=, =-b=. Flap, flip, a quick flying; heap, hop, hip, small highenings, or humps; pop out, to poke out quickly; clap the hands, to close them quickly; stub, a small stump; wallop, to wallow or well (roll) lightly, and so as water from a spring, or in boiling. We may think that we have two very fine words in _envelope_ and _develope_, whereas they seem to be nothing better than the Teutonic _inwallop_ and _unwallop_, to roll in and unroll. With _wallow_ set the Latin _volvo_ (walwo), to roll. =-t=, =-et=. Forlessens. Poke, pocket. Ball, bullet. Sock, socket. _Half-Pennings._ do not so strongly, if at all, betoken endingness, or shortness, or smallness. =-m.= A _stem_ is of any length, but _stump_ is short. =-en=, =-n=. _Golden_, eked wholly in gold; _blacken_, to eke on freely in blackness. =-ing=, as in _walking_, does not betoken any ending or shortening of a time-taking. =-er=, =-r=, betokens eking out much in shape or time, as:-- Chat, chatter. Pat, patter. Clate, clatter. It so happens that while we have a dead penning, _-ed_, for the ended time-taking, as, ‘he walked,’ we have a half-penning for the ongoing time-taking, as, ‘he walketh.’ It is true that _-en_, a half-penning, is put for _-ed_, as an ending of some mark-time words, as _brok-en_, and that _-el_, _-l_, a half-penning, may seem to mean either much or small, as _prate_, _prattle_ (prat-el). Time-words with these endings in full length are weak. Bloss-om-ed, Black-en-ed, Wall-op-ed, Chat-er-ed, Flitt-er-ed, Pock-et-ed, Prat-el-ed (prattled). =s= strengthens the meaning of some root-heads, as:-- Melt, smelt. Nip, snip. Plunge, splunge. Queeze, squeeze. So, as an ending of the somely thing-name, it stretches its meaning from that of one to some ones, as _a hand_, _hands_--hands being more than a hand. In the word-ending =-st= of _black-est_, the half-penning _s_ freely forstrengthens _black_, and the dead-penning _t_ seems to check its force, so that _blackest_ means _black_ strengthened, though not unboundedly so, but blackest of all the things taken with it. _-st_ has, I suppose, this meaning also as an ending of thing-names or time-words, as ‘to _boast_,’ the meaning of which is betokened by some other tongues to be to _bow_ out much the breast or fore-body, the token of pride and boasting, as it is so often shown to our sight. _Bogan_, to bow (Anglo-Saxon and Friesic), means ‘to boast.’ Friesic--‘Thi mâgy _bogade_ uppa sinra snôdhed.’ (The mâgy boasted (bowed) on his cunning.)--_Oera Linda Book._ ‘Hia _bogath_ ìmmer over geda êwa.’ (They boast (bow) ever over good laws.)--_Oera Linda Book._ The old British bard, Llywarch Hên, had in mind the same token of pride:-- --gnawd dyn Bronrain balch (It is common for a proud (or boasting) man to be bow- or bulge-breasted); and in the Holderness (Yorkshire) folkspeech they say ‘as _bug_ (proud) as a dog wi’ two tails,’ and yet, to show that _bug_ means a bow or bowedness, they say ‘as _bug_ as a cheese.’ The Goodness of a Speech. The goodness of a speech should be sought in its clearness to the hearing and mind, clearness of its breath-sounds, and clearness of meaning in its words; in its fulness of words for all the things and time-takings which come, with all their sundrinesses, under the minds of men of the speech, in their common life; in sound-sweetness to the ear, and glibness to the tongue. As to fulness, the speech of men who know thoroughly the making of its words may be fullened from its own roots and stems, quite as far as has been fullened Greek or German, so that they would seldom feel a stronger want of a foreign word than was felt by those men who, having the words _rail_ and _way_, made the word _railway_ instead of calling it _chemin de fer_, or, going to the Latin, _via ferrea_, or than Englishmen felt with _steam_ and _boat_, to go to the Greeks for the name of the _steamboat_, for which Greek had no name at all. The fulness of English has not risen at the rate of the inbringing of words from other tongues, since many new words have only put out as many old ones, as:-- immediately, anon, (no saving of time here), ignite, kindle, annual, yearly, machine, jinny. I have before me more than one hundred and fifty so taken English law-words which were brought into the English courts with the Norman French tongue; but English speech did not therefore become richer by so many words, because most of them thrust aside English ones. _Judge_ took the stead of _dema_; _cause_ of _sác_; _bail_ of _borh_; and the lawyers said _arson_ for _forburning_; _burglary_, for _housebreach_; and _carrucate_, for _ploughland_; and King Alfred gave to English minds the matter of Gregory’s Pastoral with a greater share (nearly all) of pure English words, than most English scholars could now find for it. On clearness, it is to be feared that, notwithstanding the English may be clear in breath-sounds to the ear, there is often a want of clearness to the mind from the many pairs of words which have worn into the same sound, such as:-- Bow, bow, Doe, dough, Lea, lee, Pale, pail, Sow, sew, and others; and from the use of Latin and Greek and other foreign words, which are used in other than their true first meanings, or the meanings of which the common folk do not understand. _Teleology_ is a word which I have just seen in a Dorset paper, as for the matter of a lately given lore-speech, ‘the examination or the discussion of the purposes for which things are created.’ Now, in English the word _end_ means both a _forending_, or termination, and a purpose; but I do not think that _telos_ (end) or _teleosis_, in Greek, means a purpose. _Prothesis_ would most likely have been put for it by a Greek. The Latinish and Greekish wording is a hindrance to the teaching of the homely poor, or at least the landfolk. It is not clear to them, and some of them say of a clergyman that his Latinised preaching is too high for them, and seldom seek the church. _Swan_ is a clue to the meaning of _swanling_ but none of _cygnet_; and if a man knew that _kyknos_ was the Greek for swan he might still be at a loss for the meaning of _-et_, which is not a Greek ending. For sound-sweetness or glibness, we should shun, as far as we can, the meeting of hard dead breath-pennings of unlike kinds. We have in our true English too many of them, and some of them from the dropping of the _e_ from the word-ending _-ed_, as in _slep’t_ and _pack’d_ (lip and roof, and throat and roof pennings, and in both cases hard dead pennings); and then, as if we had not enough of them, we have brought in a host more of such ones from the Latin, as in _act_, _tract_, _inept_, _rapt_. Now, _forbend_ is a softer-sounded word than _deflect_, since _ct_ (kt) are hard throat and root pennings, very unhandy together, and the _n_ of _-nd_ is a mild half-penning, and _d_ is a mild dead penning. So _dapper_ is better sounded than _adept_, since _p_ is a single hard penning between two free breathings, and _pt_ are a hard lip and a hard roof breathing, unfollowed by any softer breathing. It was against such harshness of hard unlike breath-pennings that Celtic speech took its markworthy word-moulding. As a token of the readiness of two kindred breath-pennings to run into one, we may give the words of the Liturgy, ‘Make clean our hearts within us,’ for which a clergyman will hardly, without a pause and a strong pushing of the breath, help saying ‘Make lean our hearts within us.’ There came out in print some time ago a statement wonderful to me, that it had been found that the poor landfolk of one of our shires had only about two hundred words in their vocabulary, with a hint that Dorset rustics were not likely to be more fully worded. There can be shown to any writer two hundred thing-names, known to every man and woman of our own village, for things of the body and dress of a labourer, without any mark-words, or time-words, or others, and without leaving the man for his house, or garden, or the field, or his work. CLUE TO MATTERS HANDLED. Absolute case, 32, 47 Accent, 3 Adjective, 10, 12 Adverbs, 26, 48 Aorist (time), 28 Article, 6, 10 Attraction, 52 _Be-_, 52 Big things, 6 Breathings, 1, 44 -- free, 1 -- hard, 2, 44 Breath-pennings, 1, 2 Can, 27 Case, 30 -- absolute, 32 -- words, 31 Colon, 73 Comma, 73 Conjugation, 26 Conjunction, 35 Defective (time-words), 55 _-dom_, 57, 58 _-ed_, 19, 83 _-el_, _-l_, 18 _-en_, 16, 45, 59, 84 _-ening_, 59 _-er_, 59, 84 _-et_, 84 Expansion, 60 _For-_, 60 _Fore-_, 61 Goodness of a speech, 86 Hinge and hank time-takings, 35 _-hood_, 62 Imperative mood, 31, 63 Impersonal time-words, 63 Inceptive time-words, 64 Indicative mood, 30 Infinitive mood, 16, 64 _-ing_, 17, 84 _-ism_, 65 Iterative time-words, 29, 66 Kindred, 5 Link words, 35 _-m_, _-om_, _-um_, 66, 67, 84 Mark-words (thing), 4 Mark time-words, 45 May, 27 _Mis-_, 16 Miswording, 10 Mood, 30 Must, 27 Nominative case, 31 _-ock_, 16, 83 _-om_, _-um_, _-m_, 66, 67, 84 _-op_, _-p_, 70, 83 Optative mood, 31, 70 Paraphrase, 71 Participles (Latin), 40 Period, 72 Person, 11, 26, 27 Personal time-word, 73 Pitches, 73 Potential, 31 Preposition (case-word), 31 Proposition, 35 Qualities, 12 _-r_, _-er_, 16, 59 Seem, 41, 78 Sex, 5 _-sh_, 77 Shall, 77 _-ship_, 77 Small things, 5 _-some_, 78 Sound-softness, 38, 88 Speech, goodness of, 86 -- strain, 3 -- trimming, 36, 80 -- wording, 35, 40-44 Stops, 72 Suchness, 12 -- pitches of, 13 Syntax, 35, 80 Tale, 6, 10, 28 Thing mark-words, 4 -- names, 4 -- sundrinesses, 4 Thought-wording, 35 Time, 28 Time-giving, 15 Time-taking, 14, 25 -- historic, 18, 30 -- long, 27 -- short, single, and stringly, 29 -- transitive, 15 Time-words, 19 -- strong, 20 -- weak, 19, 20, 26 Twin, 39 Under sundrinesses of time-takings, 25 Word-endings, powers of, 83 Wordiness, 44 Word-sameness, 38 Word-strain, 3 LONDON: PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE AND PARLIAMENT STREET _1, Paternoster Square, London._ A LIST OF C. 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